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TRANSACTIONS 


OF   THE 


WISCONSIN  STATE  AGRICETURAL  SOCIETY, 


WITH    PORTIONS 


OF   THE 


COKRESPONDENCE  OF  THE  SECRETARY. 


LIBRARY 
VOLUME  n.-18B2.  ^.„„ 

NEW  YOKk 

botanicai 


MADISON : 
BERIAH  BROWN.  STATE  PRINTER. 

1853. 


f  '  I 


o 


ADVERTISEMENT. 


In  presenting  to  the  Farmers  of  Wisconsin,  the  Second  Volume  of 
the  Transactions  of  the  Wisconsin  State  Agricultural  Society,  the 
undersioned,  for  his  Associates  in  the  Executive  Committee,  and  in  his 
own  behalf,  would  most  respectfully  tender  to  them  warm  and  sin- 
cere thanks  for  the  favorable  reception  accorded  to  the  First  Volume. 

The  present  Volume,  it  is  hoped,  will  not  be  deemed  unworthy  of  its 
predecessor,  nor  yet  of  the  more  advanced  age  of  the  Society.  In  its 
preparation  it  has  been  the  aim  of  the  Executive  Committee  to  present 
such  papers  as  would,  if  duly  considered,  be  found  of  use  and  practical 
benefit  to  the  Farmer. 

If  they  have  succeeded  in  this,  and  if  the  present  Volume  should 
be  found  worthy  of  the  attention  of  those  interested  in  Agricultural 
advancement,  then  are  their  labors  fully  rewarded. 

To  those  gentlemen  who  have  so  kindly  assisted  the  undersigned  in 
the  preparation  of  this  Volume,  by  responding  to  the  calls  made  upon 
them,  he  returns  his  grateful  thanks,  and  as  the  only  return  he  can 
make,  he  gives  them  the  assurance  that  his  best  exertions  shall  be  given 
to  the  Society  with  which  he  is  connected,  and  to  the  cause  of  Improve- 
ment which  it  is  striving  to  advance. 


ALBERT  C.  INGHAM. 


State  Agricultural  Rooms, 
Madison,  January,   1853. 


CO 


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CONTENTS. 


1.  List  of  OflBcere,  Life  Members,  <tc 1 

2.  Report  of  the  Executive  Committee 11 

3.  Address  at  Annual  Fair 19 

4.  Reports  of  Committees  at  Annual  Fair. 29 

5.  Annual  Meeting 94 

6.  County  Agricultural  Societies. lOl 

7.  Communications 139 

8.  Fauna  and  Flora  of  "Wisconsin 337 

9.  Climate  of  Wisconsin 445 

I. 

Officers  of  the  Wisconsin  State  Agricultural  Society 1 

Life  Members 2 

Library  Additions 3 

Donations 4 

Legislative  Action 6 

II. 

Report  of  the  Executive  Committee H 

Rooms  of  the  Society 12 

Library  and  Museum 12 

Correspondence 12 

Finances 13 

Arrangement  of  the  Premium  List 13 

Annual  Fair 13 

Relations  of  the  State  to  the  Society 18 

III. 

Address  at  Annual  Fair,  by  Hon.  Levi  Hubbell 19 

IV. 

Reports  of  Committees  at  Annual  Fair - 29 

Entries  at  Milwaukee 28 

Cattle— Short  Horns.... 29 

Devons - 30 

Natives  and  Crosses 31 

Crossed  Improved 32 

Working  Oxen 32 

Horses — Stallions,  Brood  Mares  and  Colts 32 

Matched  and  Draft  Horses  and  Geldings- 34 

Jacks  and  Mules. 34 


VI  CONTENTS. 

Sheep — Long  Wooled 35 

John  Hinton'a  statement 35 

Middle  Wooled 35 

A.  P.  Lyman's  statement 35 

Merinos 36 

Almon  Atwood's  statement 36 

Wesley  P.  Benson's  statement 37 

Saxons 39 

Cross  Bleeds 39 

George  C.  Pratt's  statement 39 

Remarks  of  Committee 42 

Swine — Joseph  Carpenter's  statement 45 

WiUiam  Knight's  statement ^. 46 

F.  H.  Westover's  statement. .    47 

Poultry — Remarks  of  Committee 48 

Plowing  Match 52 

Farming  Implements 53 

Dairy — Butter — Mrs.  E.  W.  Edgerton's  statement. 55 

Butter — Samuel  Brown's  statement 56 

Cheese— F.  S.  Eldred's  statement 56 

Cheese — Augustus  Smith's  statement 57 

Flour,  Meal,  Sugar  and  Honey 57 

Grains  and  Seeds — Winter  Wheat — Joseph  Dibley's  statement 57 

Winter  Wheat — Hiram  F.  Story's  statement 58 

Spring  Wheat — Peter  Marlett's  statement 58 

Spring  Wheat — Ira  Blood's  statement 59 

Barley — James  F.  Walklin's  statement 59 

Indian  Corn — William  E.  McClure's  statement 59 

Indian  Corn — Hiram  F.  Story's  statement 61 

Flax  Seed — Note  by  Secretary 61 

Buck  Wheat — Alanson  Pike's  statement 62 

Buck  Wheat — Ira  Blood's  statement 62 

Hops— J.  F.  Antisdell's  statement -. 62 

Timothy  Seed — Alanson  Pike's  statement 63 

Timothy  Seed — Ira  Blood's  statement 63 

Clover  Seed— Letter  from  E.  W.  Edgerton 63 

Remarks  by  the  Committee 66 

Vegetables — Black  Winter  Pea — George  P.  Pfeffer's  statement 68 

Domestic  Manufactures — Needle,  Shell  and  Wax  Work 69 

Fruit — Apples — F.  K.  Phoenix's  statement 70 

Apples — John  Bell's  statement 73 

Apples — Orra  Martin's  statement. 74 

Apples — Anson  H.  Taylor's  statement 74 

Apples — Cyrus  Hawley's  statement 75 

Pears '. 75 


CONTENTS.  Vll 

Frait — Plums — George  P.  Pfeffer's  statement 75 

Cnrculio— George  P.  Pfefifer's  remarks 75 

Plums — Cyrus  Hawley's  statement 76 

Plums — Alfred  L.  Castleman's  statwment 76 

Grapes 76 

Melons 77 

Remarks  by  Committee 77 

Flowers — Remarks  by  Committee 81 

Paintings — Remarks  by  Committee 84 

Stoves.  Cutlery  and  Silver  Ware 87 

Miscellaneous  and  Discretionary  Articles 87 

Essays — Report  of  the  Committee 93 

V. 

Annual  Meeting 94 

Report  of  Executive  Committee  presented 94 

Report  of  Treasurer .•  95 

Report  of  Auditing  Committee 95 

Report  of  Com  mittee  of  the  Society 97 

Committee  to  nomiuate  Officers 97 

Officers  Elected 98 

VI. 

County  Agricultural  Societies — Columbia 101 

Dane 102 

Dane — Hon.  Thomas  T.  Whittlesey,  Address  of 103 

Fond  du  Lac 115 

Iowa 116 

Jefferson  and  Dodge 116 

Kenosha 118 

Kenosha — Hon.  Samuel  R.  McClellan,  Address  of. 120 

Milwaukee  and  Waukesha 125 

Racine 125 

Rock 126 

Rock — Hod.  Josiah  F.  WiUard's  statement 131 

Sheboygan 133 

Sheboygan — Dr.  J.  J.  Brown's  remarks  on 134 

Walworth 137 

Washington 139 

Milwaukee  Horticultural  Society 139 

VII, 

Communications - 139 

Rural  Husbandry  in  Wisconsin,  George  0.  Tiffany 139 

Relation  of  Crops  to  Soils,  Prof.  S.  P.  Lathrop,  M.D 154 

Adaptation  of  Crops  to  Soil  and  Climate,  John  Y.  Smith. 172 


Vlll  CONTENTS. 

Agricultural  Fences  and  Enclosures,  Josiah  F.  Willard 186 

Culture  of  Grasses,  John  Berkley 195 

Culture  of  Grasses,  Thomas  P.  Turner 199 

The  different  Breeds  of  Neat  Cattle,  Thomas  P.  Turner 208 

Cattle  Breeding,  Urial  H.  Peak 221 

Dairying  in  Wisconsin,  Benjamin  F.  Adams 228 

Flax  Culture,  John  Galbraith 237 

The  Culture  of  Vegetables  as  Farm  Products,  John  W.  Proctor 252 

On  the  Blight  and  Culture  of  the  Potato,  John  Townley 255 

On  tlie  Alleged  Transmutation  of  Wheat  into  Chess,  John  Townley 281 

Wild  Rice,  Joseph  Bowrou 286 

The  Moral  Influences  of  Horticulture,  John  A.  Kennicott,  M.D 288 

Seedlings  vs.  Grafts,  or  Top  Grafts  vs.  Root  Grafts,  F.  K.  Phoenix 294 

Description  of  Select  Apples  and  Pears,  Francis  R.  Elliott 300 

Well  Digging  a  Science,  Alfred  Brunson 312 

The  Mechanical  and  Manufacturing  Arts,  R.  E.  Ela 321 

Northern  Vv^isconsin,  its  Capacities  and  its  Wants,  Albert  G.  Ellis 326 

Laying  out  Grounds,  Floriculture,  &c.,  Thomas  Hislop 435 

Agricultural  Education,  John  H.  Lathrop 441 

VIII. 

Fauna  and  Flora  of  Wisconsin,  I.  A.  Lapham 337 

Mammals 337 

Birds — Notes  on  the  Ornithology  of  Wisconsin,  Dr.  P.  R.  Hoy 341 

Reptiles 365 

Fishes 366 

Mollusks - 367 

Fossils  in  the  Rocks 370 

Plants 375 

Ifotes  on  the  Woods  of  Wisconsin,  Dr.  P,  R.  Hoy 419 

IX. 
Climate  of  Wisconsin 445 

Meteorological  Observations  made  at  Beloit  College,  1852 446 

Meteorological  Observations  made  at  Milwaukee,  1852 449 

Meteorological  Observations  made  at  Aztalan,  1852 450 

Meteorological  Observations  made  at  Baraboo,  1852 451 

Meteorological  Observations  made  at  Kenosha,  1852 452 

Meteorological  Observations  made  at  Emerald  Grove,  Rock  County,  1852 453 

Meteorological  Observations  made  at  Platteville,  1852 454 

Meteorological  Observations  made  at  Summit,  Waukesha  County,  1852 455 


OFFICERS 


OF 

THE  WISCONSIN  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETY 

FOR   1852. 


PRESIDENT. 
HENRY  M.  BILLINGS,  Highland. 

VICE   PRESIDENTS. 

MARTIN  WEBSTER,  Fox  Lake.        NATHANIEL  B.  CLAPP,  Keuosha. 
OIUUN  DENSMORE,  Emerald  Grove. 

RECORDING    AND    CORRESPONDING    SECRETARY. 
ALBERT  C.  INGHAM,  Madison. 

TREASURER. 
SIMEON  MILLS,  Madison. 

ADDITIONAL    MEMBERS    OF    THE    EXECUTIVE    COMMITTEE. 

WARREN  CHASE,  Fond  du  Lac.        H.  B.  HAWLEY,  Milford. 
ELIAB  B.  DEAN.  Jr.,  Madison.  SAMUEL  S.  DAGGETT,  Milwaukee. 

JACOB  D.  MERRITT,  Grant 


Statb  Agricultural  Rooms,  Capitol,  Madisos. 


LIFE    MEMBERS,    1852. 


ERASTUS  TV.  DRURT,  Fond  du  Lac. 
HARVEY  DURKEE,  Kenosha. 
ANDREW  E.  ELMORE,  Mukwonego. 
EIIASTUS  FAIRBANKS,  St.  Johnsbury,  YL 
LEONARD  J.  FARWELL,  Madison. 
BENJAMIN  FERGUSON,  Fox  Lake. 
MARTIN  FIELD,  Mukwonego. 
ALBERT  C.  INGHAM,  Madison. 
SIMEON  MILLS,  Madison. 
ALEXANDER  MITCHELL,  Milwaukeet 
JAMES  H.  ROGERS,  Milwaukee. 
MARTIN  WEBSTER,  Fox  Laka 


LIBRARY    ADDITIONS,    1863. 


Colman's  Agricultural  Tour,  2  vols. 

Stephens'  Book  of  the  Farm,  2  vols. 

Youatt  and  Martin  on  Cattle.     Stevens. 

Structure  and  Diseases  of  the  Horse.     Youatt. 

Breeds,  Management  and  Diseases  of  Sheep.     Youatt. 

The  Pig.     Youatt. 

Agricultural  Chemistry.     Jolmston. 

Lectures  on  Practical  An^riculture.     Johnston. 

Elements  of  Scientific  Agriculture.     Norton. 

The  Farmer's  Companion.     Buel. 

Farmer's  Encyclopedia.     Blake. 

Complete  Farmer  and  Gardener.     Fessenden. 

American  Muck  Book.     Browne. 

American  Farm  Book.     Allen. 

American  Poultry  Yard.     Browne. 

Domestic  Animals.     Allen. 

Cottage  and  Farm  Bee  Keeper. 

Fruit  and  Fruit  Trees  of  America.     Downing. 

American  Fruit  Culturist.     Thomas. 

The  Fruit  Garden.     Barry. 

Rural  Architecture.     Allen. 

The  Farmer's  Magazine.     (London.) 

Journal  of  Agriculture.     (Edinburgh.) 

The  Wool  Grower.     (Rochester.) 


DONATIONS. 

Hon.  Allen  W.  Dodge,  Hamilton,  Mass.  Transactions  of  the  Essex 
Agricultural  Society  for  the  years  1818,  1823,  1822,  1830,  1831,  1832, 
1833,  1834.  1835,  1839,  184J,  1841,  1843,  1844,  1845,  1846,  1847,  1848, 
1849,  185  J  and  1851.  Also,  Transactions  of  the  Massachusetts  Agricul- 
tural Socieiies  for  the  years  1845,  1846,  1847,  1848,  1849  and  1853. 

Gen.  WiLLTAM  Sutton,  Danvers,  Mass.  Transactions  of  the  Essex 
Agricultural  Society  for  the  years  1826  and  1842. 

Joseph  N.  Saunderson,  Esq.,  Lynn,  Mass.  Transactions  of  the  Essex 
Agricultural  Society  for  1851. 

Hon.  John  W.  Proctor,  Danvers,  Mass.  Proceedings  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Board  of  Agriculture  for  the  years  1851  and  1852.  Also, 
Transactions  of  the  Massachusetts  Ao-ricultural  Societies  for  1851. 

Hon.  Thomas  Ewbank,  Washington,  D.  C.  Patent  Office  Report  for 
the  year  185 J,  Agricultural  and  Mechanical.     2  vols. 

Hon.  James  Duane  Doty,  Washington,  D.  C.  Patent  Office  Report 
for  1853,   Aiiriculiural. 

GuiARD  Richardson,  Esq.,  Madison.  Patent  Office  Report  for  1850, 
Agricultural  and  Mechanical.     2  vols. 

Gen.  George  P.  Delaplaine,  Madison.  Patent  Office  Reports  for  1847, 
1848  and  1849.     4  vols. 

Prof.  Joseph  Henry,  Washington,  D.  C.     Prof.  Espy's  Theory. 

Rev.  Charles  Lord,  Secretary,  Madison.  Addresses  of  Hon.  Morgan 
L.  Martin  and  Gen.  William  R.  Smith  before  the  State  Historical  Society. 

John  Warren  Hunt,  M.  D.,  Madison.  Davis's  Text  Book  on  Agri- 
culture. 

Prof.  William  W.  Mather,  Secretary,  Columbus,  Ohio.  Reports  of 
the  Ohio  State  Board  of  Agriculture  for  1846,  1847,  1848,  1849,  1850. 
2  vols. 

Hon.  Levi  Colvin,  Cato,  N.  Y.  Transactions  of  the  American  Insti- 
tute for  1850.  Also,  Transactions  of  the  New  York  State  Agricultural 
Society  for  1859. 

John  C.  Holmes,  Esq.,  Secretary,  Detroit,  Mich.  Transactions  of  the 
Michigan  State  Agricultural  Society  for  1849,  1850  and  1851.     3  vols. 


Hon.  B.  P.  Johnson,  Secretary,  Albany,  N.  Y.     Transactions  of  the 
New  York  State  Agricultural  Society  {qy  1851. 

His  Exc.  Joseph  A.  Wright,  President,  Indianapolis,  Ind.     Report  of 
the  Indiana  State  Board  of  Agriculture  for  1852.     50  copies. 

Hon.  SiMEOX  Mills,  Madison.     Western  Portraiture,  D.  S.  Curtis. 

Frederick  McCready,  Esq.,  N.  Y.  City.    The  Working  Farmer,  1852. 

DANii;L  Lee,  M.  D.,  Rochester,  N.  Y.     The  Genesee  Farmer,  1852. 

D.  D.  T.  MooRE,  Esq.,  Rochester,  N.  Y.     Rural  New  Yorker,  1852. 

Warren  Isham,  Esq.,  Detroit,  Mich.     Michigan  Farmer,  1852. 

John  S.  Wright,  Esq.,   Chicago,  111.     Prairie  Farmer,  1852. 

Mark  Miller,  Esq.,  Janesville.     Wisconsin  Farmer,  1852. 

Prof.  Geo.  BucKLAND,  Toronto,  C.  W.    Canadian  Agriculturist,  1852. 

J.  S.  Warder,  M.  D.,   Cincinnati,  Ohio.     Western  Horticultural  Re- 
view,  1862. 

B.  P.  Johnson,  Esq.,  Albany,  N.  Y.     Journal  of  the  New  York  State 
Agricultural  Society,  1852. 

John  Faville,  M.  D.,  Madison.     The  Home  Journal,  1851,  1852. 

Alden  &  Holt,  Janesville.     Janesville  Gazette,  1852. 

Robinson  &  Brother,   Green  Bay.     Green  Bay  Advocate,  1852. 

Royal  Buck,  Fond  du  Lac.     Fountain  City  Herald,  1852. 

Bird  &  Vail,  Ozaukee.     Washington  County  Blade,  1852. 

Rdfus  King  &  Co.,  Milwaukee.     Daily  Sentinel,   1852. 

William  E.  Cramer,  Milwaukee.     Daily  Wisconsin,  1852. 

S.  M.  Booth,  Milwaukee.     Daily  Free  Democrat,  1852. 

David  Atwood,  Madison.     Daily  State  Journal,  1852. 


6 

LETTER 
From  the  Corresponding  Secretary  of  the  State  Agricultural  Society. 

STATE    AGRTCULTUHAL    ROOMS  ) 
Madison,  January  24th,  1853.         j 

To  His  Excellency  Leonard  J.  Farwell, 

Governor,  dec. 

Sir — In  accordance  with  the  requirements  of  an  Act  entitled  "  An  Act 
for  the  Encourao-ement  of  Arjricult-ure  and  its  kindred  Arts  in  this  State," 
approved  April  17th,  1852,  I  have  the  honor  herewith  to  transmit  the 
Second  Annual  Report  of  the  Wisconsin  State  Agricultural  Society. 

Very  respectfully, 

Your  obedient  Servant, 

ALBERT  C.  INGHAM. 

Corresponding  Secretary. 


LEGISLATIVE. 

STATE  OF  WISCO^^SIN,  ) 

In  Senate,  January  25tli,  185  i.j" 

A  Message  from  His  Excellency  the  Governor  was  announced,  which 
being  received  from  the  hands  of  his  Private  Secretary,  Harlow  S.  Orton, 
Esq.,  was  read  as  follows,  to  wit : 

EXECUTIVE  DEPARTMENT,  1 

Madison,  January  23th,  1853.1" 

To  the  Senate  : 

I  have  the  honor  herewith  to  transmit  to  you  the  Report  of  the 
Wisconsin  State  Agricultural  Society  for  the  year  ending  December  31st, 

^^^^-  LEONARD  J.  FARWELL. 

Whereupon  the  said  Message  and  accompanying  documents  were  re- 
ferred to  the  Committee  on  Agriculture. 


STATE  OF  WISCONSIN.  > 

IM  Sknatb,  March  7th,  1853.) 

Resolved  bt  the  Se:?ate,  (the  Assembly  concurring) — That  the  State 
Printer  be  directed  to  publish  twenty  five  hundred  copies  of  the  Trans- 
actions of  the  Wisconsin  State  Agricultural  Society  for  1852,  to  be 
printed  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Society,  of  which  five 
hundred  copies  shall  be  for  the  use  of  the  Members  of  the  Legislature, 
and  the  remainder  for  the  Society  ;  said  books  to  be  bound  in  muslin,  with 
lettered  backs,  to  match  the  first  Volume  of  Transactions  of  said  Society, 
provided  said  books  do  not  exceed  in  cost  the  sum  of  seventy  five  centa 

per  volume. 

(Attest)        JOHN  K.  WILLIAMS, 

Chief  Clerk  of  the  Senate. 


STATE  OF  WISCONSIN,  > 

In  Assembly,  March  8th,  1853  ) 

Tlie   above  and  foregoing  Resolution  was   concurred  in   by  the 

Assembly. 

(Attest)        THOMAS  McHUGH, 

Chief  Clerk  of  the  Astemilr/. 


TEAXSACTIOXS. 


TRANSACTIONS 


OF    THE 


WISCONSIN  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETY. 


REPORT  OF  THE  EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE  FOR  1852. 

To  the  Legislature  of  the  State  of  Wisconsin : 

The  Executive  Committee  of  the  Wisconsin  State  Agricultural  Society, 
pursuant  to  the  requirements  of  the  "Act  for  the  encouragement  of 
Agriculture  and  its  kindred  Arts  in  this  State,"  would  respectfully 
report : 

That  the  various  operations  of  the  State  and  of  the  County  Agricultural 
Societies,  during  the  year  just  closed,  have  been  in  the  highest  degree 
gratifying,  while  the  great  and  increasing  interest  which  has  been  so 
generally  manifested  throughout  the  State  in  these  operations,  gives 
encouraging  assurance  t"hat  the  labor  will  not  be  in  vain,  but  that  the 
spirit  of  agricultural  inquiry  which  has  been  awakened,  will  incite  the 
farmer  to  increased  attention  to  the  details  of  farm  management,  and  to 
the  proper  adaptation  of  his  crops  to  the  soils,  so  as  to  secure  the  largest 
returns  with  the  greatest  permanent  economy. 

Hitherto  the  progress,  in  this  State,  of  improvement  in  Agricultural 
Science  has  been  slow,  and  has  not  kept  pace  with  that  rapid  develope- 
ment  which  has,  in  other  respects,  been  the  pre-eminent  characteristic  of 
Wisconsin.  In  part,  this  may  be  ascribed  to  the  adverse  circumstances 
Tvhich,  almost  of  necessity,  surround  the  early  settler  in  all  new  coun- 
tries J  but  another  great  cause  may  be  found  in  our  fertile  soil  and  genial 


12 

dime.  Tlie  liardy  pioneer,  in  search  of  a  home  for  himself  and  for  his 
family,  sees  in  Wisconsin,  spread  out  before  liim  by  the  bountiful  hand 
of  Providence,  a  virgin  soil,  rich  in  all  agricultural  resources — yielding 
plenteous  returns  with  but  little  expenditure  of  toil  and  labor,  and  re- 
quiring no  great  exertion  or  care.  Habits  of  neglect  and  inattention  are 
thus  formed — and  not  because  the  husbandman  is  wanting  in  energy, 
ekill,  and  enterprise,  for  by  no  people  are  these  qualities  possessed  in  a 
greater  degree  than  by  our  own. 

To  arouse  the  farmer  from  this  condition, — to  awaken  in  him  a  spirit 
of  agTicultural  inquiry, — and  to  disseminate,  as  far  as  possible,  practical 
iand  useful  information  upon  kindred  subjects,  have  been  the  special  ob- 
jects had  in  view,  during  the  past  year,  by  the  Executive  Committee. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  year,  much  embarrassment  was  experienced 
by  the  Executive  Committee  from  the  want  of  suitable  and  commodious 
rooms  for  the  meetings  of  the  Society  and  of  the  Committee,  and  for  the 
proper  arrangement  of  the  books  and  agricultural  papers,  the  grains, 
seeds,  wools,  and  implements  which  the  Society  had  already  commenced 
collecting,  and  which,  Avere  proper  facilities  afforded  for  preservation  and 
arrangement,  would,  without  doubt,  soon  be  largely  increased.  Acting,  as 
the  Society  does,  gratuitously,  laboring  for  the  advancement  of  the 
greatest  of  our  industrial  interests,  and  with  the  whole  State  as  a  field  for 
its  labors,  it  w^as  thought  that  the  public  authorities  would,  without  hes- 
itation, grant  the  use  of  such  accommodations  as  might  be  necessary. 
With  this  view,  application  was  made  to  His  Excellency  the  Governor, 
who  promptly  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  Society  the  rooms  which  it  is 
now  occupying  in  the  Capitol.  These  have  been  fitted  up  in  a  manner 
suitable  to  the  wants  of  the  Society,  and  the  care  and  management  of 
them  assigned  to  the  Corresponding  Secretary. 

The  Library  and  Museum  of  the  Society  have  received  from  the  Com- 
mittee su.ch  attention  as  the  circumstances  of  the  Society  would  allow, 
and  which,  though  entirely  inadequate,  has  yet  furnished  a  foundation 
upon  which  a  noble  superstructure  may,  in  a  few  years,  be  reared. 

The  correspondence  of  the  Society,  which,  even  during  the  first  j^ear 
of  its  labors,  had  become  quite  extended  and  valuable,  has,  during  the 
past  year,  under  the  management  of  the  proper  officer,  been  largely 
increased.  Many  new  and  valuable  correspondents  have  been  added  to 
the  Society's  lists,  and  the  results  cannot  but  prove  of  value.    In  com- 


pliance  with  the  provisions  of  the  law  under  which  this  report  is  submit- 
ted, a  special  direction  has  been  given  to  one  branch  of  this  part  of  the 
labors  of  the  Society,  the  results  of  which  may  in  part  be  seen  from  the 
accompanying  papers. 

The  Finances  of  the  Society  are  in  a  sound  condition,  as  will  be  seen  by 
the  accompanying  Report  of  the  Treasurer.  The  receipts  of  the  year, 
amounting  to  82,748  45,  exhibit  a  gratifying  increase  over  those  of  the 
former  year,  and  have  enabled  the  Executive  Committee  to  put  into 
execution  the  recommendation  of  their  predecessors,  by  largely  increasing 
the  List  of  Premiums  to  be  awarded  at  the  Annual  Fair.  The  expendi- 
tures of  the  year,  aside  from  the  Premium  List,  have  been  such  only  as 
were  demanded  by  the  most  urgent  wants  of  the  Society,  while  it  has 
been  the  constant  desire  and  aim  of  the  Committee  to  exercise  the  most 
rigid  economy  and  prudence  in  all  of  the  financial  operations  of  the  So- 
ciety. The  balance  in  the  Treasury,  of  about  880,  will  show  that  in  this 
desire  they  have  been  successful. 

In  the  arrangement  of  the  Premium  List  for  the  Annual  Fair,  it  was  the 
aim  of  the  Executive  Committee  to  bestow  such  gratuities  alone  as  pro- 
mised the  greatest  good,  and  which  would  contribute  most  to  the  speedy 
advancement  of  the  industrial  interests  of  the  State.  Hence,  a  large  por- 
tion was  made  payable  in  agricultural  books  of  approved  value  and  merit ; 
as,  by  the  distribution  of  these,  it  was  thought  that  much  information  of 
great  and  practical  value  would  be  disseminated,  which  otherwise  might 
not  for  a  long  time,  if  ever,  be  obtained.  To  those  whose  articles  and 
animals  evinced  superior  and  marked  excellence,  the  diploma  and  medals 
of  the  Society  were  sparingly  bestowed.  These,  being  permanent  testi- 
monials, and  being  given  as  the  highest  honors  of  the  Society  to  those 
whose  exhibitions  showed  exertion  and  research,  upon  the  various  sub- 
jects upon  which  they  competed  for  premiums,  it  was  thought,  would  be 
esteemed  and  valued  more  highly  than  any  other  award  that  could  be 
made.  In  the  award,  whenever  it  was  practicable,  statements  were 
required  from  the  competitors,  showing  Avhat  was  peculiar  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  crop,  in  the  fabrication  of  the  article,  or  in  the  mode  of 
keeping  and  feeding  the  animal.  These  will  appear  in  the  accompanying 
papers. 

The  Second  Annual  Cattle  Show  and  Fair  of  the  Society  was  held  at 
the  Cold  Spring  Race  Course,  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  city  of 


u 

Milwaukee,  on  the  6tb,  7th,  and  8th  days  of  October,  1852.  The 
grounds  selected  for  the  purpose  were  enclosed  by  a  high  board  fence, 
the  space  within  affording  ample  room  for  the  arrangement  and  display 
of  the  articles,  and  the  accommodation  of  the  throngs  of  visitors. 
Within  the  track,  which  followed  the  fence  for  the  most  of  the  distance 
round,  was  a  broad,  open  space,  somewhat  undulating  in  surface,  but 
with  sufficient  level  ground  for  the  purposes  required.  The  main  en- 
trances Avere  on  the  northern  side  ;  and  nearly  fronting  them,  at  perhaps 
one  hundred  yards  distance,  were  several  large  tents,  gaily  decorated 
with  streamers,  for  the  reception  and  exhibition  of  Domestic  Manufac- 
tures, Dairy  and  Farm  Products,  Fruits,  Flowers,  Paintings,  &c. 
Between  these  tents,  and  the  track  to  the  west  and  south,  were  arranged 
the  various  pens  for  the  show  of  Cattle,  Sheep  and  Swine  ;  and  at  the 
extremity  of  the  line,  were  a  collection  of  enclosures  for  Poultry.  In  a 
fine  grove,  still  farther  to  the  south,  were  several  tents  and  sheds, 
neatly  fitted  up,  and  provided  with  refreshments.  Towards  the  eastern 
side  of  the  enclosure,  roAvs  of  posts  were  placed,  to  which  horses  could 
be  fastened.  A  sufficiently  large  space  still  remained  unoccupied,  Avhich 
was  appropriated  to  the  exhibition  and  trial  of  Agricultural  Implements 
and  various  Machinery,  and  to  the  Plowing  Match.  On  tAvo  sides  of  the 
enclosure,  a  fine  Avood,  gloAving  Avith  brilliant  autumnal  tints,  gaA'e 
variety  and  beauty  to  the  landscape.  Open  fields  smiled  on  the  eastern, 
while  the  avenues  of  approach  Avere  on  the  western  front.  The  enter- 
prising owner  of  the  grounds.  Dr.  E.  B.  Wolcott,  had  spared  neither 
pains  nor  expense  in  putting  them  in  the  best  order,  and  it  would  be 
difficult  to  find,  Avithin  the  limits  of  our  State,  a  finer  field  for  an  Agri- 
cultural Exhibition  than  the  Cold  Spring  Course  afforded. 

The  weather  Avas  propitious,  and  at  an  early  hour  of  the  first  day, 
croAvds  of  exhibitors  were  flocking  to  the  Fair  Grounds  with  their  various 
entries.  The  list  was  very  large — nearly  thrice  that  at  the  First  State 
Fair  during  the  year  prcA'ious — and  in  many  of  the  departments,  the 
competition  Avas  as  spirited  as  the  entries  Avere  numerous.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  non-attendance  of  many  of  those  selected  to  act  as  judges 
in  the  aAvard  of  premiums,  some  delay  and  difficulty  was  experienced 
in  filling  up  the  Committees.  The  arrangements,  too,  for  the  reception 
and  exhibition  of  some  of  the  articles  Avere  unavoidably  delayed.  Never- 
theless, in  spite  of  these  lets  and  hindrances,  the  Exhibition  gradually 


15 

took  form  and  shape,  the  Committees  assembled  and  made  their  exami- 
nations, and  by  the  morning  of  Thursday,  the  Fair  was  formally  opened 
to  the  public. 

Notwithstanding  the  appearance  of  the  weather,  which  was  rather  un- 
favorable, the  rush  of  visitors  was  very  great,  upwards  of  twelve  thou- 
sand persons,  as  was  estimated,  having  passed  into  the  enclosure  during 
the  day.  This  number  was  largely  increased  on  the  day  following,  Fri- 
day, although  the  clouds  looked  threatening,  and  rain  fell  at  intervals 
during  most  of  the  afternoon.  On  the  morning  of  Friday,  the  Annual 
Plowing  Match  came  off,  and  was  closely  contested.  In  the  afternoon 
of  that  day,  the  Annual  Address  was  delivered  by  Judge  Hubbell  before 
the  Society  and  an  immense  concourse  of  people.  The  Military  and  Fire 
Departments  of  Milwaukee,  in  full  uniform,  and  with  their  entire  appara- 
tus, came  upon  the  ground  just  before  the  delivery  of  the  Address,  and 
won  high  encomiums  from  the  multitude  present  by  their  thorough  disci- 
pline and  handsome  display.  After  the  delivery  of  the  Address,  the 
awards  of  the  several  Committees  were  announced  by  the  Secretary,  and 
the  main  business  of  the  Fair  was  over.  It  had  been  designed  to  hold  a 
public  auction  sale  of  stock,  machinery,  farm  and  dairy  produce,  &c., 
on  the  Fair  Grounds  on  Saturday  morning.  But  the  heavy  rains  which 
set  in  on  Friday  night,  and  continued  throughout  the  whole  of  Saturday, 
mainly  defeated  this  project. 

Taken  as  a  whole  the  Fair  was  eminently  successful.  The  entries  were 
very  numerous,  and  the  exhibition  in  several  departments  Avas  unex- 
pectedly fine.  The  show  of  Cattle  and  Sheep  was  good,  and  of  Horses 
superior.  The  number  of  visitors  in  attendance  outran  the  expectations 
of  the  most  sanguine.  The  proximity  of  a  large  city,  and  the  facilities 
by  steamboat,  railroad,  and  plank-road,  of  getting  to  the  Fair,  accounts 
in  part  for  the  large  gathering.  Another  reason  for  it  may  be  found,  it 
is  hoped,  in  the  growing  pride  which  the  people  of  Wisconsin  take  in 
these  Annual  Exhibitions,  and  the  interest  that  all  classes  feel  in  contri- 
buting to  the  developement  of  the  agricultural  resources  of  our  State. 
Many  of  the  arrangements  for  the  Fair  were  found  insufficient,  as  was  to 
be  expected,  in  an  undertaking  so  new  to  our  people.  The  selection  of 
the  Committees,  to  judge  of  the  merits  of  the  different  articles  exhibited, 
is  a  matter  of  great  consequence,  not  only  to  a  fair  adjudication,  but  for 
the  satisfaction  of  the  various  competitors.     Great  care  was  taken  in  the 


16 

original  selection  of  these  Committees,  as  announced  some  months  pre- 
vious to  the  holding  of  the  Fair,  but  from  one  cause  or  other,  many 
of  the  members  so  selected  "were  not  present  on  the  first  day  of  the 
Pair,  and  the  places  thus  left  vacant  had  to  be  filled  on  short  notice,  and 
by  a  hurried  selection  from  among  the  persons  in  attendance.  This  was 
much  to  be  regretted. 

A  complete  list  of  the  premiums  awarded,  will  be  found  among  the 
accompanying  papers. 

There  was  a  large  share  of  Agricultural  Implements  upon  the  ground, 
all  of  neat  pattern  and  most  excellent  workmanship.  Atkins'  Automaton 
Beaper  and  RaJcer,  entered  by  John  S.  Wright,  Esq.,  of  the  Prairie 
Farmer,  Chicago,  was  decidedly  the  most  ingenious  piece  of  mechanism 
on  the  ground.  This  machine  cuts  the  grain,  rakes  it  into  bundles,  and 
deposits  these,  as  it  passes  along,  upon  the  ground  ready  for  the  binder. 
The  performance  of  the  Raker  was  especially  curious,  imitating  exactly 
the  motions  of  the  human  arm,  with  the  advantage  of  never  tiring  out. 
This  machine  excited  great  curiosity,  and  received  particular  attention 
from  the  farmers  in  attendance.  We  see  no  reason  why  it  should  not 
prove  a  valuable  addition  to  the  stock  of  labor-saving  Agricultural  Im- 
plements. 

In  many  departments,  the  show  of  Stock  was  large  and  fine.  Com- 
mencing with  Horses,  the  display  was  highly  creditable,  there  being  no 
less  than  ninety-two  entries  under  the  head  of  Stallions,  Brood  Mares 
and  Colts — all  of  good  stock,  and  many  of  them  remarkably  fine  ani- 
mals. In  this  department,  as  also  in  that  of  Matched  and  Draft  Horses, 
the  show  was  more  than  could  have  been  expected,  and  all  that  could 
Lave  been  wished.  Of  Cattle,  there  was  a  very  fine,  though  not  a  very 
large  exhibition.  Of  Swine,  the  show  was  small,  considering  how 
important  '"Wi  article  Pork  has  become  to  the  farmers.  Of  Sheep,  the 
display  was  large,  a-  d  the  quality  of  the  Stock  exhibited  superior.  The 
improvement  in  this  particular  department  of  Wisconsin  farming  within 
the  past  two  or  three  years,  has  been  as  marked  as  it  is  gratifying.  The 
experience  of  five  or  six  years  has  established,  beyond  all  dispute,  the 
fact  that  the  soil  and  climate  of  our  State  are  admirably  adapted  to  the 
raising  of  Sheep,  and  that  no  pursuit  of  agricultural  industry  yields  the 
farmer  a  more  certain  or  more  substantial  return.  Every  one  interested 
in  the  growth  and  prosperity  of  Wisconsin,  must  have  noticed  with  pride 


17 

and  pleasure  the  very  fine  show  of  Sheep  at  the  State  Fair.  Of  Poultry, 
there  was  an  unexpectedly  good  display.  Specimens,  and  fine  ones  too, 
were  exhibited  of  all  the  fashionable,  as  well  as  the  common  varieties. 
Dorkings,  Chittagongs,  Shangais  and  Polands,-  were  each  represented. 
There  were,  too,  some  indisputably  good  samples  of  Turkeys,  Guinea 
Fowls,  and  Muscovy  Ducks. 

The  show  in  the  Dairy  Department  was  small,  but  of  excellent  quality. 
Some  cheeses  were  shown  which  rivalled  the  best  Xew  York  and  Ohio 
samples,  and  a  few  lots  of  sweet  and  gulden  butter  elicited  general  praise. 
The  high  price  which  cheese  and  butter  have  borne  during  the  past 
autumn,  and  the  probability  that  with  the  extending  lines  of  railroad  and 
the  constantly  increasing  rapidity  and  frequency  of  communication  be- 
tween the  eastern  market  and  the  western  producers,  these  prices  will  be 
maintained,  must  lend  increased  activity  and  importance  to  this  branch 
of  agricultural  industry.  Nor  can  there  be  any  reason  to  doubt,  that 
with  such  good  and  abundant  pasturage  as  Wisconsin  affords,  our  farmers, 
with  pr<^per  care  and  labor,  can  compete  successfully  with  their  eastern 
brethren  in  the  production  of  butter  and  cheese. 

The  samples  of  Wheat,  Indian  Corn,  Oats,  Barley,  Flax-seed,  and 
Vegetables  were  numerous  and  excellent.  In  this  department  the  exhi- 
bition was  highly  satisfactory.  The  Hutchinson  and  Blue  Stem  varieties 
of  Winter  Wheat,  and  the  Canada  Club  Spring  Wheat,  were  the  favorite 
ones,  and  the  specimens  exhibited  vindicated  the  claim  of  Wisconsin  to 
the  first  rank  among  the  wheat-growing  States. 

In  the  Department  of  Fruits  and  Flowers,  there  was  an  abundance  to 
gratify  the  taste  and  delight  the  eye.  The  show  of  Fruit  was  unexpect- 
edly large,  and  the  quality  and  variety  alike  remarkable.  It  was  grati- 
fying to  find  that  so  much  attention  had  already  been  paid  by  our  Wis- 
consin farmers  to  the  culture  of  Fruit,  and  that  the  money  and  labor 
bestowed  upon  it" seemed  to  have  been  wisely  and  profitably  invested. 
There  was  a  numerous  exhibition  of  Flowers,  and  many  of  the  Floral 
designs  and  boquets  were  arranged  with  exquisite  taste. 

In  the  Miscellaneous  Department  of  the  exhibition,  the  show  was  very 
creditable.  Many  of  the  mechanics  of  Milwaukee  improved  the  oppor- 
tunity of  exhibiting  specimens  of  their  skill  and  handiwork.  In  a  i-eport 
like  this,  it  would  be  impossible  to  mention  by  name  even  a  tithe  of  the 
exhibitors,  or  of  the  articles  displayed.    We  mxist  therefore  content  our- 


18 

selves  with  the  general  remark,  that  the  State  Fair  afforded  most  con- 
vincing and  gratifying  proof  that,  in  all  the  useful  arts  and  leading 
branches  of  manufacture,  our  young  State  has  already  attained  a  respect- 
able rank,  and  that  she  can  count  among  her  citizens,  mechanics  as  inge- 
nious and  skilful  as  any  to  be  found  in  the  older  eastern  communities. 

Having  thus,  in  accordance  with  the  law,  given  a  brief  sketch  of  their 
own  proceedings  during  the  past  year,  the  Executive  Committee,  in  con- 
clusion, would  urge  upon  the  Legislature  the  importance  of  encouraging, 
by  every  suitable  means,  the  improvement  of  the  great  and  paramount 
interest  of  Agriculture.  To  this,  the  leading  interest  in  Wisconsin,  and 
the  true  basis  of  all  State  and  National  wealth,  it  is  eminently  proper  and 
fitting  that  the  representatives  of  the  people  should  freely  extend  the 
fostering  hand,  and  by  wise  and  judicious  patronage  aid  to  place  it  in  its 
proper  position. 

Our  soil  is  pre-eminently  adapted  to  all  the  purposes  of  the  Agricultur- 
ist, but  by  careless  and  injudicious  cultivation,  its  virgin  strength  must 
soon  become  exhausted.  To  prevent  this  disastrous  result,  by  spread- 
ing abroad  among  our  citizens  a  knowledge  of  Agricultural  Science, 
and  the  results  of  Agricultural  research,  is  the  special  duty  of  the  State 
Agricultural  Society.  In  the  discharge  of  this  duty,  it  needs  the  aid  and 
countenance  of  every  good  citizen,  and  of  every  one  interested  in  the  well 
being  of  Wisconsin. 

In  resio-ning'  their  trust  into  the  hands  of  their  successors,  the  members 
of  the  Executive  Committee  enjoy  a  satisfaction  in  feeling  that  in  all  their 
labors  and  efforts  they  have  been  actuated  by  a  sincere  and  honest  desire 
for  the  advancement  of  the  Society,  and  the  great  interests  which  it  has 
in  charge  :  and  though  they  may  not  have  accomplished  all  that  could 
have  been  desired,  they  trust  that  it  will  be  found  that  in  none  of  their 
decisions  have  they  greatly  erred. 

On  behalf  of  the  Executive  Committee, 

Respectfully  submitted, 

ALBERT  C.  INGHAM, 

Corresponding  Secretary. 


19 


ANNUAL  ADDRESS. 


The  Society  was  called  to  order  by  the  President,  Hon.  Hekry  M. 
Billings,  at  three  o'clock,  P.  M.,  of  the  third  day  of  the  Fair ;  and  after 
a  very  fervent  and  impressive  prayer  had  been  offered,  by  the  Rev.  Wm. 
H.  Spencer,  of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  Milwaukee,  the  President 
addressed  the  Society  in  a  few  brief  and  appropriate  remarks,  in  conclud- 
ing which,  he  congratulated  the  members  upon  the  favorable  circum- 
stances under  which  they  had  assembled  together,  and  introduced  the 
Hon.  Levi  Hubbell  to  the  audience. 

ADDRESS  BY  HON.  LEVI  HUBBELL. 

Mr.  President,  and  Fellow  3Iembers  of  the  State  Agricultural  Society  ; 

The  field  of  your  labors  is  not  less  favored,  in  its  locality,  than  rich 
and  varied  in  its  products.  Forming  the  apex  between  the  head  waters 
of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Mississippi,  its  navigable  streams  flow  alike 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  On  the  north,  are  bound- 
less fol-ests  of  pine  ;  on  the  west,  inexhaustible  stores  of  mineral ;  through, 
the  middle  and  south,  fertile  prairies  and  openings  ;  and  everywhere, 
limpid  and  bounding  streams,  pure  and  healthful  airs. 

To  the  eye  of  the  stranger,  Wisconsin  seems  the  chosen  home  of  Lidus- 
try.  Health,  Prosperity,  and  Peace.  Here  it  would  seem  that  Agricul- 
ture, Commerce,  and  Manufactures  might  establish  themselves,  with 
■every  element  of  nature  for  their  helper,  and  every  interest  of  humanity 
for  their  stimulant  and  guide. 

But,  gentlemen,  though  the  sun  in  his  circuit,  visits  no  spot  of  earth 
lovelier,  healthier,  or  more  fertile  than  our  chosen  State,  I  am  not  here  to 
praise  it.  I  come  to  speak  to  you  only  as  working-men,  and  of  your 
State,  as  a  field  of  labor.  Labor  is  our  common  heritage  ;  our  blessino; 
as  well  as  our  curse.  When  the  fiat  of  Omnipotence  drove  man  from  the 
garden  of  Paradise,  into  a  world  of  thorns  and  briars,  we  read  that  "  the 
ground  was  cursed  for  his  sake,"  and  he  was  sent  forth,  "to  till  the  earth, 
from  which  he  was  taken."     But  his  case  was  not  left  hopeless.    Though 


20 

the  flaming  sword  of  cherubim  barred  him  forever  "  from  the  tree  of  life," 
and  "in  the  sweat  of  his  brow"  he  was  commanded  and  compelled  to 
"eat  his  bread,"  two  pitying  angels  followed  his  footsteps  and  cheered 
his  fallen  estate.  The  one  was  Religion,  and  the  other  Art ;  the  one 
pointed  his  eye  to  a  better  world ;  the  other  taught  him  how  to  improve 
and  enjoy  this.  Aided  by  art,  and  by  mental  and  physical  exertion,  man 
has  "taken  possession  of  the  earth  and  subdued  it ;"  he  has  cleared  away 
the  thorns  and  briars  and  made  "the  wilderness  bud  and  blossom  as  the 
rose." 

Among  the  ten  thousand  means  which  art  has  devised,  for  improving 
the  condition  of  the  human  family,  the  enlightened  pursuits  of  Agricul- 
ture slill  remain  the  most  inviting,  the  most  productive,  the  most  noble. 
The  cultivation  of  the  soil  still  continues  the  employment  of  the  great 
mass  of  mankind ;  and  whatever  lightens  its  burdens  or  elevates  its  vota- 
ries, must  command  the  ready  attention  of  all  right-minded  persons. 

Invited  by  the  occasion,  I  shall  venture  a  few  remarks,  not  upon  the 
practical  details  of  agricultural  employment,  but  upon  the  qualities  and 
acquirements  which  should  characterize  the  enlightened  American  Farmer. 

And,  in  the  first  place,  allow  me  to  say  :  The  xVmerican  Farmer  should 
honor  and  love  his  calling.  It  was  the  occupation  of  primeval  innocence. 
The  purest  and  greatest  of  men  have  turned  to  it,  when  the  world's 
wealth  and  honors  and  stations  palled  upon  their  cloyed  senses. 

Health,  strength,  competence,  and  peace  attend  upon  the  fai-mer's  toils. 
The  sun  and  the  sky  smile  directly  upon  his  head.  The  fruits  and  the 
flowers  of  earth  spring  beneath  his  feet,  obedient  to  his  call.  The  free 
breezes  fill  his  lungs  and  fan  his  manly  brow.  His  condition  is  one  of 
practical  independence.  He  sits  beneath  his  own  vine  and  fig  tree.  He 
eats  the  fruits  of  his  own  labor.  His  wealth  and  his  honors  depend  not 
upon  the  smiles  of  princes  or  the  favor  of  the  populace,  but  upon  his  own 
right  arm,  and  the  blessing  of  that  God  who  has  set  his  bow  in  the 
Heavens,  as  a  witness  that  svimmer  and  winter,  seed-time  and  har^■est 
shall  not  fail.  No  man  prospers  long  who  is  ashamed  of  his  occupation. 
His  intellect  flags,  his  hand  refuses  to  do  his  bidding.  Lost  to  self 
respect,  he  feels  that  the  scorn  of  the  world  is  upon  him.  Poverty  waits 
at  his  door,  and  despondency  .sits  upon  his  brow.  If  such  a  man  be  dig- 
nified by  the  name  of  farmer,  what  can  you  expect  from  him  ?  Though 
he  put  his  hand  to  the  plow,  his  own  shadow  will  cause  him  to  faint  in 
the  furrow.     Pride,  emulation,  conscious  rectitude,  honorable  ambition, 


%  21 

are  requisite  to  great  and  successful  efforts,  alike  in  the  field  and  the 
workshop,  at  the  merchant's  desk  and  in  the  halls  of  legislation.  Our 
agricultural  population  can  never  be  what  they  ought  to  be,  until  every 
man  walks  abroad,  not  only  in  the  dignity  of  his  own  nature,  but  in  the 
just  pride  of  his  own  calling;  until  every  man  feels  that  a  farm,  worked 
by  his  own  hands,  is  better  than  a  patent  of  nobility ;  that  a  family 
clothed  in  articles  of  their  own  manufacture,  is  more  respectable  than  if 
the  jeweled  gifts  of  Princes  hung  upon  their  necks,  or  glistened  upon  their 
idle  fingers.  Let  the  farmer  understand,  that  in  this  country,  we  have 
no  vagabond  race  of  gentlemen,  heirs  to  idleness  and  successors  to  pomp, 
luxury,  and  vice ;  no  lineal  aristocracy,  absorbing  the  dignity,  the  honor 
and  the  power  of  all  other  classes,  and  yet  contributing  nothing  to  the 
products  of  the  earth  or  the  common  good  of  mankind.  But  let  it  be 
known  everywhere — known,  practised,  and  felt,  that  labor  is  honorable  ; 
that  idleness  is  disreputable ;  that  he  Avho  eats  his  bread  in  the  sweat  of 
his  brow,  not  only  submits  to  no  servitude,  but  stands  justified  before 
God  and  man,  as  fulfilling  the  law  of  his  existence.;  as  doing  that,  which 
if  all  men  would  do,  earth  would  be  immeasurably  relieved  of  the  curse, 
and  its  inhabitants  made  as  prosperous,  as  independent,  and  as  happy  as 
our  fallen  nature  admits.  Hence,  I  say  further,  that  the  farmer  should 
be  industrious.  Idleness  is  the  parent  of  all  the  vices ;  industry  of  nearly 
all  the  virtues.  I  have  never  known  an  industrious  community  that  was 
not  prosperous,  independent,  peaceful,  and  virtuous.  Industry  promotes 
not  only  the  health  of  the  body,  but  that  of  the  mind  and  heart.  Its 
achievements  are  almost  inconceivable.  The  constant  dropping  of  water 
wears  away  the  massive  and  solid  rock.  The  continued  clicking  of  a 
single  hammer,  worked  by  a  single  hand,  during  the  hours  of  labor  in 
one  man's  life,  would  beat  into  atoms  the  entire  Capitol  at  Washington. 
Industry  overcomes  all  obstacles.  It  circumnavigates  the  globe ;  it  digs 
into  the  bowels  of  the  earth ;  it  scales  with  ease  the  frightful  precipice  ; 
it  propels  the  weary  ox,  slow-footed  and  heavy  laden,  from  his  home  in 
the  east,  across  the  continent,  over  arid  plains  and  deep  marshes,  up 
rocky  steeps  and  snowy  mountains,  till  he  descends  the  western  slopes 
and  drinks  of  those  streams  "whose  foam  is  amber  and  whose  gravel 
gold."  Industry  adorns  alike  the  humble  cot  and  the  most  costly  man- 
sion. It  is  the  magic  wand,  which,  like  that  of  Midas,  transmutes  all 
.baser  metals  into  gold.  Industry  works  by  system.  It  has  a  place  for 
everything,  and  everything  in  its  place.     It  has  a  time  for  everything, 


22 

and  does  everything  at  the  proper  time.  It  is  not  drudgery ;  it  is  not 
servitude  ;  it  is  cheerful  and  free.  It  rises  with  the  lark,  when  the  dew 
is  on  the  lawn,  and  begins  as  merrily  the  labors  of  the  day.  It  retires 
at  evening  like  the  setting  sun,  peaceful  and  serene,  after  the  accomplish- 
ment of  its  appointed  task.  Industry  is  labor,  guided  by  intelligence  and 
prompted  by  free  will.  It  is  a  sure  staff  by  which  all  men  may  walk,  by 
which  the  farmer  must.  The  warrior  wins  glory  and  renown  by  a  single 
battle.  The  merchant  fills  his  coffers  by  a  single  venture.  The  miner, 
sacrificing  health,  comfort,  and  repose,  amasses  wealth  in  a  few  months. 
But  the  tiller  of  the  soil,  by  slower  and  surer  processes,  aims  to  better 
his  condition.  His  labors  distribute  themselves  throughout  the  year.  He 
lives  and  enjoys  himself  as  he  goes  along.  His  hope  and  expectation  is, 
to  make  the  years'  ends  a  little  more  than  meet,  to  find  his  farm  im- 
proved in  condition,  his  stock  enhanced  in  number  and  quality,  his  house 
better  furnished,  his  family  better  clad,  his  debts,  if  he  has  any,  some- 
what reduced,  and  perhaps,  his  capital  at  interest  a  trifle  augmented. 
He  ventures  cautiously,  manages  economically,  accumulates  gradually. 
To  such  a  man,  industry  is  the  very  handmaid  of  prosperity.  Though 
the  seasons  may  be  backward — though  wet  and  drought  may  impair  his 
crops — though  disease  may  infest  his  cattle — though  the  rust  may  blight 
bis  harvest — though  prices  may  be  low  and  the  market  dull — still  indus- 
try cheers  him  on — "Sovereign  o'er  transmuted  ills;"  still  his  course, 
guided  by  her,  is  forward  and  upward,  and  he  carries  the  whole  circle  of 
the  virtues  with  him. 

The  farmers  should  also  he  skilful.  The  condition  of  the  arts  gene- 
rally, marks  the  progress  of  civilized  over  savage  life.  As  light  dawns 
upon  the  head  and  hearts  of  nations,  they  advance  in  Agricultural  know- 
ledge, and  as  this  science  is  cultivated,  society  uniformly  progresses  in 
refinement,  intelligence  and  social  elevation.  Not  many  years  since,  a 
few  implements  of  agriculture  were  sent  out  to  a  company  of  Mission- 
aries established  among  the  Hottentots,  near  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
Permission  was  obtained  from  the  swarthy  king  of  the  tribe  to  make  an 
exhibition  of  the  working  of  the  Plow — and  his  majesty,  with  his  royal 
family  and  chief  officers,  consented  to  be  present  and  witness  the  spec- 
tacle. Arrangements  were  made  accordingly.  The  novelty  of  the  scene 
attracted  a  great  crowd  of  idle  and  ignorant  natives.  It  was  the  first 
time  a  plow  had  broken  the  soil  of  that  ancient  realm.  One  of  the  Mis- 
sionaries held  the  plow,  and  drove  the  team  after  the  American  fashion  j 


23 

and  as  it  passed  around  the  first  and  second  time,  turning  over  the  earth 
with  an  easy  and  graceful  motion,  the  curiosity  and  wonder  of  the  mon- 
arch was  greatly  excited.  At  the  third  round  he  pulled  off  his  cap, 
threw  it  upon  the  ground  and  exclaimed,  "that  instrument  is  worth 
twenty  wives."  This  is  the  estimate  which  a  king  in  Africa  puts  upon  a 
plow  :  that  is  the  standard  by  which  a  man,  unacquainted  with  the  plow, 
measures  value.  Farmers  of  Wisconsin  !  surrounded  by  wives  and  daugh- 
ters whom  you  honor,  love  and  cherish,  you  should  remember  that  a 
woman  is  noAvhere  so  pure,  nowhere  so  highly  estimated,  nowhere  so 
nobly  influential  as  in  those  rural  districts  where  the  science  of  agricul- 
ture is  most  highly  and  successfully  cultivated.  The  best  managed  farm 
is  almost  sure  to  display  a  farm-house  equally  well  managed,  and  a 
family  circle  over  which  woman  presides  with  equal  cheerfulness  and 
grace.  There,  woman  displays,  within  her  proper  sphere,  all  the 
homely  virtues  as  well  as  all  the  social  refinements  for  which  God  and 
nature  fitted  her ;  there,  she  presents  the  happy  medium  between  the 
vile  slavery  to  which  barbarism  reduces  her,  and  the  imaginary  inde- 
dendence,  after  which  modern  Bloomerism  is  wildly  and  vainly  striving. 
But  I  was  arguing  that  skill  in  agricultural  science,  demanded  the  at- 
tention of  the  American  Farmer.  Whatever  is  worth  doing  at  all,  is 
worth  well  doing — whatever  it  is  expedient  or  necessary  to  do,  should 
be  done  in  the  easiest,  quickest  and  most  efficient  manner.  As  labor  is 
the  source,  or  constituent,  of  all  capital,  it  follows  that  whatever  doubles 
the  product  of  a  day's  labor,  doubles  the  capital  of  the  laborer.  This 
principle  may  be  extended  and  carried  out  through  all  the  branches  of 
agricultural  pursuits.  Not  only  the  labor-saving  implement  or  machine 
practically  increases  the  farmer's  capital,  but  every  improvement  in 
seed,  in  the  mode  of  cultivation,  in  the  time  and  manner  of  doing 
work,  and  in  the  adaptation  of  soils  to  crops,  and  crops  to  soils, 
must  add  correspondingly  to  the  product  of  any  given  investment. 
So,  also,  every  improvement  in  the  breeds  of  cattle,  horses,  sheep, 
or  other  domestic  animals,  and  the  modes  of  rearing,  training,  keep- 
ing and  managing  them,  must  cheapen  the  cost,  while  it  increases 
the  product  and  adds  to  the  value.  It  requires  no  wizard  to  teach  us 
that  the  mode  of  culture  adopted  now,  in  this  State,  is  superior  to  that  of 
the  ignorant  savages,  whose  corn  hills  still  dot  the  surface  of  the  earth 
in  many  places  around  us.  Those  savages  would  have  been  surprised, 
could  some  prophet  have  informed  them,  one  hundred  years  ago,  what  a 


2i 

century  would  exhibit  among  their  planting  grounds,  in  the  way  of  agri- 
cultural improvement.  So,  I  fancy  would  this  audience  be  surprised, 
could  some  magic  hand  cast  forward  the  horoscope,  and  show  to  them 
what  improvements,  even  here,  another  hundred  years  are  destined  to 
present.  The  spirit  of  the  age  is  progress.  In  every  branch  of  industry, 
the  genius  of  man  is  dispelling  the  darkness  of  the  past,  and  chaining 
the  elements  to  his  car  of  triumph.  The  declaration  of  the  Scripture  is 
being  more  than  fulfilled — not  only  has  man  "sought  out  many  inven- 
tions," but  he  is  asserting  his  privilege  and  prerogative  to  seek  out 
many  more.  It  is  time  that  the  farmer  woke  up  to  his  duties  and  his 
privileges.  It  is  not  enough  that  he  is  as  wise  as  his  fathers  were.  It  is 
not  enough  that  he  watches  the  changes  of  the  moon  and  the  approaches 
of  the  doof  star — not  enouc^h  that  he  waits  for  the  times  and  the  seasons, 
and  even  prays  to  Him  who  guides  Arcturus  with  his  sons,  and  binds  the 
sweet  influences  of  Pleiades.  He  must  apply  practical  science  to  his  daily 
efforts.  He  must  walk  by  the  lights  which  modern  improvement  has 
spread  around  him.  He  must  profit  by  example,  by  precept,  by  study 
and  by  reflection,  or  he  is  not  as  wise  as  he  ought  to  be,  or  as  successful 
as  he  might  be.  He  must  not  jog  on,  in  the  slow,  heavy  lumber  wagon 
of  past  days,  or  the  railroad  train  of  the  present  will  sweep  by  him,  and 
pass  out  of  sight  on  the  track  of  progi'css. 

But  above  all,  the  American  Farmer  should  not  slacken  his  efforts 
nor  abate  his  desires  to  acquire  skill  in  all  that  appertains  to  his  calling. 
He  should  remember  that  ao-riculture  is  the  ffreat  business  of  the  Ame- 
rican  People  ;  that  it  is  the  source  of  their  wealth,  and  the  just  object  of 
their  pride  and  glory  ;  that  the  American  people  occupy  an  eminence 
above  the  rest  of  mankind,  in  liberty  and  civilization  ;  that  the  eye  of 
the  world  is  upon  us,  and  the  sounding  tread  of  the  nations,  far  down 
in  the  depth  below,  echoes  in  our  ears,  warning  us  to  press  forward  and 
make  room  for  them. 

Again  : — The  American  Farmer  should  be  a  temperate  man.  All 
experience  and  all  history  demonstrate  that  intoxicating  drinks  add  no 
permanent  vigor  to  the  limb,  or  energy  to  the  intellect.  In  man  and  in 
woman,  in  youth  and  in  age,  in  toil  and  in  rest,  even  their  temperate  use 
can  only  be  justified  as  a  doubtful  luxury  and  not  as  a  useful  beverage. 
The  mother  of  Sampson  was  commanded  by  an  angel  from  Heaven  to 
"Drink  not  wine  or  strong  drink." 


25 

The  Roman  Poet,  alludintr  to  those  who  wore  trained  to  contend  in  the 
Olympic  Games,  admonishes  the  emulous  youth  of  his  time — 

"  Qui  studet  optatam  cursu  coutingere  metam 
Multura  tulit  fecitque  piier,  sudavit  et  alsit 
Abstinuit  venere  et  viuo." — 

And  the  great  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  borrowing  an  illustration  from 
the  same  subject,  appeals  to  the  Corinthians,  as  knowing,  "  that  every 
man  who  striveth  for  the  mastery  is  temperate  in  all  things." 

The  greatest  General  of  the  past  age,  perhaps  the  greatest  genius  of 
any  age,  Xapoleon  Bonaparte,  was  as  temperate  in  living  as  he  was  bold 
in  desion,  and  resistless  in  execution. 

But  why  appeal  to  the  master-spirits  of  the  world  for  illustration  of  a 
principle,  which  is  as  universal  in  application  as  it  is  undeniable  in  utility. 
Happily  the  history  of  our  Agricultural  population  has  exemplified  the 
truth,  that  the  virtues  are  kindred,  and  that  where  prudence,  economy 
and  industry  prevail,  simplicity  and  purity  in  habits,  and,  above  all,  tem- 
perance in  the  use  of  intoxicating  drinks,  has  been  found  to  prevail.  Our 
Agricultural  communities,  generally,  have  honored  and  benefitted  them- 
selves by  their  devotion  to  this  cause  :  and  it  may  w^ell  be  hoped  that  the 
past  will  be  but  an  incentive  to  future  efforts, — that  their  practices  may 
diffuse  yet  richer  blessings  at  home,  and  command  more  respect  and  win 
more  followers  abroad. 

Still  further  :    The  American  Farmer  should  be  an  Educated  Man. 
Knowledge  is  power  the  world  over.    We  live  in  an  age  signalized  by  the 
diffusion  of  mental  light,  we  live  in  a  country  pledged  by  its  institutions, 
and  devoted  by  its  tastes,  to  make  popular  education  thorough  and  uni- 
versal.    We  live  in  a  State  upon  Avhich  the  munificence  of  the  General 
Government  has  bestoAved  the  means  of  educating  every  man,  woman 
and  child.     Common  school  instruction  is  the  birth-right  of  every  son 
and  daughter  of  Wisconsin.    The  Pierian  Spring  bubbles  literally  at  your 
door-steps,  and  your  children  and  your  childrens'  children  have  but  to 
kneel  down  and  drink  of  the  waters  of  knowledge.     Ignorance  among 
us  must  be  hereafter  a  disgrace.     The  will  only  is  Avanting  ;  the  will,  on 
the  part  of  parents,  and  obedience  on  the  part  of  children,  to  make  the 
future  population  of  Wisconsin  the   most  generally,  if  not  the   most 
thoroughly,  educated  people  on  earth.     And  shall  that  will  be  wanting  ? 
Shall  a  people  who  have  their  destinies  in  their  own  hands  ;  with  whom 
rests  the  sovereign  power  ;  who  frame  and  abrogate  constitutions  ;  pass 
3 


26 

and  repeal  laws  ;  establish  and  dispense  with  courts  of  justice  ;  elevate 
and  displace  rulers — shall  they  refuse  to  qualify  themselves  for  the  pro- 
per exercise  of  those  high  functions  ?  Above  all,  shall  that  portion  of 
the  people  Avho  numerically  control  the  ballot  boxes  ;  Avhose  habits  and 
tastes  and  avocations  best  fit  them  to  cherish,  and  exemplify  those  purer 
and  sterner  virtues  out  of  which  our  Republican  Institutions  sprung — 
shall  they,  who  have  emphatically  in  their  hands  the  hopes  and  des- 
tinies of  Freedom,  and  upon  whom  Heaven  has  devolved  the  high  prero- 
gative of  rescuing  the  face  of  the  earth  from  its  primal  curse — shall  they 
prove  recreant  to  their  position — to  their  privileges — to  the  just  expecta- 
tions of  the  civilized  world  ?     The  thought  is  not  to  be  tolerated. 

Once  more.  The  American  Farmer  should  be  a  man  of  Taste.  His 
walks  are  among  the  beautiful  things  of  Earth.  The  gew-gaws  of 
fashion,  and  the  gilded  trappings  of  wealth  and  power,  are  but  dumb 
shows,  compared  Avith  the  sights  Avhich  present  themselves  to  his  eye. 
For  him,  the  limpid  brook  gurgles  over  its  stony  bed,  and  steals  its  wind- 
ing way  along  the  green  and  flowery  mead  ;  for  him  the  tender  plant 
bursts  from  the  nurturing  earth — first  the  blade,  and  then  the  stalk,  and 
then  the  full-grown  corn  in  the  ear.  P'or  him,  the  forest  waves  in  the 
summer  breeze,  turning  up  the  silver  sheen  of  its  leaves,  in  unconscious 
display  of  beauty  :  for  him  the  morning  sheds  its  golden  light,  sprinkles 
its  pearly  dews,  and  breathes  its  balmy  air. 

The  very  workshop  of  the  Farmer  is  the  temple  and  palace  of  Nature ; 
and  if  his  heart  is  not  insensate,  if  his  soul  is  not  blinded  or  dark,  refine- 
ment must  grow  upon  him  like  a  habit,  and  become  a  part  of  his  nature. 
It  matters  not  that  his  employment  is  laborious  and  rough  ;  that  his  attire 
is  plain  ;  that  his  home  is  humble.  "We  do  not  train  the  soldier  in  a 
drawing-room,  nor  rear  the  oak  in  a  hot-bed.  We  do  not  complain  of 
the  pine-apple  because  its  exterior  is  rough,  nor  do  we  relish  the  crab- 
apple  because  its  surface  is  polished.  The  mind,  the  heart,  and  the  soul, 
are  the  standard  and  measure  of  the  man;  and  if  the  Farmer  is  not  refined 
and  tasteful  and  elevated,  he  is  impervious  to  the  quickening  influences 
with  which  a  wise  and  benignant  Providence  has  bountifully  surrounded 
him.  And  how  palpably  do  these  evidences  of  taste,  or  the  want  of  it, 
display  themselves  throughout  every  agricultural  community.  Pass 
through  the  State,  and  mark  the  farm  where  the  fences  are  neglected ; 
where  briars  and  weeds  grow  in  the  corners  and  around  the  stumps  ; 
where  the  cattle  stand  shelterless  in  the  wind,  or  feed  upon  the  unfenced 


27 

stacks  of  grain  ;  where  the  dwelling  house  parches  in  the  sun,  without  a 
tree,  a  vine,  or  a  flower  to  shelter  and  adorn  it ;  where  old  hats  and  old 
clothes  vie  with  children's  faces  in  the  broken  windows,  and  pigs  louno-e 
on  the  vacant  site  of  the  piazza  and  door  steps  ;  and  who  does  not  know 
that,  in  this  place,  the  man,  and  what  is  infinitely  worse,  the  woman,  is 
devoid  of  taste,  and  that,  wanting  taste,  they  lack  all  the  characteristics 
of  good  and  successful  farmers  ?  I  will  not  detain  you  by  painting  the 
more  pleasing  antipode  of  this  disagreeable  picture,  but  content  myself 
with  hoping  that  among  the  wholesome  influences  of  this  Society,  will  be 
the  cultivation  of  a  more  elevated  taste,  and  that  in  a  few  years,  our 
whole  State  will  be  dotted  over  with  tidy  and  comfortable  farm  houses, 
which  give  evidence  not  only  that  prosperity  has  made  them  its  home, 
but  that  taste  and  refinement  there  preside,  shedding  beauty  and  grace, 
contentment  and  joy. 

But  it  is  time  these  desultory  remarks  were  drawn  to  a  close.     I  beg 
leave  to  mingle  my  regrets  with  yours,  at  the  misfortune  which  deprives 
us  of  the  anticipated  speaker  on  tliis  occasion.-     Unexpectedly  called,  in 
the  midst  of  pressing  engagements,  to  discharge  the  honorable  duty  which 
has  devolved  upon  me,  I  feel  that  I  am  but  strnding  as  an  apology  for 
him,  whose  fame  and  genius  were  invoked  to  lend  interest  to  your  Second 
Annual  Meeting.     May  the  anniversaries  of  your  Society  be  perpetual, 
and  their  benign  influences  become  as  pervading  as  they  must  be  useful. 
The  age  in  which  we  live  is  altogether  interesting.    To  the  Agriculturist, 
the  signs  of  the  times  are  animating,  encouraging,  inspiring.     The  power 
of  steam  has  gone  far  to  annihilate  space  ;  the  electric  telegraph  outstrips 
time.     The  people  of  the  earth  are  becoming  practically  but  one  family, 
and  the  nations  near  neighbors.     The  great  marts  of  the  world  are  our 
market-places.     Railroads  are  penetrating  the  interior  of  even  this  State, 
and  bringing  into  usefulness  and  value  vast  tracts  of  land,  recently  but 
the  desert  home  of  the  savage  and  the  wild  beast.     The  bowels  of  the 
earth  are  yielding  up  unwonted  and  unmeasured  quantities  of  the  precious 
metals.     All  the  products  of  the  soil  find  a  ready  market  and  a  fair  price. 
Riches  are  increasing  and  abounding  in  the  land.     Thousands  and  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  persons  find  themselves  in  easy  and  afiluent  circum- 
stances, seeking  investment  for  their  capital  and  occupation  for  their 
minds.     What  more  inviting  field  than  that  of  Agriculture  ? 


*  The  Hon.  William  H.  Seward  was  written  to,  and  expected  until  a  late  hour,  to 
be  present  and  address  tlie  Society, 


28 

The  time  has  gone  by  when  it  was  thought  necessary  to  force  a  young 
man  into  one  of  the  professions  to  make  him  respectable.     The  profes- 
sions are  crowded  with  those  who  are  htted  to  shine  in  them,  and  bur- 
dened with  those  who  are  not.     Respectability  is  confined  to  no  particular 
class — no  profession — no  occupation.     The  industrious,  the  intelligent, 
the  cultivated,  the  tasteful,  and  moral,  are  everywhere  respectable.    Why, 
then,  overwhelm  the  professions  with  those  who  must  fail  to  realize  their 
hopes,  and  rob  the  field  of  those  who  might  there  be  independent,  useful 
and  honorable  ?     Let  the  occupation  of  the  farmer  be  properly  estimated; 
let  it  be  elevated  to  the  highest  ground,  and  let  others  look  up  to  it.  Tell 
the  ingenuous  youth  of  the  country — those  who  have  talent,  enterprise, 
or  wealth  to  employ — here  is  your  appropriate  field  of  exertion  ;  here 
you  may  blend  taste  and  beauty  with  pleasure  and  profit ;  here  you  may 
have  employment  that  strengthens  the  body  and  gratifies  the  mind  ;  here 
you  may  build  a  home  that  virtue  consecrates,  opulence  adorns,  and  hospi- 
tality renders  attractive  ;  here  you  will  be  exempted  from  the  cares  and  the 
disappointments  that  vex  the  commercial,  the  professional  and  the  political 
world ;  here  contentment  and  peace,  like  angel's  wings,  will  overshadow 
your  roof;  and  around  the  family  altar  and  the  family  table,  gathering 
the  circle  of  cheerful  hearts  and  cheerful  faces,  you  may  eat  and  drink, 

"  And  ill  communion  sweet, 

Quaff  immortality  and  joy." 


ENTRIES  AT  MILWAUKEE. 

CATTLE 65 

HORSES 135 

SHEEP 331 

SWINE  AND  POULTRY. ...^ 43 

FARMING  IMPLEMENTS 109 

PLOWING  MATCH 6 

DAIRY 21 

FLOUR  AND  HONEY 16 

GRAINS,  SEEDS  AND  VEGETABLES 131 

DOMESTIC  MANUFACTURES  AND  NEEDLE  WORK..  112 

FRUITS „ 92 

FLOW^ERS 45 

PAINTINGS 53 

MISGELL/.NEOUS 170 

1329 


29 


WISCONSm  STATE  AGKICULTURAL  SOOIETr. 


REPORTS  OF  COMMITTEES 

Made  at  the  Second  Annual  Cattle  Show  and  Fair  of  the  Society,  held  at 
the  City  of  Milwaukee,  on  Wednesday,  Thursday  and  Friday,  6th, 
7th,  and  8th  days  of  October,   1852. 

SHORT  HORN?.— No.  or  Extries,  25. 

Judges. — Thomas  P.  Turner,   Palmyra  ;    Martix  Field,  Mukwanego ; 

Hiram  Barber,  Juneau. 

Best  bull  three  years  old  and  over  (Henry  Clay)  ;  Leonard  Gage, 
Hainesville,  111.     Diploma,  and  Stephens'  Book  of  the  Farm. 

"Henry  Clay  is  a  thorough-bred  animal ;  is  red  and  white  ;  the  red 
more  or  less  mixed  with  white  hairs.  He  was  bred  by  Horatio  N.  Cary, 
of  Marcy,  Oneida  county,  N.  Y.  ;  was  calved,  April,  1848.  He  was  sired 
by  the  full-bred  Durham  bull  Oregon  ;  Oregon  by  Cortez  ;  Cortez  by 
Ajax  ;  Cortez's  dam.  Conquest,  by  Washington  ;  g.  dam,  Pansy,  by 
Blaze  ;  g.  g.  by  Charley  ;  g. «.  g.  Primrose,  by  Blythe  Comet ;  g.  g.  g.  g. 
Primrose,  by  Prince  ;  g.  g.  g.  g.  g.  Primrose,  by  Patriot.  Ajax  sired  by 
Washington  ;  dam  Red  Lady,  by  Washington  ;  g.  dam  Pansy,  by  Blaze ; 
g.  g.  Primrose,  by  Charles  ;  g.  g.  g.  Primrose,  by  Blythe  Comet ;  g.  g. 
g.  g.  Primrose,  by  Prince  ;  g.  g.  g.  g.  g.  Primrose,  by  Patriot.  Wash- 
ington and  Pansy  were  imported  by  Stephen  Van  Renssellaer,  of  Albany, 
and  were  bred  by  Mr.  Champion,  of  Engand." 

Second  best  bull  three  years  old  ajid  over  (Eclipse)  ;  Harvey  Durkee, 
Kenosha.     ^5. 

"The  bull  Eclipse  was  calved  August,  1848;  was  bred  by  George 
Vail,  Esq.,  of  Troy,  N.  Y.  ;  got  by  his  prize  bull  Meteor,  ( 104  A.  H.  B.)  ; 
dam  Arabella,  bred  by  Thomas  Bates,  Esq.,  England.  Arabella  was 
got  by  fourth  Duke  of  Northumberland,  a  Dutchess  bull,  (3649  E.  H.  B.); 
her  dam  by  Duke  of  Cleveland,  (1937  E.  H.  B.)  ;  g.  dam  by  Belvidere, 


30 

(1706  E.  H.  B.)  ;  g.  g.  dam,  a  superior  short-horned  co"w,  bought  by 
Mr.  Bates  in  1828,  and  possessing  some  of  the  best  blood  of  the  Collins 
stock." 

Best  bull  two  years  old  and  over  (Murat) ;  J.  Rogers,  Burlington.     Sil- 
ver Medal. 
Murat  is  of  white  color,  flecked  with  roan,  and  was  got  by  Eclipse, 

for  whose  pedigree  see  above. 

Best  one  year  old  bull — white  ;  Samuel  A.  Thurston,  Burlington.  Youatt 
on  Cattle. 

Second  best  one  year  old  bull  (Otsego)  ;    A.  P.  Lyman,   Sheboygan. 

Transactions. 

"  Otsego  is  a  red  bull ;  calved.  May,  1851.  He  Avas  bred  by  Francis 
M.  Botch,  Morris,  N.  Y.  Got  by  Coxcomb  ;  dam  Harebell,  by  Bertram 
2d,  (3144  E.  H.  B.)  ;  Coxcomb  sired  by  Yorkshireman,  (5700  E.H.B.)  ; 
dam  Coral,  by  Bertram  2d;  g.  dam.  Conquest  by  Washington,  (1666 
E.  H.  B.)  ;  Yorkshireman  was  bred  by  Mr.  Bates,  of  England — imported 
by  Mr.  Cope;  sired  by  Short-tail,  (2621  E.  H.  B.);  dam  by  Belvidere, 
(1760  E.H.B.)" 

Best  cow  three  years  old  and  over  (Kate)  ;    Harvey  Durkee,  Kenosha. 

Diploma,  and  Stephens'  Book  of  the  Farm. 

"Kate  is  red  and  white  ;  nine  years  old.  Got  by  Ajax  ;  bred  by  Gen. 
Van  Renssellaer.  Dam  by  imported  Coplow  ;  g.  dam  by  Comet ;  g.  g. 
dam  by  Nelson.     These  bulls  were  all  imported  animals." 

Second  best  cow,  three  years  old  and  over  ;  red,  eight  years  old  ;  A. 
Blanchard,  M.  D.,  Milwaukee.     $5. 

Best  one  year  old  heifer  ;  Adam  E.  Ray,  Troy.     Youatt  on  Cattle. 

Second  best  one  year  old  heifer  (Rose)  ;   L.  W.  Willan,    Pewaukee. 
Transactions. 

DEVONS.— No.  OF  Entries,  3. 

Judges. — Leonard  Gage,  Hainesville,    111.;    H.   B.  Marsh,   Kenosha; 

H.  B.  Hawley,  Milford. 

Best  bull  three  years  old  and  over  (Bishop)  ;  A.  P.  Lyman,  Sheboygan. 
Diploma,  and  Stephen's  Book  of  the  Farm. 

"Bishop  is  six  years  old  ;  is  a  deep  cherry  red ;  was  sired  by  Balti- 
more.    His  dam  was  Frozenfoot,  an  imported  cow." 


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Best  two  years  old  bull  (Sir  Henry)  ;  David  Hall,  Gaines,  N.  Y.     Silver 
Medal. 

Best  cow  three  years  old  and  over  (Lucy)  ;  A.  P.  Lyman,  Sheboygan. 
Diploma,  and  Youatt  on  Cattle. 

The  Judges  remark,  in  their  report,  that  while  the  show  in  this  class 
was  small,  yet  the  animals  presented  were  perfect  specimens,  and  reflect 
great  credit  upon  their  enterprising  owners, 

NATIVES,  AND  CROSS  BETWEEN  NATIVES  AND   IMPROVED  CATTLE. 

No.  OF  Entries,  19. 

Jadfjes. — Joseph  Davenport,  Genesee  ;  Elisha  W.  Edgerton,  Summit ; 

Richard  Jones,  Genesee. 

Best  two  years  old  bull  (Wisconsin  Jack)  ;  Talbot  C.  Dousman,  Ottawa, 
Silver  Medal. 

Second  best  two  years  old  bull  (Bill)  ;  red  ;  Benjamin  Bettis,  Mequon. 
Youatt  on  Cattle. 

Best  one  year  old  bull ;  red ;  S.  C.  Hall,  Whitewater.    Youatt  on  Cattle. 

Second  best  one  year    old  bull  (Prince   Albert)  ;  E.  F.   Weld,    Eagle. 
Transactions. 

Best  bull  calf  (Young  Herod)  ;  speckled  ;  Emery  Thayer,  East  Troy. 
Transactions. 

Second  best  bull  calf ;  dark  red  ;  four  months  old  ;  Martin  Cogswell, 
Brookfield.     Allen's  Domestic  Animals. 

Best  cow  three  years  old  and  over  ;  speckled  ;  four  years  old  ;  Richard- 
son Houghton,  Milwaukee.    Diploma,  and  Stephens'  Book  of  the  Farm. 

Second  best  cow  three  years  old  and  over ;  George  <fe  William  McKay, 
Rockhill. 

Best  one  year  old  heifer  (Kate)  ;  red  and  Avhite ;  Charles  James,  Mil- 
waukee.    Youatt  on  Cattle. 

Second  best  one  year  old  heifer ;  brown ;  John  P.  Weaver,  Milwaukee. 
Transactions. 

Best  heifer  calf ;  red  ;  Beecher  k  Bryant,  Milwaukee.     Transactions. 

Second  best  heifer  calf;  John  B.  Dousman,  Milwaukee.     Allen's  Domes- 
tic Animals. 


32 


CROSSED  IMPROVED  BREEDS.— No.  of  Extries,  9. 

Jadijts. — Joseph  Davenport,  Genesee  ;  Elisha  W.  Edgerton,  Summit ; 

Richard  Jones,  Genesee. 

Best  bull  three  years  old  and  over  (James  Wadsworth)  ;  red  ;  five  years 
old ;  W.  S.  Skinner,  Ela,  111.  Diploma,  and  Stephens'  Book  of  the 
Farm. 

Second  best  bull  three  years  old  and  over  (Badger  Boy)  ;  red  ;  five  years 
old  ;  Hiram  Cross,  Sugar  Creek.     $5. 

Best  two  years  old  bull  ;  red  ;  Durham  and  Holderness  cross  ;  Samuel 
Hewitt,  Rochester.     Silver  medal. 

Second  best  bull  two  years  old  (Nero);  Nelson  North,  Hartford.  Youatt 
on  Cattle. 

Best  cow  three  years  old  and  over  (Korah)  ;  Devon  and  Durham; 
Beecher  k  Bryant,  Milwaukee.  Diploma,  and  Stephens'  Book  of  the 
Farm.  ; 

WORKING  OXEN.— No.  or  Entrieis,  9. 

Judges. — Joseph  Goodrich,  Milton  ;  Talbot  C.  Dousman,  Ottawa  ;  Jesse 

Meaciiam,  Troy. 

Best  yoke  of  oxen.  Brindle,  white  faces  ;  seven  years  old  past ;  George 
0.  Tiffany,  Milwaukee.     810. 

Second  best  yoke  of  oxen.  White  ;  nine  years  old ;  L.  G.  Stow,  Hart- 
ford.    $5. 

Best  yoke  of  steers,  two  years  old  ;  John  B.  Dousman,  MilAvaukee.  You- 
att on  Cattle. 

STALLIONS,  BROOD  MARES,  AND  COLTS.— No.  of  Exteies,  92. 

Judges. — E.  Hathaavay,  Milwaukee  ;  Joel  P.  Maxn,  Madison  ;  John  L. 

D.  Eyclesheimer,  Janesville. 

Best  stallion  over  four  yeai-s  old  (Badger  Boy)  ;    A.  F.  Pratt,  Wauke- 
sha.    Diploma,  and  Stephens'  Book  of  the  Farm. 
•'Badger  Boy  was  eight  years  old  in  the  month  of  August,  1852.   His 

color  is  a  light  grey  ;  is  sixteen  hands  high,   and  well  proportioned ; 

weighing  twelve  hundred  pounds.     He  was  sired  by  Young  Messenger, 


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■whose  sire  was  Ogden  Messenger,  got  by  Bush  Messenger.  Young 
Messenger's  dam  was  a  bay  mare,  got  by  Old  Eclipse.  Badger  Boy's 
dam  i.s  Old  Whitey.  Old  Whitey  was  sired  by  an  imported  Norman 
French  horse,  owned  in  Washington  county,  N.  Y.  His  pedigree  and 
excellent  stock  are  well  known." 

Second  best  stallion  over  four  years  old  (Vermont  Morgan);  T.  J. 
Wood,  Baraboo.     $5. 

"  Vermont  Morgan  is  a  dark  dapple  grey,  standing  sixteen  hands  high, 
and  weighing  twelve  hundred  and  fifty-nine  pounds.  He  is  a  thorough- 
bred Morgan,  his  pedigree  being  as  follows  :  Chittenden  Morgan  ;  Green 
Mountain  Morgan  ;  Gifford  Morgan,  by  the  original  Morgan,  who  was 
got  by  True  Briton,  by  Wildair  ;  dam  by  Sherman  Morgan  ;  and  g.  dam 
by  Gifford  Morgan." 

Best  brood  mare  over  four  years  old,  with  foal  at  her  foot,  (Kate) ;  five 
years  old ;  Joseph  Davenport,  Genesee.  Diploma,  and  Stephens' 
Book  of  the  Farm. 

Second  best  brood  mare  over  four  years  old,  with  foal  at  her  foot,  (Old 
Dolly),  eight  years  old;  Jacob  Burgitt,  East  Troy.  Youatt  on  the 
Horse,  and  $2. 

Best  stallion  three  years  old  (Young  Henry)  ;  bay  ;  D.  S.  Cady,  Mil- 
waukee.    Silver  medal. 

Second  best  stallion  three  years  old  (Charles  Wisconsin);  deep  bay; 
William  Vliet,  Milwaukee.     American  Muck  Book,  and  ^1. 

Best  mare  three  years  old  (Fanny);  sorrel;  Garret  VHet,  Milwaukee. 
Silver  medal. 

Best  stallion  two  years  old  (Grey  Messenger)  ;  Elisha  Phillips,  Ken- 
osha.    ^5. 

Second  best  stallion  tAvo  years  old  (St.  Patrick)  ;  sorrel ;  Simon  Ruble, 
Beloit.     Youatt  on  the  Horse. 

Best  mare  two  years  old  (Jessie)  ;  Enoch  Chase,  Milwaukee.     S5. 

Second  best  mare  two  years  old  (Fan) ;  black  ;  Peter  D.  Wemple,  Em- 
erald Grove.     Youatt  on  the  Horse. 

Best  stallion  one  year  old  (Patrick  Henry)  ;  brown  ;  Emery  Thayer, 
East  Troy.     Youatt  on  the  Horse. 


34 

MATCHED  AND  DRAFT  HORSES  AND  GELDINGS.— No.  op  Entries,  35. 
Judges. — Erastus  B.  Wolcott,  Milwaiikee;   Geo.  C.  Pratt,  Waukesha. 

Best  pair  of  matched  horses  (Hamiltonian  and  Messenger)  ;  seven  years 
old  ;  brown  ;  George  0.  Tiffany,  Milwaukee.  Diploma,  and  Stephens' 
Book  of  the  Farm. 

Second  best  pair  of  matched  horses  ;  Addison  Baker,  R,acine.     S5. 

Best  pair  of  draft   horses    (Grey  Sampson   and   Windflower)  ;    Simon 

Ruble,  Beloit.     Diploma. 

"  Grey  Sampson  is  a  dapple  grey,  five  years  old,  and  stands  eighteen 
hands  high.  He  was  sired  by  the  celebrated  imported  draft  horse  Samp- 
son, who  was  brought  from  England  to  New  York,  and  from  thence 
taken  to  Ohio.  His  dam  is  Canadian  Lion,  sired  by  Old  Lion,  of  Penn- 
sylvania.    Young  Sampson  weighs  1783  lbs.  when  in  good  order. 

"Windflower  is  a  dapple  grey,  seven  years  old,  stands  seventeen  hands 
high,  and  weighs  1660  lbs.  He  is  a  descendant  of  the  English  Coach 
Horse  on  the  side  of  his  sire.  His  dam  is  Lady  Jane,  got  by  Highlander. 
Her  dam  was  got  by  Duncanan,  and  her  grand-dam  by  Old  Messenger." 

These  horses  show  many  superior  points,  being  not  only  powerful 
draft  horses,  but  excellent  roadsters. 

Second  best  pair  of  draft  horses  ;  greys ;  eight  years  old  ;  Richard 
Richards,  Mount  Pleasant.     $5. 

Best  Gelding  (Henry);  five  years  old;  Nicholas  Ehle,  Kenosha.  Diploma. 
Second  best  gelding  (Don)  ;  sorrel  ;  five  years  old  ;  Joshua  Davis,  Ke- 
nosha.    S3. 

Best  mare  (May  Henry)  ;  four  years  old  ;  William  Shallock,  Milwaukee, 
Diploma. 

Second  best  mare  ;  sorrel ;  five  years  old ;  Sabina  Barney,  Wauke- 
sha.    $3. 

JACKS  AND  MULES.— No.  of  Extries,  8. 

Judges. — Erastus  B.  Wolcott,  Milwaukee;  Geo.  C.  Pratt,  Waukesha. 

Best  jack  ;  Spanish  ;  six  years  old  ;  David  Williams,  Geneva.     S5. 

Second  best  jack  ;  brown  ;  B.  A.  Jenkins,  Genesee.     $3. 

Best  pair  of  mules  ;  ten  years  old  ;  Talbot  C.  Dousman,  Ottawa.     $5. 


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LONG  WOOLED  SHEEP.— No.  of  Esteies,  43. 

Judges. — Thomas  T.  Whittlesey,  Pheasant  Branch  ;  Reuben  M.  Norton, 
Racine  ;  Talbot  C.  Dousman,  Ottawa. 

Best  buck  over  two  years  ;  Thomas  K.  Carr,  Oak  Creek.     $4. 
Second  best  buck  over  two  years ;  John  Hinton,  Eagle.    Transactions. 
Second  best  buck  two  years  or  under  ;  John  Hinton,  Eagle.     Youatt  on 

Sheep. 
Best  pen,  three  buck  lambs  ;  John  Hinton,  Eagle.     83. 

"  I  pen  my  sheep  every  night.  They  have  a  warm  cot  where,  when  it 
is  very  cold,  they  go,  but  when  it  is  mild,  they  lie  outside.  I  feed  them 
on  timothy  and  clover  hay  ;  about  the  beginning  of  March  I  add  tur- 
nips. I  feed  the  ewes  and  lambs  on  time  thy  and  clover  in  the  spring, 
and  wean  the  lambs  in  July,  on  the  lattermath,  after  the  timothy  and 
clover  is  mowed.  John  Hinton." 

MIDDLE  WOOLS.— No.  of  EniEiKi,  58. 

Judges — Thomas  T.  Wiiittlesev,  Pheasant  Branch  ;  Reuben  M.  Norton, 
Racine  ;  Talbot  C.  Dousman,  Ottawa. 

Best  buck  over  two  years  ;  A.  P.  Lyman,  Sheboygan.     ^4. 

Best  buck  two  years  or  under  ;  N.  B.  Clapp,  Kenosha.     $3. 

Best  pen,  three  ewes,  over  two  years  ;  N.  B.  Clapp,  Kenosha.     83. 

Best  pen,  three  buck  lambs  ;  N.  B.  Clapp,  Kenosha.     83. 

"On  several  accounts,  for  this  country,  I  prefer  the  Southdown  sheep 
to  the  Merinos.  They  are  much  hardier  animals,  have  stronger  consti- 
tutions, and  are  better  calculated  for  mutton — averaging,  at  least,  one- 
third  larger  size  than  the  fine-wool  Merinos.  For  feeding,  they  are  un- 
surpassed; producing  a  superior  quality,  and  greater  weight  of  flesh. 
from  the  same  feed  than  any  other  sheep.  The  ewes  are  very  prolific. 
The  lambs,  when  young,  are  usually  stout  and  healthy — much  easier 
raised  in  cold  weatlier  than  fine-wool  lambs.  I  prefer  them  to  the  Lei- 
cesters  or  Cotswolds.  They  cut  nearly  the  same  quantity  of  wool,  and 
of  a  finer  quality  ;  and  with  the  same  feed  will  produce  as  much  flesh, 
and  of  a  superior  quality.  They  do  not  require  as  much  protection  from 
storm,  on  account  of  the  compactness  of  the  fleece.  They  are  far  supe- 
rior, in  crossing  with  the  fine-wool  sheep.  A.  P.  Lyman." 


36 

MERTIfOS  — No.  or  Entries,  141. 

Judges. — Thomas  T.  Whittlesey,  Pheasant  Branch  ;  Reuben  M.  Norton, 
Racine  ;  Talbot  C.  Dousman,  Ottawa. 

Best  buck  over  two  years  ;  Alraon  Atwood,  Waupun.     ^4. 

Best  buck  two  years  or  under  ;  Wesley  P.  Benson,  Johnstown.     $3. 

Second  best  buck  two  years  or  under  ;  David  Hall,  Gaines,  N.  Y.  Youatt 
on  Sheep. 

Best  pen,  three  ewes,  over  two  years  ;  Almon  Atwood,  Waupun.     $4. 

Second  best  pen,  three  ewes,  over  two  years  ;  Edgerton   &    McCarter, 
Summit.     Transactions. 

Best  pen,  three  ewes,  two  years  or  under  ;  David  Hall,  Gaines,  N.  Y.  $3. 

Second  best  pen,  three  ewes,  two  years  or  under  ;    H.  B.  Burritt,  Mas- 
kego  Centre.     Youatt  on  Sheep. 

Best  pen  three  buck  lambs  ;  Almon  Atwood,  Waupun.     83. 

Best  pen  three  ewe  lambs  ;  H.  B.  Burritt,  Muskego  Centre.     $3. 

Second  best  pen  three  ewe  lambs  ;  George  C.  Pratt,  Waukesha.    Youatt 
on  Sheep. 

Almon  Atwood's  Statement. 

"These  sheep  I  have  raised  from  some  pure-blooded  Merinos,  which  I 
bought  of  Edwin  Hammond,  Esq.,  of  Middlebury,  Vt.,  in  the  autumn  of 
1847.  Mr.  Hammond  purchased  his  flock  of  Mr.  Stephen  AtAvood,  of 
Litchfield  county,  Conn.,  who  has  bred  pure  from  the  Humphrey  import- 
ation of  Spanish  Merinos.  These  sheep  are  noted  for  their  hardiness  of 
constitution,  and  for  the  large  amount  of  fine  wool  they  produce,  in  pro- 
portion to  the  size  of  carcass.  Bucks  of  this  flock  generally  shear  from 
ten  to  sixteen  pounds  of  washed  wool ;  the  ewes  from  four  to  eight  pounds. 
My  flock  of  ewes,  sixteen  in  number,  sheared  ninety-four  pounds  of 
washed  wool  the  past  season,  and  reared  sixteen  lambs,  with  ordinary 
keeping.     The  fleeces  ranged  from  four  to  seven  and  three-fourth  pounds. 

"The  bucks,  when  they  have  attained  their  full  growth,  weigh  from 
one  hundred  and  forty  to  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  pounds  ;  the  ewes, 
from  eighty  to  one  hundred  and  thirty  pounds.  The  outward  appear- 
ance of  this  wool,  in  its  natural  state,  is  quite  dark  ;  but  when  opened, 
it  appears  very  white  and  glossy,  with  a  fine,  beautiful  crimp.     Sheep 


37 

will  do  well,  in  summer,  on  grass  alone,  in  flocks  ranging  from  one  hun- 
dred to  two  hundred,  if  kept  within  enclosures  ;  but  they  can  be  kept,  in 
much  larger  flocks,  by  allowing  them  to  run  at  large  on  our  prairies  and 
openings,  where  there  is  an  extensive  range.  When  kept  in  this  way,  a 
shepherd  should  be  with  them,  to  keep  them  from  straying,  and  collect 
them  together  at  night.  In  winter,  I  keep  my  sheep  on  our  wild  hay, 
and  they  can  be  kept  very  well  on  hay  only  ;  but  I  think  it  much  better 
to  feed  some  grain.  I  think  Avheat  bran  the  best,  especially  for  breeding 
ewes  ;  and  if  I  wish  to  feed  heavier,  I  mix  boiled  barley  and  oats.  Oats 
is  a  very  good  grain  for  sheep,  and  I  think  feeding  in  the  straw  prefera- 
ble. Potatoes,  turnips,  carrots,  and  beets  are  excellent  for  sheep,  when 
the  weather  is  mild,  but,  when  very  cold,  I  think  grain  better.  Some 
method  should  be  taken  to  prevent  the  sheep  from  running  over  their 
fodder  ;  either  with  racks  or  boxes.  I  prefer  the  latter,  made  of  boards, 
about  one  foot  in  width,  with  a  space,  seven  or  eight  inches,  between 
them,  and  two  and  a  half  feet  wide.  Sheds  should  be  provided,  and  it 
is  better  if  they  can  be  arranged  so  as  to  feed  under  shelter,  and  con- 
fine the  flock  there  during  storms.  Sheep  require  water  as  much  as  any  • 
other  stock.  It  should  be  situated  convenient  to  the  yard  ;  for  if  it  is  not, 
they  will  go  without  for  days,  in  very  severe  weather,  rather  than  expose 
themselves  to  the  piercing  Avinds — which  is  very  injurious. 

Almon  Atwood." 

Wesley  P.  Bensox's  Statement. 

"My  sheep  are  bred  from  two  of  the  most  popular  flocks  of  Spanish 
Merinos  in  Vermont — (the  Brewer  and  Atwood  flocks).  The  weight  of 
wool  of  my  buck,  when  one  year  old,  was  thirteen  pounds ;  and  his  weight 
of  carcass  was  one  hundred  and  twenty-six  pounds. 

''From  the  earliest  ages,  sheep  have  been  classed  among  the  most  val- 
uable of  domestic  animals.  Previous  to  the  deluge,  they  were  oflfered  in 
sacrifices  ;  and  since  that  period,  their  flesh  has  been  used  for  food,  and 
their  wool  for  clothing,  in  all  quarters  of  the  world. 

•'No  other  animal  requires  so  much  attention  to  its  food,  during  win- 
ter, as  the  sheep.  When  first  brought  in  for  the  winter,  they  are  usually 
confined  in  so  small  a  space,  and  in  such  numbers,  that  the  air  becomes 
impure,  and  will  soon  produce  disease.  It  will  be  a  great  preventive  of 
disease,  to  smear  their  noses  with  tar,  as  often  as  once  in  two  weeks, 


38 

during  the  winter.  Although  no  better  food  for  sheep  exists  than  ripe, 
well  cured,  timothy  hay  and  clover,  yet  they  will  do  well  with  our  marsh 
hay,  and  oat  straw,  when  cut  green  and  well  cured.  Potatoes,  turnips, 
and  carrots  I  find  of  great  advantage  to  sheep,  in  this  country.  My 
manner  of  feeding  these  roots  is,  to  cut  them  fine  and  mix  them  with  corn 
meal.  Sheep  suft'er  much,  in  winter,  by  being  deprived  of  green  food, 
and  not  having  access  to  the  ground.  It  is  well  to  let  them  have  a  few 
feet  of  turf,  loam,  or  gravel.  Should  this  become  frozen,  break  it  up 
occasionally,  with  a  crowbar  or  axe.  I  find  it  difficult  to  give  the  Spanish 
sheep  grain  enough  to  start  their  wool.  I  commence  with  a  pint  of  oats 
per  day,  and  afterwards  increase  it  to  a  quart  per  head. 

"  In  order  to  raise  good  lambs,  I  find  it  beneficial  to  feed  the  ewes, 
before  and  after  dropping,  with  carrots,  turnips  and  beans.  My  lambs, 
at  the  age  of  two  months,  have  weighed  from  thirty  pounds  to  forty -five 
pounds.  This  feeding  adds  also  to  the  weight  of  the  clip  from  the  ewes. 
My  ewes  have  cut  from  five  and  a  half  pounds  to  eight  pounds  per  head. 
Although  it  may  be  considered  that  I  take  too  much  pains  with  my 
sheep,  yet  I  only  pursue  my  New  England  habits  ;  and  in  this  I  shall 
continue  until  I  am  satisfied  that  there  is  a  better  way.  As  soon  as  mild 
weather  appears  in  spring,  and  long  before  the  snow  has  disappeared, 
sheep  exhibit  an  inclination  to  leave  their  long  confinement,  and  seek 
their  food  in  the  meadow  or  pasture.  It  is  well,  however,  to  keep  them 
confined  until  the  snow  has  mostly  disappeared,  and  the  ground  becomes 
nearly  dry.  Sheep  at  this  season  should  be  kept  where  they  can  have 
access  to  the  ground  in  the  day  time,  and  be  fed  occasionally  with  pota- 
toes and  turnips. 

"  In  summer,  sheep  require  pastures  that  are  dry.  They  thrive  best 
on  high  table  land,  or  on  mountain  ridges,  abounding  in  bitter  plants 
and  aromatic  herbs.  In  Wisconsin,  we  have  one  of  the  best  climates  in 
the  Union  for  the  Spanish  Merino  sheep. 

"  For  six  weeks  before  yeaning,  the  ewe  should  be  deprived  of  most 
of  her  accustomed  supply  of  potatoes  and  other  vegetables,  as  these  are 
calculated  to  produce  a  surplus  quantity  of  milk,  Avhich  is  frequently 
injurious.  At  the  time  of  yeaning,  however,  a  small  quantity  may  be 
given,  as  it  will  tend  to  strengthen  the  ewe.  If  yeaning  comes  when  the 
nights  are  cold  and  frosty,  the  ewes  should  be  warmly  housed. 

Wesley  P.  Benson." 


39 

SAXONS— Nc.  OF  Entries,  33. 

Judges. — Thomas  T.  Whittlesei-,  Pheasant  Branch  ;  Reuben  M.  Norton, 
Racine  ;  Talbot  C.  Dousman,  Ottawa. 

Best  buck  over  two  years  ;  Harvey  Durkee,  Kenosha.     S4. 
Second  best  buck  over  two  years  ;  N.  B.  Clapp,  Kenosha.   Transactions. 
Best  pen,  three  ewes,  two  years  or  under  ;  N.  B.  Clapp,  Kenosha.     S3. 
Best  pen,  three  ewe  lambs;  N.  B.  Clapp,  Kenosha.     $3. 

CR033  BREEDS.— Xo.  of  En'thies,  56. 

Judges. — Thomas  T.  Whittlesey,  Pheasant  Branch  ;  Reuben  M.  Norton, 
Racine  ;  Talbot  C.  Dousman,  Ottawa. 

Best  buck  over  two  years  ;  George  C.  Pratt,  Waukesha.     $4. 

Second  best  buck  over  two  years  ;  W.  S.  Skinner,  Ela,  111.     Transac- 
tions. 

Best  buck  tAvo  years  or  under  ;  H.  B.  Burritt,  Muskego  Centre.     $3. 

Second  best  Buck  two  years  or  under  ;  David  Hall,  Gaines,  N.  Y.   Trans- 
actions. 

Best  pen,  three  ewes  over  two  years  ;  David  Hall,  Gaines,  N.  Y.     $3. 

Best  pen,  three  ewes  two  years   or  under  ;  George  C.  Pratt,  Wauke- 
sha.    $3. 

Second  best  pen,  three  ewes  two  years  or  under  ;  David  Hall,  Gaines, 
N.  Y.     Yuuatt  un  sheep, 

Best  pen,  tliree  buck  lambs  ;  Luther  Rawson,  Oak  Creek.     $3. 

Best  pen,  three  ewe  lambs  ;  David  Hall,  Gaines,  N.  Y.     $3. 

George  C.  Pratt's  Statement. 

"  I  received  my  original  stock  of  sheep  from  Vermont.  They  were  said 
to  be  a  cross  between  the  full  blood  Spanish  Merino  and  the  full  blood 
Saxony.  They  were  quite  small  sheep,  when  compared  with  my  present 
stock,  and  would  shear  about  three  pounds  of  wool  per  head.  My  man- 
ner of  keeping  will  not  differ  much,  I  presume,  from  other  wool  growers 
in  Wisconsin,  Our  accommodations  for  keeping  sheep  in  Wisconsin  at 
present  are  poor,  at  best,  when  compared  with  those  of  older  wool  grow- 


40 

ing  States.     My  sheep  receive  but  little  attention  from  the  time  of  shear- 
ing, which  is  usually  about  the  middle  of  June,  through  the  summer  and 
fall,  although  I  always  intend  to  give  them  good  pasturage,  and  salt 
them  every  week.     Sheep  require  but  little  water  in  the  summer.    Some- 
time.s  I  have  them  in  a  pasture  with  plenty  of  water,  and  sometimes  not 
any.     They  thrive  as  well  in  one  case  as  the  other,  for  aught  that  I  can 
see.     But  in  the  winter  they  will  drink  more  or  less  every  day,  and 
should  have  it  constantly  by  them.     I  keep  my  sheep  in  separate  yards 
in  winter — not  over  one  hundred  in  each — and  attached  to  each  yard  I 
have  a  shed  of  sufficient  size,  so  that  all  can  lie  down  in  it,  and  con- 
structed in  such  a  manner  that  they  will  be  entirely  protected  from  the 
storms.     In  case  of  a  bad  storm,  (especially  a  rain  storm,)  I  shut  them 
in  the  sheds,  for  I  consider  it  better  for  them  to  go  without  food  for 
twenty-four  hours,  than  be  exposed  to  a  bad  storm.     In  winter,  I  keep 
my  yards  and  sheds  well  littered  with  straw,  so  as  to  have  them  all  the 
time  dry  and  clean.     I  feed  my  sheep  with  the  best  of  hay — it  cannot  be 
too  good — in  common  box   racks,  giving  them  a  little  at  a  time,  and 
usually  three  times  in  the  course  of  the  day  ;  but  I  never  feed  them  after 
dark,  nor  before  light  in  the  morning,  as  they  do  much  better  to  be  kept 
as  quiet  as  possible,  and  sheep  are  very  much  afraid  of  a  lantern  or 
light.     I  have  formerly  fed  but  little  grain  to  my  sheep,  but  I  find  by 
experience  that  I  get  better  paid  for  my  grain  in  feeding  it  to  my  sheep 
than  in  any  other  way,  for  it  costs  but  little  more  to  winter  a  flock  partly 
on  grain  and  partly  upon  hay,  than  it  does  to  give  them  hay  alone. 
They  will  thrive  much  better  with  a  little  grain,  and  shear  enough  more 
wool  to  pay  for  it.     I  think  barley  and  oats  mixed  in  equal  quantities, 
gowed  together,  and  fed  in  the  straw  is  a  very  profitable  kind  of  feed.     I 
give  my  sheep  a  little  sulphur  occasionally  through  the  winter,  mixed 
with  salt.     It  is  an  excellent  plan  to  give  sheep  some  kind  of  roots  occa- 
sionally through  the  winter,  especially  towards  spring ;  beets,  carrots 
and  turnips,  are  all  good.     Sheep,  at  first,  will  not  always  eat  them  rea- 
dily ;  but  if  they  are  cut  fine,  and  a  little  corn  meal  put  on  to  them  a 
few  times,  they  will  very  soon  learn  to  eat  them. 

•'I  intend  to  have  my  lambs  come  about  the  first  of  May  ;  as  that  is 
about  as  early  as  we  usually  have  grass.  I  find  that  those  of  my  lambs 
that  come  the  first  of  May,  are  larger  in  the  autumn  than  those  that  come 
in  March,  unless  the  ewes  have  a  good  deal  of  extra  feed,  to  make  them 
give  milk.    By  haying  my  lambs  come  as  late  as  the  first  of  May,  I  find 


41 

no  trouble  in  raising  them.     I  usually  raise  about  nine-tenths  of  the 
lambs. 

*'  I  wean  my  lambs  when  four  months  old.  I  select  the  largest  and 
best-wooled  lambs,  every  year,  to  breed  from  ;  and  in  that  way  I  have 
increased  the  size  of  my  sheep  full  one-quarter  from  my  original  stock, 
and  have  increased  the  weight  of  fleece,  from  about  three  pounds  to  four 
pounds,  on  an  average  ;  I  think  my  last  clip  averaged  a  trifle  over  four 
pounds  to  the  fleece,  and  my  sheep  were  four-fifths  ewes.  My  bucks,  at 
two  years  old,  will  average  about  one  hundred  and  sixty  pounds,  and 
will  shear  from  seven  to  nine  pounds  of  clean  washed  wool.  I  think 
some  of  my  smaller  sheep  the  most  profitable,  from  the  fact  that  they 
will  shear  more  wool,  according  to  their  size,  than  some  of  the  larger 
ones.  I  think  that  the  sheep  that  will  shear  the  most  wool  (of  the  same 
quality)  in  proportion  to  the  food  they  consume,  is  the  most  profitable. 
I  am  speaking  now  of  wool-growing — not  mutton-growing.  I  have  lately 
purchased  some  full-blood  Spanish  Merinos,  and  intend  to  keep  them 
distinct  from  my  cross-breeds,  giving  them  the  same  keeping,  so  that  I 
may  be  better  able  to  decide  which  is  best.  I  am  satisfied  that  the  wool 
of  my  cross-breeds  will  shrink  much  less  than  the  Merino,  in  manufac- 
turing ;  it  is  longer  and  finer,  and  almost  entirely  free  from  gum.  I 
intend  to  exhibit  a  few  fleeces  of  each  kind  at  the  next  State  Fair,  and 
give  others  a  chance  to  judge. 

"I  think  some  of  our  Farmers  lose,  every  year,  from  two  to  five  cents 
on  a  pound,  by  not  having  their  wool  in  a  proper  condition  to  sell.  Some 
have  it  done  up  one  side  out,  and  some  the  other  ;  some  wad  it  up  to- 
gether in  a  loose  manner,  and  twist  the  neck  around  the  rest  of  the  fleece. 
Wool  not  only  looks  better,  but  it  is  better,  by  being  done  up  snug  and 
tight.  The  packer  can  get  it  into  a  smaller  space,  consequently  it  is 
easier  to  transport,  and  when  properly  packed,  it  will  increase  in  weight, 
instead  of  shrinking,  as  will  be  the  case  when  loosely  packed.  I  think, 
also,  that  every  sheep  off'ered  for  a  premium  should  have  its  fleece  exhi- 
bited, as  the  Judges  would  be  better  able  to  decide  upon  the  quality  of 
the  wool  than  they  would  by  examining  the  wool  upon  the  sheep,  as 
some  sheep  are  shorn  a  month  earlier  than  others. 

"I  think  some  of  our  Farmers  are  wrong  in  the  idea  that  the  coarse- 
wooled,  or  Leicestershire,  sheep  are  the  most  profitable,  either  for  wool 
or  mutton.     They  certainly  shear  heavy  fleeces,  and  have  heavy  car- 
casses ;  but  it  requires  a  great  amount  of  good  keeping  to  make  them  so. 
4 


42 

I  am  satisfied  that  my  flock  of  cross-breeds  Tvill  produce  more  dollars 
worth,  of  either  wool  or  mutton,  from  the  same  amount  of  food,  than  any 
flock  of  Leicestershire  sheep  in  the  State.  The  mutton  may  be,  and  pro- 
bably is,  of  better  flavor  ;  but  our  farmers  generally  like  the  flavor  of  the 

dollars  best.  ^  n    t>         >» 

George  C.  Pratt. 

The  Committee,  in  their  report,  say  that  "the  Exhibition  of  Sheep  at 
the  late  Fair  was  very  fine,  and  of  excellent  quality.  It  was  gratifying 
to  see  the  increased  attention  paid  to  this  kind  of  stock.  The  number  of 
French  and  Spanish  Merinos,  both  ewes  and  bucks,  was  very  large — 
and  probably  of  as  good  a  quality  as  some  which  sold  in  the  Merino  spe- 
culation, at  from  six  hundred  to  fifteen  hundred  dollars.  The  South  Downs 
elicited  the  admiration  of  the  Committee.  The  long-wooled  sheep  were 
excellent  specimens  of 'their  kind,  and  the  cross-breeds  were  superior. 

"  The  Committee  found  difficulty  in  approaching  the  sheep-pens  through 
the  crowd  of  spectators  assembled  around  them.  This  furnishes  undeni- 
able evidence  that  there  is  springing  vip  a  laudable  zeal  to  improve  the 
quality  and  value  of  our  flocks — and  that  the  importance  of  sheep- 
husbandry  is  rapidly  diff"using  itself  throughout  the  State. 

"  One  Committee  is  not  adequate  to  inspect  and  do  justice  to  all  the  dif- 
ferent classifications  of  the  various  kinds  of  sheep — and  our  labor  would 
have  been  greatly  relieved,  if  the  exhibited  sheep  of  the  same  class 
could  all  have  been  arranged  in  pens  adjacent  to  each  other,  so  that  all 
of  one  distinct  class  could  be  inspected  at  once,  without  the  disconnection 
of  pens  of  cattle,  or  other  kinds  of  sheep,  to  distract  the  atttention.  It 
was  hard  labor  for  the  Committee  to  decide,  what  should  be  the  criterion 
of  excellence  when  competition  was  so  close.  A  manufacturer  of  wool 
would  be  an  important  auxiliary  on  a  committee  Avith  wool  growers. 

"  Sheep  are,  perhaps,  all  things  considered,  one  of  the  most  valuable 
animals  given  to  man.  No  animal  is  of  greater  utility.  Sheep  not  only 
supply  food  and  clothing  to  the  thousands  who  cultivate  and  rear  them, 
but  the  wool  they  aff"ord  sustain  in  active  employment  large  and  exten- 
sive manufacturing  establishments,  thereby  contributing  in  large  propor- 
tion to  the  productive  labor,  and  to  the  wealth  of  the  country.  In  some 
sections  they  are  reared  for  their  flesh,  but  here  they  are  grown  for  their 
wool. 

"  The  properties  of  wool  are  various.  Fineness,  purity,  length  of  staple, 
elasticity   and  color,   are   most  important.     The  quantity  of  fine  wool 


{?J 


Avhich  a  fleece  yields,  and  the  degree  of  fineness,  constitutes  its  value, 
Th3  quality  of  wool  varies  not  only  in  different  sheep,  but  in  the  same 
fleece.  The  avooI  on  the  sides  of  the  neck,  and  over  the  shoulders,  the 
ribs  and  the  back,  is  considered  the  finest.  Together  with  the  fineness  of 
the  fibre,  Ave  examined  the  length  and  trueness  of  the  staple — for  the 
more  equal  in  quality  the  wool  is  on  all  parts  of  the  body,  the  greater  is 
the  value  of  the  animal  that  carries  it. 

"In  connection  with  these  qualities,  the  Committee  gave  the  preference 
to  that  which  was  soft  and  pliable  and  elastic.  In  the  opinion  of  the 
best  judges,  the  fibre — or,  as  in  the  sheep  dialect,  'the  pile,' — cannot  be 
too  soft  and  silky,  provided  the  strength  thereof  is  not  impaired.  It  is 
stated,  that  two  packs  of  assorted  wool  being  taken,  possessing  the  same 
degree  of  fineness,  but  the  one  having  the  soft  quality  in  an  eminent  de- 
gree, and  the  other  being  harsh,  the  cloth  prepared  from  the  first,  at  the 
same  expense,  will  be  worth  more  to  the  manufacturer  than  the  other  by- 
full  twenty-five  per  cent.  The  color  of  the  wool  is  of  no  trifling  import- 
ance. The  sheep  which  gave  the  best  samples  of  purity  and  whiteness 
were  preferred,  and  where  other  things  Avere  equal,  the  Committee  re^ 
garded  the  frame  of  the  sheep,  in  forming  their  opinions. 

'•'  The  sheep  of  Mr.  Atwood,  of  Waupun,  possessed  all  these  qualities— 
and  the  weight  of  fleece,  groAvn  in  less  than  a  year,  was  thirteen  pounds'. 
Some  sheep  had  the  record  of  Aveightier  fleeces,  but  for  fineness,  length, 
purity,  and  softness,  the  premium  sheep,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Committee, 
excelled  ;  and  yet  the  competition  Avas  so  close  as  almost  to  defy  any  dis- 
crimination. 

"  To  those  Farmers  who  wish  to  cultivate  sheep  for  their  flesh,  the  Lei- 
cester or  Bakewell  breed  is  probably  the  best.     Specimens  of  this  breed 
were  exhibited.     For  beauty  and  fullness  of  form,  and  weight  of  carcass, 
and  propensity  to  fatten,  it  is  equalled  by  no  other  breed. 
"  The  South  Downs  exhibited  were  beautiful  sheep. 
"  Probably  no  country  possesses  advantages  for  the  successful  prosecu- 
tion of  sheep  husbandry  equal  to  the  United  States  ;  and,  as  one  of  those 
States,  Wisconsin,  from  its  undulating  surface,  its  fine  herbage,  and  well- 
watered  pastures,  sheltered  by  trees  from  the  summer's  sun,  is  Avell  situ- 
ated for  the  most  prosperous  culture  of  sheep.     A  Report  to  Parliament 
of  the  state  of  sheep  husbandry  in  the  North  American  Provinces,  prO' 
nounced  the  texture  of  the  wool  from  New  Jersey  sheep  superior,  in 
almost  every  point  of  excellence,  to  that  raised  in  Great  Britain. 


44 

"  The  reverse  is  now  tlie  fact.  Great  and  permanent  improvements  in 
agriculture  are  the  results  of  the  enlightened  views,  judicious  and  perse- 
vering efforts  of  public-spirited,  patriotic  men. 

"So  long  ago  as  A.  D.  41,  a  Farmer  in  Spain,  Columella,  introduced  to 
his  farm  some  fine  African  rams,  and  a  few  of  the  Tarentine  sheep,  and 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  present  improved  breed  of  Spanish  sheep.  The 
Farmers  of  Wisconsin  must  do  the  same.  Sheep  husbandry  demands  a 
large  share  of  the  farmer's  attention.  The  New  Leicester,  or  Dishley 
breed,  are  the  successful  crossings  by  Robert  Bakewell,  of  Dishley,  Eng- 
land. The  Spanish  Merinos  are  the  best,  for  profit,  for  though  the  form 
«)f  the  pure  Merinos  is  bad — being  small — and  the  return  in  mutton 
deficient,  both  in  quantity  and  value  ;  their  excellence  consists  in  the  un- 
exampled fineness  and  the  peculiar  felting  property  of  their  wool.  From 
the  closeness  of  their  coat,  and  the  luxuriance  of  the  yolk,  they  do  no  t 
sufiFer  much,  if  any,  more  than  other  breeds  from  the  extremes  of  cold  and 
wet. 

"The  filament  of  the  .wool  has  scarcely  pushed  itself  through  the  pores 
of  the  skin,  than  it  has  to  penetrate  another  and  singular  substance, 
which,  from  its  adhesiveness  and  color,  is  called  the  yolk.  It  abounds 
about  the  breast  and  shoulders,  the  very  parts  that  produce  the  best  and 
^ost  abundant  wool ;  and  in  proportion  as  it  extends,  in  any  degree,  over 
other  parts,  the  wool  is  there  improved.  When  there  is  a  deficiency  of 
yolk,  the  fibre  of  the  wool  is  dry  and  harsh  and  Aveak,  and  the  whole 
fleece  becomes  thin  and  hairy.  When  it  abounds,  the  wool  is  soft,  oily, 
and  strong.  The  yolk  gives  richness  and  pliability,  as  vrell  as  nourish- 
ment, to  the  wool.  Bad  management,  or  poor  keeping,  by  arresting  the 
secretion  of  the  yolk,  or  changing  its  properties,  will,  in  a  very  great 
degree,  impair  the  pliability  of  the  wooly  fibre. 

"We  know  of  nothing  which  Avill  give  as  good  return  to  the  Wisconsin 
farmer  as  sheep  husbandry.  By  a  judicious  cross  of  the  Merino  with  our 
own  sheep,  selecting  the  most  vigorous,  a  breed  of  fine-wooled  sheep 
will  be  produced,  which  will  combine  both  qualities  for  wool  and  mutton. 
The  sheep  improve  the  farm.  Roots  can  be  easily  raised  for  their  nour- 
ishment. Wool  is  easy  of  transportation,  and  a  cash  article,  and  fat  mut- 
ton is,  or  ought  to  be,  everywhere  esteemed  a  luxury.  Sheep  require  air 
and  exercise  in  the  coldest  weather,  but  they  must  be  sheltered  from  the 
storms  and  cold.  This  prevents  disease  during  summer.  Agricultural 
Societies  will  exert  a  great  influence  in  sheep  husbandry. 


45 

"  A  fine  lot  of  Merinos  was  exhibited,  from  New  York,  and  offered  for 
sale,  and  each  succeeding  Annual  Fair  will  exhibit  an  increased  interest 
in  this  subject.  Wisconsin  can  be  the  market  for  the  best  breeds,  to 
western  wool-growers,  if  they  turn  their  attention  and  enterprize  to  it." 

SWINE.— XO.  OF  EXTEIES.  IG. 

Judge. — S.  M.  Booth,  Milwaukee,  Chairman. 

Best  boar  one  year  old,  and  under  two  years  ;  Talbot  C.  Dousman,  Ot- 
tawa.    $3. 

Second  best  boar  one  year  old,  and  under  two  years  (grass  breed)  ;  Joseph. 
Carpenter,  Waukesha.     Youatt  on  the  Pig. 

Best  boar  six  months,  and  under  one  year,  (Suffolk)  ;  S.  F.  Field,  East 
Troy.     Transactions. 

Best  breeding  sow  two  years  old  and  over  ;  William  Knight,  Alto.    $5. 

Second  best  breeding  sow  two  years  old  and  over  ;  F.  H.  Westover,  Mil- 
waukee.    Transactions. 

Best  sow  six  months,  and  under  one  year,  (Suffolk)  ;  S.  B.  Edwards, 
East  Troy.     Transactions. 

Second  best  sow  six  months,  and  under  one  year ;  James  T.  Walklin, 
Eagle  Centre.     $  1 . 

Best  lot  of  pigs,  not  less  than  five,  under  ten  months  ;  Benjamin  Betty's, 
Mequon.     Transactions. 

Joseph  Carpenter's  Statement. 

*'  Grass-breed  hogs  have  been  raised  in  this  part  of  the  country  for 
the  last  eight  years.  They  are  peaceful,  quiet  and  lazy  hogs,  not  inclined 
to  get  into  mischief ;  and  if  a  thoughtless  child  happens  to  leave  the 
gate  unfastened,  allowing  them  to  stray  away,  it  is  no  more  trouble  to 
get  them  back  than  a  pet  horse.  They  are  ready  for  the  butcher  at  any- 
time after  they  are  six  weeks  old,  being  always  fat ;  at  one  year  of  age, 
weighing  from  one  hundred  to  two  hundred  pounds.  We  milk  six  cows  ; 
the  milk,  with  a  little  meal  added,  makes  excellent  feed  for  young  pork- 
ers. When  young  pigs  first  leave  the  sow,  if  in  the  winter,  we  take  two 
bushels  of  corn  and  one  of  oats,  and  have  them  ground  together  into  fine 
meal,  and  then  make  it  into  mush,  and  feed  them  with  it.  When  we  are 
short  of  milk,  we  take  the  same  provender,  pour  on  boiling  water,  and 


46 

when  cool,  feed  it  to  our  pigs  for  a  few  weeks  before  they  are  butch- 
ered. Within  the  last  twelve  months  we  have  sold  ten  fat  pigs.  The 
youngest  was  six  months  old,  the  oldest  eleven  months  old  ;  the 
smallest  weighed  eighty-four  pounds,  and  the  largest  one  hundred  and 
eighty-two  pounds.  Two  of  these  six  months'  old  pigs  were  from  a 
small  China  soav  and  a  very  large  boar.  They  inherited  early  maturity 
from  the  sow,  and  size  from  the  boar.  They  weighed  one  hundred  and 
thirty -five  pounds,  and  one  hundred  and  thirty-seven  pounds.  We  feed 
{o  our  store  hogs  in  winter  the  slop  of  the  house,  a  few  oats  or  roots,  and 
sometimes  a  little  corn.  Last  summer  my  boar  and  two  breeding  sows 
lived  in  a  field  of  clover  and  timothy.  We  fed  them  one  ear  of  corn  a 
day,  giving  the  boar  a  quarter  of  a  pail  of  milk  in  addition  once  a  day. 
The  AVaukesha  butchers  were  anxious  to  buy  them  when  living  on  this 
pasture.  It  is  far  more  pleasing  to  have  a  breed  of  hogs  that  the 
butchers  desire  to  buy  from  the  pasture,  than  to  have  a  neighbor  come 
and  say,  '  Your  hogs  are  in  my  grain — you  must  come  and  get  them  out, 
and  take  care  of  them.' 

"  Grass  breed  sows  are  poor  breeders.  The  pigs  are,  at  first,  very 
small  and  slim,  but  with  care  in  feeding  the  sow,  and  a  good,  comfortable 
pen,  the  pigs  can  be  raised.  I  have  often  been  grieved,  in  passing  the 
pig-sty  of  a  poor  Farmer,  to  see  his  hogs  in  a  pen  with  the  sky  for  a 
covering  ;  and  after  the  rainy  weather,  with  the  mud  several  inches  deep 
in  the  pen.  It  is  not  surprising  that  hogs  will  not  gain  in  such  a  place, 
though  fed  ever  so  well.  If  a  man  is  too  poor  to  build  a  comfortable 
pen,  he  had  better  sell  his  hogs,  for  they  will  only  add  to  his  poverty. 

"  Our  Farmers  here  were. accustomed  to  let  a  sow  raise  one  lot  of  pigs, 

and  then  fatten  her.    This  soon  runs  out  a  good  breed.   Now,  when  they 

^et  a  good  breeding  sow,  they  keep  her  year  after  year,  and  expressly  for 

breeding.     We  have  now  some  very  fine  pigs  from  a  grass-breed  sow, 

and  a  Mocho  boar. 

'    "  If  we  depended  on  an  Eastern  market,  we  should  make  heavier  pork. 

We  now  prefer  that  breed  of  hogs  that  will  give  an  hundred  weight 

:of  pork  from  the  smallest  amount  of  feed. 

Joseph  Carpenter." 

William  Knight's  Statement. 

-    "  The  weight  of  my  sow,  exhibited  at  the  Fair  at  Milwaukee,  was  five 
hundred  and  thirty-two  pounds,  being  then  in  store  order.     Her  breed 


is  one-half  Leicester,  with  a  mixture  of  Irish,  Byfield,  and  several  other 

bloods — as  I  have,  for  ten  years,  improved  whatever  opportunities  were 

presented  of  getting  good  crosses,  and  had  taken  great  pains  prior  to 

raisina:  this  sow.     The  excellence  of  that  cross  consists  in  their  cfrowinsc 

large  and  fat  at  any  age,  with  ease,  and  making  good  pork  on  a  small 

quantity  of  feed.     The  manner  in  which  I  have  kept  my  sow,  has  been 

the  manner  usual  to  good  farmers.     I  always  give  my  breeding  sows  the 

liberty  of  a  small  field,  or  the  barn  yard,  or  commons.     Pigs  will  not 

grow  in  good  shape  when  penned  up.     I  sold  one  of  her  pigs,  when  five 

months  old,  for  twenty-five  dollars — the  pigs  being  half-blood  Suffolk. 

My  sow  is  now  with  the  Suftblk  boar.  -nr  t-  >> 

William  Knight. 

F.  H.  Westover's  Statement. 

"  My  hogs  are  in  pasture  during  the  summer,  and  have  no  feed  but 
the  milk  and  slop  of  the  house.  In  the  winter,  I  feed  them  grain  suffi- 
cient to  keep  them  in  good  growing  condition,  and  am  sure  to  give  them 
a  warm  and  dry  bed.  I  am  now  feeding  my  sow  a  pail  of  swill  and 
eight  or  ten  ears  of  corn  per  day  ;  with  that  feed  she  keeps  quite  fat.  She 
will  breed  once  only  in  the  year.  She  is  four  years  old,  and  has  had 
four  litters  of  pigs.  She  had  a  litter  of  pigs,  sired  by  a  Leicestershire 
boar,  among  which  was  a  marked  distinction  ;  a  part  partaking  largely 
of  the  Leicestershire,  and  part  of  the  Byfield.  These  pigs  I  fed  alike. 
When  I  shut  them  up  to  fat,  the  Leicestershires,  having  the  largest  bones, 
were  the  heaviest,  but  when  they  were  killed,  the  Byfields  weighed  the 
most. 

"  The  pure  Leicestershire  hogs,  if  kept  till  they  are  full  grown,  and 
well  fattened,  will  make  more  pork  than  either  the  Byfield  or  the  crossed- 
breed  that  I  have  ;  but  what  the  farmer  wants,  is  the  greatest  amount  of 
pork  from  a  certain  amount  of  feed.  I  know  some  think  they  must  have 
larger  hogs,  but  I  think  they  are  deceived  as  to  the  true  economy  of 
making  pork.  We  want  to  employ  our  feed  where  it  will  make  the  most 
pork.  This  is  the  object  I  have  endeavored  to  attain  in  my  breed  of  pigs, 
the  superior  qualities  of  which  lie  in  the  following  characteristics  :  Their 
small  bones,  and  a  great  weight  of  pork  ;  their  unusual  quietness  and 
easiness  to  keep  ;  their  fattening  equally  well  at  any  age ;  the  small 
amount  of  feed  requisite  for  fattening ;  and  the  superior  quality  of  the 
pork,  having  a  very  thin  rind. 


48< 

"  The  Berkshire  hogs  have  too  thiclc  a  rind.  The  Leicestershire  hogs 
are  great  consumers,  and  will  not  fatten  Avell  unless  kept  till  they  are  full 
grown.  The  Byfieid  have  neither  of  these  faults,  but  are  too  small.  By 
crossing  the  Byfieid  and  Leicestershire,  we  obtain  the  good  qualities  of 
the  former,  and  something  of  the  size  of  the  latter.  Then  we  have  a 
breed  that  will  stay  where  we  put  them,  and  weigh  all  we  expect  of  them. 
By  taking  a  little  pains,  our  farmers  will  save  their  trouble,  and  not  be 
troubled  with  great  consumers  and  small  returners." 

F.  H.  Westover." 

POULTRY— No.  OF  Entries,  27. 

Judges — P.  C,  Hale,  Milwaukee,  Chairman. 

Best  lot  of  Dorkings,  not  less  than  three,  one  cock  and  two  hens  ;  Robert 
E.  Gillett,  Milwaukee.     Barry's  Fruit  Garden. 

Best  lot  of  Polands  ;  Joseph  Carpenter,  Waukesha.     American  Poultry 
Yard. 

Best  lot  of  Brahma-Pootra  fowls  ;  Leonard  Kennedy,  Milwaukee.     Tho- 
mas's Fruits. 

Best  lot  of  Turkeys  ;  F.  H.  Westover,  Milwaukee.  American  Muck  Book- 

Best  lot  of  Muscovy  Ducks ;  Richard  Reynolds,  Greenfield.     American 
Poultry  Yard. 

Best  lot  of  Poultry  owned  by  exhibitor  ;  Robert  E.  Gillett,  Milwaukee.  $3. 

Best  lot  of  Shanghais  ;  Franklin  Ripley,  Jr.,    Milwaukee.     Johnston's 
Practical  Agriculture. 

The  Committee,  in  their  report,  remark  that  "they  observed  with 
regret  the  little  interest  felt  by  the  majority  of  farmers  in  this  State,  in 
rearing  anything  but  the  most  common  fowls.  While  there  has  been  a 
manifest  improvement  of  the  animals  of  the  State,  during  the  last  five 
years,  the  improvement  of  the  fowl  kind  has  been  regarded  as  too  small  a 
business  to  secure  the  attention  of  any  but  women  and  children.  The 
same  breed  of  chickens  have  been  allowed  to  run  together,  unchanged  and 
uncrossed,  year  after  year,  until  forty  of  the  common  hens  produce  a  less 
number  of  eggs  and  chickens  in  a  year  than  six  well  bred  hens  should. 

*'  It  costs  no  more  to  keep  a  good  fowl  than  a  poor  one.  A  good  hen  will 
lay  between  one  hundred  and  fifty  and  two  hundred  and  fifty  eggs  a  year^ 


49 

The  average  number  of  eggs  laid  by  each  hen  now  in  this  State  will  not, 
probably,  exceed  thirty  in  a  year,  and  the  average  weight  of  the  hens 
will  hardly  exceed  two  and  a  half  pounds  each.  An  expenditure  of  five 
dollars  will  enable  a  producer  to  raise  hens  weighing  on  an  average  seven 
pounds  each  ;  and  the  cost  of  keeping  good  hens  is  so  little  more  than  the 
cost  of  keeping  the  common  kinds,  as  not  to  be  noticed  by  a  large  majority 
of  farmers.  The  large  classes  of  fowls  have  been  found,  by  experience, 
to  be  more  hardy  and  more  easily  raised  than  the  common  kind,  and 
much  better  layers.  This  may,  doubtless,  be  accounted  for  in  part  by 
the  extra  attention  and  care  usually  given  them  ;  but  anything  which  is 
worth  raising  is  worth  careful  attention. 

"  There  is  at  present  no  business  in  which  a  farmer  can  engage,  by  which 
he  can  invest  from  ten  dollars  to  fifty  dollars  so  profitably  as  in  poultry. 
An  investment  of  even  two  dollars  will  increase  the  value  of  a  large 
majority  of  the  poultry  yards  of  our  State,  in  one  season,  more  than 
three  hundred  per  cent.  In  this  respect,  Wisconsin,  as  a  State,  is  farther 
behind  the  older  States  than  in  any  other  particular.  While  it  is  an 
every  day  occurrence  for  fowls  to  be  sold  in  the  New  England  States  and 
in  New  York  at  from  five  dollars  to  twenty-five  dollars  a  pair,  and  fre- 
quently as  high  as  seventy-five  dollars  a  pair,  ours  are  sold  at  twenty- 
five  cents  a  pair,  and  not  one  in  fifty  of  our  citizens  ever  saw  a  fowl  worth 
a  dollar. 

"  But  this  state  of  things  is  passing  away.  The  present  exhibition  of 
owls,  although  in  most  States  it  would  have  been  considered  meagre 
enough,  has  done  much  toAvards  stimulating  admirers  of  fowls  to  im- 
prove their  stock.  It  is,  however,  a  little  remarkable  that  the  interest 
awakened  on  this  subject  is  principally  confined  to  others  than  the 
"tillers  of  the  ground,"  and  to  persons  who  cannot  raise  fowl  with  any- 
thing like  the  economy  a  farmer  can.  Of  the  fowls  exhibited  at  the 
State  Fair,  hardly  any  were  raised  by  farmers.  We  trust  that  this  can- 
not long  be  said  of  them.  They  are  not  slow  in  studying  their  interests, 
and  if  the  present  is  not  a  time  for  them  to  engage  in  this  department  of 
a  farmer's  business,  then  we  misjudge.  ' 

"  The  following  are  the  varieties  most  worthy  of  the  attention  of  our 
farmers,  viz. :  Shanghai,  Cochin  China,  Chittagong,  Brahma  Pootra, 
Hoang  Ho,  Dorking,  Black  Spanish,  Bolton  Grey,  or  Creole  Game,  and 
Polands. 

"  While  we  recommend  every  person  who  intends  to  raise  fowls  for  sale 


50 

to  procure  the  most  perfect  specimens  of  pure  blood  stock,  we  ought,  per- 
haps, to  state  that  the  cross-breeds,  if  not  bred  in  and  in,  lay  as  large 
eggs,  and  as  abundantly,  as  the  pure  breeds,  and  often  produce  as  large 
stock  ;  so  that,  for  the  use  of  the  table,  or  for  layers,  they  are  nearly  or 
quite  as  good  as  the  best  imported  stock.  An  individual  owning  six  good 
hens,  weighing  from  three  and  one-half  to  four  pounds,  by  procuring  a 
cock  weighing  ten  pounds,  with  ordinary  care,  might  raise  in  one  sea- 
son one  hundred  chickens,  which  at  eight  months  old,  would  average 
from  six  to  seven  pounds  each.  This  fact  has  led  some  men,  more  artful 
than  honest,  to  exhibit  at  Fairs  a  class  of  fowls  to  which  they  give  a  new 
name,  and  enter  as  a  new  variety  ;  while,  in  reality,  they  are  only  a 
cross  of  two  known  classes  of  fowls,  and  their  progeny  may  be  as  ring- 
streaked  as  Jacob's  cattle.  No  variety  of  fowls  can  be  called  pure, 
unless  the  progeny  resemble  in  color  and  shape  the  parent  bird.  Care 
should  therefore  be  taken,  that  the  public  are  not  imposed  on  in  this 
respect.  Cross-breeds  should  be  called  cross-breeds,  and  nothing  else. 
On  the  other  hand,  some  persons  having  taken  pains  to  procure  pure 
blood  fowls,  are  unwilling  to  admit  that  any  one  else  has  any  pure  bloods 
but  themselves,  and  unhesitatingly  pronounce  everything  they  see  im- 
pure, but  their  own,  although  no  other  eye,  however  practised,  can  de- 
tect it. 

"  The  season  of  the  year  when  the  State  Fair  fs  held,  is  most  unpro- 
pitious  for  exhibiting  old  poultry,  it  being  their  moulting  season,  when 
fowls  are  generally  poor,  and  from  loss  of  feathers  are  ragged  and  ugly 
in  appearance.  Some  of  the  specimens  exhibited,  however,  were  remark- 
ably fine,  and  would  have  done  credit  to  any  State. 

"  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  varieties  of  fowls,  and  the  names  of 
the  exhibitors  : 

"  White  Dorking. — There  was  but  one  contributor  of  this  variety  of 
fowls.  These  fowls  were  young,  but  promised  well.  Exhibited  by  Leon- 
ard Kennedy,  of  Milwaukee.  This  variety  is  very  popular,  and  much 
souofht  after  at  the  East. 

"  Speckled  Dorking. — There  were  but  a  few  of  this  specimen  of  fowls, 
but  those  offered  were  good.  One  hen  was  very  fine.  The  owner  was 
offered  five  dollars  for  her,  but  promptly  refused  to  take  ten  dollars. 
Exhibitor,  Robert  Gillet,  Milwaukee. 

"Poland. — There  was  but  one  specimen  of  this  variety  exhibited,  which 
was  very  fine  ;  but  we  are  assured  that  better  fowls  might  have  been  ex- 


51 

liibited  ;  and  hare  learned  since  the  exhibition,  that  the  owner,  fearing 
lie  might  lose  his  fowls,  kept  his  best  specimens  at  home.  The  fowl  ex- 
hibited was  owned  by  Joseph  Carpenter,  of  Waukesha. 

"  Chittago>^gs. — There  was  a  choice  lot  of  fowls  entered  by  this  name, 
all  young  ones  except  one  pair,  which  were  procured  last  year  in  Hart- 
ford for  Chittagongs.  It  has  since  been  ascertained  that  they  are  the 
Brahma  Pootra  variety,  and  the  owner  now  calls  them  by  that  name. 
This  variety  of  fowls  is  comparatively  new  in  the  country,  and  are  among 
the  very  best  imported.  Several  pairs  have  been  sold  in  Massachusetts 
during  the  present  season,  for  seventy-five  dollars  per  pair.  They  weigh 
from  eighteen  pounds  to  twenty-four  pounds  per  pair,  are  excellent  layers, 
their  eggs  being  nearly  twice  as  heavy  as  common  hen's  eggs.  A  cross 
between  the  Brahma  Pootra  and  Dorkino-  fowl  are  decidedlv  handsome. 
There  were  no  Chittao-onu-  fowls  exhibited. 

"  Shanghais. — There  was  a  good  show  of  this  kind  of  fowls,  embracing 
the  white,  buff  or  red,  brown,  and  gray  varieties  ;  also,  some  crosses  of 
the  Shanghais  with  other  varieties,  which  were  good  specimens.  Among 
the  best  were  those  exhibited  by  Franklin  Ripley,  Jr.,  whose  stock,  taken 
as  a  whole,  was  regarded  as  superior  to  any  exhibited,  embracing  white, 
buff,  and  brown.  Leonard  Kennedy  exhibited  choice  buff  and  brown 
Shanghais,  and  Alexander  Mitchell  a  pair  of  old  Shanghais,  which,  in 
consequence  of  moulting,  showed  badly,  but,  like  many  other  things, 
were  "better  than  they  looked."  John  Geib,  of  ^yauwatosa,  exhibited 
six  Shanghai  cocks,  hatched  in  May  last,  which  attracted  considerable 
attention,  in  consequence  of  their  exact  resemblance  to  each  other  in  color 
and  size.  The  mother  of  these  fowls  laid  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven 
very  large  eggs  in  the  autumn  and  winter  months.  The  Shanghai  fowls 
are  excellent  layers.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  them  to  lay  seventy  eggs 
in  eighty  days.     They  weigh  from  seventeen  to  twenty  pounds  per  pair. 

"  CocHix  China. — There  was  a  single  pair  of  this  variety  exhibited  by 
Charles  Douglass,  of  Chicago,  with  several  pair  of  cross-breeds,  all  of 
■which  were  good  specimens  of  their  kind.  The  pair  of  Cochin  China 
fowls  were  young,  but  decidedly  handsome.  The  mother  cost  fifteen 
dollars.  These  fowls  are  not  quite  so  large  as  the  Shanghai  fowl,  and 
some  other  varieties,  and  by  many  are  regarded  as  inferior  to  none  of 
the  imported  breeds. 

,   "  There  were  no  Game  fowls  offered,  but  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  this 
variety  will  not  be  overlooked  another  season.     The  hens  are  choice 


53 

layers,  and  their  eggs  very  large  in  proportion  to  their  size,  which 
rarely  exceeds  five  povinds.  The  objection  to  keeping  them  is  their 
fighting  propensity. 

"  Of  Turkies,  Muscovy  Ducks,  Small  Ducks,  Guinea  Hens  and  Peacocks, 
there  was  one  lot  of  each  exhibited.     They  were  all  good,  but  not  supe- 
rior fowls.     We  hope  that  a  much  larger  and  choicer  variety  of  speci- 
mens Avill  be  ofi"ered  another  year. 
,     "  Of  Geese,  none  were  offered. 

"  Your  Committee  believe  that  there  will  be  a  great  practical  benefit 
resulting  from  the  recent  show  and  future  exhibitions.  Many  persons 
have  been  stimulated  to  send  East  and  procure  choice  varieties  of  fowls  ; 
and  many  others  will  doubtless  be  induced  to  do  so.  Choice  fowls  of  the 
best  varieties  can  also  be  procured  in  Milwaukee  at  very  reasonable 
rates. 

"  It  is  admitted  by  fowl  breeders  in  New  England,  that  the  same  variety 
of  fowls  grow  larger  in  the  Southern  and  Western  States  than  in  the 
Eastern  States.  We  trust  that  the  time  is  near  at  hand,  when  Wisconsin 
will  produce  fowls,  animals  and  men,  not  inferior  to  any  State  in  the 
Union.     We  have  the  resources — let  us  use  them." 

PLOUGHING  MATCH.— No.  of  Entries,  6. 

Judges. — William  Burgit,  East  Troy  ;  H.  B.  Hawlet,  Milford  ;  J.  D. 

Merritt,  New  California. 

Best  ploughing  with  horses  ;  E.  W.  Edgerton,  Summit.     Silver  Medal. 

Second  best  ploughing  with  horses  ;  Clarke  Nettleton,  Caledonia.  Bronze 
Medal. 

Best  ploughing  with  oxen  ;  George  0.  Tiffany,  Milwaukee.    Silver  Medal. 

The  Committee  in  their  report  remark,  "that  the  match  was  spirited 
and  well  contested.  It  was  opened  by  Col.  Billings,  the  President  of 
the  Society,  who  turned  a  few  furrows,  setting  an  example  well  worthy 
of  imitation  by  the  farmers  of  Wisconsin,  and  showing  that  he  was  no 
holiday  farmer.  He  was  followed  by  the  competitors,  who  all  did  their 
work  in  a  superior  manner. 

**  Mr.  Edgerton,  to  whom  was  awarded  the  first  premium,  used  the  Mi- 
chigan double  plough,  which  the  Committee  regard  as  a  superior  plough, 
and  one  that  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  farmer. 


53 

"  Mr.  Nettleton,  to  whom  was  awarded  the  second  pi-emium,  used  the 
common  steel  plough,  and  performed  his  task  in  a  workmanlike  manner. 

"  But  one  ox  team  was  entered.  There  being  no  competition,  your 
Committee  award  to  Mr.  TiflFany  the  first  premium,  he  using  the  Eagle 
plough,  and  performing  the  work  in  a  superior  manner. 

FARMING  IMPLEMENTS,  No.  I.— No.  of  Emries,  86. 

Judges. — Mark  Miller,  Janosville  ;  E.  J.  Hazard,  Lagrange  ;  Joseph 

Kerr,  Randolph. 

Best  farm  waariron  for  cfeneral  use  ;  Cornelius  Morse,  Milwaukee.     Sil- 
ver  medal. 

Best  harrow  for  general  use  ;  Richard  E.  Ela,  Rochester.     Bronze  me- 
dal. 
Best  corn  cultivator  ;  Stephen  Coates,  Walworth.     Bronze  medal. 
Best  fanning  mill ;  A.  P.  Dickey,  Racine.     Bronze  medal. 
Best  horse  rake  ;  Thompson  Littell,  Milwaukee.     Bronze  medal. 
Best  ox  bow  pins  ;  Thompson  Littell,  Milwaukee.     Certificate. 

The  Committee  in  their  report  remark  that  "  the  Scotch  harrow  exhi- 
bited by  Mr.  Ela,  and  to  which  they  award  the  first  premium,  is  the 
best,  in  their  opinion,  for  general  use  ;  but  they  deem  it  an  act  of  justice 
to  otlier  competitors  to  remark  in  this  connection,  that  the  Geddes  har- 
row is  preferable  for  use  on  land  where  stones,  grubs,  or  stumps  abound, 
or  rubbish,  such  as  stubble,  weeds,  &c.,  tending  to  clog — and  this  opi- 
nion is  based  upon  practical  experience. 

"  Four  fanning  mills  were  entered  for  competition,  one  of  which  by 
Richard  E.  Ela,  of  Rochester;  another  by  L.  S.  Blake,  of  Racine  ;  ano- 
ther by  A.  P.  Dickey,  of  Racine  ;  another  by  A.  W.  Dawley,  of  Mil- 
waukee. Between  the  first  three,  the  Committee  found  it  extremely 
difficult  to  make  any  discrimination  in  regard  to  the  principles  of  their 
construction,  in  fact,  none  could  be  discovered  Avorthy  of  notice,  but  for 
beauty  of  finish,  and  perfection  in  the  adjustment  of  machinery,  the  one 
exhibited  by  Mr.  Dickey  was  superior,  and  on  these  grounds  your  Com- 
mittee award  the  first  premium.  The  one  exhibited  by  Mr.  Dawley  is 
new  to  your  Committee  ;  and  having  never  seen  it  in  practical  operation, 
they  cannot  say  anything  in  commendation  of  it. 


5i 

"  Plows. — There  were  a  large  number  of  plows  on  the  ground,  adapted 
to  all  soils  and  circumstances.  Your  Committee  have  selected  six  from 
some  fifteen  or  twenty,  and  tested  practically  their  relative  capacity  for 
work,  and  our  conclusions  are,  that  the  Michigan  steel  plow,  exhibited  by 
Kichard  E.  Ela,  is  the  best  for  prairie  soils.  This  plough  is  of  excellent 
model  and  easy  draft,  and  is,  in  the  opinion  of  your  Committee,  the  best 
that  has  ever  fallen  under  their  observation. 

"  For  sandy  or  clay  soils,  the  Committee  wovild  give  the  preference  to 
the  Peekskill  Improved  Plow,  exhibited  by  Mr.  Spencer,  of  Watertown. 
This  plow  is  of  good  model  for  the  soils  named,  and  is  made  of  cast  iron, 
a  material  which  will  do  more  service  in  such  soils  than  cast  steel. 

"  The  attention  of  the  Committee  was  next  called  to  a  list  of  ag-ricultu- 
ral  implements  exhibited  by  Thompson  Littell,  of  Milwaukee.  Number- 
ing in  the  aggregate  sixty  one  articles,  with  instructions  to  recommend 
the  award  of  premiums  on  such  of  them,  as  in  the  judgment  of  the  com- 
mittee might  seem  worthy.  The  greatest  portion  of  Mr.  Littell's  collec- 
tion, on  a  careful  examination  of  the  whole,  we  found  made  up  of 
implements  and  tools  of  great  utility,  both  to  the  farmer  and  housewife. 
The  Committee  awarded  him  several  premiums,  which  vdll  be  found  in 
the  accompanying  lists." 

FARM  IMPLEMEXTS,  Xo.  II.— Xo.  of  Entries,  2. 
Judges. — A.  H.  Taylor,  Muskego  ;  Joseph  M.  Stillwell,  Mukwonego. 

Best  churn ;  Thompson  Littell,  Milwaukee.     Transactions. 

"  A  hay  rack  exhibited  by  Ira  Blood,  of  Yernon,  also  came  under  the 
observation  of  this  Committee,  and  they  respectfully  report  that  they, 
consider  it  an  improvement  upon  the  common  hay  rack,  in  saving  the 
scattering  of  the  grain.  It  also  shows  the  good  taste  of  the  owner  in 
getting  up  a  nice  article.  But  your  Committee  are  of  the  opinion,  that  it 
is  too  expensive  an  article  to  recommend  for  general  use  among  farmers." 

FARM  IMPLEMEXTS,  Xo.  III.— Xo.  of  Entries,  21. 

Judges. — A.  F.  Cadt,  Watertown ;  Joseph  Gary,  Milwaukee  ;  John  B. 

Yliet,  Milwaukee. 

Best  horse  power  for  general  purposes,  on  the  sweep  or  lever  principle  ; 
H.  F.  Cox,  Pcacine.     Bronze  medal. 


00 

Best  horse  power,  on  railroad  or  endless  chain  principle  ;  W.  D.  Bacon, 
Waukesha.     Bronze  medal. 

Best  corn  sheller,  hand  power  ;  A.  P.  Dickey,  Racine.    Transactions. 

Best  corn  sheller,  horse  power  ;  Thompson  Littell,  Milwaukee.  Ameri- 
can Muck  Book. 

Best  seed  planter,  for  hand  or  horse  power,  for  hills  or  drills;  Thompson 
Littell,  Milwaukee.     Bronze  Medal. 

Best  thresher,  to  be  used  with  horse  or  steam  power  ;  Marvin  Hughes, 
Kenosha.     Bronze  Medal. 

Atkins'  Automaton  Reaper  and  Raker ;  John  S.  Wright,  Chicago. 
Diploma. 

Best  and  most  numerous  collection  of  agricultural  implements  ;  Thomp- 
son Littell,  Milwaukee.     Bronze  Medal. 

Best  and  most  numerous  collection  of  agricultural  implements  manufac- 
tured in  the  State  of  W'isconsin,  by  or  under  the  superintendence  of  the 
exhibitor,  materials,  workmanship,  utility,  durability  and  prices,  all 
considered  ;   Richard  E.  Ela,  Rochester.     Silver  Medal. 

DAIRY.— Xo.  OF  ExTEiES,  21. 

Judges. — H.  L,  Palmer,  Milwaukee  ;  David  Merrill,  Milwaukee  ; 

E.  C.  Sage,  W^auwatosa. 

Best  fifty  pounds  of  butter  ;  Mrs.  E.  W.  Edgerton,  Summit.    Diploma. 

"  This  butter  was  made  in  September,  from  a  dairy  of  eight  cows,  be- 
ing a  cross  of  Durham  with  the  native.  The  milk  is  set  in  eight  quart 
tin  pans,  and  left  to  stand  twenty  four  hours  before  skimming,  except  in 
hot  weather,  when  the  milk  would  sour  sooner.  The  churning  is  done 
three  times  a  week,  in  a  common  stone  churn.  Two  ounces  of  common 
salt  are  added  for  each  pound  of  butter,  and  subsequently  it  is  worked 
twice,  with  a  wooden  ladle — once  at  the  time  of  salting,  and  the  second 
time  twenty  four  hours  thereafter.  The  butter  is  worked  as  little  as  pos- 
sible and  get  out  the  butter-milk.  We  use  no  saltpetre,  or  any  other 
substance.  We  make  very  little  winter  butter,  usually  scald  the  new 
milk,  and  set  it  in  a  room  where  it  will  not  freeze  for  twelve  hours.    The 

further  process  is  the  same  as  above. 

Mrs.  E.  W.  Edgerton." 


66 

Best  ten  pounds  of  butter  ;  Samuel  Bro'W'n,  Milwaukee.     Diploma. 

"  This  butter  was  made  on  Tuesday,  October  5tli.  The  cream  being 
gathered  three  days  previous  to  churning.  In  summer  the  cream  is  kept 
in  a  cool  place,  but  in  the  winter  it  is  kept  where  it  will  not  freeze.  The 
cream  is  thoroughly  mixed  each  time  the  milk  is  skimmed.  Churning  is 
done  at  least  twice  a  week.  The  butter,  after  churning,  is  washed  in 
water,  until  the  water  is  clear  from  milk.  Kothing  but  salt  is  used  in 
making  butter.  We  use  the  best  kind  of  fine  barrel  salt ;  the  quantity 
used  is  as  suits  the  taste.  Eight  cows  are  kept  on  the  farm.  The  cows 
have  had  no  feed  but  grass  during  the  summer  and  fall. 

Samuel  Brown." 


Best  one  hundred  pounds  of  cheese  ;  F.  S.  Eldred,  Johnstown.  Diploma. 

"  My  dairy  numbers  thirty-five  cows,  which  are  pastured  upon  timothy 
and  clover.  My  manner  of  making  the  three  cheese  exhibited,  will  be 
seen  by  the  following  table  : 


.5 

es 

s 

o 

of  Gallons  of 
ilk. 

t  of  Milk  at 
tting. 

0  of  curding 
minutes. 

e  of  breaking 
minutes. 

be 
<0    ~ 

-5 

a 

0 

0  .- 

"0 

9 

•5 

0 

bed  weight  of 
eese  green. 

1^ 

to 

-~  in 
<^  B 

0  a 

S 

d^ 

£  .2 

£  .S 

S  -S 

-3 

£  £ 

0  q5 

2  g 

9  u 

■3":^ 

H 

^ 

K 

c-i 

H 

H 

CO 

H 

^ 

a 

^.H 

^    CS 

itj. 

ttJ. 

No.  I.June  23, 

82 

*sr.^ 

40 

25 

.50 

lOG'^ 

30 

6 

Sweet. 

80 

75 

"2.     "     29, 

80 

SG'-" 

35 

30 

60 

lOii- 

40 

6 

Sweet  &  fine. 

76 

72 

"3.     "    30, 

80 

86^ 

40 

30 

45 

10G° 

50 

6 

Sweet  &  coarse. 

75 

70 

23] 

217 

"  My  butter  is  made  from  the  same  cows  and  pasture — no  cheese  be- 
ing made  while  we  are  making  butter.  Butter  was  made  from  the  28th 
September  to  4th  October.  Number  of  pounds  made,  eighty-four.  Milk 
is  strained  in  pans  and  skimmed  as  soon  as  sour,  then  churned  imme- 
diately. Butter  is  washed  until  clear  from  milk,  and  then  salted  with 
common  salt.  After  standing  twelve  hours  it  is  worked,  at  which  time  I 
add  one  pound  of  crushed  sugar,  and  one  ounce  of  saltpetre  to  each 
hundred  pounds  of  butter.  It  is  then  packed  in  firkins  so  as  to  exclude 
the  air. 


F.  S.  Eldred." 


Fahrenheit, 


Best  single  cheese ;  A.  Smith,  Troy.     Diploma. 

"  This  cheese  was  m^de  in  the  latter  part  of  June.  My  dairy  is  a  small 
one,  consisting  of  but  ten  cows.  In  making  cheese,  immediately  after 
the  curd  has  formed,  we  cut  it  up,  and  as  soon  as  the  whey  rises,  we  dip- 
oflf  a  portion  of  it,  and  put  it  into  a  kettle,  heating  it  to  about  100®  Fah.,, 
when  it  is  poured  back  gradually  into  the  curd.  After  stirring  it  well^ 
we  put  it  into  a  strainer,  and  let  it  stand  until  morning.  The  morning's 
milk  goes  through  the  same  process,  and  then  the  cheese  goes  to  the; 
press-thus  making  one  cheese  every  day.  Augustus  Smith." 

FLOUR,  MEAL,  SUGAR  AXD  HONEY.— Xo.  of  Entries,  16. 
Judges. — Harrison  Ludington,  Milwaukee:  C.  Comstock,  Milwaukee  ; 


Best  barrel  of  flour  ;  B.  A.  Jenkins,  Genesee.     Diploma. 

Second  best  barrel  of  flour  ;  Jacob  Brooks,  Beloit.     Bronze  medal. 

Best  barrel  of  spring  wheat  flour ;  Samuel  S.  Reed,  Kenosha.     Certifi- 
cate. 
Best  ten  pounds  of  hopey  ;  P.  H.  Brown,  Milwaukee.     Bronze  medal. 

GRAIN  AND  SEEDS.— No.  of  Entries,  48. 

Judges. — John  Galbraith,  Mukwonego  ;   B.  A.  Jexkins,   Genesee  ; 
William  Wilkinson,  . 

Best  sample  of  winter  wheat ;  Joseph  Dibley,  Oak  Creek.     American 
Muck  Book,  and  8 1 .  • 

"  This  wheat  was  sown  after  barley,  and  three  and  one-fourth  acres 

were  grown.    The  land  was  manured  with  rough  manure  from  the  yard. 

I  finished  ploughing  the  land  on  the  first  day  of  September.    The  wheat 

was  prepared  for  sowing  by  being  soaked  in  brine,  and  afterward  spread 

out  to  dry  ;  about  two  bushels  were  sown  to  the  acre.   I  finished  sowing 

on  tlve  3d  of  September.      The  wheat  was  cut  July  25,    1852,    and 

threshed  August  29,  1852.    It  yielded  twenty-seven  bushels  to  the  acre, 

being  somewhat  less  than  the  yield  of  last  year,  which  was  an  average  of 

thirty-one  bushels  of  the  same  kind  of  wheat.  ^  -n  ,, 

■'  JosEPU  Dibley. 

5 


5S 

Second  best  sample  of  winter  wheat ;  Hiram  F.  Story,  Milwaukee.  Ame- 
rican Muck  Book. 

"  This  sample  of  wheat  forwarded  by  myself  for  exhibition,  was  the 
first  crop  taken  from  new  ground,  which  was  cleared  in  the  month  of 
June,  A.  D.  1851,  and  ploughed  the  first  week  in  July  following,  with 
three  yoke  of  oxen,  and  a  heavy  breaking  plough. 

"  The  ground  then  remained  untouched,  until  about  the  middle  of 
September  following,  when  it  was  thoroughly  harrowed,  with  one  span 
of  horses.  After  Avhich  the  wheat  was  sown  at  the  rate  of  two  bushels 
per  acre,  and  the  ground  was  well  dragged. 

"  The  kind  of  soil  is  a  mixture  of  black  sand  and  clay.  The  wheat  was 
harvested  the  last  week  in  July  last.  The  yield  per  acre  was  thirty -two 
bushels.     I  am  unable  to  give  an  account  of  the  entire  expense. 

HiEAM  F.  Story." 

Best  sample  of  spring  wheat ;  Peter  Marlett,    Milwaukee.      American 
Muck  Book,  and  $1. 

"  This  spring  wheat  was  raised  in  the  town  of  Greenfield,  Milwaukee 
county.  The  soil  was  clay,  with  a  slight  mixture  of  sand  and  gravel,  to 
which  no  manure  was  applied.  It  was  sown  after  corn.  The  ground 
was  plowed  in  the  fall,  and  again  in  the  spring.  The  wheat  was 
sown  the  13th  of  May  last,  and  dragged  twice.  It  was  cut  the  15th  of 
August,  and  taken  into  the  barn  the  17th.  I  threshed  a  few  bundles  for 
the  mill  during  the  first  week  of  September,  and  had  three  bushels  left, 
of  which  this  is  a  part.  The  remainder  of  the  crop  is  not  yet  threshed  ; 
I  think  it  will  yield  between  twenty  and  twenty-five  bushels  per  acre.  I 
weio-hed  one-half  bushel  by  measure,  and  it  weighed  by  my  steel-yards, 
thirty-three  pounds. 

"  The  expense  of  cultivation  is  as  follows  : 
Ploufhing  ground,  two  acres,  with  oxen,  one  and  a  half  days,  at  fifty 

cents  per  day,  team  and  hand $1  50 

Sowing  and  dragging  the  same       .         .         .         .         .         .  0  76 

Harvesting  and  taking  into  barn 3  00 

Cost  of  three  bushels  for  seed,  at  sixty -two  and  one-half  cents  1   88 

Total        .        ...        .        ^7  13 


Peter  Marlett." 


59 

Second  best  sample  of  spring  wlieat ;  Ira  Blood,  Vernon.     American 

Muck  Book. 

*'  This  wheat  is  the  variety  usually  called  the  '  Canada  club.*  It  was 
raised  on  burr-oak  land,  inclining  a  little  to  clay,  which  had  been  for  the 
past  five  years  cropped  with  wheat  and  corn  alternately.  Forty  loads 
per  acre  of  common  barn  yard  manure  had  been  applied. 

"The  ground  was  plowed  once  in  April  last,  and  wheat  sown  on  the 
furrows,  and  then  twice  harrowed  thoroughly,  and  afterwards  rolled.  It 
was  injured  somewhat  by  the  drought.  The  expense  of  cultivation  and 
threshing  per  acre,  was  ^5. 

"  The  yield  per  acre  was  fifteen  bushels,  weighing  sixty-one  pounds 
PeJ-  bushel.  j^^  g^^^^  „ 

Best  sample  of  barley ;  James  T.  Walklin,  Eagle.   American  Muck  Book, 

and  ^1. 

"  I  plow  my  land  in  the  fall  of  the  year,  and  sow  my  grain  in  the 
spring,  as  soon  as  the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground.  The  soil  is  a  deep, 
black,  sandy  loam,  with  a  clay  sub-soil.  I  manure  about  ten  acres  every 
year,  using  all  the  manure  made  by  my  stock  ;  the  cost  of  the  same 
being  about  five  dollars  per  acre,  for  labor.  I  also  keep  a  flock  of  about 
two  hundred  sheep,  which  I  pen  on  my  land  every  night  with  sheep 
hurdles.  The  cultivation  of  barley  costs  about  six  dollars  per  acre. 
The  yield  is  twenty-five  bushels  per  acre,  weighing  fifty  pounds  to  the 
bushel.     The  crop  I  have  sold  for  sixty-two  cents  per  bushel. 

James  T.  Walklin." 

Best  sample  of  Indian  corn ;  Wm.  E.  McClure,  Ottawa.   American  Muck 
Book,  and  $1. 

"  In  the  latter  part  of  May  last,  I  plowed  a  field  of  eight  acres, 
upon  which  my  sheep  had  been  pastured  for  a  portion  of  the  previous 
summer,  and  the  land  being  well  covered  with  sheep  manure — the  season 
being  advanced — I  thought  of  planting  an  early  variety  of  corn,  and  on 
this  account  procured  the  Ohio  flint,  or  as  it  is  commonly  called,  the 
Ohio  ten  weeks'  corn.  The  corn  was  planted  on  the  29fch  of  May,  and 
was  harvested  the  twenty-fourth  day  of  August.  This  corn  is  a  yellow 
flint,  having  from  twelve  to  twenty-four  rows  in  the  ear,  and  growing  to 
a  great  length.  I  have  in  my  possession  one  ear  that  has  upwards  of 
nine  hundred  grains  upon  it.    The  stalks  grow  tall  and  thick,  the  ear 


60 


being  near  the  ground.     The  suckers  were  numerous,  and  many  bore 
Tery  good  ears  of  corn. 

"  After  plowing,  and  before  planting,  the  ground  was  harrowed,  and 
laid  out  in  squares  of  four  feet,  at  each  angle  a  hill  of  corn  being  planted. 
When  the  corn  was  up,  the  cultivator  was  used  each  way,  and  afterwards 
it  was  hoed  so  as  to  leave  no  weeds.  About  two  weeks  afterward,  I  again, 
went  through  with  the  same  process  ;  and  again,  after  one  week,  I  went 
through  one  way  with  the  cultivator,  and  the  other  way  with  the  plow,, 
finishing  with  the  hoe.  I  used  no  manure  except  as  above  stated.  There 
had  been  one  crop  of  wheat  raised  upon  this  field  before  planting  the 
corn. 

"  For  this  crop,  I  had  summer  fallowed  the  land,  plowing  but  once  ; 
jny  preference  being  for  but  one  plowing  for  wheat,  and  that  in  June,  so 
that  it  "will  be  well  settled  down  before  sowing.  Wheat  wants  a  hard 
bed.  At  the  place  where  I  turn  my  team  at  the.  sides  of  the  land,  my 
wheat  is  imiformly  the  best.  My  reasons  for  plowing  but  once  are,  that 
the  weeds  thus  turned  under  are  more  easily  decomposed,  and  when  not 
disturbed,  they  make  an  excellent  manure  for  the  succeeding  crops,. 
while  the  vapor  escaping  from  the  decaying  matter  tends  greatly  to  sti- 
mulate the  growth  of  the  first  crop.  I  turn  my  sheep  on  fallow  land  to 
keep  down  any  weeds  that  may  spring  up.  Turning  sheep  upon  land  is 
the  best  way  we  have  to  manure  the  land  without  cost. 

"  The  soil  of  this  field  is  a  sandy  loam,  of  rather  a  dark  color.  The 
cost  of  my  crop  of  corn  is  as  follows  : 


Plowing  the  field,  one  dollar  per  acre 

." 

.      $8  00 

Harrowing,  and  laying  out  for  planting  . 

. 

2  50 

Seed,  one  and  a  half  bushels   .         .         .         . 

»                  • 

94 

Six  days  work  of  man  and  horse     . 

•                  • 

6  00 

Hoeing,  three  times 

•                  ■ 

9  00 

Harvesting 

•                 • 

3  00 

Husking 

of  eight  acres  . 

20  00 

Making  the  total  cost 

$49  44 

*'  The  crop  produced  496  bushels,  at  a  cost  of  not  quite  ten  cents  per 
bushel,  leaving  a  nett  profit  of  thirty-eight  cents  per  bushel,  or  of 
$188  48  from  the  eight  acres,  after  delivery  in  the  market,  and  after  de- 
ducting railroad  transportation,  shelling,  &c. 


61 

"  The  turnips  exhibited  by  me  grew  on  the  same  kind  of  land,  pro- 
ducino-  641  bushels  per  acre.  The  turnips  grew  on  what  is  called 
'potato  leavings.'  The  land  never  was  manured.  It  was  plowed  about 
the  7th  of  June,  then  harrowed  and  drilled.  My  seed  was  sown  in  drills 
three  feet  apart,  and  nine  inches  space  between  each  seed. 

"  The  cost  of  production  per  acre,  is  as  follows  : 

Plowing,  per  acre $1  00 

Harrowing  and  planting   .         .         .         .         •         .         .         .       0  75 
Working  twice  with  cultivator  and  once  with  plow     .         .         .       1  00 

Hoeinir  twice    .         .         •         •         •         •         •         •         •         .       3  00 

Pulling  and  carting  from  field 8  00 


Making:  the  total  cost  of  one  acre       .         .  $13  75 


"  This  makes  the  cost  of  the  turnips  something  over  two  cents  per 
bushel.  They  sold  readily  in  Milwaukee  for  eighteen  three-fourth  cents 
per  bushel.  Deducting  five  cents  per  bushel  for  delivery  and  expenses 
of  railroad  transportation,  and  two  cents  for  expenses  of  cultivation,  it 
would  leave  a  nett  profit  of  eleven  three-fourth  cents  per  bushel,  or 
about  seventy-two  dollars  per  acre.  The  turnips  were  the  red-top 
Swedish,  and  are  the  best  kind  I  have  yet  raised. 

William  E.  McClure." 

^est  sample  of  flax  seed  ;  John  Galbraith,  Mukwonego.     Diploma. 

This  flax  seed  was  raised  and  exhibited  by  John  Galbraith,  Esq., 
Chairman  of  the  Committee  of  Judges,  who,  from  motives  of  delicacy, 
did  not  enter  it  for  competition.  After  the  close  of  the  Fair,  it  coming 
under  the  observation  of  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  Society,  by 
them  it  was  awarded  the  Diploma  of  the  Society,  on  account  of  its  supe- 
rior quality.  For  a  statement  of  Mr,  Galbraith's  mode  of  cultivation, 
reference  is  made  to  Vol.  I.  of  the  Transactions  of  this  Society. 

Albert  C.  Ingham, 

Corresponding  Secretary. 

Second  best  sample  of  Indian  corn  ;  Hiram  F.  Story,  Milwaukee.  Trans- 
actions. 

•'  This  corn  was  raised  on  ground  which  had  been  cropped  but  once 
before  (one  crop  of  wheat).  The  soil  being  a  mixture  of  clay  and  black 
sand.    The  ground  was  plowed  in  the  fall,  and  again  ia  the  spring. 


62 

after  whicli  it  was  harrowed  and  then  the  corn  planted,  which  was  about 

the  20th  of  May.    The  corn  was  cultivated  once  and  hoed  twice.    About 

the  middle  of  September  it  was  cut  and  shocked.     There  has  been  no 

manure  applied  upon  the  ground.     I  cannot  give  you  the  yield  per  acre^ 

as  I  have  only  husked  a  small  portion  of  the  field. 

Hiram  F.  Story." 

Best  sample  of  buck  wheat ;  Alanson  Pike,  Jefferson.     American  Muck 
Book,  and  $1. 

*'  The  buck  wheat  was  sown  about  the  middle  of  July  on  black, 
mucky  ground,  cross  plowed;  after  sprouting,  the  growth  was  very 
large,  but  early  frost  damaged  the  top  blades  very  much.  No  manure 
was  applied  to  the  ground,  and  the  manner  of  cultivation  does  not  differ 
materially  from  that  practised  by  farmers  generally.  The  cost  of  culti- 
vation and  yield  per  acre,  I  am  unable  to  give.  .  p  ,    >> 

Second  best  sample  of  buck  wheat ;  Ira  Blood,  Vernon.     Transactions. 

*'  This  buck  wheat  was  sown  upon  rich  prairie  soil,  composed  of  rich, 
dark  loam  with  an  even  proportion  of  decomposed  vegetable  matter. 
The  land  had  been  cultivated  six  years,  during  which  time  no  manure 
has  been  applied.  It  was  ploughed  once  in  June,  and  the  seed  was 
sown  upon  the  furrows,  and  afterwards  twice  thoroughly  dragged.  The 
crop  was  injured  somewhat  by  dry  weather.  The  cost  of  cultivation 
and  harvesting  per  acre  was  four  dollars.  The  yield  per  acre  was  four- 
teen bushels,  weighing  fifty  pounds  to  the  bushel.  T       R  " 

Best  sample  of  hops ;    James  Weaver,   Waukesha.      American   Muck 

Book,  and  $1. 
Second  best  sample  of  hops  ;  J.  F.  Antisdel,  Janesville.    Transactions. 

"For  raising  hops,  I  prepare  the  ground  in  the  same  manner  as  for 
the  cultivation  of  corn.  Marking  the  furrows  four  feet  apart  each  way. 
I  plant  alternate  rows  of  corn,  and  in  the  remaining  rows  I  plant  alter- 
nately corn  and  hops,  which  leaves  the  hop  plants  eight  feet  distant 
from  each  other  each  way.  In  this  way  I  get  three-fourths  of  a  full 
crop  of  corn  the  first  year.  I  weed  the  hops  and  cultivate  the  corn.  In 
the  fall,  before  the  ground  freezes,  I  put  two  shovels  full  of  well  rotted 
manure  in  each  hill.  This  manure  is  taken  off  in  the  spring,  before  the 
hops  start,  and  the  poles  set  immediately.     Two  poles  are  set  in  each 


63 

hill,  and  two  vines  trained  to  each  pole,  the  rest  of  the  vines  are  kept 
trimmed  down.  The  ground  should  be  well  cultivated,  the  weeds  kept 
out,  and  the  time  of  the  last  hoeing  should  be  about  the  time  the  vines 
are  in  blossom,  the  hops  should  be  well  liilled.  Before  frost  comes  they 
should  be  picked,  and  afterwards  they  should  be  well  kiln  dried. 

"  My  ground  is  a  sandy  loam,  low  but  not  wet.  The  yield  is  about 
five  hundred  pounds  to  the  acre,  first  crop.  The  cost  of  cultivation  is 
about  twice  that  of  corn.  J.  F.  Axtisdel." 

Best  sample  of  timothy  seed  ;  Alanson  Pike,  Jefferson.     Transactions, 
and  $1.  *• 

"This  timothy  seed  Avas  cut  from  last  year's  seeding,  on  what  is  called 
low  prairie.  Five  bushels  of  seed  were  raised  from  half  an  acre.  It 
was  cradled  and  bleached  in  the  dew  for  a  time,  then  raked,  bound  and 
drawn  into  the  barn,  where  it  was  threshed  and  cleaned  Avith  a  fanning 
mill.  Alaxson  Pike." 

Second  best  sample  of  timothy  seed  ;  Ira  Blood,  Vernon.     $2. 

*'  This  timothy  seed  was  raised  on  prairie  soil,  of  dark  loam  mixed 
with  a  large  proportion  of  decomposed  vegetable  matter.  The  land  had 
been  cultivated  two  years,  no  manure  having  been  applied  to  it.  The 
timothy  seed  was  sown  in  the  spring  of  1851,  with  oats.  Cost  of  culti- 
vation and  harvesting  per  acre,  was  three  dollars.  The  yield  per  acrq 
Avas  seven  bushels.  Ira  Blood."  ' 

Best  sample  of  crops  cultivatt-d  and  raised  on  any  one  farm  ;  Ira  Blood, 
Vernon.     Bronze  medal. 

Second  best  sample  of  crops  cultivated  and  raised  on  any  one  farm  ; 
George  0.  Tiffany,  Milwaukee.     American  Farm  Book. 

Best  clover  seed ;  E.  W.  Edgerton,  Summit.  American  Muck  Book  and  $1. 

Letter  from  Mr.  Edgerton.    ' 

"Summit,  December  30th,   1852. 

"Mr  Dear  Sir: — Yours  of  the  21st  inst.,  containing  many  interroga- 
tions, as  to  our  experience  and  success  with  the  cultivated  grasses  in  this 
State,  was  duly  received,  and  I  take  great  pleasure  in  responding  to 
your  inquiries,  hoping  that  our  experience  may  do  something  towards 
correcting  the  general  though  erroneous  impression,  that  'the  cultivated 
grasses  do  not  succeed  well  in  Wisconsin.'  > 


6i 

•  "From  remarks  made  by  many  Eastern  farmers  witli  whom  I  have 
r  conversed  during  the  past  and  present  years,  I  am  confident  that  nothing 

has  operated  more  to  the  prejudice  of  this  State  than  has  this  mistaken 
idea,  deterring,  as  it  does,  many  of  the  better  class  of  farmers  at  the 
East,  and  dairymen  in  particular,  from  emigrating  to  this  State. 

"  From  my   own  practical   experience,  and  from  the   experience   of 

■■  others,  I  am  satisfied  that  the  difficulty  has  arisen,  not  so  much  from 
any  defect  in  our  soil  and  climate,  as  in  the  system  of  husbandry  prac- 
tised by  too  many  of  our  farmers.  Through  a  mistaken  economy,  many 
of  them  have  thought  that  by  no  possibility  could  their  land  be  spared 

.from  active  and  exhausting  cropping,  and  a  portion  of  it  set  aside  for  the 
purpose  of  stocking  it  with  grass.  This  course  has  often  been  pursued 
until  the  land  has  become  covered  with  pigeon-grass,  cow-tail  and  other 
noxious  weeds  ;  and  then,  when  they  can  no  longer  succeed  in  raising 
grain  from  the  much  abused  field,  they  have  resorted  to  timothy  and 
clover  in  order  to  'bring  the  land  to,'  as  they  term  it,  and  not  with  any 
thought  of  getting  a  good  crop  of  hay.  '  Oh  no,'  say  they,  '  we  have 
plenty  of  marsh  from  which  to  cut  grass,  without  having  our  good  land 
lie  idle,  and  we  have  seeded  this  down  merely  to  give  it  rest.'  Carrying 
out  this  idea,  they  have  procured  a  barrel  of  timothy  seed  or  clover, 
and  this  quantity  must  perforce  be  amply  sufficient  to  sow  ten  or  twelve 
acres  !  With  autumn,  comes  their  disappointment  and  chagrin  at  seeing 
a  few  stalks  of  clover  and  timothy  scattered  amid  a  wilderness  of 
weeds. 

"  Another  mistaken  idea  is  prevalent  among  our  farmers,  and  that  is, 
that  '  ^Yisconsin  land  will  never  wear  out.'      I  know   of  no   latitude 

'  where  the  following  extract  from  an  humorous  communication  published 
by  Solon  Robinson,  of  Indiana,  in  1838,  will  apply  more  forcibly  than 

♦  it  does  here.  In  conversation  with  his  neighbor  upon  the  subject  of 
farming  in  America,  he  says  :  '  Squire,  though  our  people  don't  seem 
to  be  sensible  of  it,  and  you  and  I  may  not  live  to  see  it,  yet,  if  this 
awful  robbin'  of  posterity  goes  on  for  another  hundred  years,  as  it  has 

-  for  the  last,  among  the  farmers,  we'll  be  a  nation  of  paupers  !  Talk  of 
the  Legislature  doing  something  !  I'll  tell  you  what  I'd  have  them  do  : 
paint  a  great  parcel  of  guide-boards,  and  nail  'em  up  over  every  state- 
house,  church  and  school-house  door  in  America,  with  these  words  on 
'em  in  great  letters  :  '  the  best  land  in  America,  hy  constant  croppijig  with- 
out manure,  will  run  out !'    And  I'd  also  have  'em  provide  means  to 


65 

iearn  every  child  how  to  read  it,  'cause  it's  no  use  to  try  to  larn  the 
old  ones,  they  are  so  sot  in  their  ways  !'  And  if  our  Wisconsin  farmers 
continue  in  this  '  constant  cropping'  system,  and  continue  to  burn  their 
piles  of  straw,  and  to  move  their  barns,  in  order  to  get  away  from  the 
piles  of  manure  constantly  accumulating  about  them,  we  certainly  shall 
do  our  share,  and  that  soon,  towards  becoming  '  a  nation  of  paupers.' 

"  I  will  now  proceed  to  answer  your  questions.  Our  farm  contains 
830  acres,  of  which  600  acres  are  under  cultivation.  The  cultivated 
portion  is  mostly  burr-oak  openings.  The  soil  is  a  sandy  loam,  based 
on  a  clayey  subsoil.  We  have  about  500  acres  stocked  down,  of  which 
about  sixty-five  acres  are  of  clover,  the  remainder  being  timothy.  We 
mowed  about  ninety  acres  for  hay  during  the  season  just  past.  The 
average  yield  of  the  timothy  Avas  one  ton  per  acre  ;  the  season  being 
very  dry,  the  crop  was  lighter  than  usual — one  and  one-half  tons  per 
acre  being  near  the  usual  crop  on  the  natural  soil.  Lands  that  are  well 
manured  will  average  two  tons  per  acre.  Our  clover  crop  the  past 
season,  where  we  mowed  forty  acres,  gave  an  average  of  one  and  one- 
half  tons  of  hay  per  acre.  The  second  crop  would  have  made  a  ton  of 
hay  per  acre,  but  we  preferred  to  save  it  for  seed.  Our  experience  in 
raising  timothy  seed  is  limited,  as  we  have  given  our  attention  mostly  to 
clover,  thinking  that  it  pays  much  the  best. 

"  You  inquire  what  is  the  usual  profit  realized  from  an  acre  of  clover? 
In  answer  I  will  give  you  our  experience  for  the  last  year,  and  then  you 
•can  judge  for  yourself.     The  receipts  were  : 

First  crop,  60  tons  hay,  $5  per  ton 

Second  crop,  123  bushels  first  quality  seed,  at  $7 

Second  crop,  6  bushels  second  quality  seed,  at  S3 

Total 

**  The  expense  of  raising  the  same  was  : 
Cost  of  hay  crop,  including  board    ,       .         .         . 

5  bbls.  plaster,  at  $1,50          .         .         .         .         . 
Freight  and  sowing  same 

Showing  a  nett  profit  on  forty  acres  of 


•         • 

$300  00 

•         • 

861  00 

•         • 

18  00 

• 

$1179  00 

f  55  00 

130  00 

7  50 

3  00 

105  50 

X.  O  kJ      k/\J 

•        « 

$983  50 

66 

"  This  shows  an  average  profit  of  $24,58  per  acre.  We  prefer  the 
June  clover  to  the  larger  variety,  because  it  will  yield  more  and  better 
hay,  and  give  more  seed  to  the  acre.  We  consider  three  bushels  per 
acre  as  an  average  crop  of  seed — four  or  five  bushels  are  not  uncommon 
— and  I  have  heard,  from  good  authority,  of  six  acres  of  land  in  this 
State,  producing  forty-two  bushels  of  clean  seed. 

**  We  clean  our  seed  by  horse  power.  Three  men,  with  Emery's  two 
horse  power,  will  hull  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  bushels  per  day.  It 
would  require  two  men,  about  the  same  length  of  time  to  clean  it 
through  a  fanning  mill.  The  cost  of  a  huller  is  forty-five  dollars.  The 
cost  of  a  huller  and  cleaner,  is  about  eighty  dollars,  being  much  the 
best,  as  it  will  save  the  labor  of  two  men  in  cleaning,  and  it  can  be 
driven  by  the  same  power,  and  will  do  the  same  amount  of  work  as  the 
huller  alone. 

"We  use  for  seed,  when  we  stock  with  clover  alone,  eight  quarts  per 
acre  ;  when  we  stock  with  timothy  and  clover,  we  use  eight  quarts  of 
timothy  and  four  quarts  of  cloyer. 

"  We  consider  the  autumn  of  the  year  as  the  best  time  to  stock  down 
land.  The  land  should  be  harrowed  after  sowing,  and  should  be  used 
as  a  pasture  the  following  spring.  We  have  used  both  the  New  York 
and  Michigan  plaster,  and  have  become  satisfied  that  the  Michigan  plas- 
ter is  much  the  best  for  Wisconsin  soils.  We  used  half  a  bushel  per  acre 
of  Michigan  plaster,  upon  a  part  of  our  clover  field  during  the  past 
season,  and  were  satisfied  that  it  doubled  the  crop  of  hay,  and  added 
one-third  to  the  crop  of  seed.  We  used  the  same  amount  of  New  York 
plaster  per  acre  in  the  same  field,  and  could  discover  no  beneficial  eflFects 
from  it. 

**  Were  a  comparison  to  be  instituted  between  Wisconsin,  New  York, 
Ohio,  Michigan  and  Illinois,  I  am  well  satisfied  that  in  Wisconsin  as 
much  hay  can  be  raised,  and  as  many  sheep,  cattle,  or  horses,  can  be 
pastured  upon  an  acre  as  can  be  done  in  either  of  the  other  named  States, 
the  same  kind  of  cultivation,  of  course,  being  given. 

Yours  truly, 
To  Albert  C.  Ingham,  Esq.,  E.  W.  Edgerton." 

Sec.  of  the  Wis.  State  Agr.  Society. 

The  Committee  in  their  report  say,  "  The  show  of  grain  samples  was 
very  limited,  but  the  quality  was  in  general  good,  as  was  to  be  expected  of 


67 

the  present  season's  crops,  though  on  some  of  the  articles  we  have  given 
DO  awards,  owing  to  the  absence  of  competition,  or  ordinary  quality  of 
the  article  exhibited.  Though  a  considerable  quantity  of  rye  and  flax- 
seed was  raised  in  the  State  this  season,  none  of  the  former  was  shown, 
and  only  one  sample  of  the  latter,  not  entered  for  competition. 

*'  There  was  nothing  in  our  department  requiring  special  mention, 
except  one  bushel  of  clover  seed,  for  which  article  no  premium  was  offered 
by  the  Society.  The  sample  was  of  very  fine  quality,  and  in  view  of 
this  description  of  seed  becoming  of  much  importance  to  the  agricultu- 
ral interests  of  the  State,  we  would  beg  leave  to  suggest  to  the  Execu- 
tive Committee  the  propriety  of  bestowing  some  suitable  mark  of  encour- 
agement.    (This  recommendation  has  been  complied  with.     A.  C.  I.) 

"  There  were  two  competitors  for  the  prize  offered  by  the  Society  for 
'Sample  of  crops  raised  on  one  farm,'  exhibited  on  a  waggon,  whose 
tasteful  arrangement  and  variety  of  articles  must  have  attracted  the 
attention  of  most  persons  on  the  grounds.  Both  exhibitors  have  well 
earned  the  premiums  awarded  by  the  Society,  for  the  abundant  proofs 
they  have  given  of  what  can  be  done  on  a  Wisconsin  farm  by  taste  and 
good  management. 

"  Some  very  excellent  specimens  of  Wisconsin  tobacco,  of  different 
sorts,  were  exhibited  by  the  producers,  but  not  offered  for  premium. 
The  growth  and  curing  seemed  perfect,  and  reflect  much  credit  on  the 
enterprizing  pioneers  in  this  important  branch  of  agriculture.  These 
samples  leave  no  doubt  of  the  capability  of  Wisconsin  in  soil  and  cli- 
mate for  the  culture  of  tobacco. 

*'  The  hops  exhibited  were  of  excellent  quality,  giving  every  promise 
of  encouragement  for  an  extensive  culture  of  the  article." 

VEGETABLES.— No.  of  Extriks,  83. 

Judges. — Andrew  S.  Fuller,  Wauwatosa ;    Benjamin  Nute,  Milford; 

S.  C.  West,  Milwaukee. 

Best  twelve  turnips  ;  Wm.  E.  McClure,  Ottawa.     $1. 
Best  twelve  carrots  ;  D.  A.  Putney,  Waukesha.     $1. 
Best  twelve  beets  ;  Lester  H.  Cotton,  Milwaukee.     $1. 
Best  twelve  parsnips ;  George  Sercomb,  Wauwatosa.     $  1 . 
Best  six  heads  of  cabbage  ;  John  Becker,  Milwaukee.     $1 . 


♦ 


68 

Best  twelve  tomatoes  ;  D.  A.  Putney,  Waukesha.     $1. 

Best  half  peck  of  beans;  H.  V.  Prentice,  Genesee.     $1. 

Largest  pumpkin  ;  George  Sercomb,  Wauwatosa.     $1. 

Best  peck  of  potatoes  ;  R.  W.  Parker,  Wauwatosa.     81. 

Best  and  greatest   variety  of  vegetables   raised  by   exhibitor  ;  George 
Sercomb,  Wauwatosa.     American  Farm  Book. 

Best  mangel  wurtzel  beets  ;  H.  V.  Prentiss,  Genesee.  Norton's  Elements 
of  Agriculture. 

Best  cucumbers  ;  George  Sercomb,  Wauwatosa.     Transactions. 

Superior  specimens  of  new  seedling  potatoes  ;  George  P.  Pfeflfer,  Pewau- 
kee.     Transactions. 

Fine  egg  plants  ;  R.  JS".  Messenger,  Milwaukee.     Norton's  Elements  of 
Agriculture. 

Best  pie  plant;  B.  P.  Gaboon,  Kenosha.     Norton's  Elements  of  Agri- 
culture. 

George  P.  Pfeffer,  of  Pewaukee,  also  exhibited  a  new  variety  of  pea, 
which  he  calls  the  "  Black  Winter  Pea."  He  remarks  concernincr  it  as 
follows  : 

"  The  Black  Winter  Pea  was  originated  by  myself,  and  is  a  native,  or 
partly  so,  at  least,  of  Wisconsin.  Two  years  since,  having  some  small 
nursing  trees  planted  in  rows  four  feet  distant  from  each  other,  I  filled 
the  spaces  between  the  rows  with  peas  and  beans.  In  one  of  the  spaces, 
by  chance,  a  vine  of  the  common  wild  pea  had  grown,  and  immediately 
adjacent  to  this  vine  I  planted  one  of  the  common  marrowfat  peas,  and 
also  a  black  bean,  in  shape  similar  to  a  kernel  of  corn.  As  the  vines 
grew,  I  placed  about  them  stakes  and  hoops,  so  that  they  were  kept  in 
close  proximity.  On  gathering  the  seed  when  ripe,  I  found  one  pod  of  a 
dark  green  color,  containing  seven  peas  also  of  a  dark  green  color,  but 
■with  black  stripes  upon  them.  These  peas  I  preserved,  and  planted  in 
May  of  last  year.  They  grew  well,  but  showed  no  blossoms  until  Sep- 
tember, after  which  pods  were  formed,  and  the  peas  ripened.  In  Novem- 
ber, I  collected  one  quart  of  ripe  seed  from  the  vines,  and  also  one  quart 
of  green  peas,  which,  after  cooking,  I  found  in  all  respects  equal  to  the 
earlier  varieties.  The  stocks  did  not  ripen,  but  were  in  bloom  when  the 
cold  weather  came.     This  year  I  planted  one  pint  of  the  seed,  and  the 


69 

vines  are  at  this  time  (October  8,  1852,)  in  blossom,  and  setting  pods 
rapidly,  notwithstanding  the  heavy  frosts  we  have  had.  This  variety  is 
very  prolific." 

DOMESTIC  MANUFACTURES.-No.  of  Entries,  '25. 

Judges. — Stephen  0.  Bennett,  Thompsonville ;  Champion  S.  Chase, 
Racine  ;  Thomas  R.  Mott,  Watertown  ;  Mrs.  Francis  Randall,  Mil- 
waukee ;  Mrs.  Anson  H.  Taylor,  Muskego  Centre. 

Best  ten  yards  of  flannel ;  H.  B.  Burritt,  Muskego.     Bronze  medal. 

Best  ten  yards  of  woolen  carpet ;    Garret  Vliet,   Milwaukee.     Bronze 
medal. 

Best  hearth  rug  ;  Miss  Lydia  D.  Ely,  Milwaukee.     Bronze  medal. 

Best  ten  yards  rag  carpet ;  Mrs.  Eleanor  Kinney,  Whitewater.  Bronze 
medal. 

Best  pair  woolen  stockings ;    Mrs.  A.  H.  Taylor,   Muskego  Centre. 
Transactions. 

Best  pair  woolen  mittens  ;  Mrs.  David  Williams,  Geneva.    Transactions. 

Best  pair  cotton  stockings  ;  Mrs.  B.  Coates,  Spring  Prairie.  Transactions. 

Best  woolen  yarn  ;  Mrs.  A.  Smith,  Troy.     Transactions. 

Is'EEDLE,  SHELL,  AND  WAX  WORK.— Ifo.  of  Exteies,  87. 

Judges. — Charles  Holt,  Janesville  ;   Mrs.  John  Catlin,  Madison  ; 
Mrs.  F.  J.  Blair,  Milwaukee. 

Best  Ottoman  cover  ;  Miss  Lydia  D.  Ely,  Milwaukee.     Transactions. 

Best  fancy  chair  work  with  needle  ;  Mrs.  Alexander  Mitchell,  Milwaukee. 
Diploma. 

Best  worked  collar  and  handkerchief;  Miss  Mary  Frances  Smith,  Mil- 
waukee.    Transactions. 

Best  worked  quilt ;  Garret  Vliet,  Milwaukee.     Transactions. 

Best  white  quilt ;  Mrs.  J.  B.  Selby,  Milwaukee.     Transactions. 

Best  portfolios  worked  ;  Miss  M.  Cecilia  Smith,  Milwaukee.     American 
Bee  Keeper. 

Best  ornamental  shell  work ;  J.  W.  Vail,  Milwaukee.     Transactions. 


70 

Best  specimens  of  wax  flowers  ;  Miss  Mary  Ann  Cowan,  Milwaukee. 
Transactions, 

Best  embroidered  handkerchief;  Miss  Elizabeth  S.  Bosworth,  Milwaukee. 
Transactions. 

Best  lace  cape  ;  Miss  Elizabeth  S.  Bosworth,  Milwaukee.     Norton's  Ele- 
ments of  Ao-riculture. 

Embroidered  tidy  ;  Miss  A.  E.  Stone,  Milwaukee.     Transactions. 

Patch  work  chair  cushion  ;  Mrs.  J.  H.  Crampton,  Milwaukee.     Trans- 
actions. 

Crochet  reticule  ;  Miss  Lizzie  H.  Crampton,  Milwaukee.     Norton's  Ele- 
ments of  Agriculture. 

Crochet  purse  ;  Mrs.  Benjamin  McVickar,  Milwaukee.     Transactions. 

Basket  of  wax  fruit;  J.  S.  Douglas,  M.  D.,  Milwaukee.     Transactions. 

Embroidered  dress  pattern  ;  Miss  Harriet  E.  Hatch,  Milwaukee.     Di- 
ploma. 

Knit  coverlet ;  Mrs.  Martha  Brown,  Madison.     Rural  Architecture. 

Pebble  frame  ;  Mrs.  T.  M.  Wilcox,  Port  Washington.     Transactions. 

The  Committee  in  their  report  speak  highly  of  the  general  merits  of 
the  contributions  in  their  department,  and  noticed  several  articles  as 
possessing  positive  superiority. 

Their  decisions  were  in  many  cases  made  with  extreme  difficultv, 
owing  to  the  uniform  high  character  of  the  articles  coming  in  competi- 
tion. 

FRUIT.— No.  or  Entries,  92. 

Judrjes, — Francis  R.  Elliott,  Cleveland,  0. ;  Dr.  John  A.  Kennicott, 
Northfield,  111. ;  W.  S.  Rice,  Racine. 

APPLES. 

Largest  number   of  varieties  of  good  apples ;   Franklin  K.  Phoenix, 
Delavan.     Silver  medal, 

VARIETIES  EXHIBITED. 
Roseau,  Surprise,  Flushing  Spitzenberg,  Pomme  Gris,  Autumn  Straw- 
berry, Fameuse,  Saint  Lawrence,  Fall  Orange,  Yellow  Ingestrie,  Bailey 
Sweet,  Pomeroy  Sweet,  Seek-no-further,  English  Golden  Russet,  Dune- 


71 

low's  Seedling,  White  Seek-no-further,  R.  I.  Greening,  Vandervere, 
Tolman  Sweet,  Rambo,  Montrose  Pippin,  Green  Everlasting,  Limber- 
twig,  Red  Romanite,  Winter  Pearmain,  Swaar,  Virginia  Blush,  Pound 
Sweet  or  Lyman's  Pumpkin,  Sweet  of  Books,  Large  Yellow  Siberian 
Crab,  Siberian  Crab,  Fall  Sweet,  Nameless  Winter  Sweet  obtained  for 
Talman  Sweet,  Lane  Sweet,  Royal  Pearmain,  Redling,  Spice  Sweet, 
Detroit  Red,  Hodge's  Black,  Golden  Sweet,  Barnhill,  Yellow  Bellflower, 
Cheeseboro'  Russet,  Pownal  Spilzenburg,  Michael  Henry  Pippin,  Tift 
Sweet,  Spurious  Drap  D'Or,  Camburnathan  Pippin,  Peach  Apple,  Pen- 
nock,  Hawthornden,  Sack  and  Sugar,  Domine. 

"  My  apple  trees  are  generally  root  grafts,  planted  on  poor,  heavy 
land,  sloping  north  and  south,  and  originally  covered  with  scattering  burr 
and  yellow  (or  jack)  oak.  The  bearing  trees  were  mostly  of  three 
seasons  growth,  some  four  or  five,  when  planted.  Thirty  in  the  spring 
of  1844,  and  seventy  the  spring  following,  several  of  which  havng  failed 
in  transplanting,  or  in  consequence  of  accidents,  injuries  in  winter,  <kc., 
have  been  replaced  at  different  times. 

"  Since  planting,  the  trees  have  been  well  cultivated  by  frequently  stir- 
ring the  ground  as  among  corn,  washing  the  bodies  in  the  spring  with 
soft  soap  and  strong  suds,  waxing  over  bruises  or  large  wounds  as  in 
trimming,  and  for  several  years,  while  the  trees  were  young,  a  mound 
of  earth  about  a  foot  high  was  heaped  around  the  base  late  in  the  fall, 
and  removed  in  the  spring. 

"  Most  of  the  trees  have  been  manured  as  often  as  once  in  two  or  three 
years.  At  pruning  very  little  has  been  done  since  the  tops  were  formed. 
In  regard  to  that  most  important  consideration,  the  bearing  of  an  or- 
chard; it  is  unquestionably  true,  that  for  some  reason  many  sorts  at  the 
West  are  generally  not  as  productive  at  a  given  age  and  size  as  at  the 
East,  or  as  other  kinds.  , 

"  In  the  opinion  of  some,  no  kinds  bear  as  early  and  as  well  here  as 
in  the  Eastern  States  ;  but  in  my  opinion  this  is  entirely  a  mistake, 
although  there  are  doubtless  particular  cases  that  would  seem  to  warrant 
such,  an  idea.  Thus,  there  are  some  kinds  that  are  naturally  late  in 
coming  into  bearing  ;  some  doubtless  made  so,  by  being  worked  from 
nursery  trees  many  removes  from  bearing  trees  ;  and  others  in  conse- 
quence of  the  soil  on  which  they  are  planted — low,  rich,  prairie  soils 
being  inclined  (with  trees  as  with  other  crops)  to  produce  an  excess  of 
leaves  and  woody  matter. 


72 

"  A  few  trees  in  my  orchard  commenced  bearing  a  very  little  the  next, 
year  after  planting.  Two  or  three  years  since,  there  were  perhaps  five 
bushels  each  year — last  year  fifteen — this  year  twenty-five  ;  and  had  it 
not  been  for  late  frosts,  and  a  severe  hail  storm  about  the  first  of  June, 
there  would  doubtless  have  been  twice  or  thrice  that  quantity. 

"  The  orchard  contains,  perhaps,  one  hundred  trees,  with  tops  from 
six  to  fifteen  feet  across  ;  and  as  to  bearing  this  season,  might  be  classed 
thus — twenty  bearing  well,  or  tolerably,  which,  therefore,  judging  from 
this  one  experiment,  ought  to  stand  late  frosts  well,  among  which  I 
would  mention  Fameuse,  English  Golden  Russet,  White  Seek -no-further 
(so  called)  Dumelow's  Seedling,  Green  Everlasting,  R.  I.  Greening, 
Vandervere,  Pomeroy  Sweet,  a  small  round  striped  Sept.  and  Oct.  Sweet. 
Twenty  five  bearing  a  little,  a  part  tolerably  full  last  season,  and  a  part 
for  the  first  time,  which  latter  class  ought  also  to  be  good  against  late 
frosts  ;  of  this  description,  I  would  name  Fall  Orange,  Westfield  Seek-no- 
further,  Monstrous  Pippin.  Fifteen  bore  considerably  last  season,  and 
but  very  few  this,  though  some  bloomed  well.  The  remaining  forty  must 
he  considered  unproductive  as  yet,  though  many  have  produced  perhaps 
one  or  two  specimens.  These  trees  will  probably  average  quite  as  large 
as  any  class,  and  might  have  generally  come  into  bearing  this  season  but 
for  the  frosts,  as  they  mostly  bloomed  in  the  spring.  Of  these  I  would 
name  as  apparently  among  the  most  tardy.  Summer  Queen,  Newtown 
Pippin,  Golden  Sweet,  Northern  Spy,  Yellow  Bellflower,  Campfield 
Sweet,   Colvert,  Baldwin,  Sweet  Bough. 

*'  In  regard  simply  to  the  bearing  of  root  grafts  vs.  stock  grafts,  which 
is  a  point  that  is  being  very  generally  discussed,  I  would  here  give  my 
orchard  experience. 

*'  Among  the  hundred  trees  of  bearing  size  are  sixteen,  or  about  one 
in  six  budded  or  grafted  on  the  stock  at  different  heights — one  Rambo, 
near  the  ground — one  R.  I.  Greening,  at  standard  height — three  grafted 
in  the  tops  to  sundry  sorts,  and  the  remainder  in  the  stock,  mostly  two- 
or  three  feet  high.  Of  these  sixteen,  none  have  borne  much  save  the  R. 
I.  Greening,  at  standard  height,  and  one  "  Sundry  Sort"  tree  ;  but  all 
have  borne  a  little,  more  or  less,  except  one  Sundry  Sort  tree,  one  Golden 
Sweet,  two  (called)  Striped  Pippin,  and  one  Northern  Spy. 

"  The  whole  list  is  as  follows  :  One  each — Golden  Sweet,  Tift  Sweet, 
Detroit  Red,  Sops  of  Wine.  Two  each — Rambo,  R.  I.  Greening,  Striped 
Pippin,  Virginia  Blush,  three  Sundry  Sorts,  one  Northern  Spy. 


73 


•'  In  looking  the  whole  over,  I  may  say  without  further  detail,  that  it 
•would  seem,  judging  from  this  orchard  alone,  as  if,  with  given  Jiardy 
^orts,  nothing  were  gained  in  productivenes  by  stock  grafting,  and  I 
earnestly  hope  it  will  finally  prove  out  so  on  account  of  some  desirable 
objects  that  can  best  be  subserved  by  root  grafting.  Unquestionably, 
however,  this  trial  is  as  yet  too  limited  in  time  and  variety  to  aflford  a 
good  criterion  on  this  point. 

"  In  regard  to  another  disputed  point — grafting  from  nursery  trees  or 
bearing  trees — although  I  cannot  be  positive  about  the  origin  of  most  of 
my  bearing  trees,  having  purchased  them  at  nurseries,  yet  I  have  every 
reascn  to  suppose,  that  most  were  worked  from  nursery  trees.  A  part, 
however,  were  raised  by  myself  from  bearing  trees,  and  though  there  is 
some  difference  in  favor  of  this  latter  class,  yet  there  is  not  so  much  as 
between  certain  families  or  varieties — some  being  inclined  to  bear  with 
one  much  younger  than  others.  Some  of  the  tardy  bearers  having 
already  been  mentioned,  I  will  name  some  of  them  :  Dumelow's  Seedling, 
Roseau,  Famcuse,  White  Seek-no-further,  Tolman  Sweet,  Pomme  Gris, 
Early  Harvest,  Winter  Pearmain,  English  Golden  Russet,  Spice  Sweet, 
Autumn  Strawberry,  Dutchess  of  Oldenburg. 

F.  K.   PlICENIX." 

Second  largest  number  of  varieties  of  good  apples  ;  John  Bell,  Gardner's 
Prairie.     Barry's  Fruit  Garden. 

Varieties  Exhibited. 


Golden  Russet. 
Winter  Russet. 
Cheesebro'  Russet. 
Roxbury  Russet. 
Boston  Russet. 
Pomme  Gris. 
Steele's  Red  Winter. 
Red  Baldwin. 
Spice  Sweeting. 
Green  Sweeting. 
Tolman  Sweeting. 
Yellow  Bellefleur. 
Cornish  Gilliflower. 
6 


Black  Gilliflower. 
Rambo. 
Romanite. 
Fameuse. 
R.  I.  Greening. 
Sweet  Greening. 
Sweet  and  Sour. 
Ortley  Pippin. 
Black  Apple. 
Surprise. 
Newtown  Pippin. 
Munche's  Crab. 
Green  Everlasting. 


Seek-no-further. 
20  oz.  Pippin. 
Monstrous  Pippin. 
Swaar  Winter. 
Fall  Wine. 
Colvert. 
Pomme  Roi. 
W^ellinifton. 
Queen  Anne. 
Ponnel  Spitzenburgh. 
Red  Siberian  Crab. 
Golden  Beauty  Crab 
of  Canada. 


74 

"  The  soil  xipon  which  these  apples  were  grown  is  a  prairie  loam, 

slightly  mixed  with  sand.     The  seed  was  sown  twelve  years  ago  this  fall. 

I  grafted  them  in  the  root  ten  years  ago  last  spring.     I  planted  them  in 

the  orchard  eight  years  ago.     Three  years  ago  I  put  about  a  bushel  of 

ashes  around  each  tree,  which  is  all  the  manure  they  ever  had  ;  at  the 

same  time  they  were  washed  with  soap  suds.  -,         ^^ 

•'  ^  John  Bell. 

Third  largest  number  of  varieties  of  good  apples  ;  Orra  Martin,  Spring 
Prairie.     ^3. 

Varieties  Exhibited. 

Summer.  \  Queen  Ann. 

Spurr  or  Spice  Sweeting.  Winter. 

Autumn.  Sweet  Greenina'. 

Wine.  Red  Baldwin. 

Rambo.  Yellow  Bellefleur. 

Early  Winter.  Late  Winter. 

Red,  or  Cornish  Gilliflower.  Martin's  Russet. 

Green  Newtown  Pippin.  Boston  Russet. 

Rock  (the  real  name  is  lost.)  Seedling  (a  winter  apple.) 

Fameuse. 

"  The  trees,  bearing  the  above  named  apples,  grew  upon  a  south-eastern 
declivity.  The  soil  a  dark  loam,  nearly  the  same  as  the  adjacent  prairie, 
on  a  limestone  subsoil.  The  ground  is  annually  cultivated  in  corn,  pota- 
toes, or  ruta  bagas,  with  occasionally  a  light  dressing  of  manure,  and 
the  body  of  the  trees  washed  one  or  more  times  with  soap  suds  durino- 

*^^  '^^'°^-  Okra  Martik." 

For  the  best  six  varieties  of  good  apples  ;  Anson  H.  Taylor,  Muskeo-o. 
Bronze  Medal. 

Varieties  Exhibited. 

R.  I.  Greening.  Swaar.  Tolman  Swectinsf- 

Roxbury  Russet.  Fall  Pippin.  Rambo.  \ 

Straat.  Seek-no-further.  Colvert. 

"  The  orchard  from  which  the  above  named  apples  were  gathered  was- 
planted  in  the  years  1845  and  1846.  The  holes  for  the  trees  were  dug- 
about  three  feet  in  diameter,  and  deeper  than  the  roots  required  to  set 


T5 

them  out.  The  trees  were  set  in  top-soil  earth,  with  a  coat  of  well  rotted 
manure  on  top,  and  set  so  as  to  designate  each  kind.  The  ground  has 
been  cultivated  each  year,  and  manured  to  some  extent. 

A.  H.  Taylor,'" 

For  the  best  three  varieties  of  good  apples  ;  Cyrus  Hawley,  Milwaukee, 
Downing's  fruits. 

Varieties  Exhibited. 
Fall  Pippin.  Belmont.  Esopus  Spitzenberg. 

"  The  soil  of  my  apple  orchard  is  a  clayey  loam.  It  has  received  only 
the  ordinary  cultivation  for  root  crops,  which  crops  are  usually  planted 
in  it,  with  a  yearly  dressing  of  about  fifteen  loads  per  acre  of  barn-yard 
manure,  spread  broadcast  and  plowed  in.  I  usually  wash  the  trunks  of 
my  trees  in  the  spring  with  thin,  soft  soap.  P    H\  •     -  " 

PEARS. 

For  the  largest  number  of  varieties  of  good  pears  ;  John  B.  Dousman, 
M.  D.,  Milwaukee.      Bronze  medal. 

PLUMS. 

For  the  best  exhibition  of  good  plums  ;  George  P.  Pfeffer,  Pewaukee, 
Thomas'  Fruits. 

Varieties  Exhibited. 
Yellow  Egg.  Yellow  Gage.  Coe's  Golden  Drop, 

Dean's  Purple.  Green  Gage.  Damson. 

Purple  Gage.  Red  Egg.  Bleecker  Red. 

Imperial  Gage.  Royal  Prince. 

"  These  plums  were  raised  from  grafts  upon  wild  plum  stocks.  The 
grafts,  though  but  three  years  since  their  setting,  have  proved  them- 
selves excellent  bearers.  I  also  present  for  exhibition,  the  plum  weevil 
or  curculio.  My  own  experience  with  this  insect  is,  that  it  attacks  the 
plum  from  the  beginning  of  June  until  the  second  week  in  July.  About 
four  weeks  after  the  attack,  the  plum  falls  to  the  ground,  when  the  grub 
either  remains  in  the  plum  or  enters  the  soil.  In  the  month  of  Sep- 
tember, it  again  emerges  as  the  curculio,  and  attacks  the  small  shoots  of 
the  season's  gro^vth,  depositing  in  them  its  eggs.  These  in  the  spring; 
hatch  again  into  the  weevil,  and  eat  the  centre  of  the  buds  then  just 
shooting,  thus  destroying  the  grafts  and  young  trees.     When  in  this 


76 

stage  it'hsEs  reached  tlic  length  of  three-eighths  of  an  inch,  it  again  falls 
to  the  grouod,  to  emerge  in  time  to  attack  the  plums. 

"  This  statement  varies  much  from  the  description  given  by  most    ^ 
Horticultural  writers  ;  but  I  have  long  observed  its  habits,  and  that, 
too,  very  closely,  as  without  great  care  and  precaution  I  should  every 
year  lose  my  plums  entirely.     I  also  present  for  exhibition  a  branch 
cut  from  one  of  my  trees,  showing  the  eggs  deposited  by  the  insect. 

George  P.  Pfeffer." 

Second  best    exhibition  of   good  plums ;    Cyrus   Hawley,    Milwaukee. 
Transactions. 

"  These  plums  arc  Coe's  Golden  Drop.  The  tree  upon  which  they 
grew  was  planted  in  its  present  location  in  the  year  1848,  at  which  time 
the  trunk  was  about  two  inches  in  diameter.  The  soil  is  a  stiff  clay. 
For  i  planting  the  tree,  a  hole  was  dug  four  feet  in  diameter,  and  two 
1^  feet  N^eep,  and  filled  up  with  a  compost  of  two-thirds  muck,  and  one- 
third  of  well  rotted  manui-e,  to  which  six  shovels  full  of  leached  ashes 
were  added.  It  has  received  no  cultivation  since,  except  last  autumn, 
when  a  dressing  of  well  rotted  manure  was  applied  about  the  roots. 
This  tree  has  almost  entirely  escaped  the  attack  of  the  curculio,  while  I 
have  lost  the  entire  crop  of  some  other  varieties  in  my  garden,  such  as 
Kniglit's  Green  Drying,  Huling's  Superb,  &c.  The  Jefferson  growing 
in  the  same  garden  was  not  attacked  at  all,  and  the  Imperial  Gage  bul 
slio-htly.  Gyrus  Hawley." 

Third  best  exhibition  of  good  plums  ;  Alfred  L.  Castlcman,  M.  D.,  Del- 

aficld.     ^1. 

"  These  Autumn  Gage  Plums  Avere  gathered  from  two  trees,  one 
oTOwing  in  a  garden  walk,  and  the  other  in  a  deep,  rich  bed  of  aspara- 
o-us.  I  see  no  difference  in  the  fruit  of  the  two  trees,  except  that  the 
tree  in  the  asparagus  bed  has  borne  nearly  three  times  the  amount  borne 
by  the  other.  Alfred  L.  Castlemak." 

GRAPES. 

For  the  best  exhibition  of  good  grapes  ;  E.  S.  Turner,  Grafton.     Tho- 
mas' Fruits. 

For  the  second  best  exhibition  of  good  grapes  ;  Wm.  Le  Fevre,  Lake. 
Transactions. 


J 


T7 

For  the  third  best  exhibition  of  good  grapes  ;  B.  P.  Gaboon,  Keno- 
sha.    $1. 

MELONS. 

For  the  best  specimens  of  any  variety  of  water  melons  ;  Mrs.  E.  W. 
Edgerton,  Summit.     81. 

Same;  Hiram  E.  Coon,  Palmyra.     Si. 

Same;  Daniel  F.  Melendy,  Eagle.     Si. 

Alpine  strawberries  ;  John  F.  Welkie,  Milwaukee.     Transactions. 

Four  jars  of  preserved  plums  ;  George  P.  PfefFer,  Pewaukie.     Transac- 
tions. 

Best  quinces  ;  P.  B.  Hill,  Milwaukee.     Transactions. 

The  Committee  in  their  report  say,  that  "  aware  of  the  youth  of  the 
State,  and  of  the  few  advantages  which  the  cultivators  of  the  soil  had 
enjoyed,  as  compared  with  residents  of  more  Eastern  States,  we  did  not 
anticipate  very  laborious  duties,  or  much  gratification,  in  performing  the 
work  assigned  us.  Judge,  then,  of  our  surprise,  when  on  entering  the 
hall  devoted  to  Flora  and  Pomona,  we  found  a  long  and  imposing  array 
of  ripe  and  glowing  fruits,  bearing,  in  their  size  and  smooth  glossy  sur- 
faces, mingled  with  tints  of  red  and  yellow,  distinct  impress  of  the  great 
and  glorious  West,  where  nature  has  been  so  lavish  in  her  gifts. 

"  Guided  by  instructions  from  the  proper  officers  of  the  Society,  we 
commenced  our  labors,  first,  by  carefully  examining  all  collections,  and 
notina:  wherein  we  rewarded  them  as  havinor  been  grown  Avith  the  atten- 
tion  and  judgment  of  intelligent  beings,  whose  minds  had  been  not  only 
turned  to  the  production  of  a  beautiful  fruit,  but  also  to  the  knowledge 
of  its  true  name,  according  to  standard  works  on  Pomology.  And  lest 
we  may  be  accused  of  any  unfairness,  we  beg  leave  here  to  state,  that 
we  did  not  feel  at  liberty  to  change  the  names  of  fruits  from  what  they 
were  called  when  presented  to  us — although  repeatedly  asked  by  exhi- 
bitors to  correct  errors  where  we  were  satisfied  of  them.  Our  decisions, 
it  will  be  understood,  were  therefore  made  upon  the  fruits  as  named  and 
exhibited  by  the  growers,  although  we  were  fully  of  the  impression,  that 
had  a  Committee  been  appointed,  whose  duty  it  was  to  precede  your 
reporters,  and  examine,  classify,  and  correct  nomenclature  in  fruits,  far 
more  good  would  have  resulted  from  the  exhibition,  as  well  as  lessened 


I  78 

labors,  which  become,  from  year  to  year,  more  arduous  and  imposing  on 
Committees  appointed  to  examine  this  department.  A  department  em- 
braced and  supported  by  wise  and  discriminating  bodies,  viewing  the 
products  of  the  agriculturist  in  a  sense  relating  both  to  the  advantages 
of  his  social  and  moral  life. 

"  Apples  being  first  on  our  lists  for  awards,  and  also  most  prominent 
on  the  tables  before  us,  we  proceeded  in  our  duties,  often  remarking 
upon  the  beauty  of  specimens,  exhibiting  strongly  the  adaptation  of  both 
soil  and  climate  for  the  production  of  fine  fruits,  and  again,  often  re- 
marking upon  the  universal  love  every  man  who  owns  an  acre  of  ground 
has  for  the  production  of  fruits  on  his  own  lands,  as  well  as  the  desire 
already  general,  to  produce  only  those  most  acceptable,  and  ministering 
in  the  highest  degree  to  his  tastes  ;  these  tastes,  be  it  understood,  vary- 
ing only  as  opportunity  and  advantages  have  been  enjoyed  for  their  for- 
mation. 

*'  After  carefully  examining  a  large  number  of  seedling  apples  exhi- 
bited in  various  collections,  your  Committee  could  not  discover  one 
which,  ripening  at  the  same  time  with  the  varieties  already  known  and 
described,  possessed  merit  sufficient  to  warrant  them  in  awarding  the  pre- 
mium. 

"  In  connection  with  this  part  of  our  report,  your  Committee  desire  to 
enumerate  some  of  the  varieties  of  apples  which  appeared  best  adapted  to 
the  soil  and  climate  of  the  State,  viz  :  Fall  Wine,  Rambo,  Fall  Pippin, 
iSwaar,  lloxbury  Russet,  Rhode  Island  Greening,  Belmont,  Esopus 
Spitzenberg,  Wcstfield  Seek-no-further. 

"Of  our  awards,  next  in  order  come  Pears  ;  and  after  carefully  exa- 
mining the  long  tables  of  fruits,  and  noting  how  perfectly  grown  were 
the  few  specimens  in  each  exhibitor's  collection,  we  could  but  regret  that 
more  care  and  thought  had  not  been  given  to  the  growth  of  this  prince  of 
all  fruits  ;  for  while  nearly  every  exhibitor  had  one  or  more  specimens 
of  one  variety  beautifully  grown,  we  could  not  make  up  collections 
enabling  us  to  award  more  than  one  premium. 

"With  the  schedule  of  awards  for  Peaches,  your  Committee  could 
only  read,  and  lament  the  lateness  of  the  season,  which  precluded  both 
the  enjoyment  of  eating  a  ripe  and  luscious  peach,  blooming  with  the 
freshness  of  a  new  and  provident  land,  and  the  pleasure  it  would  have 
given  them  to  have  distributed  the  largess  offered  by  your  Honorable 
Society  to  the  man  who  should  have  produced,  in  the  '  Far  West,'  a  fruit 


>  79 

rivalling  any  grown  in  warmer,  longer  inhabited,  and  more  favored  sec- 
tions. 

"  Plums. — Here,  one  of  us — he  of  the  East,  where  every  plum  grown 
is  attended  with  so  much  labor  and  trouble  to  protect  it  from  the  curcu- 
lio,  that  they  may  be  said  to  cost  a  dollar  each — could  but  express  the 
utmost  satisfaction  ;  and  here  permit  the  remark,  as  coming  from  that 
Eastern  man,  that  not  only  on  the  tables  of  this  Society's  exhibition, 
but  in  various  gardens  where  he  had  an  opportunity  of  examining  the 
plum  tree  in  bearing,  he  saw  evidence  of  the  same  successful  result  in 
the  growing  of  this  fruit,  free  from  the  stings  of  the  curculio,  which  has 
attended  one  other  section  of  the  United  States  only.  Evidence  that 
while  it  is  hardy  as  a  tree  in  the  climate,  the  fruit  will  be  one  of  exceed- 
ing pecuniary  profit  to  the  orchardist. 

"  Every  variety  of  this  fruit  exhibited  seemed  to  have  been  grown  in 
the  greatest  perfection,  and  in  calling  to  it  the  attention  of  planters,  we 
desire  to  name  the  McLaughlin,  Jefferson,  Golden  Drop,  Purple  Favor- 
ite, Bleecker's  Gage,  Hudson  Gage,  as  among  varieties  that  will  pro- 
duce fruit  of  the  best  and  most  desirable  qualities  for  all  purposes, 
except  that  of  drying  ;  and  for  this  latter,  no  better  may  perhaps  be 
named  than  "St.  Martin's  Quetoche."  Many  other  varieties  could  un- 
doubtedly be  named,  but  a  report  like  this  will  not  perhaps  be  thought 
suitable  as  a  place  for  an  extended  record. 

"  Grapes,  being  next  in  our  schedule,  we  looked  about  us  expecting 
in  this  fruit  to  see  only  some  imperfectly  matured  berries,  but  we  were 
doomed  to  disappointment,  for  we  had  for  examination  large  dishes  of 
heavy  bunches  and  berries  of  the  Isabella,  Catawba  and  Clinton  varie- 
ties. As  a  whole,  the  Isabellas  were  best  ripened,  giving  evidence  that 
for  most  parts  of  Wisconsin,  it  is  the  variety  best  suited  for  cultivation. 

"  Quinces. — The  apple-shaped,  or  orange  variety,  competed  only 
with  numerous  seedlings  closely  resembling  it,  but  such  seedlings  rarely 
possessing  all  the  good  qualities  of  the  parent,  we  awarded  but  one 
premiun.  And  here  let  us  remark,  that  the  Portugal  Quince,  if  it  can 
be  obtained  true,  will  generally  ripen  better,  and  cook  more  delicate  and 
tender  than  the  orange.  The  latter,  however,  is  generally  gathered  long 
before  it  is  ripe  ;  and  when  so  gathered,  it  cannot  be  made  to  cook 
tender.  Usually,  it  should  not  be  gathered  earlier  than  from  the  20th 
of  October  to  the  first  of  November ;  as  a  good,  sharp  frost  or  two 
does  not  injure  it.  / 


80 

"  Meloxs. — With  this  part  of  our  duties,  your  Committee  must  be 
excused  if  they  should  '  speak  right  out,'  for  after  carefully  examining 
the  heaps  of  melons,  we  marched  off  with  the  best  we  could  select,  an- 
ticipating much  enjoyment  both  to  ourselves  and  a  few  '  invited  guests,' 
while  we  discussed  the  merits  of  the  various  specimens  toward  the  form- 
ing of  this  our  report.  Well,  after  obtaining  plates,  knives,  &c.,  and 
after  all  our  friends  had  gathered  around,  anxiously  expecting  a  rich 
treat,  we  slashed  away  with  a  tine  looking,  large  so  called  '  Black  Span- 
ish Watermelon.'  On  opening  its  flesh  to  the  gaze  of  our  judges,  judge 
of  our  discomfiture,  for  we  saw  that  the  grower  had  selected  it  from  his 
bed  of  pumpkins.  Thinking,  however,  that  having  tasted  of  so  many 
fruits,  our  appetite  might  be  somewhat  cloyed,  we  tried  to  get  some  of 
the  anxious  expectants  surrounding  us  to  decide  impartially  ;  but  one 
taste  was  sufficient — none  were  favorable  to  a  cross  of  pumpkin  or  squash, 
in  what  purported  outwardly  to  be  a  delicious  melon.  We  tried  another, 
and  another,  all  to  no  purpose  ;  and  our  *  invited  guests'  having  all  re- 
tired, we  wrote  down  a  joint  premium  for  specimens  embracing  tine  size, 
but  which  had  evidently  been  grown  too  near  beds  of  squash  or  pump- 
kins. Not  less  than  fifty  feet  should  ever  mark  the  space  between  the 
melon  and  those  of  any  similar  class  of  vines. 

"  Good  taste  in  the  arrangement  of  fruits  for  exhibition,  contributing 
largely  to  the  interest  which  such  displays  are  intended  to  create,  your 
Committee  were  gratified  in  finding  a  premium  offered  for  the  best 
arranged  collection.  Looking  over  the  collections,  we  could  but  feel 
aware  that  many  had  overstepped  the  very  object  they  sought  to  gain, 
in  arranging  their  fruits  ;  i.  e.,  by  so  arranging  in  masses  of  disorder 
and  in  closed  cases,  beyond  the  vision  of  but  few  visitors,  and  the  reach 
of  your  Committee  when  making  their  examinations. 

"  Having  now  made  our  report,  permit  us  to  say  a  few  words  to  the 
growers  and  exhibitors  of  fruits  in  the  flourishing  and  rapidly  growing 
State  of  Wisconsin,  relative  to  gathering  for,  transporting,  and  the  exhi- 
bition of  their  fruits  at  any  sticceeding  exhibition  of  a  similar  character. 
In  the  good  appearance  of  samples  offered,  you  may  sometimes  win  the 
prize  over  fruits  of  the  same  quality  as  your  own.  In  gathering  these, 
pick  carefully  by  hand  from  the  tree  ;  avoid  rubbing  the  fruit,  for  many 
varieties  have  a  bloom  by  which  they  are  at  once  readily  distinguished, 
but  without  such  natural  bloom,  or  down  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  they 
are  at  times  difficult  to  be  distinguished,  unless  by  one  readily  conversant 


\ 


81 

■with  the  variety.  Second — in  carrying  to  the  place  of  exhibition,  cotton 
waddinor  is  the  best  for  enwrapping  them  ;  above  all,  avoid  packing  in 
saw  dust,  mouldy  hay,  or  a  pine  box,  for  the  fruit  of  a  delicate  texture 
immediately  receives,  through  its  pores,  the  flavor  of  the  said  hay  or 
pine.  Third — in  arranging  for  show,  select,  as  far  as  possible,  the  vari- 
eties, and  place  them  in  the  order  of  their  ripening,  viz  :  first,  the  early 
©r  summer  ripening  ;  next,  the  autumn  ;  then,  the  early  winter,  and  on 
to  the  longest  keepers.  Have  plates,  if  possible,  of  size,  just  so  that 
your  specimens  will  cover  it,  placing  one  variety  only  on  a  plate  ;  then 
arrange,  in  connection  with  the  season,  as  far  as  possible,  your  dark- 
colored  or  red  fruits  at  the  back  of  your  shelves,  placing  the  light  yellow 
and  summer  fruits  in  front ;  this  serves  both  to  aid  the  judges,  and  at- 
tract the  attention  of  visitors. 

"  Trusting  that  while  we  have,  in  a  rapid  way,  written  out  the  results 
of  our  notes  made  on  '  examination  day,'  we  have  not  overstepped  the 
limits  of  courtesy,  while  wishing  to  aid  the  cause  of  Horticulture,  as  con- 
nected by  an  enlightened  Society  with  its  handmaid  and  sister.  Agricul- 
ture, we  respectfully  submit  these  remarks." 

FLOWERS.— No.  of  Entries,  45. 

Judges — Johx  A.  Kennicott,   M.  D.,   The  Grove,  111.;  Mrs.  Sarah  F. 
Dean,  Madison  ;  Miss  Mary  B.  Rice,  Racine. 

DAHLIAS. 
Greatest  variety  ;  B.  P.  Gaboon,  Kenosha.     Bronze  medal. 
Best  twelve,  dissimilar  blooms;  B.  P.  Gaboon,  Kenosha.    Transactions. 

ROSES. 

Best  six  dissimilar  blooms  ;  R.  N.  Messinger,  Milwaukee.     Johnston's 
Practical  Agriculture. 

PHLOXES.       • 
Best  six  varieties  ;  Thomas  Hislop,  Milwaukee.    Bronze  medal. 

VERBENAS. 

Greatest  variety  ;  B.  P.  Gaboon,  Kenosha.     Bronze  medal. 

Best  six  varieties  ;  Thomas  Hislop,  Milwaukee.      Johnston's  Practical 
Agriculture. 


GER-MAX  ASTESS. 
Be3X  collectjon  ;  R.  X.  M^singer,  Milwaukee.     Bronze  medal. 

FAySIES. 
Best  and  greatest  varietr  ;  B.  P.  Cahoon,  Kenosha.     Bronze  medal. 
Best  six  varieties  ;  R.  X.  Messenger,  Mil-vraukee.    Fessenden's  Complete 
Farmer  and  Gardener. 

Best  collection  of  green-house  plants  owned  bv  one  person  :  R.  X.  Mes- 
singer,  Milwaukee.     Bronze  medal. 

Best  basket  boquet,  with  handle  ;  Miss  E.  Ogden,  Milwaukee.     Bronze 
medal. 

Tree  Cactus  ;  H.  W.  Haves,  Palmvra.     Transactions. 

The  Committee  report  "  that  they  have  performed  their  duties  with  as 
much  care  as  the  great  press  of  spectators  on  the  dav  to  which  exami- 
nations were  deferred,  would  permit ;  and,  in  common  with  the  multi- 
tude of  visitors,  at  this  the  Second  Annual  State  Fair  of  your  noble 
Society,  your  Commiuee  cannot  refrain  from  expressions  of  regret,  that 
in  the  delightful  department  assi^ed  to  them,  so  little  emulation  has 
been  awakened,  especially  among  the  amateur  Florists  of  Milwaukee 
and  its  vicinity. 

"  The  cultivation  of  ornamental  plants  and  beautiful  flowers,  is  a 
highly  useful  as  weU  as  pleasurable  employment  of  the  leisure  hotirs  of 
the  denizens  of  cities — ^both  male  and  female — for  that  which  we  aid  in 
calling  into  being,  or  nourishing  into  beauty  and  excellence,  we  instinct- 
ively love  ;  and  the  love  of  the  beautiful  refines  and  ptirifies  the  mind, 
and  adds  to  the  capacity  for  the  enjoyment  of  innocent  and  rational 
pleastires,  exactly  in  proportion  to  the  increasing  satisfaction  derived 
from  each  new  experiment,  and  every  successful  result  of  our  heart-felt 
labors  in  this  department  of  the  poetry  of  rural  life.  One  who  loves 
flowers,  and  ctiltivaies  them  because  he  loves  them,  cannot  be  a  bad 
man,  and  the  person  who  "ars  them  for  profit  only,  is  always  made  bet- 
ter and  happier  by  his  humanizing  profession.  These  are  truths  that 
few  will  gainsay,  and  none  can  disprove.  We,  who  have  seen,  know  it. 
Tou,  who  wotild  prove,  have  but  to  try  it. 

*'  Hortictilture  is  the  religion  of  nature,  as  well  as  the  *  poetry  of  rural 
life  ;'  and  it  is  the  duty,  therefore,  of  every  one  to  practise  it  in  cities, 
where  little  of  nature  is  seen  ;  and  in  towns,  near  which  great  State 


83 

Fairs  like  this  are  about  to  be  held,  it  is  certainly  the  further  duty  of 
all  thinking  persons,  who  haye,  or  may  haye,  the  abihty  to  do  so,  to 
make  as  large  a  display  as  possible,  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  yisit 
such  exhibitions,  as  a  rare  event  in  their  work-a-day  lives,  and  have 
seldom  or  never  been  permitted  to  look  upon  such  an  accumulation  of 
Floral  riches  as  Milwaukee  might  have  shown,  but  did  not  show,  on  this 
particular  occasion. 

"  And,  yet,  there  were  a  few  noted  examples  of  public  spirit,  and  indi- 
vidual taste  and  liberaHty,  seen  in  our  department ;  and  these,  too,  in  a 
good  part  by  citizens  of  Milwaukee.  And,  even  one  truly  creditable 
individual  collection  will  do  much  towards  redeemintr  the  sreneral  barren- 
ness,  or  bad  taste  of  an  entire  exhibition.  The  fifty-five  varieties  of 
healthy  'Greex-hocse  Plants'  shown  by  Mr.  Messinger,  is  one  example 
of  what  Milwaukee  can  do — and  one  worthy  of  Milwaukee. 

"  There  was  a  little  •  Basket  Boquet  with  handle,'  arranged  by  Miss 

E.  Ogden,  of  Milwaukee,  a  perfect  gem  in  its  way,  and  the  happiest  illus- 
tration of  good  taste  in  the  arrangement  of  flowers  that  your  Committee 
remember  ever  havinor  seen  in  the  broad  Xorth-west. 

"  The  display  of  Dahlias,  Paxsies,  <fcc.,  belonging  to  Mr.  B.  P.  Ga- 
boon, of  Kenosha,  would  have  done  no  discredit  to  a  great  Floral  exhi- 
bition in  any  of  the  older  States  of  the  Union,  if  not  of  all  Europe. 

"  A  collection  of  Terbexas,  much  damaged  bv  carriacre,  shown  by 

F.  K.  Phoenix,  of  Delavan,  must  have  been  choice  and  beautiful  when 
freshly  gathered.  It  is,  however,  almost  impossible  to  preserve  delicate 
cut  flowers,  that  have  to  be  transported  a  long  distance  by  land  carriage, 
and  especially  over  ordinary  carriage  roads  ;  hence,  again,  the  necessity 
of  a  spirited  competition  among  the  florists  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
Horticultural  Exhibitions. 

"  There  were  several  Flower  Baskets,  Vases,  Floral  Designs,  (ire, 
(quite  praise-worthy,  as  first  efi"orts,  and  as  showing  a  desire  to  perform 
a  duty)  but  we  are  sorry  to  say,  not  one  of  them  sufficiently  superior  to 
be  entitled  to  particular  notice,  or  according  to  the  rules,  are  they 
thought  worthy  of  the  Society's  premium.  Indeed,  we  fear,  that  in 
three  or  four  instances,  where  we  have  made  an  award,  the  premium 
has  been  given  to  comparative,  rather  than  positive  excellence.  The 
great  fault  with  nearly  all  the  floral  designs,  and  vases  of  flowers,  was 
the  common  one  of  crowding  too  many  specimens  together.  Beauty 
and  grace  being  sacrificed  to  show  and  profusion,  and  the  simplicity  of 


84 

nature  entirely  lost  in  mistaken  attempts  at  gaudy  art.  In  designings 
true  art  copies  nature,  and  nature  looks  to  the  blending  of  colors,  and 
an  arrangement  of  foliage  that  is  always  pleasing  ;  and  any  great  de- 
parture therefrom,  in  the  artist,  is  ahvays  shocking  to  true  taste. 

*'  We  advise  exhibitors  to  take  a  leaf  from  the  ever-open,  and  easily 
read  Book  of  nature,  and  artistically  weave  in  more  leaves  of  plants, 
and  trees,  among  the  showy  flowers,  which  are  the  gems  of  their  de- 
signs. All  jewels  require  an  appropriate  '  setting ;'  and  the  only  set- 
ting of  flowers,  in  a  simple  boquet,  vase,  basket  or  design,  is  green 
foliage  of  the  same  plants  or  others,  that  do  little  violence  to  nature. 

"  How  many,  who  visited  the  beautiful  show  grounds  at  Milwaukee, 
thought  of  the  availability  of  the  gloriously  tinted  'autumn  leaves,'  that 
made  the  noble  remnant  of  natural  forest  the  most  exquisite  treat  of  all 
to  the  patriotic  lover  of  the  beautiful  in  nature  ?  Had  a  few  of  the  ladies 
of  Milwaukee  prevailed  on  husbands,  sons,  or  lovers,  to  gather  a  store  of 
these  gorgeous  ornaments,  and  then  wreathed  them,  in  tasteful,  natural 
arabesque,  around  the  show  tables  and  the  tent  ceiling,  an  eff'ect  would 
have  been  produced,  as  gratifying  as  it  would  have  been  creditable  and 
full  of  the  beauty  of  novelty,  congruity,  taste  and  harmony. 

"  Had  this  been  done,  (and  if  it  had  been  suggested,  it  would,  doubt- 
less have  been  executed,)  your  Committee,  who  have  been  compelled  to 
judge  more  as  critics,  than  as  satisfied  admirers  of  your  Floral  Depart- 
ment, might  have  had  an  excuse  for  throwing  more  of  the  praise  grow- 
ing out  of  enthusiasm,  into  this  their  hasty  and  unstudied  report.  But 
to  the  ladies  of  the  Wisconsin  city  or  village,  near  which  the  next  State 
Fair  may  be  held,  we  confidently  commend  the  arrangement  and  display 
of  another  year,  in  this,  which  should  ever  be  made  the  most  brilliant 
and  tasteful  part  of  these  great  State  Exhibitions." 

PAINTIXGS.— Xo.  OF  ExTRiES,  55. 

Judges. — William  L.  Utley,  Racine  ;   Benjamin  F.  Hopkins,  Madison  ; 
Alfred  L.  Castleman,  M.  D.,  Delafield, 

Best  specimen  of  painting  in  oils  ;  Alfred  Payne,  Racine.     Diploma. 

Second  best  specimen  of  painting  in  oils;  Miss  Mary  Francis  Smith,  Mil- 
waukee.    Diploma. 

Best  specimen  of  painting  in  water  colors  ;  Mrs.  David  Johnstone,  Mil- 
waukee.    Bronze  medal. 


85 

Best  specimen  of  card  printing ;  Henry  Arthur  Starr,  Milwaukee.    Bronze 

medal. 
Best  specimen  of  book  printing ;  Rufus  King  &  Co.,  Milwaukee.    Bronze 

medal. 

The  Committee  in  their  report  say  "the  collection  of  paintings  and 
drawings  submitted  to  our  inspection,  composed  a  highly  ornamental 
portion  of  our  Fair,  and  one  creditable  alike  to  our  artists  and  to  the 
State. 

*'  The  collection  was  one  varied  and  extensive,  embracing  portraits, 
landscapes  and  fruit  pieces  in  oil,  miniatures  on  ivory,  fruit  and  flower 
pieces  in  water  colors,  colored  crayon  drawings,  a  variety  of  chalk  and 
pencil  drawings,  and  excellent  specimens  of  daguerreotypes. 

"  Where  there  was  so  much  merit,  and  in  a  department  where  a  correct 
estimate  requires  a  cultivated  taste,  there  would  naturally  be  a  diversity 
of  opinion.  Yet  in  the  collection  were  many  productions,  whose  merits 
were  generally  acknowledged.  In  regard  to  the  award  of  the  first  pre- 
mium, there  was  but  one  opinion  entertained  alike  by  the  Committee  and 
by  the  artists  present.  As  to  the  award  of  the  second  premium,  there 
was  more  difference  of  estimation.  Taking  into  consideration  excellence 
of  drawing,  merit  of  design,  simplicity  and  harmony  of  color,  with  facility 
of  execution,  the  Committee  are  satisfied  that  they  have  not  greatly 
erred . 

"  Of  those  artists,  who,  though  they  Avere  awarded  no  premium,  pre- 
sented works  which  elicited  the  commendation  of  all,  proper  menticm 
must  be  made  in  this  report. 

"  In  the  first  place,  we  would  notice  a  small  portrait  in  oil,  by  Ilend- 
rick  Vianden,  of  Milwaukee,  which  was  indeed  a  choice  specimen,  admir- 
ably drawn,  and  deeply  and  harmoniously  colored,  while  the  arrangement 
of  light  and  shadow  Avas  both  simple  and  effective.  The  same  artist  had 
other  paintings  exhibited,  all  showing  his  ability,  but  none  equal,  we 
think,  as  a  real  work  of  art,  to  the  little  picture  we  have  mentioned. 

"  Next  in  order,  we  must  notice  a  portrait  in  oil,  by  Isaac  Dorward,  of 
Milwaukee,  excellent  alike  in  drawing,  in  proportionate  development  of  the 
various  parts  of  the  head,  and  as  a  work  of  art  generally.  A  fine  por- 
trait indeed,  though,  we  think,  rather  too  luridly  colored,  and  rather 
too  highly  worked  in  the  details.     We  care  not  for  the  manner  of  the  ex- 


86 

ecution,  if  we  have  but  the  effect ;  and  it  is  a  fact,  that  it  is  almost,  if  not 
quite  impossible  to  produce  the  softness  of  flesh,  Avhere  the  surface  of  the 
picture  is  finished  to  nearly  a  polished  smoothness. 

"  The  same  artist  also  exhibited  several  colored  crayon  drawings, 
drawn  with  great  freedom  and  accuracy.  These  received  and  deserved 
particular  attention. 

"  R.  A.  Clifford,  of  Milwaukee,  exhibited  several  landscapes.  These 
were  productions  of  a  young  artist,  and  they  show  good  capacity,  and 
are  creditable  to  him ;  but  we  would  kindly  advise  him  to  copy  nature  in 
her  simpler  efforts,  rather  than  to  trust  to  his  memory  or  fancy,  in  color- 
ing copies  from  engravings. 

"Several  landscapes  exhibited  were  the  work  of  Mrs.  Kirby,  of  Mil- 
waukee, and  her  we  advise  also  to  go  directly  to  nature  in  her  studies. 
The  pictures  certainly  show  ability,  and  we  are  glad  to  be  able  to  speak 
to  her  a  word  of  encouragement. 

"  We  are  pleased  also  to  notice  some  fine  pencil  drawings,  much  admired 
by  the  Committee  and  others,  executed  by  Miss  Aurora  Elliott,  a  young 
lady  of  Watertown,  in  this  State.  An  original  pencil  drawing  of  flowers, 
by  a  lady,  Mrs.  E.  S.  Turner,  of  Grafton,  was  tastefully  executed  and 
greatly  admired. 

"Among  the  many  works  of  merit,  we  must  not  omit  referring  to  a 
portrait  drawing  of  the  life-size  in  black  crayon,  by  a  lady  of  Milwaukee, 
Mrs.  S.  M.  Booth.  This  picture  was  noticable  for  the  vigor  and  accuracy 
of  its  execution. 

"We  will  lastly  speak  of  the  miniatures  on  ivory;  they  were  well 
drawn,  well  colored,  and  otherwise  deserving  of  much  credit. 

"  We  are  far  from  thinking  that  we  have  noticed  all  those  works  whose 
merits  deserved  mention,  among  the  great  variety  presented,  yet,  per- 
haps, we  have  been  lengthy  enough  for  a  report  of  this  kind.  We  repeat, 
that  the  display  reflected  great  credit  upon  both  the  artists,  and  upon  our 
State,  and  we  are  happy  to  see  prominence  given  to  works  of  taste  in  an 
ao^ricultural  exhibition.  Let  the  arts  go  hand  in  hand  with  all  science, 
and  especially  with  agricultural  science  in  its  advancement,  and  let  them 
exercise  their  ennobling  influence  in  developing  the  power  of  appreciation 
of  beauty,  in  refining  the  taste  and  in  cultivating  the  hearts  of  the  great 
mass  of  our  countrymen. 


87 

STOVES,  CUTLERY  AND  SILVER  WARE— Xo.  or  Enteies,  26. 

Judges. — A.  F.    Cady,   Watertown  ;   Daniel  Wells,  Jr.,   Milwaukee  ; 

Joseph  Cart,  Milwaukee. 

Best  cooking  stove  ;  C.  Shepard,  Milwaukee.     Bronze  medal. 

Second  best  cooking  stove  ;  Decker  &  Saville,  Milwaukee.   Transactions. 

Best  ornamental  parlor  stove  ;  Decker  &  Saville,  Milwaukee.     Bronze 
medal. 

Best  sample  of  hollow  ware  ;  Decker  &  Saville,  Milwaukee.  Fessenden's 
Complete  Farmer  and  Gardener. 

Best  exhibition  of  table  cutlery  ;  Henry  J.  Nazro  &   Co.,  Milwaukee. 
Fessenden. 

Best  exhibition  of  pocket  cutlery  ;  Henry  J.  Nazro  &  Co.,  Milwaukee. 
Transactions. 

Best  exhibition  of  silver  ware  ;  A.  B.  Van  Cott,  Milwaukee.     Transac- 
tions. 

Parlor  cook  stove  ;  Lansing  Bonnell,  Milwaukee.     Transactions. 

Coal  grate  ;  C.  Shepard,  Milwaukee.     Transactions. 

MISCELLANEOUS  AXD  DISCRETIONARY.— Xo.  of  Exteies,  170. 
Judges — I.  A.  Lapham,  Milwaukee,  Chairman. 

The  Committee  in  their  report,  speak  of  the  very  great  number  of 
articles  presented  for  their  consideration,  and  especially  their  varied 
character,  and  regret  that  the  time  was  necessarily  so  limited  which 
■was  alloted  for  their  examination. 

"  Many  of  the  articles  exhibited  were  without  competition,  inasmuch 
as  they  were  sui  generis.  The  Committee,  however,  endeavored  to  notice 
all  articles  that  seemed  worthy,  and  with  as  much  impartiality  as  possi- 
ble. In  the  great  multiplicity  of  important  inventions  exhibited,  they 
remark  that  it  would  not  be  strange,  if,  in  some  cases,  they  had  failed 
to  appreciate  them  properly. 

"  B.  A.  Jenkins,  of  Genesee,  exhibited  a  casting  for  a  wind-mill  and 
pump,  of  very  simple  construction.  And  J.  W.  Osborn,  of  Albany,  N. 
Y.,  had  in  operation  the  model  of  a  wind-mill,  so  arranged  that  the 
draft  of  wind  could  be  regulated.     These  ancient  contrivances  have  their 


ss 

uses,  and  especially  iu  some  portions  of  our  State,  wlicre  it  is  necessary 
to  raise  water  from  considerable  depths. 

"  A  domestic  invalid  chair,  contrived  by  Dr.  Asa  Blood  and  exhibited 
by  D.  S.  Cady,  of  Milwaukee,  is  not  only  a  convenient  and  ornamental 
piece  of  furniture,  but  by  various  contrivances  may  be  adapted  to  the 
purposes,  and  to  the  different  attitudes  of  invalids.  For  obstetrical 
practice  it  is  said  to  be  very  valuable. 

"  Henry  Neidecken,  of  Milwaukee,  exhibited  some  very  handsomely 
bound  ledgers  and  other  blank  books,  the  ruling  and  faint  lining  of 
which  were  particularly  worthy  of  note;  it  being  even  and  uniform,  and 
€ach  page  being  ornamented  by  a  ruled  border.  The  workmanship  was 
in  every  way  neatly  and  handsomely  done.     Diploma. 

"  Weed  &  Eberhard,  of  Madison,  also  exhibited  some  binding  which 
was  characterized  by  excellent  workmanship  and  superior  material.  Di- 
ploma. 

"  The  exhibition  of  Gentlemen's  Gossamer  Ventilating  Wigs,  Ladies' 
Wigs  and  Ventilated  Bands,  Ornamental  Hair  Work,  Bracelets  and  Per- 
fumery, by  Jared  Gray,  of  Milwaukee,  so  far  as  the  Committee  could 
judge  from  an  examination  through  the  glass  cases,  appeared  to  be 
very  creditable  to  the  manufacturer, 

"  The  case  of  prepared  specimens  of  Birds,  exhibited  by  Samuel  Ser- 
comb,  of  Madison,  made  a  very  beautiful  show.  The  neatness  of  the 
work,  and  the  life-like  attitudes  of  the  birds,  evinces  much  taste  and 
skill  in  Mr.  Sercomb  as  a  taxidermist.  His  museum  in  Madison,  con- 
tains many  valuable  illustrations  of  the  Natural  History  of  the  State. 
Diploma. 

"Herring's  Salamander  Safe  with  his  Powder  Proof  Lock,  was  exhi- 
bited by  Lansing  Bonnell,  of  Milwaukee  ;  and,  as  far  as  could  be  ascer- 
tained by  the  Committee,  was  deemed  to  be  as  represented,  a  fire-proof, 
as  well  as  rogue-proof  article. 

"  Four  doors  of  good  workmanship,  were  exhibited  by  Smith  &  Mc- 
Vickar,  of  Milwaukee.  The  joints  were  tight,  smooth  and  strong,  as  all 
doors  should  be.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  window  blinds  and  the 
window  sash  exhibited  by  them.  The  same  manufacturers  also  exhibit- 
ed a  quantity  of  flooring  and  planed  pickets,  which  was  very  neatly 
dressed  by  their  planing  machine.  This  work  was  much  smoother,  and 
there  were  less  marks  of  the  plane  upon  it  than  is  usually  seen  in  lum- 
ber dressed  by  machinery.     Transactions. 


89 

"  Messrs.  Power  &  Scliley,  of  Milwaukee,  exliibited  two  maps  ;  one 
of  this  State,  executed  on  a  scale  of  three-fourths  of  an  inch  to  the 
mile  ;  the  other,  of  Milwaukee  county,  executed  on  a  scale  of  two 
inches  to  the  mile.  These  were  very  creditable  evidences  of  their  taste, 
skill  and  industry.  In  representing  to  new  comers  the  relative  advan- 
tages of  the  different  sections  of  Wisconsin,  they  will  undoubtedly 
jDrove  valuable. 

"  C.  L.  Herring,  of  Milwaukee,  exhibited  a  lightning  rod  and  points, 
which  were  well  constructed  and  well  insulated.  So  far  as  could  be 
!iscertained  by  your  Committee,  these  rods  are  as  complete  and  reliable 
as  any  offered  to  the  public. 

"Erastus  Fairbanks  &  Co.,  of  St.  Johnsbury,  Vt.,  exhibited  platform 
and  grocer's  scales  of  different  form  and  finish.  There  were  several 
competitors  in  this  department,  but  the  Committee  deemed  those  exhi- 
bited by  Messrs.  Fairbanks  the  most  perfect  and  best  finished.    Diploma. 

"  Henry  Middleton,  of  Milwaukee,  exhibited  several  satin  parasols, 
and  silk  and  gingham  umbrellas,  which  were  manufactured  by  him,  and 
were  very  creditable  specimens  of  his  workmanship.     Transactions. 

"  The  feather  muff  exhibited  by  Mrs.  Betsy  M.  Sears,  of  Rome  ;  a  sett 
of  regalia  by  A.  B.  Van  Cott,  of  Milwaukee;  a  squirrel  skin  tippet  by  J. 
W.  Spencer,  of  Watertown  ;  the  fur  mitts  and  gloves,  the  fur  cuffs  and 
victorines,  the  fur  and  silk  hats,  and  the  cloth  and  silk  plush  caps,  by 
Throop  &  Bailey,  of  Milwaukee ;  the  shoes,  four  cases  of  which  were 
exhibited,  the  ladies'  rubber  boots,  and  the  gentlemens'  calf  boots,  by 
A.  Dunnels  &  Co.,  of  Mihvaukee  ;  and  the  cork-soled  boots,  by  John 
Grotsch,  of  Racine,  all  were  commendable  evidences  of  skill  and  taste. 

"  The  full  dress  suit,  and  other  articles  of  clothing,  exhibited  by  J.  A. 
Swaim,  of  Milwaukee,  were  fine  evidences  of  the  skill  and  perfection  to 
which  this  department  of  the  fine  arts  has  been  brought.     Diploma. 

"The  specimens  of  saddlery  and  trunk  making,  exhibited  by  J.  B. 
Decker,  of  Mihvaukee,  were  very  creditable  and  excellent  articles.  Trans- 
actions. 

"  The  white  kaolin  soap,  exhibited  by  Ezra  Birchard,  of  Racine,  may 
possess  advantages  over  common  soap  ;  but  of  this  the  Committee  were 
not  informed  practically,  not  being  able  to  test  the  same. 

*'  There  were  numerous  articles  of  hardware,  exhibited  by  H.  J. 
Nazro  &  Co.,  all  of  which  appeared  to  be  of  excellent  quality. 

7 


90 

"D.  A.  Putney,  of  Brookfield,  exhibited  a  drilling  machine,  which 
was  very  ingeniously  constructed,  but  so  far  as  the  Committee  can  learn, 
has  no  new  principle  or  improvement.  It  may  be  adjusted  for  either 
wood  or  iron. 

"The  beading  machine,  exhibited  by  C.  Shepard,  of  Milwaukee;  the 
Buck-eye  clothes-washer,  by  John  Laycock,  of  Gratiot,  Ohio  ;  the 
patent  mill-stone  picker,  by  N.  Taylor,  of  New  Hampshire  ;  and  Flint's 
patent  lever  self-calculating  scale,  exhibited  by  William  Sawyer,  of  Mil- 
waukee ;  all  seemed  to  be  good  and  useful  machines,  and  well  adapted  to- 
accomplishing  their  respective  ends. 

"The  sewing  machine,  exhibited  by  I.  P.  Rogers,  of  Milwaukee,  is  an 
invention  admirably  calculated  to  aid  in  the  great  business  of  saving 
human  labor.     Diploma. 

"  The  double-valve  steam  engine,  exhibited  by  Turton  &  Sercomb, 
of  Milwaukee,  was  of  beautiful  construction  and  high  finish — in  its 
working  it  excels  ;  and  being  manufactured  in  Wisconsin,  it  affords  gra- 
tifying evidence  of  the  perfection  to  which  our  mechanical  interests  have 
been  carried. 

"  Specimens  of  India  rubber  goods  were  exhibited  by  William  Brown, 
Jr.,  and  H.  J.  Nazro  &  Co.,  all  of  Milwaukee.  These  articles  are  highly 
useful  in  their  way — no  difference  could  be  detected  in  their  relative 
value. 

"  The  samples  of  dressed  flax,  exhibited  by  John  Galbraith,  of  Muk- 
wonego,  are  Avorthy  of  special  commendation. 

[The  Executive  Committee  have  taken  sviitable  action  upon  this  arti- 
cle.—A.  C.  I.] 

"The  bunches  of  shingles,  exhibited  by  Nelson  Ludington,  of  Mil- 
waukee ;  the  barrel  of  pearlash,  by  J.  D.  Wheelock,  of  May ville ;  the 
boxes  of  soda  and  small  crackers,  by  Thomas  Oi'chard,  of  Milwaukee  ; 
the  case  of  tobacco  and  cigars,  by  H.  A.  Gaston,  of  Beloit ;  the  fine  cut 
tobacco,  by  C.  Athearn  &  Co.,  of  Milwaukee  ;  the  horse  shoes  and  nails, 
by  E.  Thayer,  of  East  Troy ;  the  brooms,  by  Chapman  &  Crafts,  of  Troy ; 
the  boxes  of  soap,  by  H.  S.  Burton  &  Co.,  of  Milwaukee;  six  milk  pans 
by  Wm.  Le  Fevre,  of  Milwaukee;  bread  toasters,  egg  beaters,  and  espe- 
cially the  cork  j!;w/^er  (an  article  of  practical  utility  in  a  new  country,) 
by  C.  A.  Buttles,  of  Milwaukee ;  and  the  stencil  plates,  by  John  A. 
Welch,  of  Winnebago  ;  were  all  good  samples  of  the  mechanism  of  our 


91 

State,  and  will  compare  favorably  witli  any  similar  articles  made  in  the 
world. 

"The  model  of  a  machine  for  cutting  and  jointing  staves,  exhibited 
by  C.  G.  Sheffield,  of  Urbana,  Ohio,  is  worthy  of  special  mention.  It 
is  simple  in  its  construction,  and  in  the  opinion  of  the  Committee,  admi- 
rably designed  to  accomplish  the  work  for  which  it  was  intended.  Sam- 
ples of  the  work  were  exhibited  with  it,  which  were  as  perfect  as  could 
be  desired. 

"Russel's  chimney-top  ventilator,  exhibited  by  Thomas  Vaux,  of 
Milwaukee,  is  doubtless  a  good  article  of  its  kind,  but  this  Committee 
are  of  the  opinion  that  all  chimneys  should  be  so  constructed  as  to  ren- 
der any  such  unsightly  appendage  at  the  top  wholly  unnecessary. 

♦'  The  hot  air  registers  and  coal  grates,  exhibited  by  C.  Shepard,  of 
Milwaukee,  are  very  useful  articles,  and  should  be  introduced  into  all 
new  buildings,  as  perhaps  the  only  means  of  keeping  the  rooms  properly 
supplied  with  good,  Avholesome,  fresh  air.  It  is  generally  admitted,  that 
the  neglect  of  proper  ventilation  in  our  houses,  is  the  cause  of  much  of 
the  sickness  with  which  we  are  now  afflicted.  Every  school  house  espe- 
cially, should  be  provided  with  these  useful  articles.     Diploma. 

"  The  apparatus  and  fixtures  for  gas  lights,  exhibited  by  John  Lock- 
wood,  of  Milwaukee,  were  very  beautiful  specimens  of  this  kind  of  work- 
manship ;  and  the  dial-metre  was  a  very  ingenious  self-register  of  the 
flow  of  gas.  It  is  with  much  pleasure  that  this  Committee  note  the  fact, 
of  the  speedy  approach  of  the  introduction  of  gas  light  into  this  city — 
making  light  its  dark  places,  and  furnishing  additional  means  of  comfort 
and  safety  to  its  citizens.     Diploma. 

"  The  musical  clock  exhibited  by  A.  B.  Van  Cott,  of  Milwaukee, 
while  it  attracted  much  attention,  was  an  article  of  more  show  than  use- 
fulness. The  gold  watches,  jewelry,  silver  and  silver-plated  ware,  exhi- 
bited by  Mr.  Van  Cott,  were  well  worthy  of  notice. 

*'  The  saddle  buckskins,  and  buckskins  for  gloves,  exhibited  by  Chris- 
tophe  Doerfloer,  of  Milwaukee,  were  very  fine  and  beautiful  samples  of 
the  art  of  preparing  and  rendering  useful  as  well  as  ornamental,  the 
skin  of  the  deer. 

"The  fancy  wardrobe,  exhibited  by  Auguste  Fle'tzherm,  of  Milwau- 
kee, and  the  stands  and  ladies'  work  table,  by  the  same,  were  very  ele- 


92 

gant  specimeiis  of  cabinet  work,  and  do  credit  to  any  tvorkman.  The 
flowers  and  butterflies  with  which  the  surface  of  the  work  table  was  in- 
laid, attracted  particular  attention.  And  they  lose  none  of  their  interest 
from  the  fact  that  the  woods  employed  [Euomjmus  Atropur'pureus,  vulg. 
Wauhoo)  grow  wild  in  the  vicinity  of  Milwaukee.     Diploma. 

*'  The  new  friction  matches,  exhibited  by  David  Burr,  of  Milwaukee, 
which  do  not,  when  lighted,  emit  nauseous  and  poisonous  fumes,  will 
doubtless  soon  supercede  the  common  article. 

*'  The  China,  Brittania  ware,  plated  ware,  glass  lamps,  and  especially 
the  American  cutlery  exhibited  by  F.  J.  Blair,  of  Milwaukee,  Avere  well 
worthy  of  favorable  attention,  having  been  selected  with  taste,  and  due 
regard  for  durability  and  service. 

*'  The  tAvo-horse  carriage,  exhibited  by  Mr.  Gray,  of  Raymond,  and 
stbe  child's  carriage,  by  Cyrus  Child,  of  Milwaukee,  were  good  and  use- 
;ful  articles,  and  show  that  Wisconsin  is  gradually  becoming  a  manufac- 
turing State,  and  assuming  an  independent  position  among  the  States 
and  communities  into  which  the  world  is  divided. 

"  Card's  self-sustaining  farm  fence,  exhibited  by  S.  P.  Wadsworth,  of 
Wyomin'"'-  county,  N.  Y.,  is,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Committee,  a  good 
improvement.  Having  no  connection  with  the  ground  (except  to  rest 
upon  it)  this  fence  is  susceptible  of  easy  removal,  and  not  liable  to  fall 
by  the  decay  of  posts  at  the  surface. 

"  Sidney  L.  Rood,  of  Milwaukee,  exhibited  a  very  fine  show  of  books, 
which  added  much  to  the  attraction  of  the  Exhibition. 

*'  The  mirror  mantle  and  trimmings,  exhibited  by  George  W.  My- 
ffatt,  of  Milwaukee,  were  elegant  in  appearance  and  chaste  in  design. 
Diploma. 

"In  the  department  of  agricultural  products  that  fell  under  the  notice 
of  this  Committee,  was  a  bunch  of  teazle,  raised  in  Milwaukee  by 
Frederick  W.  Schoelner,  showing  that  our  soil  and  climate  are  adapted 
to  the  culture  of  this  crop,  so  useful  in  the  manufacture  of  woolen 
cloths.     Norton's  Elements  of  Scientific  Agriculture. 

"  John  T.  Perkins,  of  Milwaukee,  exhibited  two  bottles  of  current 
wine,  of  the  vintage  of  1850,  and  also  two  bottles  of  the  vintage  of 
1851.  E.  W.  Edgerton  also  exhibited  samples  of  the  same  wine,  of  the 
vintage  of  1849,  also  of  the  vintage  of  1850.     These  samples  compare 


93 

very  favorably  with  the  wine  of  the  grape,  and  the  Committee  recom- 
mend that  suitable  testimonials  be  awarded.     Bronze  Medals. 

'  "  The  cast  iron  Corinthian  column,  exhibited  by  Turton  &  Sercomb, 
of  Milwaukee,  is  worthy  of  the  attention  of  the  Executive  Committee. 

"  The  groupe  of  deer,  and  bust  of  Rev.  Bishop  Henni,  exhibited  by  S, 
M.  Brooks,  of  Milwaukee,  are  excellent  specimens  of  his  skill. 

"  In  the  department  of  the  fine  arts,  the  Committee  notice  with  pleas- 
ure the  specimens  of  designing,  exhibited  by  Albert  C.  Ingham,  the 
Coresponding  Secretary  of  this  Society,  being  the  diploma  and  medals 
of  the  Society,  and  they  recommend  that  a  diploma  and  a  silver  and 
bronze  medal  each,  be  awarded  to  him  ;  not  only  for  these  designs,  but 
in  acknowledgment  of  his  active  and  efficient  efforts  to  promote  the 
cause  of  agricultural  improvement  in  Wisconsin.  Diploma,  Silver  medal,, 
Bronze  medal. 

"The  volume  of  Transactions  of  this  Society  for  1851,  printed  and 
exhibited  by  Beriah  Brown,  of  Madison,  is  a  very  good  exhibition  of 
what  can  be  done  in  Wisconsin,  in  this  department,  and  should  be  suita- 
bly acknowledged  by  the  Executive  Committee.     Silver  medal. 

ESSAYS. 
Report  of  the  Committee. 

"  The  Committee,  to  whom  the  Essays  presented  for  the  premiums  of  the 
Society  were  submitted,  have  examined  them  with  an  anxious  desire  to 
find  some,  at  least,  among  them  which  would  well  justify  the  Committee 
in  awarding  to  the  author,  the  premium  ofi'ered  by  the  Society.  They 
regret,  however,  to  say  that  they  have  failed  in  this  object.  Neither  of 
the  Essays  presented  are,  in  their  opinion,  such  as  would  do  credit  either 
to  the  author  or  to  the  Society.  They,  therefore,  recommend  that  the 
Essays  be  returned  to  those  presenting  them. 

"  The  Committee  might  here  close  their  report,  but  they  cannot  forbear 
urging  upon  the  Agriculturists  of  the  State,  greater  readiness  in  laying 
before  their  co-laborers,  the  results  of  their  experience.  The  climate 
and  soils  of  Wisconsin  have  marked  peculiarities  which  distinguish  therci 
from  those  of  the  older  States.  Experience  and  experiment,  therefore, 
are  necessary  to  develope,  to  their  full  extent,  her  agricultural  resources. 
The  results  of  these,  if  spread  before  the  public,  would,  in  a  few  years^ 


94 

diffuse  a  knowledge  of  tlie  proper  modes  of  cultivation  of  all  crops 
adapted  to  our  soil  and  climate,  and  thus  could  not  fail  greatly  to  benefit 
the  cause  of  agriculture.  To  accomplish  this,  the  Essays  need  not  be 
long.  The  great  object  should  be  to  express,  with  sufficient  detail,  in- 
deed, but  without  unnecessary  prolixity,  facts,  such  as  the  time  of  sow- 
ing, the  quantity  and  kind  of  seed,  &c.,  with  the  exact  results  of  experi- 
ments. The  community  want  facts,  not  theories  ;  of  the  latter,  there  is 
already  a  redundancy ;  of  the  former,  there  can  never  be  too  much. 

E.  V.  WHITOX,  \ 

F.  RANDALL,  >•  Committee. 
T.  T.  WHITTLESEY,  ) 


ANNUAL  MEETING,  JANUARY  19,  1853. 

The  Second  Annual  Meeting  of  the  Wisconsin  State  Agricultural 
Society  was  held  at  the  State  Agricultural  rooms,  in  the  Capitol,  at  Madi- 
son, on  the  third  Wednesday  of  January,  A.  D.  1853,  being  the  19th 
day  thereof,  and  the  day  fixed  by  the  Constitution  of  the  Society  for 
holding  the  same. 

At  three  o'clock,  P.  M.,  the  Hon.  Henry  M.  Billikgs,  President,  took 
the  Chair,  and  called  the  Society  to  order. 

Mr.  Ii^GHAM,  the  Corresponding  Secretary,  presented  and  read  the  re- 
port of  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  Society,  which,  on  motion  of 
A.  P.  Dickey,  Esq.,  of  Racine,  was  accepted  and  adopted  as  the  report 
of  the  Society,  to  be  transmitted  to  His  Excellency,  the  Governor  of 
the  State,  as  required  by  law.* 

Hon.  SiMEOX  Mills,  the  Treasurer,  presented  the  report  of  the  receipts, 
expenditures  and  financial  condition  of  the  Societj^,  Avhich  was  read  by 
the  Secretary,  showing  the  total  receipts  of  the  Society  for  the  year,  to 
be  ^2,748  45,  and  the  total  expenditures  for  the  same  time,  to  be 
§2,714  68,  with  a  balance  in  the  Treasury,  of  ^33  77,  as  follows: 

*  See  p.  11. 


05 
TREASUEER'S  REPORT. 

To  the  Wisconsin  State  Agricultural  Society : 

The  undersigned  Treasurer  respectfully  reports  : 

That  there  has  been  received  into  the  treasury  of  the  Wisconsin  State 
Agricultural  Society  for  the  year  ending  December  31st,  1852,  the  fol- 
lowing sums  of  money,  to  wit : 

From  State  Treasurer ^500  00 

"     Albert  C.  Ingham,  Esq.,  Secretary 1,023  50 

"     Miscellaneous  Sources 1,139  50 

"     Balance  in  Treasury,  December  31st,  1851     .     .  85  45 

Total $2,748  45 

There  has  been  paid  out  to  defray  the  necessary  ex- 
penses of  the  Society,  and  in  payment  of  premiums 
for  the  year  1852,  the  sum  of i2,714  68 


Balance  in  Treasury     .     .     .  $33  77 

There  is  Silver  Plate  on  hand,  valued  at SO  00 

Total $83  77 

Vouchers  for  each  and  every  item  of  disbursements  made  on  account 
of  the  Society  for  the  year  1 852,  are  herewith  presented  for  the  examin- 
ation of  the  Society,  or  of  such  Committee  as  the  Society  may  see  fit  to 

appoint. 

All  of  which  is  respectfully  submitted, 

SIMEON  MILLS, 
Treasurer  State  Agr.  Society. 

Col.  Billings,  Chairman  of  the  Auditing  Committee,  presented  the 
Report  of  that  Committee,  which  was  read  by  the  Secretary  as  follows: 

Report  of  the  Auditing  Committee. 

We,  the  undersigned  President  and  Secretary  and  ex  officio  Auditing 
Committee  of  the  Wisconsin  State  Agricultural  Society,  do  hereby  certify 
that  we  have  carefully  examined  the  books,  papers,  and  vou<;hers,  of  the 
Treasurer  of  the  Society,  and  find  the  same  to  be  in  all  respects  correct, 
and  the  balance  in  the  treasury  for  the  year  ending  December  31st,  1852, 


96 

to  be  correctly  stated  at  ^33  77  in  money,  and  silver  plate  for  medals 
valued  at  ^50. 

The  receipts  of  the  Society  for  the  year  have  been  from  the  following- 
sources  : 

From  Life  Members , $70  00 

From  Annual  Members       .     .     .     .     • 821  00 

From  State  of  Wisconsin 600  00 

From  Miscellaneous  Sources 1,272  00 

Balance  in  Treasury  December  31st,  1851      ....  8545 


The  Expenditures  have  been  as  follows 

For  Premiums 

Expenses  of  the  Fair   .     .     . 
Postage  and  Express    .     .     . 

Salaries 

Printing  and  Advertising 
Miscellaneous  Expenses     .     . 


^2,748  45 

^876  04 

549  40 

81  14 

800  00 

221  99 

186  11 

82,714  68 

Balance  in  Treasury,  December  31st,  1852     .  $33  77 


HENRY  M.  BILLINGS,  President. 
ALBERT  C.  INGHAM,   Corresiy.  Secretary. 
Madisok,  January  19th,  1853. 

A.  F.  Pratt,  Esq.,  of  Waukesha,  moved  that  the  Reports  of  the' 
Treasurer  and  Auditing  Committee  be  referred  to  a  Committee  of  three, 
which  was  agreed  to. 

And  the  President  appointed  as  such  Committee,  Hon.  Josiah  F. 
WiLLARD,  of  Janesville  ;  Hon.  John  B.  Smith,  of  Milwaukee  ;  and  Hon, 
N.  M.  Donaldson,  of  Fond  du  Lac. 

The  Society  then  adjourned  until  6  o'clock,  P.  M. 

Six  O'CLOCK,  P.  M. 

The  Society  was  called  to  order,  the  President  being  in  the  Chair. 

Hon.  Josiau  F.  Willaud,  Chairman  of  the  Committee,  to  whom  was 
referred  the  reports  of  the  Treasurer  and  Aiiditing  Committee,  presented 
the  following  Report,  which  was  read  by  the  Secretary  : 


97 

"  To  the  Wisconsin  State  Agricultural  Society. 

"  The  Committee  appointed  by  the  State  Agricultural  Society  to  exa- 
mine the  books  of  the  Secretary,  and  the  books  and  report  of  the 
Treasurer  of  the  Society,  have  had  the  same  under  consideration,  and 
beg  leave  to  report : 

"  That  they  find  the  receipts  and  expenditures,  as  stated  in  the  Report, 
correct.  They  find  that  the  books  of  the  Society  are  kept  on  correct 
principles,  and  in  a  neat  and  business-like  manner,  and  they  find  nothing 
but  what  shows  that  the  receipts  and  expenditures  are  stated  correctly. 
The  Secretary  has  afforded  your  Committee  every  possible  facility  in 
producing  vouchers  and  making  explanations  to  facilitate  them  in  their 
investigations. 

"  Some  of  the  Expenditures  at  Milwaukee,  during  the  Annual  Fair, 
held  in  the  month  of  October  last,  your  Committee  look  upon  as  not 
warranted,  or  calculated  to  promote  the  interests  of  the  Society,  howe- 
ver your  Committee  feel  it  due  to  the  Secretary  to  state,  that  this  was 
owing  to  circumstances  beyond  his  control — the  particulars  being  for 
expenditures  at  the  United  States  Hotel,  and  for  what  is  called  refresh- 
ments at  the  President's  tent  on  the  Fair  grounds. 

"  Your  Committee  would  further  say,  that  with  these  exceptions,  they 

are  satisfied  that  the  financial  affairs  of  the  Society  have  been  conducted 

with  fidelity. 

JOSIAH  F.  WILLARD, 

JOHN  B.  SMITH, 

N.  M.  DONALDSON, 

Madison,  Jan.  19,  1853.  Committee. 

Which  said  Report  was  adopted. 

A.  F.  Pratt,  Esq.,  of  Waukesha,  moved  that  a  Committee  of  five  be 
appointed  to  select,  and  recommend  the  names  of  persons  suitable  to  fill 
the  various  offices  of  the  Society  ;  which  was  agreed  to. 

And  the  President  appointed  as  such  Committee,  Messrs.  A.  F.  Pratt, 
of  Waukesha ;  Mason  C.  Darling,  of  Fond  du  Lac ;  Horace  A.  Tennet, 
of  Madison  ;  Josiah  F.  Willard,  of  Janesville  ;  and  Hiram  Barber,  of 
Juneau. 


98 

The  said  Committee  having  retired  for  consultation,  after  some  time 
returned,  and  reported  the  names  of  the  following  gentlemen  as  suitable 
persons  to  fill  the  various  offices  of  the  Society  : 

Presiderit. — Elisha  W.  Edgerton,  of  Summit,  Waukesha  county. 

Vice-Presidents. — Bertine  PiNKNEr,  of  Rosendale,  Fond  du  Lac 
county  ;  Nathaniel  B.  Clapp,  of  Kenosha,  Kenosha  county  ;  Charles 
Dunn,  of  Belmont,  La  Fayette  county.* 

Mecording  Secretary. — Albert  C.  Ingham,  of  Madison,  Dane  county. 

Corresponding  Secretary. — Albert  C.  Ingham,  of  Madison,  Dane 
county. 

Treasurer. — Simeon  Mills,  of  Madison,  Dane  county. 

Additional  Members  of  the  Executive  Committee. — Hiram  Barber,  of 
Juneau,  Dodge  county  ;  Henry  M.  Billings,  of  Highland,  Iowa  County  ; 
Z.  P.  BuRDiCK,  of  Janesville,  Hock  county ;  \  Martin  Field,  Mukwo- 
nego,  Waukesha  county  ;  S.  S.  Daggett,  of  Milwaukee,  Milwaukee 
county. 

Which  Report  was,  on  motion,  accepted. 

Hon.  Warren  Cha.se,  of  Fond  du  Lac,  moved  that  the  Report  be 
adopted,  which  was  agreed  to,  and  the  officers  declared  duly  elected. 

The  Society  then  adjourned. 

HENRY  M.  BILLINGS, 

Albert  C.  Ingham,  President. 

Secretary. 


*  Judge  Dunn  subsequently  tendered  his  resignation  of  the  Office  of  Vice-President 
of  the  Society,  which  was  accepted  by  the  Executive  Committee,  and  Hon.  Jeremiah 
E.  Dodge,  of  Potosi,  was  chosen  tolilltho  vacancy. 

t  Z.  P.  Burdick,  Esq.,  having  resigned  the  office  of  an  Additional  Member  of  the  Ex- 
ecutive Committee  of  the  Society,  Mark  Miller,  Esq.  of  Janesville,  was  chosen  to  fill 
the  vacancy. 


CORRESPONDENCE. 


101 


COUNTY   AGRICULTURAL   SOCIETIES. 


COLUMBIA. 


Otsego,  December  6,  1852. 

Dear  Sir  : — The  first  Annual  Fair  and  Cattle  Show  of  the  Columbia 
County  Agricultural  Society,  was  held  in  the  village  of  Wyocena,  in 
November  last ;  but  this  being  our  first  attempt,  it  was,  as  was  to  be 
expected,  somewhat  meagre ;  however,  as  a  starting  point  and  a  begin- 
ning, it  was  one  of  which  we  may  justly  feel  proud.  Like  our  parent, 
the  State  Society,  we  commenced  Avithout  funds  or  patronage.  Our  birth 
was  lowly  and  humble ;  our  future — who  shall  say  ? 

At  the  session  of  the  Board  of  Supervisors  in  November,  1851,  a  few 
of  our  practical  farmers,  while  chatting  sociably  on  this  topic,  proposed 
having  a  primary  meeting,  for  the  purpose  of  getting  an  expression  of 
public  sentiment.  It  was  done.  A  proposition  to  organize  a  County 
Society  was  received  with  favor.  Committees  were  appointed  to  draft  a 
Constitution  and  By-laws,  and  to  nominate  officers.  An  adjournment 
then  took  place,  and  on  re-assembling,  a  Constitution  was  agreed  upon, 
officers  appointed,  and  an  address  delivered  by  Hon.  Joseph  Kerr,  of 
Randolph,  and  under  such  auspices,  we  came  into  existence;  the  vital 
spark  was  infused  into  our  materiality,  and  now  it  needs  but  little  to  fan 
it  to  the  virror  of  manhood. 

The  notice  of  our  Fair  had  been  issued  only  a  few  days  prior  to  the 
time  of  holding  it,  consequently  the  attendance  was  thin,  and  yet  large 
enough  to  show  that,  with  proper  organization  and  a  due  share  of  exer- 
tion on  the  part  of  each  member  and  officer,  Columbia  will  yet  take  a 
proud  position  among  her  sister  counties  in  this  State,  in  the  cause  of 
agriculture.  To  obtain  that  point,  but  one  course  is  necessary.  The 
Society  has  now  taken  root ;  let  it  extend  its  branches  into  each  township, 
•School  district,  and  road  district ;  let  its  members,  and  all  friends  of  ag- 
ricultural knowledge,  take  an  interest  in  its  welfare,  and  it  must  succeed. 


102 

The  officers  elected  for  the  ensuing  year,  are  as  follows  : — President, 
Joseph  Kerr,  Randolph  ;  Vice-Presidents,  Daniel  S.  Bushnell,  Wyocena, 
and  George  M.  Bartholomew,  Lodi ;  Secretary,  Henry  Converse,  Wyo- 
cena ;  Treasurer,  Frederick  C.  Curtis,  Lowville  ;  Executive  Committee, 
R.  C.  Rockwood,  Wyocena ;  J.  Q.  Adams,  Fall  River  ;  John  Converse, 
East  Randolph  ;  Jesse  Van  Ness,  West  Point ;  Henry  Merrill,  Portage 

City. 

I  remain,  dear  Sir,  truly  yours, 

JOHN  A.  BYRNE, 

Sec.  ColumUa  Co.  Ar/r.  Society. 
To  Albert  C.  Ingham,  Esq., 

Sec.  of  the  Wis.  State  Agr.  Society. 

DANE. 

Pheasant  Branch,  November   13,   1852. 

Dear  Sir — The  Dane  County  Agricultural  Society  was  organized  in 
1851,  by  the  adoption  of  a  Constitution  and  By-Laws,  and  the  election 
of  officers.  The  first  Annual  Fair  was  holden  at  Madison,  in  September 
last.  It  numbers  now  one  hundred  and  twenty  members.  The  receipts 
of  the  Society  have  been  ^  1 20  00,  and  its  expenditures  for  premiums 
and  expenses  ^105  25.  An  Address  was  made  to  the  members  of  the 
Society  by  its  late  President ;  and  its  first  Exhibition  was  altogether 
creditable  to  the  Society.  The  Exhibition  of  sheep  was  small ;  of  cattle 
and  horses,  good.  The  first  Exhibition  of  the  Society  has  demonstrated 
that  Dane  county  possess  the  means  of  constituting  a  large  and  respecta- 
ble Society,  and  one  of  great  utility  to  the  county  ;  and  that  an  Agri- 
cultural Society  is  a  public  institution,  and  ought  to  be  sustained  as  such 
in  view  of  its  benefits  to  the  Agricultural  interests  of  the  county. 

The  officers  elect  for  the  coming  year,  are  as  follows : — President, 
William  H.  Fox ;  Vice-Presidents,  Reuben  Winston,  W.  M.  Colliday, 
Adin  Burdick,  Walter  Waddle,  Wm.  Douglas,  Philo  Dunning ;  Treas- 
urer, Jehu  H.  Lewis  ;  Secretary,  Robert  L.  Ream  ;  Standing  Committee 
on  Premiums,  Simeon  Mills,  William  H.  Clark,  Abel  Dunning. 

I  am,  very  respectfully  yours, 

THOMAS  T.  WHITTLESEY, 
To  Albert  C.  Ingham,  Esq.  President,    ^ 

Sec.  of  the  Wis,  State  Agr.  Society. 


103 
ADDRESS  BY  HON.  THOMAS  T.  WHITTLESEY, 

PRESIDENT    OF    THE    SOCIETV. 

Memhers  of  the  Dane  Agricultural  Society : 

It  gives  me  great  pleasure  to  meet  with  you  on  this  occasion,  and  with 
all  who  have  come  up  to  witness  this,  our  first  exhibition.  Your  presence 
is  an  attestation  of  the  lively  interest  you  feel  in  our  success.  If  viewed 
merely  as  a  social  gathering,  it  is  beneficial ;  as  a  meeting  of  farmers, 
collected  for  agricultural  improvement,  we  can  discern  therein  the  germ 
of  extensive  good.  The  display  of  agricultural  products  and  mechanical 
skill  here  to-day,  reflects  great  credit  on  the  Society,  yet  in  its  infancy, 
and  gives  strong  promise  of  what  it  will  do  in  future  years.  The  gener- 
ous co-operation  so  liberally  extended,  cannot  fail  to  encourage  and  stim- 
ulate us  to  increased  exertion. 

Agricultural  Societies  are  essential  to  our  progress  in  the  right  culti' 
ration  of  the  soil.     They  lead  to  the  dissemination  of  knowledge,  to  the 
concentration  of  effort,  the  support  of  agricultural  papers ;  and  they  create 
a  lively  interest  in  the  cause  in  which  we  have  embarked.     They  are 
formed  in  all  agricultural  States,  and  agricultural  exhibitions  are  becom- 
ing more  and  more  popular,  fast  growing  into  favor  as  points  of  great 
attraction,  enlisting  the  chivalry,  the  genius  and  fashion  of  society,  and 
unlike  the   tournaments   of    feudal   times,  improve  as  well  as  delight 
the  beholder.     Agricultural  exhibitions  must  be  the  farmer's  wreat  festi- 
val ;  once  a  year  he  must  come  up  with  his  wife  and  children,  to  this  feast 
of  fat  things.     This  is  the  time  and  place  for  children  to  acquire  agricul- 
tural tastes.     They  will  insensibly  imbibe  an  interest  for  an  occupation 
which,  at  least,  once  a  year,  seems  to  be  in  such  general  estimation. 
The  same  law  governs  in  this  as  in  all  other  pursuits, — the  heart  must 
be  in  the  cause.     A  pursuit  which  does  not  draw  out,  and  engage  the 
noblest  qualities  of  the  man,  ought  to  be  abandoned,  a  pursuit  on  which 
the  energies  of  a  judicious  mind  have  been  expended,  and  which  does 
not  then  remunerate  the  operator,  ought  to  be  abandoned.     There  is  no 
apology  for  a  farmer  who  spends  his  strength  for  that  which  is  not  bread. 
It  is  the  object  of  Agricultural  Societies  to  give  a  proper  direction  to 
agricultural  pursuits,  to  improve  our  knowledge  in  making  good  crops, 
good  orchards,  and  to  lay  the  foundation  of  successful  farming,  and  there- 
by  of  peaceful  and  quiet  homes.     The  farmer  must  not  work  for  pay 
alone,  but  like  the  volunteer  soldier  who  strikes  for  liberty,  he  strives  for 


lOi 

the  attainment  of  a  nobler  object ;  like  the  enthusiastic  Alexander,  he 
must  conquer  for  the  love  of  it.  The  cultivator  of  the  soil  must  have  a 
farmer's  education,  a  farmer's  taste,  a  farmer's  dress.  The  soil,  like  a 
fierce  animal,  seems  to  be  more  kind  and  pliable,  when  handled  by  one 
who  understands  its  nature  ;  encourage  then,  Agricultural  Societies,  as 
you  value  your  own  interest. 

Notwithstanding  some  discouragements  under  which  we  have  all 
labored,  we  ought  to  be  grateful  for  the  many  advantages  we  enjoy.  In 
comparison  with  the  older  States,  our  struggles  have  not  been  arduous 
or  severe  ;  we  have  entered  into  a  land  of  promise,  without  fighting  our 
way  through  hostile  States,  into  a  land  of  the  purest  fountains  and  most 
abundant  food.  We  live  in  an  age  when  genius  and  science  have  worked 
out  wonderful  results,  in  an  age  of  unsurpassed  discoveries,  and  we  have 
now  the  fall  benefit  of  those  results  and  of  those  discoveries,  and  are  now 
springing  into  the  full  maturity  of  life,  while  other  States  have  had  to 
pass  the  infant's  progress,  a  state  of  weakness  and  imbecility.  We  have 
not  been  obliged  to  go  armed  to  the  church  or  to  the  field  of  labor.  All 
is  peace  and  tranquility,  we  have  a  healthy  climate,  and  a  soil  of  easy 
culture,  we  have  access  to  a  great  variety  of  the  most  improA'ed  agricul- 
tural implements.  We  have  more  within  our  reach,  to  gratify  taste  and 
luxury  than  we  ought  to  buy.  What  State  within  twenty  years  of  its 
first  settlement,  has  emerged  with  less  labor  and  less  violence,  to  as  high 
a  state  of  refinement  ? 

Situated,  as  we  are,  in  one  of  the  best  agricultural  counties  in  the 
State,  containing  lands  well  adapted  for  tillage,  for  orchards  and  for 
stock  raising ;  when  the  railroad  penetrates  our  borders,  and  gives  us,  at 
all  times,  access  to  the  Atlantic  Seaboard,  what  more  can  the  farmer 
ask  or  need,  but  well  directed  industry,  to  crown  his  efforts  ? 

Distinguished  men  in  all  ages  have  belonged  to  our  fraternity.  It  is 
the  oldest  society  on  record.  The  ruling  passion  of  the  immortal  Wash- 
ington was  for  farming,  and  no  vocation  has  been  so  honored  by  the 
good  and  the  great  as  that  of  the  agriculturist.  Shepherds  and  hus- 
bandmen have  been  the  chosen  recipients  of  those  divine  messages 
which  have  brought  peace  to  man.  It  is  an  employment  congenial  to 
our  nature,  and  it  exerts  upon  it  a  great  moral  influence.  No  farmer 
can  go  into  his  field  without  observing  a  heavenly  power  aiding  his  own. 
The  man  who  cannot  harmonize  with  nature's  laws,  whose  perversity 
runs  counter  to  her  great  commands,  must  give  up  farming,  and  he  gene- 


105 

rally  does.  As  agriculture  is  the  great  source  of  national  wealth,  it 
is  the  great  prop  of  society.  Our  lands  are  divided  into  moderately- 
sized  freeholds,  none  sufficient  to  make  their  possessors  over  opulent  ; 
this  division  of  property,  and  the  nature  of  it,  is  a  great  safeguard  to 
society,  and  a  preventive  to  sudden  and  violent  political  convulsions — it 
is  the  great  conservative  shield  for  general  protection.  A  republic  of 
farmers  cannot  be  overturned.  The  genuine  farmer  is  always  frank 
and  courteous — his  heart  is  full  of  benevolence.  The  genial  breezes 
which  breathe  the  fragrance  of  heaven  upon  his  fields,  and  wave  the 
golden  ears  of  bending  grain,  inspire  the  best  feeling  of  which  our 
nature  is  susceptible.  By  a  high  command,  we  take  from  the  great  lap  of 
nature,  what  has  been  for  our  use  so  plenteously  poured  into  it.  Earth  is 
our  mother,  and  we  feel  at  home  on  her  bosom  ;  our  vocation  is  an 
honored  one — a  hifjh  one — a  relio-ious  one. 

It  must  and  will  take  its  ancient  position  in  advance  of  all  others  which 
have  since  sprung  up  from  the  vices  and  follies  of  mankind — it  will  be 
partially  obscured  so  long  as  the  chief  good  of  human  life  is  placed  in 
the  accumulation  of  wealth.  When  this  Pagan  error  is  eradicated,  and 
this  vile  scramble  for  dollars  is  broken  down  by  your  Agricultural  Socie- 
ties, the  golden  age  may  then  return,  and  as  a  preparatory  step  to  this 
glorious  epoch,  and  in  order  to  equalize  the  exchanges  betAveen  your  own 
produce  and  foreign  goods,  you  must  from  this  time  begin  to  sell  dear 
and  buy  cheap.  Control  your  own  market — let  your  produce  supply 
your  wants — contract  the  fewest  possible  debts,  and  these  by  no  means 
in  advance  of  your  produce.  Book  debts  are  ruinous  to  farmers.  This 
in  all  cases  may  not  be  practicable,  but  aim  to  make  it  so  ;  be  not  oblio-ed 
to  sell  if  you  can  possibly  avoid  it,  but  remember  that  History  records 
no  great  achievement  without  great  effort,  great  labor,  great  privations, 
and  great  endurance.  Our  profession  requires  a  most  constant  and 
wakeful  attention,  and  if  we  are  true  to  ourselves,  and  work  by  method 
and  knowledge,  as  business  men  do  in  other  trades  and  professions,  and 
ai-e  not  able  to  live  on  a  respectable  equality  with  our  fellow  citizens, 
the  social  system  must  be  revolutionized  and  remodeled — a  screw  is  out 
somewhere.  We  either  pay  exorbitantly  high,  and  sell  egregiously  low, 
or  we  misapply  our  labor.  It  is  the  object  of  our  Association  to  promote 
inquiry  and  remedy  such  defects  as  may  be  found  to  exist.  Union  is 
strength.  We  have  a  good  soil,  a  healthy  climate  ;  and  what  prevents 
the  farmer  from  attaining  some  degree  of  affluence  ? 


106 

This  question,  it  is  important  to  examine.  The  farmer  cannot,  by  any 
process  of  agricultural  labor,  attain  to  excessive  "wealth.  But  if  good 
land  and  a  good  climate  will  not  raise  an  industrious  farmer,  -with  judi- 
cious systems  of  management,  to  competence  and  independence,  a  case 
of  hopeless  despondency  is  then  presented ;  and  desperate  must  be  the 
conditions  of  the  individuals,  and  of  the  government  Avhich  derives,  as 
in  this  State,  nearly  all  its  support  from  the  landed  interest.  It  is  true, 
that  for  the  last  two  years,  great  embarrasment  has  pervaded  the  farm- 
ing interest ;  it  has  been  felt  in  the  non-payment  of  domestic  and  foreign 
debts,  and  then,  inquiry  is  made  abroad,  why  do  not  your  farmers, 
when  land  is  so  cheap,  make  money  ?  That  a  great  pressure  has  exist- 
ed for  the  want  of  money,  is  evident  from  the  great  demand  for  it,  and 
the  high  interest  it  has  borne.  As  wheat  is  our  great  staple,  the  low 
price  of  that  grain,  and  the  expense  of  transportation,  has  been  assigned 
as  the  prominent  cause  of  our  depression.  Counting  upon  our  wheat 
crop,  we  bought  more  on  credit  than  we  could  realise  out  of  it  ;  heavy 
taxes,  by  reason  of  owning  more  land  than  we  could  improve  ;  paying 
a  high  interest  for  an  extended  credit ;  improvident  expenditures,  in 
buying  everything  and  manufacturing  nothing  ;  too  much  waste  land 
without  profit,  and  a  wasteful  and  injudicious  management,  with  the- 
successive  failure  of  the  wheat  crop,  have  blighted  the  farmer's  hopes, 
and  impoverished  his  purse.  The  truth  is,  we  have  been  buying  expe- 
rience, which,  though  dearly  bought,  will  prove  in  the  end  salutary,  and 
was  in  fact  necessary  to  correct  an  error  something  like  that  which  Dr. 
Franklin  said  was  somewhere  prevalent,  that  chickens  were  then  flying 
about,  already  cooked  and  ready  to  be  eaten  !  We  have  been  too  san- 
guine in  our  anticipations,  beyond  the  limits  of  prudence  and  common 
sense.  Good  farming  is  the  exercise  of  consummate  skill  and  judgment, 
and  is  not  to  be  trifled  with  by  unskilful  hands.  How  can  we  expect 
other  than  hard  times,  if  we  do  not  produce  what  will  equal  our  expen- 
ses ?  We  must  either  produce  more  and  expend  less,  or  produce  an  article' 
which  has  value,  or  will  sell  at  a  remunerating  price,  aff'ording  a  nett 
profit  over  all  expenses.  Hard  times  are  simply  the  excess  of  expenses 
over  income,  and  they  are  about  the  only  thing  of  home  manufacture. 

It  is  the  policy  of  the  farmer  to  raise  that  for  which  there  is  demand. 
Supply  and  demand  regulate  the  price.  In  some  years  there  is  a  de- 
mand for  pork,  as  at  present — now  worth  seventeen  dollars  a  barrel — 
then  again  for  wheat,  and  again  for  potatoes,  barley,  oats  and  corn.  Cheese- 


107 

always  brings  a  good  price,  and  cattle  and  wool  are  in  good  demanc?.. 
Now  the  farmer  who,  when  the  price  is  up,  has  nothing  of  that  article- 
to  sell,  consoles  himself  by  resolving  that  the  next  year,  for  instance,  he 
will  make  pork — he  is  tired  of  raising  wheat,  and  his  neighbor  did  so 
Avell  Avith  his  pork  that  he  is  for  fattening  hogs.     The  next  year,  pork  is 
down  and  wool  is  up  ;  he  changes  for  sheep  ;  and  the  next  season  wool  ■' 
goes  down  and  wheat  goes  up.     Now  it  is  sometimes  proper  to  change, 
but  every  change,  in  the  first  instance,  is  attended  with  a  new  outlay  j 
cattle,   hogs  and  sheep  require  each  appropriate  fixtures,  and  different 
management  and  additional  experience.     A  farmer  ought  first  to  consult 
the  system  of  agriculture  to  which  his  farm  is  best  adapted  ;  whether- 
for  wheat  growing,  stock  raising,  or  for  dairying.     Having  settled  this; 
question,  he  must  prosecute  it  according  to  his  means ;  his  implements  ©r 
husbandry  must  be  right  and  the  very  best,  and  adapted  to  his  work  ia 
hand.     This  question  must  be  raised  and  settled  by  every  farmer  in  bis: 
own  mind  :  what  leading  product  shall  I  cultivate,  best  suited  to  my  soil  ? 
To  this  particular  branch  of  industry,  without  neglecting  others,  he  must, 
give  his  prominent  attention  ;  he  must  consult  agricultural  papers  and 
bocks,  and  converse  with  intelligent  persons  on  that  subject,  collect  facts-- 
and  experience,  as  men  do  in  the  professions  of  law  or  physic,  or  as  me- 
chanics in  their  several  trades.     If  he  decides  on  raising  wheat,  he  m^ist 
ascertain  from  close  and  personal  attention,  the  best  time  for  sowing,  the- 
amount  of  seed  per  acre,  and  the  best  quality,  the  best  mode  of  pre- 
paring the  ground  and  securing  the  grain,  and  the  best  market  to  sell 
in — but  above  all,  he  must  learn  what  constitutes  good  plowing.     And" 
so  of  raising  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep.     The  thing  must  be  a  matter  of 
profound  thought,  study  and  observation.    It  cannot  be  left  hap  hazarxi.. 
His  efforts  will  then  be  attended  with  better  success,   and  he  will  derive^ 
all  the  secret  satisfaction  which  success  inspires. 

Stock,  would,  in  a  great  measure,  at  present,  supply  the  place  of 
money  as  currency.  Two-thirds  of  my  labor  this  season  could  have  beeaa. 
encfaffed  for  stock. 

There  has  been  a  cash  demand  for  cattle  the  past  year.     Dane  county- 
is  well  adapted  for  raising  stock,  and  the  prices  have  been  amply  remu- 
nerative.    The  immigration  setting  in,  and  the  emigration  to  California 
has  advanced  the  price.    Cattle  have  been  greatly  sought  for,  and  raising  • 
them  has  paid  well.     But  in  answer  to  the  inquiry,  why  do  you  not' 
raise  stock  ?  the  answer  is,  we  have  no  money  to  begin  upon.    But  iSi\i^ 


108 

•same  eltjection  cannot  he  made  to  raising  hog's,'.  -  Pork  now  bring'  a  high. 
iCasli  price.     It  is  the  lowest  depth  of  miscalculation  to  sell  pork  in  tax 
paying  time  at  $2  50  per  hundred,  and  buy  in  harvest  at  $16. 

Our  county  is  traversed  every  year  by  Illinois  farmers,  carrying  pork 
to  the  northern  market ;  and  Milwaukee  is  supplied  from  the  same  quar- 
ter— when  we  have,  or  can  have  all  the  materials,  as  clover,  peas,  acorns, 
and  corn  for  making  good  pork.  Take  your  pork  to  market  at  the  pro- 
per time,  and  buy  your  winter  groceries  for  cash.  Wool  has  been  a 
'Cash  article,  and  buyers  have  come  to  your  doors,  cash  in  hand,  for  wool. 
Is  there  any  country  more  favorable  for  raising  sheep  ?  Can  we  not  in 
this  branch  successfully  compete  with  the  East  ? 

These  are  three  leading  produ.cts  all  bearing  high  cash  prices,  and 

foreign  money  is  sent  here  to  purchase  them.     One  cause  of  the  scarcity 

of  money  is,  we  have  not  value  to  exchange  for  money.    There  has  been 

.  a  great  demand  for  esculent  plants.     There  has  not  been  a  supply  of 

'  onions,  cabbages,  beans,  and  potatoes,  in  our  own  market.     To  raise 

vclover  seed  and  hops  Avould  pay  well. 

-In  addition  to  this,  Ave  manufacture  very  little.  This  county  has  paid 
abroad  an  immense  sum  for  farming  implements.  I  do  not  know  of  a 
pail  manufactory  in  the  county,  and  many  dollars  have  gone  out  for 
mop  handles  and  brooms,  while  enough  has  been  paid  for  stoves  to  build 
ten  miles  of  rail  road.  Can  it  be  wondered  at,  then,  that  we  are  low  in 
funds,  and  yet  the  direct  opposite  of  all  is  within  our  immediate  grasp. 

Blame  not  the  times,  blame  not  your  country,  but  make  your  industry 
more  productive  and  more  profitable. 

The  division  of  mechanical  labor,  renders  it  more  productive  to  the 
operator.  The  manufacture  of  a  pin,  employs  several  hands.  Why  is 
not  a  division  of  agricultural  labor  equally  useful  ?  The  more  mind 
and  attention  are  bestowed  on  a  single  branch  of  industry,  the  more  it  is 
perfected.  In  some  States  are  to  be  found  entire  districts  devoted  to 
separate  branches  of  agricultural  labor,  denominated  the  dairy  district, 
cotton,  wool  or  grain  growing  district.  Dane  county  is  admirably  adapt- 
ed to  raising  stock.  Its  supplies  of  water  and  pasturage  are  abundant. 
The  demand  for  cheese  will  well  warrant  an  outlay  of  capital  for  its 
manufacture.  Dane  county  cheese,  might  rival  the  Cheshire  or  Ham- 
burgh. Eight  or  ten  cheeses,  some  twenty  sheep,  two  or  three  cows, 
and  half  a  dozen  hogs,  may  furnish  a  comfortable  supply,  but  not  a 
source  of  great  revenue.     Time  and  tools  cost  something,  and  a  divided 


109 

attention  to  many  objects  of  industry  is  unprofitable.  I  think  it  must 
be  within  the  experience  of  every  farmer,  that  when  he  raises  a  little  of 
everything,  he  suffers  in  his  neglect  of  some,  while  he  bestows  unusual 
care  upon  others.  This  mode  of  farming  is  more  laborious,  because 
labor-saving  machines  cannot  be  afforded,  nor  can  the  same  division  of 
labor  be  made,  by  the  employment  of  many  hands,  as  in  a  larger  busi- 
ness. To  such  districts  purchasers  would  resort  for  the  best  breeds  of 
cattle,  sheep  and  hogs  ;  for  the  best  butter  and  cheese  ;  and  such  dis- 
tricts would  acquire  a  local  character  and  a  name,  which  would  be  worth 
something  to  the  producers.  The  county  is  large  and  varied,  and  adapted 
to  diflferent  pursuits  ;  and  our  position  is  a  good  one  for  market.  Flour 
has  been  boated  down  the  Wisconsin,  and  sixteen  hundred  bushels  of 
wheat  within  ten  miles  were  recently  sold  at  sixty  cents  cash  for  the 
southern  market.  The  Galena  papers  advert  to  the  growing  trade  on 
the  Wisconsin,  as  important  to  their  section. 

The  wages  of  labor,  compared  with  the  price  of  grain,  are  very  high. 
The  Dane  farmer  pays  as  much  for.  labor  to  raise  wheat  at  fifty  cents  per 
bushel,  as  the  Genesee  farmer  at  one  dollar.  As  compared  with  mechan- 
ical or  professional  labor,  they  are  low  ;  about  three  and  five  to  one. 
The  farmer,  as  farming  is  conducted,  can  scarcely  pay  his  hired  help 
from  the  proceeds  of  his  farm.  There  is  no  just  proportion  in  the  wages 
of  labor.  While  the  cost  of  clearing  and  fencing  a  farm,  the  erection  of 
buildings,  the  price  of  plows,  wagons  and  other  implements,  is  more 
than  in  the  vicinity  of  the  best  markets,  our  grain  brings  less  ;  but  land 
is  cheaper.  I  said  as  farming  is  conducted ;  for  it  must  be  admitted, 
that  there  is  not  enough  of  system  and  economy,  and  too  much  waste- 
fulness every  way  from  improvident  management.  I  will  give  you  two 
examples  somewhere  near  the  exact  truth. 

A.  and  B.  owned  in  this  county,  each  a  section  of  fine  land,  composed 
of  wood,  prairie  and  water,  situated  not  far  from  each  other,  and  equal  in 
respect  to  market.  A.  had  capital ;  B.  very  little.  A  large  and  about 
equal  proportion  of  each  farm  was  fenced,  and  under  the  ploAV.  The 
farm  worked  with  capital  has  been  sold  for  debt.  The  other  is  out  of 
debt,  furnished  sixteen  hundred  bushels  of  wheat  for  market,  cut  fifty 
tons  of  timothy  hay,  and  enabled  the  owner  to  invest  two  thousand 
dollars  in  the  Milwaukee  and  Mississippi  railroad.  Now  these  different 
results  followed  from  the  widely  different  management.  The  proprietor 
out  of  debt  was  temperate,  was  never  in  a  lawsuit,  and  never  courted 


110 

(Office  ;  he  held  the  plow  or  drove,  and  used  a  species  of  plaster  which 
enabled  him  to  stick  to  his  business. 

To  illustrate  the  same  idea  in  regard  to  orchards,  I  will  read  an  extract 
from  a  writer  in  the  Albany  Cultivator,  showing  Avhat  effect  diflerent 
Ai'eatment  produced  on  trees  : 

"  We  have  often  urged,"  he  says,  "  the  importance  of  clean  and  mellow 
■culivation  for  young  trees,  to  promote  growth  ;  and  for  older  ones  to  fur- 
nkh  fruit  of  fine  quality.  Young  trees  in  grass  ground,  from  necessity 
/sko.uld  be  widely  spaded  ;  but  even  this  treatment  is  quite  imperfect,  and 
Qjecomes  nearly  useless  as  they  advance  in  size,  and  throw  out  roots  far 
fceyond  the  reach  of  any  ordinary  spaded  circle.  We  have  just  mea- 
sured a  few  trees  differently  treated  in  this  particular.  Small  peach  trees 
i^t  out  six  years  ago,  and  kept  cultivated  broad  cast  most  of  the  time, 
Ivave  trunks  a  foot  in  circumference,  two  or  three  feet  from  the  surface. 
Those  in  similar  soil,  but  kept  spaded  in  five  feet  circles,  in  grass,  are 
,^niy  eight  inches  in  circumference,  although  ten  years  old." 

lA  is  a  prevalent  idea  that  a  farmer  can  do  nothing   without  capital. 

My  observation  is,  that  men  without  capital  in  the  commencement,  have 

.possessed  themselves  of  what  has  been  brought  in  by  others.     The  man 

who  takes  money  out  of  a  farm,  is  a  belter  farmer  than  he  who  puts  it 

•  ia,     B.  showed  his  wisdom  by  investing  in  the  railroad,    for  without  a 

crailroad  to  Madison,  farms  in  the  interior  are  comparatively  worthless. 

Madison,  with  a  railroad,  will  be  the  Utica  of  this  State,  and  will  make 

x3-ld  Dane  the  Genesee  county.     The  railroad  will  soon  arrive  at  our  bor- 

t-ders — will  this  county  do  anything  to  extend  its  progress  ? 

Decision  of  character  is  essential  to  the  farmer's  success  ;  to  decide 
-mud  to  execute,  is  an  important  item  in  the  affairs  of  life.  Decision  is  the 
grand  secret  of  success  ;  it  is  allied  to  firmness  ;  it  is  never  borne  down 
l)y  pleasure,  apathy,  or  indolence.  The  farmer  who  cannot  rise  with  the 
glorious  sun,  and  Avho  takes  no  care  that  his  implements  are  in  order 
until  the  time  of  action,  will  never  come  off  victorious.  The  loss  of  one 
day,  in  the  crisis  of  affairs,  sometimes  works  a  serious  loss,  besides  the 
■sinking  of  those  high  hopes  and  that  buoyant  courage  which  disastrous 
^nanagement  always  produces.  The  loss  of  a  crop  from  neglect  at  the 
proper  lime  to  secure  good  seed,  from  deferring  to  some  other  time,  the 
present  duty  of  replacing  a  single  loose  board  or  a  rail,  from  neglect  to 
manure  the  soil,  or  to  properly  cultivate  it,  causes  the  worn,  thread-bare 
aexclamation,  "  farming  won't  pay."     The  Creator  gave  this  beautiful 


Ill 

'earth  to  man  to  cultiA'ate,  gave  him  his  divine  image,  and  made  him  lord 
of  this  goodly  heritage.  He  endowed  him  with  strength  to  subdue  the 
thorns  and  thistles  ;  with  a  capacity  to  plan,  to  comprehend,  and  to  exe- 
cute His  great  command,  "  In  the  sweat  of  thy  brow  shalt  thou  eat 
bread."  To  live  without  labor  is  impossible  ;  industry  promotes  longev- 
ity and  happiness,  and  will  most  certainly  repay  a  bountiful  return, 
so  long  as  the  rainbow  decks  the  heavens,  and  seed  time  and  harvest  do 
not  fail. 

But  at  no  time  of  our  national  existence  has  there  been  such  a  wide- 
spread effort  as  at  present,  to  improve  the  standard  of  agriculture. 
Eecently  a  National  Agricultural  Society  has  been  formed  at  Washington. 
The  rural  seats  of  Mount  Vernon,  Hermitage,  Ashland  and  Marshlield, 
rich  in  the  display  of  agricultural  taste  and  beauty,  are  evidences  that 
war  and  politics  cannot  satisfy  the  mind  ;  but  that  it  must  turn  from  am- 
bition and  strife  to  gratify  its  love  of  nature.  Earth  was  made  for  man 
to  cultivate,  and  man  was  made  to  till  the  earth.  It  is  the  material  with 
which  we  have  to  do,  a  great  laboratory  undergoing  ceaseless  changes, 
which  the  farmer  ouorht  to  understand.  Science  has  done  much  for  agri- 
culture  ;  she  has  multiplied  labor  a  thousand  fold,  and  brings  distant 
markets  to  our  very  doors.  Patronize  science — let  the  hard-fisted  farmer 
enter  and  worship  in  its  temples.  Do  not  consider  colleges  as  made  for 
a  favored  few,  or  as  fitting  the  young  to  live  without  labor — let  us  march 
boldly  through  its  portals,  and  take  their  key  of  knowledge  to  unlock 
the  treasures  of  earth.  Chemical  science  will  analyze  our  soils,  and  tell 
lis  what  they  need  to  improve  their  fertility.  To  counteract  the  defi- 
ciency of  the  unequal  value  of  labor,  we  must,  by  a  more  careful  and 
improved  husbandry,  treble  the  quantity  produced,  make  two  blades  of 
grass  grow  instead  of  one,  and  stretch  forward  the  internal  improvements. 
Spain  has  fewer  railroads  than  any  other  civilized  nation ;  look  at  Spain ! 
The  United  States  has  more  than  any  other  nation  ;  and  what  national 
prosperity  can  be  compared  to  hers  ?  The  union  is  awake  to  this  sub- 
ject, and  Wisconsin  must  not  be  in  the  rear. 

I  adverted  to  the  inequality  in  the  price  of  labor,  as  bearing  heavily 
on  the  farmer.  To  raise  wheat  at  forty  cents  a  bushel,  with  a  saving  pro- 
fit, the  quantity  must  be  increased  by  superior  cultivation.  To  grow 
wheat  a  man  must  know  how  to  do  it,  for  it  requires  the  same  thought 
and  study  as  an  argumentative  brief,  or  an  agricultural  address,  or  a 
pattern  for  iron  castings.     Farming   is  reason  in  action ;  it   cannot  be 


112 

conducted  without  science  and  method,  any  better  than  a  tool  can  be  em- 
ployed in  any  trade  without  being  fitted  to  its  use.  A  clay  soil  is  said  to 
be  the  best  soil  for  wheat,  and  yet  it  may  be  so  compact  and  adhesive, 
that  unless  mixed  with  leached  ashes,  lime  or  sand,  or  unless  the  sub- 
soil is  mellowed  for  the  top  roots  to  penetrate,  the  fibrous  or  lateral 
shoots  of  the  plant  are  in  danger  of  perishing  by  exposure  to  the  frost 
uncovered  as  they  will  be  by  the  winds,  without  this  preparation ;  or 
unless  the  proper  relative  elementary  proportions  are  in  the  soil  it  will 
be  unproductive,  labor  is  lost  upon  it.  I  will  in  this  place  mention  an 
experiment  made  by  a  farmer,  by  sowing  oats  with  wheat.  He  sowed 
three  different  pieces  of  wheat  on  ground  prepared  alike.  On  the  first 
piece  he  sowed  with  the  wheat,  one  bushel  of  oats  per  acre,  on  the  second 
half  a  bushel,  and  on  the  third  no  oats  at  all.  The  same  kind  and  quan- 
tity of  wheat  was  sown  on  each.  The  first  piece  was  good  without  any 
chess,  the  second  piece  was  a  middling  crop,  with  a  little  chess,  and  the 
third  piece  was  nearly  all  chess. 

To  remedy  the  disproportion  between  the  cost  of  production  and  the 
price  of  the  article,  we  must  study  to  improve  its  cultivation.  Neither 
grain,  nor  stock,  nor  fruit,  can  be  advantageously  cultivated  without 
study  and  observation  ;  we  are  not  born  with  any  intuitive  knowledge ; 
as  well  might  a  farmer  attempt  to  amputate  a  limb  with  surgical  skill, 
as  to  attempt  the  right  management  of  the  soil  without  education.  The 
manual  labor  may  be  done,  but  the  adaptation  of  means  to  ends  demands 
as  much  foresight  and  quickness  of  perception,  and  as  much  science, 
though  of  a  different  quality,  as  the  projection  of  a  cannon  ball  at  a 
distant  object,  or  the  storming  of  a  fortification ;  and  though  the  landed 
interest  pays  three-fourths  of  the  taxes,  we  have  no  agricultural  schools, 
no  model  farms,  no  scientific  farmers,  supported  at  the  public  expense, 
while  military  and  naval  schools  are  amply  endowed.  We  are  an  Agri- 
cultural State.  Wisconsin  is  a  commonwealth  of  farmers,  and  the  State 
University  at  Madison  presents  now  a  glorious  opportunity  of  connecting; 
with  it,  and  endowing  an  agricultural  school,  and  combining  practical 
and  scientific  farminof. 

When  the  Erie  Canal  was  projected,  the  Eastern  farmers  were  fright- 
fully apprehensive  that  the  immense  volume  of  freight  which  it  was  fore- 
seen would  be  transported  from  the  West,  would  reduce  the  price  of 
their  lands.  But  it  has  been  made  and  enlarged,'  and  yet  it  is  not  equal 
to  the  task  ;  but  railroads  have  been  constructed  at  an  astonishing  ex- 


113 

pense,  to  aid  in  forwarding  the  enormous  burthens  which  are  transmit- 
ted to  and  from  the  West  ;  and  still,  lands  in  all  the  New  England  states 
have  aucjmented  in  value.  It  is  intimated  that  the  lands  in  Massachu- 
setts  have  risen  enough  in  value  to  defray  the  expenses  of  their  rail- 
roads. How  is  this  ?  Manufactories  have  sprung  up  all  over  the  land. 
They  send  iis  their  clocks,  buttons,  hats  and  pins,  and  every  thing  we 
use.  Their  purses  are  full  of  gold  to  buy  our  wool,  our  cheese  and  our 
pork.  By  the  census  of  1850,  from  124,892  sheep,  Wisconsin  sheared 
233,963  pounds  of  wool,  the  average  weight  of  fleece  was  two  pounds, 
less  than  Iowa  by  more  than  100,000  pounds.  Ohio  sheared  over 
10,000,000  pounds.  The  average  weight  of  fleece  in  Vermont,  was  three 
pounds  eleven  ounces.  We  have  not  capital  for  manufacturing,  though 
Ave  have  a  good  soil. 

Manufacturers  study  their  own  interest ;  so  must  agriculturists. 
Manufacturers  have  secrets  ;  immense  quantities  of  corn  are  converted 
into  starch,  but  the  art  is  a  secret,  and  visitors  are  excluded  from  that 
branch.  Farmers  have  no  secrets ;  but  a  portion  of  that  knowledge,  which 
is  sought  for  in  commerce  and  manufactures,  we  must  have,  that  agricul- 
ture may  take  its  proper  rank,  as  it  is  the  basis  and  support  of  all  others. 

Mr.  Allen  in  his  Rural  Architecture,  makes  the  followinof  .sensible 
remarks  upon  the  necessity  of  ladies  identifying  themselves  with  agri- 
cultural pursuits,  and  attaining  a  knowledge  and  taste  in  the  business, 
which  their  husbands,  fathers  and  brothers  are  striving  to  elevate,  to 
make  profitable  and  ennobling  : 

"Nor  is  this  laudable  taste  confined  to  men  alone.  Females  of  the 
highest  worth,  and  domestic  example  both  abroad  and  at  home,  cultivate 
a  love  for  such  objects  and  take  much  interest  in  the  welfare  of  their 
farm  stock.  We  were  at  the  annual  cattle  show  in  one  of  our  large 
States,  but  a  short  time  since,  and  in  loitering  about  the  cattle  quarter 
of  the  grounds,  met  a  lady  of  our  acquaintance,  with  a  party  of  her 
female  friends,  on  a  tour  of  inspection  among  the  beautiful  Short  Horns 
and  Devons,  and  the  select  varieties  of  sheep.  She  was  the  daughter  of 
a  distinguished  Statesman,  who  was  also  a  large  farmer,  and  a  patron  of 
great  liberality  in  the  promotion  of  fine  stock  in  his  own  State.  She 
was  bred  upon  the  farm,  and  to  rare  accomplishments  in  education,  was 
possessed  of  a  deep  love  for  all  rural  objects  ;  and  in  the  stock  of  the 
farm  she  took  a  peculiar  interest.  Her  husband  was  an  extensive  farmer, 
and  a  noted  breeder  of  fine  animals.     She  had  her  own  farm  too,  and 


114 

cattle  upon  it,  equally  as  choice  as  his,  in  her  own  right ;  and  they  were 
both  competitors  at  the  annual  exhibitions.  At  her  most  comfortable 
and  hospitable  residence  she  showed  us  with  pride,  the  several  cups  and 
■other  articles  of  plate  which  her  family  had  won  as  prizes  at  the  Agri- 
cultural Exhibitions,  and  which  she  intended  to  preserve  as  heir-looms 
to  her  children.  From  the  bottom  of  our  heart,  we  trust  that  a  reform- 
ation is  at  work  among  our  American  women,  in  the  promotion  of  a 
taste  ;  and  not  only  a  taste,  but  a  genuine  love  of  things  connected  with 
country  life.  It  was  not  so  with  the  mothers  and  the  wives  of  the  stern 
and  earnest  men  who  laid  the  foundation  of  their  country's  freedom  and 
greatness.  They  were  women  of  soul,  character  and  stamina,  who 
grappled  with  the  realities  of  life,  in  their  labors,  and  enjoyed  its  pleas- 
ures with  truth  and  honesty.  This  over-nice,  mincing  delicacy  and  sen- 
timentality in  which  their  grand-daughters  indulge,  is  but  the  ofF-throw 
of  the  boarding  school,  the  novelist  and  the  prude,  mere  'leather  and 
prunella.' 

"  One  lady  horticulturist,  according  to  the  Norfolk  Va.  Argus,  is  alone 
cultivating  thirty  acres  of  land  in  stawberries,  and  employs  fifty  pick- 
ers, for  the  northern  cities.  Eve  was  the  flower  of  the  garden,  and 
without  her  it  would  not  have  been  Paradise.  She  watered  and  nourished 
the  plants  and  trained  their  growth.  No  un-wifed  farmer  can  show  a 
clean  garden.  Like  himself,  it  will  always  be  unwed.  The  domestic 
example,  comfort  and  endearment  which  woman  gives  to  home,  is  the 
best  volume  of  memoirs  for  children  to  read.  The  noble  second  which  a 
good  wife  gives  to  the  farmer's  efforts,  stimulates  the  wavering,  revives 
sinking  hopes,  and  softens  arduous  toil.  '  She  layeth  her  hands  to  the 
spindle,  and  her  hands  hold  the  distaff.  Her  children  rise  up  and  call  her 
blessed,  and  her  husband  he  praiseth  her.'  " 

And  now,  farmers,  let  us  hold  fast  to  our  profession,  it  is  one  which 
admits  of  progress  ;  you  are  the  bone  and  sinew  of  the  land  ;  you  stand 
upon  the  soil,  and  every  year  augment  the  wealth  of  the  nation,.  Other 
classes  are  the  consumers,  the  exchangers.  You  furnish  the  means  and 
the  supply.  Our  profession  demands  the  highest  order  of  intellect  and 
virtue.  We  must  not  discard  science,  for  she  is  the  hand-maid  of  agri- 
culture. Investigation  is  necessary  to  our  progress.  Ascertained  facts 
are  the  data  on  which  we  must  frame  our  theories.  Agricultural  works 
assist  inquiry,  and  at  our  next  exhibition  let  us  make  the  Society  worthy 
of  Dane  county  and  of  ourselves. 


115 


FOND  DU  LAC. 

A  Meeting  was  held  at  Rosendale,  on  the  iifth  day  of  July,  1852,  in 
accordance  with  a  notice  previously  given,  for  the  purpose  of  taking 
measures  for  the  organization  of  a  County  Agricultural  Society.  At 
.  this  meeting,  H.  W.  Walcott,  Esq.,  of  Rosendale,  presided,  and  Stores 
Hall,  M.  D.,  acted  as  Secretary.  After  the  appointment  of  a  Committee 
.to  prepare  a  suitable  Constitution,  the  Meeting  adjourned  to  Saturday, 
July  17th. 

On  re-assembling,  a  Constitution  was  reported  and  adopted,  and  the 
following  persons  chosen  to  fill  the  various  offices  for  the  current  year  : 
President,  Hoii.  N.  M.  Donaldson,  Waupun  ;  Vice  Presidents,  Charles 
r.  Hammond,  2d,  West  Rosendale  ;  Robert  Jenkinson,  Metomon,  and 
John  Elwell,  Taychcdah  ;  Recording  Secretary,  Storrs  Hall,  M.  D., 
Rosendale;  Corresponding  Secretary,  Elliot  BroAvn,  M.  D.,  Lamartine  ; 
■  Treasurer,  S.  N.  Hawes,  Fond  du  Lac.  By  the  Constitution,  these  offi- 
cers constitute  a  Board  of  Directors,  having  in  charge  the  general  inte- 
rests of  the  Society. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  Directors,  held  July  27th,  1852,  it  was  resolved 
that  the  first  Annual  Cattle  Show  and  Fair  should  be  held  at  Rosendale, 
on  the  29th  and  30th  days  of  September. 

Of  this  Fair,  the  Secretary,  Dr.  Hall,  thus  speaks  :        ' 

"  The  first  Annual  Fair  and  Cattle  Show  of  the  Fond  du  Lac  County 
Agricultural  Society,  was  held  at  Rosendale,   on  the   29th  and  30th  of 

•  September,  1852.  The  attendance  of  the  farmers  and  others  interested 
in  the  progress  of  agricultural  pursuits,  was  very  large — far  exceeding 
the  fondest  anticipations  of  the  friends  of  the  Society,  Less  than  three 
months  had  passed  since  the  first  formation  of  the  Society,  consequently 
a  sufficient  time  had  not  elapsed  for  suitable  notice  to  be  given,  or  efficient 
preparations  to  be  made  ;  but,  judging  from  this  first  eflfort  of  the  Society, 
in  its  infant  state,  and  laboring  under  all  the  disadvantages  of  circum- 
stances, we  may  hope  and  trust  that  it  will  not,  in  its  maturer  growth, 

.  and  under  more  favorable  circumstances,  fall  short  of  the  exhibitions  of 
.  Societies  of  a  similar  character  in  this,  or  even  in  older  States. 

"The  county  is  but  newly  settled;  the  Indian's  trail  is  not  wholly 

•  -effaced  Avithin  our  bounds,  and  vast  portions  of  our  territory  are  still 


116 

unoccupied  and  uncultivated.  Oui*  Fair  has  been  but  a  faint  shadow  of 
what  it  is  destined  to  become  ;  and  yet  it  goes  far  to  exhibit  the  energy 
which  characterizes  the  settlers  of  this  region. 

"  There  were  entered,  in  competition  for  premiums,  about  two  hundred 
and  fifty  different  articles  ;  embracing  a  very  large  portion  of  the  various 
products  of  the  farm. 

"An  Address  was  delivered,  extemporaneously,  on  the  first  day  of  the 
Fair,  by  Edward  Daniels,  Esq.,  of  Ceresco.  The  Address  was  able  and 
interesting  ;  and  made  a  good  impression  upon  the  agricultural  portion 
of  our  community. 

"  The  Board  of  Directors  hesitated  for  a  long  time,  as  to  the  expediency 
of  holding  a  Fair  the  present  year.  The  want  of  funds,  the  unprepared 
state  of  the  public  mind,  and  the  uncertainty  of  success  ;  the  difficulties 
which  have  surrounded  the  farmers  of  this  region  for  some  years  ;  and 
the  entire  absence  of  special  efforts  for  preparation,  were  reasons  that 
weighed  heavily  against  the  apparent  practicability  of  the  enterprise.  The 
days  were  named,  not  without  fears  for  its  success.  The  result,  how- 
ever, shows  that  the  conclusions  of  the  directors  were  right,  for  the  Fair 
exceeded,  beyond  all  comparison,  their  most  sanguine  anticipations. 

"  The  receipts  of  the  Society,  since  its  formation,  have  been  886  82, 
and  the  expenditures  have  been  about  the  same  amount." 

IOWA. 

No  report  has  been  received  of  the  proceedings  of  the  Iowa  County- 
Agricultural  Society,  during  the  past  year,  and  it  is  believed  that  but 
little  has  been  done  by  it  towards  carrying  out  the  ends  of  its  forma- 
tion. 

JEFFERSON  AND  DODGE. 

Watertowx,  December  6,   1852. 

Dear  Sir  : — A  notice  appeared  in  the  Watertown  papers,  for  two  or 
three  weeks  previous  to  the  18th  day  of  February,  1852,  requesting- 
the  farmers  and  mechanics  of  the  counties  of  Jefferson  and  Dodge  to 
meet  on  the  day  named,  in  the  village  of  Watertown,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  forming  an  Agricultural  Association.  At  the  meeting,  the 
attendance  was  meagre.      Some  four  or   five  farmers   appeared  froia 


117 

Dodge  county,  and  about  the  same  number  of  mechanics,  merchants 
and  manufacturers  from  Watertown.  Those  who  had  been  the  most 
active  in  getting  up  the  meeting,  were  almost  discouraged  by  the  indiff- 
erence which,  it  was  but  too  apparent,  was  felt  by  those  most  deeply 
interested  i^  the  objects  which  it  had  been  called  to  promote.  Neverthe- 
less, it  was  determined  to  form  an  Association,  to  be  known  and  desig- 
nated as  the  "Jefferson  and  Dodge  County  Agricultural  Society."  A 
Constitution  Avas  adopted,  similar  to  that  of  most  of  the  other  County 
Agricultural  Societies,  with  the  additional  clause  that  "  each  hona  fide 
member  shall  receive,  at  the  expense  of  the  Society,  an  Agricultural 
paper  published  in  this  State,  subject  only  to  postage." 

The  Constitution  Avas  signed  by  the  eleven  persons  present ;  after 
which  the  following  officers,  for  the  then  ensuing  year,  were  elected : 
President,  Allen  H.  Atwater,  of  Oak  Grove  ;  Secretary,  J.  A.  Hadley, 
of  Watertown  ;  Treasurer,  Luther  A.  Cole,  of  WatertoAvn  ;  Executive 
Committee,  William  M.  Dennis  and  Benjamin  Fuller,  of  Dodge  county  ; 
Linus  R.  Cady  and  John  Richards,  of  Jefferson  county.  The  Executive 
Committee  then  appointed  one  Vice-President  for  each  town  in  the  two 
counties. 

A  meeting  of  the  Executive  Committee  was  held  at  Watertown  on  the 
21st  day  of  August  following,  at  which  it  was  resolved  to  hold  a  Cattle 
Show  and  Fair  at  Oak  Grove,  on  the  2d  day  of  October.  At  the  same 
meeting.   Committees  to  award  premiums  Avere  appointed. 

The  First  Annual  Fair  was  held  agreeably  to  appointment.  At  this  ex- 
hibition the  display  of  hv./ses,  cattle,  swine,  and  sheep,  Avas  highly  credit- 
able to  the  f  .rmers  of  the  two  counties.  Of  domestic  manufactures, 
farming  implements,  fruit,  and  vegetables,  the  competition  was  less  than 
had  been  expected.  The  amount  of  \  remiums  aAvarded  was  ^54  63.  The 
highest  premium  Avas  81  75,  and  the  loAA'est  tAventy-iiA-e  cents.  After 
paying  these  premiums,  and  other  expenses  of  the  Society,  including 
papers  to  its  members,  the  treasurer  found  in  his  hand  a  balance  of 
85  68.  His  total  receipts  had  been  $75.  Sixty-four  members  were  added 
to  the  Society  on  the  day  of  the  Fair,  making  the  total  number  of  mem- 
bers up  to  that  date,  seventy-five. 

The  attendance  upon  the  Fair  was  large.  There  could  not  have  been 
less  than  one  thousand  five  hundred  or  two  thousand  persons  present. 
On  the  whole,  the  Fair  gave  very  general  satiafaction.  That  it  has 
excited  a  spirit  of  laudable  emulation  on  the  part  of  the  farmers  and  me- 


118 

chanics  of  the  two  counties,  the  good  fruits  of  which  will  be  developed 

at  future  Fairs,  the  members  and  friends  of  the  Society  have  the  best 

reasons  for  believing. 

Yours  truly, 

J.  A.  HADLEY, 

Sec.  of  Jefferson  and  Lodge  Agr.  Society. 
To  Albert  C.  Ingham,  Esq. 

Sec.  of  the  Wis.  State  Agr.  Society.  ' 

KENOSHA. 

Kenosha,  December  10,  1852. 

Dear  Sir  : — The  Kenosha  County  Agricultural  Society  continues  in  a. 
flourishing  condition.  We  hold  our  meetings  quarterly,  at  which  there 
is  generally  a  good  attendance,  and  an  abiding  interest  is  kept  up.  We 
feel  encouraged  to  go  on  in  the  good  work,  for  we  see  that  the  best  results 
are  being  produced,  and  we  shall  claim,  ere  long,  to  be  the  banner 
county  of  the  State,  if  Ave  are  not  already  entitled  to  the  appellation,  for 
we  were  the  first  to  begin  the  work,  and  trust  to  be  the  last  to  abandon 
it. 

By  a  change  in  our  Constitution,  our  annual  meeting  was  held  on  the 
first  Monday  in  December,  Avhen  the  following  persons  were  elected 
officers  for  the  ensuing  year  : 

President,  Leonard  Crocker,  of  Somers  ;  Vice  Presidents,  Levi  Grant, 
of  Bristol,  and  G.  J.  Pease,  of  Salem  ;  Treasurer,  George  N.  Towslee,  of 
Kenosha  ;  Recording  Secretary,  Frederick  J.  Brand,  of  Pleasant  Prairie ; 
Corresponding  Secretary,  T.  J.  Rand,  of  Kenosha. 

At  this  meeting,  we  awarded  premiums  on  field  crops,  seeds  and  grain, 
and  voted  to  hold  the  next  Fair  at  Kenosha. 

This  Society  held  its  Annual  Fair  at  Bristol,  on  Thursday  and  Friday, 
September  30th,  and  October  1st,  1852  ;  at  which  time,  notwithstanding- 
the  location,  which  was  somewhat  oiit  of  the  way,  there  was  a  large 
attendance.  The  Show  lasted  two  days  ;  on  the  second  day  there  was  sup- 
posed to  be  over  four  thousand  people  on  the  grounds.  The  show  of  horses, 
cattle,  and  implements,  was  good.  The  Floral  and  Horticultural  Show 
was  superior  for  this  new  State,  and  the  ladies'  department  was  pecu- 
liarly excellent ;  they,  I  am  happy  to  state,  take  a  great  interest  in  our 
Fairs.     There  were  two  hundred  entries  for  premiums,  and  one  hundred 


119 

and  fourteen  awards,  paid  in  cash  and  diplomas,   without  including  the 
entries  or  awards  on  crops,  seeds,  &c. 

There  were  some  persons  who  did  not  take  sheep  and  other  stock  to 
our  Fair  this  year,  because  they  had  received  premiums  in  previous 
years,  and  were  not  entitled,  by  the  rules  of  the  Society,  to  compete 
again  in  the  same  class.  This  is  not,  in  my  opinion,  a  sufficient  reason 
for  not  exhibiting  these  animals.  Good  stock  should  be  shown,  whether 
entitled  to  a  premium  or  not.  We  cannot  see  a  handsome  animal  too 
often. 

While  on  the  subject  of  Agriculture,  I  cannot  forbear  to  mention  the 
'  Exchange  Fairs.'  AVe  think  more  of  this  Fair,  in  its  practical  uses,  than 
of  any  other  of  our  meetings.  In  my  report  of  last  year,  I  explained 
its  utility  and  importance,  and  would  again  commend  it  to  the  attention, 
of  all  County  Societies. 

The  prospects  of  the  success  for  some  years  to  come  of  agricultural 
pursuits  in  this  State  are  flattering  ;  and  now  is  the  time  to  get  the  far- 
mers enlisted  in  the  work  of  Agricultural  Societies.  And  allow  me  to 
recommend  Farmer's  Clubs.  Many  evenings  in  the  winter  might  be 
profitably  spent  in  club  meetings  for  the  exchange  of  views  on  the  sub- 
jects of  farming.  As  well  might  a  man  undertake  to  navigate  a  ship  to 
India  without  a  knowledge  of  the  science  of  navigation,  as  to  undertake 
to  produce  favorable  results  from  farming,  without  books,  and  without 
an  exchange  of  opinions  with  others.  The  easiest,  cheapest,  and  most 
direct  way  of  obtaining  this  knowledge,  so  important  to  the  successful 
farmer,  is  by  establishing  clubs,  with  useful  libraries  attached.  We  see 
that  almost  every  profession,  business,  or  trade  in  life,  has  its  associa- 
tions for  mutual  improvement,  Avhile  Agriculture — the  most  important  of 
them  all — folds  her  arms,  and  is  content  to  walk  in  the  paths  of  her  fore- 
fathers, even  as  far  back  as  the  dark  ages.  It  is  time  to  awaken  ;  the  age 
of  improvement  is  fast  leaving  us  in  the  rear. 

Yours  truly, 

T.  J.  RAND, 
Cor.  Sec.  Kenosha  Co.  Agr.  Society. 
To  Albert  C.  Ingham,  Esq. 

Sec.  of  the  Wis.  State  Agr.  Society. 


120 
ADDRESS  BY  HON.  SAMUEL  R.  McCLELLAN, 

PRESIDENT    OF    THE    KENOSHA    COUNTY    AGRICULTURAL    SOCIETl'. 

Ladies  and  Gentlemen  : — Time,  in  its  onward  course,  has  brought 
about  another  year.  Again  we  have  assembled  as  the  Agricultural 
Society  of  the  county  of  Kenosha,  and  again  by  your  partiality  it  is 
made  my  duty  to  address  you. 

I  could  have  wished  your  choice  had  fallen  upon  some  one  abler,  and 
more  conversant  than  myself  with  that  science,  which  it  is  the  object  of 
this  Society  to  promote.  And  I  can  only  say  that  were  my  knowledge 
of  agriculture  equal  to  my  love  for  it,  then  could  I  talk  with  you  upon 
this  theme  until  your  patience  were  wearied.  But  this,  unfortunately,  is 
not  so.     The  best  years  of  my  life  were  spent  in  a  far  different  pursuit. 

"  Me  they  sent 
To  wait  on  pain,  and  silent  arts  to  urge, 
Inglorious,  not  ignoble  ;  mj  cares. 
To  ease  such  as  languish  on  a  grievious  bed, 
And  the  sweet  forgetfulness  of  ill  conciliate." 

It  is  but  a  few  short  years  since  I  came  among  you,  a  novice  in  the 
science  and  art  of  agriculture. 

And  I  take  this  occasion  to  acknowledge  the  obligations  I  am  under 
to  this  Society  for  the  many  lessons  of  practical  importance  I  have  learned 
at  our  several  meetings.  Yet,  even  to  this  day,  I  feel  that  I  have 
but  just  entered  the  vestibule  of  the  temple  of  Ceres,  though  enough  has 
already  been  unfolded  to  my  view  to  satisfy  me  that  the  science  of  agri- 
culture is  of  importance  sufficient  to  engage  the  attention  of  the  ablest 
minds. 

The  science  of  Agriculture  !  What  is  it  ?  It  is  emphatically  the  basis 
of  civilization,  the  foundation  of  all  other  sciences,  embracing  Avithin  its 
scope  a  knowledge  not  only  of  the  earth  and  its  minerals,  but  also  of  its 
vegetable  and  animal  productions.  This  is  not  all.  Everything  incident 
to,  or  connected  with  the  production  and  growth  of  vegetables  and  ani- 
mals, their  preservation  and  their  diseases,  their  decomposition  and  their 
reproduction  are  all  embraced  in  the  science  of  Agriculture. 

What  science  more  interesting  ?  What  science  more  noble  ?  What 
science  more  neglected  ? 

I  propose  to  say  a  few  words  upon  the  causes  of  this  neglect,  and  the 
remedy.     An  all-wise  and  beneficent  Providence  has  so  ordained  that 


121 

by  natural  causes,  our  soil  is  fitted  originally  with  all  the  necessary 
properties  for  vegetable  productions,  and  from  the  immense  quantities  of 
virgin  soil  constantly  being  brought  into  a  state  of  cultivation  and  im- 
provement by  the  hardy  sons  of  toil,  in  all  parts  of  our  extensive  coun- 
try, our  agricultural  products  are  so  large,  that  we  entirely  overlook  the 
necessity  of  retaining  the  natural  fertility  of  our  soils,  or  of  increasing 
the  aggregate  amount  of  our  products. 

The  consequence  is,  we  have  lost  at  least  half  a  century  in  agricultural 
progress  ;  and  although  we  have  outstripped  the  nations  of  the  old  world 
in  many  branches  of  science,  yet  in  agriculture  we  are  far  behind  them. 

Still  I  hazard  the  assertion,  that  no  nation  has  originated  more  new 
ideas  in  relation  to  the  science  of  Agriculture  than  our  own,  but  owing  to 
the  want  of  popular  s}Tnpathy,  and  a  fountain  head  charged  with  the 
duty  of  collecting  and  distributing  information  to  stimulate  and  encour- 
age enterprise  and  experiment,  thus  drawing  to  a  common  centre  the  re- 
sults of  individual  skill  and  observation,  and  thence  difFusingf  them 
throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  our  extended  country,  these  valu- 
able ideas  have  been  neglected,  and  in  a  measure  lost. 

Compared  with  other  nations,  what  has  America  done  for  the  cause 
of  Agriculture  ? 

There  are  in  Europe  upwards  of  three  hundred  and  fifty  schools  and 
colleges,  exclusively  agricultural,  even  despotic  Russia  has  sixty-eight 
schools  of  Agriculture,  while  in  the  United  States,  not  a  single  Institu- 
tion of  the  kind  exists  ! 

By  the  late  census  of  1850,  it  appears  that  the  people  of  these  United 
States  have  invested  ^552,705,238  in  domestic  animals;  and  yet,  if  a 
young  man  about  to  engage  in  stock-growing,  wishes  to  study  the  anat- 
omy of  the  horse  or  any  other  animal,  there  is  not  a  museum  in  all 
America  where  this  can  be  done ! 

No  man  supposes  for  an  instant,  that  we  can  learn  the  anatomy  and 
physiology  of  man  from  books.  No,  we  must  make  dissections,  we  must 
have  occular  demonstrations,  and  valuable  museums,  to  illustrate  all  parts 
of  the  system  both  in  a  healthy  and  a  diseased  condition. 

And  just  in  proportion  to  the  importance  of  the  subject,  the  one  is  as 
necessary  as  the  other.  We  have  in  this  country  over  thirty  millions  of 
sheep,  and  between  five  and  six  millions  of  cows  which  yield  us  the  pro- 
duct of  the  dairy.  Will  any  reasonable  man  say  that  a  knowledge  of 
all  this  living  machinery  can  be  of  no  value  to  the  country  ?  Shall  we 
9 


122 

continue  to  grope  our  way  in  the  dark,  depending  upon  foreign  countries 
for  information  upon  a  subject  of  so  much  moment  as  this  ?  For  the  honor 
of  my  countrymen  I  tr'st  it  will  not  be.  And  I  am  happy  to  state  that 
within  the  past  few  years  an  increased  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  sci- 
ence of  agriculture,  and  we  have  reason  to  hope  a  brighter  day  is  about 
to  dawn. 

The  importance  of  estabhshing  an  Agricultural  Bureau  was  discussed, 
and  found  many  able  advocates,  in  the  present  Congress.  A  National 
Agricultural  Convention  was  held  at  Washington  during  the  past  summer, 
the  result  of  which  was,  the  formation  of  the  United  States  Agricultural 
Society.  And  in  this  Convention  no  less  than  twenty  three  States  and 
Territories  were  represented. 

Thus  we  see  that  public  sentiment  has  been  awakened  upon  the  subject, 

and  we  have  now  but  to  combine  and  organize  State  and  County  Agri- 

cutural  Societies,  and  bring  our  strength  to  bear  on  the  advancement  of 

this  noble  science,    and  our  purpose  is  accomplished.     If  we   remain 

divided  and  isolated  our  moral  force  will  be  lost.     We  must  bring  the 

science  of  combination  to  bear  upon  our  purpose.     State  and  County 

1  Societies,  if  they  would  unite  their  influence,  have  now  the  power  to 

Vmduce  Congress  to  do  something  for  us.     It  is  vain  to  expect  politicians 

^  take  the  lead  in  this  matter,  they  must  be  pressed  into  it  by  public 

sentiment.     Great  measures  of  reform  can  only  -progress  ^ari  passu  with 

enlightened  public  sentiment.     Individuals,  it  is  true,  are  frequently  in 

advance  of  the  age  in  which  they  live,  but  their  ideas  can  only  be  carried 

out  as  fast  as  public  sympathy  appreciate  them. 

Hartlib  pointed  out  the  advantages  of  a  National  Board  of  Agricul- 
ture to  the  inhabitants  of  Great  Britain,  a  century  before  it  was  established 
by  the  indefatigable  exertions  of  Sir  John  Sinclair. 

Washington,  the  father  of  his  country,  and  a  practical  farmer,  recom- 
mended the  establishment  of  an  Agricultural  Bureau  in  several  of  his 
messages  to  Congress.  It  was  a  subject  on  which  he  ever  expressed  the 
liveliest  interest,  and  upon  which  he  loved  to  dwell. 

In  his  correspondence  with  Mr.  Sinclair,  speaking  of  the  British 
Board  of  Agriculture,  he  says  : 

"  From  the  first  intimation  you  were  pleased  to  give  me  of  this  insti- 
tution, I  conceived  the  most  favorable  ideas  of  its  utility.  And  the  more 
I  have  seen  and  reflected  on  the  plan  since,  the  more  I  become  convinced 
of  its  importance,  in  a  national  point  of  view,  not  only  to  your  own 


123 

country,  but  to  all  others  which  are  not  too  much  attached  to  old  and  bad 
liabits  to  forsake  them,  and  to  new  countries  that  are  just  beginning  to 
form  systems  for  the  improvement  of  their  husbandry." 

This  was  the  deliberate  opinion  of  a  man,  whose  name  no  true  American 
can  mention  without  feelings  of  profound  veneration. 

In  mv  last  Annual  Address,  I  suggested  the  idea  of  a  State  Board  of 
Agriculture,  and  although  nothing  has  yet  been  done,  I  am  still  impressed 
with  the  importance  of  that  measure. 

That  ;he  agricultural  interest  is  one  of  vast  importance  to  our  country, 
is  being  more  and  more  realized  with  each  succeeding  year;  and  this 
not  only  from  the  great  numbers  engaged  in  it,  but  also  from  the  various 
relations  sustained  by  the  class  who  compose  it,  and  the  influence  of  the 
product <  of  their  industry  on  our  general  prosperity  as  a  nation. 

Subcract  from  our  resources  our  agricultural  productions,  and  a  wide 
void  would  be  made. 

The  great  question,  then,  as  to  what  will  best  promote  our  prosperitv  as 
an  agricultural  nation,  is  one  well  worthy  the  consideration  of  the  legisla- 
tors in  all  the  States,  and  under  proper  regulations  this  object  may  be  at 
tained.  At  a  comparatively  small  expense  each  State  may  be  possessed 
of  a  knowledge  of  its  own  resources,  which  would  be  valuable,  not  only 
in  direciing  its  own  policy,  but  to  exchange  for  like  information  from  its 
sister  States  and  from  foreign  countries.  It  is  a  knowledge  of  these  facts, 
imperfect  as  they  are,  that  is  now  giving  us  an  increasing  importance  in 
the  eyes  of  the  nations  of  the  old  world.  They  are  watching  us  with 
mingled  feelings  of  admiration  and  envy.  They  see  and  feel  the  influ- 
ence we  are  destined  to  exert  on  the  progressive  march  of  humanity. 

Let  then,  the  immense  extent,  the  vast  variety  of  our  resources,  the 
elements  of  our  industry,  the  channels  open  for  our  future  development, 
be  spread  out  that  they  may  be  known  and  read  of  all  men.  Let  facts 
and  figures  stand  forth,  inviting  investigation,  proving  to  the  world  that 
whatever  may  be  the  gush  of  passion,  or  the  momentary  excitement  of 
party  feeling,  we  are  still  mutually  dependent,  each  State  with  its  sister- 
hood and  that  with  a  wise  foresight,  our  fathers  selected  our  national 
motto.  "  E  Pluribus  Unum."  May  it  ever  be  borne  aloft  by  our  Amer- 
ican Eagle. 

"  Long  be  our  fathers'  temple  ours, 
Woe  to  the  hand  bj  which  it  falls 
Departed  spirits  watch  its  towers, 
While  livbg  patriots  guard  its  walla," 


124: 

I  trust  you  will  not  deem  it  inappropriate  at  this  time  to  say  a  few 
words  to  the  young  men  who  have  chosen  the  profession  of  Agriculture. 
It  is  a  noble  vocation,  and  upon  you  will  soon  devolve  the  high  responsi- 
bility, not  only  of  maintaining  its  present  position,  but  carrying  it  for- 
ward in.  even  pace  with  the  progress  of  the  other  sciences.  The  earth 
on  which  you  tread  is  endowed  with  a  thousand  capabilities  of  produc- 
tion, which  require  only  the  fostering  hand  of  intelligent  industry  to  yield 
you  the  most  ample  returns. 

In  this,  as  in  all  other  departments  of  science,  "  knowledge  is  power," 
and  it  is  of  the  highest  importance  to  you  to  make  yourselves  acquainted 
with  the  constitution  and  relations  of  every  object  around  you,  that  you 
may  avail  yourselves  of  their  capabilities  of  ministering  to  your  comfort 
and  happiness.  And  I  would  earnestly  impress  upon  you  the  advantages 
of  acquiring  a  taste  for  reading  and  habits  of  investigation.  I  know  that 
youn^  men  are  too  apt  to  suppose,  when  they  have  finished  their  preli- 
minary studies  and  entered  upon  the  active  duties  of  their  calling,  that 
they  have  acquired  all  the  knowledge  requisite  for  their  proper  discharge. 
This  is  a  great  mistake.  They  are  then  only  fitted  to  pursue  with  advan- 
tage a  more  enlarged  course  of  study. 

In  this  ao-e  of  cheap  literature,  when  knowledge  no  longer  walks  the 
streets,  as  in  days  of  yore,  with  uncouth  wig  and  sable  cowl,  but  when 
the  portals  of  her  temple  are  open  wide,  that  all  who  choose  may  enter, 
you  should  not  fail  to  form  and  cultivate  a  taste  that  will  expand  the 
mind,  ennoble  the  faculties,  strengthen  the  judgment,  and  open  to  you 
innumerable  sources  of  rational  enjoyment. 

Science  will  inform  you  of  the  organization,  the  uses  and  the  history 
of  animated  nature.  It  will  classify,  arrange,  and  make  you  familiar  with 
every  department  of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  It  will  analyze  the  water 
that  fertilizes  the  earth,  and  the  invisible  air  by  which  you  are  surrounded. 
It  will  t«ach  you  the  laws  of  heat,  light,  and  electricity.  It  will  do  more. 
It  will  elevate  your  thoughts  to  the  heavens,  and  present  to  your  won- 
dering minds  the  immensity,  the  distances,  the  revolutions  and  laws 
which  govern  the  globes  and  stud  the  great  arch  above  us.  It  will 
teaeh  you  that  an  all-wise  and  beneficent  Creator  has  impressed  the  same 
unerrino"  law  on  every  portion  of  the  universe,  as  full,  as  perfect  on  the 
tiny  pebble  which  lies  upon  the  sea  shore,  as  on  the  globe  we  inhabit; 
as  full,  as  perfect  in  the  gentle  zephyr  that  woos  us  with  its  soft  embrace. 


125 

V 

as  in  the  wliirlwinds'   crash ;  as  full,  as  perfect  in  the  lowest  animal 

instinct  as  in  the  soul  of  man. 

"  'Tis  the  same  law,  that  moulds  the  tear, 
And  bids  it  trickle  from  its  source, 
That  holds  the  ocean  iu  its  sphere, 
And  guides  the  planets  in  their  coui-se." 

To  the  ladies  Arho  have  participated  in  this  exhibition,  I  can  but  reite- 
rate the  sentiments  of  my  last  year's  Address.  We  thank  you  for  the 
past;  we  need  not  bespeak  your  continuance  in  well-doing  for  the  future, 
for  it  is  not  in  your  nature  to  abandon  a  good  cause  when  once  fairly  en- 
listed. All  history,  both  sacred  and  profane,  abounds  with  brilliant  ex- 
amples of  the  disinterestedness,  the  constancy,  the  devotedness  of  woman. 
The  last  at  the  cross,  the  first  at  the  sepulchre  ;  in  the  darkest  hour  of 
peril  she  knows  not  to  falter.  I  congratulate  you  that  your  department  in 
this  exhibition  has  been  well  sustained.  I  bid  you  God  speed  and  hail 
you  as  co-laborers  with  us  in  the  upbuilding  of  an  institution  which  has 
for  its  object  the  diffusion  of  knowledge,  the  enlightenment  of  society, 
and  the  amelioration  of  the  condition  of  our  common  country. 


MILWAUKEE  AND  WAUKESHA. 

In  consequence  of  the  location  of  the  State  Fair,  for  the  year  1852, 
at  the  city  of  Milwaukee,  no  Fair  Avas  held  by  the  Milwaukee  and  Wau- 
kesha County  Agricultural  Society.  The  Society  is,  hoAvever,  in  a 
flourishing  condition  and  will  resume  active  operations  at  an  early  day. 
The  Secretary  speaks  in  high  terms  of  the  beneficial  results  flowing 
from  the  holding  of  the  State  Fair  in  their  midst ;  and  anticipates  that 
much  permanent  advantage  will  accrue  therefrom.  The  list  of  officers 
of  the  Society  has  not  been  furnished  us. 

RACINE. 

The  Racine  County  Agricultural  Society,  held  its  Annual  Fair  and 
Cattle  Show  at  Yorkville,  during  the  month  of  September,  1852.  The 
Fair  was  well  attended,  and  much  enthusiasm  manifested.  No  Report 
lias  been  received  of  its  proceedings,  though  it  is  believed  to  be  in  a 
prosperous  condition. 


126 

ROCK. 

Janesville,  November  25,  1852. 

Dear  Sir  : — The  Rock  County  Agricultural  Society  and  Mechanics'" 
Institute  has  been  in  operation  for  two  years.  The  experiment  of  sus- 
taining a  County  Agricultural  Society  in  Rock  county,  has  novr  been 
fairly  tried,  and  its  stability  and  perpetuity  has  become  one  of  the  fixed 
facts  in  the  public  estimation,  as  it  has  succeeded  beyond  the  expecta- 
tions of  its  most  sanguine  friends.  It  has  now  reached  a  point  from 
which  one  need  not  apprehend  a  retrograde  movement,  or  entertain  any 
fears  as  to  its  permanent  existence. 

It  is  well  known  that  our  first  Annual  Cattle  Show  and  Fair  Avas  held 
in  connection  with  the  State  Fair,  at  Janesville,  in  1851.  That  was  an 
exhibition  highly  creditable  alike  to  the  farmers  and  mechanics  of  our 
county  and  the  State  generally.  From  that  time  forward,  until  our  last 
Annual  Fair,  many  not  only  attributed  our  apparent  success  to  our  con- 
nection with  the  State  Society  at  that  time,  but  predicted  a  failure  if  we 
should  attempt  to  act  as  an  independent  Society  within  our  own  county. 
But  others,  with  an  energy  and  perseverance  worthy  of  the  cause,  deter- 
mined to  make  an  effort,  and  give  a  fair  trial,  at  least,  to  so  laudable  an 
imdertaking.  Accordingly,  arrangements  were  made  for  the  Fair  ;  but 
still  the  auspices  seemed  unfavorable,  as  it  became  necessary,  for  reasons 
which  it  is  not  necessary  to  explain,  to  hold  it  at  one  extreme  of  the 
county.  This  was  not  only  inconvenient  for  many  who  wished  to  nttend, 
but  produced  great  dissatisfaction  in  other  portions  of  the  county.  And 
again,  the  time  was  injudiciously  selected,  the  circuit  court  beinp'  in  ses- 
sion at  the  time  appointed  for  the  Fair,  which  necessarily  detained  many 
influential  men  as  jurors,  &c.,  on  whom  we  had  relied  for  countenance 
and  assistance.  But  notwithstanding  these  untoward  circumstances, 
which  seemed  to  conspire  against  us,  the  result  shows  that  we  have 
abundant  cause  for  congratulation,  and  even  pride  ;  for  althouijli  some 
departments  were  not  very  fully  represented,  the  exhibition  was,  on  the 
whole,  of  the  most  commendable  character,  and  marked  through c>ut  by 
ti  spirit  which  augurs  well  for  the  future.  And  so  great  is  our  confi- 
dence in  the  resources  and  indomitable  energies  of  the  farmers  and  me- 

O 

chanics  of  our  county,  that  we  throw  down  the  gaimtlet  to  all  County- 
Societies  of  the  kind  in  the  great  Northwest ;  for  we  are  determined  not 
to  be  beat  in  1853. 


127 

Here  permit  me  to  say  that  much  credit  is  due  to  o\ir  President,  Hon. 
JosiAH  F.  WiLLAED,  for  his  unwearied  efforts  in  placing  the  Society  on 
a  permanent  basis,  and  in  sustaining  it.  Also  to  Prof.  S.  P.  Lathrop,  of 
Beloit  College,  Messrs.  Love  and  Baekee,  and  Daniel  Bennett,  of  Beloit; 
to  Vice  Presidents  Burgess  and  Burdick,  and  E,  A.  Howland,  Esq.  of 
Janesville  ;  to  J.  P.  Dickson,  Esq.,  our  Treasurer — not  forgetting  J.  P. 
Wheeler,  Esq.,  of  La  Prairie,  who  may,  with  propriety,  be  styled  the 
'  venerable  father*  of  the  Society — together  with  others,  whose  names  we 
have  not  space  to  mention. 

We  do  not  expect  to  convey  an  adequate  idea  of  the  extent  of  the  exhi- 
bition in  the  brief  review  which  follows.  To  be  appreciated,  it  should 
have  been  seen.  We  will  glance  lightly  over  each  department  on  the 
show  ground.     The  Fair  was  held  on  the  28th  and  29th  of  September. 

The  people  of  Beloit,  with  a  commendable  liberality,  fitted  up  the 
grounds  surrounding  their  new  and  spacious  Union  School  House,  with- 
out expense  to  the  Society.  The  grounds  being  enclosed  by  an  ample 
board  fence,  not  only  afforded  sufficient  space  for  the  exhibition  of  animals 
and  specimens  of  the  mechanic  arts,  but  also  for  the  accommodation  of 
all  those  who  wished  to  drive  through  the  grounds  in  carriages.  The 
School  House — a  beautiful  three-story  brick  building,  and  an  honor  to- 
the  town — afforded  commodious  rooms  for  the  display  of  articles  in  the 
Ladies'  Department,  the  Fine  Arts,  &c. 

Horses, — Many  superb  specimens  of  this  noble  and  most  service- 
able animal  attracted  the  attention  of  all.  R,  M.  Wheeler,  of  Janesville^ 
carried  off  the  first  premium  for  his  fine  stalhon,  "  Hambletonian," 
which  was  well  deserved.  Messrs.  Blodgett  and  Ruble,  of  Beloit,  pre- 
sented some  very  superior  young  stallions  ;  and  several  very  fine  sucking 
colts,  presented  by  0.  Densmore  and  others,  together  with  the  breeding 
mares  exhibited,  all  showed  that  our  farmers  are  awakening  to  the 
importance  of  improving  our  stock  of  horses.  Several  pairs  of  matched 
horses  were  shown,  among  which  those  of  Messrs.  Howland,  Trask  and 
Dickey,  of  Janesville,  W.  H.  Howard,  of  Beloit,  and  D.  H.  Cobb,  of  La 
Prairie,  were  superior.  Of  draught  horses,  Messrs.  Simon  Ruble  and  Q, 
B.  Sanderson,  of  Beloit,  J.  F.  Dockstader  of  Shopier,  J.  F,  Willard,  of 
Rock,  and  F,  S,  Eldred,  of  Johnstown,  probably  offered  the  best,  although 
a  great  number  of  others  on  the  ground  were  very  fine.  On  the  whole^ 
the  show  in  this  department  was  very  good. 


128 

Neat  Stock. — C.  Loftus  Martin,  of  Turtle,  received  the  first  premium 
on  Durham  bulls,  and  it  was  well  merited,  although  "Old  Taurus"  was 
well  represented  by  animals  presented  by  M.  P.  Cogswell  and  Yost 
Roberts,  of  Beloit ;  Jonathan  Cory,  of  Centre  ;  Jesse  Mills,  of  Janesville  ; 
F.  Hitchcock,  of  La  Prairie,  and  others.  The  working  oxen  were  feAv  in 
number,  although  several  fine  pairs  were  on  the  ground,  especially  three 
pairs  presented  by  Judge  C.  R.  Gibbs,  of  Harmony.  Several  fine  Durham 
cows  and  fat  cattle  were  exhibited  which  were  a  credit  to  their  owners, 
among  which  we  particularly  noticed  one  owned  by  F.  Hitchcock,  of  La 
Prairie,  which  was  very  fine  ;  G.  W.  Bicknell,  of  Beloit,  and  Peter 
McVane,  of  Kewark,  also  presented  good  animals. 

Sheep. — The  exhibition  in  this  department  was  better  than  was 
expected.  Several  pens  were  on  the  ground,  among  which,  those  belong- 
ing to  Levi  St.  John  of  La  Prairie,  N.  P.  Benson  and  John. A.  Fletcher 
.of  Johnstown,  and  E.  Bradley  of  Turtle,  were  superior,  and  gave  good 
evidence  of  discrimination  and  skill  on  the  part  of  the  wool-growers  of 
this  section.  And  we  may  add,  though  it  may  not  be  generally  known 
abroad,  that  Rock  County  possesses  all  the  requisites  necessary  to  become 
one  of.  the  best  wool-growing  sections  of  the  world. 

Swine. — This  class  was  also  finely  represented,  both  in  numbers  and 
quality.     Several  were  large,  sleek,  and  dignified  ;  and  seemed  to  grunt 
a  hearty  vote  of  thanks  to  the  good  people  of  Beloit,  for  the  bountiful 
-fare  provided  for  them  during  their  visit. 

PouLTRT. — Next  in  order  we  notice  the  poultry.  This  department 
■was  highly  creditable  to  the  exhibitors,  individual  representations  being 
■present,  with  their  progeny,  from  the  various  tribes  of  Shanghais,  Cochin 
Chinas,  Hamburgs,  Chittagongs,  Black  and  White  Polands,  &c.  We 
think  much  credit  is  due  to  Prof.  S.  P.  Lathrop  of  Beloit,  Messrs,  Wil- 
lard  of  Rock,  Chase  of  Janesville,  and  others,  for  the  pains  they  have 
taken  to  introduce  the  superior  breeds  of  fowls  into  our  county. 

Fakm  Products. — Beautiful  samples  of  winter  wheat  were  presented 
by  several  gentlemen.  Robert  Taylor  of  Spring  Valley,  and  S.  A. 
Murray  of  Turtle,  made  the  best  show.  Mr.  Taylor  had  five  acres  of 
red  chaff  bald,  which  yielded  thirty-one  bushels  per  acre.  Mr.  Murray 
had  nine  acres  of  Genesee  white  flint,  which  yielded  about  thirty  bush- 
els per  acre.  In  flax  raising,  Daniel  Bennett  alone  competed  ;  one 
acre  yielded  2,775  ft  of  straw  and  about  ten  bushels  of  seed.     Many 


129 

excellent  specimens  of  other  farm  and  garden  vegetables  were  shown, 
and  the  show  in  this  department  was  highly  gratifying. 

Fruits. — The  fruit-growers  of  this  county  are  deserving  of  distin- 
guished credit.  Among  the  first  on  the  list  is  James  Caldwell,  of 
Janesville,  for  six  beautiful  varieties  of  plums,  of  very  superior  quality 
and  size  ;  and  J.  Roberts,  of  Beloit  :  William  Spaulding,  of  Harmony, 
and  H.  T.  Woodward,  Jr.,  for  specimens  of  apples,  grapes,  &c.,  prov- 
ing that  our  county  is  capable  of  producing  as  good  fruit  as  any  other 
in  the  same  latitude. 

Farming  Implements. — In  as  brief  a  report  as  this  must  necessarily 
be,  it  will  be  impossible  to  do  justice  to  the  exhibitors  in  this  depart- 
ment. The  Committee  say,  in  reference  to  the  mowing  and  reaping 
machines  of  Messrs.  Barker  &  Love,  of  Beloit,  "  that  they  are  excellent, 
and  that  the  efforts  of  those  gentlemen  to  serve  the  farming  community, 
have  been  highly  successful,  and  creditable  to  themselves  as  machinists 
and  mechanics,  as  well  as  to  the  county.  Messrs.  Parker  &  Stone  pre- 
sented fine  specimens  of  hoes  and  hay-forks  of  their  own  manufacture  ; 
and  J.  M.  Riker,  of  Janesville  and  A.  P.  Allis,  of  Beloit,  exhibited 
beautiful  specimens  of  harness  work.  S.  T.  Merrill,  of  Beloit,  exhibited 
a  fine  specimen  of  paper,  of  his  own  manufacture  ;  and  H.  D.  Water- 
man, of  Beloit,  some  elegant  specimens  of  copper  and  tin  ware. 

Dairy  Products. — The  beautiful  sample  of  butter,  presented  by  Mrs. 
Rufus  Clarke,  of  Beloit,  will  not  be  soon  forgotten  by  those  who  saw  it. 
Other  very  fine  samples  were  presented  by  Daniel  Bennett,  Edward  Brad- 
ley, F.  S.  Eldred,  S.  A.  Murray,  E.  Thornbury,  D.  Blodgett,  and  others. 
Of  cheese,  F.  S.  Eldred,  of  Johnstown,  evidently  bore  off  the  palm, 
both  as  to  quantity  and  quality,  although  several  very  fine  samples  were 
presented  by  others. 

Farms  and  Gardens. — In  this  department  the  report  of  the  Committee 
is  presented,  accompanied  by  a  statement  from  Mr.  J.  F.  Willard,  who 
■was  the  successful  competitor,  and  received  the  award  of  the  Committee, 
both  on  the  Farm  and  the  Flower  Garden  ; 

[The  following  is  an  extract  from  the  report  of  the  Committee  on  Farms 
and  Gardens]  : 

*'  The  Committee  visited  the  farm  and  flower  garden  of  J.  F.  Willard, 
Esq.,  of  Rock.  This  farm  is  situated  on  the  east  side  of  Rock  River, 
about  two  miles  below  Janesville,  and  contains  about  three  hundred  and 


130 

forty  acres,  with  a  road  running  from  north  to  south  through  it,  leaving 
about  one  hundred  acres  west  of  the  road,  on  which,  and  near  the  road, 
are  located  the  farm  buildings,  consisting  of  an  ordinary  sized  dwelling, 
known  as  the  *  Forest  Cottage,'  neatly  constructed,  and  admirably 
arranged  for  utility  and  convenience,  while  within,  there  seems  to  be  '  a 
place  for  everything,  and  everything  in  its  place.* 

"  There  is  also  a  horse-barn,  granary,  and  other  out-buildings,  the 
arrangements  of  which  are  in  excellent  taste.  On  the  top  of  tiie  horse 
barn  is  an  observatory,  from  which  the  proprietor  can  at  any  time  over- 
look the  whole  premises,  and  from  which  a  magnificent  view  can  be 
obtained  of  one  of  those  beautiful  landscapes,  so  characteristic  of  Rock 
County,  and  stretching  for  miles  in  every  direction.  There  is  also,  on 
this  part  of  the  farm,  a  fruit  garden,  containing  a  large  number  of  thrifty 
young  trees,  well  cultivated,  among  which  your  Committee  noticed  the 
Peach,  Plum,  Cherry,  Apple,  Siberian  Crab,  (fee,  all  of  which,  together 
with  the  buildings,  are  judiciously  arranged,  exhibiting  evidence  of  skill 
and  taste  worthy  of  imitation.  This  part  of  the  farm  is  mostly  covered 
with  *  oak  openings,'  and  is  used  mostly  for  pasturage,  furnishing  a  de- 
lightful shade  for  buildings  and  stock.  It  is  watered  by  Rock  River, 
which  forms  its  western  boundary. 

*'  On  the  east  side  of  the  road,  the  land  is  mostly  prairie,  nearly  level, 
with  about  two  hundred  and  forty  acres  enclosed  in  one  field.  The 
Committee  noticed  about  a  mile  of  hving  fence,  mostly  locusts,  with  a  piece 
of  native  thorn  fence  ;  the  balance  of  about  two  miles  consists  of  rails, 
stakes  with  capping,  timber  set  in  a  trench,  &c.  There  are  a  fc-w  acres 
of  locusts  sown  broadcast  for  timber.  There  is  also  a  thrifty  young 
orchard,  of  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  apple  trees,  doing  well ;  and 
a  moveable  granary,  which  can  be  easily  removed  to  any  part  of  the 
farm,  to  receive  the  grain  when  threshed,  thereby  saving  a  great  amount 
of  labor  in  the  hurrying  time  of  harvest,  by  avoiding  the  necessity  of 
hauling  grain  a  great  distance  to  any  given  point.  We  also  noticed  the  ar- 
rangement of  crops,  such  as  com,  oats,  wheat,  beautiful  fields  of  clover, 
timothy,  &c.,  all  evincing  taste  in  their  arrangement,  while  the  excellent 
state  of  cultivation  of  the  farm,  denotes  energy  and  skill  in  execution. 
On  the  whole,  the  Committee  consider  this  farm  as  a  very  good  model. 

"  The  Committee  also  examined  the  flower  garden  of  Mr.  Willard, 
where  we  found  the  Native  and  White  Cedar,  the  English,  American, 
Norway  and  Balsam  Firs ;  the  Scotch  Pine,  the  Mountain  Ash,  the 


131 

Golden  Willow,  the  Horse  Chesnut,  the  Cypress  vine,  three  varieties  of 
Honeysuckles,  the  Flowering  Almond,  double  and  single  Michigan 
Roses  ;  the  Canary  Bird  Flower  and  about  thirty  varieties  of  Dahlias  ; 
among  which  are  '  George  IV,'  'Russell  Anna,'  and  a  thousand  et  cete- 
ras,  delightful  to  the  eye,  and  deliciously  odorous  ;  all  tastefully  arrang- 
ed, and  giving  unmistakable  evidence,  in  many  instances,  of  the  care  of 
a  softer  hand,  and  a  finer  touch  than  that  of  the  'lords  of  creation.* 
Flowers  and  shrubbery  intermingled  so  as  to  present  a  tasteful  appear- 
ance, as  these  were,  should  be  seen  to  be  appreciated." 

Mr.  Willabd's  Statement. 
"My  principal  crop  the  present  season,  has  been  wheat;  both  spring 
and  winter.  The  winter  wheat  was  of  the  white  flint  variety,  and  yield- 
ed about  twenty  bushels  per  acre.  The  spring  wheat  was  the  Canada 
Club,  Hedgerow,  Italian  and  Black  Sea  varieties  ;  all  of  which  I  have 
discarded  except  the  Canada  Club,  which  usually  yields  with  us,  from 
twenty-three  to  twenty-seven  bushels  per  acre.  Of  corn,  we  had 
twelve  acres,  which  yielded  about  fifty  bushels  per  acre,  on  an  average, 
without  any  extra  culture.  It  was  planted  on  wheat  stubble,  usually 
plowed  once,  and  cultivated  principally  with  the  horse  and  cultivator. 
I  raise  corn  on  the  "flat  surface"  principle,  seldom  using  a  plow  in  cul- 
tivating it.  I  cut  it  up  when  it  is  all  well  glazed,  and  put  it  in  shocks 
to  harden.  I  think  the  fodder  pays  amply  for  the  trouble  of  cutting  and 
putting  it  up.  Of  oats,  we  had  twenty  acres,  which  yielded  a  very  light 
crop,  owing  to  the  drought  of  the  past  season.  I  cut  with  the  reaper, 
when  quite  green,  and  threshed  with  the  machine  ;  the  yield  was  about 
twenty  bushels  per  acre.  Heretofore,  our  oat  crop  has  reached  from 
fifty  to  sixty  bushels  per  acre,  even  on  inferior  land.  Of  potatoes,  we 
had  about  an  acre  and  a  quarter.  Of  a  piece  of  the  land,  containing 
one-third  of  an  acre,  I  kept  an  account  of  the  expense  of  cultivation, 
and  subjoin  the  items  : 

Seed,  four  bushels  at  75c, 

Plowing  and  harrowing,  man  and  team 

Planting,  man  one  day    . 

Cultivating  twice,  boy  and  horse 

Hoeing  same  twice 

Digging  and  storing 

Cost  of  cultivating  one-third  of  an  acre 


.     S3 

00 

1 

00 

0 

75 

1 

00 

1 

88 

1 

87 

.    69 

50 

132 

"If  we  add  $1  00  for  the  use  of  the  land,  the  total  cost  will  be 
810  50.  The  yield  Avas  about  eighty  bushels,  which  at  twenty-five 
cents  per  bushel,  will  amount  to  820  00,  leaving  a  profit  on  one-third 
of  an  acre  of  $9  50,  The  ground  was  of  ordinary  quality,  and  was 
plowed  but  once.  The  variety  is  what  Ave  call  the  Mallory  potato.  The 
balance  did  not  yield  quite  as  much  per  acre,  yet  they  were  excellent  as 
to  quality.  We  took  a  specimen  of  the  Irish  pink-eye  variety  to  the 
County  Fair,  which  drew  the  first  premium  as  to  size,  &c. 

"  The  usual  rotation  of  crops  practised  on  our  farm,  is  as  follows  : 
First  crop,  wheat  on  sod  ;  second,  wheat  on  same  land  ;  third,  oats  ; 
fourth,  corn  ;  fifth,  spring  Avheat ;  sixth,  oats ;  seventh,  corn  ;  then 
spring  wheat  again,  and  so  on  in  the  same  rotation  again,  until  we  seed 
with  grass.  Timothy  and  clover  both  do  excellently.  I  have  a  piece  of 
clover  ley,  which  has  been  seeded  two  seasons,  from  which  I  have  taken 
four  crops,  two  of  hay  and  two  of  seed,  and  it  shows  no  signs,  that  I  can 
perceive,  of  "  running  out,"  but  seems  to  become  gradually  more  and 
more  compact  and  thoroughly  swarded.  Of  stock,  we  keep  twenty-five 
head  of  neat  cattle,  one  hundred  and  thirty-six  sheep,  fifty  hogs,  and 
flocks  of  poultry,  turkeys,  hens,  and  pea  fowls,  and  milk  only  four  cows. 
We  employ  two  hired  men  nearly  the  whole  year. 

"  I  also  make  a  practice  of  keeping  observations  of  the  weather,  and 
a  general  memoranda  of  events  on  my  farm  during  the  year  ;  from  which, 
if  I  had  time,  I  would  give  some  statistics." 

The  ladies,  the  wives  and  the  daughters  of  the  citizens  of  our  county, 
with  a  priseworthy  zeal,  contributed  freely  of  their  handiwork,  in  domes- 
tic manufactures,  embroidery  and  Avorsted  work,  and  the  large  variety 
of  beautiful  articles  in  their  department,  evinced  great  taste  on  their 
part,  and  contributed  greatly  to  the  success  of  the  Exhibition.  It  would 
afford  us  pleasure  to  name  many  who  exhibited  articles  worthy  of  com- 
mendation, but  space  will  not  admit.  Their  presence,  and  the  interest 
they  manifested,  was  not  only  an  honor  to  themselves,  but  gave  assurance 
that  the  Agricultural  Society  and  Mechanics'  Institute  would  prosper, 
if  its  success  depended  upon  their  countenance  and  efi'orts. 

At  two  o'clock,  P.  M.,  of  the  second  day  of  the  fair,  the  President, 
Hon.  J.  F.  Willard,  delivered  his  Annual  Address  to  a  very  large  and 
attentive  audience.  The  production  was  an  elegant  dissertation  on  Agri- 
culture, its  resources,  its  objects,  and  the  proper  course  to  be  pursued  by 
the  agriculturists,  as  viewed  by  a  scientific  and  practical  farmer.    It  con- 


133 

tained  many  views  and  suggestions  -which  were  not  only  creditable  to  the 
speaker,  but  which  Avill  be  found  useful  to  the  Society,  and  to  the  com- 
munity. 

Immediately  after  the  delivery  of  the  Address,  the  Treasurer  made  his 
report,  by  which  it  appeared  that  the  receipts  during  the  Fair  amounted 
to  nearly  $350,  making  the  amount  in  the  Treasury  $430.  After  paying 
premiums,  and  all  other  expenses,  there  is  now  in  the  Treasury  about 
i70  00. 

It  is  estimated  that  three  thousand  persons  were  present  on  the  Fair 
grounds.  The  exhibition  passed  off  well — the  utmost  good  feeling  pre- 
vailed, and  it  is  believed  that  the  multitude,  after  a  friendly  and  praise- 
worthy competition  for  the  prizes,  dispersed,  fully  convinced  of  the  utility 
of  the  Society.  We  feel  that  the  people  of  Beloit  deserve  the  thanks  of 
all  for  the  hospitable  manner  in  which  they  entertained  their  numerous 
visitors,  and  the  exertions  they  made  to  make  the  Exhibition  interesting 
and  to  contribute  to  the  comfort  of  those  who  attended  it. 

At  our  Annual  Meeting,  the  Board  of  Officers  was  chosen  for  the  ensu- 
ing year,  as  follows  :  President,  Josiah  F.  Willard  ;  Vice  Presidents, 
Charles  R.  Gibbs,  Ezra  A.  Foote,  Daniel  Bennett,  S.  P.  Lathrop,  Jesse 
Mills  and  E.  A.  Rowland  ;  Recording  Secretary,  Orrin  Guernsey;  Cor- 
responding Secretary  and  Librarian,  Mark  Miller;  Treasurer,  James  M. 
Burgess.     A  Board  of  Directors  was  also  appointed — one   from   each 

town  in  the  county. 

I  am,  Sir,  truly  yours, 

ORRIN  GUERNSEY, 

To  Albert  C.  Ingham,  Esq.,  Rec.  Sec.  Rock  Co.  Ar/r.  Society. 

Sec.  of  the  Wis.  State  Agr.  Society. 


SHEBOYGAN. 

Sheboygak,  December  21,  1853. 

Dear  Sir  : — The  Second  Annual  Fair  of  the  Sheboygan  County  Agri- 
cultural Society  was  held  at  the  town  of  Plymouth,  on  the  13th  day  of 
October  last,  but  owing  to  the  very  bad  state  of  the  weather  and  the 
roads,  the  attendance  was  not  large,  nor  the  entries  as  numerous  as  they 
otherwise  would  have  been. 

The  entries  were  composed  almost  entirely  of  agricultural  products, 
and  the  marked  improvement  that  was  manifested  over  the  display  of  the 


134 

preceding  year  was  such  as  to  cheer  and  encourage  all  who  feel  an 
interest  in  the  prosperity  of  this  portion  of  the  State,  and  gave  a  practical 
demonstration  of  the  productive  capacity  of  this  county,  quite  beyond 
the  expectations  of  many  of  our  citizens. 

It  would  be  gratifying  to  us  to  be  able  to  present  a  particular  descrip- 
tion of  some  of  the  entries  that  were  made,  but  the  object  of  this  commu- 
nication will  not,  perhaps,  admit  of  details,  and  we  must  content  ourselves 
•with  the  general  remark,  that  many  of  the  specimens  shown  under  the 
several  heads,  have  not,  either  in  quality  or  size,  been  surpassed  in  any 
portion  of  this  State  or  country. 

Tou  will  receive  from  Dr.  J.  J.  Brown,  on  behalf  of  this  Society,  a 
statistical  and  analytical  report,  which  we  .think  will  be  found  very  inter- 
esting and  important. 

Sheboygan  Coirnty  won  some  laurels  at  the  last  State  Fair,  and  might 
have  won  more ;  and  we  take  this  opportunity  to  say  to  our  sister 
Societies  in  Wisconsin,  that  if  the  farmers  of  Sheboygan  County  do  their 
duty  the  present  year,  and  enter  the  lists  in  their  full  strength,  at  the 
next  State  Fair,  they  will  make  an  exhibition  honorable  to  their  County 
and  their  State,  and  very  hard  to  beat. 

Yours  respectfully, 

CHARLES  E.  MORRIS, 
Sec.  Sheboygan  Co.  Agr.  Society. 

To  Albert  C.  Ingham,  Esq., 

Sec.  of  the  Wis.  State  Agr.  Society. 

The  following  is  the  Report  alluded  to  in  the  foregoing  : 

REMARKS  ON  SHEBOYGAN  COUNTY. 

Sheboygan,  November  10,  1852. 

Dear  Sir  : — Settlements  commenced  in  Sheboygan  County  in  1 835, 
but  the  depression  following  the  speculations  of  1836,  prevented,  for  the 
time  being,  further  additions ;  so  that,  in  1840,  there  were  but  133  inhab- 
itants in  the  county,  and  no  material  advancement  was  made  until  1845, 
since  which  time  our  county  has  made  rapid  progress  in  settlements  and 
improvements.  Our  population  now  numbers  over  9,000  ;  and  54,540 
acres  of  the  then  dense  and  unbroken  forest,  have  disappeared  before  the 
axe  of  the  sturdy  pioneer ;  while  grains  and  grasses  have  waved  to  the 


/ 


135 

breeze  in  their  stead,  to  gladden  and  repay  him  for  his  toil.  This 
region  appears  to  be  underlaid  throughout  with  a  grayish  crystaline  lime- 
stone, containino-,  as  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  ascertain,  no  fossils.  At 
several  places,  it  comes  near  the  surface,  and  affords  excellent  stone  for 
building  and  for  lime. 

Above  the  limestone  is  a  stratified  bed  of  clay,  from  which,  near  our 
town,  is  made  a  superior  quahty  of  cream-colored  brick.  This  clay 
forms  the  sub-soil  of  a  part  of  the  county,  and  when  mixed  with  the  ve- 
getable and  alluvial  deposits,  forms  a  desirable  and  productive  soil,  A  fair 
sample  of  this  soil  furnishes 

Alumina       70  00 

Organic  matter 8  16 

SiUcious  Sand 13  00 

Garb.  Lime       8  00 

Water  and  loss 84 

100  00 
Above  the  clay  bed  are  strata  of  sand,  which  also  form  a  portion  of 
the  surface  of  the  county.     The  soil  of  this  formation  furnishes 

Silicious  sand 81  00 

Organic  matter       ........       5  50 

Alumina       ,     .     1 1  00 

Carb.  Lime 2  50 

100  00 

This  gives  a  warm,  dry  soil,  and  when  properly  cultivated,  it  becomes 
a  very  productive  one,  and  is  easily  tilled. 

Another  part  of  the  surface  of  the  county  consists  of  ridges  or  hills  ; 
some  of  which  are,  I  should  think,  at  least  150  feet  high,  and  are  com- 
posed of  sand,  limestone,  pebbles  and  clay  confusedly  mixed.  The  soil 
•of  this  formation  contains 

Carb.  Lime 15  25 

Organic  matter    < ,     .         7  43 

Silicious  sand 65  32 

Alumina  ,       12  00 

This  is  a  dry  and  productive  soil.  100  00 

Oak  is  scattered  over  the  county  generally,  and  in  some  parts  in 
larger  quantities,    This  timber  is  just  becoming  an  article  of  export. 


\o. 


6 

During  the  past  summer  there  has  been  sold  for  exportation  3,708,000 
staves  and  spokes,  and  1,853  barrels  (for  pork),  besides  timber,  baskets, 
wagon-hubs,  &c. 

Ship-building  has  already  commenced  on  Sheboygan  river,  which  at 
present  offers  greater  facilities  for  this  branch  of  business  than  any  other 
point  on  Lake  Michigan. 

Fine  groves  of  pine  abound  generally  on  the  sandy  soil.  Pine  has 
been  extensively  exported,  but  home  consumption  has  materially  checked 
the  trade.  During  the  past  summer,  there  have  been  exported  784,000 
feet  of  pine  timber  ;  1,218,000  feet  of  pine  shingles,  and  1,751,000  feet 
of  pine  lath. 

Beech,  maple,  elm  and  basswood  are  abundant  in  every  part  of  the 
county.  There  has  been  fitted  for  shipping,  and  shipped  during  the 
past  year,  4,330  cords  of  wood.  Maple,  elm  and  hickory  are  extensively 
manufactured  into  chair  and  bedstead  stuff,  rakes,  &c.,  for  exportation. 
Tamarack  and  white  cedar  are  also  abundant.  Heavy  contracts  have 
been  made  for  tamarack  rail-ties  for  southern  railroads.  Cherry  and 
butternut  supply  but  little  more  than  is  wanted  for  home  consumption. 

Wild  plums,  grapes,  blackberries  and  strawberries  abound  in  great 
profusion.  Wild  hops  are  also  abundant  and  very  good.  We  have  a 
few  cranberry  marshes  that  produce  very  well. 

Owing  to  the  newness  of  our  county,  and  the  long  time  and  vast 
amount  of  labor  necessary  to  clear  the  land  of  its  heavy  groAvth  of  tim- 
ber, its  resources  are  but  just  beginning  to  be  developed.  But  a  small 
portion  of  the  surplus  wheat,  barley,  oats,  rye  and  pork  of  this  year 
found  its  way  to  market  before  the  close  of  navigation.  From  this 
year's  exports  I  select  the  following  items:  427,913  lb  potash;  1000 
bushels  wheat ;  3000  bushels  barley ;  206  bushels  rye ;  1,600  bushels  oats ; 
481  bushels  potatoes;  119  boxes  saleratus  ;  251  firkins  butter  ;  1,041 
bbls.  flour ;  25  bbls.  pork ;  7  bbls.  eggs ;  1 5  bbls.  tallow ;  40  bbls.  beans ; 
6  bbls.  maple  sugar  ;  523  bbls.  beer  ;  61  bundles  skins  ;  1,116  hides. 

In  connection  with  the  above  figures,  the  fact  should  be  stated,  that 
but  three  years  ago  one-half  of  all  the  provisions  consumed  in  Sheboy- 
gan county  were  imported. 

Yours,  respectfully, 

J.  J.  BROWK. 
To  Albekt  C.  Ingham,  Esq. 

Sec.  of  the  Wis.  State  Agr.  Society,     * 


137 

WALWORTH. 

Elkhorn,  December  3d,  1852, 

DsAR  Sir  : — In  compliance  -with  your  request,  I  take  great  pleasure  in 
communicating  to  you  a  brief  sketch  of  the  proceedings  of  tbe  Walworth 
County  Agricultural  Society,  for  the  year  1852. 

The  Society  held  its  Annual  Fair  at  Elkhorn,  on  the  28th  and  29th 
days  of  September.  The  weather  being  fine,  the  attendance  of  people  was 
much  greater  than  on  any  former  occasion — two  thousand  persons,  as 
was  estimated,  were  present — thus  showing  that  the  interest  previously 
manifested  in  the  welfare  of  our  County  Agricultural  Society  is  steadily- 
increasing.  Many  towns,  entirely  unrepresented  last  year,  had  a  large 
display  upon  the  grounds  at  this  Fair,  and  received  their  due  proportion 
of  the  premiums  awarded.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  each  succeeding  year,with 
its  Annual  Fair,  will  bring  along  with  it  an  additional  effort  on  the  part 
of  our  farmers  to  extend  the  influence  of  the  Society,  and  to  increase  the 
number  of  its  members. 

The  members  of  our  Society  are  one  hundred  and  fifty  in  number. — 
The  number  of  articles  for  exhibition  this  year  was  about  the  same  num- 
ber. The  premiums  awarded  amounted  to  nearly  two  hundred  dollars, 
the  Dipl6ma  being  awarded  as  the  first  premium  in  every  case,  by  a 
resolution  of  the  Society.  Two  gentlemen  of  our  county  were  invited  by 
the  Society  to  read  addresses  on  the  first  day  of  the  Fair,  but  being  dis- 
appointed in  their  attendance,  several  gentlemen,  members  of  the  Society, 
upon  short  notice,  addressed  those  present  upon  a  variety  of  subjects  ; 
and  some  of  these  impromptu  remarks  would  not  suffer  in  comparison 
"with  more  studied  efforts  upon  the  subjects  of  which  they  spoke.  Orra 
Martix,  of  Spring  Prairie,  was  called  out,  and  took  up  the  subject  of 
Fruit  Culture — a  matter  heretofore  too  much  neglected  in  Wisconsin,  and 
especially  in  our  own  county — and  did  himself  great  credit  in  its  discussion. 

In  former  times,  Walworth  has  been  noted  for  the  quantity  and  excel- 
lence of  its  wheat ;  but  for  the  last  two  or  three  years,  farmers  have 
turned  their  attention  more  to  the  raising  of  stock,  wool,  pork,  butter 
and  cheese.  Great  improvement  has  also  been  made  in  our  breeds  of 
horses,  and  the  exhibition  in  that  line  at  our  late  Fair,  was  creditable  ia 
a  high  degree  to  the  intelligent  farmers  of  the  county. 

Our  county  is  well  adapted  either  for  cropping   or   for  pasturage.     I 
believe,  however,  that  the  low  and  inadequate  prices  which  grain  has 
10 


13S 

'IiitLerto  commanded,  will  induce  our  farmers  to  turn  their  attention  here- 
after more  to  stock-raising,  the  dairy,  and  wool-growing.  The  cultiva- 
tion of  the  tobacco  plant  will  also  engage  the  attention  of  many  of  our 
prominent  farmers,  the  experience  of  the  last  three  years  having  furnished 
abundant  evidence  that  the  labor  expended  in  the  cultivation  of  this 
plant  is  better  repaid  than  the  most  sanguine  have  anticipated.  Broom 
corn  is  also  extensively  cultivated  within  our  borders ;  and  althouo-h 
there  was  no  exhibition  of  this  article  at  our  Fair,  it  was  solely  for  the 
reason  that  it  was  unintentionally  omitted  in  the  list  of  articles,  for  which 
premiums  were  offered.  Next  year,  it  Avill  occupy  a  prominent  place  in 
the  list.  Flax  is  raised  to  some  extent  among  us,  and  I  believe  that  it  is 
■  soon  destined  to  receive  its  proper  share  of  attention,  as  well  for  its 
fibre  as  for  its  seed,  and  that  it  will  ere  long  become  one  of  the  staple 
products  of  the  county.  Madder  is  also  cultivated  in  small  quantities, 
■and  I  hope  it  will  hereafter  receive  more  attention,  as  I  am  of  the  opin- 
ion that  it  would  prove  one  of  the  best  paying  articles  our  farmers  can 
raise.  In  our  neighboring  State,  Illinois,  I  learn  that  it  is  becoming  a 
staple  product  with  many  farmers,  and  that  it  pays  well.  The  prospects 
are  now  favorable  that  this  county  will  soon  be  crossed  with  railroads, 
•  -affording  facilities  heretofore  unknown  to  our  farmers,  for  the  cheap  trans - 
].portation  of  their  products  to  market ;  and  our  farming  interests  never 
^looked  brighter  than  at  the  present  time.  The  price  which  pork  has 
commanded  the  past  autumn,  ranging  as  it  has  from  $5  60  to  66  25, 
has  giaddenned  the  heart  of  the  farmer;  and  I  have  not  seen,  for  a 
period  of  five  years,  so  many  pleasant  countenances  among  those  return- 
ing from  the  market,  as  I  have  seen  this  year,  the  farmer  having  been 
.adequately  paid  for  his  labor  and  toil. 

The  Officers  elect  of  our  Society  for  the  next  year  are  : 
President,  Henry  J.  Starin,  Whitewater  ;  Vice-President,  William 
Hollinshead,  Delavan  ;  Treasurer,  Peter  Golder,  Elkhorn  ;  Secretaries, 
HoUis  Latham,  Elkhorn  ;  David  Williams,  Geneva  ;  Managers,  George 
"W.  Paul,  Kichmond ;  Seymour  Brooks,  East  Troy  ;  William  Child, 
Spring  Prairie;  Lyman  H.  Seaver,  Darien;"Erastus  Humphrey,  Hudson. 
With  the  warmest  wishes  for  the  prosperity  of  the  agricultural  inter- 
ests of  our  State,  and  my  best  regards  to  you  personally. 

I  am,  yours  truly, 

EDWARD  ELDERKIN,  Secretary. 
To  Albert  C.  Ingham,  Esq. 

Sec.  of  the  Wis.  State  Agr.  Society. 


139 


WASHINGTON. 

In  this  county,  an  Agricultural  Society  has  been  formed,  and  a  Fair 
held  during  the  year.  The  Fair  was  largely  attended,  and  much  inter- 
est manifested  in  the  proceedings  of  the  Society.  Organized  in  a  large 
Agricultural  county,  the  Society  cannot  fail  to  accomplish  much  good. 
No  direct  report  has  been  received  of  its  proceedings. 

MILWAUKEE  HORTICULTURAL  SOCIETY. 

This  Society  has  held  three  Exhibitions  during  the  year,  each  of 
which  "was  well  attended.  At  the  Annual  Exhibition  in  September,  the 
display  was  of  marked  and  superior  excellence.  The  Secretary  remarks, 
that  the  prospects  of  the  Society  are  particularly  flattering ;  arrangements 
being  in  progress  by  which  it  will  receive  a  valuable  donation  of  land, 
through  the  liberality  of  David  Ferguson,  Esq.,  and  some  others  of  its 
members.  This  it  is  proposed  to  convert  into  a  public,  ornamental  garden ; 
thus  practically  inculcating  lessons  of  taste  and  skill.  The  officers  are 
as  follows : 

President,  Hon.  Hans  Crocker ;  Vice-Presidents,  Thomas  Hislop  and 
Charles  Gifford  ;  Corresponding  Secretary,  Riley  N.  Messenger ;  Record- 
ing Secretary,  William  H.  Watson;  Treasurer,  David  Ferguson. 


COMMUNICATIONS. 


RURAL  HUSBANDRY  IN  WISCONSIN. 

Br  George  0.  Tiffany,  Milwaukee. 

Vegetable  productions,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  are  indispensible  to 
the  existence  of  man.  The  savage  who  depends  entirely  on  the  success 
of  the  chase,  and  the  scientific  farmer  who  summons  to  his  aid  the  accu- 
mulated experience  of  former  ages,  would  alike  share  a  common  fate, 
should  our  universal  mother  refuse  us  her  nourishment  for  a  brief  period. 
The  domestic  animals  upon  which  we  depend  for  subsistence,  either  for 


their  ability  to  aid  us  in  tlie  cultivation  of  the  earth,  or  as  food  to  supply 
the  constantly  occurring  waste,  in  the  complicated  organization  of  our 
bodies,  also  demand  a  prominent  place  in  the  mind  of  the  agriculturist. 
In  speaking  upon  these  subjects,  I  shall  advance  nothing  except  what 
has  fallen  under  my  own  observation,  and  shall  detail  such  experiments 
only  as  have  been  tried  in  Wisconsin,  and  which,  under  most  circumstan- 
ces of  soil  and  season,  and  without  any  great  departure  from  this  latitude 
would  be  likely  again  to  produce  the  same  results. 

In  order  to  treat  in  a  more  condensed  manner,  the  several  branches  of 
Agriculture,  I  will  arrange  them  under  their  respective  heads,  commenc- 
ing with  the  great  staple,  wheat : 

Wheat. — For  the  first  few  years  after  the  settlement  of  Wisconsin  had 
commenced,  the  cultivation  of  wheat,  we  may  safely  say,  formed  the 
principal  occupation  of  the  agricultural  portion  of  our  community.  Our 
cattle  and  horses  were  furnished  by  the  neighboring  States  of  Illinois 
and  Indiana,  and  often  as  many  as  thirty  thousand  head  of  animals  were 
driven  from  thoses  States  and  sold  in  Wisconsin  yearly.  Wheat  forming 
the  only  agricultural  product  that  could  be  exported  to  an  Eastern  market 
and  pay  for  transportation,  many  sowed  from  one  hundred  to  three  hun- 
dred acres,  while  other  branches  of  agriculture  were  abandoned  in  a 
great  measure.  The  virgin  strength  of  the  soil  was  thus  transported  to 
an  Eastern  market,  leaving  the  farmer  at  best  but  barely  sufficient  to 
remunerate  him  for  his  labor,  and  oftentimes  not  even  that.  The  profits 
realized  from  the  crop  were  apparently  fair,  but  no  means  were  used  ta 
keep  the  land  up  to  its  natural  state  of  fertility,  and  in  ninety-nine  cases, 
out  of  every  hundred,  Ave  venture  to  assert  that  no  returns  were  ever 
made  to  the  ground  for  the  very  large  stock  of  valuable  materials  carted 
away  to  distant  markets.  Our  farmers,  fortunately,  perhaps  providen- 
tially, were  checked  in  this  headlong  race  to  ruin,  by  the  partial,  and  in 
some  portions,  almost  entire  failure  of  the  wheat  crop  for  three  or  four 
years.  These  failures  occurred  from  different  causes.  In  some  of  our 
best  wheat-growing  districts,  the  fly  appeared  and  made  great  ravages. 
To  avoid  this  enemy  to  the  wheat  crop,  late  sowing  was  substituted,  and. 
that  subjected  the  crop  to  rust,  and  consequently  poor  and  imperfect  grain 
was  produced,  diminished  in  quantity  and  inferior  in  quality.  Finally, 
many  concluded  that  the  wheat  crop  would  not  pay,  and  pretty  much 
abandoned  its  cultivation,  except,  perhaps,  growing  what  might  be  neces- 
sary for  the  bread  of  the  family.     Had  the  truth  been  sought,  in  regard 


141 

to  tliis  crop,  it  might  easily  have  been  seen  that  no  price  ever  yet  paid 
liad  compensated  the  farmer  for  abstracting  the  most  valuable  materials 
from  his  soil,  and  wasting  his  capital  by  diminishing  the  value  of  his 
lard.  We  look,  therefore,  upon  the  partial  failure  of  this  crop,  as  a  benefit 
rather  than  an  injury,  because  it  directed  the  minds  of  the  farmer  to  a 
^'•reater  diversity  of  products,  and  turned  their  attention  to  those  pursuits, 
•which,  instead  of  diminishing  the  value  of  the  land  by  impoverishing  it, 
would,  by  enriching  the  soil,  add  materially  to  its  value.  But  it  is  neces- 
sary that  we  should  raise  wheat  sufficient  at  least  for  our  own  consump- 
tion, and  in  order  to  do  this  wisely,  let  us  search  for  the  best  means  of 
accomplishing  the  object,  without  diminishing  our  capital  by  the  impover- 
ishment of  our  soil.  All  green  crops,  when  plowed  under,  have  been 
found  to  favor  the  growth  of  wheat.  Clover,  perhaps,  is  as  good  a  crop 
for  this  purpose  as  any  other,  and  it  is  often  resorted  to  in  the  best  wheat 
growing  districts  of  the  Eastern  States.  Owing  to  the  uncertainty  of 
obtaining  a  good  stand  of  clover,  either  from  drought,  bad  seed,  or  any 
other  cause,  a  renovator  not  at  all  inferior  can  be  made  to  supply  its 
place,  and,  as  I  believe,  at  a  less  cost,  while  it  is  more  certain  and  equally 
valuable  as  a  manure.  Sowing  corn  broadcast  and  plowing  it  under  is 
the  substitute  we  propose.  Let  us  here  institute  a  comparison  between 
the  two  methods  of  renovation  : 

Clover  Seed,  one  peck  per  acre,  at  88  per  bushel      -      82  00 

Plowing  it  in,  after  removing  the  crop  with  which 

it  is  sown,  say  next  season     -         -         -         -         -        2  00 


Plowing  one  acre  of  ground  for  corn 
Seed,  three  bushels         .         .         - 
Plowing  in  the  crop 


Yield  of  clover,  three  tons  per  acre.  Yield  of  corn,  six  tons  per  acre 
at  least.  And  here  we  have  three  additional  tons  of  green  manure  plowed 
in  for  thirty-seven  and  one  half  cents  per  ton.  Corn,  sown  in  this  way, 
is  a  much  more  certain  crop  than  any  grass  seed,  and  it  grows  often 
where  grass  will  not  grow.  Eight  tons  of  green  manure  would,  in  my 
opinion,  be  much  nearer  an  actual  yield  in  most  soils  for  corn  than  six 
tons,  as  corn,  if  cut  and  drawn  ofi"  before  the  grain  is  formed,  does  not 
impoverish  the  soil. 


84 

00 

82 
1 
2 

00 
12 
00 

^5 

12 

142 

Mr.  J.  J.  Tliomas,  of  Macedon,  X.  Y.,  says  iu  a  communication  to  the 
Commissioner  of  the  Patent  Office,  on  this  subject:  "  Corn  soAm  broad- 
cast, appears  to  add  to,  rather  than  diminish  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 
Of  three  successive  crops  (^vithout  manure),  each  was  larger  than  the 
preceding  one;  yielding  from  four  to  six  tons  per  acre  of  dried  fodder."" 
Hence  we  may  safely  infer  that  a  large  portion  of  the  nutriment  of  the 
corn  crop,  previous  to  the  formation  of  the  grain,  is  drawn  from  the 
atmosphere.  The  statement  of  Mr.  Thomas,  corresponds  with  my  own 
experience  on  this  subject ;  as  itpon  a  piece  of  ground  sowed  last  year 
and  this  year  in  the  above  manner,  the  last  crop  is  one-third  heavier 
than  the  first  crop,  and  that  without  any  manure.  Enriching  the  soil  by 
barn-yard  manure  alone,  can  only  be  done  to  a  very  limited  extent,  un- 
less in  the  vicinity  of  large  towns.  From  thirty  to  forty  loads  per  acre 
are  required  to  produce  the  beneficial  efi'ect  of  one  green  crop  plowed  in 
as  above  described.  The  difference  in  expense  is  obvious ;  thirty  loads, 
including  work  of  drawing,  spreading,  (fcc,  would  cost  at  least  fifty 
cents  per  load,  or  fifteen  dollars  per  acre  ;  a  difference  in  favor  of  green 
crops  of  at  least  ten  dollars  per  acre. 

The  usual  time  for  sowing  wheat  has  been  from  the  twenty-fifth  of 
August  to  the  twenty-fifth  of  September;   and  sometimes  later.     We 
liave  found  for  a  series  of  years  that  the  first  week  in  September  is  pre- 
ferable, all  things  considered.     If  sown  earlier,  it  is  liable  to  become,  in 
autumn,  of  too  luxuriant  growth,  and  requires  to  be  fed  down  with  cattle 
or  horses,  which  often  injure  the  crop  with  their  weight,  especially  if 
the  season  is  wet ;  lighter  animals,  sheep  for  example,  eat  into  the  roots, 
of  the  young  plants,  and  make  great  havoc,  if  left  for  any  period.    Late 
sowing  leaves  the  crop  liable  to  rust ;  late  sowing  is  the  only  remedy 
within  my  knowledge  against  the  fly ;  and  so  far  as  my  experience  ex- 
tends, it  is  worse  than  no  sowing  at  all,  being  labor  thrown  away  in  nine 
cases  out  of  ten.     The  fly  having  disappeared  entirely  from  this  part  of 
the  country,  we  may  again  anticipate  good  crops  of  wheat.     Smut  annu- 
ally causes  much  loss ;  and  smutty  wheat  often  causes  severe  and  some- 
times fatal  sickness.     The  remedy  is  simple,  cheap  and  effectual,  and  it 
should  be  widely  known.    The  following  preparation  may  be  relied  upon, 
as  a  specific :  2  oz.  blue  vitriol,  dissolved  in  hot  water,  (in  which  it  will 
dissolve  much  more  readily)  is  sufficient  for  one  bushel  of  wheat.     Wet 
the  wheat  by  putting  half  a  bushel  in  a  basket,  and  dipping  it  in  a  tub 
of  water,  then  put  it  on  a  barn  floor  and  pour  the  solution  on  the  wheat> 


143 

and  stir  it  up  so  that  the  vitriolized  water  comes  in  contact  mtli  eacli. 
grain  of  wheat ;  which  it  will  do  very  readily,  wetting  the  wheat  aiding 
very  materially  in  quickening  the  process,  then  shovel  it  aside  and  take 
another  basket.  Two  hands  will,  in  this  way,  prepare  forty  or  fifty- 
bushels  in  half  a  day.  The  expense  is  trifling,  when  compared  with, 
the  benefit  derived,  and  the  remedy  is  effectual.  Many  other  recipes 
have  been  given,  such  as  the  lye  of  wood  ashes,  &c.,  but  they  cannot  be 
relied  upon.  Chess  can  be  very  much  lessened  by  sowing  wheat  free 
from  it,  and  sowing  only  on  ground  free  from  wet  or  moist  spots.  The 
following  experiment  has  convinced  me  that  wet  ground  will  produce 
chess  from  wheat:  In  1844,  I  cleaned  my  seed  wheat  with  a  hand  seive, 
by  the  pint  or  half  pint  at  a  time.  With  seed  thus  prepared,  I  sowed 
two  and  a-half  acres  on  ground  which  had  never  had  a  crop  of  wheat 
grown  upon  it,  having  cleared  the  timber  off  myself.  Through  the 
centre  of  this  land  ran  a  wet  strip,  about  two  rods  wide,  the  leaching  of 
a  small  marsh.  When  I  harvested  this  crop,  there  was  not  a  head  of 
chess  in  any  part  of  the  field,  except  in  this  wet  ground ;  and  on  that 
there  was  nothinsc  else  save  a  few  scatterino:  heads  of  wheat.  The  balance 
of  the  ground  was  very  dry,  -and  the  wheat  on  it  yielded  twenty-five 
bushels  per  acre.  I  have  other  fields  with  wet  spots  in  them  where  corik. 
has  been  planted,  but  I  have  never  known  chess  to  spring  up  unless, 
wheat  had  been  on  the  ground,  or  chess  itself  had  been  scattered. 

Indian  Corn. — This  valuable  grain  is  becoming  much  more  generally- 
cultivated  than  formerly,  and  in  point  of  utility  is  second  only  to  wheats 
if  indeed  we  should  assign  it  that  station.  It  was  extensively  cultivated 
by  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  Wisconsin ;  and  in  times  of  scarcity  of' 
game,  formed  their  only  dependence  to  shield  them  from  starvation. 
The  remains  of  ancient  corn  plantations,  cultivated  either  by  the  ances- 
tors of  the  present  tribes  of  Indians,  or  by  some  other  people  formerly 
in  possession  of  the  land,  are  often  seen  in  the  vicinity  of  Milwaukee. 
The  hills,  now  overgrown  with  trees  and  bushes,  but  still  perfectly 
retaining  their  distinctive  shape  and  form ;  and  by  the  age  of  the  trees, 
furnishing  evidence  that  the  cultivation  took  place  at  least  five  hundred 
years  ago. 

The  cultivation  of  corn  is  easy,  and  but  little  labor  is  necessary,  when 
compared  with  that  required  by  the  same  crop  in  the  Eastern  States.    Greene- 
sward,  plowed  under  with  two  yoke  of  oxen,  which  will  give  strength 
sufficient  to  plow  to  the  depth  of  sis   or  eight  inches,   then  harrowed 


lengthwise  witli  the  furrows,  and  planted  in  rows  from  three  and  a  half 
feet  to  four  feet  apart,  will  make  a  good  corn-field.  The  plowing  may 
be  done  either  in  the  autumn  or  spring,  as  convenience  may  require. 
Plant  in  the  month  of  May,  from  the  tenth  to  the  twenty-fifth,  as  the 
temperature  of  the  season  may  indicate.  Corn  should  not  be  planted 
until  the  ground  has  become  Avarm.  If  planted  while  cold,  and  espe- 
cially while  wet,  it  is  liable  to  decay  and  to  require  the  labor  of  planting 
again ;  whereas,  if  planted  as  late  as  the  first  of  June,  the  crop  has 
often  been  known  to  mature  and  yield  well.  The  seasons  are,  however, 
seldom  so  backward  as  to  require  the  postponement  of  planting,  until  that 
late  date.  The  last  year  I  planted  my  corn  on  the  twenty-sixth  of  May, 
and  cut  it  fully  ripe  on  the  twenty-fifth  of  August.  That  process  of 
cultivation  for  any  crop  which  will  give  the  largest  return  for  the  amount 
of  labor  bestowed,  and  leave  the  ground  in  the  cleanest  and  best  state 
for  the  subsequent  crop,  is  the  one  which  the  agriculturist  should  adopt. 
JMore  labor  is  expended  worse  than  uselessly,  because  injuriously,  in  the 
culture  of  corn,  than  upon  any  other  crop.  The  mode  of  cultivation 
practised  by  us,  and,  as  we  believe,  originating  with  us,  is  as  follows  : 
After  plowing  the  ground,  for  which  I  prefer  greensward,  and  harrow- 
ing lengthwise  with  the  furrows,  I  then  mark  out  rows,  three  and  one- 
half  feet  apart  each  way,  with  a  sled  made  of  oak  plank,  which  is  as 
good  an  implement  as  any  for  the  purpose ;  then  plant  from  four  to  six 
grains  at  the  intersection  of  each  row,  which  will  leave  the  hills  so  that 
a  horse  can  travel  through  between  them  each  way  with  a  cultivator.  As 
soon  as  the  rows  of  young  corn  can  plainly  be  seen,  I  go  through  the 
corn  with  the  cultivator  one  Avay,  and  then  in  a  few  days  go  through  the 
opposite  way ;  this  will  loosen  the  soil,  destroy  the  weeds,  grass,  &c., 
and  no  further  tillage  will  be  necessary.  Hoeing  will  neither  add  to  the 
quantity,  nor  facilitate  the  growth  of  the  crop.  Having  tried  it,  in  a  field 
tilled  in  the  same  manner  with  the  same  soil,  and  in  all  respects  under 
the  same  treatment,  that  which  was  not  hoed  or  tilled,  produced  the  best 
corn.  The  philosophy  of  the  result  is  believed  to  be  this :  In  the  tillage 
with  the  cultivator  alone,  the  surface  of  the  ground  is  stirred,  and  the 
weeds  are  destroyed  without  injuring  the  roots  of  the  corn,  or  causing 
anew  set  of  lateral  roots  to  shoot  out,  which  will  in  all  cases  occur  if  the 
corn  is  hilled,  these  roots  require  nutriment  from  the  plant,  (which  would 
otherwise  ascend  into  the  blades,  ear,  &c.,)  without  producing  any  bene- 
iicial  effect,  experience  having  shown  that  corn  stands  as  well   without 


145 

hilling,  as  Avitli.  The  produce  of  a  field  of  corn,  well  cultivated  in  this 
manner,  may  safely  be  set  down  at  from  thirty  to  fifty  bushels  per  acre, 
and  at  an  expense  of,  at  least,  one  half  less  than  by  the  old  mode  of  hoe- 
ing. The  crop  should  be  cut  up  after  the  first  appearance  of  frost,  if 
ripe,  and  if  it  should  be  only  partially  ripened,  it  will  ripen  in  the  shock 
from  the  nutriment  already  in  the  stalk  ;  and  the  stalks  thus  cured  are 
estimated  at  one  half  the  value  of  common  hay  for  keeping  stock.  The 
shocks,  if  well  bound,  will  stand  in  the  field  without  injury  to  the  grain 
or  stalks,  until  mid-winter,  if  it  is  necessary.  It  can  be  drawn  and  fed 
to  the  stock,  as  occasion  may  require,  which  may  be  done  if  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  husk  and  store  the  crop  in  the  fall. 

Corn  is  one  of  the  best  crops  with  which  we  are  acquainted  to  prepare 
land  for  oats,  barley,  or  any  other  spring  crop ;  and  wheat,  in  the  case 
of  a  wet  autumn,  often  does  well  after  corn.  Drawing  a  large  portion  of 
its  food  from  the  atmosphere,  which  inference  is  deduced  from  experi- 
ments related  in  a  former  part  of  this  essay,  it  does  not  exhaust  the  soil 
as  rapidly  as  most  other  crops,  for  we  see  good  crops  of  corn  produced 
in  some  parts  of  the  country  for  many  years  in  succession,  and  upon  the 
same  ground.  We  would  not,  however,  recommend  this  practice.  One 
important  fact  should  be  borne  in  mind,  by  those  who  wish  to  save 
labor,  and  avoid  disappointment  in  the  cultivation  of  corn.  The 
seed  should  always  be  selected  in  the  autumn  from  the  field,  and  the 
ripest  and  fairest  ears  should  be  selected  with  a  portion  of  the  husk 
attached  to  each  ear,  they  should  then  be  braided  tocjether,  and  if  hune: 
i;p  in  some  dry  place,  and  left  until  planting  time,  not  one  grain  in  a 
thousand  will  fail  to  germinate.  If,  however,  taken  promiscuously  from 
the  corn-house  or  crib,  much  of  it  will  fail,  and  often  the  whole  planting 
must  be  gone  over  again,  and  the  careless  farmer  lays  the  blame  to  the 
season  or  ground,  when  the  fault  is  entirely  his  own.  Never  soak  corn 
to  make  it  germinate  quickly.  If  the  ground  should  be  wet  after  plant- 
ing, it  will  decay.  Dry  seed  is  longer  coming  up,  but  never  decays  in 
the  ground,  if  prepared  as  above. 

Oats. — This  crop,  so  universally  used  as  food  for  horses,  is  probably 
without  a  rival,  where  the  safety  of  the  animal  is  taken  into  considera- 
tion, connected  with  the  go-a-head  spirit  of  the  age,  which  has  imparted 
its  energy  to  road  traveling  as  well  as  everything  else,  the  horse  must 
perform  his  part  in  the  drama,  and  thirty  miles  a  day  will  only  do  for 


U6 

"  hollow  pampered  jades  of  Asia,"  not  for  the  American  road  horse — 
from  a  good  specimen  of  which  we  may  expect  from  forty  to  sixty-five 
miles  per  day,  without  injury.  Experience  has  proved  that  no  other 
grain  will  compare  with  oats  in  giving  the  horse  strength,  together  with 
that  elasticity  of  muscle  which  is  necessary  to  prepare  him  for  rapid 
travelling,  and  enable  him  to  perform  without  danger  or  illness  long  and 
rapid  stages.  This  crop  must  always  command  a  remunerative  price, 
although  acknowledged  to  be  a  very  exhausting  crop  to  the  soil.  It  can 
be  sown  in  the  spring  easier  than  any  other  crop,  and  as  soon  as  the 
ground  is  dry  enough  to  harrow  it,  may  be  sovrn  on  plowing  of  the 
previous  fall  at  the  rate  of  three  bushels  to  the  acre.  Being  a  very 
strong  feeder,  it  should  be  sown  on  rich  land.  The  yield  is  from  thirty 
bushels  to  sixty-five  bushels  per  acre,  depending  of  course  much  xipon 
the  season. 

Barley. — This  crop  is  grown  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  State,  and 
in  all  kinds  of  soils.  It  does  better  in  deep  rich  mould,  or  a  warm 
sandy  loam,  than  in  any  other,  and  the  amount  of  the  yield  depends 
upon  the  season,  soil,  &c.  Barley  is  liable  to  injury  from  frosts  in  the 
spring,  which  materially  lessen  the  yield.  The  first  part  of  May,  ia 
ordinary  seasons,  is  a  good  time  for  sowing  barley.  Two  bushels  per 
acre  is  the  proper  quantity  of  seed,  and  from  twenty  to  forty  bushels 
per  acre  the  average  yield.  It  is  valuable  chiefly  for  the  manufacture 
of  beer,  and  is  second  to  no  crop  as  a  protector  for  grass  seed,  which  is 
usually  sown  with  it  in  the  spring.  Its  broad  leaves  protect  the  young 
grass  from  the  rays  of  the  sun,  and  insure  its  growth,  when  it  woxild  fail 
if  sowed  with  any  other  grain. 

Peas. — This  crop,  although  very  useful  on  account  of  its  being  avail- 
able for  fattening  swine  before  corn  is  sufficiently  ripe  for  that  purpose, 
is  yet  very  uncertain,  owing  to  the  frequent  occurrence  of  drought  when 
the  plant  is  small ;  neither  does  it  sufficiently  shade  the  ground  to  retain 
the  moisture.  Peas  should  be  sown  thick  ;  from  three  to  four  bushels 
per  acre  is  a  common  quantity.  Its  yield  is  from  ten  bushels  to  thirty- 
five  bushels  per  acre.  They  should  be  sown  as  early  as  possible  in  the 
Spring,  in  rich  land,  plowed  in  lightly.  They  make  a  good  preparatory 
crop  for  wheat,  leaving  the  ground  very  clean  and  mellow. 

Root  Crops. — The  length  and  severity  of  our  winters  seem  to  admon- 
ish the  farmers  that  a  good  supply  of  food,  which  will  keep  his  stock  in 


147 

a  state  as  nearly  approacliing  that  produced  by  good  pasture  as  possible, 
■would  be  very  desirable.  To  attain  this  end,  we  must  have  resource  ta 
roots,  such  as  carrots,  rutabagas,  &c. 

Rutabagas. — Having  tried  the  rutabaga,  or  Swedish  turnip,  for  feed- 
ing stock  for  some  years,  we  are  disposed  to  give  it  the  preference  as 
food,  either  for  young  working  oxen  or  young  growing  stock.  The 
ground  should  be  rich,  cither  naturally  or  made  so  by  manure.  The 
seed  should  be  sown  from  the  first  to  the  twentieth  of  June.  By  sowing 
about  the  fifteenth,  the  danger  from  the  fly  is  avoided ;  were  it  not  for 
which,  this  crop  might  be  sown  as  early  as  the  middle  of  May  with 
advantage.  Drill  sowing  saves  labor,  and  also  insures  a  larger  crop ; 
for  this  purpose,  Emery's  drill  barrow  is  unexceptionable.  The  quantity 
of  seed  required  is  about  one-quarter  of  a  pound  per  acre.  It  should 
be  sown  in  rows,  eighteen  inches  oa*  two  feet  apart,  which  is  sufficiently 
wide  to  admit  the  passage  of  a  horse  with  a  cultivator  made  for  this 
purpose,  with  three  teeth.  This  may  be  passed  twice  through  the  rows, 
and  no  further  tillage  will  be  necessary.  Rutabagas  can  be  harvested 
late  in  the  autumn,  after  the  other  crops  are  out  of  the  way,  and  can  be 
pulled  by  hand  as  easily  as  by  any  other  method.  The  yield  is  from 
one  hundred  to  three  hundred  bushels ;  and  even  five  hundred  bushels 
per  acre,  depending  upon  the  soil  and  season.  For  working  oxen,  I  con- 
sider them  equal  to  oats ;  and  as  an  article  of  fiod  for  human  consump- 
tion, the  Maine  lumbermen  think  them  next  to  beans  as  a  strong  and 
healthy  nutriment. 

Carrots. — This  crop,  to  which  so  little  attention  is  paid  by  farmers 
generally,  is  one  of  great  value,  more  especially  as  food  for  horses.  The 
number  of  bushels  which  can  be  grown  upon  an  acre  of  ground  more 
than  doubles  that  of  any  other  crop  in  use  as  food  for  animals.  In 
comparison  with  oats,  it  is  worth  one-half  the  price  of  that  grain^  for 
horse  feed.  The  grain  seed  drill  (Emery's)  is  the  only  one  we  have 
seen  used,  and  it  works  admirably  in  sowing  this  kind  of  seed,  which  is 
rather  difficult  to  distribute  evenly,  unless  well  rubbed  with  the  hand 
before  sowing,  to  prevent  clogging  in  the  hopper.  From  three  hundred 
bushels,  which  is  a  small  yield,  to  fifteen  hundred  bushels,  have  been 
raised  on  an  acre.  Plow  as  deep  as  possible,  and  put  on  from  fifty  to 
one  hundred  loads  of  manure,  and  plow  in  the  second  time ;  weed  while 
the  plant  is  small,  and  sow  in  rows  two  feet  apart,  so  as  to  work  between 


us 

■with  a  cultivator.  Sandy  loam  is  preferable  for  carrots,  as  tlie  roots  run 
deep ;  and  deep  friable  soil  is  indispeusible  to  the  production  of  a  good 
crop. 

Potatoes. — This  valuable  and  almost  indispensable  portion  of  our 
vegetable  food,  after  a  period  of  apparent  decay,  which  threatened  its 
extinction,  has  the  present  season  yielded  an  abundant  crop,  and  the  first 
one  for  years  -which  has  shovrn  no  symptoms  of  the  rot.  The  cause  of 
this  disease,  so  far  as  we  have  been  able  to  ascertain,  is  entirely  unknown, 
and  no  remedy  yet  proposed  has  been  of  the  least  service.  By  a  sort  of 
natural  order  of  things,  the  evil  day  of  the  potatoe  seems  to  have  passed  by, 
and  we  may  now  anticipate  a  fair  return  for  its  cultivation.  All  soils  and 
situations,  and  late  and  early  planting,  alike,  seem  to  have  been  visited 
by  this  decay,  or  blight,  although  sandy  loam,  and  dry,  rolling,  gravelly 
land  has  suffered  least.  The  most  easy,  and  consequently  the  cheapest 
and  most  productive  crops  we  ever  raised  were,  by  plowing  green-sward 
in  the  spring ;  if  well  coated  with  grass,  all  the  better,  as  that  is  equal 
to  a  coat  of  manure.  Turn  the  furrows  well  over,  leaving  them  as  level 
as  possible ;  then  harrow  lengthwise  with  the  furrows,  and  plant,  cover- 
ing with  sufficient  earth  only  to  shelter  the  growing  crop,  and  leave  the 
hill  level  and  flat  as  possible.  Xo  grass  will  make  its  appearance ;  the 
few  weeds  will  be  best  disposed  of  with  the  hoe,  or  cultivator,  and  often 
neither  are  needed.  Thus  cultivated,  the  crop  will  be  larger,  with  fewer 
small  potatoes.  By  the  old  plan  of  raising  a  hillock  over  them,  the  rain 
and  moisture  is  thrown  ofi",  instead  of  soaking  into  the  hills.  Another 
objection  to  the  old  mode  is,  that  the  vines  set  for  a  new  crop,  every  time 
they  are  hoed ;  and  again,  hills  cause  evaporation  from  the  ground,  after 
rain,  to  go  on  more  rapidly,  at  least  one-third  more  surface  being  exposed 
to  sun  and  wind.  From  forty  bushels  to  three  hundred  bushels  have 
been  raised,  per  acre ;  and  from  actual  experiment,  we  would  recommend 
the  plan  of  green-sicard  level  tillage  as  the  cheapest  and  most  productive. 
Yalue,  in  Milwaukee,  in  September,  1852,  thirty  eight  cents  per  bushel. 

Domestic  Animals. — Standing  at  the  head  of  the  list,  and  deservedly 
so,  is  the  ancient  ally  of  man,  the  horse.  Virgil  gives  us  of  the  Agri- 
cultural profession,  many  hints  relative  to  all  the  diflferent  branches  of 
husbandry,  from  keeping  bees  to  the  rearing  of  horses ;  the  selection  of 
a  sire  for  the  different  species  of  domestic  animals,-  and  the  selection  of 
seeds.     "With  regard  to  the  latter  he  says:    "unless  human  industry 


149 

■with  tlie  hand  should  cull  out  the  largest  every  year,  all  things  will 
hasten  to  decay,  and  gliding  away  insensibly,  be  driven  backward,  like 
one  who  rows  his  boat  against  the  stream,  and  if  by  chance  he  slackens 
his  arms,  it  is  instantly  gone,  and  the  tide  hurries  him  headlong  down 
the  river."  This  was  the  experience  of  man  more  than  eighteen  hun- 
dred years  since,  and  is  confirmed  down  to  the  present  time.  Without 
constant  care  and  judicious  selection  of  seed  and  animals,  the  farmer 
must,  like  Virgil's  rower  against  the  tide,  be  quickly  swept  away. 

In  a  national  point  of  view,  the  horse,  in  its  rearing,  breaking,  and 
management,  is  well  worthy  the  attention  of  the  agriculturist.  A  large 
portion  of  the  troops  engaged  in  the  protection  of  our  widely  extended 
frontier,  are  mounted  men.  High  prices  are  paid  for  horses  suitable  for 
the  purpose ;  thousands  are  used  in  transporting  munitions  of  war,  pro- 
visions, &c.  The  demand  is  increasing,  and  will,  in  all  probability,  con- 
tinue to  do  so  for  years.  To  men  embarking  in  any  undertaking,  the 
experience  of  practical  men  is  of  some  benefit,  if  only  to  confirm  and 
strengthen  a  correctly  formed  theory ;  and  might  be  of  benefit  where  a 
man  had  no  experience,  but  was  willing  to  take  that  of  others  for  his 
guide,  when  it  appeared  reasonable.  In  no  occupation  does  a  man 
require  more  of  that  knowledge  which  comes  from  the  experience  of 
others,  than  in  the  breeding  of  animals ;  and  in  this,  the  observation 
and  experience  of  others  may  be  made  available  in  the  outset. 

The  first  consideration  is,  what  kind  of  a  horse  will  pay  best  for  his 
rearing,  breaking,  &c.?  Rail  Roads  and  other  improvements  in  locomo- 
tion, steam  power,  &c.,  have  given  mankind  at  the  present  age  a  mania 
for  fast  conveyance,  whether  on  land  or  water,  and  slow  horses  will  no 
longer  answer  the  expectations  of  purchasers  of  horse  flesh  ;  they  want 
a  good  one  to  go.  Those  who  are  not  particular  about  speed,  never  object 
to  a  horse  if  he  happens  to  have  it.  The  fast  horse  is  the  horse  for  the 
American  farmer  to  raise  with  profit.  All  nature  presents  to  us  the  fact 
that  like  begets  like,  and  when  this  rule  is  varied,  it  is  an  exception.  In 
the  breeding  of  horses,  this  law  is  strictly  carried  out.  In  almost  every 
instance,  celebrated  trotting  horses  have  sprung  from  fast  stock  on  both 
sides.  Trustee,  the  only  horse  who  ever  trotted  twenty  miles  in  an  hour, 
was  from  a  trotting  mare,  Fanny  Pullen,  and  by  imported  Trustee,  a  fast 
race-horse,  who  was  also  the  sire  of  that  fast  mare,  Fashion.  Black 
Hawk  was  sired  by  Andrew  Jackson,  who  was  also  the  sire  of  a  great 
number  of  trotting  horses,      Black  Hawk  trotted  a  mile  in  2  m.  40  s. 


150 

with  a  wagon  weighing  two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds,  at  that  time  the 
best  heat  ever  made,  considering  the  weight  drawn.  Mack,  the  great 
competitor  with  Lady  Suffolk,  is  a  Messenger  horse,  and  went  in  2  m. 
26  s. ;  the  Lady  herself  is  a  full-bred  Messenger,  for  ought  any  one  knows 
to  the  contrary.  The  Abdallah  stock  are  from  the  Messenger  blood,  and 
all  of  them  go — many  being  remarkably  fast.  The  fastest  Western  trot- 
ting horse,  O'Blenis,  is  an  Abdallah.  Although  Messenger  was  imported 
into  the  United  States  as  early  as  1791,  sixty-one  years  since,  his  descend- 
ants at  this  day  partake  largely  of  his  characteristics.  Other  stocks  of 
horses  could  be  cited  to  support  this  position  ;  the  Morgan  horse,  for 
instance,  is  a  striking  exemplification  of  our  theory.  That  color,  speed, 
longevity,  vice,  defective  vision,  and  various  malformations  in  horses  are 
inherited,  no  observing  man  will  deny. 

In  selecting  a  brood  mare,  as  much  attention  should  be  bestowed,  or 
more,  as  in  selecting  a  sire.  About  fifteen  and  one-half  hands  has  been 
very  near  the  height  of  the  most  celebrated  horses  of  our  day.  They 
should  have  good  length  of  body,  with  clear  bright  eyes,  small  head, 
long  clean  neck,  oblique  shoulder,  and  withers  as  high  as  possible, 
which  position  of  the  shoulder  blade  allows  extensive  and  safe  action. — 
Such  horses  never  stumble  ;  and  if  they  trip,  will  recover,  while  an  ani- 
mal with  an  upright  shoulder  would  come  down  entirely.  High  withers 
give  room  for  the  attachment  and  length  of  muscle  which  an  upi-ight 
shoulder  cannot  have.  The  oblique  shoulder  is  indispensable  for  rapid, 
safe  and  easy  motion.  The  legs  should  be  muscular,  and  as  long  from 
the  elbow  joint  to  the  knee,  and  as  short  from  the  knee  to  the  hoof  as 
possible ;  this  will  also  give  extensive  action  to  the  fore  parts,  which  a 
horse  could  not  have  with  a  length  from  the  knee  to  the  hoof  equal  to 
the  length  from  the  elbow  to  the  knee.  The  chest  should  barrel  out  back 
of  the  girth,  and  be  large  and  capacious,  both  to  give  the  animal  good 
health,  and  cause  it  to  keep  easy,  as  the  size  of  the  chest  is  of  great  con- 
sequence to  the  health,  longevity  and  usefulness  of  the  horse.  This 
part  is  too  superficially  noticed  by  purchasers  in  general.  The  loins 
should  be  broad  and  well  covered  with  muscle,  and  the  haunch — or  as  it 
is  generally  called,  hip — should  be  long,  to  the  place  of  its  termination. 
The  old  saying  of  a  "long-bodied  horse,  with  a  short  back,  and  long 
under  the  belly  "  being  a  good  one,  was  not  without  truth,  as  a  long 
oblique  scapula,  with  a  long  hip  or  haunch  would  produce  just  that  con- 
formation of  body  best  suited  for  speed.      Great  length  from  the  hip  to 


151 

the  gambrel,  and  short  from  the  gambrel  to  the  ground  is  also  one  of 
the  best  indications  of  speed.  We  see  an  example  in  the  form  of  the 
rabbit  and  greyhonnd.  Bj-  a  close  and  constant  attention  to  the  anato- 
mical conformation  of  a  horse,  a  person  may  soon  become  a  better  judo-e 
■of  capability  in  the  horse  than  any  one  can,  who  does  not  take  into  con- 
sideration the  important  facts  that  all  animal  mechanism  is  upon  the  same 
principle — that  the  weight  to  be  moved,  and  the  facility  with  which  it  is 
moved,  depends  upon  the  length  of  the  lever  and  its  advantageous  liosition, 
and  the  consequent  length  of  the  muscles,  which  are  the  pulleys,  and  by 
their  action,  contraction,  and  extension,  propel  the  animal  over  the 
ground.  The  most  careless  observer  has  probably  noticed  a  trotting  horse 
beaten  by  one  of  much  less  muscle,  the  reason  of  which  is,  the  want  of 
a  good  anatomical  form  in  the  muscular  horse ;  for  muscle  is  not  only 
necessary  for  rapid  and  long  continued  action,  but  it  is  equally  necessary 
that  it  should  act  advantageously  by  a  proper  arrangement  and  length 
of  particular  parts  of  the  animal.  These  can  be  best  learned  by  those 
who  are  desirous  of  information  on  these  subjects,  by  the  attentive  study 
of  works  on  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  horse ;  William  Youatt's 
is  probably  the  best.  All  animal  mechanism  being  constructed  upon 
the  same  principles,  intelligent  physicians  should  be,  and  in  general  are, 
excellent  judges  of  the  capability  of  horses,  from  two  causes :  their 
knowledge  of  anatomy,  and  their  habitual  use  of  the  horse  in  the  practice 
of  their  profession. 

That  speed  adds  to,  and  often  constitutes  the  sole  value  of  the  horse, 
in  the  estimation  of  many,  is  well  known.  An  instance  now  occurs  to 
me:  Mr.  S.  B.  Davis,  of  Milwaukee,  took  to  the. New  York  market  last 
May,  a  number  of  horses ;  among  which  were  one  pair,  which  he  sold 
for  $1,200,  and  a  single  horse  which  he  sold  for  8600.  They  could  all 
trot  their  mile  in  about  three  minutes ;  and  to  this  fact  can  be  entirely 
attributed  all  he  realized  on  them,  over  $200  each.  There  is  always  a 
market  for  well  broken  horses  of  good  size  and  good  age,  if  they  can  go 
in  three  minutes  or  less.  Another  instance,  too,  is  in  point :  Jack  Ros- 
siter,  the  celebrated  trotting  horse,  worked  in  an  omnibus  in  Milwaukee, 
and  could  then  have  been  bought  for  $200,  and  probably  for  less.  Fall- 
ing into  the  hands  of  a  horseman,  he  trotted  a  mile  in  2  m.  32  s.,  and 
sold  for  $2,000.  Lady  Jane,  a  western  mare,  was  bought  in  Chicago 
for  $100;  she  was  afterwards  sold  for  $1,600  at  a  dozen  years  of  age. 
There  are  numberless  examples  of  a  similar  nature.     The  farmer  should 


152 

not  hesitate  as  to  whicla  of  the  two  to  expend  his  surplus  food  upon ;  an 
eight-mile-an-hour  drudge,  that  will  cost  880  at  four  years  old,  and  sell 
for  the  same ;  or  a  horse  bred  on  scientific  principles,  worth  at  four 
years  of  age,  8200  to  81000,  according  to  the  stock  he  springs  from. 
One  farmer  in  the  vicinity  of  Milwaukee,  raised  several  fast  horses,  and 
from  their  sale,  realized  a  far  greater  profit  than  he  realized  from  ten 
years  of  wheat  farming ;  yet  the  number  was  only  five.  These  facts 
are  worthy  of  the  attention  of  breeders  of  horses. 

To  enter  minutely  into  the  details  of  rearing,  breaking,  <fec.,  would 
require  more  space  than  we  can  devote  to  the  subject  in  an  essay  like  the 
present,  but  a  few  remarks  on  each  head  may  be  of  service.  In  breeding, 
let  the  sire  and  dam  possess  as  many  desirable  points  as  possible,  and  as 
not  one  in  ten  thousand  is  unexceptionable  in  every  respect,  it  is  desirable 
that  the  two  should  not  be  deficient  in  the  same  particular  point.  If 
either  has  a  little  failing  in  one  part,  let  the  other  be  remarkably  good  in 
that  point,  if  possible.  In  this  way,  the  undesirable  or  exceptionable 
points  may  in  part  be  obviated,  and  if  they  are  not,  you  will  in  all  proba- 
bility breed  an  animal  not  less  valuable  than  the  sire  or  dam.  The  fastest 
trotting  horse  now  living  west  of  the  Lakes,  was  bred  from  a  mare  and 
horse,  each  of  them  extremely  bad  in  some  points,  and  each  remarkably 
good  in  others.  The  strong  and  fast  points  were  united  in  the  progeny, 
although  without  beauty — the  colt*  inheriting  the  vicious  disposition  of 
the  dam.  This  happy  arrangement  of  the  best  points  is  not  at  all  cer- 
tain ;  therefore  the  judicious  breeder  will  commence  with  an  animal  for 
sire  or  dam,  with  as  few  imperfections  as  possible,  and  his  success  will  be 
certain,  in  proportion  as  his  parents  are  perfect.  The  foal  should  be 
kept  during  the  first  winter  in  a  warm  yard,  with  a  dry,  warm  stable, 
and  no  floor  but  the  ground,  and  should  have  room  to  exercise  and  walk 
about  in.  Carrots,  or  a  little  bran,  should  be  given  daily,  with  what  hay 
and  water  it  wants,  but  without  grain  of  any  kind.  When  fed  on  grain, 
the  animal  becomes  much  like  a  vegetable  highly  manured,  larger  than 
Le  would  otherwise  be,  and  not  so  tough.  Grain  is  too  stimulating  for 
the  powers  of  digestion  in  a  young  horse,  and  often  settles  in  the  feet, 
ITature,  the  best  guide  in  all  things,  does  not  furnish  the  wild  horse  with 
threshed   and  clean  oats,  but  simply  grass  and  water ;  and  although  not 

*  This  colt  was  brei  by  the  writer  of  this,  and  -rras  sold  a  few  days  after  the  State  Fair 
for  $800,  and  taken  to  New  York.  He  could  trot  a  mile  in  2  m.  32  s.  The  dam,  on. 
account  of  her  vicious  disposition,  was  sold  for  §25. 


I 


l53 


usually  as  large,  grass-fed  colts  make  touglier,  more  wir}-,  and  endurin<^. 
horses  than  those  grain-fed,  long-legged  animals,  which  have  consumed 
the  farmer's  provender  to  his  loss. 

The  business  of  breaking  may  commence  with  the  first  week  of  the 
colt's  existence.  Halter  him  and  merely  hold  him  the  first  ^ew  times  ;■  . 
then  begin  by  leading  him  a  little,  always  using  the  utmost  kindness  and 
gentleness.  Let  the  whip  be  left  out  of  the  catalogue  entirely ;  kindness 
will  subdue  sooner,  and  more  efi"ectually  than  any  other  means.  If 
refractory,  worry  him  out  with  continued  good  treatment,  and  if  need 
be,  by  light  feeding,  until  the  temper  is  quite  subdued.  Should  the 
animal  be  exceedingly  perverse,  not  one  in  a  thousand  will  need  any- 
thing more  than  good  and  uniform  treatment.  Accustom  them  gradu- 
ally to  the  use  of  pieces  of  harness,  and  finally  hitch  them  to  a  light 
vehicle,  such  as  a  pair  of  wheels,  Avith  shafts ;  then  gradually  accustom 
them  to  heavier  loads ;  and  finally  put  them  to  light  work,  and  always 
bear  in  mind  that  patience  will  much  sooner  accomplish  the  desired 
object  than  forcible  means. 

Cattle. — The  difi"erent  breeds,  or  names  for  cattle,  we  suppose  to  be- 
merely  the  result  of  a  systematic  course  of  breeding  persevered  in  for 
a  considerable  length  of  time,  until  the  progeny  were  possessed  of  some 
peculiai'ity  of  color,  form,  (fee,  which  distinguished  them  from  any 
promiscuously  bred  animals.  For  instance,  the  Devons  are  uniformly 
red.  The  Durhams  are  generally  mottled  with  white,  and  each  having 
some  points  peculiar  to  the  breed,  as  horns,  form,  (fee.  The  Devons. 
are  small,  or  only  of  middling  size ;  the  Durhams  are  large.  When  the 
Komans  conquered  Britain,  they  found  cattle  in  considerable  numbers ; 
and  we  have  never  seen  any  notice  of  their  having  taken  cattle  there 
from  Italy  or  any  of  the  Roman  provinces.  The  inference,  then,  is  fair 
that  the  Devons,  Durhams,  Herefords,  Ayrshires,  (fee,  are  the  result  of 
a  course  of  systematic  breeding,  persevered  in  for  many  years,  until  the 
progeny  are  uniform  in  appearance,  in  form,  color,  milking  properties,  (feo._ 

It  is  well  known  that  animals  of  native  stock  are  occasionally  found 
superior  to  the  improved  breeds  for  milking ;  and  for  beef,  many  are- 
equally  as  good.  By  judicious  selections  of  such  animals,  a  breed  can 
be  propagated,  and  in  a  few  years,  become  as  marked,  and  perhaps  as 
valuable,  as  any  of  the  improved  breeds  imported  at  such  great  cost, 
and  many  of  them  inferior  to  the  common  native  cows  for  milk,  as  the 
writer  has  ascertained  to  his  loss.  High-sounding  names  and  long  pedi- 
11 


15-i 

grees  do  not  fill  the  miik-pail ;  therefore,  let  the  farmer  of  limited  means 
use  his  judgment,  and  select  those  animals  having  the  requisites  for  but- 
ter or  beef,  and  breed  from  them  a  stock  at  less  cost,  and  with  less  dan- 
ger of  disappointment.  There  was  a  time  when  the  Merino  sheep  sold 
at  ^1,000  jjer  head;  Morus  Multicaulis,  Rohan  potatoes,  Berkshire  hof^s, 
and  many  other  far-fetched  and  dear-bought  commodities,  have  had  their 
day,  when  we  had  as  good,  and  better  at  heme,  if  we  had  only  had  the 
discrimination  to  hold  fast  to  that  which  was  good.  Therefore,  let  the 
farmer  constantly  select  the  best  for  propogation  of  animals,  seeds,  or 
whatever  he  would  raise.  By  persevering  in  this  course,  he  cannot  fail 
to  realize  his  most  sanguine  expectations,  enrich  himself,  and  confer  last- 
ing benefits  on  posterity. 


RELATION  OF  CROPS  TO  SOILS. 
BY  S.  r.  LATHROP,  M.D., 

PROFESSOa  OF  CUEMLSTRY  AMD  NATURAL  HISTORY,   BELOIT  COLLEGE. 

'"For  mrvny  years  chemists  and  philosophers  have  been  investigating  the  affinities  and 
other  pecuharities  of  molecules  or  ultimate,  indivisible  particles  of  matter.  These  scien- 
tific researches  have  revealed  many  important  truths,  and  natural  laws,  which  liavo  a 
direct  bearing  on  all  the  economical  purposes  of  agriculture.  Some  pains  should  be 
taken  to  impart  a  knowledge  of  these  laws  to  all  practical  farmers.  When  we  consider 
-how  little  opportunity  the  mass  of  agriculturists  have  to  study  the  cliemical  composition 
of  their  soils  and  crops,  it  can  readily  be  seen  that  information  of  this  kind  is  greatly 
needed  in  all  oi>erations  which  aini  to  feed  cultivated  planis  with  their  ap/propiiate 
aliment." — Dr.  Lee,  M.  B.  in  "  IntroducUon  lo  Patent  Office  Report — Agricxdtural,  1850, 

Repeated  chemical  analysis  of  vegetables  has  shown  that  they  are 
composed  of  two  classes  of  ingredients,  which  are  called  organic  and 
inorganic.  When  any  vegetable  is  burned  in  the  open  air,  the  whole  of 
the  so-called  organic  portion  is  driven  oflf,  or  escapes  in  vapor.  This 
•consists  of  oxygen,  hydrogen,  carbon  and  nitrogen,  in  a  greater  or  less 
proportion  of  each.  There  also  remains  a  certain  portion  of  the  original 
plant,  in  the  form  of  ashes,  called  the  inorganic,  or  fixed  part  of  the 
plant.  This  portion  will  not  be  lessened  by  the  continuance  of  heat. — 
This  is  composed  of  various  mineral  matters  in  different  proportions. 

In  general,  the  organic  or  combustible  part  of  plants  forms  a  large 
portion  of  the  whole  plant,  varying  in  different  instances  from  88  to  99 
per  cent,  of  their  weight  when  dried.  From  this  circumstance  it  appeared 
to  the  earlier  vegetable  physiologists  that  the  inorganic  part  was  merely 
accidental  in  its  presence — that  it  was  taken  up  into  the  plant,  only 
because  it  was  found  dissolved  in  the  fluid  by  which  the  plant  had  been 


155 

V 

nourished,  and  that  it  took  no  necessary  part  in  its  organization.  It  was 
found,  however,  that  this  inorganic  part  of  the  same  plant  was  always  of 
the  same  kind  of  material,  whatever  was  the  character  of  soil  upon 
which  it  grew.  This,  evidently,  would  not  have  been  the  fact  were  its 
presence  wholly  accidental,  and  not  governed  by  some  fixed  laws.  It 
was  also  found  that  the  composition  of  the  ashes  of  different  plants, 
grown  upon  the  same  soil,  varied  much  in  the  number  and  character  of 
their  elements.  It  Avas  further  found  that  each  kind  of  plant,  in  selectino- 
for  itself  nearly  a  constant  weight  of  inorganic  matter,  while  it  mio-ht 
choose  the  same  kind  or  kinds  of  earthy  matters,  that  some  other  plants 
do,  to  make  up  their  composition,  yet  it  was  always  in  quantities  peculiar 
to  itself.  Thus,  for  example,  wheat  would  contain  eight  pounds  of  lime 
in  every  one  hundred  pounds  of  its  ashes,  while  barley,  in  the  same 
weight  of  its  ashes,  would  have  only  about  four  and  one-half  pounds. 

Different  parts  of  the  same  plant  have  since  been  found,  also,  to  have 
different  proportions  of  the  same  element — the  ashes  of  the  leaves  differ- 
ing in  quantity  and  quality  from  those  of  the  wood  or  body  of  the  plant, 
and  both  being  different  from  the  root  or  bulb. 

From  the  above  facts  it  was  inferred  that  the  ingredients  found  in  the 
ashes  of  plants  were  essential  constituents.  This  view  was  corroborated 
by  the  observed  fact,  that  plants  will  not  thrive  and  come  to  maturity — 
properly  perfecting  their  seed,  straw,  &c. — in  a  soil  destitute  of  the  kinds 
of  matter  usually  found  to  be  present  in  their  ashes. 

These  facts  are  the  basis  of  a  most  important  principle  to  the  ao-ricul- 
turist,  and  one  that  should  be  duly  recognized,  and  fully  understood  by 
every  cultivator  of  the  soil.  Says  Prof.  Johnston,  "  It  is  difficult  to 
conceive  the  extent  to  which  the  admission  of  the  essential  nature  and 
constant  quantity  of  the  inorganic  matter  contained  in  plants,  must 
necessarily  modify  our  notions,  and  regulate  our  practice  in  every  branch 
of  aorriculture.  It  establishes  a  clear  relation  between  the  kind  and 
quality  of  the  crop,  and  the  nature  and  chemical  composition  of  the  soil 
in  Avhich  it  grows.  It  demonstrates  what  soils  ought  to  contain,  and, 
therefore,  how  they  are  to  be  improved.  It  explains  the  effect  of  some 
manures  in  permanently  fertilizing,  and  of  some  crops  in  permanently 
impoverishing  the  soil.  It  illustrates  the  action  of  mineral  substances 
upon  the  plant,  and  shows  how  it  may  be,  and  really  is,  in  a  certain 
measure,  fed  by  the  dead  earth.  Over  nearly  all  the  operations  of  agri- 
culture, it  throws  a  new  and  unexpected  light." 


156 


It  ■will  be  our  aim  in  this  article  to  point  out  the  relation  of  the  seve- 
ral crops,  usually  cultivated  in  our  State,  to  the  soil,  by  exhibiting  their 
chemical  composition,  which  has  been  determined  by  repeated  analysis  of 
their  ashes,  thus  showing  the  materials  which  they  severally  remove  from 
the  land  upon  which  they  are  grown,  and  the  condition  in  which  they 
leave  it,  when  they  are  removed,  and,  as  a  kind  of  **  improvement  "  of 
the  subject,  to  offer  such  practical  suggestions  as  may  be  deemed  of  inte- 
rest and  profit  to  the  agriculturist. 

The  true,  or  all  the  relations  of  crops  to  soils,  require  that  we  should 
take  into  consideration  also  the  organic  elements  of  crops  and  of  soils  ;• 
but,  as  the  soils  of  the  several  districts  of  Wisconsin,  except,  perhaps, 
the  so  called  sandstone  district,  along  the  Wisconsin  River,  and  portions 
of  the  districts  north  of  that,  have  a  large  portion  of  organic  matter  in 
them — say  an  average  of  10  per  cent — (See  Dr.  Owen's  Report  to  the 
General  Government,  as  quoted  by  Mr.  Lapham,  in  the  first  volume  of 
the  Transactions  of  the  Wisconsin  State  Agricultural  Society,  p.  127; 
also,  Prof.  Jas.  V.  Z.  Blaney's  Analysis  of  Prairie  Soil,  in  Patent  Office 
Report,  Agricultural,  for  1849-50,  p.  489,)  it  is  thought  best,  at  present, 
to  confine  ourselves  wholly  to  the  inorganic  portion  of  plants  and  soils. 

The  following  Table,  compiled  from  various  sources,  exhibits  the 
amount  of  essential  elements  in  a  productive  soil.  Some  crops,  it  is 
true,  may  grow  upon  a  soil  destitute  of  some  of  these  ingredients,  or 
rather  of  some  portion  of  them ;  but  the  Table  is  designed  to  furnish  the 
elements  for  the  generality  of  crops : 

TABLE    I. 


IN    EVERY    HUNDRED    POUNDS. 

Organic  Matter 10.00 

Silica,  Quartz 64.80 

Lime 5.90 

Magnesia 80 

Potash 3.00 

Soda 4.00 

Chlorine 20 

Sul.  Acid 25 

Phos.  Acid 3.05 

Alumina 5.70 

Ox.  Iron 2.00 

Ox.  Manganese 30 


100.00 


157 

It  niay  be  of  much  importance  to  the  farmer  to  possess  some  know- 
ledo-e  of  these  elements  and  their  office,  both  as  constituents  of  the  soil, 
and  of  the  plants  growing  upon  it.  They  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes,  according  to  their  office  in  the  vegetable  economy ;  those  which 
go  to  make  up  the  frame  work  of  the  several  tissues ;  among  which  are 
silex,  lime  and  magnesia ;  and  those  which  go  to  fill  up  the  interstices  of 
these  tissues,  among  which  are  the  inorganic  matters,  phosphates,  &c. 

We  shall  endeavor  to  give  a  simple  statement  of  the  characters  of  the 
inorganic  elements  of  plants,  as  they  are  found  in  the  soil,  and  of  their 
office,  both  as  constituents  of  the  plant  and  of  the  soil.  These  will  be 
spoken  of  in  the  order  in  which  they  occur  in  the  Table. 

In  doing  this,  it  is  taken  for  granted  that  they,  for  whose  benefit  this 
article  is  written,  do  not  noAv  know  these  materials,  their  characteristics, 
their  nature,  or  their  use,  cither  in  the  plant  or  the  soil. 

Silex. — Under  this  term  are  included  those  of  silica  and  silicic  acid. 
This  substance  is  well  known  to  all  farmers  by  the  names  of  flint,  quartz 
and  sand.   We  see  a  nearly  pure  form  of  it  in  the  clear,  transparent  quartz 
crystals,  in  the  agates  so  common  in  our  gravel,  brought  from  the  region 
of  Lake  Superior.     The  fine  grains  in  ordinary  sandstone  are  particles 
of  silex.     It  exists  abundantly  in  almost  all  soils.     It  is  without  color, 
taste  or  smell,  and  cannot  be  melted  alone  by  the  strongest  heat.     As  it 
occurs  in  the  state  of  flint,  of  quartz  or  sand,  it  is  perfectly  insoluble  in 
water,   and  scarcely  soluble  in  the  strongest  acids.     It  combines  with 
potash,  soda,  lime  and  magnesia,   and  in  this  manner  it  forms  a  large 
portion  of  what  are  called  crystaline  rocks,  (granite,  basalt,  <fec.)     By 
the  action  of  the  air,  and  other  agents,  these  silicates,  as  these  rocks  are 
called  chemically,  undergo    decomposition  and  the  silica  is  separated 
from  them  in  a  soluble  form.    Thus  it  is  found  in  a  considerable  quantity 
in  the  waters  of  many  mineral  springs ;  and  in  nearly  all  the  "raters 
that  rise  from  any  considerable  depth  beneath  the  surface,  or  have  made 
their  way  through  any  considerable  depth  of  soil.     If  this  soluble  form 
of  silica  has  been  very  thoroughly  dried,  and  especially  when  it  has 
been  much  heated  or  ignited,  it  becomes  again  insoluble.     It  is  only  in 
its  soluble  state  that  it  can,  to  any  extent,  be  taken  up  into  plants.     It 
is,  therefore,  found  in  plants,  for  the  most  part,  in  the  above  combina- 
tions.    When    plants,  which  contain  this  soluble  form  of  silica,  are 
.exposed  to  any  decomposing  agent,  or  of  any  liquid  capable  of  dissolving 


15S 

it  in  compost,  or  manure  heaps,  tlic}^  give  up  their  silex  in  a  soluble  form^ 
capable  of  again  being  taken  up  in  the  nourishment  of  other  plants. 

As  this  substance  may,  and  does  exist  in  two  conditions  in  the  soil — 
soluble  and  insoluble — it  performs  a  double  office,  in  both  parts  of  which 
it  is  of  vast  importance.  As  an  insoluble  portion  of  the  soil,  it  acts 
mechanically,  in  giving  porosity  to  it,  so  that  both  the  fruitful  showers 
and  the  invigorating  atmospheres,  loaded  with  the  peculiar  food  of  vegeta- 
bles, may  permeate  its  substance.  If  soils  contain  too  little  of  it,  they  are 
compact,  close  and  impervious ;  if  too  much  of  it,  water  runs  through 
them  too  rapidly,  thus  leaching  them  and  carrying  off  their  fertile  ingre- 
dients to  lower  depths.  Soil  is  not  thought  to  be  overdosed  with  silex  when 
it  amounts  to  65  or  70  per  cent.  Above  that  proportion,  it  becomes  too 
loose,  and  not  sufficiently  retentive  of  fertile  matters,  and  is  capable  of 
producing  crops  only  by  annual  and  heavy  additions  of  manure. 

As  a  soluble  portion  of  the  soil  it  becomes  an  important  ingredient  in 
the  composition  of  plants,  and  here,  as  in  the  soil  where  it  is  insoluble,  it 
acts  mechanically  in  giving  strength  to  the  stems  of  all  our  cereals — 
wheat,  rye,  oats,  corn,  (fee,  and  to  all  the  grasses.  Thus  it  is  that  in  the 
straw  of  all  these  plants,  a  very  large  portion  is  silex,  nearly  70  per  cent, 
while  in  the  seeds  or  grain  of  these  plants  it  is  only  from  two  to  three 
per  cent.  Where  it  is  wanting  in  the  soils  the  stems  of  crops  growing- 
upon  them  are  weak  and  unable  to  support  themselves,  like  the  soft  limbs 
of  a  young  child,  or  the  new  bones  of  any  animal.  We  see  that  silex, 
in  this  state,  is  the  sustaining  and  protecting  agent  in  the  tissues  of  vege- 
tables, and,  in  the  other,  furnishing  them  with  a  suitable  footing  and 
medium  through  which  nutritious  matters  are  brought  to  their  roots. 

Lime. — Pure  caustic  lime,  or  quick  lime,  never  exists  for  any  length 
of  time  in  nature,  as  its  affinity*  for  carbonic  acid  will  cause  it  to  take  it 
from  the  atmosphere,  and  thus  form  the  common  limestone,  or  carbonate 
of  lime.  As  a  carbonate  of  lime,  it  acts  only  mechanically  in  the  soil, 
the  same  as  silex,  rendering  it  generally  more  porous.  In  this  state  of 
combination  it  is  insoluble  in  pure  water,  the  same  as  is  silex.  Nature, 
in  this  case  also,  however,  has  made  abundant  provision  for  its  solution. 
Water  charged  with  carbonic  acid  dissolves  it  quite  rapidly,  and  rain 
water,  having  a  great  affinity  for  carbonic  acid,  as  it  is  passing  through 
the  atmosphere,  becomes  charged  with  it  and  is  thus  prepared  to  dissolve 

*  By  affinity  is  meant  the  tendency  of  bodies  to  unite  and  remain  united. 


159 

the  carbonate  of  lime-rocks  upon  which  it  falls,  and  transport  the  dis-  . 
solved  material  to,  and  diffuse  it  through  the  soil. 

Prof.  Emmons,  in  his  Agricultural  Report  of  the  State  of  New  York, 
says,  "Few  subjects  have  enlisted  the  attention  of  agriculturists  so 
much  as  the  use  and  effect  of  lime  in  and  upon  soils.  The  facts  very 
generally  go  to  prove  its  great  value  ;  its  action,  however,  has  not  been 
so  generally  understood,  *  *  *  *  Analysis  proves  the 
constant  presence  of  lime  in  vegetables.  There  is  no  doubt  but  that  it 
should  be  present  in  all  soils,  to  supply  the  wants  of  vegetation.  But  its 
use  and  functions  do  not  terminate  in  supplying  a  material  for  nutriment: 
there  are  certain  reactions  [decomposition  and  composition]  of  lime  upon 
other  elements  in  the  soil,  which  equal  in  utility  the  one  just  referred  to. 
This  reaction  is  upon  the  silicates  of  Potash  [potash  in  combination 
with  silex]  and  other  alkalies."*  Lime,  when  in  contact  with  the  abovo 
substances  in  the  soil,  has  a  tendency  to  decompose  them,  and  set  at  lib- 
erty the  silica  and  render  it  soluble.  A  mechanical  effect  attends  this 
chemical  action  in  the  soil.  It  is  made  lighter,  and  the  whole  mass  is 
more  porous  and  friable.  Lime  is  thought  by  some  to  favor  the  decom- 
position of  organic  matters  in  the  soil,  and  thus  furnish  the  materials,  of 
which  they  are  composed,  to  growing  plants  in  greater  abundance  than 
would  have  been  done  without  the  presence  of  lime.  Of  the  compounds  of 
lime,  such  as  sulphates,  phosphates,  &c.,  we  shall  speak  in  another  place. 
It  will  be  seen,  then,  that  the  offices  of  lime,  as  an  ingredient  of  a  pro- 
ductive soil  are,  first,  to  supply  an  element  necessary  to  plants ;  secondly, 
to  liberate  the  alkalies  in  combination  with  silica;  thirdly,  to  jender  the 
freed  silica  soluble  that  it  may  be  capable  of  being  used  in  plants; 
fourthly,  to  give  porosity  to  argillaceous  or  clayey  soils;f  and  fifthly,  to 
assist  in  the  decomposition  of  vegetable  and  animal  matters  in  he  soil. 

Magnesia. — The  office  of  Magnesia,  as  an  element  of  soils,  seems  not 
to  be  well  understood  by  agriculturists.  From  the  small  amount  usually 
found  in  productive  soils,  it  certainly  cannot  very  effectually  act,  as  lime 
does,  in  the  same  combinations,  as  a  loosener  of  the  soil ;  but  as  it  is 
always  found  in  plants,  and  since  they  will  not  flourish  without  it,  it  is 
necessarily  inferred  that  it  is  an  indispensable  ingredient  in  a  good  soil. 
Its  general  form,  in  the  composition  of  plants,  is  in  combination  with  phos- 


*  Potash,  soda  and  ammonia  are  called  alkalies  ;  lime  and  magnesia,  alkaline  earths^, 
i  Emmons. 


1 


160 

phoric  acid.  Whether  this  combination  takes  place  before  its  entrance 
into  the  plant,  or  afterward,  is  not  a  settled  point.  It  appears,  that  it  is 
•  essential  in  the  formation  of  the  grain  of  our  cereals — corn,  Avheat,  rye, 
<&c. — as  in  them  it  is  found  in  much  greater  abundance,  than  in  other 
parts.     "  It  is  an  element  of  food,  and  not  of  mechanical  support." 

When  it  exists  in  great  abundance  in  the  soil,  it  is  injurious  to  crops. 
Although  most  of  the  lime  rock  of  Wisconsin  is  a  magnesian  limestone, 
yet  the  magnesia  is  so  much  moi'e  insoluble  in  water,  than  lime,  that  but 
«,  small  amount  exists  in  the  soil,  in  a  condition  to  be  taken  up  by  plants. 

J*0TAsn. — This  substance  is  well  knoAvn  to  farmers  generally,  as  the 
material  which  is  obtained  from  boiling  down  the  ley  of  wood-ashes,  to 
dryness,  and  when  it  is  purified  and  combined  with  carbonic  acid,  forms 
the  common  pearl  ashes  of  the  shops.  It  is  found  in  greater  or  less 
abundance  in  plants,  and  is  also  a  constituent  of  animal  matter.  Its 
office  in  the  plant,  is  not  quite  evident.  Much  is  yet  to  be  learned  in 
■regard  to  it.  That  it  is  essential,  however,  is  inferred  from  the  fact,  that 
^Soils  destitute  of  it,  are  nearly  barren.  It  is  of  great  importance  as  a 
'■constituent  of  soil,  in  rendering  (as  we  have  before  hinted  under  silex) 
isilica,  and  other  bodies,  soluble,  so  that  it  can  be  taken  up  by  plants. 

Soda. — Nearly  the  same  may  be  said  of  soda  as  has  been  said  of  potash ; 
in  fact,  the  two  are  much  alike  in  many  of  their  properties,  and  also  in  the 
purposes  which  they  seem  to  serve  in  plants  and  in  soil.  Some  plants 
3'equire  more  of  soda  than  of  potash,  while  others  require  more  of  pot- 
ash than  of  soda.  The  tubers  of  potatoes,  require  both  potash  and 
soda.  It  is  thought  by  some  that  potash  and  soda  may  replace  each 
other,  in  case  of  an  absence  of  the  other  in  the  soil.  It  is  found,  however, 
"\vhenever  this  does  take  place,  that  it  is  a  forced  condition  of  the  plant, 
and  the  probability  is,  that  in  such  cases  the  plant  would  in  a  few  years 
become  so  deteriorated  or  "run  out,"  that  it  would  cease  to  vesfetate. 

Of  the  last  two  substances  there  are  several  compounds  of  great 
'importance  to  the  agriculturist.  Many  of  them  are  capable  of  being 
-used  as  valuable  manures.  Of  these,  however,  though  they  may  often 
-exist  in  the  soil,  and  enrich  it  by  their  presence,  yet  we  have  not  room 
•or  leisure  to  speak  further. 

Chlorine. — This  is  a  greenish-yellow  colored  gas  or  air,  and  has  a 
Tery  pungent,  disagreeable  smell.  Animals  cannot  breathe  it  without 
^suffocation ;  and  when  mixed  with  common  air,  it  speedily  kills  all  living 


161 

vegetables.  When  it  combines  with  other  bodies,  it  forms  substances 
called  chlorides.  Common  salt  is  a  chloride  of  sodium.  Every  lOOibs. 
of  salt  contains  upwards  of  60  ibs.  of  chlorine.  It  rarely  exists  in  nature 
in  a  free,  or  uncombined  state ;  it  is  not  known,  therefore,  to  exercise 
any  direct  action  upon  the  general  vegetation  of  the  globe.  It  is  thought 
to  be  more  important  to  animals  than  to  vegetables.  It  is  not  present 
in  any  very  great  amount  in  vegetables,  but  when  present  it  is  rather  in 
the  stalks  and  leaves  than  in  the  seeds.  Clover,  hoAvever,  has  some 
considerable  chlorine,  and  wheat  less.  It  is  quite  probable,  however, 
that  there  is  more  chlorine  present  in  growing  plants  than  is  found  in 
their  ashes ;  as  the  burning  of  them  to  obtain  the  ash,  would  drive  off 
the  chlorine. 

Sulphuric  Acid. — This  is  the  common  oil  of  vitriol  of  the  shops. 
It  is  a  compound  of  sulphur  and  a  gas  called  oxygen.  It  is  rarely  met 
with  in  nature,  in  an  uncombined  state ;  but  is  generally  found  united 
with  potash,  soda,  magnesia  or  lime ;  the  latter  of  which  is  the  common 
plaster  or  plaster  of  Paris,  which  is  so  much  used  as  a  fertilizer.  This 
substance  is  called  sulphate  of  lime  by  the  chemists.  In  every  100  Bbs. 
of  plaster  of  Paris,  there  are  about  33  Bbs.  of  sulphuric  acid.  Epsom 
salts  is  also  a  composition  of  sulphuric  acid  and  magnesia.  Sulphuric 
acid,  although  it  is  seldom  if  ever  found  as  such  in  vegetables,  yet  it  is 
an  important  element  of  soils.  Sulphur,  one  of  its  elements,  is  often 
found  in  plants,  such  as  peas  and  beans,  and  indeed  in  almost  all  plants 
of  this  kind.  It  is  also  found  as  an  essential  ingredient  in  horse  radish, 
cabbages,  mustard,  &c.  Whenever  sulphur  is  absent  in  the  soil,  it  has 
to  be  supplied  by  the  farmer,  by  some  artificial  means ;  as  for  example, 
by  plaster  of  Paris,  or  sulphuric  acid  itself,  very  much  diluted  by  water. 

Phosphoric  Acid. — This  substance  is  not  one  that  is  often  seen  of  itself 
by  the  farmer.  It  is  a  combination  of  phosphorus  and  oxygen,  just  as 
sulphuric  acid,  or  oil  of  vitriol,  is  a  combination  of  sulphur  and  oxygen. 
Most  persons  are  familiar  with  phosphorus  as  it  is  seen  in  the  shops  of 
the  druggists.  When  phosphorus  is  burned  in  the  air,  phosphoric  acid 
fumes  will  be  seen  to  rise.  This  is  seen  in  the  fumes  of  a  match  before 
the  sulphur  takes  fire.  This  substance,  in  its  various  combinations  with, 
other  bodies,  is  of  great  importance  in  the  vegetable  economy,  and  of 
course  is  an  essential  element  of  soils.  In  the  parts  of  plants  used  for 
the  food  of  man,  it  is  found  in  the  greatest  abundance.     It  seems  to  be  a 


162 

very  important,  if  not  essential  element,  in  order  that  the  seeds  of  graia 
may  be  brought  to  perfection.  These  facts  indicate  its  importance  as  an 
ingredient  in  the  soil,  and  as  it  is  generally  found  in  limited  quantities,  it 
is  the  more  important  that  the  farmer  should  take  proper  means  to  secure 
its  presence.  Some  crops,  as  will  be  seen  hereafter,  require  much  larger 
quantities  of  this  element  than  others,  in  order  that  they  may  be  per- 
fected. 

The  principle  alkalies  with  which  it  is  usually  found  combined  in 
plants,  are  lime,  magnesia,  potash,  and  soda.  Many  substances  upon 
■which  plants  live  are  derived  from  the  atmosphere,  so  that  a  soil  impov- 
erished by  their  want  may  be  again  enriched  simply  by  suffering  the  land 
to  lie  dormant  or  by  fallowing  it.  The  phosphates,  however,  can  never  be 
derived  from  the  atmosphere  or  from  rain  water,  nor  are  they  furnished 
by  any  of  the  processes  of  nature.  If  they  become  exhausted,  direct 
application  must  be  made  of  some  substance  which  contains  them.  Other 
substances,  though  they  may  be  important,  yet  are  frequently  so  abun- 
dant, that  there  is  really  no  difficulty  in  obtaining  them.  This  is  the  case 
with  sulphuric  acid,  abundance  of  which  exists  in  plaster  of  Paris.  But 
with  the  phosphates  this  is  not  the  case.*  It  is  on  this  account  that  the 
"  super-phosphate  of  lime  "  is  of  so  great  value  as  a  manure  upon  fields 
exhausted  of  their  phosphates. 

Alumina. — This  substance,  in  its  pure  or  uncombined  state,  is  seldoni 
found  in  the  soil,  but  it  constitutes  a  large  proportion  of  all  the  slaty  and 
shaly  rocks,  and  is  the  principal  ingredient  of  clays,  and  clayey  soils, 
giving  them  their  peculiar  tenacity.  It  is  insoluble  in  pure  water. 
Though  it  exists  abundantly  in  many  soils,  it  probably  contributes  but 
little,  in  a  direct  manner,  to  the  nourishment  of  plants.  Its  function,  as 
a  part  of  the  soil,  is  to  give  consistency  and  compactness  to  it ;  thus 
differing,  in  its  action  from  silex,  which  we  have  said,  is  to  give  porosity 
to  the  soil. 

These  two  substances  form  the  basis  of  all  soils,  and  to  them  they  owe 
their  principal  and  permanent  characters.  The  presence  of  the  other 
elements  produce  comparatively  but  trifling  modifications.  The  body  or 
basis  being  thus  constituted,  the  remaining  elements,  along  with  soluble 
silica,  may  be  regarded  as  food,  or  as  matter  out  of  which  the  frame 
"work  of  the  various  tissues  are  formed.     A   soil,  however,   composed 


*Emmon8. 


163 

Entirely  of  these  bodies  termed  nutritive,  would  be  unfit  to  produce  good 
crops.  It  is  not  a  matter  of  indiflference  what  constitutes  the  basis,  or 
substratum  of  soils.  This  must  be  a  peculiar  medium,  having  certain 
peculiar  relations  to  water  and  other  bodies,  which,  if  not  secured  by 
and  in  their  physical  or  mechanical  properties,  would  render  the  labors 
of  the  farmer  of  no  avail.  Most  of  the  earths — by  which  is  meant  all 
the  above  described  substances,  except  the  acids  and  chlorine — possess 
some  absorbent  properties.  Alumina,  however,  when  pure,  or  as  com- 
bined with  silica,  (its  most  usual  state,)  ranks  high  in  this  important 
particular.  The  rapid  absorption  of  ammonia  by  clay,  renders  it  (the 
clay)  a  receptacle  or  reservoir  of  this  substance,  which  is  of  so  much 
value  as  nutriment  to  plants,  and  which  is  thus  derived  from  the  air, 
manure,  &c.,  and  retained  for  future  use.* 

Oxide  of  Iron. — This  element  of  soils  is  well  known  to  every  farmer, 
under  the  name  of  iron-rust.  All  soils  contain  it  very  much  in  the  same 
way  as  the  bog-iron  ore,  which  is  an  impure  oxide  of  iron,  and  resembles 
it  in  some  respects.  It  has  not  yet  been  determined  that  the  oxide  of 
manganese  is  an  essential  constituent  of  any  class  of  plants,  though  it  is 
found  in  small  quantities  in  most  of  them.  Its  presence,  however,  is 
thought  to  be,  by  some,  wholly  accidental.  Its  necessity  as  an  element 
of  a  fertile  soil,  though  required  only  in  small  quantities,  is  inferred 
from  the  fact,  that  its  entire  absence  from  a  soil,  renders  it  unfit  to 
produce  perfect  crops.  This  fact  shows  us  that  the  importance  of  an 
element  is  not  always  to  be  inferred  by.  its  abundance,  either  in  the  plant 
or  in  the  soil  upon  which  it  has  grown.  Silex,  which  usually  forms  so 
large  a  portion  of  most  soils,  is  no  more  an  essential  element  than  is  the 
oxide  of  iron  or  manganese,  which  usually  forms  so  small  a  portion  of 
soils.  One  element  is  just  as  essential  for  the  due  perfection  of  the  plant 
in  all  its  parts,  as  another.  The  organic  elements  of  the  soil  are  just  as 
important  to  the  secuing  of  a  good  crop,  as  are  the  inorganic  elements  of 
which  we  have  given  a  description,  but  no  more  so.  It  is  not  because 
the  organic  are  not  essential,  that  Ave  have  said  nothing  of  them,  but 
because  our  soils  are  tolerably  well  supplied  with  them,  and  because  the 
manures  which  the  farmers  are  generally  in  the  habit  of  putting  upon 
their  soil,  usually  contain  a  much  larger  portion  of  organic  than  of 
inorganic  matter.     There  is,  therefore,  a  greater  liability,  in  almost  every 

*Eminon8. 


16-i 

aqricultural  communitr,  of  the  inorcjanic  elements  becominff  deficient  in 
quantity.  Many,  and  perliaps,  the  greater  portion  of  farmers,  suppose 
that  they  have  necessarily  supplied  the  soil  Avith  more  or  less  of  it,  and  all 
vegetables  possess  the  power  to  take  it  up,  as  it  is  easily  soluble  in  water 
slightly  acidulated  with  any  acid.  Thus  it  is  generally  present  in  plants, 
though  sometimes  in  a  very  small  amount.  It  does  not  appear  so  impor- 
tant to  the  plant  itself,  as  to  the  animals  living  upon  it ;  as  iron  is  an 
essential  constituent  of  the  blood  of  all  vertebrated  animals  certainly, 
if  not  of  all  animals ;  and  the  only  way  by  which  it  can  generally  be 
taken  into  their  systems  in  due  quantity,  is  by  their  food.  But  in  the 
soil,  iron  is  thought  to  be  an  important  element,  from  the  fact  that  it 
greatly  aids  or  promotes  the  formation  of  ammonia,  or  the  retaining  of 
it  in  the  soil,  which,  we  have  already  said,  is  of  great  importance  to  the 
growth  af  vegetation.  To  explain  its  action  in  the  formation  of  ammo- 
nia would  carry  us  too  deeply  into  the  principles  of  chemistry  for  our 
present  purpose.  This,  however,  is  its  greatest  use,  in  rendering  a  soil 
fertile.  The  salts  of  iron  are  sometimes  so  abundant  in  the  soil,  as  to  be 
injurious  to  vegetation.  They  are,  however,  easily  neutralized  by  the 
application  of  lime.  The  salt  of  iron  most  usually  present,  being  the 
sulphate  of  iron,  it  can  be  converted  from  an  injurious  ingredient  to  a 
most  useful  fertilizer,  by  the  application  of  lime,  thus  forming  plaster  of 
Paris,  the  iron  being  then  simply  an  oxide,  to  act  as  described  above. 

Oxide  of  Manganese. — The  last,  as  well  as  the  substance  of  the  least 
importance  on  our  list,  is  the  oxide  of  manganese.  This  is  not  so  com- 
mon a  substance  as  the  oxide  of  iron,  neither  is  it  generally  familiar  to 
the  farmer.  It  is  formed,  however,  with  the  proper  materials,  if  they 
have  but  spread,  in  sufficient  quantity,  common  barn-yard  manure  upon 
it.  This  manure  may  be  either  what  is  called  long  or  short  manure  ; 
more  commonly,  however,  it  is  the  long,  and  not  in  the  least  composted. 
This  consists  almost,  if  not  wholly,  of  organic  matter.  It  is  true,  that 
in  some  districts  of  country,  the  organic  portion  of  soils  may  be  the 
portion  most  readily  exhausted.  In  such  instances,  organic  matters  are 
the  ones  to  be  supplied.  In  other  instances,  it  is  the  inorganic  portion 
that  is  first  exhausted  and  requires  to  be  supplied ;  generally,  however, 
both  of  these  kinds  of  elements  are  lessened  rapidly  by  the  removal  of 
crops,  and  need  equally  to  be  restored  in  some  way  to  the  soil  that  it 
may  retain  its  proper  fertility. 


165 

Having  thus  described  the  several  inorganic  elements  found  to  be 
essential  in  a  fertile  soil,  and  alluded  briefly  to  their  office,  both  in  the 
soil  and  the  plant ;  and  having  given  a  Table  of  the  relative  proportions 
of  the  elements  necessary,  we  are  prepared  to  examine  the  different 
crops  of  grain,  grasses  and  roots,  which  are  commonly  cultivated  among 
us,  with  respect  to  the  composition  of  their  inorganic  elements  and  their 
l-elative  proportions  in  different  plants.  This  will  enable  us  properly  to 
appreciate  the  existing  relation  of  these  crops  to  the  soil ;  and  the  amount 
of  the  inorganic  material^  which  they  severally  remove  from  it,  and  con- 
sequently the  necessity  there  is,  in  order  to  preserve  the  fertility  of  the 
soil,  of  restoring,  in  proper  quantities,  these  elements,  by  artificial  means. 

It  is  not  to  be  understood  by  our  remarks,  in  the  earlier  part  of  this 
article,  that  every  kind  of  plant,  under  any  and  all  circumstances,  will 
have,  in  its  composition,  precisely  the  same  amount  of  each  different 
material.  The  ash  of  the  same  plant,  if  ripe  and  in  a  healthy  and  per- 
fect state,  is  nearly  the  same  in  kind  and  quality,  whatever  may  be  the 
circumstances  of  soil  and  climate,  Avhere  it  may  have  grown.  This 
general  truth,  however,  is  consistent  with  certain  differences,  which  are 
of  great  interest  in  their  bearing  upon  Agriculture,  both  in  theory  and 
in  practice. 

We  have  already  mentioned  the  fact  that  different  parts  of  the  same 
plant  differ  in  the  amount  of  inorganic  elements  taken  into  their  composi- 
tion, and  also  that  they  differ  in  the  relative  proportions  of  these  elements. 
We  may  also  add  that  the  quantity  and  relative  proportions  of  the  differ- 
ent inorganic  substances  varies,  in  the  same  plant,  with  the  season  of  the 
year,  or  the  age  of  the  plant,  when  the  examination  is  made.  This  fact 
is  the  basis  for  determininof  the .  time  of  harvestincr  the  several  kinds  of 
grain,  and  the  cutting  of  grass  and  green  crops  for  fodder.  No  principle 
connected  with  the  management  of  a  farm  is  of  more  vital  importance  to 
the  condition  of  the  farmer's  stock,  and  to  the  value  of  his  grain,  than 
this.  It  is  one,  too,  with  which  he  should  render  himself  familiar,  and 
upon  which  he  should  constantly  act.  We  may,  with  propriety,  speak 
of  feeding  plants,  as  we  do  of  feeding  animals,  and  there  is  a  principle  in 
both  of  these  instances,  analogous  to  each  other,  with  which,  if  the 
farmer  is  acquainted,  and  acts  accordingly,  complete  success  is  sure  to 
attend  his  efforts.  The  law,  which  is  abundantly  established,  both  in 
the  plant  and  in  the  animal,  that  certain  elements  or  bodies  are  deter- 
mined towards  specific  parts,  should  be  recognized  by  every  agriculturist. 


166 

Cattle  breeders  and  fruit  growers  well  understand  this  principle.  The 
former  will,  in  due  time,  give  yftu  an  animal  possessing  any  desirable 
quality,  and  with  the  flesh  or  fat  laid  on  in  any  specified  part.  They 
will  furnish  you  the  small  boned  and  tender  muscled  animal  properly 
inlaid  with  fat,  so  desirable  for  pork  or  beef ;  or  they  will  furnish,  at  your 
bidding,  the  larger  and  more  compact  framed  animal  duly  furnished  with 
stroncf  and  elastic  fibred  muscles,  well  calculated  for  service.  The  latter 
will,  almost  without  limit,  change  the  qualities  of  his  pears,  peaches, 
apples  and  apricots,  giving  them  the  shape,  flavor  and  coloring  prescribed. 
So  the  agriculturist,  upon  the  same  principle,  can  change  the  qualities  of 
his  crops,  giving  us  wheat  with  an  abundance  of  straw  and  paucity  of 
kernel,  and  these  kernels  covered  with  a  thick,  heavy  cuticle,  furnishing 
abundance  of  bran  and  little  flour,  and  this  flour  deficient  in  gluten,  or 
the  pasty  part  of  flour,  so  desirable  in  making  bread  and  pastry ;  or  on 
the  other  hand,  by  proper  cultivation,  he  can  give  us  wheat  with  an 
abundance  of  kernel  and  comparatively  small  amount  of  straw,  and  these 
kernels  covered  with  a  thin,  transparent  cuticle,  furnishing  but  little  bran 
with  an  abundance  of  gluten. 

Again,  it  is  found  to  be  true  of  plants  as  well  as  of  animals,  that  there 
are,  as  physicians  would  say,  pathological  states,  induced  by  agents  to 
which  they  (either  the  plant  or  the  animal)  are  subjected.  By  a  patho- 
lo''ncal  state  or  condition,  is  meant,  some  disordered  or  unhealthy  state. 
We  find  in  the  animal  ecoilomy  that  there  is  oftentimes  disease  produced 
by  a  superabundance  of  fluid,  called  dropsy.  There  are  other  conditions 
where  disease  is  produced  by  the  want  of  certain  elements  in  the  blood, 
or  in  the  system  generally ;  such  are  chlorosis,  rickets,  softness  and  brit- 
tleness  of  the  bones.  The  only  remedy  in  such  cases,  is  to  correct  the 
disproportion  and  restore  the  due  equilibrium  by  proper  remedies.  Just 
so,  also,  we  may  have  diseased  states  of  plants,  either  by  a  superabun- 
dance of  some  of  the  elements  furnished  them  by  the  soil,  or  by  the 
deficiency  of  other  elements  not  furnished  them  by  the  soil,  and  the  only 
remedy  in  these  cases  is  like  that  in  the  former  cases  of  the  animals,  a 
proper  equilibrium  must  be  restored. 

And  now  how  is  this  to  be  done  ?  In  the  latter  case  just  as  in  the 
former.  To  the  animal,  the  deficient  material  is  administered  directly  as 
a  medicine  or  as  food ;  while  the  superabundant  element  is  abstracted 
either  directly  or  by  the  mediation  of  medication.  So  in  the  plant,  that 
which  is  w^anting  must  be  put  within  the  reach  of  the  suftering  vegeta- 


tie,  that  it  may  take  it  up  and  incorporate  it  into  its  own  tissues  and 
grow  thereby;  and  the  element  acting  injuriously  upon  the  delicate 
fibres  and  tissues  of  the  tender  plant,  must  be  removed,  or,  which  is 
the  more  practical  way  "jr  the  farmer,  must  be  changed  in  its  character ; 
and  thus  either  rendered  harmless,  by  being  made  inactive,  or,  which  is 
better,  beneficial,  by  furnishing  a  proper  pabulum  for  the  growing  plant. 
But  it  may  be  said,  and  very  properly,  this  will  require  a  good  deal  of 
knowledge.  We  must  know  not  only  the  constitution  of  a  health j''  plant, 
but  we  must  know  the  constitution  of  the  diseased  or  unhealthy  plant  ; 
and  we  must  know  whether  these  materials  are,  or  are  not  in  the  soil, 
and  how  and  by  what  means  they  can  be  supplied  if  they  are  wanting. 
Very  true  ;  no  employment  requires  more  science  than  farming.  No 
knowledge  of  nature  or  her  laws,  comes  amiss  to  the  farmer  any  more 
than  to  the  physician.  The  farmer  should  be  the  last  mc^n  to  despise 
learning,  being  the  very  one  Avho  the  most  needs  it. 

To  enable  the  farmer  to  judge  of  the  merits  of  the  principles  which 
we  have  been  advocating,  and  also  to  bring  more  fully  and  evidently 
before  his  eye,  and  thus  present  to  his  mind  these  truths,  we  have 
taken  great  pains  to  compile  the  following  Table  from  the  most  reliable 
sources,  showing  at  a  glance,  the  inorganic  composition  of  most  of  the 
crops  cultivated  by  our  agriculturists,  and  Ihe  relative  proportion  of  each 
of  the  ingredients.  We  have  given,  at  the  head  of  each  crop,  the  basis 
of  our  calculation,  whether  per  ton,  or  per  acre,  the  number  of  bushels 
and  their  weight,  so  that  any  one  can  calculate  for  his  own  field. 

It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  the  Table  is  wholly  without  imperfection, 
yet  it  is  hoped  that  it  is  substantially  correct  and  reliable.  The  constit- 
uent eleme.its  are  given  in  pounds  and  decimals  of  a  pound,  and  in  the 
last  column  is  the  total,  removed  by  a  ton,  or  from  an  acre,  as  the  case 
may  be.  The  different  varieties  of  the  same  kind  of  grain  would  furnish 
a  difference  m  the  constituents  to  some  little  extent,  but  Ave  have  given 
the  analysis  of  the  most  common  varieties. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  Table  will  be  found  of  much  value  for  reference  by 
the  fctrmer,  in  making  his  estimates  of  what  his  soil  needs,  and  how 
much,  for  any  crop  which  he  designs  to  produce.  It  can  but  be  of  use 
to  him,  if  it  guards  him  against  exhausting  his  fields  by  constant  crop- 
ping, without  replenishing  the  materials  vrhich  the  crops  severally  remove. 
Let  him  remember  that  it  is  seldom  that  any  cultivated  field  is  so  rich  in 
all  the  essential  elements  of  crops,  as  to  be  beyond  danger  of  exhaustion. 


168 


•ajoy  10 
no  J,  aad  p;oj, 

peracre,  123.09ft. 
peracre,  124.8G  ft. 
peracre,  129.53  ft. 
per  acre,  240.G0  ft. 
per  acre,  4GG.21  ft. 
per  ton,  27.05  ft. 
peracre,  33.4G  ft. 
per  acre,  94.89  ft. 
peracre,  140.42  ft 

CO 

o 
to 
to 

<o 
t~< 
o 
a 
}-^ 

peracre,  120.20  ft. 
per  acre,  2n5.28ft 
per  ton,  59.90  ft. 
per  ton,  138,5Gft. 
per  ton,  182,04  ft. 
per  ton,  105.72  ft. 
per  ton,  191.0Gft. 
per  ton,  139.14  ft. 
per  ton,  57.G7  ft. 
per  ton,  35.58  ft. 
per  ton,  55.01  ft. 
20.4G  ft. 
1832.32  ft. 
per  ton,  93.93  ft. 
per  ton,  G0.39  ft. 

•noT;Bi 
-no^BQ  JO  sisBg 

25  bushels,  GOft 
25  bushels,  54ft 
30  bushels,  50ft 
50  bushels,  34ft 

25  b's. Seed  only 
25  bushels,  G4ft 
15  bushels,  GGlb 
1  ^  tons  Straw  I 
15bu.sh's5Gft  ( 

G  tons  Tubers.. 
6  tons  Roots 

Ton  of  Tops... 

•asauBSmjj^  'xq 

43 

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o  in  CO  o          o  X  o 
t^  o  o  o     ■     '  t^  X  un 

in  cri  to  c<    '    '  od  i-  t- 

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.50 

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o 

o 

Wheat,  per  acre 

Rye,  per  acre 

Barley,  per  acre 

Oats,  per  acre 

Corn,  per  aero 

Broom  Corn,  per  ton. 
Buck  Wheat,  peracre 

Beans,  peracre 

Puas,  peracre 

1 
1 

2 
y. 

Potatoes,  per  acre.. . 
Parsnips,  peracre... 
Timothy,  per  ton... 
Red  Clover,  per  ton. 
White  Clover,  per  ton 
Rye  Grass,  per  ton . . 

Lucerne,  per  ton 

Saintfoine,  per  ton. . 

Rcdtop,  per  ton 

Millet,  per  ton 

Speargrass,  per  ton.. 
Blood  Beet,  per  ton. 
Blood  Beet,  per  ton. 

Cabbage,  per  ton 

Carrots,  per  ton 

169 

Many  deductions  may  be  drawn  from  the  above  Table  as  vre  have 
before  hinted,  and  every  farmer  can  make  the  deductions  most  suit- 
able to  his  own  case  and  calculations.  There  are  some,  however,  of  so 
general  a  character  that  it  may  be  well  to  mention  them  here.  These  are 
of  much  importance  as  general  principles  in  guiding  the  agriculturists, 

Liebig  first  proposed  to  divide  plants  into  groups  or  classes,  accordino-; 
as  one  or  another  alkali  or  element  predominated  in  their  ashes.  This 
view  has  been  followed  by  some  agricultural  writers,  while  it  has  been 
rejected  by  others,  from  the  fact  Avhich  we  have  already  mentioned,  that 
the  seed  or  fruit,  in  many  cases,  differs  very  much  from  the  stalk,  or 
straw  of  the  plant,  and  one  kind  of  element  might  characterize  the  stem 
and  another  the  fruit  or  seed.  Prof.  Norton,  however,  in  his  "  Elements 
of  Scientific  Agriculture,"  mentions  five  classes  of  ash,  three  of  which 
take  the  lead.  1st.  The  grains,  where  phosphoric  acid  predominates.  2d. 
The  roots,  where  potash  and  soda  abound.  3d.  The  grasses,  where  lime 
becomes  quite  important.  4th.  The  various  kinds  of  straw,  where  silica 
is  from  one-half  to  two-thirds  of  the  whole  weight.  5th,  includes  treeS;^ 
such  as  fruit  and  forest  trees,  whose  ash,  in  numerous  cases,  contains 
more  of  lime  than  of  any  other  substance. 

These  facts  may  not  appear  to  be  corroborated  by  the  above  Table,  because 
that  in  the  Table,  the  analysis  takes  the  plant  as  a  Avhole,  not  separatino* 
the  ash  of  the  seed  from  that  of  the  stalk.  This  classification  may  be  of 
use  in  many  cases  when  the  whole  crop  is  not  removed  from  the  field,, 
as  is  the  case  with  most  root  crops,  the  tops  being  left  in  the  field  to 
decay,  and,  of  course,  to  return  their  constituents  to  the  soil.  It  is  also 
of  importance  in  indicating  to  the  farmer,  what  is  the  efiect  of  return- 
ing the  straw  of  his  crops  to  the  field,  while  the  grain  or  seed  is  removed. 
The  general  impoverishing  eflfect  of  continued  cropping  not  being  so 
great,  in  this  case,  as  when  the  straw  is  not  returned  in  the  form  of  long 
manure,  and  yet  the  impoverishment  of  some  important  element  essen- 
tial to  a  specified  crop,  may  be  as  effectually  and  surely  produced  in  the 
one  case  as  in  the  other. 

The  Table  enables  us  to  understand  the  efi'ect  of  cropping  upon  the  soil, 
both  in  connection  with  and  without  special  manures.  We  cannot  better 
elucidate  this  point  than  by  giving  the  illustrations  of  Prof.  Norton,  in 
his  "Elements  of  Agriculture,"  Suppose,  in  the  first  place,  that,  as  is 
too  often  the  case,  wheat  or  any  other  grain  has  been  grown  upon  a  new 
soil,  crop  after  crop,  and  nothing  returned  in  the  shape  of  manure,  the 
12 


170 

Twld  may  be  good  for  a  number  of  years,  but  then  it  begins  to  grow  less 

aad  less,  and  we  may  add,  poorer  and  poorer  in  quality.     What  is  the 

5r«ason  of  this  ?  It  is  probable  that  the  combinations  of  phosphoric  acid  are 

/5i«ariy  exhausted  ;  these  were  not  so  abundant  as  many  other  substances 

.  at  the  •commencement,  (see  Table  I., )  but  more  of  them  in  proportion,  than 

;  aaything  else,  has  been  taken  away.    Second,  suppose  that  the  farmer  has 

'sold  all  his  grain,  but  has  been  careful  to   return  the  straw  as  manure.; 

5ie  does  not  see  why  the  land  should  run  down,  and  in  fact  it  does  not  so 

•quickly  as  in  the  first  case ;  still,   after  a  time,   it  also  begins  to  show 

:5narks  of  exhaustion.     The  different  classes  of  the  ash  of  plants  given 

;  ■above  explains  this  at  once.    In  the  straw,  as  will  be  seen,  he  has  returned 

,  'chiefly  silica  to  the  soil,  whereas  it  is  chiefly  phosphoric  acid  which  he  has 

Vbeen  selling  off  in  the  grain. 

The  same  thing  would  result  in  the  exclusive  cultivation  of  any  other 
_^Tain,  with  this  difference  only :  that  some  other  element  would  be  ex- 
iiausted.  Some  soils  bear  this  severe  treatment  longer  than  others ;  but 
■sooner  or  later  they  must  succumb  to  such  management.  If  turnips  or 
•potatoes  alone  were  cultivated,  instead  of  the  phosphoric  acid  becoming 
^exhausted,  it  would  be  the  potash  and  soda,  and  whatever  amount  of 
phosphoric  acid  might  be  applied,  the  difficulty  would  still  exist  unrelieved. 

JThe  effect  of  cropping,  as  deduced  from  the  above  facts,  can  be  none 
folhei-  than  to  impoverish  the  soil.  From  Table  I.,  it  will  be  seen  that 
silica,  iron,  alumina,  and  organic  matter,  form  a  large  per  cent,  of  the 
snaterial  of  the  soil,  nearly  90  lbs.  in  100.  There  is  no  fear  then  of 
^exhansting  these  materials,  as  alumina  and  iron  are  not  usually  constit- 
xieTits  of  plants.  The  danger  of  exhaustion  is  with  reference  to  the  ma- 
terials or  elements  so  abundant  in  seeds  and  in  roots,  which  are  found  in 
.the  5  or  10  lbs.  which  remain  to  make  up  the  100.  The  quantities  of  these 
«iibstances  are  usually  small  in  the  soil  to  commence  with,  and,  as  they 
■are  fhe  xery  ones  constantly  being  carried  away,  are  soonest  exhausted. 

'Whenever  one  of  these  important  elements  is  gone,  or  reduced  to  a 
•ismall  quantity,  the  crop  will  begin  to  fail  and  become  shriveled  in  its 
kernel,  to  weigh  less  per  bushel  and  to  be  of  an  inferior  quality. 

It  has  become  a  proverb  in  some  parts  of  England,  and  has  been  imported 
to  this  country,  that  'lime  enriches  the  fathers  and  impoverishes  the  sons.' 

But  from  the  above  facts  it  is  easy  to  explain  the  proverb.  It  many 
Itimes  happens  in  cultivated  fields,  that  the  lime  becomes  first  exhausted, 
«3!f  in  other  instances,  the  lime  and  sulphuric  acid  have  both  been  wholly, 


m 

or  nearly  so,  removed,  while  the  other  elements  are  in  abundance.    Sup- 
pose in  the  first  of  these  cases,  that  the  farmer  should,  perhaps  acciden- 
tally, make  use  of  lime  as  a  special  manure.     The  result  would  most 
certainly  show  a  great  increase 'in  the  product.     This  seeming  facility  of 
increasing  the  fertility  of  his  soil  induces  him  to  repeat  the  application 
of  lime,  and  it  may  be  with  benefit  even  the  second  or  third  time ;  but 
while  he  is  supplying  only  lime  to  his  soil,  he  is   removing  in  his  crops, 
other  important  elements,  some  of  which  soon  become  exhausted.     The 
farmer,   if  he  does  not  understand  the  process,  now  wonders  why  his 
■crops  fail ;  he  has  applied   abundance  of  lime,  which  before,  gave  such 
evident  increase  in  yield.    But  it  is  not  lime  that  is  now  wanted  ;  it  may  be 
soda  or  potash,  or,  phosphoric  or  sulphuric  acid.    Apply  them  and  good 
crops  will  again  crown  his  labors.     This  view  explains  the  beneficial  re- 
sults of  potash  or  any  special  manure,  as  in  the  second  case  supposed ; 
where  sulphuric  acid  and  lime  were  exhausted.    Care  should  ever  be  exer 
cised  in  the  use  of  special  manures,  that  other  materials  are  also  supplied. 
What  is  called  the  rotation  of  crops  is  based  upon  the  principles  involv- 
ed in  the  above  remarks,  for  the  theory  of  its  action.     All  good  farmers 
know  that  the  most  ruinous  system  to  fields  that  can  be  devised  is  to  pro- 
long the  cultivation  of  the  same  crop  upon  the  same  field  year  after  year. 
Such  fields  can  be  restored  to  their  former  vigor  and  fertility  only  by 
heavy  and  frequent  manuring.     This  is  too  costly  a  process,  however,  to 
be  usually  adopted.      The  one  practised  by  every  good  farmer  is  the  one 
most  in  accordance  with  the  principles  of  chemistry.     After  raising  one 
kind  of  crop  for  one,  two  or  three  seasons  from  the  same  field,  by  which 
one  or  more  elements  of  the  manure  applied  may  be  supposed  to  be  nearly 
or  quite  exhausted,  another  crop  of  a  different  kind  and  requiring  differ- 
ent elements  from  those  of  the  first,  is  then  cultivated,  for  one  or  more 
seasons,  when  a  third,  differing  from  the  two  former  in  its  elements,  may 
be  successfully  cultivated.     This  series  of  crops  may  all  perhaps  be  raised, 
from  one  thorough  manuring  of  a  field,  when,  otherwise,  it  would  have 
required  manuring  as  often  as  the  crop  has  been  changed  in  the  case 
mentioned.       The  great  art  in  the  rotation  consists  in  selecting  crops 
belonging  to  the  different  classes  above  mentioned,  such  as  grain  crops, 
root  crops,  and  grass  crops,  each  of  these  requiring  a  different  material 
and  removing  it  from  the  soil. 

Suppose  the  farmer  to  have  a  soil  which  requires  the  application  of 
manure  to  render  it  fertile.     He  adds  a  good  coating  of  manure  and  then 


172 

takes  a  crop  of  corn  or  wheat;  this  Avill  remove  most  of  the  phosphates-- 
that  Avere  added  in  the  manure ;  a  second  or  third  crop  would  probably 
remove  the  whole  and  perhaps  would  require  the  application  of  some 
phosphates  to  make  them  profitable.  There  yet  remains,  however,  from 
the  manure,  considerable  quantities  of  potash  and  soda  Avhich  the  grain 
crop  did  not  so  particularly  require ;  Avith  these  in  the  soil  a  good  root 
crop,  such  as  potatoes,  turnips,  or  beets,  may  noAv  be  raised  upon  the- 
field,  after  Avhich  there  Avill  doubtless  still  remain  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
lime  for  a  good  grass  crop.  Thus  is  it  that  a  knowledge  of  the  inorganic 
elements  of  plants  opens  plainly  to  our  vicAV  the  philosophy  of  many  of 
the  otherwise  secret  operations  of  nature  Avhich  are  constantly  passing 
under  the  observation  of  every  agriculturist. 

In  closing  this  article  Ave  can  but  urge  upon  the  farmer  the  importance 
of  familiarising  himself  Avith  the  great  principles  of  vegetable  physiology, 
which  includes  not  only  the  operations  carried  on  in  the  plant  itself,  but 
also  the  effect  of  these  processes  upon  the  soil  on  Avhich  they  grow,  and 
from  which  they  derive  their  nourishment.  Nothing  Avould  contribute 
more  to  the  interest  of  agricultural  pursuits  and  to  the  elevation  of  the 
business  of  cultivating  the  soil  to  its  proper  and  just  rank  in  the  scale  of 
human  pursuits.  Let  it  be  the  motto  of  every  farmer  :  "  Know  well  thy 
calling." 


ADAPTATION  OF  CROPS  TO  SOIL  AND  CLIMATE. 

BY  JOHX  Y.  SMITH,  MADISOX. 

Division  of  labor  in  procuring  the  multiplied  objects  of  human  want, 
is  one  of  the  most  prominent  characteristics  of  civilized  society;  and;^ 
Avhether  it  be  the  cause  or  the  consequence  of  a  high  state  of  civilization, 
its  importance  to  that  state,  is  none  the  less  obvious.  Its  necessity  is 
founded  in  the  capacity  of  human  beings  to  enjoy,  and  to  become  refined 
and  ennobled  by  the  enjoyment  of  a  multiplicity  of  objects;  and  the- 
limitation  of  the  capacity  of  any  one  individual  of  the  species,  to  pro- 
duce any  considerable  number  of  those  objects,  in  any  tolerable  degree- 
of  perfection. 

No  one,  it  is  presumed,  will  doubt  that  the  art  of  printing,  the  intro- 
duction of  steam  navigation,  and  railroads,  and  electric  telegraphs,  are 
exerting,  in  every  point  of  vieAv,  an  elevating  influence  upon  mankind. 


.<o 


Astronomy  and  geology  are  leading  the  human  mind  to  look  higher  and 
deeper  into  the  mysteries  of  creation  and  to  entertain  more  enlarged 
■conceptions  of  the  Infinite  Majesty;  and  even  comliness  of  attire  and 
-eleo-ance  of  equipage,  which  are  dependent  upon  the  humbler  branches 
•of  the  sciences  and  arts,  when  not  carried  to  a  passion,  and  made  to. 
minister  to  pride  and  vanity,  are  not  without  their  elevating  influences 
upon  character,  nor  wanting  in  instances  of  the  Divine  approval.  Surely, 
if  it  be  worthy  of  the  Most  High,  so  to  clothe  the  lilies  of  the  field,  that 
Solomon,  in  all  his  glory  was  not  arrayed  like  one  of  these,  it  cannot 
be  displeasing  to  Him,  nor  inappropriate  to  human  nature,  that  man 
should  seek  to  deck  himself  with  beauty  and  grace ;  and,  when  the 
Divine  skill  is  so  elaborately  displayed  in  all  His  works — in  the  shining 
hosts  of  the  firmament,  in  the  diamond,  the  pearl,  the  cloud,  the  rain- 
bow, the  dew  drop,  the  landscape,  the  flower,  and  in  every  evanescent 
bubble  that  dances  to  the  music  of  the  waterfall  or  the  whistling  of  the 
ocean  storm — in  every  animated  form,  in  every  eye  that  sparkles  to  the 
light,  in  every  ear  that  listens,  and  in  e\  ery  sound  that  swells  the  tide 
of  nature's  harmony,  should  human  skill  be  indifferent  to  those  percep- 
tions of  the  grand,  the  beautiful,  the  elegant,  the  appropriate,  with  which 
the  Creator  has  endowed  the  human  soul  and  ministered  to  with  such  a 
lavish  hand,  and  confine  itself  to  dry  utility,  in  its  narrowest  sense?  Nay 
rather,  since  it  is  the  noblest  aspiration  of  the  human  soul  to  copy  after 
the  Divine  Being,  in  the  moral  and  intellectual,  should  he  not  also  in  the 
artistical  ?  To  be  assured  of  its  propriety,  we  have  only  to  notice  the 
recorded  fact,  that,  in  particular  instances,  the  Creator  himself  has  con- 
descended to  be  man's  instructor  in  the  arts,  and  in  others  claimed  to  be 
the  author  of  artistic  talent  and  skill. 

When  the  Jewish  tabernacle  was  about  to  be  constructed,  Israel's  God 
was  the  architect.  The  materials  selected  were  of  the  most  costly  descrip- 
tion, and  its  furniture  was  required  to  be  of  the  most  elaborate  and  cun- 
ning workmanship  ;  and  two  men,  and  others  under  them,  were  selected, 
and  remarkably,  if  not  supernaturally  endowfed  with  skill  to  execute  the 
magnificent  design ;  and  it  is  added,  "  in  the  hearts  of  all  that  are  wise 
hearted  I  have  put  wisdom,  that  they  may  make  all  that  I  have  com- 
manded thee."  The  attire  of  the  priests  was  to  correspond  with  the 
splendor  of  the  tabernacle.  Their  garments  were  to  be  composed  of  the 
finest  materials — of  blue  and  purple  and  scarlet  and  fine  linen  of  curious 
f^rorkmanship,  and  bedight  with  gold  and  precious  stones.     "  And  for 


174 

Aaron's  sons  shalt  thou  make  coats,  and  thou  shalt  make  for  them  girdles, 
and  bonnets  shalt  thou  make  for  them,  for  glory  and  beauty." 

The  second  King  of  Israel  did  not  reproach  himself  that  he  dwelt  in  a 
house  of  cedar,  but  rather  that  the  ark  of  his  God  abode  AviLhin  curtains ;; 
and  when  the  tabernacle  was  about  to  be  superceded  by  the  more  perma- 
nent and  costly  structure  of  the  temple,  he  admonished  Solomon  his  son 
that  "  the  house  that  was  to  be  builded  for  the  Lord  must  be  exceedinor 
magnifical ;  of  fame  and  glory  througnout  all  nations  ;  "  and  thousands 
of  artisans  were  employed  for  twenty  years,  and  wealth  equivalent  to 
many  millions  of  our  dollars  was  expended  in  completing  and  furnishing" 
the  gorgeous  edifice. 

We  are  not  to  suppose  that  the  splendors  of  art  displayed  in  the  Jewish 
temple  and  worship,  could  add  aught  to  the  grandeur  of  Him  vfho 
"dwelleth  not  in  temples  made  with  hands  ;"  "  Neither  is  worshipped 
with  men's  hands  as  though  he  needed  anything,  seeing  he  giveth  to  all 
life,  and  breath,  and  all  things;"  but  rather  that  they  were  adapted  and 
intended  to  produce  a  salutary  impression  upon  the  mind  of  the  beholder, 
in  harmony  with  the  appropriate  duties  there  to  be  performed.  We  are 
not,  therefore,  at  liberty  to  doubt  the  moral  propriety  of  cultivating  the 
arts  to  any  imaginable  extent  which  may  consist  with  due  attention  tO' 
other  duties. 

But  how  is  this  to  be  accomplished  without  division  of  labor  ?  The  arts 
and  the  sciences  upon  which  they  depend,  have  arrived  at  their  present 
degree  of  perfection  by  slow  advances ;  no  one  of  either  having  been 
matured  by  any  one  mind.  The  limited  period  of  human  life  and  the 
limited  capacities  of  the  human  mind,  forbid  it.  The  most  gifted  mind 
must  spend  half  a  life-time  in  reaching,  by  a  beaten  path,  a  point  which 
others  have  reached  before  him,  and  to  be  ready  to  begin  where  his  pre- 
decessors left  off;  and  then,  his  progress  into  the  dark  unknown,  must  be 
extremely  slow.  Hence  it  is  obvious  that  no  one  mind,  however  gifted 
it  may  be,  can  master  all  the  sciences,  nor  all  the  arts,  nor  any  consider- 
able number  of  them.  The  only  possibility  of  perfection  or  progress  in 
either,  is  by  means  of  that  division  of  labor  between  them  respectively, 
and  between  them  collectively  and  agriculture,  whereby  each  individual 
is  enabled  to  devote  his  exclusive  attention  to  some  one,  or  at  most,  a  few 
such  pursuits  as  his  particular  taste  and  genius  best  qualify  him  to  prose- 
cute. Even  if  a  more  than  antediluvian  longevity  would  enable  the  same 
individual  successively  to  master  every  branch  of  knowledge,  both  scien- 


175 

tific  and  practical,  he  would  still,  as  an  universal  genius,  be  compara- 
tively useless  to  his  species  ;  for  the  reason,  that,  should  he  live  on,  witLi- 
unimpaired  energies,  for  another  thousand  years,  his  limited  facultks 
"would  not  admit  of  his  retaining  sufficient  knowledge  of  anything,  to 
render  him  useful,  either  to  himself  or  others.  Like  a  child  with  a  ]arg:& 
apple  in  each  hand,  one  branch  of  knowledge  must  slip  from  him  while 
he  is  attempting  to  grasp  another.  Keither  could  any  individual  who- 
would  be  likely  to  use  them,  ever  possess  himself  of  all  the  implementa* 
of  agriculture  and  the  arts ;  and  it  would  be  bad  economy  if  he  could,, 
since  each  individual  would  be  obliged  to  keep  on  hand  the  means  oT 
producing  whatever  he  consumed,  whilst  all  but  a  fraction  of  their  oos^, 
must  remain  unproductive  on  his  hands.  The  foregoing  hasty  glanee  ait 
this  feature  of  civilized  society,  must  be  sufficient  to  convince  the  most,, 
thoughtless,  that  a  state  of  society  at  all  removed  from  barbarism,  can-* 
not  exist  without  a  division  of  labor  and  an  exchange  of  products,  no6 
only  between  agriculture  and  the  arts,  but  also  between  different  branches; 
of  the  arts  themselves. 

Analogous  to  the  division  of  labor  between  intelligent  agents,  accord- 
ing to  their  various  tastes  and  talents,  is  the  division  of  labor  between 
different  soils  and  seasons  and  climates,  according  to  their  various  produc- 
tive powers. 

The  former  is  founded  in  the  nature  of  man ;  the  latter,  in  the  consti- 
tution of  the  globe  he  inhabits.  Amongst  the  most  prominent  character- 
istifcs  of  our  planet  are,  variety  of  soil,  variety  of  season,  and  variety  of 
climate,  and  a  consequent  and  corresponding  variety  of  natural  products,. 

Variety  of  soil  is  so  common,  that  it  is  found,  not  only  in  the  same 
latitude,  but  in  the  same  town,  and,  almost  invariably,  upon  the  same 
farm ;  and  a  sorry  farmer  must  he  be,  Avho  does  not  know  something; 
about  the  adaptation  of  crops  to  different  descriptions  of  soil.  Without, 
the  aid  of  chemical  analysis,  the  observant  farmer  learns  from  observa- 
tion and  experience,  what  particular  crop,  or  class  of  crops,  is  best 
adapted  to  each  of  his  fields,  and  endeavors,  as  far  as  practicable,  in  the 
subdivisons  of  his  farm,  to  classify  these  varieties  so  that  the  soil  best 
adapted  to  the  growth  of  the  coarser  grains  and  roots,  shall  be  by  itself;, 
that  adapted  to  the  smaller  grains,  by  itself;  and  those  suited  to  meadow 
or  pasturage,  by  themselves,  respectively.  And  although  the  importance 
of  rotation  of  crops,  may  sometimes  induce  him  to  deviate  somewhat 
from  natural  adaptation,  and  though   a  knowledge  of  Jthe  chemical  prop- 


176 

crties  of  soils  and  manures,  may  enable  him  greatly  to  modify  tlie  native 
qualities  of  different  soils,  yet  he  Avill  find,  upon  almost  every  farm,  some 
soils  upon  which  he  would  never  inflict  some  particular  crops ;  and  in  all 
liis  arrangements,  he  will  study  to  deviate  as  little  as  possible  from 
natural  adaptation ;  because  he  knows  that  by  doing  otherwise,  he  would 
be  counteracting  those  powers,  Avhich  nature  designed  for  his  aid. 
,  As  our  observations  take  a  wider  range,  and  whilst  the  minute  diver- 
sities just  noticed,  every  where  abound,  we  find  particular  districts 
remarkably  adapted  to  the  growth  of  particular  products ;  as  "Weathers- 
field,  Ct.,  for  onions;  Long  Island,  for  melons;  the  Genesee  Valley,  for 
vheat ;  and  a  few  towns  in  Central  New  York,  for  hops ;  and  all  on 
g-CCQunt  of  the  peculiarity  of  the  soil. 

.  Extending  our  observations  still  further,  we  find  varieties  of  seasons, 
and  varieties  of  climate,  with  the  same  adaptation  of  products  to  each, 
which  yve  find  in  respect  to  diversities  of  soil,  except  that  in  the  latter 
the  laws  -of  nature  are  more  imperative.  A  greater  mistake  could  scarcely 
liave  been  made  in  regard  to  the  economy  of  our  planet,  than  that  re- 
■corded  by  Milton,  when,  in  portraying  the  curse  inflicted  upon  man  for 
iiis  trangression,  he  says : 

"  Some  say  he  bid  his  angels  turn  askance 
The  poles  of  earth,  twice  ten  degrees  and  more, 
From  the  sun's  axle ;  they  with  labor  pushed 
Oblique  the  centric  globe  ;  some  say  the  sun 
Was  bid  turn  reins  from  the  equatorial  road 
Lilie  distant  breadth  to  Taurus  and  the  seven 
Atlantic  sisters,  and  the  Spartan  Twins, 
Up  to  the  tropic  Crab  ;  thence  down  amain 
By  Leo,  and  the  Virgin,  and  the  Scales, 
As  deep  as  Capricorn  ;  to  bring  in  change 
Of  season  to  each  clime  ;  else  had  the  spring 
Perpetual  smiled  on  earth  ■with  verdant  flowers, 
Equal  in  days  and  nights,  except  to  those 
Beyond  the  polar  circle  ;  to  them,  day 
Had  unbenighted  shone,  while  the  low  sun, 
To  recompense  his  distance  in  their  sight 
Had  rounded  still  the  horizon,  and  not  known 
j?.  Xor  east  nor  west,  winch  had  forbid  the  snow 

From  cold  Estotalaud,  and  south  as  far 
Beneath  Magellan.    At  that  tasted  fruit 
The  sun,  as  from  Thyestian  banquet  turn'd 
His  course  intended  ;  else  how  had  the  world 
Inhabited,  though  sinless,  more  than  now 
Avoided  pinching  cold  and  scorching  heat  ?" 


177 

I 
Now  while  this  is  all  A'ery  good  poetry,  it  is  not  only  questionable 

theology,  but  decidedly  bad  philosophy.  It  is,  indeed  difficult  for  a 
finite  mind  to  entertain  very  clear  conceptions  of  the  modes  of  the  Divine 
existence.  Nevertheless,  if  we  gain  any  tolerable  idea  of  an  Infinite 
Being,  we  cannot  (to  speak  after  the  manner  of  our  ordinary  concep- 
tions) do  less  than  regard  him  as  existing  at  all  times  at  once,  and  there- 
fore as  having  no  occasion  to  "  bid  his  angels"  go  and  mend  his  work 
to  adapt  it  to  unexpected  contingencies.  But  this  is  not  the  place  to 
discuss  a  question  upon  which  theological  Doctors  disagree. 

A  little  reflection  will  satisfy  us,  that,  were  the  earth  placed  in  a 
"  centric"  position,  it  would  just  about  spoil  it.  Were  it  not  for  the 
inclination  of  the  earth's  axis  to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  it  is  very  ques- 
tionable  whether  "spring  with  verdant  flowers"  had  ever  smiled  on 
earth  at  all — certainly  not  beyond  thirty-fi\;e  or  forty  degrees  from  the 
equator ;  and  if  it  had,  man,  in  his  best  estate  would  have  found  it  difii- 
cult  to  subsist  upon  mere  flowers.  To  determine  the  climate  of  a  given 
latitude,  under  the  original  arrangement  supposed,  we  have  only  to 
ascertain  the  mean  temperature  between  that  of  the  20th  of  March  and 
the  20th  of  September  in  the  same  latitude,  under  the  present  arrange- 
ment; which  in  this  latitude  would  give  us  a  climate  perpetually  subject 
to  frost.  In  fact,  under  such  an  arrangement,  utter  desolation  must 
have  reigned  over  at  least  two-thirds  of  the  present  habitable  globe. 

The  poet  goes  on  to  suppose  that 

"  These  changes  in  the  heavens,  though  slovr,  produced 
Like  change  on  sea  and  land  ;  sidereal  blast. 
Vapor  and  mist,  and  exhalation  hot, 
Corrupt  and  pestilent," 

and  brought  into  play  the  winds  which  sweep  over  sea  and  land,  to  the 
great  annoyance  of  mankind.  This  supposition  is  much  more  philoso- 
phical than  the  other,  and  may  for  the  most  part  be  true.  It  is  quite 
possible  that,  vvere  it  not  for  the  inclination  of  the  earth's  axis  and  the 
change  of  season  thus  brought  in,  universal  stagnation  would  pervade 
both  air  and  water ;  but  would  that  be  an  improvement  on  the  present 
state  of  things?  Would  the  "exhalations  hot,"  of  the  tropics,  be  less 
corrupt  and  pestiferous  than  now  ?  Indeed,  were  not  those  exhalations 
hurled  about  and  dispersed  by  those  very  means  which  the  great  poet  so 
much  deprecates,  would  the  tropics  be  habitable  for  any  nature  more 
refined  than  that  of  a  crocodile  ?      In  fact,  sound  philosophy  compels  us 


178 

to  believe,  that,  were  it  not  for  those  atmospheric  commotions,  the  vapors- 
would  fall  back  upon  the  bosom  of  the  stagnant  deep,  while  on  the  con- 
tinents there  would  be  no  rain,  no  dew,  no  fountains,  no  streams,  and  no- 
life,  either  animal  or  vegetable,  any  where  on  the  globe. 

On  the  contrary,  it  would  seem  as  though  the  inclination  of  the  earth's" 
axis,  twice  ten  degrees  and  more,  was  the  result  of  a  series  of  abstract 
mathematical  calculations,  to  which  the  mind  of  a  Newton  would  have^ 
been  wholly  incompetent ;  and  with  a  view  to  the  earth's  utmost  capacity 
to  sustain  the  sentient  tribes  that  were  to  inhabit  it.  Should  the  mathe- 
matician and  the  philosopher,  with  all  the  data  the  present  system  fur- 
nishes, put  their  wits  together,  to  see  if  the  inclination  could  be  made  one 
single  degeee  more  or  less,  without  diminishing  the  earth's  capacity  ta 
sustain  animal  and  vegetable  life,  they  would  probably  arrive  at  the  con- 
clusion that  it  could  not.  If  more,  it  would  be  deleterious  to  the  pro- 
ducts of  the  tropics,  without  conferring  an  equivalent  benefit  upon  those 
of  the  temperate  latitudes ;  if  less,  the  injury  Avould  be  reversed,  and 
very  probably  the  products  of  both  would  sufiFer  by  either  change. 

Change  of  season  and  variety  of  climate  are  as  essential  to  variety  and 
perfection  in  the  products  of  nature,  as  are  diversities  of  tastes  and  tal- 
ents and  pursuits  amongst  men,  to  variety  and  perfection  in  the  products 
of  art.  There  is  probably  not  a  single  vegetable  product  which  will 
flourish  equally  well  in  every  climate,  and  most  of  them  are  confined  to- 
a  range  of  a  few  degrees  of  latitude. 

Wheat  will  not  germinate  in  a  higher  temperature  than  95  degrees.. 
the  most  favorable  being  65  degrees.  Hence,  wheat  does  not  grow  in  the 
torrid  zone,  where  the  temperature  of  the  soil  is  very  commonly  120 
degrees.  Barley  germinates  at  a  still  lower  temperature  than  wheat, 
whilst  maize  will  germinate  at  113  degrees.  Hence,  maize  will  flourish; 
in  a  warmer  climate  than  wheat,  and  wheat  in  a  warmer  climate  than 
barley ;  and  similar  diS"erences  exist  in  regard  to  a  great  variety  of  other 
products.  Dates,  coff"ee,  cocoa,  bread-fruit,  bananas,  cinnamon,  cloves, 
nutmegs,  pepper,  myrrh,  indigo,  ebony,  log-wood,  teak,  sandal-wood,, 
and  many  other  vegetable  products  which  are  valued  for  their  flavor, 
odor,  color,  or  density,  are  found  only  in  the  tropics.  In  the  warmer 
portions  of  the  temperate  zones,  we  find  the  apricot,  citron,  orange, 
lemon,  peach,  fig,  vine  and  olive.  Farther  north,  the  apple,  plum  and 
cherry  appear,  while  still  farther  north,  fruit  trees  disappear  entirely.* 

*  See  Carpenter's  General  and  Comparative  Physiologj. 


179 

These  are  but  specimens  of  the  products  which  flourish  only  in  their 
appropriate  latitudes ;  some  requiring  perpetual  summer,  which  they 
could  not  enjoy  were  the  earth's  inclination  very  much  greater ;  and 
others  requiring  the  precise  alternations  of  season  which  they  could  not 
have,  were  the  inclination  very  much  less.  The  winter  grains  require 
the  frosts  of  Avinter,  as  well  as  the  peculiar  temperature  of  a  northeru 
summer,  to  perfect  their  qualities.  The  northern  potatoe,  to  which  mil- 
lions of  our  race  owe  their  very  existence,  and  many  other  varieties  of 
roots,  will  scarcely  grow  at  all  in  soil  which  never  freezes,  or  which  rises 
to  any  thing  approaching  a  tropical  temperature ;  while  the  sweet  potatoe 
steps  in  where  the  other  steps  out,  an  inferior  quality  of  each  lapping  a 
little  upon  the  domain  of  the  other ;  but  neither  will  succeed  at  all  where 
the  other  grows  in  perfection.  And,  bulky  as  these  products  are,  iu 
proportion  to  their  value,  they  are  becoming  articles  of  extensive  inter- 
change between  neighboring  States,  while  the  inhabitants  of  each,  fancy 
(nor  is  it  a  mere  fancy)  that  they  have  added  a  new  luxury  to  their 
tables,  by  the  exchange. 

In  addition  to  latitudinal  varieties  of  climate  and  season,  we  have 
longitudinal  subdivisions  and  modifications  of  the  same,  varying  with  the 
extent  of  country,  its  relative  position  to  the  ocean  and  its  elevation 
above  its  level,  and  bringing  in  a  greater  variety  of  products  than  could 
consist  with  mere  latitudinal  divisions.  For  example,  in  the  same  lati- 
tude, the  climate  and  seasons  are  quite  different  in  Europe  and  America. 
Hence,  there  are  many  products  of  American  soil,  which,  for  want  of 
sufficient  heat  in  summer,  will  not  mature  at  all  in  the  same  latitude  in 
Europe ;  and  many  products  of  the  same  latitude  in  Europe,  on  account 
of  the  severity  of  our  winters,  are  impracticable  upon  American  soil. 

I  would  not,  however,  be  understood  as  maintaining  that,  in  any  parti- 
cular country,  those  plants  alone  should  be  cultivated,  which  are  indige- 
nous to  that  country.  Many  varieties,  both  of  plants  and  animals,  may 
be  transposed  without  injury,  and  an  occasional  change  of  locality  will 
often  improve  grains,  provided  too  great  a  deviation  from  their  native 
latitude  be  not  allowed.  The  potatoe,  is  a  native  of  America,  yet  its 
migration  across  the  ocean,  is  supposed  to  have  doubled  the  population 
of  Great  Britain  and  some  other  portions  of  Europe ;  and  the  introduc- 
tion of  European  grains  and  grasses  and  domestic  animals,  upon  Ameri- 
can soil,  has  wrought  still  greater  changes  in  the  New  World.  But  this 
does  not  militate  against  the  special  adaptation  of  a  great  variety  of 


ISO         ' 

products  to  every  division,  subdivision  and  modification  of  climate  and 
season. 

The  inferior  animals,  being  provided  with  the  means  of  generating 
heat  within  themselves,  have  a  somewhat  wider  range  than  plants,  which 
are  entirely  dependant  upon  external  heat ;  and  the  range  of  the  respec- 
tive species  of  animals,  is  nearly  in  proportion  to  the  perfection  of  their 
respiratory  apparatus.  But  each  has  bounds  to  his  habitation  which  he 
will  not  Avillingly  pass,  and  beyond  which  he  cannot  be  forced  without 
deterioration  or  destruction  ;  whilst  man  alone,  the  most  perfectly  organ- 
ized of  any,  and  the  Divinely  constituted  lord  of  all,  is  endowed  with  a 
physical  nature,  which,  in  the  species,  if  not  in  the  individual,  can  adapt 
itself  to  every  clime;  and  his  superior  capacity  over  the  lower  animals, 
to  enjoy  the  fruits  of  the  earth,  is  in  proportion  to  his  superiority  in 
other  respects.  With  the  nature  which  God  has  given  him,  man  can  no 
more  divest  himself  of  the  desire  to  enjoy  whatever,  of  every  clime,  is 
pleasant  to  the  eye  and  good  for  food,  than  he  can  rid  himself  of  any  other 
attribute  of  his  being.  Here  we  find  the  same  beautiful  adaptation  which 
every  where  prevails  in  the  physical  world — a  nature  craving  almost 
endless  variety,  and  almost  endless  variety  to  satisfy  that  craving.  "We 
■cannot,  therefore,  conclude,  without  doing  violence  to  the  harmony  of 
nature,  that  variety  in  the  products  of  the  earth  are  merely  incidental 
to  change  of  season  and  diversity  of  climate ;  but  must  rather  conclude 
that  those  changes  and  diversities  are  only  the  means  adopted  by  the 
munificent  Father  of  all,  for  multiplying  his  bounties  and  "filling  our 
hearts  with  food  and  gladness." 

But  whilst  the  desire  for  universal  enjoyment  is  felt  and  acknowledged 
by  all,  the  question  as  to  how  it  is  to  be  satisfied  to  the  greatest  practi- 
cable extent,  and  with  the  best  effect,  has  long  been  disputed.  The  earth, 
except  to  a  very  limited  extent,  will  not  yield  her  products,  otherwise 
than  as  the  reward  of  industry,  and  no  one  man  can  extend  his  labor 
over  sufficient  space  to  procure  directly,  all  the  objects  of  desire.  He 
cannot,  at  the  same  time,  cultivate  a  field  of  wheat  in  Wisconsin,  a  field 
of  cotton  in  Louisiana,  a  field  of  rice  in  South  Carolina,  a  field  of  sugar 
cane  in  Cuba,  a  field  of  coffee  in  Java,  and  a  vineyard  in  Italy :  yet  all 
these  products,  and  a  thousand  others  equally  beyond  his  immediate  reach, 
are  objects  of  his  desire,  and  Avhen  possessed,  contribute  to  his  enjoy- 
ment. But  how  is  he  to  possess  himself  of  them?  The  natural  and 
obvious  answer  to  this  question,  would  seem  to  be — by  uniting  to  the 


181 
f 

division  of  labor  ■wliicli  nature  has  instituted  between  difterent  climes,  a 

corresponding  division  of  labor  between  the  industrious  agents  who 
inhabit  them,  and  a  mutual  exchange  of  products,  through  the  channels' 
of  commerce. 

Under  the  mistaken  impression,  that  commercial  industry  was  so  much 
labor  lost  to  the  world,  and  especially  to  the  community  engaged  in  it, 
various  expedients  have  been  resorted  to,  both  in  ancient  and  modern 
times,  to  circumscribe  its  limits,  or  to  dispense  with  it  entirely.  Many 
of  the  ancient  nations  repudiated  commerce  altogether,  and  confined  their 
enjoyments  to  the  products  of  their  own  climes  respectively ;  and  some 
modern  nations  still  adhere  to  the  same  narrow  policy.  But  this  policy 
is  fast  giving  way  to  a  more  enlightened  public  sentiment,  and  clearer 
conceptions  of  the  true  interests  of  mankind,  and  their  right,  upon  fair 
and  honorable  terms,  to  share  in  all  the  sources  of  enjoyment  Avhich  the 
wide  realm  of  nature  affords.  Indeed,  it  is  becoming  a  serious  question, 
amongst  the  most  enlightened  statesmen,  whether  any  nation  has  the 
right  to  exclude  the  rest  of  mankind  from  all  participation  in  the  products 
peculiar  to  their  oSvn  clime,  and  which  the[_bountiful  Father  of  nature  so 
manifesly  intended  should  be  shared  by  the  whole  family  of  man ;  and 
whether  a  dogged  refmsal  to  allow  an  equitable  interchange  of  products 
with  other  nations,  will  not  justify  a  resort  to  compulsory  measures. 

Another  expedient  to  avoid  what  has  been  regarded  as  the  wasteful 
expense  of  commerce,  is,  to  force  products  out  of  their  native  climate. 
"Whilst  the  Creator  has  divided  the  surface  of  our  globe  into  different 
and  distant  climes,  and  brought  in  change  of  season  and  modifications 
to  each,  by  means  of  those  wonderful  and  complicated  arrangements,  , 
already  noticed,  and  assigned  to  each  its  appropriate  task  in  the  work  of 
production,  man  has  divided  it  into  separate  political  communities,  and 
fancied  he  could  compel  the  powers  of  nature  to  conform  their  products 
to  arbitrary  lines  and  treaty  stipulations,  and  yield  him  whatsoever  his 
soul  desired,  from  the  same  soil  and  climate !  And  the  effect  has  been 
to  defraud  himself  of  half  the  bounties  which  nature  was  ready  to  pour 
into  his  lap,  if  he  would  but  consent  to  receive  them  upon  her  own  terms. 
But  instead  of  acceding  to  those  terms,  he  has  been  wont  to  insist  that 
the  temperate  latitudes  shall  yield  him,  upon  some  terms  or  other,  the 
products  of  the  tropics ;  or  an  extremely  variable  climate,  the  products 
of  a  more  uniform  one ;  or,  a  colder  clime  the  products  of  a  warmer, 
and  vice  versa.     But  all  such  experiments  have  resulted  in  loss  to  those 


1S2 

who,  either  from  the  interference  of  public  authority,  or  from  their  own 
misguided  choice,  have  tried  them,  since  the  same  labor  otherwise  bestowed 
would,  through  the  medium  of  commerce,  have  procured  a  greater  quan- 
tity and  better  quality  of  the  desired  product. 

Mr.  Say  speaks  of  the  loss  sustained  by  the  French  people,  when,  at 
one  period,  their  government  compelled  them  to  cultivate  sugar  beet 
and  woad  instead  of  grain,  vmder  the  impression  so  common  at  the 
time,  and  which  still  lingers  in  the  minds  of  many,  that  it  is  better  to 
produce  at  home,  an  inferior  article  and  at  greater  expense,  than  to  pro- 
cure a  better  and  cheaper  product  from  abroad.  In  regard  to  the  exper- 
iment, after  citing  the  estimate  of  Humboldt,  that  "  seven  leagues  of 
land  in  a  tropical  climate,  could  produce  as  much  sugar  as  the  utmost 
consumption  of  France,  in  its  best  days,  ever  required."  Mr.  Say  re- 
marks:  "Suppose  that  Avine  had  been  grown,  instead  of  the  sugar  of 
beet-root,  or  the  blue  dye  of  woad,  the  domestic  and  agricultural  indus- 
try of  the  nation  would  have  been  quite  as  much  encouraged.  And, 
since  the  product  would  have  been  more  congenial  to  the  climate,  the 
wine  produced  from  the  same  land  would  have  produced  a  larger  quan- 
tity of  colonial  sugar  and  indigo  through  the  channel  of  commerce,  even 
if  conducted  by  neutrals  or  enemies.  The  colonial  sugar  and  indigo 
would  have  been  equally  the  product  of  our  own  land,  though  first 
assuming  the  shape  of /vine ;  only  the  same  space  of  land  would  have 
produced  them  in  superior  quantity  and  quality.  And,  the  encourage- 
ment to  domestic  industry  would  be  the  same,  or  rather  would  be  greater, 
since  a  product  of  superior  value  would  reward  more  amply  the  agency 
of  the  land,  capital  and  industry  engaged  in  the  production." 

I  have  selected  these  instances  of  the  perversion  of  the  powers  of 
nature,  from  many  which  might  be  adduced,  because  agriculturists  of 
our  own  country  are  constantly  being  urged  to  try  the  same  or  similar 
experiments,  which,  with  a  slight  knowledge  of  political  economy,  they 
would  never  meddle  with.  At  one  time  they  are  made  to  believe  they 
can  become  independent  of  their  southern  neighbors  and  make  their  for- 
tunes by  cultivating  the  sugar  of  beet.  At  another,  they  are  urged  to 
destroy  their  corn  crops  by  cutting  them  in  the  milk  and  extracting  sugar 
from  the  stalks.  Again  they  are  taught  that  they  can  compete  with 
their  neighbors  of  the  tropics  in  the  production  of  coloring  matter,  and 
woad  and  madder  are  all  the  rage.  And  then  again  they  are  lectured  on 
the  bad  economy  of  depending,  to  so  great  an  extent,  upon  other  regions 


183 

for  their  fruits,  and  spices,  and  drugs,  and  set  to  forcing  exotics  or  exper- 
imenting on  substitutes,  vainly  fancying  they  can,  by  hook  or  by  crook, 
reverse  the  laws  of  nature;  or  rather,  betraying  their  ignorance  that 
nature  has  any  laws  at  all.  But  after  wasting  time  and  money  to  their 
heart's  content,  upon  such  experiments,  they  find  themselves  in  possee- 
sion  of  less  than  a  moiety  of  those  products  which  they  might  have  pro- 
cured with  the  same  outlay  through  the  medium  of  commerce,  had  they 
devoted  their  lands  to  the  purposes  for  Avhich  nature  intended  them ;  and 
not  only  so,  but  they  find  the  stinted  product  very  inferior  in  quality. 
Their  sugar  is  black  and  bitter  ;  their  coloring  matter  is  dull ;  their  exotic 
fruits,  if  not  killed  by  the  frost,  are  dwarfish  and  insipid ;  their  coffee  has 
the  flavor  of  parched  beans  ;  and  their  drugs  have  scarcely  enough  of  the 
medicinal  properties  to  answer  the  purposes  of  a  Homoepathist. 

Says  the  writer  above  quoted*  (and  whose  reasoning  is  no  less  worthy 
the  attention  of  the  farmer  than  of  the  statesman.)  "It  is  always  a  bad 
speculation  to  attempt  raising  the  products  of  the  torrid,  under  the  sun 
of  the  temperate  latitudes.  The  saccharine  and  coloring  juices,  raised  on 
European  soils,  with  all  the  forcing  in  the  world,  are  very  inferior  in 
quality  and  quantity  to  those  w^hich  grow  in  profusion   in  other  climates. 

*****  In  condemning  our  lands  to  the  growth 
of  products  ill-suited  to  them,  instead  of  those  they  are  better  calculated 
for,  and  consequently,  buying  very  dear  what  we  might  have  cheap 
enough,  if  we  would  consent  to  receive  them  from  places  where  they  are 
produced  with  advantage,  we  are  ourselves  the  victims  of  our  own  ab- 
surdity. It  is  the  very  acme  of  skill,  to  turn  the  powers  of  nature  to 
the  best  advantage,  and  the  height  of  madness  to  contend  against  them  ; 
which  is,  in  fact,  wasting  part  of  our  strength  in  destroying  those  pow- 
ers she  designed  for  our  aid." 

In  some  portions  of  the  torrid  zone,  the  sugar  cane  attains  to  a  gigantic 
^owth,  filled  to  its  tip  with  saccharine  juice,  and  so  rich,  that  it  will 
sometimes  partially  granulate  as  soon  as  exposed  to  the  air ;  whilst  those 
same  regions  are  ill-suited  to  the  growth  of  northern  products.  There 
is  no  natural  reason  why  a  farmer  in  Wisconsin  might  not  exchange, 
directly  or  indirectly,  a  barrel  of  flour  for  a  barrel  of  sugar,  or  nearly  in 
that  ratio,  and  eS'ect  other  exchanges  at  similar  rates.  There  are,  how- 
ever, some  of  the  fruits  of  the  warmer  latitudes,  such  as  fresh  grapes, 


•Say'a  Political  Economy,  Book  I.,  Chap.  7,  Sec.  1. 


18J: 

for  example,  which  will  not  bear  transportation  to  any  considerable  dis- 
tance, and  to  procure,  even  an  inferior  quality  of  which,  may  justify  the 
extra  effort  necessary  to  force  them  out  of  their  native  latitude  ;  and  here 
the  economy  of  the  experiment  ends. 

I  may  be  mistaken,  but  I  will  hazard  the  opinion  that  the  experiments 
in  flax  cotton,  will  prove  scarcely  more  successful  than  those  already 
alluded  to.  If  I  understand  the  subject,  the  objection  to  flax,  as  ordi- 
narily prepared,  is,  the  difficulty  of  manufacturing  it  by  machinery,  and 
that  that  difficulty  is  owing  to  the  firmness  and  strength  of  the  fibre  ; 
and,  that  the  object  in  cottonizing  it  is,  to  rid  it  of  those  qualities — the 
every  qualities  which  constitute  its  chief  excellence  as  a  natural  product. 
I  confess  I  am  slow  to  believe  that,  when  nature  has  taken  the  pains  to 
bestow  upon  a  particular  product,  excellent  qualities  peculiar  to  itself, 
we  can  possibly  gain  any  thing  by  destroying  those  qualities.  It  is  true 
that  natural  adaptation  to  the  powers  of  machinery,  is  a  desirable  quality 
in  the  raw  material ;  but  when  nature  has  furnished  two  similar  pro- 
ducts the  one  possessing  this  very  adaptation  and  the  other  destitute  of  it, 
but  superior  to  it  in  other  respects,  it  may  well  be  questioned  whether 
she  ever  intended  the  two  should  be  confounded.  When  we  consider  in 
what  lavish  profusion  appropriate  climes  produce  real  cotton,  it  may  be 
difficult  to  imagine  what  advantage  can  be  anticipated  from  taking  a 
naturally  superior  product  and  reducing  it  to  the  quality  of  cotton, 
except  it  be  to  show  that  "some  things  can  be  done  as  well  as  others." 

As  a  general  rule,  nature  does  not  bestow  upon  any  product  superior 
qualities,  as  compared  with  others  of  a  similar  nature,  without  a  corres- 
ponding draw-back  as  to  quantity.  A  bushel  of  wheat  contains  more 
farinaceous  matter  than  a  bushel  of  potatoes,  and  it  requires  more  land 
and  labor  to  produce  it ;  the  heaviest  fleece  is  never  the  finest  wool ;  and 
so  on  in  a  multitude  of  examples  that  might  be  named.  The  first  ques- 
tion then,  in  regard  to  the  economy  of  flax-cotton,  is,  whether  the  same 
amount  of  land,  capital  and  industry  devoted  to  the  culture  of  northern 
flax  and  manufacturing  it  into  cotton,  will  produce  as  great  a  quantity 
of  fibrous  matter  as  it  would  if  devoted  to  the  culture  of  natural  cotton  ? 
If  not,  the  next  question  is,  whether  the  flax,  when  reduced  nominally 
to  the  quality  of  cotton,  still  retains  enough  of  its  superior  qualities  to 
balance  the  deficiency  in  quality  ?  If  not,  then  it  is  clearly  a  bad  spec- 
ulation and  must  inevitably  prove  a  failure.  The  first  question  seems  to 
receive  a  negative  answer,  not  only  from  the  general  fact  that  vegetable 


185 

fibre  grows  much  more  luxuriantly  in  warm  climates  than  in  colder 
ones,  but  also  from  the  analogy  of  nature  in  her  apportionment  of 
valuable  qualities  to  quantity.  In  regard  to  the  second  question,  it 
may  be  that  a  fabric  of  superior  elegance  may  be  produced  from  it,  as 
compared  with  cotton ;  and  the  properties  of  the  two  products,  as  con- 
ductors of  heat,  and  their  compartive  comfort  as  materials  for  clothing, 
may  remain  unchanged ;  but  the  very  object  to  be  obtained  by  the  pro- 
cess of  cottonizing  the  flax,  seems  to  preclude  the  idea  of  superiority  in 
respect  to  strength  and  durability.  The  subject  may  be  worthy  of  scien- 
tific investigation  and  cautious  experiment ;  but  conclusions  should  not 
be  jumped  at  by  taking  things  for  granted  which  are  by  no  means  self- 
evident.  The  idea  of  producing  flax  cotton  as  a  measure  of  indepen- 
dence, or  a  means  of  undermining  slavery,  regardless  of  considerations 
drawn  from  nature,  would  be  as  absurd  as  that  of  a  certain  old  lady 
who  suggested  to  her  lord  the  propriety  of  buying  a  cotton  rain  and 
raising  their  own  cotton  that  way. 

Another  phase  of  bad  economy  in  the  adaptation  of  products  to  soil 
and  climate,  (or  rather,  to  the  latter)  is,  in  not  confining  each  product 
within  proper  limits  in  respect  to  contiguous  territory;  in  other  words, 
in  not  knowing  where  to  drop  the  cultivation  of  one  product  and  intro- 
duce another.  As  already  shown,  every  product  has  its  appropriate 
range  of  latitude,  and  many  of  them  of  longitude  also,  beyond  which 
they  cannot  be  freed  without  sensible  deterioration  ;  and  we  cannot  doubt 
that  such  is  the  economy  of  nature,  that,  by  confining  each  product  to 
the  precise  range  wherein  it  is  produced  to  the  greatest  advantage,  the 
world  would  best  be  supplied  with  an  abundance  of  each.  But  the  efiect 
not  only  of  political  divisions  and  the  interference  of  authority,  but  of 
State  pride  and  false  emulation,  and  even  of  neighborhood  example,  is, 
to  crowd  products  beyond  those  natural  limits.  This  is  particularly  the 
case  in  respect  to  the  three  great  staples,  sugar,  cotton  and  tobacco. 
There  is  no  portion  of  the  United  States  as  well  adapted  to  the  growth 
of  sugar,  as  many  localities  within  the  tropics,  and  no  portion  of  the 
tropics  as  well  adapted  to  the  growth  of  cotton,  as  the  southern  portions 
of  the  United  States.  Yet  the  cultivation  of  sugar  is  forced  into  the 
United  States  by  the  imposition  of  taxes  upon  that  imported  from  the 
tropics,  equal  to  the  difference  in  the  productive  powers  of  nature,  in 
respect  to  the  product,  between  the  two  localities  ;  while,  but  for  the 
shackles  imposed  upon  commerce,  the  sugar  plantations  of  the  United 
13 


186 

States,  if  devoted  to  the  growth  of  cotton  to  be  sent  to  New  England,  or 
even  to  old  England  for  manufacture,  and  then  sent  to  the  tropics,  would 
produce  nearly  twice  the  quantity  of  sugar  they  now  do ;  and  the  sugar 
would  be  equally  the  product  of  our  own  country  though  first  assuming 
the  form  of  cotton;  and  thus  we  "compel  ourselves  to  buy  very  dear 
what  we  might  have  cheap  enough,"  and  "become  the  victims  of  our 
own  absurdity." 

Nor  does  the  evil  end  here.  As  in  the  pages  of  a  printed  sheet,  if  one 
page  be  out  of  register,  all  the  pages  must  be  out  likewise,  so,  without 
regard  to  political  lines,  when  one  important  product  is  pushed  be)*ond 
its  proper  locality,  it  necessarily  trenches  upon  the  appropriate  locality 
of  another,  which  is  itself  forced  to  seek  a  less  congenial  clime,  where  it 
trenches  upon  the  appropriate  domain  of  some  other  staple,  and  so  on, 
until,  by  a  single  stroke  of  mistaken  policy,  every  important  product  of 
a  whole  continent  is  forced,  more  or  less,  out  of  its  appropriate  climate, 
and  its  inhabitants  are  justly  rewarded  with  the  stinted  or  sickly  fruits 
of  the  rape  committed  upon  nature. 

I  will  only  add,  that,  Avhatever  the  political  theorist  may  teach  him', 
the  wise  farmer  will  rather  study  those  powers  of  nature  with  which 
lie  is  a  copartner,  and  as  he  finds  himself  in  the  proper  locality,  wiM 
*'  cast  abroad  the  fitches  and  scatter  the  cummin,  and  cast  in  the  jjrinci- 
pal  wheat  and  the  appointed  barley  and  the  rye  in  their  place  (not  out 
of  it)  for  his  God  doth  instruct  him  to  discretion,  and  doth  teach  him." 


AGRICULTURAL  FENCES  AND  ENCLOSURES. 
BY  JOSIAH  F.  WILLARD,  JANESVILLE. 

Originally  the  idea  of  erecting  barriers  in  the  form  of  fences  for  the 
purpose  of  restraining  domestic  animals,  was  unknown.  It  never  occurred 
to  the  "  Patriarchs"  that  long  lines  of  fences  would  be  a  profitable  subr- 
stitute  for  the  labors  and  watchings  of  the  shepherd  and  herdsman  ;  the 
idea  never  suggested  itself  to  them,  that  turning  their  cattle  and  sheep 
loose  to  wander  at  their  pleasure,  and  take  their  living  where  they  could 
find  it,  would  compel  their  grain-growing  neighbors  to  secure  themselves 
against  their  ravages,  by  building  fences  around  their  crops.  They  did 
not  know  that  they  could  be  the  owners  of  innumerable  flocks  and  herds. 


^      187 

and  at  the  same  time  dispense  with  the  labors  of  their  servants  in  guari- 
ing  them,  and  transfer  the  burden  to  their  less  fortunate  neighbors,  who- 
kept  little,  if  any  stock.  They  had  not  found  out,  that  it  was  more  for 
isie  interest  of  the  stock  raiser,  that  their  neighbor  should  watch  and 
heed  his  barley  field,  than  for  them  to  herd  their  stock.  They  had  not 
learned  that  a  neighbor  might  be  innocently  robbed,  even,  when  done 
by  proxy.  The  earth  was  too  young  and  they  were  quite  too  "green" 
in  the  art  of  appropriating  the  labor  and  toil  of  others  to  their  own  use» 
without  an  equivalent.     These  are  the  discoveries  of  more  modern  times. 

Progress  seems  to  have  been  the  motto  in  every  successive  age  of  the 
world,  and  new  inventions  have  been  sought  out,  among  which  no  one 
has  worked  a  greater  benefit  to  the  stock  raiser,  and  no  one  a  greater- 
harm  to  the  grain  grower,  than  the  system  which  allows  all  animals  to^ 
run  out,  and  compels  all  crops  to  be  fenced  in ;  some  of  the  mischiefs- 
caused  by  these  modern  usages  will  be  briefly  noticed. 

Our  present  customs  and  laws  concerning  fencing  against  cattle,  form 
the  most  burdensome,  unjust  and  oppressive  system  of  taxation  to  which, 
this,  or  any  other  country  ever  peaceably  submitted.  A  similar  tax  for  • 
any  other  purpose,  would  cause  a  rebellion ;  and  the  only  reasons  whieh 
can  be  assigned  for  the  apathy  existing  upon  the  subject,  is,  that  people  ■ 
have  been  born  under  it,  and  grown  up  with  the  burden  upon  them^ 
which  has  so  accustomed  them  to  it,  that  it  has  become  a  part  and  parcel 
of  themselves.  As  our  fathers  did,  so  we  do ;  as  they  thought  so  we 
think,  and  thus  the  system  is  perpetuated  from  generation  to  generation.. 

Burdensome  taxation,  has  been  mentioned  as  an  evil  growing  out 
of  our  fencing  system.  This  Avill  be  more  readily  seen  by  glancing  at 
the  statistics  of  fencing. 

At  a  moderate  estimate,  the  annual  expense  of  fencing  in  the  United' 
States,  is  upwards  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  millions  of  dollars.  The. 
above  sum  includes  simply  the  estimate  at  seven  per  cent,  per  annum  on 
the  first  cost,  with  the  necessary  repairs  and  use  of  ground  occupied  by 
them.  In  the  single  State  of  New  York,  more  than  ten  millions  or 
dollars  are  expended  annually  to  support  their  fences.  Pennsylvania  a, 
proportional  sum,  and  other  States  nearly  in  a  similar  ratio. 

We  have  no  precise  and  accurate  data  as  to  the  amount  expended  in. 
Wisconsin  for  fences,  but  from  a  rough  estimate,  it  is  found  to  exceed 
the  original  amount  paid  for  all  the  enclosed  land  in  the  State;  and  we* 
may  be  considered  as  speaking  within  the  limits  of  probabiUty,  when.wa" 


188 

say  that  the  fences  of  this  State  have  cost  more  money  than  the  gross 
proceeds  of  all  the  surplus  agricultural  products  of  the  State,  up  to  the 
present  time.  That  a  certain  amount  of  fencing  is  necessary,  no  one 
"will  deny,  but  that  a  system  of  such  intolerable  inconvenience  and 
expense  should  be  prolonged  and  voluntarily  persevered  in,  is  unaccount- 
_able  and  absurd. 

The  worst  feature  in  the  system,  and  that  which  should  stamp  it  with 
^unmeasured  condemnation,   is  its  injustice,   inequality,    and  oppression. 
Men  can  endure  taxation,  and  burdensome  taxation  too,  if  they  feel  that 
it  falls  equally   upon  the  commonwealth ;  that  the  burden  is  equitably 
divided,  and  that  one  pays  no  more  than  another,  according  to  his  ability 
to  pay.     But  when  a  tax  is  imposed  u]:on  one  part  of  community  for  the 
benefit  of  another  part ;  when  A.  is  largely  taxed  for  the  benefit  of  B. 
exclusively,  then  it  is  that  "forbearance  ceases  to  be  a  virtue  ;"  then  it  is 
that  men  arouse,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  and  look  after  their  rights ; 
and  are  sensitive  in  regard  to  them.     Our  present  fencing  system  falls 
but  little  short  of  being  a  case  precisely  analagous  to  the  one  supposed 
above.    Take  an  illustration :  A.  is  a  Avealthy  man  just  come  to  Wiscon- 
sin to  embark  in   agricultural  pursuits ;  he  looks  about  and  concludes, 
from  what  he  can  learn,  that  the  country  holds  out  unusual  inducements 
for  stock  raising,  wool   growing,  dairying,   &c. ;    he  purchases  a  farm 
"With  a  view  to  the  carrying  on  those  branches  of  agriculture.     He  needs 
but  a  trifling  outlay  in  fencing,   of  course,  for  there  is  a  wide  "range" 
for  his  stock,  during  the  grazing  part  of  the  season,  at  least,  and  perhaps 
they   can   shirk  for  themselves,   he   thinks,  for   a  large  portion   of  the 
winter.     His  purchases  are  accordingly  made  and  his  stock  turned  out 
upon  the  common,   and  little  more  attention  is  required  on  his  part; 
*' but  what  is  sport  to  him  is  death  to  his  neighbors;"   for  they  being 
poor  men,  or  men   of  moderate  means,  unable  to  purchase   stock,  are 
compelled  to  turn  their  attention  to  grain  raising.     Now  it  would  seem 
but  reasonable  that  they  should  enjoy  the  privilege  of  doing  so,  but 
our  laws   and  usages,  strange  as  it  might  appear,  say  that  these  neigh- 
bors of  A.  must  first  make  "a  good  and  lawful  fence,  at  least  four  and 
a  half  feet  high,"   or  their  grain  crops  will  be   "free  plunder"  for  A's. 
horses  and  cows.     Thus  these  men  are  forced  to  incur  the  expense  of 
fencing  their  fields,  not  for  their  own,  but  for  the  direct  benefit  of  A. 
If  our  laws  compelled,  as  they  should  do,  A.  to  take  care  of  his  stock, 
either  by  fencing  or  herding,  if  he  chose  to  turn  his  attention  to  stock 


189 

raising ;  then  his  neighbors  could  pursue  their  business  without  being 
trammeled  with  the  unjust  and  oppressive  tax  incurred  for  his  benefit. 
Who  cannot  see  the  injustice  and  wrong  in  the  case  supposed?  And 
who  can  dispute  but  that  the  case  represents  the  true  state  of  things? 
A.  has  an  undoubted  rioht  to  choose  stock  raisinop  as  a  means  for  alive- 
lihood;  provided,  he  takes  care  to  keep  his  animals  from  devouring  his 
neighbor's  crops,  at  his  own  ex|)ense ;  and  his  neighbors  ought  to  have 
as  good  a  right  to  raise  their  grain  unmolested  by  his  cattle,  without 
taxing  themselves  to  build  fences  for  his  accommodation. 

There  are  other  evils  connected  with  our  fencing  system,  which  of  them- 
selves should  be  deemed  sufficient  reasons  for  abolishing  it,  were  tha 
advantages  claimed  for  it  two-fold  greater  than  they  are. 

One  half  of  our  troubles,  as  farmers,  originate  in  some  way,  in  con-- 
nection  with  our  fences,  either  directly  or  indirectly. 

In  addition  to  the  endless  labor  of  building  fences,  gates,  &c.,  the 
peace  and  good  order  of  neighborhoods  is  oftener  disturbed  by  some  inci- 
dent connected  with  fences  than  from  any  other  cause,  and  we  are  almost 
compelled  to  acquiesce  in  a  remark  made  by  a  certain  writer  that  "it  is 
next  to  impossible  to  maintain  peace  and  good  will  towards  men,  when 
rail  fences  and  stock  ranges  are  in  fashion."  The  cost  of  land  wasted  by 
being  occupied  by  fences,  is  of  little  consequence,  compared  with  the 
inconvenience  resulting  from  the  play  grounds  for  noxious  weeds  and 
bushes,  afforded  by  the  fence  corners,  besides  being  a  harbor  for  rabbits 
and  other  "vile  vermin."  They  are  also  reservoirs  for  snow  in  winter 
and  rain  in  summer,  and  are  ever  distilling  upon  the  adjacent  lands  their 
cold  and  sour  accumulations,  so  that  nothing  can  attain  a  healthful  growth 
in  their  vicinity. 

They  are  excrescences  in  the  eye  of  a  lover  of  nature.  To  him,  they 
so  mar  and  disfigure  the  landscape,  that  their  utility  would  be  more  than 
cancelled  by  their  absence. 

In  most  parts  of  continental  Europe,  there  are  no  fences.  One  may 
travel  day  after  day  through  beautiful  fields  bordering  the  road  side, 
the  various  farm  crops  having  no  other  separation  than  the  line  marked 
by  the  contrast,  in  color  or  kind,  of  the  adjoining  fields.  The  country 
exhibits  all  the  variety  and  breadth  of  a  native  prairie.  But  the  travel- 
ler in  cultivated  America  finds  himself  continually  hemmed  in  between 
two  walls  of  wood  or  stone,  without  space  to  look  either  to  the  right  or 
]eft,  and  if  perchance,  he  might  obtain  a  birds-eye  view  of  the  world  at 


190 

large,  lie  finds  it  virtually  covered  ■with  fences,  looking  more  like  a  "  -wind- 
fall" or  "slashing"  than  a  cultivated  landscajie  of  growing  crops  "of 
varied  hue." 

The  "  no  fence  scheme  "  is  not  a  new  idea,  even  in  this  country.  The 
'doctrine  has  been  ably  advocated  by  some  of  the  most  popular  Agri- 
■cultural  Journals  in  the  East  and  South,  and  practical  farmers  of  high 
standing  for  intelligence  and  acute  perception,  have  advocated  it,  and  to 
some  extent  successfully.  In  Massachusetts  there  are  laws  requiring  the 
owners  of  animals  to  restrain  them  to  their  own  premises.  When  the 
legislature  of  that  State  passed  the  law,  many  considered  it  an  experi- 
ment of  doubtful  utility,  and  it  was  believed  also  by  many,  that  the 
people  would  never  sustain  it.  Time  has  settled  the  question,  and  the 
■enactment  of  the  legislature  has  been  triumphantly  sustained  by  the 
people,  and  they  now,  in  that  State,  enjoy  the  privilege  of  "  every  man 
EJtting  under  his  own  vine  and  fig  tree,  and  none  to  molest  him  or  compel 
him  to  build  fence."  They  rejoice  in  the  improvement,  and  recommend 
jt  to  others  as  the  thing  needed.  Circumstances,  perhaps,  in  Massa- 
chusetts, had  as  much  to  do  in  bringing  about  the  reform,  as  discussion 
and  argument.  Large  tracts  of  land  lying  along  the  Connecticut  River, 
varying  in  width  from  two  miles  to  eight  miles,  were  subject  to  the 
annual  freshets  or  overflowings  of  the  river,  which  rendered  permanent 
fencing  impossible.  Those  lands  were  too  valuable  to  lie  idle,  and  for 
this  cause  such  a  law  as  was  needed  for  that  portion  of  the  State,  was 
enacted  as  a  general  law,  thus  making  not  only  their  lands  valuable,  but 
benefitting  the  entire  State  in  an  incalculable  degree.  Shall  Wisconsin 
follow  the  example  of  Massachusetts  ?  Nature  has  not  only  intimated 
the  propriety,  but  to  a  very  great  extent,  seemed  determined  to  coerce 
the  farmer  into  the  adoption  of  the  measure  by  the  sparseness  of  timber, 
and  absence  of  other  suitable  material  for  fencing.  Here,  also,  nature 
Las  given  us  a  model  country,  a  perfect  specimen  of  landscape  gardening. 
What  the  nobility  of  England  expend  their  millions  to  procure,  even  on  a 
small  scale,  here  in  Wisconsin,  nature  has  given  us,  on  her  most  magnifi- 
cent plan.  Here  we  have  park  scenery,  without  any  eff"ort  of  our  own, 
and  in  such  exquisite  perfection,  that  we  may  not  put  forth  a  rude  hand 
to  mar  its  beauty. 

What  grouping  of  trees !  What  splendid  lawns !  What  interspersing 
of  flowers  and  shrubs !  Now,  shall  we  act  the  part  of  the  Vandal,  and 
deface  and  cut  up  this  beautiful  scenery,  by  our  unsightly  zigzag  bul- 


191 

* 

v/arks,  called  fences ?     We  say   no;  and  we  hope  the  sentiment  will  be 

reiterated  by  the  farmers  of  Wisconsin,  and  that  they  will  ask  until  they 

receive  from  the  legislature,  laws  upon  the  subject  of  fencing,  which  shall 

be  equal  in  their  operation,  and  save  our  State  from  the  ruin  and  curse 

of  a  fencing  mania. 

We  have  in  the  foregoing  remarks  expressed  the  convictions  of  our 
own  mind,  believing  that  the  non-fencing  practice  is  the  one  to  be  adopted, 
not  only  in  theory  but  in  practice,  and  that  it  is  particularly  applicable 
in  our  new  and  growing  State. 

Yet  as  it  takes  time  to  root  out  old  prejudices  and  get  rid  of  bad  habits, 
we  do  not  indulge  the  hope  that  it  will  immediately  be  adopted — and  as 
in  the  mean  time  some  fencing  must  be  done,  it  is  a  legitimate  inquiry: 
What  is  the  best  and  cheapest  material  of  which  to  construct  fences,  and 
what  are  the  best  methods  of  constructing  the  same  ? 

In  those  localities  where  timber  is  plenty,  and  even  where  it  is  but 
moderately  so,  that,  doubtless,  is  the  cheapest  and  best  material  to  use, 
in  one  form  or  another  for  building  fences. 

Perhaps  a  page  from  the  history  of  our  own  experience  in  the  fence 
department  of  Wisconsin  farming  would  not  be  entirely  uninteresting. 
About  seven  years  ago  we  commenced  farming  in  the  valley  of  the  Rock 
River.  Our  first  busmess  was  fencing  our  farm.  The  timber  being 
"oak  openings,"  of  that  kind  of  which  three  trees  are  required  to  make 
a  "rail  cut,"  we  concluded  to  take  a  "stake  cut"  from  each  and  make 
what  we  call  a  "stake  and  cap  fence."  This  kind  of  fence  is  made  by 
splitting  stakes  from  logs  cut  five  and  a  half  feet  long,  somewhat  smaller 
than  ordinary  rails,  sharpening  the  end  which  grows  uppermost  in  the 
tree,  then  setting  them  in  the  ground  from  eight  to  twelve  inches,  by 
drivino-  with  sled^-e  or  beetle.  The  stakes  should  be  set  in  a  line  and 
drove  evenly  upon  the  top  to  receive  the  cap  board,  which  should  be  of 
white  oak,  sawed  one  by  three  inches,  and  nailed  to  the  top  end  of  the 
stakes,  with  an  eight-penny  nail  in  each  stake.  Such  fence,  if  properly- 
made,  Avill  last  from  ten  to  fifteen  years.  In  setting,  the  largest  stakes 
.should  be  distributed  among  the  smaller  ones  at  suitable  distances,  so  as 
to  strenghten  the  fence  when  the  smaller  stakes  begin  to  give  way  by 
decay.  The  strength  and  durability  of  this  kind  of  fence  depends  much 
upon  having  a  good  cap  board. 

The  portions  of  the  trees  remaining  after  taking  off  the  stake  cuts  we 
«cut  up  into  lengths  of  six  and  a  half  feet,  limbs  and  all,  splitting  those 


192 

which  could  be  split  into  two  or  four  parts,  a  trench  was  then  dug  about 
two  feet  deep,  into  which  the  timber  thus  prepared  was  set,  after  which 
the  dirt  was  thrown  in  and  packed  closely  around  the  stakes,  and  the 
fence  was  complete.  By  placing  the  best  sticks  at  intervals  of  six  or 
eight  feet  apart,  when  the  smaller  and  poorer  portions  decay  there  will 
remain  a  set  of  posts  upon  which  .to  nail  boards,  if  desirable,  and  thus 
perpetuate  the  fence  for  twenty  years  or  more.  This  we  denominate 
"timber  fence,"  and  it  is  so  formidable  in  its  appearance  that  cattle  da 
not  approach  it. 

Another  very  good  and  rather  cheap  fence,  we  have  made  from  ten 
feet  rails  and  shorter  ones,  say  two  to  fourt  feet,  alternating  first  one 
and  then  the  other,  much  in  the  style  of  a  Virginia  or  worm  fence,  stak- 
ed at  the  corners  with  perpendicular  stakes,  held  together  at  the  top  by 
caps  with  two  three-inch  holes  in  each ;  thus  securing  it  against  cattle 
and  high  winds. 

For  a  cheap  and  quickly  made  fence  for  inside  purposes,  we  have 
used  rails  and  "crotches,"  setting  the  latter  in  the  ground  about  one 
foot;  the  distance  apart  must  be  governed  by  the  length  of  rails  used, 
always  having  them  so  near  as  to  allow  a  good  lap  to  the  rails ;  after 
laying  one  set  of  rails  there  should  be  a  pair  of  stakes  over  each  crotch,, 
into  which  lay  another  tier  of  rails,  and  the  fence  is  made.  We  have 
various  other  kinds  of  wooden  fences,  the  result  of  circumstances  and 
necessity,  but  will  not  now  describe  them.  We  have  about  one  mile  of 
locust  fence,  which  promises  eventually  to  be  very  serviceable  ;  this 
we  made  in  the  following  manner : 

The  seed  was  sown  in  the  nursery,  and  when  two  years  old,  planted 
out  into  "  fence  row."  The  ground  for  planting  out,  was  prepared  as 
for  any  farm  crop  ;  then  with  a  plow,  a  furrow  was  turned  from  the 
centre  of  the  row  outward,  into  which  the  trees  were  set,  at  from  eight 
to  twelve  inches  apart.  They  grow  finely  and  bid  fair  to  make  an 
impenetrable  "timber  fence,"  not  a  "hedge"  as  they  have  never  beeu 
cut  back  for  that  purpose,  but  they  grow  as  a  line  or  row  of  trees. 

We  have  a  piece  of  about  twenty  rods  of  native  thorn  fence,  upon 
which  we  have  been  experimenting,  but  think  from  what  we  can  thus  far 
discover,  that  its  growth  will  be  quite  too  slow,  and  require  too  much 
attention  perhaps  to  be  of  any  practical  utility  for  farming  purposes. 

Our  own  experience  in  "  sod  fencing  "  has  not  been  as  extensive  as  in 
other  kinds  of  fence,  yet  we  have   built  somewhat  with  that   material. 


193 

From  our  own  experience  and  observation  of  the  different  kinds  of  fence 
built  of  sods,  we  prefer,  to  all  others,  what  we  call  here,  "  single  ditch 
fence."  Our  method  of  building  this  fence,  is  to  lay  off,  on  one  side 
of  the  "fence  line,"  a  strip  four  feet  wide  for  the  ditch,  cut  the  sod  upon 
this  strip  lengthwise,  into  four  equal  courses,  three  of  which  are  to  be 
laid  up,  the  grass  side  out,  to  form  the  face  side  of  the  fence.  The  face 
side  of  the  fence  should  be  set  in,  from  the  edge  of  the  ditch,  about  six 
inches,  leaving  a  corner  or  surface  to  prevent  the  crumbling  and  falling 
of  the  earth  from  under  the  bank  by  the  freezing  and  working  of  the 
sides  of  the  ditch.  At  the  distances  of  four  or  five  feet  from  the 
front  of  the  face  side,  set  the  remaining  course,  grass  out,  to  form 
the  back  side  of  the  bank  and  to  hold  the  earth  in  its  place.  The  sod 
in  both  instances,  should  incline  towards  the  centre  of  the  embankment, 
so  that  the  dirt,  when  thrown  in,  will  not  press  out  the  turf. 

The  ditch  may  then  be  excavated  to  the  depth  of  three  and  a  half  feet, 
the  sides  sloping  so  that  Avhen  completed,  it  shall  be  one  foot  upon  the 
bottom.  The  earth  should  be  thrown  between  the  two  lines  of  sod,  be- 
fore mentioned,  sloping  back  from  the  top  of  the  face  side  to  the  top  of 
the  back  side,  forming  an  angle  of  about  forty-five  degrees. 

Here  is  a  fence  made  of  earth,  that  nothing  will  attempt  to  get  over, 
not  even  hogs ;  it  being  six  and  a  half  feet  from  bottom  of  ditch  to  top 
of  embankment.  To  make  the  fence  still  more  perfect,  we  have  set  a 
row  of  locust  trees  along  the  lower  edge  of  the  embankment,  about  one 
foot  apart,  which  prevents  cattle  from  injuring  it  from  the  inside.  We 
have  some  ourselves  and  have  seen  a  great  length  of  the  double  ditch 
fence  built  in  this  neighborhood,  which  costs  about  the  same  price  as  the 
single  ditch  ;  but  as  the  ditches  are  much  shallower  it  is  mere  sport  for 
cattle  to  play  over  it  unless  it  is  "staked  and  railed"  or  boarded  along 
the  top,  either  of  which  adds  materially  to  the  expense. 

We  have  of  the  "single  ditch"  kind,  about  two  hundred  rods  which 
has  been  built  more  than  four  years,  most  of  it  being  exposed  to  the 
"herds  of  the  prairie"  at  large ;  and  the  repairs  on  the  fence  for  the 
whole  time  have  not  cost  us  to  exceed  two  dollars.  It  is  good  yet.  The 
most,  however,  that  can  ever  be  claimed  for  a  sod  fence  is,  that  it  answei-s 
a  temporary  purpose. 

The  sward  of  our  prairies,  has  been  temporarily,  a  very  good  substi- 
tute for  timber ;  and  without  it,  it  would  have  been  impossible,  in  many 
instances  for  our  farmers  to  have  secured  their  crops. 


194 

It  has,  however,  in  this  region  nearly  fulfilled  its  mission,  and  accom- 
plished its  destiny,  and  is  fast  giving  place  to  more  permanent  and  safe 
fences. 

Much  has  been  said  and  written  in  favor  of  wire  fences,  and  in  some 
places  they  have  been  erected  quite  extensively,  but  upon  the  whole,  are 
at  present,  rather  losing  in  public  estimation.  They  combine  but  few 
of  the  absolutely  necessary  qualifications  requisite  to  a  good  fence.  A 
good  wire  fence  will  cost  quite  as  much,  or  more  even,  than  a  good  board 
and  post  fence,  and  when  made  is  not  near  as  desirable.  A  formidable 
appearance  adds  one  half  to  the  strength  of  any  fence  in  the  eye  of  an 
unruly  ox  or  bull,  and  as  a  wire  fence  can  claim  nothing  on  that  score, 
it  is  subjected  to  the  whole  strength  and  force  of  any  animal  that  may 
wage  war  against  it.  If  it  is  built  sufficiently  strong  to  resist  all  attacks 
of  animals  unwittingly  or  intentionally  made,  it  is,  after  all,  an  unthrifty 
looking  affair.  To  see  a  farm  fenced  with  wire,  in  the  usual  method, 
strongly  reminds  one  that  a  commencement  had  been  made — the  posts 
set  for  a  fence — but  that  the  whole  thing  had  failed,  and  the  people  had 
become  discouraged  with  the  undertaking  and  moved  away.  So  long  as 
fences  are  the  order  of  the  day,  let  us  have  substantial  looking  ones,  and 
none  of  the  skeleton  apparition  fixtures.  At  the  same  time  a  fence  should 
be  constructed,  as  much  as  possible  to  harmonize  with  nature  and  sur- 
rounding objects.  Our  fences,  in  a  great  measure,  give  character  and 
tone  to  our  farms,  and  in  building  them  we  should  have  an  eye  to  their 
adaptation  to  the  place  and  circumstances — that  they  may  not  in  every 
instance  appear  as  unsightly  excrescences,  and  especially  those  adjacent 
to  our  buildings.  Door  yard  and  garden  fences  are  quite  too  often  the 
most  prominent  objects  about  the  grounds — many  people  seem  to  think 
that  an  elaborate  and  expensive  fence  is  the  "thing  needful"  of  all  others 
to  adorn  their  places — consequently  the  fence  is  made  to  appear  as  if 
the  whole  concern,  house,  barn,  orchard,  and  even  the  land  itself,  were 
only  tributary  to  it — placed  there  for  its  accommodation  while  the  reverse 
of  all  this,  is  what  should  appear.  The  fence  itself  is,  and  should  seem  to 
fee,  the  adjunct  and  not  the  principal — it  should  appear  modest  and 
unpretending — not  too  high,  nor  too  compact,  nor  yet  too  prominent- 
It  should  be,  and  still  appear  not  to  be. 

We  will  merely  remark  in  respect  to  the  kind  of  fence  best  adapted  to 
secure  the  above  named  object,   that  some  kind  of  hedge  comes  the 


1D5 

nearest  to  our  ideal  of  the  requisite — in  fact  a  hedge  in  many  locations  be- 
comes a  decidedly  ornamental  appendage. 

Of  the  many  kinds  of  trees  and  shrubs  proposed  for  hedges  but  few 
"will  adapt  themselves  to  our  soil  and  climate.  The  Osage  Orange  will 
undoubtedly  be  found  the  best,  should  it  prove  to  be  hardy,  as  far  north 
as  Wisconsin,  of  which  many  doubts  are  entertained.  The  next  in  merit 
is  the  Buck  Thorn,  than  which  nothing  can  be  superior  for  a  cattle  hedge 
in  our  climate.  It  is  said  to  grow  and  flourish  in  all  kinds  of  soil,  wet  or 
dry,  in  sunshine  or  in  shade.  The  great  difficulty  in  making  a  hedge, 
usually  is,  the  failure  to  obtain  a  thick  and  compact  base ;  this  trouble  is 
obviated  by  the  use  of  the  Buck-Thorn,  as  it  will  bear  excessive  cutting 
back  and  yet  shoot  again. 


CULTURE  OF  GRASSES. 

Burke,  December  20,  1852. 

Dear  Sir: — The  honor  you  have  done  me,  in  requesting  me  to  fur- 
nish you  with  some  remarks  on  the  grasses,  merits  at  once  my  acknow- 
ledgements and  compliance.  The  vast  grassy  plains,  of  which  I  had 
read,  became  the  early  objects  of  my  attention,  and  I  could  but  observe 
the  "base  uses"  that  had  been  made  of  the  bounteousness  of  God. 

The  grasses,  which  cover  this  ample  field,  are,  in  my  opinion,  destroy- 
ed by  the  absurd  and  barbarous  practice  of  burning.  The  fires  that 
annually  devastate  this  fair  field  of  nature  have  only  one  tendency,  and 
no  justification,  either  in  science  or  practice;  all  that  can  be  said  of  it 
is,  that  the  weeds  and  old  grass  are  consumed,  to  make  way  for  a  fresh 
spring  of  grass.  But  is  this  the  case  ?  Do  not  the  weeds,  as  well  as  the 
grass,  spring  again  ?  and  do  they  not  come  of  inferior  growth  after  each, 
successive  burning  ?  To  take  away  by  fire  the  products  of  the  earth,  is 
to  remove  the  vegetable  matter  necessary  for  the  re-organization  of  the 
plants,  and  to  substitute  a  residuum  of  inorganic  remains,  whilst  the 
plants,  stripped  of  their  natural  covering,  are  left  exposed  to  all  the  sever- 
ity of  the  long  winter  frosts.  I  am  prepared  to  prove  that  these  grasses 
of  the  prairie  are  nutritive,  more  from  their  quantity,  and  extent,  than 
from  their  quality  ;  and  do  not,  therefore,  contend  that  but  for  these  burn- 
ings, they  would  have  been  luxuriant  pastures.     Another  cause  exists  for 


196 

their  scantiness  of  nutritive  growth  and  for  their  short-livedness ;  and 
that  is,  in  the  hide-bound  state  in  which  they  are  every  where  found; 
roots  matted,  and  entangled  together  into  a  turf,  impervious  to  the  spade, 
and  only  pervious  to  a  flat  plow-share,  dragged  by  four  yoke  of  oxen. 
That  these  grasses  are  not  more  nutritive  and  luxuriant  is  to  be  accounted 
for  from  their  total  want  of  cultivation.  Were  they  either  top-dressed 
with  salt,  or  lime,  or  ashes,  or  above  all  with  gypsum,  or  scarified,  hy 
each  of  which  processes  the  roots  become  emancipated,  an  improved 
growth  would  appear  ;  and  this,  in  a  degree,  is  apparent  across  any 
prairie  over  which  there  is  a  road.  There  we  see  a  change  of  herbage, 
occasioned  by  the  travel  of  the  wagon,  or  the  droppings  of  the  horses. 

On  my  farm,  on  a  slip  of  unbroken  prairie,  subject  to  such  cultivation  as 
its  proximity  to  plowed  land  admits  of,  I  have  the  tall  oat  grass,  the  tall 
fescue,  the  fox-tail,  besides  others,  in  an  improved  state.  I  am  of  opin- 
ion, that  if  these  indigenous  grasses  were  subjected  to  cultivation,  a  class, 
every  way  suited  to  the  climate,  might  be  amply  developed. 

The  timothy,  so  far  as  I  have  seen,  seems  to  be  the  most  luxuriant 
grass  of  the  Western  States ;  its  length  and  thickness  of  growth,  en- 
titling it  to  all  the  favor  in  which  it  is  held ;  but  as  a  pasture,  after  cut- 
ting it  for  hay,  it  furnishes  a  sad  lack  of  aftermath  ;  but  this  appears  to 
me  a  general  defect  here.  All  the  grasses  seem  short-lived,  producing  a 
crop  for  the  scythe,  and  no  more.  In  the  Eastern  States,  I  read  that 
first  and  second  crops  of  the  red  clover  are  of  general  occurrence,  and 
in  high  estimation  ;  whilst  in  England,  almost  all  the  meadows  which 
are  not  permanently  laid  down  to  grass,  are  sown  with  red  clover  and 
rye,  or  ray  grass,  seeds  which  ripen  together,  and  produce  rank, 
rich  meadov/s,  yielding  two  or  three  tons  of  hay  per  acre,  of  the  very 
finest  quality ;  and  then  producing  a  second  crop  not  much  short  of  the 
first,  and  then  a  good  aftermath ;  but  when  the  second  crop  is  not  taken, 
which  is  the  practice  of  the  best  farmers,  the  aftermath  assumes  all  the 
character  of  a  meadow,  browsing  upon  which,  the  cattle  fill  themselves 
without  the  fatigue  of  seeking  for  their  food,  and  rest  and  fatten.  An- 
other class  of  meadows,  consists  of  the  land  laid  down  to  permanent 
grass,  in  which  the  timothy,  red  top,  cocks-foot,  fox-tail  and  fiorin  are 
chief,  and  these  need  but  a  reservation  in  Spring  from  pasturage,  to 
produce  large  crops  of  hay,  of  a  quality  more  enduring  than  the  clover 
meadows,  and  equally  acceptable  to  cattle  and  horses.  The  quantity 
per  acre  of  this  hay,  is  not  so  large  as  the  clover  and  rye  grass ;  but  it 


197 

is  finer,  and  very  highly  esteemed  by  all  who  feed  horses  for  the  turf  or 
road.     The  former  is  termed  new  land,  and  the  latter  old  land  hay  ;  and 
the  diflerence  of  value  amounts  to  five  dollars  per  ton  in  favor  of  the 
latter  in  the  English  markets.     "Phese  pastures  of  permanent  grass,  exist 
to  a  considerable  extent  in  all  the  large  farms  in  England,  and  are  held 
sacred  from  the  plow,  by  the  land  owners.     Top  dressing,  with  barn 
yard  and  other  manures,  is  used  to  keep  them  in  tilth,  and  occasionally 
they  are  ripped  with  the  plow,  at  distances  of  eight  or   ten  feet  apart, 
that  the  roots  may  have  room  to  expand,  and  that  the  hide  or  turf  may 
be  prevented  from  binding  together.     I  have  said  so  much  of  the  grass 
seeds,  of  which  the  feeding  pastures  and  meadows  of  England  are  com- 
posed, and  which  give   to  that  country  its  perennial  spring  appearance, 
characterized  by  that  eminent  man,  William  Cobbett,  as  the  consequence 
of  the  "drip,  drip,"  of  the  atmosphere,  common  to  that  country.     The 
variety  and  number  of  grasses  termed -artificial,  is  great,  and  appears  to 
me  unnecessary  to  enumerate ;  they  are  all  good,  and  from  their  variety, 
most  beneficial  to  animal  life.     From  among  them,  I  may,  however,  be 
allowed  to  mention  the  Lucerne  grass,  known  to  the  nations  of  antiquity, 
and  held  by  them  in  great  estimation.     Its  requirements  are  a  deep,  rich 
soil,  well  manui-ed  and  clean   weeded.     The   soil  so   prepared   by   good 
cultivation,  is  sown  with  ten  pounds  of  seed  per   acre,  in  drills  of  one 
and  a  half  feet  apart ;  and  as  soon  as  the  plant  appears,  these  intervals 
are  stirred  with  the  cultivator,  and  the  plants  weeded  and  cleaned  by  hoe 
and  hand.     It  is  advisable  to  crop  it  lightly  the  first  year,  but  after  that 
it  may  be  cut  several  times,  three  at  least;  from  such  cropping  I  have 
known  a  produce  of  upwards  of  six  tons  per   acre.     It  is  a  perennial, 
and  therefore  justifies   all  the  care  and  attention  necessary  to  the  first 
stages  of  its  growth.     It  is  liked  by  all  cattle,  and  its   nutritive  proper- 
ties are  considerable;  it  is  well  calculated  for  stall  feeding,  a  practice 
which  has  given  to  England,  above  all  other  lands,  the  superior  beef  of 
which  she  justly  boasts.     I   would   not,  however,   have  it  understood 
that  I   prefer  this  grass  so  exclusively ;    on   the  contrary,  I   think  red 
clover,  which  requires  much  less  care  in  its  cultivation,  very  little  infe- 
rior.    Sainfoin,   too,   of  this  class,  with  many  of  the  leguminous  plants, 
are  equally  advocated  for  superiority.    The  great  point  in  my  mind,  is  to 
increase  the  produce  of  the  earth — a  sense  in  which  I  would  read  all 
who  write  upon  Agriculture.     From  Adam  Smith   downward,  this  say- 
ing will  be  maintained:  "that  he  who  makes  two  blades  of  grass  grow 


198 

wliere  only  one  grew  before,  deserves  well  of  his  country  ;"  and  this  com- 
pendium of  the  whole  matter,  induces  me  to  mention  two  notorious  in- 
stances of  improvement,  equally  stimulative  to  the  man  of  capital  and 
the  man  without  it.  The  Duke  of  Portland,  one  of  the  most  liberal  and 
largest  land  owners  of  England,  converted  four  hundred  acres  of  bog 
land,  into  the  most  fertile  tracts  of  the  midland  counties  of  England,  by 
turning  the  river  Maun  through  it,  or  over  it ;  the  running  water  of  the 
river  flowing  through  Mansfield  and  partaking  of  its  sewerage  waters, 
as  well  as  carrying  with  it  the  certain  sewerage  of  Chipstone,  construct- 
ed by  the  Duke,  gave  circulation  to  the  stagnant  waters  of  the  morass, 
and  life-blood  to  the  plants.  And  this  improvement  was  effected  by 
irrigation  chiefly  ;  drainage  was  also  used  ;  and  drainage,  that  vital  reno- 
vator, of  climate  as  Avell  as  of  soil,  has  turned  a  wild,  and  wet,  and 
trackless  morass  into  a  fruitful  plain.  Chat  Moss,  lying  between  Liver- 
pool and  Manchesser,  consisting  of  several  thousand  acres  of  dead  and 
profitless  swamp,  has  been  cultivated.  An  individual  rented  from  the 
owner  one  thousand  acres,  at  the  nominal  rent  of  one  shilling  per  acre- 
He  divided  it  into  sections,  and  fol"  fences,  made  wide  and  deep  ditches, 
into  which  he  drained  ofl"  the  waters,  and  obtained  sound  and  stable 
land,  in  lieu  of  the  unsound  and  Avater  shaken  swamp.  An  improved 
climate,  too,  took  place;  and  a  clear,  instead  of  a  foggy  atmosphere 
prevails,  the  whole  now  being  cultivated. 

But  I  cease  to  trespass  on  your  readers,  or  on  the  privilege  you  have 
afforded  me.  The  agricultural  knowledge  of  this,  and  of  every  other 
country,  is  open  to  all,  and  much  of  which  they  treat,  practically  known 
to  many  of  your  Association.  That  which  appears  to  me  to  be  the  duty 
of  those  you  desire  to  communicate  with  you,  is  to  state  that  which  in 
their  own  practice  or  observation  they  have  found,  or  supposed  to  be, 
beneficial  ;  and  I  think  I  cannot  better  fulfil  mine,  or  contribute  more  to 
this  end,  than  by  urging,  in  conclusion  to  my  cursory  remarks,  every  one 
to  produce  more  of  the  fruits  of  the  earth  than  he  has  hitherto  done,  by 
adding  science  to  his  handiwork — to  plow  deep  and  to  sow  deep — to  top- 
dress  his  pastures  and  meadows,  and  to  burn  nothing  beyond  what  is  ne-^ 
cessary  for  the  preparation  of  his  food,  or  the  warmth  of  his  household. 
I  am,  my  dear  sir, 

Yours  very  sincerely, 

^     .  n  T  17  J-  BERKLEY. 

To  Albert  C.  Ingham,  Esq., 

Sec.  of  the  Wis.  State  Agr.  Society. 


199 

CULTURE  OF  GRASSES. 
Br  Thomas  P.  Turner,  Eagle. 

As  grass  land,  and  old,  luxuriant  meadows  are  material  features  in  a 
farm,  and  add  much  to  its  value,  the  mode  of  making  them  cannot  be  too 
well  understood,  as  a  grass  can  be  found  adapted  to  the  soil,  be  it  ever 
so  sterile  or  ever  so  fruitful.  Those  only  are  grasses  which  produce  one 
seed  to  each  flower,  and  when  rising  out  of  the  ground,  have  but  one 
seed  leaf.  Some  grasses  are  best  for  sheep  and  goats,  and  flourish  in 
elevated  districts ;  others  are  calculated  for  dairy  countries  and  marsh 
lowlands ;  others  for  a  medium  situation,  and  for  fattening  cattle.  Some 
yield  most  nourishment  when  cut  green,  others  when  in  flower,  and  others 
when  the  seed  is  ripe.  Some  grasses  will  yield  a  better  after-crop  than 
others.  Some  seeds  are  dispersed  by  the  wind  while  others  drop  when 
ripened. 

It  was  long  supposed,  even  by  practical  farmers,  that  the  herbage  of 
pastures  and  meadows  consisted  of  only  two  sorts  of  grasses — natural 
grass  and  clover  grass.  Botanists  first  pointed  out  the  number  of  dis- 
tinct species  of  grasses  which  are  to  be  found  in  natural  pastures ;  but 
the  number,  the  different  soils,  the  merits  and  value  of  each  sort,  the 
habits  and  culture,  are  of  very  modern  date.  Mr.  Sinclair  has  probably 
done  more  than  any  other  person  to  bring  the  different  varieties  to  the 
test  of  experiment,  and  ascertain  their  relative  value.  He  says  :  "  There 
are  upwards  of  one  hundred  and  thirty  distinct  species  of  grasses,  besides 
varieties,  natives  of  Great  Britain  ;  and  there  is  no  variety  of  soil  inter- 
mediate between  the  high  rock  or  the  blowing  sand,  down  to  the  marsh, 
the  bof,  even  water  itself,  but  is  provided  by  the  bountiful  hand  of  Nature 
with  grasses  peculiarly  adapted  to  grow  and  remain  permanent  on  each 
particular  soil  and  site.  However  similar  many  of  these  grasses  may  be 
when  in  the  state  of  swarth,  or  cropped  turf,  no  two  species  will  be  found 
to  ao-ree  on  the  following  important  points,  viz  :  the  time  of  the  herbage 
in  the  o-reatest  perfection ;  the  quantity  and  properties  of  the  nutritive 
matter  in  spring,  in  flower,  and  when  ripe ;  the  aftermath ;  the  property 
of  reproduction ;  the  rapid  or  slow  growth  after  being  cropped  by  the 
scythe,  or  depasturing ;  the  luxuriance  of  the  leaves  when  the  culms  are 
in  flower,  and  when  the  seed  is  ripe ;  the  nature  of  the  soil  which  each 
most  affects ;  and  the  degree  of  power  which  each  species  possesses  of 


200 

•withstandinof  the  effect  of  lon":-continued  (lroui)-bt,  or  of  lonGf-continued 
rains.  These  particulars  constitute  a  most  material  guide  in  the  forma- 
tion of  a  meadow  or  permanent  pasture  of  the  best  quality  for  early 
spring  produce,  superior  weight  of  crop,  nutritive  powers,  and  a  constant 
supply  of  new  herbage  throughout  the  season,  under  every  circumstance 
of  unfavorable  extremes  of  Aveather. 

"  The  grasses  of  most  value  to  the  farmer  will  not  grow  close  together, 
or  the  same  sort,  for  any  length  of  time,  however  thickly  planted  from 
seed.  In  one  or  two  seasons,  intermediate  plants  decay  and  leave  vacant 
places  ;  but  when  a  variety  of  different  species,  adaptec^  to  the  soil,  are 
mixed,  they  grow  close,  form  a  dense  bottom,   and  continue  permanent. 

"  The  different  grasses,  and  other  plants,  which  compose  the  produce 
of  the  richest  natural  meadows  in  England,  are  in  number  about  twenty- 
six.  From  spring  to  the  end  of  autumn,  there  is  not  a  month  which  does 
not  constitute  the  particular  season  of  superior  luxuriance  or  height  of 
growth  of  one  or  more  of  these  grasses. 

"  The  sorts  combined  vary  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil.  If 
sand  is  the  principal  ingredient,  then  we  find  that  hard  fescue  grass, 
smooth  fescue,  fine  bent,  creeping  soft,  tufted-leaf  bent,  crested  dogs-tail, 
smooth -stalked  meadow,  and  meadow  soft  grass  are  the  best. 

"  Calcareous  soils  abound  with  the  rough-headed  cocks-foot  grass, 
meadow  fescue,  crested  dogs-tail,  hard  fescue,  perennial  rye-grass, 
upright  perennial  brome,  yellow  oat,  and  sheep's  fescue. 

"  Argfillaceous  soils  encoura«-e  the  followino- :  meadow  cats-tail,  or 
timothy  grass,  rough-headed  cocks-foot,  Pacey's  improved  rye-grass,  rib- 
grass  or  lambs  tongue,  fiorin,  creeping  bent,  meadow  fox-tail,  tall  oat-- 
grass,  and  others  of  less  note. 

"  A  mixed  soil  of  the  above  ingredients  is  found  to  give  vigor  to 
meadow  fox-tail,  meadow  fescue,  rough-headed  cocks-foot,  meadow  cats- 
tail,  meadow  soft,  rough  high  meadow,  sweet-scented  vernal,  perennial 
rye-grass,  and  a  variety  of  others  not  so  abundant. 

"A  peaty  soil  has  been  found  to  abound  with  sweet-scented  vernal, 
rough-headed  cocks-foot,  meadow  fescue,  roughish  meadow,  meadow 
fox-tail,  crested  dogs-tail,  creeping  bent  (narrow-leaf)  meadow  soft  grass. 

"Dutch  clover  is  an  essential  ingredient  in  every  pasture.  It  will  grow 
in  every  kind  of  soil  Avhere  proper  pasture  grasses  can  exist." 

It  is  a  fact  that  twenty  of  these  different  varieties  are  sometimes  found 
in  a  few  feet  square  of  turf  of  an  old  meadow ;  and  land,  the  principal 


201 

part  of  which  was  sand,  has  from  the  peeuhar  union  of  grasses,  and  a 
plentiful  supply  of  water,  fattened  bullocks  of  one  hundred  and  sixty- 
stone  (dead  weight)  and  wintered  two  sheep  per  acre. 

A  soil  consisting  of  a  mixture  of  the  three  principal  earths,  has  been 
found  to  have,  on  a  yard  square,  twenty-two  distinct  species,  and  eleven 
hundred  distinct  roots  of  individual  plants.  These  are  the  constituents 
of  the  soil  in  the  grazing  districts  of  Lincolnshire  and  Somerset. 

The  result  of  these  inquiries  is,  that  tillage  land  can  now  be  converted 
into  permanent  pasture  for  fattening  and  dairy  purposes  in  the  course  of 
two  years,  on  almost  any  variety  of  soil,  in  the  humid  and  temperate 
climate  of  England.      Of  course  the  seed  must  be  selected  properly  for 
the  sort  of  land  and  the  elevation,  so  that  there  may  be  a  succession  of 
seedmg  from  April  to  November.     In  sowing  grass  seeds  for  a  perma- 
nency, it  should  be  on  lands  properly  cleaned  and  prepared  for  the  pur- 
pose, without  any  admixture  or  any  grain  crop,   which  is  sure  to  injure 
the  succeeding  crops  of  grass  more  than  can  be  obtained  by  cutting  the 
grain.       A  crop  of  grain  acts  towards  the  grasses  more  injuriously  than 
a  crop  of  weeds  would  do  towards  the  grain.     The  soil  for  grass  seeds 
should  be  particularly  clean  from  weeds,  as  manure  when  applied  to  it 
makes  no  distinction  between  those  plants  that  are  wanted  and  those  that 
are  not  wanted.     It  will  invigorate  all. 

It  may  be  observed,  that  land  intended  for  grass  ought  to  be  that  in 
which  it  will  spontaneously  thrive  and  flourish  ;  consequently,  if  there  is 
too  much  moisture,  the  grass  will  be  injured  by  frost  and  rain,  and  will 
soon  be  superceded  by  rushes,  and  other  aquatic  plants  ;  and  on  the  other 
hand,  if  the  soil  is  too  dry,  the  grasses  will  be  killed  by  the  intense  heat 
of  summer,  and  will  be  succeeded  by  mosses,  fern,   &c.      It  might  be 
supposed  that  this  could  be  remedied  by  sowing  such  land  with  better 
grasses;  and  to  a  certain  extent,  that  may  be  done;  but  experience  has 
nevertheless  proved,  that  all  land  has  a  tendency  to  re-produce  those 
plants  which  are  indigenous  to  the  soil — and  that,  after  a  few  years,  vary- 
ing according  to  the  care  and  attention  that  have  been  bestowed  upon  the 
cultivation,  the  natural  productions  will  supercede  those  which  have  been 
artificially  sown.     This  is  one  of  the  strongest  reasons  assigned  by  Eng- 
lish landlords,  when  they  object  to  their  tenants  breaking  up  their  old 
meadow  lands,  for  it  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  and  uncertain  operations 
cf  husbandry  to  reproduce  it,  from  land  newly  laid  down. 

14 


202 

1^0  land  will  make  a  good  meadow  unless  the  soil  is  sufficiently  deep 
to  allow  the  roots  of  the  grasses  to  run  down  out  of  the  reach  of  the 
summer  heat,  and  sufficiently  retentive  to  hold  water  long  enough  to  con- 
tribute to  the  growth  of  the  plant,  together  with  such  an  absorbent  sub- 
stratum as  will  drain  the  moisture  away  before  putrefaction  takes  place. 
Land  of  this  description,  therefore,  should  never  be  laid  down  to  grass, 
unless  it  can  be  made  retentive  by  the  application  of  lime,  clay,  chalk,  or 
other  fossil  manures  that  can  be  procured  on  or  near  the  spot,  especially 
marl. 

Besides  these  considerations,  there  are  other  circumstances  of  very 
jnaterial  moment  in  the  laying  down  of  lands  for  meadow  pasture.  At- 
tention to  early  growth  is  of  great  importance,  especially  as,  from  a 
variety  of  unforeseen  accidents,  the  most  careful  farmer  may  not  always 
have  a  stock  of  food  adequate  to  the  consumption  of  his  cattle.  The 
seasons  must  ever  produce  great  variableness  in  the  forwardness  or  the 
backwardness  of  grass  crops.  The  early  grasses  appear  to  be  most 
coveted  by  cattle,  and  they  will  naturally  thrive  best  on  that  which  is 
most  agreeable  to  their  palate,  so  that  an  early  bite,  and  earlj^  hay- 
making, and  the  consequent  early  use  of  the  after-grass,  are  very  impor- 
tant objects  to  the  farmer. 

An  acquaintance  with  the  peculiar  soils,  and  relative  hardiness  of 
grasses  is  another  requisite,  Avithout  which  no  good  meadow  can  be 
formed;  and  this  can  only  be  derived  from  actual  experiment.  Some 
grasses  are  less  able  to  endure  moisture  than  others,  and  of  course 
flourish  best  in  dry  and  upland  situations ;  while  others  are  totally  unfit 
for  dry  soils,  but  vegetate  luxuriantly  in  moist  land ;  and  a  third  class 
areonly  fit  for  the  most  barren  lands,  and  such  as  are  unable  to  support 
any  other  kind  of  grass.  Of  the  first  description,  are  the  smooth-stalked 
poa,  smooth-stalked  meadow  grass,  sainfoin,  &c.  Of  the  second,  are  the 
rough-stalked  poa,  or  meadow  grass,  the  flote  fox  tail  and  flote  fescue, 
water  pea  or  meadow  grass,  &c.  And  to  the  third  belong  the  sheep's 
fescue,  the  hard  fescue,  &c. 

An  eminent  English  agriculturist,  Arthur  Young,  recommended  the 
following  sorts  of  grass  seeds  for  the  diflferent  soils,  and  the  quantity 
per  acre  affixed  to  each  sort : 

Clayey  Soils. — Cow  grass,  three  quarts ;  cock's  foot,  two  quarts ; 
dog's  tail,  four  quarts  ;  fescue,  eight  quarts  ;  oat  grass,  two  quarts;  tre- 
foil, three  pounds;  Yorkshire  white,  one  peck;  timothy,  four  pounds. 


203 

Loamy  Soils. — White  clover,  two  quarts;  rye  grass,  two  quarts; 
Yorkshire  white,  one  peck ;  fescue,  six  quarts ;  fox  tail,  six  quarts ; 
dog's  tail,  four  quarts;  poa,  four  quarts  ;  timothy,  four  pounds  ;  yarrow, 
two  quarts  ;  lucerne,  four  pounds. 

Sandy  Soils. — White  clover,  two  quarts ;  rye  grass,  four  quarts ; 
Yorkshire  white,  two  pecks;  yarrow,  two  quarts;  burnet,  six  pounds; 
trefoil,  five  pounds ;  rib,  four  pounds. 

Chalky  Soils. — Yarrow,  one  bushel ;  burnet,  five  pounds  ;  trefoil,  six 
pounds  ;  white  clover,  seven  pounds ;  sainfoin,  five  pounds. 

Peaty  Soils. — White  clover,  two  pounds  ;  dog's  tail,  five  quarts;  cock's 
foot,  two  quarts ;  rib,  two  quarts ;  Yorkshire  white,  two  pecks ;  rye 
grass,  two  pecks  ;  fox  tail,  two  pecks  ;  fescue,  two  pecks ;  timothy,  six 
pounds. 

In  laying  down  lands  to  grass,  the  most  important  primary  object  is, 
duly  to  prepare  them  for  the  reception  of  the  seed.  Hence  the  soil 
should  previously  be  brought  to  the  highest  possible  degree  of  cultiva- 
tion ;  for,  though  land  may  be  too  rich  for  the  production  of  grain,  and 
■of  such  crops  as  are  raised  for  the  seed,  it  is  quite  difierent  in  the  case 
of  grasses,  or  other  crops  where  the  object  in  view  is  the  largeness  and 
luxuriance  of  the  plants.  The  richness  of  the  soil,  is,  in  this  case,  a  most 
important  consideration,  because  the  richer  and  more  fertile  it  is  made, 
the  more  abundant  crops  Avill  it  produce,  and  the  larger  the  stock  of 
cattle  will  it  support ;  whereas,  the  contrary  effects  must  result  from 
laying  down  to  grass  either  poor  land,  or  such  as  has  been  exhausted 
by  the  repeated  tillage  of  grain. 

With  regard  to  the  time  of  sowing,  I  have  found,  from  repeated  exper- 
iments, that  autumn  is  preferable  to  spring.  The  proper  season  is  from 
the  last  week  in  August  to  the  first  week  in  September,  for  all  but  clover, 
which  should  be  sowed  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the  season  permits. 
The  ground  should  previously  be  brought  into  the  highest  possible  degree 
of  pulverization  ;  otherwise,  the  irregularity  of  the  surface  will  not  only 
occasion  an  irregularity  in  the  produce  of  the  grass,  but  will  likewise  be 
found  inconvenient  when  the  meadow  is  mowed.  This  may  be  efi'ected 
in  various  ways,  either  by  frequent  plowing  and  harrowing  or  by  the 
raising  of  turnips,  potatoes,  Indian  corn,  or  other  fallow  crops,  which  by 
the  shade  they  afford,  as  well  as  by  the  culture  they  require  during  their 
growth,  are  calculated  to  reduce  the  ground  to  a  friable  state. 


204: 

The  following  observations  on  the  selection  of  different  kinds  of  com- 
mon food  by  sheep  and  cattle,  were  made  by  Mr.  George  Sinclair :  - 

"Rye  Grass. — Sheep  eat  this  grass  when  it  is  in  the  early  stage  of  its 
growth,  in  preference  to  most  others;  but  after  the  seed  approaches 
towards  perfection,  they  leave  it  for  almost  any  other  kind.  Horses  and 
cattle  are  fond  of  it;  the  former  particularly,  when  made  into  hay. 

<'Cock's-foot  Grass. — Oxen,  horses  and  sheep  eat  this  grass  readily. 
The  oxen  continue  to  eat  the  straws  and  flowers.  This  was  exemplified 
in  a  striking  manner  in  a  field  one-half  seeded  to  cock's-foot  and  red  clo- 
ver; the  other  half  rye-grass  and  white  clover.  The  oxen  generally 
kept  to  the  cock's-foot  and  red  clover,  and  the  sheep  to  the  rye-grass  and. 
white  clover. 

"  Meadow  Fox-tail. — Sheep  and  horses  seem  to  have  a  greater  relish 
for  this  grass  than  oxen.  It  delights  in  a  soil  of  intermediate  quality,  as 
to  moisture  or  dryness,  and  is  very  productive.  In  the  water  meadows,, 
it  often  constitutes  the  principal  part  of  the  crop. 

"  Meadow  Cat's-tail. — This  grass  is  eaten  without  reserve,  by  oxen, 
sheep  and  horses.  It  seems  to  attain  to  the  greatest  perfection  in  a  rich, 
deep  loam. 

"Rough-stalked  Meadow  Grass. — Oxen,  horses  and  sheep  eat  this 
grass  with  avidity. 

"Smooth-stalked  Meadow  Grass. — Oxen  and  horses  are  observed  ta 
eat  this  grass  in  common  with  others;  but  sheep  rather  prefer  the  hard 
fescue,  and  sheep's  fescue,  w^hich  affect  a  similar  soil.  This  species 
exhausts  the  soil  in  a  greater  degree  than  almost  any  other  species  of 
grass,  the  roots  being  numerous,  and  powerfully  creeping,  becoming  ia 
two  or  three  years  completely  matted  together.  The  produce  diminishes 
as  this  takes  place. 

"Crested  Dog's-tail  Grass. — The  Southdown  sheep  and  deer  appear 
to  be  remarkably  fond  of  this  grass. 

"Fine  Bent — Common  Bent. — This  is  a  very  common  grass  in  all  poor, 
dry,  sandy  soils.  It  is  not  palatable  to  cattle,  as  they  never  eat  it  readily,, 
if  any  other  kinds  are  Avithin  their  reach. 

"Sheep's  Fescue  Grass. — All  kinds  of  cattle  relish  this  grass,  but 
it  appears  from  trials  made  with  it  on  clayey  soils,  that  it  continues  but 
a  short  time  in  possession  of  such,  being  soon  overpowered  by  the  more 


205 

luxuriant  kinds.  On  dry,  shallow  soils,  that  are  incapable  of  producing 
the  larger  sorts,  this  should  form  the  principal  crop,  or  rather  the  whole  ; 
for  it  is  seldom,  if  ever,  in  its  natural  state,  found  intimately  mixed  with 
others,  but  by  itself. 

"Hard  Fescue  Grass. — This  is  certainly  one  of  the  best  of  the 
dwarf  sorts  of  grasses.     It  is  grateful  to  all  kinds  of  cattle. 

"Meadow  Fescue. — This  is  seldom  absent  from  rich  meadows  and 
pastures.  It  is  highly  grateful  to  oxen,  sheep,  and  horses — particularly 
the  former.  It  appears  to  grow  most  luxuriantly  when  combined  with 
the  hard  fescue  and  rough-stalked  meadow. 

"Tall  Oat  Grass. — This  is  a  very  productive  grass,  frequent  in  mea- 
dows and  pastures,  but  is  disliked  by  horses  and  cattle ;  this  perfectly 
agrees  with  the  small  portion  of  nutritive  matter  it  affords.  It  seems  to 
thrive  best  on  a  strong  tenacious  clay.  • 

"  Yellow  Oat  Grass. — This  grass  seems  partial  to  dry  soils  and  mea- 
dows, and  appears  to  be  eaten  by  sheep  and  oxen  equally  with  the  meadow 
"barley,  crested  dog's  tail,  and  sweet  scented  vernal  grasses,  which  natu- 
turally  grow  in  company  with  it.  It  nearly  doubles  the  quantity  of  its 
produce  by  the  application  of  calcareous  matter. 

"Meadow  Soft  Grass. — This  is  a  very  common  grass,  and  grows  on 
all  soils,  from  the  richest  to  the  poorest.  It  aftbrds  an  abundance  of 
seed,  which  is  light  and  easily  dispersed  by  the  wind.  It  appears  to  be 
generally  disliked  by  all  sorts  of  cattle.  The  hay  which  is  made  from  it, 
from  the  number  of  downy  hairs  which  cover  the  surface  of  the  leaves, 
is  soft  and  spongy,  and  disliked  by  all  cattle. 

"Sweet-scented  Vernal  Grass. — Horses,  oxen  and  sheep  eat  this 
grass,  though  in  pastures  where  it  is  combined  with  meadow  fox-tail, 
white  clover,  cock's-foot,  and  rough-stalked  meadow,  it  is  left  untouched, 
from  which  it  would  seem  to  be  unpalatable  to  cattle." 

Of  all  the  two  hundred  and  fifteen  proper  grasses,  which  are  capable 
of  being  cultivated  in  the  climate  of  Great  Britain,  two  only  have  been 
^employed  to  any  extent  for  making  artificial  pastures — rye-grass  and 
cock's-foot  grass — and  their  application  for  this  purpose,  seems  to  have 
been  rather  the  result  of  accident  than  of  any  proof  of  their  superiority 
over  other  grasses.  For  further  information  of  the  comparative  merits 
and  value  of  the  diflferent  species  and  varieties  of  grasses,  I  would  refer 


206 

the  reader  to  a  work  by  George  Sinclair,   entitled  "Details  of  Experi- 
ments on  Grasses." 

Lucerne  is  of  French  growth,  but  was  introduced  into  British  hus- 
bandry about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century.  It  flourishes  most 
luxuriantly  in  deep,  rich,  friable  loams,  but  it  will  thrive  in  sound,  mel- 
low soil  of  any  kind.  It  is  useless  to  attempt  its  cultivation  on  wet  and 
marshy  ground.  The  land  must  be  kept  clean  from  weeds,  otherwise  its 
luxuriant  growth  will  be  greatly  impeded.  It  should  be  sowed  early  in. 
the  spring,  as  soon  as  the  land  becomes  dry,  and  drilled  in  rows,  two- 
feet  apart,  so  that  by  repeated  hoe  culture  it  may  be  kept  sufficiently 
clean.  Ten  pounds  per  acre  is  the  proper  quantity  of  seed.  Mr.  Sin- 
clair gives  a  most  extraordinary  account  of  its  productions.  He  states 
that,  at  the  time  the  seed  is  ripe,  it  produces  seventy  thousand  seven  hun- 
dred and  eighty-five  pounds  per  acre,  but  it  loses  nearly  two-thirds  of  its- 
weight  in  drying:  leaving  twenty-eight  thousand,  three  hundred  and 
fourteen  pounds  of  haj",  containing  1^64ths  of  nutritive  matter. 

The  first  use  of  lucerne  was  for  soiling  horses  or  other  cattle,  from 
four  to  five  of  which  may  be  supported  by  the  produce  of  an  acre  during 
the  six  summer  months ;  the  grass  being  cut  and  given  to  the  cattle  in  a 
fresh  state.  This  plant  is  also  well  calculated  for  the  summer  feeding  of 
cows.  I  am  inclined  to  think  lucerne  as  valuable  for  the  quality  and 
frequent  succession  of  the  crops,  and  its  duration  in  the  soil,  as  for  its 
fattening  qualities.  If  often  manvired,  and  kept  clean  from  weeds  by 
repeated  hoeings,  it  will  last  from  fifteen  to  twenty  years,  and  yield  lux- 
uriant to  the  last.  It  is  well  suited  for  milch  cows,  causing  them  to- 
yield  rich  and  abundant  milk.  It  has  been  successfully  employed  in 
soiling  sheep  and  hogs ;  and  as  the  latter  do  not  feed  down  so  closely 
as  the  former,  they  may  be  admitted  upon  lucerne  plantations  with 
safety. 

Sainfoin  vegetates  with  considerable  luxuriance,  on  dry  chalky  soils, 
but  its  produce  is  far  inferior  in  quality  to  the  lucerne.  It  yields  but 
eight  thousand  eight  hundred  and  forty-eight  pounds  per  acre,  but  then 
little  more  than  half  of  it  is  lost  in  drying,  and  it  contains  24-64-ths  of 
nutritive  matter. 

These,  then,  with  the  four  varieties  of  clover,  viz  :  white  Dutch,  trefoil, 
red  clover,  perennial  clover  or  marl  grass,  constitute  the  best  varieties 
of  the  Ensrlish  trasses. 


207 

The  very  rapid  manner  cattle  take  on  flesh  when  grazing  on  the  prairie 
grass  in  this  State,  during  the  summer,  leads  me  to  believe  that  some  of 
the  native  grasses  are  very  nutritive,  and  that  a  valuable  variety  may  be 
selected  for  culture  that  might  answer  as  good,  and  perhaps  a  better 
purpose,  than  the  English  varieties.  One  difficulty  presents  itself,  and 
that  is,  in  procuring  any  large  amount  of  seed,  as  so  little  is  to  be  seen 
ripe  on  the  prairies  Avhich  are  not  stocked.  I  have  remarked  also,  that 
where  these  natural  pastures  are  closely  fed,  the  wild  grass  dies  out,  and 
weeds  take  its  place ;  from  which  I  draw  the  conclusion  that  they  will 
not  endure  close  cropping.  Good  tillage  might  obviate  this,  and  i-ender 
the  plants  more  luxuriant  and  hardy. 

The  experience  I  have  had  thus  far  inclines  me  to  think  that  the 
meadow  cat's-tail,  or  timothy  grass,  sown  with  red  clover,  is  the  most 
certain  to  live  in  this  climate.  Timothy  is  a  most  valuable  grass.  It  is 
eaten  by  all  kinds  of  animals,  and  horses  prefer  it  to  every  other  kind  of 
hay ;  it  produces  plenty  of  herbage  early  in  the  Spring,  and  it  may  be 
cropped  until  late  in  the  season.  When  cultivated  in  union  with  clover, 
it  is  better  able  to  endure  the  summer  heat.  Its  roots  run  very  near  the 
surface,  and  it  is  on  this  account  that  it  seldom  produces  much  hay  on 
high,  dry  soils,  without  clover.  It  is  not,  however,  as  good  hay-grass 
as  the  rye-grass,  from  the  thickness  and  toughness  of  its  stem,  and  the 
deficiency  of  the  latter-math ;  but  when  it  is  intended  for  hay,  particu- 
larly to  feed  to  cattle  and  sheep,  it  should  be  cut  a  week  before  it  flow- 
ers. It  flourishes  best  in  this  climate,  in  a  rich,  deep  loam,  in  low 
situations. 

The  American  Cock's-foot  Grass,  being  a  native  of  North  America, 
should  be  more  extensively  cultivated.  It  grows  luxuriantly  in  moist, 
loamy  soils,  and  when  kept  closely  fed,  it  afl'ords  early  and  excellent  pas- 
turage, for  sheep ;  oxen  and  horses  are  also  very  fond  of  it. 

The  possession  of  the  most  nutritious  food  will  enable  the  Wisconsin 
farmer  to  keep  the  best  breeds  of  cattle.  It  behooves  us,  therefore,  to 
endeavor  to  'make  two  blades  of  grass  grow  where  only  one  grew  before,' 
and  great  will  be  our  reward. 


208 


i  THE  DIFFERENT  BREEDS  OF  NEAT  CATTLE. 

THEIR     COMPARATIVE    VALUE    AND    ADAPTATION    TO    THE    CLIMATE    OF 

WISCONSIN. 

BY  THOMAS  P.  TURNER,  EAGLE. 

Of  the  various  sources  from  whicli  the  wealth  of  nations  is  derived, 
there  are  none  of  greater  moment,  or  which  have  a  superior  claim  to 
attention,  than  that  branch  of  rural  economy  which  is  the  subject  of  this 
essay.  The  cattle  of  the  farmer  may  justly  be  termed  productive  labor- 
ers, when  we  recollect  the  stimulus  to  industry,  as  well  as  the  rapid  cir- 
culation of  capital  which  the  farmer  occasions,  by  furnishing  constant 
employment  to  the  numerous  artificers  who  are  occupied  in  manufactur- 
ing implements  that  are  indispensably  necessary  to  him,  and  when  we 
call  to  mind  the  immense  mass  of  materials  which  his  productive  labor 
supplies  for  the  purposes  of  commercial  intercourse. 

Justly  has  Adam  Smith  remarked  in  his  "Wealth  of  Nations,"  that 
"  The  capital  employed  in  Agriculture  not  only  puts  in  motion  a  greater 
quantity  of  productive  labor  than  any  equal  capital  employed  in  manu- 
factures, but  also  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  productive  labor 
which  it  employs,  it  adds  a  much  greater  value  to  the  annual  product  of 
the  land  and  labor  of  the  country,  while  it  increases  the  real  wealth  and 
revenue  of  its  inhabitants." 

The  repeated  failure  of  the  wheat  crop  in  this  State,  together  with 
the  increased  facilities  for  the  transportation  jf  cattle  to  the  eastern 
markets,  uinte  to  render  live  stock  an  object  of  the  utmost  importance  to 
the  Wisconsin  farmer ;  and  notwithstanding  the  great  advances  made  in 
other  branches  of  industry,  nothing  has  undergone  a  greater  chano-e  of 
system,  or  has  received  more  manifest  improvement,  than  the  breeding, 
rearing  and  management  of  cattle.  The  establishment  of  societies  in 
Great  Britain  and  America,  for  the  encouragement  of  Agriculture,  has 
greatly  tended  to  promote  inquiry  and  disseminate  information  on  this 
nteresting  subject.  It  may  be  advantageous  to  commence  with  a  con- 
cise outline  of  the  principal  breeds,  and  varieties  of  breeds  of  cattle, 
found  in  the  United  Kingdoms  of  Great  Britain,  as  from  these  most,  if 
not  all  of  the  stock  in  North  America  have  sprung. 

The  wild  cattle  are  still  found  in  some  parts  of  England,   mostly  at 
Chartley  Park,  in  Derbyshire,  and  Chillingham  Park,  in  Northumber- 


209 

laml.  They  are  the  remains  of  the  Caledonian  cattle,  which  once  extended 
throuoh  all  the  northern  provinces  of  Enoland,  and  the  southern  ones  of 
Scotland,  and  some  of  which  had  found  their  way  to  the  mountains  of  Wales. 
The  following  account  is  given  of  them,  by  the  Earl  of  Tankerville,  and  by 
Mr.  Bailey,  of  Chillingham  :  "  Their  color  is  invariably  white,  except  that 
some  of  the  bulls  appear  of  a  cream  color ;  muzzle  black  or  brown  ;  the  whole 
of  the  inside  of  the  ear  and  about  one-third  of  the  outside,  from  the  tip  down- 
wards, red  or  brown ;  the  horns  white,  with  black  tips,  very  iine,  and 
bent  upwards.  They  have  no  manes,  but  some  of  the  bulls  have  a  little 
coarse  hair  on  the  neck,  about  an  inch  and  a  half  or  two  inches  long. 
The  weight  of  the  oxen  is  from  thirty-eight  to  forty -two  stone  (of  four- 
teen pounds),  and  that  of  the  cows  from  twenty-five  to  thirty-five  stone, 
the  four  quarters.  The  beef  is  finely  marbled,  and  of  excellent  flavor." 
From  the  nature  of  their  pastures,  and  the  frequent  agitation  they  are 
put  into  by  the  curiosity  of  strangers,  as  well  as  the  practice  of  shooting 
them  when  needed  for  the  butcher,  they  do  not  become  very  fat ;  yet  the 
six  years  old  oxen  are  generally  very  good  beef,  from  which  it  may  be 
fairly  supposed  that,  in  proper  situations,  they  would  fatten  well.  One  of 
them  was  caught  and  kept,  and  became  as  tame  as  the  domestic  ox, 
thriving  as  well  as  any  short-horned  steer  could  do.  It  weighed  sixty- 
five  stone.*  There  is,  however,  a  breed  of  the  same  cattle  in  Yorkshire, 
-which  is  said  to  be  harmless.  From  these,  then,  with  judicious  crossings 
are  derived  our  present  breeds. 

The  Devonshire  breed  is  found  in  its  purest  state  in  North  Devon. — 
Its  peculiar  qualities  may  be  thus  described :  Small  head,  clean,  and 
free  from  flesh  about  the  jaws  ;  its  countenance  light  and  airy ;  long  and 
thin  neck,  free  from  dewlap  about  the  throat ;  of  a  dark  orange  around 
its  eyes  and  nose ;  thin  and  pointed  ears,  tinged  on  the  inside  with  the 
same  color :  horns  thin,  and  fine  to  the  roots,  of  a  cream  color,  growing 
-with  a  regular  curve  upwards,  and  rather  springing  from  each  other ; 
light  on  the  withers ;  open  bosom,  with  a  deep  chest;  below  the  knee 
small  and  tapering ;  fine  at  and  above  the  joint ;  straight  on  the  back 
from  the  withers  to  the  rump,  on  a  level  with  the  hips,  which  are  wide 
and  open ;  the  hind  quarters  seated  high  with  flesh,  and  long  from  rump 
to  pin  ;  thin,  loose  skin,  with  hair  of  a  soft  and  furry  nature,  inclined  to 
curl  when  the  animal  is  in  full  coat  and  good  condition,  when  it  also 


'  Agricultural  Surrey  of  Northumberland. 


210 

becomes  matted  with  darker  shades  of  its  permanent  color,  which  is  that 
of  a  bright,  blood  red,  without  white  or  other  spots,  particularly  on  the 
male  ;  a  white  udder  may  be  passed  over,  but  seldom  without  objection. 
The  North  Devons  are  of  hardy  constitutions,  and  highly  esteemed  both 
for  feeding  and  draught.  For  the  dairy,  they  are  not  so  much  valued ;, 
the  milk,  though  rich,  being  deficient  in  quantity.  For  all  the  purposes 
of  labor,  for  docility  or  acti^  ity,  strength  or  hardiness,  this  breed  cannot 
be  excelled.  The  avarage  weight  of  the  oxen,  when  fatted  at  four  or 
five  years  old,  is  about  eleven  score  per  quarter ;  that  of  full  sized  cows 
seldom  exceeds  eight.  Although  they  do  not  weigh  as  heavy  as  several 
other  breeds,  they  fatten  most  rapidly,  and  their  flesh  is  of  excellent 
quality. 

The  Sussex  breed  differs  but  little  from  the  Devonshire,  except  in 
being  somewhat  larger  and  coarser.  When  pure,  the  cattle  are  invaria- 
bly of  a  dark,  red  color.  In  other  respects,  they  are  thus  described  by 
an  eminent  breeder,  Mr.  Ellman,  of  Glynde,  Sussex:  "A  thin  head,  and 
clean  jaw ;  horns  pointing  forward  a  little,  and  then  turning  upward,  thin, 
tapering  and  long ;  the  eye  large  and  full ;  the  throat  clean,  with  no  dew- 
lap ;  long  and  thin  in  the  neck  ;  wide  and  deep  in  the  shoulders  ;  no  pro- 
jection in  the  point  of  the  shoulder,  when  looked  at  from  behind ;  the 
fore  legs  wide,  round  and  straight  in  the  barrel,  and  free  from  a  rising- 
back-bone;  no  hanging  heaviness  in  the  belly;  wide  across  the  loin; 
the  space  between  the  hip  bone  and  the  first  rib  very  small ;  the  hip 
bone  not  rising  high,  but  being  large  and  wide ;  the  loin,  and  space 
between  the  hips,  to  be  flat  and  wide,  but  the  fore  part  of  the  carcass 
round ;  long  and  straight  in  the  rump,  and  wide  in  the  tip,  the  tail  to 
lie  low,  for  the  flesh  to  swell  above  it;  the  leo-s  not  too  lona:;  the  finer 
and  thinner  in  the  tail  the  better."  On  a  comparison  between  the  Devon 
and  Sussex  breeds,  the  former  are  thinner,  narrower  and  sharper  than 
the  latter,  on  the  top  of  the  shoulder,  or  blade  bone ;  the  front  of  the 
shoulder  generally  projects  more,  and  they  usually  stand  narrower  in  the 
chest;  their  chine  is  thinner ;  they  are  flatter  in  the  barrel,  and  hang 
more  in  the  flank ;  but  they  are  wider  in  the  hips,  and  cleaner  in  the 
neck,  head  and  horns,  and  smaller  in  the  bones  than  the  Sussex.  The 
distinction  between  them  is,  however,  not  very  striking.  They  are 
equally  profitable  to  the  grazier ;  and  as  working  cattle,  they  both  stand 
unrivalled. 

The  Hereford  breed  is  a  variety  of  the  Devon  and  Sussex,  but  is 


211 

larger  and  weighter  than  either ;  being  generally  wider  and  fuller  over 
the  shoulders  and  chine,  and  the  breast  or  brisket,  as  well  as  the  after 
part  of  the  rump.  The  prevailing  color  is  a  reddish  brown,  the  face  is 
white ;  the  hair  is  fine  and  the  skin  thin.  In  the  true  Hereford  breed, 
the  bone  does  not  project  in  the  point  of  the  shoulder — in  some  breeds, 
it  forms  almost  a  shelf — but  on  the  contrary,  it  tapers  oflf  gradually. 
They  are  very  wide  before,  and  in  their  hind  quarters  equally  heavy ; 
the  tail  sets  low,  and  a  great  distance  from  the  point  of  the  rump  to  the 
hip;  the  turst  is  full,  broad  and  soft;  the  horn  pushes  aside  a  little  and 
then  turns  up  thin  and  tapering;  the  animal  handles  remarkably  well, 
and  is  especially  mellow  on  the  rump,  ribs  and  hip  bone.  The  quality 
of  the  meat  is  not  hard,  but  fine  as  well  as  fat;  little  coarse  flesh  about 
them  ;  the  offal  and  bone  being  small  in  proportion  to  their  weight,  while 
their  disposition  to  fatten  is  equal,  or  nearly  so,  to  that  of  any  other 
breed.  They  are,  however,  illy  calculated  for  the  dairy.  They  arrive 
early  at  maturity  and  are  excellent  at  the  plow  or  team ;  but  it  is  as 
fatting  stock  that  they  excel.  Hereford  cows  are  comparatively  small, 
extremely  delicate  and  light  fleshed.  There  is  a  more  remarkable  dis- 
proportion between  the  oxen  and  their  dames,,  than  is  to  be  found  in  any 
other  breed ;  the  oxen  often  exceeding  three  times  the  weight  of  the  cows. 

The  short-horned  cattle,  under  which  denomination  are  included  the 
Holderness  and  Teeswater  breeds,  have  been  supposed  to  derive  their 
origin  from  a  cross  with  some  large  bulls  that  were  imported,  in  the  last 
century,  from  Holland  into  Yorkshire.  And  in  the  east  and  north 
ridings  of  which  county,  the  two  latter  breeds  have  been  long  establish- 
ed, and  deservedly  esteemed ;  and  it  is  from  some  of  that  stock,  or  at 
least  from  a  cross  between  that  stock  and  some  of  the  progeny  of  the 
Dutch  and  Teeswater  cross,  that  the  present  improved  short-horned 
cattle,  now  generally  distinguished  as  the  Durham  short-horns,  are 
descended. 

This  breed  was  introduced  about  fifty  years  ago,  by  the  Messrs.  Col- 
lings,  of  Darlington,  and  has  rapidly  risen  in  the  public  estimation.  The 
cattle  are  of  a  large  size,  and  beautifully  mottled  with  red  spots  upon  a 
white  ground ;  their  backs  are  level ;  the  throat  clean ;  the  neck  fine, 
but  not  too  thin,  especially  towards  the  shoulder ;  the  carcass  full  and 
round ;  the  quarters  long ;  and  the  hips  and  rump  remarkably  wide  and 
even.  They  stand  rather  high  on  their  legs,  but  this  must  be  carried  to 
a  very  little  extent ;  they  handle  kindly ;  are  light  in  their  bone,  in  pro- 


212 

portion  to  their  size,  and  have  a  very  fine  coat  and  mellow  hide,  with  a 
fine,  tapering  tail,  set  low.  They  possess  the  valuable  properties  of 
fattening  kindly  at  an  early  age,  and  of  yielding  large  quantities  of 
milk ;  but  the  quality  is  not  as  rich  as  the  Devons,  or  many  other  breeds. 
They  also  possess  a  rather  tender  constitution,  and  it  is  sometimes  diffi- 
cult and  expensive  to  keep  them  during  the  winter  in  England. 

Of  this  breed,  Mr.  Charles  Collings,  of  Ketton,  sold  a  bull,  Comet, 
at  public  auction,  in  the  yearlSlO,  for  the  extraordinary  sum  of  one 
thousand  guineas.  Many  of  the  descendants  of  Comet  attained  to  a  large 
size,  amongst  them  the  Lincolnshire  ox,  so  called  from  being  bred  in  that 
•county,  whose  live  weight  was  three  thousand  seven  hundred  and  twelve 
pounds. 

The  lonij-horned  cattle  are  descended  from  a  breed  which  had  Ions' 
been  established  in  the  Craven  district,  in  Yorkshire.  Some  cows  of 
this  race,  and  a  Lancashire  long-horned  bull,  were  brought  early  in  the 
last  century,  by  a  Mr.  Webster,  to  Canley  in  Warwickshire,  where  they 
produced  a  stock  that  soon  became  remarkable  for  their  beauty  of  form, 
and  propensity  to  fatten.  Of  this  Canley  stock,  the  late  Mr.  Robert 
Bakewell,  of  Dishley,  in  Leicestershire,  procured  some  cows,  which  he 
crossed  with  a  Northumberland  bull,  and  thus  reared  that  celebrated 
race,  so  well  known  as  the  Dishley  breed.  They  were  long  and  fine  in 
the  horn,  had  small  heads,  clean  throats,  straight  broad  backs,  wide 
quarters,  and  were  light  in  their  bellies  and  offal :  and  probably 
from  the  effects  of  domestication  and  gentle  treatment,  they  were  remark- 
ably docile.  They  grew  fat  upon  a  smaller  proportion  of  food  than  the 
parent  stock,  but  gave  less  milk  than  some  other  breeds.  The  chief 
improvements  effected,  seem  to  have  been  in  their  aptitude  to  fatten  early 
on  the  most  valuable  points,  and  in  the  superior  quality  of  their  flesh. 

Notwithstanding  the  deservedly  high  reputation  as  a  breeder,  enjoyed 
by  Mr.  Bakewell,  during  his  life,  and  which  still  attaches  to  his  name, 
his  judgment  in  selecting  the  long-horned  cattle  for  his  experiments,  has 
been  called  into  question.  It  has  been  asserted  by  Mr.  Young,  an  emi- 
nent writer  on  agriculture,  that,  "had  he  adopted  the  middle-horned 
breed,  either  of  Sussex,  Devonshire  or  Herefordshire,  in  preference  to 
the  inferior  stock,  which  the  reputation  of  his  name,  and  the  mysterious 
manner  (he  was  very  scrupulous  relatire  to  communicating  his  judgment 
.and  practice  in  which  his  breeding  system  was  conducted,)  have  intro- 


213 

duced,  it  would  have  contributed  to  exalt  the  superiority  of  his  stock 
beyond  the  power  of  local  pejudices  to  remove." 

The  Galloway  breed  derives  its  appellation  from  the  county  of  the  same 
name,  where,  as  well  as  in  some  parts  of  the  lowlands  of  Scotland,  these 
cattle  are  chiefly  reared.  In  general,  they  are  black,  or  dark-brindled 
brown.  They  are  without  horns,  except  occasionally  a  small,  loose 
excrescence  resembling  a  horn.  They  are  smaller  than  the  Devons,  yet 
considerably  larger  than  the  north,  or  even  the  west  Highlanders.  "A 
true  Galloway  bullock,"  says  a  Scotch  breeder,  "  is  straight  and  broad 
in  the  back,  and  nearly  level  from  the  head  to  the  rump ;  closely  com- 
pacted between  the  shoulders  and  the  ribs,  and  also  between  the  ribs  and 
the  loins ;  broad  at  the  loins,  but  not  with  hooked,  or  projecting  promi- 
nences. He  is  long  in  the  quarters,  but  not  broad  in  the  turst ;  deep  in 
the  chest,  short  in  the  leg,  and  moderately  fine  in  the  bone ;  clean  in 
the  neck  and  chaps,  but  stout  rather  than  thin.  His  head  is  of  a  mod- 
erate size,  with  large,  rough  ears,  and  full,  but  not  prominent  eyes  ;  and 
he  is  clothed  in  a  loose  and  mellow,  though  rather  thick  skin,  covered 
"with  long,  soft  and  glossy  hair." 

Bulls  of  the  most  approved  kinds  have  been  introduced  from  England,. 
but  without  any  apparent  benefit  to  the  native  stock.  Although  a  cross 
between  this  and  the  short-horned  breed  is  said  by  an  eminent  Scotch 
grazier,  "to  produce  an  excellent  animal,  possessing  in  a  great  degree 
the  feeding  qualities  and  best  points  of  the  short-horn,  united  with  the 
hardiness  and  docility  of  the  Galloway  cattle,"  yet,  while  the  first  cross 
with  the  short-horn  does  produce  a  good  beast,  no  good  breeder  would 
choose  to  continue  his  stock  from  these  crosses.  It  is  generally  acknow- 
ledged that  the  surest  method  of  improving  the  Galloway  consists  in 
adhering  to  the  pure  breed.  They  are  a  hardy  race,  subsisting  on  the 
coarsest  pasture,  and  increasing  rapidly  when  removed  to  more  favora- 
ble situations.  They  fatten  kindly  on  the  best  parts ;  their  flesh  is  of  the 
finest  quality ;  and  the  joints  being  of  a  moderate  size  and  more  suitable 
for  consumption  in  private  families  than  those  of  larger  breeds,  they 
always  command  the  highest  price,  with  the  West  Highlanders,  at  the 
Smithfield  market.  , 

Of  this  breed  there  is  a  variety  termed  Sufl'olk  Dun,  from  their  color 
which  is  generally  of  a  yellowish  hue,  and  from  the  country  in  which 
they  are  chiefly  bred.  They  are  also  polled,  but  possess  little  of  the 
beauty  of  the  original  stock,  and  are  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  abundance 


2U 

of  milk  given  by  the  cows,  on  which  account  they  are  favorites  with  the 
London  dairymen.  The  best  milkers  are  said  to  give  as  much  as  eight 
gallons  a  day  after  calving,  and  six  during  a  great  part  of  the 
season. 

The  best  Hio-hland  breed  of  horned  cattle  are  reared  in  the  Western 
parts  of  Scotland.  Their  horns  are  large,  sharp  pointed,  and  spreading ; 
and  their  color  is  generally  black,  though  sometimes  brindled,  or  dun. 
Their  hides  are  thick,  and  covered  with  long  hair  of  a  close  pile,  which 
nature  seems  to  have  intended  as  a  protection  against  the  severity  of  the 
climate  under  Avhicli  they  are  bred,  for  they  lose  much  of  this  distinction 
when  reared  in  a  southern  country.  In  other  respects  they  are  not  unlike 
the  Galloway  breed,  many  of  whose  best  qualities  they  possess,  and 
more  particularly  their  hardiness  of  constitution,  and  beai^tiful  symmetry. 
The  straight  and  level  backs,  round  and  deep  carcasses,  and  the  quantity 
of  good  meat  they  yield,  in  proportion  to  their  size,  are  most  valuable 
points,  and  highly  prized  by  the  butchers. 

The  Ayrshire  breed  ranks  deservedly  high  in  the  estimation  of  the 
dairymen,  and  the  most  approved  form  of  the  best  milkers  is  thus  stated 
by  a  Mr.  Alton  :  "Head  small,  but  rather  long  and  narrow  at  the  muz- 
zle ;  the  eye  small,  but  quick  and  lively ;  the  horns  small,  clear  and 
bended,  and  the  roots  at  a  considerable  distance  from  each  other ;  neck 
long  and  slender,  and  tapering  towards  the  head,  with  but  little 
loose  skin  hanging  below  ;  shoulders  thin  ;  fore-quarters  light  and  thin  ; 
hind-quarters  large  and  capacious  ;  back  straight,  broad  behind,  and  the 
joints  and  chine  rather  loose  and  open  ;  carcass  deep,  and  the  pelvis  capa- 
cious and  wide  over  the  hips,  with  fleshy  buttocks ;  tail  long  and  small ; 
legs  small  and  short,  with  firm  joints  ;  udder  capacious,  broad  and  square, 
stretching  forwards,  and  neither  fleshy,  low  hung,  nor  loose,  with  the 
milk  veins  large  and  prominent ;  teats  short,  pointing  outwards,  and  at 
a  considerable  distance  from  each  other  ;  the  skin  thin  and  loose,  with, 
hair  soft  and  wooly ;  the  head,  horns,  and  other  parts  of  less  value, 
small,  and  the  general  figure  compact  and  well  proportioned. 

The  Alderney  breed  are  so  named  from  the  island  on  the  coast  of 
Normandy,  whence  they  were  first  imported ;  although  they  were  also 
bred  in  the  neighboring  islands,  Guernsey  and  Jersey.  The  cows  are 
small  sized,  but  the  oxen  frequently  attain  a  bulk  and  stature  quite  dis- 
proportioned  to  the  female.  Their  color  is  either  light  red  or  cream 
colored,  mottled  with  white ;  the  horns  short  and  gracefully  curled,  and 


215 

the  bone  fine.  They  are  chiefly  valued  for  the  dairy ;  not  on  account  of 
the  quantity  of  the  milk  which  they  yield,  but  for  the  richness  of  the 
milk,  and  the  proportionate  quantity  of  butter  that  can  be  obtained 
froiQ  it.  The  best  cows  are  observed  to  have  a  yellowish  circle  round 
the  eye,  with  the  skin  at  the  extremity  of  the  tail  of  a  deep  yellow  color 
— a  remark  it  may  be  noticed,  that  has  been  made  on  good  milkers  of 
■other  breeds.  As  fatting  cattle,  they  have  few  good  points ;  yet  so 
anxious  are  the  inhabitants  to  preserve  them  in  their  native  purity,  that 
there  is  an  act  of  their  legislature  which  prohibits  the  importation  of  all 
foreign  cattle,  under  severe  penalties  of  fine  and  confiscation,  including 
the  destruction  of  the  animal,  which  is  slaughtered  and  given  to  the  poor. 

Such  are  the  chief  breeds  of  the  Kingdom.  It  must,  however  be  ad- 
mitted, that  there  are  great  deviations  in  many  animals  of  the  same,  and 
of  the  most  approved  stocks;  and  there  are  besides,  many  crosses,  dis- 
tinguished by  the  name  of  the  district,  or  of  the  breeder. 

From  these  views  of  the  various  species  of  neat  cattle,  the  reader  will 
probably  be  enabled  to  form  some  estimate  of  the  value  of  the  respec- 
tive breeds  therein  described.  I  shall  reduce  them  to  three  kinds  :  the  longf- 
horned,  the  short-horned,  and  the  middle-horned.  Concerning  their  merits 
and  demerits,  there  has  long  been  a  difference  of  opinion  among  the  most 
experienced  breeders.  The  long  horns  excel  in  the  firm  texture  and 
thickness  of  their  hides,  in  the  closeness  and  length  of  the  hair,  in  their 
beef  being  finer  grained,  and  more  marbled  and  mixed  than  that  of  the 
short-horns,  in  weighing  more  in  proportion  to  their  size,  and  in  giving 
richer  milk;  but  they  are  inferior  to  the  short-horns,  in  giving  less  milk, 
in  weighing  less  upon  the  whole,  in  affording  less  tallow  when  killed,  in 
being  slower  feeders,  and  of  a  coarser  make,  and  more  leathery  in  the 
under  side  of  the  neck.  To  sum  up,  the  long-horns  excel  in  the  hide, 
the  hair,  and  the  quality  of  the  beef;  the  short-horns  in  the  quantity  of 
the  beef,  tallow  and  milk.  Each  breed  has  long  had  its  zealous  advo- 
cates, and  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  both  kinds  may  have  their  particu- 
lar advantages,  in  different  situations.  The  western  coast  of  England  is 
often  visited  with  impetuous  winds  and  heavy  rains.  The  thick  hides 
and  close-set  hair  of  the  long-horns  would  be  a  protection,  while  in  the 
east  part,  the  climate  is  milder,  with  more  regular  seasons,  which  would 
be  more  suitable  to  the  constitution  of  the  short-horn. 

However  excellent  the  long-horns  became  under  the  judicious  breeding 
of  the  eminent  Mr.  Bakewell,  the  short-horns  have  now  become  equal, 


216 

if  not  superior,  to  the  kindly  flesh  "sort  of  theDishley  breed,  as  the  follow- 
ing extract  from  the  Agricultural  survey  of  Northumberland  fully  proves : 
"  that  the  long-horns  of  the  most  approved  stock  have  been  introduced 
into  the  county,  from  the  midland  counties,  by  different  breeders,  and  at 
different  times  ;  but,  in  most  instances,  they  have  given  way  again  to  the 
improved  breed  of  short-horns.  At  the  time  the  first  report  was  pub- 
lished, in  1 804,  they  had  been  totally  abandoned  by  every  breeder  in  the 
county,  the  improved  breed  of  short-horns,  from  the  stock  of  Messrs, 
Collings,  having  proved  themselves  much  superior." 

Since  that  period,  continued  exertions  have  been  made  for  the  improve- 
ment of  the  short-horned  breed,  and  the  great  weight  to  which  they 
arrive  must  always  ensure  them  a  high  rank  in  the  estimation  of  those 
graziers  who  possess  land  of  sufficient  richness  to  forward  heavy  beasts ; 
indeed,  the  question  seems  to  be  in  a  manner  settled.  The  popularity  of 
the  long-horns  soon  passed  away.  Their  maker,  (if  he  may  be  so  term- 
ed)— the  man  who  brought  them  to  the  state  of  perfection  which  they 
attained — had  scarcely  departed  when  the  character  of  the  breed  began 
to  change.  "It  had  acquired  a  delicacy  of  constitution,"  says  the  author 
of  the  work  on  cattle  in  the  Farmer's  Series,  "inconsistent  with  common 
management^and  keep  :  and  it  began  slowly,  but  undeniably,  to  deterio- 
rate. In  addition  to  this,  a  rival — a  more  powerful  rival — appeared  in 
the  field.  The  improved  short-horns  began  to  occupy  the  banks  of  the 
Tees.  They  presented  equal  aptitude  to  fatten,  greater  bulk,  and  earlier 
maturity. 

The  contest  among  the  larger  breeds  of  cattle  now  lies  between  the 
middle-horns  and  the  short-horns,  and  particularly  between  the  Here- 
fords,  belonging  to  the  first  division,  and  the  improved  short-horns,  or 
the  Durham  cattle,  belonging  to  the  second.     The  short-horns  may  have 
some  advantage  in  early  maturity,  and  will  grow  to  a  larger  size ;  but  for 
aptitude  to  fatten,  they  are  nearly  equal.    The  flesh  of  the  Herefords  is  of 
finer  grain  and  flavor  ;  in  fact  I  believe  the  Herefords  are  not  much  beaten 
in  either  particular.    The  short-horn  certainly  has  no  rival  for  the  dairy. 
Perhaps  to  those  who  are  not  strongly  prejudiced  in  favor  of  either,  this 
advice  may  be  acceptable.     Were  I  a  breeder  of  Durhams,  I  should  try 
across  from  a  pure- bred,  gray  Hereford  bull;  thus  preserving  the  Dur- 
ham color  and  improving  the  Durham  quality  of  flesh,  and  at  the  same 
time  lessening  their  frame ;  thus  enabling  me  to  keep  a  greater  number 
of  cattle  upon  the  same  quantity  of  land.     One  other  difference  there  is. 


217 

between  the  Herefords  and  the  Durhams.  The  former  are  most  profit- 
able for  grazing,  and  the  latter  for  stall-feeding.  The  Durhams,  when 
in  the  stall,  increase  most  rapidly  in  weight,  and  present  at  least  a  fair 
and  even  carcass. 

There  are  four  different  breeds  in  Great  Britain  which  are  superior  to 
any  other  cattle  in  the  world,  and  are  adapted  to  different  soils,  situations, 
and  purposes  :  the  Durhams  and  the  Herefords  for  the  best  pastures ;  the 
North  Devons  for  the  short  pastures  on  light  soils ;  and  the  Scots  for 
the  wild  and  cold  pasturage.  The  males  of  these  breeds,  with  judicious 
crossing,  would  improve  all  other  breeds.  The  relative  estimation  of 
the  flesh  of  the  principal  breeds  at  Smithfield  market,  is  quoted  as  fol- 
lows, per  stone  of  eight  pounds  to  sink  the  offal : 

Scotch  Oxen £0  4     8 

North  Devons 4     G 

Leicester,  Hereford,  and  fine  Short-Horns  .         .         4     0 

Lincoln  Short-Horns 3  10 

Coarse,  inferior  beasts       .         .         .         .         .         .         3     6 

To  the  Wisconsin  breeder  of  cattle,  it  is  a  matter  of  the  utmost  impor- 
tapce  that  he  should  select  the  most  profitable  breed  with  which  to  com- 
mence the  occupation  of  his  land.  The  first  object  of  attention,  then,  is 
to  consider  the  proportion  between  his  stock  and  the  quantity  of  food 
which  will  be  necessary  to  support  them.  The  nature,  situation  and  fer- 
tility of  the  soils  that  compose  his  farm  are  equally  worthy  of  notice,  as 
well  as  the  purpose  for  which  he  designs  more  particularly  to  rear  or 
feed  his  cattle ;  whether  for  the  dairy  or  with  a  view  of  supplying  the 
market  with  fat  cattle. 

Formerly  a  great  prejudice  prevailed  in  favor  of  big-boned,  large 
beasts,  but  it  has  been  ascertained  that  this  breed  is,  in  point  of  profit, 
much  inferior  to  the  middle-sized  kind.  The  feeding  and  fattening  of 
cattle,  whether  for  labor  or  for  sale,'  is  the  most  important  object  in  the 
whole  economy  of  the  grass  farm ;  hence  the  nature  and  fertility  of  the 
pastures  should  previously  be  considered,  and  the  extent  and  quality  of 
his  other  resources.  It  is  highly  important  to  select  those  beasts  only 
which  evince  the  most  evident  disposition  to  fatten  with  the  least  con- 
sumption of  food,  and  depasture  them  upon  such  lands  as  are  best  calcu- 
lated for  the  respective  breeds,  especially  taking  care  not  to  bring  cattle 
from  rich  to  inferior  soils,  but  wherever  it  is  practicable,  to  choose  them 
15 


21S 

from  lands  of  nearly  the  same  quality  as  those  destined  for  their  recep- 
tion. The  larger  beasts  are  preferable  for  the  most  luxuriant  pastures, 
while  in  such  as  are  less  rich  small  stock  answers  best.  Thus,  the  farmer 
•who  has  fertile  meadows,  or  deep  marsh  land,  seeded  to  timothy  or 
other  artificial  grasses,  may  select  the  Short-Horns,  or  Herefords  ;  but  he 
who  has  only  indifferent  grass  should  take  care  to  proportion  the  size  of 
Bis  beasts  to  the  goodness  of  their  pasture,  and  I  believe  would  be  more 
successful  \rith.  the  North  Devons,  for  it  is  better  to  have  cattle  rather  too 
small  than  too  large  for  the  quality  of  the  land.  Hence  it  is  found,  in 
England,  that  in  the  rich  grazing  countries  of  Durham  and  Lincoln,  the 
large  breeds  are  chosen ;  while  in  Norfolk  and  Suffolk,  the  Galloways 
and  West  Highlanders  are  preferable  to  other  breeds,  being  better  suited 
to  the  lightness  of  the  soil ;  and  in  the  south-western  counties,  the  North 
Devons  predominate,  although  much  of  Somersetshire,  in  particular,  is 
of  superior  grazing  qualities.  In  that  county  I  was  engaged  in  rearino- 
and  fattening  cattle  extensively,  and  can  give  you  some  idea  of  the  fertil- 
ity of  the  land,  when  I  state  that  we  usually  allotted  one  ox  to  the  acre, 
t&  which  a  sheep  is  sometimes  added,  and  both  would  be  well  fatted 
during  the  summer  months ;  but,  fertile  as  those  districts  are,  they  are 
surpassed  by  the  richer  land  of  Lincolnshire,  the  best  of  which  will  sup- 
port one  ox  and  fourteen  large  sheep  during  the  whole  summer  on  two 
acres,  and  five  sheep  on  a  similar  space  of  land  in  the  winter,  or  sixteen 
sheep  on  one  acre  throughout  the  summer.  I  have  been  told  of  some 
instances  where  one  hundred  and  ten  Lincolnshire  sheep  and  fifteen  short- 
horns have  been  fattened  on  fifteen  acres — the  last  mentioned  animals 
having  been  put  to  Spring  grass  out  of  the  straw-yard,  and  fattened  to 
the  weight  of  eleven  hundred  and  thirty  pounds,  carcass  weight,  by  the 
ensuing  Michaelmas. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Scotch  cattle,  I  have  reared  and  fattened 
some  of  all  the  other  breeds  herein  referred  to,  and  have  found  that  the 
Short  Horns  and  Herefords  require  very  rich  and  much  additional  food, 
with  greater  care,  and  warmer  shelter  than  the  North  Devons,  and  for 
that  reason  kept  none  but  Devon  bulls.  In  fact,  I  could  procure  more 
beef  per  acre  of  the  North  Devon  pure  breed  than  with  the  Short-Horns 
or  their  crosses,  and  therefore  always  preferred  purchasing  the  former  for 
grazing  and  breeding.  In  addition  to  this,  their  superior  qualities  for 
working,  and  their  hardier  constitutions  are  the  principal  reasons  why  I 
give  them  the  preference  for  general  use  in  this  country,  being  better 


219 

adapted  to  the  climate  and  soil.  There  is  cause  to  fear  that  the  Short- 
Horns  would  degenerate  under  the  best  management,  particularly  when 
exposed  to  the  rigorous  winters.  At  that  time,  all  stock  should  have 
close  shelters,  for  warmth  tends  to  keep  the  animal  in  good  condition — 
being,  in  farmer's  phrase,  "half  a  belly  full."  The  Herefords  are 
somewhat  hardier,  and  I  think  might  be  more  profitably  kept  by  those 
who  have  rich  alluvial  grass  lands,  and  who  can  bestow  the  expense  for 
winter  provision  and  accommodation ;  and  here  I  will  remark,  that  the 
most  important  object  in  the  feeding  and  fattening  of  cattle  is,  that  such 
arrangements  should  be  made,  and  such  a  supply  of  food  provided  for 
winter  consumption,  that  the  grazier  may  be  enabled  to  keep  them 
tlirough  that  trying  season,  and  sell  them  when  meat  brings  the  highest 
prices — from  the  beginning  of  February  to  the  close  of  May.  By  this 
procedure,  he  will  not  only  obtain  more  for  the  sale  of  them,  than  the 
autumnal  markets  would  produce,  but  his  stock  will  go  off  freely  and 
every  market  be  in  his  favor.  He  will  also  obtain  the  largest  possible 
command  of  manure,  and  consequently  be  enabled  to  conduct  his  busi- 
ness to  the  utmost  profit.  The  farmer  who  can  winter  the  most  cattle  or 
sheep,  will  possess  the  means  of  keeping  his  land  the  most  fertile,  and 
will  be  enabled  more  profitably  to  breed  and  graze  the  larger  kinds  of 
cattle. 

In  order  to  graze  cattle  to  the  best  advantage,  the  land  should  be  well 
fenced  in  lots  of  about  ten  acres,  so  that  they  may  be  changed  from  one 
pasture  to  the  other ;  beginning  with  the  most  inferior  grass,  and  gradu- 
ally removing  them  into  the  best.  By  this  expedient,  as  cattL  delight 
in  variety,  they  will  cull  the  uppermost  or  choicest  part  of  the  grass,  and 
by  filling  themselves  quickly,  as  well  as  by  lying  down  much,  they  will 
rapidly  advance  towards  a  proper  state  of  fatness ;  while  the  grass  that 
is  left,  may  be  fed  off  with  laboring  cattle,  and  lastly  with  store  sheep. 
Each  field  should  be  abundantly  supplied  with  good  water.  Thus,  the 
greater  and  stronger  cattle  will  be  separated  from  the  weaker  ones ;  for, 
if  cattle  of  various  sizes  are  indiscriminately  mingled  together,  the  more 
powerful  beasts  will  master  the  others,  driving  them  from  place  to  place, 
and  trampling  upon  or  wasting  more  food  than  they  can  eat.  In 
winter,  also,  each  bullock  should  have  a  separate  stall  to  feed  and  lie 
down  in,  and  then  the  weaker  ones  would  have  their  share  of  the  food, 
and  thrive  faster  by  being  allowed  to  rest  in  peace.  All  cattle,  and 
fattening  cattle  especially,  should  be  kept  well  littered  with  straw,  the 


220 

stalls  regularly  cleaned  out,  and  tlie  remnants  of  their  fodder  daily 
removed  and  given  to  other  cattle.  With  regard  to  the  most  proper 
food,  I  would  recommend  the  best  made  artificial  hay,  with  roots,  or 
winter  squash  added,  finished  off  with  ground  corn ;  and  lastly,  with  oil 
cake  added,  or  flax  seed  ground  with  corn  or  barley,  in  the  proportion 
of  one  bushel  of  the  former  to  four  of  the  latter.  They  should  be  often 
and  regularly  fed — say  five  times  a  day  at  least — for,  according  to  the 
quantity  of  nutritious  food  a  beast  can  be  induced  to  eat  with  appetite, 
will  be  the  rapidity  of  his  fattening,  the  diminution  of  expense,  and  the 
increase  of  profit.  The  hay  should  be  cut  once  or  twice  along  the  truss, 
and  three  times  across  it,  so  that  it  will  be  in  square  pieces  of  eight  or 
ten  inches,  in  which  state  the  cattle  will  eat  and  digest  it  more  readily, 
while  their  fattening  is  considerably  expedited. 

Good  feeding  and  careful  keeping  will  tend  to  improve  even  the  infe- 
rior breeds  of  animals ;  while  under  careless  management,  in-nutritious 
food,  and  no  shelter  but  what  nature  affords  in  this  rigorous  climate,  the 
best  varieties  will  soon  deteriorate,  and  their  progeny  will  rapidly 
degenerate. 

With  regard  to  the  native  cattle  of  this  State,  I  must  say  that  they 
are  really  better  than  I  should  expect  to  find  them,  when  I  take  into 
consideration  the  manner  in  which  they  are  reared.  Often  uncared  for, 
seldom  housed,  and  sometimes  unfed,  they  certainly  must  have  one  good 
quality,  and  that  is,  hardy  constitutions  to  endure  such  ill-treatment. 
Amongst  them,  I  have  occasionally  met  with  tolerable  well-shaped  ani- 
mals. Most  of  them,  if  not  all,  are  too  large  in  the  bone,  with  much 
offal  in  the  carcass ;  yet,  I  have  seen  some  good-shaped  cows,  which  if 
crossed  with  a  pure  bred  Devon,  Hereford,  or  Short-Horn,  may  rear  a 
superior  offspring ;  which,  if  judiciously  bred  from,  would  eventually 
supply  a  very  valuable  breed  of  cattle,  such  as  would  best  endure  this 
climate,  and  possess  all  the  aptitude  of  fattening,  and  good  milking 
qualities,  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  improved  breeds  of  England. 

One  practice  must  invariably  be  observed  by  those  who  are  endeavor- 
ing to  rear  large  animals,  and  that  is,  not  to  permit  the  young  heifers  to 
have  a  calf  until  they  are  three  years  old.  Allowing  them  to  go  to  the 
bull  at  one  year  old  is  a  most  absurd  practice — for  when  the  beast  is  con- 
tinuing to  grow,  and  has  arrived  at  that  age  when  the  form  is  most  rapidly 
developing  itself,  a  sufficient  quantity  of  nutriment  cannot  be  devoted  to 
the  calf.      Either  the  mother  or  the  offspring,  or  both,  must  materially 


221 

suffer.  Besides,  it  often  happens  that  when  such  young  heifers  fall  in 
calf,  they  miss  in  the  following  year,  and  thus  nothing  is  gained  in  the 
stock,  while  to  the  animal  itself  it  is  evidently  injurious.  It  should  also 
be  arranged  that  the  young  heifer  should  calve  in  the  months  of  May  or 
June,  when  the  grass  is  most  succulent,  and  a  greater  abundance  of  milk 
will  be  afforded. 

Leaving  this  important  subject  to  the  serious  consideration  of  the 
reader,  I  will  conclude  by  advising  the  breeder  not  to  permit  his  bulls  to 
propagate  their  species  until  they  are  two  years  old ;  nor  should  they  be 
used  on  the  same  farm  more  than  two  or  three  years,  otherwise  he  will 
soon  have  amonsf  his  stock  the  commencement  of  that  deterioration 
which  accompanies  the  "in  and  in"  system.  No  more  than  twenty 
-cows  should  be  allotted  to  one  bull,  nor  should  the  same  animal  be  per- 
mitted to  serve  more  than  two  cows  in  one  day.  He  may  then  expect  from 
good  sires  and  dams  a  healthy  and  beautiful  progeny,  an  ornament  to  a 
farm,  profitable  to  its  owner,  and  a  pride  to  the  State  in  which  they  are 
reared. 


CATTLE  BREEDING. 

Green  Bay,  November  25,  1852. 

Dear  Sir: — Agreeably  to  your  request  that  I  should  prepare  a  paper 
upon  cattle  breeding,  I  reply,  that  I  am  a  great  admirer  of  good  breeds 
of  cattle,  and  that  a  fine  ox,  cow,  or  bullock  always  receives  my  particu- 
lar attention  and  approbation. 

In  treating  upon  this  subject,  there  seems  to  be  three  things  necessary  to 
be  taken  into  consideration,  in  order  to  enable  the  Wisconsin  farmer  to 
pursue  successfully  this  branch  of  business,  viz :  the  kind  of  stock  to 
breed  from,  the  method  of  breeding,  and  the  profit  and  loss ;  for,  while 
be  may  be  induced  to  send  East  and  procure  blooded  stock,  so  called, 
at  a  great  expense,  and  while  he  may,  by  great  care  and  attention,  suc- 
ceed in  raising  a  very  fine  stock  of  cattle,  still,  when  he  comes  to  balance 
the  account  between  himself  and  his  cattle,  he  will  find  that  they  are 
indebted  to  him  in  a  greater  amount  than  they  will  bring  in  any  market, 
and  that,  instead  of  being  engaged  in  a  profitable  business,  he  has  lost 
money  by  the  operation.     This  fancy  system  of  farming  may  do  well 


222 

enough  for  a  few  individuals,  who  are  abundantly  able,  and  have  a  taste 
that  way,  and  may  be  the  means  of  doing  some  good ;  but  as  a  general 
thing,  our  farmers  are  too  poor  to  pay  much  for  fancy.  They  are  after 
the  dimes  and  dollars ;  they  need  them  at  the  present  time ;  and  if  I  can 
say  anything  to  assist  them  in  this  laudable  pursuit,  I  shall  consider  my- 
self abundantly  rewarded.  I  do  not  think  that  the  prairie,  or  any  other 
section  of  our  State,  at  this  time,  is  in  a  situation,  to  make  cattle  raising 
to  any  great  extent,  profitable ;  or  at  any  rate,  to  make  it  a  leading  branch 
of  business.  But,  though  I  would  not  advise  our  farmers  to  make  cattle 
raising  their  principal  business,  I  would  advise  them  by  all  means,  to 
raise  a  few  to  dispose  of  every  year ;  and  as  it  is  as  cheap  to  raise  a  good 
animal  as  a  poor  one,  they  should  be  good,  as  a  matter  of  policy.  The 
first  requisite  in  cattle-growing  is  to  procure  a  good  stock  to  breed  from. 
Unless  this  is  attended  to,  the  care  and  attention  necessary  to  produce  a 
good  animal,  is  partially  thrown  away  upon  an  inferior  one. 

In  selecting  cattle  to  breed  from,  certain  qualities  should  be  souglat 
after,  and  in  whatever  animal  these  are  found  in  the  greatest  number, 
whether  it  has  been  imported  from  the  north  or  south  of  England,  or 
was  brought  from  New  York,  or  Illinois,  that  animal  should  be  taken  as 
a  breeder.  I  should  prefer,  however,  to  take  those  that  had  been  the 
longest  time  in  this  State,  or  native  cattle  (so  called),  if  I  could  find 
those  possessing  the  requisite  good  points;  for  in  doing  so,  I  should  thus 
get  those  that  had  been  acclimated,  which  is  a  consideration  worthy  of" 
the  attention  of  the  farmer.  At  many  of  the  cattle  shows  in  the  Eastern 
States,  the  first  premium  has  been  awarded  to  native  cattle,  even  where 
the  Durham  and  Devonshire  stock  were  on  exhibition. 

The  first  quality  to  be  sought  for  in  a  breeder  is  size  or  weight,  as  the 
ultimate  destiny  of  all  the  cattle  race  is  the  shambles ;  and  as  then,  how- 
ever valuable  they  may  have  been  in  other  respects,  their  weight  must 
be  the  criterion  of  value,  it  is  important  that  they  should  be  of  good 
size.  They  should  be  long-bodied,  straight  sided,  with  heavy  quarters ; 
a  straight,  plump  ham,  running  down  full  to  the  gambrel  joint;  a  good 
loin  and  heavy  straight  back;  a  straight,  clean,  bony  leg,  not  too  long; 
a  small  neck ;  small  slim  horns  ;  a  small  clean  head  ;  a  prominent  eye ; 
and  a  slim  tail,  running  out  small  from  the  body  like  a  thrifty  hickory- 
sprout,  and  of  one  color.  The  last  requisite,  however,  is  somewhat  a 
matter  of  taste,  and  in  any  other  respect  not  essential.  They  should 
possess  a  quiet,  good  disposition  ;  this  is  rather  an  essential  quality,  whe- 


223 

ther  they  are  to  be  used  for  -n'ork,  the  dairy,  or  for  beef.  It  is  much  more 
pleasant  to  handle  them  as  a  working  team  or  as  milkers ;  and  in  the 
stall  they  fatten  much  easier  than  a  peevish,  irritable  animal.  They 
should  be  free  from  vicious  habits.  Notwithstanding  the  old  adage  that 
"a  good  cow  may  have  a  bad  calf,"  and  vice  versa,  yet,  as  a  general 
thing,  I  would  not  select  a  bad  cow  with  the  expectation  of  having  a  good 
calf;  and  as  the  doctrine  is  pretty  well  established  that  the  acquirements 
of  an  animal,  as  well  as  their  natural  qualities,  are  transmissible  from 
the  parent  to  the  offspring,  a  cow  that  has  acquired  the  habit  of  throwing 
down  fences  with  her  horns,  kicking,  or  any  other  vicious  practice,  ■vrill 
be  very  likely  to  transmit  those  qualities  to  her  calf. 

Havinsx  selected  the  stock  to  breed  from,  the  next  thing  for  the  consid- 
eration  of  the  farmer  is,  how  they  shall  be  raised,  or  how  taken  care  of. 
In  many  respects,  good  breeding  is  synonymous  with  good  feeding ;  and 
the  farmer  should  not,  on  any  account,  undertake  to  raise  more  cattl-e 
than  he  can  keep  well.  It  is  absolutely  necessary,  in  order  to  produce 
the  full  muscular  development  of  the  animal  that  it  should  be  kept  grow- 
ins:  from  the  time  it  has  calved  until  it  has  attained  its  full  jjrowth.  Thev 
should  be  provided  with  warm  sheds  or  stables  through  the  winter  to 
protect  them  from  the  inclemency  of  the  weather.  Without  a  warn 
shelter  during  the  winter,  and  good  keeping  the  season  through,  the  bes  , 
imported  breed  that  is  brought  into  our  country  will  deteriorate  and 
become  no  better  than  our  common  stock.  Take,  for  example,  a  calf  oi' 
the  best  Durham  or  Devonshire  breed,  and  winter  it  on  the  north  side  o.' 
a  straw  stack,  and  there  will  be  a  shrinking  away  of  all  its  fine  propor- 
tions. It  will  become  pot-gutted  and  hump-backed ;  and  whatever  care 
may  be  taken  of  it  afterwards,  it  never  fully  outgrows  the  effect  of  its 
first  wintering. 

I  do  not  think  that  the  climate  of  Wisconsin,  or  of  any  State  of  the 
Union  north  of  forty  or  forty-one  degrees  of  north  latitude,  is  as  favor- 
able to  that  perfect  development  of  the  cattle  kind  as  a  more  southern 
latitude ;  and  although  they  may  be  made  to  obtain  about  the  same  state 
of  perfection  as  they  do  further  south,  it  must  be  at  the  expense  of  con- 
siderable more  care  and  attention  than  is  required  in  a  more  temperate 
climate.  I  think  that  that  portion  of  the  United  States  embraced  within 
from  about  the  thirty-fifth  to  the  forty-first  degree  of  north  latitude,  is 
the  best  adapted  to  the  production  of  good  cattle. 

Care  should  be  taken  of  the  health  of  the  cattle ;  and  as  cleanliness 


224 

is  a  preservative  of  health,  the  stables  where  they  are  housed  should  be 
kept  clean  and  the  animal  free  from  vermin.     The  curry-comb  or  card 
should  be  used  frequently,  in  order  to  keep  the  skin  in  a  healthful  state. 
When  we  consider  that  two-fifths  of  all  the  food  and  drink  Avhich  is 
taken  into  the  stomach,  passes  off  through  the  skin  by  insensible  perspi- 
ration ;  and  that  very  many  of  the  diseases  with  which  the  human  as 
■well  as  the  brute  animal  is  afflicted,  are  caused  by  obstructions  or  dis- 
.eases  of  the  skin,  too  much  care  cannot  be  taken  to  maintain  in  health- 
ful action  the  functions  of  this  important  organ.     The    best  way  to 
eflfect  this  is  by  friction,  produced  by  the  card  or  curry-comb,  applied  as 
often  as  once  each  day.     Cattle  that  are  intended  to  be  stall-fed  through 
the  winter,  should  be  kept  on  the  best   of  pasture  the  farm  affords 
through  the  previous  summer  and  autumn,  so  that  they  may  go  into  the 
stalls  with  as  much  flesh  on  them  as  it  is  possible  to  put  on  with  grass. 
The  practice  of  putting  very  poor  cattle  into  the  stalls  for  the  purpose 
of  fattening  them  on  grain,  is,  to  say  the  least,  very  poor  economy.     In. 
regard  to  preparing  the  feed  for  fattening  animals,  various  opinions  pre- 
vail, and  various  systems  are  practised  by  feeders.     They  all  concur,  I 
believe,  in  the  advantage  of  having  the  grain  ground  or  chopped ;  and 
afterwards,   some  practice  the  method  of  fermenting  and   souring   the 
meal  before  it  is  fed.     This  method  is  liable  to  the  following  objection : 
all  farinaceous  substances,  when  exposed  to  heat  and  moisture,  undergo 
three  kinds  of  fermentation,  the  saccharine,  the  vinous,  and  the  acetous. 
In  the  first  stage,  sugar  is  produced ;  in  the  second,  alcohol ;  and  in  the 
third,  vinegar.     And  Avhile,  in  the  first  stage,  the  feed  is  very  nutritious, 
in  the  second  it  is  less  so ;  while  in  the  third,  it  is  nearly  worthless  as  a 
nutriment.     The  objection  to  this  system  of  preparing  food  is,  the  diffi- 
culty of  keeping  it  in  the  first,   or  even  the  second  stage,  especially  if 
the  weather,  or  the  room  where  the  souring  tub  is  set,  be  warm ;  in  that 
case,  it  passes  very  rapidly  into  the  third  stage.     The  consequence  is, 
that  one-half  the  feed  is  given  in  its  sour,  or  worthless  state ;  hence, 
giving  food  prepared  by  this  process,  is  a  great  waste  of  the  raw  mate- 
rial.    Others  recommend  the  plan  of  boiling  or  cooking  the  meal  before 
it  is  fed.     I  know  of  but  one  advantage  this  course  possesses,  and  that 
is,  that  it  is  easier  to  digest,  and  in  warm  Aveather  it  is  a  very  good  way 
of  preparing  feed ;  but  in  cold  weather,  I  would  prefer  to  give  the  meal 
in  its  raw  state,  from  the  fact  that  it  is  harder  to  digest ;  and  the  more 
the  stomach  has  to  labor  to  digest  its  food  (if  it  be  able  to  overcome 


225 

the  difficulty)  the  greater  the  amount  of  animal  heat  which  is  thereby 
generated,  thus  contributing  to  the  comfort  of  the  animal.  I  prefer, 
therefore,  to  have  all  kinds  of  grain  for  feeding,  ground,  (the  finer  the 
better) ;  not  merely  cracking  the  kernel,  for,  if  grinding  confers  any 
advantage,  the  finer  it  is  ground  the  greater  is  the  benefit  derived.  It 
also  brings  in  contact  with  the  juices  of  the  stomach,  a  greater  number 
of  particles  to  become  assimilated  into  nutrition.  I  would  also  recom- 
mend grinding  corn  with  the  cob ;  or,  if  rye  be  used,  to  mix  with  it  oat- 
meal or  bran  ;  thus  increasing  the  stimulus  of  distension,  which  is  very 
beneficial  in  the  fattening  process. 

Cattle,  when  driven  to  market,  should  never  be  whipped,  or  driven  on 
a  run,  as  in  doing  so,  there  will  be  as  much  flesh  driven  off  in  a  few 
days  as  was  put  on  by  the  last  month's  feeding.  They  should  be  treated 
with  kindness  and  gentleness  from  beginning  to  end.  In  fact,  all  of  our 
domestic  animals  are  greatly  benefitted  by  kind  and  gentle  treatment,  and 
their  growth  and  condition  improved  thereby. 

In  regard  to  the  profit  and  loss  of  cattle-growing  in  this  State  as  a 
leading  branch  of  agricultural  pursuits,  there  may  be,  and  I  have  no 
doubt  there  is,  a  difference  of  opinion.  That  every  farmer  should  raise 
a  few  to  turn  off  every  year,  all  will  admit.  This  Avill  enable  him  to 
dispose  of  his  coarse  fodder  to  an  advantage  which  otherwise  would  be 
thrown  away. 

To  make  it  a  leading  business,  especially  in  the  prairie  portion  of  our 
State,  must  depend  in  a  great  measure  upon  the  success  attending  the 
cultivation  of  the  tame  grasses.  The  grasses  and  herbage  that  grow 
spontaneously  on  the  prairie  make  a  very  nutritious  food  for  cattle  in  the 
spring  and  summer,  and  they  gain  flesh  faster  during  that  season  than 
they  generally  do  on  the  best  cultivated  pastures — but  about  the  first  of 
August,  the  prairie  field  begins  to  die,  or  dry  down,  and  the  first  frost 
completes  the  destruction,  so  that  it  possesses  little  or  no  value — as  an 
autumn  feed.  Cattle  begin  to  shrink,  or  at  best,  do  not  gain  any ;  the 
cows  fail  in  their  milk,  and  the  best  season  for  fattening  cattle  is  lost ; 
and  the  profit  of  the  dairy  is  very  much  reduced  for  the  want  of  good 
feed  in  autumn.  One  of  the  principal  objects  in  cultivating  the  tame 
grasses  is  to  supply  this  deficiency  ;  and  if  the  prairie  soil  will  produce 
the  cultivated  grasses  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  a  thick,  heavy  under- 
growth, this  end  will  be  attained.  It  is  not  sufficient  that  it  produces 
merely  the  stalk ;  it  must  spread  out  and  cover  the  ground  with  a  thick, 


226 

heavy  mat.  This  will  enable  it  to  resist  the  effect  of  the  frosts  and  sup- 
ply a  nutritious  feed  until  quite  late  in  the  autumn.  If  this  can  be 
effected,  it  will  be  quite  easy  to  raise  cattle  on  the  prairies  ;  otherwise,  I 
think  it  will  prove  to  be  rather  of  an  up-hill  business.  This  will  also 
apply  to  the  dairy  and  wood-growing  branches  of  husbandry. 

I  should  advise  the  prairie  farmer,  if  he  wishes  to  cultivate  the 
tame  grasses,  to  seed  very  heavily,  to  sow  at  least  one-half  a  bushel 
of  timothy  seed  with  one-fourth  of  a  bushel  of  the  large,  red  clove* 
seed  to  the  acre ;  or  if  timothy  be  used  alone,  from  three-fourths  to  a 
bushel  per  acre.  This  may  be  considered  expensive  seeding,  but  the 
first  crop  will  more  than  repay  him  for  his  extra  expense ;  besides,  it 
enables  it  more  effectually  to  resist  the  freezing  and  thawing  of  winter 
and  spring.  The  heavy  timbered  portions  of  our  State,  so  far  as  I  am 
acquainted  with  them,  produces  all  the  cultivated  grasses  and  the  clovers, 
very  naturally,  almost  spontaneously ;  and  when  the  timber  is  cleared 
off,  and  the  grasses  are  cultivated,  it  will  be  one  of  the  best  grazing  sec- 
tions of  the  Union.  The  question  is  frequently  asked,  what  branch  of 
business  the  farmer  ought  to  pursue,  in  order  to  realize  the  greatest 
amount  of  profit  as  the  result  of  his  labor.  The  wheat  crop  heretofore 
having  been  the  main  dependence  of  the  farmer,  and  having  partially 
failed  for  the  last  three  or  four  years,  and  wheat,  when  produced,  hav- 
ing been  sold  at  so  low  a  price,  that  it  has  almost  discouraged  him  in 
continuing  it  as  a  leading  business,  has  rendered  it  necessary  for  him  to 
turn  his  attention,  in  part  at  least,  to  some  other  system  of  Agriculture. 
The  question  then  is  an  important  one,  and  ought  to  be  well  considered  in 
all  of  its  bearings  ;  for  much,  very  much  of  his  future  prosperity  depends 
upon  a  correct  solution  of  this  question. 

The  soil  of  our  State  generally  is  rich  beyond  comparison,  producing 
all  of  the  summer  grains  usually  grown  in  northern  latitudes  in  the 
greatest  abundance,  and  with  good  husbandry,  there  is  but  little  danger 
of  a  failure  ;  but  the  objection  to  raising  these  grains  by  those  who  live 
in  the  interior  of  our  State,  is,  that  the  expense  of  hauling  it  over  bad 
roads,  a  great  distance  to  market,  takes  off  all  the  profits,  and  leaves 
little  or  nothing  to  the  producer.  To  this  I  answer,  that  the  farmer 
should  not  (if  he  can  avoid  it)  take  the  first  kernel  of  his  coarse  grains 
off  from  his  farm.  When  he  undertakes  to  wagon  it  to  market,  his  time 
and  money  are  thrown  away.  He  ought  to  be  prepared  to  feed  every 
bushel  of  it  on  his  own  farm. 


227 

If  this  proposition  be  correct,  then  the  question  arises,  to  what  ani- 
mals shall  his  coarse  grains  be  fed,  in  order  that  he  may  realize  the 
greatest  amount  of  profit  ?  In  our  present  state  of  agriculture,  it  is  my 
opinion  that  the  hog  is  by  far  the  most  profitable  animal  the  farmer  can 
raise.  In  forming  this  conclusion  I  have  not  been  influenced  by  the  high 
prices  of  pork  and  stock  hogs,  that  have  prevailed  during  the  last  year, 
but  I  have  taken  into  consideration  the  ruling  rate  for  the  last  ten  years, 
and  the  probability  of  its  continuing  at  the  same,  or  at  higher  prices  for 
several  years  to  come.  The  present  demand  for  stock  or  store  hogs,  is 
very  great,  and  there  is  little  danger  but  that  it  will  continue.  The 
whole  of  the  New  England  States,  and  a  part  of  the  States  of  New  York  , 
Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey  and  Maryland  are  looking  to  the  West  to  fill 
their  pens  with  store  hogs.  This  demand  has  heretofore  been  supplied 
principally  from  Ohio,  Kentucky,  Indiana  and  Illinois ;  but  there  is  no 
good  reason  why  Wisconsin  should  not  assist  in  supplying  the  wants  of 
the  East  in  this  article,  as  her  facilities  for  transporting  it  to  market 
are  equal  to  any  of  these  States.  It  will  also  give  the  producer  a  choice 
between  selling  his  hogs  before  or  after  they  are  fattened. 

Stock  hogs  can  be  transported  from  any  of  the  Lake  ports  in  Wiscon- 
sin to  the  Brighton  market  for  one  dollar  and  fifty  cents  per  hundred,  so 
that  it  is  a  safe  calculation  to  estimate  their  price  on  any  farm  in  this 
State  at  two  dollars  and  fifty  cents  per  hundred,  weighed  up  alive.  And 
it  is  equally  as  safe  a  calculation  to  estimate  the  average  price  of  pork 
at  any  of  our  Lake  towns  at  three  dollars  per  hundred,  dressed.  An 
hundred  pounds  of  pork  can  be  produced  at  a  less  expense,  in  this  State, 
than  an  hundred  pounds  of  beef,  and  it  will  command  a  higher  price  in 
any  market.  An  hundred  dollars,  invested  in  pigs,  will  gain  faster,  even 
if  the  pigs  be  fed  on  grass,  than  the  same  amount  invested  in  young  cat- 
tle. Two  dollars  and  fifty  cents  per  hundred  for  store  hogs  is  a  much 
greater  price  than  store  cattle  will  sell  for,  in  this  State,  weighed  in  the 
.same  way.  Fattening  pork  presents  this  advantage  :  it  enables  the  pro- 
ducer to  feed  out  all  of  his  coarse  grain  on  his  own  farm,  which  he  ought 
to  do  by  all  means ;  and  instead  of  hauling  it  to  market  at  a  great  ex- 
pense, he  can  make  it  walk  to  market  with  comparatively  but  a  very  little 
expense.  It  would  be  interesting  to  see  some  four  or  five  thousand  bush- 
els of  grain,  the  production  of  our  rich  prairies,  walking  to  market  in  a 
large  drove  of  fat  hogs. 

In  conclusion,  permit  me  to  say  that  I  feel  great  interest  in  the  welfare 


22S 

of  Wisconsin  farmers.  Our  prosperity,  as  a  State,  depends  upon  their 
success.  May  they  therefore  study  to  make  themselves  acquainted  theo- 
retically and  practically  with  the  science  of  agriculture,  and  carry  their 
researches  into  all  the  natural  sciences  ;  and  by  a  correct  system  of  men- 
tal and  moral  education,  be  prepared  to  take  a  conservative  part  in  all 
of  the  great  moral  questions  of  the  day,  and  bring  to  the  counsels  of  our 
State  and  Nation  not  only  an  enlightened  mind,  but  a  good  conscience. 
That  the  Wisconsin  State  Agricultural  Society  may  be  greatly  instru- 
mental in  producing  this  result  is  my  sincere  wish. 

Yours,  respectfully, 

URIAL  H.  PEAK. 

To  Albert  C.  Ingham,  Esq., 

Sec.  of  the  Wis.  State  A^r.  Society. 


DAIRYING. 

FiTCHBUEGH,  December  10,  1852. 

Mr  Dear  Sir: — Your  letter  of  Dec.  5th,  requesting  me  to  furnish  my 
experience  in  butter  and  cheese  making,  and  requesting  my  views  in  rela- 
tion to  the  business  of  dairying  generally,  its  present  condition  in  Wis- 
consin, and  its  prospects  for  becoming  a  leading  and  profitable  branch  of 
business  to  our  farmers,  was  duly  received ;  and  desirous  of  doing  what- 
ever may  be  in  my  power  to  hasten  improvement  in  the  agriculture  of 
our  State,  I  comply  Avith  your  request  by  placing  at  your  disposal  the 
following  thouo^hts  and  sur^estions  : 

While  I  have  never  considered  Wisconsin,  as  a  whole,  to  be  preemi- 
nently a  dairying  State,  yet  there  are  many  portions  which  are  well 
adapted  to  the  business,  and  in  which  the  farmers  will  find  a  source  of 
profit  equal  to,  if  not  surpassing,  that  realized  in  some  of  the  best  grain 
growing  districts  of  the  West.  It  is  obvious  that  the  native  or  prairie 
grass  does  not  furnish  the  kind  of  pasturage  requisite  and  necessary  to 
render  the  business  profitable — a  fact  which  every  farmer  who  has  spent 
a  few  years  in  this  country  well  knows.  The  advantages  of  pasturage 
upon  timothy  grass,  clover  and  red-top,  for  cows,  are  readily  acknow- 
ledged, but  the  opinion  is  so  prevalent,  that  these  grasses  cannot  be 


229 

srrown  with  such  success  in  this  State  as  in  the  older  States  of  New  Eno-land 
and  New  York,  that  many  of  our  farmers  are  not  disposed  to  make  pro- 
per exertions  to  obtain  such  pasturage  and  meadows.  Our  marsh  lands, 
however,  are  generally  susceptible  of  being  plowed  and  seeded  with  timo- 
thy and  other  cultivated  grasses,  and  being  the  lands  best  adapted  to  the 
growth  of  grass,  I  am  sanguine  that  they  will  yet  be  converted  into  mea- 
dows and  pastures  which  will  produce,  bountifully,  feed  of  the  best 
quality  for  cows  and  stock  generally.  The  heavy  timbered  land  in  the 
central  and  northern  portions  of  the  State,  and  the  prairies  of  dark  col- 
ored soil,  it  is  believed,  can  be  made  to  produce  the  cultivated  grasses. 
The  soil  of  burr-oak  land  and  that  of  sandy  prairies  I  regard  as  not  so 
well  adapted  to  produce  grass  as  grain.  Grain  growing  is  the  best  use 
to  which  the  latter  soils  can  be  put.  It  will  readily  be  perceived  that 
one  of  the  greatest  difficulties  that  lie  in  the  way  of  profitable  dairying 
is  the  labor  and  expense  requisite  to  convert  such  land  as  is  best  adapted 
to  the  business  into  meadows  and  pastures  that  will  furnish  the  best  feed 
for  cows.  I  doubt  whether  it  ever  will  become  a  source  of  much  profit 
while  cows  are  pastured  on  the  native  grass  in  summer,  and  fed  in  winter 
with  hay  gathered  from  the  marshes.  Let  none  mistake  my  apprecia- 
tion of  the  wild  grass  of  this  country — it  has  served  an  excellent  purpose 
in  the  settlement  of  Wisconsin — and  while  condemning  it  as  not  the  feed 
to  make  cows  give  milk  in  large  or  rich  quantities,  I  readily  admit  that  it 
will  cause  them  to  thrive  and  even  fatten  in  summer.  But  all  experienced 
farmers  are  aware,  that  the  best  food  for  fattening  cattle  is  not  invariably 
the  best  to  cause  cows  to  give  milk. 

As  to  the  best  breeds  of  cows  for  a  dairy  it  is  proper  to  remark,  that  a 
diversity  of  opinion  prevails  among  dairymen.  The  Devons  are  held  by 
many  in  high  repute,  while  Durhams  are  preferred  by  others;  but  among 
the  native  breeds  can  also  be  found  many  of  the  best  kind  of  cows.  It 
requires  considerable  judgment  and  much  experience  in  the  management 
of  cows,  to  select  good  ones  in  all  cases ;  some  writers  mention  certain 
infallible  signs,  but  we  are  not  aware  that  such  indications  are  always 
found  to  be  true  indices  of  the  worth  of  cows.  But  aside  from  the  .gen- 
eral appearance  of  the  animal,  there  are  undoubtedly  some  points  worthy 
of  observation,  such  as  a  good  sized  bag,  sound  teats  of  fair  size,  hair 
on  the  bag  of  orange  color  or  dark  brown,  legs  small  and  flanks  deep, 
&c.  There  are  but  few  farmers  who  are  ignorant  of  the  importance  of 
selecting  the  best  cows  for  dairy  purposes,  it  is  of  no  less  consequence 


230 

than  their  good  management  afterwards.     There  is  one  point  especially 
which  should  be  carefully  observed  in  managing  cows  ;  they  need  good  sta- 
bling during  the  winter  season,  and  during  cold  weather  at  any  season  of 
the  year.    It  is  bad  economy  to  leave  cows  exposed  to  the  chilling  blasts  of 
winter  for  three  or  four  months  in  the  year,  without  even  a  hovel  to  shel- 
ter them  from  the  storms  and  cold ;  animals  are,  it  is  true,  by  nature 
better  prepared  to  endure  cold  than  men,  but  still  they  are  susceptible  to 
its  severities.     When  properly  sheltered  and  cared  for,  they  consume  less 
fodder,  are  kept  in  better  condition,  and  in  the  spring  are  in  good  order 
and  healthy.     Many  farmers  entertain  the  idea  that  cows   that  cannot  bo 
wintered  in  the  open  air  are  unprofitable ;  they  want  tough  cows  that  can 
endure  all  weather.     The  most    experienced  dairymen  in  central  New 
York,  keep  their  cows  in  stables  invariably  during  the  cold  weather,  feed 
and  milk  them  there,  and  take  as  much  care  of  them  as  they  would  of 
their  horses.     Another  important  fact  should  be  noted,   and  a  remedy 
applied,  which  will  increase  the  quantity  of  milk ;  during  the  latter  part 
of  summer  and  in  the  fall,  the  feed  has  become  dried  as  it  often  does,  and 
cows  will  give  but  little  milk  unless  they  are  fed  something  besides  what 
they  can  obtain  from  the  pasture ;  this  can  be  remedied  to  a  great  extent 
by  feeding  them  corn  stalks.     Let  farmers,  in  the  month  of  June,  sow 
corn  broad  cast,  and  as  the  season  advances   and   cows   begin  to  fail   of 
milk,  commence  feeding  them  once  a  day  with  the  corn  stalks  ;  the  even- 
inor  is  the  most  suitable  time,  the  effects  are  most   salutary  upon   milch 
cows,  and  it  well  pays  for  all  the  labor  and  trouble   incurred.     During 
the  latter  part  of  winter,   and  through  the  months  of  March  and  April 
especially,  it  will  be  found  highly  beneficial  to  feed  cows  with  mess  of 
some  kind ;  bran  is  excellent  for   this  purpose.     This  management  will 
greatly  increase  the  quantity  of  milk.     After  cows  have  been  fed  hay  in 
their  stalls  in  the  morning,   clean  out  their  mangers  and  place   before 
them  messes   of  the  kind  above  mentioned,    and  they  will  eat  with   a 
hearty  relish.     Let  them  be  turned  out  each  day  during  the  winter  from 
ten  o'clock  till  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon ;  as  the  season  advances  and 
the  weather  becomes  warmer  they  need  not  be  kept  so  many  hours  in 
the  stable.     Another  important  matter  should  command   the  attention  of 
every  farmer.     Cows  should  be  pastured  as  near  home  as  convenient ;  it 
is  no  benefit  to  milch  cows  to  be  driven  three   or  four  miles  every  day, 
nor  to  be  suffered  to  run  at  large  and  range  eight  or  ten  miles,  but  a  posi- 
tive injury.     They  will  not  give  the  quantity  of  milk  that  cows  do  that 


231 

are  kept  in  pastures  convenient  and  supplied  witli  plenty  of  good  feed. 
Care  ahould  also  be  taken  that  when  cows  are  driven  up  at  night  to  be 
milked,  that  it  be  done  moderately ;  dogs  should  not  be  suffered  to  worry 
and  chase  them.  Many  think  these  matters  of  little  account,  but  they 
are  points  which  the  most  experienced  dairymen  do  not  fail  to  observe 
with  due  attention.  Cows  need  plenty  of  water  to  drink,  and  they  ought 
to  be  pastured  where  they  can  have  access  to  it.  Where  they  are  suffered 
to  run  on  the  dry  prairies,  or  confined  in  dry  fields,  they  will  come  up  at 
nio-ht  in  hot  weather  panting  for  drink ;  if  they  are  pastured  where  there 
are  no  running  streams,  some  means  should  be  devised  by  which  they 
can  be  supplied  with  water. 

Very  little  has  yet  been  done  in  Wisconsin,  in  making  cheese :  those 
who  have  done  anything  in  the  dairy  business  in  this  State,  have  mostly 
turned  their  attention  to  making  butter ;  the  fact  that  with  but  few  cows, 
or  with  even  one  or  two,  people  can  make  butter  advantageously,  while 
it  requires  a  larger  number  than  most  farmers  keep  to  make  cheese, 
accounts  for  this.     The  process  of  making  it  varies  considerable   among 
dairymen,  and  it  is  impossible  for  me  to  say  what  manner  of  making  it 
is  most  observed.     An  old  and  experienced  dairyman,  in  New  York,  who 
has  been  in  the  business  about  forty  years,   has,  for  a  long  time,   made 
cheese  in  the  following  manner :  The  milk  after  being  strained  into  a  tub 
or  into  pans  according  to  the  quantity  obtained,  is  suffered  to  remain 
during  the  night  for  the  cream  to  rise,  which,  in  the  morning,  is  taken 
off.     Some  prefer  to  let  the  cream  be  mixed  with  the  milk,  it  renders  it 
a  little  richer,  it  is  true,  but  it  would  be  difficult  to  tell  the  difference  by  the 
taste  of  a  cheese  made  with  all  the  cream,  and  one  made  with  one  night's 
cream  taken  off.     The  night's  milk  is  warmed  in  the  morning,  and  put 
in  with  the  morning's  milk.     After  having  attained  the  temperature  of 
blood-heat,  let  the  rennet  be  put  in  ;  if  the  temperature  is  right,  the  milk 
will  set  and  curdle  in  twenty-five  or  thirty  minutes.     It  is  important  that 
the  rennet  which  produces  the  curd,  should  be  properly  preserved,  and 
kept  ready  for  use  ;  let  it  be  thoroughly  cleaned,  and  salted  sufficient  to 
keep  it  sweet  and  free  from  all  impurities.     When  thus  cured,  when  there 
is  occasion  to  use  it,  let  it  be  soaked  in  brine,  and  the  liquid  is  obtained 
which  curdles  the  milk.     After  the  milk  is  properly  set,  which  will  be 
plainly  indicated  by  the  thick  curdled  appearance  of  it,  let  it  be  broken 
up  as  fine  as  possible ;  this  can  be  done  with  an  instrument  made  of  tin 
•called  a  cheese  cutter.     After  this  process  the  whey  is  dipped  off,  leaving 


232 

the  curd  by  itself,  which  should  be  pulverized  still  further  by  the  hand, 
till  it  is  crumbled  into  fine  pieces.  Then  let  a  quantity  of  whey  be  put 
in  a  boiler  heated,  or  as  some  dairymen  practice,  who  have  everything 
convenient,  pass  a  tin  heater  through  the  vat  containing  the  curd  and 
whey.  The  proper  temperature  of  scalding  may  be  ascertained  by  squeez- 
ing the  curd  in  the  hand  ;  if  it  is  sufficiently  scalded  it  will  give  forth  a 
squeaking  sound  indicative  of  sufficient  heat.  Let  the  heated  Avhey  then 
be  drawn  off,  and  the  curd  salted  with  common  salt,  the  quantity  used  is 
not  uniform,  some  use  more  and  some  less ;  it  is  essential  that  enough  be 
used  to  preserve  it,  and  not  so  much  as  to  render  it  impalatable. 

This  point  can  be  attained  by  any  one  who  exercises  some  degree  of 
judgment ;  the  taste  of  the  curd  is  the  guide  of  most  people  while  salting. 
It  makes  but  little  difference  whether  the  weather  be  hot  or  cold,  the 
quantity  required  is  the  same.  If  a  cheese  is  salted  too  much  it  will 
become  hard,  and  on  being  broken  will  crumble,  but  if  not  salted  suffi- 
ciently it  will  be  tough  and  possess  a  strong,  disagreeable  taste.  •  Care 
should  be  taken  that  while  salting  the  curd,  it  be  thoroughly  stirred  so 
that  it  be  all  seasoned  alike ;  then  let  it  be  put  into  a  cheese  hoop  of  a 
size  suitable  to  the  quantity  of  curd,  place  it  in  a  press,  and  let  it  be 
pressed  till  the  whey  ^  all  pressed  out  which  may  be  done  in  the  space 
of  twelve  hours.  The  kind  of  cheese  presses  in  use  are  various,  and 
every  farmer  engaged  in  the  dairy  business  has  his  preference.  It  is 
desirable  that  a  cheap  press  be  used  if  it  will  answer  the  purpose ;  some 
of  the  numerous  patent  presses  are  well  calculated  to  secure  their  object, 
but  they  are  too  costly  to  be  used  by  many.  The  old  fashioned  lever 
press  is  extensively  used  now  by  the  dairymen  of  Central  New  York ;  it 
costs  but  little  and  it  gives  a  constant  pressure  which  is  highly  desirable 
in  pressing  cheese.  The  greatest  objection  to  it  is  that  it  requires  con- 
siderable space.  After  the  whey  is  all  pressed  out  let  the  cheese  be  taken 
from  the  press  and  the  outside  thoroughly  rubbed  with  whey  oil ;  this 
substance  is  made  from  the  cream  which  rises  on  whey  set  in  tubs  or 
kettles  ;  churn  this  cream  in  the  same  manner  that  the  cream  of  milk  is 
churned  until  the  butter  is  made,  then  simmer  it  over  a  fire  into  oil  suit- 
able for  dairy  use.  Some  color  the  outside  of  cheese  with  coloring  mat- 
ter, rocoa  or  some  other  substance  of  a  similar  nature ;  this  substance  is 
also  used  to  color  the  curd  at  the  time  of  setting,  and  give  a  bright,  red- 
dish cast  to  a  cheese  when  made.  But  all  this  is  merely  for  the  purpose 
of  pleasing  the  eye ;  it  adds  nothing  to  the  goodness  of  the  article.     It 


233 

is  the  practice  at  the  present  time  among  dairymen  to  bandage  cheese  as 
soon  as  they  are  taken  from  the  press  and  oiled ;  this  is  done  with  a  kind 
of  cloth  called  cheese  sacking.  There  is  a  better  method  of  putting  the 
bandage  upon  the  cheese,  however ;  it  will  be  recollected  that  the  curd  is 
first  put  into  the  cheese  hoop  for  pressing  in  a  sack  made  of  coarse  cotton 
cloth  ;  after  the  cheese  has  been  in  the  press  six  or  eight  hours  it  is  neces- 
sary that  it  be  taken  out  and  turned  over  for  the  purpose  of  giving  it 
good  shape.  When  this  is  done,  let  a  bandage,  made  to  fit  the  circumfer- 
ence of  the  cheese  and  lap  two  or  three  inches  over  the  sides,  be  put  around 
it ;  then  as  the  cheese  is  pressed  the  bandage  becomes  snug  and  fits  per- 
fectly. Bandages  that  are  put  on  after  the  pressing  is  finished  are  apt  to 
be  too  loose.  The  advantages  of  this  are,  that  it  prevents  the  cheese  from 
spreading  and  cracking,  keeps  it  in  good  shape,  and  prevents  flies  from 
working  at  it.  Green  cheese  weighs  considerably  more  than  when  thorough- 
ly cured ;  it  will  weigh  at  least  one-sixth  or  seventh  more  when  green  than 
at  the  age  of  three  or  four  months.  During  the  hottest  part  of  the  sea- 
son cheese  is  most  liable  to  crack;  when  this  takes  place,  great  pains  should 
be  taken  to  fill  the  cracks  with  pulverised  cheese,  which  should  be  press'- 
ed  in  tightly  and  the  cheese  kept  well  oiled.  Let  them  be  turned  over  at 
least  once  a  day  without  fail,  and  great  care  must  be  exercised  to  keep 
away  flies,  and  have  the  shelves  kept  neat  and  free  from  insects  of  all 
kinds  which  are  wont  to  gather  in  a  cheese  room.  The  room  should  be 
kept  as  cool  and  dark  as  possible  during  hot  weather. 

The  directions  here  given  properly  apply  to  a  dairy  of  cows  numbering 
from  ten  to  thirty,  with  which  a  cheese  can  be  made  daily.  With  a  few- 
cows  it  becomes  necessary  to  have  two  day's  time  or  moi'e  to  accumulate 
curd  sufficient  to  make  a  cheese  of  comely  size ;  the  curd  of  each  day  should 
be  hung  away  in  some  cool  place  till  enough  is  obtained  to  make  a  cheese; 
then  let  it  all  be  scalded  and  pulverized  together :  then  proceed  as  we 
have  pointed  out.  The  most  common  method  of  preparing  cheese  for 
market  is  to  put  it  in  boxes ;  a  single  cheese  in  a  box  made  to  fit.  Let  a 
piece  of  brown  wrapping  paper  envelope  the  cheese.  Thus  prepared  for 
market  it  suits  purchasers.  This  manner  of  packing  is  far  preferable  ta 
packing  five  or  six  together  in  a  cask  ;  it  is  less  liable  to  spoil  in  hot 
weather,  and  looks  better  and  nicer  in  market. 

With  regard  to  butter-making,  I  consider  the  best  time  for  making  it, 
in  Wisconsin,  to  be  in  the  month  of  June ;  since  the  pasture  at  this  sea- 
son of  the  year  is  the  best  and  most  nutritious,  and  cows  will  give  at  least 
16 


23i 

Dne-t¥ird  tqotc  milk  then  than  in  the  months  of  September  and  October, 
At  present  most  farmers  pasture  their  cows  on  the  native  or  prairie  grass, 
•  and  the  fall  of  the  year  is  not  the  best  season  for  furnishing  good  keeping 
of  this  kind ;  the  first  frost  that  comes  kills  the  grass,  and  then,  unless 
cows  are  fed  mess,  they  will  furnish  but  little  milk.  There  are  some  points 
with  which  most  people  are  familiar  relating  to  making  butter ;  it  requires 
a  cool  place  in  which  to  place  milk  for  cream  to  rise  in  warm  weather, 
and  a  room  of  proper  temperature  is  essential  in  cold  weather.  I  have 
seen  what  may  be  regarded  the  best  possible  arrangement  for  making 
butter  in  the  hot  season,  Avhich  was  a  room  above  ground,  cool,  airy, 
with  shallow  vats  made  to  set  pans  into,  and  a  small  stream  of  water 
•=  turned  to  flow  through  them,  thus  cooling  the  milk;  but  such  a  conve- 
Tiience  every  farmer  cannot  have.  The  best  that  many  can  do  is  to  pro- 
vide a  cool  room,  build  a  frame  to  set  the  pans  of  milk  on,  in  tiers  one 
above  another ;  the  advantage  of  this  is,  that  the  air  can  circulate  freely 
about  the  pans,  exposing  the  bottoms  of  them  as  well  as  the  sides  to  its 
action.  It  is  desirable  that  the  milk  be  kept  as  cool  as  possible  in  hot 
weather,  in  order  that  the  cream  will  all  rise  before  the  milk  becomes 
sour  ;  the  butter  is  apt  to  have  an  unpleasant  flavor  if  the  cream  is  not 
taken  off"  before  the  milk  sours.  Let  the  cream  be  put  in  stone  jars  and 
placed  in  a  cool  position  till  it  is  churned :  care  should  be  taken  that  it 
be  not  suff"ered  to  stand  too  long  before  churning,  thus  rendering  the 
cream  bitter  and  the  butter  disagreeable  to  the  taste.  The  treatment 
after  churning  should  be  as  follows  :  Let  the  butter-milk  be  drawn  off", 
then  let  the  butter  be  washed  in  cold  Avater  repeatedly  as  long  as  the  wa- 
ter wall  be  colored  in  the  least  by  the  butter-milk;  then  work  it  over 
with  a  ladle,  not  with  the  hands,  until  every  particle  of  milk  is  worked 
out.  Too  many  are  not  particular  enough  in  this  matter — if  any  butter- 
milk is  left  in  the  butter  it  soon  sours  and  imparts  a  strong  taste  to  it. 
We  often  hear  the  complaint  that  butter  is  too  soft,  especially  during  hot 
weather  ;  the  cream  should  be  kept  cool  previous  to  churning.  Butter 
should  be  salted  with  fine  salt  according  to  the  taste :  many  salt  it  too 
much,  thinking  its  preservation  depends  wholly  on  the  quantity  of  salt 
used;  this  is  an  error,  unless  the  butter  has  been  thoroughly  worked 
over  and  freed  of  the  butter-milk,  salt  will  not  preserve  it.  In  packing 
butter  I  have  never  used  any  other  substance  than  salt  and  loaf  sugar. 
For  family  use  it  is  a  good  way  to  pack  it  in  stone  jars,  puttin  >•  down  a 
layer  of  butter  three  or  four  inches  in  thickness,  sprinkle  the  same  with 


235 

salt  and  pulverized  sugar;  and  so  on  in  layers  till  the  jar  is  packed  full. 
The  same  practice  may  be  adopted  in  packing  it  into  firkins  for  shipment. 
There  is  no  difficulty  in  putting  it  down  in  this  way ;  if  care  has  been 
taken    to    free   the    butter    of   the  milk,    and  properly    salted.      Then, 
if  packed  as   here   directed,  it  will  keep  in  good  condition  as  long  as 
desirable.     There  are  some  dealers  who  object  to  the  use  of  any  other 
substance  than  salt  in  packing  butter,  on  the  ground  that  such  articles  as 
sugar  or  saltpetre  impart  a  disagreeable  flavor ;  but  the  experiment  has 
been  tried  here  in  Wisconsin,  and  salt  with  sugar  has  been  found  to  an- 
swer an  excellent  purpose.    As  to  saltpetre,  I  am  unable  to  say  anything 
in  relation  to  it  as  a  preservative  of  butter — still  I  apprehend  that  it  is 
not  absolutely  necessary  that  any  other  substance  than  salt  be  used  in 
packing  butter;  in  my  opinion,  the  principal  object  to  be  attained  after  it 
is  thorouglily  salted  and  otherwise  prepared  for  market,  is  to  exclude  the 
air  from  it  as  much  as  possible.     This  may  be  done  by  packing  in  tight 
casks.     I  have  been  informed  that  butter  is  shipped  to  distant  parts — 
to  South  America  and  California — in  the  following  manner :  Small  casks 
packed  full  are  stowed  in  large  hogsheads,  and  then  the  latter  are  filled 
entirely  full  with  brine.     Thus  prepared  it  can  be  transported  through  a 
tropical  climate  in  a  perfect  state  of  preservation.     It  is  strange  that  a 
process  so  simple  as  that  of  making  good  butter  is  so  little  understood 
by  so  many  who  keep  cows  and  pretend  to  do  a  little  business  at  dairy- 
inir.     That  neatness  ouijht,  above  all  things,  to  be  regarded  in  makinof 
both  butter  and  cheese  is  a  fact  well  known  to  all  who  have  anything  to 
do  with  dairying,  and  I  simply  remark,  that  if  any  entertain  the  idea  that 
butter  and  cheese  made  Avith  slovenly  hands  will  sell  well  in  market  be- 
cause purchasers  happen  not  to  know  who  are  the  makers,  they  labor 
under  a  mistake,  and  the  sooner  they  undeceive  themselves  the  better 
for  all  concerned.     Let  these  products  of  the  dairy  be  sent  into  market, 
bearing  their  own  recommendation,  and  one  which  will  bear  a  risfid  ex- 
amination.     It  is  pleasing  to  dealers  to  see  butter  and  cheese  in  market 
that  bears  evidence  of  having  passed  through  neat  and  careful  hands. 

As  yet  dairying  has  proved  but  a  small  source  of  profit  in  Wisconsin. 
Those  farmers  who  have  turned  their  attention  to  the  business,  are  many 
•of  them  of  the  opinion  that  it  cannot  be  made  a  source  of  great  profit, 
and  consequently  do  not  prosecute  it  with  the  expectation  of  realizing 
much  therefrom  ;  they  regard  our  soil  as  not  adapted  generally  to  the 
growth  of  grass ;  the  cost  of  clearing  the  heavy  timbered  lands,  and  the 


236 

expense  of  converting  the  marsh  lands  into  meadows  of  timothy  and 
clover  are  regarded  as  great  difficulties  in  the  way  of  dairying.  As  the 
country  grows  older,  and  fills  up  with  inhabitants,  some  portions  of  it  will 
be  found  capable  of  being  used  for  these  purposes.  At  the  present  time 
many  of  our  farmers  keeping  from  two  to  six  cows  do  not  even  make 
butter  enough  for  the  family  use ;  they  sufifer  their  cows  to  range  over 
the  country  during  the  summer  season,  and  in  the  fall,  when  the  feed  has 
become  scarce,  they  have  made  no  provision  to  enable  their  cows  to  hold 
out  in  the  quantity  of  their  milk.  The  bad  economy  of  wasting  one- 
third  of  their  time  in  hunting  after  cows  that  have  strayed  in  the  woods, 
or  on  the  prairies,  is  not  seen  by  them  ;  and  instead  of  enclosing  fields  and 
baving  some  conveniences  whereby  time  and  labor  may  be  saved,  they 
allow  the  old  way  to  continue.  Many  settlers,  it  is  true',  come  into  the 
new  States  with  very  limited  means  for  commencing  farming,  but  it  is  far 
better  to  enclose  fields,  and  keep  cows  and  cattle  where  they  can  be  found, 
than  to  spend  twice  or  three  times  the  amount  of  time  requisite  to  build  a 
fence  in  searching  after  them.  Every  farmer  ought  to  make  at  least  butter 
enough  for  his  own  family  use ;  it  is  very  bad  economy  for  them  to  buy 
it  when  they  can  just  as  well  supply  themselves  from  their  own  farms. 
For  a  farmer  owning  eighty  or  one  hundred  and  sixty  acres  of  land, 
three  or  four  cows,  and  with  plenty  of  means  to  keep  them  in  good  con- 
dition, to  be  seen  in  market  purchasing  butter  for  his  own  family  use 
looks  bad,  and  is  a  sad  commentary  on  his  management.  We  can  sura  up 
all  that  relates  to  this  matter  in  a  few  words :  When  our  farmers  more 
generally  realize  the  importance  of  dairying,  we  may  look  for  some 
improvement  in  the  stock  of  cows,  and  better  care  in  their  management. 
At  present,  every  calf  is  raised,  however  meager,  and  what  little  can  be 
realized  from  cows,  in  the  shape  of  milk  and  butter,  by  sufi'ering  them  to 
roam  at  large,  taking  their  chance  like  wild  beasts,  is  considered  clear 
gain.  But  little  is  expected,  and  farmers  are  not  disappointed  in  their 
expectations.  Let  farmers  first  turn  their  attention  to  fitting  their  lands 
for  suitable  pasturage  for  cows ;  let  them  take  some  pains  to  have  good 
stock ;  keep  only  good  cows,  and  keep  them  well,  and  they  will  soon  find 
them  not  only  a  convenience  as  furnishing  them  a  little  butter  and  milk 
for  family  use,  but  also  a  source  of  profit  yielding  a  rich  return  equal  to 
the  profits  of  grain  growing.  Farmers  generally,  in  Wisconsin,  must  get 
into  the  dairy  business  gradually ;  the  best  that  most  of  them  can  do  at 
present  is  to  make  a  little  butter.      This  they  are  better  prepared  to  do 


23T 


to  advantage  than  to  make  cheese.  If  they  will  take  pains  to  improve 
their  stock  every  year,  and  seed  down  some  portion  of  their  farms  with 
timothy  and  clover,  the  time  will  not  be  far  removed  when  good  dairies 
may  be  found  in  Wisconsin,  and  we  shall  no  longer  have  it  said  that  the 
country  is  worthless  for  this  business. 

It  is  one  thing  to  talk  and  another  to  act,  and  it  is  no  less  requisite  for 
farmers  to  set  about  this  business  in  earnest,  than  to  discuss  the  subject, 
acknowledging  the  facts  which  have  been  here  presented,  and  still  suffer 
year  after  year  to  pass,  and  no  efforts  to  be  made  to  bring  about  a  dif- 
ferent state  of  things.  But  when  they  shall  feel,  as  well  as  say,  that  it  is 
for  their  interest  to  give  more  attention  to  these  matters,  we  shall  look 
for  a  better  state  of  things  in  the  stock  business.  Much  depends  upon 
the  women  in  the  dairy  business  ;  to  them  is  committed  much  of  the 
care  and  management  of  things  pertaining  to  it,  more  especially  the 
making  of  butter ;  and  it  is  incumbent  on  them  to  give  heed  to  all  those 
matters,  which  are  of  so  much  importance  to  a  proper  manufacture  of 
the  article.  Let  it  be  borne  in  mind,  that  there  is  no  need  of  making 
poor  butter ;  it  is  not  a  process  difficult  to  be  understood,  but  one  of  the 
simplest  operations  that  can  be  performed.  Be  not  indifferent  to  what 
you  read,  for  it  may  be  of  some  service  to  you.  Be  at  some  pains  to 
learn  the  best  methods  of  making  butter  and  cheese,  and  you  may  find 
yourselves  amply  repaid  for  all  the  attention  thus  bestowed.  The  few 
thoughts  which  have  thus  hastily  been  thrown  together,  I  present  to  the 
friends  of  agriculture,  claiming  for  them  that  consideration  only  to  Avhich 
they  are  entitled,  and  hoping  that  they  may  not  prove  entirely  unser- 
viceable.    With  my  warmest  wishes  for  the  prosperity  of  the  Society, 

and  of  yourself. 

I  am,  my  dear  sir,  as  ever^  yours  faithfully, 

B.  F.  ADAMS. 
To  Albert  C.  Ingham,  Esq., 

Sec.  of  the  Wis.  State  Agr.  Society. 


FLAX  CULTURE. 

Symington  Flax  Factory,  Mukwonago,  Dec,  1852. 

Dear  Sir: — In  compliance  with  your  request,  I  take  pleasure  in  again 
sending  you  a  communication  on  the  subject  of  flax,  for  the  next  volume 


238 

of  our  "Transactions,"  in  the  hope  that  it  may  be  found  worthy  of  inser- 
tion therein. 

I  fear  that  I  am  writing  upon  a  rather  unpopular  theme.  There  was, 
last  spring,  among  our  farmers  a  general  movement  -towards  something 
new  in  agriculture,  in  consequence  of  successive  failures  of  the  wheat  crop, 
and  flax  was  adopted  by  many  as  offering  the  best  chance  for  a  profita- 
ble change.  I  had  shipped  off  all  of  my  seed  to  Ireland  and  the  Eastern 
markets,  before  the  close  of  Lake  navigation,  and,  therefore,  could  not 
meet  the  demand  Avhich  poured  in  upon  me  from  all  quarters,  for  sowing 
seed ;  and,  as  a  flax  grower,  I  should  have  been  glad  that  little  could  have 
been  obtained  elsewhere,  for  there  is  no  doubt,  but  that  a  great  quantity 
of  spurious  seed  was  imported  into  the  State,  (I  may  safely  say  unin- 
tentionally by  the  importers,)  which,  like  the  Canada  thistle,  will  not  be 
easily  got  rid  of,  and  will  prove  a  serious  evil  when  flax  and  seed  are,  and 
not  seed  alone  is,  the  object  of  sowing.  Good  flax  cannot  be  produced 
from  the  common  run  of  seed  raised  in  Ohio,  Indiana,  &c. 

It  is  very  well,  so  far  as  it  goes,  if  the  farmers  can  make  the  seed  pay 
of  itself  as  a  crop,  and  they  never  had  a  better  chance  of  testing  that, 
than  this  season  presented,  because,  though  very  unfavorable  for  the 
fibre,  the  stalk  being  short,  in  consequence  of  the  drought  in  summer, 
there  was  probably  as  good  a  crop  of  seed  as  will  occur  in  an  average 
of  five  years.  I  say  it  is  well  if  the  seed  proves  a  paying  crop  of  itself, 
for  that  shows  that  no  more  profitable  crop  can  be  raised  than  flax,  when 
we  shall  have  mills  established  throughout  the  country,  to  use  up  the 
straw,  which  is  by  far  the  most  valuable  portion  of  it.  It  has  always 
appeared  to  me,  that  turnips  may,  with  equal  propriety,  be  grown  for  the 
sake  of  the  leaves,  as  that  flax  may  be  grown  for  seed  alone.  I  rather 
fear  that  a  number  of  our  farmers  have  gone  into  the  culture  of  flax, 
without  due  consideration,  and,  being  disappointed  in  the  result,  a  for- 
midable check  may  be  presented  to  its  future  extension,  simply  because 
we  have  put  the  cart  before  the  horse — grown  the  flax  before  we  had  the 
appliances  for  its  preparation  in  scutching  mills.  Why,  in  the  present 
abundance  of  capital  at  the  East,  the  general  extension  of  enterprise  of 
all  kinds  to  employ  it,  and  the  pressing  demand  for  flax  in  our  own 
manufactories,  no  more  attention  should  have  been  devoted  to  -this  arti- 
cle, is  beyond  my  comprehension.  There  is  certainly  no  lack  of  encour- 
agement. A  gentleman,  interested  in  the  manufacture  of  threads,  who 
visited  me  last  summer  for  the  express  purpose  of  seeing  what  foothold 


239 

flax  growing  had  taken  in  the  West,  wrote  me  on  his  return,  as  follows: 
"On  passing  through  New  York,  I  endeavored  to  get  some  of  your  flax 
from  your  agent  there,  but  he  had  sold  out,  and  failing  to  get  American 
flax  to  suit  our  purpose,  we  have  been  compelled  to  order  our  supply  from 
Holland." 

My  exertions  to  introduce,  and  advice  as  to  carrying  on  the  trade,  not 
recklessly  by  large  sowings,  but  systematically,  with  mills  to  keep  pace 
with  the  growth,  are  on  record ;  and  it  will  be  a  matter  of  surprise  ten 
years  hence,  when  flax  shall  have  become,  as  I  doubt  not  it  will,  a  staple 
article  of  agricultural  produce,  that  so  much  apathy  should  have  been 
exhibited  respecting  it  at  the  outset.  I  do  not  mean  on  the  part  of 
farmers,  for  they,  I  think,  have  done  rather  too  much,  but  manufactur- 
ers East,  and  directly  interested  owners  of  water  powers  here,  might 
have  embarked  capital  advantageously  in  this  branch  of  business. 

I  have  stirred  up  all  within  my  reach,  still,  after  five  years  labor,  only 
one  mill,  besides  my  own,  is  at  work  in  Wisconsin,  and  that  not  through 
my  influence. 

I  expect  the  next  published  statistics  will  show  an  import  into  the 
United  States  of  1300@1500  tons  of  flax,  while  we,  in  Wisconsin,  with 
excellent  soil  and  climate  for  raising  it,  contribute  only  some  40  or  50 
tons  to  the  consumption. 

So  far  as  I  have  got  returns  for  my  flax  of  1851,  the  prices  realized 
have  been  from  twelve  and  one-half  to  fourteen  cents  per  pound ;  what 
I  have  since  sent  forward,  but  of  which  I  have  not  yet  advice  of  sale, 
should  bring  in  the  same  proportion  from  fifteen  to  seventeen  cents,  being 
of  superior  quality. 

I  send  you  a  sample  of  flax  of  my  crop  of  1849,  which  has  been  treated 
exactly  in  the  manner  practised  in  the  celebrated  Courtrai  District  on  the 
frontiers  of  France  and  Belgium.  This  sample  is,  perhaps,  a  little  better 
than  the  rest  of  the  crop  which  was  managed  in  the  usual  way  in  the  fall 
of  1849  and  spring  of  1850,  but  nothing  appears  in  it  to  warrant  the 
adoption  of  the  Courtrai  system  here.  As  I  said  in  my  last  communica- 
tion, that  system  is  to  hold  the  crop  over  for  three  years  before  rotting ; 
I  believe  that  this  sample  owes  its  superiority  to  the  adventitious  circum- 
stance of  having  had  first  a  covering  of  snow  and  subsequently  sunshine 
when  on  the  grass. 

I  send  you  a  pamphlet  on  the  subject  of  flax,  printed  for  private  cir- 
culation, by  the  eminent  engineers,  Messrs.  Fairbairn  of  Leeds,  England, 


240 

furnished  to  me  by  my  friend  Mr.  Hartsliorne  of  Philadelphia.  It  con- 
tains by  far  the  best  instructions  for  the  management  of  all  the  processes 
thi-ough  which  flax  has  to  pass  that  I  have  seen  in  print.  Part  of  it  is 
inapplicable  to  our  present  position  in  Wisconsin,  that  relative  to  the  hack- 
ling and  spinning ;  but  probably  that  portion  which  treats  of  the  raising 
and  general  management  of  flax  as  a  crop  might  be  instructive  to  the 
readers  of  the  "Transactions,"  if  they  keep  in  view  the  modifications 
which  our  soil  and  climate  need,  as  detailed  in  my  last  communication. 

I  would  especially  direct  attention  to  the  simple  machine  for  taking  off 
the  seed,  described  therein,  Avhich  will  do  the  work  well,  and  speedily, 
without  injury  to  the  fibre.  I  had  a  model  of  one  of  my  own  invention 
ready  to  send  you,  but  on  reading  this,  I  put  it  aside  for  the  present. 

I  regret  I  have  so  little  of  importance  to  contribute  to  the  forthcoming 

volume  of  Transactions,  but  knowing,  as  you  do,  the  Avarm  interest  I  take 

in  the  prosperity  of  the  Society,  you  will  take  the  "will  for  the  deed." 

I  am,  dear  sir. 

Yours  most  sincerely, 

JOHN  GALBRAITH. 
To  Albert  C.  Ingham,  Esq. 

Sec.  of  the  Wis.  State  Agr.  Society. 


[Extract  from  Messrs.  Fairhairris  Pam^hlet.~\ 

INTRODUCTORY    OBSERVATIONS,    AND    DESCRIPTION   OF 
THE  MODES  OF  GROWING,  RETTING,  AND 
SCUTCHING  FLAX. 

There  are  few  textile  manufactures  that  present  more  interesting 
points  to  the  inquiring  mind  than  that  of  Flax  ;  whether  we  consider  its 
rapid  extension,  or  the  great  changes  that  have  taken  place  in  its  mani- 
pulations during  the  last  twenty  years  ;  that  extension  and  those 
changes  together  producing,  as  they  do,  a  simplicity  and  an  economy 
which  have  resulted  in  placing  within  the  reach  of  many  a  comfort,  nay, 
•even  a  luxury,  that  was  previously  attainable  by  few.  For  in  the  linen 
manufacture  are  to  be  found  fabrics  of  greater  beauty  combined  with 
usefulness,  than  perhaps  in  any  other.  This  manufacture  likewise 
affords  a  most  striking  lesson  of  what  machinery  is  capable  of  achieving. 


241 

in  converting  raw  produce  into  finished  fabrics  ;  for  few  materials  have- 
presented  so  many  difficulties,  or  required  such  a  variety  of  mechanical 
contrivances,  to  bring  them  into  a  useful  state,  as  the  one  on  which  we 
are  now  about  to  treat.  To  trace  these  processes  and  point  out  the  me- 
chanical means  by  which  these  difficulties  have  been  overcome,  shall 
now  be  our  endeavor. 

In  a  treatise  of  this  kind,  it  would  be  out  of  place  to  enter  very  mi- 
nutely into  the  agricultural  operations  required  in  the  cultivation  of  flax  ; 
though  it  may  be  satisfactory  to  some  of  our  readers  to  have  a  general 
sketch  descriptive  of  such  as  are  now  employed. 

The  flax  plant,  (Linum  Usitatissimum,)  consists  of  a  woody  heart  or 
boon,  and  the  harl  or  flax  fibre  covered  outwardly  with  a  fine  cuticle 
which  encloses  the  former  like  a  tube  ;  it  is  cultivated  for  two  purposes  ; 
first,  for  its  fibrous  material,  properly  called  flax;  and  second  for  its 
seed,  which  is  much  used  for  feeding  cattle,  as  well  as  for  making  that 
drying  oil  extensively  used  in  a  variety  of  arts,  known  in  commerce 
under  the  name  of  linseed  oil.  The  stem  of  the  plant  is  round  and  hol- 
low, and  grows  to  the  height  of  about  two  to  three  feet,  and  then  divides 
into  several  branches,  which  terminate  in  blue  flowers,  consisting  of  five 
petals,  and  succeeded  by  capsules  divided  into  ten  cells,  in  each  of  which 
is  enclosed  a  bright,  slippery  elongated  seed.  The  leaves  are  long,  nar- 
row, sharp-pointed,  and  placed  alternately  along  the  stem  and  branches 
of  the  plant.  As  the  roots  penetrate  downwards  about  half  the  length 
of  the  stem,  the  soils  best  adapted  for  its  cultivation  are  those  of  a  deep 
free  loam,  such  as  are  not  liable  to  become  too  much  charged  with  mois- 
ture, or  too  dry,  but  capable  of  being  rendered  fine  by  tilth,  such  as 
those  situated  in  a  valley  bordering  upon  a  river.  If  there  be  water  at 
a  small  depth  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  it  is  thought  by  some 
still  better,  as  is  the  case  in  Zealand,  which  is  remarkable  for  the  fine- 
ness of  its  flax,  and  where  the  soil  is  deep  and  rather  stiff",,  and  with 
water  almost  everywhere  at  one  and  a  half  feet  or  two  feet  below  the 
surface.  But  if  well  manured  and  tilled,  and  if  the  seasons  are  not  too 
dry,  fine  flax  can  also  be  produced  on  high  land  ;  it  should  not,  however, 
be  in  too  great  a  state  of  fertility,  nor  be  too  much  exhausted  ;  as,  in  the 
former  cace,  the  flax  is  liable  to  be  too  luxuriant  and  coarse,  and  in  the 
other,  the  produce  would  be  very  small.  Light,  sandy  or  gravelly  soils 
seldom  answer  well. 

With  regard  to  the  choice  of  seed,  it  should  be  of  a  bright,  brownish 


242 

color,  oily  to  the  feel,  and  at  the  same  time  Aveighty.  The  seed  from 
Holland  not  only  ripens  sooner,  but  also  yields  a  greater  quantity  of  fibre 
than  most  others.  American  seed  produces  a  common  fine  flax  ;  Riga 
seed  a  coarser  sort  of  flax,  but  a  greater  quantity  of  seed  than  any  other, 
and  is  suitable  to  a  greater  variety  of  localities.  Riga  seed,  from  the 
circumstance  of  being  generally  produced  from  land  of  inferior  quality, 
when  employed  in  any  other  than  its  native  locality,  finds  an  improved 
situation,  and  consequently  on  most  soils  produces  a  luxuriant  crop, 
inclining,  however,  to  rankness,  but  with  a  great  abundance  of  seed ; 
this  seed,  when  re-sown  on  the  same  land,  after  the  interval  of  a  year, 
produces  crops  yielding  the  best  qualities  of  "  fibre,"  though  for  subse- 
quent re-sowing  it  becomes  degenerated.  The  rapid  progress  of  agricul- 
ture at  the  present  day,  renders  it  impossible  to  fix  at  what  period  in  the 
rotation  of  crops  that  of  flax  should  occur,  though  the  general  impres- 
sion is,  or  rather  was,  once  in  seven  to  nine  years.  Experience  has,  how- 
ever, proved  thai  it  is  never  advantageous  to  re-sow  the  seed  upon  the 
land  that  has  produced  it  more  than  once  or  twice. 

In  preparing  land  for  the  growth  of  flax,  the  great  object  should  be  to 
render  it  perfectly  fine  and  mellow.  With  this  view,  where  grass  land 
is  to  be  prepared  direct  for  this  crop,  it  should  be  broken  up  in  the  autumn, 
and  left  exposed  to  the  atmosphere  until  the  early  part  of  the  following 
year,  when  it  should  be  pulverized  and  broken  down  by  heavy  harrowing, 
and  then  in  the  course  of  a  week  or  two  ploughed  again,  in  which  state  it 
may  remain  till  the  time  for  putting  in  the  seed,  when  another  very  light 
harrowing  should  be  given,  and  ploughing  performed  afterwards  with  a 
light  furrow.  But  as  the  expense  of  preparing  grass  land  direct  for  flax 
may  frequently  be  too  great,  it  is  desirable  that  some  other  crops  should 
intervene,  of  such  plants  as  do  not  occupy  the  land  long,  and  which  are 
benefitted  by  frequent  stirring  of  the  earth  whilst  they  grow — such  as 
beans,  peas,  turnips,  &c.,  because  repeated  stirrings  are  required  to  ren- 
der the  mould  sufliciently  fine  and  loose,  and  to  help  to  kill  the  weeds, 
which  would  otherwise  do  great  damage  to  the  flax.  It  is  asserted  that 
the  Livonians,  when  they  clear  wood-lands,  burn  the  wood  upon  them, 
and  in  this  state  prefer  them  to  any  other  kind  of  soil  for  flax  crops.  If 
the  land  be  stiS",  it  should  be  exposed  to  the  winter  frosts  to  moulder  it, 
and  loosen  its  parts.  In  the  month  of  February,  if  the  weather  be  not 
00  w  et,  some  very  rotten  dung  (if  artificial  manures  are  not  used) 
should  be  laid  on,  and  immediately  covered  over  with  the  mould.     The 


243 

seed  should  afterwards,  at  the  proper  season,  be  sown,  and  harrowed  in 
with  a  light  or  bush  harrow,  so  as  not  to  bury  it  too  deeply. 

From  two  to  two  and  a  half  bushels  is  the  ordinary  quantity  of  seed 
required  for  an  English  statute  acre  when  soAvn  broadcast.  At  this 
point,  however,  discretion  is  required,  for  when  the  land  is  rich  and  fer- 
tile, and  the  season  favorable,  if  too  much  seed  is  sown,  the  crop  is  in 
danger  of  lodging;  and  when  that  happens,  particularly  before  the  pods 
are  formed,  the  flax  proves  inconsiderable  in  quantity  and  very  inferior 
in  quality.  When  cultivated  in  the  drill  mode,  eA  en  at  narrow  distances, 
a  much  less  quantity  will  be  sufficient  than  in  the  broadcast ;  and  in  those 
cases  of  drill  sowing  where  the  intervals  are  large,  scarcely  half  the 
quantity  is  required.  When  the  crop  is  intended  for  seed,  in  whatever 
manner  the  sowing  is  performed,  much  less  will  be  necessary  than  where 
the  fibre  is  the  main  object  of  the  grower. 

The  time  of  sowing  is  considered  good  from  the  middle  of  March  to 
the  middle  or  end  of  April.  But  the  last  week  of  March  or  the  first  ten 
days  of  April  are  best.  However,  in  the  south  of  Europe,  it  is  some- 
times sown  in  September  and  October,  so  that  the  plants  remain  on  the 
ground  all  the  winter.  These  autumnal-sown  are  not  so  productive  in 
fibre,  as  those  sown  in  the  spring,  but  their  yield  of  seed  is  better. 

It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  general  rule,  that  land  which  is  intended  for 
flax  crops  should  be  brought  to  an  exceedingly  fine  tilth,  in  the  way 
directed  above,  before  the  seed  is  put  in,  and  that  it  should  be  enriched 
by  some  sort  of  manure  suited  to  the  quality  of  the  soil.  Lime  in  a  caus- 
tic state  is  injurious  to  flax  ;  therefore,  when  it  has  been  used  for  manure, 
it  is  better  to  intermit  the  culture  of  flax  for  a  certain  season.  The 
"Royal  British  Flax  Association,"  in  their  report  of  last  year,  recom- 
mend as  a  manure  for  replacing  chemically,  the  elements  of  the  flax 
plant,  for  one  English  statute  acre,  a  composition  of 

Muriate  of  potash SOibs. 

Chloride  of  sodium  (common  salt)  ...     28  " 

Burnt  gypsum 33  " 

Bone  dust 54  " 

Sulphate  magnesia,   (Epsom  salts)    ...     56  " 
And  by  the  same  authority,  the  following  rotation  of  crops  is  suggested : 

For  1851  ...Flax.  For  1855  ...  Flax.  For  1859  ...  Oats. 

"    1852...  Clover.  "    1856  ...  Barley.  "    1860  ...  Clover. 

"    1853...  Grass.  "    1857  ...  Clover. 

"    1 864  . . .  Oats.  "    1 858  . .  .  Grass. 


244: 

As  flax,  wlien  young,  is  a  very  tender  plant,  and  is  more  easily  checked 
in  its  progress  by  weeds  than  any  other  that  is  usually  cultivated  in  the 
field,  it  is  therefore  indispensably  necessary  that  this  danger  should  be  well 
guarded  against,  in  order  to  save  future  trouble  and  expense.  It  is  con- 
tended by  some  that  the  drill  mode  of  sowing  is  the  better,  where  the  seed 
is  the  principal  object  of  the  grower,  as  less  is  required  to  be  sown,  and 
better  opportunities  are  afforded  for  weeding ;  the  distances  of  the  rows 
or  drills  should,  however,  vary  according  to  the  circumstances  of  the  soil 
and  the  manner  by  which  the  crops  are  to  be  kept  clean.  For  hand  hoe- 
ing, ten  or  twelve  inches  would  be  sufficient,  but  for  the  horse  hoe  a 
wider  space,  of  eighteen  or  twenty  inches,  would  be  required.  When 
thickly  sown,  flax  runs  up  in  height,  and  produces  fine  soft  fibres ;  Avhen 
thinly  sown,  it  spreads,  and  by  the  increase  of  branches  produces  more 
seed,  and  is  not  so  liable  to  be  beaten  down  by  the  weather,  as  the  stems 
are  stronger.  When  sown  broadcast,  the  crops  are  rarely  afterwards 
attended  to,  though  it  is  very  useful,  and,  indeed,  necessary,  when  the 
plants  have  attained  a  height  of  two  and  a  half  to  four  inches,  (which  will 
be  in  about  a  month,)  that  they  should  be  at  least  once  carefully  weeded. 
The  custom  of  growing  grass  seeds  along  with  the  flax  is  little  advan- 
tageous for  either  crop,  but,  on  the  contrary,  is  very  likely  to  injure 
both. 

Opinions  are  divided  as  to  the  best  time  for  pulling  the  flax,  where  the 
fibre  is  the  principal  object.  Some  think  it  should  be  pulled  while  green, 
in  order  that  the  fibres  may  be  softer  and  finer;  others  with  the  same 
view,  pull  it  up  before  the  seeds  are  quite  formed ;  others  again,  not  till 
the  seed  pods  begin  to  open; — certain  it  is  that  if  pulled  too  soon  the 
fibres  are  soft  and  tender,  and  go  too  much  into  tow,  and,  if  left  till  quite 
ripe,  they  are  always  stiff  and  harsh,  do  not  so  easily  separate  from  the 
boon,  neither  do  they  bleach  well ;  consequently  it  seems  the  most  rea- 
sonable to  pull  it  in  a  medium  state,  which  is  indicated  by  the  stalks  begin- 
ning to  change  from  a  green  to  a  yellow,  when  the  leaves  begin  to  fall, 
and  when  the  seeds  begin  to  be  of  a  brownish  color. 

It  may  be  as  well  to  observe,  that  when  the  stems  are  short  and  with 
many  branches,  it  will  be  better  to  make  the  seed  the  principal  object  of 
the  crop,  and  in  that  ease  to  let  it  ripen  before  pulling.  This  period  of 
maturity  may  be  known  by  the  points  of  the  seed  pods  turning  hard  and 
sharp,  and  the  capsulus  beginning  to  crack ;  it  usually  takes  place  towards 
the  end  of  July  or  the  beginning  of  August. 


245 

In  all  cases  the  flax  should  be  pulled  up  by  the  roots,  and  laid  in  small 
parcels  upon  the  surface  of  the  land,  and  great  care  should  be  taken  to 
place  the  root  ends  even  with  each  other. 

In  pulling  the  flax,  it  should  always  be  done  with  the  intention  (for 
reasons  afterwards  shown)  of  stripping  the  seed;  for  this  purpose  it  is 
desirable  to  lay  it  in  handfuls  partly  across  each  other,  as  the  process  of 
stripping,  technically  called  "rippling,"  is  thereby  facilitated,  for  the  rip- 
piers  thus  find  the  portions  ready  separated  to  their  hand.  It  is  import- 
ant, even  in  this  first  operation,  to  separate  and  sort  the  flax  according 
to  the  qualities  which  various  parts  of  the  land  may  have  produced,  as  it 
is  probable  that  each  quality  may  require  a  peculiar  treatment.  Much 
loss  is  frequently  caused  both  to  the  grower  and  consumer  by  neglecting 
this  simple  precaution.  There  arc  two  modes  cf  subsequently  treating 
the  crop,  each  of  which  are  alike  satisfactory  in  their  practical  results  ; 
the  choice,  therefore,  depends  upon  which  may  be  the  most  convenient 
to  the  grower  to  adopt.  Where  labor  can  be  had,  and  where  it  is  desi- 
rable quickly  to  procure  a  money  return,  after  thus  pulling  and  sorting 
the  crop,  the  first  operation  is  to  ripple  oft'  the  seed.  This  is  sometimes 
done  after  twelve  or  fourteen  days'  drying,  but  equally  good,  if  not  better, 
results  are  obtained  by  performing  that  operation  immediately  after  pull- 
ing, as  the  flax  requires  less  steeping  afterwards,  and  is  more  easily  sep- 
arated from  its  woody  stem.  The  rippling  is  performed  by  having  the 
ripple  placed  on  the  middle  of  a  large  cloth,  spread  on  a  convenient  piece 
of  ground.  The  ripple  is  a  sort  of  comb,  consisting  of  one  or  two  rows 
of  long  triangular  teeth,  placed  upright,  by  which  the  pods  containing 
the  seed  are  removed  from  the  flax.  The  manner  of  usina:  this  instru- 
ment  is  to  have  it  firmly  fixed  on  the  middle  of  a  plank  of  wood,  at  each 
end  of  which  a  rippler  sits,  when,  by  pulling  the  seed  ends  of  the  flax 
repeatedly  through  the  combs,  the  operation  is  executed  in  a  very  complete 
and  expeditious  manner.  The  seeds  afterwards  require  drying,  when 
they  will  separate  from  the  pods  of  their  own  accord.  In  large  estab- 
lishments, where  other  occupations  may  render  it  inconvenient  to  perform 
the  above  operations  at  harvest  time,  the  flax  may  be  dried  without  rip- 
pling, and  stacked  as  corn,  till  a  more  convenient  moment,  say  the  fol- 
lowing spring.  By  this  mode  of  treatment,  the  seed  capsulus  become 
dry  and  crisp,  and  thus  the  seed  can  be  separated  from  them  by  crushing 
them  between  a  pair  of  iron  rollers,  so  arranged  that  the  seed  ends  of 
the  handfuls  of  flax  can  be  passed  across  the  nip  of  the  rollers,  with  its 


246 


length  in  the  direction  of  their  axels — thus  avoiding  at  the  same  time  the 
danger  of  tearing  the  fibres,  as  in  the  hand  rippHng,  and  the  necessity  of 
subsequently  thrashing  the  seeds  from  the  capsules.  The  flax  thus  dried 
may  require  a  little  longer  steeping  afterwards.  Even  whon  there  is  no 
intention  of  saving  it,  the  seed  should  be  still  "rippled,"  or  otherwise 
taken  off,  as,  in  the  operation  of  retting  about  to  be  described,  it  causes 
premature  putrefaction,  by  which  the  flax  is  much  injured  ;  the  imper- 
fectly ripened  seed  thus  saved  will  serve  to  be  pressed  for  oil,  &c.  From 
six  to  eight,  but  sometimes  from  ten  to  twelve,  bushels  of  seed  are  pro- 
duced from  an  acre. 

After  rippling,  the  next  operation  is  to  expose  the  flax  plants  to  a  de- 
gree of  acetous  fermentation,  termed  "retting"  or  "rotting,"  to  facilitate 
the  future  separation  of  the  woody  from  the  fibrous  parts.  The  two 
most  usual  and  general  modes  of  doing  this  are  known  as  water  retting 
and  dew  retting.  In  water  retting,  Avhen  the  flax  has  been  cleared  of  its 
seeds,  it  is  loosely  tied  up  at  each  end  in  small  bundles,  and  placed  in  an 
inclined  position  with  its  roots  downwards,  in  pools  or  ponds  three  or 
four  feet  deep,  filled  with  soft  and  nearly  stagnant  Avater — any  water  hav- 
ing mineral  impregnations  to  be  carefully  avoided.  These  ponds  should 
be  made  with  facilities  to  change  the  Avater  at  pleasure.  It  is  desir- 
able that  the  bands  for  tieing  up  the  bundles  should  be  of  bass,  or  other 
suitable  material  of  little  or  no  value,  for  if  the  flax  itself  is  used,  that 
part  employed  for  bands  becomes  of  flecked  uneven  color.  The  color  of 
the  flax  generally  is  improved  by  a  small  stream  of  water  continually 
passing  through  the  ponds  during  the  steeping,  which,  even  from  a  stream 
comparatively  soft,  should  be  exposed  to  the  atmosphere  in  these  ponds  at 
least  a  week  before  being  used,  in  order  to  be  further  warmed  and  soft- 
ened by  its  influence ;  but  if  from  a  spring  of  hard  water,  a  much  longer 
time  of  exposure  to  the  air  is  necessary.  The  time  required  for  steeping 
varies  from  a  week  to  a  fortnight,  and  depends  upon  the  warmth  of  the 
weather,  as  well  as  upon  the  state  of  ripeness  of  the  flax ;  the  only  cer- 
tain criterion,  by  which  to  decide  when  the  flax  is  sufficiently  steeped,  is 
the  moment  when  the  boon,  or  ligneous  part,  becomes  brittle  and  separ- 
ates easily  from  the  fibrous ;  that  is  to  say,  when  the  rind  will  strip  from 
a  piece  of  the  stem  six  or  eight  inches  long,  without  breaking  or  tearing 
the  fibre,  or  leaving  any  adhering. 

This  turn  in  the  operation  is  very  rapid,  and  therefore  requires  the 
most  exact  judgment  and  the  closest  attention ;  for  if  too  long  steeped,  the 


247 

fibre  becomes  softened,  and  consequent!)',  weakened,  whereas,  on  tbe 
other  side,  if  the  steeping  is  not  sufficiently  prolonged,  the  boon  contin- 
ues too  adhesive  to  the  fibre,  and,  consequently,  creates  waste  and  trouble 
in  the  next,  or  "scutching"  operation.  As  the  fermentation  is  found  to 
proceed  better  in  the  absence  of  light,  the  ponds  should  be  of  such  a  size 
as  to  be  easily  covered  over  with  straw  and  sods  for  its  exclusion ;  upon 
this  covering  a  weight  of  stores  capable  of  easy  augmentation  or  dimin- 
ution should  be  laid,  in  order  to  keep  the  flax  entirely  under  water,  for 
if  any  part  rises  above,  it  will  become  discolored,  and,  consequently, 
spoiled ;  and  as  the  buoyancy  of  the  flax  varies  at  difterent  stages  of  the 
fermentation,  this  weight  will  require  to  be  regulated,  so  that  while 
always  sufficient  to  answer  its  original  purpose,  it  should  at  no  time  cause 
undue  compression.  When  the  operation  has  arrived  at  muturity,  the 
bundles  must  be  carefully  lifted  out  of  the  ponds,  and  placed  in  a  verti- 
cal position,  so  that  the  water  will  drain  ofi",  when  they  should  be  united, 
and  the  flax  spread  upon  the  grass. 

In  dew  retting  the  same  efl'ects,  or  nearly  so,  are  produced  by.  leaving 
the  flax  spread  upon  the  ground  exposed  to  the  weather  for  some  weeks ; 
but  this  mode  occupies  a  longer  time,  the  fibre  is  less  solid,  and  is  often 
injured  by  unfavorable  weather. 

Whether  water  or  dew  retted,  the  flax  will  require  the  operation  of 
"grassing,"  which  consists  in  opening  and  spreading  out  the  bundles  thin- 
ly upon  the  grass  land,  where  it  should  remain  from  one  to  two  weeks, 
whereby  the  boon  is  rendered  still  more  brittle.  When  well  dried,  the 
flax  must  be  tied  up  in  convenient-sized  bundles,  and  the  greatest  care 
must  be  taken  to  keep  the  root  ends  even  Avith  each  other.  If  this  be 
neglected,  the  flax  is  what  is  termed  "badly  handled,"  and  wastes  con- 
siderably more  in  the  subsequent  operations. 

A  much  more  scientific  mode  of  retting  has  recen+ly  been  introduced 
into  this  country  by  an  American  gentleman,  a  Mr.  Schenck,  who,  in  a 
comparatively  few  hours,  by  aid  of  artificial  heat,  has  succeeded  in  ret- 
ting flax  sufficiently.  As  this  improved  method  is  now  being  rapidly  ex- 
tended, under  the  auspices,  not  only  of  private  capitalists,  but  also  of 
public  companies,  the  following  description  of  it,  taken  from  the  last  re- 
port of  the  Royal  British  Flax  Association,  may  be  of  interest: 

"Mr.  Schenck's  method  consists  essentially  in  the  employment  of  hot 
"water.  It  is  strongly  recommended  by  the  Royal  Belfast  Flax  Society, 
"and  has  been  long  enough  in  operation  to  warrant  the  publication  of 


*  248 

"the  opinion  which  is  now  almost  universally  entertained  of  its  merits, 
"The  following  is  a  description  of  an  establishment  for  the  prosecution 
"of  Mr.  Schenck's  process,  situated  on  the  Newport  river,-  county  Mayo. 
"It  is  taken  from  a  report  on  the  subject  by  Mr.  M'Adam,  the  Secretary 
"of  the  Belfast  Society.  He  says,  'The  tenements,  containing  the  vats 
"and  drying  shelves,  are  simple  wooden  sheds,  of  cheap  construction.  In 
"  one  end  of  the  building  are  four  vats,  set  paralled  to  each  other,  the- 
"length  of  the  house.  They  are  made  of  inch  deal,  in  the  form  of  a 
"parallelogram,  fifty  feet  long,  six  broad,  and  four  deep.  There  are 
"false  bottoms  perforated  with  holes.  Underneath  these  are  introduced 
"the  steam  pipes,  crossing  the  vats,  and  having  stopcocks  at  their  en- 
"  trance,  by  which  the  steam  can  be  let  on  from  the  main  pipe,  as 
"required.  The  steam  is  generated  in  a  small  boiler,  which  also  serves 
"to  turn  two  hydro-extractors — a  patent  apparatus  used  to  drive  off  a 
"portion  of  the  water  with  which  the  flax  is  saturated,  on  being  taken 
"from  the  vats. 

"The  flax  is  packed  into  the  empty  vats,  on  the  butt  ends,  in  a  half 
"sloping  position,  precisely  as  in  the  case  of  a  steep  pool,  only  one  layer 
"being  the  depth.  The  water  is  then  let  in,  and  a  frame  fastened  over 
-"the  top  of  the  flax,  answering  the  end  of  stones  and  straw,  or  sods,  in 
"the  steep  pools — the  prevention  of  the  rising  of  the  flax  in  the  course 
"of  fermentation. 

"The  steam  is  then  let  into  the  pipes  by  turning  the  stop-cocks,  and 
"the  water  is  some  eighteen  or  twenty  hours  in  becoming  heated  to  the 
"desired  point,  85°  to  90".  The  fermentation  then  commences,  and  no 
"further  steam  is  required,  which  is  in  forty  hours  afterwards,  being 
"sixty  from  the  time  of  the  admission  of  the  water.  At  the  end  of  the 
"sixty  hours,  the  flax  is  taken  out,  the  water  allowed  to  run  off,  and  the 
*'vat  permitted  to  cool.  The  same  process  is  then  repeated,  with  fresh 
"water  and  fresh  flax.  When  taken  from  the  water  the  flax  is  packed 
*'in  the  hydro-extractor,  which  is  a  round  vessel  of  iron,  made  to  revolve 
"by  steam  power  with  great  velocity,  the  water  being  driven  out  of  the 
"flax  on  the  principle  of  centrifugal  force.  Thirty  beets  or  small  hand- 
"fuls  are  placed  in  this  machine  at  a  time,  and  about  twenty  lbs.  of  wa- 
"ter  are  extracted  in  three  to  five  minutes.  A  few  hours  suffice  for  the 
''contents  of  a  vat,  each  vat  containing  two  tons  of  flax  straw.  The 
"hydro-extractor  only  separates  a  portion  of  the  water;  the  flax  novr 
'•remains  to  be  thoroughly  dried.     In  summer,  or  indeed  for  six  months 


249 

*'in  the  year,  this  can  be  accomplished  as  usual  by  spreading  on  grass 
"land  in  the  open  air.  During  winter,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  find 
"other  means  of  drying.  A  shed  has,  therefore,  been  erected,  commu- 
"nicating  by  doors,  with  the  vat  house,  filled  with  ranges  of  shelves, 
"composed  simply  of  railings  of  lath  wood  in  five  or  six  tiers.  The  flax 
"is  spread  lightly  along  these  shelves  by  women,  and  the  house  is  heat- 
"edby  steam-pipes.  This  house  is  capable  of  drying  the  full  of  one 
"vat  per  diem.  The  flax  when  dried  is  made  up  in  small  beets  or  hand- 
"fuls,  of  a  size  suited  for  feeding  into  the  breaking  rollers  of  the  mill. 

"About  ten  vats  per  week  can  be  steeped  in  this  establishment,  say 
"  twenty  tons  weight  of  straw,  and  producing,  say  two-and-a-half  to  three 
**tons  of  fibre.  Thus,  in  one  year,  such  an  establishment  would  be 
"capable  of  turning  out  120  to  150  tons  of  flax  for  market,  being  the 
*' produce  of  400  to  500  statute  acres.  The  fuel  used  for  the  boilers  is 
"principally  'showes,'  with  a  small  quantity  of  turf.  Mr.  Bernard  esti- 
"  mates  the  cost  of  steepnig,  drying,  heating,  and  scutching  the  flax,  at 
*'£10  to  j£ll  per  ton,  which  is  £3  per  statute  acre.  Subtracting  say 
"  lOd.  per  stone,  or  6s.  per  cwt.  for  scutching,  the  cost  of  steeping  and 
"drying  would  thus  appear  to  be  about  24s.  per  acre, — a  sum  certainly 
"less  than  the  usual  estimates  of  these  operations,  as  commonly  per- 
" formed  by  farm  labor." 

Another  method  has  lately  attracted  much  attention,  being  supposed 
by  Mr.  Claussen,  the  inventor,  and  the  public  generally,  to  be  new.  Its 
intention  is  to  do  away  with  the  retting  or  fermenting  process  now  in  use, 
by  substituting  a  direct  chemical  action  of  c^ssolving  the  substances  that 
unite  the  fibres  to  the  wood  and  to  each  other.  This  he  endeavors  to 
effect  by  means  of  a  strong  caustic  alkaline  solution,  followed  by  a  slight 
acidulous  mixture.  After  this,  he  proposes  to  prepare  the  fibre  for  mix- 
ing with  cotton,  &c.,  by  cutting  it  into  short  lengths,  and  saturating  it 
with  a  solution  of  bi-carbonate  of  soda ;  it  is  then  taken  out  and  immers- 
ed in  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  The  action  of  the  acid  on  the  soda  contain- 
ed in  the  tubes  liberates  the  carbonic  acid,  the  expansive  power  of  which, 
causes  the  fibres  to  split  into  the  proper  degree  of  fineness.  The  idea  of 
producing  Flax  Cotton  from  ordinary  Flax,  Hemp,  and  Tow,  is  by  no 
means  new ;  a  description  of  a  process  for  eff"ecting  this  having  been  pub- 
lished in  the  Swedish  Transactions  for  1747,  and  the  subject  has  attract- 
ed much  attention  in  Germany  from  time  to  time.  Somewhat  later, 
BerthoUet,  in  his  Book  on  Dyeing,  describes  a  process  very  similar  to 

17 


250 

the  one  patented  by  Mr.  Claussen,  and  which,  from  the  curiosity  of  the 
coincidence,  may  perhaps  not  be  found  out  of  place  if  transferred  to  these 
pages.  It  runs  as  follows : — "A  mode  has  been  discovered  of  giving  to 
"the  dressed  hemp,  and  even  to  the  tow,  a  division  and  fineness  which 
"qualify  it  for  the  same  spinning  processes  as  cotton;  so  that  with  this 
"preparation  alone,  or  mixed  with  cotton,  stuffs  may  be  made  which 
"have  a  much  more  considerable  value  than  those  of  hemp  in  its  natural 
"state.  It  may  likewise  be  mixed  with  silk,  wool,  and  even  hair  ;  and  the 
"yarn  resulting  from  these  different  mixtures  furnishes,  in  its  numberless 
"variety,  materials  for  new  trials  interesting  to  the  arts  and  to  general 
"manufactures.     The  process  consists  of  the  following  operations: — 

"  1.  The  fibres  are  covered  with  water,  and  left  in  it  for  three  or  four 
"days  ;  after  which  they  are  boiled  in  simple  water. 

"  2.  They  are  treated  with  a  ley,  and  then  passed  into  the  oxygenated 
"muriatic  acid  ;  operations  which  should  be  repeated  alternately  four  times. 
"3.  The  fibres  are  now  transferred  into  a  bath  of  water,  charared  with 
"  1 -100th  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  left  in  it  for  half  an  hour. 

"  4.  The  fibres,  when  taken  out  of  this  bath,  are  washed  very  carefully, 
"and  plunged  in  soap  water.  They  are  then  stretched  out,  without 
"wringing,  on  hurdles,  and  left  to  dry." 

Amongst  other  observations  upon  the  process  above  described,  Ber- 
thollet  remarks  that,  "whether  the  finest  flax  or  the  coarsest  hemp  tow 
"be  employed,  filaments  equal  in  their  fineness  and  whiteness  are  obtained." 
Giobert,  in  his  "Bibliot.  Ital.,"  vol.  ii.,  gives  some  extended  and  exact 
observations  on  Berthollet's  process,  and  he  states  them  to  be  "the  re- 
"sult  of  operations  on  a  large  scale,  which  have  brought  into  the  market 
"cottony  cloth,  and  bales  of  this  hemp-cotton,  which  were  not  distinguish- 
"able  from  ordinary  cotton;"  from  which  it  appears  that  great  attention 
had  been  paid  to  the  subject,  and  considerable  expense  incurred  in  the 
experiments.  Judging,  however,  from  the  fact  that  these  so  similar  pro- 
cesses have  fallen  into  desuetude,  and  also  from  the  very  small  amount 
of  success  which  has  hitherto  attended  Mr.  Claussen's  eflforts,  we  may 
be  justified  in  expressing  the  opinion  that  no  very  beneficial  or  profitable 
results  are  to  be  looked  for,  and  that  the  manufacture  of  flax,  as  at  pre- 
sent conducted,  will  not  be  thereby  in  the  least  degree  affected. 

After  the  flax  has  been  "retted,"  there  still  remain,  in  order  to  bring 
it  into  the  fibrous  state,  two  operations  to  be  performed,  termed  "break- 
ing" and  "scutching."     In  order  the  more  perfectly  to  perform  the  Erst 


.     251         , 

of  these,  the  bunches  of  flax  must  be  brought  to  a  suitable  degree  of 
dryness  and  crispness,  as  the  object  of  crushing  and  breaking  the  "boon"' 
into  short  lengths  is  thus  more  completely  attained,  and  the  subsequent 
separation  of  the  fragments  from  the  fibre  facilitated.  The  ordinary  and 
primitive  hand  machine  is  extremely  simple,  but  not  so  effective  as  that 
now  generally  in  use,  which  consists  of  a  series  of  pairs  of  fluted  rollers-, 
the  rollers  of  each  pair  being  placed  vertically  to  one  another.  These 
rollers  are  of  iron,  about  two  feet  long  and  one  foot  diameter,  and  are' 
horizontally  placed  nearly  to  touch  each  other ;  each  succeeding  pair,  from 
that  end  of  the  machine  where  the  flax  enters,  is  made  with  somewhat 
finer  flutes  than  the  preceding  one,  and  revolves  at  a  somewhat  slower 
speed,  in  order  that  the  '"boon"  may  be  more  effectually  broken.  Con- 
venient-sized handfuls  of  flax  are  placed  upon  a  board  in  front  of  the 
first  pair  of  rollers,  (great  care  still  being  taken  to  keep  the  wool  ends 
level, )  and  are  pushed  endways  into  the  bite,  by  which  means  they  are 
conducted  to  the  next  pair,  and  so  on  till  they  finally  emerge  on  to  an 
inclined  plank  behind  the  last  pair  of  rollers,  from  whence  they  are  col- 
lected and  arranged  by  a  second  attendant,  and  delivered  to  the  scutcher. 
The  scutching  is  performed,  both  by  hand  and  by  machinery,  by  beating 
the  stricks  in  the  direction  of  their  length,  so  as  to  divest  the  fibres  of  all 
their  extraneous  matter.  By  hand,  this  operation  is  performed  by  grasp- 
ing convenient  portions  in  the  left  hand  near  the  middle,  and  passing 
them  into  a  transversal  slit  cut  in  an  upright  board ;  the  flax  is  struck 
repeated  blows  with  the  edge  of  a  flat  piece  of  wood,  formed  something 
like  a  sword,  being  turned  from  time  to  time  during  the  operation,  and 
when  one  end  is  sufficiently  cleaned,  the  ends  are  changed.  By  this 
method,  however,  a  man  cannot  clean  more  than  five  to  seven  pounds 
per  day ;  therefore  the  following  machine  is  preferable,  as  by  its  assist- 
ance four  or  five  times  the  work  can  be  accomplished  in  the  same  time, 
and  by  an  inferior  class  of  work-people.  This  machine  consists  of  a 
number  of  circular  discs,  upon  each  of  which  are  fixed  the  sword  or 
scutching  blades,  the  slitted  boards  being  still  retained  to  support  the 
flax,  as  well  as  to  protect  the  workman's  hand.  It  is  better  to  employ 
three  discs  to  work  together,  following  each  other,  by  which  means  the 
tow  can  be  sorted  into  three  different  qualities  by  the  machine  itself,  and 
the  position  of  the  blades  can  thus  be  varied  so  as  to  act  in  different  ways 
upon  the  strick.  After  being  thus  scutched,  the  flax  is  sorted  and  tied 
up  in  bundles,  in  which  state  it  is  ready  for  the  spinner's  use. 


/ 


252 

THE  CULTURE  OF  VEGETABLES  AS  FARM  PRODUCTS. 
BY  JOHN  W.  PROCTOR,  DAN  VERS,  MASS. 

Grass,  grain  and  vegetables  are  tlie  staple  products  of  the  farms  of 

l^ew  England.     The  culture  of  vegetables  includes  all  that  class  of  plants 

growing  annually,  such  as  beets,  carrots,   parsnips,   turnips,  &c.,  which 

are  chiefly  used  for  the  feeding  of  stock.     Experience  in  the  growth  of 

these  ihas  shown  a  much  more  valuable  produce  than  can  be  obtained 

from  grass  or  grain.     Rarely  will  the  gross  value  of  an  acre  of  grass  or 

grain  exceed  the  sum  of  fifty  dollars  :  when  the  nett  proceeds  of  an  acre, 

of  vegetables,  after  deducting  all  expenses,  often  amounts  to  one  hundred 

dollars.     The  growing  of  vegetables  has  greatly  increased  within  the 

last  thirty  years,   and  is  destined  to  increase  further,  as  their  culture 

:  and  comparative  value  is  better  understood.     It  is  not  my  purpose  to  go 

.fully  into  this  culture,  but  simply  to  notice  such  facts  as  have  come  under 

^my  own  observation,  and  such  as  have  a  tendency  to  show  the  benefits 

to  be  derived  from  their  culture. 

The  carrot  is  very  generally  cultivated,  though  not  in  large  quantities. 
Rarely  do  the  fields  of   carrots    exceed  one  acre ;  they  are  generally 
less.     Twenty  or  more  tons  are  grown  to  the  acre,  when  the  land  is  pro- 
perly prepared.     After  they  have  been  twice  hoed  and  weeded,  their  tops 
spread  and  cover  the  ground,   so  that  weeds  find  little  opportunity  to 
grow.     They  are  generally  sowed  in  rows,  about  fourteen  inches  apart, 
and  thinned  out,  so  as  to  leave  the  plants  four  or  five  inches  apart.    "When 
thus  arranged  in  a  good  soil,  and  well  prepared,  the  roots  will  so  expand 
as  to  touch  each  other,  and  yield  nearly  three  plants  to  each  square  foot 
of  land,  or  thirty  tons  to  the  acre.      I  have  known  thirty-four  or  thirty- 
six  tons  to  the  acre  to  be  produced  in  the  county  of  Essex,  Massachusetts. 
Col.  Pickering  says:     "I  am  inclined  to  think  a  preferable  mode  would 
be  to  sow  the  seeds  in  double  rows,  about  ten  inches  apart,  with  inter- 
vals of  three  feet  between  the  double  rows.      In  this  case  a  deep  furrow 
being  opened  by  the  plow,  the  manure  should  be  regularly  thrown  into 
it,  and  covered  by  four  back  furrows,  so  forming  a  ridge  over  the  manure ; 
and  the  ridge  being  laid  level,  by  a  light  harrow  or  roller,  will  then  be 
ready  to  receive  the  seed." 

The  short,  chunky,  yellow  carrot  is  the  kind  generally  preferred,  both 
for  quantity  and  quality,  and  because  it  is  more  readily  harvested.    Car- 


253 

rots  are  used  for  feeding  horses,  cows,  and  every  species  of  stock,  and 
generally  estimated,  per  hundred  pounds,  about  half  the  value  of  English 
hay.  The  present  season  they  sell  readily  at  from  nine  to  twelve  dollars 
per  ton — hay  selling  at  twenty-four  dollars.  Carrots  are  considered  .a 
good  preparative  of  the  ground  for  other  crops,  particularly  the  onion. 
In  some  instances,  carrots  are  grown  in  intermediate  rows,  between  the 
rows  of  onions,  and  then  fair  crops  of  both  are  obtained  from  the  ground 
at  the  same  time,  but  we  do  not  believe  such  a  mode  of  cultivation 
desirable. 

The  Beet,  in  its  several  varieties  of  mangel-wurtzel,  sugar-beet,  and 
blood-beet,  is  much  praised,  and  often  recommended  as  a  valuable  escu- 
lent for  the  support  of  stock.  Mr.  Colman,  in  his  European  Agricul- 
ture, vol.  II.,  p.  503,  so  speaks  of  it.  Occasionally  large  crops,  amount- 
ing to  thirty  tons  to  the  acre,  have  been  obtained.  Still,  for  some  cause 
or  other,  it  is  not  extensively  cultivated.  Those  who  have  grown  them 
a  few  years  are  apt  to  discontinue  the  cultivation.  That  the  beet  is  one 
of  the  most  nutritive  and  palatable  of  vegetables  cannot  be  denied- 
Accurate  experiments,  continued  for  a  series  of  weeks,  have  demonstra- 
ted that  cattle  fed  on  beets  will  gain  twice  as  much  as  when  fed  on  the 
same  quantity  of  turnips.  Beets  will  not  do  well,  year  after  year,  on  the 
same  soil ;  and  no  crop,  to  my  knowledge,  is  favored  by  the  growth  of 
the  beet.  It  may  be  considered  a  great  exhauster  of  the  nutritive  quali- 
ties of  the  soil.     It  demands  deep  culture,  and  liberal  manuring. 

The  turnip,  with  many,  is  the  "crop  of  crops" — the  one  thing  need- 
ful on  the  farm.  In  England,  it  appears  to  be  an  almost  indispensable 
part  of  their  cultivation.  Such  has  been  the  impression  of  citizens  of 
'New  England,  who  have  visited  that  country ;  such  was  the  impression 
of  the  farmer  of  Marshfield,  on  his  return  from  it.  I  remember  to  have 
heard  him  dilate  on  the  turnip-culture  of  England,  with  eloquence  most 
persuasive.  His  practice  has  corresponded  with  his  professions.  No 
one,  who  has  visited  his  extensive  fields  at  Marshfield,  can  have  failed  to 
notice  his  verdant  acres  of  English  turnips,  growing  in  neatly  arranged 
TOWS,  and  yielding  a  dozen  or  more  tons  to  the  acre,  even  on  that  shal- 
low soil.  How  much  of  a  dressing  from  the  sea-shore  had  been  applied^ 
I  will  not  say,  I  think  it  must  have  been  liberal. 

The  ruta-baga,  or  Swedish  turnip,  is  the  variety  that  finds  most  favor 
in  this  vicinity.  It  is  often  grown  in  great  abundance,  with  less  expense 
than  most  other  roots.    This,  like  every  other  variety  of  turnip,  is  exposed 


254 

to  the  ravages  of  insects,  which  materially  lessens  the  crop.  A  small  black 
&j,  and  in  dry  se.isons,  plant  lice,  are  often  extremely  annoying  to  the 
culture  of  the  turnip.  It  is  not  easy  to  find  any  crop  that  will  not  have 
some  items  on  both  sides  of  the  account,  when  fairly  stated.  On  the 
whole,  it  is  believed  that  the  culture  of  the  turnip,  in  its  several  varieties, 
is  destined  to  be  an  essential  part  of  New  England  husbandry ;  and 
where  better  understood,  to  be  more  admired.  The  labor  and  expense 
of  growing  turnips  is  much  less  than  other  vegetables.  Accurate  esti- 
mates, by  Mr.  Brewer,  of  Springfield,  Mass.,  the  last  season,  show  the 
costs  of  turnips,  to  be  only  one-third  that  of  carrots,  and  carrots  can  be 
grown  quite  as  cheap  as  beets,  taking  several  years  together. 

The  parsnip  is  a  highly  nutritious  vegetable ;  readily  grown,  and  an 
abundant  producer.  I  have  known  square  rods  of  this  vegetable  as  pro- 
ductive as  any  other.  Why  it  is  not  more  generally  cultivated,  I  cannot 
explain.  Mr.  Colman  says  he  has  looked  in  vain  for  it,  among  the  Eng- 
lish farmers,  but  understands  it  to  be  grown  in  abundance  in  some  of  the 
islands  adjacent  to  England.  That  it  may  be  grown  with  good  success, 
in  deep,  rich  soil,  I  cannot  doubt;  and  that  it  is  worthy  the  attention  of 
cultivators,  I  have  great  confidence. 

For  productive  value,  as  a  farm  crop,  no  vegetable  within  my  know- 
ledge can  be  compared  with  the  Onion.  This  has  been  treated  so  fully, 
in  an  essay  published  in  1845,  that  little  can  now  be  said  respecting  it. 
Still,  as  what  was  then  said,  has  to  some  seemed  almost  incredible,  it  may 
be  useful  to  re-affirm  what  is  certainly  known  from  long  and  continued 
observation.  The  culture  of  the  onion  may  be  continued  on  the  same 
ground  for  an  indefinite  length  of  time,  with  proper  attention  to  pulveri- 
zation of  the  soil,  and  manuring.  It  is  a  mistaken  idea  to  suppose 
because  the  bulb  of  the  onion  grows  on  the  surface,  that  the  soil  does 
not  need  stirring  beneath.  Any  one,  who  will  take  the  trouble  to  exam- 
ine, will  find  the  tender  fibres  of  the  plant  extending  to  the  depth  of  twelve 
inches,  at  least,  where  the  ground  has  been  properly  prepared.  It  is  one 
of  those  crops,  that  in  a  peculiar  manner,  reward  diligence  and  care  in 
its  culture.  The  great  secret  of  the  success,  in  this  culture,  in  the  East- 
ern part  of  Massachusetts — where  five,  six,  seven,  and  even  eight  hun- 
dred bushels  to  the  acre  are  raised — is  to  be  found  almost  entirely  in  the 
care  applied,  and  not  in  any  peculiar  quality  of  the  soil.  Any  land  that 
will  grow  Indian  corn,  with  proper  management,  will  grow  onions.  In 
many  places,  it  is  thought  that  onions  cannot  be  grown  on  their  soil,  and 


255 


accordingly  their  supplies  are  procured  from  abroad.  Hundreds,  I  may- 
say  thousands,  of  bushels  are  sent  annually  from  this  county  to  Vermont. 
I  have  known  one  hundred  thousand  barrels  of  this  vegetable  to  be 
grown  in  a  single  year,  at  the  town  of  Danvers,  in  which  I  reside;  occa- 
sionally the  crop  is  cut  off  by  insects. 


ON  THE  BLIGHT  AND    CULTURE   OF  THE  POTATOE. 
BY  JOHN  TOWNLEY,  MOUNDVILLE,  MARQUETTE  CO.,  "WIS. 

A  celebrated  French  naturalist,  whose  vanity  kept  pace  with  his  ac- 
quirements, desired  to  have  inscribed  on  his  tomb,  "a  genius  equal  to  the 
majesty  of  nature,"  but,  as  was  well  said,  a  blade  of  grass  was  sufficient 
to  confound  his  pretensions. 

Great  undoubtedly  is  the  progress  made  in  science  and  art  during  the 
present  century  :  "we  travel  by  vapor,  correspond  by  lightning,  and  paint 
■with  the  sun  ;  yet  amid  all  our  boasted  achievements,  now  and  again  cir- 
cumstances arise  as  if  to  remind  us  of  the  still  limited  extent  of  our  intel- 
lectual vision,  that  we  yet  see  as  through  a  glass  darkly.  We  have  wit- 
nessed, for  instance,  the  potatoe  plant  suddenly  stricken  with  disease;  the 
leaves  prematurely  shrivelled  and  died ;  the  food  of  the  people  perished. 
The  mysterious  visitation  formed  a  prominent  topic  in  speeches  from 
thrones — in  debates  of  legislators,  and  in  leaders  of  newspapers.  Essays 
and  treatises,  almost  without  number,  were  written  on  the  subject,  and 
when  we  call  to  mind  the  various  conjectures  which  have  been  hazarded; 
the  explanations  which  have  been  advanced  to  account  for  the  malady, 
surely  there  is  cause  for  humiliation.  In  no  country  was  greater 
excitement  caused  by  the  disease  than  in  Britain ;  the  loss  of  the  crop 
there  in  one  season  was  of  the  estimated  value  of  upwards  of  ^50,000,000, 
and  hundreds  of  human  beings  who  had  subsisted  chiefly  on  potatoes 
were  hurried  to  premature  graves.  The  Government  was  necessarily 
alarmed  and  perplexed  at  the  appearance  of  so  formidable  an  evil.  What 
•can  be  the  cause  of  it?  How  long  is  it  likely  to  continue?  Can  we  by 
any  means  subdue  or  prevent  it?  were  their  anxious  inquiries.  Unable 
to  solve  these  questions  themselves,  they  appointed  a  Royal  Commission 
to  inquire  into  the  matter.  Grave  savans,  botanists,  chemists,  doctors  of 
philosophy,  proceed  to  Ireland;  they  inquire  into  the  condition  of  the 


256 

potatoe  in  the  field ;  select  and  take  some  specimens  ;  these  were  exam- 
ined with  the  microscope ;  probed  with  the  dissecting  knife  ;  dried  in  wa- 
ter baths ;  treated  with  reagents ;  burned  in  crucibles ;  their  very  dust 
was  analysed ;  finally  the  Doctors  compared  notes ;  the  mountain  brought 
forth  its  mouse ;  they  pronounced  the  disease  to  be  temporary,  arising 
chiefly  from  cold,  cloudy,  wet  weather.  The  sagacious  Sir  Robert  Peel, 
however,  who  was  then  at  the  helm  of  affairs,  had  obviously  little  faith 
in  their  conclusions  ;  he  manfully  avowed  in  his  place  in  parliament  his 
conviction  that  the  disease  was  not  likely  to  be  transitory  in  its  duration 
— that  the  people  must  have  bread — the  corn  laws  must  be  abolished. 

The  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England  offered  premiums  for  the 
discovery  of  the  cause  of  the  disease  and  its  remedy,  and  knoAving  how 
much  misery  had  then  been  produced,  and  believing  as  I  did  most  firmly 
that  the  disease  was  not  of  a  temporary  character,  nor  yet  owing  solely 
or  even  chiefly  to  anything  peculiar  in  the  weather,  and  fearing  that  the 
Agricultural  Society  should  coincide  with  the  views  of  the  Royal  Com- 
mission, I  had  the  temerity  to  write  to  the  Council  of  the  Society  on  the 
subject,  not  with  a  view  to  compete  for  their  premiums,  as  I  told  them 
knowing  that  I  was  precluded  by  one  condition,  but  trusting  the  facts  I 
had  to  communicate  might  prove  useful  to  them  in  forming  their  decision. 
I  quoted  authorities,  proving  : 

1st.  That  the  potatoe  was  formerly  considered  the  palladium  against 
famine,  producing  with  certainty  tolerable  crops  in  adverse  seasons  when 
most  other  crops  were  deficient,  and  that  the  failure  had  occurred  in  a 
year  when  all  other  crops,  wheat  perhaps  excepted,  were  abundant. 

2d.  That  a  moist  season,  such  a  one  as  suited  the  oat  crop,  had 
hitherto  been  found  most  favorable  to  the  growth  of  the  potatoe,  and 
the  oat  crop  of  1845  was  one  of  the  most  abundant  ever  reaped  in  the 
country. 

3d.  That  a  reference  to  meteororological  tables  and  to  agricultural  re- 
ports, proved  that  the  summer  of  1829  in  England  was  so  cold,  nearly 
twice  as  wet,  more  cloudy,  and  much  more  unfavorable  to  vegetation  gen- 
erally, than  the  summer  of  1845,  yet  no  such  disease  of  the  potatoe  was 
then  developed. 

4th.  That  the  disease  did  not  appear  simultaneously  throughout  the 
country,  like  the  diseases  of  animals,  arising  from  a  peculiar  state  of  the 
weather,  but  like  the  epidemic  diseases  of  animals,  it  commenced  on  its. 
first  appearance,  at  a  certain  point  and  travelled,. 


257 

5th.  That  the  disease  was  experienced  in  Kent  in  the  autumn  of  the 
fine  dry  summer  of  1844;  and  nearly  destroyed  the  whole  crop  in  a  part 
of  the  United  States,  in  the  midst  of  an  intense  and  long-continued 
drought. 

6th.  That  it  had  been  experienced  in  St.  Helena,  an  island  within  the 
tropics,  five  or  six  years,  and  in  North  America  three  or  four  years  in 
succession  ;  I  inquired  if  it  was  proved,  or  could  be  considered  probable, 
that  precisely  the  same  adverse  weather  had  been  experienced  in  so 
many  different  countries  so  far  apart,  and  this  for  the  first  time  during 
the  two  centuries,  the  plant  had  been  in  cultivation. 

Burns  sings  "facts  are  chiels  that  winna  ding  and  dare  na  be  dispu- 
ted." These  however  Avere  of  no  avail.  The  Royal  Agricultural  Society 
endorsed  the  opinion  of  the  Royal  Commission,  the  malady  was  the 
result  of  the  cloudy  and  wet  weather  of  the  summer  of  1845;  but  in  the 
following  season,  however,  which  was  comparatively  bright,  the  disease 
was  again  developed ;  every  year,  indeed,  from  its  first  introduction,  it 
has  been  experienced  more  or  less,  and  in  the  last  season,  as  I  learn  from 
the  press,  and  from  private  sources,  it  has  been  as  virulent  as  ever  in 
England. 

Some  have  supposed  that  frost  was  the  cause  of  the  disease,  as  if  it 
had  become  icy  cold  in  so  many  countries,  especially  in  St.  Helena  and 
Madeira.  Thunder  and  lightning  have  been  charged  with  this  grave 
offence,  as  if  there  had  been  no  thunder  for  200  years  before.  Guano 
was  condemned  by  many,  as  though  the  disease  had  only  appeared  where 
guano  was  applied.  Telegraph  wires  were  shrewdly  suspected  of  hav- 
ing something  to  do  with  the  mischief — a  plausible  explanation,  seeing 
that  the  appearance  of  the  wires  and  the  disease  were  nearly  contempo- 
raneous. With  many,  insects  were  considered  to  be  the  cause.  A  doc- 
tor detected  some  aphides  peculiar  to  the  turnip,  strolling  over  a  potatoe 
leaf,  they  tasted  here  and  sipped  there,  but  did  not,  as  he  remarked,  sit 
down  quietly  to  their  victuals,  as  when  on  the  turnip  plant.  He  stated 
that  they  evidently  preferred  the  turnip  to  the  potatoe,  said  they  had  the 
power  of  destroying  both  plants;  and  yet,  in  1845,  when  the  potatoe  was 
first  extensively  blighted,  the  turnip  crop  was  so  abundant  and  excellent 
generally,  that  in  many  instances,  turnips  had  to  be  sliced  and  put  upon 
the  land  as  manure,  for  the  want  of  stock  to  consume  them ;  yet  despite 
of  this  important  fact,  a  costly  volume  was  published,  to  make  us  believe 
that  the  turnip  aphis  was  the  cause  of  the  potatoe  blight. 


258 

There  was  one  explanation,  however,  advanced  on  the  first  outbreak 
of  the  malady  in  Europe,  which  carried  conviction  to  my  mind,  that  the 
immediate  or  exciting  cause  of  the  disease  was  discovered  beyond  boubt, 
and  I  will  briefly  explain  the  facts,  which  I  consider  conclusive  on  that 
point. 

The  disease  was  attributed  by  the  Rev.  M.  J.  Berkeley  of  England, 
Prof.  Morren  of  Belgium,  and  I  think  M.  Payen  of  France,  to  the  attack 
of  a  minute  parasitic  fungus,  Botrytis  iyi/estans.  Before  I  proceed  farther 
it  may  be  well  to  explain  the  habits  of  fungi,  and  how  they  injure  plants. 
Some  species  flourish  on  decaying  matter  and  hasten  its  decay.  The 
blue  mould  observed  in  stale  bread  affords  a  familiar  instance.  Others 
spring  from  the  living  tissue  of  plants  and  destroy  it.  Of  the  parasitic 
tribe,  the  rust  and  smut  of  wheat  are  well  known  examples.  The  Ruta- 
baga, if  grown  on  a  dry  soil  in  this  climate,  appears  liable  to  mildew.  The 
lower  leaves  may  be  seen  to  shrivel  prematurely  and  die,  and  this,  as  I 
have  observed,  may  take  place  repeatedly,  so  that  the  leaves  instead  of 
springing  nearly  direct  from  the  crown  of  the  root,  are  elevated  on  a 
short  stalk,  and  these  roots  are  not  unfrequently  hollow  and  decaying. 

The  way  fungi  effect  the  destruction  of  plants  is  this  :  the  substance  of 
a  plant  is  composed  of  minute  cells  and  vessels — cellular  and  vascular 
tissue.  Some  contain  air,  some  convey  the  crude  sap,  and  others  are  de- 
positories in  which  the  elaborated  products  of  the  plant  are  stored  up. 
While  the  plant  is  living  and  in  health  the  varied  contents  of  the  tissue 
are  under  the  control  of  vitality,  but  when  attacked  by  a  fungus  the  cells 
are  ruptured  by  its  mycelium  or  spawn,  the  contents  are  mixed  together, 
released  from  the  controlling  power  of  vitality,  and  become  subject  to  the 
laws  of  chemical  affinity ;  hence,  putrefaction  and  death  of  the  part  at- 
tacked ensues.  Most  will  have  observed  white  threads  or  filaments  run- 
ning through  decaying  horse  manure,  this  is  the  plant  of  some  fungus, 
suppose  a  mushroom,  the  mushroom  which  rises  to  the  surface  is  the 
fructification,  the  reproductive  part  of  the  plant  which  contains  bodies 
analgous  to  the  seeds  of  plants  of  higher  organism.  When  first  the  po- 
tatoe  plants  are  attacked  by  the  parasite,  small  brown  blotches  may  be 
noticed  on  the  leaves,  generally  towards  the  edge ;  if  these  are  carefully 
observed  they  will  be  found  to  increase  gradually  in  size,  and  on  a  moist 
dewy  morning,  or  in  damp  weather,  there  may  be  perceived  just  outside 
the  margin  of  the  blotch  on  the  underside  of  the  leaf,  a  greyish  appear- 
ance, this  is  caused  by  the  fructification  of  the  parasite.     It  commences 


259 

at  a  poiut,  and  its  spawn  spreads  like  fire  in  nitrous  paper.  So  exceed- 
ingly small  is  the  plant  that  with  the  aid  of  a  good  lens  I  am  not  able  to 
see  the  fructification  distinctly,  but  when  examined  with  the  higher  pow- 
ers of  the  compound  microscope  it  is  a  beautiful  object,  the  fructification 
having  something  of  the  appearance  of  bunches  of  grapes — hence  the 
generic  name  Botrytis. 

In  an  inquiry  like  this,  it  is  a  matter  of  some  consequence  to  know  the 
qualifications  of  the  men  who  decided  that  a  fungus  is  the  cause  of  the 
potatoe  blight.  Were  they  qualified  by  their  previous  knowledge  and  by 
their  opportunities  to  be  competent  observers  ? 

The  Commissioners  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  matter  by  Sir  Robert 
Peel,  of  whom  the  celebrated  botanist,  Prof.  Lindley,  was  one,  acknow- 
ledged that  Mr.  Berkeley  was  eminent  above  all  other  naturalists  of 
Britain  for  his  knowledge  of  the  habits  of  fungi.  When  the  disease  ap- 
peared in  England  in  1845,  Mr.  Berkeley  was  residing  in  the  country  in 
the  midst  of  potatoe  fields.  On  the  23rd  of  August  Dr.  Lindley  pub- 
lished an  article,  in  which  he  hastily  and  most  unfortunately  ascribed  the 
rot  to  atmospheric  influences,  to  the  cold,  cloudy,  and  wet  nature  of  the 
season.  On  the  26th  of  August,  Mr.  Berkeley  received  from  his  friend. 
Dr.  Montague,  of  Paris,  some  potatoe  leaves  infested  with  the  parasite, 
and  at  that  date  Mr.  Berkeley  wrote  to  Dr.  Lindley  apprising  him  of  this, 
and  said,  that  he  had  inquired  in  every  direction  and  could  hear  of  no 
tidings  of  the  disease  in  his  neighborhood,  and  that  his  own  crops  were 
never  more  abundant  or  finer.  A  few  days  afterwards  the  disease  reached 
Korth  amp  ton  shire,  and  Mr.  Berkeley,  like  Prof.  Morren,  followed  its 
progress  in  various  potatoe  fields.  The  result  of  his  observations  at  that 
time  and  afterwards  may  be  briefly  summed  up.  He  found  that  the  same 
fungus  which  had  been  forv/arded  to  him  by  Dr.  Montague,  from  France, 
which  Prof.  Morren  found  preying  upon  the  plants  in  Belgium,  and 
which  was  a  species  new  to  all  of  them,  in  every  case  preceded  the 
work  of  destruction.  It  attacked  the  leaves  when  green,  or  yellowish 
green,  and  caused  them  to  decay.  The  attack  on  the  leaves  preceded 
the  putrefaction  of  the  stems.  The  partial  decay  of  the  stems  preceded 
the  decay  of  the  tubers,  and  those  tubers  nearest  the  stem  or  surface  of 
the  soil  were  generally  first  tainted ;  and  the  same  mould  which  springs 
from  the  substance  of  the  leaves  uniformly  bursts  forth  from  the  tubors 
exactly  at  the  spot  where  the  decay  originates.  That  the  mould  pro- 
ceeds from  within,  Mr.  Berkeley  can  state  from  personal  observation,  and 


260 

he  believes  it  to  be  a  fact  that  it  could  not  establish  itself  on  a  decayed 
substance.  The  parasitical  fungus,  botrytis  infestans,  is,  therefore,  to  my 
mind,  most  unquestionably  the  immediate  cause  of  the  potatoe  blight. — 
It  is  well  known  to  be  a  power  perfectly  adequate  to  accomplish  the  eflfect 
under  certain  conditions. 

It  may  be  well  to  notice  the  chief  objections  which  have  been  urged 
against  this  explanation.  Many  assert  that  fungi  have  not  the  power  to 
destroy  plants  :  and  even  well-informed  men,  certainly  not  botanists,  but 
men  having  some  pretensions  to  scientific  knowledge,  have  said  that 
fungi  prey  upon  decaying  matter  only,  therefore,  it  is  to  them  incompre- 
hensible how  they  could  possibly  cause  the  disease.  But  instead  of  prov- 
ing the  fungal  theory  to  be  erroneous  by  such  statements,  they  only 
proved  their  own  ignorance  of  facts  of  every-day  occurrence,  for  no 
truth  can  be  better  established,  than  that  some  species  of  fungi  do 
attack  plants  before  there  has  been  any  visible  appearance  of  decay,  that 
they  spring  from  the  living  tissue  and  destroy  it. 

Others  have  said  that  in  order  to  have  produced  the  disease  of  1845, 
the  fungus  must  have  attacked  every  plant,  and  some  fields  in  an 
unhealthy  condition  were  examined,  without  finding  the  least  trace  of  it. 
I  have  noticed  fields  of  potatoes  in  a  diseased  state  which  was  obviously 
not  due  to  the  fungus ;  the  symptoms  were  altogether  different.  But 
then,  I  have  examined  field  after  field  for  miles,  attacked  by  the  mildew ; 
I.  have  seen  the  parasite  commencing  its  ravages ;  I  have  seen  crops, 
which  at  the  first  glance,  presented  an  uniform  healthy  appearance,  when 
the  lower  leaves  on  examination  were  found  to  be  attacked  by  the  para- 
site. And  because,  I  have  met  with  instances  of  disease  not  apparently 
caused  by  the  fungus,  am  I  then  to  conclude,  despite  the  evidence  of  my 
own  senses,  and  of  the  testimony  of  observers  like  Berkeley  and  Morren, 
that  the  fungus,  botrytis  infestans,  is  not  the  immediate  cause  of  the 
blight  ?  The  only  conclusion  that  I  feel  justified  in  arriving  at,  is,  that 
another  disease  co-exists  with  that  of  the  blight.  The  potatoe  has,  indeed, 
been  afi'ected  by  several  distinct  diseases  of  late  years,  and  it  is  owing  to 
the  want  of  a  knowledge  of  this,  and  to  the  vain  attempt  to  find  one 
cause,  which  will  account  for  all  the  forms  of  disease  that  have  tended 
so  much  to  perplex  the  question.  If  cholera  was  decimating  the  popu- 
lation of  a  country,  and  a  man  were  to  find  in  certain  localities,  cases  of 
typhus  and  scarlatina,  would  it  be  considered  a  valid  objection  that 


261 

cholera  could  not  be  the  cause  of  the  epidemic,  or  excess  of  mortality, 
because  some  were  affected  with  other  diseases. 

The  English  Commissioners  doubted  whether  fungi  were  the  cause  of 
the  disease.  The  theory  did  not  appear  to  them  well  established ;  not 
because  botrytts  infestans  is  a  species  of  fungus  which  preys  exclusively 
on  decaying  matter,  and  not  a  parasite  which  produces  decay  ;  but,  said 
they,  "if  fungi  were  the  original  cause  of  the  disease,  it  is  difficult  to 
conceive  why  fields  of  potatoes,  placed  very  near  each  other,  should  be 
differently  affected,  or  why  certain  varieties  of  the  plant  should  be  much 
less  injured  than  others."  But  what  reasoning  is  this  ?  Surely  it  did  not 
occur  to  them  that  this  objection  might  be  urged  with  equal  force  against 
their  own  explanation  of  adverse  weather.  Might  we  not  as  reasonably 
object  that  fungi  could  not  be  the  cause  of  a  patch  of  mildewed  wheat 
because  the  whole  field  was  not  attacked.  And  the  fact  that  the  varie- 
ties which  the  Commissioners  said  had  offered  the  greatest  resistance  to 
the  disease  were  previously  known  to  possess  greater  constitutional  vigor 
than  those  which  signally  failed,  was  sufficient  to  account  for  the  different 
powers  of  the  parasite  over  these  varieties. 

The  Commissioners  were  also  "unable  to  reconcile  with  the  theory  of 
the  disease  being  caused  by  fungi,  the  remarkable  fact  that  in  its  present 
form  it  is  certainly  of  modern  origin.  We  must  assume  the  botrytis  to 
have  been  co-existent  with  the  potatoe  itself,  and  therefore  we  must  con- 
clude that  some  recent  causes  must  have  come  into  operation  favorable  to 
its  increase  to  the  present  alarming  degree."  But  why  these  "ifs  and 
doubts,"  upon  a  point  which  is  capable  of  being  decided  by  direct  obser- 
vation? If  the  fungus  be  a  true  parasite  and  not  a  species  which  preys 
on  decaying  matter  only,  what  does  it  matter  whether  we  can  understand 
or  not  why  different  fields  or  varieties  of  potatoes  should  be  differently 
affected,  or  why  the  disease  had  not  before  been  developed?  If  the 
foundation  be  secure — if  the  main  fact  be  placed  beyond  dispute,  which 
is  the  first  thing  to  be  considered,  we  may  then  be  assured  that  all  our 
doubts  admit  of  being  satisfactorily  explained,  and  our  next  endeavors 
should  be  to  find  these  explanations ;  to  discover,  if  possible,  what  are 
the  causes  which  have  recently  come  into  operation,  favorable  to  the 
increase  of  the  parasite  to  the  present  alarming  degree,  and  not  to  doubt 
the  habits  and  power  of  the  parasite,  simply  because  we  cannot  immedi- 
ately find  these  explanations. 

As  if,  however,  no  longer  to  leave  any  room  for  doubt  or  cavil  on  this 


262 

point,  Mr.  Berkeley,  in  his  elaborate  treatise  published  in  the  London 
Horticultural  Society's  Transactions  for  January,  1846,  said  in  language 
as  plain  and  decisive  as  it  is  possible  for  language  to  be,  "The  decay  is 
the  consequence  of  the  presence  of  the  mould,  and  not  the  mould  of  the 
decay.  It  is  not  the  habit  of  the  allied  species  to  prey  on  decaying  or 
decayed  matter,  but  to  produce  decay ;  a  fact  which  is  of  the  first  impor- 
tance. Though  so  many  other  species  have  this  habit,  these  have  not.'* 
Again,  "  I  do  not  know  of  any  single  instance  in  which  any  of  the  nearly 
allied  species  have  been  found  in  any  other  situation  than  growing  from 
the  tissues  of  plants.  Were  this  ever  the  case,  they  could  not  have  been 
overlooked,  as  their  pores  are  so  much  larger  than  any  other  species  of 
the  genus.  The  species  are,  in  fact,  as  peculiar  to  the  living  tissues  of 
plants  as  are  the  several  species  of  Puccinia  and  Uredo,  which  could  not 
exist,  or  at  any  rate  be  perfected,  elsewhere. 

My  task  now  is  to  explain,  if  possible,  why  the  disease  is  certainly  of 
modern  origin,  and  what  causes  have  come  into  operation  favorable  to 
the  increase  of  the  parasite  to  the  present  alarming  degree. 

Different  plants,  as  well  as  different  animals,  have  their  peculiar  para- 
sites. Some  parasitical  fungi  will  indeed  prey  upon  many  difterent 
plants,  but  the  attack  of  a  species  is  generally  confined  to  a  certain  natu- 
ral order  or  family  of  plants,  or  to  a  genus,  or  to  two  or  three  species  of 
a  genus,  whilst  some,  as  with  parasites  in  the  animal  kingdom,  exist  on  a 
particular  part  only  of  one  species.  The  parasitical  fungus  which  attacks 
and  mildews  wheat  in  unfavorable  situations  or  seasons  will  not  live  upon 
turnips.  That  which  infests  the  turnip  will  seize  upon  the  cabbage,  they 
being  nearly  allied  plants  ;  but  it  will  not  touch  the  potatoe,  yet  the  para- 
sites of  the  turnip  and  the  potatoe  are  nearly  allied. 

For  a  plant  to  be  affected  by  mildew  two  things  then  are  requisite : 
the  presence  of  its  peculiar  parasite  and  the  conditions  favorable  to  the 
growth  of  fungi. 

As  the  potatoe  is  an  exotic,  is  it  not  probable  that  tubers  of  the  plant 
may  have  been  originally  introduced  into  Europe  without  its  parasite. 
In  the  same  way  it  may  have  been  carried  by  Europeans,  to  other  coun- 
tries, of  which  it  is  not  a  native,  and  have,  consequently,  until  lately, 
remained  free  from  the  parasite  in  those  countries  also. 

M.  Boussingault  stated  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Paris,  on  the 
authority  of  M.  Joachim  Acosta,  that  the  malady  is  well  known,  in  rainy 
years,  at  Bogota,  where  the  Indians  live  almost  entirely  on  potatoes 


263 

The  potatoe  is  said  to  grow  wild  on  the  table  land  of  New  Granada,  and 
M.  Acosta  believes  that  the  disease  has  always  been  familiar  to  the  Indians. 
It  is  probable,  therefore,  that  the  parasite  has  co-existed  with  the  potatoe 
in  its  native  country.  By  a  note  to  Mr.  Berkeley's  treatise,  I  learn  that 
Professor  Morren  considers  that  the  fungus  is  of  American  origin.  Mr. 
Berkeley  also  evidently  inclines  to  the  opinion,  that  it  is  a  recent  intro- 
duction. Next  to  South  America,  the  disease  seems  to  have  been  first 
developed  in  St.  Helena.  In  the  Gardener's  Chronicle,  for  January  22, 
1842,  and  again  in  June  1,  1844,  this  disease  of  the  potatoe,  from  the 
symptoms  mentioned,  is  evidently  referred  to,  the  rot  had  been  experi- 
enced in  that  island  several  years  previous  to  1842,  causing,  as  was  said, 
great  misery  and  distress  to  the  inhabitants,  potatoes  being  their  chief  arti- 
cle of  produce.  St.  Helena  is  in  about  the  same  latitude  as  Peru,  the 
native  country  of  the  potatoe,  and  nearer  than  any  other  place,  in  which 
the  disease  has  been  subsequently  experienced ;  and  when  we  consider 
Low  exceedingly  minute  and  buoyant  must  be  the  seeds  of  this  fungus, 
when  the  plant  itself  is  so  small  as  scarcely  to  be  visible  to  the  naked  eye, 
is  it  not  probable  that  some  may  have  been  conveyed  by  the  wind  to  St. 
Helena.  Thence,  it  seems  to  have  been  carried  to  Madeira  and  North 
America,  and  so  has  gradually  progressed  from  country  to  country.  It 
reached  England  late  in  the  fall  of  1 844,  and  was  confined  chiefly  to 
Kent.  There  the  premature  decay  of  the  foliage  was  observed,  and  a 
large  proportion  of  the  tubers  decayed.  The  blight  was  first  noticed  in 
England  in  1845,  in  the  same  locality  where  it  was  observed  in  the 
autumn  of  the  preceding  year.  Thence  it  travelled  through  England 
and  Ireland,  halting  mid-way  in  Scotland ;  so  that  the  crops  in  the  ex- 
treme northern  parts  of  Scotland  were  free  from  the  pest.  In  1846,  it 
proceeded  throughout  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  and  on  to  the  Shetland, 
Zetland,  and  Feroe  islands. 

In  some  instances  the  disease  seems  to  have  been  communicated  from 
one  place  to  another  by  means  of  seed-tubers.  A  fact  which  has  proved 
fatal  to  many  theories,  and  which  seems  to  indicate  that  the  chief  cause 
of  the  disease  did  not  previously  exist  in  these  places,  but  that  it  was  in- 
herent in  the  seed-tubers.  At  Bermuda,  Oporto,  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  and  in  Poland,  the  crops  which  were  observed  to  be  first  or  exclu- 
sively attacked  were  those  raised  from  seed-tubers  obtained  from  America 
or  England.  Mr.  Berkeley  has  observed  young  plants  of  the  fungus 
springing  from  within  the  cells  of  a  potatoe.     The  germs  of  these  could 


264 

not  have  immediately  vegetated  on  entering  the  plants,  but  were  probably- 
carried  by  the  elaborated  sap  of  the  leaves  and  deposited  along  with  it  in 
the  cellular  tissue.  Mr.  Berkeley  states  that,  "it  seems  to  him  most  cer- 
tain, from  observations  on  those  fungi  which  grow  from  the  tissues  of 
plants,  that  minute  particles,  too  small  to  be  distinguished  by  the  highest 
powers  of  the  microscope,  must  be  carried  about  with  the  juices,  and 
when  fitting  circumstances  concur,  proceed  to  act  upon  the  tissue  with 
which  they  are  in  contact." 

The  disease  was  observed  to  progress  on  the  Continent  of  Europe,  as 
in  Britain ;  it  was  said  in  a  letter  from  Bologna,  that  the  geographical 
limits  of  the  disease,  as  well  as  its  intensity,  had  extended  in  that  part  of 
the  world  very  far  beyond  what  they  were  the  previous  year.  Another 
most  important  fact  is,  that  the  fungus,  which  is  the  cause  of  the  blight, 
is  a  species  new  to  cryptogamic  botanists.  If  it  had  been  co-existent 
with  the  potatoe  in  these  parts,  it  is  hardly  probable  that  the  parasite  of 
so  common  a  plant  should  have  escaped  the  attention  of  the  botanists  of 
Europe,  or  that  it  should  not  have  attacked  the  potatoe  partially  in  for- 
mer years,  instead  of  making  such  an  universal  onslaught  as  of  late  in 
very  different  seasons  and  situations ;  for  whether  the  conditions  favora- 
ble to  the  growth  and  increase  of  parasitic  fungi,  be  atmospheric,  or  an 
unhealthy  condition  of  the  larger  plant,  we  have  had  seasons  when  fungi 
have  prevailed  to  a  considerable  extent  on  other  plants,  and  varieties  of 
the  potatoe  have  certainly  been  in  a  very  unhealthy  condition  previous  to 
the  appearance  of  the  disease,  and  yet  it  has  been  observed  to  be  a  plant 
peculiarly  exempt  from  blights  and  mildews.  It  seems,  therefore,  proba- 
ble, if  not  certain,  that  botrytis  infestans  is  a  recent  introduction,  and  if 
so,  this  affords  a  very  satisfactory  explanation  of  the  remarkable  fact  that 
the  disease  is  certainly  of  modern  origin. 

Our  next  inquiry  is  a  most  important  one.  What  are  the  conditions 
required  for  the  growth  and  increase  of  parasitical  fungi,  and  which  have 
led  to  such  an  extensive  and  unprecedented  attack,  on  one  plant  only,  in 
so  many  different  countries,  under  so  many  different  circumstances,  and 
in  some  instances  during  several  successive  years  ?  Are  they  some  elec- 
trical or  other  peculiar  unknown  atmospheric  influences,  as  stated  by 
Mr.  Berkeley,  or  chiefly  an  unhealthy  condition  of  the  larger  plant,  as  I 
have  ventured  to  suggest. 

Fungi  have  evidently  not  the  power  to  destroy  healthy  vegetation,  if 
they  had,  the  superior  plants  on  which  they  prey  would  shortly  be  swept 


235 

from  the  face  of  the  earth.  They  are  essentially  scavenger  plants.  The 
two  tribes  into  which  they  may  be  divided  have  separate  tasks  assigned 
to  them  in  the  grand  scheme  of  creation.  The  office  of  one  is  obviously 
to  hasten  the  decay  of  matter  already  decaying.  The  office  of  the  other, 
I  believe  is  to  hasten  the  death  of  that  which  is  unhealthy.  Those  which 
flourish  on  dead  organic  matter  appear  only  when  decay  has  commenced, 
a,  fact  well  known  to  most.  "Fungi,"  says  Mr.  Solly,  "are  only  devel- 
oped in  those  solutions  which  are  in  that  state  of  putrefaction  favorable 
to  their  growth  ;  moreover  they  do  not  appear  till  the  solution  has  acquired 
that  stale."  There  must,  I  believe,  be  unhealthy  action,  possibly  some 
slight  chemical  change  in  the  fluids  of  superior  plants  before  parasitic 
fungi  can  successfully  attack  and  destroy  them.  Is  this  view  of  the  case 
then  supported  by  facts  ?  Is  the  state  of  the  superior  plant  consequent 
on  certain  atmospheric  or  other  influences,  the  condition  requisite  for  the 
attatck  of  the  parasite,  or  does  the  growth  of  the  parasite  depend  on  cer- 
tain atmospheric  conditions  only  ?  There  can  be  no  doubt  whatever  that 
the  state  of  the  weather  has  considerable  influence  on  the  development 
and  increase  of  parasitic  fungi  in  ordinary  cases.  In  moist  dull  seasons, 
crops  are  observed  to  be  always  more  or  less  aff'ected  by  mildew.  Any 
sudden  check  in  the  progress  of  vegetation,  such  as  is  caused  when  hot 
sunny  weather  is  succeeded  by  calm,  dull,  foggy  days,  or  by  a  sudden 
transition  from  weather  favorable  to  rapid  growth  to  weather  cold  and 
wet,  is  generally  considered  to  be  the  precursor  of  blight  and  favorable 
to  the  fjrowth  of  funiri. 

Now,  circumstances  like  these  would  exercise  an  injurious  influence  on 
the  health  of  the  larger  plants ;  it  is  therefore  doubtful  whether  it  is  not 
the  state  of  the  plant  attacked  rather  than  any  peculiar  atmospheric  con- 
dition which  favors  the  growth  of  the  parasite.  Other  facts  seem  to  indi- 
cate very  clearly  that  circumstances  of  soil,  situation,  manure,  &c.,  pre- 
dispose plants  to  an  attack  of  fungi  independent  of  atmospheric  influen- 
ces. Almost  all  our  cultivated  crops  are  known  to  have  their  peculiar 
parasites.  "In  favorable  seasons,"  Mr.  Berkeley  observes,  "the  fungi 
which  infest  grain  crops  are  not  developed ;  in  unfavorable  seasons  thejr 
spread  like  wild-fire."  Since  the  appearance  of  the  potatoe  blight  hare 
the  seasons  been  favorable  to  the  growth  of  fungi  or  otherwise  ?  Were 
grain  and  other  field  crops  universally,  or  to  any  considerable  or  unusual 
extent  attacked  ?  It  is  well  known  this  has  not  been  the  case.  Then 
comes  the  puzzling  question — if  this  universal  attack  on  the  potato©  be 
18 


266 

solely  the  result  of  peculiar  atmospheric  conditions,  favorable  to  the 
growth  and  increase  of  parasitic  fungi,  how  is  it  that  there  has  not  been 
a  similar  extensive  attack  on  other  species  of  plants  also?  The  alterna- 
tives presented  by  this  question  are  these : — either  the  parasite  of  the 
potatoe  requires  for  its  rapid  development  certain  atmospheric  conditions, 
diflfering  from  those  required  by  the  parasites  of  other  plants,  or  there 
must  be  some  inherent  predisposition  in  the  potatoe  plant  Avhich  has  led 
to  this  extensive  attack  of  its  parasite,  and  which  is  not  the  immediate 
and  exclusive  result  of  atmospheric  influences.  Want  of  space  will  not 
allow  me  to  enter  more  fully  into  this  branch  of  the  inquiry.  I  sent  a 
paper  on  the  growth  of  fungi  to  the  lamented  A.  J.  Downing,  which  ap- 
peared in  the  Horticulturist  for  July  1851,  and  if  any  one  should  desire 
to  pursue  the  inquiry  further  I  would  respectfully  refer  him  to  it.  The 
question  is  one  of  considerable  importance  to  farmers  and  gardeners,  and 
it  has  received  little  attention  hitherto. 

Is  there  any  evidence  that  potatoes  generally  were  not  in  a  healthy 
condition,  previous  to  the  appearance  of  the  present  malady  ?  It  has 
been  said  there  are  no  data  on  which  to  found  a  conclusion  of  this  nature. 
At  the  meeting  of  an  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  it  was 
said,  "debility  was  supposed  to  exist,"  but  no  proof  was  given  of  the 
existence  of  debility,  and  what,  it  was  triumphantly  asked  "is  the  proof 
of  debility  in  a  potatoe  ?  "  This  betrays  a  lamentable  want  of  knowledge 
of  the  previous  history  of  the  potatoe ;  and  it  is  requisite  that  a  man 
should  know  that  history  before  he  can  be  qualified  to  see  the  question 
in  all  its  bearings,  give  due  weight  to  facts,  or  arrive  at  sound  conclu- 
sions. Formerly  the  potatoe  was  considered  the  most  certain  of  all 
crops,  but  it  has  gradually  become,  of  all  crops,  one  of  the  most  preca- 
rious and  troublesome.  Formerly  the  tubers  would  bear  almost  any 
treatment  without  injury  ;  as  an  old  writer  observed,  it  was  "a  plant,  if 
possible,  more  tenacious  of  life  than  couch  grass."  Of  late  years,  and 
before  the  appearance  of  the  blight,  innumerable  consultations  have  been 
held,  experiments  made,  and  essays  published,  with  a  view  to  discover, 
if  possible,  how  best  the  tubers  can  be  preserved  from  premature  decay. 
And  yet,  we  are  asked  "where  are  the  proofs  of  debility?" 

I  spent  a  week  or  two  in  the  Library  of  the  British  Museum  hunting 
tliroufrh  piles  of  musty  old  volumes  on  farming  and  gardening  for  infor- 
mation respecting  the  diseases  of  the  potatoe,  and  more  especially  whe- 
ther the  blight  had  ever  been  experienced  before.      And  I  can  prove  by. 


267 

I  believe,  most  satisfactory  evidence,  tliat  tlie  plant,  considered  as  a  spe- 
cies, has  progressively  deteriorated.  For  a  long  time  it  appears  to  have 
continued  free  from  any  observable  disease ;  and  the  first  mild  form  of 
disease  "curl,"  and  the  more  recent  and  fatal  "dry  rot,"  I  found  could 
not  be  attributed  solely  to  any  peculiarity  of  soil,  season,  or  mode  of  cul- 
ture, but  were  peculiar  to,  and  therefore  inherent  in,  certain  varieties  for 
the  time  being.  And  not  only  are  there  abundant  proofs  that  the  pota- 
toe  generally  is  in  a  degenerate  condition,  but  there  is  evidence  that  ^  ari- 
eties  have  been  mostly  injured  by  the  mildew  in  proportion  to  the  symp- 
toms of  debility  which  they  had  previously  exhibited,  whilst  some  recently 
obtained  from  seeds,  more  especially  in  Germany  and  Prussia,  are  said, 
to  have  remained  entirely  unharmed,  though  growing  in  the  vicinity  of 
others  which  were  affected.  If  the  facts  be  so,  can  any  thing  be  more 
obvious  than  that  a  most  certain  means  of  preventing  or  mitigating  the 
effects  of  the  blight,  is  by  increasing  the  constitutional  vigor  and  hardi- 
ness of  our  potatoe  crops.  How  then  is  this  to  be  accomplished?  "  We 
could  answer  this  question  with  most  confidence  if  we  knew  the  precise 
causes  which  have  led  to  the  deterioration  of  the  potatoe.  Over-manu- 
ring, cutting  the  tubers  into  sets,  planting  the  sets  on  raw  manure,  imper- 
fect storing  of  the  seed-tubers  during  winter,  have  each  been  supposed  to 
be  the  cause  of  degeneracy.  These,  with  many  other  causes,  may  have 
contributed  to  the  bad  health  of  varieties,  and  may  thus  have  hastened 
the  deterioration  of  the  plant  as  a  species.  The  present  condition  of  the 
potatoe  is  probably  the  accumulative  result  of  not  one,  but  several  ad- 
verse influences  operating  through  successive  generations. 

The  degeneracy  of  the  potatoe  plant  is,  I  believe,  owing  chiefly  to  the 
mode  in  which  it  is  usually  propagated.     Plants  propagated  by  extension, 
that  is,  by  buds,  cuttings,  laj^ers  or  roots,  are  but  the  extension  of  an  in- 
dividual, possessing  the  same  constitution,  properties  and  tendencies,  and 
are  not  a  renewal  or  reproduction  as  by  seed.     A  variety  so  propagated 
bas  a  determinate  existence,  there  comes  a  time  sooner  or  later,  accord- 
ing to  the  original  vigor  of  the  parent  plant,  and  to  the  treatment  its 
progeny  receives,  when  it  will  become  comparatively  worthless,  and  cease 
to  deserve  the  attention  of  the  planter.     Andrew  Knight,  who  first  estab- 
lished this  fact,  by  numerous  experiments  on  various  plants,  continued 
through  many  successive  years,  said,  in  the  last  letter  he  wrote  on  the 
potatoe,  "that  varieties,  which  have  been  long  cultivated,  cease  to  be 
equally  productive,  is  placed  beyond  the  reach  of  controversy.     I  baye. 


268 

in  several  instances,   tried  to  renovate  the  vigor  of  old  and  excellent,, 
^nearly  expended  varieties,  by  change  of  soil  and  mode  of  culture;  but  I 
never,  in  any  degree,  succeeded,  all  become  unproductive  and  worthless." 
■Dr.  Lindley,  also,  in  speaking  of  thepotatoe,  says,  "it  is  certain  that  the 
productive  power  of  a  given  variety  of  the  potatoe,^is  in  proportion  to 
its  youth,  and  that  all  varieties  cease,  after  a  few  years,  to  be  as  produc- 
tive as  they  once  were.     When  Mr.  Knight's  seedlings   Avere  originally 
,  tried,  they  yielded,  in  one  case,  at  the  rate  of  sixty-eight  and  seventy 
for  one;  no  such  crops  can  now  be  obtained  from  them."     This  hypoth- 
esis, till  within  the  last  few  years,  made  but  little  progress,  and,  I  believe, 
-it  is  owing  to  the  want  of  a  knowledge  of,  or  faith  in,  the  truth  of  this 
law,  and  to  the  consequent  neglect  of  frequently  renewing  the  vigor  of 
.the  potatoe,  by  raising  a  succession  of  seedling  plants,  from  seeds  saved 
ihom  vigorous  and  healthy  varieties,  that  the  degeneracy  of  the  potatoe 
'considered  in  the  mass,  or  as  a  species,  is  chiefly  due. 

All  other  agricultural  plants  have  progressively  improved,  the  potatoe 
alone  has  progressively  deteriorated.     The  former  are  propagated  exclu- 
sively by  seeds,  the  latter  chiefly  by  divisions  of  the  tuber ;  and  this  difler- 
€nce  in  the  mode  of  propagation  furnishes  a  key  to  the  true  explanation  of 
the  cause  of  the  bad  health  of  the  potatoe,  as  compared  with  other  crops. 
There  is  no  other  instance  of  an  entire  species  of  plant  having  degener- 
ated like  the   potatoe.     The  varieties  of  the  ranunculus   and  anemone, 
which  are  propagated  by  their  tubers,  are  equally  short-lived  plants,  but 
great  attention  has  been  paid  to  raising  new  varieties  from  seeds.     To 
raise  new  sorts  of  these  flowers  is  a  most  bewitching,  and,   moreover,  a 
profitable  pursuit,  and  florists  know  Avell,  that  in  order  to  reach  nearer  to 
perfection,  they  must  start  from  the  most  perfect  flowers  they  most  recent- 
ly obtained.     But  there  have  been  no  inducements  for  continued   efi"orts 
to  improve  the  potatoe,  by  raising  new  varieties  from  seeds  year  after 
year.     Other  plants  had  far  higher  attractions  for  those  who  followed 
the  pursuit  as  an  amusement:  and  as  a  commercial  speculation,  there 
was  little  prospect,  indeed,  of  its  paying ;  hence,  we  have  been  trying 
over  and  over  again,  with  a  marvellous  perversity,  to  make  individual 
plants  live  for  ever,  which  nature  intended  should  only  live  for  a  time, 
and  then  from  parents  feeble  or  old,  we  have  vainly  expected  ofi'spring 
hardy  and  strong ;  herein  we  have  violated  the  laws  of  nature ;  by  these 
practices  we  have  gradually  reduced  the  constitution  of  successive  gener- 
ations of  the  potatoe ;  and  we  have  consequently  gradually  increased  th« 


269 

activity  and  power  of  those  influences  provided  by  nature,  to  rid  the 
earth  of  feebleness,  and  to  admonish  and  correct  those  who  act  in  oppo- 
sition  to  her  immutable  laws. 

If  the  foregoing  premises  are  well  founded,  we  may  infer  that  the  ex- 
tent or  virulence  of  the  disease  in  future,  will  depend  partly  upon  the 
nature  of  the  season,  partly  on  the  adoption  of  various  expedients  known 
to  be  adverse  to  the  growth  of  fungi,  and  chiefly  on  the  progress  which 
is  made  in  regenerating  the  potatoe  plant. 

I  propose  to  consider  in  the  first  place,  how  we  should  proceed  in  rais- 
ing a  succession  of  progressively  hardier  varieties  from  seed.  Whenever 
potatoe  seed  is  required,  plants  should  invariably  be  grown  especially  for 
that  purpose.  A  few  middle  sized  tubers,  of  say  about  four,  of  the  most 
healthy  varieties  we  possess,  should  be  selected  for  the  seed-bearing  plants; 
and  as  the  autumn  months  are  generally  more  favorable  to  the  attack  of 
parasitic  fungi  than  midsummer,  early  and  second  early  varieties  should 
be  preferred ;  because  unless  we  had  late  varieties,  which  had  been  prov- 
ed to  be  able  to  resist  the  disease,  the  chances  would  be  greater  of  the 
plants  being  destroyed  before  they  had  perfected  their  seeds,  than  if  early" 
or  second  early  varieties  only  were  used.  The  plants  m\ist  be  grown  froaa 
the  first  in  the  open  ground,  in  a  situation  sheltered  from  strong  winds,, 
yet  not  confined  or  damp,  but  freely  exposed  to  the  sun.  Enrich  the  soil 
with  decayed  leaves,  or  chopped  grassy  turf;  on  no  consideration  what- 
ever apply  liquid  manure,  or  a  heavy  dressing  of  animal  manure. 

In  favorable  seasons  most  late  varieties  will  produce  a  crop  of  berries 
as  well  as  tubers.  Intermediate  varieties  generally  blossom,  and  some- 
times bear  a  few  berries ;  but  the  earliest  sorts,  owing  to  the  early  forma- 
tion of  tubers,  seldom  blossom,  and  very  rarelj'^  ripen  seeds.  These  will 
obviously  require  diff"erent  treatment.  In  order  to  obtain  seeds  from  the 
early  varieties,  we  must  adopt  the  practice  of  Mr.  Knight,  who  found 
that  if  the  plants  are  prevented  from  forming  tubers,  an  abundance  of 
blossoms  and  seeds  will  be  the  result. 

Having  made  choice  of  a  situation  and  manured  the  soil  according  to 
the  foregoing  directions,  fix  stakes  in  the  ground  about  three  feet  apart, 
where  each  plant  is  to  grow,  then  place  a  tuber  on  the  newly  dug  soil, 
and  in  contact  with  the  south  side  of  a  stake,  cover  the  tuber  by  a  mound 
of  earth  about  five  inches  deep.  Sufi'cr  only  one  stem  to  grow,  and  as  it 
advances  in  growth,  tie  it  to  the  stake  to  avoid  accidents  from  the  wind,  &c> 
When  the  plant  is  about  five  inches  high,  wash  away  the  mound  of  soil 


270 

by  a  current  of  water,  till  the  base  of  the  stem  is  visible.  The  fibrous 
roots  by  which  the  plant  is  nourished  will  have  made  their  way  into  the 
enriched  soil  below  the  tuber,  these  must  be  disturbed  as  little  as  possi- 
ble; they  may  be  readily  distinguished  from  the  runners  which  generate 
tubers,  every  one  of  which  must  be  destroyed.  The  ptant  will  shortly 
make  an  effort  to  produce  other  runners,  which  must  be  again  nipped  off 
as  soon  as  perceived  ;  and  the  plant  being  thus  foiled  in  its  endeavors  to 
propagate  itself  in  this  manner,  will  ultimately  direct  its  energies  to  the 
production  of  blossoms  and  seeds. 

I  consider  it  advisable  to  fertilize  the  flowers  of  one  variety  with  the 
pollen  of  another.  Some  facts  seem  to  indicate  that  a  result  of  this 
practice  is  a  more  vigorous  seedling  than  could  have  been  obtained  from 
either  of  the  plants  without  the  crossing.  Some  who  may  be  desirous 
of  trying  the  method  may  not  know  much  about  the  sexual  organs  of 
plants.     To  such  the  following  instructions  may  be  of  use: 

Take  a  full-blown  potatoe  flower  ;  in  the  inside  of  it  you  will  find  six 
small  upright  bodies,  five  of  AA^hich  are  alike  ;  these  are  the  stamens  or 
male  organs,  which  produce  the  yellow  fertilizing  dust  called  pollen.  la 
the  centre  of  the  flower,  and  surrounded  by  the  five  stamens,  is  the  pistil 
or  female  organ ;  this  may  be  known  by  its  light  green  color,  and  by  its 
diff"ering  in  shape  from  the  stamens,  or,  by  carefully  tearing  away  the 
corolla  or  flower  leaf  and  the  stamens,  the  pistil  may  be  still  further  dis- 
tinguished by  its  being  seated  upon  the  miniature  berry  containing  the 
embryo  seeds. 

To  cross-fertilize,  it  is  of  course  requisite  that  the  parent  plants  should 
be  in  blossom  at  the  same  time.  A  flower  intended  for  the  female  parent 
should  not  be  sufiered  to  perfect  its  pollen ;  to  prevent  this,  it  must  be 
carefully  opened  just  before  it  naturally  expands,  and  the  five  stamens 
must  be  removed  by  a  pair  of  small  pointed  scissors,  taking  great  care 
to  leave  the  pistil  uninjured.  When  the  flower  has  expanded  gather  per- 
fect flowers  of  the  variety  intended  for  the  male  parent,  and  with  a 
camel's  hair  pencil  gently  dust  the  pollen  on  the  pistil  of  the  flower  you 
have  previousl)'  deprived  of  stamens,  or  shake  the  pollen  on  to  a  sheet  of 
writing  paper,  and  so  scatter  it  on  the  summit  of  the  pistil.  The  best 
time  for  this  operation  is  in  the  middle  of  a  dry  sunny  day,  and  to  avoid 
failure  it  should  be  repeated  every  favorable  day  till  the  flowers  begin  to 
fade  ;  the  petals  of  flowers  having  been  observed  to  shrivel  and  fall  sooa 


I 


271 

after  the  seeds  were  fertilized,  and  to  retain  their  petals  for  days  longer 
if  this  had  not  taken  place. 

When  about  four  berries  are  set  on  each  plant,  nip  off  the  remainder  of 
the  flowers.  At  this  stage  of  growth  the  plant  will  have  completed  its 
feeding  organs,  and  a  greater  quantity  of  sap  will  probably  be  elaborated 
than  is  required  for  the  support  of  the  seeds,  consequently  one  or  two 
tubers  may  now  be  suffered  to  grow,  or  the  plant  will  form  them  in  the 
axels  of  the  leaves  higher  up  the  stem.  If  the  parasite  should  appear  on 
the  leaves  of  the  seed-bearing  plants,  as  soon  as  the  spots  are  perceived, 
dust  them  with  the  flowers  of  sulphur  on  the  underside  of  the  leaves 
when  moist.  This  may  possibly  destroy  the  fungus  or  otherwise  stop  its 
progress. 

A  Silesian  agriculturist,  who  is  reported  to  have  aucceededin  regenera- 
ting the  potatoe,  takes  the  seeds  from  the  berries  in  autumn.  Zander,  a 
Prussian,  who  has  been  equally  successful,  objects  to  this  practice,  and 
advises  that  the  seeds  should  be  preserved  in  the  berries,  in  a  dry  place, 
secure  from  frost,  till  spring.  Zander's  plan  may  prove  the  best,  espe- 
cially, if  the  seeds  were  not  thoroughly  ripe  when  lue  berries  were  gath- 
ered. When  the  seeds  are  to  be  extracted,  crush  the  berries  with  the 
hand,  and  if  fresh,  put  them  in  a  tub  or  other  vessel ;  as  soon  as  a  slight 
fermentation  is  observed,  Avash  the  pulp  in  luke-warm  water ;  pick  out 
the  seeds  and  wash  them  gently  in  one  or  two  other  waters,  till  they  are 
perfectly  clean  and  free  from  pulp  ;  then  scatter  them  on  a  sheet  of  paper 
to  dry,  when  dry,  place  them  loosely  in  small  canvas  bags ;  suspend  the 
bags  in  a  bed-room,  or  some  equally  temperate  dry  place,  until  the  time 
of  sowing.  As  soon  as  all  danger  from  frost  is  passed,  prepare  the  seed- 
bed; the  previous  year's  onion-bed,  or  some  plat  equally  well  manured, 
and  which  has  grown  a  crop,  equally  diff'erent  from  the  potatoe,  the  pre- 
ceding year,  should  be  preferred.  Sow  the  seeds  thinly  and  shallow, 
in  rows  six  inches  apart :  when  the  plants  are  four  or  five  inches  high, 
prepare  the  ground  into  which  they  are  to  be  transplanted,  apply  a  mod- 
erate dressing  of  charred  vegetable  matter,  or  well-rotted  stable  manure, 
broadcast.  Remove  the  plants  carefully,  disturb  the  roots  as  little  as 
possible,  and  select  a  dull  moist  day  for  transplanting.  Let  the  rows  be 
not  less  than  two  feet  apart,  and  the  plants  eight  inches  from  each  other 
in  the  rows.  To  save  after  trouble,  reject  all  plants  which  exhibit  mark- 
ed symptoms  of  constitutional  weakness,  and  all  which  have  soft  pros- 
trate stems.     Carefully  observe  the  remaining  plants  throughout  their 


272 

growth,  in  order  tliat  the  healthiest  and  the  best  may  be  selected  to  he 
the   parents  of  the  seed-bearing  plants  in  the  following  year.     Those 
which  exhibit  the  greatest  hardiness,  which  suffer  the  least  from  adverse 
weather,  &c.,  must  be  marked  by  labels  ;  and,  if,  in  addition  to  this  indis- 
pensable property,  any  possess  other  good  points,  such  as   rather  dwarf, 
stolet,  rigid  stems,  good  shaped  tubers,   and  ripen  somewhat   early,   a 
preference  should  be  given  to  them.     The  tubers  of  the  seedling  plants 
must  be  carefully  preserved  during  the  winter.     When  the  time  for  plant- 
ing has  again  arrived,  and  the  ground  prepared,   and  the  stakes  fixed 
where  the  seed-bearing  plants  are  to  grow,   select  two  or  three  of  the 
largest  tubers  and  plant  them  at  once ;   and  so  proceed  till  the  allotted 
space  is  occupied.     These  plants  to  be  managed,   in  all  respects,  same  as 
those  of  the  preceding  year.     And  when,  by  persevering  in  this  process, 
the  main  object  is   attained,  hardiness  of  constitution   and  freedom  from 
disease,  we  may  then  more  especially  endeavor  to  obtain  varieties  unit- 
ing excellence   of  quality,    and  other  desirable  properties,   with   robust 
health.     A  careful  and  practised  experimenter  will,  indeed,  have  an  eye- 
to  this  from  the  beginning.     He  will,  at  the  outset,  consider  the   various 
points  which  constitute  perfection  in  the  potatoe,  and  to  this  ideal  stand- 
ard he  will  constantly  aim. 

With  a  view  to  forward  the  young  plants  and  to  obtain  large  tubers 
from  them  in  the  first  year,  many  will  be  induced  to  sow  the  seeds  in  a 
hot-bed ;  but  as  our  chief  aim  is  to  increase  the  constitutional  hardiness 
of  the  plant,  this  mode  of  raising  the  seedlings  cannot  be  too  strongly- 
condemned.  Sir  Joseph  Paxton,  who  is  eminent  as  a  gardener,  as  well  as 
a  designer  of  Crystal  Palaces,  says,  "Seeds  ripened  or  germinated  in 
heat  will  never  produce  such  hardy  plants  as  those  matured  and  vegetated 
in  open  air.  This  has  been  abundantly  corroborated  id  practice,  and 
proofs  of  its  accuracy  are  constantly  transpiring." 

The  experience  of  the  Silesian  Agriculturist,  acquired  in  his  endeavors 
to  regenerate  the  potatoe,  exactly  coincide  with  Paxton's  observations. 
"I  have,"  said  he,  "made  successful  attempts  to  obtain  already  in  the 
first  year  perfect  potatoes  by  sowing  the  seeds  in  a  hot-bed.  I  prefer, 
however,  a  regular  biennial  growth ;  if  I  reap  a  twelvemonth  later  I  get 
a  durable  article,  which  answers  all  the  expectations  which  may  be  form- 
ed, and  is  safe  from  the  prevalent  disease." 

Some  who  have  raised  a  few  plants  from  seed,  and  found  they  were 
blighted,  have  hastily  concluded  that  there  is  no  hope  in  seedlings.  I  have 


273 

contended  from  the  first,  that  if  I  am  right  in  my  conclusion  respecting 
the  degeneracy  of  the  plant  as  a  species,  it  would  not  do  to  depend  on  the 
first  or  second  year's  seedlings,  however  healthy  they  might  seem  to  be; 
as  I  said,  in  1845,  in  a  letter  on  the  blight,  in  the  London  Morning  Herald, 
"it  is  only  by  improved  culture,  judicious  selection,  and  several  succes- 
sive generations  that  we  can  have  any  just  grounds  for  hoping  to  restore 
the  potatoe  to  its  pristine  state  of  vigor  and  health  if  it  ever  can  be  ac- 
complished by  this  means  with  these  plants."  It  is  a  fact  observed  in 
America  and  Europe,  that  some  varieties  offer  much  greater  resistance 
to  the  disease  than  others ;  now,  whether  this  is  owing  to  a  difference  in 
constitutional  vigor,  or  to  some  idiosyncracy  of  these  varieties,  how  but 
by  having  recourse  to  seedlings,  is  their  number  to  be  increased,  or  how 
are  they  to  be  superseded  when  in  the  course  of  time  their  energy  de- 
clines, or  how  can  we  be  sure  that  others  may  not  be  obtained  by  careful 
and  skilful  management  which  will  resist  the  disease  better  than  any  we 
now  possess  ?  In  an  article  on  the  potatoe  by  Prof.  Lindley,  written 
before  tho  appearance  of  the  blight,  he  said,  "finally  let  us  point  to  the 
immense  importance  of  renewing  the  vigour  of  potatoes,  by  raising  new 
varieties  from  seed.  This  has  been  tried  over  and  over  again,  and  always 
with  some  advantage,  sometimes  with  a  great  deal." 

I  may  here  state  my  conviction,  that  when  the  potatoe  has  been  restored 
to  the  highest  state  of  health  it  is  capable  of  attaining,  that  specimens  of 
the  fungus  may  be  found  on  plants  in  some  situations,  even  in  the  most 
favorable  seasons.  I  conceive  it  would  be  mere  quackery  to  hold  out  any 
hope,  that  botrytis  infestans,  now  that  it  has  established  itself  in  this 
country  and  Europe,  will  be  entirely  banished,  when  the  general  health 
of  the  potatoe  plant  has  been  restored.  We  can  only  infer  what  may  be 
the  future  power  of  the  parasite  over  the  potatoe  by  the  data  afforded  by 
other  plants  ;  and  our  knowledge  of  the  causes  which  induce  partial  at- 
tacks of  fungi  on  wheat,  turnips,  and  even  plants  in  a  state  of  nature, 
forbid  the  hope  that  our  potatoe  crops  will  ever  be  entirely  exempt  from 
the  pest.  All  that  we  are  justified  in  expecting  is  this  :  that  in  the  most 
unfavorable  seasons  we  are  likely  to  experience,  there  will  be  no  such 
general  attack  as  of  late  years,  and  that  when  local  or  transitory  influ- 
ences are  sufficiently  powerful  to  render  certain  plants  unhealthy,  and  thus 
to  favor  the  attack  of  the  parasite,  there  will  not  be  that  rapid  decompo- 
sition of  the  plants  as  now,  but  that  the  parasite  will  be  confined  chiefly 
to  spots  on  the  leaves.     In  ordinary  seasons  I  anticipate  the  fungus  will 


274 

scarcely  be  noticed,  and  that  it  will  cause  no  more  apprehension  for  the 
safety  of  the  potatoe  crop,  than  the  fungi  which  attack  wheat  and  turnips 
now  cause  for  the  safety  of  those  crops.  It  is  essential  that  this  should 
be  distinctly  understood  and  borne  in  mind;  hasty  and  erroneous  con- 
clusions may  thereby  be  prevented,  as  it  is  probable  many  seeming  in- 
consistencies will  be  observed,  which  this  knowledge  alone  will  satisfac- 
torily explain. 

Our  next  consideration  is,  what  expedients  should  now  be  resorted  to 
in  the  general  cultivation  of  the  potatoe  to  enable  our  plants  to  oflfer  the 
greatest  resistance  to  the  action  of  adverse  influences  and  thereby  miti- 
gate the  effects  of  the  blight.  We  should  in  the  first  place  select  those 
varieties  for  cultivation  which  have  been  proved  to  be  the  most  hardy  and 
healthy,  and  therefore  least  affected  by  the  disease.  It  may  be  well  here- 
after to  grow  potatoes  specially  for  sets  in  order  that  we  may  have  the  most 
healthy  and  vigorous  plants  which  the  variety  cultivated  is  capable  of 
affording.  A  somewhat  open  airy  situation  should  be  selected  for  the 
seed-bed.  If  the  land  has  been  manured  for  the  previous  crop,  and  is 
in  good  condition,  plant  without  manure.  But  if  the  land  is  not  in  good 
heart,  then  apply,  broad-cast,  a  slight  dressing  of  well-rotted  stable  ma- 
nure, or  guano,  and  where  they  are  to  be  had,  use  in  preference,  charcoal 
dust,  charred  turf,  or  partially  decayed  leaves ;  the  object  being  to  pro- 
mote a  steady,  healthy,  and  vigorous,  but  not  over-luxuriant  growth. — 
Plant  the  tubers  whole,  not  less  than  six  inches  deep,  and  let  the  rows  or 
hills  be  about  two  feet  and  a  half  apart.  The  same  distance  between  the 
plants  is  of  course  not  suitable  for  all  varieties  ;  this  must  be  regulated 
by  the  planter's  knowledge  of  the  habits  of  the  varieties  he  cultivates ; 
the  point  he  should  aim  at  is,  to  have  the  whole  of  the  ground  covered 
by  foliage  during  the  bright  days  of  summer,  but  so  that  the  plants  of 
one  rov/  shall  not  interfere  with  or  shade  those  of  another. 

Plants  grown  for  seed-tubers  should  never  be  suffered  to  blossom.  If 
a  plant  produces  many  blossoms  and  seeds  it  will  be  at  the  expense 
of  the  tubers;  that  is,  the  sap  which  would  be  expended  in  sup- 
port of  the  flowers  and  fruit,  would  contribute  to  the  growth  of  the 
tubers  if  the  flowers  were  destroyed.  But  that  is  not  my  reason  for 
recommending  this  practice  with  plants  grown  specially  for  sets.  Many 
facts  observed  in  various  kinds  of  plants,  lead  me  to  suspect  that  the  pro- 
duction of  seeds  has  a  peculiarly  exhausting  effect  on  vitality,  and  I  am 
much  inclined  to  believe  that  if  ever  the  experiment  is  tried,  it  will  be 


275 

found  that  a  variety  of  the  potatoe  which  bears  seeds  abundantly  will 
maintain  its  health  and  vigor  for  a  much  longer  period  if  the  blossoms 
are  annually  destroyed,  than  if  it  is  permitted  to  ripen  its  seeds  each 
year. 

Our  next  inquiry  is,  how  and  where  the  main  crop  should  be  planted — 
what  soils,  situations,  and  modes  of  culture  are  best  calculated  to  miti- 
gate the  effects  of  the  disease  ?  Clays  and  heavy  wet  loams  are  known 
to  be  least  favorable  to  the  growth  of  the  potatoe,  and  in  these  soils  the 
disease  seems  to  have  been  most  virulent.  But  the  evidence  respecting 
all  soils  is  very  contradictory,  and  the  difference  in  the  results  observed, 
was  probably  owing,  in  many  instances,  to  a  difference  in  situation,  &c., 
rather  than  to  any  peculiar  property  of  the  soil. 

That  a  given  variety  of  potatoe  may  suffer  more  from  the  blight  in  one 
situation  than  another,  is  what  might  have  been  expected,  from  the  known 
conditions  which  favor  the  growth  and  increase  of  parasitic  fungi. 
Many  have  observed  that  the  disease  was  first  developed,  or  proved  most 
destructive  when  potatoes  were  growing  under  precisely  the  same  circum- 
stances, which  predispose  wheat  plants  to  the  attack  of  mildew  on  damp, 
low-laying  soils,  Avhere  the  air  could  not  circulate  freely.  On  land  natu- 
rally rich,  or  highly  manured,  on  the  sites  of  dunghills,  or  on  portions 
of  fields  where  dung  heaps  had  been  laid,  the  plants  have  been  very 
much  affected.  Light  loams,  in  rather  elevated  or  open  situations,  should 
therefore  be  selected  for  the  potatoe  crop,  and  much  less  than  the  usual 
quantity  of  manure  should  be  applied,  if  it  would  not  be  much  more  ad- 
visable to  manure  the  previous  crop  instead,  where  practicable.  It  is 
probable  the  disease  may  be  influenced,  to  some  extent,  by  the  nature  of 
the  manure  ;  gross  animal  manures,  when  applied  in  quantity,  are  well 
known  to  produce  in  plants  a  tendency  to  decay.  On  the  other  hand 
partially  decayed  leaves,  or  charred  vegetable  matter,  are  highly  favora- 
ble to  healthy  vegetation.  We  may  also,  by  other  means,  contribute  to 
the  health  of  our  plants.  I  have  observed,  in  many  instances,  potatoes 
have  been  grown  in  hills  much  too  near  each  other.  The  climate  of  this 
section  of  the  country  is  somewhat  peculiar.  In  the  earlier  part  of  sum- 
mer, we  have  usually  much  dry  sunny  weather,  during  this  period  the 
o-rowth  of  the  plants  is  slow,  much  of  the  ground  remains  uncovered  by 
foliao-e  and  exposed  to  the  sun  ;  a  great  amount  of  heat  necessarily  accu- 
mulates in  the  soil.  When  rain  falls,  if  the  temperature  continues  high, 
the  combined  influence  of  the  warmth  and  moisture  of  the  soil  and  air, 


276 

}iave  a  forcing  effect  on  the  potatoe  plant,  which  causes  the  haulm  to  grow 
"with  excessive  luxuriance,  so  that  the  foliage  of  the  plants  of  one  hill, 
soon  interfere  with  that  of  another.  Whenever  this  happens,  the  plants, 
instead  of  quietly  attending  to  the  formation  of  tubers,  become  engaged 
in  a  struggle  with  each  other,  fighting,  as  it  were,  for  the  precious  light. 
The  invariable  result  is,  that  all  are  more  or  less  injured  ;  these  stems  are 
drawn  up,  the  sap  has  further  to  travel  in  its  ascent  and  descent ;  many 
of  the  lower  leaves  become  shaded,  and,  therefore,  useless  ;  the  stems  are 
also  more  brittle  and  liable  to  be  laid,  and  the  produce  of  plants  so  situ- 
ated, whether  they  be  potatoes  or  forest  trees,  will,  invariably,  be  found 
deficient,  as  compared  with  crops  grown  at  proper  distance  apart,  and 
owing  to  the  want  of  a  free  circulation  of  air  around  them,  and  the 
unhealthy  condition,  induced,  they  become  a  more  easy  prey  to  the 
parasite. 

When  I  Avas  a  boy,  I  had  observed  that  potatoe  plants,  with  stout  stems, 
had  invariably  the  finest  tubers,  so,  when  walking  round  the  garden 
with  my  grandfather,  and  seeing  a  plat  of  potatoes,  with  stems  as  tall  as 
myself,  I  ventured  to  congratulate  him  on  the  large  crop  he  was  likely 
to  obtain,  when  he  puzzled  me  considerably  by  saying,  that  I  was  much 
mistaken,  for  they  were  all  running  to  tops.  How  in  the  world  the  pota- 
toes could  run  into  the  tops,  I  could  not  imagine ;  many  a  time  since, 
I  have  heard  this  remark,  and  possibly  there  may  be  some  now,  who 
would  be  as  much  puzzled  to  account  for  it,  as  I  was  then.  The  expla- 
nation is  this  :  The  matter  which  constitutes  the  tubers  of  the  potatoe,  the 
roots  of  carrots  and  turnips,  the  seeds  of  grain,  the  fruit  of  our  orchards, 
and  the  wood  of  trees,  is  elaborated  or  prepared  in  leaves,  by  the  action 
of  light.  The  fluid  absorbed  from  soil  by  roots,  ascends  through  the 
woody  part  of  the  stem,  circulates  through  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves 
where  it  undergoes  certain  chemical  changes,  and  then  descends  by  the 
bark;  and  it  is  considered  that  the  mature  leaves  only,  and  of  those, 
such  only  as  are  not  shaded  by  others,  are  efficient ;  hence  the  deficiency 
in  produce,  when  the  leaves  of  one  plant  shade  those  of  another ;  and  of 
the  indifferent  crop  of  tubers,  compared  with  the  growth  of  the  stems, 
when  the  plants  are  so  crowded,  as  to  be  drawn  up,  their  stems  laid  pros- 
trate, and  much  of  the  foliage  rendered  useless. 

There  are  two  or  three  other  questions  rel  iting  to  the  culture  of  the 
potatoe  on  which  I  may  venture  a  few  remarks,  viz :  What  is  the  best 
mode  of  applyinging  mannre  to  the  potatoe  ?      Is  it  advantageous  to 


2TT 

pluck  off  the  flowers  ?     Should  tubers  intended  for  sets  be  thoroughly  or 
partially  ripened  ? 

The  usual  mode  of  applying  manure  is  to  place  it  below  the  sets.    Mr. 
Knight  advised  that  it  should  be  spread  upon  the  soil  and  so  plowed  in. 
Doubtless  this  is  the  better  practice  and  is  gaining  ground.     A  soil  in  a 
state  of  nature  is  of  a  nearly  uniform  character,  but  one  soil  differs  from 
another  in  quality ;  and  we  may  observe  how  wonderfully  plants  in  a 
state  of  nature  accommodate  themselves  to  the  circumstances  in  which 
they  happen  to  be  placed.     If  a  seed  germinates  in  a  poor  soil,  the  young 
plant  may  be  seen  acting  as  wisely  as  if  it  had  reason  or  instinct  to  guide 
it ;  it  does  not  aim  at  too  much  but  fashions  all  its  organs  on  a  moderate 
scale.     In  a  rich  soil  there  is  a  corresponding  increase  in  all  parts  of  the 
plant.    In  both  there  is  an  unity  of  action — and  adaptation  of  means  to  a 
crtain  end.     Plants  being  thus  constituted,  by  placing  the  whole  of  the 
food  immediately  surrounding  the  young  potatoe  plant,  and  none  in  the  soil 
beyond,  we  evidently  practice  a  sort  of  deception  upon  it,  we  induce  it  to 
make  exertions  at  the  commencement  of  its  growth  which  its  after  means 
will   not  enable  it  to    carry    out;  therefore,  as  Mr.   Knight  observed, 
abundant  machinery  will  exist  Avith  a  scarcity  of  raw  material,   and  the 
crop  of  tubers  will  naturally  be  found  defective,  comparatively,  with  the 
growth  of  the  plants.     The  time  will  p.rrive  when  farmers  Avill  inquire 
how  manure  can  be  most  equally  diffused  throughout  the  soil,  especially 
for  such  crops  as  grain,  in  which  unity  of  action,  or  equal  ripening,  is  a 
point  of  considerable  importance. 

Mr.  Knight  advised  that  the  flowers  of  potatoe  plants  should  be  pluck- 
ed off,  and  he  was  very  desirous  to  obtain  varieties,  which,  owing  to  some 
malformation  of  the  floral  organs,  or  peculiarity  of  habit  did  not  natural- 
ly blossom ;  because  the  production  of  blossoms  and  seeds  must  tend  to 
diminish  the  weight  of  tubers,  or  they  must  be  formed  by  an  increased 
expenditure  of  the  riches  of  the  soil.     There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
crop  of  tubers  would  be  increased  to  some  extent  by  plucking  off  the 
blossoms  as  soon  as  they  were  visible.    If  a  Dutch  florist  wishes  to  prop- 
agate a  hyacinth,  he  adopts  means  to  prevent  its  flowering,  and  a  progeny 
of  young  bulbs  is  the  consequence.     If  an  English  tulip  grower  has  a 
bulb  which  grows  too  strong,  producing  seven  or  eight  petals  instead  of 
six,  the  required  number,  in  order  to  tame  it  he  allows  it  to  ripen  its 
seeds.     An  onion  forms  its  bulb  one  year,  blossoms  and  seeds  the  next, 
and  so  dies ;  but  persist  in  not  allovring  the  plant  to  blossom,  and  the 


278 

formation  of  other  bulbs  will  be  the  result.  The  sap  which  these  plants 
would  have  naturally  employed  in  the  formation  of  seeds,  is  thus  made 
to  contribute  to  the  growth  of  bulbs.  By  depriving  the  potatoe  plant  of 
its  tubers  we  cause  it  to  blossom  and  seed  abundantly ;  obviously  the 
same  sap  gives  existence  alike  to  tubers  and  seeds ;  therefore,  by  prevent- 
ing the  growth  of  flowers  and  seeds,  we  must  add  to  the  growth  of 
tubers. 

Many  experiments  have  been  made  from  time  to  time  with  a  view  to 
determine  whether  any  and  what  benefit  is  to  be  derived  from  plucking 
off  the  blossoms  of  the  potatoe  plants,  and  very  different  results  have  been 
arrived  at.  Some  maintaining  that  they  have  proved  experimentally  that 
it  is  highly  beneficial  to  remove  the  flowers;  others,  with  equal  confidence, 
refer  to  their  experiments  and  contend  that  no  advantage  whatever  is 
gained  by  the  practice.  Both  may  be  perfectly  right  as  to  the  result  of 
their  experiments.  The  difference  of  opinion,  I  conceive,  arises  from 
not  takmg  into  account  the  influence  of  certain  circumstances,  which 
must  interfere  with  or  vary  the  results.  The  benefit  or  otherwise  of 
plucking  off  the  flowers,  will  depend  partly  upon  the  habits  of  the  variety 
of  the  potatoe,  partly  upon  the  quality  of  the  soil,  and  partly  upon  the 
nature  of  the  season. 

The  greater  the  number  of  berries  a  variety  naturally  produces,  the 
greater  will  be  the  gain  of  removing  the  flower  buds.  Second  early  varieties 
seldom  produce  many  seeds,  consequently  little  or  no  advantage  could  be 
gained  by  removing  the  floAvers  of  these,  as  compared  with  late  varieties, 
which  generally  bear  seeds  abundantly.  The  quantity  of  berries  pro- 
duced by  a  given  late  variety  will  also  depend  upon  the  quality  of  the 
soil.  The  better  and  more  suitable  the  soil  may  be,  the  greater  will  be 
the  health  and  productiveness  of  a  plant.  The  reproductive  powers  of  a 
plant  also  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  season.  If  the  weather  of  June 
and  July  should  be  warm  and  bright  with  frequent  showers,  we  may  ob- 
serve that  even  intermediate  varieties  are  enabled  to  elaborate  a  quantity 
of  sap  equal  to  the  wants  of  tubers  and  seeds,  and  in  such  a  season  the 
crop  of  berries  of  a  late  variety  would  be  most  abundant.  The  greatest 
amount  of  benefit  to  be  derived  from  plucking  off  the  blossoms,  will 
therefore,  obviously  be  from  a  late  variety,  growing  in  a  soil  and  seasoa 
favorable  to  the  potatoe. 

Much  also  depends  on  the  degree  of  care  observed  in  nipping  off  the 
blossoms.     The  plants  are  nearly  full  grown  when  they  flower,  and  if 


279 

many  stems  are  broken  or  laid  by  the  children  employed,  this  must  tend 
to  neutralize  the  benefit  of  destroying  the  flowers.  In  the  Transactions 
of  the  Highland  Society  of  Scotland  it  is  said  the  difference  in  favor  of 
plucking  off  the  blossoms  as  soon  as  they  appear,  instead  of  allowing 
them  to  remain,  was  nearly  one-sixth  of  the  crop.  Tliis  may  be  consid- 
ered an  extreme  case ;  but  from  a  late  variety  favorably  situated  we  may 
safely  calculate  on  a  gain  of  tubers  of  not  less  than  one  ton  per  acre. — 
Much  difference  of  opinion  exists  as. to  whether  potatoes  intended  for  sets 
should  be  partially  or  thoroughly  ripened.  Under-ripe  sets  have  proved 
highly  beneficial  in  mitigating  the  curl  and  dry-rot  diseases  ;  and  I  believe 
it  is  certain  they  invariably  produce  more  vigorous  and  productive  plants 
than  perfectly  ripe  tubers  of  the  same  variety.  I  was  first  taught  this 
lesson  by  some  villagers  who  were  noted  for  the  earliness  of  their  pota- 
toes. For  two  or  three  successive  seasons  I  obtained  my  seed-stock  from 
them,  and  was  always  assured  it  was  of  the  same  early  variety  they  grew 
themselves.  But  I  could  not  produce  my  crops  so  early  as  they,  by  at 
least  a  fortnight ;  and  being  unable  to  account  for  this  difference,  I  re- 
solved to  buy  the  first  potatoes  they  brought  to  market  having  the 
appearance  of  being  nearly  ripe.  I  did  so,  and  the  tubers  were  so  imma- 
ture that  they  shrivelled  almost  like  prunes  before  the  time  of  planting; 
but  I  found  I  was  now  enabled  to  grow  them  not  only  nearly  as  early  aa 
the  villagers,  but  larger  also ;  and  the  increased  size  of  the  tubers  I  con- 
sidered to  be  a  consequence  of  the  greater  vigor  of  the  plants  afforded 
by  these  under-ripe  sets. 

Mr.  Knight  planted  an  early  variety  in  July ;  the  tubers  produced 
were  soft  and  watery,  and  unfit  for  food ;  but,  as  he  anticipated,  they 
afforded  the  best  of  plants;  "they  presented  the  appearance  of  a  differ- 
ent variety,  and  afforded  a  more  abundant  crop  and  larger  tubers  than  he 
had  ever  before  obtained  from  the  same  variety."  But  the  crop  was  not 
quite  so  early  :  Mr.  Knight  attributed  "  this  variation  in  the  periods  of 
maturity  of  the  crops,  solely  to  different  degrees  of  luxuriance  in  the 
plants,  and  to  the  increased  size  of  the  tubers  in  the  one."  But  I 
suspect  that  the  difference  was  not  solely  owing  to  these  causes. 

We  see  in  a  backward  spring,  how  impatient  vegetation  seems  to  be 
at  the  restraint  which  is  imposed  upon  it,  and  with  what  rapidity  and 
energy  plants  grow  in  such  a  season,  when  the  weather  becomes  favorable. 
A  peach  tree  which  Mr.  Knight  had  grown  under  glass,  he  afterwards 
planted  out  by  the  side  of  a  tree,  of  the  same  variety  which  had  always 


280 

been  grown  in  tlie  open  air.  And  Mr.  Knignt  observed,  that  the  former 
unfolded  its  blossoms  nine  days  earlier,  and  ripened  its  fruit  three  weeks 
earlier  than  the  latter.  The  forced  plant  commenced  and  finished  its 
annual  growth  much  earlier  in  the  preceding  year,  than  the  plant  which 
had  been  constantly  grown  in  the  open  air.  Its  season  of  rest,  therefore, 
sooner  expired ;  it  became  sooner  excitable  in  spring,  and  thus  with  the 
same  stimulus  of  heat  and  light,  it  was  enabled  to  make  greater  progress 
and  mature  its  fruit  in  less  time.  And  so  it  is  with  potatoes.  The  villa- 
gers, as  I  learned  afterwards,  grew  two  crops  in  the  same  year ;  the  seed- 
tubers  they  sold,  were  from  the  second  crop,  but  the  sets  they  planted, 
were  from  the  first  crop;  and  this  accounts  for  the  diflerence  in  the 
period  of  ripening.  The  earlier  the  tubers  are  ripened,  the  sooner  will 
;the  produce  of  these  tubers  come  to  maturity  in  the  following  year. 

To  obtain  an  increase  of  a  ton  per  acre,  but  a  few  ounces  will  need  to 
be  added  to  the  produce  of  each  plant.  When  cultivators  think  of  this, 
and  of  what  Mr.  Knight  has  said  that  soft  and  watery  sets  afforded  more 
vigorous  plants  and  more  abundant  and  larger  tubers  than  he  had  ever 
before  obtained  from  the  same  variety,  they  must  be  convinced  that  this 
is  an  inquiry  which  demands  their  best  attention.  If  an  increase  of  one 
or  two  tons  only  could  be  added  to  the  produce  of  an  acre  by  this  means, 
it  would  be  so  much  clear  gain — obtained  without  any  additional  expense 
of  seed,  labor,  or  manure.  By  attending  to  this  point,  by  a  judicious 
selection  of  varieties,  by  using  middle  sized  tubers  for  sets,  by  a  proper 
application  of  manure,  by  planting  at  the  proper  time,  and  at  the  proper 
depth,  and  by  nipping  off  the  blossoms,  it  is  not  improbable  that  the 
produce  of  an  acre  may  be  increased  several  tons.  Attention  to  what 
may  be  considered  trifles  in  cultivation  involving  little  or  no  additional 
expense,  may  increase,  in  a  very  considerable  degree,  the  aggregate 
result. 

The  average  produce  of  potatoes  in  England  is  estimated  at  10  tons 
per  acre,  some  say  it  is  only  about  8  tons.  I  need  only  mention  in  order 
to  show  how  much  remains  to  be  done  generally,  (and  what  a  striking 
illustration  it  affords  of  the  truth  of  the  axiom  "Knowledge  is  power,") 
that  the  produce  of  a  crop  grown  by  Mr.  Knight,  was  pronounced  by- 
several  gardeners  and  farmers  in  whose  presence  it  was  raised  and  weigh- 
ed, to  be  equivalent  to  34  tons,  8  cwt.,  lOTjbs.  per  statute  acre.  And 
Mr.  Knight  felt  satisfied  that  still  larger  crops  may  and  will  be  obtained 
from  an  acre  of  ground. 


281 


ON  THE  ALLEGED  TRANSMUTATION  OF  WHEAT  INTO 

CHESS. 

BY  JOHN  TOWNLEY,  MOUNDVILLE,  MARQUETTE  CO.,  WIS. 

As  a  set-oflF  to  the  toil  and  inconveniences  of  one  sort  or  another  which 
must  be  encountered  for  a  few  years  by  those  who  hew  out  for  themselves 
a  home  in  the  back  woods,  I  thought  there  were  at  least  three  advanta- 
ges which  they  would  possess  over  farmers  in  older  settled  States.  The 
cost  of  the  land  would  be  much  less ;  they  would  have  a  virgin  soil  to 
cultivate,  whose  fertility,  with  judicious  management,  might  be  main- 
tained, if  not  improved;  and  as  most  of  the  weeds  which  infest  our  crops 
interfere  with  their  growth,  and  diminish  their  produce,  are  not  natural  to 
the  soil  but  introduced  plants,  I  considered,  that  by  careful  culture  from 
the  first,  it  would  be  no  difficult  matter  to  keep  them  within  due  bounds. 
The  first  crop  of  wheat  I  raised,  convinced  me,  however,  that  so  far  as 
wedds  were  concerned  I  had  been  reckoning  somewhat  without  my  host ; 
for  when  the  crop  came  into  ear,  I  was  mortified  to  find  a  considerable 
proportion  of  it  consisted  of  a  worthless  grass,  which  my  neighbors  told 
me  was  called  chess  or  cheat.  Its  appearance  in  the  crop  they  assured 
me  was  no  fault  of  mine,  as  the  wheat  had  been  changed  into  chess  by 
the  maoic  of  frost.  This  view  of  the  case  afforded  me  small  comfort :  I 
saw  reasons  to  doubt  the  accuracy  of  this  explanation  then,  and  my  sub- 
sequent experience  has  convinced  me,  that  it  is  a  most  erroneous  and 
mischievous  doctrine  to  believe  in.  If  I  had  not  abundant  opportunities 
for  knowing  how  tenaciously  this  opinion  is  held  by  many,  I  should 
scarcely  have  thought  it  necessary  to  trouble  you  with  my  reasons  for 
concluding,  that  no  such  change  ever  takes  place.  "  What  can't  be  cured, 
must  be  endured ;"  but  let  a  man  be  once  persuaded,  that  chess  does  not 
belong  to  this  category  of  evils,  and  endeavors  will  then  be  made  to  get 
rid  of  it. 

Wheat,  in  this  climate,  appears  to  have  too  many  enemies  to  contend 
with,  over  which  we  have  no  control,  ever  to  make  it  a  very  remunerative 
crop,  it  is  therefore  the  more  imperatively  necessary  that  we  should  sub- 
due an  evil  like  this  within  our  power,  which  lessens  the  quantity  and 
degrades  the  quality  of  our  wheat  crops — more  especially  when  this  may 
be  accomplished  without  the  expenditure  of  much  time  or  money. 
19 


282 

One  of  the  most  weighty  objections  which  may  be  urged  against  the 
notion  that  chess  is  wheat  in  a  degenerate  or  abnormal  condition  is  the  fact, 
that  chess  is  a  distinct  species  of  grass,  known  to  botanists  as  Bromus 
Secalinus,  affording  seed  which  Avhen  sown  produces  chess  plants,  under  all 
circumstances,  and  never  wheat.  A  thousand  plants  may  be  examined 
and  the  probability  is  that  not  one  would  be  found  to  differ  materially 
from  the  botanical  description  of  the  species.  Now  if  by  the  action  of 
frost  one  plant  is  transformed  into  the  other,  how  is  it  that  there  is  no 
gradation  in  the  change  observable,  that  the  metamorphosis  should  in  all 
cases  be  so  uniform  and  complete  ?  Of  late  years  much  has  been  written 
by  botanists  on  the  metamorphosis  of  plants,  or  vegetable  morphology, 
as  it  is  usually  called.  Like  most  novel  views,  true  though  they  may  be, 
this  met  with  considerable  opposition,  hence  botanists  who  embraced  this 
hypothesis,  (a  class  of  men  second  to  none  for  accuracy  of  observation,) 
ransacked  the  vegetable  world  for  specimens  of  plants  in  an  abnormal 
state,  in  support  of  their  position ;  but  all  that  their  investigations  have 
enabled  them  to  establish,  all  indeed  that  they  were  required  to  prove  is, 
that  all  parts  of  a  plant  may  be  referred  to  the  leaf  as  a  type,  that  the 
floral  envelopes  and  organs  of  reproduction,  calyx,  corolla,  stamens,  pis- 
tils, and  seed  are  formed  of  the  same  elements  and  arranged  upon  the 
same  plan  as  leaves;  hence,  when  growing  under  peculiar  circumstances, 
the  different  parts  of  a  flower  may  be  changed  into  each  other,  or  into 
true  leaves,  and  such  changes  have  been  very  frequently  observed ;  but 
I  am  not  aware  that  there  is  an  instance  on  record  proving  that  any  cir- 
cumstances have  so  altered  the  character  of  a  plant  as  to  make  it  appear 
to  a  botanist  not  only  specifically  but  generically  distinct. 

2nd.  Chess  is  well  known  to  be  a  British  grass  ;  it  is  found  in  the 
grain  fields  of  England  where  the  winters  are  seldom  severe  enough  to 
injure  the  wheat  plant.  It  is  true,  however,  that  chess  is  much  more 
abundant  here  than  in  England.  Being  familiar  with  all  the  British 
grasses,  excepting  two  or  three  very  rare  species,  I  could  not  remember 
having  noticed  chess  frequently  in  wheat  crops  in  England;  and  I  find  on 
referring  to  some  works  on  British  husbandry,  that  it  is  not  generally 
included  in  the  lists  of  the  weeds  of  agriculture.  Sir  William  Hooker  in 
hia  British  Flora  says  of  the  plant  "not  rare"  thereby  implying  that  it 
is  far  from  common;  but  Dr.  Gray,  in  his  Botany  of  the  Northern  United 
States,  very  truly  remarks  "grain  fields,  &c.,  too  common."  gone  may 
be  ready  to  conclude  that  chess  is  more  abundant  in  wheat  crops  here. 


283 

because  of  the  greater  severity  of  our  winters.  But  chess  is  not  the  only- 
introduced  plant  which  seems  to  thrive  better  in  the  United  States  than 
in  its  native  country.  The  Berberry  I  noticed  in  some  of  the  New  Eng- 
land States,  especially  in  the  neighborhood  of  New  Haven,  much  more 
common  and  vigorous  than  I  had  ever  noticed  in  any  district  of  England 
or  Scotland.  Verbascum  Tkapsus,  the  Moth  Mullein,  is  far  from  being  a 
common  plant  in  England ;  I  never  met  with  it  in  quantity  except  in  one 
or  two  localities  on  calcareous  soils ;  here  it  grows  with  extraordinary 
vigor  and  seems  as  intent  upon  pushing  its  way  westward  as  man  him- 
self. Erigeron  Canadense,  known  as  horse- weed,  or  butter- weed,  is  a 
native  of  both  countries.  In  England,  however,  it  is  confined  chiefly  to 
one  or  two  of  the  south-eastern  counties.  I  never  found  the  plant  but 
in  Kew  Church  yard,  where  my  attention  was  directed  to  it  by  a  notice 
in  a  London  Botanical  Journal,  the  Phytologist ;  here  it  is  one  of  the 
most  abundant  and  vilest  of  weeds  the  farmer  has  to  contend  with.  We 
should  not  be  justified  then  in  concluding  that  chess  is  more  abundant  ia 
the  United  States  than  in  England  owing  to  the  wheat  being  more  injured, 
by  frost,  seeing  that  other  plants  are  similarly  aflfected  by  the  diflference 
in  the  soil  and  climate  of  the  two  countries. 

3rd.  If  chess  was  originally  a  plant  of  wheat  transformed  by  the 
action  of  frost,  or  other  adverse  causes,  why  are  chess  plants  frequently 
seen  so  vigorous  by  the  side  of  weak  plants  of  wheat,  both  of  which 
must  have  been  subject  to  the  action  of  the  same  external  influences? 
One  plant  of  chess,  which  I  pulled  up  in  the  summer  of  1850,  had  for- 
ty-three stems,  yet  in  the  same  clump,  a  wheat  plant  was  growing  with 
only  two  stems.  I  omitted  to  count  the  seeds  of  each,  but  we  may  pre- 
sume if  the  wheat  plant  yielded  sixty  grains  for  one  sown,  the  reproduc- 
tive powers  of  the  chess  plant  would  have  been  at  a  low  estimate,  seven- 
teen hundred  for  one,  a  somewhat  strange  result,  truly,  of  the  action  of 
adverse  influences. 

4th.  I  have  examined  crops  of  wheat,  which,  in  some  parts,  had  been 
more  injured  by  frost  than  others,  and  in  these  parts  the  number  of  chess 
plants  compared  with  wheat  plants,  was  greater  than  in  other  parts  of 
the  field,  but  if  a  square  rod  of  land  had  been  measured  in  these  differ- 
ent parts,  and  the  number  of  chess  plants  counted  in  each,  my  observa- 
tions lead  me  to  conclude,  that  there  would  have  been  found  a  nearly- 
equal  number  of  plants  in  one  as  in  the  other.  Chess  is  obviously  a 
hardier  plant  than  wheat,  it  is  better  able  to  withstand  the  action  of  frost; 


284 

thus,  when  a  considerable  number  of  wheat  plants  perish,  the  chess  plants 
which  remain,  not  only  actually  bear  a  greater  proportion  to  the  wheat, 
than  in  other  parts  of  the  same  field  not  injured ;  but  the  difference  does 
not  end  here,  these  plants  have  now  a  more  extensive  pasture  for  their 
roots,  and  a  greater  share  of  light  for  their  leaves,  than  if  they  had  vig- 
orous wheat  plants  to  contend  with,  they  consequently  grow  more  luxu- 
riantly, throw  up  more  numerous  stems,  and  cover  a  greater  space  of 
ground.  The  chess  thus  not  only  actually  bears  a  greater  proportion  to 
the  wheat,  but  it  seems  more  abundant,  the  number  of  plants  greater 
than  in  parts  where  the  wheat  has  been  less  killed  or  weakened  by  frost ; 
hence  I  suspect  the  conclusion  has  been  arrived  at,  that  wheat,  by  the 
action  of  frost,  has  been  changed  into  chess. 

5th.  I  have  carefully  taken  up  many  plants  of  chess,  and  I  have  usu- 
ally found  the  husks  of  the  seed  from  which  they  had  sprung  ;  these  I 
have  examined  by  the  aid  of  a  good  lens,  and  they  appeared  to  me  in  all 
cases,  the  seed-coats  of  chess  and  not  of  wheat. 

6th.  Where  I  am  is  new  land  ;  wheat  was  first  sown  here  in  the  fall  of 
1849,  and  as  chess  is  not  indigenous  to  the  soil,  nor  yet  introduced  into 
the  land  by  manure,  I  have,  in  the  last  three  seasons,  had  a  favorable 
opportunity  for  observing  the  effects  of  frost  on  the  wheat  crop,  and 
whether  the  appearance  of  chess  depends  on  the  severity  of  the  weather, 
or  the  injury  the  wheat  plant  has  sustained  during  Avinter,  or  whether 
the  quantity  grown  is  not  due  rather  to  other  circumstances,  under  our 
control.  In  the  first  year  or  so,  fanning  mills  were  somewhat  scarce  here, 
much  wheat  was,  consequently,  indifferently  cleaned,  and  in  some  instances, 
sown  in  that  state ;  others  had  taken  extra  pains  to  procure  clean  seed, 
and  two  or  three  patches  were  raised  from  wheat  gleaned  in  the  field  ; 
in  some  cases,  wheat  was  sown  after  wheat,  and  from  the  same  sample, 
on  newly  broken-up  land  adjoining.  The  proportion  of  chess,  I  found 
in  all  cases,  all  other  circumstances  being  similar,  was  greatest  where 
wheat  followed  wheat,  because,  in  addition  to  the  chess  sown  with  the 
wheat,  there  was  a  considerable  quantity  of  self-sown  seed  already  in  the 
land,  from  the  previous  year's  crop.  In  one  instance,  some  very  clean 
purchased  seed  had  been  sown,  it  was  put  through  the  mill,  till  it  seemed 
free  from  chess ;  the  seed  not  being  sufficient,  a  strip  was  sown  with  other 
wheat,  which  had  been  merely  chaffed ;  the  former  produced  a  compara- 
tively pure  crop,  the  latter  a  nearly  equal  proportion  of  chess,  rye  and 
wheat. 


/ 


285 

I  was  told  of  a  crop  in  the  summer  of  1851  that  was  said  to  be  per- 
fectly free  from  chess,  and  it  certainly  required  a  very  close  examination 
to  detect  a  plant  of  chess  in  it ;  in  the  same  season  a  crop  was  grown  on 
the  adjoining  quarter  section  so  foul,  that  when  the  plants  came  into  ear, 
the  proportion  of  chess  to  wheat  was  so  great  that  it  was  considered  advis- 
able to  mow  it  green  for  foddder  rather  than  let  it  ripen.  The  former  was 
the  produce  of  wheat  gleaned  in  the  field,  the  latter  was  admitted  to  be 
largely  mixed  with  chess  when  sown.  Apart  from  all  theoretical  consider- 
ations, the  result  of  my  observations  and  experience  here  is,  that  Avheat 
crops  are  pure  and  clean  in  proportion  to  the  cleanness  of  the  land,  and 
to  the  purity  and  cleanness  of  the  seed  when  sown.  If  this  be  so,  then 
the  obvious  remedy  for  this  evil  is,  first,  to  thoroughly  clean  the  land, 
and  secondly,  to  obtain  perfectly  clean  seed.  I  may  venture  to  suggest, 
whether  we  may  not  derive  advantage  in  various  ways  by  paying  greater 
attention  to  the  purity  and  excellence  of  the  seeds  for  our  various  crops — 
for  my  own  part,  so  far  as  regards  wheat,  I  intend,  by  comparative  ex- 
periments, to  determine  which  of  the  various  kinds  of  wheat  I  can  pro- 
cure, is  best  adapted  to  the  soil  and  climate,  and  then  endeavor  to  raise  a 
pure  crop  by  commencing  Avith  a  single  grain,  or  at  all  events  with  a 
single  ear,  for  not  only  is  it  a  matter  of  consequence  to  rid  our  crops  of 
chess,  but  it  is  of  some  importance  that  a  crop  should  consist  of  one 
variety,  for  not  only  is  there  a  difference  in  the  productive  powers  and 
quality  of  different  varieties,  but  there  is  a  difi'erence  frequently  of  some 
days  in  the  periods  of  ripening,  and  a  crop  Avhich  is  a  mixture  of  diflferent 
varieties,  some  ripening  sooner  than  others,  cannot  yield  so  well,  or  afford 
so  equal  or  so  fair  and  heavy  a  sample  as  a  pure  crop,  adapted  to  the 
soil  and  climate. 

Although  wheat  has  been  cultivated  from  time  immemorial  by  the 
most  civilized  nations  of  the  world,  there  yet  appears  to  be  many  ques- 
tions relating  to  the  culture  of  the  plant  respecting  which  no  very  precise 
or  satisfactory  knowledge  exists.  Experiments  indeed  remain  to  be  made 
on  the  wheat  plant  alone  which  would  take  a  life  time  to  determine.  Who, 
for  instance,  has  proved  what  is  the  best  mode  of  obtaining  more  produc- 
tive and  valuable  varieties,  whether  by  cross-breeding  or  judicious  selec- 
tion through  successive  generations  ?  or  who  can  at  present  say  where  is 
the  limit  to  improvement  in  hardiness,  quality,  and  productiveness  ? — 
Again,  can  an  improved  variety  be  continued  pure  and  equally  produc- 
tive for  an  unlimited  period  when  obtained,  and  if  so,  what  are  the  like- 


286 

liest  means  for  effecting  that  object  ?  Bcfoi-e  this  can  be  satisfactorily 
answered  we  must  inquire  further,  what  are  the  causes  of  the  deteriora- 
tion of  varieties  of  grain  ?  May  it  be  owing  to  a  variety  not  being  suited 
to  the  soil  and  climate?  Are  some  varieties  better  adapted  to  one 
soil  and  climate  than  to  another?  Do  some  thrive  better  in  one  soil 
than  another  in  the  same  climate  ?  What  are  the  precise  effects  of  soil 
and  climate  on  different  varieties  ?  What  are  the  effects  of  a  change 
of  soil  independent  of  climate  ?  What  is  the  result  of  raising  seed-wheat 
on  the  same  farm,  but  with  a  different  or  special  manure  ? 

May  the  deterioration  of  an  improved  variety  be  owing  chiefly  to  the 
mixture  of  other  varieties  in  the  crop  ?  Do  varieties  of  distinct  habit  and 
character  when  mixed  and  grown  together  cross-breed.  Is  wheat,  like 
most  of  our  fruits,  and  what  are  called  florist's  flowers  liable  to  "sport" 
into  varieties,  that  is,  M^ill  it  produce  plants  differing  om  each  other  and 
from  the  parent  stock,  and  this  without  the  action  of  the  pollen  of  a 
second  variety  ?  Will  not  a  variety  raised  to  a  high  state  of  perfection, 
by  selection  and  skilful  culture,  gradually  deteriorate  when  grown  a  num- 
ber of  years  by  the  ordinary  methods  ?  In  addition  to  hardy  and  pro- 
ductive habits,  is  it  possible  to  obtain  varieties  having  some  constitutional 
peculiarity  which  will  enable  them  to  resist  diseases,  especially  diseases 
arising  from  the  attacks  of  parasitical  fungi  ?  In  what  state  of  ripeness 
does  seed-wheat  afford  the  most  vigorous  plant?  What  are  the  effects  of 
different  depths,  times  and  modes  of  sowing,  and  of  different  quantities 
sown  per  acre  ? 


WILD    RICE. 

Willow  River,  December  11th,  1852. 

My  Dear  Sir  : — The  Wild  Rice  of  this  country  grows  usually  on  the 
borders  of  small  lakes,  but  sometimes,  when  the  water  is  not  too  deep, 
and  the  bottom  apparently  soft,  it  will  extend  over  a  whole  lake,  literally 
filling  it ;  so  that  when  it  is  luxuriant,  it  is  with  difficulty  that  a  canoe  can  be 
worked  through  it.  It  usually  grows  in  water  from  six  to  nine  feet  deep, 
and  rises  about  the  same  height  above  the  water,  with  a  straw  and  head 
very  similar  to  oats ;  in  fact,  in  many  places,  when  nearly  ripe,  it  has 
the  appearance  of  a  large,  luxuriant  oat  field.    The  kernel,  after  the  husk 


187 


is  taken  off,  in  appearance  resembles  both  the  oat  and  a  kernel  of  smut 
rye ;  it  is  larger  than  the  former,  but  not  as  large  as  the  latter  usually 
grows.     In  color,  it  is  almost  a  transparent  green. 

The  method  which  the  Indians  take  to  gather  it,  and  prepare  it  for 
food,  is  as  follows  :  A  short  time  before  it  is  fully  ripe,  two  squaws  will  go 
amongst  it  with  a  canoe,  and  gather  a  handful  of  the  straws  together,  tie 
them  so,  and  then  break  down  the  heads  and  leave  them  hanging  till  it  is 
dry  enough  to  thresh.  They  have  a  double  object  in  thus  tying  the  straws 
together :  one  is  to  prevent  the  waving  of  the  heads  together  by  the  action 
of  the  wind,  and  thus  threshing  out  the  grain,  and  the  other  to  prevent 
the  straws  from  settling  down  into  the  water  when  they  have  become  fully 
■  ripe.  After  it  has  remained  tied  in  this  way  for  about  two  weeks,  and 
become  fully  ripe,  and  dry  enough  to  thresh,  the  two  squaws  again  start 
with  their  canoe,  one  of  them  armed  with  a  crooked  stick  about  three 
feet  long,  and  the  other  with  a  paddle  to  steer  or  propel  the  canoe.  Ar- 
rived at  the  rice  field,  the  one  with  the  stick  seizes  the  clusters  of  heads, 
and  bendinsr  them  over  into  the  canoe,  strikes  them  two  or  three  blows 
with  the  stick,  and  in  this  way  threshes  out  the  grain.  In  this  manner 
they  will  gather  several  bushels  in  a  day.  It  is  then  taken  to  where  the 
lodge  is  for  the  time  being,  and  kiln-dried  thoroughly,  (usually  enough 
to  cook  it, )  after  which  it  is  emptied  into  skins,  and  undergoes  a  process 
of  beating  with  sticks,  to  take  off  the  husks,  when  it  is  fit  for  use.  It 
then  enters  into,  and  becomes  a  part  of  all,  or  nearly  all,  their  cookery, 
In  spring,  when  sugar-making  commences,  and  the  Indians  are  about  to 
start  on  their  spring  hunt,  they  take  a  quantity,  and  mix  some  grained 
sugar  with  it  to  carry  with  them  as  their  principal  supply  of  food.  They 
then  eat  it  without  any  further  cooking.  I  have  used  it,  and  consider 
it  far  preferable  to  the  Southern  rice  for  soups,  or  boiled  to  eat  with 
molasses  or  butter.  ' 

Whether  it  would  improve  by  cultivation,  I  am  not  able  to  say,  but 
think  not.  I  am  now,  and  have  long  been  of  the  opinion,  that  the  culti- 
vation of  it  might  be  made  very  profitable,  by  having  dams,  so  as  to  flow 
the  land  at  pleasure.  When  the  Indians  wish  it  to  grow  in  some  favor- 
able place,  they  gather  some  of  it  when  it  is  fully  ripe,  and  scatter  it  in 
the  water,  when  it  grows  without  any  farther  trouble  on  the  part  of  the 
rude  airriculturist. 

It  is  usually  worth  two  dollars  per  bushel.  I  have  none  now  by  me, 
but  will  endeavor  to  get  some  and  forward  to  you  soon.     I  can  get  none 


288 

fit  for  seed  until  the  next  harvest,  as  the  germinating  power  is  killed  ia 
the  drying. 

Yours  truly, 

JOSEPH  BOWROIS'. 

To  Albert  C.  Ingham,  Esq. 

Sec.  of  the  Wis.  State  Agr.  Society. 


THE  MORAL  INFLUENCES  OF  HORTICULTURE. 

The  Grove,  Northfield,  III.,  December  20,  1852. 

My  Dear  Sir: — A  compliance  with  your  request,  that  I  furnish  a  hor- 
ticultural paper,  for  your  forthcoming  volume  of  Transactions,  is  ren- 
dered difficult,  by  circumstances  not  necessary  to  mention ;  and,  yet,  I 
do  not  feel  at  liberty  entirely  to  neglect  your  flattering  call,  inasmuch  as 
I  acknowledge  your  right  to  command  the  aid  of  my  pen,  and  perhaps 
believe  that  the  example  of  professional  writers  may  prove  of  some  avail, 
even,  though,  their  communications  contain  little  or  nothing  of  practical 
value  to  the  well-informed  reader. 

Now,  the  three  or  four  pages  of  argument,  floating  in  my  mind,  may 
not  reach  the  paper  in  a  way  to  convince  a  single  individual,  but  I  may 
excite  thought,  and  that  thought  may  cause  investigation  and  application. 

My  theme  is  the  Moral  Influences  of  Horticulture ;  though  I  may  in- 
cidentally glance  at  other  phases  of  the  question. 

I  consider  Horticulture,  not  only  "the  fine  art  of  rural  life,"  but  as 
the  primary  school  of  taste  and  refinement,  and  the  normal  school  of 
practical  country  life. 

To  begin  with  the  familiar  and  unquestionable  branches ;  all  who  stop 
to  think  will  admit,  that  a  well-tilled  garden  is  in  reality  a  model  farm ; 
and  from  the  results  there,  the  large  farmer  can  readily  take  practical 
lessons,  on  the  general  efi'ects  of  improved  fertility,  by  the  use  of  man- 
ures, depth  and  fineness  of  tilth,  thoroughness  and  extent  of  after-cul- 
ture, incidental  protection,  irrigation,  <fec.,  and  if  we  leave  out  the  above 
consideration,  it  must  still  be  admitted,  that  a  good  kitchen  garden  gives 
a  larger  return  in  wholesome  and  desirable  food,  for  the  small  amount  of 
occasional  labor,  than  any  part  of  a  farm — the  orchard  excepted — and 
it  furnishes,  also,  agreeable  occupation  for  some  hours  that  might  be 
worse  than  wasted,  were  it  not  for  this  handy  resource. 


289  ^ 

The  fruit  garden,  the  vineyard,  and  the  orchard,  take  other  and  longer 
steps  in  the  illustration  of  our  theme.  In  money-profit,  too,  these  pay 
much  better  than  the  balance  of  the  farm ;  and  in  the  family,  as  cheap 
luxuries,  delicious  food,  acceptable  medicines,  prophylactic  agents,  and 
reliable  substitutes  for  other  articles  in  common  use,  ripe  fruit  is  truly 
invaluable.  But  the  influence  of  a  more  general  production  of  certain 
fruits,  for  the  manufacture  of  wine  and  cider,  is  more  properly  under 
consideration. 

Cider  can  be  made  far  superior  in  flavor  to  all  the  mixtures,  sold  as  wine, 
and  most  of  the  ordinary  importations  ;  and  yet,  neither  intoxicate,  nor 
derange  the  digestive  organs  of  those  who  drink  it. 

I  have  known  dyspeptics  drink  really  fine  cider  with  great  relish,  and 
most  satisfactory  results ;  while  at  the  same  time,  a  glass  of  ordinary 
wine  would  be  almost  certain  to  cause  prolonged  misery,  and  alcoholic 
liquors  (seldom  taken)  have  no  good  eff'ect  whatever. 

It  has  been  proved  that  good  wines  can  be  grown  at  home,  cheaper 
than  any,  of  equal  quality,  can  be  imported ;  and  it  is  by  no  means  set- 
tled, that  we  cannot  produce  wines  in  the  United  States  as  cheap  as  they 
can  in  France  and  Germany.  The  difference  in  the  price  of  labor  is  the 
only  thing  against  it ;  and  the  contrivances  of  Yankee  ingenuity  will  help 
to  overcome  that,  and,  the  difficulty  of  adapting  or  naturalizing  wine 
grapes  to  soil  and  climate  will  be  got  over  by  the  production  of  new  vari- 
eties suited  to  the  locality. 

Taste  in  wines  is  somewhat  arbitrary,  and  the  growth  of  habit ;  but 
those  who  are  accustomed  to  our  pure  American  wines  prefer  them  to  any 
others ;  and  for  my  part,  I  consider  the  Dry  Catawba  one  of  the  most 
delicious  of  wines,  and  one  of  the  least  liable  to  produce  bad  eS"ects  upon 
the  stomach  or  the  brain.  Indeed,  like  cider,  the  little  alcohol,  which 
these  light  wines  may  yield  to  distillation,  exists  in  such  a  state  of  com- 
bination with  the  natural  elements  of  the  fruit,  that  a  healthful  exhilara- 
tion, rather  than  alcoholic  stimulation,  or  intoxication,  is  produced  by  its 
introduction  into  the  system  ;  and  then,  it  is  well  known  to  chemists,  that 
wine  of  this  kind  is  free  from  those  deadly  poisons,  which  may  be  ob- 
tained, as  proximate  principles,  from  the  rum  and  whiskey  of  commerce, 
especially  the  latter,  which  contains  half  a  dozen  or  more  of  these  prin- 
ciples, more  or  less  deadly  in  their  nature,  apart  from  the  alcohol  for 
which  the  whiskey  is  drank. 

I  shall  not  say  a  word  on  the  ruinous  and  destructive  use  of  alcohol. 


^  290 

in  its  various  forms,  and  under  its  many  specious  disguises — I  could  not 
add  a  single  horror  to  the  damning  catalogue  of  misery  and  degradation  ; 
and  yet,  it  is  a  solemn  truth,  that  we  do  imbibe  many  poisons,  besides  alco- 
hol, when  we  drink  the  ordinary  wines  and  distillations,  malt  liquors,  &c. 

And  now,  admitting  that  we  must  drink — or  rather,  that  we  will  drink 
** something  to  give  nature  a  jog" — had  we  not  better  take  something 
not  quite  so  apt  to  jog  us  off  our  balance,  and  into  the  grave,  after  this 
suicidal  fashion  ?  ' 

We  religiously  hold  to  the  faith,  that  the  pure  juice  of  the  grape,  the 
apple,  pear,  and  some  other  fruits,  properly  prepared  and  fermented,  re- 
fined and  ripened,  without  the  addition  of  any  substance  whatever,  will 
answer  every  indication,  as  an  exhilarating  beverage,  and  very  seldom 
either  "steal  away  the  senses,"  or  drive  a  premature  nail  in  the  coflBn. 

Now,  if  I  am  right  in  my  estimate  of  the  ameliorating  tendency  of  the 
pure  juices  of  fruits,  when  contrasted  with  the  effects  of  our  ordinary 
stimulating  drinks,  had  we  not  better  plant  orchards  and  vineyards,  for 
the  production  of  such  agreeable  beverages  ? 

The  experience  of  the  old  world  favors  this  opinion ;  for,  drunkenness 
is  almost  unknown  amongst  the  vineyards,  while  it  is  in  alarming  excess 
where  little  cider  and  no  wine,  but  much  beer  and  whiskey  are  produced. 
And  if  we  cannot  prohibit  the  greater  evil,  would  it  not  be  a  rational 
policy  to  supercede  it  by  one  of  lesser  magnitude  ?  This  is  a  mere  spec- 
ulation, and  will  not  suit  either  end  of  the  Temperance  argument.  But 
truth  is  sometimes  found  between  extremes,  and  this  idea  is  certainly 
worthy  of  some  consideration. 

But  I  come  now  to  a  more  pleasing  phase  of  my  theme  ;  one  in  which 
I  see  no  questionable  point,  no  lesser  evil,  no  doubtful  tendency,  but  one 
broad  field  of  truthful  nature,  purity  and  moral  excellence.  And,  yet,  I 
shall  find  few  readers,  perhaps,  ready  to  adopt  my  ultra  views,  simply 
because  the  training  I  advocate,  has  not  fitted  the  many  to  comprehend 
or  appreciate  them. 

It  is  of  the  influence  of  the  beautiful  that  I  would  speak — the  orna- 
mental in  Horticulture — the  beautiful  in  Nature  and  Art — especially  in 
reference  to  the  education  of  the  young,  and  the  formation  of  character, 
by  the  early  development  of  the  higher,  and  the  natural  repression  of 
the  lower  propensities  of  our  nature.  But  will  our  association  with 
physical  beauty  do  this  ?  "We  believe  so — measurably  at  least.  All  are 
not  born  physically  equal,  and  single  specifics  are  as  uncommon  in  edu- 


291 

cation  as  they  are  in  medicine — and  I  never  discovered  one  in  either — 
and  yet,  I  believe  that  the  influence  of  things,  and  the  circumstances  at 
home,  are  of  paramount  importance  in  education. 

The  earth  is  robed  in  varient  beauty,  and  the  principle  pervades  all 
living  things,  and  forms  of  changing  aspect ;  and  throughout  the  civil- 
ized world  this  principle  of  beauty  is  all  potent  in  guiding  the  tastes  and 
appreciation  of  intellectual  man.  Its  efficiency  is  greatest  during  th© 
morning  of  our  existence,  but  our  enjoyment  of  it  may  be  greater  in  the 
evening  of  a  life  on  whose  daAvn  the  spirit  of  beauty  impressed  its  glowing 
images. 

There  is  no  difficulty  whatever  in  making  the  principle  of  beauty  an 
element  in  early  education.  The  child  instinctively  loves  the  beautiful, 
and  proves  it  by  extending  a  tiny  hand  and  attempting  to  seize  that 
which  it  had  never  seen  before,  and  could  not  have  learned  to  desire. — 
From  the  brightness  of  the  stars  to  the  verdure  of  the  earth — from  the 
bird  and  the  butterfly,  to  the  painted  petals  of  the  flowers — the  child  ad- 
mires  the  beautiful,  and  is  never  far  Avrong  in  his  first  estimate  of  it. — 
Why,  then,  should  we  let  the  hard  pressure  of  animal  wants — the  con- 
ventional absurdities  of  society — or  the  barren  bleakness  of  an  unadorned 
home,  and  a  less  lovely  school-house — pervert  the  child's  nature  and  put 
out  this  spark  of  divine  light — the  only  mental  ray  that  illumes  the  nas- 
cent understanding,  which  comes  with  us  into  the  world  ! 

There  can  be  no  doubt — there  is  no  doubt — in  the  minds  of  all  sensi- 
ble persons,  who  have  examined  the  subject  without  prejudice,  that  the 
things  habitually  presented  to  the  eye  of  the  child  influence  the  mind  of 
the  mature  man.  This  influence  is,  of  course,  modified  by  the  physical 
organization  of  the  individual,  and  the  circumstances  of  after  life.  But 
the  early  impressions  are,  after  all,  those  which  must  color  individual 
character  apart  from  physicial  peculiarities ;  and  who  knows  how  often 
the  circumstances  of  infant  life  destroy  a  noble,  or  enlarge  and  render 
active  a  naturally  feeble  faculty,  or  propensity  for  evil?  We  now  know 
that  the  great  and  the  good  have  generally  come  from  a  home  of  beauty 
and  excellence ;  and  we  know,  too,  that  vice  and  misery  grow  most  luxu- 
riantly in  the  frightful  hot-beds  of  crime,  sunk  in  the  filthiest  dens  of 
our  great  cities.  This  we  all  admit ;  but  we  seldom  enquire  whether  the 
wordless,  but  speaking  beauties  of  Nature  would  not  have  prevented  the 
evil  growth  which  the  moralist  and  the  magistrate  are  called  on  to 
restrain — with  how  much  real  benefit,  all  who  will,  may  see. 


293 

That  which  we  sow  in  the  spring-time  of  life  shall  we  reap  in  the 
harvest  of  manhood;  and  if  the  young  mind  is  seeded  with  evil,  and 
nurtured  in  poverty  and  wretchedness,  can  we  reasonably  look  for  a 
crop  of  honor  and  pure  feeling,  or  high  moral  and  intellectual  excel- 
lence ?  If  there  be  exceptions  to  the  rule,  they  are  rare  indeed,  and 
show  that  the  Creator  has  impressed  His  seal  of  intellectual  worth  anii 
integrity  upon  the  physical  organization  of  the  individual  with  such 
innate  force,  that  after-circumstances  have  not  had  the  power  to  control 
the  natural  tendencies  of  the  mind. 

That  education  does  much,  all  freely  admit ;  but  I  believe  that  educa- 
tion commences  much  earlier  in  life  than-  most  people  imagine.  The 
child  observes  as  soon  as  he  sees,  and  learns  before  he  can  speak.  That 
our  earliest  thoughts  pass  from  the  memory,  is  no  evidence  that  we  do 
not  think  when  very  young.  Witness  the  delight  of  the  child-in-arms 
at  beholding  beautiful  objects ;  listen  to  the  pertinent  questions  of  the 
infant  prattler,  and  observe  his  silent  reveries,  and  then  say,  if  appreci- 
ation and  consequent  thought  are  not  active,  though  still  undeveloped ! 

Things  act  upon  the  mind  of  the  infant  before  words  are  understood ; 
and  therefore,  things,  not  words,  should  be  the  mediums  of  early  instruc- 
tion; and  surely  then,  the  things  most  prominently  before  the  learner 
should  be  the  most  fitting  and  beautiful  of  their  kind. 

Forms  of  beauty  and  gracefulness  direct  the  taste,  or  create  it ;  the 
grand  and  the  picturesque  exalt  the  imagination ;  order,  congruity, 
cheerfulness  and  comfort  at  home,  all  help  to  increase  our  love  for  these, 
and  render  home  lessons  as  efficient  as  pleasurable ;  and  pleasure  is  as 
necessary  as  food  and  air.  Never  forget  this,  but  seek  to  make  the 
pleasures  of  your  child,  not  only  recreative  and  suitable,  but  incidental 
helps,  also  in  the  process  of  education,  or  physical  and  mental  devel- 
opement. 

The  free  air,  the  earth's  green  carpet,  and  the  grateful  screen  of  trees, 
should  never  be  wanting  in  the  child's  early  play-time,  nor  denied  to  the 
school-boy's  occasional  enjoyment,  and  more  necessary  exercise. 

Ever  in  the  eye  of  the  child,  and  the  appreciation  of  true  taste,  when 
practicable,  our  homes  should  be  made  the  most  beautiful  spots  on  earth. 
Ornament  and  practical  utility  should  go  hand  in  hand;  for  ornament 
has  its  uses.  And  next  to  our  homes,  I  would  make  the  school-house 
pleasant  and  commodious,  and  give  it  a  cheerful  countenance,  and  exact 
and  tasteful  architectural  proportions  and  finish.      And  then,  though 


293 

parents  have  neglected  these  requisites,  in  home  architecture,  the  pupils 
of  the  district  will  have,  at  least,  one  good  model  often  before  them, 
which,  I  must  say,  they  now  seldom  have,  not  even  in  our  churches  or 
other  public  buildings. 

But  I  mustclose  this  lengthened  essay.  In  writing,  it  has  not  been 
my  object  to  press  my  opinions  with  numerous  examples,  which  I  might 
easily  do,  but  merely  draw  attention  to  the  subject  of  the  beautiful  in 
Horticulture,  in  relation  to  education,  and  leave  my  readers  to  make  their 
own  observations,  and  draw  their  inferences,  from  examples  always 
within  reach. 

That  they  will  find  the  influences  of  the  beautiful  in  accordance  with 
my  views,  if  they  look  for  them,  I  cannot  doubt ;  and  that  they  will  find 
a  larger  proportion  of  bad  taste,  narrow  intellects,  and  evil  propensities, 
coming  out  of  homes  where  the  beautiful  had  no  existence,  I  am  posi- 
tively certain,  even  where  all  else  has  been  comparatively  equal  in 
education. 

And  how  cheap  are  all  these  beautiful  things  of  the  garden  and  lawn ! 
How  passing  cheap  can  we  purchase  happiness  for  the  young,  and  give  a 
right  direction  to  their  forming  tastes  and  faculties  !  A  log  cabin  may 
have  taste  and  comfort,  and  cheerful,  happy  faces  within,  and  without, 
a  few  native  trees,  an  American  creeper,  or  a  wild  vine,  fittingly  planted, 
will  produce  more  tasteful  effect  than  an  hundred  times  the  cost,  in  such 
decorations  as  the  village  carpenter  is  most  apt  to  give  the  rich  farmer's 
dwelling,  and  the  rich  district's  school-house.  And  if  my  farmer  friends 
will  go  a  little  further,  and  purchase  five  dollars'  worth  of  hardy  shrubs 
and  perennial  flowering  plants,  and  to  keep  up  the  midsummer  display 
add  thereto  the  seeds  of  a  few  annual  flowers,  they  may  easily  render 
their  rough,  picket-fenced  front-yards  as  fittingly  beautiful  and  creditable 
as  the  most  expensive  showgrounds;  and  with  these  living  embellish- 
ments, nineteen  well-informed  persons  out  of  every  twenty,  will  give  the 
preference  in  a  decision  of  taste,  to  the  log-house  in  its  place,  o^  er  the 
most  ambitious  mountain  of  brick  and  mortar,  or  the  glaring  barn-like 
"big,  white  house"  of  your  "fore-handed"  country  "squire,"  or  your 
rich  cit,  who  comes  into  the  country  to  rusticate,  and  builds  his  house 
and  plans  his  grounds  after  city  models. 

And  now,  to  conclude,  I  have  but  to  repeat  my  advice,  that  you  gather 
around  your  dwellings  the  cheap  beauties  of  nature — trees,  shrubs,  vines, 
and  flowering  plants — and  don't  forget  the  delicious  carpet  of  grass. 


294: 

And  let  these  also  adorn  the  school-house,  and   that  buildins:  towards 

which  the  glad  sabbath  directs  your  reverent  steps  ;  and  last,  that  sacred 

spot  where  rest  the  ashes  of  kindred  dead,  for  there  is  no  reason  why 

the  grave-yard  should  wear  a  gloomy  dress,  since  it  is  the  last  home  of 

us  all. 

Truly,  your  friend, 

JOHN  A.  KENNIGOTT. 

To  Albert  C.  Ingham,  Esq. 

Sec.  of  the  }Vis.  State  Agr.  Society. 


SEEDLINGS  versus  GRAFTS,   OR  TOP-GRAFTS  versus  ROOT- 
GRAFTS. 

BY   F.   K.  PHCENIX. 

These  subjects  having  been  touched  upon  by  the  writer  in  a  communi- 
cation published  in  the  first  volume  of  the  Transactions  are  deemed  wor- 
thy of  more  special  notice. 

Seedlings  it  is  not  necessary  to  define.  Grafted  or  budded  sorts  are 
those  selected  from  the  former,  on  account  of  the  superiority  of  the  fruit 
and  other  good  qualities,  as  hardihood  and  productiveness,  and  propaga- 
ted mostly  by  grafting  or  budding,  generally  upon  seedling  stocks,  or 
until  within  twenty-five  years,  when  an  improvement  or  innovation  called 
root-grafting,  has  been  widely  introduced. 

With  respect  to  the  general  system  of  grafting  or  budding,  it  would  be 
folly  to  question  its  safety  and  utility  when  properly  used,  though,  unques- 
tionably, an  operation  to  be  resorted  to  when  necessary,  and  avoided  when 
practicable.  The  point  is,  simply,  to  what  extent  shall  this  practice  be 
carried  ?  and  in  view  of  the  vast  importance  of  Horticulture — in  view  of 
its  increasing  risks  and  responsibilities — everything  pertaining  to  that 
prime  operation  should  be  carefully  investigated. 

Grafting  or  budding,  considered  as  an  abstract  mechanical  operation, 
performed  under  favorable  circumstances — as,  for  instance,  to  graft  or 
bud  a  young  tree  with  its  own  wood — cannot  be  regarded  as  inherently 
objectionable  or  dangerous,  or  as  exerting  any  possible  influence,  other 
than  for  the  time  being  to  lessen  its  size  and  retard  its  growth.  It  is  only 
in  its  perversions  or  accidents,  its  newly  created  world  of  changes  and 


295 

circumstances,  that  it  can  work  injury.     In  the  endless  variety  of  combi- 
nations produced,  there  must  be  an  increase  of  risk — ample  occasion  for 
all  the  ills  complained  of  as  belonging  especially  to  buds  or  grafts.    Thus 
we  have  :    1st.  The  subjects,  endlessly  diverse  in  habits  and  preferences 
as  to  soils,  climates,  culture,  &c.     2d.  The  operation,  including  time, 
manner  and  results.     If  these  be  taken  into  the  account,  we  shall  wonder 
not  so  much  at  the  degeneracy  as  at  the  endurance  of  our  improved  vari- 
eties.   It  is  indeed  maintained  by  some,  that  what  we  have  gained  in  one 
direction  we  have  lost  in  another — that  our  choicest  fruits,  not  only  pomo- 
logical,  but  intellectual,  have  been  dearly  bought  at  a  sacrifice  of  physi- 
cal vigor — "  wiser  and  weaker,"  as  saith  the  old  proverb.     This  is  a  posi- 
tion not  taken  without  considerable  show  of  reason,  but  believing  it  oppo- 
sed to  the  prevailing  fact,  as  well  as  to  the  hopeful  theory  of  "Progress" 
— a  progress  not  seeming  and  partial,  but  real,  and  to  some  extent  pro- 
portionate, we  must  reject  it,  while  allowing,   and  otherwise  explaining 
the  facts  from  which  it  springs.      To  say  that  culture  and  improvement 
pertain  not  to  the  entire  range  of  human  effort,  as  well  to  the  physical  as 
the  intellectual,  as  well  to  the  tree  as  the  fruit,  is  manifestly  absurd — 
though,  at  the  same  time  it  is  evident  this  culture  and  improvement  have 
been  in  many  instances  partially  and  unwisely  bestowed. 

Whatever  may  be  our  theory,  certain  baneful  tendencies  and  results 
are  too  obvious  to  be  disregarded — let  each  then  but  oppose  in  his  own 
way  and  to  the  best  of  his  ability. 

In  discussing  this  subject  we  shall  endeavor  to  prove, 

1st.  That  the  seedling  is  physically  the  more  perfect  tree ;  theoreti- 
cally, because  of  its  unity  and  entireness,  simplicity  and  naturalness 
throughout,  in  both  origin  and  developement,  roots,  tops,  growth  and 
product.  Nature  in  any  given  process  is  perfect.  Practically,  because 
the  wood  of  seedlings  is  firmer,  bark  tougher,  and  wounds  made  on 
■  them  heal  more  readily ;  they  are  generally  more  productive  and  hardy, 
and  accommodate  themselves  best  to  different  soils  and  climates.  There- 
fore, 

2d.  Though  grafting  is  indispensible,  yet  that  that  grafting,  other 
things  being  equal,  will  be  best,  which  employs  most  of  the  seedling 
stock. 

These  positions  we  shall  not  discuss  separately,  nor  is  it  perhaps  neces- 
sary, for  we  doubt  if  any  one  conversant  with  the  subject  would  feel  in- 
clined to  question  them ;  in  fact,  with  regard  to  hardihood  the  general 


296 

impression  has  seemed  to  be,  that  seedlings  were  quite,  too  tough — most 
unnecessarily  and  inconveniently  thorny  and  rugged  ! 

The  ultimate  issue  no  doubt  is  between  seeds  and  buds — the  rough, 
hardy  product  of  the  one  and  the  smooth,  tender,  rapid  growth  of  the 
other — Avhich  aflbrd  the  best  foundation  or  vital  centres  to  work  from  ? 

With  regard  to  the  seed  it  is  nature's  primal,  chosen  method  of  repro- 
duction, the  perfect  embryo  of  a  new,  perfect  individual ;  nothing  second 
hand  or  second  rate,  or  factitious  or  adventitious  about  it ;  it  is  not  one 
of  many  parts  of  a  tree  given  to  manufacture  the  rest,  but  all  parta 
reduced,  embodied  and  pledged  to  reproduce  the  whole.  In  examining 
the  seed  more  closely,  we  find  one  part  designed  for  the  radicle  which  is 
first  developed;  then  another  designed  for  the  stem,  and  that  these  parts 
are  utterly  distinct,  not  interchangeable,  a  most  significant  fact.  Each 
part  then  must  remain  by  itself,  each  for  its  own  element  and  yet  each 
dependant  on  the  other.  And  here,  at  the  point  of  union,  if  anywhere, 
is  the  life  of  the  tree,  the  very  seat  of  vitality,  that  common  centre  from 
which  all  other  parts  radiate,  and  which,  therefore,  if  any  part,  is  indis- 
pensable. 

That  buds  possess  a  species  of  vitality,  and  are  capable  of  indefinite, 
and  in  some  cases,  profitable  extension  or  multiplication,  is  undeniable. 
Still  it  must  be  from  the  very  nature  of  things,  an  inferior,  dependent 
process.  There  is  no  real  reproduction,  no  internal  renewal  of  life  or 
vigor,  or  individuality ;  but  merely  a  sort  of  polypus-like  increase  with, 
as  I  must  think,  a  decided  tendency  (at  least  among  the  more  important 
varities  of  fruits)  in  every  successive  generation,  to  lose  a  portion  of  its 
original  reproductive  energy,  unless  that  tendency  be  counteracted  by 
working  on  strong,  seedling  stocks. 

The  crowning  effort  of  nature  is  reproduction ;  but  man  has  interfered 
and  diverted  her  energies  in  part  from  the  formation  of  the  most  and 
best  seeds,  to  the  production  of  fine  flowers  or  fruits,  making  every  other 
consideration  secondary.  The  consequence  is,  that  some  of  our  choicest 
fruits  and  flowers  have  almost  no  seeds  and  are  themselves  few  and  fee- 
ble. Observe  the  wonderful  productiveness  of — we  had  almost  said — 
whatever  is  not  cultivated ;  but  compare  the  products  of  the  original 
types  of  our  fruits  and  flowers  with  those  of  the  choice  varieties,  though 
none  but  the  most  productive  are  selected  for  propagation.  No  one  can 
for  a  moment  doubt  that  this  seed-bearing  propensity,  which  thus  under- 
lies  our  whole    system  of   horticultural  production,  is  decidedly  the 


297 

strongest  in  seedlings;  and,  llierefore,  as  we  value  the  products  of  our 
ti-ees,  we  should  not  lightly  thrust  aside  their  main  prop.  Habit  is 
(almost)  everything,  and  if  our  trees,  generation  after  generation,  are 
to  be  worked  from  highly  forced,  root-grafted,  nursery  trees,  which  are 
often  little  better  than  rooted  cuttings  or  more  properly  leaf-buds  far 
removed  from  seedlings,  or  fruit  buds,  we  must  not  wonder  if  a  habit  of 
growing  instead  of  bearing,  there  acquired  and  thus  ingrained,  predomi- 
nates ever  after.  Like  produces  like,  seedlings  produce  seeds,  at  least 
with  whatever  of  fruit  may  be  wrapped  around  them,  while  leaf-buds 
thus  stereotyped,  incline  to  produce  leaf-buds  alone.  Though  deeply 
conscious  of  our  horticultural  inferiority  here  at  the  West ;  this  lesson  I 
think  we  have  learned  by  experience,  and  if  our  Eastern  friends  have  not, 
I  would  barely  suggest,  that  it  might  possibly  be  because  their  ancestors 
were  not  skilled  in  commercial  gardening,  especially  the  great  art  of  root 
grafting !  Justice,  however,  requires  the  acknowledgment  in  this  connec- 
tion, of  our  own  faults — if  such  they  shall  prove  to  be — that  root-grafting 
has  ever  been,  as  we  believe,  more  generally  practised  at  the  West  than 
the  East;  and  that  we  (with  every  body  else,  esteeming  it  highly)  wrote, 
so  far  as  we  know,  one  of  the  earliest  articles  upon  it,  descriptive  and 
commendatory,  ever  published  at  the  East.     Hort.  vol.  I.,  page  280. 

It  will  be  argued  that  "  a  tree  is  a  tree,"  and  that  root-grafts  are  "good 
enough,  any  way;"  that  seedlings,  like  grafts,  vary  in  hardihood  or  pro- 
ductiveness ;  that  the  hardy  or  productive  ones,  of  either  class,  are  equally 
so,  while  the  opposite,  the  one  as  well  as  the  other,  will  go  to  the  wall. 

Preeisely  the  argument  when  suckers  were  "just  as  good  as  any," 
and  of  some  plants  they  still  seem  to  be ;  and  where,  from  time 
immemorial,  suckers  or  cuttings  have  answered  all  purposes,  we  would 
not  lightly  call  them  in  question.  But  for  all  that,  discriminating  culti- 
vators cannot  now  be  persuaded  to  trust  many  kinds  of  suckers  as  they 
did  once.  Trees  do  unquestionably  differ  on  account  of  different  modes 
of  propagation ;  thus,  we  have  standards  and  dwarfs,  seedlings  and  suck- 
ers, root-grafts  and  top-grafts,  unlike  in  many  and  important  particulars. 
Not,  but  that  they  may  produce  similar  fruit,  and  under  similar  and  favor- 
able circumstances,  be  much  alike  throughout,  still,  there  is  a  plain,  prac- 
tical distinction.  So  with  the  diflferent  parts  of  a  tree,  the  roots  and  tops 
have  utterly  distinct  functions,  a  root  cannot  become  a  branch,  nor  a 
branch  a  proper  root.  Thus,  a  seedling  varies  from  a  sucker  or  cutting 
in  its  root  and  collar,  e5pecially  and  unquestionably  throughout.  Hence 
20 


29  S 

the  impropriety  of  manufacturing  entire  trees,  roots,  stems,  and  branches, 
out  of  tops.  Nature  will  doiibtless  do  the  best  that  can  be  done  with 
them,  but  how  can  they  form  as  natural  trees  as  seedlings  ?  The  proper 
place  to  use  tops,  is  to  make  tops  again,  at  least,  with  the  nobler  fruits,  sa 
liable  as  they  have  become  to  untoward  influences,  and  where  so  much  is 
at  stake,  let  nature  govern,  at  least,  in  laying  the  foundation,  nor  can  it 
be  too  rugged  and  enduring. 

Trees  differ  also  in  being  of  different  varieties  as  well  as  classes.     It  is 
said,  there  are  sections  where  nearly  all  varieties  are  root-grafted,  and 
with  perfect  success.      In  other  sections,  and  widely  too,  throughout  the 
iN'orth  and  West,  some  varieties  are  generally  recognized  as  too  tender  for 
root-grafting,  and  in  extreme  cases  for  any  situation.     For  one,  I  do  not 
know  where  these  tender  varieties  do  succeed  so  perfectly.      In  the  very 
best  apple  districts  of  Western  New  York,  we  have  seen  (rarely  we  ad- 
mit, for  we  have  never  made  any  investigations  with  reference  to  this 
point)  but  we  have  seen  the  same  effects  from  root-grafting  that  are  com- 
plained of  elsewhere — in  the  nursery  bursting,  and  in  the  orchard  dying 
out,  at  the  collar,  while  seedlings  flourish  almost  everywhere,  and  every 
improved  variety,   without  exception,  so  far  as  we  know,   is  rendered 
hardier,  and,  if  any  thing,  more  productive,  Avhen  worked  standard  height 
on  hardy  seedling  stocks.     Is  it  not,  then,  the  obvious  dictate  of  sound 
policy  to  adhere  inflexibly  to  the  very  best  mode  of  propagation  ?      Are 
we  wise  to  take  up  with  any  thing  less  ?   To  strengthen  a  feeble  grower  or 
renew  stunted  varieties  we  have  ever  been  wont  to  work  them  on  the  best 
seedlinof  stocks — thus  acknowledofino:  bv  common  consent,  from  time  im- 
memorial,  that  with  respect  to  vigor  and  hardihood,  the  bottoms  govern. 
Bottoms  change  tops  greatly  and  often  for  the  better — while  tops  affect 
good  bottoms,  if  at  all,  generally  for  the  worse,  except  in  the  way  of  fruit, 
I  certainly  would  not  deceive  myself  nor  raise  any  false  alarm — but  let  us 
suppose,  if  not  unreasonable,  that  throughout  our  country,  when  once  well 
covered  with  these  tender  root-grafted  trees,  some  right  western  winter 
should  prevail.    It  may  be  we  shall  have  nothing  more  trying  than  those 
of  1851  and  '62. — I  certainly  hope  we  may  not.    But  again — root-grafts 
cannot  be  better  than  top-grafts  ;  still,  they  are  unquestionably  different, 
and  what  will  that  difference  result  in  ?     It  may  not  be  possible,  yet  we 
have  thought  whether  they  might  not  eventually  turn  out  like  suckers, 
essentially  inferior.     At  all  events,  on  which  side,  we  ask,  is  the  risk  ? 
However,  we  do  not  by  any  means  wish  to  ascribe  perfection  to  seed- 


299 

Yimxs — but  we  insist  that  to  them  as  a  class  we  must  look  as  much  for 
endurance  and  productiveness  as  to  grafting  for  choice  fruits.  No  one 
can  be  more  sensible  that  the  writer  of  the  advantages  of  root-grafting, 
especially  to  the  nursery-man — of  the  cheapness,  beauty  and  popularity 
of  that  class  of  trees — and  none  will  be  more  pleased  to  have  it  demon- 
strated that  these  advantages  are  not  counter-balanced  by  any  increase  of 
risk.  As  a  nursery-man,  we  have  grown  them  mostly,  and  must  do  so 
while  they  are  preferred.  But  there  is,  nevertheless,  a  class  of  stubborn , 
facts  we  can  explain  in  no  other  way  than  as  above.  With  our  present 
views,  between  a  seedling  and  a  graft  of  whatever  style  of  the  same  fruit, 
every  thing  else  being  equal,  we  should-^refer  the  former.  But  the  truth 
of  the  whole  matter  summed  up,  we  believe  to  be  this — that  there  are 
few  seedlings  that  might  not  be  improved  by  grafting,  and  but  few,  if 
any,  improved  varieties  that  would  not  be  materially  improved  by  work- 
ing standard  height  on  strong  healthy  seedlings.  Some  good  fruits  there 
are,  which  produce  the  same,  or  nearly  the  same,  from  seed,  and  these  it 
would  be  well  to  increase,  if  only  to  save  the  trouble  of  grafting.  If  it 
be  argued  that  they  would  not  be  as  productive,  it  must  be  because  natu- 
ral progress  towards  the  formation  of  perfect  varieties  is  at  end — which 
we  do  not  believe. 

In  this  matter  we  wish  to  take  no  ultra,  theoretical  ground  in  favor  of 
any  thing  like  the  limited  duration  of  varieties.  Of  the  two  we  prefer 
Dr.  Turner's  theory  as  set  forth  in  his  famous  Essay  on  "  The  Vitality 
and  Longevity  of  Trees" — for  which  we  think  the  Horticultural  Avorld 
largely  indebted  to  the  author — as  also  for  many  other  good  things. — 
Under  favorable  circumstances  we  believe  a  given  variety  may  endure 
through  all  time — but  hardly,  or  to  little  purpose,  if  subjected  to  all  man- 
ner of  abuses.  And  so  with  individuals — if  we  would  have  them  live  out 
their  natural  lease,  we  must  be  as  choice  of  the  body  as  the  mind — of  the 
tree  as  the  fruit.  Therefore,  as  nursery-men,  if  we  would  be  on  the  safe 
side,  let  us  always  retain  the  strongest  possible  hold  upon  that  inexhausti- 
ble store-house  of  "vitality,"  that  chief  reliance,  that  staff  of  life  in 
propagation — a  good,  sound,  seedling  stock  !  Nor  should  we  discard 
grafting,  although,  like  civilization,  while  it  has  vastly  increased  the  num- 
bers and  merits  of  its  subjects  and  possessors,  it  has,  at  the  same  time, 
unquestionably  multiplied  their  diseases  and  risks — not  from  necessity 
but  from  neglect  on  our  part — not  to  vex  but  to  improve — that,  as  our 
strength  is,  so  might  be  our  exertions  and  our  achievements. 


300 

DESCRIPTIOXS  OF  SIX  VARIETIES  OF  WINTER  APPLES, 
AND  SIX  VARIETIES  OF  PEARS,  COUNTED  AS  WORTHY 
GENERAL  CULTIVATION  IN  WISCONSIN. 

BY  F.  R.  ELLIOTT,  CLEVELAND,  0. 

APPLES.— Belmont. 

Synonyms. —  Gate — Mamma  Brown — Kellcij  White —  Waxen — Golden 
Pippin —  White  Apiple. 

We  are  unable  to  trace  the  origin  of  this  variety  beyond  the  records 
of  the  Ohio  Pomolo^fical  Transactions,  where  it  is  stated  as  oriffinatino- 
in  Lancaster  county,  Pa.  Its  name  comes  from  its  having  been  most 
widely  disseminated  from  Belmont  county,  Ohio. 


Size,  medium  to  large. — Form,  somewhat  irregular,  yet  usually  glob- 
ular.— Skin,  thin,  smooth,  oily. —  Color,  rich,  clear,  light-yellow,  with  a 
few  dark-brown  specks.  When  fully  exposed  to  sun,  it  has  a  fine,  clear, 
vermilion,  red  cheek.  In  southern  sections  of  country  it  has  slight  russet 
marblings,  with  an  occasional  carmine  spot  on  the  sunny  side,  and  many 
dull  blotches  of  mould  or  fungus. —  Calyx,  varying  from  small  and  close, 
to  open  and  reflexed. — Basin,  shallow  to  moderately  deep,  always  slightly 
furrowed. — Stem,  projecting  slightly  beyond  surrounding  surface  of  fruit, 
always  slender. — Flesh,  yellowish  white,  fine  grained,  very  tender,  mild, 


301 

sub-acid,  juicy,  delicate,  sprightly  flavor ;  grown  upon  alluvial  soils,  the 
flesh  becomes  more  spongy  and  loses  much  of  its  i^e  flavor. —  Core,  rather 
large. — Seeds,  abundant,  rich,  brownish,  red,  ovate,  pyriform. — Season, 
November  to  February. 

APPLES. — Wkstfield  Seek-no-farther. 

Synonyms. —  Connecticut   Seek-no-farther — Xew   England    Seelc-no-'^^ 
farther — Red  Winter  Pearmain — of  some  Western  growers. 

This  old  and  popular  fruit  deserves  a  place  in  every  collection.  Grown 
in  rich  alluvial  soils  of  the  South,  it  does  not  keep  as  long  as  when 
grown  on  poorer  soils  at  the  North ;  but  it  loses  none  of  its  peculiar 
flavor  or  good  qualities  as  a  table  fruit. 


Size,  medium. — Form,  regular,  roundish,  conical,  broadest  at  the  base 
or  stem  end. —  Color,  light  yellow  ground,  sunny  side  striped  and  splash- 
ed with  red ;  small  russet  dots  shaded  around  with  light  russet  yellow ; 
often  considerable  of  russet  about  both  stem  and  calyx ;  grown  South, 
it  is  very  much  russetted,  and  about  the  stem  the  russet  has  appearance 
of  rich  bronze ;  progressing  northward,  it  gradually  loses  its  russet,  until 
on  light,  sandy  soils  in  Michigan,  it  becomes  a  pale  yellow  ground,  with 
stripes  and  splashes  of  clear  red  and  minute  dots. — Stem,  long  and 
slender. —  Cavity,  open  and  regular. —  Calyx,  usually  small,  closed,  some- 


502 


times  half  open,  with  short  segments. — Basin,  medium  depth,  regular 
form. — Flesh,  yellowisl|,  tender,  sub-acid,  with  a  rich  pearmain  flavor. — 
Season,  November  and  March. 

APPLES.— SwAAR. 

This  variety  originated  among  the  Dutch  Settlers  on  the  Hudson 
River.  Its  name  is  from  a  word  in  the  Low  Dutch,  meaning  heavy.  It 
requires  rich,  warm  soil,  to  perfect  the  fruit.  On  cold  clay  or  wet  soils  it 
has  none  of  the  peculiar  rich  flavor  which  uniformly  characterizes  it 
when  well  and  favorably  grown. 


Size,  medium  to  large. — Form,  regular  roundish,  sometimes  a  little 
angular  and  often  ribbed  or  unequal  on  its  surface. —  Color,  rich  deep 
yellow,  often  tinged  with  red  where  fully  exposed  to  the  sun,  dotted  with 
numerous  brown  specks  and  marblings  of  gray  russet,  particularly 
round  the  stalk. — Stem,  slender,  medium  length. —  Cavity,  regular  round. 
—  Calyx,  medium  to  small  greenish  half  closed. — Basin,  shallow,  slightly 
furrowed. — Flesh,  fine  grained,  yellowish,  tender,  sub-acid,  sprightly 
and  rich  in  aroma. —  Core,  medium. — Seeds,  full,  plump,  ovate,  conical. — 
Season,  December  to  March. 


303 


APPLES.— Red  Canada. 

Synonyms. — Richfield  Nonsuch — Old  Xonsuch — Xonsuch. 

In  1845,  this  fruit  appeared  hardly  to  be  known,  except  in  a  few  local- 
ities ;  under  the  impression  that  it  was  an  old  variety,  we  traced  it  back 
to  New  England,  where  we  found  it  was  known  as  Old  Xonsuch.  Sub- 
sequently  it  was  introduced  under  the  title  by  which  we  now  choose  to 
recognize  it,  and  claimed  to  be  of  Canadian  origin.  Were  it  not  for  the 
confusion  likely  to  be  entailed,  we  should  prefer  to  hold  to  rules  of 
Pomology  and  call  it  Xonsuch,  but  it  differing  so  materially  from  the 
Xonszich  of  all  foreign  authors,  is  our  reason  for  continuing  the  name, 
"Red  Canada."  It  is  doiibtless  of  American  origin,  succeeding  well  in 
all  rich  stony  soils.  The  young  trees  are  slender  in  growth,  and  rather 
tardy  in  coming  into  bearing;  but  as  they  becoine  older,  their  produc- 
tiveness and  uniform  size  and  beauty  of  fruit,  make  full  amends. 


Size,  medium. — Form,  roundish,  conical,  flattened  at  base  or  tapering 
slightly  towards  the  apex. —  Color,  a  rich  clear  yellow  ground ;  when 
-exposed  to  the  sun  overspread  with  bright  rich  red  or  rather  two  shades, 
a  light  and  dark  red  intermingled  or  striped ;  many  light  gray  dots,  giv- 
ing, at  first  sight,  an  appearance  of  somewhat  rough  exterior. — Skin, 
thin  and  tender. —  Calyx,  closed,  small. — Basin,  open  moderate  depth, 
slightly  furrowed  or  uneven. — Stem,  varying  from  short  and  stout  to 
slender  and  rather  long ;  usually  the  stem  extends  beyond  surrounding 


304 

surface  of  fruit. —  Cavity,  rather  deep  and  regular,  with  an  occasional 
sprinkling  of  light  russet. — Flesh,  yellowish,  white,  tender,  mild,  sub- 
acid, juicy,  sprightly,  a  mild  aroma  and  delicate  flavor. —  Core,  small, 
compact. — Seeds,  plump,  ovate,  pyriform. — Season,  December  to  March, 
but  is  often  kept,  without  extra  care,  until  June. 

APPLES.— Pryor's  Red. 

Synonyms. — Pryor's  Late  Red — Yellow  Pryor. 

This  variety  bears  strong  impress  of  a  seedling,  from  a  cross  between 
Westfield  Seek-no-farther  and  Roxbury  Russet ;  partaking  most  largely 
of  the  Seek-no-farther.  The  trees  are  upright,  slow  growing,  healthy, 
tardy  in  coming  into  bearing ;  but  once  in  bearing,  produce  moderate 
crops  every  year.  In  the  nursery  it  is  said  to  succeed  best,  grafted  on 
strong  roots.  It  evidently  requires  a  rich  strong  soil,  as  specimens 
we  have  received  grown  in  southern  Indiana,  measured  four  inches  diam- 
eter and  three  inches  from  stem  to  eye ;  while  specimens  grown  farther 
north  and  on  poorer  soils,  were  hardly  of  medium  size. 


Size,  medium  to  large. — F(yrra,  angular  roundish,  tapering  to  the  apex, 
sometimes  even  broad  at  the  apex,  being  roundish,  angular,  flattened. — 
Color,  pale  yellow,  ground  mostly  overspread  with  rich,  warm,  red  rus- 
set, marbled  and  splashed  with  bronzed  yellow  near  the  stem,  and  with 
yellow  russet  spots  on  surface,  and  often  a  bloom ;  grown  in  northern 
localities,  it  is  very  little  russet,  except  near  the  stem,  while  the  russet 


305 

spots  become  dark  ia  centre,  surrounded  by  lighter  shade. — Stem,  short. 
—  Cavitij,  narrow. —  Calyx,  small,  segments,  erect. — Basin,  abrupt,  pretty 
deep,  round  and  even,  occasionally  shallow. — Flesh,  yellowish,  tender, 
mild,  sub-acid,  of  sprightly,  pleasant,  pearmain  flavor. —  Core,  medium, 
with  an  encircling,  concentric  line,  centre  slightly  hollow — Seeds,  vary- 
ing :n  form.- 


-Season,  January  to  June. 


APPLES — Broadavell. 

This  variety  originated  near  Cincinnatti,  Ohio,  and  although  we  have 
examined  and  eaten  of  the  fruit,  both  there,  and  at  the  residence  of  our 
esteemed  friend,  Prof.  J.  P.  Kirtland,  we  yet  prefer  giving  our  description 
from  the  manuscript  of  Mr.  A.  H.  Ernst,  of  Cincinnatti,  well  known  as  a 
careful  pomologist,  and  who  has  kindly  loaned  us  the  use  of  his  notes. 


Size,  medium  to  large. — Form,  globular  conical,  flattened  at  the  base, 
regular  and  uniform .-C'a?y.r,  open,  segments  short.- J5asm,  narrow.-/S^em, 
short. —  Cavity,  expanded. —  Color,  light  yellow,  with  cloudy  flakes,  and  in 
exposed  specimens  brownish  bronze. — Skin,  thin  and  smooth. — Flesh, 
white,  tender,  fine  grained,  with  a  sweet,  rich,  very  fine  flavor. —  Core, 
close,  compact. — Seeds,  small,  plump,  light  brown. — Season,  November 
to  March,     One  of  the  most  desirable  of  all  winter  sweet  apples. 


.      30G 

PEARS— Bartlett. 

Synonyms. —  Williams  Bonchretien,  Poire  Guillaume. 

This  is  an  English  variety  known  universally  in  America  under  name 
of  Bartlett.  According  to  Downing,  it  originated  in  1770  and  was  im- 
ported to  this  country  in  1779.  The  name  "  Williams  Bonchretien"  or 
"  Williams  Goodchristian"  is  a  minsflinof  of  Encjlish  and  French  not  admit- 
ted  under  the  rules  of  Pomology,  and  we  think  is  bad  taste.  The  trees 
are  thrifty,  upright  growth,  and  found  to  succeed  in  almost  every  soil 
and  situation.  Our  outline  was  made  from  a  medium  or  rather  small 
size  specimen. 


Size,  large  to  very  large — Form,  irregular,  oblong,  obovate,  pyriform, 
surface  uneven — Ski?i,  thin  and  smooth — Color,  clear  yellow,  occasion- 


SOT 

ally  marked  with  russet,  and  when  grown  exposed  to  sun  it  has  a  soft 
blush  on  sunny  side. — Stalk,  varying,  one  to  one  and  a  half  inches  long, 
stout. —  Cavity,  flat,  shallow. —  Calyx,  medium  size,  rather  open. — Basin, 
shallow,  slightly  furrowed. — Flesh,  white  fine  grained,  full  of  juice,  sweet 
highly  perfumed,  vinous,  but  not  rich  flavor. — Core,  small. — Seeds,  long 
pyriform. — Season,  according  to  locality;  south  it  is  a  summer  fruit,  ripen- 
ing in  July,  while  far  north  it  does  not  ripen  until  September;  generally, 
in  latitude  42*^  N.,  it  ripens  from  15th  August  to  10th  September. 

Windfalls  of  this  fruit,  gathered  and  ripened  in  the  house,  will  often 
rank  as  more  than  second  rate,  while  even  the  best  grown  specimens  never 
reach,  in  point  of  flavor,  the  highest  excellence. 

PEARS— KlRTLAXD. 

Synonyms — Seedling  Seckel — Kirtland's  Seedling. 

This  valuable  variety  was  raised  from  seed  of  the  Seckel  Pear  by 
Henry  T.  Kirtland,  Esq.  of  Mahoning  Co.,  Ohio.  The  general  habit  of 
the  tree  is  of  a  thrifty  white  doyenne,  while  it  is  hardy  and  free  from 
blight  as  its  original  parent,  and  in  productiveness  superior. 

Our  description  is  copied  from  one  written  by  Prof.  Kirtland. 


Size,  medium,  circumference  six  and  a  half  inches ;  length,  including 
stem,  two  and  a  half. — Form,  globular  ovate. —  Color,  rich,  cinnamon  rus- 
set, varying  to  a  dull  green. — Flesh,  white,  fine  texture,  melting,  juicy, 


308 

Sweet  and  rich,  ■with  a  highly  delicious  aromatic  flavor. — Seeds,  usually 
full,  short  and  blackish. — Stem,  six-eighths  of  an  inch  in  length,  thick, 
and  somewhat  curved. —  Calyx,  small,  moderately  deep,  segments,  short, 
reflexed  and  persistent. — Season,  September. 

This  description  was  made  from  specimens,  grown  in  ordinary  soil,  and 
will  be  found  correct,  as  an  average,  on  full  bearing  trees.  We  have 
seen  specimens  grown  in  rich  soil,  and  with  high  culture,  that  more  than 
doubled  the  size  of  description. 

PEARS— BuFFCM. 

The  Buffum  pear  originated  in  Rhode  Island,  and  was  introduced  to 
notice  of  fruit  growers,  sometime  about  1827-8.  It  was  first  fully  des- 
cribed in  Hovey's  Magazine  for  1844,  although  both  Manning  and  Ken- 
rick  had  previously  noticed  it.  The  trees  are  upright,  strong  growers, 
with  reddish  brown  shoots,  uniformly  productive,  and  rarely  affected 
with  blight.  Fruit  somewhat  variable  in  quality  from  superior  to  insipid, 
as  it  is  more  or  less  exposed  to  the  sun  in  ripening. 


Size,  medium. — Form  oblong  obovate,  one  side  usually  a  little  depres- 
sed.—  Color,  from  a  dull,  brownish  green,  to  a  deep  yellow,  one  half 
finely  suffused  with  bright  red,  sprinkled  with  small  brown  dots,  or  a  lit- 
tle russet. — Stem,  short,  stout,  inserted  in  a  shallow  cavity. —  Calyx,  with 
small  segments. — Basin,  broad  and  shallow. — Flesh,  white,  buttery,  sweet 


309 


and  agreeable  flavor — Core,  medium — Season,  September,  but  often  lasts 
into  October. 

PEARS. — Beurre  d'Anjou. 

This  variety  was  imported  from  France,  and  is  comparatively  new  at 
the  West.  The  vigorous  healthy  character  of  the  trees,  together  with 
its  habit  of  early  and  abundant  fruiting,  we  think  warrants  its  extended 
culture.     The  wood  is  stout  and  of  a  pale  dull  yellow. 


She,  large. — Form,  oblong  obovate,  full  at  the  crown,  tapering  to  an 
obtuse  point  at  the  stem.-^  Co^or,  pale  yellow,  dull  red  on  the  sunny 
side,  much  russetted  around  the  eye,  and  regularly  covered  with  minute 
russet  specks. — Stem,  short,  thick,  curved  and  obliquely  inserted  in  a 
shallow  cavity,  formed  by  uneven  swellings  and  projections  of  the  fruit. 
—  Calyx,  medium  sized,  open  with  stout  segments  reflexed. — Basin,  reg- 
ularly formed,  round. — Flesh,  yellowish  white,  melting  juicy,  rich, 
sprightly  and  delicious. —  Core,  small. — Seeds,  long,  pointed. — Season, 
October  and  November, 


310 

PEARS.— Beurre  Bosc. 

Synonyms — Calebasse  Bosc — Marianne  NouveUe — Bosc's  Flarchen- 
birne — Beurre  cV  Yelle. 

This  Beurre  Bosc  was  raised  in  1807,  by  ^an  Mons,  and  named  Cale- 
basse Bosc,  after  M.  Bosc,  a  distinguished  Belgian  cultivator.  The  trees 
are  vigorous,  healthy,  Avith  long  straggling  shoots  of  brownish  olive, 
regular  bearers,   producing  the  fruit   scattered  singly  upon  the  tree. 


whence  it  is  always  of  fine  size.  We  have  not  been  successful  in  grow- 
ing it  upon  the  quince  root.  "  Having  been  received  at  the  garden  of  the 
Horticultural  Society  of  London,  under  the  name  of  Beurre  Bosc,  Mr. 
Thompson  thought  it  best  to  retain  this  name,  as  less  likely  to  lead  to 
confusion  with  the  Calebasse,  a  distinct  fruit. 


Sll 

Fruit,  large,  pyriform,  a  little  uneven,  tapering  long  and  gradually 
into  the  stalk. — Skin,  pretty  smooth,  dark  yellow,  a  good  deal  covered 
with  streaks  and  dots  of  cinnamon  russet,  and  slightly  touched  with  red 
on  one  side. — Stalk,  one  to  two  inches  long,  slender,  curved. —  Calyx, 
short,  set  in  a  very  shallow  basin. — Flesh,  white,  melting,  very  buttery, 
with  a  rich,  delicious  and  slightly  perfumed  flavor.  Ripens  gradually  from 
last  of  September  to  last  of  October." — Fruits  and  Fruit  Trees  of  America. 

PEARS — Flemish  Beauty. 

Synonyms — Belle  de  Flanders — Beurre  Spence — Bosch-Bouche  Nbuvelle 
— Bosc  Sire — Josephine — Imperatrice  de  France — Fondante  Du  Bois. 

The  Flemish  Beauty  seems  particularly  adapted  to  the  rich  warm  soils 
of  the  West,  producing  fruit  with  only  ordinary  care,  equalling  specimenB 


grown  East  by  means  of  special  nurture  and  extra  attention.     The  best 
specimens'we  have  ever  seen  were  grown  in  Wisconsin.     "The  tree  ig 


312 

very  luxuriant,  and  bears  early  and  abundantly  :  young  slioots  upright, 
dark  brown.  The  fruit  requires  to  be  gathered  sooner  than  most  pears,' 
even  before  it  parts  readily  from  the  tree.  If  it  is  then  ripened  in  the 
house  it  is  always  fine,  while,  if  allowed  to  mature  on  the  tree,  it  usually 
becomes  soft,  flavorless,  and  soon  decays. 

Fruit,  large,  oblong,  obovate. — Skin,  a  little  rough,  ground  pale  yellow, 
mostly  covered  with  marblings  and  patches  of  light  russett,  becoming 
reddish  brown  at  maturity  on  the  sunny  side. — Stalk,  rather  short,  from  an 
inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  long,  pretty  deeply  planted  in  a  peculiar  nar- 
row, round  cavity. —  Calyx,  short,  open,  placed  in  a  small  round  basin. — 
Flesh,  yellowish  white,  not  very  fine  grained,  but  juicy,  melting,  very 
saccharine  and  rich,  with  a  slight  musky  flavor."' — Season,  20th  Septem- 
ber to  15th  October. 


WELL  DIGGING— A  SCIEXCE. 

Prairie  du  Chiex,  Dec.  10,  1852. 

Mr  Dear  Sir  : — Good  and  wholesome  spring  water,  is  not  only  a  desid- 
eratum, but  is  absolutely  necessary  to  human  happiness  and  animal  life, 
and  many,  otherwise  excellent  tracts  of  land,  are  nearly  valueless,  because 
living  water  is  not  at  command.  Of  course,  anything  that  will  contrib- 
ute to  the  discovery  of  this  useful  element,  will  add  greatly  to  the  value 
of  such  lands,  and  to  the  health  and  comfort  of  their  occupants.  No 
one  could  have  travelled  in  some  portions  of  our  State,  in  dry  seasons, 
without  being  convinced  of  the  truth  of  this  remark. 

In  the  western  portions  of  the  State,  the  abundance  of  the  pure  spring- 
water,  which  gushes  from  the  hill-sides,  and  the  head  of  every  ravine,  ren- 
ders well-digging  of  secondary  importance,  to  what  it  is  in  more  eastern 
parts.  But  still,  water  is  greatly  needed  very  often,  even  in  the  west,  on 
higher  levels  than  the  usual  out-breaking  of  the  springs.  And  as  the  coun- 
try fills  up  with  people,  and  the  spring  locations  are  all  pre-occupied, 
necessity  compels  the  settler  to  take  higher  levels,  and  of  course,  he  is 
in  need  of  a  well.  And  as  the  roads  are  generally  laid  out  on  the  high, 
dividing  ridges,  as  far  and  as  long  as  they  can  be  followed  in  the  right 
direction ;  and  as  not  only  Yankees,  but  others,  are  fond  of  building  on 
the  road,  notwithstanding  they  may  have  springs  in  their  ravines,   from 


•> 


1  ^ 


a  fourth  to  half  a  mile  distant,  they  need  wells  of  water  at  or  near  their 
houses. 

In  other  portions  of  the  State,  springs  are  but  "few  and  far  between," 
and  running  waters  often  fail  in  a  drought ;  so  that  if  wells  cannot  be  dug 
with  success,  both  man  and  beast  are  doomed  to  suffer  from  thirst,  and 
the  farm,  however  rich  and  productive  may  be  the  soil,  or  however  near 
to  a  market,  becomes  almost  valueless.  In  all  these  cases,  well-diffaino- 
;s  of  more  importance  than  gold  ;  for  of  what  avail  is  gold  to  a  man  per- 
ishing with  thirst  ?  If  wells  can  be  obtained,  with  tolerabe  certainty, 
many  portions  of  our  State  would  admit  of  more  dense  settlement,  and 
some  portions,  now  of  little  value,  would  be  greatly  enhanced,  both  in 
value  and  comfort  of  occupation.  This  subject,  then,  is  of  vital  import- 
ance to  the  atrricultural  interests  of  the  State. 

But  the  question  is,  who  can  tell  where  and  how  deep  to  dig  for 
water  ?  To  say,  to  most  people,  that  some  men  can  tell — with  a  certain- 
ty, too,  which  justifies  belief  in  it — not  only  as  a  fact,  but  as  a  science, 
is,  with  such,  only  to  meet  with  a  contemptuous  sneer  and  incredulous 
cant  of  the  head.  And  such  unbelievers  are  often  condemned  already 
to  do  without  good  and  handy  water,  or  obtain  it  at  great  expense. 

The  strong  reason  offered  against  this  theory  is,  "We  cannot  under- 
stand it,  and  we  will  not  believe  in  a  theory  wc  cannot  understand." 
Upon  this  mode  of  reasoning,  you  would  believe  nothing — not  even  your 
own  existence.  "Facts  are  stubborn  things,"  is  an  old  adage,  and  a 
true  one ;  and  the  sound  sense  and  philosophy  of  a  man  who  will  deny 
the  truth  of  a  thing  because  he  cannot  understand  it,  is  a  very  question- 
able matter.  To  deny  one's  own  senses,  is  to  be  bordering  upon  insanity. 
The  fact  here  affirmed  has  been  witnessed  by  thousands  who,  until  they 
saw  it,  were  unbelievers  in  it,  and  the  truth  of  it  is  being  almost  daily 
tested  and  established.  There  are,  at  this  time,  probably  one  hundred 
wells  in  Western  Wisconsin,  which  were  dug  by  the  direction  of  what  is 
called  the  "  divining  rod,"  the  "  dowser,"  the  "  water  witch,"  or  "water 
philosopher." 

This  rod  consists  of  a  fork  taken  from  the  tip  ends  of  the  limbs  of  a 
peach,  hazel,  or  any  fruit-bearing  trees,  the  fruit  of  which  has  pits  or 
stones  in  them.  The  operator  holds  the  fork  in  his  hands,  so  that  the 
but-end  is  upward,  and  the  tips  one  in  each  hand — the  palms  of  which 
being  upward  and  on  a  level — and  when  brought  over  running  water, 
which  is  in  a  vein  under  ground,  or  over  a  crevice  filled  with  mineral  or 
21 


q 


14 


mineral  clay,  the  but-end  will  turn  down,  and  with  such  force,  if  resisted 
by  the  operator,  as  to  twist  the  stem  and  crack  the  bark.  It  was  this 
twisting  and  cracking  of  the  bark  that  removed  my  doubts,  or  rather 
settled  unbelief  in  the  theory  some  forty  years  since.  And  then  digging 
for,  and  finding  water  exactly  as  told  by  the  operator,  both  as  to  depth, 
quality  and  quantity,  I  must  show  symptons  of  insanity,  or  yield  a  full 
faith  in  the  fact  which  I  saw  with  my  own  eyes,  and  proved  by  my 
own  hands,  in  digging,  and  by  my  OAvn  mouth  in  the  delicious  drinks  of 
good  cold  water,  raised  from  the  well. 

My  own  testimony,  whatever  it  may  be  worth  Avhere  I  am  known,  is 
but  one  among  many  thousands,  a  few  of  which  only  can  be  here  given, 
without  extending  this  paper  to  a  greater  length  than  is  intended.  But 
having  seen  it  proved  in  scores  of  cases,  and  heard  of  even  hundreds  of 
such,  I  am  and  must  be  a  believer  in  this  mode  of  procuring  water,  the 
science  of  which  will  be  hereafter  explained.  But  I  will  first  give  two 
historical  facts  to  establish  the  theory. 

About  the  commencement  of  the  present  century.  Dr.  Adam  Clark,  one 
of  the  greatest  linguists  and  philosophers  of  the  age,  was  stationed  on 
Guernsey  Island,  in  the  British  Channel,  as  a  Wesleyan  Methodist  Minis- 
ter. The  people  there  had  suffered  much  from  want  of  water.  But  few 
springs  had  been  discovered;  the  streams  were  short,  and  subject  to  en- 
tire failure  from  drought ;  and,  as  a  matter  of  course,  they  were  depend- 
ent upon  their  cisterns,  which  often  failed  also  from  want  of  rain.  Under 
these  circumstances,  the  discovery  of  water  at  a  moderate  depth  in  the 
soil,  or  in  the  rock,  was  as  a  God-send  to  the  people. 

Dr.  Clark  found  in  his  Society  a  man  Avho  professed  to  make  this  dis- 
covery.    But  not  believing  in  the  truth  of  the  profession,  because  he 
could  not  understand  the  why  and  wherefore  of  the  thing,  he  arraio-ned 
the  member  on  a  charge  of  humbuggery.     He  would  not  allow  a  mem- 
ber of  his  Society  to  humbug  the  people.     The  accused  man,  however, 
proved  by  some  half  dozen  reputable  witnesses  that  it  was  no  humbuo-  ; 
that  he  had  told  them  where  to  dig,  and  they  had  dug  and  found  water 
as  he  had  told  them.     This  was  a  poser  for  the  Doctor.     He  had  too 
much  sense,  and  too  great  a  degree  of  justice  to  dispute  and  deny  facts 
thus  clearly  proven.     But  still  doubting,  he  required  the  operator  to  per- 
form in  his  presence.      This  was  done,  and  the  water  obtained.      But  as 
this  might  have  been  a  chance  case,  he  would   have   the   experiment 
renewed,  which  was  done  with  like  success.     There  now  were  a  score  or 


315 

more  wells,  of  good,  living  spring  water,  whicli  were  so  many  standing 
monuments  to  the  truth  of  the  theory.  But  how  to  account  for  it  was 
the  mystery  !  Science,  at  that  time,  had  not  investigated  the  matter,  and 
he  concluded  that  it  was  a  merciful  and  benevolent  provision  of  the  Crea- 
tor, to  supply  the  human  race  with  this  very  necessary  beverage.  These 
facts,  and  his  deductions  therefrom,  the  Doctor  published  in  a  pamphlet 
for  the  benefit  of  others,  a  copy  of  which  fell  into  my  hands  some  forty 
years  since,  and  from  my  recollection  of  which,  I  make  this  statement. 

About  the  same  time,  last  mentioned,  I  saw  a  communication  from  a 
Quaker  in  the  interior  of  the  State  of  New  York,  taken,  I  think,  from 
the  Albany  Cultivator,  the  substance  of  which  was  as  follows:  The 
writer  owned  a  large  farm,  under  a  high  state  of  cultivation,  having  fine 
brick  buildings,  orchards,  shrubbery,  &c.,  but  no  living  water.  He  had 
dug  several  wells,  some  of  them  ninety  feet  deep,  but  no  good  water  could 
be  found,  and  it  being  difficult  to  obtain  water  from  such  depths,  he  be- 
came discouraged,  and  offered  his  farm  for  sale  at  half  its  value,  or  cost. 
A  friend  of  his,  on  a  visit  to  his  house,  was  admiring  the  farm,  buildings, 
and  other  improvements,  when  the  owner  informed  him  of  his  willing- 
ness to  sell  at  half  price,  for  want  of  water.  His  friend  inquired  why 
he  did  not  dig?  "I  have;"  said  the  owner,  "but  no  good  water  can  be 
obtained,  and  what  I  do  get  is  at  such  a  depth,  that  it  is  costly  getting  it. 
"Why  don't  thee  get  a  water  philosopher,  to  tell  thee  where  to  dig?" 
asked  the  friend.  "Because  I  don't  believe  in  such  nonsense,"  was  the 
reply.  "But  thee  may  believe  it,  for  I  can  assure  thee  that  a  good  gen- 
uine philosopher  can  tell  thee  where  to  find  water  ;  and  if  thee  will  get 
one,  and  follow  his  directions,  if  thee  does  not  find  water,  I  will  pay  thee 
all  the  expenses  thereof."  Uopn  this,  the  owner,  to  gratify  his  friend, 
agreed  to  try  the  experiment.  He  did  so,  and  was  informed  by  the  oper- 
ator, that  water  was  abundant,  within  twenty  feet  of  the  surface,  and 
near  the  corner  of  his  house,  fixing  a  mark  by  which  to  dig.  He  paid 
the  operator  a  dollar,  having  come  some  distance,  and  said  to  him:  "I 
have  done  this  to  please  my  friend,  not  because  I  have  any  faith  in  thy 
skill ;  But  if  I  find  water  as  thee  has  said,  I  will  give  thee  fifty  dollars." 
The  well  was  dug,  and  water  found  as  indicated ;  the  operator  got  his 
fifty  dollars,  and  the  farm  was  valued  at  double  its  price  three  or  four 
days  before. 

But  the  reader  is  probably  impatient  to  know  the  why  and  wherefore 
of  this  mysterious  business — how  it  is  that  the  rod  will  work  in  the  hands 


316 

of  one,  and  not  of  another.  Well,  I  will  say,  it  is  not  clairvoyance,  mes- 
merism, spiritual  rappin<rs,  necromancy,  nor  any  other  species  of  hum- 
buggery,  but  simply  the  laws  of  electricity  ;  which,  when  understood, 
are  as  plain  as  the  growth  of  grain  or  cattle  on  a  farm. 

As  before  stated,  this  philosophy  was  practiced  on  Guernsey  Island, 
from  whence  it  went  into  France,  where  the  philosophers  must  always 
know  the  why  and  wherefore  of  any  and  every  useful  fact  which  occurs 
within  their  knowledge.  The  result  of  their  observations  on  the  subject, 
as  reported  in  their  Transactions,  is,  in  substance,  this  : 

The  electric  fluid  is  attracted  from  the  surrounding  mass  of  rock  or 
earth,  by  running  water  in  its  bowels,  but  not  by  dead  or  standing  water. 
Every  man  is  charged  with  electricity,  either  positively  or  negatively ; 
this  is  a  well  known  fact.  The  rod  used  must  be  green  or  in  the  sap. — 
The  sap  is  a  conductor  of  the  fluid,  and  in  the  hands  of  one  negatively 
charged  (that  is,  one  to  whom  the  fluid  will  flow  when  he  comes  within 
the  reach  or  influence  of  a  positively  charged  body  or  substance)  the  rod 
is  attracted  towards  the  current.  The  reason  why  it  will  work  in  the 
hands  of  one,  and  not  in  those  of  another,  is  thus  explained.  If  all  men 
■were  negatively  charged,  it  would  work  in  all  hands  ;  or,  if  all  were  pos- 
itively charged  it  would  not  work  in  anybody's  hands. 

It  is  known  that  silver  will  attract  the  rod,  and  that,  in  our  mineral  re- 
gion, a  crevice  in  the  rock,  having  in  it  lead-bearing  clay,  or  soil,  will 
also  attract  it.  And  in  consequence  thereof,  the  operator  cannot  tell,  in 
the  mineral  region,  whether  it  is  water,  or  a  lead,  or  a  crevice  ;  the  lead 
here  having  silver  enough  in  it  to  become  a  conductor,  and  an  accumula- 
tor of  the  fluid  in  the  ground. 

It  is  known  in  the  mines  of  our  State,  and  I  believe  equally  so  in  all 
other  countries,  that  lead  ore  is  found  mostly  in  the  crevices  of  openings 
in  the  rock.  There  may  be  crevices  without  lead,  but  seldom  is  there 
lead  without  a  crevice.  The  object,  then,  of  the  miner,  is  to  find  a  cre- 
vice, or  opening,  into  which  he  will  dig  in  pursuit  of  the  ore.  To  find 
these  crevices,  many  in  the  mines  use  the  rod,  who  find  water  sometimes 
as  well  as  a  crevice.  The  skilful  miner,  however,  can  form  a  tolerably 
correct  judgment  from  the  formation  of  the  ground  whether  it  is  water  or 
a  crevice,  which  may  contain  mineral,  and  so  of  the  skilful  Avell-digger. 
From  experience  and  observation  he  forms  his  opinion  whether  it  is  water 
or  mineral  substances  which  attract  the  rod.  But  either  and  both  may, 
and  sometimes  do,  mistake  the  one  for  the  other  in  this  matter. 


31 


•t 


In  our  western  part  of  the  State,  we  have  singular  dividing  ridges. 
One  south  of  the  Wisconsin  River,  from  the  Portage  to  the  Mississippi 
River,  120  miles  in  length,  and  which  must  have  in  its  bowels  somewhere 
near  the  Portage,  as  much  water  as  would  make  a  stream,  one  hundred 
yards  wide  and  three  feet  deep,  with  a  current  of  three  or  four  miles  an 
hour.  This  body  of  water  must  run  in  a  thousand  little  subterranean 
streams,  because  they  break  out  in  all  levels,  from  the  base  of  the  hill,  to 
within  thirty  or  forty  feet  of  the  the  top  of  the  ridge,  say  four  hundred 
feet  between  the  levels  of  the  highest  and  lowest  springs.  A  similar 
ridofe  runs  off  northeast  from  Prairie  du  Chien,  dividing  the  waters  of 
the  Mississippi  and  the  Wisconsin  Rivers.  This  ridge  runs,  probably, 
one  hundred  and  fifty  miles,  before  it  is  lost  in  the  general  level  of  the 
country,  and  must  send  out  as  much,  if  not  more,  water,  in  the  form 
of  springs,  than  the  former.  Of  the  truth  of  this,  no  one  can  have  a 
reasonable  doubt,  if  he  will  look  at  the  map,  and  note  the  number  and 
size  of  the  streams  which  flow  from  each  side  of  these  respective  ridges^ 
and  reflect  that  these  streams  are  not  supplied  from  swamps,  or  lakes, 
but  entirely  from  springs,  which  must,  and  do,  issue  from  the  ridges. 

Where  the  reservoirs  of  these  waters  are,  we  know  not.  The  summits 
of  our  ridges  are  higher  than  the  surface  of  the  great  lakes,  and  all  the 
smaller  lakes  have  visible  outlets,  of  sufficient  capacity,  to  discharge 
their  surplus  waters.  And  it  is  evident,  also,  that  these  subterranean 
streams,  probably  some  of  them  rivers,  must  rise  and  fall  in  their  under- 
ground courses.  For,  at  the  Portage,  the  land  is  several  hundred  feet 
lower  than  the  level  of  thousands  of  springs,  to  the  south  and  west  of 
that  break  in  the  ridge ;  and  in  no  place  are  these  ridges  wide  enough 
to  absorb  the  rains,  and  supply  the  reservoirs  within  them. 

These  subterranean  streams  diverge  from  the  course  of  the  main 
ridges,  because  along  the  sides,  and  at  the  base  of  every  spur  thereof, 
springs  abound  equal  to  those  along  the  main  ridge.  The  upper  or 
highest  veins  of  water  on  these  hio;h  rida^es,  have  been  found  within 
thirty-five  or  forty  feet  of  their  top ;  usually,  though  not  always,  in  the 
rock.  Near  Cassville,  springs  are  found  in  the  clay,  at  from  twenty  to 
thirty  feet  in  depth,  on  the  highest  portions  of  the  ridge. 

In  the  more  level  portions  of  the  State,  springs  are  found  in  much 
less  abundance  than  in  our  hilly  portion.  But  Nature,  or  rather 
Nature's  God,  must  have  provided  those  more  level  portions  with  sub- 
terranean waters,  though  they  do  not  show  themselves,  for  the  want  of 


318 

hill-sides,  out  ©f  which  to  seek  the  light  of  day.  The  great  question  is^ 
how  are  these  waters  to  be  reached,  and  brought  to  the  surface  for  man's 
use.  It  would  not  be  too  much  to  assert  that  if  the  Creator  of  the 
Earth,  with  all  these  streams  of  water  in  it,  so  necessary  for  man's  use, 
has  not  provided  by  some  law  of  Nature  for  their  discovery,  then  there 
would  be  a  defect  in  His  Avork.  For,  to  provide  an  ample  supply  for 
the  wants  of  man,  but  not  to  provide  any  means  but  a  mere  blind 
chance  to  discover  that  supply,  is,  to  say  the  least  of  it,  not  skilful  man- 
agement. It  would  be  but  tantalizing  man  in  his  wants,  to  assure  him, 
as  we  all  know  is  the  case,  that  abundant  streams  of  water  run  under 
srround,  but  at  the  same  time  leave  him  in  total  darkness  as  to  the  means 
of  procuring  it.  The  reasonableness  of  such  a  provision,  raises  a  strong 
presumption  that  it  is  made,  and  the  facts  hereinbefore  stated,  show  how 
and  in  what  way  it  is  made. 

Unbelievers  in  this  theory  and  practice,  have  usually  paid  the  penalty 
of  their  sin,  in  the  enormous  expenses  they  are  at  in  obtaining  water. 
Some,  to  be  sure,  may  and  do  hit  water  at  hap-hazard;  but  others,  upoa 
an  average,  miss  it,  and  dig  for  nothing,  probably  four  times,  out  of  five. 
A  friend  of  mine,  of  Grant  county,  to  gratify  me,  obtained  direction 
from  three  or  four  different   "water-philosophers,"  at  different  times, 
and  each  unknown  to  the  other ;  and  all  fixed  upon  the  same  spot,  Avithin 
thirty  feet  of  his  door,  and  less  than  forty  feet  from  the  surface.     But 
being  an  unbeliever  in  this  theory,  he  could  not  be  induced  to  dig  in  that 
place,  but  went  some  ten  rods  from  the  house,  into  the  head  of  a  ravine, 
at  a  level  of  some  twenty  feet  lower  than  the  one  indicated,  and  sunk  a 
well  about  seventy  feet,  being  at  least  tAventy  feet  below  the  level  of  his 
spring,  which  broke  out  about  one  hundred  rods  down  the  ravine,  and 
at  an  expense  of  probably  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars ;  yet  he  got  no 
water.     He  then  obtained  a  hydraulic  ram  and  lead  pipe,  by  Avhich  the 
water  of  his  spring  is  forced  up  hill,  eighty-four  feet  in  a  distance  of  one 
hundred  rods,  being  yet  ten  rods  from  the  house,  and  at  an  expense,  in- 
cluding his  own  labor,  of  at  least  8200.     Here  is  one  case  of  hundreds, 
who  after  hauling  the  water  half  a  mile,  for  ten  or  fifteen  years,  will 
spend  three  or  four  hundred  dollars  to  obtain  the  element,  when  fifty 
dollars  might,  and  would,  in  most  cases,  procure  it  at  or  near  the  door ;. 
and  all  this,  because  men  will  not  believe  in  a  matter  which  has  been 
tested  and  proved  by  thousands;  and  that,  too,  for  the  unphilosophical 
reason  that  they  "do  not  understand  it." 


319 

The  Artesian  wells,  now  becoming  so  numerous  in  our  State,  are,  I 
believe,  usually  bored  without  any  respect  to  the  theory  here  advocated, 
and  so  far  as  I  have  been  informed,  they  are  usually  sunk  far  below  the 
level  at  which  springs  are  known  to  break  out.  If,  perchance,  the  drill 
strikes  a  vein,  the  well  may  be  used  without  going  to  so  great  a  depth. 
Last  season,  three  Artesian  wells  were  sunk  in  Mineral  Point,  within  a 
few  rods  of  each  other;  and  all,  I  believe,  to  twice  the  depth  of  never- 
failing  wells,  within  a  short  distance  of  them. 

In  crossing  the  Koshkonong  prairie,  I  saw  three  Artesian  wells  which 
were  said  to  be  from  seventy  to  one  hundred  and  thirty  feet  deep ;  and 
at  the  deepest  one  I  attempted  to  drink,  but  the  water  was  so  poor  that 
I  preferred  common  brook  water  to  it.  And  yet  I  found  some  good  wells 
of  but  few  feet  depth  in  the  same  neighborhood,  proving  that  water 
must  run  in  veins  in  that  prairie,  and  can  be  obtained  at  less  expense 
and  trouble,  and  of  a  better  quality,  if  proper  means  are  used. 

The  Artesian  wells  at  Fond  du  Lac,  I  believe,  are  generally  about  one 
hundred  feet  deep,  and  probably  sixty  or  eighty  feet  below  the  surface 
of  Lake  Winnebago.     These  wells,  or  most  of  them,  being  tubed,  throw 
out  the  water  at  the  surface,  but  in  streams  of  very  different  magnitude. 
One   which  I  saw,  emitted  a  stream  nearly  as  large  as  my  arm,  while 
another  could  afford  only  enough  to  say  that  it  run  ;  and  I  was  informed 
that  in  sinking  some  of  these  wells,  others  were  caused  to  fail.     There 
must  be  veins  of  water  under  the  plat  of  that  thriving  city,  and  at  a 
much  higher  level  than  those  that  supply  their  deep  wells ;  because 
springs  break  out  in  the  neighborhood,  near  the  surface  of  that  extended 
and  beautiful   plain.     But  the   country   is  so  level  that  they   have   no 
chance  to   show  themselves,  except  in  the  river's  bank,  or  some  slight 
ravine  running  into  them ;  and  when  these  veins  can  be  struck,  wells 
can  be  obtained  at  much  less  expense  than  by  these  Artesian  concerns. 
These  wells  must  be  supplied  by  veins  fed  by  reservoirs  as  high,  or 
higher,  than  the  surface  of  the  town;  but  where,  is  a  question  which  we 
do  not  pretend  to  answer. 

In  our  lead  mines,  shafts  have  been  sunk  to  different  depths  before 
water  has  come  in  so  as  to  disturb  the  miner.  Some  shafts  are  sunk 
one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  or  more,  without  water ;  while  others  are 
flooded  at  thirty,  forty  or  fifty  feet  depth.  And  in  some  instances,  the 
distances  between  shafts,  with  and  without  water,  is  very  short,  but  a 
few  feet.  Yet,  some  miners  will  have  it  that,  at  one  common  depth 
below  the  surface,  water  will  be  found. 


320 

The  course  of  these  veins  in  the  bo-svels  of  the  earth,  is  somewhat 
analagous  to  the  blood  veins  of  animals ;  they  rise  and  fall,  and  swerve 
to  the  right  and  left.  The  whole  of  the  veins  in  the  ridge  running  east 
and  south  of  the  Wisconsin  river  must  have  a  deep  depression  to  pass 
the  low  land  at  the  Portage,  and  rise  again  seme  three  or  four  hundred 
feet  south  and  west  of  it ;  because  springs  break  out  in  numerous  places 
at  levels  of  that  height  above  the  Portage,  to  the  south  and  west  of 
it.  Indeed,  it  is  said  that  springs  come  out  near  the  top  of  the  Blue 
Mounds,  nearly  one  thousand  feet  higher  than  the  Portage. 

In  an  early  part  of  the  present  century,  a  man  living  near  the  Housi- 
tonac  river,  in  Massachusetts,  dug  himself  a  well,  sinking  some  feet  into 
the  rock.  Some  time  after,  his  neighbor,  half  a  mile  distant,  and  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  river,  (the  bed  of  which  was  at  least  one  hundred 
feet  below  the  common  level  of  the  two  houses)  dug  a  Avell,  and  drilling 
into  the  rock,  he  struck  the  vein  which  supplied  the  first  well.  The  first 
"well  became  dry,  while  the  water  rose  to  the  surface  of  the  second,  and 
run  off"  to  the  river.  Well  No.  2  was  plugged,  the  water  bailed  out,  and 
the  wall  built.  During  this  process  the  water  rose  as  usual  in  well  No.  1 ; 
but  as  soon  as  the  wall  was  built,  and  the  plug  removed  from  the  rock 
in  the  bottom  of  well  No.  2,  well  No.  1  went  dry  again.  The  matter 
being  thus  settled,  that  the  same  vein  furnished  both  wells,  a  compromise 
was  eflfected  by  partially  plugging  No.  2,  leaving  the  remainder  of  the 
•water  to  pass  on  to  No.  1.  Whether,  if  No.  2  had  used,  or  rather  suf- 
fered the  whole  of  the  water  to  rise  and  run  off",  it  would  have  been  "turn- 
ing water  out  of  the  natural  course,"  and  thus  become  a  subject  of  liti- 
gation, I  leave  others  to  settle. 

One  thing  which  I  omitted  in  its  proper  place  I  will  mention  here — that 
is,  how  to  ascertain  the  depth  of  the  vein  of  water.  I  believe  it  is  an  estab- 
lished and  admitted  fact  that  the  electric  fluid  can  and  will  be  attracted 
at  an  angle  of  45''  with  the  horizon,  and  from  a  distance  of  from  fifty  to 
seventy  feet.  This,  if  I  am  not  mistaken,  is  the  rule  expected  to  govern 
in  reference  to  "lightning  rods."  And  this  is  the  .rule  in  reference  to 
water  in  the  ground.  When  the  operator  ascertains  the  perpendicular 
attraction,  he  makes  his  mark,  and  then,  retreating  beyond  the  influence 
of  the  attraction,  approaches  until  the  attraction  takes  effect,  and  the  dis- 
tance from  that  point  to  the  perpendicular  point,  shows  the  depth  to  be 
dug  to  obtain  water. 

One  thing  more,  and  I  shall  have  done.     A  query  has  been  raised, 


321 

whether  those  persons,  who  are  but  negatively  charged  with  electricity,  are 
more  liable  to  be  struck  by  lightning  than  those  who  are  positively  char- 
ged ;  in  short,  whether  one  who  is,  or  can  be  an  operator,  is  more  exposed 
than  one  who  is  not.  As  to  this,  I  know  nothing,  and  therefore  can  say 
nothing.  By  reasoning  from  analogy,  it  would  seem  to  favor  the  idea  of 
more  danger  to  the  operator  than  to  others.  But  I  know  of  no  facts  that 
would  settle  the  question.  It  is  known  that  persons  have  been  struck  by 
this  fluid,  while  others  in  company  with  them,  were  not  hurt.  But 
whether  the  reason  here  suggested,  was  the  real  cause  of  the  diflferencc, 
has  not,  to  my  knowledge,  been  ascertained.  It  could  be,  by  ascertain- 
ing the  characters  of  the  different  parties,  to  such  a  distinction.  I  have 
known  of  but  one  person  being  struck  by  the  fluid,  who  was  an  operator, 
and  he  had  a  shovel  in  his  hand  at  the  time,  which  might  have  attracted 
the  fluid.  The  fluid  struck  the  man  first,  glanced  to  the  shovel,  and 
passed  off,  and  the  man  yet  lives.  The  fluid,  undoubtedly,  had  greater 
afiinity  for  the  shovel  than  for  the  man,  or  it  would  not  have  left  the  one 
for  the  other.  But  whether  it  would  have  touched  the  man,  or  not,  if  he 
had  not  had  the  shovel  in  his  hand,  is  very  doubtful.  I  think  operators, 
in  this  matter,  need  borrow  no  trouble,  or  spend  no  sleepless  nights. 
Respectfully,  your  obedient  servant, 

ALFRED  BRUNSON. 
To, Albert  C.  Ingham,  Esq. 

Sec.  of  the  Wis.  State  Agr.  Society. 


THE  MECHANICAL  AND  MANUFACTURING  ARTS,  THEIR 
CONDITION  AND  WANTS,  AND  THE  RELATION  THEY  SUS- 
TAIN TO  THE  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETY. 

Rochester,  Wis.,  December,   1852. 

Dear  Sir  : — I  received  your  letter  some  time  since,  requesting  me  to 
prepare  a  paper  for  insertion  in  the  second  volume  of  the  Transactions 
of  the  State  Agricultural  Society,  and  suggesting  as  a  subject,  "The  Me- 
chanical and  Manufacturing  Interests  of  Wisconsin,  their  present  condi- 
tion and  wants,  and  the  relations  they  should  and  do  sustain  to  the  State 
Agricultural  Society,  and  their  duty  in  relation  thereto." 


322 

To  treat  this  subject  properly,  statistics,  gathered  carefully  from  good 
sources,  would  be  indispensable.  After  failing  to  carry  out  the  plan  for 
obtaining  such,  which  first  suggested  itself,  I  thought  I  should  be  able 
to  obtain  from  some  recent  work  on  Wisconsin,  or  from  the  United  States 
Census,  the  information  desired,  but  have  been  unable  to  reach  anything 
of  the  kind  by  any  inquiry  I  have  instituted,  and  I  shall,  therefore,  be 
compelled  to  substitute  a  few  general  observations  : 

In  the  older  portions  of  our  State,  the  mechanic  arts,  in  many  depart- 
ments, are  in  a  fair  state  of  advancement.  In  our  large  towns  and  cities, 
will  be  found  dwellings,  stores,  and  public  edifices,  which  in  taste,  and  in 
architectural  style  and  finish,  will  compare  well  with  similar  edifices  in 
any  part  of  the  Union.  Our  principal  commercial  city,  Milwaukee,  prob- 
ably cannot  be  excelled  in  the  rare  taste  and  beauty  of  many  of  her 
business  blocks — unrivalled  in  the  richness  of  the  material — those  bricks 
of  world-wide  fame,  and  seldom  surpassed  in  the  magnificent  and  tasteful 
proportions  of  their  architecture.  Again,  if  we  travel  through  our  older 
farming  districts,  we  are  struck  with  the  frequency  of  farm  dwellings  of 
neat  and  tasteful,  and  frequently  of  rich  finish,  indicating  by  their  exter- 
nal outlines,  a  convenience  of  internal  arrangement.  We  think  no  coun- 
try is  in  advance  of  Wisconsin  in  this  particular.  Lands  lovely  as  the 
sun  shines  upon,  and  buildings  often  which  show  the  taste  of  the  occu- 
pant, apace  with  the  natural  influences  which  surround  him.  No  huge 
pile  reared  towards  the  close  of  life's  struggle,  as  a  vain  monument  of 
an  existence  which  has  been  spent  in  restraining  the  comforts  of  progeny, 
now  scattered  over  the  earth ;  but  homes  of  reasonable  proportions, 
which  look  like  shelter  for  loved  ones,  calculated  to  mould  their  tastes, 
and  multiply  their  enjoyments. 

In  most  of  the  towns  and  villages  of  Wisconsin  we  find  the  common 
mechanic  arts  respectably  represented,  and  new  branches  of  mechanical 
pursuits  are  from  year  to  year  being  introduced.  Many  branches  of  man- 
ufactures, allied  to  the  earliest  wants  of  a  new  country,  the  productions 
of  which  are  not  conveniently  transported  from  other  parts,  are  in  a 
course  of  successful  and  extensive  operation.  Of  these  may  be  named 
as  prominent.  Iron  Foundries  and  Machine  Shops,  and  manufactories  of 
some  kinds  of  agricultural  implements  and  machines.  Already  we  hear 
that  some  of  the  former  have  commenced  the  manufacture  of  Rail  Road 
Locomotives,  and  will  no  doubt  be  able  to  supply  the  great  prospective- 
demand  of  the  country  in  that  line.     Steam  engines  are  manufactured  by 


323 

different  establishments  noAv  in  operation.  An  excellent  specimen  of  this 
manufacture  was  on  exhibition  by  Messrs.  Turton  &  Sercomb,  of  Mil- 
waukee, at  the  late  State  Fair.  We  allude  specifically  to  these  mechani- 
cal productions,  because  we  suppose  they  indicate,  as  much  as  any  par- 
ticular instances  can,  the  capacity  and  the  advancement  of  the  mechani- 
cal skill  of  the  country.  The  greatest  deficiency  in  the'manufacturing 
departments  of  our  State,  with  the  least  prospect  of  the  deficiency  being 
soon  adequately  filled,  appears  to  me  to  be  in  the  manufacture  of  every 
kind  of  cloth  fabrics.  I  will  not  undertake  to  speculate  upon  the  causes 
of  this  deficiency  in  a  class  of  manufactures  so  intimately  connected  with 
the  every-day  necessities  of  the  country,  and  the  absence  of  which  occi- 
sions  such  a  constant  and  heavy  drain  of  money  from  our  State.  We 
can  but  hope  that  inducements  may  appear  for  investment  in  this  direc- 
tion, and  that  facilities  may  be  put  in  operation  for  the  manufacture  of 
the  increasin:^  amount  of  raw  material  raised  within  our  borders. 

The  hard  times  with  our  farmers  for  the  last  few  years,  have  had  a 
tendency,  very  much,  to  depress  all  branches,  but  the  change  within  the 
last  year,  in  crops  and  prices,  is  having  a  marked  effect  in  stimulating 
mechanical  industry.  We  see  hope  arising,  and  the  anticipations  and 
calculations  of  the  mechanic  enlarging.  In  this,  we  trust,  there  is  per- 
manency, which  will  insure  to  the  mechanical  and  manufacturing  interests, 
a  great  advance  in  our  State  for  a  few  years  to  come.  We  not  only  hope 
to  see  those  branches,  already  established,  advanced,  but  there  are  many 
manufactures  for  which  the  State  pays  heavily  to  other  countries, 
the  manufacture  of  which  we  hope  to  see  established  among  us ;  and 
trust,  that  as  our  agricultural  interests  flourish,  we  shall  see  the  whole 
list  of  manufacturing  occupations,  capable  of  being  introduced  among  us, 
filled  up,  and  adequate,  at  least,  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  State.  In  spite 
of  any  notions  of  political  economy,  which  may  militate  against  it,  we 
cannot  help  supposing,  with  our  superficial  views,  that  it  is  best  for  a 
country  to  raise  its  own  fruit,  to  make  its  own  cheese,  and  manufacture, 
as  far  as  possible,  all  its  necessaries  in  implements,  machines,  and  fabrics. 
Our  ideal  of  a  great  and  prosperous  country,  combines  the  picture  of 
towns  and  villages  interspersed  here  and  there,  merry  with  the  anvil's 
ring,  the  hammer's  resound,  and  the  general  hum  of  industry,  their 
domes  "glittering  in  the  sun,"  and  spires  to  heaven  pointing;  while 
agriculture  weaves  around  its  broad  belt  of  well  tilled  fields,  and  displays 
its  abundant  crops  and  smiling  herds,   and  rears  its  happy  homes.     In 


324 

order  to  afford  something  of  a  realization  of  this  picture,  our  own  me- 
chanics and  manufacturers  need  the  friendly  interest,  the  fostering  care 
of  our  own  communities,  and  not  to  be  regarded  with  jealousy  or  neg- 
lect. The  agricultural  and  mechanical  interests  of  the  country,  should 
feel  that  their  interests  are  mutual ;  that  the  general  prosperity  of  the 
country,  in  which  all  have  a  common  interest,  is  dependent  in  a  good 
degree  upon  the  mutual  confidence  and  good  Avill  of  all  interests.  The 
incipient  attempts  at  the  introduction  of  new  branches  of  manufacture, 
should  be  regarded  everywhere  with  favor,  and  preference  given  to  home 
productions.  Is  it  not  safe  to  say,  that  whatever  retains  the  means  of 
the  country  in  the  country,  multiplies  its  capital,  and  strengthens  the 
sinews  of  general  enterprise  and  prosperity  ? 

A  State,  after  all,  is  but  a  great  family,  and  the  improvement  and  thrift 
of  the  different  industrial  interests  are  for  the  benefit  of  the  whole.  An 
enlisfhtened  view  should  lead  the  farmer  to  encourao^e  home  mechanics  and 
manufacturers — to  wish  for  their  prosperity — to  bear  with  imperfect  begin- 
nings, and  sustain  and  encourage  to  improvement.  The  mechanic  and 
the  manufacturer,  and  the  merchant,  and  the  capitalist,  should  endeavor 
to  conduct  their  pursuits  on  such  principles  as  will  conduce,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, to  the  benefit  of  the  farming  interests — to  the  advancement  of  the 
communities  in  which  they  live,  and  of  the  whole  country ;  at  the  same 
time  that  each  interest  reaps  its  own  proper  emolument  and  reward. 
Let  these  principles  prevail  in  Wisconsin,  and  we  shall  see,  with  the  anti- 
cipated improvement  in  financial  matters,  "the  increase  of  money  in  the 
State,  manufactories  arising,  and  the  increase  and  prosperity  of  all  the 
essential  pursuits  of  industry. 

From  the  views  presented,  it  is  not  difficult  to  deduce  the  relation  which 
our  mechanical  and  manufacturing:  interests  "should  and  do  sustain  to 
the  State  Agricultural  Society."  Were  Agricultural  Associations  insti- 
tuted for  the  benefit  of  the  farmer  alone,  even  then  the  dependence,  in  a 
State  like  ours,  of  every  other  interest,  in  a  great  degree,  upon  the  pros- 
perity of  the  agricultural  interest,  should  lead  every  other  calling,  indus- 
trial or  professional,  to  aid  in  the  upbuilding  of  such  associations — to 
encourage  and  help  sustain  agricultural  publications,  as  well  as  every- 
thing that  is  calculated  to  improve  and  advance  the  interests  of  agricul- 
ture. But  Agricultural  Associations  are  every  where  founded  upon  the 
principle  of  the  intimate  relations  of  all  the  industrial  pursuits,  which.  I 
have  argued,  xipon  the  principle  that  these  pursuits  have  a  blended  in- 


325 

terest,  a  mutual  dependence,  hopes  in  common,  and  common  incentives 
to  improvement.  In  most  State  and  County  Societies  over  the  Union,  the 
advancement  of  the  interests  of  the  artizan  are  embraced  in  their  objects 
and  operations.  Such  is  particularly  the  case  with  the  Wisconsin  State 
Agricultural  Society,  which  invites  the  co-operation  of  every  class  of 
industry,  in  all  its  doings  and  objects,  and  has  an  equal  eye  to  agricul- 
tural and  artizan  improvement  and  progress.  Such  being  the  case,  the 
relation  of  artizan  industry  to  this  Society  needs  no  further  elucidation. 
This  relation  becomes  clear,  and  the  duty  it  imposes  becomes  clear  and 
imperative.  That  duty — is  it  not  to  grasp  the  hand  of  brotherhood  ex- 
tended by  agriculture,  and  help,  by  our  exertions  and  every  requisite 
aid,  to  accomplish  the  objects  for  which  the  State  Agricultural  Society 
labors  ?  Should  not  the  mechanic  and  manufacturer  in  every  part  of  our 
State  enlist  with  the  farmer  in  this  Association  intended  for  their  mutual 
benefit;  aid  the  funds  of  the  Society  by  their  fees  of  membership,  and 
contribute  to  its  periodical  exhibitions  articles  of  utility  or  skill  ? 

If  the  mechanics  and  manufacturers  of  the  State  will  turn  out  to  these 
annual  gatherings,  they  will  ever  make  an  occasion  of  interest  and  profit 
— profit  in  the  new  incentives  they  will  gather  from  what  they  will  see, 
and  in  the  acquaintance  they  will  increase — profit  in  the  self-respect  with 
which  such  great  gala-days  of  industry  will  not  fail  to  inspire  the  indus- 
trial classes,  and  in  the  respect  which  will  be  impressed  upon  other  classes 
for  industrial  pursuits. 

We  hope  that  at  our  next  Annual  Fair,  mechanics  and  manufacturers 
will  be  there  from  all  quarters,  with  displays  of  their  skill,  emulous  to 
excel  and  to  carry  away  the  prize  of  excellence  by  every  fair  and  honor- 
able exertion,  in  the  spii-it  of  that  brotherhood  which  should  exist  as 
well  between  individuals  of  the  same  pursuit,  as  between  the  different 
pursuits  of  life. 

With  these  very  imperfect  thoughts  on  the  subject  proposed,  Mr.  Sec- 
retary, thrown  together  very  hastily  and  amid  interruptions,  I  have 
attempted  to  fulfil  the  duty  assigned  me.  I  only  wish  that  time  and 
circumstances  had  enabled  me  to  prepare  something  more  worthy  of 
your  volume. 

I  remain,  most  respectfully  yours, 

RICHARD  E.  ELA. 
To  AiJ3ERT  C.  Ingham,  Esq., 

Sec.  of  the  Wis.  State  Agt.  Society. 


326 


NORTHERN  WISCONSIN— ITS  CAPACITIES  AND  ITS  WANTS. 

Stevens'  Point,  Portage  Co.,  Wis.,  December,  1852. 

Sir — With  much  hesitancy,  I  attempt  the  task  imposed  on  me  in  your 
note  of  8th  Nov.  last,  to  give  a  "general  description  of  the  northern 
and  unsettled  portion  of  this  State,  and  its  capabilities  for  sustaining  an 
agricultural  population."  I  must  reiterate  the  hope  expressed  in  my 
note  of  the  20lh  ultimo,  that  you  will  not  rely  on  me  alone,  to  set  forth 
the  important  information  required. 

Four  principal  inquiries  seem  to  be  embraced  in  your  letter,  to  wit : 

1.  The  general  geographical  and  physical  formation  of  the  country. 

2.  Its  adaptafion  to  farming  purposes  generally,  and  its  prospects  for 
becomino-  a  settled  and  self  sustaining  re«-ion. 

3.  Its  principal  points. 

4.  Its  present  wants. 

In  speaking  of  Northern  Wisconsin,  reference  will  be  made  to  that 
part  north  of  Town  24  of  the  public  land  surveys.  It  is  situated  be- 
tween parallels  44<'  30'  and  46'='  40'  N.  latitude,  and  87°  30'  and  SS'' 
West  longitude.  It  is  about  120  miles  in  width  from  N.  to  S. ;  270  miles 
long  from  E.  to  W.,  and  includes  an  area  of  more  than  40,000  square 
miles.  The  settlements  are  extended  in  many  instances  much  above 
Town  24;  though  some  small  portions  remain  (between  the  Wisconsin 
and  Mississippi  rivers,)  south  of  this  boundary,  not  yet  penetrated  by 
the  pioneer. 

Northern  Wisconsin,  though  rolling  and  even  hilly,  is  by  no  means 
a  mountainous  country ;  a  traveler  in  passing  from  Galena  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Montreal  river  of  Lake  Superior,  or  from  Green  Bay  to  St.  Paul 
on  the  Mississippi,  would  never  have  the  idea  of  a  mountain  rano-e 
brought  to  mind.  Its  most  remarkable  features  are  constituted  by  its 
Lakes  and  Rivers.  Whenever  it  shall  be  all  surveyed  and  accurately 
mapped  out,  it  will  exhibit  countless  numbers  of  small  Lakes  coverino- 
its  northern  part;  this  "Region  of  the  Lakes,"  lies  east  and  west  from 
about  range  15  E.,  (of  the  surveys)  to  the  western  boundary  of  the 
State ;  and  forms  the  sources  of  the  rivers  falling  into  Lake  Superior  and 
Green  Bay  on  the  N.  and  E.,  and  into  the  Mississippi  on  the  S.  W. 
This  district  of  the  Lakes  is  some  fifty  miles  in  width,  and  more  than 
one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  in  length ;  and  constitutes  what  the  geolo- 


327 

o-ists  have  named  the  "great  water  shed,"  from  Avhich  those  great  rivers 
draw  their  constant  supply.  The  principles  upon  which  this  great  reser- 
voir is  maintained,  at  an  elevation  of  many  hundred  feet  above  the  level 
of  Lake  Superior,  always  full,  never  failing  in  drought,  heat  or  frost,  it 
belongs  to  the  science  of  Geology  to  explain.  The  great  fact  is  a  promi- 
nent one  in  the  geographical  features  of  this  part  of  the  State,  and  is 
interesting  in  more  points  than  one,  and  particularly  as  touching  its 
climate. 

Some  of  the  principal  rivers,  having  their  sources  in  this  "  Region  of 
the  Lakes,"  are  the  Montreal  and  the  Ontonagon,  falling  into  Lake  Supe- 
rior;  the  Menomonee,  and  the  Wolf  (a  north  branch  of  the  Fox)  fall- 
ing into  Green  Bay,  and  the  Wisconsin,  the  Chippewa  and  the  St.  Croix, 
falling  into  the  Mississippi,  (St.  Louis  River,  at  Fond  du  Lac,  off  Lake 
Superior,  has  its  source  in  a  distinct  region,  to  the  N.  W.  of  that  Lake ; 
and  the  Black  River  rises  some  twenty  or  thirty  miles  south  of  the 
"Region  of  the  Lakes." )  Four  of  these  rivers,  to  wit :  the  Menomonee, 
the  Wolf,  the  Wisconsin  and  the  Chippewa,  rise  within  a  very  few  miles 
of  each  other,  in  and  near  the  "  Lake  of  the  Desert,"  and  water,  in  their 
courses,  four-fifths  of  the  entire  State.  Though,  but  slightly  known 
towards  their  heads,  to  the  white  men,  they  have,  for  ages  past,  constitu- 
ted the  highways  of  the  natives,  and  of  those  engaged  m  trade  and  com- 
merce with  them.  To  attempt  a  detailed  description  of  the  immense 
country  north  of  town  24,  and  watered  by  these  rivers  and  lakes,  would 
involve  a  degree  of  research  and  labor  quite  out  of  the  question  in  this 
communication ;  a  few  discursory  remarks,  only,  will  be  attempted. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  where  knowledge  does  not  exist,  fancy  is  too 
often  allowed  to  take  its  place,  and  give  form  and  character  to  matters 
under  discussion.  With  this  impulse,  grave  and  important  subjects  are 
often  summarily  disposed  of  with  a  single  dash  of  the  pen.  Not  many 
years  since,  a  government  officer  made  a  formal  report  to  the  War  De- 
partment, setting  forth  that  the  whole  Peninsula  of  Michigan  was  an 
impassable  swamp !  and  a  map  was  made  and  published  in  accordance 
with  that  report!  This  Michigan  swamp  has  disappeared  before  the 
tide  of  immigration;  but  the  propensities  to  indulge  the  imagination 
are  not  cured.  An  official,  of  later  times,  has  given  a  similar  character 
to  a  large  portion  of  Wisconsin.  Time  .and  the  progress  of  the  "Yankee 
Nation"  will  doubtless  drain  this  Wisconsin  swamp  as  it  did  that  of 
Michigan. 


328 

The  Indian  title  is  extinguished,  I  believe,  to  all  the  land  in  the  State 
except  a  small  reserve  to  the  Oneidas,  near  Green  Bay,  and  the  public  sur- 
reys are  progressing  with  great  rapidity.  To  them  we  are  mainly  indebt- 
ed for  all  we  know  of  the  country. 

The  rivers  before  named  traverse  and  expose  a  great  variety  of  soil ; 
their  banks,  and  those  of  most  of  their  tributaries,  are  clothed  with  the 
evergreen  timbers,  the  white  pine  prevailing.  The  settlements  have, 
hitherto,  ascended  the  streams,  mostly  in  quest  of  the  pine — lumbering 
being  the  chief  incentive  thus  far — to  the  penetration  of  the  forests.  The 
energy  with  which  this  business  has  been  prosecuted  for  the  last  ten 
years,  has  opened  the  country  up  these  several  streams  for  hundreds  of 
miles.  A  heavy  business  is  done  on  all  the  tributaries  of  Green  Bay  ; 
up  the  Wolf,  the  lumbermen  have  opened  as  high  as  town  28  ;  on  the 
Wisconsin,  to  town  30  ;  on  the  Black  river,  to  town  28  ;  up  the  Chippe- 
•wa  (and  one  of  its  tributaries,  the  Red  Cedar,)  to  town  30  ;  and  up 
the  St.  Croix,  to  Kettle  river. 

I  have  no  means  of  estimating  with  any  accuracy  the  amount  of  capital 
invested  in  this  trade,  or  the  quantity  of  the  annual  product.  The  vast 
extent  of  prairie  country,  in  all  Illinois,  Iowa,  and  a  great  part  of  Mis- 
souri, are  wholly  dependent  on  Northern  Wisconsin  for  pine  boards. 

A  general  notion  seems  to  prevail,  that  the  lauds  of  these  pineries  are 
only  valuable  for  their  timber,  and  that  it  never  can  become  an  agricul- 
tural district.  But  the  facts  are  otherwise.  Whoever  recollects  Western 
New  York,  as  it  was  forty  years  ago,  may  have  a  very  good  idea  of 
Northern  Wisconsin  as  it  now  is  ;  and  whoever  sees  Wisconsin  forty  years 
hence,  may  behold  its  prototype  in  Western  New  York  at  this  moment. 

That  Northern  Wisconsin  is  destined  to  become  an  agricultural  country, 
of  the  first  character,  not  only  "self  sustaining"  but  sending  off  im- 
mense surplus  products,  is,  not  only  apparent  from  its  formation  generally, 
but  is  daily  being  shadowed  forth  by  experimental  facts.  Not  every  man 
in  these  pineries  is  engaged  in  lumbering ;  many  are  already  proving  up 
the  capabilities  of  the  soil  and  climate,  by  actual  farming  operations,  every 
effort  at  which,  is  repaying  the  outlay  of  labor,  and  fortifying  the  essayist 
in  his  hopes  of  ultimate  success.  It  must  not  be  forgotten,  that  but  a  small 
portion,  comparatively  speaking,  of  this  immense  region,  known  as  bear- 
ing the  evergreen  timbers,  such  as  the  pine,  hemlock,  <fec.,  is,  in  fact, 
clothed  with  these  timbers;  nearly  all  the  ridges  lying  a  short  distance 
back  from  the  streams,  are  clothed  with  the  several  varieties  of  hard 


320 

timber — the  sugar  tree,  bass,  oak,  hickory,  ash,  &c.  It  is  estimated  that 
about  one-fifth  of  these  forests  is  occupied  by  pine ;  two-fifths  with  sugar, 
oak,  bass,  hickory,  &c.,  and  two-fifths  with  tamarack,  cedar,  alder,  black 
ash,  white  maple,  and  aspen. 

The  lumberinar  business  will  doubtless  take  the  lead,  on  and  alonir  these 
rivers  for  many  years ;  but  whenever  the  pine  shall  be  exhausted,  or 
lumber  cease  to  bear  remunerative  prices,  the  more  arable  lands  will  be 
called  into  requisition,  for  agricultural  purposes,  and  sustain  a  more  dense 
population  than  any  country  of  prairie  and  openings  can  do.  In  fact,  as 
before  remarked,  the  two  pursuits  are  already  thriving  to  some  extent 
side  by  side  in  immediate  proximity  ;  many  men  finding  it  quite  as  profita- 
ble to  raise  grain,  grasses  and  potatoes,  with  which  to  furnish  those  felling 
the  pine  forests,  as  to  manufacture  boards.  Did  time  and  space  permit, 
this  position  could  be  verified  by  facts  in  detail,  by  citing  numerous  instan- 
ces of  farms  that  have  been  opened  in  the  heart  of  the  lumbering  dis- 
tricts, on  the  Menomonee,  Peshitigo,  Oconto,  Wolf,  Wisconsin,  Chippe- 
wa and  St.  Croix  Rivers,  all  of  which  have  been  attended  with  abundant 
success. 

Much  has  been  said  about  the  "  sand  barrens  "  of  Wisconsin.  They 
lie  between  the  upper  Fox  and  the  Wisconsin,  near  Fort  Winnebago, 
and  stretching  ofi"  north-westerly,  parallel  with  the  Mississippi  and  some 
twenty  miles  from  it,  as  far  as  the  St.  Croix.  The  district  is  generally 
about  twenty  miles  in  width,  and  some  one  hundred  miles  in  length,  and 
seems  composed  of  what  the  geologists  call  drift,  being  the  debris  of  sand 
rock,  decomposed  by  the  action  of  the  elements  in  former  ages,  and  car- 
ried down  from  the  north-easterly  regions  by  currents  of  Avater.  This 
kind  of  land  has  been  supposed  entirely  worthless  for  all  purposes  of 
agriculture.  Of  that  part  north-west  of  the  river  Wisconsin,  little  is 
known  or  proved  as  to  its  soils.  It  may  be  as  poor  as  the  geologists 
would  have  us  believe.  But  it  is  to  be  remembered,  that  the  portion  of 
it  lying  between  the  Wisconsin  and  the  Fox  rivers,  constitutes  a  part  o* 
the  famous  "Indian  Land"  district,  which  has  been  sought  with  so 
much  avidity,  during  the  past  season,  by  experienced  farmers  from  the 
older  States. 

I  have,  thus  far,  been  commenting,  in  the  main,  on  that  portion  of 
northern  Wisconsin  watered  by  the  several  rivers  before  mentioned,  and 
lying  below  (south)  of  the  "Region  of  the  Lakes."     The  great  "  watex 

22 


330 

shed"  merits  a  separate  consideration.  As  before  remarked,  it  is  about 
50  miles  in  width,  and  some  150  miles  in  length,  and  will,  at  some  future 
day,  assume  an  importance  in  the  geographical  and  physical  features  of 
the  State  now  but  little  suspected.  It  is  dotted  over  with  thousands  of 
lakes,  from  twenty  rods  to  as  many  miles  in  diameter, — water  clear, 
shores  bold,  filled  with  fine  fish,  abounding  with  water-fowl,  and  match- 
less in  picturesque  scenery  and  beautiful  locations.  Most  of  them  have 
inlet  and  outlet  of  fine  streams,  while  others  have  neither. 

Let  not  the  reader  be  startled  with  visions  of  eternal  snows  and  risrors 
of  climate  ;  for,  if  correctly  considered,  the  temperature  of  the  Lake 
Region  will  be  judged  more  mild  than  that  of  the  next  hundred  miles 
south  of  it. 

•  A  mistaken  notion  seems  to  have  prevailed  with  regard  to  climate, 
which  has  been  too  generally  referred  to  latitude,  and  confounded  with 
it ;  just  as  though  the  same  parallels  east  and  Avest  necessarily  always 
had  the  same  degree  of  cold  or  heat.  This  error  is  now  being  dissipated, 
and  climate  is  known  to  be  governed  by  many  other  causes  than  mere 
latitude.  Topography — geological  features — go  far  to  modify  the  tem- 
perature and  affect  the  seasons  ;  among  all  which,  it  is  found  that  bodies 
•  of  water,  especially  small  lakes,  have  an  influence  in  softening,  to  an  ex- 
traordinary degree,  a  climate  otherwise  rigorous.  Such  is  known  to  be 
exactly  the  eftect  in  the  Lake  Region  under  consideration,  and  eminently 
so  in  the  autumnal  season. 

The  natives,  with  the  sagacity  of  their  race,  made  these  little  seas 
their  resting  places,  having  their  villages  both  for  summer  and  winter 
on  their  borders,  while  a  large  district  south  of  them  has  only  been 
used  for  hunting  grounds.  The  early  traveler,  whether  penetrating 
from  Lake  Superior,  or  from  the  lower  Wisconsin  and  Mississippi,  has 
always  found  inhabitants  in  the  Lake  Region,  and  been  surprised  to  find 
there  fields  of  corn,  beans,  potatoes,  &c.,  which,  to  use  the  words 
of  one  of  them,  Avere  "better  indeed  than  are  usually  grown  with  all 
the  aid  of  cultivation  in  the  valley  of  the  Ohio." — Atwood's  Geological 
Beport,p.  57. 

Northern  Wisconsin,  then,  as  considered  with  regard  to  soil,  climate, 
health,  accessibility  and  markets,  may  be  set  down,  in  general  terms,  as 
bidding  fair  to  become  a  farming  country,  not  only  "self  sustaining," 
Ijut  producing  a  large  surplusage  for  exportation.     Those  portions  just 


331 

being  opened,  will  be  the  first  to  be  settled ;  but  the  last  district  named, 
the  "Region  of  the  Lakes,"  -will  finally  become  the  favorite. 

The  whole  is  a  timbered  country,  prairies  and  openings  being  so  few 
and  far  between,  as  to  form  exceptions  to  the  general  rule.  The  class  of 
settlers,  therefore,  who  seek  the  great  West  to  find  farms  "already 
cleared  to  hand,"  will  not  be  likely  to  locate  in  Northern  Wisconsin,  till 
they  have  essayed  the  prairies,  and  there  made  the  discovery,  that  the 
bounties  of  Providence  are  nearly  equally  distributed  over  the  great  west ; 
and  that,  what  is  to  be  had  without  toil,  is  seldom  worth  the  possession. 
Our  immigration  will  come,  as  it  has  in  fact  thus  far,  from  the  more 
Northern  of  the  older  States,  the  character  of  which,  needs  no  eulogy 
from  me. 

Nor  has  so  desirable  a  region  escaped  attention.  The  Indian  title  is  all 
extinguished ;  the  United  States  surveys  are  progressing  over  it  with 
great  rapidity.  Men  of  enterprise  and  forecast  are  becoming  sensible  of 
its  future  destined  greatness  ;  explorations  of  it  are  being  made ;  the  eyes 
of  capitalists  are  scanning  it  closely,  evidenced  in  the  fact  that  already 
three  or  four  most  important  railways  are  proposed  through  it,  to  wit  : 
one  from  Milwaukee  via  Portage  City  to  La  Crosse ;  one  from  Madison 
(a  continuation  of  the  Chicago  and  Beloit  Railroad,)  up  the  valley  of 
the  Wisconsin,  to  Ontonagon  of  Lake  Superior;  one  from  Fond  du  Lac, 
(a  continuation  of  the  R.  R.  U.  V.  Railroad,)  up  the  valley  of  the  Wolf, 
to  Lake  Superior ;  and  one  from  Green  Bay  west  to  St.  Paul.  These 
roads  are  eminently  practicable,  and  if  constructed,  would,  no  doubt,  be 
remunerative  on  the  capital  invested.  Indeed,  from  the  zeal  and  confi- 
dence manifested  by  the  several  projectors,  there  is  good  reason  to  pre- 
sume it  not  Utopian  to  look  for  their  early  completion. 

You  inquire  for  the  "prominent  points  in  Northern  Wisconsin." 

But  few  are  known  as  yet.  Green  Bay,  Muckwau,  Waupacca,  Stevens' 
Point,  Plover,  and  La  Crosse,  are  in  its  southern  border ;  though  none 
of  them,  except  Green  Bay  and  Stevens'  Point,  are  within  the  bounda- 
ries I  have  named  for  this  part  of  Wisconsin.  Settlements  north  of 
town  24,  exists  as  follows :  on  the  tributaries  of  Green  Bay,  at  Oconto, 
Peshitigo  and  Menomonee  rivers ;  on  the  Wolf  River  at  Lake  Shawauno  ; 
on  the  Wisconsin,  are  the  Little  Bull  Falls  village,  in  town  28;  Big 
Bull  Falls,  (otherwise  called  Wausau,  the  seat  of  justice  for  Marathon 
Co.,)  in  town  29;  besides  several  mill  locations  higher  up,  as  at  Pine 


n 


32 


River  and  Virgin  Falls,  in  town  31.  I  cannot  give  the  locations  -with 
accuracy  on  the  Black  River,  the  Chippewa  and  the  St.  Croix,  though  it 
is  known,  several  fine  villages  are  thriving  on  those  streams. 

But  it  is  hardly  probable  the  prominent  points,  in  fiituro,  are  yet 
reached  in  this  vast  region ;  and  when  they  shall  be,  they  will  rise  in 
that  most  interesting  country,  the  "Lake  Region,"  and  take  position 
on  the  banks  of  the  "Lake  of  the  Desert,"  Lake  Flambeaux,"  Lake 
Courtoreilles,"  and  "Long  Lake." 

You  demand  to  know  its  present  wants  ! 

What  it  needs  first  is,  to  be  made  known.  2d.  To  have  thoroughfares 
opened  through  it.  And  third,  and  most  essentially,  it  wants  a  just  and 
liberal  policy  maintained  towards  it  on  the  part  of  both  the  State  and 
National  Governments. 

The  State  Agricultural  Society  can  do  much  towards  the  first  of  these 
objects ;  and  I  trust  you  will  not  be  discouraged  by  the  feeble  effort  of 
this  present  paper,  from  soliciting  treatises  in  future  from  more  compe- 
tent pens. 

In  regard  to  thoroughfares,  I  will  observe,  the  people  of  Green  Bay 
are  about  to  petition  Congress  for  a  donation  of  the  Public  Lands,  for 
the  purpose  of  aiding  in  the  construction  of  a  railway  from  that  town  to 
St.  Paul.  Their  efforts  should  be  received  with  favor  and  helped  for- 
ward by  every  well  wisher  of  the  North. 

The  proposition  of  the  Chicago  Railway  Company,  should  be  enter- 
tained in  a  spirit  of  liberality  by  the  people  of  this  State.  Lake  Supe- 
rior is  bound  to  find  connexion  with  New  York,  sooner  or  later,  via 
Chicago. 

A  just  and  liberal  policy  from  the  Slate  and  National  Governments. 

A  part  of  this,  so  far  as  relates  to  the  National  Government,  has 
been  hinted  at  in  the  proposed  grant  of  Public  Lands  to  aid  in  the  con- 
struction of  railroads.  The  numberless  other  modes  in  Avhich  such  ques- 
tions may  be  raised  between  us  and  that  Government,  can  hardly  be 
anticipated.  There  is  one  question,  however,  which  being  already  forced 
upon  us,  I  beg  leave  to  notice  in  this  connection. 

Our  exertions  have,  hitherto,  been  earnestly  directed  towards  the 
extinguishment  of  the  Indian  title,  and  the  clearing  of  our  territory  of 
those  tribes.  To  our  petitions  the  General  Government  made  prompt 
response,   apparently  in    good  faith.      The    treaty  of   1848    with  the 


333 

Menominee  Indians,  which  was  early  ratified  by  the  Senate,  gave  us  the 
last  Indian  reservation ;  and  with  it  an  earnest  that  the  northern  part 
of  Wisconsin  would  be  speedly  opened  to  the  wants  of  settlers,  and 
that  the  tribe  making  the  cession  would  long  before  this  time  have  left 
our  borders.  This  just  expectation  has,  however,  been  defeated.  It  is 
a  question,  pertinent  to  the  citizen,  and  one  which  demands  the  profound 
attention  of  the  Legislative  and  Executive  Departments  of  the  State, 
why  has  the  law  of  the  land — the  Treaty  of  1848,  not  been  complied 
with,  and  the  Menomonee  Indians  removed  to  Crow  Wing  River  ?  And 
further,  by  what. authority,  and  in  pursuance  of  what  and  whose  policy 
is  it  now  attempted  to  recede  twelve  townships  of  the  most  valuable 
part  of  that  cession  back  to  that  tribe,  and  to  locate  and  re-establish, 
them  at  Lake  Shawauno  ?  It  is  respectfully  submitted  for  the  consider- 
ation of  the  law  makers  and  the  Executive  Authorit}'-  of  the  State, 
whether,  on  the  ratification  of  the  treaty  with  the  Menominee  Indians  of 
October,  1848,  by  the  Senate  of  the  United  States,  the  jurisdiction  of 
Wisconsin  did  not  immediately  become  complete  over  all  the  country 
described  in  that  cession?  And  if  so,  what  authority,  short  of  that  of 
*  this  State,  can  undertake  to  locate  an  Indian  tribe  within  its  borders  ? 

Such,  however,  has  been  attempted  by  the  Agents  of  the  Indian  De- 
partment ;  a  tract  of  twelve  townships  of  the  best  land  in  the  State  has 
been  attempted  to  be  set  off  near  Lake  Shawauno,  on  the  Wolf  river,  as  a 
home  for  the  Menominee  Indians,  in  violation  of  the  rights  of  many  of 
our  citizens — of  solemn  treaty  stipulation — of  the  jurisdiction  of  the  State 
of  Wisconsin — besides  being  all  a  fraud  on  the  poor  Indians  themselves, 
who  it  is  manifest  can  have  no  permanent  resting  place  there  ;  our  settle- 
ments, having  already,  since  the  ratification  of  the  treaty,  preceded  the 
pretended  reservation  ! 

Northern  Wisconsin  is  deeply  injured  by  this  proceeding,  and  wishes 
her  Government  to  protect  itself  from  insult,  and  its  citizens,  whether  many 
or  few  in  number,  from  this  wrong  attempted  to  be  inflicted  on  them  in 
the  name  of  the  United  States  Indian  Department. 

In  the  foregoing,  allusion  is  had  to  the  policy  of  the  National  Govern- 
ment. I  now  beg  leave  to  speak  of  some  acts  and  doings  of  our  local 
State  Government. 

It  is  the  plain  duty  of  every  Government,  to  protect  the  weak  as  well  as 
the  strong  ;  indeed,  the  strong  being  able  to  protect  themselves,  Govern- 


334 

ments  are  instituted,  in  this  republican  country  at  least,  for  the  express 
purpose  of  protecting  the  weak.  When  they  forget  this,  and  lend  their 
omnipotence  to  aid  the  more  powerful  part  of  the  body  politic,  to  wrong 
and  oppress  the  weaker,  they  become  nuisances,  a  curse  instead  of  a 
blessing,  and  forfeit  all  claim  to  the  respect  of  mankind. 

I  beg  leave  to  look  back  a  little  in  our  history.  On  the  admission  of 
Illinois  into  the  Union,  her  politicians  plead  to  have  her  northern  boundary 
placed  at  42""  30'  N.  It  was  objected  to  this,  that  the  Ordinance  of  1787, 
for  the  government  of  the  Territory  N.  W.  of  the  River  Ohio,  provide^d 
that  her  Northern  boundary  should  be  a  line  E.  and  W.,  drawn  throuo^h 
the  southerly  bend  of  Lake  Michigan.  The  objection  was  overruled,  and 
she  was  admitted,  with  her  northern  boundary  as  she  desired.  The  friends 
of  Wisconsin,  (for  she  had  few  inhabitants  at  that  time  within  her  bor- 
ders) saw  a  violation  of  her  rights,  murmured  their  disapprobation,  and 
the  matter  passed  on,  with  a  loss  to  Wisconsin  of  nearly  eight  thousand 
square  miles,  from  off  her  southern  border. 

Next  came  the  admission  of  Michigan,  with  her  contest  with  Ohio 
about  boundary,  which  all  but  involved  the  two  States  in  bloodshed  and 
civil  war.  AVisconsin  was  still  nearly  unable  to  be  heard  in  the  great  coun- 
cils of  the  nation ;  though  one  magnanimous  voice  proclaimed  her  rights.* 
But  she  had  no  representation,  much  less  any  votes.  To  appease  the 
Unrighteous  thirst  for  dominion  on  the  part  of  Ohio,  her  boundaries,  as 
established  by  the  Ordinance  of  1787,  were  again  violated;  and  as  a 
compensation  to  Michigan  for  the  robbery  on  her  by  the  former  State, 
one-fifth  part  of  the  balance  of  our  Territory  was  sliced  off  on  the  N.  E, 
and  handed  over  to  Michigan.  To  this  outrage  we  submitted  with  impa- 
tience, and  justly  complained  of  the  high  handed  robbery,  as  a  ruthless 
disregard  of  its  sacred  obligations  on  the  part  of  Congress.  But  sub- 
mit we  were  compelled  to,  being  without  the  power  of  resistance.  We 
comforted  ourselves,  however,  as  well  as  we  could  with  the  reflection, 
that  though  we  had  lost  our  rights,  our  honor  remained,  and  that  on 
attaining  our  majority,  we  would  take  good  care  to  make  ourselves  heard 
and  respected  in  the  National  Councils. 

At  length  the  time  came  for  our  own  admission  to  the  great  confede- 
racy, which  was  done  with  our  boundaries  including  what  the  rapacity  of 
our  older  and  stronger  sisters  had  left  us ;  our  fair  proportions,  though 


The  late  Hon.  Jobu  Quincy  Adams. 


135 


curtailed  at  both  extremities,  were  yet  regarded  such  as  might  still  enable 
us  to  command  a  respectable  rank  in  the  great  republican  family. 

Well,  we  regarded  the  question  of  boundary,  which  had  given  us  so 
much  trouble  and  alarm,  as  finally  put  forever  at  rest;  and  we  went  on 
in  earnest,  to  settle  up  and  improve  our  fair  domain,  with  a  view  to  future 
greatness  as  well  as  immediate  convenience.  But  in  the  short  space  of 
four  years,  before  we  have  fairly  composed  our  minds  and  become  quiet 
of  our  apprehensions  from  without,  a  new  project  of  dismemberment  rises 
up  from  within ;  so  strange  and  startling  is  the  proposition,  that  but  few 
of  our  citizens  can  believe  it  real,  but  are  disposed  to  regard  it  as  some 
poor  hoax,  got  up  by  grave  legislators  in  a  leisure  moment,  during  a 
dearth  of  legitimate  business,  or  while  awaiting  perhaps  the  action  of  the 
Executive  on  Bills  which  their  greater  industry  had  presented  for  his  con- 
sideration. But  I  regret  to  say  no  such  charitable  excuse  can  be  plead 
for  our  Solons.  Their  proposition  to  violate  the  integrity  of  our  boun- 
daries stands  on  record,  in  the  form  of  a  grave  legislative  act,  entitled, 
"Joint  Resolution  in  relation  to  the  erection  of  the  Territory  of  Superior." 
Then  follows  the  Resolve,  that  the  assent  of  Wisconsin  "is  hereby  given" 
to  the  dismemberment  of  the  State !  and  that  fully  one  half  of  it  may  be 
set  off  into  a  distinct  Territorial  Government,  to  wit :  all  north  of  Town 
30,  and  west  of  Range  10  N.  of  the  Meridian. 

The  question  has  been  asked,  "where  did  this  scheme  originate?" — 
Though  difficult  to  trace  its  paternity,  it  is  easy  to  say  where  it  did  no* 
come  from,  and  that  is,  it  did  not  originate  with  the  people. 

But  the  assent  of  Wisconsin  "is  given,"  that  the  best  half  of  the  State 
may  be  "  set  off."  Now  it  is  generally  supposed  that  boundaries  consti- 
tute a  part — a  most  essential  part  of  our  Constitution.  Has  our  Consti- 
tution been  changed — amended  ?  If  so,  when,  where,  and  how  ?  and  if 
not,  by  what  authority  has  the  Legislature  undertaken  to  give  the  "assent" 
of  the  people  of  this  State  to  a  simdering  of  it  in  the  midst  ? 

As  for  the  people  of  Northern  Wisconsin,  they  regard  the  proposition 
with  disapprobation,  and  concern  ;  its  consummation  would  be  their  ruin. 
They  are  told  that  the  interest  of  the  northern  and  southern  portion  of 
the  State  are  "so  diverse!"  Indeed!  and  suppose  they  should  be  so, 
what  State  in  this  Union",  of  respectable  dimensions,  but  has  diverse 
interests?  The  argument  is  too  insignificant  to  merit  pursuit.  The 
whole  scheme  is  liable  to  a  construction,  not  greatly  to  the  honor  of  the 


336 

originators  for  magnanimity  of  feeling,  or  for  that  just  state  pride  which, 
ought  to  swell  the  bosom  of  every  man  worthy  of  a  seat  in  our  Legis- 
lative Halls. 

Among  the  present  wants  of  Northern  Wisconsin,  this  project  cer- 
tainly is  not  one,  nor  can  it  be  regarded  otherwise  than  as  antagonistical 
to  that  just  and  liberal  policy  towards  us,  which  I  have  spoken  of,  and 
which,  as  pioneers  of  the  wilderness,  in  the  van  of  civilization,  we  have 
a  right  to  expect  and  demand. 

I  am,  Sir,  with  great  respect, 

Your  obedient  servant, 

ALBERT   G.  ELLLS. 
To  Albert  C.  Ixgham,  Esq. 

Sec.  of  the  Wis.  State  Agr.  Society. 


^  337 


FAUNA  AND  FLORA  OF  WISCONSIN. 


The  following  Catalogues,  prepared  at  the  request  of  Albert  C.  Ingham, 
Esq.,  the  Secretary  of  the  Wisconsin  State  Agricultural  Societj^,  include  the 
Animals,  the  Fossils  in  the  rocks,  and  the  Plants,  heretofore  observed  in  that 
State.  They  are  very  far  from  being  complete  lists  of  our  Fauna  and  Flora, 
only  such  species  having  been  included  as  have  been  actually  observed  by  me, 
or  were  communicated  to  me  by  competent  persons.  A  few  species  are  added 
on  the  authority  of  naturalists  who  have  formerly  visited  this  country.  They 
embrace  62  Mammals,  287  Birds,  19  Reptiles,  14  Fishes,  90  MoUusks,  92 
Fossils,  and  949  Plants.  TAT  APHAAf 


A  SYSTEMATIC  CATALOGUE  OF  THE  AISHMALS  OF 

WISCONSIN, 

PREPARED    FOR   THE    WISCONSIN    STATE    AGRICULTURAL    SOCIETT, 
BY    I.    A.   LAPHAM,    OF   MILWAUKEE,    1852. 

MAMMALIA. 

ORDEK   CAKNIVORA. 

DiDELPHua,  Linn. 

Virginiana,  Pennant.     Oppossum.     Green  County.     (Dr.  Hoy.) 

Vespertilio,  Linn.     The  Bat. 

*Noveboracensis,  Linn.     New  York  Bat.     Milwaukee. 

pruinosus,  Say.     Hoary  Bat.     Racine,  f 
*subulatus,  Say.     Little  Brown  Bat.     Racine. 
*noctivagans,  Le  Conte.     Silver  Haired  Bat.     Racine. 


t  The  species  marked  Raciae  were  observed  near  that  place,  and  communicated  to 
me  by  Dr.  P.  R.  Hoy. 

*  The  specimens  of  the  species  marked  thus  (*)  are  preserved  in  the  Collection  of  the 
If  at  Hist.  Association,  at  Madison. 


333 

CoNDYLURA,  Illiger. 

*cristata,  Linn.     Star-nose  Mole.     Milwaukee. 

ScALOPS,  Cuvier. 

aquaticus,  De  Kay,  (Sorex  aquaticus,  Linn.)     Common  Shrew  Mole. 
Racine. 

SoRKX,  Linn. 

Dekayi,  Backman.     Dekay's  Shrew.     Racine. 
Forsteri,  Richardson.     Forster's  Shrew.     Racine, 
brevicaudus,  Say.     Short-tailed  Shrew.     Milwaukee. 
Richardsonii  Backman.     North  "West  Territory.     (Mr.  De  Kay.) 
Gooperi  Bachman.     North  West  Territory.    (Mr.  De  Kay.) 

Ur3ps,  Linn.     The  Bear. 

*Americanus,  Pallas.     Black  Bear.     Milwaukee. 

Proctok,  Storr. 

*lotor,  Linn.    Raccoon.    Milwaukee. 

Meles,  Brisson. 

Labradoria,  Sabine.     Badger.     Milwaukee. 

GuLO,  Storr. 

*lu3cus,  Linn.     Wolverine.     North  West  Territory.     (Mr.  Say.)f 

Mephitis,  Cuvier. 

Americana,  Desmarest.     Skunk,     Milwaukee. 

Mcstela,  Cuvier. 

Canadensis,  Linn.     Fisher.     Milwaukee  and  Watertown. 
*martes,  Linn.     Marten.     North  West  Territory.     (Mr.  Say.) 
pusilla,  Dekay.     Little  Weasel.     Racine. 

PuTORius,  Cuvier. 

*Noveboracensis.     Ermine  Weasle,     North  West  Territory.     (Mr.  Say.) 
*vison,  Linn.     Mink.     Milwaukee. 

LuTRA,  Ray. 

*Canadensis,  Sabine.     Otter.     Milwaukee. 

Canis,  Linn.     The  Dog. 

familiaris,  Linn.     Indian  Dog. 


t  In  Long's  Second  Expedition. 


339 

Lupus.     The  Wolf. 

occidentalis,  Richardson.     Common  Wolf.     Milwaukee. 
*latran3  (Canis  latrans,  Say.)     Prairie  Wolf.     Raciue. 

VuLPKs.    The  Fox. 

*fulvus,  Desm.     Red  Fox.     Milwaukee. 
Virginianus,  Dekay.     Grey  Fox.     Racine. 

Felis,  Linn. 

concolor,  Linn.     Panther.     Northern  Wisconsin.     (Dr.  Hoy.) 

Lyncus,  Gray.     Lynx. 

borealis,  Temminck.     Lynx.     Milwaukee. 
*rufu8.  Tern.     Wild  Cat.     Milwaukee. 

ORDER  EODENTIA.  , 

SciURUS,  Linn.     The  Squirrel. 

*leucotis,  Gappar.     Grey  Squirrel,     Milwaukee. 
*?ulpinu3,  Graelin.     Fox  Squirrel.     Milwaukee. 
*oiger,  Say.     Black  Squirrel.     Milwaukee. 
*Hudsonicus,  Harlan.     Red  Squirrel.     Milwaukee. 
*6triatus,  Linn.     Striped  Squirrel.     Milwaukee. 

Pteromys,  Illiger. 

*volucella,  Harlan.     Flying  Squirrel.     Milwaukee, 
sabrinus,  Richardson.     Winnebago  County.     (Dr.  Hoy.) 

Spermophilus,  F.  Cuvier. 

*tridecimlineatus,  Mitchell.     Gopher.     Milwaukee, 
grammurus,  Say.     Line-tailed  Squirrel.    N.  W.  Territory.    (Mr.  Say.) 
Parry i,  Richardson.     Racine. 

Arctomys,  Linn. 

morax,  Gmel.     Woodchuck.     Racine. 

Meriones,  Illiger. 

*Americanus,  Barton.     Deer  Mouse.     Milwaukee. 

Castor,  Linn. 

fiber,  Linn.     Beaver.f 


t  The  last  Be.iver  killed,  in  the  southern  part  of  Wisconsin,  was  in  1819,  on  Sugar 
Creek,  Walworth  county,  a  very  large  one.     (S.  Juneau,  Esq.) 


340 

Fiber,  Illiger. 

*zibetliicus,  Linn.     Muskrat.     Milwaukee. 

Hystrix,  Linn. 

*Hu(lsonius,  Brisson.     Porcupine.     Lake  of  the  Hills,  Sauk  Co. 

Mus,  Linn. 

decumanus,  Pallas,  Brown  Rat  (introduced.)     Racine, 
rattus,  Linn.  Black  Rat  (introduced.)     Racine. 
*muscuhis,  Linn,     Mouse.     Milwaukee, 
leucopus,  Richardson.     Jumping  Mouse.     Racine. 

Arvicola,  Lacepede. 

riparius,  Ord.     Marsh  Meadow  Mouse.     Racine, 
hirsutus,  Emmons.     Beaver  Field  Mouse.     Racine, 
xanthognathus,  Leach.     Yellow  Cheeked  Meadow  Mouse.     Racine, 

Geomts,  Richardson. 

bursarius.  Say.     Pouched  Rat.     N.  W.  Territory.     (Mr.  Say.) 

Lepus,  Linn. 

*nanus,  Schreber.     American  Grey  Rabbit.     Racine. 
*Americanus,  Erxleben.     Rabbit.     Milwaukee. 

ORDER   RUMINANTIA. 

Bison,  Smith. 

Americanus,  Gmelin.     Buffalo.f 

Antilope,  Smith. 

Americana,  Ord.     Antilope.     N.  W.  Territory.    (Mr.  Say.) 

Cbrvus,  Brisson. 

*Virginianus,  Linn.     Deer.     Milwaukee, 
alces,  Linn.     Moose.     N.  W.  Territory.    (Mr.  Schoolcraft.) 

Elapiius. 

Canadensis,  Ray.     Elk.     N.  W.  Territory,    (Mr.  Say.) 

Banqifer. 

tarandus,  Linn.     Rein-deer.    Borders  of  L.  Superior.  (Mr.  Shoolcraft.) 


t  Last  seen  east  of  Mississippi  in  1832. 


341 


THE  BIEDS  OF  WISCONSIN 

Having  been  carefully  studied  by  Dr.  Hoy,  of  Racine,  I  have  obtained 
his  permission  to  insert  here  his  "Notes,"  published  in  the  6th  volume 
of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  at  Philadel- 
phia, instead  of  the  catalogue  prepared  by  me.  There  are  some  additions 
and  corrections  made  by  Dr.  Hoy,  and  I  have  added  the  common  names 
of  each  species.  I.  A.  L. 


NOTES  ON  THE  ORNITHOLOGY  OF  WISCONSIN. 

BY    P.  R.  HOY,  M.  D.,  OF  RACINE,  WISCONSIN. 

With  few  exceptions,  the  facts  contained  in  the  following  brief  Notes, 
were  obtained  from  personal  observations  made  within  fifteen  miles  of 
Racine,  Wisconsin,  lat.  42°  49'  N. ;  long.  87°  40'  W.  This  city  is  situ- 
ated on  the  western  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  at  the  extreme  southern 
point  of  the  heavy  timbered  district,  where  the  great  prairies  approach 
near  the  lake  from  the  west,  and  is  a  remarkably  favorable  position  for 
ornithological  investigation.  It  would  appear  that  this  is  a  grand  point, 
a  kind  of  rendezvous,  that  birds  make  during  their  migrations.  Here, 
within  the  last  seven  years,  I  have  noticed  287  species  of  birds,  about 
one-twentieth  of  all  known  to  naturalists,  many  of  which,  considered 
rare  in  other  sections,  are  found  here  in  the  greatest  abundance.  It  will 
be  seen  that  a  striking  peculiarity  of  the  ornithological  fauna  of  this 
section  is,  that  southern  birds  go  further  north  in  summer,  while  north- 
ern species  go  further  south  in  winter  than  they  do  east  of  the  great 

Lakes. 

[*  Indicates  those  known  to  nest  witliin  the  State.] 

VULTURINiE,   (1  species.) 

*Cathartes  Aura,  Linn.     Turkey  Buzzard: 

Found  occasionally  as  far  north  as  Lake  Winnebago,  lat.  44**.  More  numerous 
near  the  Mississippi  River. 

FALCONID^,  (19  species.) 

*Aq0ila  CHRYSiETOS,  Linn.     Golden  Eagle. 

I  have  a  fine  specimen,  shot  near  Racine,  Dec.  1853. 

It  is  a  fact  worthy  of  note  that  this  noble  eagle,  in  the  absence  of  rocky  cliffs  for 
its  eyrie,  does  occasionally  nest  on  trees.  One  instance  occurred  between  Racine 
and  Milwaukee,  in  1851 .    The  nest  was  fixed  in  the  triple  forks  of  a  large  oak. 


342 

Hali^tus  Washingtonii,  Aud.     Washington  Eacle. 

I  procured,  in  reSO,  a  living  bird  that  had  been  slightly  wounded,  which  answer- 
ed to  Audubon's  description  of  this  doubtful  species.  I  kept  it  in  an  ample  cage 
upwards  of  two  years,  but  before  its  deathit  underwent  changes  in  plumage  which 
led  me  to  believe  that,  had  it  lived,  it  would  have  proved  to  be  the  white-headed 
species.  I  put  several  species  of  hawks  and  owls  into  the  same  apartment,  several 
of  which  the  eagle  killed  and  devoured  without  ceremony.  When  a  fowl  was  in- 
troduced, he  pounced  upon  it,  aud  without  attempting  to  kill,  proceeded  to  pluck 
it  with  the  greatest  unconcern,  notwithstanding  its  piteous  screams  and  struggles. 

It  is  my  opinion  that  the  Bird  of  Washington  will  prove  to  be  only  an  unusually 
marked  large  and  fine  immature  white-headed  eagle.  My  specimen,  a  female,  mea- 
sured 7^, feet  in  alar  extent. 

*HALiiETUs  Leucocephalus,  Linn.     Bald  Eagle. 

Numerous  throughout  the  State.  I  have  seen  one  of  these  fine  birds  pounce  upon 
and  capture  a  fish  in  the  lake,  The  eagle  did  not  disappear  wholly  under  the  water, 
which  led  me  to  suspect  that  the  fish  was  in  some  way  disabled. 

*Pandion  Hali^tus,  Lina.     American  Fish  Hawk. 
Not  uncommon. 

*Falco  Peregrinus,  Gnoel.     Duck  Hawk. 

This  noble  falcon  is  frequently  met  with,  although  not  bo  numerous  as  many  other 
hawks.  A  pair  nested  for  several  years  within  ten  miles  of  this  city ;  constructing 
their  nest  on  the  top  of  a  large  red  beech  tree. 

I  have  seen  one  of  these  daring  hawks  make  a  swoop  into  a  flock  of  Blue-winged 
Teal,  killing  two  on  the  spot. 

*Falco  Columbarius,  Linn.     Pigeon  Hawk. 

This  active  little  falcon  is  numerous,  especially  in  spring  and  fall,  during  the  mi- 
gration of  the  smaller  birds.  A  few  nest  with  us,  many  more  in  the  pine  forests  of 
the  northern  part  of  the  State.  Those  that  nest  in  this  vicinity,  regularly  morning 
and  evening,  visit  the  lake  sliore.  in  quest  of  bank  swallows,  which  they  seize  with 
great  dexterity  while  on  the  wing. 

Falco  ^salon,  Grael.     The  Merlin. 

I  have  met  with  three  individuals  of  this  small  species,  Nov.  15th,  1849,  Dec.  25th, 
1850,  and  Dec.  12th,  1852.  ' 

*Falco  Sparverius,  Linn.     Sparrow  Hawk. 
Common. 

*AsTUK  Atricapillus,  WilsoB.     American  Goshawk. 

This  daring  and  powerful  hawk  is  to  be  found  at  all  seasons  ;  the  old  birds  only 
remain  during  winter,  the  young  retiring  further  south.  The  young  are  so  different 
in  their  plumage  from  the  old  birds,  that  few  would  suspect  their  identity  ;  they  are 
more  bold  and  daring,  much  more  destructive  to  the  poultry  yards  than  the  more 
sly  and  cautious  old  ones — a  peculiarity  not,  however,  confined  to  this  species. 

*AsTUR  CooPERii,  Bonap.     Cooper's  Hawk. 

Not  uncommon.  They  destroy  many  quails,  and  young  grouse,  which,  together 
with  poultry,  constitute  their  principal  fare.  They  construct  their  nests  on  the  topof 
large  trees,  in  the  most  secluded  situations,  and  leave  us  at  the  approach  of  winter. 

*AsTUR  Fuscus,  Gmel.     Slate  colored  Hawk. 

Common.    Nest  here  about  the  middle  of  April. 


343 

ICTiNEA  Plumbea,   Gmel.     Mississippi  Kite. 

I  saw  a  single  specimen  ©f  this  southern  kite  on  Rock  River,  in  this  State,  in  July 
1846.     It  is  occasionally  met  with  ou  the  Mississippi  River. 

*Nauclerus  Furcatus,  Linn.     Swallow  Tailed  Ilawk. 

This  kite  was  numerous  within  ten  miles  of  Racine,  where  they  nested  up  to  the 
yei|r  1848,  since  which  time  they  have  abandoned  this  region.  I  have  not  seen  one 
since  1850.  They  nested  ou  tall  elm  trees  about  the  lOth  of  Juua,  and  left  us  about 
the  1st  of  September. 

*BuTEO  Lagopus,  Wilson.     Rougli  Legged  Falcon. 

Not  numerous.  I  have  repeatedly  seen  this  buzzard  soar  to  great  heights,  not- 
withstanding the  testimony  of  some  ornithologists  to  the  contrary.  They  are  in  the 
habit,  while  in  the  pursuit  of  mice,  frogs,  &c ,  of  balancing  themselves  o*er  marshy 
situations  on  the  prairies.  If  not  successful,  they  sail  off  to  other  more  suitable 
grounds,  and  r«new  the  same  motion.  When  they  espy  Ihe  quariy,  they  dart  di- 
rectly upon  it,  in  the  manner  of  tlie  true  falcon.  Where  there  are  trees,  they  may 
adopt  a  different  mode  of  hunting.    My  observations  apply  to  the  prairies. 

*BuTEO  BoREALis,  Gmel.     Red  tailed  Hawk. 

Common.  They  do  not  remain  with  us  during  severe  winters.  I  have  a  fine 
albino  specimen  of  this  species.  Although  pure  white,  the  irides  were  yellow.  This 
individual  was  knowh  to  inhabit  a  particular  district  in  Huron  Co.,  Ohio,  for  ten 
years.  Although  I  had  offered  a  liberal  reward  for  the  capture  of  the  "  white  hawk," 
it  was  several  years  before  I  succeeded  in  getting  him. 

*BuTKO  VuLGAi^is,  Willougbby.  (?)     Common  Buzzard. 

Not  numerous.  One  of  our  winter  residents.  It  is  now  probable  this  will  prove 
a  new  species,  and  will  be  named  Buteo  Bairdii.     (Hoy.) 

*BuxEO  Penxsylvanicus,  Wilson.     Broad  winged  Buzzard. 
Comnion. 

■*BuTEO  LiNKATUs,  Gmel.     Winter  Buzzard. 

This  noisy  species  is  extremely  numerous.  The  great  number  of  hawks,  of  thig 
and  other  species,  that  are  often  seen  soaring  in  company  during  tine  weather,  about 
the  20th  of  September,  at  which  time  they  are  migrating  south,  is  almost  incredible. 

*CiRcus  Cyaneus,  Linn.     Marsh  Harvier. 

Common.  They  build  their  nests  entirely  of  grasses  (carox,)  placed  on  the  ground 
in  the  middle  of  swampy  marshes.    Neat  about  the  1st  of  June. 

STRIGIN.!^,  (14  species.) 

SuRNiA  FuNEREA,  Gmel.     Hawk-Owl. 
A  few  visit  us  every  winter. 

SuRNiA  Xyctea,  Linn.     Snowy  Owl. 

Numerous  on  the  prairies  from  November  to  March. 

*Scops  Asio,  Linn.     Screech  Owl. 

Common.  In  the  month  of  June  I  caught  four  young  ones  just  as  they  were  about 
leaving  the  nest.  They  were  a  deep  reddish  brown,  in  all  respects  similar  to  the  old 
female  which  I  shot  at  the  time,  and  have  preserved. 


344: 

*Scops  Nevia,  Gmel,    Mottled  Owl. 

Common.  I  am  not  yet  satisfied  that  the  mottled  and  red  owls  are  specifically 
the  same. 

*BuBO  ViRGiNiANUs,  Gmel.     Great  Horned  Owl. 

One  of  our  most  numerous  species.  I  once  put  a  remarkably  large  and  fine  owl 
of  this  species  iuto  the  same  cage  with  the  "  Washington  Eagle,"  previously  men- 
tioned, which  soon  resulted  in  a  contest.  The  moment  a  bird  was  given  to  the  owl, 
the  eagle  demanded  it  iu  liis  usual  peremptory  manner,  which  was  promptly  resisted 
with  so  much  spirit  and  determination,  that  for  a  time  I  was  in  doubt  as  to  the  result; 
but  finally  the  eagle  had  to  stand  aside,  and  witness  the  owl  devour  the  coveted 
morsel.  After  several  similar  contests,  it  was  mutually  settled  that  possession  gave 
an  undisputed  right,  the  owl  not  being  disposed  to  act  on  the  offensive.  I  had  a  fine 
red-shouldered  hawk  in  the  same  aviary,  which  the  owl  killed  and  ate  the  second 
night. 

Bubo  Subarcticus,  Hoy.     White-bellied  Horned  Owl. 

This  winter  visitor  I  consider  closely  allied,  yet  distinct  from  the  common  homed 
owl,  and  as  such  it  is  described  in  the  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  vol.  vi.  page  211.  I  have 
ns  yet  examined  but  three  specimens.  The  specimen  in  the  collection  of  the  Acad- 
emy was  known  to  carry  off  from  one  farm,  in  the  space  of  a  month,  not  less  than 
twenty-seven  individuals  of  various  kinds  of  poultry,  before  it  was  shot. 

SuRNiuM  CiNERECM,  Linn.     Great  Grey  Owl. 

Not  numerous.  I  have  a  fine  male  specimen,  shot  near  Racine,  Jan.  4,  1848.  A 
remarkable  peculiarity  of  this  specimen  was,  that  the  irides  were  brilliant  blood-red, 
I  saw  one  size  carry  off  a  duck  on  Lake  Superior,  near  the  mouth  of  Cerf  river, 
Sept.  1st,  1845. 

*Syrnium  Nebulosum,  Linn.     Barred  Owl. 
Common  in  the  heavy  timbered  districts. 

*0tus  Vulgaris,  And.     Long-eared  Owl. 

More  numerous  iu  the  vicinity  than  any  other  owl.  The  young  leave  the  nest 
about  the  middle  of  June. 

*0tus  Brachyotus,  Linn.     Short-eared  Owl. 

Common  on  the  prairies,  where  they  nest  on  the  ground,  in  the  tall  grass.  The 
young  are  fully  fledged  by  the  second  week  in  June. 

*NycTALE  Acadica,  Gmel.     Acadian  Owl. 
Common. 

Nyctale  Tengmalmi,  Gmel.     

I  procured  a  single  specimen  near  Racine,  Kov.  30th,  1850.  Not  uncommon  on 
the  head  waters  of  the  Wisconsm  river. 

Nyctale  Kirtlandii,  Hoy.     Kirtland's  Owl. 

A  third  species  of  this  genus,  found  here,  and  described  in  the  Proc.  Acad.  Nat, 
Sci.  vol.v'.  page  210. 

Only  two  specimens  have  yet  been  obseryed. 


345 

Strix  Flammea,  Linn.     American  Barn  Owl. 

A  fine  specimen  of  this  handsome  owl  was  obtained  this  spring  by  mj  friend  the 
Rev.  A.  C.  Barry  of  this  city.  It  was  shot  near  this  city,  and  is  the  only  specimen 
•which  has  come  under  my  observation. 

'**'•**'-  CAPRIMULGID.E,  (2  species.) 

*Ant:iostomus  Vociferus,  "Wilson.     Whip  Poor  Will. 

Common.     Arrives  about  the  1st  of  May,  departs  middle  of  September. 

*Chordeiles  Yirginiaxus,  Briss.     Night  Hawk. 

Kumerous.  They  leave  us  by  the  loth  of  September.  On  the  10th  of  this 
month,  1850,  for  two  hours  before  dark,  these  birds  formed  one  continuous  flock, 
moving  south.  They  reminded  me,  by  their  vast  numbers,  of  passenger  pigeons, 
more  than  night  hawks.    Next  day  not  one  was  to  be  seen. 

HIRUXDINID^E,  (6  species.) 

*Progne  Purpurea,  Linn.     Purple  Martin. 
Common. 

*HiRUNDO  Americana,  Wilson.     Barn  Swallo-w. 
Numerous. 

*HiRuxDO  FuLVA,  Vieill.     Cliflf  Swallow. 

A  few  nested,  for  the  first  time,  at  Racine  in  1852.  Numerous  in  many  parts  of 
the  State. 

*HiRUXDO  BicoLOR,  Vieill.     White-bellied  Swallow. 

Not  a  numerous  species  with  us.    Arrives  from  the  1st  to  the  middle  of  April. 

*  Cottle  Riparia,  Linn.     Bank  Swallow. 

This  numerous  species  perforates  the  banks  of  the  lake,  wherever  the  soil  is 
sandy. 

*Chjetura  Pelasgia,  Temm.     Chimney  Swallow. 
Common. 

HALCYONID.E,  (1  species.) 

*Ceryle  Alcvox,  Linn.     King-fisher. 
Common. 

LANIAD.E,  (3  species.) 

*Lanius  Borealis,  Yieill.     Northern  Butcher  Bird. 

This  large  shrike  is  most  numerous  during  fall  and  winter.  A  few,  however 
spend  the  summer  in  the  middle  and  northern  parts  of  this  State.  During  winter 
they  subsist  on  field  mice  (arvicola)  and  small  birds. 

23 


340 

*LaniuS  Ludovicianus,  Linn.?  

I  much  doubt  whether  the  north-western  and  southern  loggerhead  arc  the  same. 
Our  bird  is  smaller  than  the  sonthei  n,  as  described  in  the  ornithological  works,  the 
adult  male  measuring  8 '4  to  12'4;  female  8,' 4  to  IOJ4.  The  nest  and  eggs,  too, 
differ  materially  from  Bachnian's  description,  as  quoted  by  Nuttall,  of  those  of  the 
southern  species.  'Ihe  Wisconsin  bird  constructs  a  compact  nest,  placed  on  the 
lower  branches  of  a  small  tree.  It  is  composed  externally  of  small  sticks  and  rools, 
filled  in  with  strips  of  bark  and  the  lint  of  various  species  of  plants,  and  is  amply 
lined  with  feathers,  which  almost  conceal  the  six  spotted  eggs. 

The  male  assists  in  incubation,  which  is  completed  in  fourteen  days. 

I  once  shot  a  female  just  as  the  pair  had  conmienced  building.  '1  he  male  went 
on  and  completed  the  nestt,  even  to  the  soft  lining  of  feathers,  then  took  his  stand 
on  the  topmost  branch  of  the  same  tree,  and  continued  watcLing  almost  constantly 
for  three  days,  apparently  awaiting  the  return  of  his  mate.  At  the  end  of  that  time 
I  missed  him,  and  supposed  ho  had  abandoned  the  spot;  but  the  second  day  after- 
wards he  returned  with  a  new  bride,  who  appeared  well  satisfied  with  the  waiting 
nest,  and  commenced  laying  immediately. 

They  return  to  a  particular  tree  to  nest  every  year.  This  attachment  is  so  great, 
that  when  the  nest  is  destroyed,  even  after  they  commence  mcubation.  they  not  un- 
frequently  construct  another  on  the  same  tree.  Mice,  young  birds  and  large  insects 
compose  their  fare. 

Numerous  on  the  border  of  the  prairies.     Ai-rive  1st  of  April ;  depart  in  October. 

Lanius  Excubitoroides,  Swains.     


I  shot  a  pair  of  birds  of  this  species  in  March  last  (1853.)  The  female  is  faintly 
marked  on  the  breast  with  pale  brown  undulating  lines.  This  is  undoubtedly  a 
distinct  species. 

MUSCICAPID.E,  (14  species.) 

*TrRANNUs  Intrepidus,  Vieill.     King  Bird. 
Common. 

*Tyrannus  CniNiTuSjLinn.     Great  Crested  King  Bird. 

Not  so  common  as  the  preceding.  Inhabits  the  dark  swampy  woods,  where  the 
havshsqucak  of  this  species  is  frequently  heard. 

*TrRANNULA  Fusca,  Gmcl.     Dusky  Fly-catcher. 
This  familiar  pewee  is  met  with  everywhere. 

*TyRANNULA  ViRENS,  Linn.     Wood  Pewee. 
Common  in  the  deep  s^olitary  woods. 

Tyrannula  Phcebe,  Lath.     Phcebe  Bird. 

I  shot  two  individuals  of  this  species  May  10th,  1848.  Probably  not  very  rare,  but 
impossible  to  distinguish  it  from  the  T.  fusea  without  carefully  com])aring  the 
two. 

*Tyrannula  Acadica,  GmeL     Green-crested  Fly-catcher. 
The  most  numerous  of  the  fly-catchers  in  Wisconsin. 

Tyrannula  Pusilla,  Swains.     

This  species,  so  closely  allied  to  the  preceding,  is  not  nnfrequently  met  with  about 
the  lOth  af  May,  on  its  passage  north. 


34T 

TrRANNUS  CooPERii,  Nutt.     Olive-sided  King  Bird. 

I  have  occasionally  met  with  tins  bird  during  the  latter  part  of  May. 

*Setophaga  Ruticilla,  Linn.     American  Red  Start. 

Numerous.    Arrive  5th  of  May  ;  commence  constructing  their  nests  Ist  ( f  June, 

^Setophaga  Mitrata,  Bonap.     Hooded  Warbler. 

Not  numerous  near  Raciue,  which  may  be  considered  the  northern  limit  of  this 
bird's  summer  migration. 

*Setophaga  Canadensis,  Linn. 

This  interesting  species  is  not  uncommon  with  us. 

Setophaga  Wilsonii,  Bonap. 

Common  from  the  10th  to  the  25th  of  May. 

Setophaga  Minuta,  Wilson. 

Rarely  met  with.    The  only  specimens  I  have,  were  shot  1st  of  June,  1850. 

*CuLicivoRA  Ceruleo,  Linn.     Blue-grey  Gnat-catclier. 
Xot  uncommoE.    Anives  first  of  May. 

VEREONIX.E,  (6  species.) 

*ViREO  Flavifrons,  Vieill.     Yellow-throated  Greenlet. 
Not  uQconmion.     First  appearance  from  10th  to  15th  of  May. 

*ViRE0  SoLiTARius,  Vieill.     Solitary  Greenlet. 

This  is  by  no  means  a  rare  bird  in  Wisconsin  ;  it  frequents  the  most  secluded 
thickets.     Arrives  about  15th  of  May. 

*VlREO  NOVEBORACENSIS,   GlTiel. 

I  have  noticed  but  few  specimens  of  this  species.    Xot  common. 

*ViREO  GiLvus,  Vieill.     Warblinsx  Greenlet. 
This  cheerful  songster  is  rather  common  with  us. 

*ViREO   Olivaceus,  Linn.     Red-eyed  Greenlet. 

By  far  the  most  abundant  of  the  birds  of  this  genus ;  its  sprightly  and  melodioos 
Bong  is  heard  almost  constantly  during  the  summer. 

*IcTERiA  ViRiDis,  Gmel.     Yellow-breasted  Chat. 

A  few  only  arc  ta  be  found  in  the  tangled  thickets  during  the  summer  months. 

MERULID^,  (10  species.) 

MiMus  PoLTGLOTTUS,  Lath.     Common  Mocking  Bird. 

Occasionally  a  straggler  of  this  charming  songster  finds  its  way  as  far  rorth  as 
"Wisconsin.  I  saw  one  between  Racine  and  Kenosha,  July  16ih,  185 Ij  and  a  second 
near  the  State  line,  on  Rock  River,  July  26th,  1646. 


*MiMUS  BuFus,  Linn.     Brown  Thrush. 
Very  abundant. 

*MiMus  FELivox,  Bonap.     Cat  Bird. 
Common. 

*TuRDus  MiGRATORius,  Linn.     Robin. 

Abundant.     Arrives niiddlo  of  .March,  leaves  first  of  November. 

*TuRDUS  MusTELiNus,  GmcL     Wood  Thnish. 

Common.  Wishing  to  add  to  my  collec:  ion  a  pair  of  this  species,  together  with 
their  nest  and  egp,-s,  1  shot  the  female,  and  was  about  to  secure  the  nest,  when  the 
male,  whicJi  had  been  watching  me  in  the  vicinity,  commenced  singing ;  and,  as  I 
approached  the  spot  he  glided  off  still  farther  fruiii  the  nest,  all  the  time  pouring 
forth  the  most  mellow  and  plaintive  strains  I  ever  before  heard  uttered  by  this  most 
melodious  of  songsters.  After  I  had  been  enticed  to  a  considerable  distance,  he  re- 
turned to  the  vicinity  of  the  nest ;  three  or  four  times  I  followed  this  bird  in  the  same 
manner  before  I  succeeded  in  shooting  him.  This  movement,  and  the  effectof  his 
tender  song,  !^o  far  enlisted  ray  sympathies  that  I  regretted  exceedingly  my  criieltT 
in  destroying  his  nest  and  mate.  It  is  common  for  l)irdsto  resort  to  various  strata'- 
gems  for  the  purpose  of  attracting  intruders  from  their  nests,  but  this  is  the  only  in- 
stance Vv^ith  which  I  am  acquainted  where  ihe  charms  of  their  music  were  employed 
for  this  object. 

TuRDUs  SoLiTARius,  Wilsou.  (?)  Hermit  Thrush. 

Numerous  during  spring  and  fall. 

Is  our  bird,  which  retires  further  north  to  bleed,  the  same  that  nests  in  tho  South- 
ern Stutes  ? 

*TuRDUs  WiLSOxii,  Bonap.     Wilson's  Thrush. 
Common.    Nests  1st  of  June. 

*Seiurus  Noveboracexsis,  GmeL     New  York  Water  Thrush. 

Abundant  in  spring  and  fall.  A  few  nest  in  dark  and  gloomy  swamps.  Their 
song  is  sweet,  a  mixture  between  the  Warbler's  merry  ditty,  and  the  more  mellow 
strains  of  the  Thrush. 

*Seiurus  AurocapilluSj  Wilson.     Oven  Bird. 
Common. 

Anthus  Ludoviciax'us,  Lichst.     American  Titlark. 
Abundant  on  the  prairies  in  spring  and  fall. 

SYL VIABLE,  (36  species.) 

Sylvicola  Coroxata,  Wilson.     Myrtle  Bird. 

Numerous.  The  first  warbler  that  arrives  in'the  spring — 1st  of  April ;  they  all  go 
north  by  the  third  of  May ;  in  the  fall  they  linger  with  us  until  November. 

SrLVicoLA  Petechia,  Lath.     Red-poll  Warbler. 

Very  numerous,  especially  in  the  fall,  when  thousands  may  be  seen  any  day  on 
the  prairies — running  along  the  fences — flitting  from  stalk  to  stalk  in  the  corn- 
field— all  the  time  wagging  their  tails  in  the  manner  of  the  Titlaik  and  Aqutic- 
Thrush,  which  they  closely  resemble  in  habits. 


349 


*Sylvicola  ^^stiv^a,  Gmel.     Summer  YelloAv  Bird. 
Abundant. 

Sylvicola  Maculosa,  Lath.     Spotted  Warbler. 
Numerous  from  the  5th  to  27th  of  Ma  j, 

SzLvicoLA  Flavicollts,  Wilson.     ■ 


I  shot  a  single  individual  of  this  species  near  Racine,  Juue  20th,  1848. 

*SyLvicoLA  ViRENS.  Latli.     Black-throated  Green  Warbler. 

Common.  A  few  nest  \vith  us.  The  old  males  arrive  5th  of  Maj,  young  males 
and  females  about  the  10th  of  the  same  month. 

*Sylvicola  Blackburni.«,  Lath.     Blackbixrnian  Warbler. 

One  of  the  most  numsrous  warblers  from  the  5th  to  the  20th  of  May.  The  old 
males  precede  the  females  about  a  week.  The  first  arrivals  of  this  species,  as  well 
as  all  others,  are  in  the  Muest  plumage.    A  few  nest  with  us. 

SrivicoLA  KiRTLANDii,  Baird.     Kirtland's  Warbler. 

I  met  0B8  single  individual  of  this  r-,cently  discovered  species,  at  Racine,  May 
20th,  1853. 

*Sylvicola  Icterocephala,  Lath.     Chestnut-sided  Warbler. 

This  beautiful  little  warbler  is  extremely  abundant.  It  prefers  localities  with  a 
dense  under-brush,  especially  hazel,  thinly  covered  with  trees.  In  such  situations  it 
is  not  uncommon  to  hear  the  songs  uf  a  dozen  males  at  the  same  time.  They  con- 
struct a  nest  of  blades  of  grass  and  thin  strips  of  bark  intermingled  with  caterpil- 
lars' web,  fixed  in  a  low  bush,  (generally  hazel,)  seldom  more  than  two  or  three  feet 
from  the  ground  ;  the  eggs,  4  or  5  in  number,  closely  resemble  those  of  S.  osstiva. 
But  one  brood  is  raised  m  a  season — nest  from  the  10th  to  the  15th  of  June.  If  the 
nest  be  approached  when  the  female  is  in  it,  she  will  drop  to  the  ground  and  hobble 
along  with  one  wing  dragging,  uttering  at  the  same  time  a  peeping  note  of  distress. 

I  once  caught  a  young  bird  of  this  species  that  had  just  left  the  nest;  the  parent 
birds,  in  their  alarm  for  its  safety,  approached  so  near  to  me  that  I  caught  the  male 
in  my  hand.  I  let  them  both  go,  upon  which,  the  joy  of  the  old  bird  appearded  to 
be  greater  for  the  escape  of  the  young  fledgling  than  for  Ids  own  release. 

Sylvicola  Castaxea,  AVilson. 

Arrives  in  large  numbers  about  the  10th  of  May ;  all  gone  north  by  the  25th. 

SrLVicoLA  Striata,  Lath.     Black -poll  Warbler. 

Equally  numerous  with  the  preceding ;  the  two  species  arrive  and  depart  in  com- 
pany. 

Stlvicola  Pinus,  Lath.     Pine  Warbler. 

Not  a  numerous  species  with  us.    Nest  in  the  northern  pine  forests. 

Sylvicola  Discolor,  Vieill.     Prairie  Warbler 

A  few  are  occasionally  seen  about  the  middle  of  May.    Rare  in  Wisconsin. 


350 

*SrLVicoLA  Americana,  Lath.     Yellow-tbroated  Black  Warbler. 

Common.  The  beautiful  pensile  nest  of  this  bird  has  never,  to  my  knowledge, 
been  discribed.  Audubon  undoubtedly  eired  iu  atti'ibuting  the  ne-st  described  by 
him  to  this  species  Tliat  presented  by  me  to  tlie  collection  of  the  Academy,  is 
formed  by  interlacing  and  sewing  togetuer,  with  a  few  blades  of  grass,  the  pendant 
lichen  (Usnea  barbata)  whioli  grew  u^pon  a  dead  hcrizontal  branch  of  an  oak, 
fifty  or  sixty  feet  from  the  ground.  A  hole,  just  huge  enough  for  the  bird  to  enter,  is 
left  in  the  angle  immediately  umler  the  branch,  wiiio.h  forms  a  complete  roof  for  the 
nest ;  it  is  finished  with  a  shght  lining  of  hair.  The  whole  forms  a  beautiful  bas- 
ket of  moss,  which  is  s  >  admirably  ad.ipteti  to  the  purpose  intended,  so  effectually 
concealed,  so  light  and  airy,  that  it  would  be  almost  impossible  to  suggest  an 
improvement,  and  is  certainly  one  of  the  most  interesting  specimens  of  ornitholo- 
gical architecture.  Ths  eggs,  four  or  five  in  number,  are  white,  with  a  band  of  light 
brown  spots  near  the  greater  end  ;  they  measure  5  by  7}^  lines  iu  diameter.  The 
youngleave  the  nest  about  the  first  week  in  July. 

Stlvicola  Canadensis,  Linn.     Spotted  Canada  Warbler. 

Abundant  from  the  5th  to  25th  of  May,  and  again  from  the  1st  to  20th  of  October. 

SrLvicoLA  Formosa,  Bonap.     Kentucky  Warbler. 
Rare.    Shot  one  near  Racine,  May  lOth,  1851. 

*SrLvicoLA  CcERULEA,  Wilson.     Blue-grey  Warbler. 
Not  common.    A  few  nest  with  us. 

Stlvicola  Maritim A,  Wilson.     Cape  May  Warbler. 

By  no  means  a  rare  bird  during  the  month  of  Maj'.  It  frequents  the  vicinity  of 
streams  and  swamps  that  abound  with  tall  willows,  in  the  tops  of  which  this  inter- 
esting warbler  is  commonly  seen  flitting  about,  busily  saarching  for  insects  and  their 
larvse.    It  is  probable  that  a  few  nest  in  this  vicinity. 

*Teichas  Marylandica,  Wilson.     Yellow  Throat. 

Common.  • 

Trichas  Agilis,  Wilson. 

Not  uncommon.  I  shot  a  pair  on  the  23th  of  May  ;  they  had  mated,  and  were 
about  to  nest. 

Teichas  Philidelphia,  Wilson.     Mourning  Warbler. 
Rarely  seen.    Shot  one  May  10th,  1851. 

*Vermivora  Pennstlvanica,  Svrain.     Worm-eating  Warbler. 
A  few  nest  in  this  section.     Rare. 


*Vermivora  Chrtsoptera,  Linn.     Golden  winged  Warbler. 
Not  uncommon.    Nests  with  us. 


'O 


YiaiMivoRA  RuBRicAPiLLA,  Wilson.     Nashville  Warbler. 

Common  for  two  weeks  in  May  on  tlieir  passage  north ;  they  return  in  October, 
at  which  time  the  male  is  without  the  chestnut  crown. 

*Vermivora  Celata,  Say.     Orange-crowned  Warbler. 

Not  an  uncommon  species.  Frequent  the  most  secluded  swamps,  where  they  nest. 


351 
Yermivora  Perkgrina,  Wilson.     Tennessee  Warbler. 

Some  seasons,  about  the  middle  of  May,  this  plain  bird  is  met  with  in  great  abund- 
ance. This  was  particularlj  the  case  May  14th,  15th  aiij  16th,  1349,  when  I  could 
have  procured  any  desired  number  ;  tliey  literally  thronged  on  the  tops  of  the  bush 
oaks  in  an  adjoining  grove.  For  the  last  two  years  I  have  not  procured  a  single 
specimen. 

*Mniotilta  Yaria,  Yieill.     Yaried  Creeping  Warbler. 
Common. 

Mniotilta  Borealis,  Nutt.?     

I  have  met  with  specimens  that  answered  to  2f  uttall's  description,  yet  I  am  inclined 
to  consider  it  a  variety  of  the  preceding. 

In  order  to  give  some  idea  of  tlic  abundance  and  great  variety  of  the  warblers 
which  visit  us,  I  append  a  list  shot  in  the  forenoon  of  May  5th,  1852,  by  Rav.  A.  0. 
Barry  and  myself: 

6  Sylvicola  Americana,  1  Sylvicola  .Tstiva, 


1 

'          pin  us 

4 

ti 

canadensis. 

1 

'          striata, 

1 

iC 

petechia. 

5 

'           icterocephala. 

4 

« 

maritima, 

4 

virens, 

1 

it 

Setophagia  canadensis. 

6 

•          Blackburnia, 

2 

Verniivora  rubricapilla. 

5 

'           maculosa. 

(•' 

Trichas  marylandica, 

1 

'          coronata, 

3 

a 

Mniotilta  varia. 

47 

All,  except  three,  males  in  unusually  fine  plumage,  the  females  not  having  yet 
.•irrived. 

We  could  have  obtained  many  irorc  of  most  of  the  species,  had  it  been  desirable. 

*Troglodvtes  ^dox,  Yieill.     House  Wren.  ' 

Common.    First  appearance  15th  of  Ajjril. 

*Troglodytes  Hyemalis,  Yieill.     Winter  Wren. 

Common.    Nest  in  abundance  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior. 

*Troglodttes  Brevirostris  Nutt-     Short-billed  Wren. 
A  few  nest  in  the  vicinity  of  Racine.    Not  abundant. 

*  Troglodytes  Palitstris,  W^ilson.     Marsli  Wren. 
Abundant  on  all  reedy  flats. 

Troglodytes  Ludovicianus,  Bonap.     Mocking  Wren. 

I  met  a  single  wren  of  this  species,  July  5th,  1852.    Undoubtedly  nests  sparingly 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  State.     Rare. 

Rkgulus  Calendula,  Linn.     Rtiby-crowned  Kinglet. 
Abundant  spring  and  fall. 

Regulus  Satrapa,  Liclist.     Goldeu-crested  Kinglet. 

Abundant.    Arrives  1st  of  April,  and  remains  until  May  10th. 


352 

SiALiA  WiLSONii,  Swains.  Blue  Bird. 

The  first  arrival  of  this  harbinger  of  sprhig  at  Racine,  was — 

In  ISIG,  -  -  March  25th. 

"   1847,  -  -  "      iillth. 

"   1848,  -  -  "      17th. 

"   1849,  -  -  "      11th. 

"    1850,  -  -  "21st. 

'•  1851,  -  -  "      l.')th. 

"   1S52,  -  -  "      12th. 

CERTHIAD.^,  (6  species.) 

*Certiiia  Americana,  Bonap.     Brown  Creeper. 
Common  throughout  the  year. 

*SiTTA  Carolinen.sis,  Linn.     White-breasted  Nuthatch. 
Common,  remains  during  the  winter. 

*SiTTA  Canadensis,  Linn.     Red-bellied  Nuthatch. 

This  species  does  not  remain  with  us  during  winter.     A  few  nest  near  Racine,  a 
greater  number  in  the  pine  regions  in  the  northern  part  of  the  State. 

*Pards  Atricapillus,  Linn.     Black-cap  Tit. 
Abundant,  remain  during  winter. 

Parus  Hudsonicus,  Lath.     ■ 


A  small  party  of  this  northern  species  visited  Racine  during  the  unusually  cold 
Januajy  of  1852. 

AMPELID^E,  (2  species.) 

BoMBTCiLLA  Garrula,  VieiU.     Black-throated  Waxwing. 

Arrives  in  large  parties  from  the  first  to  the  last  of  November,  and  leaves  by  the 
15th  April.  The  first  arrivals  are  all  young  birds,  destitute  of  the  yellow  markings 
on  the  wing,  and  with  less  of  the  wax-like  appendages.  These  young  birds  gene- 
rally proceed  further  south  to  winter,  while  the  old  birds,  in  perfect  plumage,  arrive 
later,  and  seldom,  if  ever,  go  further.  I  never  have  seen  an  individual  entirely  des- 
titute of  wax  ornaments.  The  only  perceptible  diiference  between  the  sexes  is  in 
size,  the  females  being  slightly  the  larger.  lu  fifty  specimens  accurately  measured 
the  average  was  : 

Females,        -  -  -        8  5-12—W4 

Males,  -  -  -        82-12—1334 

They  are  unsuspicious,  permitting  a  near  approach.  Their  fare  consists  of  a  vari- 
ety of  berries,  but  those  of  the  moantain  ash,  {Pyus  Americana,)  appear  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  all  others.     They  are  frequently  seen  to  eat  snow  as  a  substitute  for  drink. 

*Bombycilla  Americana,  Swain.     Cedar  Bird. 
Common,  does  not  remain  during  winter. 

ALAUDINtE,  (2  species.) 

*Otocoris  Alpestkis,  Linn.     Horned  Lark. 

Abundant  on  the  prairies.    A  few  remain  during  the  entire  winter. 


353 

*Otocoris'Rufa,  Aud.  \ 

Not  an  abundant  species  wlj  us  ;  becomes  more'ntanerbus  as  you  go  vest 

FEINGIILID^,  (33  species.) 

Plectrophanes  Nivalis,  Lim.    White  Snow  Bird. 
Abundant  from  November  to  ^pril. 

Plectrophanes  Lapponica,  i/ln.     Lapland  Snow  Bird. 

Met  witli  in  great  abundanccon  the  prairies,  from  the  middle  of  October  to  tlie 
middle  of  Aiay,  Before  they  lave  us  in  the  spring  they  are  in  full  eorig  and  per- 
fect plumage.  They  sing  in  concert  like  blackbirds,  either  •while  on  the  wing  or 
settled  on  lences. 

Plectrophanes  Smithii,  Aud.    


Occasionally  met  with  in  cousicerable  numbers  on  the  prairies. 

*ZoNOTRiCHiA  Iliaca,  Bonap.     Fox-colored  Sparrow. 
Common  during  October  and  April. 

*ZoxoTRicHiA  M^LODiA,  Wilsof..    Song  Sparrow. 
Common. 

ZoxoTRiCHiA  Pennsylv.-^-ica,  Latli.     White-throated  Sparrow. 
Abundant  during  spring  and  fall. 

*ZoNOTRicHiA  Leucophrys,  t^el.     White-crowned  Sparrow. 

Met  with  in  great  abundance  iii^ompany  -with  the  preceding.    A  few  nest  in  the 
vicinity. 

ZoNOTRiCHiA  Graminea,  Ginel.    Bay-vino-ed  Sparrow. 
Occasionally  seen,  but  rare. 

*ZoxoTRicHiA  Passerina,  Wilson.    Yellow-Wriged  Bunting. 
Not  uncommon  in  the  reedy  slews  on  the  prairiei. 

*ZoNOTRiCHiA  PusiLLA,  Wilsou.     Field  Bunting. 
Not  an  abundant  species  with  us. 

*ZoNOTRicHiA  SociALis,  Wilson,     Chip  Bird. 
Common,  arrive  1st  of  May. 

ZoNOTRicHiA  Pallida,  Swain?.     

Not  unfrequently  met  with  about  the  middle  of  May. 

ZoKOTRicHiA  Canadensis,  Lath.     Tree  Bunting. 

Very  numerous  autumn  and  spring,  but  few  remain  through  the  w'nt«r. 

*ZoNOTRicHiA  Savanna,  Bocap.     Savanna  Bunting. 
Common  on  high  prairies. 


354 

■*ZoNOTRicHiA  LiNcoLNii,  Aud.     Blue  Stripe(fi^unting. 

Not  uncommon  spring  and  fall.     A  few  reniai/duiing  summer,  aud  nest  vritli  us. 

*NiPHEA  Hyemalis,  Linn.     Snow  Bird.         I 

Common  spring  aad  autumn.     Do  not  remaialirougb  the  ■winter.    Nest  on  Lake 
Superior.  ] 

*Ammodromus  Palustris,  Wilson.     Swamp  Finch. 
Common. 

LiNARiA  Minor,  Aud.     Lesser  Red-poll. 
Abundant  every  winter. 

LiNARiA  BoREALis,  Teium,     Mealj  Red-pollJ 

The  onlj  time  I  «ver  met  with  this  bird  wai  in  December,  1850. 

*Chbysomitris  Trtstis,  Linn.     Yellow  Bird 
Common,  •        | 

^Chrysomitris  Pinus,  Wilson.     Pine  Finch. 
Abundant. 

*Chondestes  Grammacea,  Say.    

Common.  ,  Frequently  met  with  in  the  roads,  exi'-^nding  and  closing  their  fan- 
like tails  at  every  hop.  "  One  of  the  most  agreeablcsiuging  birds.  Their  song  is  a 
singular  combination  of  the  Thrush,  Finch,  and^'ohe-Buntmg.  They  build  their 
nest  in  the  open  field  or  high  prairie,  under  thc/i'^^tection  of  a  weed  or  small  shrub  ; 
it  is  constructed  externally  of  fine  grass  place'  i"  ^  slight  excavation  in  the  ground, 
and  finished  with  a  lining  of  hnir.  The  e>S^>  f*^^'"'  ^^e  bluish-white,  marked  with 
straggling  hair  streaks  and  serpentine  lin^  °^  dark-brown,  closely  resembling  those 
of  the  orchard  Oriole,  but  less  pointed 

*EuspizA  Americana,  Grael.     BKl^'^^roated  Bunting. 
Not  uncommon. 

*Spiza  Cyanea,  Wilson,    -^digo  Bird. 
Common. 

*PiPiLO  ERYTHROpi^'rHALMA,  Wilson.     Ground  Robin. 
Abundant. 

*Carpoda^"s  Purpureus,  Gmel.    Crested  Purple  Finch. 

Common  during  spring  and  fall.  A  few  nest  with  us,  many  more  on  the  shores 
oi  Lake  Superior. 

Corythus  Enucleator,  Wilson.     Pine  Bull  Finch. 
Numerous  during  severe  winters. 

*LoxiA  CuRviROSTEA,  Linn.  American  Cross-bill. 

Abundant  in  the  pine  forests.  Large  flocks  occasionally  visit  our  vicinity  during 
fall  and  winter,  feeding  on  the  seed  of  the  sunflower  {Hclianlhm  annuus.) 


355 

\ 
LoxiA  Leucoptera,  Gmel.     White  Winged  Crossbill. 
Occasionally  visit  us — not  common. 

^PiTVLUs  Cardinaus,  Linn,     Cardinal  Grosbeak. 
A  few  stragglers  nest  with  us — rare. 

*CocoBORus  LuDoviciANus,  Wilsoii.     Rose-breastcd  Grosbeak. 
Common.    Arrive  1st  of  May. 

CocoBORUS  Vespertinus,  Cooper.     Evening  Grosbeak.  ' 

Not  an  uncommon  bird.  During  winter  and  spring  they  frequent  the  maple 
woods,  feeding  on  the  seed  of  the  sugar  raaple  {Acer  saccfiariman,)  in  quest  of 
which  they  spend  much  time  on  the  ground.  I  liave  noticed  this  bird  as  late  as  the 
15th  of  May,  In  all  probability  they  nest  within  the  State.  Unsuspicious,  ea,sily 
approached.     Thsir  song  lacks  the  melody  of  our  other  species  of  Grosbeaks. 

'*Pyranga  Rubra,  Wilson.     Black-winged  Red  Bird. 
Common. 

STURNID^,  (10  species.) 

*Stcrnella  Ludoviciana,  Linn.     Meadow  Lark. 
Common,  but  docs  remain  during  winter. 

*Sturnella  Neglecta,  Aud. 

A  few  visit  the  Lake  shore  in  early  winter,  wo  liave  a  .specimen  examined  by  Prof 
Baird  and  pronounced  to  be  undoubtedly  this  species;  it  was  shot  on  the24tUof 
December,  when  the  preceding  were  all  gone. 

*Yphante3  Baltimore,  Linn.     Golden  Oriole, 
Abundant. 

Yphantes  Spurius,  Gmel.     Orchard  Oriole. 
Common. 

*DoLicHONYx  Oryziyora,  Linn.     Bob  o'link,  or  Rice  Bird. 

Abundant. 

MoLOTHRus  Pecoris,  WilsoD.     Cow  Bunting. 

Common.  I  found  the  egg  of  this  bird,  in  one  instance,  in  the  nest  of  the  Red- 
winged  Blackbird. 

*Agelaius  Xanthocephalus,  Bonap.     Yellow-headed  Troopial. 

A  few  nest  within  fifteen  miles  of  Racine,  in  an  extensive  marsh.  Seldom  visit 
the  lake  shore. 

*Agelaics  Ph(eniceus,  Linn.     Red-winged  Blackbird. 
Abundant  every  where. 

*ScOLECOPHAGUs  Ferrugineus,  Lath.     Rusty  Blackbird. 

Common  fall  and  spring.    Arrive  15th  of  March.    A  few  remain  during  summer. 


35G 

*QuiscAi,tjs  Versicolor,  Vieill.     Common  Crow  Blackbird. 
Coinmon. 

CORVID.^,  (5  species.) 

*Cyanocorax  Cristatus,  Linn.     Blue  Jay. 
Common  through  the  year. 

OzANCcoRAX  Canadensis,  Linn.     Canada  Jay. 

Occasionallj,  during  severe  winters,  visit  the  A^icioity  of  Racine. 

Pica  IHelanoleuca,  Aud.    Magpie. 

'Occasionally  a  straggler  visits  lis.  Two  were  shot  in  Caledonia,  ten  miles  from 
Rax-iue.  December,  1848.  A  genlleman  of  this  city  obtained  one  at  Bailies  Harbor, 
on  Laiie  Michigan,  November  15,*  1849. 

*CoR\'us  Americands,  Aud.     Common  Crow. 

A  singular  fact  in  relation  to  the  Crow  is,  that  it  never  takes  up  its  quarters  with- 
in fifteen  or  twenty  miles  of  Lake  Michigan,  within  this  State.  At  Racine  it  may 
b(!  considered  one  of  the  rarest  birds. 

*CoRrus  CoRAx,  Linn.     Raven. 

More  numerous  than  the  preceding.     Remain  through  the  winter, 
f 

TPtOCHILDyE,  (1  species.) 

*Trochiltts  Colxjbris,  Linn.     Hnmminof  Bird. 
Common. 

PICID^E,  (9  species.) 

*Picus  PiLEATus,  Linn.     Crested  Woodpecker. 
Common  in  heavy  timber  districts. 

Dendrocopds  Canadensis,  Grael. 

Occasionally  met  with  during  winter— rare. 

*Dendrocopus  Villosus,  Linn. 
Abundant  through  the  j-ear. 

*Dendrocopus  Pubescens,  Linn.     Downey  Woodpecker. 
Common — remain  during  winter. 


•^& 


*Dendrocopus  Varius,  Linn.     Yellow-bellied  Woodpecker. 

Common.  Leave  us  1st  of  November,  arrive  15th  April.  This  Woodpecker  visits 
the  orchards  during  September  and  October,  to  feed  upon  the  inner  bark  of  the 
peach  and  cherry,  girdling  the  stems  so  effectually  as  not  unfrequently  to  kill  the 
trees.  I  have  watched  them  while  thus  engaged  in  my  own  garden,  and  have  care- 
lully  examined,  under  a  microscope,  the  contents  of  the  stomachs  of  numerous- 
specimens. 


357 

*Melanerpe3  Erythrocepiialcs,  Linn.     Red-headed  Woodpecker. 
Common,  migratory. 

Apternus  Arcticus,  Swaius.     Arctic  "Woodpecker. 

I  have  specimens  of  this  Woodpecker  shot  near  Racine  in  the  month  of  Novem- 
ber. 

*CoLAPTES  AuRATUS,  Linn.     Golden- -winged  Woodpecker. 
Common. 

*Centurus  Carolinus,  Linn.     Red-bellied  \Voodpecker. 

Not  an  abundant  species  with  us.     They  remain  during  winter. 

CUCULID.E,  (2  species.) 

*CoccTzc3  Americanus,  Linn.    Yellow-billed  Cuckoo. 
Not  so  numerous  as  the  folloTving. 

*CocCYZus  ERYTHROPHTHALiius,  Wilson.     Black-biUed  Cuckoo. 
Abundant. 

PISTTACID.E,  (1  species.) 

•r 

CoxuRUS  Carolisensis,  Linn.     Paraket. 

Formerly  Parakets  veer  ecommon  on  the  Mississippi,  within  this  State,  latterly  they 
are  seldom  met  with. 

COLUMBID.^,  (2  species.) 

*EcTOPiSTES  migratoria,  Linn.     Wild  Pigeon. 
Abundant. 

*EcT0PisTES  Caholixexsis,  Linn.    Turtle  Dove. 
Common.     Keniain  during  winter. 

PAVONID.E,  (1  species.) 

*Meleagri3  Gallopayo,  Linn.     Wild  Turkey. 

Formerly  Turkeys  were  common  in  this  section,  but  now  none  are  to  be  found. — 
The  last  noticed  near  Racine  was  ia  November,  1846.  Abundant  in  the  south-west- 
ern countries. 

TETRAOXID.-E,  (6  species.) 

*Ortyx  Vikginiana,  Linn.     Quail. 

Within  a  few  years  this  Partridge  has  become  remarkably  numerous. 

*Bonasa  Umbellus,  Linn.     Partridge. 
Common  in  all  the  timber  districts. 


358 

*Tetrao  Canadensis  Linn.     Spruce  Grouse. 

Common  on  the  bead  waters  of  Wolf  River  and  vicinity  of  Lake  Superior. 

*Tetrao  Cupido,  Linn.     Prairie  Hen. 

Greatly  abundant.  Two  sportsmen,  with  one  dog,  generally  bag  from  fifty  to 
eighty  in  a  day.  We  challenge  tlie  world  for  finer  sporting  grounds  than  the  prai- 
ries of  Wisconsin  furnish  during  August,  September  and  October. 

*Tetrao  PnAsiANELLis.  Linn.     Sharp-tailed  Grouse. 

Formerly  quite  common  near  Racine — now  seldom  met  with.  Abundant  in  all 
the  north-western  counties. 

*Laqopus  Saliceti,  Swains.     Willow  Grouse. 

In  December,  1843,  two  specimens  were  caught  in  a  trap  ten  miles  from  Racine. 
Nest  in  the  tangle  of  evergreen  swamps  of  the  north-western  parts  of  the  State. — 
Not  numerous. 

RALLID^,  (6  species.) 

*Gallinula  Galeata,  Lich.     Florida  Gallinule. 

Abundant  as  far  north  as  Lake  Winnebago,  latitude  44°" 

*FuLiCA  Americana,  Gniel.    American  Coot. 
Common  in  all  large  marshes. 

*Rallus  Elegans,  Aud.     Meadow  Hen. 

Abundant,  nest  in  the  praii  ie  alewn.  * 

*Rallus  Virginianus,  Linn.     Mud  Hen. 
Common. 

*Ortygometra  Carolina,  Linn.     Sora  Rail. 

Greatly  abundant  spring  aud  fall ;  a  few  remain  during  summer  to  nest. 

*Ortygometra  Noveboracensis,  Lath.     New  York  Rail. 

By  no  means  uncommon.  The  young  of  this  and  the  preceding  three  species  of 
Rail,  are  fully  fledged  by  the  15th  of  August. 

GRUID^,  (10  species.) 

Grus  Ameircana,  Forster.     American  Crane. 

A  few  white  sand-hill  cranes  are  occasionally  seen  in  the  western  part  of  the  State, 
near  the  Mississippi,  but  never  approach  the  Lake  shores,  where  the  following  spe- 
cies is  common.  It  would  appear  that  the  white  is  a  more  southern  species  than  the 
brown. 

*Grus  Canadensis,  Temm.     Brown  Sand-hill  Crane. 

Found  on  all  our  large  prairies.  .  Although  we  have  seen  large  flights  of  these 
birds,  we  never  saw,  or  heard  of,  a  white  individual  within  one  hundred  miles  of 
Lake  Michigan.  A  pair  has  nested  regularly  for  fifteen  years  in  a  swamp  nine  miles 
from  Racine,  (we  have  noticed  them  ourselves  regularly  for  the  last  seven  years,) 
and  they  still  continue  in  color  unchanged.  The  locality  of  this  nest  is  in  a  few  tus- 
socks of  grass,  in  the  midst  of  an  almost  impenetrable  swamp,  the  nest  is  composed 
of  ciiarse  grass,  built  up  in  a  conical  form  eighteen  inches  or  two  feet  high,  so  sit;ia- 
ted  t'.hat  when  the  parent  bird  sits  upon,  or  rather  astride  of  this  pyramidal  nest,  her 
feet  hang  down  on  either  side  into  the  water.  The  old  nest  is  regularly  repaired 
every  spring. 


359 

Tantalus  LocuAtor,  Linn. 

There  is  a'ne  specimen  of  tlii?  soutlern  bird  in  the  museum  of  the  'WiscoDBin 
State  Histoycal  Society,  at  Madtson,  which  was  shot  uear  Milwaukee,  Sept.  1852, 

*Ardea  Heiodias,  Linn,     Gieat  Blue  Heron. 

A  common  species. 

i 

*Akdea  V.'Rkscens,  Linn.    Green  Heron. 

NoUincommon  in  the  woded  swamps  of  the  timbered  districts,  never  met  with 
in  theprairie  marshes. 

*r;0TAusu3  LENTiaiNOsus  Swalns.     American  Bittern, 

ibundant  in  the  marsies  and  slews  of  the  prairies.  The  young  are  fully  fledged 
bi*  the  20th  July.  Weaave  witnessed  the  bittern  emit  his  peculiar  call,  "pump-au- 
sdh  ;  "  the  head  is  dj-arn  up  to  the  breast,  xhe  neck  being  much  dilated,  when  the 
nrst  syllable  pump  is  utercd  in  a  heavy  low  tone,  the  second  syllable  au  is  emitted 
with  .-i  partial  extonsia  of  the  neck,  aud  the  final  ^«A  is  accompanied  with  a  violent 
darling  forward  of  thchead  to  the  full  extent  of  his  long  neck.  This  ludicrous  per- 
formance is  repeated  hree  or  four  times  in  succession. 

*Ardeola  Exilis,  Bmap.     Small  Bittern. 

Abundant  on  thrreedy  marshes,  never  found  in  the  dark,  shaded,  woody  smamps. 

Eqbbtta  Leuce,  Jadins.     Great  White  Heron. 
A  single  indiviual  shot  near  Racine,  June,  1851. 

*Egretta  Candijissima,  Gmel.     "Wblte-crested  Heron. 

Not  an  uncrnmon  species  along  the  borders  of  small  lakes.     Nest  in  communi- 
ties, on  trees  ii  Tamarack  swamps. 

Egretta  CAEuaLEA,  Jartl.     Blue  Heron. 

Shot  one  iugust  28th,  1348,  on  Root  River. 

CHARADRIAD^.  (6  species.) 

Charadrius  Marmoratus,  Wagler.     Golden  Plover. 
Visit  is  in  great  numbers  spring  and  fall. 

CnARADRias  Melodius,  Ord.     Piping  Plover. 

Occasionally  met  with  in  the  fall,  not  numerous. 

*CiiARiDRius  Vociferus,  Linn.     Kill-deer  Plover. 
Common,  arrive  from  18th  to  25th  of  March. 

Charadrius  Semipalmatds,  Bonap.     American  Ring  Plover. 
A  few  only  met  in  May  and  October.     Rare. 

Cii.^RADRius  Helveticus,  Linn.     Whistling  Plover. 
Not  abundant,  April,  May  and  September. 

Strhpsilas  IkterpreSj  Linn,     Turnstone, 
Common,  spring  and  autumn. 


\ 


360  •  <•• 

SCOLOPACDJ^,  (21  species.) 

Tkinoa  Alpinl-3,  Linn.     Black-breasted  Sand  Piper. 

Only  met  with  sparingly,  April  and  October.  V 

Tkikoa  Shinzii,  Brehra.     Scliiutz's  Sand  Pipe!, 
A  rare  species  with  us,  spring  and  fall. 

Tkhtga  Pectoralis,  Bonap.     Pectoral  Sand  Pipe\ 
We  have  only  noticed  thia  species  in  autumn. 

Tkotoa  Rufescbns,  Yieill.      Rough -breasted  Saad  Viper.  ^' 

Quite  commoa  from  September  15tb  to  October  lOtU    Never  met  in  the  tWng 

Tketga  Maritime,  Bninnich.  •  Purple  Sand  Piper. 

Greatly  abundant  from  15th  of  April  to  20th  of  May, 

Tjrixga  Minuta,  ( ?J  Leister. 

JN"ot  common.    A  few  found  on  the  borders  of  small  lak 

•Teinga  Pusilla,  Wils.     Wilson's  Sand  Piper. 
Common.    Nest  in  the  reedy  marshes. 

Tbisga  Cinerea,  Wils.     Red-breasted  Sand  Piper. 
We  have  only  met  this  bird  in  October.    Rare. 

Tbixga  Semipalmata,  Wils.     Semipal mated  Sand  Piper. 
Shot  several  October  1st,  1850.    Eare. 

Trikga  Douglasii,  Swains.     Long-legged  Sand  Piper.  'v 

Shot  two  April  10th,  1843.     Rare.  A 

CA1.IDRI3  Arenaria,  Illiger,      Sanderlino-.  \ 

Common  on  the  Lake  Shore  spring  and  fall.  ' 

ToTAsus  Semipalmatcs,  Lath,     Willot. 

We  hare  met  this  species  as  late  as  the  10th  of  June.    Xot  numeroua 

ToTAKirs  VociFERUS,  Wils.     Varied  Tatler. 
Abundant.    Nest  in  all  large  marshes. 

*ToiAirus  Flavipes,  Lath.    Yellow  Lesrs. 
Common. 

*ToTAWU3  SoLiTARius,  Wilsou.    Solitary  Tatler. 
ITot  uncommon. 

•ToTANtrs  Macularius,  Wilson.    Spotted  Sand  Lark. 
Common, 


\ 


361 

*ToTANU8  Bartramius,  Wilson.     Grey  Plover. 
Abundant,    Xest  on  the  high  rolling  prairies. 

LiMOSA  Fedoa,  Linn.     The  Marlin. 

Not  an  uncommon  bird.     We  saw  a  pair  on  a  marshy  Blew  near  Wisconsin  riTer, 
June  15th,  1848,  where  thej  were  probably  nesting. 

LiM03A  HuDsoNicA,  Lath.     Ring-tailed  Marlin. 

We  shot  a  single  bird  of  this  well  marked  species  November  1st,  1850. 

Macrorhampcs  Griskus,  Leach.  Dowitchee. 
Found  sparingly  spring  and  fall. 

*ScoLOPAx  WiLSONii,  Temm.     Coinraon  American  Snipe. 
Common,  neat  abundantly  with  us. 

*Ru3TicoLA  Minor,  Vieill.    American  Woodcock. 

The  first  woodcock  noticed  in  this  section  was  in  18-17,  since  which  time  they  have 
been  rapidly  on  the  increase. 

Recurvirostra  Americana,  Linn,     American  Avoset. 

vVe  saw  a  pair  on  a  marsh  n  ar  Fox  river,  July  26th,  1846,  where  they  had  proba- 
bly nested ;  we  also  met  with  a  small  party  on  the  Des  Plaiue,  May,  1847. 

HiMANTOPCS  NiGRicoLLis,  Vieill.     The  Lawyer. 

Met  a  small  flock  of  these  singular  birds  near  Racine,  April,  1847. 

*NuMENiu3  LoNGiROSTRis,  Wilson.     Long-billed  Curlew. 

Common  on  large  thinly  settled  prairies.     We  found  them  nesting  in  abundance 
on  Sun  Prairie,  Columbia  County;  also  within  six  miles  of  Ceresco. 

*NuMENirs  HuDSONicus,  Lath.    Jack  Curlew. 

Common  spring  and  fall.    We  found  a  few  nesting  near  Fox  Lake,  June  15, 1848. 

ITuMENius  BoREALis,  Lath.     Esquimaux  Curlew. 

iMet  with  in  company  with  the  preceding  in  early  spring  and  fall.    Rare. 

PINNATIPEDES,  (2  species.) 

Phalaropus  Fulicarius,  Bonap.     Red  Phalarope. 

Met  with  a  small  flock  first  of  November,  1847.    Rare. 

*LoBiPES  WiLSONii,  Jardin.     


Not  an  abundant  species.     Prof.  S.  F.  Baird  shot  one  near  Racine,  July  15,  1853. 
Nests  sparingly  in  marshes. 

ANATID^,  (29  species.) 

*An8er  Canadensis,  Linn.     Wild  Goose. 

Greatly  abundant  spring  and  fall,  and  not  a  few  remain  during  the  summer  to  neat. 

24 


363 

Anser  Hyperboreus,  Grael.     Snow  Goose. 

This  spei'ies  is  seen  late  in  the  fall  in  large  flocks,  numbering  sometimes  not  less 
than  two  hundred. 

Anser  Albifrons,  Bechst.     White-fronted  Goose. 
Met  in  large  numbers  spring  and  fall. 

AusER  Leucopsis,  Bechst.    ■ 

In  December,  1850,  there  was  a  single  barnacle  goose  kept  about  the  harbor  for 
two  weeks. 

Anser  Bernicla,  Linn.     Brant. 

Occasionally  met  on  the  lake  shore.     Rare. 

Anser  Hutchinsii,  Rich.     Hutchinson's  Goose. 

Large  flocks  of  this  species  occasionally  visit  us  in  the  fall;  rarely  seen  in  the  spring. 

Cygnus  Americanus, -Sharpless     American  Swan. 
Visit  us  regularly  spring  and  fall. 

Cygnus  Bcccinator,  Rich.     


This  larger  swan  is  frequently  seen,  and  occasionally  shot  in  our  vicinity. 

*Anas  Clypeata,  Linn.     Shoveller. 

Not  uncommon.    A  few  nest  in  the  prairie  slews. 

*Anas  Boschas,  Linn.     Mallard. 
Common. 

*Anas  Obscurus,  Gmel.     Black  Duck. 

Numerous  in  the  interior — seldom  visit  the  lake. 

Anas  Strepera,  Linn.     Grev  Duck. 

Shot  2d  March,  1843,  the  onh^  specimens  we  ever  met  wi'.b. 

Dafila  Acuta,  Linn.     Pin-tail  Duck. 

Common  only  early  in  spring  and  late  in  the  fall. 

Mareca  Americana,  Gmel.     American  ^yido•eon. 
Abundant. 

*QuERQUEDULA  DiscoRS,  Linn.     Blue-winged  Teal. 
Very  abundant.    Nest  in  all  the  large  slews. 

*QuERQUEDULA  Carglinensis,  Steph.  Green-winged  Teal, 
Common. 

*Denronessa  Sponsa,  Linn.    AVood  Duck, 
Common. 


363 

FuLiGULA  RcBiDA,  Wilson.     Ruddy  Duck. 

Met  occasionally  fall  and  spring.     Not  abundant. 

FcLiGULA  Valisneria,  Wilsou.     Canvass  Back. 
Rarely  met.    March  and  October. 

FuLiGULA  Ferina,  Liun.    Red  Head. 
Not  uncommon. 

^FuLiGULA  Marila,  Lann.    Broad  Bill, 
Common. 

*FuLiGULA  RuFiTORQUES,  Bonap.     Bastard  Broad  Bill. 
Common.    Nests  on  tbe  borders  of  grassy  lakes. 

Claxgl-la  Vulgaris,  Fleming.     Whistler. 

Common  on  the  lake  in  winter  and  early  spring. 

Clangula  Albhola,  Linn.     Buffle-headed  Duck. 
Common. 

Clangula  Histrionica,  Linn.     Harlequin  Duck. 

One  shot  in  Racine  harbor  December  15th,  1851.     Rare. 

Harelda  Glacialis,  Linn.     Old-wife. 

Common  on  the  Lake  during  winter  and  early  spring. 

Mergus  Merganser,  Linn.     BufF-breasted  Sheldrake. 
Common ;  remain  during  winter. 

*Mrrgu3  Serrator,  Linn.     Red-breasted  Sheldrake. 
Common.     A  few  nest  with  us. 

*Mergus  Cucculatus,  Linn.     Hooded  Sheldrake. 
Abundant.    Nest  on  the  reedy  flats. 

PELECANID.E,  (2  species.) 

Phalacrocorax  Dilophus,  Swain.     Double  Crested  Cormorant. 
Occasionally  visit  our  rivers  and  small  lakes     Rare. 

Pelecanus  Onoceotalus,  Linn.     Pelican. 

About  the  10th  of  March  the  pelicans  arrive,  and  after  spending  a  few  days  in  the 
small  lakes,  go  further  north. 

LARID^,  (11  species.) 

Sterna  Cay  ana,  Lath.     Cayenne  Tern. 
Rarely  visits  us. 


364: 

*Sterna  NigtvA,  Linn.     Black  Tern.  ' 

Abundant  about  lakelets  and-  marshes.     Never  found  on  Lake  Michican. 

*Sterna  Anglica,  Montague.    Marsh  Tern. 

We  have  but  seldom  met  the  marsh  tern  in  tliis  vicinity. 

*SrERNA  HiRUNDO,  Linn.     Common  Tern. 

Abundant.    Nest  on  a  small  rockj  island  in  the  northern  part  of  Lake  Michigan 

Larus  Franklinii,  Rich.    


Visit  us  only  in  severe  winters.     Rare. 

Larus  Bonapartii,  Rich.     Bonaparte's  Gull. 

Associate  with  the  common  Tern  fall  and  spring,  in  great  numbers. 

Lar0s  Tridacttlus,  Linn.     Three- toed  Gull. 
Met  on  the  lake,  Nov.,  1853. 

■  Labus  Sabini,  Sabine. 

Saw  two  in  company  with  the  preceding. 

Larus  Glaucus,  Brunnich,     

Another  rare  winter  visitor. 

'  *Larui  Agentatus,  Brunnich.    AVinter  Gull. 

The  common  Gull  of  the  lakes.     Nest  on  a  rocky  island  in  company  with  the 
common  Teru. 

Larus  2oNORHYXcnu3,  Rich.     Common  American  Gull. 

A  rare  species  with  us.    Mr.  Samuel  Sircomb  has  a  specimen  shot  tt  Milwaukee. 

COLYMBID.E,  (G  species.) 

■*CoLYMBUs  Glaccalis,  Linn.     Great  Loon  or  Diver. 
Common.  . 

CoLYMBUs  Septentrionalis,  Linn.     Red-throated  Loon. 
Not  uncommon  during  winter. 

.PoDiCEPS  Rudricollis,  Lath.     Red-necked  Grebe. 
Only  found  in  winter.     Rare. 

PoDiCEPS  CoRNUTus,  Linn,     Horned  Grebe. 
Common  spring  and  fall. 

*PoDicEPS  Carolineksis.     Dipper. 
Common.     Nest  in  marshes. 

*Podiceps  Cristatus,  Lath.     Crested  Grebe. 

A  common  species ;  nests  on  the  margin  of  small  lakes. 


365 
KEPTILES. 

ORDER   TESTUDINATA. 

Cheloxura,  Fleming. 

■^serpentina,  Say.     Snapping  Turtle. 

Emys,  Brongniart. 

*picta,  Gmelin.     Painted  Tortoise.     Milwaukee. 


CiSTUDA,  Fleming. 

Blandingii,  Holbrook.     Blanding's   Tortoise.    Prairies  of   Wisconsin. 

(Holbrook.): 


ORDER   OPHLDIA. 

Crotalus,  Linn. 

*durissu3,  Linn.     Banded  Rattle  Snake.     Grant  Co. 

Crotalopiiorus,  Gray. 

tergeminus,  Holb.     Massasauga.     Racine. 

EuTAiNiA,  Baird  &  Girard. 

*sirtalis,  B.  &  G.    (coluber  sirtalis,  Linn.     Tropidonotas  taenia,  De  Kay.) 

Striped  Snake.     Milwaukee, 
radix,  B.  &  G.    Racine. 

Nerodia,  Baird  &  Girard. 

*sipedon,  B.  &  G.     "Watcrsnako.     Milwaukee. 

ScOTOPnis,  Baird  &  Girard. 

vulpinus,  B.  &  G.     Racine. 

Opiiibolus,  Baird  &  Girard. 

eximius,  B.  &  G.  (Coluber  eximius,  De  Kay.)  Milk  Snake.  Milwaukee. 

Bascanion,  Baird  &  Girard. 

*constrictor,  B.  &  G.    Black  Snake.     Milwaukee. 

Chlorosoma,  Wagl. 

*vernalis,  B.  &  G.     (Coluber  vernalis,  De  Kay.)    Green  Snake.    Raeina^. 

DiADOPHis,  Baird  &  Girard. 

punctatus,  B.  &  G.     (Coluber  punctatus,  Linn.)     Ring-necked  Snake. 

Milwaukee. 
Storeria,  Baird  &  Girard.  * 

Dekayi,  B.  &  G.     (Tropidonotus  Dekayi,  Holb.)     Racine, 
occipito-maculata,  B.  &  G.     Racine. 


366 

OEDER  AMniLDIA. 

Kana,  Linneus. 

*palustris,  Le  Conte.     Marsh  Frog.     Milwaukee. 
*sylvatica,  Le  Conte.      Wood  Fro<i'.     Milwuvikee. 
talcinda,  Kalra.     Shad  Frog.     Milwaukee. 

Sauvmandra,  Bronguiart. 

*subviolacea,  Barton,  Violet  Salamander. 

Menobrancuus,  Harlan. 

^'lateralis,  Say.     Banded  Proteus.     Milwaukee  River. 


FISHES. 

OEDEE   SriNE-EAYED. 

Perca,  Linneus. 

flavescens,  Mitchell.     Yellow  Perch.     Milwaukee. 

PoMOTis,  Cuvier. 

vulgaris,  Cuv,     Suufish.     Milwaukee. 

Cor  VINA,  Cuvier. 

oscula,  Lesueur.     Sheephead.     Milwaukee. 

OEDEE  ABDOMINAL. 

FiMELODus,  Cuvier. 

catus,  Linn.     Cat-fish.    Milwaukee. 

Catostomus,  Lesueur. 

aureolus,  Les.     Mullet.     Milwaukee. 

Leuciscus,  Klein. 

atronasus,  Mitchell.     Minnow.     Milwaukee. 

Esox,  Cuvier. 

estor,  Lesueur.     Muskallonge.     Milwaukee, 
reticulatus,  Lesueur.     Pickerel.     Milwaukee. 

Salmo,  Linneus. 

fontinalis,  Mitchell.     Brook  Trout.     Northern  Wisconsin, 
amethystus,  Mitchelh     Lake  Trout.     Milwaukee. 

CoRREGONus,  Cuvier. 

albus,  Lesueur.    White  Fish.     Milwaukee. 


367 

Amia,  Linn, 

amia  calva.     Dos;  Fish.     Milwaukee. 

Lepisosteus,  Lacepede. 

osseus,  Linn.     Gar  Fish.     Rock  River. 

CAKTILAGINOUS, 

AciPENSER,  Linn. 

rubicundus,  Lesueur.     Sturgeon.     Milwaukee.     L.  Winnebago. 

MOLLUSCA. 

OEDER   GASTEROrODA. 

Ancylus,  Muller. 

rivularis,  Say.     Milwaukee  and  Rock  Rivers, 
diaphanus,  Hald.     Milwaukee  River. 

ViTRiNiA,  Draparnaud. 

pellucida,  Drap.     N.  W.  Territory,  (Mr.  Say.) 

Helix,  Linn. 

albolabris,  Say.     Milwaukee.     Menasha.     Two  Rivers.     Sheboygan. 

alternata,  Say.     Milwaukee.     Two  Rivers.     Sheboygan. 

arborea,  Say.     Milwaukee.     Madison.     Two  Rivers.     Sheboj'gan. 

chersina,  Say.     N.  W.  Territory,  (Mr.  Say.) 

concava,  Say.     N.  W.  Territory,  (Binney.) 

fraterna,  Sav.     Manitowoc. 

hirsuta,  Say.     Milwaukee.     Sheboygan. 

labyrinthica,  Say.     Milwaukee.     Two  Rivers.     Shebovgan. 

lineata,  Sav.     Milwaukee.     Two  Rivers.     Sheboyo-an. 

ligera,  Say.     N.  W,  Territory,  (Mr.  Say.) 

nionodon,  Racket.     Milwaukee.     Manitowoc.     Shebovsan. 

multilineata,  Say.     Milwaukee.     Madison. 

perspectiva,  Say.     Milwaukee.     Madison.  «  Two  Rivers. 

profunda.  Say.     Milwaukee.     Manitowoc.     Sheboygan. 

porcina,  Say.     N.  W.  Territory,  (Mr.  Say.) 

Pupa,  Lamarck. 

armifera.  Say.     Milwaukee. 

corticaria.  Say.     Milwaukee. 

ovata,  Say.     [P.  Modesta,  Immatine.]     Milwaukee. 

SucciNEA,  Draparnaud. 

obliqua,  Say.     Milwaukee.     Two  Rivers, 
avara,  Say.     N.  W.  Territory,  (Mr.  Say.) 


3GS 

BuLiMus,  Bruguieres. 

lubricus,  Brug.     Milwaukee.     Madison.     Sheboygan. 

harpa,  Pfeiffer.     (Helix  harpa,  Say.)     N.  W.  Territory,  (Mr.  Say,) 

Planorbis,  Lamarck. 

armigerus,  Say.     Milwaukee  River.     Musk  ego  Lake, 
biearinatus,  Say.     Milwaukee  Kiver.     Four  Lakes.     Sheboygan, 
campauulatus,  Say.  Milwaukee  River,  Rock,  Fourth,  and  Muskego  Lakes. 

Sheboygan.. 
corpulentus,  Say.     IST.  W.  Territory,  (Mr.  Say.) 

deflectus,  Say.      Milwaukee  and  Twin  Rivers.      Rock,  Fourth  and  Mus- 
kego Lakes, 
exacutus,  Say.     Milwaukee  River. 

parvus,  Say.     Milwaukee  and  Manitowoc  Rivers,     Muskego  Lake. 
trivolvis.  Say.     Milwaukee  and  Twin  Rivers.     Muskego  Lake. 

LiMKEA,  Lamarck. 

caperata.  Say.     (L.  umbilicata  Adams.)     Milwaukee   and  ^Manitowoc 

Rivers.     Muskego  Lake, 
catascopinn,  Say.     N.  W.  Territor3%  (Mr.  Say.) 
columella,  Say.     (L.  Macrostoma,  Say.)     Milwaukee, 
emarginata.  Say.     Four  Lakes. 

fragilis,  Linn.      (L.  Elodes,  Say.)      Milwaukee,  Manitowoc  and   She- 
boygan  Rivers.     Rock,  Muskego  and  the  Four  Lakes. 
gracilis,  Say.     Milwaukee  River. 

jugularis,  Say.     (L.  stagnalis,  Kirtland.)      Milwaukee,  Sheboygan    and 
Twin  Rivers.     Muskego.  Rock,  Horricon  and  Fourth  Lakes, 
megasoma.  Say.     N.  W.  Territory,  (Mr.  Say.) 
umbrosa,  Say.     N.  W.  Territory,  (Mr.  Say.) 

Phtsa,  Draparnaud. 

heterostropha,  Say.     Milwaukee,  Sheboygan  and  Twin  Rivers.     Rock  L.. 
elongata.  Say.     Milwaukee  and  Manitowoc  Rivers. 

Paludina,  Lamarck. 

decisa,  Say.     Milwaukee,  Sheboygan  and  Rock  Rivers. 

isogona.  Say.   'Rock  River. 

subglobosa,  Say.     N.  W.  Territory,  (Mr.  Say.) 

Amnicola,  Gould  &  Haldeman. 

limosa.  Say.     N.  W.  Territory,   (Mr.  Say.) 
lustrica,  Say.     Four  Lakes. 

Melania,  Lamarck. 

depygis,  Say.     Milwaukee  and  Sheboygan  Rivers, 
elevata.  Say.     Milwaukee  and  Manitowoc  Rivers. 

Valvata,  Muller. 

tricarinata,  Say.     Milwaukee  River.     Rock  and  Four  Lakes. 
sincera,  Say.     Milwaukee  River.     Four  Lakes. 


369 

ORDEK    ACEPHALA. 

Unio,  Bruguieres. 

buUatus,  Rat'.*     [U.  pustulosus,  Lea.j     Rock  River.  Wisconsin  River  at 

Prairio  du  Sac. 
cardium,  Raf,      [U.  ventricosiis,  Barnas.]      Mississippi  at  Prairie   da 

Chien.     Wisconsin  River,  (Mr.  Barnes.) 
cariosus,  Say.     Silver  Lake.     Fourth  Lake. 

clava,  Lam.     [U.  mytiloides,  Raf.]     Rock  River.     Wisconsin  at  Prairie 

du  Sac. 
dilatu«,  Raf.  [U.  gibbosus,  Bar.]  Manitowoc,  Rock  and  Wisconsin  Rivers, 
fasciolaris,  Raf.     [LJ.  pbaseolus,  Hildreth,  U.  mucronatus  Bar.]     Wis- 
consin River,  (Mr.  Barnes.) 
fasciatus,  Raf.     [U.  crassus,  U.  ellipticus.  and  U.  carinatus,  Barnes.]    At 
Prairie  du  Chien,  (Mr.  Say.)     Wisconsin   and  Nee- 
nah  Rivers,  (Mr.  Barnes.)     Rock  River, 
luteolus,  Lam.     [U.  sih"quoideus,  and  U.  inflatus,  Bar.]    Milwaukee  and 
Rock  Rivers.    Pike  Creek.     Wisconsin  River,  (Mr.  Barnes.) 
metanervus,  Raf.   [U.  nodosa?.  Bar.]   Wisconsin  River  at  Prairie  du  Sac. 
nervosus,  Raf.     [IT.  zigzag,  and  U.  douaciformis,   Lea,]      Wisconsin 

River  at  Prairie  du  8ac. 
olivarius,  Raf.     [U.  ellipsis,  Lea.]     Wisconsin  River  at  Prairie  du  Sac. 
parvus,  Barnes.     Neeuah  (Fox)  River,  (Mr.  Barnes.) 
prasinus,  Conrad.  [U.  Schoolcraftensis,  Lea.]  Neenah  River,   (Mr.  Lea.) 
radiatus.  Lam.     Wisconsin  River.     (Mr.  Barnes.) 

rectus,  Lam.    [U.  prcelongus,  Barnes.]    Rock  River.    Wisconsin  River  at 

Prairie  du  Sac.     Neenah  River,    (Mr.  Barnes.) 
reflexus,  Raf.  [U.  eornulus  Bar.]     Xeenali  River,   (Mr.  Barnes.) 
subrostratiis,  R;if.  [U.  ii-is,  Lea.]     Milwaukee  and  Root  Rivers, 
trigonus.  Lea.     jMilwaukee,  Sheboygan  and  Rock  Rivers, 
truncatus,  Raf.     [U.  elegans.  Lea.]  '  Wisconsin  River  at  Prairie  du  Sac. 
tuberculatus,  Raf.     [U.  verrucosos.  Bar.]  Wisconsin  River,  (Mr.  Barnes) 

Rock  River, 
undatus,  Bar.     Neenah  River,  (Mr.  Barnes,)  Wisconsin  at  Pr.  du  Sac. 
verrucosus,  Raf.  [U.  tuberculatus.  Bar.]  Neenah  River,  (Mr.  Barnes)  Wis. 

River  at  Prairie  du  Sac. 
Met.4ptera,  Rafinesque,  Agassiz. 

alata,  Conrad,  [Unio  alatus.  Say]  Milwaukee,  Rock,  Neenah,  Wisconsin 

and  Sheboygan  Rivers, 
fragilis.  Con.     [U.  fragilis,  Sav.   U.  gracilis,  Bar.]  Sheboygan  and  Rock 

Rivers.  Wisconsin  River  at  Prairie  du  S.ac. 
Plectomerus,  Conrad. 

(Proc.  Ac.  Nat.  Sc,  vol.  VI,  p.  260.; 

plicatus.  Con.    [Unio  plicatus  Bar.]    Rock  River.     Wisconsin  Ri^er  at 

Prairie  du  Sac. 


*I  follow  'Mr.  T.  A.  Conrr.d's  Syuopsis  of  the  Family  of  Xaiades,  recently  publislied, 
(Proc.  of  ibe  Acad,  of  Xat.  Sv'iences,  vol.  VI,  p.  243,)  for  reasons  there  given,  which 
appear  to  be  conclusive. 


370 

CoMPLANARiA,  Swainson. 

complanata,    Con.      [Alasraoclonta  complanata,  Bar.]     Wisconsin   and 

Neenah  Kiver?,  (I\Ir.  Barnes.)  Sheboyg-an  and  Rock  Rivers. 

costata  Con.  [Alas  costata  Uaf.    A.  rugosa  Bar.]  Wisconsin  and  Neenah 

Rivers,  (Mr.  Barnes.)  Milwaukee  and  Rock  Rivers. 

compressa,  Con.  [Sympbynota  conipressa  Lea.]  Milwaukee  River. 

Alasmodonta,  Say. 

marginata,  Say.     Milwaukee,  Sheboygan  and  Rock  Rivers. 
leptodon  Raf.     [Unio  planus,  Bar.     U.  tenuissima,    Lea.]     Wisconsin 

River,  (Mr.  Barnes.) 
Strophites,  Rafinesque. 

calceolus,   Con.     [L^nio   calceolus,    Lea.]   Milwaukee,   Root  and  Rock 

Rivers.     Rock  Lake, 
edentulus,  Con.     [Alas  edentula,   Say.     Anodonta  edentula,  De  Kay.] 

'  Milwaukee  and  Rock  Rivers. 
ANODOifTA,  Bruguieres. 

cataracta,  Say.     [A.  fluviatilis.  Lea.]     Milwaukee  River.    Fourth  Lake. 
declivis.  Con.     [A.  plana,  Lea.]     Milwaukee  River, 
ferussaciana,    Lea.     Milwaukee,    Sheboygan   and    Rock   Rivers.     Pike 

Creek.     Oconomowoc  and  Silver  Lakes. 
imbecihs,  Say.     [A.  incerta,  Lea.]     Milwaukee  River. 

Cyclas,  Lamarck. 

similis,  Say.     Common. 


PALAEONTOLOGY  OF  WISCONSIN, 

Being  an  enumeration  of  the  Fossil  Organic  Remains  discovered  in  the  rocks 
of  that  State.     By  I.  A.  Lapham. 

This  list  of  fossils  will  be  of  use  in  making  a  geological  survey  of  the  State. 
As  an  instance  of  the  importance  of  the  careful  study  of  these  interesting  relics 
of  a  "former  world,"  I  may  mention  that  this  list  shows  conclusively  that  the 
rocks  of  this  State  belong  to  the  Silurian  period,  and  are  therefore  much  older 
than  the  Coal  Formation.  We  hence  infer,  with  confidence,  that  no  coal  beds 
of  workable  value,  will  ever  be  found  in  Wisconsin;  and  all  the  money  hereto- 
fore expended,  or  that  will  hereafter  be  expended  by  ignorant  persons,  in  search 
of  this  valuable  product,  is  only  a  useless  waste  of  capital. 

PLANT.E. 

ScoLiTHUs,  Hall,  Pal.ieont.  of  N.  Y.,  vol.  I.  p.  2. 

linearis,  Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  vol.  I.  p.  2.     One  mile  north  of  Lyons,  Sauk 

Co  ,  also  near  Madison. 


371 

Pal.eopiiycl'3,  Hall,  Pal.  of  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  7. 
tubularis,  Halj.    Janesville. 

Phytopsis,  Hall,  Pal.  of  N.  Y.,   I.  p.  38. 
tubulosmn,  Hall.     Mineral  Point. 

BuTiiOTREPUis,  Hall,  Pal.  ]^.  Y.,  I.  p.  8. 

succulens,  Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  62.     Mineral  Point. 

ZOOPHYTA. 

Strepelasma,  Hail,  Pal.  of  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  17. 

expansa,  Hall.     Doty 's  Island,  Lake  Winnebago, 
corniculnra.  Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  69.     Blue  Mounds,  Beetown,  Exeter, 

Beloit,  Emerald  Grove. 
parvula,  Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  71.     Mineral  Point,  Fairwater,  Doty's  I. 

Stictopora,  Hall,  Pal.  Tn'.  Y.,  I.  p.  73. 

ramosa,  Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  51.     Mineral  Point. 

Ch.etetes. 

lycoperdon.  Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p,  64  (Favosites  lycoperdon,  Say.)  Bee- 
town,  Mineral  Point,  Beloit. 
Receptaculites  . 

a  species  resembling  R  Neptuni,  De  France.  (Coscinopora  sulcata  ? 
Owen.)  Mineral  Poirrt,  Blue  Mounds,  \Yyot3,  Emerald  Grove, 
Whitewater,  Fort  Atkinson,  Watertowu. 

Graptolitiius. 

Hallianus,  Prout,  Ara.  Jour,  of  Science,  Vol.  XL,  p.  187.  Osceola  Mills' 

St.  Croix  River. 
DiPLOPUYLLUM,  Hall.  Pal.  N.  Y.,  TL  p.  115. 

cajspitosum.  Hall.     Milwaukee. 

Favosites. 

Niagarensis,  Hall,  Pal.  X.  Y.,  11.  p.  125.     Milwaukee. 

favosa,  Goldfus.  (F.  striata,  Say.)  Milwaukee,  Bailey's  Harbor,  Door  Co. 

Catenipora.     The  Chain  Coral. 

agglomerata.  Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  II  p.  129.     Milwaukee. 

gracilis.  Hall,  Fost.  (fe  Wh.  Report,  p.  212.    Easter  a  shore  of  Green  Bay. 

Helioijtes,  Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  XL  p.  130. 

pyriformis.  Hall.     Milwaukee. 

uiacrostykis,  Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  II.  p,  135.     Milwaukee. 

Stromatopora,  Goldfus. 

concentrica,  Goldfus,    Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y,,  11.  p.  136.    Milwaukee. 


o-n 


CPwINOIDEA. 


ScHizocRiNus,  Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  81. 

nodosus,  Hall.     Mineral  Point,  Beetown,  Blue  Mounds,  Doty's  Island. 

EUCALYPTOCRINPS. 

decorus.  Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  II.  p.  207,  (Hjpantbocrinities,  Philips.)  Racine. 

Cartocrinus,  Say. 

oinatus,  Say.     Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.  II.,  p.  21G.     Milwaukee,  Racine. 


BBACHIOPODA. 


LiNGULA. 


prima,  Conrad.     Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  3.    Falls  of  the  St.  Croix. 

antiqua,  Hall;  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  3.     Falls  of  the  St.  Croix. 

obtusa,  Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  98.     Hazel  Green,  Little  Butte  des  Morts. 


Lept.^na. 


alternata,  Conrad.     Hall,  Pal.  K  Y.,  I.  p.  102.     Mineral  Point,  Hazel 

Green,  Sturgeon  Bay. 
deltoidea,  Conrad.     Hall,  Pal.  L,  p.  106.     Blue  Mounds,  Mineral  Point 

Newark  and  Beloit,  Rock  Co. 
seiicea,  Sowerby,  Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  110.     Platte  Mounds,  Mineial 

Point,  Blue  Mounds,  Doty's  Island, 
filitexta.  Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  111.     Mineral  Point, 
planumbona.  Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  112.     Mineral  Point, 
deflecta,  Conrad.     Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  113.     Mineral  Point, 
recta,  Conrad.     Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  113.     Patch  Grove, 
planoconvexa,  Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  114. 
depressa,  Del  man.     Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  II.  p.  257.     Milwaukee, 
subplana,  Conrad.     Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  II.  p.  259.     Milwaukee. 


Ortuis. 


testudinaria,  Delman.    Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  1 1 7.    Mineral  Point,  Platte 

Mounds,  Blue  Mounds,  Beloit,  Sturgeon  Bay. 
subsequata,  Conrad.     Proc.  Ac.  Nat.  Sc.  I.  p.  333.     Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I. 

p.  118.     Mineral  Point, 
bella-rugosa,  Conrad.     Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  118.     Mineral  Point, 
disparilis,  Conrad.     Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y..  I.  p.  119.     Mineral  Point, 
perveta,  Conrad.     Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  120.     Mineral  Point, 
tricenaria,  Conrad.     Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  121.     Mineral  Point,  Blue 

Mounds,  Exeter,  Newark,  Rock  Co. 
pectinella,  Conrad.     Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  123.     Mineral  Point. 
occidentalis.     Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  127.     Sturgeon  Bay. 
hybrida,  Sowerby.     Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  II.  p.  253.     Milwaukee. 


3rQ 


io 

Spirifer. 

lynx,   Von  Buch.     Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  133.     Mineral  Point,  Doty's 

Island,  Sturgeon  Bay. 
Niagarensis,  Conrad.     Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  II.  p.  264.     Milwaukee. 

Atbtpa. 

increbescenp.     Hall,  Pal.  N".  Y.,  I.  p.  146.     Mineral  Point,  Newark.       < 
reticularis,  Dalman.     Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  II.  p.  72,     (Anemia  reticularis, 

Linn.)     Milwaukee, 
nitida,  Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  II.  p.  26S.     Milwaukee, 
obtusicplicata,  Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  II.  p.  279.     Milwaukee. 

Pektamerus. 

Oblongus,  Murcbison.     Hall,  Pal.  X.  Y.,  II.   p.    V9.     Milwaukee,  Blue 

Mounds,  Bailey's  Harbor,  Door  Co.,  Sturgeon  Bay. 

cccidentalis,  Hall,  Pal.  JN.  Y.,  II.  p.  341.     On  the  peninsula  between 

Green  Bay  and  Lake  Michigan.     Mr.  Hall. 

ACEPHALA. 
NUCULA. 

levata,  Hall,  Pall.  X.  Y.,  I.  p.  150.     Platte  Mounds,  Hazel  Green. 

Tellinomya,  Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  15l. 
nasuta,  Hall.    Mineral  Point. 

Amboyciiia,  Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  103. 

AmygdaUua,  Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  165.  Mineral  Point,  Beetown,  Beloit. 

MODIOLOPSIS. 

curta,  Conrad.     Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  297.     Mineral  Point, 
ovatus,  Hall,  Pal.  N,  Y.,  II.  p.  101.     Milwaukee. 

Pyrenomceus,  Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  II.  p.  87. 
cuneatus,  Hall.     Milwaukee. 

V 

GASTEKOrODA. 

Maclurea,  Laseuer. 

magna,  Laseuer,  Jour.  Acad.  Nat.  Sc,  vol.  I.,  p.  313,  pi.  13,  figs.  1,  2,  3. 
Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  26,  pi.  5,  fig.  1.    Newark,  Rock  county. 

Pleurotomaria. 

Uinbilicata,  Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  L  p.  43.     Beloit,  Fairwater,  Doty's  Island, 
lenticularis,  Conrad.   Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  172.  Mineral  Point,  Exeter, 

Newark,  Doty's  Island,  West  side  of  Green  Bay. 
subconica,  Hal),  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  174.   Mineral  Point,  Newark,  Rock  Co. 


374 


MURCHISONIA. 

tricarinata,  Hall,  Pal.  N,  Y.,  I.  p.  178.     Mineral  Point, 
bellicincta,  Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  179.     Beetown,  Blue  Mounds,  Exeter, 

Emerald  Grove, 
major,  Hall,  in  Foster  &  Whitney's  Pieport,  p.  209.      Western  Shore  of 

Green  Bay. 
gracilis.  Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  181.      Mineral  Point,  Exeter,  Newark, 
*  Doty's  Island. 

SrBULiTES,  Conrad.     Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  182. 

elongata,  Conrad.     Hall.     Mineral  Point,  Beloit,  Patch  Grove. 

BELLEROPnON. 

bilobatus,  Sowerby.    Hall,  Pal.  X.  Y.,  I.  p.  184.     Mineral  Point,  Doty's 

Island. 

BUCANIA. 

expansa,  Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  186.     Newark,  Rock  Co. 

Ctrtolites. 

compressus,  Conrad.     Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  1^.     Mineral  Point. 

Ctcloxema,  Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  II.  p.  87. 

bilix  (Pleurotomaria  ?  bilix.  Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  305.)    Near  Prairie 

du  Chien, 
Platyostoma,  Conrad.     Hall^  Pal.  N.  Y.,  II.  p.  286. 

Niagarensis,  Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  II.  p.  287.     Milwaukee, 
hemispherica,  Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  II.  p.  288. 

cephalopoda. 
Orthoceras. 

multicameratum,  Conrad.    Hall,  Pal.  X.  Y.,  I.  p.  45.     Beetown,  Mineral 

Point, 
bilineatum,  Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  199.     Hazel  Green, 
anellum,  Conrad.   Pro.  Ac.  Xat.  Sc.  I.,  p.  334— Hall,  Pal.  X.  Y.,  I.  p. 

202.   Hazel  Green,  Mineral  Point, 
undulatum,  Hisinger.    (0.  annulatum,  Sowerby.)    Hall,  Pal.  X.  Y.,  I. 

p.  293.     Milwaukee. 
LrrciTEs. 

undatus,  Conrad,  in  Hall,  Pal.X.  Y.  I.,  p.  52.     Beloit. 

convolvulans  ?      Hisinger.     Hall,  Pal.  X.  Y.,  I.  p.  53.     Xewark,  Rock 

County.- 
GoKiocERAs,  Hall,  Pal.  X.  Y.,  I.  p.  54. 

anceps.  Hall. '  Mineral  Point. 

Cyrtoceras. 

macrostonum,  Hall,  Pal.  X.  Y.,  I.  p.  194.    Hazel  GreeOr 


Okcoceros.  Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  196. 

constriotuui,  Hall.     Newark,  Beloit,  Fairwater. 

CEUSTACEA. 

AsAPHUs,  Brougniait. 

Earrandi,  Hall,  in  Fost.  it  Whitney's  Report,  p.  212.     Near  Platteville. 
extans,  Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.  228.     Patch  Grove,  Mineral  Point. 

Cytherixa. 

fabulites,  Conrad.    Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  So.  Vol.  I.,  p.  332.    Beloit,  Mineral 

Point' 
Illjexcs. 

crassicauda,  Dalman.     Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.  I.  p.  229.     Mineral  Point,  Hazel 

Green. 
IsoTELUs,  De  Kay. 

gigas,  De  Kay.     Hall,  Pal  N.  Y,  I.  p.  231.     Mineral  Point, 

Ceraurus,  Green. 

pleurexanthemus.  Green.     Hall,  Pal.  N,  Y,  I.  p.  242.     Beloit,  Mineral 

Point,  Patch  Grove, 
insignis,  Beyrich.     Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  II.  p.  300. 

Phacops. 

Dalmani,  Portlock.     (P.  callicephalus.     Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  I.  p.   247.) 

Patch  Grove. 

BUMASTIS. 

barriensis,  Murcliison.     Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  II.  p.  302.    Burlington  Racine, 

Co.;  Milwaukee;  Hartford,  Washington  Co. 
Calymene,  Brongniart. 

Blumenbchii,  Brongniart.     Hall,  Pal.  N.  Y.,  II.  p,  307.     Milwaukee. 

Racine. 


PLANTS  OF  WISCONSIN. 

The  vicinity  of  the  "  Great  Lakes,"  Superior  and  Michigan;  the  elevated 
plateau  between  Lake  Superior  and  the  Mississippi  River ;  the  "  pineries;'* 
the  heavily  timbered  land ;  the  "oak  openings,"  and  the  prairies,  may 
each  be  considered  as  distinct  botanical  districts,  within  the  State,  afford- 
ing plants  peculiar  to  themselves,  and  giving  great  richness  and  variety 
to  our  flora. 

Mr.  Thomas  Nuttall  was  the  first  botanist,  so  far  as  I  can  learn,  who 
visited  Wisconsin.    He  passed  Green  Bay,  by  the  Portage  of  the  Neenali 


376 

(Fox)  and  Wisconsin  rivers,  to  Prairie  du  Chien,  and  thence  down  the 
Mississippi,  as  early  as  about  the  year  1813.  In  his  very  valuable 
''Genera  of  North  American  Plants,"  published  in  1818,  he  makes 
frequent  reference  to  localities  in  this  State,  and  has  described  thirteen 
new  species  first  discovered  by  him  in  these  regions. 

The  next  notice  of  our  plants  was  published  in  1821,  in  Sillman's 
Journal,*  by  Prof.  D.  B.  Douglass  and  Dr.  Johx  Toreey;  being  "a 
notice  of  the  plants  collected  by  Prof.  Douglass,  in  an  expedition  under 
Governor  Cass,  during  the  summer  of  1820,  around  the  Great  Lakes 
and  upper  waters  of  the  Mississippi."  One  hundred  and  ten  plants 
are  enumerated,  many  of  them  from  within  the  limits  of  this  State ;  and 
three  are  indicated  as  new  species. 

In  1S23,  Major  Long,  with  a  party  of  scientific  gentlemen,  under  the 
direction  of  the  Secretary  of  "War,  traversed  the  North  West  Territory 
(as  Wisconsin  was  then  called);  but  unfortunately  the  botanist  was 
detained,  and  did  not  join  the  Expedition.  We  have,  consequently,  only 
an  account  of  a  few  plants  gathered  by  the  late  lamented  Thomas  Say, 
naturalist  to  the  Expedition ;  these  were  examined  by  Lewis  de  Schwei- 
MTz,  an  accomplished  botanist  of  Pennsylvania,  and  a  list  of  them 
published  in  the  Narrative  of  the  Expedition. 

The  next  and  last  published  notice  of  our  plants  is  in  Schoolcraft's 
"Narrative  of  an  Expedition  through  the  Upper  Mississippi  to  Itasca 
Lake,  the  actual  source  of  that  river,  in  1832."  This  Expedition  was 
accompanied  by  the  late  Dr.  Douglass  Houghton,  whose  premature 
death  in  Lake  Superior,  while  performing  his  arduous  duties  of  State 
Geologist  of  Michigan,  is  sincerely  regretted,  not  only  by  all  who  knew 
him,  but  by  all  the  friends  of  science.  The  list  of  plants  collected  by 
him  in  this  Expedition,  numbers  two  hundred  and  forty-seven,  of  which 
eifjht  Avere  new  and  undescribed. 

Numerous  prepared  specimens  of  Wisconsin  plants,  have,  within  the 
last  few  years,  been  distributed  among  the  botanists  of  our  own  and 
other  countries ;  and  the  critical  notices  kindly  i-eturned  by  them,  have 
been  of  much  assistance  in  making  this  enumeration.  It  embraces  one 
hundred  and  thirty-six  of  the  natural  orders  or  families,  four  hundred 
and  fifty-nine  genera,  and  nine  hundred  and  forty -nine  species — all  found 
within  thirty  miles  of  the  city  of  Milwaukee,  unless  other  localities  are 
mentioned. 

*76l.  IV.  p  56. 


37r 


RANUNCULACE.E.     The  Crowfoot  Family. 

Atkagexe,  Linn. 

Americana,  Sims.     Head  of  Lake  St.  Croix.    Dr.  Parry. 

Clematis,  Linn.     Virgin's  Bower. 

Virginiana,  Linn.     Common  Virgin's  BoAver. 

Pulsatilla,  Tourn.     Pasque-flower. 

patens,  Mill.     Anemone  patens,  Linn. 

Anemone,  Linn.     Wind-flower. 

nemorosa,  Linn.     Low  Wind-flower. 

Virginiana,  Linn.     Tall  Anemone. 

muliiiida,  DC.     Shore  of  Lake  Superior.     Dr.  Z.  Pitcher. 

Pennsylvanica,  Linn. 

Hepatica,  Dillenius.     Liver-leaf. 

triloba,  Chaix.     Round-leaved  Hepatica. 
acutiloba,  DC.     Sharped-leaved  Hepatica. 

Thalictrum,  Linn.     MeadoAV  Rue. 

anemonoides,  Michx. 

diocum,  Linn. 

Cornuti,  Linn.     Meadow  Rue. 

Ranunculus,  Linn.     Crowfoot. 

aquatilis,  Linn.     White-Water  Crowfoot. 

Purshii,  Richards.     Yellow-Water  Crowfoot. 

rhomboideus,  Goldie. 

abortivus,  Linn.     Small-flowered  Crowfoot. 

recurvatus,  Poir. 

Pennsylvanicus,  Linn.     Bristly  Crowfoot. 

fascicularis,  Muhl. 

repens,  Linn.     Creeping  Crowfoot. 

Marylandicns,  Poir.     Hairy  Crowfoot. 

acris,  Linn,     Buttercups. 

IsoPYRUM,  Linn.     Enemion,  Raf. 
biternatum,  Torrey  &  Gray. 

Caltha,  Linn.     Marsh  Marigold, 
palustris,  Linn.    .Cowslip. 

CopTis,  Salisb.     Goldthread, 
trifolia,  Salisb. 

Aquilegia,  Linn.     Columbine. 

Canadensis,  Linn.    Wild  Columbine. 
25 


378 

Delphinium,  Linn.     Larkspur, 

azureum,  Michx.     LTpper  Mississippi,  Dr.  Hougbton. 

Hydrastis,  Linn.     Orange-root. 
Canadensis,  Linn. 

AcT^A,  Linn.     Cohosh. 

rubra,  Bigel.     Red  Cohosh, 
alba,  Eigel.     White  Cohosh. 

MENISPERMACE^E.    The  Moonseed  Family. 

Menispermum,  Linn.     Moonseed. 
Cauadense,  Linn. 

BERBERIDACE^.     The  Barberry  Family. 

Leontice,  Linn.     Caulopbylkiiri,  Michx. 
thalictroides,  Linn,     Bkie  Cohasb. 

Jeffersonia,  Barton.     Twiu-leaf. 
diphylla,  Pers. 

Podophyllum,  Linn.     May  Apple, 
peltatum,  Linn. 

CABOMBACE^.     The  Water-Shield  Family. 

Brasenia,  Schreber.     Hydropeltis,  Michx. 
peltata,  Pursh.     Water-shield. 

NELUMBIACE.E.     The  Nelumbo  Family. 

Nelumbium,  Juss.     Sacred  Bean. 

luteum,  Willd.     Upper  Mississippi,  Dr.  Hougbton. 

2^YMPH.F:AC^E.     The  Water-Lily  Family. 

Nympilea,  Tourn. 

odorata,  Ait.     White  Water-Lily. 

NuPHAR,  Smith. 

advena,  Ait.    Yellow  Water-Lily. 

SARRACENIACE^.    The  Pitcher  Plant  Family, 

Sarracenia,  Linn. 

purpurea,  Linn.     Side-Saddle  Flower. 


379 

PAP  AVERAGES.    The  Poppy  Family. 

Sanguinaria.     Dill.     Bloodroot. 
Canadensis,  Linn. 

FUMAKIACE^.     The  Fumitory  Family. 

DlCENTRA,  Boik. 

cucullaria,  DC.     Breeches  Flower. 
Canadensis,  DC.     Squirrel  Corn. 

Corydalis,  Linn. 

aurea,  Willd.     Upper  Mississippi,  Dr.  Houghton, 
glauca,  Pursb.     Blue  Mounds. 

CRUCIFERyE. 

I^asturtium,  R.  Brown. 

pahistre,  DC. 
natans,  DC. 

Cardamine,  Linn. 

rhomboidea,  DC.     Spring  Cress, 
birsuta,  Linn, 
pratensis,  Linn. 

Dektaria,  Linn.     Tootbwort. 
laciniata,  Muhl. 

Arabis,  Linn. 

petrsea,  Lam.     Shore  of  Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Z.  Pitcher. 

lyratta,  Linn. 

birsuta,  Scop. 

laevigata,  DC. 

Canadensis,  Linn.     Sicklepod. 

TuRRiTis,  Dill.     Tower  Mustard. 

glabra,  Linn.     Shore  of  Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Z.  Pitcher. 

stricta,  Graham.     Lake  Superior,  Dr.  A.  Gray. 

brachycarpa,  Torr.  &  Gray.     Shore  of  Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Z.  Pitcher. 

Erysimum,  Linn.     Treacle  Mustard. 

cheiranthoides,  Linn.     Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Houghton. 

Sisymbrium,  Linn.     Hedge  Mustard, 
canescens,  Nutt. 

SlNAPis,  Tourn.     Mustard. 

arvensis,  Linn, 
nigra,  Linn. 


380 

?Draba,  Linn.     Whitlow  Grass. 

Caroliuiana,  Walt.     iS'ear  Waukesha,  Mr.  G.  W.  Cornwall. 

Camelina,  Crantz.     False  Flax, 
sativa,  Crantz. 

IiEPiDiuM,  Linn.     Pepperwort. 
Virginicura,  Linn. 

€apsella,  Yent.     Shepherd's  Purse. 
Bursa-pastoris,  Msench. 

•€akile,  Tourn.     Sea-Rocket. 
Americana,  Xutt, 

CAPPARTDACEtE.     The  Caper  Family. 

TOLANSIA,  Raf. 

graveolens,  Raf.     Near  Beloit,  Mr.  T.  McEl  Henry. 

YIOLACE^.     The  Violet  Family. 

Viola,  Lion.     Violet. 

blanda,  Willd. 

sao-itiata,  Ait.     Marquette  County,  Mr.  John  Townley. 

cucuUata,  Ait.     Blue  Violet. 

pedata,  Linn. 

Muhlenbergii,  Torrey. 

pubescens,  Ait.     Yellow  Violet. 

CISTACE.E.    The  Rock-Rose  Family. 

Helianthemum,  Trura.     Rock  Rose. 
Canadense,  Michx. 

HuDsoxiA,  Linn. 

tomentosa,  Nutt.     Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Houghton. 

XiECHEA,  Linn.     Pinweed. 

minor,  Lam,     Upper  Mississippi,  Dr.  Floughton. 

DROSERACEtE.    The  Scxdew  Family. 

Drosera,  Linn.     Sundew. 

rotundifolia,  Linn, 

longifolia,  Linn.     L.  Sup.  to  Upper  Miss.,  Dr.  Houghton. 

linearis,  Goldie.     La  Pointe,  L.  Superior,  Dr.  Houghton. 


381 

Parnassia,  Tourn. 

Carollniana,  Michx. 

palustris,  Linn.     South  shore  of  L.  Superior,  Dr.  Z.  Pitcher.. 

HYPERICACE^.     The  St.  Joun's-Wort  Family. 

Hypericum,  Linn.     St.  John's-Wort. 

pyramidatuin,  Ait.     Waukesha,  Mr.  G.  H,  Cornwall. 
Canadensis,  Linn.     Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Houghton, 
prolificurn,  Linn.     Marquette  Co.,  Mr.  J.  Townley. 

Elodea,  Adans. 

Virginica,  Nutt. 

CARYOPHYLLACE^.    The  Pink 'Family. 

§   1.  Silenece. 
Saponaria,  Linn.     Soapwort. 
Vaccaria,  Linn.     Cow-herb. 

SiLENE,  Linn.     Catchfly. 

stcllata,  Ait.     Starry  Campion, 
antirrhina,  Linn, 
noctiflora,  Linn. 

Lychnis,  Tourn.     Cockle, 
githago,  Lam. 

§  2.  Alsinece. 

Arenaria,  Linn.     Sandwort. 

stricta,  Michx. 

serpyllifolia,  Linn.     Waukesha,  Mr.  G.  H.  Cornwall. 

lateriflora,  Linn. 

Stellaria,  Linn.     Chickweed. 

me  lia.  Smith. 

longifolia,  Muhl,     Stichwort. 

Cerastium,  Linn. 

vulgatum,  Liun.     Beloit,  Mr.  T.  McEl  Henry, 
viscosum,  Linn.     Mouse-Ear. 

§  3.  Illecehreoe. 

Spergula,  Linn.     Spurrey. 

arvensis,  Linn.     Wauwatosa,  Mr.  M.  Spears. 

Anychia,  Michx. 

dichotoma,  Michx.     Blue  Mounds,  L  A.  Lapham. 


382 

§  4.  MoUug'mece. 
MoLLUGO,  Linn. 

verticilatta,  Linn.     Carpet  Weed. 

PORTULACACE^.     The  Purslain  Family. 

PoRTULACA,  Tourn. 

oleracea,  Linn.     Purslain. 

Talinum,  Adans. 

tereti folium,  Pursh.     Falls  of  the  St.  Croix,  Dr.  Houglaton. 

Claytonia,  Linn.     Spring  Beauty. 
Virginica,  Linn. 

MALVACE^.     The  Mallow  Family. 

Malva,  Linn.     Mallow. 

triangulata,  Leavenworth.     M.  Houglitonii,  Torr.  &  Gray.     Upper 

Mississippi,  Dr.  Houghton, 
rotundifolia,  Linn.     Dwarf  Mallow. 

TILIACE^.     The  Linden  Family. 

TiLiA,  Linn. 

Americana,  Linn.     Basswood. 

LINACE^.     The  Flax  Family. 

LiNUM,  LiNN. 

rigidum,  Pursh. 

GERANIACEvE. 

Geranium,  Linn.     Cranesbill. 

maculatum,  Linn. 

Carolinianum,  Linn. 

Robertianum,  Linn.  L.  Superior  to  Upper  Mississippi,  Dr.  Houghton. 

OXALIDACE^.     The  Wood  Sorrel  Family. 

OxALis,  Linn. 

violacea,  Linn.     Rock  Prairie  and  near  Beloit. 
stricta,  Linn. 

BALSAMINACE^.     The  Balsam  Family. 

Impatiens,  Linn.     Jewel  Weed. 

pallida,  Nutt. 
fulva  Nutt. 


383 

LIMNANTHACE.E. 

Fl(erkea,  Willd.     False  Mermaid, 
proserpinacoides,  Willd. 

ZANTHOXYLACE.E.     The  Prickly  Ash  Family. 

Zanthoxylum,  Linn. 

Americanum,  Mill.     Prickly  Asn. 

Ptelea,  Linn. 

trifoliata,  Linn. 

ANACARDIACE^E.     The  Sumach  Family. 

Khus,  Linn.     Sumach. 

typliina,  Linn. 

glabra,  Linn. 

venenata,  DC.     Poison  Sumach. 

Toxicodendron,  Linn.     Poison  Oak. 

ACERACE^.     The  Maple  Family. 

Acer,  Linn.     Maple. 

spicatum,  Lam.     Mountain  Maple, 
saccharinum,  Wang.     Sugar  Maple, 
rubrum,  Linn.     Red  Maple. 

Negundo,  Mcench.     Box  Maple. 

aceroides,  Moench.     Rock  River  and  Sugar  River,   I.  A.  L. 

CELASTRACE.E.     The  Spixdle-Tree  Family. 

Staphylea,  Linn.     Bladder-Nut. 

trifolia,  Linn.     Beloit.     Mr.  T.  McEl  Henry. 

Celastrus,  Linn.     Bittersweet, 
scandens,  Linn. 

EuoNYMus,  Tourn.     Spindle-Tree. 

atropurpureus,  Jacq.     Here  called  Wahoo. 

RAMNACE.E.     The  Buckthorn  Family. 

Rhamnus,  Linn.     Buckthorn, 
alnifolius,  L'Her. 

Ceanothus,  Linn.     New  Jersey  Tea. 

Americanus,  Linn. 

ovalis,  Bigel.     Beloit,  Mr.  T.  McEl  Henry. 


884 

VITACE^.      The  Vine  Family. 
ViTis,  Linn.     Grape  Vine. 

aestivalis,  Michx.     Summer  Grape, 
ripari,  Michx.     Frost  Grape. 

Ampelopsis,  Michx.     Virginia  Creeper, 
quinquefolia,  Michx. 

POLYGALACE^.     The  Milkwort  Family. 

Polygala,  Tourn.     Milkwort. 

incarnata,  Linn.     Beloit,  Mr.  T.  McEl  Henry, 
sanguinea,  Linn.     P.  purpurea,  Nutt. 
crusiata,  Linn. 
■    verticiliata,  Linn. 
Senega,  Linn.     Seneca  Snake-Root, 
polygama,  Walt.     Waukesha,  Mr.  G.  H.  Cornwall, 
paucifolia,  Willd. 

LEGUMINOS^.     The  Pea  Family. 
ViciA,  Tourn.     Vetch. 

Cracca,  Linn.     Tufted  Vetch. 

Americana,  Muhl. 

Caroliniana,  Waltr.     Marquette  Co.,  Mr.  J.  Townly. 

Lathyrus,  Linn. 

maritimus,  Bigel. 
venosus,  Muhl. 
ochroleucus,  Hook, 
palustris,  Linn. 

Apios,  Boerh. 

tuberosa,  Moench.     Indian  Potato. 

Amphicarp^a,  Ell. 

monoica,  Nut.     Wild  Bean. 

Desmodium,  DC.     Tick  Trefoil. 

nudiflorum,  DC.     St.  Croix,  Dr.  Parry, 
acuminatum,  DC. 
Canadense,  DC. 

Lespedeza,  Michx.     Bush  Clover. 

violacea,  Pers.  var.  divergens,  Beloit,  Mr.  T.  McEl  Henry.     Var. 
capitata,  Michx.  [sessiliflora  Waukesha,  L  A.  Lapham. 

Astragalus,  Linn.     Milk  Vetch. 
Canadensis,  Linn. 


385 

Phaca,  Linn.     Bladder  Vetch, 
neglecta,  Torr.  <fe  Gray. 

Tepiirosia,  Pers.     Hoary  Pea. 
Virginiana,  Pers. 

Amorpha,  Linn. 

fructicosa,  Linn.     Beloit,  Mr.  T.  McEl  Henry, 
canescens,  Nutt.     Lead  Plant. 

Dalea,  Linn. 

laxiflora,  Pursh.     Near  Prairie  du  Chien,  Mr.  Nuttall. 

Petalostemon,  Miehx. 

violaceum,  Michx. 
candidiira,  Michx. 
villosum,  Nutt.     St.  Croix,   Dr.  Parry. 

Trifolium,  Linn.     Clover. 

pratense,  Linn.     Red  Clover, 
repens,  Linn.     White  Clover. 

LupiNis,  Tourn.     Lupine. 

perennis,  Linn.     Wild  Lupine. 

Baptisia,  Vent.     False  Indigo. 

australis,  R.  Brown.     B.  cserulea,  Nutt.    On  the  Ncenah  River,  Dr. 
leiicantha,  Torr.  &  Gray.     B.  alba,  Hooker.  [Houghton, 

leucophaga,  Nutt. 

Cassia,  Linn.     Senna. 

Chamsecrista,  Linn.     Beloit,  Mr.  T.  McEl  Henry. 

Gleditschia,  Linn.     Honey  Locust. 

triacanthus,  Linn.     Beloit,  Dr.  S.  P,  Lathrop. 

ROSACEA.     The  Rose  Family. 
§  1.  AmT/gdaleoe. 
Prunus.  Tourn.     Plum. 

American,  Marsh.     Yellow  Plum. 

Cerasus,  Tourn.     Cherry. 

purailla,  Michx.     Sand  Cherry.     Lakes  Michigan  and  Superior,  Dr. 
Pennsylvanica,  Loisel.     Bird  Cherry.  [Houghton. 

Virginiana,  DC.      Choke  Cherry, 
serotina,  DC:     Wild  Black  Cherry. 


386 

§  2.  Bosacece. 

Spir^a,  Linn.     Meadowsweet. 

opulifolia,  Linn.     Nine-Bark. 

salicifolia,  Linn.     Meadowsweet. 

tomentosa,  Linn.     Hardback.     Upper  Wisconsin  River.     L  A.  L. 

Agrimonia,  Tourn.     Agrimony. 
Eupatoria,    Linn. 

Geum,  Linn.     Avens. 

Virginianum,  Linn.     Wliite  Avens. 

macrophyllum,  Willd.     Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Z.  Pitcher. 

strictum,  Ait. 

rivale,  Linn.     Water  or  Purple  Avens. 

triflorum,  Pursh. 

Waldsteinia,  Willd. 

fragaroides,  Tratt.     Dividing  ridge  between  the  St.   Croix  and  Bois 

[Brule  Rivers,  Dr.  Parry. 
PoTENTiLLA,  Linn. 

Norvegica,  Linn. 

Canadensis,  Linn.     Fivefinger. 

paradoxa,  Nutt.     Near  St.  Croix  River,  Dr.  Parry. 

arguta,  Pursh. 

anserina,  Linn.     Silver-Leaf. 

fruticosa,  Linn. 

tridentata,  Ait.     Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Houghton. 

CoMARUM,  Linn.     Marsh  Fivefinger. 
palustre,  Linn. 

Fragaria,  Tourn.     Strawberry. 

Virginiana,  Ehrh. 
vesca,  Linn. 

RuBus,  Linn.     Bramble. 

Nutkanus,  Mocino.     Head  of  Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Houghton. 

odoratus,  Linn.     Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Parry. 

canadensis,  Linn.  Low  Blackberry.  Marquette  Co.,  Mr.  J.  Townley. 

triflorus,  Richards. 

strigosus,  Michx.     Red  Raspberry. 

occidentalis,  Linn.     Black  Raspberry. 

villosus.  Ait.     Blackberry. 

hispidus,  Linn.     Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Houghton. 

Rosa,  Tourn.     Rose. 

lucida,  Ehrh.     Wild  Rose. 

blanda,  Ait.     Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Houghton. 


387 

§3.  Pomecr. 
Crat^gus,  Linn. 

coccinea,  Linn.     White  Thorn, 
punctata,  Jacq. 

Pyrus,  Linn.     Apple. 

coronaria,  Linn.     Crab-Apple, 
arbutafolia,  Linn.     Choke  Berry. 

Americana  DC.     Mountain  Ash.      Brookfield,  Waukesha  Co.,  Mr. 

[G.  H.  Cornwall. 
Amelanchier,  Medic.     June-Berry. 

Canadensis,  Torr.  &  Gray. 

MELASTOMACE.£. 

Rhexia,  Linn.     Deer  Grass. 

Virginica,  Linn.     Mauvaise  River,  C.  Whttlesey. 

LYTHRACE^E.     The  Loosestrife  Familt. 

Ltthrum,  Linn.     Loosestrife, 
alatum,  Pursh. 

Dkcodon,  Gmel. 

verticillatum,  Ell.     Fish  Trap  Rapids,  Upper  St.  Croix,  Dr.  Parry. 

ONAGRACE.E.     The  Evening  Primrose  Family. 
§  1.    Onagracea\ 

Epilobium,  Linn. 

angustifolium,  Linn.     Willow  Herb, 
coloratum,  Muhl. 
palustre,  Linn. 

OENOTHERA,  Linn.     Evening  Primrose. 

biennis,  Linn. 

rhombipetala,  Nutt.     Near  the  St.  Croix,  Dr.  Parry. 

chrysantha,  Michx.     Waukesha,  Mr.  G.  H.  Cornwall. 

Gaura,  Linn. 

biennis,  Linn.     Beloit. 

LiTDWiGiA,  Linn, 

palustris.  Ell.     Water  Purslain. 

CiRC^A,  Tourn.     Enchanter's  Nightshade. 

Lutetiana,  Linn, 
alpina,  Linn. 


388 

§  2.  Haloragece. 

MrRiOPHYLLUM,  Vaill.     Water  Milfoil. 

spicatum,  Linn, 
verticillatum,  Linn. 

HipPURis,  Linn.     Mares-Tail, 
vulgaris,  Linn. 

CACTACE^.     The  Cactus  Family. 

Opuntia,  Tourn.     Prickley  Pear. 

vulgaris,  Mill.     Falls  of  the  St.  Croix,  Dr.  Parry. 

GROSSULACE^.     The  Gooseberry  Family. 

RiBES,  Linn. 

Cynosbati,  Linn.     Prickly  Gooseberry, 
hirtellum,  Michx.     Smooth  Gooseberry, 
rotundifolium,  Michx.     Swamp  Gooseberry, 
floridum,  Linn.     Wild  Black  Currant, 
rubrum,  Linn.     Wild  Red  Currant. 

CUCURBIT  A  CE^E.     The  Cucumber  Family. 

EcHiNOCYSTis,  Torr.  &  Gray. 

lobata,  Torr.  &  Gray.     Wild  Cucumber. 

CRASSULACE.E.     The  House-Leek  Family. 

Penthorum,  Gronov. 

sedoides,  Linn.     Stonecrop. 

SAXIFRAGACE.E.      The  Saxifrage  Family. 

Saxifraga,  Linn.     Saxifrage. 

Aizoon,  Jacq.     Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Z.  Pitcher. 
Virginiensis,  Michx.     Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Houghton. 
Pennsylvanica,  Linn. 

Heuchera,  Linn.     Alum  Root. 
Americana,  Linn. 

MiTELLA,  Tourn.     Mitrewort. 

diphylla,  Linn.     Currant  Leaf, 
nuda,  Linn. 

Chrysosplenium,  Tour.     Golden  Saxifrage. 

Americanum,  Schw.  Lake  Superior  to  Up.  Mississippi,  Dr.  Houghton. 


389 

HAMAMELACExE.     The  Witch  Hazel  Familt. 

Hamamelis,  Linn.     Witch  Hazel. 
Virginica,  Linn. 

UMBELLIER^. 

Htdrocotyle,  Tourn. 

Americana,  Linn.     Falls  of  the  St.  Croix,   Dr.  Parry. 

Sanicula,  Tourn. 

Marylandica,  Linn.     Sanicle. 

Ertngium,  Tourn. 

aquaticum,  Linn.     Rattlesnake-Master. 

PoLTTiENIA,   DC. 

Nuttallii,  DC. 

Heracleum,  Linn.     Cow  Parsnip, 
lanatura,  Michx. 

Pastinaca,  Tourn. 

sativa,  Linn.     Wild  Parsnip.     Poisonous. 

Archangelica,  Hofi'm. 
atropurpurea,  Hofi'm. 

CoNiosELiNUM,  Fischcr. 

Canadense,  Torr.  &  Gray. 

Zizia,  Kocli.     Alexanders. 

cordata,  Koch. 
aurea,  Koch, 
integerrima,  DC. 

BuPLEURUM,  Tourn. 

rotundifolium,  Linn.     Introduced. 

CicuTA,  Linn. 

maculata,  Linn, 
bulbifera,  Linn. 

SiUM,  Linn.     Water  Parsnip, 
latifolium,  Linn. 

Crtptot^enia,  DC. 

Canadense,  DC.     Honewort. 


390 

OsMoRHizA,  Raf.     Sweet  Cicely. 

longistylis,  DC. 

brevistylis,  DC.     St.  Croix,  Dr.  Parry. 

CoNiuM,  Linn.     Poison  Hemlock, 
maculatum,  Linn.     Green  Bay. 

Erigenia,  Nutt. 
bulbosa,  Nutt. 

ARALIACE.E.     The  Spikenard  Familt. 
Aralia,  Linn. 

racemosa,  Linn.     Spikenard. 

nudicaulis,  Linn.     Wild  Sarsaparilla. 

hispida,  Michx.     Upper  Wisconsin  River,   I.  A.  L. 

Panax,  Linn. 

quinquefolium,  Linn.     Ginseng, 
trifolium,  Linn.     Ground-Nut. 

CORXACE^E.     The  Dogwood  Family. 

CoRNus,  Tourn. 

alternifolia,  Linn.     Yellow-Twigged  Dogwood. 

circinata,  L'Her.     L.  Superior  to  Upper  Miss.,  Dr.  Houghton. 

sericea,  Linn. 

stolonifera,  Michx.     Red-Twigged  Dogwood. 

paniculata,  L'Her. 

Canadensis,  Linn.     Pudding  Berry. 

CAPRIFOLIACE^.     The  Honeysuckle  Family. 
LiNN^A,  Gronov.     Twin-Flower, 
borealis,  Gronov. 

SXMPHORICARPITS,  Dill. 

occidentalis,  R.  Brown.     Wolf-Berry, 
racemosus,  Michx.     Snowberry. 

LoNiCERA,  Linn.     Honeysuckle. 

sempervirens,  Ait.     Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Houghton. 

flava,  Sims.     Yellow  Honeysuckle. 

parviflora,  Lam. 

hirsuta,  Eaton.     L.  Superior  to  Upper  Miss,,  Dr.  Houghton, 

ciliata,  Muhl. 

caerulea,  Linn. 

oblongifolia,  Muhl. 


p 


91 


DiERviLLA,  Tourn. 
trifida,  Moench. 

Triosteum,  Linn.     Horse- Gentian, 
perfoliatum,  Linn. 

Sambucus,  Linn.     Elder. 

Canadensis,  Linn. 

pubens,  Michx.     Lake  Maria,  Marquette  Co.,  L  A.  L, 

Viburnum,  Linn. 

Lentaijo,  Linn. 

dentatum,  Linn.     Arrowwood. 

acerifolium,  Linn. 

Opulus,  Linn.     V.  oxycoccus,  Pursla.     High  Cranberry. 

RUBIACE.E.    'The  Madder  Family. 

§  1.   Stellatce. 

Galium,  Linn. 

Aparine,  Linn.     Goose-Grass. 

asprellum,  Michx. 

trifidum,  Linn. 

triflorura,  Michx. 

lanceolatum,  Torr.     Wild  Liquorice. 

boreale,  Linn. 

§  2.    Cinchonece. 

Cephalaxthus,  Linn.     Button  Bush, 
occidentalis,  Linn. 

MiTOHELLA,  Linn.     Partridge-Berry, 
repens,  Linn. 

Hedyotis,  Linn. 

ciliolata,  Torr. 

longifolia.  Hook.     St.  Louis  River,  Dr.  Houghton. 

VALERIANACE^.     The  Valerian  Family. 

Valeriana,  Tourn.     Valerian. 

edulis,  Nutt.     V.  ciliata,  Torr.  &  Gray. 

Fedia,  Gsertn. 

Fagopyrum,  Torr.  &  Gray, 


392 

COMPOSITE. 

Vebnonia,  Schreb. 

Noveboracensis,  Willd.     Upper  Mississippi,  Dr.  Hougbton. 
fasciculata,  Michx.     Beloit,  Mr.  T.  McEl  Henry. 

LiATRis,  Scbreb. 

cylindracea,  Michx. 
scariosa,  Willd. 
spicata,  Willd. 

KuHNiA,  Linn. 

eupatorioides,  Linn. 

EuPATORiuM,  Tourn. 

purpureum,  Linn. 

perfoliatum,  Linn.     Thorougbwort. 

ageratoides,  Linn. 

Adenocaulon,  Hook. 

bicolor,  Hook.     Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Z.  Pitcher. 

Aster,  Linn.    Starwort. 

macropbyllus,  Linn. 

sericeus,  Vent. 

concolor,  Linn.     Neenali  River,  Dr.  Houghton. 

Jsevis,  Linn. 

azureus,  Lindl. 

Shortii,  Boott. 

cordifolius,  Linn.     St.  Croix,  Dr.  Parry. 

sagittifolius,  Willd. 

multiflorus,  Ait. 

miser,  Linn. 

tenuifoius,  Linn.     Upper  Mississippi,  Dr.  Hougbton. 

prcealtus,  Poir.    . 

carneus,  Nees. 

laxifolius,  Nees.  * 

puniceus,  Linn. 

prenantboides,  Mubl. 

oblongifolius,  Nutt.     Upper  Mississippi,  Torr.  &  Gray.  •   ,  j 

Novse-Anglise,  Linn. 

ptarmicoides,  Torr.  &  Gray. 

Erigeron,  Linn.     Fleabane. 

Canadense,  Linn. 

bellidifolium,  Mubl.     Roberts's  Plantain. 

Pbiladelpbicum,  Linn. 

glabellum,  Nutt.     St.  Croix  River,  Dr.  Hougbton. 

strigosum,  Mubl. 


393 

DrPLOPAPPus,  Cass. 

linariifolius,  Hook.     Beloit,  Mr.  T.  McEl  Henry, 
umbellatus,  Torr.  &  Gray. 

SoLiDAGO,  Linn.     Golden  Rod. 

bicolor,  Linn.     Falls  of  St.  Croix,  Dr.  Parry, 
latifolia,  Linn. 

stricta,  Ait.     St.  Croix,  Dr.  Parry. 
'  speciosa,  Nutt. 
Virga-aurea,  Linn.     Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Houghton, 
rigida,  Linn. 
Ohioensis,  Riddell. 
Riddellii,  Frank, 
neglecta,  Torr.  &  Gray, 
patula,  Mulil. 
arguta,  Ait. 
altissima,  Linn, 
ulmifolia,  Muhl. 
nemoralis,  Ait. 
Canadensis,  Linn, 
lanceolata,  Linn. 

Chetsopsis,  Nutt. 

villosa,  Nutt.     Upper  Mississippi,  Dr.  Houghton. 

Inerla,  Linn.     Elecampane. 

heleniurn,  Linn.     Introduced. 

PoLYMNiA,  Linn. 

Canadensis,  Linn. 

SiLPiiiuM,  Linn. 

ternatum,  Linn.     Waukesha,  Mr.  G.  H.  Cornwall, 
laciniatum,  Linn.     Compass  Plant, 
terebinthinaceum,  Linn.     Prairie  Dock, 
trifoliatum,  Linn.     Waukesha,  Mr.  G.  H.  Cornwall, 
integrifolium,  Miclix. 
perfoliatum,  Linn.     Waukesha,  Mr.  G.  H,  Cornwall. 

Parthenium,  Linn. 

integrifolium,  Linn. 

Ambrosia,  Tourn. 
trifida,  Linn, 
artemisia^folia,  Linn. 

Xanthium,  Tourn. 

strumarium,  Linn. 

Heliopsis,  Pers.     Oxeye. 
leevis,  Pers. 

26 


394 

Echinacea,  Mcencli. 

angustifolia,  DC.     Beloit,;,Mr.  T.  McEl  Henry. 

KuDBECKiA,  Linn. 

laciniata,  Linn. 
hirta,  Linn. 

Lepachys,  Raf. 

pinnata,  Torr.  &  Gray. 

Heliantiius,  Linn.     Sunflower. 

rigidus,  Pers. 
occidentalis,  BiddelL 
giganteus,  Linn, 
decapetalus,  Linn, 
strumosus,  Linn. 

Coreopsis,  Linn. 

trichosperma,  Michx. 

palmata,  Nutt. 

lanceolata,  Linn.     Two  Ilivers,^Manitowoc  Co. 

BiDENS,  Linn.     Beggar-Ticks. 

frondosa,  Linn. 

cerniia,  Linn. 

chrysanthemoides,  Michx. 

Beckii,  Torr.     St.  Croix  River,  [Dr.  Houghton. 

Helenium,  Linn. 

autumnale,  Linn. 

Maruta,  Cass.     May-Weed. 
CotuLa,  DC. 

Achillea,  Linn.     Yarrow. 
Millefolium,  Linn. 

Tanacetum,  Linn.     Tansey. 

Huronensis,  Nntt.     Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Houghton. 

Artemisia,  Linn.     Wormwood. 

Canadensis,  Michx. 
Ludoviciana,  Nutt. 
biennis,  Willd. 

Gnaphalium,  Linn. 

decurrcns,  Ives.     Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Parry. 

polycephalum,  Michx. 

\iliu:inosum,  Linn.     Elkhorn,  Walworth  Co. 


305 

Antennaria,  Gaertn. 

dioica,  Gaertn. 
plantaginifolia,  Hook. 

Erechthites,  Raf.     Fireweed. 

hieracifolia,  Raf.     Falls  of  St.  Croix,  Dr.  Parry. 

Cacalia,  Linn.     Indian  Plantain. 

suaveolens,  Linn. 
reniformis,  Mnhl. 
atriplicifolia,  Linn. 
tuberosa,  Nutt. 

Senecio,  Linn. 

vulgaris  Linn.     . 

aureus,  Linn.     Rasfwort. 

tomentosus,  Micbx.     Beloit,  Mr.  T.  McEl  Henry. 

Cersium,  Tourn. 

lanceolatum,  Scop.     Thistle,  introduced. 

Pitcheri,  Torr.  &  Gray.     Two  Rivers,  Manitowoc  Co. 

Virginianum,  Michx. 

muticum,  Michx. 

pumilum,  Spreng. 

arvense,  Scop.     Canada  Thistle,    introduced. 

Lappa,  Tourn. 

major,  Gcertn.     Burdock. 

Cynthia,  Don. 

Virginica,   Don. 

HiERACiuM,  Tourn.     Hawkwced. 

Canadense,  Michx. 

scabrum,  Michx. 

Gronovii,  Linn. 

longipilum,  Torrey.     Blue  Mounds. 

Nabalus,  Cass. 

alb  us,  Hook, 
racemosus,  Hook. 

Troximon,  Nutt. 

cuspidatum,  Pursb. 

Taraxacum,  Haller. 

Dens-leonis,  Desf.     Dandelion, 

Lactuca,  Tourn. 
elongata,  Muhl, 


396 

SoKCHUs,  Linn.     Sovr-Thistle. 
oleraceus,  Linn. 

LOBELIACE^E.     The  Lobella  Family. 

LoBELLA,  Linn. 

cardinalis,  Linn.     Cardinal  Flower, 
siphilitica,  Linn.     Blue  Lobelia. 
inflata,  Linn.     Indian  Tobacco, 
spicata,  Lam. 
Kalmii,  Linn. 

CAMPANULACE.E.    The  Bell-Flo-sver  Fajmilt. 

Campanula,  Toum. 

rotundifolia,  Linn.     Hair-Bell, 
aparinoides,  Pur&li. 
Americana,  Linn. 

Specuiaria,  Heist. 

jKrfoliata,  A.  DC.  Marc^uette  Co.,  Mr.  J.  Townley. 

ERICACE^.     The  Heath  Family. 

§  1.    Vacciniece. 
Gatluesacia,  H.  B.  &  K.     Huckleberry. 

leiincsa,  Torr.  <fc  Gray.     Black  Huckleberry. 

VACCiKirM,  Linn. 

macrocarpon,  Ait.     Cranberry. 

Pennsylvanicura,  Lara.     Blue  Huckleberry. 

Canadense,  Kalm.     Blueberry.     Falls  of  St.  Croix,  Dr.  Parry. 

Chiogexes,  Salisb. 

hispidula,  Torr.  &:  Gray. 

§  2.  Uriel  lie  w. 
Aectostaphtlos,  Adans. 

Uva-ursi,  Spieng.    Bear-Berr)'. 

Gaulthekia,  Kalm. 

procumbens,  Linn.    Winter-Green. 

Epig-EA,  Linn, 

repens,  Linn,    Mayflower.     Lemonwier  Pviver. 

AsDBOMEDA,  Linn. 

poli  folia,  Linn, 
calyculta,  Linn. 


on" 

Kalmia,  Linn.    Laurel. 

glauca,  Ait,    Lake  Superior,  Prof.  Douglrs;. 

Ledcm,  Linn.    Labrador  Tea. 

latifolium.  Ait,     Dells  of  the  Wisconsin  Eirer. 

§  3.  Pyroleae. 

Ptt.ola,  Linn. 

rotundifolia,  Linn, 
asarifolia,  Michx. 
elliptica,  XutL     Shin-Leaf, 
secunda  Linn. 

MoKESES,  Salisb.     Pyrola,  Linn. 

unidora.     Mauvaise  River,  Dr.  Hcujhton. 

Chimaphila,  Pursh. 

umbellata,  Xutt.     Prince's  Pine. 

§  4.  JfonofropecE. 
Htpopitts,  Dill. 

lanuginosa,  Xutt    Lake  Superior,  D.'.  Parrr, 
MoxoTBOPA,  Gronov.    Indian  Pipe. 

uniflora,  Linn. 

AQUIFOLL\CE.E.    The  Hollt  Fasiily. 

Prinos,  Linn.     Winter-Berry, 
verticillatus,  Lino. 

Xemopanthes,  Raf.     Lemonwier  River. 
Canadensis,  DC. 

PLAXTAGIXACE^.    The  PL.\xTAi>i  Family. 

Plantago,  Linn.     Plantain. 

major,  Linn, 
cordata,  Lam. 

PRIMTLACE^.    The  Ppjmrose  FAiiiLY. 

Primula,  Linn.     Primrose. 

farinosa,  Linn.     Lake  Supericr,  Dr.  Houghton. 

Mistassinica,  Michx.     Dells  of  the  Wisconsin,  Mr.  B.  F.  Mills, 

DoDECATHEOx,  Lino. 

Meadia,  Linn.     Shooting  Star. 


398 

Trientalis,  LiuD. 

Americana,  Pursh. 

Lysimachia,  Linu.     Loosestrife. 

stricta,  Ait.     Marquette  Co.,  Mr.  John  Townlej. 

quadiit'olia,  Linn. 

ciliata,  Linn. 

lanceolata,  Walt.     L.  liybrida,  Michx.     Brookfield,  Mr.  M.  Spears. 

angustifolia,  Lara.     L.  revoluta,  Nutt. 

Naumburgia,  Moench. 
tbyrsiflora,  Reicli. 

LENTIBULACE^.    Tue  Bladdervvort  Family. 

Utricularia,  Linn. 

purpurea,  Walt.     Lac  Cbetac,  Dr.  HougLton. 

vulgaris,  Linn. 

minor,  Linn. 

intermedia,  Hayne.     Eroolsfield,  Mr.  M.  Spears. 

cornuta,  Michx.     Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Houghton. 

OROBANCHACEtE.     The  Broom  Rape  Family. 

Epiphegus,  Nutt.     Beech  Drops, 

Virginiana,  Bart. 
CoNOPHOLis,  Wallr.     Orobanche,  Linn. 

Americana,  Wallr. 

Aphyllon,  Mitchell. 

uniflorum.  Tor.  &.  Gr.     Marquettee  Co.,  Mr.  J.  Townley. 

ACANTHACEiE.     The  Acanthus  Family. 

DiPTERACANTHus,  Nees.    lluellia,  Linn. 

hybridus,  Nees.     Beloit,  Mr.  T.  McEl  Henry. 

SCROPHULARIACE^.    Tub  Figwoet  Family. 

Verbascum,  Linn.     Mullen. 

Thapsus,  Linn.     Introduced. 

Linaria,  Tourn.     Toad  Flax. 

vulgaris.  Mill.    Waukesha,  Mr.  G.  H.  Cornwall. 

ScROPnuLARiA,  Linn.     Figwort. 
nodosa,  Linn.     S.  Marylandica. 


399 

COLLINSIA,  Nutt 

verna,  Nutt. 

parviflora,  Dougl.     South  shore  of  Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Z,  Pitcher. 

Chelone,  Tourn.     Snake  Head, 
glabra,  Linu. 

Pentstemon,  Mitchell, 
pubescens,  Solander. 

MiMULus,  Linn.     Monkey  Flower. 

ringrens,  Linn. 
Jamesii,  Torr.  &  Gray. 

Gratiola,  Linn. 

virginlana,  Linn.     Wisconsin  River,  Grant  Co. 

Synthyris,  Benth. 

Houghtoniana,  Benth. 

Veronica,  Linn.     Speedwell.  ^ 

Virginica,  Linn.     Leptandra,  Nutt. 
Angalis,  Linn, 
scutellata,  Linn, 
peregiina,  Linn. 

Gerardia,  Linn. 

purpurea,  Linn. 

tenuifolia,  Vahl. 

setacea,  Waltr. 

pediculaiia,  Linn.     Wisconsin  River,  Prof.  Douglass.     Neenah  River,  Dr. 

grandiflora,  Benth.  [Houghton. 

Castilleja,  Mutis.     Painted  Cup. 

coccinea,  Spreng. 

sessiliflora,  Pursh.     Euchroraa  grandiflora,  Nutt. 

Pedicularis,  Tourn.     Lousewort. 
Canadensis,  Linn, 
lanceolata,  Michx. 

Melampyrum,  Tourn.     Cow  Wheat. 

pratense,  Linn.     M.  Americanura,  Michx. 

VERBENACE^.    The  Vervain  Family. 

Verbena,  Linn.     Vervain. 

hastata,  Linn. 

urticifolia,  Linn.  •  '     ' 

ano-ustifolia,  Linn. 

bracteosa,  Michx. 

stricta,  Vent.     Upper  Mississippi,  Dr.  Houghton. 


400 


Phryma,  Linn.     Lopseed. 
leptostachya,  Linn. 


LABIAT.^.     The  Mint  Family. 

Mentha,  Linn.      Mint. 

Canadensis,  Linu.     M.  borealis,  Micbx. 

Lycopus,  Linn. 

Virginicus,  Linn.     Bugle  Weed, 
sinuatus,  Ell.     L.  Europreus,  Ph. 

MiCROMERiA,  BentL. 

glabella,  Benth.     Hedeoma  glabra,  Nntt.     Lake  Michigan  to  Lake  Supe- 

[rior  and  Upper  Mississippi,  Dr.  Houghton, 
Blephilla,  Raf. 

ciliata,  Raf. 

MoNARDA,  Linn.     Horse  Mint. 

fistulosa,  Linn, 
punctata,  Linn. 

Nepeta,  Linn.     Catnip, 
cataria,  Linn. 

LoPANTHus,  Benth. 

anisatus,  Benth.     Falls  of  St.  Croix,  Dr.  Parry. 
nepetdides,  Benth. 
scrophulai'iasfolius,  Benth. 

PrcNANTHEMUM,  Michx.     Mountain  Mint, 
lanceolatura,  Pursh. 

Prunella,  Linn.     Heal-All. 
vulgaris,  Linn. 

Scutellaria,  Linn.     Scullcap. 

parvula,  Michx. 

galericulata,  Linn. 

lateritloia,  Linn.     Mad  Dog  Scullcap. 

cordifolia,  Muhl. 

Puysostegia,  Benth.     Dracocephalum,  Linn. 
Virginiana,  Benth.     Dragon-Head. 

Leonurus,  Linn.     Motherwort. 
Cardiaca,  Linn. 


401 

Galeopsis,  Linn, 

tetrahit,  Linn.     Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Parry. 

Stachys,  Linn.     Horse  Nettle. 
aspera,  Michx. 

Teucrium,  Linn.     Germander. 
Canadense,  Linn. 

BOIIAGINACE^.    The  Borage  Family. 

Onosmodium,  Michx. 

Virginianum,  DG.     0.  hispidum,  Mx. 

LiTHOspERMUM,  Toum.     Gromwell. 

officinale,  Linn. 

hirtura,  LeliHi.     Marquette  Co.,  Mr.  John  Townley. 

canescens,  Lehm.     Batschia  canescens,  Mx. 

Pektalophus,  DC.     Batschia,  Nutt. 

longiflorus,  DC.     Beloit,  Mr.  T.  McEl  Henry. 

Mertensia,  Roth.     Pulmonaria,  Linn.     Lungwort. 

Virglnica,  DC.     Beloit,  Mr.  McEl  Henry. 

Myostis,  Linn. 

Stricta,  Linn.    Marpuette  Co.,  Mr.  J.  Townley. 

EcHiNosPERMUM,  Swartz. 
Lappula,  Lehra. 

Cynoglossum,  Tourn.     Hound's-Tongue. 

officinalis,  Linn. 
Virginicum,  Linn. 
Jlorisoni,  DC. 

HYDROPHYLLACE^.    The  Water-Leaf  Fawily. 

Hydrophyllum,  Linn.     Water-Leaf, 

Virginicum,  Linn. 

appendiculatum,  Michx,     Beloit,  Mr.  T.  McEl  Henry. 

POLEMONIACE^. 

Polemonium,  Tourn. 

reptans,  Linn.     Jacob's  Ladder. 

Phlox,  Linn.  « 

glaberrima,  Linn.     P.  revoluta,  Eaton, 
pilosa,  Linn, 
divaricata,  Linn. 


402 

CONVOLVULACE^v. 

Calystegia,  R.  Brown.     Convolvulii?,  Linn, 
sepiuno,  R.  Biown. 
spitbamsea,  Pursh. 

CuscDTA,  Touru. 

Gronovii,  Willd.     C.  Americana,  Pursh. 

SOLANACEtE.     The  Nightshade  Family. 

Datura,  Linn.     Jamestown  "Weed.  . 

Stramonium,  Linn.     Introduced. 

NicANDRA,  Adans. 

physaloides,  Gsertn. 

Physalis,  Linn.     Ground  Cherry, 
viscosa,  Linn. 

SoLANUM,  Linn. 

nigrum,  Linn.     Night  Shade. 

GENTIANACE^.     The  Gentian  Family. 

Gkntiana,  Linn. 

quinqueflora,  Lam. 

crinita,  Frsel. 

detonsa,  Fries. 

rubricaulis,  Keating.     Waukesha,  Mr.  G.  H.  Cornwall. 

saponaria,  Linn. 

Halenia,  Borkh.     Swertia,  Linn. 

deflexa,  Griesb.     Mauvaise  and  Bois  Brule  Rivers,  Dr.  Houfrhton. 

Menyanthes,  Tourn.     Buckbean. 
trifoliata,  Linn. 

APOCYNACE^.    The  Dogbane  Family. 

Apocynum,  Tourn. 

androsaemifolium,  Linn, 
hypericifoham,  Ait. 

ASCLEPIADACE^.     The  Milkweed  Family. 

AscLEPiAs,  Linn. 

Cornuti,  Decaisne.     A.  Sjriaca,  Linn, 
pbytolaccoides,  Pursh. 


403 

(ASCLEPIAS.) 

variegata,  Linn. 

obtusifolia,  Micbx. 

rubra,  Linn.     Waukesha,  Mr.  G.  H.  Cornwall. 

'incarnata,  Linn. 

verticillata,  Linn.     Beloit,  Dr.  S.  P.  Latbrop. 

tuberosa,  Linn.     ButteiHy  Weed. 

lanuginosa,  Nutt.     Eagle  Prairie,  I.  A.  Lapham. 

ACERATES,  Ell. 

viridiflora,  Ell. 

longifolia,  Ell.     Marquette  Co.,  Mr.  J.  Townley. 

OLE  ACE  ^E.     The  Olive  Family.' 

Fraxinus,  Tourn.     Ash. 

Americana,  Linn.     White  Ash. 
sambucifolia,  Lam.     Black  Ash. 

ARISTOLOCHIACE^.     The  Birthwort  Family. 

AsARUM,  Tourn. 

Cauadense,  Linn.     Colt's  Foot. 

CHEN0P0DIACEJ5.    The  Goosefoot  Family. 

Salsola,  Linn.     Saltwort. 

kali,  Linn.     Lake  Shore,  Milwaukee. 

Chenopodium,  Linn. 

album,  Linn.     Pigweed, 
hybridura,  Linn     Goosefoot. 

Blitum,  Tourn. 

capitatum,  Linn.     Indian  Strawberry. 

Ambrina,  Spach. 

Botrys,  Moquin.     Brooklield,  Mr.  G.  H.  Cornwall. 

AcNiDA,  Mitchell.     Water  Hemp. 

cannabina,  Linn.     St.  Croix,  Dr.  Parry. 

AMARANTHACE^.    The  Amaranth  Family. 

Amaranthus,  Linn. 

altissimus,  Riddell. 
hybridus,  Linn.     Red  Root, 
hypocondriacus,  Linn.     Prince's  Feather, 
tamariscinus,  Nutt. 


40-1: 

NYCTAGINACE.-E.    Tue  JTrcxAQo  Family. 
Allionia,  Linn. 

albiJa,  Wallr.     St  Croix  River,  Dr.  Houghton, 
nyctaginea,  Micbx.     St.  Croix  River,  Dr.  Houghton. 

OxYBAPHus  ANGusTiFOLius,  Torr.     St.  Croix,  Dr.  Parry. 

POLYGONACE.E.     The  Buckwheat  Family. 

Polygonum,  Linn. 

Pennsylvanicum,  Linn. 

Persicaria,  Linn. 

Hydropiper,  Linn.     P.  punctatura,  Ell. 

hydropiperoides,  Michx. 

aruphibiiim,  Linn. 

aviculare,  Linn.     Knot-Grass. 

articulatum,  Linn.     Lakes  Michigan  and  Superior,  Dr.  Houghton. 

Virginianum,  Linn. 

sagittatum,  Linn. 

Convolvuhis,  Lion. 

cilinode,  Michx,     Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Houghton. 

dumetorium,  Linn.     P.  scandens,  L. 

RuMEX,  Linn.     Dock. 

Britannica,  Linn. 

crispus,  Linn.     Curled  Dock. 

Acetosella,  Linn.     Sorrel. 

hydrolapathum,  Hudson.     St.  Croix.  Dr.  Parry. 

THYMELEACE.E.     The  Mezereum  Family. 
DiRCA,  Linn.     Leatherwood. 
palustris,  Linn. 

EL^AGNACE^E.     The  Oleaster  Family. 
Shepherdia,  Nutt. 
Canadensis,  Nutt. 

SANTALACE.E.     The  Sandal  Wood  Family. 

COMAXDRA,  i!^Utt. 

umbellata,  Nutt. 

ULMA.CE.E.     The  Elm  Family. 

Ulmus,  Linn.     Elm. 

Americana,  Linn.     White  Elm. 
fulva,  Michx.     Slippery  Elm. 


405 

Celtis,  Tourii. 

occidentalis,  Linn.     Hack  Berry. 

SAURURACE^E.     The  Lizard's  Tail  Family. 

Saururus,  Linn.     Lizard's  Tail. 

cernuu?,  Linn.     Upper  Mississippi,  Dr.  Hougliton. 

CALLITRICHACE>'E. 

Callitriche,  Linn, 
verna,  Linn. 

EUPHORBIACEyE.     The  Spupge  Family. 

Euphorbia,  Linn. 

corollata,  Linn, 
maculata,  Linn, 
hypericifolia,  Linn.     St.  Croix,  Dr.  Parry. 

EMPETRACE.^.    The  Ceowberry  Family. 

Empetrum,  Tourn.     Crowberry. 

nigrum,  Linn.     Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Hougliton. 

JUGLANDACE^.     The  Walnut  Family. 

Juglans,  Linn.     Walnut. 

cinerea,  Linn.     Butternut  or  White- Walnut, 
nigra,  Linn.     Black-Walnut. 

Carya.  Nutt.     Hickory. 

alba,  Nutt.     Shag-Bark  Hickory. 

glabra,  Torr.     C.  porcina,  Nutt.     Pignut  Hickory. 

CUPULIFER^E.    The  Oak  Family. 

Quercus,  Linn.     Oak. 

alba>  Linn.     While  Oak. 

obtusilpba,  Michx.     Q.  stellate,  Willd.     Post   Oak.     Upj^er  Mississippi, 

macrocarpa,  Michx.     Burr  Oak.  [Dr.  Houghton. 

bicolor,  Willd.     Swamp  White  Oak. 

Prinos,  Linn.     Swamp  Chestnut  Oak.     Near  Janesville,  I.  A.  L. 

rubra,  Linn.     Red  Oak. 

palustris,  Linn.     Pin  Oak. 

Fagus,  Tourn.     Beech, 
ferruginea,  Ait. 


406 

CoRYLUS,  Tourn.     Hazel-Nut. 

Americana,  Walt, 
rostrata,  Ait. 

Carpinus,  Linn.     Hornbeam. 
Americana,  Micbx. 

OsTRYA,  Micheli.     Iron  Wood. 

Virginica,  Willd.  , 

MYRICACE^.     The  Sweet  Gale  Family, 
Myrica,  Linn.     Sweet  Gale. 

Gale,  Linn.     Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Houghton. 

CoMTONiA,  Solander.     Sweet  Fern. 

asplenifolia,  Ait.     Dells  of  Wisconsin  River. 

BETULACE^.     The  Birch  Family. 

Betula,  Tourn.     Birch. 

papyracea,  Ait.     Canoe  Birch. 

pumila,  Linn.     B.  glandulosa,  Mx.     Low  Birch. 

Alnus,  Tourn.     Alder. 

incana,  V\'^illd.     A.  glanca,  Mx.     St.  Croix  River,  Dr.  Houghton, 
serrulata,  Willd. 

SALICACE^.     The  Willow  Family. 

Salix,  Tourn.     Willow. 

Candida,  Willd. 

tristis,  Ait. 

humilis,  Marshall.     S,  Muhlenbergiana,  Barr. 

discolor,  Muhl. 

eriocephala,  Michx.     S.  prinoides,  Ph.     Mauvaise  River,  Dr.  Houghton. 

sericea,  Marshall.     S.  Gr.sea,  Willd. 

rostrata,  Ricbardson. 

lucida,  Muhl. 

longifolia,  Mubl.     Upper  Mississippi,  Dr.  Houghton. 

pedicellaris,  Pursh.     St.  Croix,  Dr.  Parry. 

PoPULUS,  Tourn.     Poplar. 

tremuloides,  Michx.     Quaking  Aspen. 

grandidentata,  Micbx. 

candicans,  Ait.     Balm  of  Gilead. 

•     PLATAN ACE^.     The  Plane-Tree  Family. 

Platancs,  Linn.     Sycamore,  Buttonwood.  ^ 

occidentalis,  Linn. 


407 

URTICACEiE.     The  Nettle  Family. 

HuMULus,  Linn.     Hop. 
Lupulu3,  Linn. 

Urtica,  Tourn.     Nettle. 

dioica,  Linn. 
Canadensis,  Linn. 

PiLEA,  Lincll.     Adike,  Raf. 
pumila,  Linn. 

Parietaria,  Tourn.     Pellitory. 
Pennsylvanica,  Muhl. 

CONIFERS,    The  Pine  Family. 

PiNus,  Tourn.     Pine. 

Banksiana,  Lambert.     Dells  of  the  Wisconsin, 
resinosa,  Ait.     Red  Pine. 

niitis,  Miclix.  Yellow  Pine.  Dane  County,  L  A.  L. 
Strobus,  Linn.     White  Pine. 

Abies,  Tourn.     Spruce. 

bal<amea,  Mai.sh.  Balsam  Fir.  Manitowoc,  L  A.  L. 
Canadensis,  Michx.  Hemlock.  Manitowoc,  L  A.  L. 
nigra,   Poir.     Black  Spruce.     Lake  Superior,   Dr.   Houghton.     Upper 

[Mississippi,  Prof.  Douglass, 
alba,  Michx.     White  Spruce.     Upper  St.  Croix,  Dr.  Pany. 

Larix,  Tourn.     Laich. 

Americana,  Michx.     Tamarack. 

Thuja,  Tourn. 

occidentalis,  Linn.     White  Cedar. 

JuNiPERUS,  Linn.     Juniper. 

communis,  Linn. 

Virginiana,  Linn.     Red  Cedar. 

Taxus,  Tourn.     Yew. 
Canadensis,  Willd. 

ARACE^.    The  Arum  Family. 

Arum,  Linn.     Indian  Turnip, 
tiiphyllum,  Linn. 

Calla,  Linn.     Water  Arum, 
paluslris,  Linn. 


408 

Symplocarpus,  Salisb.     Skunk  Cabbage, 
foetidus,  Salisb. 

AcoRus,  Linn.     Sweet  Flag. 
calamus,  Linn. 

LEMNACE^E.    The  Duckweed  Family. 

Lemna,  Linn.    Duckweed. 

minor,  Linn, 
trisulca,  Linn. 

TYPHACE^.    The  Cat -Tail  Family. 

Typha,  Tourn.     Cat-Tail, 
latifolia,  Linn. 

Sparganium,  Tourn. 

ramosum,  Hudson. 

natans,  Linn.     St.  Croix,  Dr.  Parry. 

NAIDACEtE.     The  Pondweed  Family. 

Potamogeton,  Tourn.     Pondweed. 

amplifolius,  Tuckerman. 

perfoliatu?,  Linn. 

compressus,  Linn.     P.  zosterifolius,  Sebum. 

pauciflorus,  Pursb.     P.  gramineus,  Mx. 

pectinalus,  Linn. 

heteropbyllns,  Scbreber. 

ALISMACE^.    The  Water  Plantain  Family. 

§  1.  Juncaginece. 
Triglochin,   Linn, 
elatum,  Nutt. 

ScHEUcnzERiA,  Linn, 
palustris,  Linn, 

§  2.  AUsmece. 
Alisma,  Line.     Water  Plantain. 
Plantago,  Linn. 

EcHiNODORUs,  Ricbard. 

subulatus,  Engleman.     St.  Croix,   Dr,  Parry. 

Saqittaria,  Linn. 

sagittifolia,  Linn.    Arrow-Leaf. 


409 

.  HYDRO  OARDI ACE /E.     The  Frog's-Bit  Family. 

Udoua,  Nutt.    Water  Weed. 
Canadensis,  Nutt. 

Vallisneria.  Mitchell.     Tape  Grass, 
spiralis,  Linn. 

ORCHIDACE^E.     Tuk  Orchis  Family. 

MrCROSTYLIS,  Nutt. 

monophylla?,  Lindl.     St.  Croix,  Dr.  Parry, 
ophioglossoidos,  Nutt. 

Liparis,  Richards. 

liliifora,  Ricliards. 

Lceselii,  Richards.     Waukesha,  Mr.  G.  H.  Cornwall. 

Corallorhiza,  Haller. 

multifiora,  Nutt.     Waukesha.     Mr.  G.  H.  Cornwall. 

Aplkctrum,  Nutt.     Putty  Root.  ^ 

hyemale,  Nutt. 

Orchis,  Linn. 

spectabilis,  Linn. 

Platantiiera,  Richards. 

orbiculata,  Lindl. 

Hookeri,  Lindl. 

bracteata,  Torr. 

dilatata,  Lindl.     St.  Croix,  Dr.  Parry. 

hyperborea,  Lindl. 

leucophcoa,  JNutt. 

psycodes.  Gray.     0.  fimbriata  Pursh. 

AjiETUusA,  Gronov. 

bulbosa,  Linn.     Lemonwier  River. 

PoGONiA,  Juss. 

ophioglossoides,  Nutt.     Waukesha,  Mr.  G.  H.  Cornwall. 

Calopogox,  R.  Brown. 
pulchellus,  R.  Br. 

Spiranthes,  Richards.     Lady's  Tresses, 
gracilis,  Bigelow. 
cernua,  Richards 

GooDYERA.     R.  Brown, 
pubescens,  R.  Brown. 

27 


410 

Ctpripedium,  Linn.    Lady's  Slipper. 

pubescens,  Willd.     Yellow  Lady's  Slipper, 
parviflorum,  Salisb.     Small  Yellow  Lady's  Slipper, 
candidum,  Miihl.     White  Lady's  Slipper, 
spectabile,  Swartz.     Moccason  Flower, 
acaule,  Ait.     Purple  Lady's  Slipper. 

AMARYLLIDACE^.     The  Amaryllis  Family. 

Hypoxis,  Linn.     Star  Grass, 
erecta,  Linn. 

H^MODORACE^.      The  Bloodwort  Family. 

Aletris,  Linn.     Star  Grass. 

farinosa,  Linn.     Marquette  Co.,  Mr.  J.  Townlej. 

IRIDACE^.     TuE  Iris  Family. 

Iris,  Linn. 

§ 

versicolor,  Linn.     Blue  Flag, 
lacustris,  Nutt. 

Sisyrinchium,  Linn.     Blue-eyed  Grass. 
Bermudianum,  LiuH. 

DIOSCORACE^.    The  Yam  Family. 
DioscoREA,  Plumier. 
viUosa,  Linn. 

SMIL  ACE. ^.     The  Green  Brier  Familt. 

§  1.  Smilacece. 
Smilax,  Tourn. 

rotundifolia,  Linn.     Green  Brier, 
herbacea,  Linn, 
lasioneuron,  Hook. 

§  2.   Trilliaceoe. 
.  Trillium,  Linn. 

cernuum,  Linn.     T.  pendulum,  Mubl. 
grandiflorum,  Salisb. 
nivale,  Riddell. 
recurvatum.  Beck, 
sessile,  Linn. 

Medeola,  Gronov. 
Virginica,  Linn. 


411 

LTLIACE.^,     The  Lily  Family. 

§  1,  Asparageoe. 
Asparagus,  Lino. 

officinale,  Linn.     Introduced. 

PoLYGONATUM,  Tourn.     Solomon's  Seal, 
pubescens,  Pursh. 

Smilacina,  Desf. 

racemosa,  Desf. 
st  el  lata,  Desf, 
tiifolia,  Desf. 
bifolia,  Ker. 

Clintonia,  Raf. 
bo  real  is,  Raf. 

§  2.  Asphodelece. 
Scilla,  Linn. 

esculenta,  Ker.     Beloit,  Dr.  S.  P.  Latlirop. 

Allium,  Linn.     Garlic. 

Canadense,  Kalm. 
cernuum,  Roth, 
tricoccum,  Ait.     Leek. 

§  3.   TulipacecE. 
LiLiUM,  Linn.     Lily. 

Philadelphicum,  Linn.     Orange  Lily. 
Canadense,  Linn.     Nodding  Lily. 

Erythronium,  Linn.     Dog's  Tooth  Violet. 

Americaiuim,  Smith, 
albidum,  Nutt. 

MELANTHACE^.     The  Colchicum  Family. 

§  \.    Uoidariece. 

Uvularia,  Linn.     Bellwort. 

grandiflora,  Smith. 

sessilifolia,  Linn.     Marquette  Co.,  Mr.  John  Townley. 

Streptopus,  Michx. 
roseus,  Michx. 

§  2.  MelanthiecB, 
Zygadenus,  Michx. 

glaucus,  Nutt, 


412 

ToFiELDiA,  Hudson, 
glutinosa,  Willd. 

-    JUNCAOE^.     The  Rush  Family. 

LuzuLA,  DC.     Woodrusli. 

pilosa,  Willd. 
campestris,  Linn. 

JuNCus,  Linn.     Rush. 

eflfusus,  Linn. 
..Balticus,  Willd. 

scirpoides,  Lam.     T.  polycephalus,  Mx. 
acurainatus,  Micbx. 
tenuis,  Willd. 
conradi,  Tuckerman.     St.  Croix,  Dr.  Parry. 

PONTEDERIACEiS.     The  Pickerel-Weed  Familt. 
PoNTEDERiA,  Linn.     Pickerel-Weed, 
cordata,  Linn. 

COMMELYNACE^E.     The  Spiderwort  Family. 
Tradescantia,  Linn.     Spiderwort. 
Virginica,  Linn. 

CYPERACE^.     The  Sedge  Family. 

Cyperus,  Linn. 

diandrus,  Torr. 

inflexus,  Muhl.     Bass  Lake,  Dane  Co.,  I.  A.  Lapbam. 

schweinitzii,  Torr.     St.  Croix,  Dr.  Parry. 

strigosus,  Linn. 

filiculmis,  Vahl.     Upper  Mississippi,  Dr.  Houghton. 

Dulichium,  Richard, 
spathaceum,  Pers. 

Eleocharis,  R.  Brown, 
obtusa,  Schultz. 
palustris,  R.  Brown, 
tenuis,  Schultz. 
acicularis,  R.  Brown. 

SciRPUS,  Linn. 

pungens,  Vahl.     S.  triqueter,  Mx. 

lacustris,  Linn.     Bulrush. 

fluviatilis,  Gray.     S.  maratimus,  var.  Torr. 

atrovirens,  Muhl. 

lineatus,  Micbx. 

Eriophorum,  Micbx. 


413 

Eriophorum,  Linn.     Cotton  Grass. 

alpinura,  Linn.     Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Houghton, 
vaafinatum,  Linn. 
Virginicum,  Linn, 
polystachyura,  Linn, 
angustifolium,  Richard. 

ScLERiA,  Linn. 

triglomerata,  Mx.     Beloit,  Dr.  S.  P.  Lathrop. 

Carex,  Linn,     Ledge. 

aurea,  Nutt. 

anceps,  Willd. 

blanda,  Dewey. 

bromoides,  Schk. 

Buxbaumii,  WahL 

bullata,  Schk. 

chordorrhiza,  Ehrh. 

comosa,  Boott. 

Deweyana,  Schw. 

eburnea,  Boott. 

festucacea,  Schk. 

gracilis,  Ehrh.     C.  disperma,  Dewey. 

granulans,  Muhl. 

gracillima,  Schw. 

grisea,  Wahl.     Beloit,  Dr.  S.  P.  Lathrop. 

hystriciana,  Willd. 

intermedia,  Good. 

irrigua,  Smith. 

inturaescens,  Rudge. 

laxiflora,  Lam. 

lanuginosa.  Michx.     C.  Pellita,  Muhl. 

lacustris,  Willd. 

lupulina,  Muhl. 

longirostris,  Torr.     Blue  Mounds,  I.  A.  Lapham. 

miliacea,  Muhl.     Beloit,  Dr.  S.  P.  Lathrop. 

mirabilis.  Dew. 

oligosperum,  Michx. 

plantasinea,  Lam. 

polytrichoides,  Muhl. 

panicea,  Linn.     C.  Meadii,  Dew. 

Pennsylvanica,  Lam. 

pubescens,  Muhl.     Brookfield,  Mr.  M.  Spears. 

rosea,  Schk. 

rigida,  Good.     C.  saxatalis.     Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Houghton. 

siccata,  DeAvey.     Beloit,  Dr.  S.  P.  Lathrop. 

stipata,  Muhl. 

sparganoides,  Nuhl. 

stellulata.  Good. 


414 

(Cabex.) 

straminea,  Schk. 

stricta,  Lam.     C.  acuta,  Mulil.     C.  angustata,  Boott. 

teretiuscula,   Good. 

tenera,  Dew. 

vulpinoidea,  Michx.     C.  multiflora,  Miilil. 

GRAMINE.'E.     The  Grass  Family. 

Leersia,  Solander.     White  Grass. 

oryzoides,  Swartz.     Cut  Grass. 
Virginica,  Willd.     White  Grass. 

Zizania,  Gronov.     Wild  Rice, 
aquatica,  Linn. 

Alopecurus,  Linn.     Fox-Tail  Grass, 
aristulatus,  Mx. 

Phleum,  Linn.     Timothy, 
pratense  Linn. 

Agrostis,  Linn.     Bent- Grass. 

scabra,  Willd.     Thin  Grass.     A.  Michaiixii,  Trin. 
vulgaris,  With.     Redtop. 

CiNNA,  Linn. 

arundinacea,  Linn. 

Mtthlenbergia,  Schreber. 

glomerata,  Trin.     Polypogon  racemosa,  Nutt. 
Mexicana,  Trin.     Agrostis  lateriflora,  Mx. 
Willdenovii,  Trin.     Agrostis  tenuiflora,  Willd. 

Brachyelytrum,  Beauv. 

aristatum,  Beauv.     Muhlenbergia  erecta,  Schreb. 

Calamagrostis,  Adans. 
Canadensis,  Beauv. 

Ortzopsis,  Michx.     Mountain  Rice, 
asperifolia,  Michx. 
melanocarpa,  Muhl.     Piptatherum  nigrum,  Torr. 

Stipa,  Linn. 

avenacea,  Linn. 

Aristida,  Linn. 

tuberculosa,  Nutt.     St.  Croix,  Dr.  Parry. 


415 

Spartina,  Scbreb.  Cord  Grass. 

cynosuroides,  Willd.  « 

BouTELOuA,  Lagasca.     Atheropogon,  Mubl. 

racemosa,  Lag.     A.  apludoidcs,  Michx. 
papillosa,  Gray.     Cassville,  Dr.  Houghton. 

Ka)LERiA,  Pers. 

cristata,  Pers.     K.  nitida,  Nutt. 

Reboulea,  Kunth. 

obtusata,  Kceleria  truncata  Torr. 

Melica,  Linn.     Melic- Grass. 

speciosa,  MubL     Beloit,  Dr.  S.  P.  Latbrop. 

Gltceria,  R.  Brown. 

Canadensis,  Trin.     Poa  Canadensis, 
nervata,  Trin.  Poa  nervata,  Willd". 
fluitans,  R.  Brown, 
aquatica,  Smith. 

Poa,  Linn.     Meadow  Grass. 

compressa,  Linn.  Blue  Grass.  Beloit,  Dr.  S.  P.  Latbrop.  Introduced. 

debilis,  Torr. 

nemoralis,  Linn. 

serotina,  Ehrb. 

trivialis,  Linn. 

pratensis,  Linn. 

Ebagrostis,    Beauv. 

megastacbya,  Link.     Poa  eragrostis,  Linn. 

Festuca,  Linn. 

nutans,  Willd. 

ovina,  Linn.     Two  Rivers,  Manitowoc  Co. 

Bromus,  Linn.     Brome  Grass. 

ciliatus,  Linn, 
purgans,  Linn, 
secalinus,  Linn.     Chess. 

Phragmites,  Trin.    Reed, 
communis,  Trin. 

Triticum,  Linn.     Wheat. 

repens,  Linn.     Couch-Grass. 
dasystachyum.  Gray.     Two  Rivers, 
caniuum,  Linn.     Beloit,  Dr.  S.  P.  Latbrop. 


416 

Eltmus,  Linn.     Lime- Grass. 

YJrginicus,  Linn. 

Canadensis,  Linn. 

glaucifolius,  MuhL 

striatus,  Willd. 

hystrix,  Linn.     Bottle-Brush  Grass. 

HoRDECM,  Linn.     Barley. 

jubatum,  Linn.     Squirrel-Tail  Grass. 

AiRA,  Linn.     Hair- Grass, 
csespitosa,  Linn. 

Da>-thonia,  DC.     "Wild-Oat  Grass, 
spicata,  Beauv. 

A  VEX  A,  Linn.     Oat. 

striata,  Michx.     Trisetum  purpurascens,  Torr» 

HoLCus,  Linn.     Velvet  Grass. 

lanatus,  Linn.     Upper  Mississippi,  Dr.  Houghton. 

HiEROCHLOA,  Gmelin.     Seneca  Grass, 
borealis,  Eoem.  &  Sch. 

Milium,  Linn.     Millet- Grass, 
effusum,  Linn. 

PA>ncuM,  Linn.     Panic  Grass. 

capillare,  Linn. 

virgatum,  Linn. 

latifolium,  Linn. 

clandestinum,  Linn. 

dichotomum,  Linn. 

pubesccns.  Lam. 

crus-galli,  Linn.     Barn-Yard  Grass. 

lonsrisetum,  Torr.     Xeenah  River,  Prof.  Dougrlass. 

xanthophysum.  Gray.     Beloit.  Dr.  S.  P.  Lathrop. 

depauperatum,  Muhl.     Beloit,  Dr.  S.  P.  Lathrop. 

Setaria,  Beauv. 
glauca,  Beauv. 

Cexchrus,  Linn.     Burr-Grass. 

tribuloides,  Linn.     Upper  Mississippi,  Dr.  Houghton. 

Akdropogox,  Linn.     Beard- Grass. 

furcatus,  Muhl. 
scoparius,  Michx. 


417 

Sorghum,  Pers. 

nutans.     Andropogon  nutans,  Linn. 

EQUISETACE^.     The  Horse-Tail  Family. 

Equisetum,  Linn.     Horse-Tail. 
arvense,  Linn. 

eburnura,  Sclireb.     Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Torrey. 
sylvaticum,  Linn, 
limosum,  Linn. 

hyemale,  Linn.     Scouring  Rush, 
laevigatura,  Braun. 
variegatum,  Schleicher, 
scirpoides,  Michx. 

FILICES.     The  Fern  Family. 

PoLYPODiuM,  Linn. 

vulgare,  Linn.     Blue  Mounds,  I.  A.  Lapham. 
phegopteris,  Linn.     St.  Croix,  Dr.  Parry, 
dryopteris,  Linn.     Dells  of  the  Wisconsin. 

Struthiopteris,  Willd.     Ostrich  Fern. 
Germanica,  Willd. 

Allosorus,  Bernhardi. 

gracilis,  Presl.     Dells  of  the  Wisconsin. 

ASPIDIUM. 

fragrens,  Sw.     Falls  of  the  St.  Croix,  Dr.  Parry. 

Adiantum,  Linn.     Maiden  Hair, 
pedatum,  Linn. 

Pteris,  Linn.     Brake. 

aquilina,  Linn, 
atropurpurea,  Linn. 

Cheilantiies,  Swartz.     Lip  Fern.  ^ 

vestita,  Willd.     Falls  of  St.  Croix,  Dr.  Parry. 

Camptosorus,  Link.     Asplenum,  Linn, 
rhizophyllus.  Link.     Walking  Leaf. 

AsPLENiuM,  Linn.     Spleenwort. 

trichomanes,  Linn.     Dells  of  the  Wisconsin. 

thelypteroides,  Michx. 

Filix-femina,  R.  Brown.     Aspidium  asplenoides. 

Cystopteris,  Bernhardi.    Bladder  Fern, 
bulbifera,  Bernh. 


418 

WooDsiA,  R.  Brown. 

ilvensis,  R.  Brown.     Blue  Mounds,  I.  A.  Lapham. 

Dbtopteris,  Adans.     Aspidium,  Linn.     Wood  Fern. 

thelypteris,  Gray. 

dilatata,  Gray.     Falls  of  the  St.  Croix,  Dr.  Parry. 

cristata,  Gray. 

Goldiana,  Gray. 

Onoclea,  Linn.     Sensitive  Fern.  • 

sensibilis,   Linn. 

OsMUNDA,  Linn.     Flowering  Fern. 

spectabilis,  Willd. 

Claytoniana,  Linn.     0.  interrupta,  Mx. 

cinnamomea,     Linn. 

BoTRYCHiuM,  Swartz. 

lunarioides,  Sw.     B.  fumarioides,  Willd. 
Virginicum,  Sw. 

LYCOPODIACE^.     The  Club  Moss  Family. 

Lycopodium,  Linn.     Club  Moss. 

lucidulum,   Michx. 

annotinum,  Linn.     Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Houghton. 

dendroideum,    Michx.      Lake  Superior    to   Upper  Mississippi,  Dr. 

clavatum,  Linn.  [Houghton. 

complanatum,  Linn. 

Selaginella,  Beauv. 

rupestris.  Spring.     Lye.  rupestre,  Linn.     Blue  Mounds, 
apus.   Spring.     L.  apodum,  Linn. 

CHARACEiE.     The  Chara  Family. 

Chara,  Linn. 

vulgaris,  Willd.     Feather-Beds. 

MUSCL     Mosses. 

FuNARiA,  Schreber. 

bygrometrica,  Hedwig.     Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Parry. 

DiCRANUM,  Hedwig. 

scoparium,  Hedwig. 

Leucobryum,  Hampe.  •«. 

vulgare,  Hampe.    St.  Croix,  Dr.  Parry. 


419 

Atrichcm,  Beauv. 

angustatum,  Beauv.     Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Parry. 

Bartramia,  Hedw. 

pomiformis,  Hedw.     Montreal  River,  Dr.  Parry. 

MiNUM,      

affine,  Blandon.     Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Parry. 

Brvum,  Linn. 

roseum,  Schreber.     Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Parry. 

Hypnum,  Linn.     Feather  Moss. 

populum,  Hedw.     Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Parry. 
Schreberi,  Willd.     Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Parry, 
tamariscinum,   Hedw.     Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Parry. 

CuMACiuM,  Weber  &  Mohr.     Tree  Moss. 

dendroides,  W.  &  M.     Lake  Superior,  Dr.  Parry. 

HEPATICJE.     Liverworts. 
RicciA,  Mitchell, 
natans,  Linn. 

Marchantia,  Linn. 

polymorpha,  Linn. 

LICHENES. 

Cladonia,  Hoffm.     Reindeer  Moss. 

rangiferina,  Hoffm.     Falls  of  St.  Croix,  Dr.  Parry. 

Umbilicaria,  Hoffm,     Tripe  de  Roche. 

Muhlenbergii,  Ach.    Falls  of  St.  Croix,  Dr.  Parry. 


WOODS  OF  WISCOKSIX. 

Racine,  November  25,   1852. 

Dear  Sir  : — Your  letter,  inviting  me  to  prepare  a  paper  for  the  State 
Agricultural  Society,  upon  the  "Woods  of  Wisconsin,"  and  making  sug- 
gestions as  to  the  manner  in  which  the  subject  should  be  considered, 
came  duly  to  hand. 

In  reply,  I  cannot  but  say,  that  were  I  to  consult  my  other  engage- 
ments, I  should  find  it  impossible  to  comply  with  your  request ;  yet  in 


420 

view  of  the  importance  of  the  subject  you  suggest,  and  believing  also, 
as  I  do,  that  the  State  has  a  claim  upon  every  citizen  to  contribute  his 
part,  so  far  as  able,  to  the  fund  of  information  on  any  subjects  immedi- 
ately important  to  that  class  whose  prosperity  is  of  vital  importance  to 
the  -welfare  of  all.  In  view  of  these  considerations,  I  will  endeavor,  in  a 
brief  manner,  to  comply  with  your  request,  so  far  as  possible,  in  the 
short  time  given. 

It  will  not  be  my  purpose,  in  this  communication,  to  give  a  botanical 
description,  but  merely  brief  notes  on  the  principal  qualities  and  value  of 
the  woods,  and  the  fitness  of  the  various  trees  for  the  purposes  of  orna- 
ment. I  take  great  pleasure  in  tendering  my  thanks,  to  a  much  esteemed 
friend,  and  accomplished  botanist,  I.  A.  Lapham,  Esq.,  of  Milwaukee, 
for  his  CataloGfue  of  the  Flora  of  Wisconsin,*  which  embraces  a  more 
complete  list  of  our  Forest  Trees,  than  can  elsewhere  be  found. 

TREES  INDIGENOUS  TO  WISCONSIN. 

OAKS. 

This  family  bears  transplanting  rather  poorly,  unless  quite  small. 
They  are  readily  raised  from  seed,  which  should  be  kept  in  a  cool,  dry 
place,  till  March  or  April,  when  they  must  be  planted,  two  inches  deep, 
in  rich  vegetable  mould. 


o 


White  Oak — Quer^us  Alba. 

This  noble  tree  is  the  largest  and  most  important  of  the  American  oaks. 
The  excellent  properties  of  the  wood  render  it  eminently  valuable  for 
a  great  variety  of  uses.  Wherever  strength  and  durability  is  required, 
the  White  Oak  stands  in  the  first  rank.  It  is  employed  in  making  wagons, 
coaches  and  sleds ;  staves  and  hoops  of  the  best  quality  for  barrels  and 
casks,  are  obtained  from  this  tree;  it  is  extensively  used  in  architecture, 
ship -building,  &c.,  and  vast  quantities  are  used  for  fencing.  The  bark 
is  employed  in  tanning.  The  domestic  consumption  of  this  tree  is  so 
great  that  it  is  of  the  first  importance  to  preserve  the  young  trees  wher- 
ever it  is  practicable,  and  to  make  young  plantations  where  the  tree  is  not 
found.  The  White  Oak  is  a  graceful  ornamental  tree,  and  worthy  of 
particular  attention  as  such — found  abundantly  in  most  of  the  timbered 
districts. 


•See  ante,  page  337, 


421 

BuRK  Oak — Q.  Macrocarjpa. 

This  is  perhaps  the  most  ornamental  of  our  oaks.  Nothing  can  exceed 
the  graceful  beauty  of  these  trees,  when  not  crowded  or  cramped  in  their 
growth,  but  left  free  to  follow  the  laws  of  their  development.  Who  has 
not  admired  these  trees  in  our  extensive  Burr  Oak  openings?  Its  large 
leaves  are  a  dark-green  above,  and  a  bright  silvery-white  beneath,  which, 
gives  the  tree  a  singularly  fine  appearance  when  agitated  by  the  wind. 
The  wood  is  tough,  close-grained,  and  more  durable  than  the  White 
Oak,  especially  when  exposed  to  frequent  changes  of  moisture  and  dry- 
ing ;  did  the  tree  grow  to  the  same  size,  it  would  be  preferred  for  most 
uses.  Abundant,  and  richly  worthy  of  cultivation  both  for  utility  and 
ornament. 

SwAiip  White  Oaic — C).  Bicolor. 

Another  valulable  and  ornamental  oak,  rather  larger  than  the  Burr 
Oak.  The  wood  is  close-grained,  durable,  splits  freely,  and  is  well  wor- 
thy of  cultivation.  Not  quite  so  common  as  the  Burr  Oak.  Valuable 
for  fuel. 

Post  Oak — Q.  Oltusiloba. 

A  scraggy,  small  tree,  found  sparingly  in  this  State,  The  timber  is 
durable,  and  makes  good  fuel.     Not  worthy  of  cultivation. 

S'sva:mp  Chestnut  Oak — Q.  Prinos. 

This  species  of  Chestnut  Oak  is  a  large,  graceful  tree,  wood  rather 
open-grained,  yet  valuable  for  most  purposes  to  which  the  oaks  are 
applied ;  makes  the  best  fuel  of  any  of  this  family.  A  rare  tree,  found 
by  Mr.  Lapham,  growing  near  Janesville.     Worthy  of  cultivation. 

Red  Oak — Q.  Rubra. 

The  Red  Oak  is  a  well  known,  common  and  rather  large  tree.  The 
wood  is  coarse-grained,  and  the  least  durable  of  the  oaks,  nearly  worth- 
less for  fuel,  and  scarcely  worthy  of  cultivation,  even  for  ornament. 

Pin  Oak — Q.  Palustris. 

One  of  the  most  common  trees,  in  many  sections  of  the  State.  The 
wood  is  of  little  value,  even  for  fuel.  The  tree  is  quite  ornamental,  and 
should  be  sparingly  cultivated  for  this  purpose. 


422 


MAPLES. 

A  family  of  beautiful  trees,  which  bear  transplanting  well ;  even  those 
of  from  six  to  eight  inches  in  diameter,  can,  without  difficulty,  be  suc- 
cessfully transplanted.  Grows  in  almost  any  well-drained  soil,  free  from 
stagnant  water.  The  seed  should  be  planted  in  the  fall,  as  soon  as  ripe ; 
they  require  but  a  slight  covering. 

Sugar  Maple — Acer  Saccharinum. 

This  well-known  and  noble  tree  is  found  growing  abundantly  in  many 
sections  of  the  State.  The  wood  is  close-grained  and  susceptible  of  a 
beautiful  polish,  which  renders  it  valuable  for  many  kinds  of  furniture, 
more  especially  the  varieties  known  as  Bird's-eye  and  Curled  Maples. — 
The  wood  lacks  the  durability  of  the  oak  ;  consequently,  is  not  valuable 
for  purposes  where  it  will  be  exposed  to  the  weather.  For  fuel,  it  ranks 
next  to  Hickory.  The  sugar  manufactured  from  this  tree  aflfords  no  in- 
considerable resource  for  the  comfort  and  even  wealth  of  many  sections 
of  the  northern  States,  especially  those  newly  settled,  where  it  would  be 
difficult  and  expensive  to  procure  their  supply  from  a  distance.  As  an  or- 
namental tree,  it  stands  almost  at  the  head  of  the  catalogue.  The  foliao-e 
is  beautiful,  compact,  and  free  from  the  attacks  of  insects.  It  puts  forth  its 
yellow  blossoms  early,  and  in  the  autumn  the  leaves  change  in  color,  and 
show  the  most  beautiful  tints  of  red  and  yellow  long  before  they  fall. — 
Worthy  of  especial  attention  for  fuel  and  ornament — well  adapted  for 
street  planting. 

Ked  Maple — A.  Riibrum,. 

Another  fine  maple,  of  more  rapid  growth  than  the  foregoing  species. 
With  wood  rather  lighter,  but  quite  as  valuable  for  cabinet-work — for 
fuel  not  quite  so  valuable.  The  young  trees  bear  transplanting  even  bet- 
ter than  other  maples.  Though  highly  ornamental,  this  tree  hardly 
equals  the  first  named  species.  It  puts  forth,  in  early  spring,  its  scarlet 
blossoms  before  a  leaf  has  yet  appeared.   Well  adapted  for  street  planting. 

Mountain  Maple — A.  SpicaUim. 

A  small,  bj-anching  tree,  or  rather  shrub,  found  growing  in  clumps. — 
Not  worthy  of  much  attention. 


423 

Box  Maple — Negundo  Aceroides. 

This  tree  is  frequently  called  Box  Elder.  It  is  of  a  rapid  growth ; 
quite  ornamental.  The  wood  is  not  used  in  the  arts,  but  is  good  fuel. — 
Should  be  cultivated ;  grows  on  Sugar  and  Rock  rivers. 

•     ELMS. 

These  are  tall,  fine  trees,  more  remarkable  for  ornament  than  for  the 
value  of  their  wood.  They  grow  to  the  greatest  perfection  in  deep,  moist 
soils,  but  will  flourish  to  a  considerable  extent  in  almost  any  productive 
grounds.  They  endure  transplanting  admirably.  The  seed  should  be 
sown  immediately  after  ripening,  which  is  in  June. 

Whitu  Elm —  Ulmus  Americana. 
This  large  and  graceful  tree  stands  confessedly  at  the  head  of  the  list 
of  ornamental  deciduous  trees.  Its  wide-spreading  branches  and  long 
pendulous  branchlets  form  a  beautiful  and  conspicuous  head.  It  grows 
rapidly ;  is  free  from  disease  and  the  destructive  attacks  of  insects ;  will 
thrive  on  most  soils ;  and  for  planting  along  streets,  in  public  grounds  or 
lawns,  is  unsurpassed  by  any  American  tree.  The  wood  is  but  little  used 
in  the  arts  ;  makes  good  firewood ;  should  be  planted  along  all  the  roads 

and  streets,  near  every  dwelling  and  on  all  public  grounds. 

> 

Slippehy  El:,i —  U.  Fuli^a. 

This  smaller  and  less  ornarnental  species  is  also  common.  The  wood, 
however,  is  much  more  valuable  than  the  White  Elm,  being  durable  and 
splitting  readily.  It  makes  excellent  rails,  and  is  much  used  for  the 
frame  work  of  buildings.     Valuable  for  fuel  ;  should  be  cultivated. 

CHERRY. 

A  valuable  class  of  trees,  which  flourish  best  in  a  deep,  moist,  sandy 
soil.  They  all  bear  transplanting  well.  The  seed  should  be  planted 
immediately  when  ripe,  which  is  the  case  with  all  stony  seeds. 

Wild  Black  Chekry  —  Cerasus  Serotina. 

This  large  and  beautiful  species  of  Cherry  is  one  of  the  most  valuable 
of  American  trees.  The  wood  is  compact,  fine-grained,  and  of  a  bril- 
liant, reddish  color,  not  liable  to  warp,  or  shrink  and  swell  with  atmos- 
pheric changes ;  extensively  employed  by  cabinet  makers  for  every  spe- 


424 

cies  of  furniture;  is  next  in  value  to  mahogany.  It  is  exceedingly  dura- 
ble; hence  is  valuable  for  fencing,  building,  <fec.  Richly  deserving  of  a 
place  in  the  lawn  or  timber  plantation. 

BiBD  Cherry — 0.  Fennsylvanica. 

A  small  northern  species,  common  in  the  State,  but  scarcely  worthy 
of  cultivation,  unless  for  ornament. 

Choke  Cherry — O.   Yirginiana. 
This  diminutive  tree  is  of  little  value,  not  worth  the  trouble  of  culti- 
vation. 

Wild  Plum: — Prunus  Americana. 

The  common  Wild  Plum,  when  in  full  bloom,  is  one  of  the  most  orna- 
mental of  small  flowering  trees,  and  as  such,  should  not  be  neglected. 
The  fruit  is  rather  agreeable,  but  not  to  be  compared  to  fine  cultivated 
varieties,  which  may  be  engrafted  on  the  wild  stock  to  the  very  best  ad- 
vantage. It  is  best  to  select  small  trees,  and  work  them  on  the  roots. 
The  grafts  should  be  inserted  about  the  middle  of  April. 

Hack  Berry — Celtis  Occidenialis. 

An  ornamental  tree  of  medium  size ;  wood  hard,  close-grained,  and  elas- 
tic ;  makes  the  best  of  hoops,  whip-stalks,  and  thills  for  carriages.  The 
Indians  formerly  made  great  use  of  the  Hackberry  wood  for  their  bows. 
A  tree  worthy  of  a  limited  share  of  attention. 

American  Linden,  or  Bass  Wood — Tilia  Americana. 
One  of  the  finest  ornamental  trees  for  public  grounds,  parks,  etc.,  but 
will  not  thrive  where  the  roots  are  exposed  to  bruises ;  for  this  reason, 
it  is  not  adapted  to  planting  along  the  streets  of  populous  towns.  The 
wood  is  light  and  tough  ;  susceptible  of  being  bent  to  almost  any  curve ; 
durable  if  kept  from  the  weather  ;  takes  paint  well  and  is  considerably 
used  in  the  medicinal  arts ;  for  fuel,  nearly  worthless.  This  tree  will 
flourish  in  almost  any  moderately  rich,  damp  soil;  bears  transplanting 
well ;  can  be  propagated  readily  from  layers.  The  seed  should  be  sown 
in  autumn. 

White  Thorn — Cratcegus  Coccinea. 
Dotted  Thorn — C. Punctata. 
These  two  species  of  Thorn  are  found  everywhere  on  the  rich  bottom 
lands.     When  in  bloom  they  are  beautiful,  and  should  be  cultivated  for 


425 

ornament.     The  wood  is  remarkably  compact  and  hard,  and  were  it  not 
for  the  small  size  of  the  tree,  would  be  valuable. 

Crab  Apple — Pyrus  Coronaria. 

This  common  small  tree  is.  attractive  when  covered  with  its  highly 
fragrant  rose-colored  blossoms.  Wood  hard,  fine  compact  grain,  but 
the  tree  is  too  small  for  the  wood  to  be  of  much  practical  value.  Well 
worthy  of  a  place  in  extensive  grounds. 

Mountain'  Ash — P.  Americana. 

This  popular  ornament  to  our  yards,  is  found  groAving  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  State,  and  as  far  south  as  43'*  lat.     The  wood  is  useless. 

Ash — Fraxinus. 
This  genus  comprises  several  tall,  straight  trees,  with  valuable  wood 
and  handsome  foliage.     It  mostly  grows  in  rich,  damp  soil.     It  bears 
transplanting  well.    The  seed  may  be  planted  either  in  the  fall  or  spring. 

White  Ash — Fraxln  us  Acuminata. 

A  large,  interesting  tree,  which  combines  utility  with  beauty  in  an 
eminent  degree.  The  wood  possesses  strength,  suppleness  and  elasticity, 
which  renders  it  valuable  for  a  great  variety  of  uses.  It  is  extensively 
employed  in  carriage  manufacturing;  for  various  agricultural  imple- 
ments ;  is  esteemed  superior  to  any  other  wood  for  oars ;  excellent  for 
fuel.  The  White  Ash  grows  rapidly,  and  in  open  ground  forms  one  of 
the  most  lovely  trees  that  is  to  be  found.  The  foliage  is  clean  and  hand- 
some, and  in  the  autumn  turns  from  its  bright  green  to  a  violet  purple 
hue,  which  adds  materially  to  the  beauty  of  our  autumnal  sylvan  scenery. 
It  is  richly  deserving  our  special  care  and  protection,  and  will  amply 
repay  all  labor  and  expense  bestowed  on  its  cultivation. 

Black  Ash — F.  Samhucifolia. 
Another  tall,  graceful  and  well  known  species  of  Ash.     The  wood  is 
used  for  making  baskets,  hoops,  &c. ;  when  thoroughly  dry,  affords   a 
good  article  of  fuel.     Deserves  to  be  cultivated  in  low,  rich,  swampy 
situations,  where  more  useful  trees  will  not  thrive. 

WALNUT. 
The  Walnut  Family  includes  the  Hickories  with  the  Walnuts  proper. 
The  latter  bear  transplanting  well,  while  the  former  recjuire  great  care. 
28 


426 

A  rich,  deep,  sandy  loam  is  required  to  develope  the  trees  in  all  their 
luxuriant  grandeur.  The  nuts  may  either  be  planted  in  the  autumn  or 
kept  in  a  dry  place  until  spring,  when  they  should  be  planted  three 
inches  deep,  in  a  light  vegetable  mould. 

Black  Walnct — Juglans  Nigra. 

This  o-iant  of  the  rich  alluvial  bottom  lands,  claims  special  attention 
for  its  valuable  timber.  It  is  among  the  most  durable  and  beautiful  of 
American  woods ;  susceptible  of  a  fine  polish  ;  not  liable  to  shrink  and 
swell  by  heat  and  moisture.  It  is  extensively  employed  by  the  cabinet- 
makers, for  every  variety  of  furniture.  Walnut  forks  are  frequently 
found,  which  for  richness  and  beauty,  rival,  the  far-famed  Mahogany. 
This  tree,  in  favorable  situations,  grows  rapidly ;  is  highly  ornamental, 
and  produces  annually  an  abundant  crop  of  nuts. 

BuTiERKUT — J.  Cinerea. 

This  species  of  Walnut  is  not  as  valuable  as  the  above ;  yet  for  its 
beauty,  and  the  durability  of  its  wood,  it  should  claim  a  small  portion 
of  attention.  The  wood  is  rather  soft  for  most  purposes  to  which  it 
otherwise  might  be  applied.  When  grown  near  streams,  or  on  moist 
side-hills,  it  produces  regularly  an  ample  crop  of  excellent  nuts.  It 
grows  rapidly. 

Shell-Bark  Hickory — Canja  Alha. 

This,  the  largest  and  finest  of  American  Hickories,  grows  abundantly 
throuo-hout  the  State.  Hickory  wood  possesses  probably  the  greatest 
strength  and  tenacity  of  any  other  of  our  indigenous  trees,  and  is  used 
for  a  variety  of  purposes ;  but,  unfortunately,  it  is  liable  to  be  eaten  by 
worms,  and  lacks  durability.  For  fuel,  the  Shell-bark  Hickory  stands 
unrivalled.  The  tree  is  ornamental,  and  produces  every  alternate  year 
an  ample  crop  of  the  best  of  nuts.  It  does  not  bear  transplanting  well, 
and  the  young  trees  should  be  preserved  in  their  original  situation 
wherever  practicable. 

Pignut  Hickory — C.  Glabra. 

This  species  possesses  all  the  good  and  bad  qualities  of  the  Shell-bark. 
The  nuts,  however,  are  smaller,  and  not  quite  so  pleasant.  It  should  be 
preserved  and  cultivated  in  common  with  the  Shell-bark. 


42 


"T 


Eed  Beech — Fagus  Ferruglnea. 

A  common  tree,  with  brilliant,  shining,  light-green  leaves,  and  lono- 
flexible  branches.  It  is  highly  ornamental,  and  should  be  cultivated  for 
this  purpose,  as  well  as  for  its  useful  wood,  which  is  tough,  close- 
grained,  and  compact.  It  is  much  used  far  plane-stocks,  tool  handles, 
(fee,  and  as  an  article  of  fuel,  nearly  equal  to  maple.  The  youno- 
trees  do  not  bear  transplanting  well ;  those  only  of  a  few  feet  hio-h 
can  be  removed  with  success.  It  is  readily  grown  from  seed,  which  had 
better  be  planted  in  the  spring. 

"Water  Bekch — Carplnus  Americana. 

A  small  tree,  called  Hornbeam  by  many.  The  wood  is  exceedingly 
hard  and  compact,  but  the  small  size  of  the  tree  renders  it  almost  useless,. 

Iron  "Wood — Ostrya  Virglnica.. 

This  small  tree  is  found  disseminated  throughout  most  of  our  wood- 
lands. It  is,  to  a  considerable  degree,  ornamental,  but  of  remarkably 
slow  growth.  The  wood  possesses  valuable  properties,  being  heavy  and 
strong,  as  the  name  would  indicate;  yet,  from  its  small  size,  it  is  of  but 
little  use. 

POPLAR. 

The  Poplars  are  trees  of  rapid  growth.  The  wood  is  soft  and  white, 
and  is  not  very  useful.  They  thrive  on  almost  any  arable  soil,  and  are- 
readily  propagated  from  cuttings. 

Balsam  Topi.Aii—Pqpulus  Candican^. 

This  tree  is  of  medium  size,  and  is  known  by  several  names :  Wild 
Balm  of  Gilead,  Cotton  Wood,  &c.  It  grows  in  moist,  sandy  soil,  on 
river  bottoms.  It  has  broad,  heart-shaped  leaves,  which  turn  a  fine  yel- 
low after  the  autumn  frosts.  It  grows  more  rapidly  than  any  other  of 
our  trees  ;  can  be  transplanted  with  entire  success  when  eight  or  nine 
inches  in  diameter ;  and  makes  a  beautiful  shade  tree — the  most  orna- 
mental of  poplars.     The  wood  is  soft,  spongy,  and  nearly  useless. 

Quaking  Aspen — P.  Tremuloides. 

A  well-known,  small  tree.  It  is  rather  ornamental,  but  scarcely  wor- 
thy of  cxiltivation. 


428 

Large  Aspen — P.  Grandidentata. 

The  largest  of  our  poplars.  It  frequently  grows  to  the  height  of  sixty 
or  seventy  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  two  and  one-half  feet.  The  wood  is 
soft,  easily  split,  and  used  for  frames  for  buildings.  It  is  the  most  dura- 
ble of  all  our  poplars,  and  well  worthy  of  our  attention. 

Sycamoke,  oe  Buttonwood — Platanus  Occidentalis. 

This,  the  largest  and  most  majestic  of  our  trees,  is  only  found  groAving 
on  the  rich  alluvial  river  bottoms.  The  tree  is  readily  known,  even  at  a 
considerable  distance,  by  its  Avhitish  smooth  branches.  The  foliage  is 
large  and  beautiful,  and  the  tree  one  of  the  most  ornamental  known. — 
The  wood  speedily  decays,  and  when  sawed  into  lumber  warps  badly  ;  on 
these  accounts  it  is  but  little  used,  although  susceptible  of  a  fine  finish. — 
As  an  article  of  fuel  it  is  of  inferior  merit. 

Ca^'oe  ~Biucii—BetuJa  Pajvjracea. 

A  rather  elegant  and  interesting  tree.  It  grows  abundantly  in  nearly 
every  part  of  the  State.  The  wood  is  of  a  fine  glossy  grain,  susceptible 
of  a  good  finish,  but  lacks  durability  and  strength,  and,  therefore,  is  but 
little  used  in  the  mechanical  arts.  For  fuel,  it  is  justly  prized,  is  to  a 
considerable  degree  ornamental,  and  bears  transplanting  without  difficul- 
ty. The  Indians  manufacture  their  celebrated  bark  canoes  from  the  bark 
of  this  tree. 

Kentucky  Coffee  Tkee —  Gymnocladus  Canadensis. 

This  singularly  beautiful  tree  is  only  found  sparingly,  and  on  rich 
alluvial  lands.  I  met  with  it  growing  near  the  Peccatouica,  in  Green 
County.  The  wood  is  fine-grained,  and  of  a  rosy  hue ;  is  exceedingly 
durable,  and  well  worthy  of  cultivation.  It  is  readily  grown  from  the 
seed,  which  should  be  immersed  in  boiling  water  for  a  few  minutes,  to 
insure  a  rapid  germinaton. 

June  Beery — Amdanchicr  Canadensis. 

A  small  tree  which  adds  materially  to  the  beauty  of  our  woods  in 
early  spring,  at  which  time  it  is  in  full  bloom.  The  wood  is  of  no  par- 
ticular value,  and  the  tree  interesting  only  when  covered  with  its  white 
blossoms. 


429 

EVERGREENS. 

The  Cone-bearing  Evergreens — Coniferse — are  peculiarly  interesting, 
as  well  for  the  invaluable  qualities  of  their  wood,  as  for  their  beauty,  and 
the  shelter  and  protection  they  afford,  especially  during  winter,  when  all 
other  trees  are  stripped  of  their  green  mantle.  The  seeds  should  not  be 
taken  out  of  the  cones  until  they  are  to  be  planted,  in  April  or  May.  A 
warm,  sandy  soil,  which  has  a  large  proportion  of  decayed  leaves,  well 
incorporated  into  it,  is  the  most  suitable  for  raising  seedling  Evergreens. 

WmxE  Pine — Plnus  Strohus. 

The  largest  and  most  valuable  of  our  indigenous  pines.  The  wood  is 
soft,  free  from  resin,  and  works  easily.  It  is  extensively  employed  in 
the  mechanical  arts  for  a  great  variety  of  uses.  It  is  found  in  great  pro- 
fusion in  the  northern  parts  of  the  State.  This  species  is  readily  known 
by  the  leaves  being  in  fives.  It  is  highly  ornamental,  but  in  common 
with  all  pines,  will  hardly  bear  transplanting.  Only  small  plants  should 
be  moved. 

ISToKWAY,  OK  Rkd  Pine — P.  Jieslnosa. 
Yellow  Pine — P.  Iftiis. 

Two  large  trees,  but  little  inferior  in  size  to  the  White  Pine.  The  wood 
contains  more  resin,  and  is  consequently  more  durable.  The  leaves  of 
both  of  these  species  are  in  twos.  Vast  quantities  of  lumber  are  yearly 
manufactured  from  these  two,  together  with  the  White  Pine,  and  yet  the 
extensive  pineries  of  the  State  are  scarcely  lessened. 

Shrub  Pine — P.  Banksiana. 

A  small,  low  tree ;  only  worthy  of  notice  here  for  the  ornamental 
shade  it  produces.     It  is  found  in  the  northern  sections  of  the  State. 

Balsam  Fir — Abies  Balsamea. 
This  beautiful  evergreen  is  multiplied  to  a  great  extent  on  the  shores 
of  Lake  Superior,  where  it  grows  forty  or  fifty  feet  in  height.     The  wood 
is  of  but  little  value.    The  Balsam  of  Fir,  or' Canadian  Balsam,  is  obtained 

from  this  tree. 

Double  Spruce — A  Nigra. 

This  grows  in  the  same  localities  with  the  Balsam  Fir,  and  assumes  the 
same  pyramidal  form,  but  is  considerably  larger.  The  wood  is  light,  and 
possesses  considerable  strength  and  elasticity,  which  renders  it  one  of  the 


430 

best  materials  for  yards  and  top-masts  for  sliippiag.     It  is  extensively 
cultivated  for  ornament. 

Hemlock — A .  Canadtmsis. 
The  Hemlock  is  the  largest  of  the  genus.     It  is  gracefully  ornamen- 
tal, but  the  wood  is  of  little  value.    The  bark  is  extensively  employed  in 

tanning. 

Tasiarack — Larix  Americana. 

This  beautiful  tree  grows  abundantly  in  swampy  situations  through- 
out the  State.  It  is  not  quite  an  Evergreen,  it  drops  its  leaves  in  winter, 
but  quickly  recovers  them  in  early  spring.  The  wood  is  remarkably  du- 
rable, and  valuable  for  a  variety  of  uses.  The  tree  grows  rapidly,  and 
■can  be  successfully  cultivated  in  peaty  situations,  where  other  trees 
would  not  thrive. 

White  Cedak — Cupressus,  Thyoides.  (?) 
Aebokvit Ji —  Thuja  Occidtntalis. 

These  two  trees  are  indiscriminately  called  White  or  Flat  Cedar. 
They  grow  abundantly  in  many  parts  of  the  State,  the  latter  in  the 
northern  section.  The  wood  is  well  known  as  being  exceedingly  durable, 
furnishing  better  fence  posts  than  any  other  tree,  excepting  the  Red  cedar. 
Shingles  and  staves  of  a  superior  quality  are  obtained  from  these  trees. 
A  beautiful  evergreen  hedge  is  made  from  the  young  plants,  which  bear 
transplanting  better  than  most  Evergreens.  They  will  grow  on  most 
soils,  if  sufficiently  damp. 

BED  CEDAE — JinupcTus  Virguiiana. 

This  is  the  well-known  tree  that  furnishes  those  celebrated  fence  posts 
that  "last  forever."  The  wood  is  highly  fragrant,  of  a  rich  red  color, 
and  fine  grained ;  hence  it  is  valuable  for  a  variety  of  uses.  It  should 
be  extensively  cultivated. 

There  are  many  shrubs  and  vines  indigeneous  to  the  State  that  are 
worthy  of  notice  for  ornamental  purposes,  but  it  is  not  our  purpose  to 
speak  of  them  here. 

TREES  NOT  FOUND  IN  WISCONSIN. 

There  are  many  trees  that  have  not  yet  been  found  growing  in  the 
State,  the  introduction  and  culture  of  which,  we  would  especially  recom- 
laend.     Among  these  are  : 


431 

CucuMUER  Tree — Magnolia  xicuminata. 

One  of  the  largest  and  most  beautiful  of  American  trees.  The  wood 
is  soft,  light,  and  valuable  for  many  purposes  ;  but  principally  on  account 
of  its  ornamental  grandeur,  we  would  recommend  its  introduction  and 
cultivation. 

Tulip  Tree — Linodtndron  Tulip'>fera. 

This  grand  and  noble  forest  tree  is  found  in  great  profusion  in  Michi- 
gan, Indiana,  and  most  of  the  adjoining  States,  where  it  is  called  White 
Wood  or  Poplar.  The  wood  is  of  a  yellowish  color,  easily  worked,  and 
sufficiently  close-grained  to  admit  of  a  good  polish — strong  enough  for 
most  uses,  even  where  a  considerable  degree  of  strength  is  required.  It 
is  used  extensively  in  the  mechanical  arts  for  a  great  variety  of  purposes, 
and  grows  rapidly.  It  is  a  beautiful  tree,  especially  when  covered  with 
its  large,  tulip-like  blossoms.     It  flourishes  best  in  a  rich  alluvial  soil. 

Chestnut — Castanea  Vtsea. 

A  well-known,  large  and  valuable. tree,  of  remarkably  rapid  growth. 
It  flourishes  best  in  light,  sandy,  or  gravelly  soils.  The  wood  is  one  of 
the  most  durable,  capable  of  resisting  a  succession  of  heat  and  moisture 
for  a  considerable  length  of  time;  a  valuable  quality,  which  renders  it 
especially  suitable  for  fencing.  In  favorable  situations,  this  tree  pro- 
duces an  abundant  crop  of  delicious  nuts. 

There  are  many  other  trees  worthy  of  introduction,  but  to  the  three 
species  mentioned,  we  would  more  especially  call  the  attention  of  arbor- 
iculturists. Should  either  of  these  be  known,  to  grow  within  the  State, 
"we  should  be  glad  to  be  informed  of  the  locality. 

Locust — Bobinia  Pseu-dacacia . 

One  word  in  relation  to  the  Locust,  so  much  cultivated  as  an  orna- 
mental tree.  Its  rapid  growth  and  durable  wood,  is  all  it  has  to  recom- 
mend it.  It  is  the  last  tree  to  put  forth  in  the  spring,  and  the  first  to 
shed  its  leaves  in  the  autumn ;  which  wither  and  fall  Avithout  displaying 
any  of  those  dying  beauties  so  charming  in  many  of  our  indigenous 
forest  trees.  The  Locust  is  liable  to  the  attack  of  the  "  borer  ;"  an  insect 
which  is  extensively  destroying  it  in  the  Eastern  States.  The  branches 
are  so  fragile,  that  the  tree  is  frequently  blown  literally  to  pieces  by  the 
wind;  to  obviate  which,  to  a  considerable  degree,  we  should  "shorten 
in"  all  long  and  slender  limbs.     We  cannot  recommend  its  extensive 


4-32 

cultivation,  when  so  many  better  and  more  profitable  trees  can  easily  be 
obtained. 

RAISING  FOREST  TREES  FROM  SEED. 

In  preparing  seed-beds,  a  well  drained,  light,  rich,  sandy  loam  is  best 
for  nearly  all  trees.  Dig  deep,  at  least  eighteen  inches,  and  prepare  as 
carefully  as  you  would  for  a  bed  of  choice  vegetables.  Plant  in  rows, 
three  or  four  inches  apart  one  way,  and  two  feet  the  other.  It  is  of 
great  advantage  to  cover  the  surface  of  the  ground,  after  planting,  with 
decayed  leaves,  in  imitation  of  nature.  By  this  mulching,  the  ground 
will  be  kept  moist,  and  thus  facilitate  the  germination  of  the  seed.  The 
seedlings  should  be  transplanted  in  the  nursery,  when  one  or  two  years 
old ;  six  or  eight  inches  by  three  feet  is  the  proper  distance  in  the  nur- 
sery. It  may,  perhaps,  be  as  well  to  plant  the  .seed  in  the  nursery  at 
once,  and  save  the  first  transplanting. 

Planting. — In  a  timber  plantation,  the  proper  distance  that  trees 
should  be  planted  from  each  other,  must  vary  with  the  species  and  size  of 
the  young  tree.  The  medium  distance  for  trees  of  four  or  five  years' 
grovvth,  is  four  feet  each  way.  It  must  be  remembered,  that  many  more 
must  be  planted  than  can  grow  to  any  great  size.  The  object  is  to  plant 
the  trees  so  close  that  they  will  mutually  afi'ord  protection  to  each  other 
from  the  sun  and  storm.  They  must  be  thinned  out  from  time  to  time, 
to  give  room  for  the  most  valuable,  as  they  advance  in  size. 

Time  for  Transplanting. — All  deciduous  trees — those  that  shed  their 
leaves  in  autumn — may  be  removed  any  time  when  the  leaves  are  ofif* 
Early  spring  is  generally  to  be  preferred.  Evergreens  are  more  success- 
fully transplanted,  when  the  new  shoots  are  just  springing,  which,  in  this 
climate,  is  about  the  first  of  June.  Choose  a  damp,  cloudy  day,  if  pos- 
sible ;  otherwise  cover  the  roots  from  the  sun  with  straw,  moss,  or  mat- 
ting. This  precaution  is  indispensable  when  moving  Evergreens,  for  if 
the  fine  rootlets  ever  become  dry,  the  tree  will  surely  perish. 

Preparations  for  Planting. — Dig  the  holes  before  you  procure  the 
trees,  in  order  to  avoid  unnecessary  delays,  for  the  sooner  the  trees  are 
planted  after  they  are  dug  up  the  better.  Dig  the  holes  for  large  trees  six 
feet  in  diameter,  and  eighteen  inches  deep — smaller  ones  in  proportion. 
Deposit  the  surface  soil  by  itself,  and  if  the  sub-soil  be  poor,  procure 
enough  of  good  to  replace  it,  so  as  not  to  be  under  the  necessity  of  using 


433 

this  worthless  soil  dug  from  the  bottom  of  the  pit.  Have  ready  good 
substantial  stakes,  sufficiently  stout  to  effectually  prevent  the  trees  from 
motion.  Do  all  this  before  you  start  for  your  trees,  and  not  leave  it  to 
be  done  when  your  "poor  trees,  like  so  many  fish  out  of  water,  are 
pantinf  and  suffering  for  a  return  to  their  native  element." 

Selecting  and  Digging  up. — Procure  trees  of  low  and  rather  stalky 
growth,  from  open  grounds,  if  possible.  Avoid  those  of  tall  and  slender 
form  growing  in  deep  and  shady  woods.  Be  sure  the  trees  are  healthy, 
young  and  growing.  Having  selected  your  tree,  dig  a  trench  two  or 
three  feet  from  the  body  all  around  it,  deep  enough  to  cut  off  every  root; 
then  dig  under  until  it  is  easily  loosened  and  turned  out  of  its  bed.  Be 
careful  and  preserve  every  small  root  within  the  circle,  for  upon  the  pre- 
servation of  the  rootlets  principally  depends  your  success.  Lay  the  trees 
upon  a  long  wagon  ;  protect  the  trunks  and  roots  from  being  bruised  and 
barked ;  cover  the  roots  if  the  sun  shines,  or  if  there  is  a  drying  wind  at 
the  time. 

Trimming  and  Setting  out. — Cut  off  all  the  bruised  and  broken  roots ; 
next,  cut  off  not  less  than  one-half  the  top  by  shortening  some,  and  cut- 
ting other  limbs  entirely  away,  as  the  shape  of  the  tree  may  require.  Set 
your  trees  no  deeper  than  they  originally  grew,  unless  the  soil  be  light 
and  sandy,  when  you  may  set  them  three  or  four  inches  deeper.  Having 
adjusted  the  roots  in  their  natural  position,  drive  your  stakes  before  the 
roots  are  covered,  that  you  may  avoid  injuring  them;  then  fill  up  with 
finely  pulverized  surface  soil,  gently  pressing  it  in  every  cavity.  After 
the  roots  are  lightly  covered,  pour  in  one  or  two  pails-full  of  water; 
then  finish  by  filling  and  treading  it  firmly. 

Mulching. — Take  half  a  bundle  of  straw  to  each  tree;  if  the  tree  is 
of  a  large  size,  spread  it  evenly  about  the  roots,  then  cover  slightly  with 
soil,  leaving  it  a  little  "dishing;"  this  will  prevent  the  evaporation  of 
moisture,  and  keep  the  soil  light  and  porous,  permitting  the  water  to 
penetrate  freely.  Old  tan-bark  or  rotted  chips  will  answer  quite  as  well 
for  this  purpose  as  straw.  You  must  not  water  your  trees  too  often. 
Once  a  week,  even  during  a  protracted  drought,  is  enough ;  daily  water- 
ing is  positively  injurious.  Do  not  consider  the  work  completed  until  the 
trees  are  secured  from  motion,  by  firmly  fastening  them  to  the  stakes ; 
for  be  assured,  if  they  are  permitted  to  move  about  with  every  wind, 
they  will  perish.     Transplanting  trees  in  winter,  with  a  ball  of  frozen 


434 

earth  attached  to  the  roots,  is  the  most  successful  method  of  removing 
large  trees. 

Concluding  Remarks. 

It  is  truly  lamentable  to  see  how  much  time  and  money  is  expended  in 
planting  trees,  which  for  the  want  of  information  as  to  the  lohat,  how, 
and  when,  have  already  perished,  or  are  in  a  most  unfavorable  state  of 
decline,  manifest  by  the  sickly  foilage,  denuded  trunks,  or  already  dry 
and  withered  stems.  And  how  could  it  be  otherwise,  since  the  trees 
have  been  kidnapped — forcibly  taken  from  their  damp  and  shady  forest 
homes — the  roots  sadly  mutilated,  and  then  their  long  and  slender  trunks 
cut  in  two  in  the  middle,  and  one  end,  (but  little  matter  Avhich)  rudely 
thrust  into  a  "post-hole"  in  the  ground,  and  there  subjected  to  the 
scorching  rays  of  a  midsummer  sun ;  and  then,  as  if  to  add  insult  to 
injury,  they  are  asked  to  live,  grow,  and  reward  the  perpetrator  of  all 
these  outrages  against  vegetable  life,  by  a  luxuriant,  healthy  shade,  and 
lovely  ornament  !  It  has  been  truly  said,  that  "judicious  planting,  and 
the  skilful  culture  of  plantations,  combine  national  and  private  interest 
in  an  eminent  degree ;  for,  besides  the  real  or  intrinsic  value  of  the  tim- 
ber or  ostensible  crop,  with  other  produce  of  woods,  available  for  the 
arts  and  comforts  of  life,  judicious  forest-tree  planting  improves  the  gen- 
eral climate  of  the  neighborhood,  the  staple  of  the  soil  as  regards  the 
gradual  accumulation  of  vegetable  matter ;  affords  shelter  to  live  stock ; 
promotes  the  growth  of  pasture  and  of  corn  crops ;  beautifies  the  land- 
scape, and  thus  greatly  and  permanently  increases  the  value  of  the  fee 
simple  of  the  estate  and  adjoining  lands."  There  is  no  country  to  which 
these  remarks  would  apply  with  more  truth  than  to  this.  How  naked  and 
cheerless  those  dwellings  situated  on  the  broad  prairies,  without  a  single 
tree  to  enliven  the  scene,  and  speak  of  shady  comforts  ;  but  we  hope  to 
see  a  different  picture  when  the  farmers  turn  their  attention  more  to  the 
comforts  and  luxuries  of  Home.  Finally,  we  say,  plant  trees  young  and 
old,  and  recollect,  "  What  is  worth  doing  at  all,  is  worth  doing  well." 

Yours  very  faithfully, 

P.  R.  HOY. 
To  Albert  C.  Inguam,  Esq., 

Sec.  of  the  Wis.  State  Agr.  Society. 


435 


LAYING  OUT  GROUNDS,  FLORICULTURE,  &c. 

MiLWAUKEK,  December  10,  1852. 

Dear  Sir — It  is  with  great  pleasure  that  I  comply  with  the  re- 
quest with  which  you  honored  me,  to  furnish  a  few  ideas  on  the  above 
subjects,  for  the  use  of  the  State  Agriciiltural  Society.  Deeming  these 
to  be  highly  subsidiary  to  the  great  objects  which  the  Society  has  in 
view,  I  only  wish  the  task  had  fallen  into  more  competent  hands.  How- 
ever, I  trust  my  attempt  may  at  least  have  the  effect  of  stimulating 
others,  who  have  the  capability  to  espouse  the  cause,  and  treat  it  more 
thoroughly  and  scientifically,  on  a  future  occasion. 

Laying  out  Grounds. — Under  this  head  may  be  comprehended  all 
the  operations  requisite  to  the  production  of  a  finished  residence,  embrac- 
ing the  site  for  building,  the  embellishment  of  the  grounds,  and  the 
judicious  disposition  of  the  fields,  garden,  orchard,  &c.  After  the  land 
is  selected,  the  next  important  point  is  to  choose  the  most  eligible  site 
for  building.  The  mansion  and  offices  demand  peculiar  attention,  as 
they  ought  to  form  the  centre  of  attraction,  and  present  the  prin- 
cipal feature  of  the  homestead,  for  there  are  assembled  all  those  scenes  of 
usefulness,  convenience,  or  elegance,  which  form  the  constituents  of  a 
country  residence.  In  selecting  the  situation,  a  variety  of  circumstances, 
both  of  a  local  and  general  character,  must  be  taken  into  consideration. 
Proximity,  or  otherwise,  to  the  boundary  line,  or  public  road,  the  suita- 
bleness of  the  grounds  contiguous  for  garden  scenery,  and  trees,  if  any, 
and  their  capability  of  aiding  in  the  general  effect,  belong  to  the  former; 
to  the  latter,  the  prospect  from  the  house,  the  view  of  the  house  from  a 
distance,  shelter,  facility  for  drainage,  &c.  A  pleasant  aspect  for  the  prin- 
cipal rooms  is  always  desirable,  and  in  the  absence  of  any  local  objection, 
perhaps  that  of  the  south,  or  south-east,  would  be  the  best.  A  south- 
west aspect  is  objectionable  from  the  constant  dazzling  rays  of  the  sun 
throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  day  in  summer,  and  a  west  aspect 
from  the  prevailing  icy  winds  of  winter.  A  north  aspect  for  the  front 
part  of  the  house  would  at  all  seasons  be  too  gloomy,  although  the  view 
from  the  windows  in  that  direction  might  be  the  most  pleasant,  as  all 
vegetation  looks  the  most  luxuriant  on  the  sunny  side.  A  mere  square, 
or  oblong  house,  can,  therefore,  have  only  one  really  good  aspect,  and  it 
naturally  becomes  a  question  as  to  what  style  of  architecture  would  best 


436 

seciirc  a  variety  of  aspects,  consistent  with  the  irregularity  of  offices, 
and  other  necessary  appendages  to  a  country  mansion.  The  spirit  of  the 
Gothic  style,  more  than  any  other,  admits  of  this  irregularity  ;  and  hence, 
the  prevalence  of  that  style  in  modern  country  residences.  Among  the 
advantages  of  this  irregular  style,  one  is,  that  it  readily  admits  of  addi- 
tions in  almost  any  direction,  without  compromising  the  character  of  the 
tout  ensemble.  When,  however,  a  rigid  adherence  to  the  principles  of 
good  taste  is  aimed  at,  this  style  may  not  be  always  in  keeping  with  the 
character  of  the  neighboring  grounds  or  surrounding  country.  Perhaps 
the  more  regular  style  of  the  Roman,  or  the  simple  style  of  the  Grecian, 
would  be  more  in  place.  In  this  case,  the  offices  and  erections  for  farm- 
ing purposes  might  better  form  a  distinct  and  distant  feature  in  the  land- 
scape, or  otherwise  be  concealed  by  trees,  shrubbery,  or  walls  behind 
the  house. 

The  Lawjt. — Whatever  may  be  the  style  of  the  house,  it  is  almost 
indispensable  to  a  good  residence  to  have  a  greater  or  less  breadth  of 
lawn  extending  in  difl'erent  directions  from  the  principal  front.  This  may 
be  comprehended  in  one,  or  a  series  of  terraces,  or  on  a  level,  according 
to  the  position  of  the  house  and  taste  of  the  owner.  Thanks  to  modern 
taste,  and  modern  gardening,  it  is  no  longer  considered  necessary  to  have 
a  square,  or  quadrangular  hedged-in,  or  walled-in  depository  of  plants 
to  be  called  a  garden.  The  whole  lawn,  or  a  portion  of  it,  may  be  made 
available  for  a  flower-garden,  and  will  aflford  scope  for  a  display  of  tas-te 
either  of  the  most  simple  or  the  most  elaborate — but  this  part  of  the  sub- 
ject I  shall  resume  in  iLs  proper  place. 

At  this  juncture,  it  is  to  be  presumed  that  the  woodman  has  spared 
many  trees,  either  single  specimens,  or  groups,  or  both — for  that  reck- 
less demolition  of  every  tree  and  shrub  round  many  settlements  is  lament- 
able to  behold,  and  cannot  be  too  highly  reprobated.  Well  may  they  be 
called  clearings  ;  to-day,  the  noble  denizens  of  the  forest  proudly  wave 
their  heads  in  stately  grandeur,  impressing  the  beholder  with  the  power 
and  majesty  of  nature ;  but  to-morrow,  alas,  reveals  another  scene  !  The 
ruthless  age  has  robbed  fair  nature  of  her  ornaments,  and  left  instead  a 
wilderness  of  ghostly  stumps,  guarded  on  every  side — as  if  in  very 
mockery  of  their  stability — with  bristling  lines  of  zig-zag  fences.  Here, 
amidst  this  desolate  array  of  stumps  and  rails,  a  family  of  young  chil- 
dren have  to  be  reared,  and  what  else  can  be  expected  but  that  the  minds 
of  the  latter  will  be  as  destitute  of  ideality  and  refinement  as  the  aspect 


43T 

of  the  former  is  of  comeliness.  After  a  few  years  have  elapsed,  an  em- 
bryo orchard  shoots  up  to  relieve  the  general  monotony,  distinguished 
by  a  number  of  green  lines,  so  formally  and  abrubtly  defined  that  it  looks 
like  a  thing  per  se,  having  no  connection  or  harmony  in  itself,  or  with 
anything  else  in  nature. 

Few  States  in  the  Union  can  compare  with  Wisconsin  in  the  capability 
of  furnishing  materials  for  creating  beautiful  landscapes  ;  nor  need  we  go 
out  of  it  to  seek  for  the  choicest  models.  The  world-renowned  parks  of 
"Old  England"  do  not  afford  better  opportunities  than  our  own  oak 
openings — with  their  graceful  and  flowing  outlines,  and  their  gently  un- 
dulating sweeps,  the  noble  vistas — here  contracted,  there  extended — in 
this  direction,  radiant  with  some  gleaming  lakelet  half  concealed;  in  an- 
other, reflecting  sombre  shadows  from  some  lazy  stream  ;  and  as  a  whole, 
producing  such  harmony  of  coloring,  so  rich  a  distribution  of  light  and 
shade  as  cannot  fail  to  delight,  but  never  cloy,  the  most  artistic  eye. — 
When  a  dwelling  is  located  amidst  the  oak  openings,  the  occupant  can 
have  no  difficulty  in  laying  out  his  grounds,  for  the  scenery  around  will, 
be  suggestive  of  the  character  of  all  his  out-door  embellishments,  and 
his  aim  will  be  to  make  them  tend  to  the  idea  of  connectedness  and  con- 
sistency with  that.  In  such  situations,  to  make  startling:  contrasts  is 
attended  with  no  small  amount  of  expense,  and  a  demand  of  no  common- 
place skill.  In  this  State,  nature  is  so  lavish  of  the  materials  for  verdant 
decoration  that  little  or  no  expense  need  be  incurred  in  furnishing,  but 
rather  in  thinning  out,  and  only  subduing  a  reasonable  portion  of  the 
land  foi  usefulness  or  convenience,  without  impairing  any  of  the  natural 
or  local  beauties.  When  it  is  desired  to  give  a  park-like  appearance  to  a 
whole  farm,  where  the  land  is  well  timbered,  nothing  can  be  more  easy. 
The  square,  or  quadrangular  form,  may  generally  be  the  most  convenient 
for  fencing  off"  the  various  fields,  but  it  is  not  necessary  that  they  should 
assume  that  form.  By  a  little  management,  the  fences  at  a  certain  point 
may  be  so  concealed  by  clumps  of  trees  left  standing  as  to  take  away  any 
formality,  and  obscure  the  real  boundary  of  a  field.  The  size  of  the 
fields,  and  the  distance  and  distribution  of  the  clumps,  will  of  course  de- 
pend on  the  extent  of  the  farm,  and  the  purposes  to  which  it  is  devoted. 
The  clumps  of  trees  should  consist  of  irregular,  detached  masses,  or  oc- 
casionally single  trees,  when  they  possess  individual  beauty  to  recommend 
them,  and  can  maintain  the  idea  of  connectedness.  Under  this  arrange- 
ment, a  farm  would  partake  of  the  character  of  a  forest  scene  subjected 


'  438 

to  the  plow;  and  if  extensive,  and  really  forest-like,  resemble  those 
woody  districts  in  Germany  where  "cultivation  smiles  in  the  glades  and 
recesses  of  eternal  forests." 

Fbnces. — Of  all  kinds  of  fences,  the  common  rail  or  zig-zag  fence 
presents  to  the  eye  of  strangers  the  most  uncoiith  appearance,  as  well  as 
that  of  a  prodigal  waste  of  the  "raw  material."  Perhaps  they  may  be, 
in  many  instances,  the  most  economical,  as  regards  cheapness  of  con- 
struction, strength  and  durability ;  but  where  facilities  exist  for  sawing 
timber,  these  qualities  might  be  made  to  combine  with  a  more  agreeable 
form,  and  a  tithe  of  the  amount  of  material.  The  improved  state  of  the 
manufacture  of  iron,  affords  new  and  desirable  accommodations  in  the 
way  of  light,  cheap  and  durable  fences,  desiderata  of  no  small  impor- 
tance in  districts,  where  wood  is  not  abundant. 

Planting. — When  a  necessity  exists  for  planting  young  trees,  either 
near  or  remote  from  the  house,  as  a  general  rule,  a  selection  from  those 
found  in  the  neigborhood  would  be  best ;  as  they  will  not  only  better 
harmonize  with  those  around,  but  grow  and  thrive  with  more  certainty 
than  others,  transferred  from  a  different  soil  and  climate.  As  to  the 
best  kinds  for  planting  on  the  rich,  black  soil  of  our  prairies,  I  have  had 
no  opportunity  of  forming  an  opinion ;  but  I  should  expect  that  most  of 
the  soft-wooded,  rapid-growing  kinds  would  succeed.  As  fencing  must 
be  a  comparatively  expensive  undertaking  on  extensive  prairie  lands,  it 
would  be  well  for  settlers  thereon  to  provide  themselves  at  the  outset, 
with  seeds  of  such  plants  or  shrubs  as  will  most  rapidly  or  permanently 
afford  them  live  fences  or  hedges.  Of  these  may  be  mentioned  the 
Osage  Orange,  Locust,  Buckthorn,  Hawthorn,  Beech,  <fec.  It  is  affirmed 
by  those  who  have  had  experience,  that  the  Osage  Orange  will  form  a 
hedge  fence  in  five  years  from  the  time  of  sowing,  capable  of  resisting 
all  sorts  of  cattle,  and  at  the  same  time  so  compact  as  to  produce  a  com- 
plete barrier,  even  to  rabbits  and  other  small  vermin.  That  this  rapid 
growing  tree  will  survive  the  wii  ters  of  this  latitude,  has  been  proved 
beyond  a  doubt  within  the  State,  and  in  several  instances.  One  fine, 
thrifty  tree  may  be  seen  in  this  city,  in  the  garden  of  Lewis  Potter,  Esq., 
which  has  stood  the  test  of  over  ten  winters. 

The  Vegetable  Garden. — This  necessary  appendage  to  a  family 
mansion,  should,  when  circumstances  permit,  be  formed  convenient  to 
the  rear  of  the  building,  out  of  the  view  from  the  principal  rooms,  and 


439 

the  front  approach.  A  very  convenient  locality  would  be  such  as  to 
have  easy  access  to  the  domestic  offices  for  culinary  purposes,  and  to  the 
stables  and  farm  buildings  for  manure. 

The  Orchard. — The  situation  of  the  orchard — all  other  circumstances 
being  suitable — might  be  near  the  gai'den ;  and  where  a  gardener  or 
overseer  is  kept,  his  house,  together  with  the  fruit  house,  and  other 
receptacles  for  the  winter  storage  of  roots  and  vegetables,  might  be  very 
properly  placed  between  them. 

The  Road,  or  Approach. — When  of  any  material  length,  the  approach 
should  be  formed  so  as  to  reveal  gradually  any  natural  or  artificial 
beauties  the  place  affords,  and  each  turn  should  be  produced  by  some 
gentle  variation  of  the  surface,  a  clump  of  shrubs  or  single  trees.  The 
first  or  most  distant  view  of  the  house,  should  be  as  favorable  as 
possible  ;  and  the  nearest  or  close  view,  to  comprehend  the  front  entrance 
or  porch,  together  with  the  most  refined  creations  of  ornament  in  its 
vicinity,  at  a  glance. 

Walks. — These  are  often  necessary  accompaniments  to  home  scenes 
that  cannot  otherwise  be  seen  except  at  certain  seasons  and  conditions  of 
the  surface.  Walks  should  always  bear  some  degree  of  analogy  to  the 
scenes  they  pass  through.  Their  course  should  be  dictated  by  the  range 
of  attractions  to  be  seen,  and  their  turnings  by  some  local  or  accidental 
beauty,  being  careful  that  there  should  be  a  sufficient  reason  for  such 
arrangement. 

The  Flower  Garden. — There  are  perhaps  few  departments  of  out- 
door pastime  surrounded  by  more  delightful  and  refining  associations, 
than  the  cultivation  of  a  tasteful  and  elegant  flower  garden.  It  is  a 
field  equally  open  and  inviting  to  the  humblest  cottager  and  his  wealthier 
neighbor,  as  well  a  source  of  agreeable  recreation  to  the  son  of  toil 
as  to  the  heir  of  luxury.  The  flower  garden  is  a  never  failing  concomi- 
tant of  a  refined  civilization  ;  and  the  entire  absence  of  flowers  around  a 
dwelling,  bespeaks  either  abject  penury  or  a  rude  ignorance  of  the  sweets 
of  life.  In  the  gloomy  retreats  of  forest  life,  what  can  be  more  refreshing 
and  delightful  than  the  companionship  of  flowers  ?  Though  all  else 
around  be  new,  in  these  we  can  recognize  the  sweet  companions  of  our 
youth ;  the  silent,  yet  eloquent  souvenirs  of  our  early  home  and  father- 
land. If  parents  desire  to  cultivate  in  children  their  powers  of  fore- 
thought and  patience,  let  them  give  them  a  flower  garden.     The  impres- 


sions  received  there  Avill  be  as  lasting  as  life  itself;  and  the  maxims 
employed  to  make  them  successful  florists,  will  not  be  lost  on  their 
character  and  moral  bearing  in  after  years.  It  is  rarely  that  a  parent  is 
found  fond  of  his  plants  and  negligent  of  his  child;  or  gentle  towards 
his  flowers,  and  rough  towards  his  own  kind.  Hence,  we  might  expect 
that  the  cultivation  of  flowers  will  favor  the  amenities  of  domestic  life, 
and  that  a  wide  spread  taste  and  interest  in  Floriculture,  will  be  a  remedy 
for  idleness  and  other  demoralizing  habits. 

The  flower  garden,  as  I  suggested  before,  might  be  consistently  formed 
on  the  lawn  or  terrace,  in  front  of  the  house.    The  usual  way  is  to  cut  out 
certain  figures  in  the  turf,  each  figure  or  set  of  figures,  to  bear,  in  size, 
a  just  proportion  to  the  extent  of  the  lawn,   and  the  magnitude  of  the 
house.     In  order  to  be   effective,  they  should  be   symmetrical  and  have 
one  general  character  of  outline,  whether  of  straight,  curved,  or  composite 
lines ;  nor  should  their  size  differ  so  much  as   to  give  the   idea  of  large 
and  small  ones  mixed  together.      The  figures,    or   system  of   figures, 
however  detached,  should  always   be  formed  to  harmonize   with   some 
obvious  design,  and  show  decidedly   their  connection  with   a  general 
centre.     Sharp  angles  or  projecting  points,  should  be   avoided,  as  such 
parts  cannot  be  properly  covered  with  plants,  and  must  always  have   a 
bad  effect.     Neither  should  the  surface  of  the  beds  be  much  raised  above 
the  level  of  the  turf,  for  in  such  case  they  look  blotchy,  and  the  plants 
in  them  too  much  subjected  to  the  influence  of  drought  for  their  health 
and  vigor.     In  planting  the  beds  each  may  contain  flowers  only,  or  flow- 
ers and  shrubs  mixed;  but  a  better  effect  is  produced  by  each  having 
only  one  kind  of  flowers,  or  one  kind  of  shrubs,  so  as  to  form  masses,  or 
shades  of  color  to   harmonize  with   those   of  the    other   beds.     Of  all 
plants  or  shrubs,   capable  in  themselves   of  forming  an   interesting  and 
varied  flower  garden,  the  rose,  perhaps,  stands  alone.     It  is  to  be  found 
of  nearly  every  shade    of  color,  and  by  a  judicious  selection  of  kinds, 
a  continued  succession  of  bloom  may  be  had  from  June  till  December. 
A  very  effective  method  would  be,  to  have  each  bed  filled  with  roses  of 
one  color,  containing  a  mixture  of  summer  and  autumn  blooming  kinds, 
so  that  no  bed  would  be  without  a  perpetual  display  of  flowers.     A  very- 
neat  method  of  keeping  roses  dwarfish  and  compact,  is,  to  peg  down  the 
branches  to  the  ground :  this  will,  at  the  same  time,  expose  a  greater 
surface  of  the  plants  to  the  light,  and  induce  an  increase  of  foliage  and 
bloom. 


441 

The  flower-garden  should  be  well  sheltered,  either  naturally  or  artifi- 
cially, in  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds,  but,  if  possible,  open 
towards  the  East,  to  allow  the  morning  sun  gradually  to  dispel  the  dew 
or  frost  from  the  tender  buds  of  plants,  which  are  apt  to  suffer  by  a  too 
sudden  transition  from  cold  to  heat  when  his  rays  burst  upon  them  all 
at  once  from  over  the  tops  of  the  trees — this  is  more  especially  the  case 
in  spring. 

I  beieve  that  I  have  already  entered  as  far  into  the  details  of  the  sub- 
jects treated  of  as  the  nature  of  such  a  communication  will  admit,  and 
shall  therefore  conclude  by  answering  briefly  those  of  your  queries  not 
already  noticed.  "  Should  there  be  trees  allowed  in  the  garden  ?  "  To 
this  I  should  say  yes,  if  in  the  flower  garden,  and  provided  they  form  ob- 
jects of  beauty  in  themselves,  and  stand  detached  from  the  mass.  In 
the  vegetable  garden,  trees  are  unnecessary,  as  all  culinary  vegetables 
require  abundance  of  light  and  air,  and  the  presence  of  trees  would  only 
rob  them  of  these,  as  well  as  of  their  legitimate  quantum  of  moisture 
and  nourishment. 

"What  vegetables  and  fruits  should  the  garden  contain?"  These 
would  be  best  dictated  by  the  taste  and  wants  of  the  cultivator.  Almost 
any  seedsman  can  tell  the  relative  proportions  of  a  general  collection  of 
garden  seeds  for  a  given  space  of  ground.  The  usual  fruits  admissible 
in  a  kitchen  garden  are  gooseberries,  raspberries,  currants,  strawberries, 
grapes,  &c.  For  the  best  method  of  cultivating  these,  and  all  sorts  of 
vegetables,  I  would  refer  your  readers  to  Buist's  "Family  Kitchen  Gar- 
dener." 

Yours  truly, 

THOMAS  HISLOP. 
To  Albert  C.  Ingham,  Esq., 

Sec.  of  the  Wis.  State  Agr.  Society. 


AGEICULTURAL  EDUCATIOiT. 

State  Universitt,  Madison,  December,  1852. 

Dear  Sir — In  your  note  of  November,  you  allude  to  an  article  fur- 
nished by  me  for  the  first  volume  of  the  Transactions  of  the  State  Agri- 
cultural Society,  relative  to  the  organization  of  an  agricultural  depart- 
29 


442 

ment  in  the  University ;  and  invite  me  to  occupy  a  few  pages  in  the 
second  Volume,  in  the  further  discussion  of  the  same  subject,  or  of  any 
other  pertaining  to  the  interests  which  your  Society  proposes  to  sub- 
serve. 

Since  the  natural  sciences  have  been  so  largely  pressed  into  the  service 
of  the  farming  interests,  the  importance  of  professional  schools  of  agri- 
culture, one,  at  least,  in  each  State,  is  fast  becoming  a  conviction  of  the 
popular  mind.  It  is  conceded  that  the  young  farmer,  who  proposes  to 
make  himself  eminent  in  his  profession,  will  best  approach  the  practice 
of  it,  through  an  appropriate  course  of  scientific  training.  But  the  pro- 
per oroanization  of  such  schools,  and  its  position  in  the  educational  econ- 
omy of  the  State,  are  still  open  questions. 

Having  stated  in  the  last  Volume  of  the  Transactions,  the  grounds  of 
the  opinion,  that  the  object  in  view  would  be  best  attained  by  bringing 
the  Agricultural  school  into  the  University  system,  and  placing  it  side  by 
side  with  the  schools  of  Medicine,  Law,  and  Normal  Instruction,  I  have 
no  occasion  to  extend  the  argument  on  that  point  further. 

But  whether  the  Agricultural  College  be  connected  with  the  University 
or  not,  the  main  object  to  be  accomplished  by  its  organization,  is  the 
professional  culture  of  the  young  men  of  the  State,  who  are  destined  to 
agricultural  pursuits,  and  who  resolve  to  work  out  their  position  in  the 
social  economy,  by  making  themselves  eminent  in  their  chosen  art. 

The  functions  of  the  agricultural  school  are,  of  course,  instructional, 
in  the  main — the  inculcation  of  science  in  its  various  applications  to  the 
production  of  the  material  of  physical  wealth.  But  such  school  should 
not  only  be  the  repository  of  science  for  instructional  uses,  but  should  be 
prepared  to  do  something  for  the  advancement  of  science  itself,  by  anal- 
ysis and  experiment.  Its  permanent  endowment  and  continued  presence 
as  a  public  institution,  would  furnish  the  means  for  a  survey  of  the  State 
with  more  especial  reference  to  its  agricultural  capabilities.  It  should  be 
charged  with  a  gratuitous  analysis  of  soils  for  the  benefit  of  farmers  in 
any  section  of  the  State,  and  the  laboratory  should  be  amply  supplied 
with  the  means  of  meeting  all  practical  calls  of  this  character. 

The  results  of  such  analysis,  in  order  to  being  of  immediate  practical 
utility  to  the  farmer,  should  be  accompanied  by  suggestion  of  the  crops, 
to  the  growing  of  which  the  soil,  in  its  natural  state,  is  best  adapted  ;  and 
also  of  the  specific  manures  which  might  be  necessary  to  bring  it  into 


443 

condition  to  produce  crops  to  which  it  was  naturally  unfitted.  Farmers 
who  will  thus  avail  themselves  of  scientific  jvidgments  of  the  capabili- 
ties and  the  deficiencies  of  the  soil  which  they  have  to  deal  with,  will  be 
saved  from  many  an  expensive  and  unsuccessful  experiment,  as  to  the 
crops  which  they  can,  most  profitably  cultivate,  the  kind  of  treatment 
which  may  be  necessary  to  prevent  exhaustion,  and  the  specific  manures 
which  should  be  applied,  to  supply  natural  defects  in  the  soil,  to  keep  it 
in  heart,  or  to  restore  it  if  exhausted  by  ill  advised  and  unthrifty  cultiva- 
tion. 

Agriculture  is  eminently  an  experimental  art,  and  past  experience  col- 
lected, compared,  classified ;  reasoned  out  into  conclusions  and  general- 
ized into  laws,  constitutes  the  body  of  agricultural  science  as  we  now 
have  it ;  which  the  analysis  and  the  tests  of  the  laboratory  render  of 
cheap  and  discriminate  application  to  the  uses  of  the  farmer.  Without 
these  lio-hts  and  helps,  agriculture  may  continue  to  be  practised,  as  here- 
tofore, on  traditional  maxims ;  or,  if  it  aim  at  higher  conditions,  must 
accomplish  its  end  by  a  grosser  outlay  of  means,  and  at  comparatively- 
uncertain  returns. 

The  functions  of  the  Agricultural  College,  however,  should  not  termi- 
nate here.  It  is  fairly  to  be  expected  of  it  that  it  should  undertake  the 
great  work  of  extending  the  boundaries  of  knowledge  available  to  the 
uses  of  the  farmer.  It  should  be  the  great  store-house  of  statistical  in- 
formation, the  watch-tower  of  varied  and  discriminating  observation.  It 
should  be  diligent  in  the  collation  of  facts,  and  in  the  development  of  the 
lessons  of  value  they  are  calculated  to  teach ;  and  should  bring,  as  far 
as  practicable,  every  principle,  thus  reasoned  out,  to  the  test  of  rigid  and 
well  guarded  experiment. 

It  is  here  that  the  important  agency  of  the  experimental  farm,  as  part 
and  parcel  of  the  Agricultural  College,  is  brought  distinctly  to  view.  It 
is  true,  indeed,  that  every  farmer  may  be  an  experimenter,  and  that  every 
departure  from  routine  cultivation  is  an  experiment.  But  if  all  farmers 
were  experimenters,  our  agricultural  accounts  would,  in  the  agregate, 
foot  up  disastrously  at  the  close  of  the  year.  Random  experiment 
accomplishes  but  little,  and  that  little  at  a  large  comparative  outlay.  It 
is  a  species  of  lottery  in  which  some  prizes  are  drawn,  but  the  blanks  are 
legion.  Science  must  guide  the  hand  of  experiment  if  it  is  to  be  intelli- 
gently and  economically  done. 


Now  it  may  be  well  asked,  by  what  agency  this  needful  service  can  be 
rendered  to  the  Agricultural  interest,  so  efficaciously  as  by  a  well 
endowed  and  well  appointed  school  of  Agricultural  Science?  Such 
institution  is  to  be  presumed  to  be  in  possession  of  the  results  of  past 
observation  and  experience,  and  enabled  to  reason  successfully  from 
the  known  to  the  unknown ;  thus  framing  conclusions  in  advance  of  the 
art  in  its  existing  conditions,  probable,  and  if  true,  of  value  to  the 
practical  farmer. 

But  a  conclusion  of  science  in  advance  of  art,  is  not  entitled  to  univer- 
sal and  confident  reception,  till  subjected  to  the  proper  practical  test  of 
-its  truth.  The  experimental  farm  enables  the  Agricultural  College  to 
perform  this  service  for  the  farming  interest,  under  conditions  which  are 
a  safeguard  against  those  incidental  and  unobserved  causes  of  error, 
which  are  apt  to  affect  ordinary  farming  experiment. 

There  are  thousands  of  agricultural  problems  of  great  practical  interest 
to  the  farmer,  whose  early  and  undoubted  solution  may  be  best  expected 
from  the  Agricultural  College,  so  endowed  and  so  appointed,  that  no 
philosophical  conclusion,  suggestive  of  progress  and  improvement,  and 
involving  outlay  in  its  adoption,  need  go  forth  to  the  community  until 
authoritatively  tested  through  the  agency  of  the  experimental  farm. 

The  functions  of  the  Agricultuial  College  are,  then,  threefold.  1 .  In- 
structional ;  2.  Analytic ;  3.  Experimental. 

In  its  first  character,  it  is  charged  with  the  conservation  and  inculcation 
of  existing  agricultural  knowledge,  to  the  end  that  the  candidates  for 
eminence  in  this  vocation,  may  carry  into  the  field  of  their  labors,  that 
professional  preparation  which  the  advanced  condition  of  the  art  now 
imperatively  demands. 

In  its  second  ofiice,  the  Agricultural  College  is  made  immediately  sub- 
sidiary to  the  operations  of  the  practical  farmer,  by  enabling  him,  through 
a  special  analysis,  to  apply  the  science,  already  acquired,  to  the  circum- 
stances by  Avhich  he  is  surrounded,  and  the  physical  elements  with  which 
he  has  to  deal. 

Lastly,  by  bringing  science  into  immediate  contact  with  practice,  and 
furnishing  it,  through  a  suitable  endowment,  with  ample  means  for  pro- 
secuting its  researches  and  experiments  intelligently,  cautiously,  and, 
therefore,  successfully,  the  Agricultural  College  is  destined  to  accomplish, 
in  the  line  of  valuable  discovery,  what  could  be  hardly  expected  from 


445 

ordinary  farming  experiment,  Tvitliout  a  far  greater  aggregate  outlay  of 
means,  and  a  lapse  of  time  whicli,  in  this  truly  "fast"  age,  we  cannot 
very  "well  afford. 

While  every  thing  is  in  progression  ai'ound  us,  it  is  not  possible  that 
aa-riculture  should  remain  unaffected.  But  it  is  not  becoming  that  this 
important  interest,  furnishing  the  material  for  all  the  rest,  should  lag  in 
the  rear  of  the  movement.  Acceleration  is  the  object  of  your  Society; 
and  it  is  much  to  be  doubted  whether  any  single  measure  will  be  capable 
of  generating  more  momentum  in  the  right  direction  than  tlie  organiza- 
tion of  a  well  endowed  and  well  appointed  Agricultural  College. 

With  a  high  appreciation  of  the  important  service  your  Association  is 
rendering  to  the  cause  it  represents, 

I  remain, 

Your  obedient  servant, 

J.  H.  LATHROP. 
To  Albert  C.  Ixgham,  Esq. 

Sec.  of  the  Wis.  State  Agr.  Society. 


CLIMATE    OF    WISCO:^TSIN. 

The  connection  existing  between  the  Agriculture  of  any  country  and  its 
climate  is  of  too  intimate  a  character  not  to  demand  the  attention  of  the  Agri- 
culturist. The  following  Tables  of  Meteorological  Observations  form  a  con- 
tinuation of  those  presented  in  the  First  Volume  of  the  Society's  Transactions, 
and  taken  in  connection  therewith,  will  exhibit,  in  some  degree,  the  peculiarities 
of  the  climate  of  this  State.  These  Observations  the  Society  is  desirous  of 
extending  over  the  whole  State,  so  as  to  cover  every  variety  of  local  circumstance, 
and  to  continue  them  for  a  series  of  years,  sufficiently  long  to  cover  every  possi- 
ble change  of  season. 

The  Society  invites  all  who  are  engaged  in  these  pursuits,  to  contiibute  the 
results  annually  for  publication,  believing  that  thus,  in  a  few  years,  a  mass  of 
information  will  be  accumulated  from  which  all  that  is  desirable  in  regard  to 
our  climate  may  be  obtained,  and  made  the  basis  of  a  future  Essay  on  this 
subject. 


446 


METEOROLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS 

Made  at  Beloit  College,  Beloit,  Wisconsin,  for  the  Year  1852' 
Latitude  42°  30'  23"  N.  Lono-itiide  12='  03'  20"  AV.  from  Washington. 
Elevation  above  Lake  Michigan,  172  feet ;  above  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
750  feet.  By  S.  P.  Latiirop,  M.  D.,  Professor  of  Chemistry  and 
Natural  History. 


MONTH. 

BAROMETER. 

THERMOMETER. 

Clearness 
of  Sky.* 

Prevailing 
Winds. 

Inch.  Kain 

&  Melted 

Snow. 

MAX. 

29.66 
23.73 
29.80 
29.38 
29.56 
29.58 
29.56 
29.52 
29.58 
29.56 
29.67 
29.56 

29.597 

MIN. 

MEAN 

MAX, 

58 
48 
72 
72 
85 
89 
92 
93 
88 
76 
50 
55 

93 

MIN. 

-18 
0 
4 
20 
35 
43 
51 
52 
37 
32 
11 
-4 

-18 

MEAN. 

21.44 
30.26 
34.00 
43.83 
60.61 
68.13 
74.16 
7042 
58.58 
51.25 
31.83 
24.55 

47.421 

January  . . 
February.. 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 
October... 
Kovember. 
December. 

Year 

28.67 
28.24 
28.40 
23.54 
28.72 
28.87 
29.07 
29.03 
23.40 
28.90 
28.66 
28.47 

23.6G5 

29.325 
29.155 
29.121 
29.501 
29.210 
29.258 
29.300 
29.346 
29.314 
29.258 
29.214 
29.154 

29.265 

4.32 
5.70 
4.22 
4.95 
6.85 
6.73 
6.70 
7.10 
6.40 
4.40 
4.15 
3.63 

5.51 

N.W.  <fcS.W. 
N.W.&S.E. 

N.W.  &  K 
N.  &  N.  W. 

S.E.&S.W. 

S.W.  &  N.W. 

N.,  S.,  &  S.E. 

N.E.  &  S. 

N.<feS. 

N.  &  S. 

S.W.,  N.&K.W. 

S.W.  &  S. 

N.N.W.  &  S.W. 

3.39 
.84 
6.75 
3.99 
4.75 
2.15 
3.49 
1.02 
2.91 
4.98 
2.43 
3.30 

40.00 

*  Clearness  of  Sky  is  indicated  by  numbers  from  1  to  10  ;  perfectly  clear  is  marked  10. 

The  mean  temperature  of  the  past  year  is  47°.42l,  being  nearly  a  medium 
of  the  two  previous  years. 

The  mean  temperature  of  the  Winter  months  of  1851-52  is  24°. 6,  being  a 
lower  temperature  than  either  of  the  two  former  years,  1849-50  and  1850-51, 
by  some  2°.  The  temperature  of  the  Spring  months  is  46''.146,  being  0°.554 
lower  than  that  of  the  last  year,  and  2". 966  higher  than  that  of  the  year  pre- 
vious to  the  last.  The  temperature  of  the  Summer  months  is  '70°. 57,  being 
2'='. 93  higher  than  that  of  the  summer  months  of  last  year,  and  0°.93  higher 
than  that  for  the  year  1850.  The  temperature  of  the  Autumnal  months  is 
47'',22,  being  3''.23  lower  than  that  of  last  year,  and  2°.35  lower  than  that 
of  the  year  before  the  last. 


447 

The  average  density  of  the  atmosphere,  as  indicated  by  the  baiometer,  is 
29,265  inches,  being  0,0'74  inches  lower  than  for  last  year,  and  0,005  inches 
lower  than  for  the  year  1850. 

The  amount  of  rain  and  melted  snow  for  the  year  is  40  inches,  being  15.9 
inches  less  than  last  year,  and  11,24  less  than  the  year  1850.  This  amount 
with  the  exception  of  the  months  of  February  and  March,  was  quite  equally 
distributed  through  the  year. 

The  amount  of  snow  which  fell  in  the  winter  of  1851-52,  was  more  than  in 
either  of  the  two  previous  years,  being  30  inches,  which  was  quite  equally 
distributed  through  the  winter,  with  the  exception  of  February  and  March — 
February  having  1.5  inches,  and  March  9  inches. 

The  crops  of  the  past  year  were  universally  good  crops,  tliough  not  remark- 
able for  their  great  yield.  Wheat,  corn,  oats,  &c,,  all  did  well.  With  potatoes, 
there  was  scarcely  any  rot ;  and  the  quantity  of  the  tubers  was  probably  never 
better.  The  yield  of  grass  was  rather  more  than  a  fair  one,  though  much  put 
back  by  the  want  of  rain  in  June.  Late  crops  were  slightly  effected  by  the 
drought  in  August.  Our  prairie  soil  in  this  region  is  remarkable  for  its  retention 
of  moisture,  and  the  small  extent  to  which  the  crops  suffer  when  it  is  appa- 
rently very  dry.  The  presence  of  a  stratum  of  fine,  red,  arenaceous  clay,  which 
so  generally  underlies  the  surface  soil  of  this  district,  seems  to  act  an  important 
part  in  imparting  this  valuable  property  to  our  soils.  No  New  England  soil 
.possesses  this  to  so  great  an  extent. 

The  chinch-hug  appeared  again  in  some  places,  in  great  abundance,  doing, 
as  some  think,  much  damage  to  the  wheat  crop.  The  amount  of  injury  done 
by  this  small  insect  will  doubtless  be  little  thought  of,  in  a  short  time,  and  like 
the  cantharis  cinerea,  which  was  thought  greatly  to  injure  the  potato  crop, 
will  prove  mostly,  if  not  quite,  a  harmless  insect. 

The  prevailing  winds,  as  in  the  two  years  previous,  were  north  and  north- 
west. 

CALENDAR. 

January  l9th. — Splendid  Auroral  Arch,  from  8j  to  10  o'clock  P.  M. 

February  18th,  Aurora  at  10  P.  M. 

March  7th,  Wild  Geese  seen. — 8th,  Thunder  storm. —  lOth,  Meadow  Lark 
teard  singing. —  llth,  Robbins  singing. — 12th,  Star  of  Bethlehem  just  up. — 
13th,  Hurricane  at  4  P.  M. — 14th,  Hurricane  at  9  P.  M.  — l7th,  Aurora  with 
streamers. — 24th,  Tiger  Lily  up. — 30th,  Crown  Imperial  up. 


448 

April  2d,  Anemone  in  flower;  Wild  Gooseberry  in  leaf. — 14th,  Wild 
Pigeons  seen;  Missouri  currant  in  leaf. — 21st,  Ground  Ivy  in  flower. — 22d, 
Arched  Aurora  at  9  P.  M. ;  Blood-root  in  flower. — 29th,  Rainbow  in  the  west 
at  5^  A.  M. 

May  1st,  Dutchman's  Breeches  and  Dwarf  Iris  in  flower. — 4th,  Hood-leaved 
Violet  in  flower. — 5th,  Solomon's  Seal  and  Jonquil  in  flower. — 6th,  Hyacinth 
in  flower. — Vth,  Missouri  currant  in  flower. — 8th,  Painted  Cup,  Wood  Sorrel,. 
and  English  Cherry  in  flower. — 10th,  Spring  Beauty  and  Wild  Plum  in 
blossom;  Burr  Oak,  Hickory,  and  Horse  Chestnut  in  leaf;  Peach,  Pear,  Apple, 
Hound's  Tongue,  Puccoon,  and  Cranes-bill  in  blossom;  Baltimore  Oriole  seen. 
— 16th.  Tulip  in  flower. — l7th,  Flov/ering  Almond  in  blossom;  Black  Oak 
and  White  Oak  in  leaf. — 18th,  Wild  Columbine  in  flower. — 19th,  Splendid 
Aurora  from  9f  to  11,  P.M. — 20th,  Mandrake  in  flower. — 22d,  Blue-eyed 
grass  in  flower. — 24th,  Tartarian  and  Fly  Honeysuckle  in  flower. — 27th,  Wild 
Indigo  and  Wild  Lupine  in  flower. — 29th,  Snow-ball  and  Five-finger  in  flow- 
er.— 31st,  Lady's  Slipper  In  flower. 

June  2d,  Locust,  Scarlet  Trumpet,  Honeysuckle,  Spiderwort,  and  Sweet- 
scented  Syringa  in  blossom. — 6th,  Creeping  Veitch  in  flower. — loth,  LobeHa 
Spicata  in  flower. — 19th,  Fiudbeckias  in  flower. — 22d,  Trilliums  in  flower. — 
24d.  Hair-bells  and  Golden  Alexander  in  flower. 

July  21,  Hottest  day  of  the  year;  Thermometer  averaged  82°  5. 

November  Gth,  First  snow. 

December  17th,  Aurora. — 21st,  Coldest  day  of  the  year;  Thermometer 
averaged  4°,  5. 


449 


METEOROLOGICAL   OBSERVATIONS 

Made  at  Milwaukee,  Wisconsin,  for  the  Year  1852.  Latitude  43°  03'  45"  N. 
Lono-itude  87°  57'  W.  Elevation  of  the  Cistern  of  the  Barometer  above  Lake 
Michicran,  15  feet ;  above  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  593  feet.     By  I,  A.  Lapham. 


^    1 

• 

CO 

o 

i 

a 

C 

2? 

C3 

^ 

3 

Sd 

O 

o 

> 
o 

o 

a 

C3 

1-3 

P=^ 

^ 

< 

S 

►^ 

t-3 

< 

W 

O 

"R 

o 

>^ 

Barometer  (inches) 

At  Sun  rise 

29.36 

29.33 

29.31 

29.24  29.43 

29.43 

29.49 

29.53 

29.52 

29.45 

29.39 

29.33 

29.40 

9  A.M 

29.37 

29.34 

29.36 

29.25 

29.45 

29.44 

29.51 

29.56 

29.53 

29.46 

29.41 

29.33 

29.42 

3P.M 

29.34 

29..33 

29.30 

29.23 

29.42 

29.42 

29.49 

29.53 

29.49 

29.43 

29.38 

29.31 

29.39 

9  P.M 

29.33 

29.36 

29.30 

29.25 

29.44 

29.43 

29.49 

29.53 

29,51  29.45 

29.40 

29.34 

29.41 

Maximum 

29.80 

29.97 

30.20 

29.59 

29.81 

29.75 

29.71 

29.73 

29.78 

29.72 

29.84 

29.78 

30.20 

Minimum 

28.79 

28.34 

28.51 

28.73  28.90 

29.03 

29.17 

29.22 

29.07 

29.06 

28.83 

28.61 

28.34 

Meau . . 

29.36 

29.34 

29.32 

29.24 

29.44 

29.43 

29.49129.54 

29.51 

29.45 

29.39 

29.33 

29.40 

Temp,  of  Baromet. 

At  Sun  riso 

.30.81 

39.00  41.00 

44.80 

57.32 

57.32 

69.32 

68.16 

60.80  56.93 

42.23 

37.87 

50.46 

9  A.M 

31.10 

39.00 

41.13 

44.30 

57.26 

57.26 

70.32 

68.29 

60.53  56.10 

42.23 

37.51 

50.42 

3  P.M 

35.23 

43.38 

44.19 

47.73 

60.71 

60.71 

73.77 

72.00 

64.00  58.78 

^U.33 

40.82 

53.80 

9  P.M 

30.77 

44.3146.19 

45.60 

60.87 

60.87 

72.77 

70.35 

63.70 

58.87 

45.37 

41.93 

53.88 

Meau 

33.48 

41.42 

43.13 

45.61 

59.04 

59.01 

71.54 

69.70 

62.26 

57.67 

43.54 

39.53 

52.16 

Temperat.  of  Air. 

At  Sun  rise 

17.71 

23.90 

27.81 

33.67 

47.71 

58.53 

C2.S7 

G0.52 

51. .57 

48.71 

31.10 

23.93 

40.67 

9  AM 

19.51 

27.31 

31.55 

39.77 

.57.74 

68.50 

73.74 

71.68 

61.47 

53.07 

33.03 

25.39 

46.90 

3  P.M 

25.13 

3317 

.36.10 

42.10  60.80 

72.07 

76.00 

73.90 

64.90 

58.94 

36.67 

30.13 

50.83 

9P.M 

20.55 

27.78 

32.45 

37.13  52.32 

63.63 

08.68 

(.6.45 

57.37 

51.77 

32.90 

26.64  44.64 

Maximum 

48 

54 

57 

52 

84 

89 

.91 

.85 

85 
<36 

.75 

.48 

.43     .91 

Minimum 

-19 

3 

1 

21 

30 

45 

.46 

.51 

.32 

.16 

.1     -19 

Mean 

20.72 

28.03 

31.98 

38.17 

54.65 

65.66 

70.32 

68.13 

58.82 

53.12 

33.42 

26.52 

45.80 

Clearness  of  Sky." 

At  Sun  rise 

323 

397 

471 

533 

707 

630 

665 

643 

637 

409 

430 

329 

515 

9  A.M 

358 

431 

429 

487 

684 

727 

667 

600 

653 

523 

337 

429 

.531 

3  P.M 

368 

548 

307 

343 

643 

570 

660 

710 

653 

584 

290 

274 

495 

9  P.M 

507 

669 

316 

483 

764 

673 

765 

790 

677 

497 

353 

319 

568 

Mean 

389 

511 

381 

461 

701 

650 

692 

687 

655 

503 

365 

338 

528 

Wind,  (No.  of  Obs.) 

1  t_From  tho North.. 

1 

■3 

1 

5 

1 

3 

4 

2 

3 

4 

3 

1 

31 

South.. 

5 

2 

0 

0 

2 

2 

5 

7 

4 

8 

4 

6 

45 

East.... 

5 

4 

6 

7 

10 

12 

1 

5 

5 

6 

7 

0 

68 

West.... 

33 

34 

10 

12 

6 

20 

11 

13 

19!     29 

28 

40 

255 

N.E.... 

11 

3 

27 

47 

29 

14 

29 

28 

17!      15 

11 

4|   235| 

S.E 

4 

8 

25 

16 

17 

13 

24 

36 

27 

6 

12 

20 

208 

N.W.... 

46 

33 

35 

18 

24 

17 

19 

10 

26 

27 

45 

28 

328 

3.W.... 

18 

28 

20 

13 

29 

35 

29 

17 

16 

28 

10 

24 

267 

Calm, 

1 

1 

0 

2 

6 

4 

2 

6 

3 

1 

0 

11     271 

Rain  (JcMeltedSnow 

Inches 

1.13 

1.00 

4.56 

2.64 

1.95 

2.46 

3.27 

0.58 

2.30 

4.87 

2.72 

1.85 

29.33 

*  Entire  clearness,  being  1,000. 


450 


METEOROLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS 

Made  at  Aztalax,  Wisconsik,  for  the  Tear  1852.  Latitude  43'  04'  N. 
Longitude  88°  30  W.  Elevation  above  Lake  Michigan,  about  230  feet. 
By  James  C.  Brattox. 


c 
a: 

■-3 

14.90 



31.77 

a 
47.52 

d 
53.43 

68.03 

X 

5c 

< 

57.39 

9 

E 

S 

a. 

47.53 

0 

44.45 

> 
2553 

c 

0 
0 
0 

Q 
17.71 

>< 

38.09 

^San  rise 

22.35 

26.87 

i 

9  A.M 

20.23  •2S.55 

32.48 

39.35 

58.00 

68.69 

73.97' 

67.97 

61.17 

53.55 

30.33 

24.07 

46.55 

u 

3  P.M 

25.29'33.34' 

33.03 

49.33 

70.10 

78.50 

S4.00 

80.19' 

69.30 

61.00  34.83 

29.55 

54.04 

1  <;9P.M 

19.52 

26.66 

31i>0 

35.00 

54.80 

67.90 

67.23  65.81 

53.17 

5271 

29.43 

23.65 

43.93 

g 

Mean 

19.9S 

27.72 

32.14 

38.86 

57.60 

67.13 

72.06 

68.34 

57.79 

52.85 

29.95 

24.24 

45.72 

e-i 

Maiimum.. 

50 

54 

62 

58 

84 

92 

92 

91 

88 

78 

47 

53 

92 

l^Mitiimum.. 

-21 

2 

-12 

20 

28 

40 

43 

44 

30 

32 

6 

-3 

-21 

'Sunrise... 

374 

465 

345 

437 

735 

716 

545 

736 

757 

607 

457 

374 

546 

9A.M 

357 

486 

345 

437 

733 

723 

568 

736 

710 

616 

420 

419 

552 

il<  3  P.M 

468 

541 

338 

443 

739 

670 

693 

746 

747 

619 

403 

440 

571 

11 

9  P.M...-. 

543 

645 

298 

477 

790 

733 

735 

836 

880 

563 

433 

433 

615 

s^ 

l^Me.-in 

444 

534 

331 

461 

749 

711 

635 

764 

773 

602 

428 

414 

571 

Days  entirely  clear 

0 

4 

0 

2 

8 

4 

0 

6 

10 

1 

2 

44 

Entirely  cloudy... 

5 

4 

7 

^ 

0 

1 

0 

0 

1 

6 

3 

5 

37 

'  From  theX. 

7 

3 

3 

5 

1 

4 

2 

3 

5 

4 

0 

3 

40 

.    rf 

E. 

0 

1 

2 

2 

3 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

0 

2 

11 

"       s. 

0 
3 

3 

2 

3 

2 

0 
0 

11 
0 

9 
3 

5 

4 

8 
3 

3 
3 

4 
0 

6 
5 

1 
1 

53 
36 

"    N.E. 

4 

2 

4 

6 

1 

0 

4 

3 

4 

5 

0 

3 

36 

"c'r 

'■   S.  E. 

1       2 

4 

6 

9 

i     ^^ 

5 

7 

3 

1 

1 

3 

5 

57 

"   S.W. 

'      10 

8 

4 
7 

7 
2 

3 
6 

5 

1 

4 
12 

9 
4 

8 

7 

6 
15 

10 
10 

1 
18 

!     11 

1 

9 

78 
99 

LCalm 

3 

4 

3 

12 

20 

22 

3 

20 

14 

17 

13 

;   8 

139 

Eain  and  ilelted  ) 
Snow  (inches)  ^ 

1.69 

0.90 

a9o 

2.07 

i.a4 

3.70 

4.75 

1.50 

2.02 

3.75 

a80 

i 
1.75 

31.17 

451 


METEOROLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS 

Made  at  Baraboo,  Wisconsin,  for  the  Year  1852.     Latitude  43''  29'  N. 
Longitude  89='   14'  W.     By  B.  F.  Mills. 


b 

e 
p 

B 

a 
14.17 

g           February. 

a 
23.66 

< 
32.89 

52.93 

c 

B 
3 

62.04 

"p 

►--, 

63.85 

tc 

3 
< 

59.41 

53 

B 

ST 
50.45 

o 

S 

o 
O 

£ 

o 

12 

. 

o 
.a 

a 

o 
o 
o 

Q 
19.11 

38.86 

'Sun  rise... 

44.21 

23.61 

ti 

9A.M 

19.41 

27.05 

31.61 

41.76 

63.18 

73.29 

77.25 

74.86 

60.90 

52.45 

30.31 

23.01 

48.75 

g 

3P.M 

23.91 

33.61 

37.04 

4840 

69.95 

78.42 

83.13 

78.97 

67.83 

60.29 

32.62 

26.69 

53.40 

9P.M 

16.84 

23.84 

28.93 

37.13 

54.62 

60.6? 

66.66 

61.00 

52.32 

47.99 

25.44 

21.11 

41.38 

Mean 

18.46 

26.03 

30.09 

40.04 

60.15 

68.58 

72.75 

68.08 

57.56 

51.12 

28.00 

22.54 

45.28 

H 

Maximum.. 

52 

51 

65 

63 

89 

93 

95 

88 

85 

77 

44 

49 

95 

Minimum.. 

-23 

-6 

-7 

18 

30 

45 

50 

42 

30 

26 

-2 

-9 

-23 

^  . 

'Sunrise... 

261 

472 

396 

300 

558 

706 

500 

540 

543 

241 

256 

219 

416 

9  A.M 

267 

434 

401 

306 

525 

630 

530 

583 

551 

409 

193 

209 

419 

rs^ 

3P.M 

377 

354 

206 

316 

519 

566 

519 

600 

496 

500 

226 

193 

406 

C  "3 

9P.M 

429 

520 

251 

493 

648 

666 

583 

696 

640 

412 

411 

145 

491 

^Mean 

333 

445 

314 

354 

562 

642 

533 

605 

570 

393 

271 

191 

434 

Days  entirely  clear 

1 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

0 

1 

0 

0 

0 

6 

Entirely  cloudy 

8 

6 

9 

G 

2 

0 

0 

0 

1 

6 

10 

10 

58 

rPromtheX. 

2 

0 

4 

0 

0 

0 

1 

0 

0 

8 

6 

0 

21 

— ;  ^ 

S. 

0 

5 

1 

1 

8 

14 

7 

3 

3 

4 

3 

1 

50 

^1 

Cm  ^ 

'•    E. 

3 
34 

2 

38 

14 
33 

18 
35 

7 
24 

0 
11 

1 

9 

2 
11 

0 
12 

3 

20 

8 
26 

10 
41 

68 
294 

iM< 

"  KE. 

8 

3 

5 

2 

0 

0 

4 

5 

4 

15 

4 

4 

54 

.2  0 

"  S.E 

11 

0 

22 

19 

23 

7 

4 

17 

15 

19 

3 

7 

147 

o  o 

•*  N.W. 

37 

21 

9 

2 

3 

12 

4 

12 

16 

8 

3 

1 

128 

"  S.W. 

16 

18 

14 

8 

9 

28 

45 

24 

30 

19 

17 

18 

246 

^Calm 

13 

29 

22 

35 

50 

48 

.49 

50 

40 

28 

50 

42 

456 

Rain  and  Melted  ) 
Snow  (inches)  ^ 

» 

1.420 

4.183 

3.465 

1.630 

3.665 

3.980 

2.445 

1.700 

4.857 

2.407 

1.510 

31.26 

452 


METEOROLOGICAL   OBSERVATIONS 

Made  at  Kenosha,  Wisconsin,  for  the  Year  1852.     Lat.  42"  35'  N.     Long. 
87"  50'  W.    Elevation  above  Lake  Michigan,  35  feet.    By  John  Gridlet. 


w 
o 

OS 

» 
a 


'Sun  rise... 

9  A.M 

3P.M 

9P.M 

Mean 

Maximum. 
^Minimum.. 

San  rise... 
9  A.M 


O   g 

S'g  <(3P.M 

CO 


Q)  I— i 


9  P.M. 
Mean.. 


a! 

c 
ca 
1-3 


22.09 
25.G3 
31.2C 
28.04 
26.25 
45 
-18 


o 


o 


Days  entirely  clear 
Entirely  cloudy... 


fFromtheK 

S. 

E. 

W. 


.     TO 

c  o 


S  re 
qO 


W.E. 
S.  E. 
N.W. 
S.W, 


Calm 


409 
429 
532 
441 

4 
■5 

5 

6 

1 

31 

11 

0 

9 

17 

33 


24.62 
30.00 
35.41 
29.00 
29.76 
57 
5 


29.13 


^ 
^ 


34.60 


393    345 


540 
617 
707 
552 

6 
3 

1 

6 

10 

36 

o 

0 
20 

7 
26 


33.6340.93 
40.20  42.36 
34.60  36.43 


34.39 

57 
5 

490 
567 
416 
361 
458 

2 
3 

3 

6 
24 
32 
10 

6 
10 

6 
23 


38.5S 
51 
19 

683 
496 
473 
550 
550 

7 
2 

2 

2 

16 

27 

^4 

2 

1 

3 

25 


'43.32 
53.61 
57.74 
30.93 
52.45 
86 
33 

658 
713 
648 
670 
672 

7 
0 

4 

12 

13 

15 

29 

6 

5 

6 

30 


30  6 


56 

63.87 
65.87 
61.10 
61.78 
85 
40 

723 
803 
626 
616 
692 


3 


34.00 
73.55 
72-36 
68.70 
69  45 
89 
49 

790 
832 
751 
739 

778 


6 
6 
9 

33 
9 
4 
5 
7 

25 


3 
3 


I 


0 

0 
9 

10 
27 

28 
l' 
3 
8 

30 


p.. 

xn 


57.61 
68.03 
71.64 
63.70 
65.24 
81 
50 

674 
703 
780 
703 
715 


7 
1 

2 
2 

24 
7 

25 
1 
2 
4 

52 


52.83 
62.43 

63.40 

54.00 

58.14 

80 

37 

740 
663 
643 
643 

675 

8 
2 

5 

7 

22 

24 

8 

6 

6 

2 

32 


q 
o 
O 

£ 

c 

S 

o 

Q 

49.90 

28.96 

23.51 

40.16 

50.83 

34.47 

26.39 

46.91 

51.71 

35.G6 

30.35 

49.83 

48.84 

32.60 

26.39 

45.11 

50.32 

32.92 

26.66 

45.16 

79 

47 

49 

89 

35 

17 

7 

-18 

468 

384 

342 

557 

471 

348 

416 

580 

507 

220 

374 

540 

461 

448 

445 

573 

475 

350 

394 

562 

4 

2 

3 

67 

6 

8 

4 

34 

8 

2 

3 

41 

10 

0 

5 

71 

11 

10 

3 

153 

20 

21 

21 

294 

16 

1 

2 

■175 

0 

9 

8 

43 

10 

22 

28 

121 

7 

7 

10 

84 

26 

34 

32 

368 

453 


METEOROLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS 

Made  at  Emerald  Geove,  Rock  County,  Wisconsin,  for  the  Year  1852. 
Latitude  42°  3r  N.  Longitude  88°  54^  W.  Elevation  above  Lake  Mich- 
igan, 408  feet ;  above  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  986  feet.     By  Orrin  Densmore. 


§ 
14.63 

3! 

3 

22.31 

i 

26.16 

1           April. 

o 

47.48 

d 

5 

•-5 

56.06 

63.32 

2 
So 

■< 
58.71 

b^          September. 

a 

X> 

c 

o 
O 

46.03 

o 

a 
3 

o 
12; 

25.90 

o 

c 

a 

19.64 

a 
38.59 

'Sun  rise 

d 

9  A.M 

17.42 

26.65 

32.22 

40.36 

59.64 

69.90 

75.22 

71.45 

59.53 

52.32 

29.87 

22.35 

46.41 

s 

3P.M 

24.22 

32.14 

38.84 

46.23 

68.80 

76.83 

80.87 

78.58 

65.63 

58.68 

33.36 

28.13 

52.69 

?  ^ 

9  P.  M 

16.58 

24.58 

30.48 

37.36 

52.00 

61.13 

66.16 

63.90 

55.20 

43.51 

27.70 

20.87 

42.04 

§ 

H 

Maximum.. 

47 

49 

73 

60 

84 

91 

92 

91 

83 

73 

47 

52 

92 

H 

Minimum.. 

-24 

-7 

0 

16 

31 

40 

51 

49 

37 

31 

8 

-2 

-24 

^Mean 

18.21 

26.42 

31.84 

39.06 

56.49 

65.97 

71.39 

68.14 

57.75 

51.38 

29.20 

22.91 

44.89 

'Sunrise... 

261 

399 

371 

333 

671 

610 

603 

555 

590 

377 

233 

232 

411 

2-^ 

^  a 

9  A.M 

264 

520 

383 

346 

532 

533 

464 

516 

573 

403 

223 

255 

418 

|1^ 

3P.M 

322 

520 

287 

270 

561 

523 

506 

574 

513 

503 

223 

227 

419 

9P.M 

545 

545 

293 

413 

564 

646 

684 

745 

623 

471 

350 

251 

510 

O 

^Mean 

347 

495 

333 

340 

582 

570 

564 

597 

575 

439 

257 

233 

442 

Days 

entirely  clear 

1 

0 

0 

0 

1 

0 

0 

0 

1 

2 

1 

0 

6 

Entire 

ily  cloudy... 

1 

5 

7 

6 

1 

0 

0 

1 

1 

7 

8 

11 

4& 

'From  theN. 

17 

4 

9 

16 

7 

4 

3 

19 

9 

9 

10 

13 

120 

•  CO 

S. 

11 

3 

18 

2 

24 

13 

25 

23 

25 

30 

2 

11 

187 

.S.2 

E. 

4 

10 

20 

29 

20 

4 

7 

21 

9 

9 

10 

12 

155 

W. 

16 

23 

15 

14 

11 

19 

9 

9 

19 

21 

25 

28 

209 

"  X.E. 

6 

1 

13 

9 

8 

6 

9 

11 

12 

14 

16 

5 

110 

"  S.  E. 

8 

2 

6 

8 

11 

3 

15 

9 

10 

8 

14 

21 

115 

«l 

"  N.W. 
"  S.W. 

31 

28 

36 
32 

29 
13 

22 

8 

15 
23 

25 
29 

12 
26 

1 
9 

14 
10 

15 
13 

21 
16 

10 
23 

231 
230 

..  Calm.... 

3 

5 

1 

12 

5 

17 

18 

22 

12 

5 

6 

1 

107 

454 


METEOROLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS 

Made  at  Platteville,  Wisconsin,  for  the  Year  1852.     Latitude,  42°  45'  N". 
Longitude  90°  W.     Elevation  above  the  Mississippi,  about  200  feet.    By  J. 

L.  PiCKARD. 


p 

•-3 

6 

a 

P 

1 

< 
35.07 

>> 

53.58 

d 
p 

58.93 

>-> 
59.10 

to 
3 
biJ 

< 

62.26 

CJl 

i^          September. 

o 
o 

O 
46.61 

a 

o 
24.50 

a 
s 

a 

17.74 

39.36 

'Sun  rise.... 

14.61 

21.34  26.68 

i 

9A.M 

19.01 

27.49  34.74 

43.03 

62.45 

70.09 

71.15 

73.45 

61.43 

54.58 

28.97 

20.35 

47.22 

14 

3P.M 

23.13 

34.97 

41.19 

51.57 

72.74 

79.23 

78.14 

83.87 

71.80 

61.52 

34.13 

23.97 

54.68 

o  ^  9P.M 

16.58 

25.72 

32.45 

33.80 

58.36 

64.53 

66.18 

69.58 

58.90 

51.22 

27.60 

19.42 

44.11 

Mean 

18.35 

27.38 

33.76 

42.12 

'61.78 

68.39 

68.64 

72.29 

61.03 

53.48 

28.80 

20.37 

46.36 

Maximum.. 

54 

54 

80 

74 

87 

96 

95 

96 

93 

85 

46 

46 

96 

^Minimum.. 

-2S 

-6 

-4 

16 

30 

42 

43 

47 

34 

34 

2 

12 

-28 

^Sun  rise.... 

300 

500 

450 

300 

500 

650 

600 

600 

600 

400 

200 

300 

450 

^-3 

9  A.M 

400 

550 

275 

300 

600 

600 

600 

600 

600 

500 

200 

300 

450 

o  a 

Sg-o<(3P.M 

400 

500 

350 

400 

600 

550 

500 

700 

500 

500 

300 

.300 

475 

"1 

9P.M 

400 

575 

300 

500 

700 

700 

700 

600 

600 

400 

400 

300 

525 

gh-H 

3 

Mean 

375 

531 

345 

375 

600 

625 

600 

625 

575 

450 

275 

300 

473 

Prevailing  Winds. 

N.W. 

W. 

N.W. 

N.W. 

S.E. 

S.W. 

S.W. 

E. 

W. 

S.E. 

N.W. 

N.E. 

N.W. 

Rain  and  Melted  ^ 
Snow  (inches)  5 

1.08 

0.20 

5.00 

2.57 

3.56 

2.90 

3.00 

1.50 

2.00 

5.63 

2.63 

1.00 

32.07 

No.  of  days  Rain  ? 
fell 5 

6 

3 

17 

16 

11 

8 

6 

7 

8 

12 

14 

16 

124 

Whole  amount  of  Snow,  45  inches. 

The  more  remarkable  phenomena  of  the  year  are — Very  brilliant  Aurora,  Feb.  17,  18  and 
19th;  Snow  accompanied  by  vivid  Lightning  and  heavy  Thunder,  April  10th  ;  Rain  night  of 
June  1st  and  3d,  3.65  inches ;  First  Snow,  November  10th. 

A  peculiar  rustling  noise  was  observed  on  the  evening  of  the  27th  of  October,  as  of  a  large 
flock  of  birds  passing  rapidly  from  N.W.  to  S.E.  I  am  contident  it  could  not  have  been 
produced  by  birds,  as  it  was  time  of  full  moon,  perfectly  clear,  and  no  birds  were  to  be  seen, 
though  the  noise  produced  was  immediately  over  our  heads. 


455 


METEOROLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS 

Made  at  Summit,  Waukesha  Countt,  AVisconsin,  for  the  Year  1862.  Latitude 
43«  05'  N.  Longitude  88''  30'  W.  Elevation  above  Lake  Michigan,  about 
300  feet.     By  Edward  W.  Spencer. 


o 


'^Sun  rise.. 
9  A.M.... 
3  P.M.... 


|-|^9P.M. 
g         Meau , 

a 


u. 

cd 

C9 

3 

>H 

a 

^ 

ra 

a 

1-3 

tq 

a  o 
.2  0 


a>     .    I 

^P    1 


Maximum.. 
.Minimum.. 

From  theN. 
S. 
E. 
W. 
N.E. 
S.E. 
N.W. 
S.W. 

(^Cloudy 

"  Fair 

Rainy 


LSnowy 


1468 
17.39 
24.03 
19.71 
18.94 
42 
-22 

0 
4 
1 
5 
3 
2 
13 
3 

19 

10 

0 

2 


20.97 
24.67 
32.17 
26.13 
25.99 
52 
0 

1 
3 

0 
8 
3 
3 

7 
4 

13 

13 

0 

3 


24.97 
2D.55 
36.94 
31.8- 
30.84 
62 
-14 


1 
3 

2 
3 

4 
0 

8 
4 

13 
9 
7 
2 


a, 


31.60 
39.23 
46.20 
38.30 
38.83 
65 
20 

0 
0 
4 
2 

8 

2 

10 

4 

14 

10 
6 
0 


47.16 
59.51 
66.51 
54.55 
57.00 
82 
28 

0 
1 
5 
4 

4 
4 

7 
6 

3 

23 

5 

0 


^ 

►^ 

.4J 

3 

tc 

< 

s 

CO 

0 
0 
0 

s 

0 

© 

e 

0) 

0 

0 

Q 

54.30 

59.84 

57.39 

49.13 

45.58 

26.10 

20.00 

37.64 

67.40 

71.93 

69.70 

59.70 

51.68 

29.73 

2297 

45.29 

72.47 

78.10 

76.42 

66.27 

59.32 

33.63 

27.35 

51.64 

64.73 

69.93 

67.84 

58.50 

52.29 

28.07 

23.65 

4463 

64.72 

69.96 

67.84 

58.40 

52.47 

29.84 

23.50 

4486 

88 

88 

88 

85 

76 

43 

51 

88 

36 

40 

46 

30 

28 

9 

-2 

-22 

1 

1 

1 

0 

0 

1 

0 

6 

3 

1 

5 

1 

2 

1 

4 

28 

2 

0 

2 

4 

1 

2 

4 

27 

3 

o 

0 

4 

7 

6 

9 

53 

■2 

7 

11 

3 

4 

3 

0 

52 

1 

2 

4 

6 

0 

5 

4 

39 

8 

7 

3 

7 

6 

8 

5 

89 

10 

9 

5 

5 

9 

4 

5 

68 

3 

3 

11 

8 

8 

22 

18 

135 

24 

21 

17 

16 

16 

2 

5 

166 

3 

7 

3 

6 

.7 

4 

1 

49 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

2 

6 

15 

Total  depth  of  Snow,  35  inches. 


New  York  Botanical  Garden   Libra 


3  5185  00257  5874 


vw 


i  m 


i