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— Ropal Society of Victoria.
WOE Xx EEL
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OPINIONS GIVEN AND FOR THE ACCURACY OF THE STATEMENTS MADE THEREIN.
7 MELBOURNE:
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ISSUED i1hth MARCH, 1878.
AGENTS TO THE SOCIETY.
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To whom all communications for transmission to the Royal Society of Victoria
from all parts of Europe should be sent,
4
PRHFACH. |
THE publication of Volume XIII. has been unavoidably
delayed so long mainly with the idea of printing two
years’ transactions in one volume. It has, however, been
thought better to issue each year’s transactions separately.
Volume XIV. will be ready in a month or two, and in
future each year’s transactions will be prepared for issue.
at the following Annual Meeting.
Hopal Society of Victoria.
Ese 7) @
| parron.
' HIS EXCELLENCY SIR GEORGE BOWEN, G.C.M.G.
president.
R. L. J. ELLERY, Esa., F.R.S.
Gite-Dresidvents.
GEORGE FOORD, Esq,, F.C.S. | E. J. WHITE, Esq., F R.A.S8.
How, Grersurer.
PERCY DE J. GRUT, Esq.
Hon. Secretary.
F. J. PIRANI, Ese., M.A.
Bon. Librarian.
J. E, NEILD, Esq., M.D.
Council.
A. C. ALLAN, Ese. S. W. M‘GOWAN, Esa.
H. M. ANDREW, Ese., M.A. H. K. RUSDEN, Ese.
J. BOSISTO, Esq., M.L.A. THOS. E. RAWLINSON Esa., C.E.
W. C. KERNOT, Ese., M.A. JAMES T. RUDALL, Esq, F.B.C.S.
PROFESSOR E. J. NANSON. F. POOLMAN, Ese.
E, HOWITT, Ese. G. H. F. ULRICH, Ese, F.G.S.
ie aa
Phe
Roval Society of Victoria.
ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS
OF
Che President,
Mr. R. L. J. Every, F.R.A.S., Government Astronomer.
(Delivered to the Members of the Royal Society, at their Annual
- Conversazione, held on Thursday, 10th August, 1876.)
Your EXCELLENCY AND GENTLEMEN OF THE
RoyYAL SOcrgTY,
The 12th Rule of our Society, relating to the time at
which the Presidential Address shall be delivered, has of
late years been more honoured in the breach than in the
observance ; every year it has gota little later—this year
later than ever, and the usual phrase—‘We meet to
Inaugurate our session,’ has become inappropriate. I
must confess, however, that this bad habit has come into
fashion since I have had the honour of being your President ;
the remedy, therefore, is obvious. We meet this evening to
commemorate the entry of the Society into its 19th session
by a social gathering of our members and their friends, as
has been our custom for several years past, and the only
really formal business of the evening provided for by our
rules—the delivery of address—now devolves on me as your
President. ,
In doing this I wish to be as brief as possible. Since I
had last the honour of addressing you, about two years ago,
xi President's Address
you have done me the honour of twice re-electing me your
President ; and now, perhaps, is a fitting occasion to assure
you how highly I appreciate the confidence you thus place
in me. I have sometimes felt I should like to be relieved
of the responsibility and anxiety of the position, and make
room for a better man; but as each year has come around I
have found myself nominated and re-elected without pro-
testing against the honours you heap upon my head. I
need scarcely tell you, gentlemen, that I take the greatest
interest in the welfare of this Society, and I shall always be
ready, as long as I have good health, to do my best for its
good and advancement, whatever position | may hold in its
ranks.
You will be eA to learn that the financial position of
our Society is now better that it has been for some years.
Our revenue proper is not much larger than heretofore, but
the resumption of the small annual grant from the Govern-
ment has enabled your Council to carry on the printing and
other work of the Society in a satisfactory manner without
getting into debi. We have now on our rolis 122 members,
and I am glad to see among our junior members gentlemen
who have been educated in the colony, who, from their
acquirements and scientific training, | have reason t0 hope
will become most useful acquisitions to the Society.
It has been usual for the President to refer in his address
to the papers and other matters which have occupied our
meetings held since the preceding conversazione ; but, as
the Transactions are now published and issued soon after
each meeting, I think it will be unnecessary to refer to them
on this occasion; suffice it to say that there have been six
meetings held since our annual gathering last year, at which
ten papers and other communications were contributed,
which, in most cases, led to interesting and instructive ;
discussions. While on this subject I may mention that I
for the year 1876. xi
found during my late holiday in Europe that Scientific
Societies there are subject to the same phenomenon as we,
unfortunately, sometimes witness—namely, paucity of attend-
ance at some of the ordinary meetings. There, as here,
unless the business of the meetings is unusually interesting
and sensational, a few only of the more earnest members
attend; and I have been present at several meetings of
some of the highest and oldest societies in London where the
attendance has been no better than it is in this hall. Small
attendances must not, however, be taken asany sign of the want
of vitality, for the real functions of this and similar societies
are but exhibited in the encouragement and inducement they
afford to investigation and experiment, and in the resulting
permanent knowledge embodied in their transactions. The
small attendance at some of our ordinary meetings, when
the business has been of less immediate interest, has induced
the Council to arrange that some of them should be of a less
formal and more of a conversational character, at which
exhibits of new apparatus, intelligence of scientific or other
progress, accounts of experiments or observations, not
necessarily original, had been received and discussed ; and
this plan, so far as has heen tried, has been found ee
HOry:-
‘I believe the functions of this Society might possibly be
extended with advantage in the direction of brief special
lectures for the demonstration of new or interesting facts in
physical or other science. Such a course has already been
thought of, and | believe is well worthy of putting into
practice.
The books in the library have now been thoroughly
arranged and classified, and the binding of the periodicals
has been commenced, and will be proceeded with from time
to time. As regards our publications, I may state that
Volume XI. has been published and issued, and that all
B 2
Xiv President's Address
the earlier papers contributed during cur present session
are printed and distributed, and the rest in the printer's
hands. |
The building and grounds of the Society are in a much
better condition than has been the case for some years past,
The repairs to the fencing, and the growth of the trees, with
the periodical attention given to the ground generally, have |
much improved the aspect of affairs. The interior of the
building is in a good state of repair, but the appearance of
the exterior is exceedingly unsightly. The necessity of
getting it stuccoed has been constantly under the notice of
the Council, but hitherto the state of the finances has not
been such as to warrant it in making the necessary expendi-
ture, more especially as they had the assurance of the
architect that the building would not suffer for want of
stuccoing for some time to come. The Council are of
opinion, however, that if for no other reason than appear-
ance sake, it is highly desirable to get this work done as
soon as the funds will admit.
Leaving the more domestic affairs of the Society, I wish
now to call your attention to some of the noteworthy facts
connected with the past year’s history of scientific progress.
In Astronomy there appears little of more than passing
interest to arrest our attention; it almost seems as if a lull
had fallen on this department of science after the unusual
activity caused by the transit of Venus in December, 1874.
This is apparent only, for nearly all the national observa-
tories have been busily engaged, each in its own particular
direction. This is true also as regards our own observatory,
for while I have nothing sensational to refer to, our principal
work—determination of the positions of stars, and the
revision of Sir John Herschel’s nebulz with the great tele-
scope—has gone on without intermission. Our great tele-
scope has new rivals vying with it in probing the great
PaaS
for the year 1876.. XV
depths of the universe. At the Paris observatory a large
Newtonian reflector (almost of exactly similar dimensions to
our Cassegrainian) has been lately completed, and is now at
work ; at Washington the great refractor of 26 inches aperture
and 31 feet focal length is actively employed, and in some
trials on nebular observation has proved itself no insig-
nificant rival to the large apertures of our and the other
three large reflectors; and further, the maker of the Mel-
bourne telescope is now engaged in the construction of
another enormous refractor for the Vienna Observatory,
which is to be 27 inches aperture and about 33 feet focal
length. Now that it is likely there will be more busy eyes
and large telescopes occupied on the fainter celestial objects,
to the observation of which our reflector has been principally
devoted, it becomes all the more necessary that what has
already been accomplished here should become known. At
present very little of the results of the work of the great
telescope has been published. I am now, however, in hopes
that this will soon be done, as a method of doing it has been
decided upon, and the only cause of delay now is the want
of means. ‘This, I have no reasonable doubt, will shortly be
forthcoming, when a good account will be given of how this
magnificent instrument has been employed since its erection.
The final results of the observations of the transit of Venus
have not yet been obtained; the laborious calculations
involved will probably delay it for some time longer. It is
believed, however, from approximate results already arrived
at, that the sun’s distance, from these observations, will be
found to be somewhere between the distance obtained by
the transit of Venus in 1769 (corrected by Stone), and the
distance obtained by the parallax of Mars in 1862; that is,
somewhere between 91,580,000 and 91,240,000 miles. The
number of the planetoids (the small planets which occupy
the gap between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter) already
discovered is 161. Most of these bodies are so minute that
XVI President's Address
their detection among the myriads of small stars is a matter
of considerable difficulty, even to accomplished observers ;
but, nevertheless, a systematie search for new members of
this group with telescopes of adequate power, appears to be
always rewarded by discovery. The “Lunar tables,” as
they are called, are a series of numbers representing the
position, distance, &c., of the moon from day to day or hour
to hour calculated for some years in advance, and are of the
utmost importance in practical astronomy, navigation, and
determination of geographical position generally. It is,
however, a remarkable fact that all tables hitherto computed
become erroneous after the lapse of years, so that the places
given no longer represent the moon’s actual position, and this
- would seem at first sight all the more remarkable because her
position is and has been continually observed by nearly all
the principal national observatories. But the complexity
of influences to which she is subjected in her motion through
space, coupled with the fact that her mass is probably phy-
sically unsymmetrical, makes it an extremely difficult pro-
blem to form a theory, taking all these disturbing influences
into account, so that tables founded on it shall give the
moon's precise position at very distant dates. The tables in
the American. Nautical Almanac of Professor Pierce seem
however, to be the best yet computed. The veteran Astro-
nomer Royal of England, Sir George Airy, who is now in
his seventy-sixth year, has lately undertaken to work out a
new lunar theory to replace those which experience has
shown to be insufficient. He reports that his task is well
advanced towards completion, and I am sure all scientific
men at least will wish him health and vigour to complete
this great self-imposed task for the good of the whole civi-
lised world.
In Physical Science also there is nothing of more than
ordinary interest to refer to. Mr. Crookes’ investigations on —
the action of light and heat on bodies in vacuo have been
for the year 1876. XVii
interesting in the highest degree, and although the supposi-
tion that the remarkable phenomena exhibited indicated the
existence of a new force, which was at first entertained by
some, has not been sustained by further investigation and
experiment, his researches in this direction have, at least,
‘opened up a new and interesting, if not useful field, in phy-
sical science. Concerning this, Mr. Foord will probably have
a few words to say in the course of the evening, more especi-
ally in reference to a very interesting little apparatus known
as Crookes’ radiometer. Some little sensation has been
excited lately by the supposed discovery of a new force,
allied to electricity, and called etheric force. Some peculiar
phenomena, observed with respect to induced electric cur-
rents, have been the origin of this supposition. There can
be no doubt, however, that they are simply induction phe-
nomena, perhaps not hitherto thoroughly investigated,
although certainly known, but which with the present ten-
dency to discover new forces have been precipitately put in
that category.
Although the science of Chemistry svealeas steadily from
year to year, it is not quite always that discoveries of popular
interest are included among its newer acquisitions; the
newly-discovered metal “gallium” is, however, sufficiently
remarkable to demand a brief notice on this occasion. For-
merly, the processes of humid analysis, including electrolysis,
were the only means available for the discovery of new
elementary substances ; of late years the much more deli-
cate and searching method of spectrum analysis has enabled
us to discover—first, rubidium,and cesiwm, then thalliwm,
_ afterwards indiwm, and now by its means galliwm has
been recognised, and has since been separated. All these
are elements ; they are all metals, each possessing definite
chemical and other properties. Gallium was discovered in
August, 1875, by M. Lecog Boisbanbrau while examining
XVili President's Address
with the spectroscope a blende (a sulphide of zinc) from a
mine in the Pyrenees. He observed new and hitherto
unrecognised lines in the spectrum, which have enabled him |
to pursue, and eventually to separate, and obtain specimens
of, the new metal. The chemical and physical properties of
this new substance are in some measure ascertained now.
__ that the metal has become tangible; but the delicacy of the
means by which this has been brought about may be —
estimated from the statement that the earliest experiment
in which the nature of the spectrum of this new metal was
established was made on a quantity something less than the
15,000th part of a grain, dissolved in a very small drop of
liquid. The melting point of pure gallium is stated to be
so low as to warrant our regarding it as being with mer-
cury, in the category of metals, fluid at ordinary atmospheric
temperatures ; nor are its already ascertained chemical rela-
tions less interesting. It has been shown that elementary
bodies may be arranged, according to their combining equi-
valents, into groups of three, or “triads,” in which the
combining equivalent of the middle element is the numerical
mean of the two others, but in more than one of these groups
the middle term is wanting. From what has been ascer-
tained concerning gallium, it appears highly probable that it
will be found to fill one of these gaps—that, namely, between
aluminium and indium ; and it has been moreover suggested
that a wanting element with a combining equivalent, the
mean of these of silicon and tin, should be sought in the
field of natural combinations respectively of arsenic and
titanium. These foreshadowings of the existence of elements
new to science of definite characters and positions in the
great chemical scheme suggest a comparison with discoveries
in another domain of human knowledge—with those, namely,
which predicted and led to the discovery of the plane
Neptune.
Ok i
a.
for the year 1876. X1x
Some very interesting discussions on the efficacy of
the intravenous injection of ammonia in cases of bites
by Australian snakes have recently taken place at the
Medical Society of Victoria, and perhaps there is no
other subject that has cropped up in medical and surgical
science during the past year which will have more
interest for Australians than this. It, cannot be said. that
the result of these discussions, or of the experiments which
led to them, is altogether satisfactory, although there can be
no doubt that in the evidence.adduced, and the exchange of
Opinion, the knowledge of the whole question has been con-
' siderably advanced. When Professor Halford proved that a
powerful agent like ammonia could, under certain conditions,
be passed directly into the circulating blood, and so carried
mechanically to the heart, and probably the nervous centres,
without ‘much danger, and that its effect in his hands ap-
peared to be that animals apparently dying, from snake bites
especially, were rapidly re-vitalised as it were, it naturally
occurred to him as an appropriate remedy to try on the
snake-poisoned human subject. This, as you know, was
done, and the patient recovered ; many other cases of a more
or less similar nature occurred, where recovery from what at
the time seemed a hopeless condition was apparently brought
about by the injection of ammonia; and the opinion of a
large number of intelligent medical men was in favour of
the adoption of this treatment for such cases. Other equally
intelligent medical men had doubts of the efficacy of this
remedy, and eventually a committee of the Medical Society
was appointed to carry out a series of experiments to test
the value of ammonia injection in snake poison. Their
report was so utterly adverse to the ordinarily received
opinion, that a very animated and interesting discussion took
place at several meetings of the Society, but the balance of
opinion was still in favour of ammonia injection as a remedy
—— SS ——— —————— ee SEE eEos3EY—e=—=eEeee ee
XxX President's Address
under certain conditions, and I have no doubt it will still be
resorted to in nearly every case of snake bite where the life
seems in imminent danger. The question naturally sug-
gests itself in every case that survives after the treat-
ment by ammonia, “Would death have occurred without
it?” This, of course, cannot be proved; but the same may
be said of all remedies used in medicine or surgery. There
can be no doubt, from what transpired at these discussions,
that in many cases treated with ammonia the patient was
poisoned with alcohol; but who shall say whether the snake
or alcohol poison was killing? and if ammonia will save
from both, so much the better. However important the
intravenous injection of ammonia may be considered in the
treatment of snake poison, I think its value as a therapeutic
agent in other cases of endangered human life, as shown by
some of the collateral evidence given in the discussions
referred to, gives broader significance to the whole question
than was apparently involved in the late experiments and
controversy; and it is to be hoped that both Professor
Halford and other of our medical men will extend their
investigations and experiments, not only with the view to
obtain a more precise idea of the modus operandi of this
and other agents introduced directly into the circulation, but
also with the view of thoroughly testing the value of this
method of applying remedies in urgent cases. The com-
paratively modern method of endermic injection has become
an inestimable blessing to suffering humanity, and enables
the physician and surgeon to confidently use remedies which,
administered in the ordinary way to enter the system by
digestion, often only afforded relief at the expense of after-
exhaustion of vital powers. If, therefore, further investiga-—
tion should prove that the intravenous injection of remedies
can be as safely and as advantageously used in some cases
as the hypodermic injection is in others, it will constitute
for the year 1876. Sor
one of the most important steps in medical science achieved
in modern times.
Tn connexion with this subject there is a matter which is
exciting some considerable attention in England justnow—I
refer to the movement against vivisection. It is,of course, well
known that experiments on living animals are frequently
made by physiologists and others with the view of extending
our knowledge of the vital functions of anatomy, and the
action of chemical and other substances, in all cases ostensibly
for the benefit of the human race. Of late years, however,
a popular belief has grown up among a certain class in
England that vivisection and torture of animals was
practised to a very large extent in that country without
adequate reason, and by persons not influenced by the
highest motives, and very strenuous efforts were made to
put a stop to such practices. The general public, however,
are now convinced that this belief was erroneous in a great
measure, and the statements as to the prevalence of the
practice exaggerated ; for while well-known and eminent
physiologists did resort to vivisection in prosecuting their
investigations, it was nearly always with that regard for the
suffering or life of God’s creatures which must necessarily
influence all truly scientific men. The amount of vivisection
practised was very small, and cases of wanton cruelty or
needless experiment were found to be exceedingly few.
While repudiating any sympathy with that indiscriminate
sentimentality which characterised the more violent part of
_ this movement, I am of opinion that some legislation on the
matter is highly desirable to protect the earnest investigator
on the one hand from the undue interference of sentimental
busybodies, and to prevent an unnecessary resort to vivi-
section or experiment on animals, or carelessness or cruelty
in the practice of it when necessary on the other. There
has been a Royal Commission, which has inquired into the
XXli President's Addvess
subject, and Lord Carnarvon has introduced a bill into the
British Parliament, which, I think, will be hailed by all
right thinking men as a just and righteous provision. The
provisions of the bill are categorically given in Nature, and
are as follow :—“1. Experiments must be performed with a
view only to the advancement, by new discovery, of know-
ledge which will be useful for saving or prolonging human
life, or alleviating human suffering ; 2, In a registered place;
3, By a person holding a licence from one of .Her Majesty’s
principal Secretaries of State; 4, The animal must, during
the whole experiment, be under the complete influence of
some anesthetic, not urari; and 5, Must be killed before
it recovers from the influence of the anzesthetic; 6, The
experiment shall not be performed for demonstrational pur-
poses; 7, Nor for the purpose of attaining manual skili.” ©
In former addresses I have on several occasions alluded to
the subject of Meteorology somewhat at length, and have, I
trust, kept you au courant with the most important points
' in connexion with the advancement of this: branch of
knowledge. To us in Australia the value of a better
knowledge of the laws that govern the weather can scarcely
be overrated, as our prosperity depends so largely on the
amount and period of rainfall. Not that it is possible, by
any amount of knowledge, to largely modify our climate ;
it may become, nevertheless, possible, by systematic investi-
gation, to foresee the approach of great disturbances of the
atmosphere, or even critical seasons, and to be forewarned is
to be forearmed. Ido not think we have data extended
over sufficient period or area in Australia to enable any one
to safely make any deductions yet. I believe, however, that
with the data we already possess, aided by a system of
observations over as much of the coast-line as possible,
combined with others at representative localities in the
interior, and especially in those parts under the influence of
for the year 1876. XXiil
the monsoons, we should be able to ascertain some of the
more general laws which govern the weather in Australia,
and which will go a long way to help towards the chief
desideratum—obtaining a forewarning of storms, and even
critical periods and seasons. ‘To this end I have lately
invited the co-operation of the directors of Australian
observatories in establishing a uniform system of inter-
colonial weather telegraphy, which I hope will be in full
operation before our next conversazione. In America a most
complete system has been in operation for some years, which
I described to you on a former occasion. This system has
been most successful, and it is stated that 80 per cent. of
the predictions—which are published nearly every day—for
the several districts over which the observations extend,
turn out to be correct. These predictions, however, only
refer to the weather from day to day, and not to any
lengthened period; but even with this limitation it becomes
of immense practical value, and no doubt commensurate
with the very large national expenditure which is devoted
to it.
A movement has lately been, made in England which
promises to be of the utmost importance not only simply as
regards science, but also in an educational aspect. I refer to
the loan collection of scientific apparatus which has been
collected at the museums at Kensington, the public exhibition
of which was privately opened by the Queen on May 13th.
The proposition for this collection originated in England, where
it was made to the Lords of the Committee of the Council on
Education, was approved, and assumed a definite shape
through the efforts of a committee including over 130 names
of the most distinguished men of science. Although the dis-
play is in London, the movement is essentially international.
Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway,
Russia, Austria and Hungary, Spain, and United States,
XXIV President's Address
have undertaken to contribute, and have opened their
museums and scientific storehouses in order that the collec-
tion shall be as complete as possible. Whatever intellectual
pursuit is aided by instrumental means will be duly repre-
sented in this collection ; and there will be brought together
not only the instruments of research used at the present
time, but many invaluable specimens of the tools with which
the early pioneers of human knowledge first began-to ques-
tion Nature. The Astrolabe of Tycho Brahe, the telescope
of Galileo, will be seen together with the magnificent
astronomical instruments of the present day, prominent
among which are models of the great Melbourne reflector
and the gigantic Vienna refractor of 27 inchesaperture. The
various sections are so arranged that in many cases the
history of the progress in the respective sciences is more
plainly shown than could be done by a written book ; while
throughout can be contrasted specimens of the earliest
apparatus used in any branch of science with the refined
appliances of the present day—Newton’s simple optical
apparatus with the exquisite prisms and spectroscopes of to-
day ; Dalton’s crude balance with the magnificent weighing-
machines of the present time, with the unimpeachable weights
of pure quartz. It would occupy too much time to speak
of this subject with any justice to its importance. The
value, however, of this movement cannot be over-estimated,
although—as science as yet unfortunately only interests the
few—it may not be so universally appreciated as we could
hope. The Times, in an article on the opening of this
exhibition, says :—“ The exhibition which Her Majesty the
Queen privately visits and opens to-day 1s one of which not
only England, but Europe, may he justly proud. Pride,
however, is not the only sentiment we English should feel ;
for at last, if even only for a brief space, we have, under the
name of a loan collection of scientific apparatus, a Science
Pees ae
for the year 1876. XXV
Museum as complete as those in which we have already
enshrined our art and literature. For at least six months
therefore we shall not only be as rich in this respect as
France, Germany, Italy, Holland, and Switzerland, but far
richer, since those nations, with an enthusiasm and goodwill
which command our universal gratitude, have spoiled their
ancient treasure-houses, their laboratories, and private col- -
lections, in order that science may be worthily represented
among us now that our Government has consented to pro-
vide a home, however temporary, for her.”
In conclusion, J would return for a few moments to the
immediate affairs of our Society.
I have already referred to the smallness of attendance at
some of our ordinary meetings, and to certain propositions
for the improvement of the working of the Society. I
would, however, exhort our scientific and literary members,
and more especially our younger ones, to renewed activity.
It cannot be supposed in a small community like ours that
enough scientific workers in original investigations can be
found to keep this Society in active operation with entirely
new matter; but if our legitimate functions be fully exer-
cised I can see no reason why we should not have busy
sessions and full meetings. The fields of investigation are
only too numerous; the further we advance in knowledge
the wider they become ; the more science contributes to the
welfare, convenience, or luxury of the community, the more
is demanded of it. So our young scientists have no lack of
scope for their inquiries.
It should be clearly understood that accounts and results
of experiments, the discovery or improvement of mechanical
appliances, suggestions of new modes of investigation or
observation,simple observations in natural history, astronomy,
chemistry, physiology, medicine, or surgery, besides matters
pertaining to the advancement of literature and art, all °
come within the proper province of this Society.
XXvi President's Address for the yewr 1876.
There is surely, then, enough to do. I have often found
that most interesting and valuable information has been
withheld because of a fear that it was of too trivial a nature,
not original, or not sufficiently scientific. It is easier to
make mistakes in this direction than in the opposite, for as
a rule the Council will always exercise its discretion for the
exclusion of contributions manifestly unworthy the attention
of the members. If we each do our best for the advancement
of knowledge we shall all do something, and J am sure the
result will redound to the credit of this Society, as well as
of the country we now belong to,
Art. I—On Practical Geodesy.
By MARTIN GARDINER, C.E.
[Read 11th May, 1876.]
THE method of investigation employed in this paper is of
a purely elementary character, and in this respect it differs
from that usually adcpted by the most distinguished
geometers who have written on the subject. The method
introduced by Legendre, Delambre, and Puissant, and which
has been followed by Airy and others, is characterised
chiefly by the subsidiary use of the higher calculus and
interminable series.
The elementary method here pursued leads to simpler
and more comprehensive formulz, and at the same time
affords a clearer insight into the various relations between
latitudes, azimuths, differences of longitude, length and
circular measure of geodesic arc, angles of depression of the
chord, &c. Its power of improving and extending the
science in one of its most useful directions can be judged
of from the numerous new results arrived at, and a com-
parison between them and those hitherto evolved by means
of the higher calculus.
The errors which have been shewn to exist in some of
the investigations and formule given in the “account”
of the principal triangulation of Great Britain and Ireland,
will no doubt attract the attention of Engineers and
Surveyors engaged on trigonometrical surveys in India
and elsewhere.
Let P, be the pole of reference of the spheroidal earth ;
“3 e. be the centre of the earth ;
S,, S,.. be any two stations on the earth’s surface ;
“ wh ra be the points in which the normals at the
respective stations 8,, S.,, cut the earth’s polar axis.
The planes §,Z Ss 8. 4, are “the normal-chordal
planes.” And any ‘plane whatever which contains the: chord
B
2 On Practical Geodesy.
of the geodesic arc §,S,, shall be referred to as a chordal
plane.
The polar and equatorial radii of the earth being 20855233,
and 20926348 feet, it is easy to show that for arcs on its
surface not more than 528000 feet or 100 miles in length,
we may consider the traces of the two normal-chordal
planes as equals in length and circular measure to that of
the “true geodesic” or shortest arc between the stations.
Conceive two unit spheres described, having S.,, S,,, as
centres. Let C,S, 1 P, be the points in which the sphere
S, is pierced by the productions of the lines C.S,, Z,S.,8,S.,
through the centre S.,and by the line §.P parallel to and in.
the same direction as the polar axis C_P..
Let C,,S,, 1, P,, be the points in which the sphere 8,, is
“) MW ME W?
pierced by the productions of the lines CS,,, Z,.S,,, by the
chord §,8,, taken in the direction 8,.S,, and by the line
S,.£, parallel to and in the same direction as the polar
radius C,P..
Then evidently the points P, C,S,, are in the trace, on the
unit sphere S., of the earth’s meridian plane through S,; and
P,C,,8,, are in the trace, on the unit sphere 58.,, of the
earth’s meridian plane through the station §,,.
The arc PI is equal to the arc PI, each of them being
the measure of the angle which the chord joining the sta-
tions makes with the earth’s polar axis.
The angle PS I is the azimuth of the station S, as
observed at the station S,,; and the angle PSI is the sup-
plement of the azimuth of the station 8,, as observed at
the station S. The ares PS, PS, are the geographic
colatitudes of the stations S.S8,.,—such as can be measured
directly by means of the Zenith Sector.
The arcs PC, PC, are the geocentric colatitudes of the
stations.
Now conceive the unit sphere S,, moved by direct trans-
lation along the chord, carrying its lines and points rigidly
fixed, until its centre coincides with the centre 8, of the unit
sphere 8.. It is evident that the points 1, P_, will coincide
witb I, P, and that the points I, C, C,, lie in one great circle
of the sphere 8... It is also evident that the points P,S,,C.,
lie in one great circle of the unit sphere S,, and that the
spherical angle SPS, or CPC, is equivalent to the difference
of longitude of the stations §,S,..
Let p, p,, be the points in which the lines PS,, P'S.,,.,
parallel to the polar axis, pierce the earth’s equator. Then
— On Practical Geodesy. 3
it is evident that the plane angle p,C,p, is equivalent to the
difference of longitude of the stations,
It is also evident that the plane angles C,pp,, C.p,p, are
equals respectively to the spherical angle S PI, and the sup-
plement of the spherical angle S PI. 3
Let D, D,, be the points in which the great circles IS ,
IS, cut the great circles PSC, PSC, respectively. It is
evident the arc SS, is the measure of the angle which the
normals make with each other.
The arc SD, is the measure of the plane angle S,Z,S,, ;
the arc 8 Dis the measure of the plane angle 8,,Z,,S,; the
ares SC, 8,C,, are the measures of “the angles of the
vertical” at the stations $,S,.; the spherical angle SIS, is
equal to the angle between the two normal-chordal planes.
And if O, E, E,, be the points in which the great circle
of the unit sphere having I as pole cuts the ares SS, SD,
SD, respectively ; it is evident that the arcs SE, SE, are
the measures of the angles of depression of the geodesic
chord S.8,, below the tangent planes to the spheroidal
earth at the respective stations S.S,,; and they are the
complements of the angles which the normals make with
the chord.
The spherical angles SSD, SSD, are equivalents to the
angles which any plane parallel to the two normals makes
with the two normal-chordal planes.
And the spherical angles 8 DD, S,D/D, are equivalents
to the angles which any plane parallel to the two lines
S.Z.., S..4,, makes with the normal-chordal planes.
The interpretation of the other points, lines, angles, and
planes of the figure can present no difficulty, and no further
elucidation is necessary here; but in order to avoid miscon-
ceptions, it should be remembered that all through this
paper (when two stations only are considered) we will
consider the latitude of the station S, greater or not less
than the latitude of the station S,.,—as indicated in the
figure.
NOTATION.
, 4, denote the latitudes of the stations S,, 8,,, respectively.
ae a colatitudes, or the arcs PS,, PS
i, 1” _ arcs PD, PD,,.
eA.) azimuths or angles PS,D,, PSD.
Aes L,; angles PS|S,, PS_S,, of the triangle 8,PS,,.
Pe Dy 5, oe PDS) Sb Dy Se
oe - arcs §,D,, 8,,D,.
4 99
TP)
+ On Practical Geodesy.
a,, a, denote the angles of depression of the chord, or arcs 8,E,,
; 8,4,
D0), ¥, the small ares $,D,, 8,,D,,.
DO ia. (angled SSD vans, D,
5 pe a anaes normals SZ, S. sooo, terminating in polar
axis.
Q); Q, 79 lines eZine Si Aids.
Rt angles IPS, and supplement of IPS,
8, k ss lengths of geodesic are and chord respectively.
v denotes the arc 8S,,, or the angle between the normals.
> § circular measure of the geodesic are s.
0 4, arc PI, or angle between the chord and polar
axis.
A oF angle S,IS,, between the normal-chordal planes.
a » length of the earth’s equatorial radius.
b 3 » polar radius.
é “ earth’s eccentricity.
1. Values of geodetic constants, in. accordance with the
dimensions of the earth as finally adopted by the Ordnance
Department of Great Britain and Ireland.
a = 20926348 feet log. a = 7°3206934433
b = 20855233 feet log. b = 7°3192150463
-¢ = *0823719976978 log. ¢ = 2-9157795987
= 0067851460047 log. & = 38315591974
(1—e) = -9932148539953 —log. (I—e’) = 19970432059
LRN Salli ett te
(<—)= 1-0068314987210 log. (=a) = 0 0029567941 |
©) = 0068314987230 log. (2) = 38345159915
The geodetic tables above referred to give also the
logs. to 8 places of decimals of the normals terminating in |
the polar axis for all latitudes from the equator to the pole.
The well-known formula by means of which any of these
normals is expressed in terms of the latitude to which it
pertains is—
a
a J1—é sin? Z :
2. The following relations are evident from the figure—
Cp ln, Cos.) Cp, = Ry cost, ()
S,p,=R, i—e’) sin 1, ; S,.P,=R, (l—e’) sin l, (2)
"Z,=RB, é sin , ; C.2;,=3) é sin 1, (3)
Q? —(C,p,)? +-(8,0, +0, foo) = R?, — oR e” sin” i; +F (4)
Q?,=(C.p,) + (8.2, +0.Z i R?, bow oR, e sin’ l, ie ( )
4
5
On Practical Geodesy. 5
in which F is the same function of the latitudes in the
equation (4) and (5).
S.p, — 8..p,,=(R, sin 7, — BR, sin J,,) . (1—e’) (6)
4, — C,Z,,=(R, sin % — R, sin l,,). ¢ (7)
SP, aad Sy ee ALi as (1—é) : é
3. From the expressions for the magnitudes of Q,, Q,,, we
have
R? + Q? = 2°R? (1 — e’ sin4l,) + F = 2a + F;
B+ Q2 = 2B2(1 —esin”,) + F = 2a? + F
And therefore it is obvious that we have the relation—
R? + Q? = BR,’ + Q,? (9)
Hence it follows that if N be the middle point of the
segment Z,Z,, of the polar axis intercepted by the normals,
“we oo
NS, = NS,, (73)
And fin this it is obvious that the stations S., S,., are in
the surface of a sphere whose centre is N, and that we have
BQ,
| WE Q, (11)
OT O
(See formulz 81 -A and 81:B in the sequel.)
4. If in each of the triangles Z,Z,,8,, Z,Z,,8,,, we
1°) oo~o?
express the base Z,Z,, in terms of the other two sides and
the included angle, it is evident from (9) that—
Ky 1) cos 0,1 bu,” Ge cos or Ord Dy
SRCOS One. vine ke, ,
RCOa IO, a Ee a Gy
ag Sa Q. wy Ate aN OL (13)
absolutely; but im all ordinary cases they are equals to at
least 10 places of decimals in their logarithms.
5. It is evident that the plane through the middle point
N, of the segment Z,Z,,, perpendicular to the geodesic chord
SNe must bisect this chord or pass through its middle
point M. And therefore, since the portions NZ,, NZ,,, of
Z,Z,., which lie on opposite sides of this plane are equals, it
follows that the planes through Z,, Z,,, perpendicular to the
geodesic chord 8,8,,, cut it in points T,, T,,, equidistant
from its middle point M. Hence—
sina, = cos TS A. — 5,8.
oo)
sina, = cbs), 8,4 8, T.;
6 On Practical Geodesy:
js By (4)
And since we suppose /, greater than J,, we know that R,
is greater than R,; and hence we learn that the angle of
depression a, adjacent to the station having the lesser
latitude is greater than the angle of depression a, adjacent
to the station having the greater latitude.
6. We have, evidently— |
oral ae m2 tee
oe ra Seles
or, which is the same—
tan a tan a, |
ae (15)
tan (z,— a,) tan (2, — a,
Now it is evident that each side of this equation is greater
than unity; and .. when 2, and z, are each less than a
quadrant, we have—
a, 7 4, —a,
QT ey aa, (15)
7. If the latitudes l,, l,, of any two stations (on the same
side of the earth’s equator) be of constant magnitudes, then,
no matter how otherwise the stations may vary in position,
it is evident that the points Z,, Z,,, in which the normals
cut the polar axis, remain fixed. It is also evident that as
regards the magnitudes of L’, L”, 6, 6,, they too are con-
stants, and the same as if the stations were on one meridian.
Hence it is obvious that when / is greater than l,, or, which
“is the same—when /” is greater than J’, we know that the
first and third of the following are true—
tl" a LY”
PSY fall bg (17)
A Diag
The truth of the second of these relations is easily seen.
For drawing perpendiculars 8,H,, S,,H,., from the stations
to the polar axis, it is evident we have—
tan hg = = aah 3 bas a (Zeiss ae ZL.)
tan L’' = 8H, + (4.0. + Bae
and therefore since S,,H,, 7S.,H., and that Z,.Z,2 H,.H.,
tan L” 7 tan L’
a
a
On Practical Geodesy. ; 7
Hence also (since each of the four arcs is less than 90°) we
have
am /’ 7 sin BE’
sin L” 7 sin L’ (a 8)
sin L’ 7 sin I’
8. From the spherical triangles D,PS,, D,PS,, we have—
sin L’ sin D, = sin 1” sin A,
sin L” sin D, = sin/’ sin A,
sin D 7 sn A
: / = “i (a o)
sin A, 7 sin D,
And since each of the angles (D, + A,), (A, + D,), is less
than 180°, it follows that—
D, 7 A,,, and that A, is acute (
A 7 D,, and that D, is acute 2 20)
9. We shall now establish the eillegine important rela-
tions between the azimuths and angles D,, D,—
/ rf Ae, (2 1)
First, from the triangles SPD, S$,PD,, we have—
“3
sin z, sin ae = sin L” sin w
sin z, sin A, = sin L’ sinw
But from (14), (15), and (16), it is evident that—
i Fg (22)
And therefore, since sin L” is greater than sin L’ we have—
Z
sin z,sin A, 7 sin z, sin A,,
Now, since A, + A,, is less than 180°, and that angle A,, is
acute (see 20), therefore it follows that—
BO ites tae =
In order to shew that the first and third of the relations
(21) are true, we may proceed thus—
_ Applying formula 4, page 158, of Serret’s Trigonometry
to the spherical triangle S,IS,, and putting « to represent the
spherical excess of this triangle, we have—
sin 4 (a, — a.,)
(ETC Nias cerns ar al tan} A (23)
cos 4 (a, + a,)
8 On Practical Geodesy.
And, since @—a, is ‘negative, it follows A is less than e;
Hence also—
angle _ ISS, + angle IS,S, 7 180°
angle SSD, 7 angle 8,S_D,,.
or, a, 7 Q, (24)
We have also—
0, A.M tee ee 2 + PSS, Fe a)
& A, eA 7h Ga Eds (25)
Now the triangle SID, is evidently such that—
angle ISD, + angle IDS, z 180°
but, _ angle PDS, + angle IDS, = 180°
we angle PD|S,, 7 angle IS_D,
or, DD. 7a
And the triangle §,,ID,, is evidently such that—
angle ISD, + angle IDS, 7 180
Liemed
but, angle PD,S , + angle ID,S,, = 180
wre angle —IS,D,, 7 angle PD,S,
or, A Te
sin a, i)
sina,» Hay :
sina, —sina, . R,—R,
sina, + sina, R,+R,
tan 3 (a, —a@,) _ R,—Rk, fon).
tand(a,+a,) R,+R,
tank (a, —a,) = RoR in (27)
10. From equation (14) or,
From this equation it is evident that when the latitudes are
of constant magnitudes, then the greater the circular
measure = of the intervening geodesic are is, the greater
will be the difference of the angles of depression of the
chord. But although a —a, increases or decreases according
as = increases or decreases, ‘it is nevertheless evident, from
(14), that both a, and a, increase or decrease as a, + @, or
S increases or decreases.
Moreover, it is evident that when the latitudes are con-
stants—
cosa, . ;
———‘ increases as = increases (28)
COS a.,
tan a :
‘ decreases as & increases (29)
tan a,
However, it is proper to observe that even for a geodesic
On Practical Geodesy. 9
are on the earth’s spheroidal surface whose circular measure
is as great as 1°, 30’, and the latitudes of whose extremities
differ by as much as 1°, we may, with due respect to the
utmost attainable precision in geodetic surveying in Vic-
toria, assume—
Gas o,f
oa ey
For by means of (27) it can be easily shown that even in
this extreme case a, — a, is less than a sixth part of a
second, and that the logarithms of cos a, and cos a, will be
the same to 8 places of decimals, and differ in the ninth
place by less than 4. Hence also, in the actual practice of
trigonometrical surveying, we may, for some purposes,
assume—
ay, A tam at) sin a, ee R, a)
a, tan a, sin a, BR,
R,—R
a = / die = 32
yolk, okt, SPCR, (=)
their logs. being the same to at least 8 places of decimals.
Formule 27 and 32 will be found very useful in the com-
putation of the angles of depression of the chord of the
geodesic arc; but, when worked by means of logarithms,
a best way is to find, in the first instance, an angle x such
that—
R,
Se as ee (33)
and then equations (27) and (32) can be written in the
forms—
tan } (a, —a,) = tan (« — 45°): tan 3 > (34)
a, —a, = tan (« — 45°) - 3” (35)
And since the angle z — 45° can never be more than a few
seconds in magnitude we have, in lieu of 35—
; a, —a, = &” * (« — 45°) sin 1” (36)
Moreover, it is evident, that in actual practice, we infer—
from (31) and (15)—that—
= -—/___ approximately (37)
2, — a, 4, — a,
and .°. Baye" Oy... SEUN Coe ea ber (ia)
=) tia ee ee 38
hay) ey () SEN, R,
shewing that the auxiliary angle « of (33) has its tangent
equal to the ratio of the angles of depression of the chord,
and also equal to the ratio of the ares z, and z,.
c
10 On Practical Geodesy.
11. Again, from the triangle S,IS,,, we have, rigorously—
sinQ, _ cosa, . eS
sn Q,, cosa,
Hence it follows that for any pair of mutually visible
stations, such as occur in trigonometrical surveying, we may
assume— ,
i ] 1 .
sin 0, ‘
tan Q, their logarithms being the
Bang int i: same to at least 8 places - (40)
ped of decimals.
GOS OF a.
CO ee
(See formule (30) and remarks as to its approximate accuracy.)
12. From what has been already shewn or observed, it is
evident—
E Q,—2, =e—A é (41)
and .., we have from (23)—
_ sin $ (a, —a,) ,
tan 4 (Q, —Q,) = oe rs tani A (42)
sin 4 (a, — a,)
OQ (oars oO = 2 a ‘doe
al / cos L > A (43)
and, since a, — a, is but a fraction of a second, even when
= is as much as 1°, 30’; and that a can be but a few
seconds in all cases that occur; it is easy to prove that, in
the actual practice of trigonometrical surveying, the angle
Q,, — Q, will never exceed the +5355 part of a second. And
from this and equations (40) it follows that we can regard
Q, aa Q, a Oo ;
In the account of the trigonometrical survey of Great
Britain and Ireland, the magnitude of Q,,— Q, is shewn to
be always less than +5355 part of a second; but it is not
shewn that the ratio of the sines or tangents of the angles
Q,,,Q,, may be regarded as equal to unity for all pairs of
mutually visible stations: yet this is necessary, as, in some
instances, 2,, and Q, are extremely small ares.
13. And if we put =, and #, to represent the small
spherical angles §,D,D,, S,D,D,, it is evident that, in like
manner, we have—
_ | ik (DE, De
™ ~~ eos + (DE, + D,E,)
and it can be easily shewn that the difference of the angles
H, and @, is as extremely small as the difference of the
A (4 4)
=|
oat 7]
ame Ld
On Practical Geodesy. 11
angles 0, and ©, and that they too can be regarded as
equal to each other. Moreover, the points D,OD, are on
one great circle.
14, Now, since for all pairs of mutually visible stations
on the earth’s spheroidal surface, we have—
A, == Ja dh cae Ae ah Ne
and that we can express the angle w in terms of the angles
A, + A,, and the sides l’, l’, of the triangle 8, PS,; there-
fore by substituting, in such expression, A, + A,, for its
equivalent, we have—
cos $ (/” —/’)
Lee = coke
tan 4 w cos F(T) cot $ (A, + A,)
(45)
t a — cos 4 (lL, —1,) , t 2 A A i
an dw SH ee at 2 4 1,) cot $ (A, + A,,)
This formulz is known as Dalby’s Theorem, for the history
of which see the “Account of the Principal Triangulation of
Great Britain and Ireland,” page 236.
15. By applying Delambre’s analogies to the same spheri-
cal triangle 8, PS, we find in like manner—
“uy
1
mea AY oS Sere on ta
sin }(A, + A,) = SEE2 cos — 2) (ws)
| - 4
cos 3 (A, + A,) = 2° cos 3 (2" +l’) (47)
and .°. ?
4 (l’ —l)
tan i (A A 2 cess (= TY | -
a 4 ( 1 == A) cos 4 (2” 8) cot 5 w (as)
if u 7
coud (A, 4 ep Oe © sre) itn 2
cos 4 (/” — 1’)
KS" From (48) it is evident that when the latitudes of
the stations are of constant magnitudes, then the greater the
difference of longitude w is, the less will the sum of the two
azimuths be.
“CONVERGENCE OF MERIDIANS.”
The stations being supposed on the same side of the
earth’s equator, the sum of the azimuths A, + A, is always
less than 180°; and it is customary to call the defect or
. 180° — (A, + A,,)
the “convergence” of the meridians as respects the stations.
Putting C to denote this convergence, it is evident from 48
that we have—
ind Gt). tan J
t 1g — sme, “ + Ai
rea Gg an Byers 2:9
12 On Practical Geodesy.
And should the latitudes of the stations be equal, then
putting / for the common value, we have the rigorous
formula ,
tan} C = sin/:tan do
or, since the tangents of small angles are proportional to the
numbers of seconds in the angles, we have, approximately—
C” = sin ¢ 4)
in which C” and w” represent the seconds in the “conver-
gence” of meridians, and in the difference of the longitude
of the stations.
16. And applying Todhunter’s formula pertaining to
spherical excess (see page 72, formula 3, of his trigonometry)
to the same spherical triangle, we at once obtain the useful
relations—
Lar (a 1p — _. cos 3 (A, + A, — o)
cot 4 - cot $l’ = soc-d (ke oe -
LY -tanhy — — 82(A, + A, + 2»)
tan $l’ - tan $1 cos F(t Bs
It is evident that instead of 4 Ul’ and 4 1”, we may write
(45° — £1) and (45° — 41) in formule (49).
17. From the spherical triangles SPI, 8, PI, we have—
sin A, cosa, .
sin A, cos a,
Sin ig) =a ae sir gd; = ae
sin A, | “sin “@,; ces a,
sin A, sin ¢, COS a,
But from the plane triangle p,C,p,, we have—
sind, ‘R,, cos L,
sin ¢, R, cos 7,
. also the rigorous formula—
sin A, . Ri, cos 7, , cos a;
sin A, R, cost, cos a, ee)
And since for any pair of mutually visible stations, such as
eres , 2 COS a.
occur in trigonometrical surveying, we may assume noe ae =p
“, we have—
sin A, B,,,cos i,
sin A; > yt, eos; (52)
sin. A, cos#, 1] 1 eee
sin A, cos J, 1 —é sin’ 1, (s2)
sin’? A, (1 — ee’) tan? + 1
sin? A, (1 — €) tan?Z, $1 Lee}
(true to at least 8 decimals places in their logs.)
On Practical Geodesy. 13
KZ From either of these we at once perceive that, with
respect to mutually visible stations, the ratio of the sines of
the azimuths will remain sensibly constant when the lati-
tudes of the stations are of constant magnitudes, no matter
how the difference of longitude or the intervening geodesic
are may vary in magnitude.
18. If we find an angle o such that—
R,,, cos ,,
tan o = R, cos J, (54)
then from 51, we derive—
an 2 (A, TS A.) = tan (c — 45°) (s 5)
tan 3 (A, + A,)
.. tan} (A, —A,) = tan} (A, + A,,) * tan (o — 45°) (s6)
4 (1,— l,, . O\ .
tan} (A,—A,) = a 1 = = m tan (o — 45°) « cot dw (s7)
Kes From this equation it is evident that when the
latitudes are constants, then the greater w is, the less will
the difference of the azimuths be. We already know that,
in such case, the less also will be the sum of the azimuths,
and .*. the less will each of the azimuths be.
19. It is evident that A, — A,, = A,—A, +20
and ...
1 pe oy el
tan $4 (A, — A,) + a} aay DAIRY ee. Nee)
and from this and (57) it is evident that when the latitudes
of the stations are constants in magnitude, we have
tan {4 (A, ae A,) + 2
tan 4 (A, — A,)
And since the greater the difference of longitude of the
stations is, the less A, — A, must be; .-. the greater w is, the
less will © be.
20. From the spherical triangle 8,PS,,, we have
sin (A,,—Q) _ sinl’
sin (A, + Q) sin 7’
sin A, sin 7” — sin A, sin 7’
cos A, sin 2” + cos A, sin 1’ (9)
KZ” In such cases as occur in trigonometrical surveying
the angle © will range from zero toa limiting value of about
10’,, 00". In the case of the worked-out example in the
sequel, the value of © is 7’,, 22” nearly.
21. From the spherical triangles S$ PI, §,,PI, we have—
sin ? sin @, = sin A, cosa,
sin 6 sin ¢, = sin A, cos a,
= constant,
os tan QO =
1 an On Practical Geodesy.
Multiplying both sides of these equations by the chord k,
and remembering that the projection £, of the chord on the
plane of the equator is equal to & sin 0, we have—
k:sin A, cosa, = k,' sin d,
e sin A cos a, hse,
But from the plane triangle p,C,p,, we know that
R,cosl,sinw RB, cosl, sinw
k
Opa sin ¢, ne sin ¢,,
“. we have—
&-sin A, cosa, = R, cos 1, sin w 3)
&.sin A, cosa, = R, cosl, sinw Bie
And, since & = 2s: sin} = + 3° sin 1”, we have—
2s-sin A, sin 4 3° cosa :
=: a qe “= R, cos /, sin wo (61)
2s ‘sin A, sin 4 &- cosa, }
= R, cos / sin w
= * sin 1”
And since for any pair of mutually visible stations cos a, =
cos a, = cos 4 &,
s°sin A, ‘sin 3 :
Sain 1” = R,, cos J, sin Goa)
s°sin A, sin 5
2h snl)”
When the geodesic are s is such that its circular measure 5
is not more than 1°, we immediately deduce the relations—
= R, cos /, sin w ©
s‘sin A,
QOS OS
R,,, °°. cos ¢),.*sin, 1”
(ss)
aa s sit AL
R* cos (7 sin. 1”
KS” In Chambers’ “ Practical Mathematics,” and in the
article on “Geodesy” in Spon’s Dictionary of Engineering,
the formulze (63) are given in an erroneous form which must
inevitably lead to incompatible results when applied in
trigonometrical surveying. The erroneous formule given
there and elsewhere are—
ae s‘sin A, ep s‘sin A,
Ry ‘cos 7) Vain 1) RE Peasy, em”
‘
(See note 6 to problem 10 given in the sequel.)
22. From 50 or 60 we have—
COS a, R,, cos Z,, sin A, ic )
— ; 4
COS @.,, R, cos /, sin A,
On Practical Geodesy. 15
But (14) sin a, Ey R,, (3
sin a, R,
tana, __cos 7, sin,A,
tan a., ~~ GOs i, sin A,, (0)
From these we can easily express the squares of the sines,
cosines, and tangents of the angles of depression of the
chord in terms of the two latitudes and two azimuths; but
it is obvious that such expressions must assume the inde-
finite form 9 when the latitudes are equal, or R, = R,,.
And from (64) and (27), we have—
R,+R, R,, cos J, sin A, — soca Pe
eae (.12,) = (7+ et) (F _cos Z, sin aa R, cos Z, sin A,
P(g, os, ye oe | (Be cos /,, sin A,— R, cos Z, esate
# R,+8, R,, cos 4, ante OR, cos /, sin A,
The expression for tan } & or tan 3 (a, $ a), given in (67),
is of a like character. It assumes the indefinite form 2 when
R, = R,,; which is the case on a spheroid when the latitudes
of the stations are equal, and always the case on a sphere, no
matter how the stations may be situated with respect to
each other.
23. From the es DS JI, D,S,I, we have—
COS a, _ sn D, .
cos (z,, — a., sin A, Ga
COS a.,, A sm D7
cos (z,—a,) snA,,
f cos J, sin w
gif i) == SS
sin 2, ai
: cos 2 sin w
Si Dy) eee
sin 2,
And from these we at once obtain the relations—
sin A, COs a,
COW ga ee tee
cos /, sin w COS a, mn
71
sin A, cos a,
Ube, = eS Si,
cos J, sin w COS a,
If in these we substitute the valned of sin w from (60) we
have—
eat k* cos a,
i Tis Da ey Ce ae
R, ai k sin Qa, (12)
k + cosa,
tan z,, =
R, —k°: sina,
16 On Practical Geodesy.
From the triangles 8,8,,Z., S,,8,Z,.) we have—
(eo) oo o3 lowe) [e) foxey]
; k + cos (2, —a
sin 2, = k * cos (z, — a,)
R,
(73)
: k + cos (zg, —a
sin 2, = k * cos (2, — 4)
R,
And for stations which do not differ in latitude by more than
1°, we know that cos (2 — a), cos (2, — a,), and cos } 3,
are the same to 8 places of decimals in their logarithms ;
.. for such stations we have the closely approximate for-
mulze—
° Mt
sin 2 k* cos 5 &
re (3)
: 1
sin 2’ = i ee
Wy
But in order to find z, and z, in the actual practice of
trigonometrical surveying (the latitudes of the two stations
being such as do not differ by more than 1°) we have the
well-known simple formulee—
§
oy iB ele
ga
| SHEDS, Egaaa ant
aaieh enable us to find z, and z, to within zo'55 part of a
second of rigorous accuracy. This can be easily seen from
the following—
We have the rigorously true equation—
R, °.Q,* e080, = By, pcos,
in which (as is shewn in the sequel) 6 and 6, are always
each less than 16 seconds, and differ from each other by less
than 0:2”; and as we know that under such circumstances
the logs. of cos 6, and cos 6, will be the same to 10 places of
decimals, ... we can assume—
R, 3 Q, aie R, d Q,,
But R? + Q? = R77 + Q,7 absolutely,
. Bis = Q, nearly
= Q, nearly
Hence if I, L,, be put 2 absbonsnit the bases of the isosceles
triangles having the angles z, z,, as vertical angles, and
sides equal to R,, R,, respectively, we have—
I? = R?+ BR? — 2 BR? cosz,
R? aE Q,/ a R, : Q,, COS 2,
k
(v5)
@
|
On Practical Geodesy. 17
z s
and ..., obviously, we have 2,
4 RR, : sin 1”
And, I? = R77 + R,?— 2 RB? >: cosz,
= kh, + QO? —2 B20, * cos z,
= ie
R I 1 have.2,,.= Laat
, obviously, we have Faia?
Nevertlieless it is evident that the perpendicular let fall
from the station 8, on the line §..Z,, lies inside the triangle
S ZS. and that the perpendicular let fall from S,, on the
O77 OOO?
line 8.Z,, lies inside the triangle 8,Z,.8..; and . _ that | a
and also AD: 7k; and that, with respect to absolute accuracy,
we have—
s Z s
* 7 Risin 1”? Sah pee sen Te
However, the values of z, and z, as given by (75) are such
that for a distance of a degree along the meridian they
cannot differ from the absolutely true values by as much as
+5 of an inch of error in the length of s would cause. (See
“Account of,” &¢., page 247.)
KZ It is no easy matter to guard against inferring that
8
p-sin 1” or (a, — a,). But
that z, can be greater than a, + a, may be easily seen in
the following manner :—
It has been already shewn that in all cases in which / is
greater than 1, we must have D_ greater than A. Now if
we suppose the point §, fixed on ‘the spheroidal earth (and
also fixed on the unit sphere), and that the point S,
(which has S, as corresponding point on the unit sphere)
assumes at first a position such that /, = 2, and then moves
continuously along the meridian in which it is situated,
making / less and less until the angle A, becomes = 90°,
then of course D, from being equal to A, at the commence-
ment must have increased continuously until at length it
exceeded 90°. And it is evident that at one state of the
implicated entities, the angle D, was 90°, and A, less than
90°, and .. that in such state sin A, was less than sin D.
But if we were to assume that z, should be always less than
a, + a, or never greater than a, + a, then ID should be
always greater than IS, and .. sin A, always greater than
sin D,, which we know to be absurd.
D
z, can never be greater than
18 On Practical Geodesy.
R= Moreover, it is evident that by putting V to repre-
sent the particular value of the angle A, when unequal to D_
but such that sin A, = sin D, (in which case A, is acute and
D, obtuse) it is evident that—
whenever A, 7 V, then will z, 2 a, + a, or &
whenever A, 2 V, then will 2, 7 a, + a, or S
Hence :—If 8., be any fixed point within any convex closed
curve on the earth’s spheroidal surface, and Z,, the pot in
which the normal to the surface at S,, cuts the polar axis:
then there are 4 real points 8, on this curve, and 4 only,
such that the angle 8,,Z,,8, subtended at Z,, is equal to
the sum of the angles a, a, of depression of the chord 8,8,
below the tangent planes at S,,,S,. Viz—The two points
in which the curve is cut by the plane X through 8,, which
is perpendicular to the polar axis; and the two points lying
on the same side of X, and such that the azimuth of 8, taken
at S., 1s acute, and the azimuth of S,, taken at S, is also
acute but greater than the other, and approaching very
nearly to 90° owing to the earth’s small ellipticity.
24. From the triangles 8 PD, 5,PD
sin z, sin A,
we have—
7
sia 1) :
sin w
(76)
sin L” = S22, sin A,
sin w
cos L’ = cos z, cos /” + sin z,, sin 2” cos A, ce)
. . ly]
cos L” = cos z, cos l’ 4+ sin z, sin J’ cos A, ;
NG ON Ee cot A,, sin w + cos l” cos w
sin (”
(78)
epee a 70nk A, sin w + cos 7’ cos w
sin /’
And since L’ and L’” are the circular measures of the angles
between the lines 8,Z,., 8,,.Z,, and the polar axis, we have
evidently— Blea
/ 2. R,, sin l,, 2 \
ct T= er 2 (1 eee
R, cos J,
iis: (79)
ges , 31 6, ERLE
cot L ae Recon + (1 e”) tan 1,
25. By letting fall perpendiculars from Z,, Z,, on the
On Practical Geodesy. 19
normals R,, R,, we easily find the following expressions for
§, and 8,— .
ois ee e (R, sin 7, — R,, sin J,,) cos 1,
‘BRB, — @ (RB, sin 1, — BR, sin U,) sin 1, ee
ig, ie e (R, sin 7, — R,, sin J,) cos 1,
"RR, + 2 (RB, sin 1, — R, sin 1,) sin 1,
And from the plane triangles whose bases are Z,Z,,, and ver-
Oo 00?
tices S,, S,,, we have—
ae e’ (R, cos J’ — R,, cos 2”) sin L’
i (s1)
a ned ée (R, cos J’ — R,, cos 1”) sin L”
x a Means Viele OCU, ung | Py tian dk
Again, from the triangles §,8,,Z,, 8.S..Z,,, it is evident
that— .
a _ cos (z, — oy COC Sa eis)
j COs a, COS «a,
and, to 8 places of decimals in their logarithms, we have—
R R .
/ = “4 — ‘ B
or Q, 1 (3 1 )
Hence, from the triangles Z,Z,,8,, Z,Z,,5,,. we have the
relations—
Sea sin PR
ame) 7 RY? sin Maes Chas
such that their logs. are the same to 7 places of decimals.
And if in the first and second of (81) we substitute for
at and a the above equivalents, we have with an accuracy
to at least 7 places of decimals in their logs.—
sin 0,
e” (sin L’ cos /’ — cos 2” sin /’)
sin 6,,
ll ll
which we may write in the forms—
Ss a \ — cos J” sin (L’ — 6,) + sin L’ cos (L’ — 6,) \
sin 6, = e | 00s f sin (L” + 6,) — sin L” cos (L” + 3,) }
And if we expand these and regard cos §, = cos §,=1
(which we can do since 8, or 6, 1s always less than 20”) we
easily find—
e - (cos L’ — cos 2”) sin L’ :
(1 — e’) + & (cos L’ — cos J”) cos L’
sin 6, =
é* (cos @’ sin 2” — sin L” cos 1”) )
PASTOR meee ES.
20 On Practical Geodesy.
e’ * (cos 2’ — cos L”) sin L”
(1 — e) — @ (cos /’ — cos L”) cos L”
which we may write in the forms—
2°é-sin 4 (” + L’) sind 2 (2" pe sin L’
(lL—e) 4 2° Z sin 4 (/” + i) sin + (/” — L’) cos L’
83
sin 6, =
sin 5, =
Bose. ysines pas + U’) sin } 3 (LY — i’) sin L”
(l—e’)—2-e:sin 3 (L’ + 1) sin } (L” —1’) cos L”
(to be used when extreme accuracy is desired.)
sin 5, =>
Hence evidently (since 8, or 6, is always less than 20 seconds)
we have— 3
sin 6, = 2 — ae) sin L’ sin $ (2” + L’) sin 3 (l” — L’)
| (34)
Sin Oe = —S on —,)sin L” sin $ (L” + 7’) sin 3 (L” —/’)
giving 6, in excess, and 6, too small. However, in all
ordinary cases, they give values of 8, 6,, correct to +155 part
of one second. And since—
1
sin } (/”+ L’) sin $ (?’— L’) = sin (D, — A,) ° ah)
sin w
sin L’
Sy re we 1 :
= 4° sin (D, — A,) tan £2,
sin A,
7 " / 7 " / = sin? 4 2,
sin 3 (L” + 7’) sin 3 (L” — 7’) = sin (A,—D,)- an
= 4-sin(A,— D,) tan} ae
Therefore we have the equally approximate relations—
sin 8, = (Eee eee
sin w
h e ) ..7,,s8in(D,—A,) !
= ic ar; é sin’ L ~ a tan $ ae
bes , , sin A,, sin (D, — Ly
ele ool any sin 0a ‘sin? Zz,
i
‘sin’ z, * tan } z,
e sin A,, sin (D, — A,,)
(j — 2) sin” w
e ) - 97, ,8mA, sin (D, —A,) 3
= (= sin? J a aie ae tan $ z,
On Practical Geodesy. 21
sin (A,—D,) ,
sin w
os ) Hig oy , Sat (AD)
= Sin gh 9 eee tans 2
= sin A, ree
D) ‘ . . is J
ake ( € ,) sin Sn A, sin (A,—D,) . 2 iy
—e
sin? 4%,
nn) = 2 ( ) sin L”
é
|
sin D,, sin w Gay
86
2 e .
€ sin A, sin(A,—D,) .
= 5 <= ( , u) sin’ z, * tan 4 z
l—e sin” w
e m2]! sin A, sin (A,— D,) pean:
= 2 sin ST an 35 Z,
l1—e sin’? D,
And since the ares z, z,, do not exceed 1° in the usual cases
of trigonometrical surveys, we have, with sufficient accuracy
for some purposes—
8, = ( pee ak
‘ 1—é
2
= 3 ( : ) -sin L - SO (0. — Ad). 2 «sin 1”
~ \l—e sin w
ni ( 2) nat DAD.
eee sin A, i (a7)
ha ew simp sine(Dy = Aine. aa) ts eo
ay ( = 2) sin D, sin w PAACs, tiene
eh ( e fe see et in es
l1—@é@ sin? w Bena ite
ee | e sin 2. sin (D, — A,) > sin? 1” «
| Oe (4) Sse” a <
m 2
8, = (-4,) ‘sin sing 4) 0)
saree é toes go Sim (AL pty) ee ss
= i. sin L ae oe ‘sin 1
ae AL é cane sin CA De)
= (75g): sink Bagg Tg ash
(ss)
Fame 2 ein 1”
ar e = A,sin (A, — D,)
|e sin D, sin w
ay sr e \sin A, sin (A, — D
a)
sin? w
a . ze, é sin? Ve
3( e ae A, sin (A, — D,)
= 3(_—_, ) > _
en daa
= norm &" 2
sin’ D, ;
22 On Practical. Geodesy.
KZ” Referring to the approximate relation—
sine: Carsten a
sin 0 ae
made use of in arriving at the preceding values of 6, 6,, it
may be proper to observe that we must not always use it as
if it were rigorously true. If so used we should, as a con-
sequence, have— .
sin A, i. eine
sn D, sin A,
and therefore the first side of this equation always less than
unity, which we know to be absurd. Hence we perceive
that the adoption of the above approximate relation is
equivalent to assuming that between the limits of ‘the
possible values of A, from the state in which A, = D, to
that in which A, = V, we have sin D, = sin A, and sin
A, = sin D, so nearly true that their logarithms are the
same to 7 places of decimals. However, we will now shew
how those small angular differences can be computed.
26. It is evident that the amount by which the angle A,
exceeds D_ is truly expressed by the spherical excess of the
small triangle SSD. It is also evident that the amount
by which the angle D, exceeds A, is expressed by the
spherical excess of the small triangle SSD. Hence (see
formula 4, page 158, Serrets’, &c.)—
cos 4 (z, + 6,)
cot 4 A,, = cot £ D, °
“ Cos 4 (z, — 5,,)
cos 4 (z, — 4,)
tani A, =taniD,. ce ;
gu a a cos 4 (z, = 7) . (s 9)
ef
tan; A, = ee ge
cos 3 cr ae 5,)
cos $ (z,, — 4,)
cot 4 A, = cot i D,-
cos 4 (z,, + 8,)
We have also (see formula 3, page 158, of Serrets’ Trigo-
nometry) rigorously—
tan 3 z tan 36, sin D
i p2ae! = Sted, 24 4“
tan 3 (A, —D,) = 1— tan } z, tan 458,.cos D, (90)
tan $ z, tan 3 6, sin D, —
1 + tan }z, tan } 6, cos D,
And the angles } (A, — D), 4} (D, — A), being but
fractions of a second; and the values of tan 4 2, ° tan 3 8,
tan} (D,—A,) =
On Practical Geodesy. 95
cos D,, and tan 4 z,- tan 4 8 - cos D, being so extremely
small, it is evident we can find the values of the angles A,
and A to the ;5455 part of a second by means of the amelio-
rated formulee—
tan 4 (A, — D,,) = sin D, tan 3 z,* tan} 6, as
tan 4 (D, — A,) = sin D, tan }z,° tan } 4,
We can also arrive at these in the following manner— —
From formula (1), implicating spherical excess, on page
157 of Serrets’ Trigonometry, we have—(since in actual
practice of surveying the logs. of cos 3 v, cos 4 z, cos $ Z,,
are the same to 6 or 7 places of decimals)—
; sin a (A, tions D,) =a sin D, * tan 7 car sin 3 8, (9 2)
sin $(D, — A,) = sin D,° tan 3 z, ‘sin $6,
-, also A, — D, = sin D, tan }z,° 4, (os)
. D, — A, = sin D, tan $z,,° 4,
or, A, — D, = 4:°2,°6,° sin 1”: sin D,
pis Se sin 1” * sin D,
And from these and formulze (87) and (88), we easily find—
e
oD - sin 7’: sin L” sin(A, — D,) * 2? X sin 1”
1 —e’
2
€ : sin A sin(A, —D, F
=¢' joe srl: eee 296 ain LY
A :
€ ¢ sin A sin(A,—D
=f'°;—2 Wis f a # Ns Sis aint he
2
é . s s es
D,—A,=1> Toe’ sin i”: sin L’ + sin (D,—A,,)°2,? X sinl”
e sin A, sin(D, — A,,)
e Oe eT A “4 4 “1 2 = 7
= ——, ‘sin? /"” » —___“*__\__* ___4"..2 2 x sin 1
4 l1—é sin D, ;
2.) e .
é ; sin A, sin(D,—A é
i oo [7 SS SS = x u) °2 5 $e) sng
Kas" In the “Account of the Principal Triangulation of Great
Britain and Ireland” (see pages 248, 249, formule 32 and
36), the following erroneous expressions are given—
2
D,—A ap pomiaeaay cos? 7, sin 2A,° 2, x sin 1”
l1—@ée (96)
D,— A, = 4° - cos? Z,, sin 2A > 27, X.sin 1”
e”
bee
with respect to which we may observe—
1°. From them we should infer that D, — A, and D —A,
have finite values when the latitudes of the stations are
24 On Practical Geodesy.
equal ; but we know, in any such case, that the angles D_,
» DV, A, are equal.
2°. From the first of the equations we should infer that A,
is less than D, when A, is acute; but we know that A, must
be always greater than D,, when J, is greater than J, or
when A, is greater than A.
3°. In the example 1 worked out in this paper, we have,
by using correct formulee—
A, =D, = 07-1384; D, = A= or eeae
But if we were to use the above erroneous formule, we
would find the values—
Avi pe or "815, “Dp, =A) area
KZ” On page 676 the formula 96 is misprinted:
being there used instead of sin 1”.
27. From (46) and (47) it is easy to deduce the following
expression—
sin fy = © cose (A, Ant 2) ee + A, — 2)
cos 3 (A, + A,,)
in which the angle « is found from—
sind x = sind (1, + J,): sin} o.
28. The perpendicular from Z,, to the line 8,.Z, is a
Lies Vand sat as evident that the perpendicular
from Z, on the normal-chordal plane 8.8,.Z, is equal e
AVA isinity agi D, But the perpendicular from Z,
the chord S990. 18 evidently equal to R, * cos a, a
obviously —
sin 1”
L.A. sim Ls Dy,
sin A v=
R,, * cos a,
Ml
But,
Z,4,,=¢ (BR, sin 1, — R, sin /,); sin L” sin D,,=cos /, sin A, ;
o foe)
and
alae: Ay R, cos J, sin w
{ k&: sin A,,
Hence we have—
sin A = @-h- eee ei (s Sie =’) (os)
R?, — R’, . sin A, sin A , : —
k- Ab 6 1 “ie R l’ R
an AE eR, «ie 6
(R?, il R’,)2
sin A = * (cos? 7, sin® A ,— cos? J, sin’ A.)
R,sind,+R8, sin L,
On Practical Geodesy. 25
These expressions are rigorously true, and can be used in
other investigations.
We have also from the triangles me Dets- Dy
i sin d,‘sin D, _ sin 6, sin D,,
sn A = V1 se par) Orgs (101)
Kgs" In the “Account of the Principal Triangulation of
Great Britain and Ireland,” the following expressions are
given—
A = @:sin2 A,-cos’* (I, + 1,)°43
Boe sin, Ah: Coss (<b) * a (102)
That this formula is erroneous is easily seen: for indepen-
dent of the oversight committed in assuming that sin 2 A,
is equal to sin 2 A,, we know that any expression repre-
senting A must vanish when the latitudes /,/,, are equal;
and this is not the case with formule (102).
29. When the stations 8,,8,,, are mutually visible (not
more than 100 miles apart), it is evident that if from the
middle point of the are v we conceive perpendicular arcs
drawn to the circles §,D,, §,D,, they will form two right
angled spherical triangles (having vertices at S, and §,),
which may be considered equals in all respects. It is
evident that two of the sides of either of these triangles are
equals to $ v and } &, and that the third side of either may
be regarded as equal to $ A.
From this relation connecting the angle between the
normals, the angle between the normal-chordal planes, and
the circular measure of the geodesic arc between the stations,
we have—
cos 4 v = cos 4 A‘ cos 4 & (103)
sind A= sinj v‘sinQ (104)
' tand A= sin $ 3° tanQ (10s)
tan} = = tani v-cosQ (106)
simple relations which will be found very useful in practical
work of trigonometrical surveys.
30. The following expressions for the cosines, sines, and
tangents of the angles of depression of the chord are.
rigorous with respect to any two stations on the earth’s
spheroidal surface; and the easy methods by which they
have been deduced (from what has been already done) are
omitted, as they can present no difficulty to the reader.
E
26 On Practical Geodesy.
R,, cos J,, sin w
cos 4, =
&*sin A, ae)
ak ieee R, cos J, sin w
- &-sin A,
ee R, cos 7, — BR, cos Z,, (tan J, cot A, sin w + cos w)
ete kb eos 0,
(108)
ce ad R,, cos 1, — R, cos J, ( tan, cot A, sin w + cos o)
sh oe k + cos L,,
ane R,R,, (cos J, cos 1,, cos » + (1—e’) sin J, sin J,,) —a?
a = — a a
: aa Vp
(109)
ses dl R,B,, (cos J, cos l,, cos o + (1—e’) sin J, sin 1) — a?
kis ty
pias 28 R, sin A, __ cotwsin A, + sin /, cos A,
~ BR, : cos J, sino «60s 0
(11 o)
R,, sin A, cot w sin A,,+ sin J, cos A,
tam aa,{ ioe OO el el ae
R, cos Z, sin w cos L,
desaciit cee L &R, sin A, cos A,+ R, cos A, sin A,
sin A, R,, sin J, + R, sin 1, (esa)
ele th ices L, .R,sin A, cos A,+ R,cos A, sin A, ~
“gin A, R,, sin Z,+ RB, sin J,
31. By equating the values of sin a, given in (108), (109),
we have an equation from which we can at once express
cot A, in terms of the two latitudes and the difference of
longitude w. And equating the values of sin a@, given in
(108), (109), we can express cot A, in terms of the two lati-
tudes and difference of longitude. However, we can find
other expressions for the cotangents of the azimuths, thus—
From the spherical triangles 8 PD, S8,PD, we have
nt ALae cot L” cos /, — sin J, cos w
‘ sin w
cot A 2 cot L’ cos J,, — sin 1,, cos w
sin w
And if in these we substitute Be values of cot Lt, cot L’,
given in (79), we have—
Re sind, cosl,+ (1—e?) sin Z,, cos 1,— sin J, cos 1, cos w
ob) Al) ax! 5 et ee eee eee
‘ cos J, sin w
(1 1 2)
R é
ER ‘é sin 1, cosl,,+(1—e’) sin J; cos /,— sin 1, cosZ, cos
cot A, == — : -
e cos Z, sin w
On Practical Geodesy. 27
These have been arrived at by other means in the “Account
of the Principal Triangulation of Great Britain and Ireland.”
Moreover, from the spherical triangle SPS, we have—
' _ sin J, cos 7, — sin J, cos J,, cos w
cot A, :
cos Z,, sin w
sin 7, cos 1, — sin J, cos 1, cos w
ain MOT MY Roo oa ee ee
cos /, sin w
R e* cos L,
‘ sin 7, — sin J,
“cot A= cot Al) = ( Se
R cos is sin w
edie Uae,
cot A, — cot A,,= ( sin J, — sin Lys - cos J,
cos Z, sin w
These also are given in the “Account of the Principal
Triangulation of Great Britain and elas (see page 231
of that work).
32. From (60) it is evident that for any pair of mutually
visible stations, we have—
_ RB, cos Z, sin w
~ sin A, cos 2 5
_ R&R, cos Z,, sin w (hs)
— > 114
sin A, cos 4 5
RR sin w : Ny
a Pe | (cos 7, sin A = cos jim A.)
(R? R?)} sin A, sin A,
the last of which is rigorously accurate for any two stations
on the earth’s spheroidal surface, and a direct expression in
terms of the two latitudes and difference of longitude; but »
it assumes the form ¢ when the latitudes J, 1, are equal.
PW)
== 2 2 2
sin’ a R 1—ée sin? /
33. From —— = 3 = ———7 7, we have the
sin’ a, R’, 1—e’ sin’ /, ‘
rigorous formulee—
Be . sin? a, —— sin’ a,
ee amas ate lunesta Wael a (115)
sin’ /, sin’ a, — sin? J, sin’ a,
@ _ cos’ J, sin? a,, — cos? J, sin’ a, fice)
is (Sr Oa Daeiko lo) th) La OL Len Oil aa 116
a sin? Z sin’? a,, — sin? /, sin? a,
applying to any two stations whatever on the earth’s
spheroidal surface.
From (53) we have—
2 _ sin? A,, sec? 2, — sin? A, sec? Z,
é = OEE TY SRR LCD ae TO GPE a SD a ae (s 1 7)
sin? A, tan? 7, — sin? A, tan? J,
Gxt sin? A, — sin? A, (ane)
=, SS 118
a sin? A, tan? 1, — sin? A, tan? /,
(Holding true to at least g places of decimals in their logarithms.)
28 On Practical Geodesy.
2 c
The expressions for e? and = in 115, 116, 117, 118, assume
the form 2 when the latitudes of the stations are equal. If
the latitudes and mutual azimuths of nwmerous pairs of
suitable stations be carefully found from actual observation
with good instruments, Yc., it is obvious that 117 and 118
will enable us to find the most probably correct or suitable
value for the earth’s eccentricity in the locality of the
survey. And the great importance of having such a value
of e will be obvious from the examples worked out in the
sequel.
We can easily find other expressions ne é’ from Si and
79, by substituting in (79) the values of “and BR given
in 51.
34, It may be § seen, from a glance at the figure, that when
the two stations have not the same latitude, a difference in
the heights of the stations (with respect to the earth’s
spheroidal surface) will introduce errors into the observed
values of the azimuths A,, A, and other azimuthal readings.
1°. It is evident that according as the station 8.. is higher
or lower than the station S, by the length h, so will the
observed azimuth A, be too great or too small by an angle u
which the length expressed by h x sin A subtends at the
distance s. And according as the station 8, is higher or
lower than the station S, by the length h, so will the
observed azimuth A, be too small or too great by an angle pu
which the length expressed by h x sin A subtends at the
distance s.
2°. It is .. obvious that when the station S, is higher than
the station S,, then will the azimuths A, and A, as found
by direct observation, be too small; and when the station
S,, 18 higher than the station S, then will the azimuths A,
and A,, as found by direct observation, be too large.
Kgs To find the error of correction p, we have—
h
[dhe rm A
Now, in an example given in the sequel, we have s = 513,906
feet, and A = 1085. And according as we suppose the
station S, to be higher or lower than the station §,, by the
length h = 10,000 feet, so will each of the azimuths A, a,
be too small or too oreat by
w= 0" 211
On Practical Geodesy. 29
35. We will now consider how the magnitude of the
angle A varies when the stations S,, §,,, are supposed to be
situated on two fixed parallels of latitude, and at such dis-
tances asunder as may or can occur in trigonometrical
surveying.
From equation 100 we at once perceive that when the
latitudes 1, 1, are constants, the angle A between the
“?
normal-chordal planes increases or decreases according as
cos” /,, sin? A,, — cos? 7, sin? A, increases or decreases.
Or, if in this we substitute for sin’ A, its equivalent as given
by equation 50, then we know that A increases or decreases
according as the expression
9
. COS" a,\ ;
sin? A, (R?, cos? 7, — R?, cos’ Z,° 7) increases or decreases.
’ cos” a,
Now A, being the necessarily acute and lesser azimuth, we
know that sin’ A, increases as the azimuth A, increases:
: sin a
And, since ;
= a is constant, and that a, and a,
increase or decrease according as the difference of longitude
i sis ‘ 1 — sin’ a cos? a.,
w increases or decreases, it is evident that fore 0 “
—sin?a, cos’ a,
decreases according as the difference of longitude increases ;
and .. that A increases as w and A, increase up to that point
at which the trace of the normal-chordal plane contaming
R,, touches the parallel of latitude on which §, is situated.
36. Other new and useful formule can be easily derived
from the figure. For instance, from the spherical triangles
mel, 5, PI,
cos 9 = sin a, sin 1, — cos a, cos 1, cos A,
cos § = — sina, sin /, + cosa, cosl, cos A, (119)
*, sin a, sin/, + sin a, sin /, = cos a, cos/, cos A, ee
+ cos a, cos 1, cos A,,
and hence with close approximation to absolute accuracy, we
have
tana, sin/, + tana, sin l, = cosl, cos A, + cos 1, cos A,
but tan a, cos 7, sin A,
tana, cosd, sin A,
And from these we easily find
cos J, cos A, + cos J, cos A,
tana, = ‘cos J, sin A
‘~~ cos /, sin /, sin A,+ cos /, sin J, sin A, , ( )
121
cos 2, cos A, + cos Jl, cos A,, :
tan a, = -cos J, sin A,
cos J, sin /, sin A, + cos /, sin /, sin A,
30 ~ On Practical Geodesy.
and ...
wae Lb cos 2, cos A,+ cos J, cos A,,
22 “—<sin 21,sin A,+sin2/,sinA,
The expressions given for the tangents of the angles of
depression of the geodesic chord in (110) and (111) implicate
the assumed eccentricity of the earth, while the expressions
(121) depend entirely on the observed latitudes and azi-
muths. If applied to the example 1 problem 1 given in the
sequel (which may be regarded as an extreme case in trigo-
nometrical surveying) it will be found that the rogulting
values of a, and a, can be accurately determined to 255
part of one second,—their logs. holding true to 8 places of
decimals.
*2 ,/cosl,cosl,, sin A,sin A,
By substituting in (111) the values ~ Ry ‘and as given in
(51), we easily rearrive at ae (121); ; eg by like
substitutions in (110), we easily find the following values
for the tangents of the angles of depression of the chord —
true to at least 8 places of decimals in their logs —
TE, Me sin A, sin A, cot w + cos A, sin /,
‘cos 2, sin w cos J,
sin A,
= — | — Cob es)
cos J, sin w
gb aks idol sin A, __ sm A, cot o + cos A, sin 1,
“~~ cos /,, sin w cos 2,
sin A,
a a see Couey
cos /, sin w
And when a, and a, are found, we have = = a, 4+ a,
However, there are other methods of finding Syiplnamer
values of 3, in terms of the latitudes, azimuths, and length
of are between the stations, &c. ; but I defer their con-
sideration for a future paper.
37. With respect to the figure it may be observed that if
F and F be the points in which the chordal plane NSS.,
cuts the ares PS, PS, it is evident that the are PF is
divided harmonically in S, D, and that the are PF,
divided harmonically in D. S,. For the anharmonic as
of the points PFS D is the same as that of the pencil of
straight lines §, ° (PF SD), and .. the same as that of the
four points 0, N, Z,, Z,,, in which o represents the point at
infinity in which the line S P cuts the line CZZ,, &e.
Hence the spherical pencil I - (PF SD.) is harmonic.
On Practical Geodesy. 31
Again, since 8,F,, 8,F,, $0, are parallels to NS,, NS,,,
NM, it follows that ‘the arc iy F is bisected in O; and ‘there-
fore (as arc IO is a quadrant) the are IO is cut harmonically
in Ff, F; and the spherical pencil P - JOF F) is harmonic.
“? Vet |)
NOTATION.
When any number 7 of stations are to be simultaneously
considered.
Let 1,2,3, . . . . , ”, indicate stations on the earth’s sur-
face.
psig rts, Ll, - + . + » 4, indicate the latitudes at these
stations.
Bee Hira etsy Eas. . = eu ess:0:. 9 lass oo. the, normals terminating
in polar axis.
Perens Ways 75 9 the differences of longi-
tude between the pairs of stations 1, 2; 2, 3;
3, 4;
Eup A; A, for the azimuths of the stations 2, 1, as if observed
from 1 and 2.
» A,,,A,,., for the azimuths of the stations 3, 2, as if observed
from 2 and 3.
32
et nhs
eons es oa “5 ’ for the angles of depression of the chord 1, 2, at the
stations 1 and 2.
» %y 5, 2505 for the angles of depression of the chord 2, 3, at the
stations 2 and 3.
23 '
3 Ss ae is a
» Kio) %.5,%,,, for the chords 1,2; 2,3; 3, 4; of the sphe-
roidal triangle 1, 2, 3.
‘ae ae Baas for the spherical measures a,, +
Gg ee Bad + a,,; of the sides of ite
spheroidal eal 1, 2, 3.
s for the lengths of the sides Loa Las" 2, os OF
9 S109 8139 Se92
the spheroidal triangle 1, 2, 3.
1. For any 1m stations 1, 2, 3, ......... nm —1,%, on the
earth’s spheroidal surface, we have the rigorously accurate
equations
R, _sina,, BR, _ sina, iio
PRG Ga, i ee MAVddses ae
— SIN a, _1%
and Wisin a, 22)
1 int sin ce arg sin CNG Feces oso cre cnc sin eae Gas)
R, sin a Sin a, , fe SIN Og
32 On Practical Geodesy.
And putting M to represent the reciprocal of the dexter of
this equation, we easily find—
1 1 ;
sin? L= eh € — sin? i,) M? (124)
an equation expressing the latitude of the ™ station in
terms of the latitude of the 1st station and the sines of
the angles of depression of the 7 — 1 chords joining the
consecutive stations. |
2. We have also the rigorously accurate relations
R, cos /, __ sin A,,cosa,, RK, cosZ, _ sin A,, CO8a,, .
ae 5 3 = 2
R,cos!, sin A,, cosa,,’ R,cos/, sinA,, cosa,,
and .°.
R,, cos Le _ Sin A,, sin AL. seeeos ese -, Cos a, COS Agia temper 5)
i) cos tin AC sma eee eee COBO. NCOB a. 52 oa. ce...
en) A Se ee ee
— J/ 1 — 2) tan’? lt, + 1
and from this we easily find—
1 sin. AS Sin Ae eee
tan? J ae n? ENDER | 2 21 : 32 ; 2
¢ ia dil ae Sin JA: SER AN 2 eee eee
, (PE Baa Otte ssjuoeiske a ung une
° Z
COB ai, "ACOSO, Bist ek og l—e
an equation expressing the latitude of the n™ station in
terms of the latitude of the 1* station, the azimuths, and the
angles of depression of the chords connecting the stations.
3. And from (123) and (125) we have—
cos 1, sin Racin gy eieeon. cepa
cos J, Sin iA Bie A sees (Gilt)
_ tan Qe, * tan Deg tee rercescveccccecees
Tan Gy, 7 MATE Goossen eee eee eee
4, bes oo i A 2 aa EE n — 1, n, be any odd number of
stations on the earth’s spheroidal surface, such that none
of the chords. (12), (23), ......... (n —1, n), exceeds 100
miles in length. Then, from formula 49, it is evident we
have the relations—
cos 3(A,, ae Bigg +: ®,»)
tan (45° — 47) _
tan (45° — }$1,) a cos} (A,, +A,,—o
12
. 008 3 (A,, + As, + 0,4)
cos 3 (Av ci Anis See)
On' Practical Geodesy. 33
tan (45° —3/,) _ cos$(A,, +A,, + 5,)
tan (45° — 3 /.) cos$(A,, +A,,—,,)
= cos 3 (A,, tA,, + 4,5)
cos 4 (A,, aes 0 ee
128)
e@eerveeseeeese ee ~— e288 e8e8ee02888888 «+ se 88 88888882888
tan (45°— 17, .) cost (..... ) ie US (reap ee )
tan (45° —41,) cosk(..... Lt Gee GN 2 >. )
And therefore we have—
tan (45°—4/))
tan (45°—47/,)
an equation from which we can at once express the latitude
of the n™ station in terms of the latitude of the 1* station
and the azimuths and differences of longitudes.
Should the n™ station be coincident with the 1* station,
we must have the dexter of (129) equal to unity. This fact
will be found to be of importance in case any even number
of stations form the vertices of a closed geodesic polygon.
For instance, if there be fowr mutually visible stations such
as B, i D, E—
= the product of the dexters of these a equations,
then Deus the stations in the orders indicated in the
above diagrams, we have—
cos 3 (A, 2 A. 1 14, 2) e cos 7 (A, Week Ts, A
cos $ (A,,+A, awoke cos 5 (A, tA, s+ 4)
OD jcos FN Jol go aees) oss (Ato As bees)
cs z (A, 3 +A, gf ey 2) cos 3 (A, 1 +A, ae |
corresponding to the stations taken in each of the three
indicated orders. And in the case of any such even number
m of stations (the first and last of which are coincident) it is
obvious that if all the azimuths be known, and that all the
differences of longitude with the exception of any two
which are consecutive be known, then we can easily (by
solving a quadratic equation) express the tangent of either
of these two differences of longitude in terms ‘of the known
azimuths and differences of longitude.
F
34 On Practical Geodesy.
5. With respect to any three mutually visible stations
1, 2, 3, we can easily arrive at convenient expressions for
each of their latitudes in terms of their azimuths and differ-
ences of longitude. Thus—
We have (49) and (128)—
. LAG e,5)
fell De Vie gn 2 py eo 12 21 12
tan (45 4 7,) « tan ( 4 1,) ea 55
tan (45°— 41) _ cos} (Ays+ Ag+ oy) . COS 4 (Ag+ Ags 9)
tan (45°— 42,) cos $ (Ajz+ Agi—oy) cos $ (Ag+ Ays— os)
Biel nat 4 (Ay + An + op) -
cos 4 (Ay. + Ax — yp)
y cos $ (Ags + Ay + 3) i cos 4 (Ags + As + (Wp3)
cos $ (Ay; + As, — @:) cos $ (Az; + Ag, — es)
Dit COs 4 (Ags + Ag + (o3)
cos 5 (A, + As, — @»s)
008 (Ay + Av + oy) . 608 3 (An + Ass + on) ae
COs 5 (As + ee ars Wo) - cos = (Az = Aj cae 31)
tan? (45° — 41) =
tan* (45° — $/,) =
2 Seen Ue | me __ cos 3 (As, + Ais + 51)
bani 4) cos 3 (As, + Ajs3 — ©31)
: cos % (As + Ass + oy) __ COS 3 (Ay + An + oy)
cos $ (Ag + Ass — wp) cos $ (Ay, + Ay, — on)
These equations are closely approximate to rigorous
accuracy, even when the stations are from 100 to 200 miles
asunder. |
6. Let (Q), (2), (@), be any three stations on the earth’s
spheroidal surface. Then if K,, K,, K,, indicate the angles
between the chords joiming the stations which have their
vertices in Q), (2), (), respectively; and that C,, C,, C,,
indicate the corresponding angles of the geodesic triangle
formed by the geodesic arcs connecting the stations; we
have evidently ;
cos K,
cos, Co = —tana,, ‘tana,,
COS a,, COSa,,
cos K
ces 5) = 2 —tana,,‘tana,, (132)
COS a,, COS a, ,
cos K
cos C, = 3 —tana,, ‘tana,,
e) cos'a,, eosin
On Practical Geodesy. 35
If it were possible (and it is usually supposed so in applying
LEGENDRE'S and DELAMBRE’S processes in the solution of
questions pertaining to the spheroidal triangles of a trigo-
nometrical survey) to find a sphere such that a spherical
triangle described on its surface can have sides equals in
length to the sides of a spheroidal triangle, and chords equal
to the chords of the spheroidal triangle; then, it is obvious
that by putting D,, D,, D,, for the angles of this spherical
triangle which correspond to the angles K,, K,, K,, of the
chordal triangle, we should have—
cos Kes
ae cos 4 (a, + a,,)° cos 4 (a,,+ a,,)
— tan$(a,, +a,,)°* tan} (a,, + a,,)
“og elec MI STE NS) SI ade
2 ~ cos $ (a, + .,,) cos$(a,, + a,,) (133)
— tan $(a,, +a,,)* tan} (a,, + a,,)
ey. cos K,
COs ¥ (a5. ae a.) COS % (a5, + a, 5)
oe tan 3 (a5. TH Oy a) , tan 3 (a5, 5 ey a)
By comparing the values of the angles D,, D,, D,, of the
imaginary spherical triangle as given in the formule (133),
with the correct values of the corresponding angles C,, C,,
C,, of the spheroidal triangle as given in formule (1532), it
is evident that, with due respect to the utmost accuracy
required in practice, we have— .
cos C, — cos D, = tan} (a,,+ a,,) tan $ (a,,+4+ a,,)
— tana,, tana,,
cos C, — cos D, = tan 3 (a,,+ a,,) tan 4 (a,,+ @,,) ae
— tana,, tana,,
cos C, — cos D, = tan} (a,,+ a,,) tan } (a,,+ a,,)
— tana,, tana,,
their logs being the same to at least 8 or 9 places of decimals.
From these it is evident that cases may occur in geodetic
surveying in which one of the angles of the spherical triangle
is greater than the corresponding angle of the spheroidal
triangle, and that another angle of the spherical triangle is
less than its corresponding angle of the spheroidal triangle.
36 On Practical Geodesy.
However the differences are very small indeed. As an
instance we may consider the large spheroidal triangle
of article 7, page 234, of the “Account of the Principal’
Triangulation of Great Britain and Ireland.” Here we find
that at the station whose latitude is 53°, 30’, the spheroidal
angle exceeds the corresponding angle of the Legendre sphe-
rical triangle by about +2, of a second; and, although such
may.be disregarded in actual practice, it is nevertheless
obvious that the usual method of manipulating the measured
angles of a spheroidal triangle (by means of Legendre’s
theorem, so as to have their sum give the desired spherical
excess) 1s erroneous in principle.
NOTES.
It is easy to perceive that the principal theorems arrived
at apply to any surface whatever as well as to the surface
of the spheroidal earth, even when such surface is so irre-
gular as to be inexpressible by means of an equation.
We can assume any straight line cutting the normals to
the surface at the stations 8., 8,,, as polar axis of reference ;
and then, assuming any point C, in this polar axis as centre
of reference, we can take the plane through it perpendicular
to the axis as the equatorial plane of reference. Thus the
figure can be constructed as already indicated in the case in
which the surface is a spheroid; and we have formulee (50),
&e.
When the stations §,, S,., are so near to each other as to
permit us to regard the normals as making angles with the
chord such that the ratio of their sines can be regarded as
equal to unity, and the traces of the normal-chordal planes
as equals in length and circular measure, we have—
1,, _ cos d (1, —1,)
tan 30 = al Ce
tan 3 J’ - tan $l” = — COR 8 Maat a ollie 2 Ca Avie)
cos ; (A, + A, — o)
sin A BR, cost,
HOR Ui ASCE RE Rese
cot $ (A, + A,)
and all the formule not implicating peculiar properties of
the spheroid. If there be three stations to be simultaneously
considered, the assumable position for the polar axis of
reference is generally restricted, as such axis must cut the
three normals to the surface drawn through the stations.
On Practical Geodesy. af
If the three normals intersect in one point, any line through
this point can be assumed as polar axis. If two of the
normals cut each other, and that neither of them is cut by
the third, then the polar axis must pass through the point
of intersection and lie in the plane of this point and the
third normal. If the three normals have no point of inter-
_ section, then the polar axis must lie in the surface of a ruled
quadric, &e.
And when there are four stations, then should no two of
the four normals lie in one plane, there can be but two
transversals drawn to cut them, and therefore but two posi-
tions for the polar axis. However, with respect to all sur-
faces of revolution (whose normals must all cut the axis) we
can arrive at general theorems applying to any stations
whatever on the surface.
== instance, we can easily demonstrate the following
THEOREM.
If (@), (pi be any two stations on a surface of revolution
of any kind, and A,» A,,»—-1 the angles which the true
“ seodesic” joining the stations makes with the traces of the
mendinl planes through the stations, and that R,, R.,, are
the normals terminating in the axis, then will
sin A, » lay, Bes Case,
sin A, 2-1. R, cos /,
Conceive the “geodesic” to be divided into aeea aim)
small parts or elements, 1, 2; 2,3; 3, 4;
me — 2% — i> a — 1) 7.
Tet Aj, A», Ay, . - - A,—1,, represent the azimuths of
the stations
(*), @), (), a a (*) as if taken at the stations
:)s (:), eles etek respectively.
Het As, An Au = + « A) represent the azimuths of
the stations
; (:), Eee Tai gepae as if taken at the stations
(4
:), Ep As © respectively.
TUE ER EO ser Meme 5 be the lengths of the nor-
mals at stations
@), (2), Snag 3. eam («) respectively.
Then from the elements of analytic geometry, we know
38 On Practical Geodesy.
that the tangent lines to any infinitesimally small are of
the jirst order, which forms part of a geodesic, have their
least distance apart an infinitesimally small of the third
order; and that the ratio of the lengths of these tangents,
from the points of contact to their points of least distance
from each other, is that of equality. We know also that
the plane of every two consecutive elements, of any
ic geodesic ” contains the normal at their point of neON 5
and ... that sin A, =. sin A,.;>) sin, A{} — sim Ag cE
; .; moreover, we know that the ratio of the cosines
of all infinitesimally. small arcs is unity. Hence we have—
sin A,, R, cos 0,
@eeerstescsen ——- eeaseeeee
And from these we at once obtain the desired ‘pleat by
equating the product of the first sides of the equations to
_ the product of their second sides.
However, it may be proper to observe that this method of
proof holds ‘good only when none of the normals R,, Ry...
R,,, 1s either = 0 or = w; and that we shall suppose this to
be the case for all geodesies referred to in the present paper.
We may evidently write the above relation in the form—
sin A,, ___ perpendicular from (*) to polar axis
sin A,, 1 perpendicular from @) to polar axis
Or we may express it in words as follows :—
THEOREM.
On any surface of revolution, the sines of the angles G,
G,, which the geodesic connecting two stations S,, 8,,, makes
with the meridian traces through these stations are to each
other inversely as the perpendiculars from the stations to
the polar axis.
For a spheroid, such as the earth’s reputed surface, we
can prove, in like manner, that for any two stations what-
ever on its surface—
sin? A, tan? 7, + tan? 1, + 1:0068314987
— we) .
— —— => a
sim? A, tan? i, + % 4am? Z, 4 a -00GeeIemey
On Practical Geodesy. 39
in which A,, A,, are the angles which the true “ geodesic ”
joining the stations makes with the meridian traces through
the stations, &c.
KS" The theorem expressed by formula 10, may be ex-.
pressed as follows :—
The plane perpendicular to any chord of a quadric of
revolution through its middle point, bisects the portion of
the axis intercepted by the normals drawn through the
extremities of the chord; and the straight line joining the
middle of the chord to the point in which the plane cuts the
axis is divided by the equatorial plane of the surface into
portions whose ratio is the same as those into which it
divides either normal terminating in the axis.
. From this we at once perceive that—
The perpendicular bisecting any chord of a conic bisects
the portions of the axes intercepted by the normals drawn
through the extremities of the chord; and that the ratio of
the portions of the perpendicular measured from the middle
point of the chord to its intersections with the axes, is the
same as the ratio of the segments of either of the normals
measured from the curve to the axes.
PROBLEM 1.
Given the latitudes J, 1, of two stations 8,, S,, (on the
earth’s spheroidal surface), and their difference of longitude
w; to find the azimuths A, A,; the circular measure 3 and
et s of the geodesic are between the stations ; the angles
of depression of the chord, &c.
First Method.
To find the ares L’, L’, and the azimuths A, A, we have—
4?
C >
eon de a ee + (1 — e’) tan J,
gobi se ace + (1 — e) tan J,
ct ies cot L” cos te sin J, cos w
sin w
coe cot L’ cos il sin 7, cos w
sin w
or having found the arcs L’, L’, as above indicated, we can
40 On Practical Geodesy.
find the azimuths and the angles D, D
formulee—
by means of the
i?
tan} (A, + D,) = a cot dw
fan gy A, 28) i 2 c > 7 cot bw
tan} (D, + A,) = i = th ‘cot ba
bad id) 2A ee iy Pay sigoiype
To find a, @,, 3, 2, 2, and s, we may proceed as follows:—
“
First we find 5,, 5,, from
ae ee 4
Bat Well
Then from the triangles SID, SID, we tia to find IS,
ID, Is, 1D,—
sin 3 (D, + A).
uk Pe em Nene GEE J
tan 34 (IS, + ID,) = an (Da ‘tan 30,
iH 1D) =) C2 ee eee
tan 4 (IS, — ID,) Ge TG an 4 6,
in +
tan $ (18, + ID,) = aes es). tan 4 6,
sin 4 (A,,— D,)
L(A, + D,)
kage Leela cos MA cD). 19
mtanmntrec ee
Then— a, = 90° — IS,
a, = IS, — 90°
S=a,+a,
z, = DD, — IS,
z, = IS, — ID,
. s= 2,° Ry sin lf 22 sm
But we:can find k and s otherwise, thus—
_ R,cosl,sno _ R, cosl, sinew
‘sin AY cos loi, (iy Sein Aeosia
= ° sin 1”
(ay) OPER
Or having found #, in terms of the given data, from
= (R, cos 1) +. (R,, cos 1)? — 2° RB, + R, cos 1, cos 1, cos w
+ (1 — e’)’: (RK, sin 1, — BR, sin 1)?
On Practical Geodesy. 4]
“we can find the angles of depression a, a@,, by means of
(109), and then find the azimuths from
thy pale R,, cos /,, cos w
‘ k + cos a,
R, cos J, cos w
sin AL ==
a k + cos a,
Kg” When A or A, is found to be nearly 90°, it cannot
be accurately obtained by means of the usual tables of
logarithms ; so that, in such case, it 1s necessary to proceed
as indicated in the works on trigonometry. Thus, putting
A for the angle to be found, and N for the value of the
function to which sin A is equated (which is nearly equal to
1), we have— |
in (15° —} a) = ASN
Or, a 1—wN
tan (45° — 4 A) = To
from which to compute the value of the angle A.
_ And when, in the sequel, an angle is to be found from an
_ expression for its sine which is nearly equal to unity ; then,
putting N to represent such expression, we should proceed
to find the angle by these formule.
Otherwise.
(When the stations are not more than 40 miles asunder.)
From the spherical triangle SPS, we have the formulee—
cos $ (2” — 1’)
tan i (A A = - cot
an } ( aoa =a) cos 4 (l’ + 1”) co pee
in 1 (j” a
Pek te wy Ss ne 3
an 2 ( ° ate) sin : Ge fe i’) co 2
weet sin /’sinw _ sinl” sinw
eosin St ea i ein
Then to find the azimuths we have—
R,, sin l”
Pa. 8 ip oe carne EB
sin /’
tan $ (A, — A,) = tan 3 (A, + A...) tam (@ — 45°) ©
3 (A, + A,) = 3 (A. + A,.)
G
42 On Practical Geodesy.
To find Q, 3, and the angle a, we have—
Q=A,—A,=A,—A,,
tan 4 > = tan} vcosQ, or 3 = v-cosQ
A=2- O° sin 3 Soe A Oe eae
To find the length k of the geodesic chord Winesn the
stations—
_ BR,snl’ smo — BR, snl smo
sin A,,cos $3 sin A, cos 4 &
Then to find s, we have—
ke 3 inamys
SS ee SS
2-sind >
And to find the angles a
“?
below the tangent oe to the earth at the stations 8
we have—
a, of depression of the chord k
Ss,
00?
R
t ass
pee
(a,,—a,) = (y — 45°) * 3° sin 1”
(a, =F a,) a¥ 2.
PROBLEM 2.
Given the latitude J, the azimuth A, and the length s
and circular measure & of the geodesic arc between the
stations ; to find the latitude J, the azimuth A,, the differ-
ence of longitude wo, &e.
First Method.
To find the angle ¢,, we have, from the spherical triangle
PS I—
tan 1 _ 008 3 (4, — 3%).
an 9 (g, a B,) sin A (Z, ae a)
t 1 oss sng ihe
at (¢, B,) cos 2 CG) it i 3) tan 4 A,
Kas" It may be proper to observe that 4 & is used in these
formulas instead of the angle a of depression of the chord ;
but as the difference of these will in all actual cases be less
than ~, of a second, and that the numerators vary as the
denominators when } & varies in value, and that any varia-
tion in 4 & which increases or decreases 4 (¢, + £,) will
decrease or increase } (f, — f,); .”., as respects the value of
tan 3 A,
On Practical Geodesy. 43
= 4 (¢,+ B,) + 4 (¢, — B,), there can be no appreciable
oe whether we use 3 & or @.
Find the chord k by means of the usual formula—
pa 2s sing 3,
~ sn fe
Then, to find the difference of longitude wo, and the angle
¢, by means of the plane triangle pCp,, we have—
k- sin A, cos 3 &
sin ¢,
2 (d,, a w) ae SUS ee,
a tees eo, Le B,). 1
tan 4 (¢,,— o) = sae eB) cot 4 ¢,
Then to find the azimuth A, and latitude l,, we have—
sin $, ‘sin A, -
sin ¢,
yw Ls. coed (A, + A, + o), Ly
tan $l” = ck (aye al cot 4 /
Kes If instead of 1, A, we were given J, A,, we should
first proceed to find the angle by by means of—
Ae 2 eS g (L,i— 3 2 >). 4
tan 4 (¢, + B,) = ape Sy ‘tani A,
4 aa i sin 2 (¢,— 423). j
tan 2 (¢,, B,) cos 4 G8 1 >) * tan Ai,
and then proceed in an analogous manner to find ¢, o, A,,
andl. |
tink, = Fe cosh; | tam hk, =
sin AL). =
Otherwise (Case Ist).
Given 1, A, s; to find o, /,, and A, (see foot-note).
To find z, D, w, ‘and L’, we have—
§
Gs Ban 1
cos + (l' —z |
tan § (D,, + 0) = SEE ah cot A,
1 a a se (ee sar
tan 4 (D, — o) Rear) cot 3 A,
aa sin 3 2 a= DB). tan 4 Zz,
eet“) a gin 6 Ce gD)
sin /’ sin A, .
a sin L” =
sin D,
44 On Practical Geodesy.
‘Then to find 6,,/,, and A,, we have—
5 = (. e ys in L” sin }(L” + 7) -(L" —7)
LD ae jp Ss 2
tL, = 90° — (L” + 6,)
A, —D, = sin D,,: tan} z,°3,
Kes” This case, in which the given latitude lJ is greater
than the sought latitude 1, is made known to us by the
given azimuth A, being greater than the computed angle D_.
And as we must have (see formule 21) the sought azimuth
A, also greater than the angle D, it is evident that by put-
ting ¢ to represent the excess, we have—
cos 4 (l’ — z,)
cos 4 (l’ + z,)
L(A. A es Py Se roe
tan 3 (A,,— o — @) = fin es cot 4 A,
shewing that the formule given in the “Account of the
Principal Triangulation of Great Britain and Ireland” (see
pages 247, 249, 676 of that work) are erroneous in every
case in which the given latitude is greater than the sought
tan3 (A, + o— QZ) = ‘cot 3 A,
latitude.
(Case 2nd.)
Given 1, A,, 8; to find o, J, and A.
To find z,, D,, w, L’, we have—
Bo == a Ri
Re ime
tan 4 (D, + o) = cos 3 (l" —2, coti A,
cos 4 (” + z,)
= al Ll" ee
tan 3 (D, —o 2 Saal “7 + cot $ A
2 ( ) sin i (” ae z,,) 2
tan 4 (2” — L’) = Sa z(D,— A,),
sin $ (Dy “6 A.,,)
sin 2” - sin A,
sin D,
and A, we have—
tan } Z,
Us sin L’ =
To find 8,, 2,
é 1 Doe " / ,
a) & (2) + sin Dr sin 3 ( +1) 0-1)
LS 9G iy a)
D,— A, = sin D,-taniz,-5,
On Practical Geodesy. 45
KS” This case, in which the given or known latitude J, is
less than the sought latitude /, will be intimated to us by
the angles A, and D_; we shall have the given azimuth A,
less than the angle D. Ifthe angle A, = D, then A,=D,
and! = 1, &c.
Otherwise.
Case 1°. When /, A, s, are given; to findl, A,, o.
“ Ww?
Find z, o, D,, as indicated in the last solution, and then
find A, by means of—
sin A, = cos (2, —$ >) i p
cos $ &
And find l, from—
: tity {Pees
tan 3” =
“l
cos $ (A, + A, + ©).
~ cos 4 (A, + A, — 0)
pt sea? 7°.
Case 2°. When l, A, s, are given; to find 1, A, wu.
Find z,, o, D, as indicated in the last solution,-and then
find A, by means of—
cot 4 lL’
sin A = cos (2, — 2 3) ‘sin D
; cos $ & ;
And find l from—
pur. cos $ (A, + A, + o) | ,
tan $ /’ = Sp cat (N, 4A 7223) cea cot 37
hi 0 —
PROBLEM 3.
Given the latitudes /, 1, and the azimuth A_; to find the
azimuth A, the difference of longitude wo, &c.
By equating the values of sin a, as expressed in formule
108, 109, we have—
R,, cos 1, (cos? 2, + 1) J 1 — sin? ow
az 6? :
= (R,+ BOT RY ea sin Z, sin /,,) cos Z,
— (R,, cos /,, tan Z, cot A,) sin w
or, M: J/1—sint'o = L—N° sino
in which the values of M, L, and N are known.
From this we at once obtain
LN+ Ji? OP + WL
Mieke Ce ak) Ome
sin wo =
46 On Practical Geodesy.
in which the + sign only should precede the radical portion.
This is evident. For since the general expression for sin
holds when A, = 90°, in which case N = QO; and that sin
w must be positive; therefore it is the + sign that must in
such case, and in all cases, precede the radical.
We may also find » in the following manner—
Find the arc L’ by means of formula (79), and the angle
D_ from—
sin D = Cos L, nA,
f sin L
and then to find » we have—
cos 3 (L” — 1’)
cos $ (L” + 7’)
To find the azimuth A, we then have—
eee
tan} (A, + A,) = 820 —4).
to om
tan so = ‘cot 3 (A, + D,)
cot 4 w
And to find s, we have—
’ sin L” sin w
Sin. 2, =. ee ee
sin A,
SoS ee San
é
The other entities can be easily found as indicated by
formule.
Re If 1,, l,, A, were given instead of 1,, J,, A,; then
instead of L”, D,, &c., in the preceding formule, we should
have L’, D,, &e. :
Otherwise.
To find the azimuth A,, we have—
an A) = ede y- sin A, nearly.
R,, * cos @,
And then to find o, we have—
cos 4 (7, — 1,)
sin 3 (2, aa ,)
And when instead of A,, the azimuth A, is given, the first
of these must be replaced by
‘cot i (A, + A,)
Sy
tan zo =
&e., &e.
On Practical Geodesy. 47
PROBLEM 4,
Given the two azimuths A, A
L,; to find the latitude /
stations, &c.
To find the latitude /
,, and one of the latitudes
the difference of longitude w of the
4)
, We have, from (53)—
(1 — e*) tan’ 7, sin? A, — (sin? A, — sin’ A,,)
(1 —e’) sin? A,
Then to find the difference of longitude, we have—
tan 40 = -- ; : 7 a ‘ cot $ (A, + A,)
The other entities can now be found, &c.
tan’ 7, = nearly.
PROBLEM 5.
Given the latitude J,, the azimuth A,, and the difference
of longitude w; to find the latitude l,, the azimuth A, &c.
Find L’ by means of formula 78.
Then finding ™, p, g, by means of—
4
m = cot? L” — a R?, : sin? L,
Be
27 a, 2 nz 2\2
p = cov? L seer R’ + sin? 7, + (1 — e&)
g=2¢(1— 2) ™ - sin],
a
the second of the formule 79, gives us the equation—
m—p:sin®], =q'‘sinl,,/1—é-sin’ 1,
And from this we immediately obtain—
G@t2mpt+a/7F +4m(p—me)
2(p + gee)
Now, if we conceive a case in which J, is of any value we
wish, and that the corresponding value of 1, is such that
m = 0; then it is evident l,, p, g, have finite values; and
we perceive that in such case the + sign only must precede
the radical. And it is .. evident that the + sign must, in
all cases, precede the radical in the above general expression
for sin? /,..
Or we may proceed as follows—
From the triangle S$ PD,, we have to find L”, z,, D,
cos $ (A, — oa) ,
cos + (A, + o)
sin” bs =
tan 34 (L” + 2) = tan $7’
43) On Practical Geodesy.
tan 2 oy ee Eat tan 3’
@
‘ sin /’: sin A, sin J’ - sin w
sin D, = ae OR ay a
sin L sin Z,
7 a 1 aT,
or, fan 2 (AD) See
sin § (L” + 0)
Then we can find 8, by 83 or any of the formule 88, and
the azimuth A, by means of any of the formule 94.
Then, J, = 90° — (L" + 3,). &e, &e.
When instead of 1, A,, we are given L,,, A,, the at anus
methods of proceeding are evident,
PROBLEM 6.
Given the azimuth A,, the latitude J,, and the length s
and circular measure & of the arc between the stations; to
find A,, l,, w, &e.
To find ow, z,, D,, A.,,, and 1, we have—
‘sin S'sin A,
Slat qj: 8 Ce ee olin
an - S° cos) sual?
Pei s
< RK, sin 1”
cos 7, * sin w
sim t= uf
sin z,,
in L (j"”
sin § (1” —z
Bee on 2 : 1
tan ZA, =.= ae “+ cot $ (D, — o)
sin 2 + z,)
cos $ (A, A w
tan 3 /’ = — Nh wl a) |? cot 2 1”
cos $ (A, + A, — a)
If A,,, J, were given instead of A,, l,, the method of solu-
tion is analogous, and requires no particular elucidation.
PROBLEM 7.
Given the latitude /, the difference of longitude o, and the
length s and circular measure & of the are between the
stations; to find the azimuths A, A,, the latitude J, &c.
7 wy)
To find 2, D,, A, A,, J,, we have—
“> “13 TP)
s
C..) ——— aTTTSaisE
A Fe Died eo Be
On Practical Geodesy. 49
sin 7’ sin w
sin z,
sin } (’ —z,)
fines
oo a ae a) oe
em _ B,* 3° cos /, sin
Lae © s* sin 5
cos 4 (A, + A, + o)
Mle] ar eee ee Tn one eae Na gl re ds 1p
tan $l” = cos P(A) 4Apea) uae
And similarly when 1, is given instead of 1,.
PROBLEM 8.
Given the azimuth A, the difference of longitude wo, and
the length s and circular measure = of the arc between the
stations; to find the latitudes, &c.
; s*sin =” -sin A
Putting— fang he >” + sin 1”
We easily find, from 62— __
pote petal Hin CGS aE) A Mere re,
‘as Vereen?
And now we can find the other entities as in problems 6
and 7.
PROBLEM 9.
Given the two latitudes /, 7, and the length s and circular
measure & of the are between the stations; to find the
azimuths A, A, &c.
1“?
To find L’, L’, z, z,, we have—
Cost + (1 — e’) tan 1,
,, BR, sin Z,
R,, cos L,,
s
fie Ri and
s
is Rain 1”
Then from the spherical triangles SPD,,S PD, we have
—puttingp = 30 +2,41),9=40 44,4 L)—
sin (p — z,) sin (p — l’)
sin p sin (p — L”)
H
cot L* = e:
cot L” =
+ (1 — &) tan J,
|
®
tan? 4 A, =
50 On Practical Geodesy.
sin (¢ — z,,) sin (¢ — 0”)
21 une
tan 2 A, ah sin qd sin (9 Uiibity L’)
tan? +o = sin (p ass L") sin (p — ’)
sin p sin (p — 2,)
tan’ Fo = plait Mages MSE
sin g sin (¢ — 2,)
In this method of solution we have not made use of 3.
In the following method we shall not make use of s, but of
>; and it is applicable to any two stations on the earth’s
spheroidal surface, as well as to mutually visible stations.
Otherwise.
Find the angles a, a,, of depression of the chord by means
of— ;
tan ¢ = By
tan 4 ee a = tan an ai ) tan $ 3
2 (,, TF a,) = nai, 3
To find the azimuths we have thie oe
cos a, cos J, cos A,-+-cos a,, cos /, cos A,,=sin a,sin/,+sin a, sin J,
1 — cos’ A, _ (R, cos a, cos J,,)?
1 — cos’? A, (R, .cos a, cos 1,)?
By putting
M,=cos a, cos 1,; M,=cos a,,cos/,; Q=sina, sin/,+sin a, sin J,
we easily find—
cos A = -Q RP War /J(Q ‘R, “R,,)?—(R*, eae a) (M?,, RM R? )
M, (R?,— R’,)
4-2 BVO RRR) On, Be Be)
Cf aa M,,’ (R?, — R?,,)
Since cos A, must be positive when the angle A, is acute,
- it is evident that in all cases it is the ct sion which must
precede the radical in the above expression ‘for cos rsa Ce
is evident that in the expression for cos A,, it is the — sign
only which should precede the radical.
ws When'l = 23) then o, ='e,;' R= RM aa;
and the above expressions can ‘be written in the forms— “
Q R, (R, NG R, :)
~ M, (RB, + R,).(B, — R,)
COS
cos A, =
On Practical Geodesy. 51
Q R, (R, mr R,,)
M, (R, 2 R,) (R, scars R,)
* cos A, = cos A, = = = tan > ‘tan 1,
cos A, =
Otherwise.
To find the chord & and the angle 6 which it makes with
the polar axis, we have—
p— 28 'sin3
=
Bes =
k
To find the sides of the plane triangle p, C, p,, we have—
‘i sin L,,)
cos
C, 1 ge R, cos L); Cp, = wee R,, cos Lis PP = hk sin 0.
And knowing the three sides of this plane triangle, we can
find its angles ¢, ¢,,
Then from the spherical triangles SPI, SPI, we have the
following formule from which to obtain the azimuths—
cos 4 (6 — I’)
(A, —W = EG me bs
tan d (A, + vy) = ion ™ 2,
ee (A 4 ye =e cot 3 ¢,;
wn 4 (A, —y) = SACO) tang,
We can also find the sides IS, IS, of aiid ag tri-
angles; and then we have—
a Wy, is WY,
a, = 90° — IS; a, = IS, — 90°.
And as a test of accuracy of the work we have a, + a, = %.
EXAMPLE (Problem 1).
Let 2 = 38°; 1, = 37°; © = 1°, 15’,,00’; be the given
latitudes and eee of longitude of the stations. —
‘First then, to find the values of the normals R,, R,, drawn
52 On Practical Geodesy.
at the stations S,, S,,, which terminate in the polar axis, we
have the well known formula
a a
es J1—eé sin? 1? Bi l= see
and we easily obtain
log R, = 7°3212526296; R, = 20953309:5777 feet ;
log R, = 7°3212277292; R,, = 20952108-2495 feet.
R
We will now proceed to find the values of the small arcs
5,, 5,, by means of formula 80. And as R cos l’ — R,, cos L”
enters in both numerators and denominators of the expres-
sions, we shall first find its value. Thus :-— .
log R, = 7°3212526296 log R, = 7:321227292
cos 1’ = 1-7893417987 cos 2” = 1°7794630249
7:1105946083 7-1006907541
antilocs { 1290014548795
8°) 1260929351225
.. R, cos l’ — R,, cos 2” = 290851:9757
and log (R, cos U’ — R,, cos 1") = 5:4636720181
Now to find 8 we have formula 80 or—
tans é’ (R, cos J’ — RB, cos 2”) sin 7’
ape R, — é (R, cos l’ — R,, cos 1”) cos 1
log & = 3°8315591974 log & = 3°8315591974
' §:4636720182 54636720182
sin /’ = 1:8965321441 cos l’ = 1°7893419787
3°1917633597 3:0845731943
; antilog 1214:9913
but R
> = 20953309-5777
.. the value of the denominator = 20952094:5864
and its log is 7:°3212274459
31917633597
.. log tan 8, = 5 8705359138
2°20, 10°} 0077'15" 302001
To find 6, we have the formula 80 or—
A e” (R, cos /’ — R,, cos 2”) sin 1”
orf Oc RE (R, cos /’ — B,, cos 1”) cos l”
On Practical Geodesy. 53
log & = 3°8315591974 log e& = 3°8315591974
5-4636720182 54636720182
sin 2” = 1:9023486165 cos 1” = 1:7794630249
31975798321 3:0746942397
antilog = 1187°6658
= 20952108-2495
*, value of denominator = 20953295:9153
its log = 7°3212523464
3°1975798321
. log tan 8, = 58763274857
. 8, = 0°, 00’, 15751503
To find the ares L’ and L”, we have
4 Be = i so 5, dh = pe po 5,
Pee 5529 oe ee
5 = 0, 00/,,/15"-30950 5, = 0, 00’, 15”-51503
- L’ = 52°, 00’, 15":30950 =. L” = 52°, 59’, 44”-48497
These values are correct to the last or fifth decimals.
To find L’ we have also the formula 79 or—
cot L’ = (1 — e’) cot l’ + ey
log (1 — e) = 1:9970432059 log & = 3:8315591974
cot l’ = 1:8928098346 log R,, = 7:3212277292
1:8898530405 cos J” = 1:7794630249
antilog = 0-7759844892 49322499515
log R, = 7.3212526296
sin /’ = 1°8965321441
T:2177847737
4°9322499515
3-7144651778
antilog = 0:0051816154
0°7759844892
-. cot L’ = 0°7811661046
. log cot L’ = 1-8927433907
Ss 523, OOKp 1573095
54 On Practical Geodesy.
To find L” we have formula 79 or—
u" 1 2 jl Die R, cee l’
cot L” = (1 — e’) cot l” +e Eoin f”
log (1 — e’) 1:9970432059
cot 2” = 1°8771144084
1°8741576143 antilog = 0:7484410756
log & = 3°8315591974 log R, = 7°3212277292
log R, = 7°3212526296 sin 2” = 1-9023486165
cos Ul’ = 1°7893419787 7-2235763457
4:9421538057
7°2236012457
3°7185525600 antilog = 0-0052309125°5
0 74844107565
* nat cot L” = 0°7536719882
.. log cot LL" = 1:8771823669, and L” = 52°, 59’, 44-4867
the error of 0”:0018 being due to the insufficiency of the
tables or to their inaccuracy in the 10th decimal places, &c.
Now, in each of the spherical triangles S,PD,, S,,PD,,
S,PS,, we have the two sides and the included angle w from
which we can find the angles at their bases and also the
bases.
To find the angles A,, D,, and base z, of the triangle
S,PD,—
cot 4 w =11-°9622253888 cot $ w =11°9622253888
cos } (L’—1/)= 9-9999836052 sin 3 (L’—U’)= 7-9389661700
21-9622089940 19-9011915588
cos 4 (L’+.0/)= 97844684133 sin } (L’4+1')= 9-8994541209 .
tan } (A,+D,)=12:1777405807 tan }(A,—D,,) =10 0017374379
3 (A, + D,)-= 89°, 37’, 10” + 133745
L(A, —D,) = 45°, 06’, 52” - 590185
A, = 134°, 44’, 02” - 72393
— 44°, 30’, 17” 54356
On Practical Geodesy. 55
sin l’ = 9°8965321441 sin L’” = 9:9023239980
sin w = 8°3387529285 sin wo = 8°3387529285
18-2352850726 18:2410769265
sin D,, = 93456993857 sin A, = 9°8514912397
sin z, = 8-3895856869 . sin z, = 83895856868
a= ae, 24 18 8798
To find the angles D,, A,, and base z, of the triangle
4)
A,PD—
cot $ w =11°9622253888 cot 4 w =11°9622253888
cos $ (0”—L’) = 9:9999836034 sin 4 (/’—L’) = 7-9389910706
21-9622089922 19°9012164594
cos $(!’+L’) = 9-7844261226 sin 3 (2’+L’) = 9-8994790213
tan} (D,+A,)= 121777828696 tan J 1(D,—A,)=10-0017374381
1(D, + A,) = 89°, 37’, 10” - 267152
1 (D, — A,) = 45°, 06’, 52” «590233
-D, = 134°, 44’, 02” » 857385
/
A, = 44°, 30’, 17” - 676919
4“
sin 2” = 9:-9023486165 sin L’ = 9°8965573265
sin wo = 8°33879029285 sin w = 8°3387529285
18-°2411015450 18:2353102550
sin D, = 9 8514909614 sin A,, = 9°8456996715
"sin z, = 8:3896105836 “ sin z, = 8°3896105835
z, = 1°, 24’, 19” - 169884
To find the angles A,, A,., and base v of the triangle
S,f5,-~
cot 3 w =11-9622253888 cot 4 w =11-9622253888
cos 3 (l’—U’) = 9-9999834631 sin 3 (Z’’) = 7-9408418596
21-9622088519 19-9030672484
cos } (1” +1’) = 9-7844471278 sin 3(2" +1’) = 98994666546
Gad (Ac +A,,)= 121777617241 singh —A.,,)=10-0036005938
1 (A,+A,.) = 89°, 37”, 10” - 20043
1 (A,—A,.) = 45°, 14’, 15” - 02727
A, = 134°, 51’, 25” - 22770
A..= 44°, 22’, 55” - 17316
56 On Practical Geodesy.
sin J’ = 9:8965321441 sin J” = 9-9023486165
sin w = 8-3387529285 sin o = 83387529285
18-2352850726 18-2411015450
sin A, = 9°8447496921 sin A, = 98505661645
sin v = 8°3905353805 . sin vy = 8°3905353805
v = 1°, 24’, 29” + 956648
To find the portions v,, v,, into which y is divided by the
point O.
From the spherical triangles 8,,0OE,, S,OE,, we have—
sin y, "sin. O = sin a@,; sin y, sin’ O"_ “cine.
and from these—
sin v,, sina, _ R,
| sin vy, ina) ee
and .. (see formule 27, 33, 34)—
log R, = 7°3212526296 tan $v = 2-0895709833
log R, = 7:°3212277292 tan (x—45°) = 5:4573930282
. tanz = 10-0000249004 .. tan 3 (v,—v,) = 75469640115
“@ = 45°00, 0591314... 4 (v,—v,) = 0°, 00", 00"-072776
But 4 (v,+v,) = 0°, 42’, 14”-978324
vy, = 0°, 42’, 15”-051100
, = 0°, 42’, 14”-905548
V
To find the angles 0,,9,, which a plane parallel to the
two normals makes with the normal chordal planes—
Q,= A, —A, = 0°, 07’, 22”-50377
9,.= A, A. = 0°. 07) oo aia
. we have in actual practice (as has been already demon-
strated) Q, = Q,; and we may write © to represent their
common value.
To find the angles a,, a, of depression of the chord below
the tangent planes at the stations S,, S,., we have—
tana, = tan v, * cos 2 tana, = tan v, * cosQ
tan vy, = 8:0895585138 tan v, = 8°0895834524
cos 2 = 9:9999990005 cos OQ = 9:9999990005
. tana, = 80895575143 =... tana, = 8-0895824529
a, = 0°, 42’, 14899714... a, = 0°, 42’, 15”-045266
3a, +a, 2 1°) 2499798498 ,
On Practical Geodesy. 57
To find the length of & the chord connecting the stations.
We have—
R,, cos J, sin w R, cos 7, sin w
Es sin A, cosa, Lia sin A,, COs a,,
log R,, = 7:3212277292 log R, = 7:°3212526296
cos 1, =. 1:9023486165 cos 7, = 1:8965321441
sin wo = 2°3387529285 sin w = 23387529285
55623292745 55565377022
sin A, = 1:8514912398 sin A,, = 18456996715
cos a, = 1:9999672028 cos a, = 1°9999671990
1:8514584426 1°8456668705
log k = 5:7108708319 =. ~log k = 5:7108708317
log k = 57108708318
uke = dlaov0 for
To find the length of the geodesic are s connecting the
stations—
, be Ss sin’
2°sin 4 >
log k = 5'7108708318 log 2 = 0°3010299957
log = = 3°7050032463 sin} 3 = 2-0895371846
sin 1” = 6°6855748668 ©
41014489449
2-3905671803
log s = 5:7108817646 “. § = 513903°723718 feet.
23095671803
To find the arcs OE,, OE,, or y,, y,, whose sum EE, is
the measure of the angle ~. We have—
sin y, = sin vy, sin 2 sin y, = sin v, sin Q
sin v, = 80895257164 sin v, = 8:0895506513
sin Q = 73314915049 sin Q = 7°3314915049
sin y, = 5°4210172213 sin y, = 9°4210421562
“. y, = 0°,, 00’, 05” - 438039... y, = 0°, 00’, 05” - 438352
. A = 0°, 00’, 10” - 876391
To find the ares ¢, f, whose sum = 6. Since the pencil
I (SS OP) is harmonic, we have—
21
gedeni i tyes Vitam ib 6,
Fi RR SC 8 EE ae a F |
tan a (L’ 7" By? 2 Ch, =F é,) 2 5,
I
Sa On Practical Geodesy.
And to find the ares ¢,, f,, whose sum = 6,; we have—
fan 4 (pp f,) = ee
M 4 tan 4 (L” + 1’)
From these we easily obtain the values—
e, = 175773 f, = 175729
e. = 765453 f = 765497
/
In the spherical triangle F PF,, we know the values of
the sides and included angle #; and applying the usual for-
mulze we find— |
angle F, = 134°, 44’, 02” - 79079
angle F, = 44°, 30’, 17” - 61004
arc EF, = 1°, 24’, 19” * 02484 = 3 (z, + z,)
. F, =3(A, + D)) to within 0”-0001
F,=4(A, + D,) to within 0’-0002
We may also observe that—
D,—A, = 0"-13345; A,—D, = 0713336
. D,—A, = A, —D, to within 0”-0001
R2=" In the “Account of the Principal Triangulation of
Great Britain and Ireland,” the following formule are
given—
D,—A,=4'
e
1—¢€
e”
l—e
‘cos’ 1, sia BAL 2 sin 47
D,—A, = ¢° 5° cos’? 7, sin2 A, °2?°sin 1”
In working out these expressions with respect to the
present examples we have— |
log 2 = 1-3979400087 log 3 = 1-3979400087
2 es 2 uy
log jg = 38345159915 log 7a = 3'8345159915
cos’ J, = 1:8046972330 cos’ 2, = 1:7930642882
sin 2 A, = 1:9999812911 sin 2 A, = 1:9997379520
log z,° = 7:4081585260 log 27 = 7:4081087226
sin 1” = 6°6855748668 sin 1” = 6°6855748668
. log(D,-A,) = 1:1308679171 .-.log(A,—D,,) = 1:1189418298
“. D,—A, = 0’°1352 which is too great by 0’:002
A,— D,, = 0":1315 which is too small by 0’:002
We may also observe that in all cases in which the
greater azimuth A, is less than 90°, the second of the above
On Practical Geodesy. 59
formule would intimate that D,, is greater than A,, which
we know to be erroneous. And when A, = 90° it intimates
that D, = A,,, which is also erroneous.
ZS In order to shew the extent to which a change in
the assumed values of the earth’s polar and equatorial radii
can effect the results of geodetic computations, I give the
following columns of results, worked out with 7 place
logs.—
FOR THE LATEST CONSTANTS. FOR CONSTANTS FORMERLY USED.
be = 20926348 ; = 20923713
b= eon b = 20853810 t
A, = 134°, 51’,, 257°225 A, = same as before
Seas 22, OF LTT yep
A, = 134°, 44, 03° 683 Bis = 134° cae 10": 647
A, = 44, 30, 16°718 A= 44°, a0 09 : 754
i sO On, 2h O41 =O) OL Tea aay
v= 24, ) 29° 956 vy = same as before
> = I, 24, 29°945 De ee asa Os Gs
a, = 0, 42, 14°900 aw a=). O42 Tes 90]
a, = 0, 42, 15-045 e's) 0, 420 Lb O45
A 0, 00,80 852 Ba iO OU 10. Gal
s = 513905°8 feet s = 513847-7 feet
The increase in A, is equal to the decrease in A,, and the
whole amount 6”9 of such increase or decrease is owing to
the change in the ratio of a to b, and not to their absolute
magnitudes. This shews that if the assumed value : be not
suitable to the-locality of the survey, there must of necessity
be discrepancies between the azimuths as found by direct
observation and computations, in closing work carried on by
means of two series of stations. We see also that the values
of s differ by about 58 feet in an arc of 97 miles, owing to
the change in the values of a and b.
EXAMPLE (Problem 2).
Case 1.
Given the latitude 1 = 38°; the azimuth A, = 134°, 44”,
02”°72393 ; and the length of the geodesic arc s = 513903
"7237 feet; to find the difference of longitude », the latitude
L the azimuth A,, &
GO On Practieal Geodesy.
To find z we have (from the “Account of the Principal
Triangulation of Great Britain and Ireland ”) the formula—
eee Ine Se 4 0-0004862 x sin? (A) * sin?/’
in which (A /’) represents any close approximate to the
difference of the given and unknown latitudes, so as to have
the first three or four decimal places in the expression log
(sin’ A 0’) correct.
In the present example we know that a Ul’ = I’ nearly,
and .*. to find z—
log (00004862) = 4-6868 log R, = 73212526296
sin? (AU) = 64837 sin 1” = 6°6855748668
sin? ’ = 1-7931 2-0068274964
log s = 5:7108817646
antilog = 919-6 37040542682
919-6
log z, = 3°7040543601
2, = 1°, 24’, 187-8798
Were we to use the more simple formulee—
vi agate s
; in peboa Ema
we evidently have—
‘ log z, = 3°7040542682
2, = 5058"°878) = 1°,, 24, 18" -87S5,
which is too small by about 0”001 only. And since the
0-001 part of one second represents not more than an error
of 75 of a foot in the whole length of the arc s = 97 miles;
.. It is evident that in all cases we can safely find z, by
means of this formula.
Now knowing A, lJ’, z, in the spherical triangle SPD_,
we can find the angles w, D,, and the side L’ by the usual
forms—
WOOL Ee tos vee Ee
sin 4 (/’ — z,
On Practical Geodesy. 61
cot 4 A,=9:6200681684 cot 3 A, =9-6200681684
cos 4 (l’/—z,)=9-9562174764 sin 3 (J/—z,)=9-6307496490
19°5762856448 19:2508178174
cos } (I'-+2,)=9-9510220423 sin 3 (U/-+z,) =9-6525942988
at ies 6252636025 ... tan 4 (D,,—w)=9°5982235186
4 (D, + 0) = 22°, 52’, 38”-7711
4 (D, —o) = 21°, 37’, 38"-7719
D, = 44°,, 30’, 17-5430
w = 1°, 14’, 597-9999
Pers This case, in which the given latitude is greater than
the sought latitude, is made known to us by A, being
greater than the angle D,
To find L’—
sin z, = 83895856868 sin l’ = 9°8965321441
sin A, = 9°8514912398 sin A, = 9°8514912398
18°2410769266 19°7480233839
sin w = 8:3387529285 sin D,, = 9°8456993857
sin LL” = 9:9023239981) .j..*.. suf L” = 99023239982
L” = 52°, 59%, 44”-4850
or to find L” we may use the formula—
en ee ee ey
tan 4 (L 1’) an} (oD) Cy aoep 3 an dz,
To find 6, we have the approximate formula 84—
oe a f+ sin L’ sin $ (L” + 2) - (L" — 2)
or the more ee approximate formula 83—
1; Dat eu" sue 4 pace) ) sin $ (L” — 7’) sin L”
41 &) —2- 2+ sind (L’ +7) sin 3 (L” — l’) cos L”
2
log ;——q = 38345160
sin L” = 1-9023240
sin } (L’ + 7’) = 1-8994540
log (L” — 1’) = 3-5544268
log 8, = 1:1907208
8, = 0°, 00’, 1575139
sin 6,
62 On Practical Geodesy.
log 2 = 0:3010300
log & = 38315592
sin } (L” + 1’) = 1:8994540
sin 3 (L’ — 1’) = 3-9389661
5-9710098" ©... (ik SOLS 0 ep eees
cos L” = 1:7795064 sin L” = 1:9023240
5:7505157 58733333
antilog = 0-000056300 1:9970186
1 — @ = 0993214854 w. sin 8, = 5:°8763147
0:993158554 6, = 0°, 00’, 15”-5146
its log = 1:9970186
Then to find J”, and 1,
Val +3, t= 90° —l
“4
By first value of 6, we find J, = 37°,, 00’, 00”:0019
. second”, , = 37°, 00’, 00”-0004
we have—
& L,,
To find A,, we have—
A, —D,, = sin D, tan 4z,:38,
sin D,=1°8456994 -- A,—D,=0°, 00’, 0013336
tan bz — 9-0886210 but D,,=44°,, 30’,, 17”:5430
log 6,,=1:1907207 A, =44°, 30’, 17’-6764
log (A,—D,) =1-1250411
Kas” In the “Account of the Principal Triangulation of |
Great Britain and Ireland:” (see pages 247, 249, 676, of that
-work) there is given what is considered the most accurate
method of solving this problem. The values of z, w, D, are
“?
there found as in the present paper, but the azimuth A, and
latitude 1, are determined otherwise: thus—
To find A, the erroneous formula 96 is used, which gives
¢=A,—D, = 01315 instead of 0“1334.
Then to find J, the following formula is given—
_s , sing (A,— A, + 9
p snl” sin3(A,+A,+ 2)
am ape 221 ake nz V
ae cos’ 3 (A, — A,,) sin A
1,—l, =
in which p is the radius of curvature for the meridian for
On Practical Geodesy. 63
the mean between the known and unknown latitudes, and
in which—
4 (A, —A, = 4) = 4 (A, amet D,,)
3 (A, iF Be, ae é) a 4 (A, =e D,,).
The value of 1 — 1, as computed from the above is—
1, —J, = 3600"-0057 = 1°, 00’, 00”-0057
1, = 36°, 59’, 59”-9943,
which is nearly 0006 in error, when by the method fol-
lowed in this paper the error amounts only to about 0”0004.
It may perhaps be proper to observe that in the example
under consideration we have in reality— ;
SE A, ane) eA, + D,)
so that the fact of the expression for 1, — 1, being written
as above shews that its author considered A, to be less than
D: however, we know that A, must be greater than D_.
EXAMPLE (Problem 2).
Case 2.
Given the latitude 1, = 37°; the azimuth A, = 44° 30’,
17”-67692 ; and the length of the geodesic arc s=513903°7237
feet: to find w, 1, and A,, &e.
4
‘To find the are z,, we have—
§
R,, sin 1
in which AJ” is the nearest approximate which we can easily
log z, = log + 0:0004862 x sin? (A2”) sin? 2’
find to the difference of the known and unknown latitudes.
In the present case we know that Al’ is nearly 1°.
log (0-0004862) = 4:6868 log R,, = 7:3212277292
log sin? (A2”) = 6°4837 sin 1” = 6:6855748668
sin’ 1” = 1:8047 20068025960
2-9752 log s = 5°7108817646
antilog = 9445 3:7040791686
) 944
log z, = 3°7040792630
z, = 5059”-16988 = 1°, 24’, 19”-16988
64 On Practical Geodesy.
Were we to use the simpler formula—
=
, We, ein”
then, obviously, we have—
log z, = 3°7040792, and... 2, = 1°, 24’, 19”-1687
which is 0”:0011 too small.
To find D and o, we have—
cos 4 (1” — z,)
log z,,
= SS t + A
tan 3 (D, + a) coat tli@inen cot 4 A,
sin 4 (l" —z,
tan 4 (D, — o) = sin + @ + «,) -cot 4 A,
cot $ A, = 10°3881059553
cos $ (/” —z,) = 9°9544060605
20:3425120158
cos $ (l” + z,) 9:9490947477
. tan $ (D, + wo) = 10°3934172681
; cot 4 A,, = 10°3881059553
sin 3 (/” —z,) = 9°6386781718
20:0267841271
sin 3 (l’ + z,) = 9°6600485181
-. tan 4 (D, — o) = 103667356090
4 (D, + «) = 67°, 59’, 31-4286
| 2 (D, —) = 66°, 44’, 31”-4287
DD, = 134°, 44’, 02/8573
© = 1°, 15’, 0070001
Kgs This case in which the given latitude is less than the
sought latitude, is made known to us by the given azimuth
A, being less than the computed angle D.
To find L’,—
sin z, = 8°3896105836 sin /” = 99023486165
sin A, = 9-8456996715 sin A, = 9:8456996715
18°2353102551 19°7480482880
sinw = 8°3387529285 sin D, = 9°8514909614
- sin L/ = 9:8965573266 ... sin L’ = 9°8965573266
L! = 52°, 00’, 15-3097
On Practical Geodesy. 65
To find L’ we can also use the formula—
sin $ (D, — A,)
0 AY 67 Lf eo Lb tigress «te
tan 4 (/ 1 ee ain'g (D, + A,) tan 4 z,,
To find §, we have—
e =
log poe2 = OOD |
sin L’ = 1-89655 0, == OF OO") 15-3095
sin 3 (t” + L’) = 189946 .. ’= L’ —8, = 51°, 59’, 59-9999
log (t” — L’) = 3:55445 .
*, log 6, = 1:18497 oben OO" 00" COOL
To find A,, we have—
D,— A, = sin D, tan 3 z, ° 5,
sin D, = 1:85149
tan} z, = 208865 .. D,—A, = 0°, 00’, 00"-1334
log 5, = 1:18497 But D, = 134, 44, 02 °8573
log (D,— A,) = 1°12511 A, = 134°, 44", 02"-7239
Kg In the “Account of the Principal Triangulation of
Great Britain and Ireland” the formula from which to find
a
, 1 “yee s _sin 4 (D, — A,,)
p°sin 1” sin 4 (D, + A,)
2
: 41 -- 7 ‘cos? 4 (A, — A,,) sin’ 1” \
and the resulting value of 1, — J, = 1°, 00’,, 00”:0059
L, — 38°. 00’, 00”-0059 which
is too great by 0006, while iy the method in this paper the
error is only 0”-0001.
In the treatise on “Geodesy” in Spon’s Dictionary of
Engineering, the unknown latitudes in the first and second
cases of the problem are determined by means of the
formulee—
s‘cos A s- sin? A tan
= 4— 5 4H Oe apie ike
L = L,, — R, gin 1” a5 9 - ee - gin 1” ka -- é cos 1)
s* cos A s-sin? A. tan]
— ee A a OE ee “4 a“ 2.
a ‘i By sue l” 27 Re, - sim TY ka + € * cos’ /,,)
K
G6). On Practical Geodesy.
from which we find 7, — 1, = 3600 091
and J, — Jl, = 3600°632; giving an error of
0”1 in the first case, and an error of 0”6 in the second case.
In Chambers’ “ Practical Mathematics” the formule differ
from the above in having the factors (1 + e- cos J),
(1 + e: cos’ J), replaced by (1 + 2 ¢€ * cos’l) and
(1 + 2«°cos’l) which are greater; and .. obviously the
results must be the more erroneous.
Their method of finding the difference of longitude is by
means of the formula
s‘sin A, s‘sin A,
Mm = F > — Fie Se a
RK,‘ sin 1’ cos. FRO "sa tO eos,
sin A, sin A,
SPT ae §
cos 1, cos J,
from which we obtain the values
w = 4499838 = 4500”:355
having a difference = 0”°517.
7 nie eee
is Rae Ae
<< aa £ 7 .
ae ae
x
Sty
Notes on the Radiometer. | 67
Art. II].—WNotes on the Radiometer.
By R. L. J. ELLery, Esa.
[Read llth May, 1877. ]
Art. II] —On the Improvement of the Port of Melbourne.
By T. E. RAwLinson, C.E.
[ Read before the Royal Society of Victoria, 8th June, 1876. |
In resuming the subject of a paper read before the
members last session on proposed works for the improve-
ment of the Port of Melbourne, I purpose replying, as far
as possible, to questions asked and objections raised at the
time and since to certain features of the proposed scheme.
These questions and objections appear to resolve them-
selves into the following :—
1st. The data on which I assume the width of 1000 feet
as necessary for the proposed new channel and basin.
2nd. The oft repeated allegation that the River Yarra
has debouched at various times at several places between
St. Kilda and the present entrance at Williamstown.
3rd. That the estimated total cost is far in excess of our
present means.
Tn replying to the first I must remind members that I
stated the width assumed was based on certain generali-
sations, and subject to modification if necessary on receipt
of accurate data as to the amount of flood discharges
down the Yarra; but although to this extent empirical, it
was in a large measure based on a knowledge of the exten-
sive discharge of flood waters over the St. Kilda-road,
between the Prince’s Bridge approach, and the Immigration
Barracks Hill, additional to the heavy discharge through
the Prince’s Bridge and the Dry Arch south of it. In addi-
tion to this evidence there was the 200 feet span of Church-
street Bridge flooded to a great height, through which
_the water tore ina torrent, destroying the sheet piling and
_ roadway underneath ; while at Johnston-street Bridge, with
an opening of 175 feet, the water rose to a great height
and was equally mischievous, owing to its great velocity and
consequent destructive energy. The sectional area of the
torrent at this place was between 4000 and 5000 feet, whilst
L
68 On the Improvement of the
between this bridge and Melbourne the volume of the Yarra
was considerably augmented by numerous small streams
and creeks flowing into it, adding, at least, from 800 to 1000
feet additional of sectional area of flood water.
Since the date of my paper I have noticed that Mr. Gordon
in one of his reports estimates that an additional flood
channel, of about 4000 feet sectional area, in addition to the
present river, is required for the passage of flood waters
below Melbourne to the Bay—making a total of about 8000
feet of area; but in the face of all the facts known of the
great volume of the waterflow through Prince’s Bridge, I do
not think such sectional area equal to the work to be done.
The discharge in heavy floods through Prince’s Bridge
and the Dry Arch is a pitch or fall of water rather than a
flow, whilst over the St. Kilda-road causeway the water
rushed as over a weir head, the velocity in each case being
necessarily very great.
In Flinders-street the water stood upwards of ten feet
deep, and spread in a sheet southwards to the foot of Emerald
Hill, and although extending over so large a surface, it
flowed with considerable velocity even when the flat was
comparatively unobstructed ; but now, with solid embanked
causeways and extensive piles of buildings covering the low
ground, the waters of any future flood will of necessity be
confined in narrower bounds, and rise to a greater height,
in order to escape to the Bay.
For the above reasons I do not think the width given for
the proposed new channel (1000 feet) excessive for the
outflowing water when the above conditions are fully
considered ; but although 1000 feet width be adopted for a
flood channel, it 1s unnecessary for the present to excavate
the full breadth and depth for that purpose only, as the
work may. be deferred until the space is required for dock
extension, or the materials wanted for reclamation of new
land.
For carrying away flood waters, the channel, if taken out
to 1000 feet wide, and to the depth of ordinary high-water
mark, and the ship channel taken out for its full depth of 20
- feet at low water, and 400 feet wide at the top, would give
a sectional area of about 10,000 feet, the mean velocity and
area of which would be more nearly approaching the required
capacity for discharging the excess of the waters requiring
passage, without unduly impeding the free flow and conse-
quent backing-up of the flood waters which a narrower
channel would cause.
Port of Melbourne. 69
In reply. to the allegation that the Yarra has at various
times debouched by different outlets between St. Kilda and
Williamstown into the Bay,I fail to see any grounds for
such assertions, for the statement is almost too absurd for
refutation, that because there is a slight depression in made
ground it must at some time or other have been a water
course.
The arguments are based on a fallacy, and cannot in my
opinion be justified by analogy or by reason; and, were it
not for the repetition of these views from time to time, I
would not again recur to them, having in the previous
paper dealt with the question, but it is perhaps better to risk
a slight repetition than uncertainty or obscurity on this
oint.
Before the low-lying lands around Emerald Hill were
formed, the Yarra must have entered the Bay about the
site of Prince's Bridge, and as the land made by precipitation
from its waters, by silt and by drift, the embouchure would
gradually be forced along in the direction of its present
channel, and the singular formation of the river at Humbug
Reach is one of the strongest possible evidences of such
growth.
It is quite possible and probable that in times of flood,
such as in the year 1863, the surcharged waters overflowing
their banks would pass away over the low flats in a direct
line for the Bay, but this is quite a different matter to the
bold assertions made, that such courses are the old filled-in
beds of the Yarra, or that the Yarra in its normal condition
ever flowed in any other channel than its present one.
That views such as are enunciated in this and the preceding
paper are correct, and proven as far as such things can be
proven, are amply illustrated by analogy with similar causes
and results of both the past and the present.
In this country, as elsewhere, we have ample evidence
that from remote ages climatic agencies have been much the
same as in modern times, and that storms of thousands of
years ago prevailed from the same quarter of the heavens as
in the present day.
The extinct volcanoes of the West give evidence of this
fact in the deposition of ashes, scoriz, and tufa on what
must have been the leeward of the Hill then, as it is the lee-
ward now, during bad weather.
Tower Hill, near Warrnambool, is a case in point, where
the greatest preponderance of volcanic ash and tufa lies
L2
A ee ae
ees coer
AO ge
Se Se a
70 | On the Improvement of the
towards the south-east, in the direction where aah deposits
would be made in the present day under the influence. of
the prevailing gales during stormy weather.
That such deposits have not been casual outbursts is
evidenced in sinking well-shafts through the strata for
-water. In one case, after passing through alternations of
this strata,a bottom was reached between 60 and 70 feet
from the surface, showing an ancient turf and grass surface.
The make of the land around Emerald Hill, by deposit of
silt and gravel brought down the rivers and the literal drift
along the shores, is not only illustrated by similar action
within the brief period of our occupancy of Port Phillip, but
by analogy with the examples of make of the low flat
country of Gippsland, terminating against the sea in the
Ninety-Mile Beach.
The importance and extent of the agencies in operation
causing these deposits can be better comprehended when it
is remembered that the whole of the ravines and gullies of
the Yarra basin, as well as those on the Gippsland slopes of
the Dividing Range, have been eroded by rains and melted.
snows, and the materials washed down to form the lower
flat country.
The geological evidence of these facts may be termed |
as almost absolute and complete.
The objections made to the large amount of the estimated
cost for the whole work of port and harbor formation are
equally untenable with those raised against the theory of
the river formation, when it is borne in mind that the gross
estimated sum is for a scheme of works extending over
many years, and the whole cost of which will be more than
recouped by the vastly increased value given to the reclaimed
lands,a large portion of which at the present time is of |
little, if any, vaiue. The works proposed, whether as a
whole or only in part, will be actual creation of a large
amount of valuable property in addition to the conservation
of the harbor and improvement of the port, leaving it free
for ever.
Up to the present I have been unable to obtain informa-
tion as to the expenditure on the ports of London, Liver-
pool, or other places ; but, from personal knowledge of the
character and extent of the two named, and the nature of
the works, I have no hesitation in stating that the cost
cannot have been less than from 15 to 20 millions each,
whilst in the case of Liverpool nearly the whole of the
Port of Melbourne. 71
outlay has been made within the last 150 years, and nearly
one-half within my own recollection.
For Melbourne the question of Harbor Improvements is
now becoming one of vital importance, for in a few years, if
nothing is done, its harbor will be a thing of the past,
owing to the rapid silting-up which is now going on.
To object to the large sum named for a whole scheme of
harbor works, is scarcely a fair objection as put; because
the sum named, although a very large one, is but prospective,
and its rate of expenditure dependent on the future ex-
tension of the trade of the port; and because the amount,
if expended, is for objects equal in importance and value to
any ever accomplished in any age or country for extent,
usefulness, or economy ; and further, the capital named for
expenditure is nominal only, seeing that the whole amount
is refunded from the increased value of the reclaimed lands,
giving to the country a surplus of value beyond the nominal
capital named, in addition to which we would have an
acreage of water space, quay wall, and quay room equal to
many of the large ports of the world, free of debt, and
which may be open to the navies and commerce of the
world free of all charges beyond those for lights and
pilotage.
The modified scheme which I now submit as being
adapted to our immediate requirements presents the same
advantages—proportional in their extent with the original
scheme for the whole—as before submitted, without in any
way interfering with the ultimate carrying out of the entire
work.
REDUCED ESTIMATE OF EXPENDITURE.
Excavation, 11,296,395 cubic yards, at 10d. ... £470,183 2, 6
Coring the harbor quays with rubble-stone,
8500 lineal yards at £50 Hay 425,000 0
Quay wall to channel and ais Wharf, 8000
yards at £100 ... Si aaa ud 800,000 0
0
0
£1,695,183 2 6
Fender Piling and miscellanea_... se --. 304,816 17 6
Gross Total ... ve am .-. 2,000,000 0 0
Materials available for the
reclamation of land,
' equal to ae «|| 1167 ‘acres.
Deduct for quays ... Pan VME Bs
740 ~=,, at £5000 £3,700,000 0 0
Surplus Value aoe ota ... £1,700,000 0 0
72 On the Improvement of the
Immediate gain to the port—
yeaetarbor ... Be ... 600 acres.
New channel ... oa OD res
Eiger Dash |. aoe.) Pwo D075
Total ... 750 acres.
Length of quay wall ... 8,000 lineal yards.
Area of quay space ts 427 acres.
In the above estimate and statement the injuries accruing
from delay and the advantages to be derived from immediate
action are so great that I now leave the facts to speak for
themselves. In this paper, as in the original one, the cost
of all works are estimated at outside prices, and the benefits
understated.
Before closing I may be permitted to point out how the
proposed harbor works, whilst materially affecting the
question of harbor defences as originally submitted by the
Royal Engineer Officers who have considered the question,
owing to the material change of conditions in the Bay, in the
event of these or similar works being undertaken, may be
converted into strong and almost impregnable fortifications
for the defence of the port, and render the possibility of
shelling Melbourne and Williamstown from the Bay impro-
bable, without first silencing the batteries—a thing which
ought to be impossible.
At the end of the south pier a site is shown for a battery
in position of Moncrief guns, which construction, with stone
facing to above high-water, may from that point have earth-
work defences, sodded in the usual way ; and such guns as
described, with a horizontal fire, would sweep a range > of not
less than five miles, being themselves unassailable, except to
chance shots or an uncertain, plunging, or vertical fire.
The magazines for these guns need to be of no great size,
because along the causeway a light tramway could be con-
structed, under shelter of a covered way, for the purpose of
conveying ammunition from land magazines as required.
In case of the quay battery being injured from any cause,
it would be untenable for an enemy without first silencing
the land batteries which cover it from Sandridge and the
river entrance.
I do not presume on these matters to speak with authority,
but rather as indicating the points which are available for
harbor defence, and how they may be utilised.
The rates previously given for the cost of the work so
much exceed those paid for similar work that I have been
PLAN
of the
Por or MELBouRNE
0 Accuinpany
M" RAWLINSON's PAPER
\\ Ll
j SO S» XX
Vy
RAN
Mh \
SY
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\ \
SS
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Bees \
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re re
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Port of Melbourne. 73
induced to bring them down more in consonance with actual
prices now current, but even with this reduction the margin
of excess is very large.
ADDENDA.—The dotted lines on Plan show where a di-
version of the Yarra from the Botanic Gardens to the junction
of the new channel may be made with great advantage to
serve in times of flood, and also afford very great, facilities
in increased station ground and quay and dock room
abutting on Flinders-street; but as this portion of the
subject was not directly connected with the Port improve-
ments, as generally understood, it was omitted from the
body of the original paper. Ty Bese
7th February, 1878.
ArT. IV.—Comparison of the Melbourne and Paris
Reflecting Telescopes.
By R. L. J. ELLERY, Esa.
[Communicated 8th June, 1876. |
ArT. V.—On Various Forms of Electrometer.
By, BR... J. EuLery, se,
[Communicated 10th July, 1876. ]
Art. VI—On the Absence of Sun Spots during the Year.
By R. L. J. Every, Esq.
[Communicated 25th September, 1876. |
74 “Notes on a Chronographic Apparatus,
Art. VIIL—WNotes on a Chronographic Apparatus, with
Huyghen’s Parabolic Pendulum.
By R. L. J. ELuery, Esa.
[Read 25th September, 1876.]
AgouT three years ago, at a meeting of the physical section
of this Society, I gave a brief résumé of the various methods
that had been tried for obtaining uniform rotation, more |
especially for astronomical and physical instruments; and I|
pointed out that as the desired result had been only ap-
proached, but in no case obtained, it was a subject worthy of
the consideration of the section, and it- consequently formed
the matter for discussion at a subsequent meeting.
It may be as well to state here that all the most success-
ful attempts to solve this mechanical problem involved the
use of the fly, the rotating or conical pendulum, and reci-
procating pendulum, either alone or in combination.
The governor of a steam-engine is an apparatus the object
of which is to secure uniform rotation, and is usually simply
a double conical pendulum ; but we know that as the time of
rotation of a conical pendulum varies very considerably with
the distance the pendulum’s bobs are from the axis of rotation,
this arrangement alone cannot possibly secure the desired
_ effect, while it usually serves to govern the supply of steam
sufficiently to obtain enough uniformity of motion for the
practical purposes of a steam-engine. It is, however to the
case of the astronomical or physical chronograph, where
absolute uniformity is the most to be desired, and indeed a
necessity, that I shall have principally to refer ; and I shall
therefore limit my observations to this higher requirement.
Although the conical pendulum is sometimes used for
governing chronographic instruments, it does not, for the
reason stated above, afford good results; if however it were
possible to secure a constant driving force and resistance, and
therefore a constant arc, it would no doubt be perfect; but
we know it is impossible to attain these conditions. |
In my experiments J have found that a simple free conical —
pendulum, with a “bob” very heavy in proportion to its
length, gives results very near to uniformity if the train be
moderately good.
In order to secure a nearly uniform arc with the conical
pendulum many devices have been adopted, most of which
depend upon having an excess of driving power and the
variable excess used up by friction which is brought into
oo: ep , > a!
Notes on a Chronographic Apparatus. 75
play by the pendulum itself as its are increases beyond a
certain limit ; but as giving the pendulum any work of this
kind to do leaves it no longer free, it becomes simply a
“make shift,” and can only approach uniformity within
larger limits than should be nowadays admissible.
The most successful “governors” of this class hitherto
constructed appear to be those where the motion of the
mechanism is rendered approximately uniform by the fly, and
then. finally controlled by a reciprocating pendulum, as in
“ Bond’s Spring Governor,” or “Cook’s Governor,’ where a
driven train of wheels is governed by a fly, but pulled up
every half-second by a vibrating pendulum ; the pulling-up
being made as gradual as possible by means of a light spring
or weight inserted between the fly and the pendulum, allow-
ing the former to continue revolving with increasing resist-
ance until the latter allows its wheel to escape and so free
the fly. These are practically the best forms of chrono-
graphic governors in general use, but as there is a periodic
error of half a second inherent in them they are really im-
perfect.
There is a form of governor which almost secures uniform
rotation, namely the vibrating spring; and the more rapid
the vibrations are the more nearly perfect is the result.
Some chronographs have been made on this plan, and are
known as Hipps’ Chronographs. They consist of a driven
train and registering barrel, governed by a flat, straight steel
spring, whose end just touches the ends of the teeth of a wheel,
but which by a little rotatory force in the wheel can be pushed
or bent so as to allow the teeth to pass it one after another ;
the rate at which the wheel rotates being governed by the
natural time of vibration of the spring, which is constant at
the same temperature, and the rotation of the train is there-
fore uniform, except for the small periodic error of which the
time of the spring’s vibration is. the measure. In practice,
however, I believe the escape-wheel-sometimes slips or runs.
The noise, too, caused by the vibration of the spring is
almost intolerable, and one of the American observers at the
late transit of Venus told me he had to dig a big hole in the
ground, place the apparatus in it, and cover it over before he
--could bear the din.
Siemens proposed a “governor” where the control was
afforded by the varying friction of a fluid in a rotating para-
bolic cup, This, although theoretically excellent, does not
appear to have given satisfactory results in practice.
76 -Notes on a Chronographic Apparatus.
After this brief glance at the methods already adopted or
proposed for obtaining uniform rotation, I will now return to
the more special subjects of these notes.
At the subsequent meeting of our Section A the question
of uniform rotation was discussed, and Mr. Kernot suggested
Huyghens’ Parabolic Pendulum as a governor, and submitted
a plan for its construction. Now, Huyghens’ pendulum
was invented 200 years ago, and is theoretically a perfect
governor ; but with the exception of a rough imitation of
the principle in a steam-engine governor | could not find
that it had ever been used or even tried. I determined,
however, to adopt Mr. Kernot’s suggestion, and try this
governor. At first the results gave me no encouragement,
and I almost determined to give it up, more especially as I
imagined that there must be some almost insuperable prac-
tical difficulty in the way to account for so old and theoreti-
cally perfect a “ governor” never having been adopted. How-
ever, by a little perseverance and alteration of form of
pendulum, I arrived at better results, and eventually suc-
ceeded in getting a pendulum constructed which is almost
practically perfect, and the performance of which has with-
stood far more trying tests than it would be subjected to in
practice. Huyghens’ Parabolic Pendulum therefore has in
my hands given the closest approximation te uniform rota-
tion ever yet, I believe, obtained; and that with a mechanism
so simple and easily constructed as to put all the more
elaborate but less effective forms in the shade. :
While in England last year I read a paper to the Royal
Astronomical Society on “Some Experiments with Huyghens’
Parabolic Pendulum,’ but was not able to show one in
operation. I can now do so, and that is my excuse for
bringing it under your notice this evening. In the paper
referred to I gave the principle of construction I had adopted,
and the conditions I had found necessary to secure success.
It is nevertheless, I think, desirable to give a brief descrip-
tion of the pendulum in this place, more especially as I have
the whole apparatus in working order before you.
This chronograph apparatus is not very different from the
ordinary forms, and is styled a “ barrel chronograph,” because
the registration takes place on paper covering a barrel which,
by reason of the perfect governance of the pendulum,
revolves precisely once in a minute, while a syphon pen,
actuated by an electro magnet, makes a mark on the paper
every second, as the current from a galvanic battery is
Notes on a Chronographic Apparatas. 77
transmitted by a miniature key operated by the mechanism
of a clock or chronometer.
The syphon pen really marks a continuous line, which is
interrupted every second by a small “offset” or “tooth”
and constitues the “mark ;” and an “offset” is left out once
in every complete revolution of the barrel, every minute
in fact, at the same time the little carriage carrying the pen
and magnet is continually progressing in the direction of
the length of the barrel, at the rate of about one-tenth of
an inch per minute, converting the continuous line into a
spiral on the cylinder,
I described a chronograph to this Society about 13 or 14
years ago, and as the principle in this is much the same as
in the one then described, and very similar to other barrel
chronographs—such as Bond’s, Hipps’, &e.—it will not be
necessary to refer to any details except the pendulum,
which in this case is the only new or peculiar arrangement.
“Let A A (Fig. 1.) be a vertical axis of rotation, which
ean be driven by clockwork acting at the top or bottom of
the axis; from this axis a pendulum (P) is suspended in
such a way that when it hangs vertically the string (8) lies
wrapped over a curved surface, which forms part and parcel
of the vertical axis. This curve is the evolute of a para-
hola, whose distance from vertex to focus is half the length
of the required pendulum (when vertical). Now, let the
axis revolve, and the pendulum will fly out from its vertical
position, more or less, according to its weight and the driving
power ; the arc described by the pendulum, as it increases
its distance from the vertical, will be a parabola, by reason
of the string gradually unwrapping from the evolute (E).
Now, from the properties of the parabola, it follows that the
vertical distance between the centre of rotation of the pen--
dulum (P) and the intersection of the string (S) with the
axis of rotation of the pendulum will remain constant ; and
therefore that the length of the pendulum remains constant
at whatever arc it may rotate.
“To practically secure these conditions it is necessary,
first that the evolute shall be properly and precisely made ;
and secondly, that it shall be so adjusted that the axis of
the evolute and involute shall be coincident with the axis
of rotation.
_ “The pendulums I had constructed are half-seconds, that
is, rotating once in a second. They are suspended in a hard
gun-metal frame (Fig. 2), pivoted at the top and bottom, the
meth Notes on a Chronographic Apparatus.
lower pivot resting on an end jewel, the upper pivot sup-
ported by a strong cast-iron bracket, and it is driven by a con-
trate wheel in the clock train, engaging into a pinion in the
lower end of a frame. The frame is open (as shown in
Fig. 1) to allow of the middle part of the axis of rotation
being clear for the evolute and the pendulum string or rod.
The evolute is fixed at M, and is capable of adjustment at
right- -angles to the axis of rotation by a screw (Q), the proper
position “of the curve in the other direction being practically
secured by careful workmanship, more especially i in the con-
struction of the evolute itself.
“The pendulum consists of a spherical bob, weighing about
two and.a half pounds, on a steel rod about one-tenth of an
inch thick, and suspended by a long and exceedingly thin
steel spring secured to the top of the evolute at N.
“The regulation of the length of the pendulum is done in
the ordinary way with a nut at the bottom of the steel rod.
“The governor thus made with ordinary care and work-
manship is by far the best of any of which I have had ex-
perience, and has furnished results better, I believe, than
any others used with chronographs; at the same time it is
simple and inexpensive.’*
It is very necessary that the suspension-spring should
be of the thinnest steel possible, and I have found what is
known as French clock pendulum-spring to answer very
well. The adjustment of the evolute is a somewhat tedious
operation, but can be accomplished with great precision with
care. To get its proper position, if the time of rotation
increases with an increase of arc—in other words, if it
revolves slower for increase of arc—the axis of the evolute
is beyond the axis of rotation (reckoning from the pen-
-dulum side of the axis), and it is too near if it revolves
more rapidly for increase of arc. Of course for each alter-
ation of the position of the evolute a considerable alteration
of the length of the pendulum becomes necessary, and this
somewhat complicates the adjustment; but with a barrel
chronograph this is easily overcome by alternately increasing
and diminishing the arc of the pendulum by adding to and
subtracting from the driving weight.
* Extract from Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society ;
page 72, Vol, XXXVI.
ele ik
oy ae a eB =
eat har
Fig: Bo
Pinion fll]
|
Longitude of the Melbourne Observatory. 79
Art. VIII.—WNotes on the Longitude of the Melbourne
_ Observatory.
By E. J. Wuirts, Esa.
[Read before the Royal Society of Victoria, 25th September, 1876. ]
THE Melbourne Observatory having been selected by the
American and German parties charged with the observation
of the last transit of Venus in these parts of the world
as a principal station of reference for the determination of
the longitudes of their stations, it becomes a matter of some
importance to investigate the authority on which the lon-
gitude of the Melbourne Observatory itself depends.
The longitude of Melbourne Observatory wus originally
determined from that of Williamstown by means of trian-
gulation. The longitude of Williamstown Observatory was
found by means of moon culminations observed in the years
1860, 1861, and 1862; of these 142 were compared with
corresponding observations at Greenwich and the Cape of
Good Hope, from which 9h. 39m. 38°8s. was computed and
adopted as the longitude east of Greenwich ; the triangu-
lation showed that the Melbourne Observatory was 16:00s.
to the east of Williamstown, so that 9h. 39m. 548s. was
adopted for the former. In the year 1874 we were requested
by the German Commissioners entrusted with the manage-
ment of the transit of Venus expeditions to observe all the
moon culminations that were visible in Melbourne during
the months of October, November, and December, in 1874,
and January of the next year. This was done, and we
succeeded in observing 29 culminations of the first limb,
and 20 of the second limb. On finally reducing these
observations lately, it became a matter of interest to see
how this independent determination of our longitude would
agree with the one derived from Williamstown. Sir
George Airy, the Astronomer Royal, having recently obli-
gingly furnished us with the observations of the moon
taken during the.same period at Greenwich, it became
possible to easily determine this agreement without directly
computing the longitude. This was done in the following
manner :—The Greenwich list contains the Nautical Almanac
errors of the moon’s right ascension, as found from actual
observation at Greenwich; the errors of the Nautical Alma-
nac were also computed from the Melbourne observations,
using our adopted longitude ; if, now, the Melbourne errors
for the same dates come out the same as the Greenwich
80. Longitude of the Melbourne Observatory.
errors, it may be. inferred that our adopted longitude is
correct, or any difference that may be found could be con-
verted into a correction of our adopted longitude. On com-
paring the Greenwich and Melbourne lists it was found
that. on fifteen days the moon had been observed at. both
places, and on interpolating the Greenwich errors, to make
them correspond to the time of the Melbourne errors, and
taking their mean, it was found that the mean error of the
Nautical Almanac was + 0°58s. from the Greenwich observa-
tions,and + 0°57s.from the Melbourne ones. These results are
SO nearly identical as to show that our adopted longitude is
quite as accurate as can be possibly obtained from the method
of moon culminations. A distinguished American mathe-
matician, Professor Peirce, of Harvard University, from
theoretical considerations, estimated one second of time as
the utmost limit of accuracy to be obtained by this method.
Professor Hall, however, of the Washington Observatory, has
recently discussed the longitude of his Observatory, as deter-
mined by means of the Atlantic cable, transportation of
chronometers, and moon observations ; and assuming the
telegaphic result to be the correct one, ‘he finds a difference
of rather more than two seconds to exist between the moon
and electric determination, while the chronometric and
electric results are nearly identical. Now,if we convert the
above difference between the errors of the moon’s place, as
found at Greenwich and Melbourne into a correction of the
latter’s longitude, it will amount to only three-tenths of a
second ; combining this with a weight proportional to the
number of observations from which it is derived, it would
indicate an increase to our adopted longitude of only three-
hundredths of a second of time. Having thus reached the
limit of accuracy of which the method of moon culminations
is capable, any other determination of our longitude would
have to be made either by transmission of large numbers of
chronometers—a very expensive and troublesome process—or
by means of the electric telegraph. In conclusion, I will
state that I consider the longitude of Melbourne to be as
well determined as that of any other place in the Southern
hemisphere, and better than that of any other place in Aus-
tralasia. The only other places in Australia where long-con- _
tinued observations of moon culminations have been made
for finding the longitude are Parramatta and Sydney ; at
both of these places, however, very inferior instruments were
used, for the latter place, however, a fine transit circle, of
>
Notes on Iron Arches. 81
greater power than the Melbourne one, has been lately con-
structed, and is now daily expected to arrive from England ;
and as the difference of longitude between Melbourne and
Sydney has been accurately measured by means of the
telegraph, it will be easy to compare its longitude results
with our own. At the Adelaide Observatory no special
observations for longitude have as yet been taken. There,
also, the Government is just about to order a transit circle,
the telescope of which will be somewhat larger than our own;
and as the difference of longitude has also been telegraphic-
ally determined, its results will be immediately comparable
with ourown. The acquisition of two such fine instruments
by the neighbouring Observatories is a matter for congratu-
lation, and will enable them in future to take their share of
the immense work to be done in the Southern hemisphere,
an undue proportion of which has lately fallen to Melbourne.
Art. 1X.—WNotes on Iron Arches.
Bx W. C. Kernot, M.A., C.E.
[Read 25th September, 1875. |
THE application of iron, and especially of wrought iron, to
bridge-building is deservedly ranked as one of the most
notable of those innovations in civil engineering practice
that have been made in modern times. It has enabled us
to cross chasms of enormous width and depth, and to erect
safe and commodious structures in situations and under
circumstances which would in many cases totally preclude
. the employment of the materials known to the bridge-
builders of an earlier date. So long as stone and brick were
the only available materials, the engineer was confined in
his choice to small spans, and to sites where a thoroughly
sound foundation was easily attainable. The largest stone
arch ever constructed, as far as I can ascertain, is consider-
_ ably less than 250 feet span, while iron structures on the
arch or girder principle of double, and on the suspension
principle of three times, this span are by no means un-
common, and we are yet far from approaching the limit of
the maximum possible span in this material. Moreover,
iron bridges can be employed with perfectly satisfactory
82 Notes on Iron Arches.
results in sites where,’ from lack of headway, defective
foundation, or other local peculiarity, a stone or brick
structure would be quite out of the question; and the
selection of lines of communication is thus greatly facilitated,
and their length and cost consequently diminished.
The most tisual form in which iron is employed for bridge
purposes is the beam or girder, consisting of two parallel
flanges united by a vertical web, consisting either of a contin-
uous plate or of a series of diagonal bars. The average cross-
section of such a girder is shown in Fig. 1. In a girder
supported at each end the upper flange is in compression,
like a pillar; the lower flange is in tension, like a chain—
indeed, in some girders the lower flange actually consists of
a chain; while the web is in a somewhat complex state of
stress, bemg compressed in an oblique direction, and extended
in another oblique direction at right-angles to the first. In
girders with parallel flanges, subject to distributed loads of
the usual kind, the compression and tension of the flanges
attain maximum values at the centre of the span, and
diminish toward the ends, while the web stresses are but
small at mid-span, and increase towards the supports. Hence
the cross-sections of a theoretically perfect girder, at the
centre and the end, would be of the forms represented by
Figs. 2 and 3 respectively. |
Occasionally girders are made of varying depth, as shown
in Fig. 4, the bottom flange being retained straight, while
the top one is curved; and if this curve be properly designed
in view of the special distribution of load anticipated, the
following results will be secured :—
1. The tension on the lower flange will be uniform
throughout.
2. The compression on the upper flange will be nearly
uniform throughout, increasing slightly towards the ends.
3. The stresses on the web will vanish, and the web may
consequently be dispensed with.
We have now left but two flanges, one curved and the
other straight, like a bow and its string, and these two
flanges will together contain rather less metal than an
ordinary parallel girder of equal depth and strength.
In the girder as thus modified, the compression of the
upper or curved flange at the end of the girder may be
resolved into two forces—one vertical, which is balanced by
the upward reaction of the support, and one horizontal,
which is antagonised by the tension of the lower flange.
Notes on Iron Arches. 83
Let us now suppose the lower flange to be removed, thus
reducing the amount of material employed, in the case of
wrought iron, by nearly one-half, and we shall find the
upper or curved flange alone to be fully competent to endure
the load, provided that the supports or abutments be so
constructed as to resist the horizontal as well as the vertical
resolved parts of the compression at the ends of the remain-
ing flange.
We have now gradually transformed our structure from
an ordinary parallel girder with two flanges and a web into an
iron arch, and in so doing we have reduced the amount of
material theoretically requisite by almost exactly one-half.
From this it follows that as far as material is concerned an
arch is a far more economical means of supporting an unva-
rying load than a girder whenever a good abutment is
available capable of resisting a horizontal thrust as well as
a vertical pressure.
In working this form of bridge out in practice we are,
however, met by certain difficulties, in order to overcome
which we are obliged to relinquish a part of the economic
advantage which theory indicates. ~
1. The arch will be exposed to variations of temperature,
which may amount to as much as 100° Fahrenheit in a
Victorian climate, and which will cause considerable varia-
tions of dimension through alternate expansion and contrac-
tion of the metal. These changes of dimension, though
perfectly harmless in the case of girders free to elongate
horizontally, may lead to very serious if not dangerous
results in the case of arches placed between immovable
abutments; and it is imperatively necessary to take such
precautions as shall prevent injury to the structure under
extreme variations of temperature.
The most thorough method of meeting this requirement
“is to divide the arch rib into two parts “at the crown, and
connect these two parts together, and the ends of the arch
-to the abutment by joints possessing the character and
performing the functions of hinges (see Fig. 5). The arch as
thus modified will rise slightly when the temperature
increases, and fall slightly when the temperature diminishes,
and the change of temperature will be powerless to produce
any sensible variation in the stress to which the material is
subject.
Sometimes the arch rib is made with hinges at the ends
only, and the elasticity or spring of the iron itself is
M:
‘
84 } Notes on Tron Arches.
depended upon in lieu of the central hinge, and by properly
proportioning the transverse dimensions of the rib it is
possible to ensure that within a given range of temperature
the metal shall not be strained to any dangerous extent.
An arch of this second kind will be manifestly less econo-
mical in material than one of the first, seeing that it is
required to endure considerable stresses- due to variations of
temperature over and above those due to the load supported.
Nevertheless there are certain practical considerations—such
as simplicity of construction, facility of erection, &¢—which
may be reasonably held in some cases to justify its use in
preference to the more theoretically perfect form previously
described.
2. A second difficulty arises when in addition.to the unvary-
ing or dead load, consisting of the weight of the structure itself,
we desire the arch to support a varying, or as itis often termed
a live, load, such as the weight of a crowd of people, a mob of
cattle, or a railway train in motion. So long as the load is
a perfectly unvarying one, no matter how irregularly it may
be distributed, it is possible to adopt a form of arch which will
be perfectly suited to the load to be carried, but with a varying
load, occuping the same position and affecting the structure
in the same way for no two successive instants, such adapta-
tion is manifestly impossible. Hence the rib will be sub-
jected to a cross-bending action, and be required to act
to a considerable extent as a beam as well as to perform its
proper functions as an arch; and this cross-bending action
will be severe in small structures in which the live load is
equal to or greater than the unvarying or dead load, but will
become unimportant in gigantic works in which the live load
becomes but an insignificant fraction of the total weight
carried. Thus it will be seen that while in large structures
we may reasonably expect to realise nearly the whole of the
theoretical economic advantage of the arch over the girder,
in small ones the additional metal necessary in order to
provide for the extra stresses due to the varying distribution
of the moving or live load will greatly diminish, if not
altogether annul, the superior economy of the arch as com-
pared with its competitor,
I may here parenthetically remark that there is one class
of structures in which we might at first expect to realise the
full theoretic gain even in the smallest examples. I refer to
bridges for the sole purpose of carrying water-pipes,or channels
for water supply or canal purposes. Further reflection will,
:
|
Se ee ee a ee
Notes on Iron Arches. 85
however, show that this is not the case, for if arches be
employed’ it will be necessary to have a distinct trough or
tube, separate from but supported by the ribs, whereas if the
girder principle be adopted the girders themselves may be
made to assume the form of a trough or tube, thus dispensing
with any separate structure to contain the water ; and in this
way the balance will be turned against the arch in the
question of economy of material.
Let us now endeavour briefly to analyse the stresses
endured by the material of an arched rib under varying con-
ditions of temperature, load, &c.
We will first assume that the arch as originally designed
“is of a form adapted to the dead or unvarying load to be
_ borne, which form in the usual case of a uniformly distri-
buted load is a parabola having its axis vertical; and it may
further be remarked that a circular curve will usually be
found not to deviate in any important degree from the
parabola, and is, from a practical point of view, decidedly pre-
ferable. Let: us also assume that the rib is hinged at the crown
_as well as the springing. Let W represent the total weight
of the structure, which may usually be taken as uniformly
distributed over the whole length of the rib, 6 the span and
h the rise of the arch; then the compression of the rib will be
ae t the crown, and at every other point eee & when 6
is the angle made by a tangent to the rib at the point in
question with a horizontal line, and this compression will be
uniformly distributed over the whole cross-section of the
rib in every case. In other words, there will be no approach
to a cross-bending action on any part of the rib, even though
the temperature should vary or the abutments yield slightly
to the thrust of the arch. If an additional load of W,
uniformly distributed, be placed upon the bridge, these
compressions will become sh
respectively, and the perfect freedom from cross-bending
before mentioned will still be maintained. If, however, the ©
live load, instead of being uniformly distributed over the
_ whole span, cover a part of it only, a cross-bending action
will come into play, which will attain its maximum when
half the bridge is loaded, and which will be unimportant or
severe according as the live load is small or large compared
with the weight of the structure. The tendency of this
cross-bending action will be to increase the radius of curva-
M 2
(W+W’) ee (W+W’) Z sec. 6
8h
s
SE aT aS rh ptt”
”
86 3 Notes on Iron Arches.
ture in the loaded side of the arch, as in Fig. 6, and reduce
it in the unloaded; and the compression endured by the
material of the rib will no longer be uniformly distributed,
but will be greatly increased on the upper side of the
loaded and the under side of the unloaded half of the rib.
Hence, bearing in mind that either half of the arch may be
the loaded portion, it is evident—1st. That the amount of
metal in the rib must be increased. 2nd. That the best
section for the rib is like a girder section consisting of two
massive flanges united by a comparatively slight web. 3rd.
That the rib should be made as deep as practical considera-
tions will allow. The formule to be employed in comput-
ing the actual stresses in this case are too complex to be
introduced here; they do not, of course, contain any terms
representing change of temperature.
Let us now consider the behaviour of a rib hinged at the
springing but continuous at the crown. When a load is
imposed the metal will be compressed longitudinally, the —
rib will shorten, its crown will sink, and its radius of curva-
tion increase (see dotted lines in Fig. 7), and any yielding of
the abutments will tend to augment this result. The
alteration in the radius of curvature implies a cross-bending
action tending to increase the compression on the upper part
of the rib, and to diminish it on the lower part, and this
action will be present no matter how accurately the original
form of the arch may have been adapted to the load to be
carried. Let us now suppose the temperature to diminish.
The crown of the arch will fall still further, the cross-bend-
ing action will be intensified, and the increasing inequality
in the distribution of stress will produce a corresponding
diminution in the available strength of the structure ; the
colder it becomes the more liable the bridge is to give way,
and when fracture does ensue it will commence by the
crushing of the upper part of the rib. We will next assume
the temperature to increase. The crown of the arch will
rise, its radius of curvation will be reduced, and the cross-
bending action and consequent inequality of stress will
diminish and ultimately vanish, and the arch will be
stronger—z.e., it will be able safely to bear a greater load
than before; and under these conditions the formule quoted
in the preceding case will apply to this also. A further
increase of temperature will cause a further rise of the
crown, and a further reduction of the radius of curvation,
involving a cross-bending action in an opposite direction
:
;
;
4
Notes on Iron Arches. 87
to that originally present, and a consequent inequality
of stress and diminution in the power of the struc-
ture to endure a load. Thus the. bridge will be best
able to bear its load at a certain calculable temperature
somewhat higher than that at which it was first put
together, and “its strength will fall off as this temperature
is departed from in either direction. Hence we draw the
inference that it is desirable to complete the erection of
such an arch at a comparatively low temperature, in order
that it may attain its maximum strength at or near the
mean temperature to which it will be exposed. The
engineer of the great St. Louis Bridge over the Mississippi
enveloped the arch ribs in a kind of gigantic poultice of
ice, in order to effect the final junction at a temperature
sufficiently low.
The effect of a live load extending over a portion of the
span will be the same as in the preceding case, the maximum
effect being produced when the bridge is half-loaded and
half-unloaded ; the extra stresses due to the partial distri-
bution of the live load being, of course, cumulative upon
those due to temperature.* The most appropriate section
for the rib will, as before, be a girder section; but we
cannot say, as in the preceding case, that the deeper the
rib the better, for great depth in the rib, while it will reduce
the extra stresses due to partial loading, will increase those
due to temperature, and a compromise will have to be made
avoiding each extreme.
Having thus briefly detailed the considerations to be
borne in mind when designing an iron arch, I will conclude
by supplying a few particulars relative to a structure of
the kind referred to, erected some time since by my friend
Mr. T. E. Rawlinson, C.E., and which is, as far as I am aware,
the only wrought-iron arched bridge in this colony.
This bridge is situated at Heidelberg on the River Yarra,
and consists of a central opening originally occupied by a
laminated wooden arch of 100 feet clear span and 17 feet
rise and two lateral openings of smaller size. About three
years ago the laminated arches gave way through decay
of the timber; and Mr. Rawlinson, to whom the work of
reconstruction had been entrusted, requested me to deter-
mine by computation the stresses on the proposed structure.
* This is not mathematically correct, but is practically so for arches of
the proportions commonly adopted by engineers,
88 Notes on Iron Arches.
It was in this way that my attention was first directed to
this subject, and it is in compliance with a request made by
him that I bring the subject before you to-night.
Figs. 8 and 9 respectively show a half-elevation and half- —
cross-section of the bridge to a scale of eight feet to one inch.
The span, as before stated, is 100 feet in the clear, and the
rise of the soffit of the arch twelve feet. The section of
each flange of each of the two arched ribs is about twenty-
four square inches at the crown, and increases slightly to
the springing ; and the web varies from 4 inch thick at the
crown to 4 inch at the springing. The arches are con-
tinuous at the crown, but are probably capable of a very
slight hinge action at the springing, Assuming them to be
hinged at the springing, the following results have been
obtained by calculation:—
1. Maximum compression of the metal, bridge half-loaded
with load of 84 lbs. per square foot, at a temperature 40°
below that at which it was erected —7180 lbs. per square inch.
2. When the load extends over the whole span the cross-
bending stress vanishes at a temperature of about 16° Fahren-
heit above that at which it was erected.
3. With a load extending half-way across, as in Fig. 6,
the minimum stress occurs at a temperature 13° Fahrenheit
above that at which the bridge was erected.
4. Ordinary plate girders to carry the same load would
have contained from 30 to 40 per cent. more material than
the iron arches.
The spandrils and roadway are constructed of timber
as shown, and possess no doubt some stiffmess and power
of resisting the effect of irregular loads. In the previous
calculations, however, no account was taken.of this fact, it
being considered unwise to rely upon two such different
materials as wood and iron acting to any considerable degree
in concert. The arch was therefore made strong enough to
endure all irregular stresses without assistance from the
spandrils.
In Fig. 10 a detailed section of one arched rib is given, and
a portion of the lateral bracing connecting the two ribs
together at intervals is shown.
Lalf
Fig. &.
Llevattor.
Lig. Ww)
Half Cross Section.
On Some Observations of Atmospheric Electricity. 89
Art. X.—WNotes on Some Observations of Atmospheric
~ Electricity.
By R. L. J. Every, Esq.
[Read before the Royal Society of Victoria, 16th November, 1876. |
SOME years ago I described to you an apparatus which I had
arranged for obtaining a continuous record of the electrical
condition of the atmosphere at the Melbourne Observatory,
which was a modification of the exquisite electrometers
devised by Sir Wiliam Thompson. This apparatus was in
operation for several years with most satisfactory results,
and a valuable series of records were obtained. It was
found, however, almost impossible to maintain the instru-
ment in perfect working condition in some states of the
atmosphere, through the subtle nature of the force dealt
with and the difficulty of maintaining the requisite insula-
tion of all parts of the apparatus. In consequence of this,
the working of the instrument had to be frequently inter-
rupted for improvements in the methods of insulation and
of collecting the electricity from the air; and, I regret to say,
eventually stopped altogether until a more efficient plan
for insulation could be obtained.
It is, however, with respect to the results of some obser-
vations with this instrument that I now wish to say a few
words; but I will at first briefly refer to the generally
accepted theory of the distribution of electricity over the
earth's surface.
As a rule, the potential of the earth’s surface is negative
relative to that of the air above it. Exceptions to this,
however, sometimes occur. Generally speaking, [have found
in quiet and fine weather that if the air has a certain
electric potential, say six feet from the ground, a contour of
an equi-potential line traced over the ground, buildings,
trees, &c., will be approximately six feet from the surface of
such portions of the earth’s surface; the line will, however,
usually approach the summit of a building, hill, or tree, to
something less than six feet ; and as the potentials of higher
_ strata are contoured this difference decreases, so that at a
few hundred feet the equi-potential lines will probably be
found to be parallel to the earth’s surface. This is only the
case in very serene weather, for in wind, rain, fog, or dust,
the case is very different, and nothing more variable than
the electric condition of the air can well be conceived, and
60 On Some Observations of Atmospheric Electricity.
widely different potentials of the air the same height from —
the ground in two different places but little removed from
one another will be constantly found ; and even in the most
serene days, when no clouds are seen, no disturbance appa-
rent, sudden and inexplicable variations sometimes occur.
The passing of clouds constantly alters the electric condi-
tion of the air on the earth’s surface; and indeed all the
induction and other phenomena which one can exhibit at .
the lecture table with an electric machine are in almost
incessant operation in the earth’s atmospheric envelope. In
observing the electric condition of the air we adopt Sir
William Thompson’s method, and select a certain stratum of
air, say six or eight feet from the ground and four to six
feet from the walls of any building or other object projecting
above the surface of the ground, and the collecting point is
always maintained in this position ; the measurement given
by the apparatus being the difference of potential between
the surface of the earth and the air at the selected point.
If the air is at the same potential as the earth the instru-
ment will indicate zero, if it be at a higher potential it will
indicate above zero, and below if at a lower; the latter
state of things may be considered as abnormal. The unit
of measurement adopted is the difference of potential
between the two poles of a galvanic battery cell, so that
the statement that the electric potential of the air at six
feet above the ground was equal to 300 Daniell’s elements
means that the difference of potentials between the air and
the surface of the ground was equivalent to that between
the two poles of a Daniell’s battery composed of 300 cells.
The photographic curves obtained with our electrometer
have not yet been tabulated, but some facts have already
been deduced, of which the following perhaps are the most
interesting :—
In calm and serene weather a regular diurnal maximum
and minimum are very marked, the highest part of the
curve taking place about 7 a.m. and the lowest about 2 p.m.
A second maximum about 9.30 p.m., and a second minimum
about 1 a.m., are also indicated.
Hot winds are always accompanied by strong negative
tension, and more especially so if dust is present in the air,
when sparks can often be got from the collector. The usual
turning of the wind from north to south-west is always
accompanied for a short period by a high positive tension.
In squally weather, rapid and large variations from low nega-
On Some Observations of Atmospheric Electricity. 91
tive to high positive generally occur ; and during continuous
rain strong negative tension is frequently present, which
gradually gives place to an increasing positive one some little
time before the rain ceases. In very heavy rains, however,
the air seems to be reduced to zero, or the same potential as
the earth’s surface. : 3
It has also been noticed that, if after continuous rain it
clears up, the setting-in of rain again is usually preceded by
a gradually increasing negative tension. Fogs are always
accompanied by a high positive condition.
In the course of some experiments on a very fine day, for
the purpose of ascertaining the best position for placing the
collector of our electrometer, the following notable results
-were obtained :—The electric condition of the air being
normal (positive potential), when an insulated conductor
connected with the electrometer was rapidly raised from
the surface of the ground to the height of about 20 feet,
a large and rapid increase of positive electricity was shown ;
and when the conductor was as rapidly lowered, a corre-
_ sponding diminution was observed. If the conductor was
moved rapidly from south to north, keeping it at as nearly
the same height from the ground as possible, a strong
positive indication was noted, while moving it from north to
south the reverse took place. Moving it from east to west
gave strong positive, while moving it from west to east gave
a strong negative indication.
In repeating these experiments a few days ago in a hot .
wind, when the air had a strong negative potential, the
following results were obtained:— .
Raising the conductor gave a strong negative indication,
and lowering it a strong positive.
Moving the conductor from south to north gave a strong
negative, and from north to south a strong positive indica-
tion. Moving the conductor from east to west gave also a
strong negative, while moving from west to east gave a
strong positive indication.
These results are exactly opposite to those obtained in the
first experiments, and can no doubt be accounted for by the
negative potential of the air which prevailed at the time.
_ It must be remarked that in these experiments the indica-
tions of the electrometer took place during the motion of
‘ the conductor, and that immediately the conductor was at
rest in its new position the reading of the electrometer
became normal for the position the conductor was then in,
92 On Some Observations of Atmospheric Electricity.
To give an idea of the extent of these indications, I may
state that with an electrometer where one Daniell’s cell
will deflect five divisions, the following average readings
were obtained :—
Seale reading.
Zero 125. Raising the Conductor 18 feet
Lowering a Ap ieee see OO
Moving N. toS. ,, tae. wea? EO
yk ieeto INT 3, Soa hk Ve
sia 1 sige SOOWND bv apheeee ee)
See to Bees ad hs 3 Oo
I obtained some very interesting results some years ago
from observations made on the summit of Mount Macedon
while a terrific thunderstorm was passing over Melbourne
and the surrounding level country.
Over the mountain it was quite clear, fine, and calm,
while the plains below were hidden from view by a dense
stratum of low-lying cloud, in and through which incessant
lightning could be seen, while occasionally the low and
distant roll of thunder could be faintly heard.
The electrometer was placed in a tent at the bottom of
the tower used for trigonometrical observation, and was con-
nected with the collector (burning fungus) on the tower 50
feet high. The potential of the air was slightly positive
and quiet; but simultaneous with every flash of lightning
the electrometer became violently but momentarily depressed
with negative electricity, and instantly returning to its
_ normal positive indication, suggesting the occurrence of a
sudden electric vacuum with each flash of lightning.
These then are some of the most prominent facts deduced
from our observations of atmospheric electricity up to the
present time. They are interesting so far as they go, but
are scarcely sufficient in the present state of our knowledge
of the subject for tracing the relations which exist between
the electric condition of the earth’s surface and other atmo-
spheric phenomena, although we may. hope as our observa-
tions are extended (for I propose to resume them) this will
be eventually accomplished. Not the least interesting or
valuable point for investigation in this subject is the effect
the various electric conditions of the air have on the human
or animal economy, both in health and disease ; for I am
convinced from what I have already observed that it plays a
most important part in this direction, and I intend at some ©
future time to make a communication to the Society on this
branch of the subject. |
a
Amorphous Phosphorus. 93
Art. XI.—Amorphous Phosphorus.
By PROFESSOR ANDREW.
_ [Read before the Royal Society of Victoria, 16th November, 1876. ]
In 1873 I noticed on the surface of a quantity of choco-
late-coloured, amorphous phosphorus, a quantity of clear,
syrupy liquid, having a strong acid reaction. It appeared
to contain phosphorous acid, but there are probably other
oxygen compounds of phosphorus present. The liquid was
poured off, and the residue washed and put away until the
beginning of this year, when I found that as much more of
a similar liquid had collected in the bottle (specimen pro-
duced). Mr. Ford tells me that he has noticed the same
thing, and that Professor Smith, of Sydney, had also observed
it, and was in the habit of giving it for analysis to students
as a substance containing phosphorous acid. It is possible
that the formation of the fluid may be due to the residue of
ordinary phosphorus which the bisulphide of carbon used
in its preparation has failed to remove, or to instability of
the amorphous phosphorus causing a gradual return to its
original state under certain conditions. This can only be
ascertained by repeated experiments. I would invite the
attention of members to the subject, which is of considerable
practical importance now thatthe substance is so much used
by itself in the manufacture of safety matches. (The sample
was left for the use of any members who wished to examine
it.) TE
94 Telegraphic Determination of the Difference of
Art, XII.—Account of the Telegraphic Determination of
the Difference of Longitude between Melbourne and
Hobart Town in the Year 1875.
By E. J. WHITE, Esq.
[Read before the Royal Society of Victora, 14th December, 1876. ]
THE late transit of Venus having been successfully observed
at Hobart Town by the American party under the command
of Professor Harkness, it became a matter of necessity to
obtain the longitude of the observing station. Instead of
an absolute determination with reference to the meridian of
Greenwich, which would have required months, or even
years, for its successful execution, Professor Harkness re-
solved to obtain it differentially from Melbourne, the two
places being connected by means of the land lines and
submarine cable of the electric telegraph ; and for the pur-
pose of arranging a scheme for carrying out this intention he
visited Melbourne towards the latter end of November, 1874,
Having settled upon a plan of operation with Mr. Ellery,
and having obtained the consent and promise of hearty
co-operation of Mr. Warren, the managing engineer of the
Tasmanian Cable Company, and Messrs. James and Payter,
the Melbourne managers of the electric telegraph, he re-
turned to Tasmania, and immediately after he had observed
the transit of Venus a few unsuccessful attempts were made
to send the signals direct, with automatic repeaters, between
Melbourne and Hobart Town. Soon after this, Professor
Harkness had to accompany the “Swatara” during her
cruise in the South Pacific, to collect the different parties
of American observers in that part of the world, and further
attempts were deferred till his return. Advantage was
_taken of the interval to improve the repeating apparatus,
and on his return at the end of January the signals were
transmitted without any difficulty.
At Hobart Town the observations were taken by Pro-
fessor Harkness, who employed a portable transit instrument
of 24 inches clear aperture and 30 inches focal length, with
a magnifying power of 60 diameters. The transit was
reversed each night near the middle of the observations.
Three clock stars and two azimuth stars were observed in
each position of the axis, and from the complete set of ten
eee ee ee er ee a, ee
= I i eet ae i ie eek
Longitude between Melbourne and Hobart Town. 95
stars equations of condition were formed, the solution of
which by the method of least squares gave the most probable
values of the collimation, azimuth, and clock errors, the level
error having been previously found by means of the striding
level. The positions of the azimuth stars are taken from
the Melbourne General Catalogue for 1870, and those of the
clock stars from a specially prepared list. The places of these
latter stars differ slightly from their places as given in the
English Nautical Almanac ; the resulting clock errors are,
however, generally within one-hundredth of a second of
what the latter places would produce.
At Melbourne I observed with the transit circle, which has
an aperture of 5 inches and a focal length of 6 feet; the
eye piece used has a magnifying power of 167 diameters.
This instrument does not admit of reversal, but the collima-
tion error is found according to Bessel’s method, with two
collimators. The level error is obtained by means of reflec-
tion from a surface of quicksilver, and the azimuth error is
found from the transits of circumpolar stars in the ordinary
way, one star being generally observed above the pole and
another below. |
At both places self-recording chronographs were employed;
that of Professor Harkness was a barrel one, regulated by a
_ vibrating spring. The timepiece which marked the seconds
on the chronograph sheets, and which transmitted the
signals through the telegraph lines to Melbourne, was a box
chronometer, No. 1520, by T.8. & J. D. Negus, of New York,
the going of which quite justifies the fame enjoyed by those
celebrated makers. The Melbourne clock was the famous
Frodsham, No 991, which continues to perform as well as
it did some years ago, when its going was declared to be the
most remarkable for accuracy on record. It is attached to a
_ chronograph by Siemens and Halske, of Berlin, which regis-
ters on a fillet of paper, the motion of which is governed
by means of a Froude’s fly.
The usual practice was to commence observing a set of
stars soon after sunset; and as soon as the telegraph lines
were clear from their ordinary work, the Hobart Town
clock was made to transmit its time to the Melbourne
chronograph, on which the Frodsham clock marked its
seconds at the same time. After this the Frodsham clock
sent its time to the Hobart Town chronograph, where it
was registered simultaneously with the Negus chronometer.
Now, taking the results as recorded on the Melbourne
96 } Telegraphic Determination of the Difference of
chronograph, and correcting them for the clock errors as
determined from the star observations, the difference
between the times will represent the difference of longi-
tude minus the time of transmission, plus the difference
of personal equation of the observers. On the other hand,
the Hobart Town results will exibit the difference of longi-
tude, plus the time of transmission, plus the difference of
personal equation. On taking, then, half the sum of the two
quantities, we shall get the difference of longitude freed
from the transmission time, but still affected with personal
equation. And half the difference of the quantities will
give the time of transmission. The effect of personal equa-
tion could be eliminated by the observers exchanging their
stations; but as that would have been attended with great
inconvenience, the difference of personal equation was
directly obtained on several occasions during Professor
Harkness’s visit to Melbourne. The method adopted for
this purpose was for both observers to determine the error
of the Melbourne transit clock on the same evening, select-
ing the stars in such a way that the mean epoch of each
observer would be so nearly alike as to give the personal
equation free from the influence of the rate of the clock.
The following is an abstract of the results :-—
COMPUTATION OF THE PERSONAL EQUATION.
z | Mean of |
Date, w | ; Adopted | H-W |
Oper aie > 3 es Opgeryed Correction Reducedto) Pr
Mean Time, 2 | 3 rm Corrections, | £0F Clock | the same| ‘5 oduct.
1874 & 1875. | & = | Transits, Rate. | Epoch. | =
d. h. m. b. m. per diem.
Nov. 179 6! H | 5 0 51 _ 30: 921 8. S.
-— 0°26 | +:°125 | 55 | 6°875
ovata |p 110 31:049
Feb, 23 8 15| H | 7 6 27 32°113
+036 | +:°171 | 77 | 13°167
8 34; W | 7 6 46 32°280
26 8 43) H | 6 rae | 31:078 .
+ 0:30 | +171 | 66 | 11:286
8 35| W! 6 6 59 31°251
278 20); H| 6 6 47 30°718
+ 0:29 | + '242 | 60 | 14°520
8 25| W| 5 6 52 30°959
258 ) 45-848
Adopted Personal Equation H-W + 178
Longitude between Melbourne und Hobart Town. 97
COMPUTATION OF THE DIFFERENCE OF LONGITUDE, |
Difference of Longitude.
Date, =f aa Double Number 5
1875, | Hobart Town | Melbourne | qvanemission, [Observed |
Les Ta 2 Le Pe eee
mM. Ss. mM. Ss. 8,
Jan. 30 | 9 25996 | 9 25-762 0-234 7 | 8 | 392
Feb. 1 26-084 25-900 184 ims MARRES
2 25-720 25-551 169 0 | 8 0
4 26-193 26-000 193 6 | @. baie
5 25°935 25-609 326 7 | 0 0
6 25774 25°423 351 Gui 09) arms
7 25'820 25-577 +243 6 | 58: AeSeD
The weights are proportional to the quantity found by
multiplying the number of stars observed by one observer
by the number observed by the other, and dividing the pro-
duct by theirsum. On February 2nd no stars were observed
at Hobart Town, and on February 5th no stars could be
observed at Melbourne, so the difference of longitude marked
in the columns has been found by carrying on the rates of
the chronometer and clock respectively ; as the combination
weights, however, are nothing, they will not influence the
final results. The transmission times, however, are indepen-
dent of the rate of the clock, except for the few minutes
intervening between the receipt of the set of signals; these
nights, therefore, have equal weights for this purpose with
the others. Carrying out the combination we get 9m.
25°841s., from this is to be subtracted 0°178s. for personal
equation; we then get for the final difference of longitude
9m. 25°66s. + ‘O6s.,and for the mean time of transmission we
get 0'121s. Taking the length of the land lines and cable at
420 miles, this would represent a speed of only 3360 miles per
second ; the actual speed, however, must have been con-
siderably greater than this, for the above quantity, 0:121s.,
includes also the armature time of the relays and repeating
apparatus. From some measures made of the speed of the
current on the land lines during the determination of the
difference of longitude between Melbourne and Sydney in
98 Difference of Longitude, &e.
1868 we found the velocity on the land line oy be 15,400
miles per second.
Professor Harkness's temporary Observatory in Hobart
Town was situated in the Barrack-square in latitude 42°
53’ 246” south, and by applying the above difference to
9h. 39m. 54°8s., the longitude of Melbourne, we get 9h. 49m.
20'46s. for the longitude of his station, which is marked by a
pier, which the Tasmanian authorities have promised to
preserve. Mr. Ellery has written to the Surveyor-General
at Hobart Town for the situation of this pier, with reference
to Fort Mulgrave, from which the longitude of the city has
been hitherto reckoned; but as no reply has been as yet
received, I cannot say how this new determination of longi-
tude will agree with the old one. As a final result we have
then—
Pier wn Barrack-square.
Latitude 42° 53’ 24-6” South.
Longitude 147 20 69 East of Greenwich.
-Notse.—Since the above was written a letter has been
received from Prof. Harkness, giving the results of his
triangulation in Hobart Town, according to which, adopting
the above position of the Pier in Barrack-square, the posi-
tions of the following places will be as under:—
Lat. Long.
Flagstaff at Prince of Wales ei. (Fort
Mulgrave) ... 42° 53! 22:3” 147° 20! 36:3”
Flagstaff at Queen’s Battery ... 42 52 44:0 147 20 38:8
Centre of front of St. David's Cathedral .. 42 53 69 147 20 102
1876.
PROCEEDINGS.
See
ROYAL SOCIETY OF VICTORIA.
ANNUAL MEETING.
Held in the Inbrary of the Society, Monday, March 13th, 1876.
George Foord, F.C.S., Vice-President, in the chair.
The election of office-bearers for 1876 took place, with the
following results :—
President: R. L. J. Ellery, F.R.S., &e.
Vice-Presidents: G. Foord and E. J. White.
Hon. Treasurer: Percy de J. Grut.
Hon. Secretary : F. J. Pirani.
Hon, Librarian: Dr. James E. Neild.
Members of Council: J. Bosisto, W. C. Kernot, T. E.
Rawlinson, H. K. Rusden, G. H. F. Ulrich, Professors
H. M. Andrew and E. J. Nanson.
Annual Report and Balance-sheet for 1876 were read and
adopted, as follows :—
Report of the Council of the Royal Society for the year 1876.
“Your Council has the honour to report that the papers and
notes read, instruments exhibited, &c., since last Annual Meeting
are as follow :— ‘
“On the 11th of May Mr. Gardiner gave an abstract of a paper
by him on ‘Geodetic Surveying,’ and Mr. Ellery exhibited a
‘ Radiometer.’
“Qn the 8th of June Mr. Rawlinson read a continuation of his
paper ‘On the Improvement of the Harbour of Melbourne ;’ and
Mr. Ellery gave an account of the Great Paris Telescope.
“On the 10th of July Mr. Ellery exhibited a form of Thom-
son’s Quadrant Electrometer ; Mr. Foord exhibited a Gas-pressure
Gauge; Mr. Pirani exhibited a Lecture Apparatus for Measuring
N
100 Proceedings, &c., for 1876.
the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat; and also a two-fluid Baro-
meter, invented by Mr. H. Venables; and Mr. Arnold exhibited
some preparations of Compressed Leather.
“On the 25th of September Mr. Ellery read a 4H on ‘ The
small number of Sun Spots visible during 1876,’ and also a paper
on ‘ The Chronograph ;? Mr. White read a paper ‘On the Deter-
mination. of the Longitude of the Melbourne Observatory,’ and Mr.
Kernot read a paper ‘On Iron Arches.’
“On the 16th November Mr. Ellery read an ‘ Account of some
Experiments on Atmospheric Electricity,’ and Mr. Andrew read a
note ‘On Amorphous Phosphorus.’
“On the 14th of December Mr. Pirani exhibited a Holtz’s
Electric Machine, and Mr. White read a paper ‘On the Telegraphic
Determination of the Difference of Longitude between Melbourne
and Hobart Town.’
“(Of the above the following papers have been printed in
pamphlet form :—‘ Geodetic Surveying, by Mr. Gardiner ; ‘ The
Improvement of the Harbour of Melbourne,’ by Mr. Rawlinson ;
‘The Determination of the Longitude of the Melbourne Observa-
tory, and ‘The Telegraphic Determination of the Difference of
Longitude between Melbourne and Hobart Town,’ by Mr. White ;
and ‘ Experiments on Atmospheric Electricity,’ by Mr. Ellery.] .
“ Vol. XIT., containing the papers read during the years 1874
and 1875, has ‘been published.
“The Government have again liberally continued the grant of
£200 in aid of our fuuds. Debentures to the amount of £40 have
been paid off during the past year, and the amount of unclaimed
interest has been reduced by £12 12s. The balance in hand
amounts to £323 18s. 3d., and of this amount your Council con-
siders it advisable that a large portion should be spent in paying -
off debentures and executing necessary repairs to the building.
‘Some proposed alterations in the Laws will be submitted to
you at the next annual meeting.” r
101
Proceedings, &c., for 1876.
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102
Proceedings, &¢., for 1876. é 103
On the motion of Dr. Neild, seconded by Mr, Hunt, it was
resolved that in Law VII. the word Thursday be substituted for
Monday; and the meeting adjourned.
Read and confirmed.
Rosert L, J. EvLery, Chairman.
ORDINARY MEETING, |
Held in the Library, Thursday, May 11th, 1876.
The President in the Chair.
The following gentlemen were nominated for election at the
next meeting :—F. Goldstraw, M.A., proposed by H. M. Andrew,
. seconded by F. J. Pirani; W. C. Watts, proposed by A. K.
Smith, seconded by T. E. Rawlinson.
Mr. Martin Gardiner gavé an abstract of a paper by him on
“ Geodetic Surveying.”
Mr. Ellery then exhibited a radiometer, and gave a short
account of the different theories which had ’been propounded to
explain its action. Discussion ensued.
(Signed) R. L. J. Entery, Chairman.
ORDINARY MEETING,
Held in the Library of the Society, June 8th, 1876.
The President in the Chair.
Messrs. Goldstraw and Watts, nominated at the last meeting,
were duly elected ordinary members of the Society.
Mr. Rawlinson read a paper on the improvement of the Harbour
of Melbourne. Discussion ensued in which Mr. Rawlinson’s plan
was generally commended.
Mr. Ellery gave an account of the Great Paris Telescope which
had recently been erected, and compared its construction with
that of the Melbourne instrument. A general discussion took
lace.
: The thanks of the Society was given to the Rev. L. Fison for
a work on “Consanguinity” which he had presented to the
Society. ;
(Signed) R. L. J. Evtery, Chairman.
ORDINARY MEETING,
Held in the Library of the Society, July 18th, 1876.
The President in the Chair.
The President stated that a donation of a photograph of an
Engraving of Sir Isaac Newton had been received from Mr.
Noone. A vote of thanks was accorded to Mr. Noone for it.
104 Proceedings, &c., for 1876.
The President having resigned the chair to Mr. White, Vice-
President, read a note on “ The small number of Sun Spots visible
during the year 1876.”
The President read a paper on “The Chronograph,” with especial _
reference ta a parabolic governor which he had successfully adapted
to the instrument. He: also exhibited a form of governor recently
invented by Mr. Cooke. Discussion ensued.
The President resumed the chair, and Mr. White read a paper on
“ Determination of the Longitude of the Melbourne Observatory.”
Discussion ensued, in course of which the President stated that in
consequence of the proprietors of submarine cables objecting to
strong currents being sent through them, there was at present no
prospect of obtaining determination of our longitude by means of
the electric telegraph.
_ Mr. Kernot read a paper on “ Iron Arches,” with reference to the
iron arched bridge at Heidelberg, recently erected by Mr. Raw-
linson. Discussion ensued.
(Signed) R. L. J. Exumry, Chairman.
ORDINARY MEETING,
Held wm the Library of the Society, November 16th, 1877.
The President in the Chair.
Mr. F. C. Klemm was elected an ordinary member of the
Society.
The President having vacated the chair (which was taken by
Mr. White), he read a paper on “Some Experiments in Atmos-
pheric Electricity.” Discussion ensued.
The President resumed the chair, when Professor H. M. Andrew
gave an account of a hitherto undescribed ‘peculiarity of ‘‘ Amor-
phous Phosphorus.” The phosphorus was of the chocolate-coloured
variety. Exteriorly there had accumulated during two or three
years a layer of syrupy fluid which contained phosphorous acid.
The same phenomenon had been observed by Mr. Foord and
Professor Smith ; the latter had found the fluid to be a mixture of
phosphorus and hypophosphorous acid. There was some pro-
bability that any action of this sort might be dangerous if occur-
ing in the amorphous phosphorus used in safety matches. Dis-
cussion ensued, in course of which one or two facts were men-
tioned which went to show that safety matches were not so free
from danger as was commonly supposed.
Mr. White’s paper on “The Recent Telegraphic De rann tien
of the Longitude of Hobart Town” was postponed till next. meet-
ing.
(Signed) R. L. J. Evtery, Chairman.
gee
ari
Proceedings, &c., for 1876. 105
OrpDINARY MEETING,
Peeid in the Library of the Socrety, December 14th, 1876.
The President in the chair.
The following gentlemen were nominated for election at next
meeting :—Mr. J. Bywater Humphreys, proposed by E. Howitt,
seconded by H. K. Rusden; Dr. P. Moloney, proposed by E.
Howitt, seconded by Mr. Ellery; Rev. A. Paul, proposed by Mr.
Foord, seconded by Mr. Ellery.
The President read the list of retiring office-bearers, as follows :
—President, Mr. R. L. J. Ellery; Vice-Presidents, Mr. G. Foord
and Mr. E. J. White; Hon. Treasurer, Mr. Percy de J. Grut;
Hon. Librarian, Dr. J. E. Neild; Hon. Secretary, Mr. F. J.
Pirani ; Members of Council, Messrs. A. C. Allan, E. Howitt,
S. W. M‘Gowan, F. Poolman, J. T. Rudall ; Members of Council
who retain office being—Professors Andrews and Nanson, J.
Bosisto, W. C. Kernot, T. E. Rawlinson, H. K. Rusden, G. H. F.
Ulrich.
Mr, Pirani described and exhibited a small Holtz’s electric
machine.
_ Mr. White read a paper on the “ Telegraphic Determination of
the Difference of Longitude between Melbourne and Hobart
Town.”
Mr. Pirani’s paper on “ Force” was postponed.
(Signed) R. L. J. Eviery, Chairman.
MEMBERS
OF
The Roval Society of Victoria.
(Names marked thus (*) are those of Life Members.)
Alcock, Peter C., Esq., 41 Swanston-street
Allan, Alex. C., Esq., Crown Lands Office
Andrew, Professor H. M., Wesley College
Barker, Edward, Esq., M.D., F.R.C.S., Latrobe-street East
*Barkly, His Excellency Sir Henry, K.C.B., Cape Colony
Barnes, Benjamin, Esq., Murray Bridge, Echuca
*Barry, His Honour Sir Redmond, M.A., Chancellor of the
University, Supreme Court
Barton, Robert, Esq., F.C.S., Royal Mint
Beaney, J. G., Esq., F.R.C.S.Ed., Collins-street Hast
Bear, J. P., Esq., M.L.C., 834 Collins-street East
Bennison, R., Esq., Sale )
Blair, John, Esq., M.D., Collins-street East
Bland, R. H., Esq., Clunes
*Bleasdale, J. J., Rev. D.D., F.G.S., St. Patrick’s College
*Bosisto, Joseph, Esq., M.L.A., Bridge-road, Richmond _
Brown, H. J., Esq., Park House, Wellington Parade, East Mel-
bourne _
Burrows, Thomas, Esq., Bendigo Villa, Hawthorn
*Butters, J. 8., Esq., Victoria Club, Collins-street East, Melbourne
Caselli, H. R., Esq., Ballarat
Comber, P. F., Esq., Royal Mint
Cook, William M., Esq., Crown Lands Department
Danks, John, Esq., Bourke-street West
*Detmold, William, Esq., 44 Collins-street East
Dobson, E., Esg., A.T.C.E., Claremont House, Grey-street, East
Melbourne
Duerdin, James, Esq., LL.B., Yorick Club -
List of Members. LOF:
*Eaton, H. F., Exsq., the Treasury, Melbourne
Ellery, Robert L. J., Esq., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Observatory
*Elliot, S., Esq., 88 Collins-street West
_ Ehliot, T. 8., Esq., Railway Department, Spencer-street*
Fitzpatrick, Rev. J., D.D., St. Patrick’s College
Flannagan, J., Esq., 5 Collins-street East, Melbourne
Foord, Geo., Esq., F.C.S., Royal Mint
Foster, C. W., Esq., Collins-street
Gardiner, Martin, Esq., Crown Lands Department
*Gibbons, 8. W., Hsq., F.C.S., 5 Collins-street East, Melbourne
Gilbert, J. E., Esq., Observatory
*Gillbee, William, Esq., M.R.C.S.E., Collins-street East
Gould, J. E., Esq., Collins-streét East
Groves, J. W., Esq., Lands Department
Grut, P. de J., Esq., E. S. & A. C. Bank, Gertrude-street, Fitzroy
Goldstraw, F., Esq., M.A., Wesley College
Harrison, Thomas, Esq., Registrar-General’s Office
Henderson, A. M., Esq , C.E., Reed and Barnes, Elizabeth-street
Henderson, J. B., Esq., Water Supply Department, Sandhurst
*Higinbotham, Hon. George, M.A., Chancery-lane, Melbourne |
Higinbotham, Thomas, Esq., M.I.C.E., Engineer-in-Chief, Rail-
way Department
*Holt, John, Esq., Ledcourt, near Stawell
Howitt, E., Esq., Yorick Club, Melbourne
Hunt, Robert, Esq., Royal Mint
Humphreys, J. Bywater, Esq., Yorick Club, Melbourne
Hope, A., Esq., Greville-street, Prahran
Hopkins, D. M., Esq., Eaglehawk, Sandhurst
Howitt, A. W., Esq., F.G.S., P.M., Bairnsdale
*Iffla, Solomon, Esq., L.F.P.S.G., Emerald Hill
Irving, Professor H. M., M.A., Hawthorn
Kane, Rev. H. P., M.A., Brighton
Kelly, Rev. William, St. Patrick’s College
Kennedy, Daniel, Esq., M‘Kenzie-street, Sandhurst
Keogh, Laurence F., Esq., Warrnambool
Kernot, W. C., Esq., M A., C.E., University
‘Klemm, F. C., Esq., 41 Queen-street, Melbourne
Linacre, A., Esq., Lygon-street, Carlton
Lynch, William, Esq., Bombala, Brighton
M‘Coy, Professor F., F.G.8., University
O
108 List of Members.
M‘Gillivray, P. H., Esq., M.A., M.R.C.S.E., Sandhurst
M‘Gowan, 8. W., Esq., General Post Office
Manton, C. A., Esq., The Treasury
Marshall, John, Esq., M.A., 3 Alfred Cottage, Grattan-street,
Carlton
Miller, F. B., Esq., F.C.S., Royal Mint
Moerlin, C., Esq., Observatory
Moors, Henry, Esq., Office Chief Commissioner Police, Melbourne
- Morris, R., Esq., 10 Hawke-street, Hotham
*Mueller, Baron Von, Ph., C.M.G., F.R.S., South Melbourne
Munday, J., Esq., Clunes, care Woolley and Co., Melbourne
Muntz, T. B., Esq., C.E., Town Surveyor’s Office, Prahran
Murray, Stewart, Esq., Kyneton
Moloney, Patrick, Esq., M.B., Lonsdale-street West
Nanson, Professor E. J., University
Neild, J. E., Esq., M.D., Collins-street East
Newbery, J. Cosmo, Esq., B.Sc., Technological Museum
*Nicholas, W., Esq., F.G.S., Mining Department
*Nicholson, G., Esq., Collins-street East, Melbourne
Noone, J., Esq., a8 Department
Officer, 8. H. tes ., care Dalgety and Co., Swan Hill
Ogier, J.C. H , P.M., Inglewood
Paul, Rev. Arthur, Alma-road, East St. Kilda
Parkes, Edmund 8., Esq., Bank of Australasia
Parnell, E., Esq., High-street, Prahran
Perry, Right Rev. Bishop, D.D., M.A., England
Phelps, J. J., Esq., Melbourne Club
Pirani, F. J., Esq., M.A., C.E., University
Poolman, J., Esq., Sydney, New South Wales
*Rawlinson, Thos. E., Esq., C.E., Temple Court
*Reed, Joseph, Esq., Elizabeth-street, Melbourne
*Reed, Thomas, Esq., Fiji ;
Rudall, J. T., Esq., F.R.C.S., Collins-street East
Rusden, H. K., Esq., Tivoli Place, South Yarra
Skene, A. J., Esq., M.A., Survey Department
*Smith, A. K., Esq., C.E., F.R.8.S.A., Leicester-street, Carlton
Smith, A. M., Esq., School of Mines, Sandhurst
Stawell, Sir William, M.A., Supreme Court
Steel, W. H., Esq., Public Works Department
Sutherland, Alexander, Esq., M.A., Carlton College
Taylor, W. F., Esq., M.D., Claremont, Queensland
Inst of Members. 109
*Thompson, H. A., Esq., Lucknow, New South Wales
Thomson, W., Esq., F.R.C.S.Ed., South Yarra
Ulrich, G. H. F., Esq., F.G.8., Yorick Club
Ward, Colonel, R.E., England
Waugh, Rev. J. S., Wesley College
*Were, J. B., Esq., Collins-street West
*White, E. J., Esq., F.R.A.S., Observatory
Wigg, H.C., Esq., M.D., F.R.C.S., Lygon-street, Carlton
*Wilkie, D., E., Esq., M.D., Collins-street East
Wilkins, A., Esq., 31 Market-street
Willan, Robert, Esq., 39 Queen-street
Willimot, W. C., Esq., Lloyd’s Rooms, Collins-street West
Wyatt, A., Esq., P.M., Murchison
Honorary MEMBERs.
Bowen, His Excellency Sir G. F., K.C.B., Governor of Victoria,
Patron
Clarke, Sir Andrew, Colonel, C.B., R.E., London
Goeppert, H.R., M.D., Ph. D., Breslau
Haast, Julius, Esq., Ph. D., F.G.S., Canterbury, New Zealand
Neumayer, Geo., Professor, Ph. D., &c., Bavaria
Scott, W., Rev., M.A., F.C.P.S., Sydney
Smith, John, Esq., M.D., University, Sydney
Todd, Charles, Esq., C.M.G., F.R.A.S., Adelaide, S. A.
Mason, Firth & M‘Cutcheon, Printers, Melbourne.
opal Society of Victoria.
TRANSACTIONS
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
Aopal Society of Victoria.
VOL. XIV.
Edited under the Authority of the Council of the Society.
THE AUTHORS OF THE SEVERAL PAPERS ARE SOLELY RESPONSIBLE FOR THE SOUNDNESS OF THE
OPINIONS GIVEN AND FOR THE ACCURACY OF THE STATEMENTS MADE THEREIN.
MELBOURNE:
MASON, KIRTH & M*CUTCHEON, PRINTE SES,
FLINDERS LANE WEST,
ERO DP itlth | FOL YN OLS 7 a
AGENTS TO THE SOCIETY.
WILLIAMS & NORGATE, 14 HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON ;
To whom all communications for transmission.to the Royal Society of Victoria
from all parts of Europe should be sent,
6
seas |
3 ee. ‘htia ;
nh.
PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS, 1877 ...
ArT. I.
iis
IIT,
IV.
yy;
VE
VIL.
VIIL
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
XVI.
CONTENTS OF VOL. XIV.
On Force, by F. J. PIRANI, M.A, a
Some Experiments in Lani by §. 5: DuVERELL,
Esq. “=
The Present State of Meteorology, by R. on J. BLE,
F.R.S,, F.B.A.S,
Notes on a Remarkable riratene seen May 20th at
Ballan, by Louis LE GOULD, C.E, ... aan
Notes on the Design of acne Tubes, ey W. C.
KERNOT, M.A., C.E. are
Notes on the Gack Line reieahs of the Woden
District, and Proofs of the Uniform Condition of
Meteorological Phenomena over long Periods of
Time, by T. E. RAWLINSON, C.E. _... *c2 con
Notes on the Recent sisi Sab aie by R. L. J. ree
F.B.S., F.B.A.S.
Notes on Barometer Construction, by Gncuek eaeee
BCS S| 2: - -- ae er
On some New Marine Mottusca,} by Rev. J. EK, TENNISON-
Woops, F.G.S., F.L.S., Hon. Memb. Roy. Soc. N.S.W.,
Corr. Memb. Roy. Soc. Victoria, eras and
Phil. Soc., Linn. Soc. N.S.W., &c.
On Various Forms of Galvanic a by R. L. J.
Epiery, &.B.S., FERAS. )\ <2.
Extracts from Diary in Japan, by F. 0. ‘nie C. E,
On the Probability that a Connexion of Causation
will be shown to exist between the Attraction of
Gravitation and the Molecular Energy of ane
by ALEXANDER SUTHERLAND, M.A. ie
Experiments on the Comparative Power of some Dis.
infectants, by JAMES JAMIESON, M.D. te aoe
On Heat and Molecular Feeley by ELS. Gcacathin
Esq.
On the History of (Palceoie ‘Abuualiean in Australia
by R. ETHERIDGE, jun., F.G.S. iss nae :
On the Ratio of the Length and ei. of Sea a Waves,
by S. R. DEVERELL, Esq. ee
PAGE
.. XI—XxXvili
3—6
7—9
10—19
20
20—25
25—34
34
35 —55
55—65
65
66—84
84—91
91—101
102
102—108
109—115
a . Contents.
XVII. Notes on the Newly-found Satellites of ie ~~ R. L.
J. ELLERY, F.R.S., F.B.A.S. ... :
XVIII. On the Telephone, by W. C. KERNOT, M. As. Or.
PROCEEDINGS, &C., 1877 bce ae at =A
LAWS
MEMBERS ne awe sea
INSTITUTIONS, &C., Roce Cuetee OF “« TRB ANGE
PAGE
115
115
117—126
127—136
137—141
142—145
Roval Society of Victoria.
bats Sar i
patron.
HIS EXCELLENCY SIR GEORGE BOWEN, G.C.M.G.
gresident.
R. L. J. ELLERY, Esq., F.R.S., &e.
Bite-Dresidents.
GEORGE FOORD, Esq., F.C.S. | E. J. WHITE, Esq., F.R.A.S.
on. Grersurer,
PERCY DE J. GRUT, Esq.
Hon. Secretaries.
H. K. RUSDEN, Ese. | E. HOWITT, Esq.
Hon. Librarian.
JAMES E. NEILD, Ese., M.D.
Council,
Ie (Oh ALLAN, Esq. S. W. M‘GOWAN, Esq.
H. M. ANDREW, Esq., M.A. PROFESSOR E. J. NANSON.
ROBERT BARTON, Esa. F. J. PIRANI, Esq., M.A.
JOSEPH BOSISTO, Esa., M.L.A. JAMES T. RUDALL, Esga., F.R.C.S.
JAMES DUERDIN, Esq., LL.B. THOS. E. RAWLINSON, Esgq., C.E.
W. C. KERNOTT, Ese., M.A. G. H. F. ULRICH, Ese., F.G.S.
Mopal Society of Dictoria.
ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS
OF
Che President,
Mr. R. L. J. Evtery, F.RS., F.R.AS., Government
Astronomer,
(Delivered to the Members of the Royal Society, at their Annual
Conversazione, held on Thursday, July 26th, 1877.)
Your EXcCELLENCY AND GENTLEMEN OF THE
RoyaL Soctrety,
Since I had the honour of addressing you at the annual
Conversazione in August last year, we have entered upon our
twentieth session, and I think I may at the outset congra-
tulate you on the past year’s work, and the present aspect of
the affairs of the Society, concerning which, however, accord-
ing to ordinary custom, I shall speak more in detail presently.
The numerical strength of the Royal Society fluctuates
very little from year to year. For a long time our losses by
removal and secession equalled and sometimes exceeded our
gain by new members; but during the last few years our
roll shows unmistakable signs of a small but steady increase,
which includes the names of many of the most intelligent
and scientifically industrious young men of our community,
all of whom will no doubt eventually become, as many have
already, active members and regular contributors to our
Transactions,
B
xii President's Addvress
Our financial position is on the whole satisfactory ; this,
- however, is in a great measure due to the continuance of
the grant voted to us by Parliament, which you will
remember was withheld from the Society for several years,
when we were compelled to stop the publication of our
Transactions, which we should still be quite unable to con-
tinue without this aid. The loan we raised some years ago
by debentures, chiefly amongst our members, has now been
reduced to £315, and it is intended to reduce this still
further during the current year.
It has been necessary to effect some repairs in the build-
ing, but the Council has not been in a position to undertake
the cementing of the exterior; the grounds have been some-
what improved by the growth of the trees, and by the more
regular attention bestowed upon them. I cannot, however,
on the whole, congratulate you on the appearance of the
premises generally; for although both the building and
fencing are in a fair state of repair, there is much to be
hoped for esthetically. In the original design of this
building a central hall surrounded by chambers for offices,
laboratories, and meeting-rooms, was provided for, and, in its
entirety, would have constituted a fine and handsome build-
ing. Unfortunately, however, the central hall only was
built, and has since stood alone in its solitary ugliness,
while some years ago its interior was divided into several
chambers to meet the requirements of the Society, which
would no doubt have been better done by carrying out the |
original design, had the Society’s financial position admitted
of it.
The Council has had the desirability of improving the
appearance of the exterior of the building continually before
it, and still nurses the hope that it will eventually be able to
carry out the original design, which contemplated the
domiciliation of other scientific bodies besides that of the
for the year 1877. xiii
Royal Society. In view of this proposition, then, some little
time since, when the Medical Society had the question of
building a house of meeting under consideration, overtures
were made by your Council to their committee with the view,
if possible, of affording accommodation on these premises to
that society ; and it was thought not improbable that this
and other kindred societies might be similarly domiciled in
this building, which might then become known as the
Institute of Scientific Societies, or under some such name.
I regret, however, to state that the proposition does not
seem to have been favourably entertained, although if
adopted it could not have failed to have been beneficial to
both societies, enabling them together to have instituted
most convenient arrangements, which alone neither can well
secure.
Our library is rapidly increasing by donations from kindred
societies in all parts of the world with which we are in com-
munication, and some scheme by which these vaiuable books
may be easily found on the bookshelves and be made imme-
diately available to our members, is now imperatively
demanded, and is under the consideration of your Council.
The state of publication of our Transactions is satisfactory ;
all the contributions, except those at our last meeting, have
been printed in pamphlet form and distributed to the mem=
bers, and another volume, in which these are included, is
now in the press. Some of our earlier volumes are nearly
out of print, and we are thus unable to supply societies that
exchange with us with full sets of the Transactions. <A
question has therefore been raised whether we should not
reprint these volumes either in full or partly in abstract,
and as many of you are aware a Sub-Committee has been
appointed to report on the matter.
Referring now to the work of the session, we find that ah
Society has held eight ordinary meetings since our last
Ba
XIV President's Address
annual gathering, at which papers and communications of
great interest and scientific value have been contributed ;
but as the Council have been able to print and distribute
these amongst the members immediately after the meetings
at which they were presented, it will be unnecessary for me
to refer to them in detail here. It cannot but be remarked,
however, that while these contributions have been more than
sufficient to occupy our ordinary meetings, the names of the
contributors are limited, and, as is too often the case in
scientific societies, most of the work is done by a few. We
have on our roll now many young members whose recrea-
tions, if not their general occupations, are such as should
enable them to become active and useful in the Society,
and it is greatly to be desired that they should add
their names to the comparatively small list of working
members.
The attendance of members at our ordinary meetings has
been much greater than in former years, and I think we
may safely conclude that interest in those branches of
knowledge and inquiry which come within the scope of the
Society has considerably increased.
In my last address I expressed a belief that the functions
of the Society might be beneficially extended so as to
embrace, besides the reception of papers and communica-
tions, the delivery of brief special lectures for the demon-
stration of new and interesting facts in physical and other
sciences, I regret to say that up to the present time your
Council has been unable to mature any scheme for accom-
plishing this. I hope, however, that something in this
direction may be done before entering on our next session.
I have on former occasions of this kind alluded cursorily
to the progress made within the colony in our various
departments devoted to scientific and technological research
and teaching, and other cognate matters of more than
for the year 1877. XV
passing interest. In my last address, however, I unfortu-
nately omitted to do so; but I think you will grant me
your indulgence for a few moments on this occasion, while
I briefly review the year’s work in these directions.
As an excuse for referrmg to Astronomical Work first, I
may plead both alphabetical precedence as well as the fact
that I am more intimately acquainted with what has been
done in this direction than in many others. While our
Observatory has been, as usual, fully occupied with its
allotted work in Astronomy, Meteorology, and other
physical investigations, there is nothing of very promi-
nent interest in its last year’s history, but nevertheless
there are one or two facts worthy of record.
You will remember that while our great reflector has
been kept at work ever since its erection in 1869, no results
of this work, except in a few cases of immediate interest,
have been given to the world, and a feeling has gained
ground that nothing was being done with it, except for
simple idle star-gazing. The fact is, we have accumulated
a very large mass of observations, descriptions, and draw-
ings—the work of the three several observers to whom the
use of the telescope has been entrusted; but these, for
several reasons, have not hitherto been published. I am
glad, however, to say that their publication is now in pro-
gress, and in a forward state.
Lithographic copies of most of the drawings of the
nebulee observed with the telescope have now been made
on stone, and I have no doubt will soon be published, with
a full description of what has been done with this giant
instrument. The work for the most part consists of a revi-
sion of the nebule observed by Sir John Herschel at the
Cape of Good Hope from 1835 to 1837 with his great re-
flector, and a comparison of the changes that have taken
place in the interval of forty years will prove interesting
XV1 President's Address
and furnish ample food for speculation, even if it does not
add considerably to our definite knowledge of these myste-
rious occupants of space.
The exact distance of the sun from the earth is yet an
unsolved problem, and although a large addition to our
knowledge upon this subject has been anticipated from the
very successful observations of the late Transit of Venus, I
am sorry to say the results are not yet arrived at. Success
having attended so many of the numerous observing parties,
the necessary calculations have assumed almost stupendous
proportions, and it yet remains doubtful how much longer
the final results will be delayed. Another favourable oppor-
tunity for determining the solar parallax is now about to
occur in the opposition of the planet Mars, which takes
place on September 5th, on which occasion its distance from
the earth will be almost a minimum. You will remember
that all our methods of determining the sun’s distance
depend on the determination first of the distance of any
planet from the earth, when Kepler's famous law (that the
distances of the planets from the sun are proportional to the
times in which they complete their revolution about the sun)
furnishes the rest of the required data ; so that in the transit
of Venus what is actually determined is the distance of
Venus from us, and hence by Kepler’s third law the distance
of the sun; and the observation consists in the measurement
of the displacement of the planet upon the sun’s dise as seen
from various parts of the earth’s surface. In the case of Mars,
its displacement with regard to certain selected fixed stars
near it, is measured at widely different points of the earth’s
surface, instead of with respect to the solar disc, as in the
case of Venus. The opportunity which is now about to occur
will not be lost sight of, and arrangements have already been
made by which the co-operation of various Observatories in
both hemispheres will be secured, and we have already com-
;
|
:
for the year 1877. XVii
menced operations at Melbourne in conjunction with Green-
wich and Washington.
The comet discovered by D’Arrest in 1851, which has a
period of about five and a half years, and which is one of
the most interesting of the comets of short period because
of the enormous disturbances it experiences from the planet
Jupiter, was observed during the month of June. This isa
‘very difficult object to observe, owing to its excessive faint-
ness; so that during its perihelion passage in 1864 it could
not be seen at all. In the present instance it was found
with little difficulty, owing to the excellent ephemeris
which had been sent to me by M. Leveau, of the Paris
Observatory.
The question of the existence of a planet between the
sun and Mercury has been revived during the past year,
and M. Leverrier announced the probability of the supposed
planet transiting the sun’s disc about the 22nd of March
last. Most of the Observatories throughout the world were
requested to keep a strict watch for its appearance on the
21st, 22nd, and 23rd, and this was, I believe, generally done,
but with a negative result, no appearance of a planetary
transit being observed anywhere. We had very favourable
weather here, and could not have failed to see it had it
crossed the sun during our daylight. The existence of an
intra-Mercurial planet is therefore a problem yet to be
solved.
At our last gathering I spoke of the progress that had
been made in Meteorology in Europe and America by the
adoption of a widely co-operative system, and I stated that
I had taken steps to bring about an analogous system in
Australia; and at the ordinary meeting in May last, in a
paper I read on the present state of meteorology, I detailed
the outcome of this effort. It will therefore be only neces-
sary now to tell you in the briefest manner what has been
RViii President's Address
and is being done. The hearty co-operation of the astron-
omers and meteorologists, as well as of the telegraphic
departments, of New South Wales and South Australia has
been secured, and weather telegrams in cypher are ex-
changed daily from ten to twelve am. between Adelaide
Melbourne, and Sydney. These telegrams are utilised ina
different way at each place; for while in Sydney they are
used for constructing a weather chart, in Melbourne a
weather bulletin is lithographed at the Observatory, which,
as a rule, is posted at various places about Melbourne before
one p.m., and gives a synopsis of the state of the weather
and sea at nine a.m. along our coast-line from Cape Borda
to Cape Howe, and north as far as Brisbane, as well as a
general idea of the weather in the settled interior of Aus-
tralia. Afternoon telegrams are also received from a certain
number of stations, from which a synopsis is deduced and
published in the morning papers. I think there can scarcely
be two opinions as to the utility of this method as com-
pared to the partial and somewhat indiscriminate meteor-
ological reports hitherto issued, and I have reason to believe
that a large portion of the public already appreciate the
value of the innovation.
Concerning Botanical Science, which is so ably represented
in this colony by our eminent fellow-member, Baron Von
Mueller, I have also a few words to say. The investigations
and labours of our Government Botanist have made con-
siderable progress, and during the last year or two he has
very largely increased the literature of the science, more
especially with respect to Australia, by the publication of
several important works, and by the continuanceof his serials
on Australian plants. The Phytographia Australis has now
nearly reached the completion of its tenth volume, and it
must be a matter for regret to most Australian students of
botany that this valuable work was not written in the
Seen
for the year 1877. xix
English language. Baron Von Mueller is now engaged on
an exceedingly valuable work on the plants of New Guinea,
the first volume of which is nearly completed, and its pub-
lication is anxiously looked for by all who are interested in
botanical science. A very useful volume for students in this
science has also been issued by the Government Botanist,
entitled Introduction to Botanic Teachings wn the Schools of
Victoria through Native Plants. This work is largely and
carefully illustrated; and while intended for schools, in
reality constitutes a valuable work for the advanced student.
Amongst his other literary labours it is much to be hoped
that Baron Von Mueller will soon be able to complete his
long contemplated Atlas of the Hucalyptt, for which he has
already a very fine series of drawings prepared. I must not
overlook another most useful work that has appeared,
entitled Select Plants Readily Available for Industrial
Culture in Victoria—a most important work, which cannot
fail to be appreciated as it becomes more generally known.
It is to be hoped that the Government Botanist will soon be
able to resume the phytochemical researches which he com-
menced some years ago, and which gave promise of results
not only of the highest scientific interest, but also of im-
mediate commercial value.
Our National Museum, under the direction of Professor
M‘Coy, has also its year’s history; and I am glad to state
that it continues to increase in specimens illustrative of all
the branches of natural science, whilst the systematic
naming and classification by the director continually ad-
vances. Professor M‘Coy, however, informs me that want
of room, owing to the western half of the building not
being yet built, renders the labour of maintaining the col-
lections in good order, and properly classifying them, each
year greater than before. It must be apparent to all who
take an interest in our Museum of Natural History that
xx : President's Address
there is not sufficient room for the proper display of our fine
collection, and the time has obviously arrived* when the
building should be completed, and the director enabled to
give the colony the benefit of the complete classification
which he desires to exhibit, and which will include classifica-
tion according to geographical distribution. The freshness
and good state of preservation exhibited by the specimens is
remarkable compared with many collections I have seen in
large cities, and I have no doubt this fact may be traced to
the absence at the University site of those corrosive pro-
ducts of combustion which prevail in the more densely
populated parts of a city, and which are so destructive to
collections of this kind. In glancing over some statistics of
the Museum, we find that last year 98,000 people visited it,
and that it contains over 37,000 specimens. Professor.
M‘Coy, the director of the Museum, is proceeding with the
publication of the Decades of the Zoology and Palcon-
tology of Victoria, with figures and descriptions from speci-
mens in the Museum. The fourth decade of the palzon-
tology has been issued during the year, and the fifth is
nearly ready. Further decades may shortly be expected,
and numerous beautiful plates of the snakes, fishes, and
insects of the colony are already prepared for them.
One of our most useful institutions, though perhaps not
the best known, is our Technological School and Museum,
and comparatively few people know how much good work
is being done, and what a wealth of knowledge in tech-
nology and the arts is being acquired there for the future
advancement of our community and colony. During the
last year the progress of the Industrial and Technological
Museum has been very satisfactory, both as regards the
number of persons availing themselves of the classes and
lectures on technical subjects, and the increase of the
‘various scientific and economic collections, their systematic
we
for the year 1877. Xxi
arrangement and proper display. Over 3000 specimens
have been added, and amongst the most recent and
interesting are the collections received from America
through the instrumentality of Mr. George Collins Levey.
These collections comprise—1. Ingenious mechanical con-
trivances; 2. Manufactured metals, and the ores, fuels,
fluxes, &c., used in smelting ; 3. Rare and interesting rocks
and minerals from the United States; 4. A collection of the
rocks and minerals of the Dominion of Canada, presented
through Mr. Levey by Mr. A. R. C. Selwyn; 5. A collection
of seeds, amongst which the varieties of wheat are to be
specially noted (advantage has been taken to distribute,
through the Department of Agriculture, a portion of each
sample to growers in the country); 6. Manufactured fibres,
American cottons, &c. The publications of the year have
been limited to a catalogue of the Timbers of Victoria, which
contains all available information as to the value of our
trees or timbers in manufacture. The walls and pillars in
the museum are being made to answer the purpose of
catalogues by being covered with copious instructive notes
to assist the interested visitor in his studies.
Since the abolition of the department of the Geological
Survey by the Government, the geological work of the
colony has been carried on under the auspices of the Mining
Department; and if one can judge from the maps and
reports,and more especially from the admirable report of
progress recently issued by the Secretary for Mines, there
can be no doubt that this branch of science, at least in so far
as it bears upon the development of the resources of the
country, is by no means neglected. The formation of the
geological maps of the colony, commenced by Mr. Selwyn,
is still going on; nearly 5000 square miles have been
embraced in sketch-maps on a scale of 2 in. to the mile, and
other maps are in progress; the most important among
aa President's Address
which may be mentioned as those of the goldfields at
Stawell, Creswick, and on the Mitchell River, Gippsland.
Among the valuable publications of this department, you
will be pleased to learn that there are most interesting and
exhaustive reports by our fellow-members, Professor M‘Coy,
on Fossil Specimens; Mr. Cosmo Newbery, On the
Analysis of Assays, and the Hxamination of Minerals ;
and Mr. William Nicholas, on Some Characteristics of
Auriferous Quartz Reefs or Vewns.
The rapid denudation of our Forests, and almost reckless
destruction of our indigenous timber, has from time to time
been strongly and warningly commented upon by scientific
men and by the public press of the colony; but as the want
of useful timber does not immediately stare the community
in the face, it is allowed to pass. If any of you have ever
seen,as I have too often done, the gigantic timber trees
lying rotting in some of the ranges near Melbourne, where
they have been felled by saw-mill proprietors, but never
used, and in many cases magnificent trees with inferior
trees felled by rival proprietors across them to prevent their
being readily removed to the mills of those who felled them,
you will at once admit that the term “reckless destruction”
is not too strong. The necessary clearing away of timber
for agriculture is rapidly altering the face of the country,
and will doubtless alter the climate, most probably for the
worse ; but the indiscriminate denudation of our mountain
forests will certainly tend to reduce the precipitation of
water on our soil, which already we often eagerly hope for
and sometimes pray for.
Some legislation in this direction has been attempted, and
it devolves on the Department of Agriculture to put what
power Parliament has given it into force. This department,
which is in charge of Mr. Wallis, the Secretary for Agricul-
ture, is doing all in its power to stem the tide of mischief,
for the year 1877. Xxlil
and to re-forest, as far as possible, our stripped mountain
sides, not only with indigenous, but exotic timber and other
useful trees. The State nurseries at Mount Macedon are
making wonderful progress; valuable trees to replace the
indigenous giants which have been so indiscriminately felled
are now covering a large part of the summit of that moun-
tain. Thousands of plants are yearly raised in the nursery
for this purpose and for distribution over the country to
local bodies. It is a noteworthy fact that numbers of the
European and American timber trees are being successfully
grown here, and many of them make more rapid growth
than they were ever known to do in the countries to which
they belong. It is intended also to sow many of our
wrecked forest areas broadcast with the seeds of indigenous
trees, notably the ironbark, and this process will also be
tried on some of the treeless plains to the north—of
course, after some preparation of the ground and adop-
tion of some means for protecting the young trees as they
come up.
The establishment of Colleges and Schools of Agriculture
and Forestry would be a step in the right direction, the
value of which to posterity, if not to our own generation,
cannot be well over-estimated in a country in which the
ruling policy is to fix the people on the soil. Already the
Agricultural Department has taken preliminary steps for the
establishment of a college in embryo at South Dookie, in
the north-east district. It is intended to confine the opera-
tions this year to conducting experiments on plants likely
to be adapted for cultivation in Victoria, and the establish-
ment of an Agricultural Chemical Laboratory in connection
_ with the institution. It is only expected to establish the
college by degrees, but I am sure the success of the Secre-
tary for Agriculture in this and his other efforts will be
sincerely hoped for by every member of this Society,
Xxiv Presidents Address
If we glance back over the past year’s history of scientific
research and progress, we find but little of more than ordi-
nary interest to arrest our attention. There are, however,
one or two instances which may worthily claim our atten-
tion for a few moments.
In my last address I referred to that interesting little
instrument the Radiometer, and to Mr. Crooke’s discoveries
of the action of light and heat on bodies in vacuo; and one
of the instruments was exhibited and described by Mr.
Foord, who also made some remarks on the experiments he
had made with it, and the principles involved in its peculiar
action. The behaviour of light bodies freely suspended in
vacuo, under the influence of heat and light, seemed at first
inexplicable according to known laws, and the question
arose whether Mr. Crooke’s experiments did not point to
the existence of a new force. Our best physicists, however,
suggested that the whole phenomena might be satisfactorily
explained as pertaining to the action of radiant heat in a
partial vacuum. Mr. Crooke has now, by the continuance
of his investigation, conclusively proved this to be the case,
and also finds that if instead of an ordinary vacuum the
most perfect one attainable is secured, the action of the
Radiometer is largely weakened, and indeed ceases alto-
gether. ,
Few sciences have made such strides in a utilitarian
direction as that of Electricity, more especially in reference
to Telegraphy. We had scarcely been able to realise the
fact that two different messages could be sent simultaneously
on a single wire in opposite directions, as in the duplex
system of telegraphy, than we hear of a quadruplex and
multiple system being in actual operation, the latter em-
bracing the power of sending two or more messages each
way simultaneously on a single line, provided a synchronous
movement or identical revolution of similar portions of the
Ee ee Dee eae a ye ee ee eee eee
a ee
AD RR ae
Pa A ee ge Se Oe ee
>
for the year 1877. XXV
apparatus at the two stations can be secured, a thing not
very difficult to accomplish. From the skill required to
work the ordinary duplex system successfully, it is still
doubtful whether it will come into general use, and the.
complications of the ordinary multiple system will, I
imagine, keep it rather in the category of telegraphic curi-
osities, which are already numerous, than permit of its
practical application to commercial telegraphy.
These remarks, however, do not apply with so much force
to the last achievement in Telegraphic Electricity, the
Harmonic Telegraph or Telephone ; and as the discoveries in
this direction bear signs of promise, a few words on the
subject may not be out of place here. It has long been
known that the number of electric impulses that can be
sent along a conductor in a given time under proper condi-
tions appear to be, comparatively speaking, almost unlimited;
at all events, as numerous as are necessary to produce almost
every sound audible to the human ear. It has been shown,
for instance, that if the electric contacts, and hence impulses,
are given by the vibrations of tuning forks or musical reeds
at the sending station of a telegraph line, tuning forks or
reeds of a similar pitch can be set in action at the distant
station, and that a full series of musical notes can thus be
transmitted from one station to another. Some electricians
have lately put this into practice, notably Mr. Reiss, of
Friedrichsdorf, in Germany; Mr. Elisha Gray, of Chicago ;
Professor Bell, of Boston; and M. Paul la Cour, of Copen-
hagen. To make what I have to say clear, I must call your
memory to the fact that musical notes or sounds to which
the human ear is sensible consist of vibrations varying
from eight up to about 36,000 per second; if they
are below eight they. simply constitute a number of
separate noises, but if more than eight they form a tone;
beyond 36,000 per second they become insensible to
XXVi President's Address
the human ear, but, there is reason to believe, not to the
auditory systems of some animals and insects. Also that
there are certain characteristics in sound—for instance,
pitch or tone is governed by the number of vibrations per —
second, and simply relates to the highness or lowness of
the sound; then we have intensity, by virtue of which
sounds are loud or soft; and again, there is the twmbre, or,
as it is sometimes termed, quality, of sound, instances of
which may be given by the difference in tone between the
vibrating string of the piano and the vibrating reed of the
clarionet or oboe. Musical sounds produced by an instru-
ment such as a flute or violin consist of variations in pitch
and intensity, while the organ can be made to produce
variations in quality also by the help of the various stops;
and the human voice eminently encompasses all these cha-
racteristics. Now the telephonic apparatus of Reiss, Gray,
and La Cour, so far as they have yet gone, simply transmit
sounds which vary only in pitch, although Mr. Gray appears
to have succeeded in transmitting notes of varying intensity
—that is, loud or soft, at will—for he has been able to con-
vey a musical tune along a telegraph line so as to be iden-
tified at the distant end. The practical triumph of Gray’s
telephone appears in the fact that he has been able to send
four simultaneous messages telephonically along a single
wire, while four others were received on the same
wire —a double quadruple system, as it were. This
is accomplished in the following manner :—We have seen
that notes can be transmitted by means of reeds or tuning
forks, so we will suppose a set of such instruments arranged
at both ends of a telegraph wire. Now if a reed with the
pitch of G natural be set in vibration at the sending station,
no other reed but the G natural will vibrate at the receiving
station, and it will continue to hum this note as long as the
current is passing, but ceases immediately the sender opens
SS ae ee. ne eee
Se Se ee SP Sn SRT SDE SM Fe
for the year 1877. XXVil
his key and stops the current. The sound can thus be
broken up into long or short notes, crotchets and quavers as
it were, to represent the dots and dashes of the Morse code,
which can be as easily read by the telegraphist as the short
and long taps of the Morse sounders. Now, if with another
operator, key, and reed on the same wire, we send B natu-
ral, it will set the reed of the same pitch humming at the
receiving end, and not interfere with the G natural reed,
which will continue humming its own note. <A second
operator reads the B natural message, and a third and
fourth any third or fourth reed that may sound. In this
way several messages can be sent simultaneously by as many
operators, and read by as many readers, while the principles
of the duplex system provide for sending an equal number
of messages at the same time and on the same wire in oppo-
site directions.
Professor Bell’s telephone, so far as I can gather, must
partially embrace the third characteristic of sound, that is,
the tumbre, so that the human voice can be intelligibly
transmitted through a telegraphic wire for short distances ;
and although it appears that the received sound of the voice
is weak and not always distinct, the simple fact that the
quality of the sound can be transmitted with its pitch and
intensity is a most remarkable one, and we shall look
forward with great interest to the future development of
both this and Mr. Gray’s method of telephonic communica-
tion. The details of the apparatus of Professor Bell are not
generally known yet, but the principle involved is much the
same as in the others, although the method differs. The
sound of the human voice is projected into a kind of funnel-
shaped chamber, closed by a membrane which is set in
vibration in consonance with the vocal sounds. Attached
to the membrane is a small permanent magnet, which
vibrates with it opposite the poles of an electro-magnet,
Cc
xxviii § President's Address for the year 1877.
through which a constant current from a galvanic battery
flows; the induction brought about by the vibration of the
magnet so affects the battery current that the composite
characteristics of the sound are manifested on the receiving
apparatus, which, so far as one can judge from the descrip-
tions given, consists of an electro-magnet within an iron
box, the armature of which is a loose iron plate covering the
box, and which is set in vibration, approximately repro-
ducing the sound of the voice speaking against the mem-
brane at the sending station.
I have, I am afraid, already tried your patience too long,
but, before concluding, I wish to urge our younger members
to greater activity in the society; there is plenty of work to
do, and broad fields of untouched ground for research. The
discoveries I have just spoken of come principally from our
American cousins, who have done more than. any other
nation for electric telegraphy, which even yet presents to
us an almost boundless field for research and useful dis-
covery ; and why should not some of it fall to Australians ?
Discovery and useful results of scientific work are not got
except by persistent and grooved application. The very
ground over which one must travel before he gets upon
“pastures new’ with any hope of success has already be-
come long and weary; but those who steadily keep in one
path not only arrive on the new ground first, but have the
best chance of seeing any that has been left unturned on
the way. |
4:
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hae *)
‘TRANSACTIONS.
“i
ArT. L—On force.
By F. J. Prrant, M.A,
[Read 12th April, 1877.]
THE nature of our conception of Force and of Force itself,
if there be any such thing, have been the matter of frequent
discussion ; but the various questions raised cannot be said
to have received answers which are universally accepted as
satisfactory.
Why does a stone fall to the ground if unsupported ?
It is stated in explanation of this phenomenon that the
stone is attracted by the earth, or that the earth exerts
a force upon it. What do we mean in the first place
by saying that a force is exerted upon the stone; and
secondly, by saying that that force is exerted by the earth ?
Had we said that the motion of the stone was due to a force
exerted by John Smith, the meaning of such a statement is
plain enough—that a certain state or act of John Smith’s
mind, such as we call an effort, pull, or force, preceded and
was the cause of the motion. Do we mean, then, in the
former case, that a similar state of consciousness, a similar
effort or pull, was antecedent to the motion of the stone ?
and if so, do we imagine the earth to be a being capable of
exerting such pulls? As a matter of analytical convenience
it is doubtless extremely useful to imagine inanimate bodies
“as exerting efforts to move each other about, similar to the
forces which each man knows that he exerts himself, and
which he believes to be exerted by other human beings; but
do they really do so? I follow the system of philosophy
which Mr. G. H. Lewes is now expounding, so far at all
events as to reply that we have no means of ascertaining
whether they really do or not; that the idea of forces sup-
posed to be exerted by inanimate bodies is. a metempirical
concept, indispensable perhaps for purposes of calculation,
but resembling subsidiary unknowns introduced in the
course of solving a mathematical problem, which disappear
in the final result. .
The effects of which the forces are supposed to be the
Bi) On Force.
causes are all we are concerned with, and whether the earth
really exerts a pull on the stone or not is a question which
neither common sense nor science can solve, nor, In my
opinion, need desire to solve; let the metaphysician under-
take the impossible and unprofitable task if he will.
The answers I have given to the above questions concern-
ing Force would probably be accepted by ali disciples of the
modern Experience school of philosophy, but many able
investigators of nature and powerful reasoners have not
been content with the bounds which it sets to the kingdom
of knowledge. Thus Sir John Herschel has said—and his
dictum is quoted with approval in a very clever and
eloquent article by the late Mr. Martineau (Contemporary
Review, March, 1876), which has important bearings on the
question at issue :—
“Tt is our own immediate consciousness of effort when
we exert force to put matter in motion, or to oppose and
neutralise force, which gives us this internal conviction of
power and causation so far as it refers to the material world,
and compels us to believe that whenever we see material
objects put in motion from a state of rest, or deflected from
their rectilinear paths, and changed in their velocities if
already in motion, it is a consequence of such an effort
somehow exerted, though not accompanied with owr con-
sciousness. ” :
_ Mx. Martineau also quotes Du Bois-Reymond, a philosopher
of a very different way of thinking, who says :—
“ Power, regarded as the cause of motion, is nothing but
a more recondite product of the irresistible tendency to
perontly which is impressed upon us. What do we gain
by saying that it is reciprocal Attraction whereby two par-
ticles of matter approach each other? Not the shadow of
any insight into the nature of the process.” :
_ And Mr. Martineau is forced to admit that Du Bois-Rey-
mond is justified in his criticism if the human mind has
nothing to do but to become an accomplished Natur
forscher ; which is, I presume, the only aim of the human
mind which Physical Science is concerned with.
The question under discussion may be not unprofitably
illustrated by an analogy from the undulatory theory of
light. As that theory is commonly taught in the text-
books, it supposes that at each point of space through
which light is being propagated there goes on a backward
Le eee ee ee eae = eee
On Force. 5
and forward motion of particles analogous to the vibrations
of a pianoforte-wire, and to students, nay, even to expert
physicists, it is doubtless a great assistance to have the
hypothesis stated in that concrete and specific form. But
the truth of the undulatory theory is only established by
the agreement of its results with those of experiments, and
the same results could be obtained from a much more
general hypothesis than that usually made. It is only
necessary to suppose that, as Clerk Maxwell says (EHlec-
tricity and Magnetism, Vol. IL, p. 407), the disturbance
which constitutes light is of the nature of a vector («e., a
quantity having both magnitude and direction) perpen-
dicular to the ray; and all the beautiful theorems whose
truth has been so abundantly confirmed by experiment
and observation, could still be deduced if we supposed that
the vector disturbance is a strain, a rotation, a magnetisa-
_ tion, or electrification of particles, instead of supposing the
particles to have motions of translation.
Still it would be inconvenient, if not impossible, especially
for purposes of instruction, to abandon the ordinary specific
hypothesis. In the same manner should the hypothesis of
forces exerted by inanimate bodies be maintained, as though
not necessarily true, still very convenient, and invariably
leading to true results. It is often said that if all calculated
results of an hypothesis agree with experiment, that hypo-
thesis must itself be true. The statement is not correct.
The most that we are warranted in believing is that all
other calculated results will also be found to be experi-
mentally true, and this is especially the case when the
hypothesis is one like that of Forces, which from its very
nature cannot and could not under any conceivable circum-
stances be directly subjected to an experimental test. Surely
it is more hopeless to attempt to verify the existence of
the earth’s attraction than it is to endeavour to see the
vibrations of the ether.
Professor Tait, in a lecture delivered before the British
Association last year, has attacked the existence of Force in
a different manner; and although I agree so far with his
conclusions as to believe that the existence of material
forces is not and cannot be proved, I do not believe the
‘reasoning by which he arrives at that conclusion is valid.
He not only believes that Force is proved not to have real
objective existence, but that that peculiar and abstruse
fee On Fore
quality is proved to be possessed by Matter and by Energy.
One of the premises from which he is led to his conclusions
is that Matter and Energy are unalterable in quantity, while
Force is not so. True enough; but consider the other pre-
mise—that those qualities or entities whose total quantity
is unalterable, and those only, do really exist.
By anything having real objective existence, Professor
Tait explains that he means that it exists altogether inde-
pendently of the senses and brain processes, by which we
are informed of its presence. Whether anything does exist
in this independence, I do not know; nor do I believe that
any one else does or can. But without going into the con-
troversy between Realism and Idealism, I simply ask whence
does Professor Tait obtain his axiom connecting absolute
reality and indestructibility ? What higher claim has it to
credence than any of the axioms criticised by Mill, in his
chapter on Fallacies of Simple Inspection, such as “ Circular
motion is the most perfect,’ “Things which we cannot think
of together cannot coexist,” “Things which we cannot help
thinking of together must coexist,’ “Whatever can be
thought of apart exists apart,’ and so on ?
Moreover, if the negative portion of the axiom be accepted,
although Matter—that is Mass—is proved to exist, Time,
Distance, Motion, are degraded to the rank of nonentities
along with Force.
But how is the mass of a body defined and measured ?
By the effect which a certain force acting on the body for a
certain tine would produce. And how is energy defined and
measured ? As power of domg work—that is, of overcoming
a given force through a certain distance. Surely I cannot
be accused of presumption in criticising the conclusions of a
thinker of Professor Tait’s high standard when he tells us
that that which is defined in terms of, and measured by
means of, that which does not exist, has itself independent
real existence. |
As probably most of you have read the lecture referred to,
it is unnecessary for me to say anything about the most
valuable part of it—Professor Tait’s exposition of the loose
and ambiguous way in which the term Force is often used
even by those who should know better. For this he should
have earned the gratitude of all lovers of that accuracy in
scientific language without which accuracy of thought is
almost unattainable.
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Some Expervments vn Propulsion. 7
Art. Il—Some Hupervnents 1 Propulsion.
By 8. R. DEVERELL, Esq.
[Read 12th April, 1877. ]
THE following are particulars of some experiments made at
Torbay (England) in February last, by Mr. B. Tower, of
Newcastle-on-Tyne, respecting the application of the power
represented in the movement of a ship on waves. The
experiments were made in the presence of Mr. W. Froude,
F.R.S., and Mr. H. Brunel. The vessel in question was a
miniature ship of six (6) feet in length, and was lent for the
purpose from the Admiralty Works at Torquay. The appa-
ratus used was similar in plan to that of a model exhibited
at the Exhibition in Melbourne in 1873, with the exception
that a strong metallic spring was employed instead of a
pneumatic one. The tension on the spring was such that
when the vessel was horizontally placed in smooth water
the loaded working beams of the machinery were also
horizontal. The relative motions of the load were limited
to one dimension only—viz., in a plane at right-angles to the
plane of the deck. These relative movements were imparted
to a ratchet-wheel, causing it to revolve continuously in one
direction. The shaft of the ratchet actuated a large wheel
and pinion, and the continuous rotation of the pinion was
ultimately conveyed to the screw shaft by an indiarubber
band accumulator, which stored up the power transmitted
to the screw.
As the vessel was decked, and had only been lent for the
trial, the machinery had to be placed above deck, and owing
to this it could not be loaded to its full power: a load of
only seven pounds being placed on it. This was a serious
disadvantage, as, had the machinery been below, a load three
times as great would have been placed on it, the power
developed being increased in the same proportion. Not-
withstanding this, tbe results completely verified the calcula-
tions which had been made respecting the operations of the
machinery, the screw on an average making forty (40)
revolutions per minute, the vessel attaining a speed of 34
knots against a head.sea and wind. The maximum effect
was observed to take place when the play of the load was
isochronous with the period of the waves; whenever this
Bit. Some Experiments in Propulsion.
occurred the machine worked with great vigour, the screw
sometimes making as many as 180 revolutions per minute.
It should be remembered, however, that this great speed of
rotation of the screw is not the best suited for propul-
sion, on account of the creation of what is known as negative
slip of the screw. Indeed the difficulty throughout in the
experiments which have been made is not in obtaining
sufficient power, but rather in controlling the excess of it.
The wind on the occasion under notice was off shore, the
waves therefore very small, about four feet long, and a few
inches only in height, with a period of six seconds. The
reason why the period of the waves is so important an
element in the effect produced, is that the efficacy of the
principle depends mainly on the velocity of the movements,
not their magnitude, as shown in the fact that the model in
question worked vigorously with the movement of only an
inch, repeated however ten times per minute. In point of
theory the action of the apparatus involves some very
abstruse points; indeed it had proved not a little perplexing
to those who had witnessed it. Mr. Froude, at the first
meeting of the Institution of Naval Architects, 1874, referred
to the principles involved in the action of the machine as a
very obscure subject ; and again, at the British Association
at Bristol, September, 1875, he spoke of it as a most complex
proposition which he and others had at first only dimly seen
through. Mr. G. Rendel also, the distinguished engineer
and originator of the “Staunch” class of gun-boats, and the
partner of Sir Wm. Armstrong, has referred to the principle
of the machine as (to repeat Mr. Rendel’s words) a very
curious and beautiful idea, and that it has been well worked
out; as a scientific principle, he adds, he considers it perfect.
Similarly at the April session of the Institution of Naval
Architects, Lord Hampton, the President of the Institution,
spoke of it as one of the most important, but at the same
time most difficult, of projects. It need hardly be added
that the development of a principle so little understood as
is admitted in these opinions is necessarily a work of slow
progress, when every step in the demonstration nearly ex-
hausts for a long time individual means.
The dynamical effect exhibited by the model during the
experiments as accurately taken at the time, was at the rate
of 14 horse-power per ton of working load. With regard to
this vigour of action, which occasioned some surprise at the
si iegraaii es eae ; , eS
ot ee Oe ae oS Ag oe PNR ee ee a ee ee ee ee oe ee Sn ee
sh aa das aan
Some Experiments in Propulsion. 9
time, it may be remarked that the load acquired such a pro-
portion of the large moving force of the water displaced
_ by the ship as the mass of the load bears to the mass of the
ship. Thus if 100 tons be employed in a vessel of 1000,
the machine acquires 1-10th of the whole moving force of
the water displaced ; this being indirectly abstracted, as Mr.
Tower well expresses it, from the vast store of energy
passing beneath the feet. In other words, every ton becomes
imbued with the force with which the same weight of water
—.e., of thirty-five cubic feet—is moving at the time: in the
case of a load of 100 tons consequently representing the
energy of 3500 cubic feet of water moving with the speed
of the wave motion. The considerable effect of this may
perhaps be apparent (though the applications are quite dis-
similar) by observing the effect of even a sluggish stream in
turning a water-mill.
The experiments briefly detailed above have been since
repeated in different forms with the same results, and have
been admitted to have shown the correctness of the method
employed, whatever may be the theory of its action, in
applying the energy stored in the movements of the sea.
As some doubt was expressed at the British Association
(Bristol, 1875) as to the ability of the machine to drive a
ship against a head sea, Mr. Froude (who was at the time
President of the Mechanical Section) stated that he had
himself witnessed the model in Torbay driving itself against
and through a head sea which, in comparison with the size
of the model, was mountainous. As this refers to a point
of importance, the testimony of so distinguished an authority
may, I think, be regarded as definitive on the matter. A
proposition to which value has been attached is that, given
the same bulk and weight, the power developed under
ordinary circumstances compares favourably with that of a
steam-engine, and under exceptional states of the sea it is
very much greater. I think I may say that the very care-
fully repeated experiments of Mr. Tower do not leave room
for doubt on this head. In any case it would appear that,
apart from auxiliary propulsion, a useful source of power
for many minor purposes at sea exists. Asregards pumping,
it may be remembered that the power referred to is mostly
- greatest in those emergencies when it is most required—viz.,
when a vessel is at the mercy of the elements, and when
fires cannot be maintained.
10. The Present State of Meteorology.
Art. II—The Present State of Meteorology.
By R, L. J. ELvuery, Esq., F.R.S., FLR.AS.
[Read 10th May, 1877.]
THE desirability of increasing our knowledge concerning
the weather, and more especially with the view of securing
some amount of prescience on meteorology, is, I believe,
generally admitted; and few will for a moment question
the propriety of expending labour, pains, and money, if
thereby the more important changes of weather could be
predicted with certainty a few days in advance, or if
reasonable premonition of climatic vicissitudes—such as
rains, droughts, excessive heat, or cold—could be deduced
from the discussion of past and present meteorological
observations. Assuming this much, then, I purpose to
refer briefly to what has been and is being done towards
these ends, and with what probability of success and
usefulness to the world.
Although the systematic meteorological observations and
investigations of the physical laws dominating the changes
and movements of the earth’s atmosphere have occupied
the attention of physicists and observers in past times, it
is only within the last few years, comparatively speaking,
that the subject has been grappled with comprehensively
and scientifically. The tentative essay at prediction and
forecast on scientific principles which has been made in
Kurope and America are matters almost of to- day, and
must be considered as yet only “feeling its way.” It is
true we have had from time to time, from Murphy down-
wards, weather systems propounded, weather predictions a
year in advance, and almanacs printed with a prediction
allotted to each day; a lucky coincidence or two enlists the
belief of the ignorant for a time, but. that great teacher,
experience, eventually relegates all these spurious systems
to the limbo of fools. The truly scientific meteorologist
knows the difficulty of the matter, and how little has yet
been made light which will enable him to predict with
confidence what weather will prevail in any one locality a
The Present State of Meteorology. 11
few hours ahead, and will at once admit his inability to
deal with the facts of meteorology as he would with those
of any of the physical sciences.
Attempts have also been made, upon scientific grounds, to
deduce from a discussion of seasonal mean temperature the
probable characteristics of coming seasons; to ascertain if
there be a periodicity in climatic vicissitudes, as well as to
generalise in other ways from past experience. As an instance
of these attempts, I may refer to the very clever and exhaust-
ive paper by my friend and co-labourer, Mr, H. C. Russell,
of Sydney, given to the Royal Society of New South Wales,
entitled “Meteorological Periodicity ;’ but while this paper
is one of the most valuable extant for reference on the
subject of Australian meteorology, it clearly indicates the
apparent hopelessness of any such attempt in our present
state of knowledge, and certainly no satisfactory results have
been deduced from the other investigations referred to.
Almost every civilised country at the present time is
provided with a principal meteorological observatory or
observing station, generally assisted by various other
stations of more or less importance, according to position
or instrumental appliances, either wholly or partly sup-
ported by public money. Besides these there are always
numerous careful and energetic private observers, who
voluntarily furnish the central observatory with the
results of their work. I know of no country or place of
importance where settlement and civilisation have reached
from whence meteorological records cannot be obtained ;
and if one can judge of the extent to which meteorological
facts have been collected from the piles upon piles of manu-
script records at the Melbourne Observatory, not only from
these colonies, but from various regions of the broad ocean,
from desolate islands and other places, leaving alone the
weary number of volumes, sheets, and pamphlets which
arrive from other countries, | think I am perfectly safe in
saying that in no branch of inquiry has such an enormous
amount of statistics been collected as in meteorology.
Now one of the chief, if not the chief, object in instituting
meteorological observations in any country at the public
cost, may be assumed to be climatology—for economic, sani-
tary, and, perhaps most of all, for agricultural purposes; to
ascertain by a long extended series of observations the range
of temperature, rainfall, movements of air, &c., to which the
12 The Present State of Meteorology.
particular country may be subject. The broader aspect of
the question is, as a rule, a secondary consideration—to be
desired, but too extensive to be grappled with by observa-
tions extending only over a limited area ; and so, while the
accumulating records gradually serve the more immediate
climatological requirements, they are laid by or are printed
and disseminated. Except for the sake of criticism, these
printed observations are only referred to occasionally by the
student, writer, or traveller; and although there is now and
then something said of the desirability of dealing with this
enormous collection of facts, I think that about a thousand
Keplers would be wanted for the task.
It will not be denied, however, that for local requirements
some systematically conducted meteorological research is
necessary and valuable in all civilised communities, more
especially in countries like Australia, depending largely on
agricultural and pastoral interests, as well as maritime
commerce, and subject to the climatic vicissitudes which so
often prevail. Assuming this, it will not be unprofitable to
inquire how the observations can best be made in Australia
to serve all the more immediate and local requirements, and
at the same time assist in the general scheme of investi-
gating the laws which govern the earth’s atmosphere
generally.
Before doing this, I would briefly indicate what is being
attempted in other countries. The United States of America
certainly stand in front as far as regards the magnitude and
system of meteorological research, and the results obtained.
The vast land-tracks in the U.S. over which meteorological
observing stations have been extended have made possible
in that country a system which few other nations could
attempt. Provided with almost unlimited means, and the
assistance of a whole army of military men as observers,
the signal service of the United States has been enabled to
meteorologically blockade a large portion of the continent.
Aided by all the facility that can be conferred by a network
of telegraph’ lines where priority and promptitude of
despatch is insisted upon and given, the American meteor-
ological system is undoubtedly the most’ complete in the
world. The principal outcome of this great scheme is the
issuing of daily weather charts and bulletins showing the
meteorological conditions all over the States, and the publi-
cation of forecasts or “ probabilities” (as they are called)
The Present State of Meteorology. 13
of the weather a day or two ahead, indicating the track and
intensity of marked disturbances, or the approach of fine
weather. It is stated that over 80 per cent. of these predic-
tions are realised, and if that be so, the result will not be so
incommensurate with the magnitude and cost of the system
as might at first be imagined, It is to be hoped, however,
that in this magnificent undertaking some of the higher
meteorological problems may be attempted and solved; and
it is not unworthy of remark that General Myer, the
director of this service, has enlisted the co-operation of
nearly all the meteorological observatories in the world in
obtaining simultaneous observations—that is, the meteoro-
logical conditions in force at each station at one definite
time, that time being forty-three minutes after noon, Green-
wich mean time.
From inquiries made during my late visit to Europe, I
ascertained. that 250,000 dols. was the annual vote for the
American signal service, and that that amount included no
salaries for observers, all of which come from the military
votes. In Great Britain £10,000 is voted annually for
meteorological purposes, and the commission of inquiry in
its recent report on the department recommended an increase
to £14,000 or £15,000.
The meteorological system of Great Britain includes both
ocean and land meteorology. The former comprises means
for furnishing the necessary instruments, c., for observation
to ships of both the Imperial and mercantile navy, and col-
lecting and tabulating the results; while the latter includes,
besides the ordinary systematic observations, a very complete
system of weather telegraphy and storm warnings. Hvery
morning, Sundays excepted, telegrams are received from
about 50 places, more than half of which are in the British
Isles, and the rest in other European countries. These
telegrams are immediately discussed, and weather-charts
founded on the results are at once published and dissemi-
nated. By this means the movements of the atmosphere
over Northern Europe and the adjacent ocean become
known. The approach of storms can be generally predicted
with reasonable certainty, and warning at once given to the
threatened coast line by telegrams, which are made widely
_ and rapidly known by the storm-signals and other means. At
the same time all the purposes of agricultural meteorology
are subserved by the weather-charts, and the carefully pre-
14 The Present State of Meteorology.
pared bulletins published in the daily papers. While, there-
fore, the more strictly local and practical requirements are thus
admirably served, by reason of the oceanic observations and
the widely spread area from which daily telegrams are re-
ceived, the more theoretical demands from which to deduce
information concerning the relations that prevail between the
atmospheric movements and conditions in different parts of
a considerable portion of the earth’s surface are supplied.
France, Belgium, Denmark, Holland, Germany, Sweden,
Russia, Austria, and Italy, all co-operate in similar work ;
but while America and England undoubtedly contribute
most liberally, each of the nations mentioned grants State
funds for meteorological purposes varying from £500 to
£6000 annually. The latter sum, if we take into consider-
ation the value of money and cost of computing power in
most of the countries named, would represent an amount
equivalent to, if not more than, the annual grant made by
the British Parliament.
These brief references will convey a pretty correct notion
of what is being done for meteorology in the Western world.
I have only to mention that in South America, Cape Colony,
India, China, Japan, Mauritius, and other places, systematic
observations are made, to show that a pretty round sum
must be expended every year for the purpose of recording
what the weather has been, with the glimmer of a hope that
the power of predicting what it will be may be eventually
secured. .
The outcome of all this expenditure of money and labour
is at present easily summed up. In America it is said, and
I do not doubt it, that immense and increasing benefit is
conferred on the community by prompt publication of the
“probabilities.” In Great Britain and Northern Europe
most of the dangerous storms are foreseen, and much loss of
life and property no doubt prevented ; for the rest of the
world, with some few exceptions, the results are confined to
furnishing climatic statistics generally of mere local interest,
the piling up of volume upon volume of books filled with
regular readings of instruments and descriptions of atmo-
spheric appearances, which are exchanged between the
observatories and scientific institutions of the world, forming
so much building material for our future meteorological
architects. |
It will be evident from what I have already stated that
:
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The Present State of Meteorology. 15
meteorological observation holds a prominent place in the
world’s work, and that there is no niggard contribution from
State or other public funds to aid in the undertaking; and
while it will also be seen that in addition to the collection
of statistics, which are in themselves valuable, a foretaste of
what may be hoped for from systematic investigation has
been actually realised in both Great Britain and America,
it cannot but be admitted that meteorology has not yet
become a science. To those who know the difficulty and
complexity of the problems involved, this is no matter for
surprise. Nevertheless, if, after all the time, money, and
labour spent upon observation, and the enormous mass of
statistics collected, we are compelled to this conclusion, the
question forces itself upon us whether or not the inquiry of
nature has been in the right direction, or whether there are
not other modes of inquiry necessary to elucidate what the
usual modes of observation have as yet failed to do... These
questions I cannot pretend to answer. I feel confident,
however, that our inquiries must be extended in new direc-
tions before further theoretical knowledge can be secured.
The present system of meteorological observation consists
in measuring and recording at each particular locality the
variations of temperature, pressure, movement, and humidity
of. the atmosphere, the amount of heat radiated from the
sun by day and sent back from the earth into space by
night, the amount of water evaporated from the earth’s
surface, and the amount returned to it in the shape of rain.
To these may be added as matters of observation at some
places the electric condition of the air, the temperature of
the exterior crust of the earth, and the variations of terres-
trial magnetism. Although nearly all observers agree that
these constitute the orthodox items for observation, they
are not at all agreed as to the best methods of obtaining
them ; there is a diversity of apparatus, different methods
of exposure, and different times for observation. Some
observations considered of paramount importance in ,one
country are neglected in another, and so on. In order,
however, to establish one universal and accordant system, a
congress of Kuropean meteorologists was formed a few years
ago, which has met from time to time at the various cities
of Europe to discuss matters connected with this part of
the subject. Recommendations have already been issued
and co-operation invited by the congress, but the existing
D
Fae The Present State of Meteorology.
differences in matters of detail are so numerous and great
that it is likely a considerable time will elapse before the
congress can hope to succeed in establishing that uniformity
of procedure so necessary in meteorology. Most of the
observations are made near the surface of the ground, and
even in this part of the subject difference of opinion exists :
some prefer 4 feet, others 5 feet, 6 feet, 7 feet, or 10 feet,
while many physicists attach great importance to the esta-
blishment of observatories at considerable altitudes, either
on mountain-tops or by means of captive balloons; and
there can be little doubt that observations made at altitudes
varying from 2000 feet to 10,000 feet would add very mate-
rially to meteorological knowledge. Within the last few
years, also, the state of the sun’s surface has been regarded
by many as being in some way connected with climatic
variations, as we know it has upon the magnetic conditions
of the earth.
I must now say a few words concerning what has been
and is being done in Australia in this matter. For many
years past meteorological observations of a more or less
perfect character have been made in the various colonies,
and annual means of temperature, rainfall, &c., deduced.
Of later years the number of observing stations has been
largely increased, with greatly improved instrumental aid ;
and many of the questions asked by the public, meteor-
ologists have been able to answer ; the chief characteristics
of the climate have become known, and some of the laws
which govern the movements of many of our atmospheric
disturbances have been ascertained. But regarding the
great local question of dry and wet seasons, and similar
matters of the greatest importance in Australia, we are as
ignorant as ever. I have now been intimately connected
with Australian meteorology for nearly 25 years, and have
gained some experience as to our requirements in that
respect, of which I shall have a few words to say presently.
At the present moment we have five properly furnished
meteorological stations, where observations are made at least
three times a day. Four of these are on the coast, three of
which are lighthouses. Besides these we get observations
once or twice a day made with standard instruments from
seven stations, and records of rainfall and state of weather
from 23 stations. Most of these are supplied with instru-
ments at the cost of the State, while many observers furnish
The Present State of Meteorology. 17
returns more or less complete with instruments belonging to
themselves.
Some months ago, after my return from Europe, I deter-
mined to try and bring our meteorological system into a
somewhat better shape. Hach colony possessed a pretty
complete machinery for first-class observation, and every
month, or every year, the printed results were exchanged.
My inquiry into the working of the weather telegram system
in Europe convinced me that, now all the colonies are con-
nected by telegraph, a similar system, on a smaller scale,
could be put into operation here with considerable advan-
tage to the public, especially the maritime portion, and at
a very moderate cost. The question had often been discussed
between Mr. Todd, of Adelaide, Mr. Russell, of Sydney, and
myself, but matters had never appeared ripe until last year,
when I formally asked the co-operation of these gentlemen,
which was cordially given. Plans of operation were dis-
cussed and agreed upon, and in January last a system of
Australian weather telegraphy wascommenced. This system
consisted of the exchange of observations in cypher by tele-
graph between Adelaide, Melbourne, and Sydney twice a
day (Sundays excepted), the observations being those ob-
tained at selected stations furnished with properly tested
instruments. The stations were so selected that most of the
coast-line along which passes our principal traffic should be
represented, as well as districts which may be taken as
typical of Central Australia; and with the view of having
information of the dip of the monsoons and equatorial
currents, stations along the trans-Australian telegraph line,
as far north as Port Darwin, were also chosen. The informa-
tion exchanged is of the usual kind—readings of barometers,
_ thermometers, rain gauges, observations of wind, state of sea,
appearance of sky, &c.
The first object in view in establishing this system was to
prepare every afternoon a synopsis of the weather and state
of the sea along the coast line, and also eventually to issue
a weather chart, showing graphically the substance of the
weather telegrams. It was intended to publish this infor-
mation by posting the charts and bulletins at the various
telegraph and shipping offices where they were likely to be
of value.
The second object hoped for was the increase of knowledge
of the meteorology of Australia generally, and additions to
the very scant theoretical information we now possess.
D2
The Present State of Meteorology.
© Up to a certain point this system may be said to be
established in Melbourne, but beyond it seems at present
somewhat difficult to get, on account of the irregular
and unpunctual manner in which the telegrams from the
neighbouring colonies come to hand, rendering it impos-
sible to satisfactorily attempt the publication of either
weather bulletins or charts. Whether this is owing to
defective telegraph arrangements, or a want of appreciation
of the importance of the matter on the part of the various
Telegraph Departments, I cannot say ; but it must be obvious
to all. who know anything of the matter that unless there
be prompt despatch and delivery of weather telegrams, it |
will be useless to try and make any immediate use of the
information for the public benefit. In England, America,
Belgium, &c., weather telegrams have precedence of all but
pressing State business, as it is well known that without it
they would be useless. These difficulties are, however, I
hope only temporary, and are almost inevitable at the
beginning of all new undertakings. I have good hopes there-
fore that the system will ripen into a most useful institution,
which will, lam sure, be quickly and fully appreciated by
the public. It is hoped that Western Australia, Tasmania,
and Queensland will before long be included in the scheme;
for the two former are, from their position, of great import-
ance, and will increase in no small degree the prospect of
further theoretical knowledge.
The meteorological observations comprised in this system
leave a large amount of local inquiry unsatisfied, which can,
however, I believe, be adequately provided for by a simpler
method than is required for Australian weather telegraphy.
While the six or seven selected stations in Victoria must be
kept in the most efficient working order, with a full supply
of instrumental means, local climatology and weather sta-
tistics can be furnished by a more numerous class of second-
ary stations, which should supply a brief daily report
by telegraph of the state of weather, wind, temperature,
and rainfall, and keep a record of the same, from which the
usual monthly and annual means can afterwards be deduced
at the Observatory for publication in the meteorological
statistics. Such stations should be established in every
township of importance, and it is a question whether this
might not best be done by the municipal authorities, for it
is not at all improbable that they might take sufficient
The Present State of Meteorology. 19
interest in the matter, simply for the sake of the local
information, to provide the necessary instruments and
‘secure the requisite observations.
Our rainfall varies so largely with locality, that in order
to obtain trustworthy statisties—so necessary in matters of
water supply, drainage, and other public works—a rain
gauge should be kept at every police station throughout the
country. There are over 300 public barometers on the
English coast for the use of fishermen and others, and in
Victoria there are seven or eight. A few more of these
instruments, if they could be taken care of (which some of
those now in position appear not to be), would be advan-
tageous. They are, however, not nearly so much required
on our coast as in England.
The eager inquiries from all classes for weather news,
especially during our critical seasons, render it desirable to
adopt some simple means for furnishing the information
sought. This is now done toa considerable extent by the
* Central Telegraph Office, but threatens to become a too
cumbrous tax on that service if it is not systematised. If
the localities from which reports are to be received were
properly selected, and a simple code adopted, confining the
reports to state of wind and weather, rainfall and tempera-
ture, omitting barometer readings entirely, a much more
comprehensive and comprehensible bulletin of the weather
prevailing throughout the colony would be furnished to the
public than is now the case, without taxing the Telegraph
Department so much as at present. By these means I think
all the requirements of a temporary and local character
would be fully met, while all the higher and more theo-
retical questions would be probably better dealt with by
confining our attention to a few well-selected and well-
equipped stations than by more numerous half-furnished
observatories indiscriminately chosen. Itis more economical,
and more likely to be fruitful. The establishment of a
station at a considerable altitude is the only addition to the
present scheme that is required, and this I hope to accom-
plish before long on Mount Macedon, at an elevation. of
3000 feet.
90 Notes on a Remarkable Meteor seen at Pollan.
Art, IV.—WNotes on a Remarkable Meteor seen May 20th at
} Ballan.
By Louis Le GouLp, C.E.
[Communicated 14th June, 1877.]
Art. V.—Notes on the Design of Telescope Tubes.
By W. C. Kernot, M.A., C.E.
[Read 12th June, 1877. ]
THE problem which I desire to bring before the Society to-
night is that of the design of tubes for telescopes, and my
remarks will have especial reference to telescopes of large
size, such as for example the great Melbourne Reflector.
These gigantic instruments are usually reflectors, and
generally consist of a large and a small speculum, with the
necessary subsidiary apparatus; and the function of the
tube is to support these optical appliances in their correct
relative positions. Should the tube be of a flexible and
yielding nature, it will, by virtue of its own weight and
the weight of the specula, bend down or deflect when it
is in any position other than vertical; and this deflection
will vary in amount and direction in the various positions
the instrument is made to assume when directed to different
points in the heavens. Hence if the optical arrangements
are in correct adjustment in one given position of the
instrument, they will cease to be so when it is moved to any
other position.
As all known materials are more or less elastic, it is
manifestly impossible to construct a telescope tube which
shall be altogether free from this objectionable deformation.
Nevertheless it is both possible and desirable to choose such
a material, and to arrange it in such forms, as to reduce the
inevitable deformation to a minimum; in other words, it is
requisite to determine in what shape the material should be
arranged in order to attain a maximum of stiffness, and to
the question as thus limited I shall confine my further
remarks,
<a
<
oat)
Notes on the Design of Telescope Tubes. 21
In the Melbourne Telescope the large speculum is a very
ponderous affair indeed, containing with its surroundings
some tons of metal; while the small mirror situated at the
opposite end of the tube is by comparison a mere feather-
weight. Hence the point of attachment of the tube to the
declination axis (upon which alone it is supported) is placed
very near to the end where the large speculum is fixed.
The lower portion of the tube from the main speculum to
a point a short distance on the other side of the declination
axis is a hollow cylinder of riveted plates of metal very
similar to the outside shell of a steam boiler. From that
point to the extreme further end it consists of an open
latticed arrangement of metal bars. In the Great Paris
Reflector—a somewhat similar instrument in other respects
—the whole tube consists of a continuous cylinder of boiler-
plate. This latter arrangement, while admirable in point of
stiffness, is objected to as giving rise to a certain circulation
of currents of air of unequal refractive power, and thus
impairing the optical performance of the instrument. The
former system—that adopted in the Melbourne Telescope—
is free from this somewhat serious objection.
We have thus arrived at these conclusions—l. That the
greater part of the length of the tube of a large reflector
must consist of an open framework of thin bars. 2. That
this framework will be supported at one end only, where it
is united to the cylinder tube, and will be loaded by its own
weight and that of the small speculum. 3. That the frame-
work must be so arranged as not to intercept any of the
rays of light in their course through the instrument. 4.
That the framework must be so designed as to secure a
maximum of stiffness with a given amount of material; and
5. That it must be equally stiff in every direction.
In order to comply with condition 3, the bars must be
_ placed altogether exterior to the solid cylinder of rays pro-
ceeding to the main speculum, and may be appropriately
arranged in the surface of a cylinder or a prism of polygonal
section. And in order to comply with condition 4 it will be
necessary to revert to the fundamental principles of design
of framed structures, and to adopt a method of investigation
similar to that employed in designing girders, roofs, and
bridges. In fact, the design of our telescope tube is but a
particular case, or extension of the old familiar problem of
designing an open framed bridge girder; the main difference
22. Notes on the Design of Telescope Tubes.
being that, while the bridge girder is required to resist forces
In one plane only, the telescope tube is, by condition 5,
required to resist forces in various planes.
The effect of the force of gravity upon each particle of
material in the telescope may be resolved into two portions
——one along the length of the tube, the other at right-angles
to its length. The first of these will attain its maximum
value when the tube is vertical, and will vanish when. it
becomes horizontal; the second rll attain 1ts maximum when
the tube is horizontal! and will vanish when it is: vertical.
The effect of the first set of forces will be to shorten or com-
press the tube longitudinally, thus ‘bringing the ‘specula
nearer together. But this result is nota practical evil ; for
it: is, in the first place, excessively minute, and; further; 1s
completely neutralised: by the action of focussing the instru-
ment. The second set of resolved: parts—those at right-
angles to the length of the tube—tend to bend the tube,
and thus throw the specula out of their proper ‘relative ‘posi-
tions opposite each other; this is a more serious evil, as it at
once impairs the action of the optical part of the instrument.
In designing our tubes, we need therefore have regard
only to forces at right- -anoles to its length.
. A properly-designed framed girder for a bridge will be
found almost invariably to consist of two massive parallel
straight members or booms, connected together by a system
of more slender straight bars, forming with the parallel booms
a system of triangles, The essential conditions of strength
and stiffness are in this case—Ist, that the structure should
consist of an assemblage of triangles ; the triangle being the
only polygon the form of which is absolutely fixed when the
length of its sides is known, and therefore the only figure
which will maintain its shape in spite: of external forces
without requiring its various parts to endure a cross-bending
action ;-and 2nd, that all the sides of the triangles should be
straight, for seeing that they are called upon to endure
longitudinal compressions and tensions alone, a crooked or
curved form is plainly inadmissible. No one would think
of making a pillar intended to carry a heavy load, or a tie-
rod to endure a heavy tension, other than straight.
Now, our framed telescope tube, like the bridge girder,
must consist of a series of rectilinear triangles, and it must
also have its massive longitudinal booms. \ Two booms will
not. now, however, suffice, for no longer are the forces we liave
Notes on the Design of Telescope Twhes. 23
to contend with, as in the bridge girder, all in one plane. The
tube must be a oirder j in at least two different planes. Now,
two ordinary ¢ virders, intersecting each other at right- angles,
would be well adapted, as far as strength and stiffness are
concerned, but are optically inadmissible ; and therefore it is
necessary to fall back on a prismatic section, each side of the
prism being a complete girder. A prism of four sides—a
square section—would be strong and stiff, but somewhat
unsightly. It has been employed by no less an authority
than Warren de la Rue in the reflector which he used .for
obtaining his celebrated photographs of the moon. I have
here a model (Fig. 1), in which I have endeavoured to show
what appears to me the most favourable disposition of mate-
rial, all things considered. It is hexagonal in section, having
booms at the angles, which together contain about half the
material of which the tube consists. The booms are united
by a series of small, straight, diagonal bars, making an angle
of 45° with the booms, this being the mathematically demon-
strable angle of economy in such structures. The latticed
tube ends in a stiff, hexagonal angle-iron ring, as shown.
The salient feature of the model is the size and number of
the booms; and this is a very favourable arrangement in
view of stiffness, for, as Bindon B. Stoney has shown. in his
excellent work on Strains in Gurders and Framed Struc-
tures, the deformation of a girder due to compression or
extension of its booms is a large quantity compared with
that due to the compression or extension of the smaller bars
uniting the booms. .
In contrast to Fig. 1, let us consider Fig. 2, which is a
representation of the actual tube of the great Melbourne
Telescope. Here we shall, I think, find a systematic infrac-
tion of all the canons above laid down. In a properly
designed framed structure all the bars are straight; in the
Melbourne Telescope they are all curved. In a properly
designed girder a large proportion of the material is placed
in the form of longitudinal booms; in the Melbourne Tele-
scope absolutely none is so employed. The proper angle of
economy and efficiency is 45°; in the Melbourne Telesegpe
this angle is nowhere found.
The action of the various bars of the Melbourne eee.
when under strain, is rather intricate; I will, however,
endeavour to trace it. When the tube is horizontal or
inclined, the effect of gravity is to produce a longitudinal
24 Notes on the Design of Telescope Tubes.
tension of the upper side and a longitudinal compression of
the lower side. ‘To resist these stresses we have a series of
curved bars placed at an angle of about 30° with the lines
of stress. These on the upper side tend to straighten when
under stress, and those below become more curved. Hence
arises a general bulging in of the upper or extended side, and
a general bulging out of the compressed or lower side of the
tube. This action is plainly visible in the model when
loaded. Those parts of the tube which connect the top
and bottom together are subject to equal inclined stresses—
the bars that slope upward toward the open end to com-
pression, the others to tension; the former tend to become
more bowed, the latter to straighten; and as they are
riveted at each intersection, these two actions probably
antagonise and balance each other.
The angle-iron rings which are placed at intervals along
the tube do not, as far as I can see, fulfil any important
function. I think the tube would be improved much if
they were removed, and longitudinal booms inserted
instead.
In order to verify experimentally the preceding conclu-
sions, the two cardboard models represented by Figs. 1 and
2 were constructed. They are of equal length, and will
permit the unobstructed passage of cylinders of rays of light
of equal diameter. They were constructed from the same
sheet of cardboard, special care being employed to use an
exactly equal area of cardboard in each model; and both in
constructing and testing them every possible precaution was
taken to place them under absolutely identical conditions.
The test load was a weight of 12 ounces avoirdupois, applied
at right-angles to the length of the tube at its upper or free
end, the other end being firmly fixed to a massive frame.
After each experiment the tube was rotated on its axis, so
that the test load should act on a different plane. In this
way Fig. 1 was tested six times with the test load acting in
planes passing through two opposite angles, and six times in
planes passing through the centre of two opposite sides; and
Fig. 2 eight times in various directions equally distributed
round the circle. The mean results of these experiments
were as below :—
Fig. 1. Deflection over angles, mean of 6 results, ‘0325 in,
5 - » sides di 0314 in,
Fig. 2. . mean of 8 results, ‘0876 in,
~a
Hi
Ni
if
a
i
ae TM
sth fie
a Ae
Notes on the Design of Telescope Tubes. 25
During the trial the bulging in and bulging out of the
extended and compressed sides of Fig. 2 were plainly visible ;
but no such distortion of Fig. 1 was to be detected, although
its diameter was repeatedly tried with callipers.
Art. VI.—WNotes on the Coast Line Formation of the
Western District, and Proofs of the Uniform Condi-
tion of Meteorological Phenomena over long periods of
time.
By Mr. T. E. Raw.inson, C.E., &c.
[Read on the 14th June, 1877.]
Two years ago a very interesting paper, by Mr. R. Etheridge,
on the sand dunes of the coast of Victoria, was read before
this Society ; and I purpose following up the subject by a
few notes of personal observations on the same subject,
connecting it with volcanic phenomena of the locality.
My observations are chiefly confined to the portion of
coast line from a few miles east of Warrnambool to a few
miles west of Belfast.
My object in doing so this evening is to bring forward
evidence which I consider conclusive in reference to estab-
lishing the fact of the permanence in this locality over great
periods of time of climatic conditions, and the several
changes in the coast line during the same period.
The present coast line from the River Hopkins, east of
Warrnambool, to the Yambuk Lake entrance, about ten miles
west of Beifast, is the third and last line of beach, and
consists chiefly of pulverised shells; and, as Mr. Etheridge
points out, echini spines and other marine remains, to which
I may add enormous quantities of calcareous operculums,
which, from their great strength, have borne with impunity
the bruising which has mostly destroyed the parent uni-
valves, although in places there are many of these univalves
yet left on the dunes, together with the helios limpet and
more ordinary bivalves of the present sea.
In all cases where I have tested the so-called sand with
acids, 80 per cent. and upwards has dissolved, leaving a
small residuum of reddish mud or clay, and the remainder
particles of silica (or sand).
26. Coast Line Formation of the Western District.
From Belfast, for a distance of from four to five miles
easterly, I have often found pure flint nodules, with the
outward white coating precisely the same in appearance as
those obtained out of the chalk hills of Kent; and if it were
not for the number picked up from time to time at various
places on the line of hummocks, I should have been disposed
to think their occurrence purely accidental, the more espe-
cially as I know of no other place where they occur near to
Belfast, nor do I know nor can I conjecture the agency at
work in their formation.
Between two and five miles east of Belfast I have been
much surprised to find the frequent recurrence of human
remains (nearly always in pairs), which had become bared
and the bones mingled together, owing to the action of
the wind on the drifting sand. I have counted as many
as 50 undoubted remains, without taking into account scat-
tered bones which may have belonged to other groups; but
in only one case have I seen a perfect skeleton, and this was
just above high-water mark, the sand around it being tinged
a darker shade, the skull being a little distance away, and
perfect. Owing to matters of business preventing my
attending to the affair at that time, I lost the opportunity
presented of securing the skeleton, owing to the wind and
other causes having disturbed the remains. That all the
remains were human cannot be doubted, because of the
presence of the leg, thigh, and arm bones, the ribs and
vertebree, and frequently the skulls, with the front teeth of
the upper jaw wanting.
From frequent enquiries made of the oldest residents in
reference to the remains, I could obtain no information ; and
natives who used to muster in Belfast under the genial
hospitality of their protector, Mr. Dawson, when first ques-
tioned on the subject evidently knew nothing of it; but
after they had time to consider the object of the questioning,
they, with the well-known courtesy of the race, had a reply
which they evidently considered was the answer wanted.
Some years afterwards, in conversation with Mr. Goodall,
the Superintendent of the Framlingham Aboriginal Station,
he informed me that he had no doubt he could obtain what
information there was to be had from an old Port Fairy
blackfellow on the station; but on my expressing doubt as
to the value of such evidence, he replied that from long
acquaintance with them he felt sure he could question them
Coast Line Formation of the Western District} 27
and obtain truthful replies to his answers, unmodified by
qualifications and inventions given with a view to’ please.
Shortly afterwards Mr. Goodall informed me that the old
blackfellow said there had been a great shooting ; that “Black-
.fellow had been rounded up and shot by whitefellow.” Mr.
Goodall expressed himself as perfectly satisfied. that the
answer was given in good faith, and was true; and this will
account for the singular occurrence of the remains in couples,
which so frequently, and as far as my observations went,
always occurred, the perfect skeleton on the beach excepted.
The above being true (and I think it very probable), it is
but a confirmation of those accounts so frequent in con-
nection with the early settlement of the country, of the
wretched natives in their ignorance interfering with the
white man’s flocks and herds, and provoking these terrible
reprisals. It constitutes murder of the same class with that
of a Queen’s ship, armed with the most perfect weapons and
skilled men, shelling a native village in Polynesia, and
destroying wholesale, in revenge for some isolated outrage
by one or two of the natives, who in all probability but
retaliated for some injury previously sustained at the hands
of the white man.
To return from this digression, I beg to note, in passing,
the great change which has occurred within the ‘last twenty
years in the appearance of the sand dunes. When settle-
ment first took place in the West, and for years afterwards,
the coast line was clothed with verdure ; and west of Belfast
the honeysuckle (Banksia) and she- oak (Casuarina) grew
in abundance; whereas, now, the dunes are denuded of
vegetation, and the trees gone, with the exception of a few
very brief isolated instances; and in many cases the material
of the dunes is drifting inland. In places where the action
of the wind has been localised, and cut gullies in the dunes,
the formations alluded to by Mr. Etheridge may be noted
in abundance—namely, the filling in the cavities formerly
occupied by roots of the sedge grasses, reeds, and other
vegetation, with calcareous concretions, preserving the
common appearance of pith and stem; but the whole is
very brittle, and not in any way partaking of the character
of the older formation fossils.
Between Belfast and Yambuk the dunes have in places
been converted into an indurated limestone, of so firm and
glassy a character that a friend one day brought me in
28 Coast Line Formation of the Western District.
triumph a piece of it which he pronounced to be flint, and
nothing short of an adjournment to a neighbouring chemist’s
would convince him to the contrary.
Inland from the coast, between four and nineteen miles
from Belfast to the west, this indurated limestone is very
prevalent, with the exception of an overflow of lava between
the eighth and tenth miles ; but how far it extends under the
lava I do not know. The limestone is water-worn, is an
excellent road material, and is suitable for building, and
makes a strong mortar. It has many of the ingredients of
an hydraulic lime, but Mr. Foord does not esteem it highly in
this latter respect.
In use I found it to make the best mortar of any I have
used in the colony.
Nearly the whole of the coast line from Warrnambool to
Yambuk is modified by the outflow of lava from Mount
Rouse, which is situated about thirty-six miles from the
coast northerly.
In remote ages, when Mount Rouse was active, the whole
of this region must have been one of sterile desolation over
a great portion of its area, the lava stream extending over a
breadth of many miles from Mount Rouse across the Hawkes-
dale district, and round by the high limestone cliffs of Tower
Hill Marsh (an ancient coast line) to the sea, spreading out
in a fan-like shape from the Sisters in Armstrong’s Bay to
about four miles west of Belfast.
The lines of demarcation of the lava-flow are tolerably
well defined, and leave little doubt as to its source, for on
the north-west, about twenty-four miles from Belfast, we
have at the deep Creek the Mount Rouse lava on one side
and ancient basalt on the other, which extends a consider-
able way north, dividing the outflow from Mount Rouse
from that of Mount Napier and Mount Eccles, to which I
purpose alluding presently ; whilst on the east we enter on
to the out-throw from Tower Hill, which is of an entirely
different character to that from any of the surrounding
vents, namely, those of Mount Gavoc to the east (lava),
Mount Rouse to the north (lava), and Mount Napier and
Mount Eccles (largely of vesicular lava); whilst Tower Hill
has been wholly of ash (vesicular bluestone in a comminuted
state), red-hot stone (glassy in structure), in isolated showers,
dust, and vapour, which now forms the tufa of the neigh-
bourhood,
Coast Line Formation of the Western District. 29
The basalts of Mount Rouse have formed Port Fairy ;
whereas the indurated tufas of Tower Hill, and the indurated
sand dunes of the coast, have formed Lady Bay, the lavas of
Mount Gavoc having been checked in flow westward at
Yangary Creek—a small stream marking the dividing line
between the products of the Tower Hill eruptions and those
of Mount Gavoc, which latter outflow has been further
checked on the south-west by the ancient sand dunes on
which Warrnambool is built. It is possible that the lavas
of Mount Rouse and Mount Gavoc may blend in the country
between Russell’s Creek and Woolsthorpe.
To the west of Belfast, about from twenty-five to thirty
miles, we come on to the outflow of lava from Mount Napier
and Mount Eccles—the former having had its chief outpour
through what is known as the Lowth Swamps, until it joins
the Mount Eccles outflow near to Lake Condah and thence
to the sea.
I have been informed that the overflow of water from
Lake Condah, at one season, disappears under a portion of
the basalt, and after a passage of several miles emerges
again in considerable streams into Darlot’s Creek, which
latter empties into the sea near Portland Bay.
I may mention in this place that near to Yambuk there
is one place where in flood-time a very considerable body of
water enters a cavity in the indurated limestone before
oe as of, and disappears, but where its exit is I never could
earn.
Over nearly all the coast limestone formation there is
evidence of hollows existing in the limestone, because in
driving along there is the peculiar rumble as if passing over
a wooden bridge or vault.
The indurated limestone has been either formed under
water or submerged subsequently ; but I think the evidence
of formation under the sea is reliable, for I have noted what
I believe to be casts of the common limpet in the rock.
Iam further inclined to believe that the outflow of the
lava has been at a period when the sea washed the coast
line of limestone bluffs, to which I have before alluded, as
forming the northern boundary of the Tower Hill marsh,
and which now forms the third line inland of old sea
coast. The evidence of the coast lava having been sub-
merged to a much greater extent than at present is, I think,
proven by the rounded and water-worn forms of the rock
30: Coast Tine Formation of the Western District.
masses—in many cases having a cup-and-ball form, which
can scarcely be due to atmospheric influences alone—and
the. water-worn appearance of the indurated limestone
between Belfast and Yambuk.
__A few miles inland from Warrnambool, in the direction of
Woodford, and across the River Hopkins at Allansford, in
the parish of Tallangatta, there exist large formations of
indurated limestone, similar in character to that deseribed
near Yambuk, at a considerable elevation above the sea, and
containing abundance of marine fossil remains, indicative of
formation below water.
’ Having thus far endeavoured to sketch in the general
geological features of the district, I will now give a general
view of the existing and ancient coast lines, with the evi-
dence in favour of the views enunciated.
In the preceding notes I have pointed out the conditions
which modify the line of coast as at present existent, but to
those above named I must add the agency of ocean currents,
which, although frequently influenced superficially by pre-
vailing winds, all my observations have tended to confirm
those made by me sixteen years ago off the coast of Gipps-
land as to the existence of an oceanic current from the
westward, permanent in its character, and only influenced
superficially by easterly and southerly weather; and it is
due to the existence of such permanent current that all
our harbours and rivers have an easterly or south-easterly
exposure, excepting only in such exceptional circumstances
as the entrance to Port Albert, in Gippsland ; and this, even
in its exception from the general rule, proves the law of
current as stated from west to east.
From Warrnambool to Tower Hill the country consists
chiefly of rounded mammaliferous hills of pulverised shell,
limestone, ash, and tufa; but immediately west. of Tower
Hill we come upon evidences of an old inland coast line,
which gradually rises into a long ridge consisting of pul-
verised shells, spicula, and other marine remains; amongst
which, Mr. Castwood, of Belfast, has obtained sharks’ teeth,
from the inner or second line of ridge near to that town.
Between this inland ridge and the coast exists a flat,
which in part is occupied by a lagoon enclosed from the
sea by the present line of sand dunes. The bed of the
lagoon consists of deep alluvial deposits mixed largely with
sand drift, | ack
Coast Line Formation of the Western District. 31
_ Inland of this second ridge, at a distance of about a mile,
the land rises in steep hills, and, in some places, limestone
bluffs, which extend from Tower Hill westward for from six
to seven miles. The bluffs are chiefly of an imdurated
limestone, but the sloping hills have a thick bed of soft
limestone, with abundance of shell spicula and other marine
remains; and the whole has evidently been the sea-coast of
what has in all probability been an indented bay, formed
between the Tower Hill and the outflow -of lava before
described as coming from Mount Rouse.
The inclosed basin between the second line of ridge and
the bluff is occupied by a bed of stiff black diluvium,
through which flow the surplus waters of Tower Hill and
the country to the north-east and the River Moyne, which
latter rises in the marshes and stony rises south and west of
Mount Rouse.
_ Until recently this flat was more or less a marsh during
the greater portion of the year, but it has now been re-
claimed by drainage.
On a portion of these flats west of the River Moyne, well
shafts have been sunk to depths varying from 14 feet to
18 feet deep, and an original sea bed disclosed, with abun-
dance of recent shells. From the River Moyne westward
the land is chiefly undulating bluestone ridges, until the
sea-coast or the limestone beds before described are reached.
The formation of the land and its three distinct coast lines
as described indicate considerable changes of coast, and
these changes must have occurred since the upheaval of
the land to its present level; and so far from the line of
coast being even now fixed, I have often thought when
standing on the present sand dunes that I could detect in
the paler colour of the sea a short distance from the
present coast a new formation of coast line in progress, but
the data on which I have arrived at this conclusion is not
sufficiently positive to give reliable evidence of the fact;
but, assuming such to be the case, the progress of formation
must of necessity be slow owing to the long period requisite
to accumulate fragments of shell sufficient to form these
extensive mounds. The materials brought down by the
river in floods can have little effect in hastening such forma-
tion, because although the outflowing current is strong
enough to carry along the finer particles of mud sufficient to
discolour the water, it has not velocity sufficient to convey
E
32° Coast Line Formation of the Western District.
the more solid matters held in suspension far from the mouth
of the river.
Such a formation and the agencies which I conjecture to be
in operation are very similar to those of earlier times, when
the second line of ridge was formed enclosing the Tower Hill
marsh and the outer line which encloses the lagoon and flats
between the existing dunes and the second ridge; namely, a
heavy sea on the coast breaking down and carrying back
with its recoil particles of the coast held in mechanical
suspension across a deep water channel, until the under
draft meeting with a resistance of force sufficient to check
its current precipitates the solids in along ridge, which from
continuous accumulations becomes at last a shoal enclosing
a basin; and in time the shoal emerges as a bank, alter-
nately dry and wet, on which the wind can act, and then
begins the process of accumulation in ridges and the filling
in of the basin with vegetable deposits and growth until dry
land appears.
In one place at Warrnambool the wave action from some
cause has become destructive, as evinced by the erosion of
the shell limestone, undermining it, and breaking down the
fallen materials. The outlyers of these rocks now form
dangerous reefs over which the sea breaks for about half
a mile seaward of the coast line of the dunes. From what
has fallen under my own observation, however, I believe the
wave action along the Victorian coast is chiefly conservative,
as a proof of which the long ninety-mile beach of Gippsland
is an excellent example; the dunes of Gippsland bear evi-
dence of formation from similar causes to those suggested as
having been active on the western coast.
Of the long continuance of the climatic conditions existent
in Victoria the out-throw from Tower Hill affords very strik-
ing evidence in the great prevalence of its products to the
east and south-east of the mount, a direction which would
be taken now by ejected matter in any time of great atmo-
spheric disturbance.
The crater of Tower Hill is from five to six miles in cir-
cumference, and rises in places to 320 feet above the level of
the lake, which occupies a large portion of its area, whilst
the island from which it appears to have received its name
rises a little higher in mounds and peaks, with one well-
defined crater and the broken remains of others. When in its
early times of activity, the crater must have been a yawning
Coast Tine Formation of the Western District. 33
gulf of the area described, and probably from 600 to 1000
feet deep ; but as its activity lessened the cones of eruption
formed in the interior, and these having broken out from
time to time in new vents, moulded the peaks nearly as
they now exist.
Surrounded as Tower Hill is by extinct volcanoes, ranging
at various distances from thirty to forty miles—all of which
poured out molten lava in abundance—it is somewhat
singular that amongst the deposits from Tower Hill there
is evidence only of showers of red-hot stones, comminuted
basalt, or ash-dust and vapour. The stones are glassy in frac-
ture, and are obtained in the sides of the crater and adjacent
pastures; but the ash and the dust and vapour which form
the tufa extend around for several miles’ distance, but more
especially to the south and east in the direction of Warrnam-
bool, precisely as if ejected under existing meteorological
conditions. Itis to the vast volumes of steam ejected, and the
heavy rainfalls which would accompany these great atmo-
spheric disturbances concomitant with violent eruptions,
that I attribute the induration of the sand dunes on which
Warrnambool is built into strata of rock bending equably
over in the form of mammaliferous hills; and as each layer
or bed of sand became blown over and covered the former
layer, fresh precipitation of moisture would dissolve, and the
solution would penetrate and cement the loose particles of
shell together; and so the process would continue for such
time as Tower Hill continued to eject matter.
Evidence of the formation of these dunes on dry land is
occasionally given by the exposure of the imprint of foot-
marks of some three-toed animal or bird, which may have
been either emu or kangaroo, the impressions being suffi-
ciently distinct as a footprint, walking on sloping ground,
but scarcely so clear an impression as to indicate precisely
the nature of the animal. .
On the flank of Tower Hill, near Yangery, a shaft was
sunk through the layers of ashes and tufa to a depth of from
70 to 80 feet and a bed of ancient turf exposed; but this
depth I believe to be a minimum.
From a careful consideration of all the preceding facts,
and from reasoning based on them, I have been able to
arrive at only one conclusion, namely, that between Warr-
nambool and Yambuk the form of coast line has been
determined by the outflow of molten lava; that three coast
E 2
34 Coast Line Formation: of the Western District.
lines have been formed in succession between Tower Hill
and Belfast, and that in all probability there is now a fourth
in course of formation ; whilst at Warrnambool the outliers
of rock are but the original dunes partially dissolved and
cemented together by the volumes of vapour and of rain
either ejected from or induced by the action of Tower Hill
in remote times ; and lastly, from the vast preponderance
of Tower Hill out-throws existing in greater quantity
and to a much greater distance in an easterly and south-
easterly than im any other direction, that meteorological
conditions under circumstances of great atmospheric disturb-
ance were in remote times the same as at present—and if in
times of great disturbance of which we have evidence, then
also in periods of comparative repose, and hence climatic
conditions over very remote periods were the same as now.
Art. VII—Wotes on the Recent Earthquake.
By R, L. J. Evuery, Esq, F.R.S., F.R.AS.
[Read 12th July, 1877.]
lo accompany MM? Krawtinsons
LAVA OVE
Sih de Dd
eG
|B accompany IC Bawibinconi
paper om ancianls cous tas -
GHATSW OTH
ey
)
a
Z. by
AMOT i
DakLB
Mount *
Zeclouy LElinga
ALT. eo —<
HEY TE /S
REFERENCES
LAVA OVERFLOWS
Yo Mount Napier
do. Gurvoe
Out- throw; Tower Hill |
|
Coast Lines
142
Notes on Barometer Construction. 35
Art. VIII.—WNotes on Barometer Construction.
By GerorcGe Foorp, F.CS.
[Read 12th July, 1877. ]
AT the last ordinary meeting of the Society my name was
on the list for reading an account of a proposed new form
of barometer—a somewhat free translation of a paper
appearing in a recent number of Poggendorfi’s Annalen—
it bemg understood that papers possessing this degree of
originality may from time to time be brought upon their
own merits under the notice of the Society. For want of
time the reading was postponed, since which postponement
it has occurred to me that there were other proposed forms
of barometer which it might be also interesting to consider ;
moreover, that a few hints concerning barometer tubes, and
the precautions to be observed in selecting, preparing, and
filling them—points which have fallen within the range of
my own personal experience—might prove useful. Most of
those who follow physical inquiries in the colony find the
necessity of at times helping themselves, often to the extent
of repairing, and occasionally of constructing, the instruments
upon which their work depends ; and therefore it is believed
that an interchange of views and experience concerning
minor details of construction—such as those now offered—
may not be wholly devoid of interest.
I will then, with your concurrence, proceed in the first
place to give a few hints calculated to assist those who may
choose for the first time to try their skill in barometer
building ; and I will afterwards make reference to the forms
of barometer proposed respectively by C. Bohn, by Guthrie,
and an old proposition of Descartes incidentally mentioned
in Mr. Guthrie’s paper, and which is not dissimilar in prin-
ciple to a form brought under the notice of our Society last
session, and which originated with Mr. Venables.
First, then, as to the glass tube to be used. Its selection is
a matter of primary importance. Callipers or gauges will
enable us to ascertain how far the bore of a glass tube, other-
wise applicable to our purpose, is of the same diameter at the
two ends ; for such gauges we may use very taper cones of
copper or brass, or acute-angled plates of copper, brass, or
36 Notes on Barometer Construction.
zinc. Or we may choose to be more exact, and properly
calibrate our tube throughout; although it must be here
admitted that even for a syphon barometer it is only a few
inches of each end of the tube which is required to be of
uniform diameter. For calibration, if the interior diameter
of the tube be small, say not exceeding two, or at the most
three millimetres, we may pass a cylinder of mercury of
known weight from end to end of the tube, accurately
measuring the length of this thread of mercury progressively
during its course; this will give data from which we may
calculate the mean diameter of the bore of the tube in every
portion of its length.*
For the calibration of wide tubes we may close one end,
and, fixing the tube in a vertical position, weigh or accu-
rately measure into it definite constant quantities of mer-
cury. Or a method well calculated to avoid air bubbles
may be practised by fitting the lower closed end of the tube
with a glass reservoir, furnished with tubular terminations
and glass or steel stopcocks. This reservoir with its tubes
has the form of the letter U, the reservoir forming the thick
arm of the letter (see Fig. 1). The parallel vertical tubular
branch representing the thin arm contains a stopcock of
supply, while a second stopcock for discharge of the mercury
from the reservoir is placed at the lower portion or bend of
the U. The whole requires to be fixed on a vertical board,
and a funnel with capillary lower termination, of a length
* For purposes for which it is convenient to gauge, with a metallic gauge,
the interior diameter of the two ends of the glass tube, the calculation for
the estimation of the relative diameter of the intermediate parts becomes
very simple, as the following example chosen as affording a simple illustra-
tion will show :—Say diameter at each or either end is found by the gauge
to be 4 millimetres, and that we introduce a cylinder of mercury measuring
in this part of the tube 10 millimetres in length. Suppose that we pass this
column along towards the centre of the tube to a position in which its
length is exactly doubled, becoming 20 millimetres, the cubic measurement
of the mercury is 4? : ‘7854 : 10; but for our purpose, as the proportion *7854
to unity is common to all the sectional areas we may discard this factor °7854,
and thus we deal with 42: 10160. This in the portion of the tube where
the length of the mercurial cylinder is doubled, occupying 20 millimetres,
divided by the latter (+, = 8) will give a quotient of 8, the square root of
which, say 2°84 millimetres, is the diameter of the centre of this portion of
the tube ; and so indeed for any other part, the square root of the quotient
obtained by dividing 160 by the length of the mercurial column in that part
will give the local diameter. Of course in tubes selected for their apparently
near approach to a perfectly cylindrical form the length of the mercurial
calibrating column will be nearly uniform throughout, but whatever dif-
ferences there may be are calculable from results obtained by the method
described, See illustration A.
FIG
.
=
Notes on Barometer Construction. 37
greater than that of the barometer tube to be calibrated,
must be used. Immediately under the bowl of this funnel
is a stopcock which, when the point of this long funnel tube
is lowered to the bottom of the barometer tube, enables us
to regulate the supply of mercury, so that the surface of the
fluid mercury rises slowly and equably, filling the tube
without locking in a single bubble of air against the
inner glass surface of the barometer tube. The glass
measure fitted to the lower end of the barometer tube, as
already described, is a spheroid with tubular ends. There ,
is a narrow vertical glass tube forming its upper opening,
and on this narrow glass tube a measuring mark is made;
_ asecond mark is also placed on the tube below the lower
orifice of the bulb. With this arrangemeut we can calibrate
the barometer tube. We first fill the tube under trial with
mercury ; we then open the stopcock of supply and allow
mercury to run off until it has reached the trait x below the
bulb. We now mark on the barometer tube the position of
the upper surface of its mercurial column. We next open
the stopcock of supply, until we have filled the measuring °
bulb to its upper mark y, when we mark the level to which
the upper surface of the mercury has descended in the
barometer tube. The supply cock being shut off, we next
open the discharge cock, allowing mercury to flow slowly
out until the lower mark is reached. In this way the
measuring bulb is slowly and accurately alternately filled
and emptied between the two gauge marks, and after each
_ filling the level of the mercury in the barometer tube is
carefully registered on it. This is continued until the
barometer tube is almost or quite emptied, by which time
we have marked it with subdivisions throughout its length,
each of which we know to be of capacity equal to the rest,
and from their several distances apart the diameter of every
portion of the tube can be computed. The temperature of
the mercury and the weight of the bulb measure of mercury
should be noted, and when extreme accuracy is the aim
there are other influences to consider and allow for; but
the. modus operandi is essentially what I have described
whenever a barometer tube, or indeed a straight glass tube
of any kind, is to be calibrated. The data for correcting
the bulk of the mercury for temperature, &c., &., are fully
set forth in physical treatises, and therefore I need not
further allude to them in this place.
38: - Notes on Barometer Construction.
If we consider the mode of manufacture of these glass
barometer tubes we shall easily understand their lability to
the conical as distinguished from the cylindrical form. A
hollow stout cylinder of soft semi-molten glass is formed on
the end of the blowing tube, and a second heated blowing
tube is attached to the outer end of the ductile mass. The
two workmen, each holding one of these blowing irons,
retreat from each other until the glass tube is drawn down
to the requisite diameter, say until they are twenty or thirty
feet or more apart. <A ladder of suitable length has been
laid on the floor, and on this the glass tube is now laid and
detached from the blowing rods at each end. It is even-
tually cut into six-feet or three-feet lengths, in which state
the tube'is ready for removal to the annealing lear (if it be
annealed at all). The “ butts,” that is to say, the two outer
lengths which were in immediate contact with the blowing
irons, are sensibly conical, and the other segments. of the
entire tube are liable in deer ee, according to their position,
to this conicity, and therefore it is a point of primary
importance to gauge the tubes during selection in the
manner already described, so as to obtain pieces which are
sensibly cylindrical.
There are certain other points in selecting the glass tubes
which will require attention—clearness of the olass, freedom
from knots, aud similar defects, &c; but these are hy
obvious to requive further mention.
As barometer tubes are required in most cases to be af
stout glass, it therefore becomes necessary that they should
have been effectually annealed ; and here enters into the
consideration a curious point of interest, I think I need
not hesitate to say that much of the glass tube met with in
commerce is either imperfectly annealed, or, as in the case
of tubes with thin walls, it has not been annealed at all.
The question of the degree of annealing which each kind of
tube requires is regarded I believe in a purely commercial
spirit ; providing what will sell, and especially regarding
the consideration of cheapness of production. As there is
more in this statement than might catch our attention, I
ask your patience while I go into the question a little more
fully. Unannealed glass is glass in a condition of strain or
unequal tension, and that portion of it which is unduly
stretched is liable, on slight prompting, to rupture; such
glass will not bear sudden vicissitudes of temperature, or
Notes on Barometer Construction. 39
sudden mechanical shocks, or the slightest scratch upon its
strained inner surface. but glass may be in a condition of
high tension and may at the same time possess very marked
properties of permanence. If we optically examine vessels
of De la Bastie’s toughened glass we find them showing in a
beam of polarised light the black cross indicative of strain,
and we know that these specimens of glass will resist
mechanical shocks of great violence, and that they have
some other marked properties conducive to permanence ;
but if sufficient external force for the fracture of one of these
vessels be employed, it does not simply break as annealed
glass would break, but goes off with a report and is shattered
throughout into a complete ruin of small particles. The
“Bologna vial’ and the “Prince Rupert’s drop”* are
each permanent in this sense, and each under proper
conditions liable to disruption; and, in fact, we have to
distinguish between irregular and symmetrical strain in
order to gain a clear insight into the question of fracture
of glass tubes, especially fracture due to imperfect annealing.
Just as the Bologna vial is safe as long as you hammer its
external surface, but flies into fragments as’ soon as you
scratch ever so slightly its strained interior surface, which
has cooled and contracted after the exterior layers have
become solid, so a large proportion of the glass tubes found
in commerce are permanent enough as long as we do not
suddenly heat them, and so long as we do not bring hard
substances in contact with their inner surfaces.. Experience
has taught the glass manufacturer that, unlike pieces of com-
plex form, thick glass tubes with little annealing, and thin
glass tubes with none at all, or next to none, are sufficiently
permanent to serve most of the purposes of commerce. Take
a stout-glass barometer tube and pass through it an iron wire
so as to rub the inner walls of the tube with the latter, the
chances are great that after this treatment the tube will very
soon crack; indeed it is unsafe to touch the interior surfaces of
stout glass tubes with iron at all, as no instrument made
with tube thus treated will be afterwards reliable. Regard
the inner surfaces of your glass tubes as possessing in degree
the physical properties of the inner surface of the Bologna
* The latter are called by the French “ Larmes Bataviqne ;” concerning
the properties of which bodies the reader is referred to an interesting
-memoir by M. Victor De Luynes in the Annales de Chemie et de be
289.
3rd series, Vol, XXX. p.
40 Notes on Barometer Construction.
vial, treat these surfaces accordingly, and you will thereby
effect much towards the permanence of whatever instru-
ments you form from glass tubes.
But there are two kinds of glass (chemically ances of
which barometer tubes are made; these may be dis-
tinguished in general terms as “crown glass” and “ flint
glass’—I might say Continental glass and English glass, as __
“crown” glass tubes prevail, as a manufacture, on the con-
tinent of Europe, while most of the English glass tube is
eof the “flint” variety. Besides the silicic acid and alkali
the crown glass contains a basis of lime, which is replaced
in the flint glass by lead oxide, so that “lime glass” and
“lead glass” are equally distinctive terms. The lead glass
is soft, the lime glass is hard; the lead glass is easily fusible,
the lime glass is less easily fusible; the lead glass has less
cohesive strength than the lime glass, as may be easily seen
by trying the breaking weights of rods or tubes (of equal
stoutness) of these two qualities of glass.* Lead glass is
more pellucid than lime glass; tubes of the latter being
mostly striated throughout by lines which in reality are air
bubbles drawn into cylindrical cavities or threads of extreme
tenuity. Although the strength of lime glass may recom-
mend it for the construction of barometers to be used in
the field, on the other hand lead glass offers advantages for
instruments intended for indoor or laboratory use. The
lead glass is easier worked, is sufficiently strong for use in
careful hands, and in this material tubes free from defects
and of beautiful uniform transparency can be easily
obtained.
Whatever the pattern of the barometer, the tube from
which it is to be made must be first examined as to equality
*Haperiment on cohesive strength of lead and lime glass tubes :—
Relative weights of the glass tubes—
A, lead glass... oes ... 1123 grains
B, lime 9 Suh ete 5 ene 83 99
Length of the tubes... ite ee ihe ... each 15 inches
Bearing (wood) edges xe ee ... 10 inches apart
Exterior diameter of each tube ise “aa ... very nearly 4 inch
Breaking weight of : He ait 4 ... 324 lbs, avoir.
eee oe ay see ehGeg, 3
Specific ety of a ie Me =e =o Keene»
B 2°509
The tubes were gauged and selected £0 as to be as nearly as possible of
the same exterior diameter and diameter of bore; the breaking weight
was gradually increased by progressive addition of lead bullets to a tared
suspended scale until fracture ensued.
tea
Notes on Barometer Construction. 41
of bore, and the exact diameter of the bore is also to
be ascertained, because when the tube is closed and
filled, and especially when bent into the syphon form,
the ascertaining of these points is no longer readily accom-
plished. The tubes chosen for making into barometers
will be often longer than is requisite for the instrument,
and the end cut off may be almost or quite the same dia-
meter as the upper end of the barometer; when this is the
case it may be worth while to carefully label and set aside
this end piece, which would at any time answer any
question concerning the curve of the meniscus or any of a
kindred nature which might arise. Concerning capillarity,
a suggestion may be offered:—With any tube about to be
employed, or with the end piece of tube cut off as just
mentioned, a measurement of the effect of capillarity may
be made by a method given in Bunsen’s Gasometry:—
Measure a column of mercury in the tube per se, and
measure the same column after covering it with afew drops of
corrosive sublimate solution: in the former case you have
the meniscus proper to the given diameter of tube in its
integrity ; in the latter the mercury assumes a horizontal
upper surface, and the difference of height of the two
columns is that due to those physical causes which are
collectively spoken of as the influence of capillarity.
Before proceeding to clean the inner surface of the tube
it will be well to become acquainted with what has been
ascertained concerning chemically clean glass, as especially
set forth in the papers of Tomlinson.* In the Chemical
* When you have prepared with all precautions your supply of mercury
for the cistern and for filling the tube, I will suppose in a clean porcelain
vessel, with a nicely-polished glass bell jar for a cover, in a relatively dust-
free apartment, you may try asimple experiment which is suggestive of
the necessity of extreme cleanliness in barometer construction. Let the
experimenter elaborately wash his hands, and then press his finger against
the pure mirror surface of the mercury ; he will, if I am correct, produce a
minute and faithful oleograph of the skin structure—a picture of the skin
surface—drawn in sebaceous and epithelial particles, which the cuticle,
however well cleansed, is always ready to throw off. Now if you take up
Deschanel’s Manual of Physics, or other elementary work of the kind, in
which the barometer is figured and described, you will see a wood engraving
of the Torricellian experiment :—the hand inverting the tube filled with
mercury, and the finger about to be placed on the open end on the mercurial
column, before its insertion in the cistern—all very good for lecture table
demonstration, but certainly violating the rules according to which a good
barometer should be filled and erected. You cannot blow through a tube
or touch the end of it without making a fouled surface ; and although Iam
not prepared with any suggestions for the best method of meeting this
42, - Notes on Barometer Construction.
Dictionary of Watts, article “Barometer,” will be found an
account of the formation of the large bore barometer of the
Kew Observatory ; it will there be seen that the tube was
polished out with alcohol and whiting (precipitated chalk,
probably). Fuming nitric acid is an efficient oxident of
greasy substances, and immersion of tubes in this acid before
the final polishing, or first in oil of vitriol and next in nitric
acid, would conduce to a satisfactory result ; but whatever
be done in the way of polishing out the tube, extreme care
» in avoiding the slightest scratch or abrasion of the inner glass
surface must be observed. If iron wire be used for carrying
the polishing plug, the wire must be covered completely with
lamp cotton; the latter should have been previously purified
by digestion in ether or bisulphide of carbon. But even with
these precautions there is a risk of filaments, and perhaps, on
the whole, it is best to avoid covered wire altogether. Brass
or copper wire are less dangerous, but whalebone, or cane, or
soft non-resinous or de-resinated woods have some peculiar
recommendations.
IT here may point out in refered . the cleaning of glass
tubes generally, and especially to the cleaning of curved
tubes with complex bends, and when whalebone ‘of sufficient
length is obtainable, that it possesses a property which can-
not be too pointedly indicated to those who have not hitherto
recognised it, and who are engaged in experimental physics.
By its means some problems in cleaning the interior of com-
plex forms of glass vessels can be solved which, to the best
of my knowledge, are soluble by no other known means. A:
rod of whalebone is taken and shaped to our requirement ;
we intend to pass 1t through certain tubular crooked ways to
reach a certain pointon some remoteinner surface; thematerial
is elastic enough to pass through the tortuous duct, but when
this is accomplished we have little or no control over the
- inner end of the slight constrained whalebone rod on which
we depend for doing the work. But the possibility of doing
requirement, it is still important to point out the difference between modes
quite effective for lecture table demonstration, and those to be observed
in the construction of instruments intended to meet all the require-
ments of precise physical research. Indiarubber finger stalls, collodion
films, gutta-percha moulded valves, and similar contrivances, suggest them-
selves ; but without attaching weight or preference to any of these, it still
remains asa fact worthy of our best attention, that we cannot bring the
hand into contact with pure mercury or chemically pure glass Wiehe a in
some measure fouling their surfaces;
A
Notes. on Barometer Construction. 43,
the work resides, as I shall show, in the material nevertheless.
If we carefully warm it over a spirit lamp we can bend it
into curves corresponding with those of the crooked tube
through which it is to pass, and when each of these bends
has cooled we find that the whalebone rod has acquired a
permanent set. We thus model an instrument whose axis is
coincident with that of the crooked tube, and the elasticity
and pliability of the rod remains. It gives and recovers itself
as we humour it through the channels,and when we have
put it in position it is free to be moved to a limited but
mostly sufficient extent, so as to exercise the desired friction
at the proper place, detaching a minute insect or a speck
of dirt or mould, as the case may be. Doubtless this bend-
ing property of whalebone may be utilised in the hands of
the physicist and chemist in other ways. Of course wood
may be bent by heating or steaming, as instanced in boat-
building, and in the familiar instance of walking-stick
handles ; but in the case of whalebone we have at the same
time the permanent set and the elasticity of the material—
a very valuable combination.
Concerning the use of cane rods for cleaning the interior
of glass tubes, a suggestion may also be made. The elasti-
city of the ligneous material and its even cylindrical form
recommend the cane for this purpose, but its siliceous glaze
is obviously a dangerous element; this glaze can be readily
removed by scraping with a knife, and cane rods thus
stripped will be found sufficiently elastic, strong, clean, and
safe for purposes of the nature considered.
For converting the tube open at both ends into the closed,
and when required into the bent and shaped barometer
tube, the enameller’s blow pipe is used. I shall not enter
into details on this point of the construction, as it is a
matter of personal education and skill, and general directions
of more or less value are to be found in technical works;
but it will suit the limits of this sketch if the essential
requirements of this class of operations are concisely stated.
In closing, joining, or bending glass tubes they must be
oradually heated to the required temperatures ; the thicker
the substance of the glass, or the less perfectly it is annealed,
the more care will be required in gradually and equably
raising its temperature. In closing the ends of tubes a little
blowing for producing a hemispherical termination is mostly
necessary. Remember that if this be done with the lungs the
“Ade Notes on Barometer Construction.
expired gases are charged with organic contaminations ; a
purely mechanical air pressure, as that supplied by a com-
pressed indiarubber ball or condensing syringe, is free from
this objection. |
If sealed junctions are necessary for the construction of
the barometer, these are not satisfactorily effected by press-
ing merely softened glass surfaces together ; the glass tube
ends to be joined must be well melted in the flame, then
joined, and the joint must be retained in the molten con-
dition in the flame until the whole of the softened portion
has become identified into one homogeneous mass. Atten-
tion to the necessity of annealing such work as far as prac-
ticable will influence its durability. The air-driven gas
flame used should, when lead glass is the subject in hand, be
sufficiently oxygenated to prevent reduction of lead oxide
to the metallic state and consequent blackening of the tube.
One final remark, especially addressed to beginners in the
work, is the advice to mark out in pencil on a smooth
pine board the dimensions of the piece to be made at the
lamp ; this outline is used as a gauge with which to try the
dimensions and angles of the piece, by juxtaposition, as it
proceeds.
So much concerning the glass tube, whether for cistern or
syphon barometer. Let us in the next place paya fewminutes’
attention to the mercury. The mercury must be pure and
dry, and free from all superficially adherent particles. When
we allow a beam of sunlight to fall through a shutter hole
into an otherwise dark apartment, we see that the air is
permeated throughout with minute floating solid particles—
motes which gyrate and eddy with every motion of the air,
and which gravitate so slowly that in very few positions
indeed is the air free from them. Among these particles are
the germs which insinuate themselves between the lenses of
telescopes, start into vegetative life, and feed on the glass
surfaces, deadening them, just as the familiar lichen
establishes itself upon and assists the decay of the hard
surfaces of igneous rocks. I refer to these bodies with the
object of calling your attention to the great necessity of
employing the utmost care in the construction of glass
instruments of the nature of the barometer, and the great
difficulty of effecting absolute cleanliness of the glass inner
surfaces, and the mercury to be employed, even when very
great precautions are taken. Fortunately it is not difficult
Notes on Barometer Construction. 45
to ascertain when mercury is sufficiently chemically pure
and mechanically clean, and fortunately very much of the
mercury of commerce is found in a state of almost or quite
chemical purity. Moreover it is fortunate that if the
mercury to be employed contains lead, tin, or other such
chemical impurity, it is a matter of no great difficulty to com-
pletely separate these metals. In the chemical handbooks
youwill find directions for several methods of treatment in the
wet way; and you will find not infrequently an objection
raised against purification by distillation, but nevertheless I
venture to state that with all ordinary samples of mercury the
method of distillation will be found easy and simple. Should
the mercury contain traces of gold and silver—no infrequent
occurrence in Victoria—in that case the humid methods
described in the books would fail to remove these metals,
distillation being the only effective mode of doing so.
First, it is easy to ascertain the purity of a sample of
mercury. You warm and dry it very thoroughly ; then you
fold a piece of clean dry writing paper into a cone, having
an exceedingly fine opening at the apex. The warm
mercury is poured into this cone, and allowed to run out
at the fine aperture in a very thin thread or stream, and
collected in a perfectly clean white porcelain basin; any
fine particles of dirt will adhere to the paper, and are thus
removed, and the mercury collected in the basin, if pure or
nearly so, will present a perfect mirror surface. But this
brilliancy is not of itself a sufficient index of absolute free-
dom from base metals. Take half an ounce or less of this
mechanically cleaned and warm mercury, and cause it to
gyrate in a porcelain dish, also clean and warm; the metal
is mobile enough, and a slight shake of the hand will make
it circulate freely, when one of two results will happen—
the dish will remain unsoiled, the mercury preserving
always the spheroidal form and its perfect brilliancy, a
certain indication of its freedom from base metallic impuri-
ties; on the other hand, if there are present the slightest
traces of lead, tin, &c., the mercury will form a “talus” or
queue, with tarnished surface, and will leave a stain or streak
where it has passed over the glazed porcelain surface.
I notice in certain books a statement about the oxidation
of mercury at common temperatures, which appears to
demand a remark in this place. With impure mercury there
is doubtless, even at common temperatures, oxidation—
46 Notes on Barometer Construction.
oxidation of the metal forming the impurity; and. this oxi-
dation will be attended with the fouling and breaking up of
the mirror surface by the formation of minute globules. of
mercury—a grey mass which the adventitious oxide pre-
vents ageregating once again into the mirror form. But I
think it may be correctly stated of pure mercury that,
although it may be converted into red oxide at a compara-
tively high temperature, at ordinary temperatures of the
atmosphere it undergoes no perceptible oxidation of any
kind. Henry Watts* reiterates Gmelin’s statement that
“mercury remains unaltered when agitated for any leneth
of time with oxygen gas, common air, hydrogen, nitrogen,
nitrous oxide, nitric oxide, carbonic acid gas, or alcohol ;”
and I believe that statement is strictly true as applied to pure
mercury and the ordinary constituents of atmospheric air.
If the mercury is found to be impure by the tests already
given, or if it leaves the slightest residue—say of gold or
silver—after evaporation of a small sample, it may be dis-
tilled. A cast-iron retort, with wrought iron exit-tube,
is used for the purpose. It is furnished with a lid or cover
with turned joint, and fastened with screw-bolts or key-
wedges ; a lute of moist clay secures the joint. The lid of
the retort may be furnished with a stopper, which permits
renewal from time to time of the charge of mercury without
breaking the luted joint. The temperature at which the
metal “boils,” or is said to boil, is rather high, say 662°
Fahr. or 350° C.; but the capacity for heat of the vapour of
mercury, as compared with that of aqueous vapour for
example, is so low that a small quantity of fuel will doa
large amount of distillatory work, and the distillation 1s
therefore rapid. Among the papers of the Royal Society of
London, in the Proceedings of that body, and probably also
in its Transactions, is a valuable contribution by W. R. —
Grove on the “ Phenomena of Ebullition,” in which it is shown
how great an influence the gases dissolved in water exert
upon the phenomenon. Water deprived of air can be con-
verted into vapour, but in a manner which it would be
incorrect to call boiling. As we apply heat, its temperature
gradually increases, and eventually mounts beyond the ordi-
nary boiling temperature ; finally the super-heated water is
in part converted into vapour by a sudden explosive act,
* Dictionary of Chemistry, article ‘‘ Mercury.”
Notes on Barometer Construction. 47
very different to what we call boiling. Now, oil of vitriol,
methylic alcohol, and mercury—most probably on account
of the absence of dissolved gases—are each converted
into vapour with more or less tendency to sudden bursts
and “bumpings,” as they are called, and in these cases
the distillates are liable to contamination with portions
~ of the fluid, scattered and thrown over rather than distilled ;
and some kind of artifice is requisite in all such cases for
obviating this source of an imperfect result. Many years
ago a French chemist (M. Violette) recommended the use of
super-heated steam for the distillation of mercury—a pro-
mising suggestion enough; but a purification completely
satisfactory may be effected by simpler means. Three or
four circular discs of iron wire gauze are allowed to float on
the mercury in the retort, covering its whole surface; or,
what is better, a layer of three-quarters of an inch of small
cut or wrought iron brads are allowed to float on the metal ;
either of these forms a mechanical barrier, holding back the
mechanically dispersed fluid mercury, but allowing sufii-
ciently free escape for the mercurial vapour. For the reason
already given a very small stream only of cold water, run-
ning over a cloth laid over the exit-tube of the iron retort,
is requisite for re-condensation of the mercury. The lower
end of the exit-tube is also bound round with a few folds
of calico, which, projecting beyond it, form a tubular conduit ,
sufficient for confining and conducting the condensed mercury
into a pan of water, and at the same time sufficiently per-
vious to the atmospheric air to prevent the water in the col-
lecting pan being drawn up into the retort as a result of
condensation of mercurial vapour at the end of the operation.
I believe that a more extensive acquaintance with the
efficacy of this simple method of distillation would cause
its employment in preference to the several methods of
chemical treatment.
A few observations on boiling out and other modes of
filling glass tubes with mercury may now be added. Boil-
ing out means raising the mercury to the temperature at
which it freely forms metallic vapour, and so expelling the
atmospheric air from the tube; it also means raising the
mercury to a temperature at which its oxidation takes
place when in contact with atmospheric air. The warm
mercury is added in small doses to the inverted tube, and
the boiling is brought about by heating the tube at a point
F
AS Notes on Barometer Construction.
a little below the mercurial surface; the boiling out thus
proceeds from the closed end to within an inch of the open
end of the tube. The tube is now filled up with hot mercury,
and eventually it is suitably closed and inverted in its cistern
of boiled pure mercury. To what extent or how syphon
barometers are boiled out I am unable to state. Barometer
tubes may be boiled out or filled with warm mercury without
boiling out. The great standard barometer of Kew Obser-
vatory, which has a bore of one and one-tenth inches,
was filled by the aid of the air-pump, and without
boiling out. The Torricellian void above the mercurial
column is stated to have been, when the instrument was
completed, quite air free. I venture to express an opinion
that the boiling out of barometer tubes is a mistake. The
formation of oxide of mercury may not be grossly palpable ;
but I fear it is hardly possible to avoid the formation of some
oxide, and that the quantity, however small, may have its
effect upon the sensitiveness of the instrument, Possibly the
intervention of microscopic crystals of red oxide of mercury
between the metal and the glass may ultimately favour the
entrance of air into the void. The mode in which mercury
distils, and the absence of specific knowledge concerning any
power which mercury may possess of absorbing or occluding
gases, would appear to suggest that as far as the mercury
itself is concerned the boiling out is unnecessary; or, if
necessary for depriving the mercury of air, or gas, or vapour,
of any kind occluded in its substance, as on that account
ineffectual, for if the metal has this property it must soon
again take up what we have expelled at the exposed surface
in the cistern, and when saturated eliminate them into the
void, while all our experience of the comparative permanence
of the Torricellian vacuum renders this supposed property of
mercury improbable, the small and slow creeping in of air
being quite in unison with the fact of there being no real
adhesive contact between the metallic column and the glass
tube. Moreover, glass tubes, especially those of complex form,
are jeopardised by the boiling process.. A’ carefully and fortu-
nately selected tube, well prepared, and therefore valuable
far beyond its money cost, may be broken during the boil-
ing by the turbulent and sudden bursts of mercurial
vapour; or, if not actually broken during the boiling, it
may be reduced to such a state of molecular unrest as
to break with apparent spontaneity, some time after it
Notes on Barometer Construction. 49
is finished and mounted, or on receiving some slight con-
cussion. We should also remember, as pertinent to this
question, that it is not only losing the materials and the
outlay of valuable time expended on the construction of
the instrument itself, but by the loss of such an instrument
after it has been brought into use, a break in the continuity of
our results is brought about, and we resume observations with
a new instrument, whose index, error, or deviation is differ-
ent. It would seem that with the Sprengel- pump and other
modern appliances at command for obtaining voids as good
as have been hitherto by any means obtained, boiling out
has become unnecessary and undesirable.
Concerning the mounting of barometers and the mechan-
ical means for dividing the ‘brass or other scales, | may state
that these are beyond the scope of the present notes; but to
those who essay to construct for their own use this instru-
ment, | may mention one form of mounting which offers the
advantage of simplicity in the materials of construction, en-
listing glass and mercury only for the tube and its scale,
and therefore to that extent simplifying corrections of the
reading. On the mercurial tube mounted on a board and
dipping into a glass cistern there is fitted an outer glass
tube; the latter is divided, forming a scale which reckons
from. a glass rod fixed on to the lower end of this outer
tube. This outer tube can be raised or lowered by a light
cord or wire passing over a small pulley, and attached
to a winch of glass rod working in a cork socket
near the mercurial cistern. Before an observation is made
this tube is raised or lowered until its zero pointer
coincides with the mercurial surface in the cistern. The
temperature is then taken; the reading made and the cor-
rection of the column for temperature concerns merely the
expansibility of mercury and glass. There is a drawing of
this arrangement attached to a Spr engel pump in the illus-
tration to Mr. Mica Smith’s paper on “The Motion of
Bodies under the Influence of Radiant Energy” in a recent
volume of our Transactions.
This completes what I have to communicate respecting
the selection and preparation of barometer tubes and the
mode of filling them, and I will therefore now proceed to
the description of three several proposed forms of the in-
strument, each of which possesses features of interest, and
perhaps I may correctly also state that each appears to be
F 2
is
50 - Notes on Barometer Construction.
not wholly free from structural defects. First, that pro-
posed by C. Bohn is described in Poggendorff’s Annalen
1877, first part, p. 111, the paper being entitled “On the
Construction of an Air-free Barometer, quickly, easily, inex-
pensively, and without boiling out :’—
“The syphon barometer has well-recognised advantages
over the cistern barometer, but it possesses also its own
particular disadvantages.
“Tn the first place, while the boiling out of barometer
tubes is an operation not devoid of risk, this risk is still
further augmented in the case of the syphon form, and in
any case the operation is a tedious one. Further, the mer-
cury in the open arm of the latter suffers the well-known
oxidation, besides other kinds of fouling; its meniscus is
then no longer identical with that in the closed limb, it
changes by degrees into a concavity, the metal clings un-
equally to the inner wall of the glass tube, which it soon
renders dirty. In fine, the compensation for capillarity
aimed at in the syphon barometer holds good, even under
the most favourable circumstances, for only a very short
time.
“ But these disadvantages attending the use of the syphon
barometer can be avoided in the manner about to be
described. An instrument of general application can be
made quickly, without boiling the mercury, at small cost,
and without the requirement of any special skill.
“A glass tube of about two metres long is bent into the
syphon form; the two arms, as shown in the sketch (Fig. 2),
are of unequal length; the shorter (I.) bears at the upper
extremity an air-tight single-way glass stopcock. The longer
arm (II.) is open at top. Near the bend, at bottom, a short
branch tube carrying a mercury-tight single-way stopcock
is attached (soldered on); the latter opens outwards or can
be shut off.
“For economy of mercury the tubes, for a large propor-
tion of their length, can be chosen of rather small diameter,
only immediately below the stopcock A for a space of about
320 millimetres the tube must be wider; also for a space
of from 70 to 90 millimetres close over the stopcock B, in
the longer arm, the tube must be of a diameter identical
with that under A. This glass tube is now perfectly
cleansed (I find it best to finish with strong alcohol), then
it is dried by aspiration of several hectolitres of hot dry air
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Notes on Barometer Construction. 51
through it, while the tube itself is supported over a warm
stove or other suitable source of heat. The caoutchouc
connector leading to the aspirator is attached to the tube
over A; on the open end of the long arm a chloride of
calcium tube is also attached by an indiarubber joint.
“The mode of filling is the following :—First the tube,
very carefully dried, is fastened to a narrow wooden board
in the manner shown in the engraving. This board ends
below in a screw, which is screwed into a base also of
wood, and which is supported by three wooden levelling
screws. The board has at its upper end a ring for the
purpose of hanging up the instrument.
“Thus mounted, with the stopcock A open and the stop-
cock B closed, well cleaned dry mercury heated to about
» 100° C. is poured into the tube through a small funnel with
capillary termination, which holds back all dust. The mer-
cury drives before it slowly and gradually the air in arm [.,
causing it to escape through stopcock A. Finally mercury
also passes through the stopcock A and the tube above it.
Now A is shut and B opened; the mercury now conse-
quently falls out of the arm IT. until its surface in this limb
has descended to the point of junction of the branch tube,
while in arm I. a column approximating the true barometric
column remains suspended. The space thus existing above
the mercurial column is not quite air free, although in a
highly attenuated condition. The instrument may be made
to act as a mercurial air-pump upon the air which adheres
to the inner surface of the glass tube and on that drawn in
-by the warm mercury. For a few minutes, however, the
instrument is allowed to remain at rest in the condition just
described.
“Tn the next place the stopcock B is closed, the stopcock
A also remaining closed; heated mercury is again poured
into the open tube IL, filling it completely; the small quan-
tity of air contained in the vacuum chamber is compressed
into a very small bubble close under the stopcock ; A is then
opened, allowing this bubble to escape, and afterwards mer-
cury ; after this mercury is again fed in again at C, when a
stream of air-free mercury flows through A, sweeping with
it mechanically all air attached to the glass inner surfaces ;
after several grammes have thus flowed out A is closed, B is
opened, allowing once more the efflux of the mercury from
the latter. The chamber above the mercury column is now
Bes Notes on Barometer Construction. —
almost perfectly air free. It is again worked for a few
minutes as a pump; B is now closed, and for the third time
the arm II. is filled up with mercury. With the naked eye
I could never, at this stage, even discover a smail bubble of
air under the stopcock A, and with the aid of a lens I could
very seldom discern one. A is once again opened, allowing
a little mercury to flow through, and for greater security
the prescribed routine may be repeated five or six times.
On the last occasion of doing this the mercury is allowed to
escape through B only until its upper surface stands in the
tube ata level somewhat higher than B. Millimetre divi-
sions are engraved or marked on this wide portion of the
arm, the common zero point being at the bend. When the
instrument stands exactly vertical (by virtue of the adjust-
ing screws), then the difference of the readings of the mercury
columns in the two arms is 8 identical with the real barometric
column.
“Mercury can at any time be readily run off at B, or filled
up through C, so as to obtain a fresh upper surface of the
mercury in the arm in which it is exposed to the air (the
outer arm, II.), and regulated so as to fall within the limits of
the divided portion of this arm; ; at the same time the per-
fectly air-free condition of the Torricellian chamber may be
proved. When this condition of perfect freedom from air
holds good, the uniform difference of altitude of the two
columns holds good, whether the mercury stands ata greater
or less height above B; but should air have penetrated into
the vacuum chamber a slight difference of reading will be
found to accompany this alteration of level of the mercury
in II, for as the air space in the vacuum chamber is dim-
inished, the counteracting pressure of the air which has
entered it will be proportionately increased. The approxi-
mate compensation of capillarity is also by the same means
ascertained. The facile repetition of the measurement by
means of independent observations under the altered con-
ditions as above described appears to the writer to be of
oreat utility and void of all error.
“Tn the first instrument constructed on this principle the
stop-cock A did not close quite air-tight. When the arm I.
was for the last time entirely filled with mercury, and when
the stop-cock A was closed, the author covered the latter
with a solution of collodion; this provision, intended to
effect an air-tight joint, was found to answer admirably ;
Notes on Barometer Construction. 53
notwithstanding variation of temperature the chamber
remained air-free for months, during which the apparatus
remained under the writer’s observation.
“The board carrying the completed barometer can be
unscrewed from the base and suspended on a wall.
“The above described instrument is well suited for use as
a portable barometer. It is first emptied of mercury, with
precautions ensuring that dry air only can enter in replace-
ment of the quicksilver; for this object chloride of calcium
tubes are attached at A and at C. The stopcock A is then
closed, and C is stopped with a small cork. During travel-
ling moisture cannot penetrate into the tube, thus dried
carefully once for all. The board unscrewed from the
tripod, with its attached glass instrument, is fitted into a
padded case, which can then be carried suspended over the
shoulder as a fowling-piece ; with a sufficiently strong case
even the brusque treatment incidental to railway carriage
can be safely borne. The mercury is carried with the
instrument in a securely corked stoneware bottle, of the
kind commonly used in commerce for the transport of small
quantities of this metal.* The third item of carriage is the
wooden triangular base. |
© Arrived at the observing station he tripod is screwed
on, the previously dried mercury (the warming of which is
now quite unnecessary, and which indeed was perhaps
superfluous on the first occasion) is poured in, and within a
quarter of an hour after the minutely described routine of
filling, the barometer is ready for observation.
“This form of the barometer is recommended for isolate
barometrical stations, and for similar positions ; the drying
out takes place in the laboratory, the glass pieces for which
operation, attached to the board, are carefully packed and
sent in the usual box. The filling takes place on the spot.
If an assistant unqualified by previous scientific technical
education be employed, it might prove advantageous to
enclose the barometer with a glass case. Incidental to the
inspection of the station would be the replacement of the
upper surface of the mercury in the open tube, the verifica-
tion of the instrument, &c.
* Stoneware bottles containing mercury are rendered relatively safe from
accident by a cover of overs layers of brown paper securely pasted on to
their outer surfaces, —G.F
Ae Notes on Barometer Construction.
“The bend of this instrument it is advisable to form of
tube of very small diameter; in which case, even with
awkward carriage of the filled instrument in the labora-
tory, and even when it is violently shaken, air cannot pass
from the open to the closed limb.
“During numerous comparisons of this instrument with
an excellent standard barometer, of unusually large cross
section, it yielded excellent results.
“The first instrument made by the author, rather faulty
in the dividing and in the grinding in of the stop-cock A,
he has sent to the Kensington Exhibition of Scientific
Instruments. It had a not very suitable iron stand.
“ Aschaffenburg, 25th July, 1876.”
Guthrie’s proposition aims at increased sensitiveness in the
reading. In the first place he makes mention of a propo-
sition long’ lost sight of and due to Descartes, in which is
employed a column of dense fluid mercury ; but in conjunc-
tion with a super-posed column of a much less dense fluid,
in terms of which latter the atmospheric pressure is measured.
Descartes’ proposition included an aqueous solution of tartar
emetic above the mercury; the object of employing this
fluid solution being that of ensuring the expulsion of air
Mr. Guthrie proposes to substitute glycerine or heavy hydro-
carbon oil instead of the tartar emetic solution. Guthrie
states, in reference to the diagram (Fig. 3) which he gives
of this form of barometer, that “the sensibility of such a
barometer would obviously be, if the upper liquid were
without weight, directly proportional to the ratio between
the sectional areas of the cylindrical chamber and the upper
tube (if also the open limb were of infinite area). But the
upper liquid having weight, the limit of sensibility is the
comparative density of mercury and the liquid (say 16: 1) ;*
accordingly this limit is secured when the cylindrical
chamber has four times the diameter of the upper tube.”
Professor Guthrie adds his own suggestion of a syphon
barometer with a horizontal capillary tube of relatively
great length connecting the column and cistern, the
measurements being made on the capillary tube, in which
a small bubble of air or fluid is intercalated dividing the
mercurial cylinder (Fig. 4). Without doubt the indications
of change of such an instrument are very sensitive; indeed,
* Hypothetical gravities, for simplicity of illustration.
Fig:3.
SYPHON FORM.
*Column of Glycerine, 48” = Mercury gale see 5
% Mercury ... Set he one sre 28”
Value of Column in inches of Mercury ... jee 31
Now, suppose an extreme fall of three inches of mercury represented by
the fall of the two fluids in this barometer; of this the diminution of the
glycerine column will be 12 of 3 of the whole barometric fall; the alteration
of the levels of the two surfaces of mercury will be each one half of the
remainder. 1
DIMINUTION OF COLUMN. :
6 of 16” of Glycerine = 15” = Mercury ae "9375
1. Mercury + 1,3, Mercury Zds 2”:0625
Be
Fall = ate aa Ba 0)
1
ay
]
VALUE OF RESULTING COLUMN.
33” Glycerine = Mercury = 20625
Mercury Column, 28” — 2,3,” = 25-9375 Total Resulting Column.
—— = 589375
28"-0000
* Hypothetical specific eravities, following Dr. Guthric’s example.
fj,
WME:
Yu
(a
Lop
Gp
Ly,
——
Yr
W]M]M|MCH*h;
WY);
Poe
lay
\
\
WN
On some New Marine Mollusca. 55
the air bubble observed with a lens is seen to be in con-
tinual oscillation; but simplicity, portability, and some
other desirable properties, seem to be sacrificed for the sake
of sensitiveness in this instrument; although, on the other ~
hand, it should be added that if for the first time the prin-
ciples involved in the aneroid form of barometer were pre-
sented to the mind, the carrying them into practice for
constructing a truly serviceable barometer would seem
almost beyond hope; while experience has taught us that
this form of barometer, even as small as a lady’s Geneva
watch, can be produced at relatively small cost with cer-
tainty and in endless quantity; and that the aneroid
barometer is assisting in a large amount of valuable
climatic and hypsometrical observation.
Art. IX.—On some New Marine Mollusca.
By Rev. J. E. TEnntson-Woops, F.G.S., F.L.S., Hon. Memb.
Roy. Soc. N.S.W., Corr. Memb. Roy. Soc. Victoria,
Tasmania, and Phil. Soc., Linn. Soc. N.S.W., &e.
[Read 9th August, 1877.]
THE following shells were placed at my disposal for descrip-
tion by Prof. M‘Coy, of the National Museum of Victoria.
I had been engaged for some time previously, preparing a
census of the Tasmanian marine molluscan fauna, and on
completing my lists and making the-necessary comparisons
at the National Museum I came across several in the exten-
sive collections there which appeared to be new and
undescribed. Permission to describe them was very cheer-
fully accorded by the learned Professor, whose obliging
courtesy to me on all occasions where he could forward my
small efforts in the interests of science I take this oppor-
tunity thankfully to acknowledge. It will be seen that
the fauna here described is not in any way divergent from
the recognised forms. A Birostra is, however, quite a
novelty in Australian seas. Amongst all the species there
is not one which even approximates to the extinct fauna
of our tertiary beds, except in the case of the Limopsis just
mentioned. N.B.—AI] measurements in French millimetres,
56 On some IN ew Marine Mollusca.
Brrostra M‘Coyl, 1.s. B.t., parva, levi, nitente, anguste
ovata, utromque attenuata, superne subacuta, pallide ru-
fescente, labio albida pallide lutea, conspicue merassato,
postice dilatato, canali breve, tenutter cwrvato. Long. 23,
Lat. 7 mil. Hab. Waterhouse, N.E. Tasmania.
Shell small, smooth, shining, narrowly ovate, alternate at
each end, subacute above, pale reddish; lips whitish and
pale yellow, conspicuously thickened, dilate posteriorly,
canal short and slightly curved.
The only species of this rare genus found hitherto in
South Australian waters. The type specimen in the Na-
tional Museum is unique.
OLIVELLA AUSTRALIS, 7.s., O. t., turrita, fusiformt, sprra
elata apertur. oquant, Loew, nitente, alba, pallide fulva
retcculata et fascus tribus albis zonat. ; sutura vive
umpressa; apertura angusta, antice dilatata, labro tenut
acuto, columella sumplict. Long. 16, Lat. 44 mil, Clark’s
Island.
Shell turreted, fusiform, spire produced and equalling the
aperture ; smooth, shining, white, reticulated with fulvous
brown, and zoned with three white bands ; suture scarcely
impressed; aperture narrow, anteriorly dilated ; outer lip thin
acute, columella simple.
Differs from 0. nympha in being coloured, and from 0.
pardalis and O. leucozona in its pale reticulated chesnut
markings and three white zones. Its shape is also peculiar.
Ido not think enough is known about the genus to say
whether it is liable to variation or not, and whether the
species named are all only varieties. They are all rare, and
therefore, one would imagine, less liable to vary.
MANGELIA HARRISONI, 1s. M.t., anguste fusiforni,
utrumque attenuata, levi, gracili, tenus, translucida, spira -
elata, acuta, apert. equanti, lactea, bast castanea, apice vero
fulvo tincto, pallidissime (ult. anfr. tant.) luteo 4 zonata ;
anfr. 8, declivis, oblique costatis, costes levibus, rotundatis,
parum elevatis, superne obtuse angulatis, antice obsoletis ;
sutura bene vmpressa; apertura angusta, oblonga, labro
tenut, labio reflexo. Long. 14, Lat. 4. Clark’s Island.
Shell narrowly fusiform, attenuate at both ends; smooth,
graceful, thin, translucent; spire prominent, acute, equalling
the aperture, milky white; base chesnut, but the apex
stained, fulvous, and on the last whorl zoned with four bands
of very pale yellow; whorls eight, sloping, obliquely ribbed;
On some New Marine Mollusca. 57
ribs smooth, rounded, slightly raised, obtusely angular above,
obsolete anteriorly ; suture well impressed, aperture narrow,
oblong ; outer lip thin, inner lip reflected. Very rare.
Differs from M. compta of N.S.W. in the ribs_ being
closer, and the absence of spiral striz. The general forra
is also different.
MANGELIA TRACHYS, 1.8. M. t. parva, fusiforme turrita,
opaca, solida, alba, macults fulvis conspicue nebulosa ;
anfr.7 (2 apical. levibus, albis, obtusis) crebre crassicostatis
et conspicue liratis ; liris swpra costas transeuntibus, et vbr
nodosis, costis in ult. anfr.9; sutura bene impressa, wnt-
lirata; apertura oblonga, subquadrata, labro conspicue
imcrassato, postice profunde sinuato, sinwu obliquo, columella
simplict, canal brevt. Long. 6, Lat. 2. Brighton.
M. shell small, fusiformly turreted, opaque, solid, white,
conspicuously clouded with fulvous spots; whorls seven
(the two apical smooth, white, obtuse), abundantly costate
with thick ribs and very conspicuously lirate ; the liree pass-
ing over the ribs and there nodose; ribs in the last whorl
nine; suture well impressed, with one fine raised line:
aperture oblong, subquadrate, outer lip conspicuously
thickened, deeply sinuous posteriorly ; sinus oblique, colu-
mella simple, canal short.
The sinus, instead of going back into the shell, is confined
to the thickened lip, and is oblique to the aperture.
Rissorina KERSHAWI, 1.8. RB. t. minuta, pupeformi, sub-
cylindracea, fulvo saturata; anfr. 6, tumide convexrs
oblique crebre costatis, apice obtuso, apertura subcentrali,
orbiculata, labio refleco. Long. 3, Lat. via. 14. Long Bay,
Tasmania. W. F. Petterd.
Shell minute pupzeform, subcylindrical, saturated fulvous
brown, whorls 6, tumidly convex, obliquely closely ribbed ;
apex obtuse, aperture subcentral, orbicular, lip reflexed,
_ The aperture, which is almost central under the axis, and
the uniform brown colour, distinguish this species.
RISSOINA SUPRASCULPTA, 7.8. R. t. minuta, pyramidata,
alba, opaca, apice mammilato et verticaliter sito; anfr.
(vertice excluso) 6, ultimo et penult. rotunduto 3-striato,
reliquis granulatis, basim versus marginatis, supra suturas
canaliculatis (canalie. transverse striata), apertura pyri-
formi, labio tenwi, reflexo. Long. 4, Lat. 14. Long Bay,
Tasmania.
Shell minute, pyramidal, white, opaque, apex mammilated
Soin On some New Marine Mollusca.
and placed vertically ; whorls 6, exclusive of the virtex, last
and last but one rounded and tri-striate, the rest granulose,
margined towards the base and canaliculate above (this
channel transversely striate); aperture pyriform, lip thin
reflexed.
BITTIUM SEMILAVIS, n.s. B. t. minuta, turrita, castanea ;
conspicue eleganterque carmis et costulis clathrata ; anf.
12, quinque apicalibus levibus, nitentibus, bast leva. labro
tenut. Long. 5, Lat. 1. N.W. "Tasmania.
Shell minute, turreted, pale chesnut, conspicuously and
elegantly latticed with keels and ribs ; whorls 12, the apical
5 smooth, shining base, smooth lip, thin,
The smooth apical whorls are peculiar, and perhaps this
portion is decollated with age. The only specimen known
to me is in the Melbourne National Museum. Possibly it
would come under some of Mr. Adams’ genera near to
Cingulina.
LIOTIA MINIMA, 7.8. L. t. monuta, orbiculari, sprra parum
exserta, alba, pellucida, spiraliter striata, apertura valde
incrassata, wmbilico granis nitentibus marginatis.
This very minute Liotva seems devoid of ornament, except
the regular spiral groove. It has, however, a remarkably
thickened varix round the aperture, and a granularly mar-
gined umbilicus ; in all which respects it differs from any
species known to me.
THALOTIA MARIA, 1.8. T. conica sumillonu sed paulo par-
voore, carmulis haud granulosis, striis inter curinulas latis,
rotundatis, luteis; lineis albis longitudinalibus, angular-
iter undulosis et maculis roseis, et flammulis roseo pur-
purers, vel atro-purpureis variegata; apertura subguadrata,
mtus argentea, lirato, columella haud dentata. Long. 17,
Lat. 12.
Differing from 7. conica, Gray (with which shell it has been
hitherto confounded) in not being granular, though the
peculiar spotted colouring makes it appear so. It is almost
regularly tesselate on the upper part of the whorls. It
is more tumid, solid, and darker in colour than T. picta,
Wood, and 7. pulchella. Not uncommon in Hobson’s Bay,
though much more numerous outside Port Phillip Heads.
I have never known it to occur in Western Victoria or
Tasmania.
THALOTIA TESSELATA, 7.8. 7. t. parva,subumbilicata conica,
pallide olivacea, alba maculata vel tessellata ; anfr.'7, sub-
On some New. Marine Mollusca. 59
convexis, ubique subtillissime spiraliter et oblique transver-
sim striatis; 5 carinis munitis ; carinis lates, planatis,
supra et infra latioribus et prominentioribus, bast convexa,
carinata ; apertura subquadrata ; labro acuto tenut, intus
marginato, labio albo, conspicuo, fauce argentea, margari-
tacea, lirvata. Alt. 6., Lat. 44. Interstitis wmter carmmas
interdum liratis.
Shell small subumbilicate, conical, pale olive, spotted or
tesselated with white ; whorls 7, subconvex, everywhere finely
obliquely, spirally tranversely striate; furnished with five
keels, which are broad, flattened, and the upper and lower
ones broader and more prominent; base convex, keeled,
aperture subquadrate, outer lip acute thin, margined within;
inner lip white, conspicuous; throat silvery nacreous, lirate.
The interstices between the keels sometimes striate.
THALOTIA DUBIA,”.8s. 7’. t. turbinato-conoidea, solida intense
roseo purpurea et roseo-flammulata ; anfr. 7, convexts (4
apwalibus planatis ), carinis 4, parvis, distantibus conspicue
granulatis, instructis; granulis parvis, concinnis, roseo-
purpureis ; interstitiis granulose liratis, periostraca lutea
sericea wndutis; sutura profunda, late subcanaliculata,
basi planata, spiraliter lirata et radiatim striata ; apertura
subquadrata, vncrassata, conspicue multidentata ; columella
tuberculata marginata et crebre dentata. Long. 18, Lat. 15.
Clark’s Islands.
Shell turbinately conical, solid whorls intensely rose-purple
and rose-flamed, whorls 7, convex (the four spiral flattened),
keels 4, small, distant, conspicuously granular; granules
small, neat, and rose purple in colour; interstices clothed with
a yellow silky periostraca; suture deep, broadly subcanali-
culate; base flattened, spirally lirate and radiately striate,
aperture subquadrate, thickened conspicuously multidentate ;
columella tuberculate, margined and closely toothed.
In general form resembling 7. conica, but smaller and more
closely ornamented. The mouth is also an approach to a
clanculus. Rare.
MINOLIA VECTILIGINEA (Menke), var? J. t. orbiculata,
depressa, tenui, diaphana, profunde, perspective wmbilicata ;
anfr. 54 rapide decrescentibus rotundatis, ad perupheriam
obtuse angulatis,wndique spiraliter crebre tenwissime striatis
et subtillissime transversim oblique striatis, wmbilico albo,
concavo, ad margynem angulato, apertura rotundata. Ele-
ganter atro et olivo marmorata, ad peripher. olwo et albo
60 On some New Marine Mollusca.
tesseluta, vel in lineis longit. dispositis strigata. Maj. diam.
11, min. 9, Alt 8. Hobson’s Bay.
‘Shell orbiculate, depressed, thin, diaphanous, deeply and
perspectively umbilicate; whorls 5%, rapidly decreasing,
rounded, obtusely angular at the periphery, thinly and very
finely striate all over with transverse and oblique spiral
strie. Umbilicus white, concave, angular at the margin,
aperture rounded. Hlegantly marbled black and olive, tesse-
lated at the periphery with white, or sometimes striped in
lines. Common.
This shell is much varied in the markings, and in its young
state is often rose, or brown, or orange in colour. It is of
course no more than a variety of the variable Minolia
vectiliginea, but I give my own diagnosis as Menke’s list is
difficult to meet with, and, as I think, hardly sufficient. ©
Tapes Victoria, T. t. inequilaterali, oblongo-ovata, sub-
tumida, antice abbreviata, rotundata, postice sub-lata, elevata
rotundata, et concentrice crebre costata ; costis rotundatis
sub-elevatis, rnceequalibus, in medio seepe desinentibus ; wm-
bonibus parvis, antice sub-arcuatis ; ligamento lanceolato
conspicuo ; dentibus cardinalibus valv. deat. 2, valu. sinis. 2
anteriorib. bifidis; pallide carnea, lineis fulvis divergen-
tibus, litterata ad margines punctis intensioribus maculata ;
paguna interna lutea antace et postico fulve purpureo tincta.
Lat. —, Long. —, Alt. —. Hobson’s Bay.
Shell inequilateral, oblong, oval, subtumid, shortened
anteriorly, rounded posteriorly, somewhat wider, raised,
rounded, and concentrically thickly ribbed; ribs rounded,
sub-elevate unequal, often disappearing in the middle;
umbones small, slightly curved anteriorly, ligament lanceo-
late and conspicuous; hinge teeth, two in right valve and two
in the left, which are bifid, colour pale flesh, with brown diver-
gent letterlike lines, which are more intense towards the
margins; inner surface yellow, stained at each end a purple
brown.
CIRCE PYTHINOIDES, 7.8. C.t. parva, crassa, suborbiculata,
ove gibbosa, parum, quadrata, albida, postice atro-purpurea
maculata, radiatum costata, costis wrregularibus, rude
nodose granulatis ad margimem scepe divisis, antice et
postice divaricatim, bifurcatim plicatis, wmbonibus acutts,
ove curvatis, lunula late ovata, purpurea, margunibus
incrassatis, valde flecuosis, pagina interna nivea, dentibus
crassis, conspicuis. Long: 25, Lat; 22, Alt. 10: Victoria.
—— «)
On some New Marine Mollusca. 61
Shell small, thick, sub-orbiculate, scarcely gibbous, slightly
quadrate, whitish, spotted black purple posteriorly ; radiately
ribbed, ribs irregular, coarsely nodosely granular; ribs often
divided towards the margin, anteriorly and posteriorly di-
varicately and bifurcately plicate; umbones acute, slightly
curved; lunule widely ovate, purple; margins thickened,
very flexuous, interior snowy white; teeth thick, con-
spicuous.
There is a Circe something like this figured in Reeve
(Icon. V., fig. 21) and identified with C. gibba occurring in
the Red Sea and Philippines. It may be the species here
described, but it is quite distinct from C. gibba. The differ-
ences from both figures and descriptions are as follow :-—
It is smaller, almost orbicular, has a series of divaricating
ribs sloping away on both sides at an acute angle from the
first and last central ribs, giving rise to a sculpture like the
genus Pythina. |
ArcA M‘Coyi, ms. A. t. alba, periostraca fusea plus
minusve induta, oblonga, quadrata, medio sinuata et
hiante, postice latiore et carinata, confertissime concen-
trice granulosé costata; granulis subspinosis, rotundatis,
obtusis, supr. carin. longioribus et radiatim dispositis ;
umbonibus parvis, acutis, planatis, curvatis, area angusta,
postuce attenuato ; dentibus parvis linea curvata dispositis ;
margunibus denticulatis, pagina, mterna, nitente, nivea.
Long. 7, Lat. 14, Alt. 6. Var ex, N.S. Wales, twmidioribus.
Shell white, more or less covered with a dusky periostraca,
oblong, quadrate, sinuate and gaping in the centre, broader
and keeled posteriorly, very closely concentrically granu-
lously ribbed ; granules sub-spinous, rounded, obtuse, longer
upon the keel and radiately disposed, umbones small, acute,
flattened at the sides and curved; area narrow, attenuate
posteriorly ; teeth small and disposed in a curved line,
margins denticulate ; internal surface white and shining.
- This shell is so near Arca gradata (Brod. of West
Columbia) that I doubt if it be distinct. The species have a
wide distribution. The E. Indian A. imbricata, Brug., and
the West Indian A. trapezia, are common in Australia.
PECTUNCULUS FLABELLATUS, 1.8. P. t. late orbiculari,
paulo vero transversa, crassa, tumidiuscula, radiatim
valide costata ; costis 25—35, lutis, planatis, etate antice et
postice confertis; marginibus late denticulatis ; dentibus
card. 16—20, crassis ; alba, intense fulva intus tincta et
62 . On some New Marine Mollusca.
extus plus minusve nebulosa et maculata. Long. 44, Lat.
AT, Alt. 44.
Shell broadly orbicular, but slightly transverse, thick,
somewhat tumid, validly radiately ribbed; ribs 25 to 35,
broad, flattened, becoming very close at the sides as the
shell grows; margins broadly toothed; cardinal teeth 16
to 20, white ; colour white stained, but intense fulvous brown
within, and more or less clouded and spotted with the same
colour on the outside. Victoria and Tasmania. Not com-
mon. Resembling P. radians, Lam., but differimg in the
particulars italicised above. It seems also to be almost
without periostraca. Very near P. laticostatus, Lam., which
Prof. Tate informs me is found at Spencer’s Gulf and N. Tas-
mania. It may turn out not to be specifically distinct from
that shell which is so abundant in our Miocene Tertiaries.
TRUNCATELLA MICRA, 7.8. JT. t. minuta, alba, trans-
lucida, cylindracea; anf. 4 (decollatis) irregulariter costato-
striatis, inflato-convexis ; sutura vmpressa, upertura parva,
semilunari, labro reflexo. Long. 44, Lat. 14. Brighton,
Victoria.
Shell minute, white, translucent, cylindrical; whorls 4,
(decollate) irregularly costately striate, inflatedly convex ;
suture impressed, aperture small, semilunar, outer lip reflexed.
There are so many Truncatelle described, which run so
closely to each other, that I hesitate to add this species. It
seems, however, to differ widely enough from all known to
me to warrant my giving it a name. It was found by Mr.
Kershaw.
The following freshwater shells were placed in my hands
for the most part by Mr. W. Kershaw, the intelligent taxi-
dermist and collector for the National Museum. It will be
seen that I describe as new species several ciliated Physe,
which I regard as being very close to those already described
by me asfrom Tasmania. Freshwater shells, it must be
remembered, have always a very wide range, being carried
about by aquatic birds in their migrations. Thus I have
found many freshwater and fluviatile species common to
North-east Australia and New Caledonia. Yet strange to
say there is sometimes a great difference found in the species
inhabiting freshwater lakes or streams within a short
distance. The species common to Tasmania and Victoria
are pretty numerous, and more may yet be found. Bythinia
Huonensis, nobis (which Professor Tate considers should be
On some New Marine Mollusca. 63
made the type of a new genus) is common about Melbourne.
Physa Dulvertonensis, Reeve, I have also seen, but no traces
so far of the peculiar and large Ancylus. If the ciliated
large Physw here described are all varieties of P. ciliata
nobis, the shell must be very variable; and all those of
Victoria have a marked uniform character; it is very
possible that some of them may have been described before,
though after a diligent search I have not been able to dis-
cover where. Meanwhile it is very desirable that the species
should have names and descriptions easily accessible to Aus-
tralian naturalists, which I have accordingly given them in
the descriptions which follow :—
PHYSA PILOSA, 1.8. P. t. swbumbilicata, tenn, nitente,
imflato, oblique, late ovata, lactea vel fulva, spira, fulwa,
subpellucida ; anfr. 3, ultimo inflato et obliquo, 2 apica-
libus parvis, acutis; regulariter longitudinaliter striatis,
perrostraca lutea, indutis, ineis reqularibus pilosis vel
punctatis instructa, sutura coronata, apertura oblique
ovata, antice producta ; labro tenwi, labio reflexo. Lat. 6,
Long. 11, 1.11 mil.
This may possibly be only a variety of P. crebreciliata.
It differs from it in being thinner, lighter in colour, with
avery thin periostraca—the extremely small spire, with the
oblique and interiorly produced aperture.
PHYSA CREBRECILIATA, 1.8. P. ¢. wmbilicata, tenwi, inflata;
late ovata, cornea, fusca vel albida et diaphana ; periostraca
totaliter wnduta; anfr. 34, duobus apicalibus parvis, pen-
ultimo perobliquo, longitudinaliter crebre striatis, et sprral-
iter lineis ciliatis crebre instructis, suturis periostraca
coronatis, apertura late ovata, tenuiter incrassata vel bila-
biata, labio conspicue refleco, Long. 7,Lat.15 mil. Caulfield,
Melbourne.
Shell umbilicate, thin, inflated, broadly ovate, horny,
dusky or whitish and diaphanous, completely covered with
a ciliated periostraca ; whorls 34, the two apical ones small,
the penultimate peroblique, thickly striate lengthwise, and
furnished with close spiral ciliated lines; sutures crowned
by the periostraca, aperture broadly ovate, slightly thickened
or bilabiate, lips conspicuously reflexed.
The cilia in this shell are in regular equi-distant spiral
lines, and at the sutures the periostraca seems to mass
itself in small rough folds, so as to make a spinous ridge.
PHYSA ARACHNOIDEA, 7.8. P. t. elongata ovata vel subcylin-
G
64 On some New Marine Mollusca.
dracea, crassiuscula, opaca, nitente, vel perrostraca induta.
obscure fulwa, vel lutea et alba maculata, apice acuto ; anf.
6, rapide decrescentibus, leviter conveais et declovis longit.
et transvers. striatis; striis granulato-punctato (sub lente
tantum visis) punetis liners sprralibus disposites ; aper-
tura, obliqua, pyriforme, antice producta, vntus cretacea ;
plica crassa, per umbilicum tantum visa. Long. 12, Lat. 54.
Long. apert. 7, Lat. 34. Mordialloc, Victoria. W. Kershaw.
Shell elongately ovate or sub-cylindrical, rather solid
opaque, shining or clothed with a periostraca; shell brown
or yellow, with white spots, apex acute; whorls 6, rapidly
decreasing, shghtly convex and sloping; striate lengthwise
and transversely, striz granularly dotted, which is only
visible under the lens, dots disposed in spiral lines ; aperture
oblique, pyriform, produced anteriorly, chalky white inside ;
plait thick, but visible only by looking, as it were, upwards
through the umbilicus.
I believe that the points or dotted spiral lines are derived
from cilia, which, however, had disappeared from all the
specimens examined by me. They would surely be found
in younger specimens. Perhaps, after all, this is only a
variety of the Physa Dulvertonensis of Tasmania.
PHYSA YARRAENSIS, 7.8. P.t. swb-wmbilicata termi diaphana
pallide cornea, nitente, spvra acuta; anfr. 4, conveas, de-
clivis, 2 apicalibus parvis, tenuiter longitudinaliter striatis,
apertura elongata, pyriformi, labro tenurssimo, antice pro-
ducto, labio wnconspicuo, plica crassiuscula. Upper Yarra,
Victoria. W. Kershaw.
Shell subumbilicate, thin, diaphanous, pale, horny, shining,
spire acute, whorls four, convex, sloping, two spiral, one small;
finely striate lengthwise, aperture elongate, pyriform, labrum
very thin produced anteriorly, lip inconspicuous, plait a little
thickened.
A shell with no very determinate characters, of small size
and thin.
Puysa KERSHAWI, 1.8. P. t. parva, anguste ovata tenwi,
perrostraca sordida, rugosa, induta, parum diaphana, sor-
dide fusca; anf. 34 ad 4, suwperne conspicue angulatis et
planatis, ad angulum requlariter (et sup. ult. anfr. drs-
tanter) carinatis ; carinis rotundatis, elevatis ; ad sutwras
anguste canaliculatis, apertura ovali, antice producta ;
labro tenw, ad carinas sinuato, labio reflexo, subumbilicato.
Long. 8, Lat. 44. Upper Yarra. W. Kershaw.
On some New Marine Mollusea. 65
Shell small, narrowly ovate, clothed with a sordid rugose
periostraca, slightly diaphanous, dusky in colour; whorls
three and a half to four, conspicuously angulate and flattened
above, at the angle (and on the last whorl distinctly) keeled,
keels rounded, raised; at the suture narrowly canaliculate,
aperture oval, produced anteriorly; labrum thin, sinuous at
the keels, inner lip reflexed, subumbilicate.
There is a faint resemblance between this shell and the
New Zealand P. tabulata of Gould. :
BYTHINIA VICTORIA, 72.8. B. t., minuta, turbinato-cono-
idea, viride lutea, sericea, periostraca atra plus minusve
mduta; anfr. 44-5, rotundato-convexis, levibus, longitud.
tenuiter rugoso striatis ; apice obtuso, apertura ovata, tus
castanea, vel alba, labro tenwi, labio via reflexo.
A minute shell, whose size, silky appearance, fine longitu-
dinal striz, and turbinately conical form, distinguish it from
all its Australian congeners. Lake Connewarre, Geelong.
Found in great numbers in Confervw by W. Kershaw.
Art. X—On Various Forms of Galvanic Battery.
By BL. J; Eviery; F.RS, F.B.A:S.
[Read August 9th, 1877. ]
G2
66 Extracts from Diary in Japan.
Art. XI.—E£xatracts from Diary in Japan,
By F. C. Curisty, C.E.
[Read 13th September, 1877. ]
JAPAN consists of four Islands, governed by an Emperor,
Ministry, and Parliament.
The Ministry consists of Premier, Ministers of Finance,
Foreign Affairs, Public Works, Education, Agriculture, &c.,
&c., with Vice-Ministers to each department.
Its members of Parliament are not elected by the people,
but are the Chief Magistrates of the various kens, or districts,
and are supposed to know the requirements of their people.
Yesso, the northern island, is about the 44th degree of
latitude and under the 144th parallel of longitude. Here
the winter is extremely severe; with almost constant
snow during the winter months; the bear, wolf, deer, wild
boar, otter, fox, hare, &c., are abundant; ptarmigan (grouse),
woodcock, snipe, &c.; codfish, herring, salmon, in profusion.
The cod, salmon, and roe of fish are salted and sent to the
southern towns in hundreds of tons per annum, and form
with rice the chief food, meat being little eaten.
Niphon, the main island, has the largest population ;
Yedo, the capital, contains 3,000,000 inhabitants.
The southern islands produce the best rice, and the largest
amount of good coal and minerals, excepting gold, which is
found principally in the north. Silk is produced in Niphon
and the southern islands; a large amount of good rice is
also grown around Yedo and Yokohama and southward.
The temperature at Yedo during the hottest days in the
sun was 122°, in the shade 93°; and the coldest 25°. It is
believed that the thermometer often shows 14° of frost, 18°
Fahr.
The autumn and winter months, from October to April,
are very dry and bracing, with clear bright atmosphere, and
from April to October very wet; the chief amount of rain
falling during the latter months. The rainfall at Yedo, as
obtained from Observatory, is 72 inches. The atmosphere
during the summer is excessively humid, and very dry in
winter. Furniture contracts and breaks its joints in winter ;
whilst in a summer’s day one’s boots become mouldy, and
Extracts from Diary im Japan. 67
kid gloves spotted, which it is absolutely impossible to
prevent.
Strange as it may appear there is very little sickness in
summer, and fevers are almost unknown.
Small-pox is very prevalent in winter, and appears when
the cold sets in, disappearing with the spring rains.
Skating is fashionable amongst the European population
of Yokohama ; good ice usually lasts a month, or six weeks;
it is necessary to shade it with mats, or the sun’s rays thaw it.
The 10th of January, 1876, eight inches of snow fell at
Yedo, and remained with frost six days, and began to thaw
the seventh day. On 27th January, 1876, fifteen inches of
snow fell at Yedo, and delayed trains; in some places it was
four feet deep.
July, August, and September are very hot months;
although the temperature is much less than in this colony,
the heat is more oppressive. Sun hats (helmets) and white
linen clothes are worn.
There is very little thunder and lightning, but severe
earthquakes, which appear to travel east to west ; eastward
is Brise Island, which has upon it an active volcano, and
Fujiyama, the holy mountain, nearly 14,000 feet high, is
distant about sixty miles west from Brise Island. Yedoand
Yokohama, which are eighteen miles apart, lie between these
two mountains; and it is thought the waves or shocks travel
from Brise Island to old Fuji. (See notes on earthquakes at
end.) Fujiyama is clothed with snow about nine months of
the year, and is ascended by hosts of pilgrims during July
and August, who are stamped on the back with a large
circular seal, or stamp of red paint, in proof of the ascent
being made ; the pilgrims are usually clothed in white loose
tunics and trousers, straw sandals, and huge broad brim hats,
made of flat rush or bamboo. Fujiyama is well wooded at
the lower part, but barren towards the top, which consists
of loose lava and ashes, with a deep inactive volcano basin
at the summit.
The ordinary lilac rhododendron grows on the mountain.
According to tradition Fujiyama rose from the plains in a
day, or night; the day being a dark day of horror and
destruction by earthquakes, &c. The superstitious believe
that the earth is moved by a huge tortoise.
Japan generally is mountainous, a chain of mountains
running from north to south, through Niphon, of 3000 to
68 - Extracts from Diary wm Japan.
10,000 feet altitude. It is watered by numerous rivers
from these mountains, emptying into the sea. The rivers
are some of them wide near the sea, but narrow and
more rapid inland; they abound with trout and salmon—
the salmon being local, that is northward, although the
salmon trout, a delicate fish with pink flesh, is largely
taken in Lake Biwa, near Kobe (southward). The lakes
are numerous and extensive. ‘The country near the coast is
beautifully wooded with small groves of evergreen and
deciduous trees. The features of this portion of the country
are striking, the hills running out towards the coast in forms
resembling barrows, very steep, with irrigated valleys
between—each valley having its stream, or rivulet; the
tops and sides of the hills being clothed with trees and
bamboo groves, and dotted with farms. The woods are
lovely, tinted with every shade of colour in vegetation; the
deep green of the cryptomeria and pine, evergreen oaks and
other trees, intermixed with golden feathery bamboos, the
scarlet, blood-red, and pink maples, the light green of the
deciduous oaks, ash, beech, birch, elm, horse and edible
chesnuts, &c.—the latter being a common forest tree.
The cottages are frequently sheltered by a bamboo grove
(the bamboo attaining a height of 60 feet), and have a garden,
with plum trees, and lime trees 20 feet high, with their
golden fruit and deep green foliage ; persimon of light green
foliage and chrome-coloured fruit, resembling golden eggs.
The parks are lovely, especially Uyeno and the Castle
gardens, with its ornamental water and rocky cascades; par-
ticularly when the double-blossom cherry and peach are in
flower. The cherries grow 50 feet high, and the pines, cryp-
tomeria japonica, cephalotaxus, &c., to 80 feet, casting a deep
shade. In many districts avenues of cherries are planted, and
thousands of Japanese go to see them in blossom ; it is one
of the great holiday sights. Among the early blossoming
trees are the wistarias, purple, lilac, and white; there is also
a double blossom purple. The wistaria, or fuji, is one of the
greatest favourites, some of them being over 100 years old.
The stem is carried up straight and the branches trained
overhead on horizontal bamboo trellis, with seats underneath ;
one tree will often cover a square of 50 x 50 feet. They are
generally planted at the tea houses, for shady lounges ; the
tresses of blossom hang through the trellis overhead. In the
woods the wistaria is everywhere to be seen, with its beauti-
Katracts from Diary wm Japan. 69
ful lilac tresses of blossom hanging in festoons from the
branches of the forest trees; here the ivy clothes others, the
old English mistletoe hangs from the boughs above, and
the honeysuckle wreaths the underwood. Neat hedges
divide the cottage gardens, and frequently enclose the gardens
of the rich. A wild bitter orange is the best hedge plant,
as it is impenetrable; but the euonymus japonicus, althea
(hibiscus), with white and lilac blossom, and the crypto-
meria are used; these all make neat hedges when well
kept. The camellia, although wild, is usually planted along
the roadside ; it frequently attains a height of thirty feet,
profusely studded with lovely red blossoms. The fan palm
is also a favourite, and produces a beautiful effect; the
hairy covering around the stem is used in lime plaster of
dwellings. The pink and white daphne attain a height
of five feet, as also the azalia, which grows wild, and is cul-
tivated in every variety of colour in the temple grounds and
gardens, as also the lovely olea fragrans, or Japanese migno-
nette, so called from its powerful and sweet scent; to-
gether with the charming lagerstrcemia rosea, a tree 20 feet
high, covered with magenta blossoms. The umbrella pine
(sciadopetys verticillata) adorns the temple grounds, as also
a tree resembling araucaria bidwilli, excepting that it grows
very straight, tall, and luxuriant, with light green foliage,
said to be a cunninghamia. The grandest of all trees, and
perhaps the most esteemed, is the ginko biloba, or salisburia
adiantifolia, which attains a height of 80 to 100 feet, with a
noble contour, the foliage pale green in summer and chrome
yellow in autumn. The commonest of all trees, and one of
the most stately, is the pine of the country, used for firewood
and a variety of purposes (pinus massoniana); this tree is
the common tree of the forest, the roadside, and the avenue,
and is most frequently pictured in lacquer work and intro-
duced in bronzes, &c. The berry-bearing shrubs are much
admired and cultivated ; the most prominent is the bamboo
of heaven (nandina domestica), with its ight feathery foli-
age and lovely scarlet or yellow wax-like berries ; itis to be
seen in almost every temple ground and cottager’s garden,
and decorates the houses at Christmas time.
The timber generally used is the cryptomeria japonica,
scented and soft like cedar (sugi), for lining houses, doors,
windows, and boxes. An ulmus or elm (planera japonica),
for temples, outdoor work, and furniture, is the most used
70. Extracts from Diary in Japan.
and most valued of all. Cupressus obtusa (hinoki) is much
esteemed for its durability, closeness of grain, silky appear-
ance, and freedom in working; it is used for all the best
temple fittings, &c.
The timber most commonly used in the rough framing and
roofs of houses is the matz (pinus massoniana). There are
seven species of oak, three evergreen and four deciduous.
The deciduous oaks are seldom allowed to attain large
growth, but are cut young for charcoal, oars of boats, &c.
The evergreen oaks are large trees and truly magnificent ;
one, the kashi (quercus glauca), has immense glossy leaves,
and is used for planes and other carpenters’ tools, being very
hard and of close grain. The ash (fraxinus excelsior) is fine
timber, but seldom utilised, being chiefly burned for charcoal ;
the wood is like the European ash, as also the foliage, but is
more robust. The walnut is largely grown, although the
timber is not utilised.
The houses generally are built of timber, with heavy
timber roof, tiled, frequently of two stories; the ‘peculiarity j is
that all the windows and doors slide in orooves, economising
space ; the windows are framed in small squares and covered
with paper, with a sliding shutter outside, which is closed in
wet and stormy weather. The houses are without fireplaces,
but are warmed by hibachis, an earthenware or bronze vessel
containing lighted charcoal; the houses are scrupulously
clean, the floors generally matted with rush matting. The
higher class houses are heavily framed, diagonally lathed
outside, and faced with fiat tiles, which are nailed on verti-
cally and the joints seamed with lime mortar; these houses
are dry, cool, and comfortable.
The cities and towns are all much alike, with narrow
streets, unpaved, but frequently macadamised. Lately, brick
houses and wide streets have been adopted in Yedo and
Yokohama by advice of Europeans, and they are much
approved. ‘The streets of Yokohama are wide and altogether
of European appearance—this town having been chiefly
occupied by Europeans and Americans for a considerable
period. Yedo has now also given way to the same innova-
tion; and Ginza—the main street leading from the railway
station to Nihom Bashi (one of the chief bridges)—has omni-
busses continually running, and hundreds of horse-drawn
vehicles, also thousands of Jinrikishas—a small, hooded
vehicle, on two wheels three feet in diameter, with Springs,
Extracts from Diary in Japan. 71
cushioned for one person; it has shafts, between which
a man runs; when two men are employed, the foremost
draws by a rope; two men will run from twenty to
thirty miles, the greater part of the distance from eight
to ten miles per hour. Yedo and Yokohama are lighted
by gas, superintended by a French engineer. Yedo is a
fine city, with a magnificent river, and veined with canals
—nearly all navigable for large craft. The Harbour Trust
of Melbourne might benefit by a trip to Yedo, which would
make them less sceptical of the certainty of making a canal
from the Gasworks to Hobson’s Bay—a paltry 14 miles,
whilst in Yedo and other towns of Japan there are hundreds
of miles of navigable canals, nearly all opening into the sea,
and walled from end to end with masonry.
The masonry is wonderful as it is beautiful; it is generally
of parabolic outline, with a quick curve at the base, and
becoming nearly vertical at the top, with an average batter
of about 1 in 12. The masonry is all of dry, squared rubble,
coursed ; the walls of the moats round the castles attaining
a height of from 50 to 100 ft. Some of the stones in Osaka
Castle weigh by measurement 160 tons each. The castle is
on a hill, probably between 100 and 200 feet above the sur-
rounding country, encircled by swampy rice-fields, four
miles across before any quarry is reached; therefore the
presence of such enormous stones on an eminence so far
away from any quarry is a marvel which no Japanese could
explain. The only answer was that the castle had been
built about 500 years, and no records kept.
The temples of Japan are truly superb. The decoration
of the interior is lovely and chaste; the intermixture of
colours, opposed to each other according to European taste,
are so beautifully blended and subdued that the most
sublime harmony exists, and there is only one feeling of all
visitors—the marvellously lovely and glorious effect.
The exterior of the temples is majestic and grand, built
generally upon round wooden columns of large diameter,
stepped into blocks of stone, with immense overhanging
roof, heavily tiled, beautifully neat in pattern; the roof
hipped but externally concave in the line of rafter; the
overhang, supported by rafter upon rafter protruding in
succession, beautifully carved, adding to the massive
orandeur. ‘There is usually an entrance gateway, roofed
with the same massiveness and beauty, with noble gates,
72. | Extracts from Diary in Japan.
hung by enormous wrought-iron strap hinges, and bound in
every direction by copper, bronze, and iron. A long, paved
causeway, lighted on each side by grotesque columnar stone
lanterns, beautifully carved, leads to the temple. Spacious
erounds of many acres surround the temple, planted with
beautiful forest and flowering trees and shrubs. As a rule,
the grounds, which are enclosed by walls, are most lovely.
A flight of stone steps leads to the temple entrance, which
is closed by massive doors. The temples are usually cuarded
at the entrance gates or at the temple by huge human figures,
carved in wood, painted red or black, complete and lifelike ;
the expression of the features most effective.
The interior of the temple is superb; black polished
lacquer floor, with gilt surroundings; the altar a miniature
temple of emblazoned gilt; the deity of gilt with the halo
around the head, reminding one of the Roman Cathedral.
The whole of the ceilings of the temple are panelled and
painted in gold, green, purple, scarlet, and black, m the most
chaste and elegant patterns, so minute that the decoration
must have occupied a lifetime to execute. The priests
officiate, and the suppliants kneel with their hands raised
and clasped in the form of Christian prayer, chanting the
service and counting their beads; a font of holy or sweet
water stands at the temple entrance.
The priests, with their heads shaven mostly, are jolly
fellows, glad to show and explain everything. Outside,
slung on a large wooden beam, is an enormous bell of bronze,
many tons weight, beautifully embossed with various devices,
and tolled by a huge battering-ram of timber drawn back-
wards and forwards by ropes.
There are two contending religions—Buddhism and Shin-
toism. Shintoism is the approved religion of the Govern-
ment ; both are ceremonially similar to the Christian reli-
gion, the creed being much the same: they each believe
that God has been on earth to reform and save them,
The colossal figures in bronze of their god Daibutz are
very wonderful, being from forty to fifty feet stature, beauti-
fully finished and polished outside, and the features most
expressive and lifelike. The whole figure is composed of
bronze, cast in small segmental plates, about one inch thick,
and brazed together.
The soil is generally volcanic, rich and dark chocolate,
overlying in many districts a clay slate much similar to that
Extracts from Diary in Japan. 73
of Melbourne. The Kobe district, 300 miles southward
from Yokohama, is granitic, and there the soil is poor, com-
posed of coarse grit sand.
Kobe is one of the chief open fee: and communicates
by railway with Osaka, distant twenty miles, and Osaka
with Kioto, distant another twenty miles, or forty miles of
railway from Kobe.
Kioto is the ancient city of the Mikado, and the people of
Kioto wish to regain the seat of Government from Yedo,
where it now is.
It was intended to extend the railway from Kioto to Yedo
—i.e., connect the two, viz., the railway between Yokohama
and Yedo, eighteen and. a quarter miles, with the Kobe line
—which would require three hundred miles additional line ;
but for the present this is abandoned.
Again referring to the nature of the country, there is
a total absence of chalk, limestone only of various kinds
having been found.
The minerals generally are copper (widely distributed),
iron, lead, silver, zinc, and gold; gold deposits do not
appear to be rich. Coal is also widely distributed, of
excellent quality, and varying from very bituminous to
hard, approaching the character of Welsh or anthracite.
The price delivered in Yedo or Yokohama is 8 dols. (32s.)
per ton. It is not more than 10s. per ton at the mines in
the Southern Island.
The mining is controlled by a department with a large
European staff; but it does not appear to pay, and the
Japanese prefer mining in the old manner.
There are several colleges in Yedo; the principal one—
the Imperial College—is a most splendid institution, with a
number of excellent English professors. It is established as
an engineering college, and has extensive engineering work-
shops, capable of manufacturing the largest marine engines,
being equipped with the finest machinery. ‘There are pro-
fessors of engineering, natural philosophy, geology, chem-
istry, electricity, English, mathematics, surveying, and all
branches of education. Attached is an extensive museum
of models, &c.
Yedo is the principal city of Japan, and the seat of govern-
ment, and where the Emperor resides. There are two parks
—Uyeno and the Castle—and several lovely palace gardens,
the resort occasionally of the Emperor. Uyeno Park pro-
TA Extracts from Diary in Japan.
bably is not excelled in beauty, grandeur, and variety of
trees by any park in the world.
Near Yedo is the Katakushi, or experimental farm, and
Horticultural Gardens, which hitherto have been presided
over by Americans. The whole affair has been very costly,
with very poor result.
The military organisation is "principally at Yedo; the
cavalry, infantry, and artillery and arsenal, are under the
supervision of Colonel Munier and staff, who are sent out
by the French Government at the request of the Japanese
Government. The Naval Department is organised by
English officers, selected by the English Government.
Japan has about one hundred thousand troops, well armed
with the best breech-loading firearms, and artillery, and all
well clothed in smart European costumes. .The greatest
credit is due to the French officers. Many of the Japanese
officers appear to be as smart as their European instructors ;
and when in their gold lace or red uniform, &c., it is difficult
to distinguish one from the other.
Throughout Japan there is an immense and most efficient
police force, entirely controlled by Japanese officers.
The European banks are the Oriental, the London Char-
tered, the Shanghae, Comptoir d’ Escompt, and German
bank. These are all at Yokohama; Mitsués, the Government
bank, is alone at Yedo. The currency is the silver Mexican
dollar and the Japanese gold yen, of about equal value, of 4s.
All the Legations are at Yedo, the British and Russian
being the most imposing; these two having erected fine
buildings on large commanding sites. The Italian and
German are in proximity, but the French still remains
between Yedo and Shinagawa, where the English Legation
originally was, outside Yedo.
The Legations are all presided over by ministers, who
have been especially well chosen by their respective nations;
under the ministers are consuls and vice-consuls. Yedo
is the great centre of commerce. The exports—which are
silk, tea, china (porcelain), tobacco, rice, copper, and various
articles, chiefly fancy goods—nearly all pass through Yedo
to Yokohama by water or rail, except those which are shipped
from other open ports; all open ports have a customs
department.
The revenue of Japan, as published by the Japanese
Treasurer, is £17,000,000 sterling, chiefly raised by a land
Extracts from Diary in Japan. 75
or produce tax, and an import and export duty of 5 per cent.;
also a multiplicity of small taxes levied upon their own
people.
The people are a most distinct race, all having black hair,
and black eyes slightly almond-shape, which is most observ-
able in the ladies of high birth ; in this there is a remark-
able distinction, the ladies of high families possessing cha-
racteristic features in the thin aquiline nose, small mouth
and lips, and full black eyes, slightly almond shape, remark-
ably fair, clear wax-like complexions, lovely teeth, and the
most beautifully-formed hands andarms. The hair is studied
to the last degree, most beautifully arranged and kept, no
covering to the head being worn. The dress is elegant and
chaste, the all-prevailing purple and scarlet being the
favourite colours of the ladies, although many other lovely
colours are introduced—always harmoniously.
The outer dress is silk, folded across the chest, leaving the
neck bare, closed by a broad obe or sash around the waist,
fastened in a large loose knot behind; and generally a
scarlet under garment, showing in front below the outer
dress. The outer dress is usually embossed or embroidered
beautifully with floss silk, in various devices; the feet
covered by a white sock, and the sandal or clog worn.
The gentlemen wear a long loose dress of silk in winter,
and silk gauze in summer, folded across the chest, leaving
the upper portion of the neck exposed; fastened round the
waist with a narrow obe, the legs bare, but covered by the
outer garment, which reaches the ankle ; socks and sandals,
or clogs, being worn on the feet; no covering to the head,
the hair drawn tightly back from the forehead, gathered and
tied at the crown in a short queue brought forward flat upon
the head. Two swords were worn until quite lately, being
now prohibited by Government. The swords—one long
and one short—have curved blades and wooden scabbards,
the swords being of the finest steel with the sharpest edge,
and much prized according to quality. It is said that a
Japanese considers it a disgrace to draw his sword and sheath
it without drawing blood, if drawn in anger.
The gentlemen ride on horseback. The horses are cobs,
about fourteen hands, and very enduring; the trappings
elaborate, large Eastern saddle and cloth, heavy stirrups
enclosing the foot, and heavy head mountings, with silk reins,
&c., all extensively worked.
76 Extracts from Diary in Japan.
The norimon of basket-work, sometimes entirely enclosing
the traveller and sometimes open with a handle or rail
running along the top (overhead), carried on the shoulders
of a man in front and one behind, is the mode of travelling
through the interior where the roads are bad.
There are several main roads, each one called a tokaido;
moderately well kept, upon which horse vehicles can travel
some considerable distance ; but the roads generally are mere
bridle tracks, unformed and unmade, upon which pack-horses
alone can travel. All the produce which cannot be sent
by water is brought upon pack-horse, even to timber, and -
it is astonishing what a quantity of heavy material is so
conveyed. |
The people are exceedingly polite and obliging in the
interior as well as in the coast cities. No foreigner is per-
mitted to travel beyond treaty limits without a permit
(passport) ; the treaty limits are thirty miles around Yoko-
hama, and about the same at other ports.
Japan is divided into provinces and kens, with a Governor
to each province and police magistrates in each ken. Ail
travellers on demand have to produce their passports or
permits ; on refusal, are arrested by the police and escorted
back to their place of residence, there to be brought before
their consul.
A large variety of poultry is kept, and game is abundant.
Fowls average about 9d. each; ducks, 1s.; Bee 38. turkeys.
8s.; pheasants, 1s.; woodcock, 1s; snipe, 3d.,
Sheep do not thrive, the country being atswianaiigly too
wet; all the mutton is imported from China. Cattle of a
small size are plentiful, as also pigs. Good beef is 84d. per
Ib; mutton, 1s. 5d.; and pork, 10d. Vegetables are plentiful
and cheap. Fish i is abundant in considerable variety, very
good, and reasonable in price.
The principal fruits are plums, several excellent varieties;
the persimon (kaki) eaten fresh and dried like figs in
large quantities, and of several varieties, a delicious fruit.
Loquats, oranges, cumquats, and a coarse variety of lime.
Inferior pears, peaches, and apricots—good small green flesh,
and water melons. Inferior grapes ; a good variety, but the
climate is not sufficiently warm to thoroughly ripen them.
Agricuiture is one of the largest industries, and suited to
the peculiar features of the country as there prosecuted.
The land is all surveyed each year, and the breadth of
Extracts from Diary in Japan. 77
produce recorded, and a tax levied on each producer. The
high land, where irrigation cannot be applied, is cropped
with barley, wheat, millet, buckwheat, pulse, root and green
crops, &c. There is a large variety of leguminose, especially
beans, which form a favourite food. Buckwheat and barley
are also largely grown, and used as flour in cakes; the
horses are also fed upon steeped barley. Wheat is not largely
cultivated.
Rice is the staple food, and the rice fields with the waving
rice in ear when green, and also when changing colour, pro-
duce a fine effect, the whole valleys appearing as one level
sheet of creen or golden-yellow when ripe.
The rice is sown in small seed-beds, well worked, manured,
and irrigated, on the Ist of May and few following days;
the seed is sown broadcast very thickly upon the surface,
and about one inch of water remains over the seed. From
the end of May until the 5th June the paddy or rice fields
are being prepared for the transplanting of the rice from the
seed-beds.
The rice fields or plots are from a half to two or three
acres in extent, thoroughly level, and surrounded by a bank
of earth about 12 or 18 inches high and 12 inches wide on
the top. All these plots are levelled by a water-level, a bam-
boo split in half and placed horizontally upon a vertical
stake and filled with water; the bamboo must thus be quite
horizontal or the water would run over the ends, where the
bamboo staves are sighted. Throughout the fall or decline
of the valley these plots are one lower than another, the
water being admitted to the highest and passed from one
plot to another by openings in the banks surrounding each
lot.
; These plots are usually dug or rather turned over by a
heavy drag fork, which is struck into the soft ground by the
husbandman and then pulled towards him, thus effectually
turning over the surface of the rice plot to a depth of 12
inches ; water is then admitted into the plot, and a horse
draws a rake or harrow, which is pressed down from behind by
the husbandman or lifted when clogged; a little rice husk or
green weeds appear to be the only manure given at this stage.
After thoroughly stirring and mixing the soil into mud, the
rice plants are taken out in bunches from the seed-bed and
transplanted singly by hand in rows or drills about 9 inches
apart in the rice plots, and 2 inches of water is run into and
78 Extracts from Diary in Japan.
kept over the surface of the plot. The transplanting begins
about the 5th of June and ends about the 25th; the rice
comes into ear in September, and is reaped in November and
December, and laid upon the banks of the plots; afterwards
carried to the side of the valley, and the straw drawn through
an iron comb fixed upon a trestle. The grain being thus
stripped from the straw, is conveyed to.the farmer’s store.
The rice-straw is tied around the stems of the alder and
other trees which surround the rice fields, and is used for
fodder for horses, &c.
Liquid manure is sometimes applied to the rice, but as a
rule the manure used for the previous crops is sufficient.
Before the rice is reaped the plots are drained by allowing
the water to flow away through the apertures which feed
from plot to plot. As soon as the rice is cleared the ground
is broken up, and a root crop, or barley, or buckwheat, or
some other crop grown which can be removed in time for the
next rice-planting, Barley is harvested before the middle
of June. These crops are manured by liquid manure poured
along the drills from a hand-ladle; this is the most import-
ant, as no other manure is used, and yet the same cultivation
has gone on for centuries with a constant growth of rice year
after year upon the same land. Japan is thus entirely self-
supporting. All excreta or feecal matter is carefully retained
in tanks or earthenware jars, which are emptied once or twice
a week by the agriculturists, who fetch it in deep wooden
buckets and carry it across their shoulders for miles to their
farms ; it is also taken long distances in these buckets slung
across a pack horse ; also by barges along the canals. There
are in many places municipal large tanks for receiving it,
ready for water carriage.
The application to the plant is very important. It is
carried to the farm, there stored in an open tank preserved
from the rain by a thatched roof, but exposed to the atmo-
sphere ; fermentation at once takes place, the gases pass
away, and it is then poured along the drills by the side of
the growing crop and frequently upon it, which it does not
injure, probably because fermentation in the atmosphere has
taken place.
It is estimated that the excreta from eight adults keep an
acre in the highest cultivation, producing at the rate per
diem of one pound of grain or pulse and one and a half
pounds of green vegetable. This with a little fish and eggs
Extracts from Diary in Japan. | 79
forms the food of the Japanese. In other words, it is
estimated that eight adults live from the produce of one
acre, and keep it in heart as above stated. To go minutely
into this subject would make the paper too long, but it has
been carefully calculated. In England the excreta from 800
to 1200 persons is used per acre without profitable result,
as stated this session at the Institute of Civil Engineers of
London.
The rice grain is husked or shelled in wooden mortars by
a concave wooden pestle, a number of which are worked by
a wooden shaft, fitted with wooden pegs forming cams, the
shaft being driven by a waterwheel constructed entirely of
wood. Stone-husked rice is not liked, the wooden pestles
producing a high polish upon the kernel.
Many species of roots are eaten; the sweet potato
(dioscorea batatas) most largely, and is very delicious when
properly cooked. There are also two species of roots, one
grown on dry ground and one in the rice fields; each of
these have leaves like the arrow head or arum (calla); all
these three, as well as the ordinary potato, are called imo.
The beautiful lotus (with its lovely, large, lily-like white
or pink blossoms, and large deep green leaves, floating upon
the water or waving in the wind) is considered a great
delicacy. The root is boiled or steamed, and has a slightly
sweet but most agreeable flavour.
Of the root crops grown on dry ground the giant radish
(daicon) has the largest consumption, perhaps; it is eaten in
every way—boiled fresh, dried and boiled, &c. It is coarse
in flavour, in size it is about 24 inches long by 2 inches
diameter. Carrots and leeks are largely grown; onions and
turnips sparsely. The whole country is irrigated where
possible ; the irrigation is simple, perfect, and inexpensive.
The white mulberry is cultivated to a large extent, but
chiefly in small patches by farmers whose families raise
silkworms; a large amount of silk is produced from
bombyx mori by cottagers. The bombyx of the oak (the
yamamai) also produces a considerable quantity of coarse
silk; in a wild state a silk is likewise obtained from the
bombyx (which feeds upon the ailanthus as well as the
- oak), the cocoon of which is open like network. The silk
is chiefly reeled by hand, but one establishment in Yedo
reels by water-power.
The woven silks have not been equal to those of foreign
H
80. Extracts from Diary in Japan.
production, and the Government have imported filateurs
from France to improve the silk manufacture.
Paper-making is one of the arts developed to the greatest
extent. The paper is said to be manufactured by cottagers
and farmers from the bark of the mulberry (the inner bark
being separated from the outer), macerated by boiling, and
pounded into a pulp with rice-water and spread out in thin
layers; the outer bark being made into a coarse paper.
Several European paper-mills have been erected where the
paper is made from rags, &c.; these mills produce good
white paper. The Japanese paper is of yellow cast, but is
extremely tough, and is used for waterproof coats, windows,
umbrellas (parapluis), tobacco pouches, and a variety of other
purposes, and last, not least, for pocket-handkerchiefs.
_ Very many of the birds are identical with those of Europe.
The sparrow is seen everywhere in large quantities ; and
although pyrgita montana, the tree sparrow of Europe, it
breeds almost entirely in houses, and has exactly the habit
of the London sparrow; but the plumage of the female is
similar to that of the male.
The hawfinch (cocco thraustes vulgaris), bullfinch (loxia
pyzrhula), crossbill (loxia curvirostra), bramblefinch (fringilla
montifringilla), redpole (Liynota linaria), siskin (carduelis
splnus), greenfinch (cocco thraustes chloris), house swallow
(which migrates, appearing again on 5th April), skylark,
pippet-lark, long-tail titmouse, large tomtit, small tomtit,
wren, golden-crested wren, jay, waxwing, nuthatch, &c., are
the same as those of Europe, with English song and call—
that is, the song and call are exactly similar to those of
the same species in England. There are numerous others,
such as the linnet, which differ from the Huropean species,
and very many which are not found in Europe. The birds
of prey are, many of them, identical with those of Europe.
The reptiles appear to differ from those of Hurope. There
are several species of snakes which are very abundant, many
of them frequenting the trees; all are harmless excepting
the marmouchi, which closely resembles the adder of
England.
The most wonderful reptile is the Sieboldia maxima, a
large animal about four feet in length, very robust, and
nearly black, with four legs and flattened tail, resembling in
character the water eft or newt; it is found in the rivers,
and is harmless. Baron Siebold had a fine live specimen,
Extracts from Diary in Japan. 81
which required two persons to lift it from its bath; it
appeared to be sluggish in its movements.
The insects are perhaps the most interesting to the natu-
ralist, especially the Lepidoptera, as so many are identical
with those of Europe. Referring to a few of the papilionide,
or butterflies, the following are identical with those of Eng-
land :—Papilio machaon, pieris rape, pieris napi, leptoria,
candida, gonepteryx rhamni, colias hyale, argynnis paphia,
argynnis aglaia, argynnis adippe, vanessa io, vanessa antiopa,
vanessa polychloros, vanessa cardui, limenitis sybilla, lyccena,
phlceas, polyommatus argiolus. These are English species,
but the butterflies generally in Japan are very numerous
and lovely.
The following are some of the moths identical with those
of England:—Smerinthus ocellatus, acherontia atropos (con-
sidered a different species in England, and named acherontia
styx, but the larvee and imago appear to be identical), sphinx
convolvuli, choerocampa elpcenor, macroglossa stellatarum,
clisiocampa neustria; dendrolimus pini is abundant, but
whether identical is doubtful; gastropacha quercifolia, stan-
ropus fagi, clostera curtulee, cerura furcula, cerura binula,
porthetria dispar, psilura monacha, porthesia chrysorrheea,
porthesia auriflua, spilosoma menthastri, spilosoma lubrice-
peda, spilosoma urticze, spilosoma salicis, arctia caja, enthe-
monia rusula, miltochrysta miniata, lithosia complana,
lithosia quadra.
NOcTUID4.
Several of lytcea, or rustics, as also most of the agrotis;
segetum, and others; many of the graphiphora, orthosia,
mythimna, segetia, caradrina, grammesia, glea, amphipyra,
lerouris, calocampa, xylophasia, hadena, euplexia, mamestria,
Thyatira, scoliopteryx, acronycta, ceratopacha, cosmia ; most
of the xanthia, orbona, and gortyna, phlogophora, cuculia,
plusia, heliothis, ophiusa, mormo, and catocala.
To go through the thin body moths would occupy too
much time; but the larger number of English species are
found in Japan. ,
In enumerating the above it must be understood that the
numerous species omitted because not identical with those
of England are far more beautiful than those mentioned.
The papilio, or swallow-tail butterflies; the apatura, or
Emperor; the thecla, or hair-streak; the parnassus, or
Apollo, &c, are very grand, Also the large family of
H 2
®
82 Extracts from Diary in Japan.
sphingide, particularly the clear wings or sesia, which are
magnificent ; and the species. of catocala are lovely beyond
description.
The humble bees are numerous; several species identical
with those of England. Also the hornet, which is abundant ;
of this there are two or three species, one identical. The
wasps differ; all have their nests on trees or some other
dry place, the ground being too wet. It is curious to see the
nests in rose bushes, &c., slung from a bough ; and although
they are very numerous in species and in quantity they are not
troublesome. The coleoptera are very fine, with many new
species. |
In referring particularly to the very many species identical
with those of England it is remarkable, because Japan con-
sists of a series of islands so very distant and isolated from
England, and goes far to disprove Darwin’s theory that the
farther species are from species—that is, the more they are
diffused by distance—the more they must differ, having to
struggle for existence over so great a space.
This paper must be received as a series of notes, not as a
carefully written paper, as it has been written hurriedly ;
but it is hoped that there will be some matter which may
prove interesting, as the whole may be relied upon as facts
gathered by actual observation, although even then slight
errors creep in.
3 ¥. C. CHRISTY.
5th September, 1877.
EARTHQUAKES OBSERVED BETWEEN THE IST JANUARY AND
17TH OcTOBER, 1876.
January 20th, 8.40 p.m—Very severe vertical shocks;
threw the wine out of champagne glasses, which were only
half full ; commenced by slight shock, immediately followed
by severe shock, which lasted about three seconds, unaccom-
panied by noise ; fine calm night, rained next day.
January 29th, 4 a.m.—Severe oscillating shocks ; snowing
all day, 15 inches deep on ground.
January 11th, 5.40 pm.—Two very severe shocks, one
immediately after the other. Whilst walking on the grass
plot in front of dwelling the earth undulated from 1 to 3
inches ; the trees rose and rocked as the wave rolled along ;
the wave appeared to travel from west to east. Second
shock very severe, oscillating and trembling motion, causing
Extracts from Diary wm Japan. 83
the house to shake as though the tiles and windows would
be thrown out of their places; no noise, excepting from the
shaking of the house, which was so alarming that it was
thought advisable to keep at a distance from it. The house
is large, two story, heavily framed in timber, faced and
roofed with tiles; the evening lovely and calm, with clear
sky. First shock lasted 2 to 3 seconds, 2 to 3 seconds
interval, then second shock lasting 3 to 4 seconds. During
the day, which was unusually warm, a depressing sensation
was observed.
February 13—Three shocks during night; snowed all day.
February 26th, about 9 pm.—Slight shock; day fine and
warm.
March 9th, 12.10 (noon).—Sharp shock.
March 13th, at night, 12.20 a.m—RModerate shock ; gale
sprung up, which lasted from 2 a.m. till 11 am., with rain;
night very warm.
March 31st, 7.40 p.m.—Long, but not severe oscillating
shock, apparently from west to east; lasted several seconds ;
weather calm.
April 11th, 2.25 a.m—Slight shock ; two seconds after, a
severe shock. 4 am—Slight shock.
April 12th, 7.10 a.m.—Severe shock.
April 17th, 6.30 p.m—Sharp shock ; day very fine.
April 21st, 5.30 a.m.—Slight shock,
April 25th, 5 a.m.—Slight shock. 1.58 p.m.—Severe and
long shock. Day fine.
April 27th, 5 am.—Slight shock; strong wind.
May 3rd, 9.50 a.m.—Sharp shock ; squall came up with
rain.
May 7th, 9. 30. —Sharp shock, lasted several seconds;
rained all day.
May 21st, 10.20. a.m—Slight shock ; day fine.
May 24th, 9.30. am.—Slight shock ; day fine, overcast in
afternoon, rain at night.
June 25th, 6.15 p.m.—Very severe and long shocks ; ia
cloudy and cold, with wind,
July 16th, 10 a.m —Shight shock.
July 30th, 10.5 am.—Very severe undulating shock ; day
fine, very warm,
August 5th—Slight shock; day fine, very warm.
August 20th, 4. 30 p.m. —Slight shock ; heavy thunder-
storm, with vivid lightning.
84 Attraction of Gravitation
August 24th, at night—Slight shock ; sultry, with rain.
August 27th, 2 a.m.—Slight shock, rained heavily. 9.10
p-m.—Slight shock, oscillating, lasted several seconds ; sultry
. and overcast.
September 14th, 5 p.m.—Sharp shock.
October 16th, 6.30 am.—Slight shock ; day fine and calm.
October 17th, 3 a.m.—Two severe shocks, and one slight
one.
Art. XII.—On the Probability that a Connexion of Causa-
tion will be shown to exist between the Attraction of
Gravitation and the Molecular Energy of Matter.
By ALEXANDER SUTHERLAND, M.A.
[ Read on the 13th Sept., 1877.]
In his recent paper on “ Force” Mr. Pirani asks what is
meant when we say that one portion of matter attracts
another. Is it to be supposed that just as a conscious being
exerts a force upon an external object, so does one inanimate
body exert a force upon another? To this notion he takes
exception, and, as I conceive, with justice. For the idea that
that which is itself devoid of energy should have the power
of imparting energy to another body is opposed to all our
intuitive beliefs.
Yet the fact remains, that when two bodies are placed in
space at a distance from each other, and left to themselves,
each begins to set the other in motion—that is, each imparts
to the other a certain amount of kinetic energy.
Here we have a difficulty: on the one hand it is incon-
ceivable that inanimate bodies should have the power of
doing work, on the other there is every reason to believe
that two portions of matter can do work upon one another.
But in this connexion is not the word inanimate altogether
misapplied? Now that we. know all matter to be replete
with energy, would it not be more correct to regard it as in
certain respects animate? Seeing that it is possessed of
energy, it must be possessed of the power of doing work,
and if we could establish a connection between this
internal molecular energy of matter and its power of doing
and the Molecular Energy of Matter. 85
work upon other matter, we should at once remove this
inconsistency.
Our proposition would then be that two portions of matter
animated by vast internal energies which are similar in all
respects to the energies of animals, except that they are not
accompanied by consciousness, have by virtue of this internal
energy the power of doing work.
I desire in this paper to inquire how far we should be
justified in thus seeking in the known molecular energy of
matter the attractive power which this matter certainly
possesses.
If there be two bodies at a certain distance from one
another, each is found after a certain time to be possessed of
kinetic energy, which was not previously in existence; and we
have to inquire from what source this energy has been derived.
In accordance with the principle of the conservation of
energy, the reply must be that it has sprung from some an-
tecedent energy; for if the sum total of energy in the universe
be constant then energy cannot be. created, and cannot be
produced from something which is not energy.
Now let us ask—What is the pre-existent energy from
which the energy of these attracting bodies has been
derived ?
We must carefully avoid being misled by the use of such
a term as “Potential Energy ;’ for in referring the energy
whose origin we seek to what is called potential energy, we
should at once beg the whole question. When Professor
Rankine invented this term, he never intended that it should
be used to represent any real form of energy. It is an
analytical artifice of great use, but merely representing the
potentiality as distinguished from the actual existence of
energy. It isa condensed statement of the fact that if a
body be left to itself it will after a certain time have
acquired a certain amount of energy. But the question
we propose is still untouched—From what source has this
derived energy been obtained ?
We have to decide in what direction we may, with most
hope of success, seek this unknown source. Is it external
to the attracting bodies, or is it internal? In other words,
when two portions of matter in space begin to move towards
one another, is this motion due to external energies driving
them together, or to the internal energies of matter itself
tending to draw the two portions together ?
S6 - Attraction of Gravitation
There can be little doubt that the latter is by far the
more promising direction of inquiry. For we know that
all matter is possessed of eternal energy, whose amount is
far more than sufficient to explain all the known effects
of gravitation. Hach atom is for ever in motion, and there-
fore fraught with its own store of kinetic energy due to
this motion, the gross amount of these molecular energies
being far beyond any force to which living beings can pre-
tend.
On the other hand, to refer the energy arising from
gravitation to energies external to the bodies themselves,
is in every way unsatisfactory. Newton at first declined
to speculate on this subject, declarmg that there was no
known energy external to the bodies to which their result-
ing energy could he attributed. Pressed by the importu-
nities of his friends, he formed a theory of the causation of
gravitation, referring it to supposed external agencies; but
he attaches no value to his speculations, as they are based
on the utterly unscientific method of explaining the existence
of a known effect, by assuming the existence of an imagi-
nary cause invented for the sole purpose of explaining
that effect.
The same objection is open to the theories of Lesage and
Mossotti. Jf we allow to Lesage that the universe is filled
with extra-mundane particles, moving at high velocities
and impinging on all bodies, and if we allow that these
bodies have a cage-like structure, then gravitation may be
partly explained ; but an hypothesis which calmly assumes
two important propositions, for the purpose of partially
explaining a third, introduces more difficulties than it
removes.
In the same way Mossotti requires us to allow, first, that
all particles of matter repel one another, which is a gratuitous
assumption ; secondly, that all particles of intervening ether
repel one another, which is a second gratuitous assumption ;
thirdly, that particles of ether and particles of matter
attract one another, a third assumption, with this special
objection, that it assumes the whole question, when it speaks
of attraction between particles. Here, then, we have three
assumptions for the purpose of explaining a single fact.
The mathematical part of the work is handled in a masterly
way ; but just as an equation is not solved, if we introduce
unknown quantities and allow them to remain in our final
———
and the Molecular Energy of Matter. 87
result, so if we introduce assumed facts in explaining a
known fact, there is in effect no explanation given.
But the internal energy of matter due to the motion of
its molecules, is at present a well-established fact, and is free
from the objection of being an hypothetical existence as-
sumed for the purpose of explaining a known fact.
The case then may be stated thus: When two bodies are
placed near one another and left to themselves, each acquires
a certain energy. This must have been derived from some
antecedent energy ; but the only antecedent energy known
to exist is that due to molecular motion. Hence we shall be
justified in turning our investigations, whether experimental
or mathematical, in that direction.
This is an explanation which has not been possible until
within late years. Newton never dreamt that what we call
inanimate matter is in reality animated by vast energies ;
.had he known this fact he would perhaps not have
regarded it as an absurdity that two such bodies should
exert forces upon one another.
That gravitation is due to molecular energy is also the
result of the following consideration drawn from the analogy
between gravitation and the forces of magnetism and elec-
tricity. These three forces are the only known forms of
attraction at sensible distances. They differ among them-
selves in many respects, but they are, in their main features,
so similar as to form a class very distinctly marked off from
all other existences. Now itis certain that magnetism and
electricity are caused in some unknown manner by the
energy of material molecules. But when the forms of energy
are absent to which these two kinds of attraction are pecu-
liarly due, the portions of matter in question are still
endued with the other forms of molecular motion, and are
still found to possess a power of attraction similar to,
though much less intense than, the other attractions. Is
there not a large measure of probability in the belief that
also in the case of this universal form of attraction, the force
is due to the universal form of molecular energy ?
A more definite idea of what is meant will perhaps be
obtained in this way :—When an electro-magnet attracts a
piece of iron in front of it the following action goes on :—
Molecular vibrations are originated in the battery and pass
into the core of the magnet. From this core they are pro-
pagated out into space in the form of waves, and, in some
88 Attraction of Gravitation
undetermined way, the molecular energy of these waves is
converted into the kinetic energy of the piece of iron. Soin
the case of a permanent steel magnet, it has been shown
by Clerk-Maxwell, Verdet, De La Rive, and Wertheim, that
the attractive force is due to the molecular state both of the
attracting and the attracted body.
Now, take the case of a steel magnet which has been
heated and allowed to cool. It has lost its special molecular
energy, and its special attractive force; but it now possesses
the ordinary form of energy common to all matter, and like-
wise possesses the ordinary form of attraction common to all
matter. Since, then, in its former state, its attractive power
is known to be due to the energy of its atoms, there is a
strong presumption, in the absence of any other explanation,
that the attraction and the molecular state in the second
condition, are causally connected.
The following, therefore, is the theory to which the facts
point :—When two bodies are placed near one another, the
internal energy with which each is actuated is radiated imto
space, but such of it as is mtercepted by the other is con-
verted into kinetic energy in a manner analogous to that in
which the molecular vibrations of an electro-magnet radiate
and produce kinetic energy in the attracted iron.
If this theory could be shown to be true, it would explain
certain facts which seem otherwise to be explicable.
- For instance, suppose a mass of iron at the surface of the
earth to weigh one ton; then, if it were to be carried fifteen
hundred miles upwards from the surface, it would weigh only
half a ton. Now, what would become of the lost weight ?
Faraday spent some months in trying to discover if weight
lost in this manner is turned into electricity ; but his experi-
ments gave no hopeful result. No other explanation has
been given of this apparent disappearance of something from
existence. But it is possible, that though this particular
mass of iron has lost something, yet that something has, ©
nevertheless, not been lost from existence. And this is the
result our proposition would give. For if we imagine a
body in a certain position to receive a certain amount of the
molecular waves proceeding from another body, then, when
removed to twice the distance, it would receive only one-
fourth the amount it previously received: The remaining
three-fourths would be lost to this particular body, but would
not be lost from existence—it would travel out into space ;
and the Molecular Energy of Matter. 89
and though it became attenuated the further it spread, yet
it would as truly conform to the law of the conservation of
energy as light does when not intercepted, but allowed to
radiate into space. Thus, though our ton of iron loses half
its weight, the loss could be easily accounted for without
supposing the annihilation of anything.
Again, it is known that all space is filled by a medium
which is capable of conveying molecular vibrations ; that it
conveys the motions of heat and light is certain; that it
likewise conveys the motions which constitute magnetism
and electricity was the belief of Faraday, and is now held by
Thomson, Tait, Maxwell, and others who have written on
the subject.
Now Newton demands a medium for the conveyance of
the effects of gravitation. In his letter to Bentley, he says—
“That one body may act upon another at a distance, through
a vacuum, without the medium of anything else by and
through which their action and force may be conveyed from
one to another, is to me so great an absurdity, that I believe
no man who has in philosophical matters a competent
faculty of thinking can fall into it.”
This assertion has been severely criticised. Still the rea-
soning on which Newton bases it is sound, and itis now
generally held to be justifiable.
Now since the ether which is known to fill space has the
power of conveying molecular vibrations, this fact tallies
very well with the supposition that gravitation is itself due
to waves of molecular vibration.
Our supposed origin of gravitation satisfies sufficiently
well the necessary condition of supplying an explanation of
the known laws to which gravitation is subject.
First, the attraction which a body exerts is proportional
to the amount of matter it contains. This is consistent with
our supposition. For it has of late years been conclusively
shown that matter is simply a name for a collection of such
energies as are capable of making an impression on the
senses. Thus the qualities of a body are dependent on the
amount it contains of the various forms of molecular energy ;
and its mass must depend upon the amount it possesses of
some constant form of energy. Hence if we suppose that
gravitation is proportional to this form of energy, it neces-
sarily follows that gravitation is proportional to the amount
of matter in the body. ~ | aus
90 Attraction of Gravitation
The second law has a greater significance than this. The
attraction of one body on another varies mversely as the
square of the distance between them. If 7 be the distance
between the two bodies, then one of the factors of the ex-
pression for their attraction is r?. Now 1 is a surface
quantity, and if gravitation were a simple force acting in a
simple straight line from a particle of one body to a particle
of the other, then it would be difficult to conceive of any ex-
planation for the entrance of such a factor. |
But in the case of magnetic attraction, or of any other
form of radiation, we can see easily enough the origin
of this term. For in all cases of waves propagated from
a centre, the square of the distance naturally enters. As
the wave moves forward, it expands equally in two
directions, and the expansion in each direction being
proportional to the distance traversed, the intensity of the
wave is lessened in proportion to the square of the distance
traversed. Hence the inverse square is the law for light,
heat, magnetism, and electricity. If we find the same law
in the case likewise of gravitation, it strengthens to a certain
extent the supposition that the internal energy of matter is
radiated through space in spherical waves which obey the
ordinary law of such waves, and decrease in intensity in
proportion to the squares of distances they have travelled.
In conclusion, it may be observed that of all the possible
explanations that could be given of gravitation, the simplest
and most likely is that the power of attracting lies in the
mass of matter itself; and if we ask what it is in matter
that gives it this power, we can scarcely have any other
answer than that it is some form of energy due to the motion
of the constituent molecules. It certainly would be a
step in the establishment of that conformity of nature,
to which all science tends, if it could be shown for gravi-
tation, as it has recently been shown for electricity and
magnetism—that it is the effect of molecular vibrations
propagated through the same omnipresent medium which
conveys the vibrations of light, heat, and actinism. Of
course, no real advance will be made in such a theory
until, by fresh experiments, or by mathematical investi-
gations, founded on previous experiments, something like
a reasonable explanation shall be given for the nature
of the connection that binds the two together; till we
shall be able to say how it is that a molecular dis-
and the Molecular Energy of Matter. 91
turbance propagated from one body is converted into an
attractive force upon the other. And yet the present theories
of electricity and magnetism are in the same state. It is
simply known that they are the result of molecular waves,
but the nature of the transformation is as yet a mystery.
Clerk-Maxwell has given in six papers in the Philosophical
Magazine for 1861-1862 a provisional theory for magnetism ;
but there has been no great advance made in this direction.
That the full connection will ere long be discovered, is almost
certain ; and in the meantime it will not be without its pur-
pose to point out that in the course of time it will, in all
probability, be necessary to extend the same investigation to
gravitation.
Art. XUT—Lxperiments on the Comparatiwe Power of
some Disinfectants.
By JAMES JAMIESON, M.D.
[Read on the 11th October, 1877. ]
THE object of the present communication is to record the
results of a series of experiments on the comparative power
of certain disinfectants when applied in the form of vapour.
While this department of the subject has undoubtedly great
practical importance in many ways, it has been compara-
tively little cultivated, due no doubt, in some measure at
least, to the difficulty which attends any attempt to carry
out such investigations in an exact way. It so happens,
therefore, that our knowledge on the subject of aérial disin-
fection is made up mainly of vague impressions, which may
perhaps be tolerably correct, but which are greatly in need
of a basis of well-established facts and scientific investiga-
tions.
It would be out of place for me to enter at any length on
the general question of the nature of those remarkable pro-
cesses included under the terms putrefaction and fermenta-
tion; but it is necessary to state the opinion I hold on the
subject, which is that now generally accepted by men of
science. It may be said, then, that putrefaction, fermenta-
92, Comparative Power of some Disinfectants.
tion, and other allied processes are in their essential nature
chemical changes brought about in organic matters by the
functional activity of minute vegetable organisms; these
changes being of a destructive character, consisting in the
reduction of complex substances into simpler ones. Certain
phenomena which specially obtrude themselves on our
notice, such as the formation of disagreeably smelling
matters in putrefaction, and the copious evolution of gas in
ordinary alcoholic fermentation, are mere accidents. Among
the allied processes referred to must be ranked, I think, the
changes going on in the animal economy in the course of
certain acute diseases, which, from their apparent analogy
with the phenomena of fermentation, have been long named
zymotic. ‘The investigations of some of the best patholo-
gists of our own day have supplied evidence of a positive
kind in favour of that theory; and with reference to a few
of the acute contagious diseases there is, I think, satisfactory
proof that they owe their origin to microscopic organisms
belonging to the lowest order of plants. The doctrine of
the parasitic nature of the ordinary epidemic diseases,
founded partly on the analogy already mentioned, and more
recently on the results of exact observation and experiment,
has received a further confirmation from the beneficial
results following the use of well-known disinfectants having
a parisiticidal action in the cure, and still more in the pre-
vention, of some diseases of the kind now under considera-
tion. To prove the action of disinfectants in preventing or
checking putrefaction in substances liable to it is easy; but
when we have to deal with the living animal the matter
becomes much more complicated, and hence perhaps the
want of demonstrative force in the evidence adduced in
favour of the action of disinfectants as preventive and
curative agents in disease. An important step has been
recently made by subjecting the virus or contagious matter
of some diseases, such as glanders and vaccinia, to the
action of disinfecting agents, and then testing its power of
communicating the disease by inoculation. Such investiga-
tions have been carried on by Dr. Dougall, of Glasgow, and in
a more thorough way by Dr. Baxter, whose experiments are
fully described in the Reports of the Medical Officer of the
Privy Council for the year 1875. It is there clearly shown
that the ordinary disinfectants—carbolic acid, sulphurous
acid, and chlorine—destroy the contagious property of the
Comparative Power of some Disinfectants. 93
vaccine and glanders viruses when applied to them in the
same manner and in the same strength as is found sufficient to
destroy the organisms causing putrefaction, and thus to put
a check to that process. The chain of evidence, therefore,
seems very complete in favour of these two points—(1) that
certain acute contagious diseases are caused by the introduc-
tion into, and multiplication in, the animal body of minute
vegetable organisms; and (2) that it is possible to destroy
the contagious power of the virus by means of disinfecting
agents, and so prevent the spread of these diseases. There
may be room for difference of opinion as to what diseases
can be included in this class; but there has been almost
absolute demonstration supplied of the correctness of one or
both of these points with regard to certain, and among these
are to be reckoned especially anthrax, glanders, remittent
fever, diphtheria, and vaccinia. When the virus has taken
root in the body, it is very questionable if we can do any-
thing to stay its progress. This is owing to the fact that we
cannot introduce these parasiticidal agents into the animal
system, In amount sufficient to destroy the morbitic
organisms without at the same time doing irreparable injury
to the delicate structures of which it is built up. But
whilst we have thus to confess our impotence in the present
state of our knowledge, and with the agents now at our
disposal, I for one cherish the hope that the chemist, by
means of the synthetical method of forming new compounds,
will yet offer us some agent capable of doing all that is
required. That salicylic acid has not done more to supply
the want must have been to many, as it was to me, a grievous
disappointment.
We are thrown back therefore on prevention as the great
field of our activity in this department of practical medicine;
and there we may with confidence look forward to triumphs
oreater far than have been already attained, considerable as
these are.
As epidemic diseases generally spread by means of some
virus, which has been formed in the body of animals
suffering from them, and is conveyed in some way from
these diseased animals to healthy ones, it is clear that if we
could destroy with certainty all contagious matters as they
leave the body the work of prevention would be done. That
it is possible to destroy the viruses of all contagious diseases
by mixing them with a sufficient amount of some disinfectant
94. Comparative Power of some Disinfectants.
may be regarded as almost certain, since it has been actually
done in the case of several of them. Unfortunately, we
cannot always obtain the virus in substance, so as to
operate upon it in that way; and we are compelled,
therefore, to consider the possibility of attacking it when
suspended in the atmosphere, or attached to walls or other
surfaces in a dried state. That some diseases are con-
veyed by means of a dried contagium floating in the air
seems to be certain, and therefore in the prevention of
many diseases—such as scarlet fever, measles, small-
ox—we have to face the problem of aérial disinfection,
- with all its difficulties. The only experiments made to test
the effect of disinfectants, in the form of vapours, on a dried
animal contagium, which I have seen detailed, are those on
vaccine virus by Drs. Dougall and Baxter. The general
result of these was to show that concentrated vapours
destroyed the contagious quality of the virus when they
operated for a suflicient length of time, just as the same
agents in substance robbed fresh liquid vaccine of its power -
of communicating vaccinia. One other point is necessary
again to adduce, and that is that the septic microzymes so
abundantly found in ordinary processes of putrefaction are
destroyed by the same agents used in nearly the same
strength. These preliminary statements have now brought
me to the ground and reason of my ownexperiments. Some
of the animal contagia, as those of scarlet fever, measles, and
some others, are almost unknown to us as objects of direct
observation ; but we have every reason to assume that they
are subject to similar vital conditions with those which have
been made the subjects of experiment, and therefore will
have their virulence annulled by agents which act in that
way, either on septic microzymes or on vaccine virus. My
experiments have been made with these septic microzymes,
which are always attainable, and whose death or continued
existence can be proved with greater certainty than is possible
in the case of the animal contagia by the method of inocu-
lation, which is always liable to some fallacies. It is known
that bacteria of different sorts, and especially these septic
organisms, can live and multiply in a perfectly clear solution
of certain saline matters, and the mixture known as Cohn’s
solution is admirably adapted for their cultivation. I used
a slight modification of that originally recommended by
Professor Cohn, composed of the following ingredients ;—
Comparative Power of some Disinfectants. 95
Tartrate of ammonia... e.5 Jie i. 2
Sulphate of magnesia... #4, re hi 1
Acid phosphate of potash nae 1
Chloride of calcium ... rn) sd Ae =e
Distilled water es ast vie axa 200
When this solution is boiled and preserved from any con-
tamination it remains clear for an indefinite time ; but if the
smallest portion of any substance containing the septic
organisms, called by botanists the bacteriwm termo, is added,
it gradually becomes milky, the rapidity with which this
occurs varying with the temperature at which the fluid is
kept. The mode of procedure which I adopted was as
follows :—I obtained a supply of the bacteria by adding a
few crushed peas to warm water and leaving the mixture
till it emitted a putrid smell, when it was found on micro-
scopic examination to be swarming with these and other
organisms. ‘Then, to obtain them free from admixtures,
I inoculated a portion of Cohn’s solution with a minute
drop of this putrid fluid, with the result that in less than
two days the previously limpid solution had become quite
opalescent. The bottle in which it was contained was
shaken up, so as to obtain a uniform mixture, and a piece of
filter-paper soaked with this, and then carefully dried in the
sun for several hours. This bacterialised paper was pre-
served between the leaves of a book, and small portions of
it used as required. To guard against fallacies I used the
following precautions :— A numberof small phials were taken,
containing each about a fluid dram of Cohn’s solution, and
after being carefully plugged with baked cotton wadding,
they were kept immersed in boiling water for a few minutes,
so as to ensure the destruction of any bacteria which might
by chance have obtained admission. After cooling, a portion
of the bacterialised paper, which had been subjected to some
disinfecting process, was put into one of them, the plug being
removed for as short a time as possible. For the purpose of
saving time a number of phials were thus charged and put
aside in some protected place at the ordinary house temper-
ature. Asa check I placed beside them one phial to which
nothing was added, and another into which a piece of the
bacterialised paper, pure and simple, of the same size as the ©
others, was put. If the phial containing only boiled Cohn’s
solution remained clear, this was a proof that there had been
no accidental contamination, while if the one to which
I
96 Comparative Power of some Disinfectants.
paper not disinfected had been put became opalescent, it
was evident that the bacteria in it were alive (in the sense
that a dried seed is alive) at the time the experiment was
carried on. No experiment was held to be satisfactory unless
both of these tests were fulfilled.
The endeavour was made to apply the disinfecting process
in such a way as to allow of the results attained being made
a guide in the practical use of these agents in every-day life;
and in the use of vapours the time required for destroying
the bacteria was the point investigated, the concentration
being that which could be attained by the usual simple
methods.
I.—EXPERIMENTS WITH CARBOLIC ACID.
A wide-mouthed 8-0z. bottle was used, about a dram of
erystallised carbolic acid being put into the bottom of it.
The pieces of paper were suspended from a hook on the
under side of the cork, which was fixed tightly in, and the
whole left at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere for
carefully noted periods. A good deal of time was lost in
feeling my way, in the absence of any knowledge at the time
of similar observations.
(1.) Two pieces of the paper were exposed to the carbolic
vapour for 9 hours and then introduced into the solution.
In both cases opalescence began to appear in 42 hours, show-
ing that the bacteria had not been destroyed; though as the
phial into which undisinfected paper had been put began to
be coloured in 36 hours, it appeared as if some of them had
been killed, or at least in some way paralysed.
(2.) Two pieces exposed to vapour for 19 hours. Both
remained clear.
(3.) One piece each 11 and 14hours. Both remained clear.
Suspecting now that the air contained in the bottle had
not had time to become saturated with the carbolic vapour
in No. 1, which was begun as soon as the crystallised acid
had been put into it, and in view of the positive effect in
Nos. 2 and 3, I next tried some shorter periods.
(4.) One piece each exposed to the vapour for periods of
22, 34, 5, and 7 hours. The first two became opalescent,
whilst the others remained quite clear. This experiment I
considered quite conclusive, as the opalescence began to
appear in the following order:—With the undisinfected
paper in 60 hours, with that exposed for 2? hours in three
Comparative Power of some Disinfectants. 97
days, and with that for 34 hoursin 4days. The longer time
required in all than in Exp. No. 1 was due to the different
temperature of the atmosphere, the first having been carried
on in hot weather, and this in cold.
It follows then that with the fullest possible concentra-
tion of the carbolic vapour at ordinary temperatures an
exposure of more than 34 hours is necessary to ensure the
destruction of the bacteria. As the conditions, in ordinary
measures for disinfecting the air of a room by means of car-
bolic acid, can scarcely be made so favourable as in a closely-
corked bottle, it must be evident that, as generally used,
carbolic acid is useless for the purpose. To bring out this
satisfactorily, however, I performed the following supple-
mentary experiments.
(5.) A tin of carbolic powder was taken, and all the per-
forations in the lid opened. The powder was then shaken
up and two pieces of the paper left suspended close above it,
one for 10 and the other for 24 hours. The solution into
Sal they were put became opalescent with both in 3
ays.
(6.) Two pieces were sprinkled freely over with the car-
bolic powder, and left uncovered for 10 and 24 hours respect-
ively. With both the solution remained perfectly clear
after 14 days. The powder was therefore good and showed
itself useful when applied in substance, but the result of the
whole series is to show that leaving vessels containing car-
bolic acid or this carbolic powder in a room is useless as a
measure for destroying contagion, and may indirectly be
harmful by giving a false sense of security, and thus pre-
venting the use of more efficient measures.
IJ.— EXPERIMENTS WITH SULPHUR FUMES.
(1.) One piece each exposed for 5 and 15 minutes to the
fumes of sulphurous acid obtained by throwing sulphur on
hot charcoal. The paper was suspended from a wooden box
inverted over the vessel containing the charcoal pan, which
- was placed at the opposite corner. The box was not very
close, and the fumes escaped freely. The solution contain-
ing the piece exposed for 5 minutes became cloudy in 60
hours; that with the 15 minutes piece remained trans-
parent.
(2.) Two pieces again in a closer box, but without very
copious evolution of fumes, one for 5 the other for 10 minutes.
I 2
98 Comparative Power of some Disinfectants.
Both caused the solution to become milky, though earlier by
12 hours with that exposed for only 5 minutes.
(3.) Two pieces for 3 and 10 minutes in a close-fitting box,
the vapour being more copiously evolved. The 3 minutes
piece became opaque in 60 hours, whilst the 10 minutes one
remained quite transparent.
It follows from the whole series that whilst it is possible
to destroy the dried microzymes by an exposure to sulphur
fumes for 10 minutes, it can only be done under very favour-
able conditions. An exposure for 15 minutes, if at all
thorough, will usually be sufficient.
IJ].—EXPERIMENTS WITH OZONIC ETHER.
These were carried on in a bottle in the same manner as
with carbolic acid, about half a dram of the ether being put
into the bottom of a wide-mouthed bottle of about 5-oz.
capacity, the pieces of paper being suspended from a hook
on the under side of the cork.
(1.) One piece each exposed to the vapour of ozonic ether
for 10, 30, and 60 minutes. The 10 minutes piece caused
opalescence in 44 days, the same time as the bacterialised
paper. The other pieces left the solution unaffected.
(2.) One piece each for 10, 15, and 20 minutes. The 10
minutes piece caused only a slight opalescence after 54 days,
the other pieces remaining transparent.
It is clear from these experiments that in ozonic ether we
have a powerful disinfecting agent, from 10 to 15 minutes
of full exposure being sufficient to destroy the dried micro-
zymes, and presumably the specific contagia of zymotic
diseases. It is true that the high price of the ozonic ether
would preclude its free use on ordinary occasions. These
experiments are the only ones with which I am acquainted,
as carried out in an exact scientific manner, and they have
considerable interest in their bearing on the external appli-
cation of ozonic ether in the form of ointment, as recom-
mended by Dr. Day, of Geelong, for the purpose of destroying
the contagium, and thus checking the spread of scarlet fever.
It is very possible that direct contact with any contagious
particles will render them powerless; but in view of the
time required with the most concentrated vapour attainable,
it is scarcely possible that the amount escaping into the air
in the course of the process of inunction can have any effect
on dried particles of contagium, which may chance to be
Comparative Power of some Disinfectants. a
floating about, or resting on walls or other surfaces. Ona
small scale, and where the conditions approximate those of
the experiments just detailed, the ozonic ether may therefore
be used with advantage.
ITV.—EXPERIMENT WITH CHLORINE.
The general impression in recent times is that chlorine
does not deserve the great reputation it formerly enjoyed as
a disinfectant, and, indeed, experiments have tended to show
that when the gas is dry it has little or no power as a bleach-
ing agent or as a parasiticide. I made one experiment in
which the bacterialised paper was exposed, in a wooden box
with a loosely-fitting lid, to the gas, evolved in the usual
way by adding a few drops of muriatic acid to chloride of
lime. The chloride of lime was rather damp, and a good
deal of moisture was carried up with the gas. Three pieces
of the paper were left suspended in the box for 1, 3, and 44
hours respectively. The solution containing the 1 hour
piece became milky in 44 days, the other two remaining
quite clear.
It appears then that, used in the manner described,
chlorine, though not equal to sulphurous acid, is more
powerful than carbolic acid. As ordinarily used, however,
it can serve no good purpose, and sprinkling small quanti-
ties of chloride of lime on floors and other surfaces, in the
hope of affecting any contagious matters floating in the air,
must really be regarded as mere trifling.
V.—EXPERIMENTS WITH Dry Heat oF 212° Fane.
These may not have very much value; but as I have not
met with similar ones, they may be given for what they are
worth. In the absence of any more elaborate scientific
armamentarium, I adopted the following procedure :—Two
short, wide-mouthed bottles were carefully washed and then
heated strongly in an oven, so as to ensure the removal of all
moisture and the destruction of any organisms which they
might by chance have contained. When still warm a piece
of the bacterialised paper was put into each, and a good
plug of baked cotton inserted into the mouth, which was
further covered with a cap of the same material. They
were then immersed in water, which was kept boiling for
noted periods. The paper lying flat on the bottom of the
i be
100 . Comparative Power of some Disinfectants.
bottles must have been exposed to a temperature nearly, if
not quite, up to 212° Fahr.
(1.) One piece each for 10 and 30 minutes. The solution
in both remained transparent, but I was somewhat doubtful
of the trustworthiness of the result, as that which con-
tained the unheated paper showed only a slight cloudiness
after 4 days, This circumstance will be referred to again.
(2.) One piece each for 15 and 45 minutes. The solution
with the 15 minutes piece became cloudy only in 4 days, the
test bottle being opalescent at the end of 24 days. The 45
minutes piece had no effect. 3
(3.) One piece each 15 and 25 minutes. Solution in both
cases remained transparent after 12 days.
The conclusion come to, therefore, is that an exposure of
these microzymes to a temperature of about 212° Fahr. must
be continued for at least 15 or 20 minutes to ensure their
destruction.
Two circumstances of considerable interest came out in the
course of the investigation, which I have reserved for separate
notice. The first was that when the bacterialised paper had
been kept for between two and three months, the organisms
seemed to have lost their power of reproduction. What the
cause may have been I am not prepared to say, but that this
happened was certain, and it caused a good deal of confusion
and perplexity in my mind, till I suspected the state of
matters and prepared a fresh stock, with which satisfactory
results were at once obtained. The paper was kept between
the leaves of a book, and was dry and exposed to very little
rubbing. Could it have been that in course of time the
desiccation of the bacteria became so complete as to be
incompatible with continued vitality ? Whatever the reason,
it seems to follow that this particular species of bacterium
cannot be kept in the dried state for very long periods
without losing its vitality.
The other point is also, I think, of some interest, as show-
ing the varying capacity of resistance offered to disinfecting
processes by the germs of different low vegetable organisms.
Ona good many of the pieces of the paper which did not cause
opalescence of the solution there appeared a copious growth
of white mould, apparently the ordinary penicollawm. The
spores must have fallen on the paper at the time when it was
exposed to the air, and they must have been subjected to the
same destructive influences as the bacteria; and as they
| Comparative Power of some Disinfectants. 101
developed an abundant mycelial growth in several instances
where the bacteria had undoubtedly been killed, it is evident
that they possessed greater powers of resistance. In the
detailed notes of my experiments I find that the mould
appeared on paper which had been exposed to the vapour of
carbolic acid for as long as 8 hours, a period of 34 to 5 being
sufficient for the destruction of the bacteria. On none of the
pieces exposed to the fumes of burning sulphur was there
any growth of mycelium. The ozonic vapour, again, though
capable of destroying bacteria exposed to it for 10 or 15
minutes, apparently had not injured the spores of the fungus
after 60 minutes. Again, whilst the chlorine killed the bac-
teria when applied for something over an hour, two pieces of
paper, exposed to it for 3 and 44 hours respectively, showed
a copious growth of mould. Even to heat the penicillium
spores showed greater power of resistance. Thus the
mycelium appeared on each of the two pieces of paper which
had been treated for 15 and 30 minutes respectively, the
bacteria being killed in both instances. None appeared on
the paper which had been treated for 45 minutes,
The conclusion to which I am brought, therefore, by the
concurrent results of all these experiments is, that the spores
of fungi are less easily destroyed than dried septic organisms,
and presumably than dried contagium of zymotic diseases—
as Dr. Baxter’s experiments with dried vaccine showed its
power of causing cow-pox to be destroyed by carbolic vapour
in about 30 minutes, by sulphurous acid in 10 minutes, by
chlorine in 30 minutes, and by a dry heat of 185° to 194°
Fahr. for 26 minutes. He ventures to express the opinion
—founded not on his own experiments, but on a few made
by others on yeast and penicillvwm—that the influence of
disinfectants on such fungoid spores affords no measure of
their action on contagia, since the former are very much
more susceptible to adverse influences than the latter. This
opinion is directly contradicted by the results of the exact
experiments here detailed, which show that any disinfectant
which destroys penicillium spores in the dry state may be
depended on to destroy bacteria, and so, presumably, con-
tagia, which are even more easily destroyed, as a comparison
of my observations with Dr, Baxter’s on vaccine clearly
shows, ;
2 eS ge
102. History of Paleozoic Actinology in Australia.
Art. XIV.—On Heat and Molecular Energy.
By H. 8. Patcuine, Esq.
[Read 8th November, 1877. |
Art. XV.—On the History of Paleozoic Actinology im
Australia,
By R. ETHERIDGE, JuN., F.G.S.
[Read 8th November, 1877. |
THE following condensed account of the study of the
corals of the Australian palzeozoic rocks may be found of
service to those who may laa take up the systematic
study of this group :-—
In the course of the surveying voyage of H.M.S. “ Beagle,”
under the command of Capt. Fitzroy, R.N., during the years
1832-36, Mr. Charles Darwin, F.R.S., Serer. to the
expedition, collected two paleozoic corals in Tasmania.
These were afterwards described by the celebrated actinolo-
gist, Mr. Lonsdale, in Darwin’s Geological Observations on
Volcame Islands,' published in 1844, under the names of
Stenopora Tasmaniensis, and S. ovata. The genus Steno-
pora was established expressly for these species in the work
referred to, but was more fully defined in Count P. de
Strzelecki’s work, published during the next year (1845),
Physical Description. of New South Wales and Van
Deemen's Land.* The full definition of the genus was
accompanied by the description of two further species—
Stenopora crinita and 8S. informis? —the former from New
South Wales, the latter from Tasmania. In addition to the
foregoing Mr. Lonsdale also described in Strzelecki’s work
another coral as Amplexus arundinaceus,* and mentioned
the occurrence in the limestones of Yass Plains, New South
1 London, 1844 ; 8vo; Appendix, pp. 161-163.
2 London, 1845 ; 8vo; P 262.
3 Ibid, pp. 264- 65; pl. 8 , fig. 5,
4 Lbid, p. 267,
=
History of Palcozovre Actinology in Australia. 103
Wales, of a species allied to, if not identical with, /avosites
Gothlandica (Fougt.).
In the Annals of Natural History for 1847 Professor
(then Mr.) M‘Coy published his celebrated paper “On the
Fauna and Flora of the Rocks associated with the Coal of
New South Wales,” in which he gave numerous localities
for Mr. Lonsdale’s species, and in addition described as
new, two more—Cladochonus tenuicollis, and Strombodes
Australis. }
In the account of one of Ludwig Leichhardt’s explorations
—Journal of an Overland Hxpedition, &—the Rev. W.
B. Clarke described a coral found by Leichhardt in the
Burdekin River limestone (Queensland), about lat. 19° 58’
11’ S. under the name of Cyathophyllum Leichhardti.?
During the years 1838-42 the United States Government
organised the well-known exploring expedition under
Captain Wilkes, U.'S.N. The scientific results of this
voyage were published in a series of magnificent volumes,
the description of the recent corals, fossils, and geological
notes being, amongst other things, undertaken by Professor
Dana. In the Appendix to the volume devoted to geology?
a large series of fossils from the palzeozoic rocks of New
South Wales are described, including references to some of
the previously-mentioned corals. Lonsdale’s species of
Stenopora are referred to the genus Chcetetes (Fischer), and
a new species was described as C. gracilis. 4
A paper by the Rev. W. B. Clarke, published in 1848,
“On the Genera and Distribution of Plants in the Carbon-
iferous System of New South Wales,’® contains the record
of a “corallite’ from the Newcastle coalfield, named by
Leichhardt Corallites Wiltont. I here quite failed to find
any further reference to this species—in fact, I do not think °
anything further is known about it.
The importance of Professor M‘Coy’s paper on the New
South Wales fossils forwarded by the Rev. W. B. Clarke
to the late Professor Sedgwick, and which originally
appeared in the “ Annals” as previously noticed, was evinced
1 Annals Nat. Hist, 1847, Sek p. 227, pl. 11, figs. 8 and 9.
_ # London, 1847 8vo; p. 212
58. Explori ing Exped.; Geolog y, by J. D. Dana, New York ; 1 vol. 4to,
Atlas, 1 vol. folio.
# Pp. 711-712 ; Atlas, t. 11.
> Quest. Jour, Geol. Soc., IV., p. 62.
os
104 History of Paleozoic Actinology i Australia.
by the republication of it in the Proceedings of the Royal
Society of Tasmania for 1851,! with fac-similes of the
plates. A useful and analytical review of what had been .
done for the paleeozoic corals of Australia up to the time
of publication of their work (1851) was accomplished by
Professor Milne-Edwards and M. Jules Haime, in the
“ Monographie des Polypiers Fossiles des Terrains Pale-
zoiques.’2 These authors consider the coral doubtfully
regarded by Lonsdale as Favosttes Gothlandica (Fougt), to
be F Goldfussi (D’Orbigny). They follow Professor Dana in
placing Stenopora crinita (Lonsdale) in the genus Chetetes
(Fischer), and make the same reference but more doubtfully
in the case of the other Australian species, S. ovata (Lons-
dale), S. informis (Lonsdale),and S. Tasmantensis (Lonsdale).
Another coral described by Lonsdale in Strzelecki’s work
on New South Wales as Amplexus arundinaceus, is con-
sidered by Edwards and Haime to be indeterminable.
They lastly remark on Cladochonus tenuicollis (M‘Coy),
that it is probably a young Syringopora.
The Rev. W. B. Clarke published a list of the Paleozoic
fossils of New South Wales, in 1860, as an appendix to his
“ Southern Goldfields of New South Wales.”? Several
genera and a few species of corals are cited.
In the third volume of the “Histoire Naturelle des
Coralluavres,’ * Milne-Edwards expresses much the same
opinions on the foregoing Australian fossils to those enun-
ciated mutually by himself and Jules Haime in their
“ Polypier Fossiles.”
Of the peculiar and problematical genus Plewrodictyum,
Professor M‘Coy has recorded the occurrence of a new
species in the upper Silurian rocks of the Upper Yarra
district, Victoria,o> and has named it P. megastomum.
No description of these species, so far as I know, has as yet
appeared, the fact being merely mentioned in his paper.
In his “Mémoires des Paléontologie,’ © my friend Professor
L. G. De Koninck has given a valuable general list of palzeo-
zoic corals, arranged in tabular form, showing their distribu-
1 Vol. 1, pp. 313-314.
2 Ketrait du tome V. des Archives du Museum. aed lk Naturelle ;
Paris ; 4to ; pp. 235, 273-74, and 347.
8 Sydney, 1860 ; 8vo; 3rd edition, pp. 285-86.
4 Paris, 1860 ; 8v0
s Annals Nat. Hist. 1867, XX., p. 261 ; Note.
6 Bruxelles; 8vo.; 1857- 7 1, pp. 78-82.
History of Paleozoic Actinology im Australia. 105
tion. A column is set apart for Indian and Australian
species; unfortunately, however, no distinction is made
between them. I can only recognize three as distinctly
Australian, viz :—
Amplexus arundinaceus, Lonsdale.
Cheetetes crinitus, Lonsdale.
Cladochonus tenuicollis, ‘Coy.
Certain small areas of the Gippsland district were con-
sidered by Mr. A. R. C. Selwyn, F.R.S., to be, probably, of
Devonian age.! Through the researches of Mr. Alfred
Howitt, these localities have been well searched for organic
remains, with the result, Mr. R. Brough Smyth informs us,
of the discovery of forms which Professor M‘Coy considers
conclusive on this point. In addition to the Spirifera
Lericosta(Val.),and the remains of Placodermatous fish men-
tioned by Mr. Selwyn, Mr. Smyth now adds corals, an assem-
blage of forms which would indicate a close relation with the
Devonian limestone of the Eifel. 2
The “Nouvelle Recherches sur les Animaux Fossiles,”
&c.,? of Professor De Koninck, contain an allusion to some
Australian species which may be noticed in passing. The
Stenopora Tasmaniensis (Lonsdale) and S. ovata (Lonsdale)
are placed as synonyms of the European form Cheetetes
tumidus (Phillips), but under the name of Monticulipora
tumida (Phillips). Professor De Koninck, following M‘Coy,
uses the name Cladochonus in a generic sense, and does not
appear to participate in the opinion of Milne-Edwards and
Haime, that most of the species described under that name
are young Syringoporee. 4
The list of Victorian Fossils drawn up by Professor
M‘Coy forming a portion of Mr. R. B..Smythe’s “ First
Progress Report’® contain the following summary from the
upper silurian rocks of Victoria :—
Favosites, two new species.
Pleurodictyum megastomum, M‘Coy (m.s.).
Stenopora, two new species.
Palzeopora, two new species.
Petraia, two new species.
1 Physical Geography, Geol. and Miner, of Victoria; Ezxhib, Essays,
1866, p. 10.
2 Mining and Mineral Statistics ; Exhib. Essays, 1872, p. 40.
8 Bruxelles; 4to; 1872,
@ Pp. 143 and 152.
5 Progress Report for 1874; Geol. Survey of Victoria, p. 34.
106 History of Paleozoic Actinology in Australia.
One of the most important contributions which has been
made to Australian palzeontology of late years is Professor
Koninck’s “ Recherches sur les Fossiles Paléozoiques de la
Nouvelle Galles du Sud,”1 in which we have a most inter-
esting and instructive account of the fossils collected by
the Rev. W. B. Clarke, M.A., F.R.S., during his many wan-
derings amongst the fossiliferous rocks of New South Wales.
The fossils in question, as determined by Professor De
Koninck, are of two ages—Silurian and Devonian. The
silurian species appear to represent two horizons—the upper
. Llandovery (May Hill sandstone) and the Ludlow.2 The
corals appertaining to these divisions are :—
(a.) Upper LLANDOVERY.
Rhyzophyllum (?) interpunctatum, De Konenck.
Strombodes diffluens, Edwards and Haime.
Striatopora Australica, De Koninck.
Aulopora fasciculata
Syringopora serpens, Linn (?)
Monticulipora (?) Bowerbanki, Edwards Sait Haime.
3)
(b.) LuDLow.
Ptychophyllum patellatum, D’Orbigny.
Cystiphyllum silurieuse, Lonsdale.
Omphyma Murchisoni, Edwards and Haine.
Cyathophyllum articulatum, Wohlenberg.
Halysites escharoides, Lamarck.
Monticulipora pulchella, Edwards and Havme.
Alvcolites repens, Fougt.
i rapa, De Koninck.
Favosites cristata, Blwmenbach.
i Forbesi, Edwards and Haime.
ss aspera, D’Orbigny.
a multipora, Lonsdale (?).
‘. fibrosa, Goldfuss.
4 Gothlandica, Fougt.
Propora tubulata, Lonsdale.
Plasmopora petaliformis, Lonsdale.
Heliolites megastoma, M‘Coy.
» Murchisoni, Edwards and Haime.
1 Bruxelles ; 8vo.; 1876, p. 140; Atlas of Plates,
3 P, 64
History of Paleozoic Actinology in Australia. 107
_ In a similar manner the Devonian species also appear
_ referable to two horizons—an upper, probably equivalent to
the upper Devonian, and without corals, so far as the speci-
mens in Professor De Koninck’s hands showed : and a second
somewhat below the higher, but above that which in Europe
is so well characterised by the presence of Calceola sand-
alina (Lamarck). The latter of the two divisions contains
the black limestone of the Yass district.1 The corals
recorded and described by Professor De Koninck are :—
Phillipsastrea Verneuilii, Edwards and Hawme.
Campophyllum flexuosum, oldfuss.
Cyathophyllum vermiculare __,,
obtortum, Edwards and Haime.
Damnoniense, Lonsdale.
helianthoides, Goldfuss.
Amplexus Selwyni, De Koninck.
Coenites expansus, De Koninck.
Billingsia alvcolaris, De Koninck.
Syringopora auloporoides, De Koninck.
Alvecolites obscurus, De Koninck.
- subsequalis, Edwards and Haime.
Favosites Goldfussi, D’Orbigny.
basaltica, Goldfuss.
alveolaris _,,
polymorpha. ,,
reticulata, Blainville.
ss fibrosa, Goldfuss.
Heliolites porosa 7
Since the publication of the foregoing account of the
lower and middle palzozoic fossils of New South Wales,
Professor De Koninck has been engaged in the examination
of the fossils of carboniferous age, contained in the Rey.
Mr. Clarke’s cabinet. The descriptions of these are now in
course of printing, and Professor De Koninck has in the
kindest manner forwarded me the advanced sheets. As his
memoir will appear before these remarks reach the Royal
Society, I feel that Lam committing no breach of professional
etiquette in stating that on the whole the carboniferous
fossils of New South Wales correspond in a very consider-
able degree with the facies of the carboniferous limestone
”?
oP)
2?
1 Loc. Cit., pp. 133, 134.
108 History of Paleozoic Actinology in Australia,
series of England and Scotland, combined with the presence
of afew peculiarly Australian types. The similarity of the
New South Wales palzeozoic fossils examined by him with
those of the L. carboniferous series in Ireland was many
years ago pointed out by Professor M‘Coy.! The confirma-
tion of this opinion through Professor De Koninck’s studies
is particularly gratifying, especially when we recollect that
in both instances we owe the material on which these
opinions were founded to the researches of the father of
Australian geology—the Rev. W. B. Clarke, M.A. F.RS.
The corals of carboniferous age determined by Professor De
Koninck are—
Axophyllum (?) Thomsoni, De Koninck.
Lithostration irregulare, Phillips.
- Basaltiforme, Con and Phillips.
Lophophyllum minutum, De Koninck.
a corniculum s
Amplexus arundinaceus, Lonsdale.
Zaphrentis Phillipsi, Edwards and Haime (2)
is Gregoryana, De Koninck.
i Cainadon i
f, robusta 5,
Cyathaxonia minuta
Cladochanus tenuicollis, Coy.
Syringopora reticulata, Goldfuss.
. ramulosa “k (?)
Favosites ovata, Lonsdale.
One of the most interesting points to be noticed in this list
is the reference to the peculiarly Australian species, Steno-
pora ovata (Lonsdale), to the genus Favosites. Professor De
Koninck states that the pores perforating the walls of the
calices are irregularly placed—some in the angles of the ~
tubes, others upon the general surface of the walls.
1 Annals Nat. Hist., 1847, XX., p. 311.
Ratio of the Length and Height of Sea Waves. 109
Art. XVI.—On the Ratio of the Length and Height of Sea
Waves.
By 8. R. DEVERELL, Esq.
[Read November 8th, 1877. |
OF the phenomena appertaining to water-waves none seem
to have appeared more capricious to observers than the vari-
able proportion of the height to the length of waves. Indeed
such strange diversities are exhibited in this respect that
writers have used themselves to speak of different kinds of
waves as if they were of different species:—The short chop-
ping sea; the steep high sea; the long high sea; the long
roll, of medium height and length—that measured tread of
old ocean, as an Arctic voyager has expressed it, which so
oladdens the eyes and the heart of the Polar sojourner when
he first strikes it; finally, the tremendous “comber” of navi-
gators which from overhead threatens to bury the ship:
these are often referred to as originating rather from differ-
ent causes than as being so many transitions or attitudes of
the same thing or entity. There is, again, the mysterious
ground swell, which old seamen firmly believe to arise in
some occult manner from the bottom, proceeding in slow,
languid oscillations, but breaking with an everlasting roar
and violence on the shore to which it is bound. Mere mag-
nitude does not appear to be an essential characteristic of
any of these forms, for they may all be met with in various
degrees of size. Scoresby mentions waves in the Southern
Ocean a quarter of a mile from peak to peak; but this can be
by no means unusual, for in that vast sea,which may in truth
be said to be the native home of the great waves, five waves
to a mile is a very ordinary occurrence in a westerly gale, and
the writer has counted five to a mile when the waves have
not been more than six or seven feet high. The length of a
wave in fact is by no means a criterion of its height: its
actual magnitude is rather measurable by the area of a
vertical length-section than by the height. Again, as regards
_ the speed, the velocity, says Mr. Reed, seems to depend
almost entirely on the length of a wave and not at all upon
the height. It should be remembered that existing know-
ledge on these subjects, to which general attention has only
110 Ratio of the Length and Height of Sea Waves.
been attracted during a few years past, is at present in an
immature or rather embryonic state, as indeed is continually
pointed out by its most eminent followers. The views and
suggestions of any observer, however humble, are of value ;
and the store of information which the British and French
Admiralties—ever rivals in scientific progress—are now en-
gaged in collecting, through their naval officers, in all parts
of the world, must soon tend to formulate a completed theory
of the subject. The extraordinary length of some waves
in comparison with their height has often attracted the
notice and the vague surprise of observers long even before
the attention of mathematicians was drawn into the in-
quiry. In a recent Admiralty circular Mr. Froude
cautions officers observing waves that they must not
neglect those of almost imperceptible height but from
600 to 1000 feet in length, which greatly influence the roll-
ing movement of aship. On the southern coast of Aus-
tralia there is a well-known and remarkable difference in
this respect in the character of the swell from the eastward
and the westward. The south-east and the south-west direc-
tions there extend over equally great stretches of ocean, but
while the swell from the south-east is a short chopping sea,
high and steep (usually 8 or 9 feet high and 150 feet long,
or as 1 to 17), that from the westward is a long heavy roll,
usually about the same height (8 or 9 feet) but 150 yards
instead of feet in length, or as 1: 151. What I would here
attempt to show, or rather to suggest, is that the varying
ratio of height to length signifies or rather represents none.
other than the process of increase or subsidence of waves,
and that if we could follow a sea-wave from its genesis to
actual extinction we should be able to observe it through
all the various phases as to height and length which have
been enumerated.
That a certain force of wind acting for a given time will
produce a wave of definite form is, I suppose, undoubted ;
and I presume it will not be questioned that the same con-
ditions will always produce the precisely similar wave whose —
height is in a given ratio to its length. A certain force of
wind, again, sufficient to obviate the loss by friction, will
sustain in it this form ; but if the sustaining force be with-
drawn, then, however far its momentum will carry it—and
it is known to carry it thousands of miles—the wave must
thence gradually decline ; and it is in this decline, viz., from
Ratio of the Length and Height of Sea Waves. 111
its maximum height to final disappearance or extinction,
that the ratio of height and length must, in this view, vary
through all the degrees observed in waves.
But what is meant by the decline or the subsidence of a
wave since the actual bulk or magnitude is neither mea-
surable by its height nor its length, but by the area of a
cross section? A volume of water has been raised to a
certain height above the ordinary level; and in declining its
height must decrease until the curve of its profile gets
flattened out to a straight line. In what manner is the
length thereby affected? Inquiry will, I think, show that
the length is not only relatively increased (which it would
be by remaining constant while the height alone decreased),
but itself increases—that is, absolutely,in the act of the
waves subsidence.
Now, although we cannot accompany a wave in its onward
progress across a sea to note the changes it undergoes in its
transit, yet be it remembered that the same laws which
influence deep-sea waves, however vast, likewise direct the
movement of the smallest ripples, scanning which the eye
may under favourable circumstances take in at a glance the
phenomena here indicated.
For instance, if a fresh breeze be blowing on a small piece
of water so as to produce a series of riplets, and these travel
into a part which is sheltered from the wind, it will be
observed that at genesis the wave is steepest—z.e.,the ratio of
the length to the height small, and that as long as the wind
has a direct active influence in sustaining them the height
preserves a large proportion to the length. As soon, however,
as the direct support of the wind ceases the wave begins to
decline hy, be it observed, spreading out in length and
decreasing in height. The annexed diagram is made from
observation in a spot favourably situated. The genesis of
the riplet is at A (Fig. 1); from A to B, the point of matu-
rity, it increases in size, the ratio of height to length being
greatest during increase. In the mature stage (from B to C)
the same ratio is maintained. At C, however, the wind has
ceased its support, and thence to D the wave gradually sub-
sides to extinction—.e., until the height becomes indefinitely
small, and the length indefinitely sreat—in other words, the
surface becomes flat.
Such a diagram may be said to represent the life of a sea
wave in miniature, for although it is the fac-symile of the
K
112 Ratio of the Length and Height of Sea Waves.
progress of a ripple only, from birth to extinction, the same
reasoning obviously extends to that of the heaviest sea. For,
be it observed, the largest sea must have had its origin in a
primary wavelet, ag at the point A; and we have only to
extend the period of increase from A to B further towards
D, as in the annexed figure (Fig. 2), to obtain the larger
waves. The magnitude of the wave, in fact, is proportional
to the period of increase, while being increasingly urged by
the wind during the progress of the wave from A to B, and
this time must obviously be dependent upon the extent of
the fetch of free water over which the wind may extend ;
so that the strength and range of the wind being the same,
the magnitude is proportioned to the fetch. A storm-wave
therefore of forty feet in height may have the same profile
as a ripple, from which indeed it must have sprung, and in
the same way the declining ground-swell of an ocean has its
miniature fac-simile in a pond.
The annexed diagram (Fig. 3) may practically illustrate
the foregoing remarks. A represents accurately the average.
profile of the permanent south-west. swell in the Southern
Ocean in latitude from 40° to 48° S., arising from the pre-
vailing winds around the Pole. The curve is taken from
entries of a number of profiles drawn from observation in a
recent voyage of the ship “ Newcastle” from Melbourne wié
Cape Horn to London, and the same curve and dimensions
are identifiable throughout in the same latitudes. 5B in like
manner represents the profile and dimensions drawn to the
same scale of presumably the same permanent south-west
ground swell as it reaches the southern coast line of Aus-
tralia, averaged from many sketches of such profiles taken
on the spot. The outline A therefore represents the swell
in its active or mature state at or about its maximum ratio
of height to length in a stage when the height and the bulk:
of water moved oppress the mind with a sense of sublimity ;
and B represents it in its decline, when, after having
traversed forty degrees of a great circle, or more than two:
thousand miles, it approaches ‘dissolution. The height here
1s comparatively nil, and the length has increased almost to.
flatness. Yet this enormous swell had its origin in the Polar:
sea, as an initial wavelet, the relative magnitude of which
could only be represented in the diagram by a dot. i
Instead, however, of tracking a wave through this vast
distance. we may picture it as fixed and subsiding in a single
Ratio of the Length and Height of Sea Waves. 118
spot without interfering with the logical sequence of the
argument, inasmuch as it thus represents the same wave,
filled by the same instead of by changed particles of the
liquid to which its embodiment has been transferred.
Let, therefore (Fig. 4), a, b,c, d, ¢ represent the profile of
a wave from trough to trough, ‘the dotted line J, g being the
mean or smooth water level. So far as the subsidence is
concerned we may wholly disregard the actual movements
of the particles, and conceive an indefinitely thin layer of-
the liquid to be instantaneously fixed or congealed in the
shape of the wave a, b, ¢, d,e. Here 4, c is the height, and
a, 4, e the length of the wave. |
It will be seen that the area b,c, d, h is that portion of
the liquid which has been raised above the mean level. of
the ocean ; while the areas d, g, e and b, a, f are that of the
water which’ has been thereby depressed below the mean
level; whence the area b,c, d,h above the mean level is
equal to the sum of the areas d, g, e, and b, f, a below the
mean level, since the filling of the lower areas by the upper
would render the surface flat,
‘Conceive now that the rigidity is slitketied! so that the
ideal lamina becomes semi-viscous. The onward velocity of
a wave keeps it from sinking suddenly, as does that of a
hoop or a top; its decline, therefore, is not due to its onward
velocity, and the slow sinking of a semi-viscous fluid may
justly represent the process of its actual subsidence.
Taking this view then to be correct, we may, under such
an assumption, consider the wave as wholly divested, not
only of any onward motion, but also of any rotatory move-
~ment of the particles. This is nothing more than conceiving
the form of the wave to be embodied of the same particles
instead of successive ones.
If the sinking of the upper area merely filled up the lower
areas, the length of the wave would still remain the same,
vizZ., a, 4, €; but observation shows that the length absolutely
increases. Let the height of the wave have subsided to
c’, then instead of the profile being the curve f”’, b”, cd’, e”,
which it would be if the length remained unchanged, it is
represented by the curve a’, b’, c’; d’ e', whose length (the
dotted line ¢’, 2, a’) exceeds e, 7, a; v; ¢ now represents the
height of the ‘declining form.
‘Now, in order to simplify matters, we may—the two
halves’ of the wave being symméetrical—treat only of the
K 2
114 Ratio of the Length and Height of Sea Waves.
half shapes, viz., 4,¢, d, e,and 2’, c,d’ e’. The areac’, d',h is
now equal to area dl’, e’, g’, and 7’, c’ is the reduced height of
the wave, the reduction taking place from both sides of the
mean level: The actual quantity of subsidence is measured
by the difference between the areas e, 7, c,d and é, 7, c,d,
or perhaps by the difference of d, h, ¢ and d’, h, c’, the
change which occurs while the lamina of semi-viscous fluid
is sinking into flatness. Whilst the exact expression for the
profile curve is undecided—and it is to the determination of
this that every inquiry on this subject at present tends—I
am not aware so far as my own imperfect knowledge
extends of any means of stating such difference: that is, of
expressing the actual change in the ratio of height to length
in precise terms of the diminution in height (viz., 2, ¢
—t,c’).
But whatever be the precise function mathematically, the
cause suggested will, I think, sufficiently account for all
observed circumstances ; and it will explain also the peculiar
difference noted between the easterly and westerly swell on
the southern Australian coast in respect of the ratio of
height to length. In those parts the south-east winds are
known to extend only, and therefore to act on the swell
only, a few hundred miles from the shore; the waves
therefore having their genesis within this distance have not
space to reach a lengthy decline, or, perhaps, even full
maturity. Whereas the south-west winds start from the
Pole, and the swell arising therefrom has an unbroken fetch
for attamment of the highest possible magnitude, and
thousands of miles for the slow process of decline in which
it gradually increases its length and diminishes its height.
_ The westerly swell therefore reaches the Australian shore in
its declining stage, when the length is great and the height
small; the easterly, in its mature or steep stage, when the
waves are therefore higher, shorter, and more active, being
urged or having been more recently urged by the wind.
By the fetch of a particular wave at any moment is, of
course, meant the distance it has travelled from its genesis
as an initial wavelet until then. Let A (Fig. 5) be the
point of commencement of the wave (and thence in most
cases of the wind also), and A B its path or fetch when it is
at the point B. If from points a, b, c, &c., in the fetch
ordinates be erected representing the strength or velocity of
the wind when the wave was passing those respective
D B A
FIG. {.
ee
{
i arm
NN gl RE at ee
i}
|
B’ B A
MAGNITUDE AT GENESIS.LAZ 75. S.
FIG.2.
Beane
py tt a eee On a {V0 See oe a, OS ips
(NA ZeCEEr = ee ee
FORM AND MAGNITUDE /N LATITUDE. 46: S,
LENGTH 450,FECT, |
FORM &CIN LAT, 38, 5,
FIG,3.,
4!
aa I Se Se a OS a eS SS ee
(pie ee SE ee ee Eee Se See ees
FIG.4.
Ratio of the Length and Height of Sea Waves. 115
points, a certain curve (A C) will be traced out. When this
curve is precisely the same as another it is certain that the
same form of wave as to height and length will be produced;
and, for the same reason, when the curves differ the forms
of the waves produced will differ.
Or, instead, let the abscissa A B be a time scale. The
curve resulting from the time scale will have a definite
relation to that from the distance scale; and it seems
pretty certain, as like causes must produce like effects, that
the form of the wave produced, as it exists at the point B,
will be determined by the nature of these curves, and stand
in some definite relation to the area A B C—a relation
which, however difficult to determine, shows the infinite
variety which the form of the wave (in which the height
and length are only particular ordinates) may assume.
_ Art. XVIL—WNotes on the Newly-found Satellites of Mars.
By Rk. L. J. Ewery, F.RS., F.BAS.
[Read December 13th, 1877, ]
Art, XVIIIL—On the Telephone.
By W. C. Kernot, M.A., C.E.
[Read December 13th, 1877.]
1877.
PROCEEDINGS.
ROYAL SOCIETY OF VICTORIA.
ANNUAL MEETING.
14th March, 1878.
The President in the chair.
Mr. Daniel Howitz, Superintendent of State Forests, was
elected a member of the Society.
The election of office-bearers for 1878 took place, with the
following results :—
President: R. L. J. Ellery, F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
Vice-Presidents : E. J. White, F.R.A.S.
Geo. Foord, F.C.8.
Hon. Treasurer: Percy de J. Grut, Esq.
Hon. Librarian: James E, Neild, M.D.
Hon. Secretary : E. Howitt, Esq.
Members of Council: H. M. Andrew, J. Bosisto, J.
Jamieson, W. C. Kernot, E. J. Nanson, G. H. F.
Ulrich, A. C. Allan, R. Barton, J. Duerdin, W.
M‘Gowan, F. J. Pirani, J. T. Rudall.
The Annual Report and Balance-sheet for 1877 were read and
adopted, as follows :—
“ Report of the Council of the Royal Society of Victoria
for the year 1877,
‘‘Your Council has the honour to report that the following :
papers were read during the Session of 1877.
“On the 20th of April a paper ‘On Force’ was read by Mr.
F. J. Pirani; and another by Mr. 8. R. Deverell, entitled ‘On
some Experiments in Propulsion,’ was read by the President.
118. Proceedings, &c., for 1877.
“On the 10th of May the President read a paper on ‘ The
Present State of Meteorology,’ and the discussion on Mr. Pirani’s
paper ‘On Force’ was continued.
“ On the 14th of June Mr. W. C. Kernot read some notes ‘On
the Construction of Telescope Tubes,’ and Mr. T. E. Rawlinson
read one ‘ On the Coast Line between Warrnambool and Belfast,
and the Permanence of Meteorological Phenomena over long
Periods.’ |
“ On the 12th of July ‘ Notes on Barometer Construction’ were
read by Mr. G. Foord, and the President described a new method
of regulating clocks.
“On the 9th of August Mr. Ellery read a description of a new
form of galvanic battery, and notes of the disturbance of water in
tanks by the late earthquake ; and a paper was contributed by the
Rev. Julian E. T. Woods, of New South Wales, on ‘ New Marine
Mollusca.’
“On the 13th of September a paper by Mr. F. C. Christy,
entitled ‘Notes from a Journal in Japan,’ was read by Mr.
Howitt; and another was read by Mr. Sutherland ‘On the
Probability that a Connection of Causation will be shown to exist
between the Attraction of Gravitation and the Molecular Energy
of Matter.’
“On the 11th of October Dr. Jamieson read his paper, entitled
‘Experiments on the Comparative Power of some Disinfectants
when Vaporised.’
“ On the 8th of November Mr. Patching read a paper on ‘ Heat
and Molecular Energy,’ and Dr. Jamieson’s paper on ‘ Disin-
fectants’ was discussed. Mr. Etheridge, F.G.S., of the Geological
Survey of Scotland, contributed a paper, entitled ‘ Paleozoic
Actinology in Australia ;’ and Mr. 8. R. Deverell’s paper,
entitled ‘ On the Ratio of the Length and Height of Sea Waves,’
was read by the President.
“On the 13th of December Mr. A. Mica Smith contributed
notes of ‘Some Experiments in Gold Bullion Assay,’ and the
President read some notes on the Satellites of Mars. Mr. Kernot
then described the Telephone.
“During the year a new Law (No. LIX.) has been added to
the Rules, providing for the election of Honorary Corresponding
Members not resident in Victoria.
“Volume XIII. of the Society’s Transactions is now in the
press and nearly ready for issue, and Volume XIV. will be pub-
lished as soon as possible afterwards.
PY
Proceedings, &c., for 1877.
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Proceedings, &c., for 1877. 121
‘The usual grant-in-aid of the Society for the purpose of assist-
ing it in the publication of its Transactions was voted by Parlia-
ment, and has passed to the credit of the Society. Debentures to
the amount of £250 have been paid during the last year. The
balance in hand amounts to £259 12s. 11d.”
The Report and Balance-sheet were adopted.
(Signed) Rost. L. J. Evuery.
ORDINARY MEETINGS.
12th April, 1877.
The President in the Chair—Present, 13 members.
Mr. Edward Bage was elected a member of the Society.
Mr. R. 8. Bradley (Grammar School, Stawell) was nominated
by Mr. Ellery and Mr. Allan.
Mr. James Macdowall Conroy (Deniliquin), proposed by Mr.
Howitt and Mr. Rusden.
Mr. Pirani read his paper ‘On Force,” which was ordered to
be printed.
The President read Mr. S. R. Deverell’s paper “On some
Experiments in Propulsion.” Discussion ensued.
The President read a letter from the Secretary of the Scientific
Club, Vienna, offering the privileges of honorary membership to
such members of the Royal Society of Victoria as might at any
time be resident in Vienna.
The Secretaries were instructed to accept this obliging offer,
with due acknowledgments of its kindness.
(Signed) Rost. L, J. Every.
10th May, 1877.
The President in the Chair—Present, 18 members.
Mr. Bradley and Mr. Conroy were duly elected members of the
Society.
Mr. H.8. Patching was nominated by Mr. Harrison and Mr.
Ellery.
The discussion on Mr. Pirani’s paper, entitled “On Force,”
was then opened by Mr. Rusden, and various members took part
‘in it.
The President then read his paper “ On the Present State of
Meteorology,” and discussion ensued.
(Signed ) Rost. L. J. ELLEry.
122 Proceedings, &c., for 1877.
14th June, 1877.
The President in the Chair—Present, 22 members.
Mr. H. 8. Patching was duly elected.
Dr. John Fulton was nominated by Mr. Humphreys and Mr.
Rusden.
Mr. Louis Le Gould was nominated by Mr. Ellery and Mr.
Moerlin.
The President read two messages from the Council; one in
reference to the reprinting of such volumes of the Society’s Trans-
actions aS were out of print; the other in regard to the alteration
of the Laws, so as to provide for the Election of Corresponding
Members.
The President read a letter from Mr. Louis Le Gould describing
a remarkable meteor seen by him.
Mr. Kernot read his paper ‘‘ On the Construction of Telescope
Tubes,” and discussion ensued.
Mr. Rawlinson read his paper ‘‘On the Coast Line between
Warrnambool and Belfast.”
Both papers were ordered to be printed.
(Signed) Rost. L, J. Evuery.
12th July, 1877.
The President in the Chair—Present, 18 members.
Dr. John Fulton and Mr. Louis Le Gould were duly elected.
_ Mr. R. E. Joseph was nominated by Mr. Ellery and Mr. White.
The President announced that a special meeting would be held
on the evening of the next ordinary meeting, to consider the pro-
posed new rule with reference to Corresponding Members.
Messrs. Nanson, Rawlinson, Rusden, Henderson, Moors, and
Sutherland were appointed a committee to consider the republica-
tion of the early Transactions of the Society.
The Librarian reported the receipt of foreign publications—
English, 93; American, 43; Canadian, 21; French, 3; German,
92; Italian, 27; Russian, 6; Spanish, 13 ; Dutch, 18; Danish,
11; Batavian, 7; Brazilian, 3; Chinese, 2; Japanese, 1 ; together
with publications from Australia and New Zealand, 42; making
a total of 388.
Mr. Ellery then read his “ Notes on the Late Earthquake.”
Mr. Foord read his notes on “ Barometer Construction,” upon
which discussion followed.
The President then described a method newly invented by Mr.
Joseph for regulating clocks by means of electricity.
(Signed) Rost. L. J. Euuery.
Proceedings, &e., for 1877. 123
SPECIAL GENERAL MEETING.
9th August, 1877.
~The President in the Chair—Present, 14 members.
Mr. Rawlinson moved and Mr. Howitt seconded that the fol-
lowing rule be added as No. LIX. :—
“LIX. The Council shall have power to propose gentlemen not
resident in Victoria as Corresponding Members of the Society.
The Corresponding Members shall contribute to the Society papers
which may be received as those of ordinary members, and shall in
return be entitled to receive copies of the Society’s publications.”
The motion was unanimously adopted.
The special meeting then resolved itself into the
OrDINARY MEETING,
9th August, 1877.
Mr. R. E. Joseph, of Swanston-street, was elected an ordinary
member of the Society.
The Rev. J. E. T. Woods and Mr. Robert Etheridge were
nominated as corresponding members.
The President read the following notes supplementary to his
annual address :—
“Reading over my address since its delivery, I am sorry to
find that I have made several omissions, which, had I possessed
more leisure before our annual meeting, would not have passed
uncorrected. The best I can do now is to tell you of them, and to
apologise to any concerned for my apparent remissness.
“In the first place, it seems to me that, while referring to our
Library and the necessity of making its contents more easily
available to our members, I omitted to mention and acknow-
ledge the continued efforts of our Honorary Librarian to bring
about such a desirable state of things, and by the omission may
have inadvertently attached some blame to Dr. Neild. This,
however, was furthest from my intention, for no one knows better
than I how much our Librarian has done and is doing in this
direction.
“ Again, in referring to the progress made in our various science
and art departments, I regret to find that I have carelessly omitted
reference to several names of persons and instances of progress
which the occasion demanded and should have been referred to.
“For instance, in speaking of the prosecution of geological
research in this colony, while I mentioned the names of several of
our fellow-members who have distinguished themselves, I am
exceedingly sorry to find I omitted the name of one who has
aed ee
‘
124 | Proceedings, &c., for 1877.
perhaps most distinguished himself in this direction—namely,
Mr. A. W. Howitt, of Gippsland. Our knowledge of the
geology of no inconsiderable portion of Gippsland we owe to this
gentleman; and his continued researches, prompted solely by his
pure love of the science, promise very largely to enrich our
geological data of that portion of the colony. ‘This much at least
I owe to the gentleman named; and to any others whose labours I
have, by necessity or by remissness, omitted to refer to, I tender
my sincere apology.”
The President then read a note from Mr. G. W. Robinson
describing the effects of the late earthquake in disturbing the
water contained in certain tanks.
The President then presented the Rey. J. E. T. Woods’s paper
on ‘‘ New Marine Mollusca.”
The President read his notes on various forms of galvanic bat-
tery, and discussion followed.
Dr. James Jamieson was nominated for election by Dr. Neild
and Mr. Rawlinson.
Major J. A. Anderson was nominated by the Rey. H. P. Kane
and Mr. Howitt.
Mr. K. L. Murray was nominated by Mr. Ellery and Mr.
M‘Gowan.
(Signed) Rosert L. J. ELLERY.
September 13th.
The President in the Chair.
The following gentlemen were elected ordinary members of the
Society :—Dr. James Jamieson, of Latrobe-street West; Major J.
A. Anderson, of Brighton Beach; Mr. K. L. Murray, of the
Electric Telegraph Department.
The following gentlemen were elected corresponding members of
the Society :—The Rev. J. E. T. Woods, of Sydney, and Mr.
Robert Etheridge, of Edinburgh. The Right Rey. Charles Perry,
D.D., was nominated for election as an honorary member. The
President then read a communication received from the Royal
Academy of Sciences of Turin respecting the prize established by
Dr. Cesare Alessandro Bressa to be given once every four years
to any one who shall make the most important discovery or publish
the most important work.
The Secretary then read Mr. Fr. C. Christy’ $ paper entitled
“Notes from a Journal in Japan.”
A vote of thanks for the paper was moved by Mr. Ellery and
Mr. White, and carried,
Proceedings, &c., for 1877. 125
Mr. Sutherland then read his paper “ On the Probability that
a Connection exists between the Attraction of Gravity and the
Molecular Energy of Matter.”
It was resolved that both papers should be printed and circu-
lated for discussion at next meeting.
(Signed) Rosert L, J. Euuery.
October 11th.
The President in the Chair.
The Right Rev. Charles Perry, D.D., late Lord Bishop of Mel-
bourne, was elected an honorary member of the Society.
The President stated that he had received a telegram from the
Astronomer Royal, requesting that search should be made for a
satellite of Mars, said to have been discovered at Washington.
Search here had been made, but was unsuccessful.
. Discussion of Mr, Sutherland’s paper, read at the last meeting,
then took place.
Dr. Jamieson then read a paper—“ Experiments on the Com-
parative Power of some Disinfectants.”
It was resolved that this paper be printed, and discussed at next
meeting.
(Signed) Rosert L. J. ELLEry.
November 8th, 1877.
The President in the Chair.
Dr. Jamieson read some notes supplementary to the paper he
had read at the last meeting.
An animated discussion followed.
Mr. Patching read his paper on “ Heat and Molecular Energy.”
Discussion followed.
Mr. Etheridge’s paper on ‘Paleozoic Actinology” was then
read by Mr. Ulrich. It was ordered to be printed.
Mr. Ellery read Mr. 8. R. Deverell’s paper on “ The Ratio of
the Length and Height of Sea Waves.” A vote of thanks was
awarded to Mr. Deverell.
(Signed) Ropert L, J. ELuery.
December 13th. |
The President in the Chair—Present, 20 members:
Mr. Rawlinson notified his intention of resigning his position
as member of the Council.
126 Proceedings, &c., for 1877.
Mr. Duerdin nominated the existing officers of the Society for
election to the same offices at the annual meeting in March; Mr.
Duerdin nominated Dr. Jamieson to fill the vacancy in the
Council caused by the resignation of Mr. Rawlinson.
These nominations were seconded by Mr. Humphreys.
Mr. Duerdin and Mr. Humphreys nominated Mr. Henry Moors
and Mr. J. Bosisto for election as Auditors, and accordingly these
gentlemen were duly elected.
Mr. Daniel Howitz, superintendent of forests, was nominated
for election as an ordinary member by Mr. Ellery and Mr. J. B.
Were.
Mr. Ellery read some notes on the newly-found satellite of Mars.
Mr. Kernot described the ordinary form of the telephone.
(Signed) Ropert L, J. ELurry.
LAW 8.
i ——
I, The Society shall be called “The Royal Society Name.
of Victoria.”
II. The Royal Society of Victoria is founded for the objects.
advancement of science, literature, and art, with
especial reference to the development of the resources
of the country.
III. The Royal Society of Victoria shall consist of Yembersand
Members and Honorary Members, all of whom shall bes.
be elected by ballot.
IV. His Excellency the’ Governor of Victoria, for Patron.
the time being, shall be requested to be the Patron of
the Society.
V. There shall be a President, and two Vice-Presi- Officers.
dents, who, with twelve other Members, and the follow-
ing Honorary Officers, viz., Treasurer, Librarian, and
two Secretaries of the Society, shall constitute the
Council.
VI. The Council shall have the management of the Management.
affairs of the Society.
VII. The Ordinary Meetings of the Society shall be Ondine
held once in every month during the Session, from”
March to December inclusive, on days fixed by and
subject to alteration by the Council with due notice.
VIIL. In the second week in March there shall be a Anmual General
General Meeting, to receive the report of the Council”
and elect the Officers of the Society for the ensuing
year.
TX. All Office-bearers and Members of Council, Retirement of
except the six junior or last elected ordinary Members, ae
shall retire from office annually at the General Meeting
in March. The names of such Retiring Officers are to
be announced at the Ordinary Meetings in November
and December. The Officers and Members of Council
so retiring shall be eligible for the same or any other
office then vacant, .
L
Election of
Officers.
Members in
arrear.
Inaugural ad-
dress by the
President.
Vacancies.
Duties of
President.
Duties of
Treasurer.
128 Laws.
X. The,President, Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, Secre-
taries, and Librarian shall be separately elected by
ballot (should such be demanded), in the above-named
order, and the six vacancies in the Council shall then be
filled up together by ballot at the General Meeting in
March. Those members only shall be eligible for any
office who have been proposed and seconded at the Ordi-
nary Meeting in December, or by letter addressed to one
of the Secretaries, and received by him before the 1st
March, to be laid before the Council Meeting next
before the Annual Meeting in March. The nomina-
tion to any one office shall be held a nomination to
any office the election to which is to be subsequently
held.. No ballot shall take place at any meeting unless
ten members be present.
XI. No Member whose subscription is in arrear shall
take part in the election of Officers or other business of
the Meeting.
XIT. An Address shall be delivered by the President
of the Society at either a Dinner, Conversazione, or
extra meeting of the Society, as the Council for the
time being may determine, not later than the Ordinary
Meeting in June in each year.
XIII. If any vacancy occur among the Officers,
notice thereof shall be inserted in the summons for the
next Meeting of the Society, and the vacancy shall be
then filled up by ballot.
XIV. The President shall take the chair at all
meetings of the Society and of the Council, and shall
regulate and keep order in all their proceedings; he
shall state questions and propositions to the meeting,
and report the result of ballots, and carry into effect
the regulations of the Society. In the absence of the
President the chair shall be taken by one of the Vice-
Presidents, Treasurer, or ordinary Member of Council,
in order of seniority.
XV. The Treasurer may, immediately after his elec-
tion, appoint a Collector (to act during pleasure), —
subject to the approval of the Council at its next
meeting. The duty of the Collector shall be to issue
the Treasurer's notices and collect subscriptions. The
Laws, 129
Treasurer shall receive all moneys paid to the Society,
and shall deposit the same before the end of each
month in the bank approved by the Council, to the
eredit of an account opened in the name of the Royal
Society of Victoria. The Treasurer shall make all
payments ordered by the Council on receiving a
written authority from the chairman of the meeting.
All cheques shall be signed by himself, and counter-
signed by one of the Secretaries. No payments shall
be made except by cheque, and on the authority of the
Council. He shall keep a detailed account of all
receipts and expenditure, present a report of the same
at each Council Meeting, and prepare a balance-sheet
to be laid before the Council, and included in its
Annual Report. He shall also produce his books
whenever called on by the Council.
XVI. The Secretaries shall share their duties as they Duties of Secre-
may find most convenient. One or other of them shall ae
conduct the correspondence of the Society and of the
Council, attend all meetings of the Society and of the
Council, take minutes of their proceedings, and enter
them in the proper books. He shall inscribe the
names and addresses of all Members in a book to be
kept for that purpose, from which no name shall be
erased except by order of the Council. He shall
issue notices of all meetings of the Society and of the
Council, and shall have the custody of all papers of
the Society, and, under the direction of the Council,
superintend the printing of the Transactions of the
Society. .
XVII. The Council shall meet on any day within Meetings of
one week before every Ordinary Meeting of the Society.
Notice of such meeting shall be sent to every Member
at least two days previously. No business shall be
transacted at any meeting of the Council unless five Quorum.
Members be present. Any Member of Council absent-
ing himself from three consecutive meetings of Council,
without satisfactory explanation in writing, shall be
considered to have vacated his office, and the election
of a Member to fill his place shall be proceeded with at
the next Ordinary Meeting of Members, in accordance
with Law XIII. |
LQ.
Special Meetings
of Council.
Special General
Meetings.
Annual Report.
Expulsion of
embers.
Election of
Members,
130 Laws.
XVIII. One of the Secretaries shall call a Special
Meeting of Council on the authority of the President or
of three Members of the Council. The notice of such
meeting shall specify the object for which it is called,
and no other business shall be entertained.
XIX, The Council shall call a Special Meeting of the
Society, on receiving a requisition in writing signed by
twenty-four Members of the Society specifying the
purpose for which the meeting is required, or upon a
resolution of its own. No other business shall be
entertained at such meeting. Notice of such meeting,
and the purpose for which it is summoned, shall be
sent to every Member at least ten days before the
meeting.
XX. The Council shall annually prepare a Report
of the Proceedings of the Society during the past -
year, embodying the balance-sheet, duly audited by
two Auditors, to be appointed for the year, at the
Ordinary Meeting in December, exhibiting a statement
of the present position of the Society. This Report.
shall be laid before the Society at the Annual Meeting
in March. No paper shall be read at that meeting.
XXI. If it shall come to the knowledge of the
Council that the conduct of an Officer or a Member is
injurious to the interest of the Society, and if two-
thirds of the Council present shall be satisfied, after
opportunity of defence has been afforded to him, that
such is the case, it may call upon him to resign,
and shall have the power to expel him from the
Society, or remove him from any office therein at its
discretion. In every case all proceedings shall be
entered upon the minutes.
XXIT. Every candidate for membership shall be
proposed and seconded by Members of the Society.
The name, the address, and the occupation of every
candidate, with the names of his proposer and of his
seconder, shall be communicated in writing to one of
the Secretaries, and shall be read at a meeting of
Council, and also at the following meeting of the
Society, and the ballot shall take place at the next
following ordinary meeting of the Society. The
Laws. 131
assent of at least five-sixths of the number voting
shall be requisite for the admission of a candidate.
XXIII. Every new Member shall receive due notice
of his election, and be supplied with a copy of the
obligation,* together with a copy of the Laws of the
Society. He shall not be entitled to enjoy any privi-
lege of the Society, nor shall his name be printed in
the List of Members, until he shall have paid his
admission fee and first annual subscription, and have
returned to the Secretaries the obligation signed by
himself. He shall at the first meeting of the Society
at which he is present sign a duplicate of the obliga-
tion in the Statute Book of the Society, after which
he shall be introduced to the Society by the Chairman.
No Member shall be at liberty to withdraw from the
‘Society without previously giving notice in writing to
one of the Secretaries of his intention to withdraw,
and returning all books or other property of the Society
- in his possession. Members will be considered liable
for the payment of all subscriptions due from them up
to the date at which they give written notice of their
intention to withdraw from the Society.
XXIV. Gentlemen not resident in Victoria, who
are distinguished for their attainments in science,
literature, or art, may be proposed for election as
Honorary Members, on the recommendation of an
absolute majority of the Council. The election shall
be conducted in the same manner as that of ordinary
Members, but nine-tenths of the votes must be in
favour of the candidate.
XXV. Members of the Society, resident in Mel-
bourne, or within ten miles thereof, shall pay two
guineas annually, and Members residing beyond that
distance shall pay one guinea annually. The sub-
* The obligation referred to is as follows :—
Roya Society oF VICTORIA.
I, the undersigned, do hereby engage that I will endeavour to
_ promote the interests and welfare of the Royal Society of
Victoria, and to observe its laws, as long as 1 shall remain a
member thereof.
(Signed)
Address
Date
Members shall
sign laws.
Conditions of
Resignation.
Honorary
Members.
Subscriptions,
Entrance fees,
&
Life Member-
ship.
Durations of
Meetings.
Order and mode
of conductin
132
Laws.
scriptions shall be due on the Ist of January in every
ear.
fe hung up in the Hall of the Society a list of Mem-
bers, upon which the payments of their subscriptions
as made by Members shall be entered. During July
notice shall be sent to Members still in arrears. At
the end of each year a list of Members who have not
paid their subscriptions shall be prepared, to be con-
sidered and dealt with by the Council.
At the commencement of each year there shall
XXVI. Newly-elected Members shall pay an
entrance fee of two guineas, in addition to the sub-
scription for the current year. Those elected after the
Ist of July shall pay only half of the subscription for
the current year. If the entrance fee and subscrip-
tion be not paid within one month of the notification
of election, a second notice shall be sent, and if pay-
ment be not made within one month from the second
notice, the election shall be void. Members, resident
in Melbourne, or within ten miles thereof, may com-
pound for all Annual Subscriptions of the current and
future years by paying £21; and Members residing
beyond that distance may compound in like manner by
paying £10 10s.
XXVII. At the ordinary meetings of the Society
the chair shall be taken punctually at eight o’clock,
and no new business shall be taken after ten o’clock.
XXVIII. At the Ordinary Meetings business shall
the business. be transacted in the following order, unless it be
specially decided otherwise by the Chairman :—
Minutes of the preceding meeting to be read,
amended if incorrect, and confirmed.
New Members to enroll their names, and be in-
troduced.
Ballot for the election of new Members.
Vacancies among officers, if any, to be filled up.
Business arising out of the minutes.
Communications from the Council.
Presents to be laid on the table, and acknowledged.
Motions, of which notice has been given, to be
considered,
Notices of motion for the next meeting to be
given in and read by one of the Secretaries
Papers to be read.
Laws. 133
XXIX. No stranger shall speak at a meeting of Strangers.
the Society unless specially invited to do so by the
Chairman.
XXX. At no meeting shall a paper be read, or what busi.
business entertained, which has not been previously transacted.
notified to the Council.
XXXI. The Council may call additional meetings Additional
- Meetings.
whenever it may be deemed necessary.
XXXII. Every Member may introduce two visitors Visitcrs.
to the meetings of the Society by orders signed by
himself.
XXXII. Members shall have the privilege of Members may
reading before the Society accounts of experiments,
observations, and researches conducted by themselves,
or original papers, on subjects within the scope of the
Society, or descriptions of recent discoveries, or inven-
tions of general scientific interest. No vote of thanks
to any Member for his paper shall be proposed.
XXXIV. If a Member be unable to attend for the or depute other
purpose of reading his paper, he may delegate to any “"”
Member of the Society the reading thereof, and his
right of reply. .
XXXV. Any Member desirous of reading a paper Members must
shall give in writing to one of the Secretaries, ten fier papers,
days before the meeting at which he desires it to be
read, its title and the time its reading will occupy.
XXXVI. The Council may permit a paper such as Papers by
described in Law XXXIIL., not written by a Member ““"S"*
of the Society, to be read, if for any special reason it
shall be deemed desirable.
XXXVI. Every paper read before the Society shall Papers belong to
be the property thereof, and immediately after it has “°°”
been read shall be delivered to one of the Secretaries,
and shall remain in his custody.
XXX VIII. No paper shall be read before the Society Papers must be
or published in the Transactions unless approved by °*""
the Council, and unless it consist mainly of original
matter as regards the facts or the theories enunciated.
XXXIX. Should the Council feel a difficulty in Council may
OTe = : + refer papers to
deciding on the publication of a paper, the Council Members.
Rejected papers
to be returned.
Members may
have copies
of their papers.
Members to have
copies of Trans-
- actions.
Property.
Library.
Legal ownership
of property.
Committees
elect Chairman.
Report before
November ist.
134 Laws.
may refer it to any Member or Members of the
Society, who shall report upon it.
XL. Should the Council decide not to publish a
paper, it shall be at once returned to the author.
XLI. The author of any paper which the Council
has decided to publish in the Transactions may have
any number of copies of his paper on giving notice of
his wish in writing to one of the Secretaries, and on
paying the extra cost of such copies.
XLII. Every Member whose subscription is not in
arrear, and every Honorary Member, is entitled to
receive one copy of the Transactions of the Society as
published. Newly-elected Members shall, on payment
of their entrance-fee and subscription, receive a copy
of the volume of the Transactions last published.
XLII. Every book, pamphlet, model, plan, drawing,
specimen, preparation, or collection presented to or
purchased by the Society, shall be kept in the house of
the Society.
XLIV. The Library shall be open to Members of the
Society and the public at such times and under such
regulations as the Council may deem fit.
XLY. The legal ownership of the property of the
Society is vested in the President, the Vice-Presidents,
and the Treasurer for the time being, in trust for the
use of the Society; but the Council shall have full
control over the expenditure of the funds and manage-
ment of the property of the Society.
XLVI. Every Committee appointed by the Society
shall at its first meeting elect a Chairman, who shall .
subsequently convene the Committee and bring up its
report. He shall also obtain from the Treasurer such _
grants as may have been voted for the purposes of the
Committee. :
XLVII. All Committees and individuals to whom
any work has been assigned by the Society shall pre-
sent to the Council, not later than the Ist November
in each year, a report of the progress which has been
made ; and, in cases where grants of money for scientific
purposes have been entrusted to them, a statement of
the sums which have been expended, and the balance
‘ol . i ‘
rr a ‘
Laws. 135
of each grant which remains unexpended. Every
Committee shall cease to exist on the 1st November,
unless re-appointed.
XLVIII. Grants of pecuniary aid for scientific pur- Grants expire.
poses from the funds of the Society shall expire on the
1st November next following, unless it shall appear by
a report that the recommendations on which they were
granted have been acted on, or a continuation of them
be ordered by the Council.
XLIX. In grants of money to Committees and indi- Personal a
viduals, the Society shall not pay any personal expenses paid
which may be incurred by the Members.
L. No new law, or alteration or repeal of an existing Alteration of
law, shall be made except at the General Meeting in “"”
March, or at a Special General Meeting summoned for
the purpose, as provided in Law XIX., and in pursuance
of notice given at the preceding Ordinary Meeting of
the Society.
LI. Should any circumstance arise not provided for Cases mob UED-
in these laws, the Council is empowered to act as may
seem to be best for the interests of the Society.
LIT. In order that the Members of the Society pro- Sections.
secuting particular departments of science may have
opportunities of meeting and working together with
fewer formal restraints than are necessary at the
Ordinary Meetings of the Society, Sections may be
established.
LIII. Sections may be established for the following Namesand num-
departments, viz.:— er of sections.
‘Section A. Physical, Astronomical, and Mechanical
Science, including Engineering.
Section B. Chemistry, Mineralogy, and Metal-
lurgy.
Section C. Natural History and Geology.
Section D. The Microscope and its applications.
Section E. Geography and Ethnology.
Section F. Social Science and Statistics.
Section G. Literature and the Fine Arts, including
Architecture.
Section H. Medical Science, including Physiology
and Pathology.
Meetings of
Sections.
Members of
_ Sections.
Officers of
Sections.
Mode of ap-
pointment of
officers of Sec-
tion.
Times of meet-
ings of Sections.
Corresponding
Members, elec-
tion of.
136 Laws.
LIV. The meetings of the Sections shall be for scien-
tific objects only.
LY. There shall be no membership of the Sections
as distinguished from the membership of the Society. _
LVI. There shall be for each Section a Chairman to
preside at the meetings, and Secretary to keep minutes
of the proceedings, who shall jointly prepare and for-
ward to one of the Secretaries of the Society, prior to
the Ist of November in each year, a report of the
Proceedings of the Section during that year, and such
report shall be submitted to the Council.
LVII. The Chairman and the Secretary of each Sec-
tion shall be appointed at the first meeting of the
Council after its election in March, in the first instance
from Members of the Society who shall have signified
to one of the Secretaries of the Society their willing-
ness to undertake these offices, and subsequently from
such as are recommended by the Section as fit and
willing.
LVIII. The first meeting of each Section in the year
shall be fixed by the Council; subsequently the Section
shall arrange its own days and hours of meeting, pro-
vided these be at fixed intervals.
LIX. The Council,shall have power to propose gen-
tlemen not resident in Victoria, for election in the same
manner as ordinary members, as corresponding mem-
bers of the Society. The corresponding members shall
contribute to the Society papers, which may be received
as those of ordinary members, and shall in return be
entitled to receive copies of the Society's publications.
WO WoM »Bake Res
OF
— The Roval Soctetyp of Bictoria.
ORDINARY.
Allan, Alex. C., Esq., Crown Lands Department
Alcock, Peter C., Esq., Temperance Hall
Andrew, Henry M., Esq., M.A., Wesley College
Anderson, Major J. A., Melbourne Club
Barker, Edward, Esq., M.D., F.R.C.S., Latrobe-street Hast, Mel-
bourne
Barnes, Benjamin, Esq., Murray Bridge, Echuca
Bage, Edw., Esq., jun., Fulton-street, East St. Kilda
Barton, Robert, Esq., F.C.S., Royal Mint, Melbourne
Beaney, James G., Esq., F.R.C.S. Ed., Collins-street, Melbourne
Bear, J. P., Esq., M.L.C., 834 Little Collins-street East
Blair, Johu, Esq., M.D., Collins-street East
Brown, H. J., Esq., Park House, Wellington Parade, Hast Mel-
bourne
Burrows, Thomas, Esq., St. James’s Park, Hawthorn
Cohen, J. B., Esq., A.B.A., 5 Jolimont Square
Danks, John, Esq., Bourke-street West, Melbourne
Dobson, E., Esq. ., A.I.C.E., Claremont House, Grey-street, East
Melbourne
Duerdin, James, Esq., LL.B., Eltham-place, Stephen-street
Ellery, R. L. J., Esq., F.R.S., &., Observatory, Melbourne
Fitzpatrick, Rev. J., D.D., Archbishop’s Palace, East Melbourne
Foord, Geo., Esq., F.C.S., Alma-road, St. Kilda
Foster, C. W., Esq., Collins-street East
Fulton, John, Esq:, M.D., Collins-street East
138 List of Members.
Gardiner, Martin, Esq., Department of Crown Lands, Queensland
Gilbert, J. E., Esq., Melbourne Observatory
Groves, J. W., Esq., Department of Crown Lands
Grut, Percy de J., Esq., E. 8. & A. C. Bank, Gertrude-street,
Fitzroy
Goldstraw, F., Esq., M.A., Wesley College
Harrison, Thomas, Esq., Registrar-General’s Office
Henderson, A. M., Esq., C.E., Reed and Barnes, Elizabeth-street,
Melbourne
Higinbotham, Thomas, Esq., M.I.C.E., Brighton
Howitt, Edward, Esq., Yorick Club
Humphreys, J. Bywater, Esq., Yorick Club
Hunt, Robert, Esq., Royal Mint, Sydney
Irving, M. H., Esq., M.A., Grammar School, Hawthorn
Jamieson, James, Esq., M.D., Collins-street East
Joseph, R. E., Esq., Swanston-street
Kane, Rev. H. P., M.A., Brighton
Kelly, Rev. William, St. Patrick’s College
Kernot, W. C., Esq., M.A., C.E., Melbourne University
Klemm, F. C., Esq., 33 Queen-street —
Lynch, William, Esq., Collins-street West
M‘Coy, Professor F., Melbourne University
M'‘Gowan, 8. W., Carlisle-street, Hast St. Kilda
Maloney, Patrick, Esq., M.B., Lonsdale-street West
Manton, C. A., Esq., J.P., Treasury, Melbourne
Miller, F. B., Esq., F.C.8S., Royal Mint
Moerlin, C., Esq., Melbourne Observatory
Moors, Henry, Esq., Office Chief Commissioner of Police -
Morris, R., Esq., 10 Hawke-street, West Melbourne
Munday, J., Esq., care of Messrs. A. Woolley & Co., Market
Buildings, Melbourne
Muntz, T. B., Esq., C.E., Town Surveyor’s Office, Prahran
Murray, K. L., Esq., Railway and Telegraph Department, Mel-
bourne
Madden, Wyndham M., M.A., Trinity College
Nanson, Professor E. J., Melbourne University
Neild, J. E., Esq., M.D., New Place, Collins-street East, Melbourne
Newbery, J. Cosmo, Esq., B.Sc., Technological Museum
Noone, J., Esq., Lands Department
List of Members. 139
Parkes, Edmund §., Esq., Bank of Australasia
Parnell, E., Esq., High-street, Prahran
Paul, Rev. Arthur, Alma-road, East St. Kilda
Patching, H. §., Esq., Lygon-street, Carlton
Phelps, J. J., Esq., Melbourne Club
Pirani, F. J., Esq., M.A., C.E., Melbourne University
Rudall, J. T., Esq., F.R.C.S., Collins-street
Rusden, H. K., Esq., Yorick Club
Skene, A. J., Esq., M.A., Lands and Survey Department
Smith, A. M., Esq., School of Mines, Sandhurst
Steel, W. H., Esq., Public Works Department
Sutherland, Alexander, Esq., M.A., Carlton College, Fitzroy
Thomson, W., Esq., F.R.C.S. Ed., South Yarra
Ulrich, George H. F., Esq., F.G.S., South Yarra
Wallis, A. R., Esq., Secretary Department of Agriculture, Wood-
ford, Kew.
Watts, W. C., Esq., City Surveyor, Town Hall, Melbourne
Waugh, Rev. J. S., Wesley College
Wigg, Henry C., Esq., M.D., F.R.C.S., Lygon-street, Carlton
Wilkins, Alfred, Esq., care Henty and Co., Melbourne
Willimot, W. C., Lioyd’s Rooms, Collins-street West.
CountRY MEMBERS.
| Bland, R. H., Esq., Clunes, Victoria
Bone, William, M.D., Castlemaine
Bradley, R. 8., Esq., Grammar School, Stawell
‘Caselli, H. R., Esq., Ballarat
Conroy, James Macdowall, Esq., Post Office, Deniliquin, N.S. Wales
Gould, Louis Le, Esq., C.E., Shire Hall, Ballan
Henderson, J. B., Esqg., Water Supply Department, Sandhurst
Howitt, A. W., Esq., F.G.S., P.M., Bairnsdale
Keogh, Laurence F., Esq., Warrnambool
M‘Gillivray, P. H., Esq., M.A., M.R.C.S. Ed., Sandhurst
Murray, Stewart, Esq., C.E., Kyneton
140 List of Members.
Officer, 8. H., Esq., care Dalgety and Co., Swan Hill
Ogier, J. C. H., Esq., P.M., Yorick Club
Taylor, W. F., M.D., Claremont, Queensland
Wyatt, Alfred, Esq., P.M., Yorick Club.
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Etheridge, Robert, Esq., junr., F.G.8., 17 Rankeiller-street, Edin-
burgh, Scotland
Woods, Rey. Julian E. Tenison, 220 Albion-street, Surrey Hills,
Sydney, N.S.W.
HonorARY MEMBERS.
Bowen, His Excellency Sir George F., K.C.M.G., Governor of
Victoria, Patron
Clarke, Sir Andrew, Colonel, C.B., R.E.
Goeppart, H. R., M.D., Ph.D., Breslau
Haast, Julius, Esq., Ph.D., F.G.S., Canterbury, New Zealand
Neumayer, George, Professor, Ph.D., Bavaria
Perry, Right Rev. Charles, D.D., late Lord Bishop of Melbourne,
32 Avenue-road, Regent’s Park, London
Scott, Rev. W., M.A., Sydney
Smith, John, Esq., M.D., Sydney University
Todd, Charles, Esq., C.M.G., F.R.A.S., Adelaide.
Lire MEMBERS.
Barkly, His Excellency Sir Henry, K.C.B., Mauritius
Barry, His Honour Sir Redmond, M.A., Chancellor of the
University of Melbourne, Supreme Court, Melbourne
Bleasdale, Rev. I. J.. D.D., F.G.8., absent from Victoria
Bosisto, Joseph, Esq., M.L.A., Richmond
Butters, J. 8., Esq., Victoria Club, Melbourne
Detmold, William, Esq., 44 Collins-street East
Eaton, H. F., Esq., Treasury, Melbourne
Elliot, Sizar, Esq., 88 Collins-street West
Elliot, T. 8., Esq., Railway Department, Spencer-street
Flanagan, John, Esq., 8 Collins-street East
List of Members. 141
Gibbons, Sydney W., Esq., F.C.S., Collins-street East
Gillbee, William, Esq., M.R.C.S. Ed., Collins-street East
Higinbotham, Hon. George, M.A., Chancery-lane
Ifa, Solomon, Esq., L.F.P.8.G., Emerald Hill
Mueller, Baron Von, Ph.D., C.M.G., South Melbourne
Nicholson, G., Esq., Collins-street Hast
Nicholas, William, Esq., F.G.S., Melbourne University
Rawlinson, Thomas, Esq., C.E., Temple Court, Melbourne
Reed, Joseph, Esq., Elizabeth-street South
Reed, Thomas, Esq., Fiji
Smith, A. K., Esq., M.L.A., C.E., &c., Leicester-street, Carlton
Thompson, H. A., Esq., Lucknow, New South Wales
Were, J. B., Esq. (K.C.D., Denmark ; K.O.W., &., Sweden), Col-
lins-street West
White, E. J., Esq., F.R.A.S., Melbourne Observatory
Wilkie, D. E., Esq., M.D., &., Collins-street Hast.
142 Inst of Institutions, &c.,
LIST OF THE INSTITUTIONS AND LEARNED
SOCIETIES THAT RECEIVE COPIES OF THE
“TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY
OF VICTORIA.”
BRITISH.
Royal Society ... * London
Royal Society of Arts . London
Royal Geographical Society London
Royal Asiatic Society London
Royal Astronomical Society London
Royal College of Physicians London
Statistical Society London
Institute of Civil Engineers London ~
Institute of Naval Architects London
The British Museum London
The Geological Society London
Museum of Economic Geology London
Meteorological Society London
Anthropological Society ... London
Linnean Society London
Athenzum London
College of Surgeons London
Zoological Society London
“ Geological Magazine” London
“ Quarterly Journal of Science” London
“Journal of Applied Science” London
Colonial Office Library London
Foreign Office Library London
Agent-General of Victoria London
« Nature” London
University Library ~ Cambridge
Philosophical Society : “3 oe Cambridge
The Bodleian Library _... in a 2) Oxford
Public Library ee se sae Liverpool
Owen’s College Library ... ee ee Manchester
Free Public Library dap 4 a Mauchester
‘That Receive Copies of the “ Transactions.” 143
Literary and Philosophical Society ah Manchester
Yorkshire College of Science ae ne --- Leeds
Royal Society .. ae ave ne Edinburgh
University Library a Ses pe, Edinburgh
Royal Botanical Society .. oa aie Edinburgh
Philosophical Society ... aa xp ... Glasgow
University Library uu gre ... Glasgow
Institute of Engineers of Scotland.. +2 ... Glasgow
Royal Irish Academy ... ae aa joe. Yep REO
Trinity College Library .. ans ane oy UTES
Royal Geological Society of Ireland = AiPeadaagy 35350)
Royal Dublin Society ... a eee ... Dublin
EUROPEAN.
Geographical Society... Sk hs nab Paris
Acclimatisation Society ... hs w = Paris
Royal Academy of Sciences SRO Eau tc .-. Brussels
Royal Geographical Society ee ae Copenhagen
Academy of Science a ny Ee Stockholm
Academy of Science ae sie ae PM ee
Royal Society ... aa bee us ay) Upset
The University se wes a Christiania
Imperial Academy Se sia St. Petersburg
Imperial Society of Naturalists ... ae --- Moscow
“ Petermann’s Geological Journal”... ae Hamburgh
Society of Naturalists... . oe aa Hamburgh
Royal Institution ae ... Utrecht
Royal Netherlands Meteorological Society eu ... Utrecht
Geological Society ae “- Darmstadt
Linnean Society rae wile Darmstadt
Academy of Natural History oe ... Giessen
Geographical Society ... cee _ Frankfort-on-Main
Royal Academy of Science aoe BY ... Munich
Royal Academy ae as ... Vienna
Royal Geological Society... on Eo ... Vienna
Royal Geographical ae os ane .. Vienna
Royal Botanical Society .. “52 nag ... Ratisbon
Imperial Academy ee ee .- Breslau
Society for Culture of Science = enn ... Breslau
Royal Society of Sciences ... Leipzig
Imperial Leopoldian Carolinian Academy ‘of German
: Naturalists eee =: et ... Dresden
Royal Society ... fee aoe _ --» Derlin
Geographical Society ... Pee ie oe CEE
Society of Naturalists... = wie ee Halle
_Physico-Graphico Society ve ae oa Lund
M
144 List of Institutions, &c.,
Royal Society ... =
Natural History Society .. .
Royal Academy of Science
Royal Academy of Science ae Ss
Society for Culture of Science
Royal Academy of Agriculture
Italian Geographical Society
Academy of Sciences
Royal Institute for Science, Literatur e, and Art
Royal Society of Science
Academy of Sciences
Scientific Academy of Leghorn
Academy of Sciences
Physical and Medical Society
Helvetic Society of Natural Sciences
Society of Natural History and Medicine
Academy of Science... So
AMERICAN.
American Academy so ose
Geographical Society ee
Natural History Society ... aioh
Smithsonian Institute
American Philosophical Society
Academy of Science 2
War Department, United ‘States Navy
Department of the Interior ove
ASIATIC.
Madras Literary Society ...
Geological Survey Department
Royal Bengal Asiatic Society
Meteorological Society see
Royal Society of Netherlands eae
CoLONIAL.
Parliamentary Library
University Library es
Public Library...
Registrar- General’s s Department
Medical Society 550 a _
German Association
Athenzeum : sie
School of Mines ug
Sandhurst Free Library ..
Goettingen
Geneva
Madrid
Lisbon
Bremen
. Florence
. Florence
Bologna
Milan
Naples
Turin
Leghorn
Lyons
Wiirtemburg
Zurich
“Heidelbe rg
.» Palermo
Boston
New Vork
Boston
Washington
Philadelphia
.. St. Louis, Missouri
Washington
Washington
Madras
. Calcutta
- Calcutta
Mauritius
Batavia
Melbourne
Melbourne
Melbourne
Melbourne
Melbourne
Melbourne
Melbourne
Ballarat
Sandhurst
That Recewe Copies of the “Transactions.” 145
Free Library ... aad bas aa ... Hchuca
Free Library ... oe se dis ... Geelong
Philosophical Society ... ‘Ee ioe Adelaide, S.A.
Royal Society ... nee ase ... Sydney, N.S.W.
Royal Society ... nae Ae Hobart Town, Tasmania
‘The Observatory ae eas .. Sydney, N.S.W.
New Zealand Institute ... fee ... Wellington, N.Z,
Otago Institute ve see eae Dunedin, N.Z.
Mason, Firth & M‘Cutcheon, General Printers, Melbourne.
MET rae a
ae vobaul eee
oon
er el ape menneenon a pe Smoot letehe
ermbodiol gsointsL, LeroaoD aoa
TRANSACTIONS
AND
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
opal Society of Victorr.
VOL. XV.
Edited under the Authority of the Council of the Society.
ESOL DO LOC h AP Ee tS 79.
THE AUTHORS OF THE SEVERAL PAPERS ARE SOLELY RESPONSIBLE FOR THE SOUNDNESS OF THE
OPINIONS GIVEN AND FOR THE ACCURACY OF THE STATEMENTS MADE THEREIN.
MELBOURNE:
wasn FIRTH & M‘CUTCHEON,. PRINTERS;
FLINDERS LANE WEST,
AGENTS TO THE SOCIETY.
WILLIAMS & NORGATE, 14 HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON ;
To whom all communications for transmission to the Royal Society of Victoria
from all parts of Europe should be sent,
i ae
Eo
CONTENTS OF VOL. XV.
PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS, 1878
ArT, I,
1108
A New Form of Circuit Closer for the iaoies of
Torpedoes, by R. EH. JOSEPH, Esq.
Photographs on the Retina, by JAMES Peneueare M. D.
Sir William Thomson’s Electric Les pea by F. J.
PIRANI, M.A.
Some Experiments in thie Gold Bullion Assoy by
ALFRED Mica SMITH, B.Sc. :
On a New Form of Self- oe Rain- “ange, by
R. L. J. ELLERY, F.RB.S.,
Sir William Thomson’s ae of Daniell’s pencenae
Battery, by F, J. PrRANI, M.A.. Ht oe
The Strength of Columns, by W. C. "esas: M.A.
A New Point of Resemblance in the Respiration of
Plants and Animals, by JAMES JAMIESON, M.D. ...
Note of the Great Meteor of June 8th, 1878, by R. L.
J. ELLERY, F.R.S. ae Bee
X. The Perception of Colour, by ae ee! M.D.
XI, On the supposed Intra-Mercurial Planet, 2 1 al Dee
ELLERY, F.B.S. bE
XII. The Sounds of the Gehsonate as ppiieated by the
Phonograph, by ALEX. SUTHERLAND, M.A. aoe
XIII. Experiments made on a Sample of Pig Iron received
from the British and Tasmanian Iron Company,
Port Lempriere, Tasmania, by J. Cosmo NEWBERY
and FREDERIC DUNN ...
XIV. Formation of Hyalite by the ree of Ammonia, by
J. Cosmo NEWBERY, B.Sc. a
PROCEEDINGS, &C., 1878 ... spe
LAWS :
MEMBERS ‘os dae
INSTITUTIONS, &C., Pues oe Cares OF * MER eN rons
43—49
49—51
53—59
60—70
71—75
76—79
Kopal Society of Victoria.
pulron.
HIS EXCELLENCY SIR GEORGE BOWEN, G.C.M.G.
president. .
R, L. J. ELLERY, Esq., F.R.S., FLR.A.S., &.
Gite-Aresidernts.
GEORGE FOORD, Esq., F.C.S. | E. J. WHITE, Ese., F.R.AS.
Hon. Grersurer,
PERCY DE J. GRUT, Ese.
Bon. Secretaries.
EDWARD HOWITT, Esa. | A. SUTHERLAND, Esg@., M.A.
Hon. Librarian.
JAMES E. NEILD, Esq., M.D.
Gowneil.
A. C. ALLAN, Esa. W. C. KERNOT, Esa., M.A.
H. M. ANDREW, Ese., M.A. S. W. M‘GOWAN, Ese.
ROBERT BARTON, Esa. HENRY MOORS, Ese.,
JOSEPH BOSISTO, Esq., M.L.A. PROFESSOR E. J. NANSON, M.A.
JAMES DUERDIN, Esq., LL.B. F. J. PIRANI, Esq., M.A.
JAMES JAMIESON, Esgq., M.D. JAMES T. RUDALL, Esg., F.R.C.S.
Moval Society of Pictoria.
ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS
OF
Che President,
Mr. R. L. J. Every, F.RS., F.R.AS., Government
Astronomer.
(Delivered to the Members of the Royal Society of Victoria, at their
Annual Conversazione, held on Thursday, 8th August, 1878.)
Your EXCELLENCY AND GENTLEMEN OF THE
ROYAL SOCIETY,
It appears to be quite probable that in framing the rules
of our Society that portion of the duties of president which
refers to the delivery of an annual address was imposed
principally as a check against undue pride and elation,
likely to be engendered by the loftiness of the position.
Whether such was actually the case can now only be sur-
mised, but, as far as I am concerned, its effect in this direction
is unmistakable ; for,as the time again comes round for pre-
paring and inflicting the prescribed punishment on a patient
and long-suffering audience, ostensibly brought together for
a little social and intellectual enjoyment, I make a deep and
silent vow that the mantle and its responsibilities must find
other shoulders for the future. My position here to-night
affords another instance of how often such rash vows are
only made to be broken, for, in spite of my resolve last
year, you have again done me the honour of pushing me back
into the presidential chair. I take this opportunity of
xi President's Address
thanking the members for their confidence, and of assuring
them of my high appreciation of the trust, and of the
duties and penalties attached thereto.
Since we met together on a similar occasion in August
last, our Society has entered upon its twenty-first session
and year of existence; and a brief account of its doings since
that date, as well as of its present position and prospects,
first claims our attention.
The painful duty here devolves on me to record the loss
by death of two of our members—Mr. W. M. Cooke and Mr.
Fred. C. Klemm. Since the conversazione in August last,
the Society has held ten ordinary meetings, at which papers
were read, exhibits made, and scientific subjects discussed.
Your Council has also met regularly, and has had long and
earnest deliberations on numerous matters concerning the
welfare of the Society, some of which I shall presently °
especially refer to. The original discussions that have .
occupied the members at the ordinary meetings are as
follow :—“ On new Marine Mollusca,” by Rev. J. E. Tenison
Woods, SJ., F.G.S.; “ Notes on Japan,” by F. C. Christy,
C.E.; “On the Probability that a Connection Exists between
the Attraction of Gravitation and the Molecular Energy of
Matter,’ by A. Sutherland, M.A.; “On the Comparative
Power of some Disinfectants,” by Dr. Jamieson; “On
Paleeozoic Actinology,” by Robert Etheridge, F.G.8S.; “On
the Ratio of the Length and Height of Sea Waves,” by S.
R. Deverell; “ Photographs on the Retina,’ by Dr. Jamie-
son ; ‘ Experiments in Gold Bullion Assay,’ by A. M. Smith;
“Qn a New Self-registering Rain Gauge,” by R. L. J.
Hillery, F.R.S.,F.R.A.S.; “On the Strength of Iron Columns,”
by W. C. Kernot, C.E.; “On a Point of Resemblance in the
Respiration of Plants and Animals,’ by Dr. Jamieson.
These have all been printed, and copies in a pamphlet form
have been distributed among the members. In addition to
these papers, there have been numerous brief notes, oral
ae cA
for the year 1878. xili
communications, and exhibits of the highest interest, which
have made every meeting throughout the session a busy
one. In no period of the history of the Society have our
publications been in so forward a state as they are now; and
I congratulate members on this fact, for which our thanks
are due to the secretaries, who have in the face of difficulties
at length been able to carry out the wishes of the Council
in this matter. The fourteenth volume, containing our
transactions to the end of 1877, was issued a few weeks
ago, and is, I believe, already distributed. The papers of
the present session are all either printed or in the press;
for, as I informed you in my last address, the course had
been adopted of printing and issuing a limited number of
copies of all original papers immediately after the meeting
at which they had been accepted. This plan has been found
to work well, as it places the contributions at once in the
hands of our members, and greatly facilitates the discussion
of important papers, which frequently takes place at the
meeting following that at which they have been read. Our
library has been largely increased by donations from the
numerous European, American, Asiatic, and Australian
~ societies with which we interchange transactions, as
well as from individuals and Government departments.
The labour of acknowledging and arranging the very
numerous contributions which come to us has become so
great that your Council are now considering the best method
by which this can be punctually done without the work
becoming too burdensome to our hon. librarian. The rolls
of the Society now number 128 members, 15 of whom are
country members, 25 life members, and three corresponding
members. This indicates a slight increase over our strength
for the past few years, although our ranks are still too thin
for so large and prosperous a colony as ours. Nevertheless,
the Society may be congratulated on its present financial
position, The Council have been able to clear off most of the
XIV. President's Address
debt incurred some years ago in altering and adding to the
building, and to keep the printing of the transactions up to
date. Our finances would, of course, be in the reverse
position were it not for the Government grant which
Parliament has liberally voted to the Society for the last
few years; for, with the limited income derivable from our
subscribing members, we could not possibly pay current
expenses and for the printing of our transactions as well.
As it is, we have a small balance to the good to pay off the
remaining debentures coming due next year, amounting to
about £70, and to assist in paying for some very necessary
repairs and alterations to the building, which cannot much
longer be delayed. ab
A few words concerning the future of the Society, and I
will pass on to other subjects. Your Council has received
applications from one or two kindred societies in Melbourne
for permanent accommodation within this building, and, in
futherance of views I expressed in my last address on this
subject, have favourably entertained the idea of domiciling
other societies devoted to science, literature, and art, under
this roof, and have appointed a committee to consider the
best means of doing so, whether by adding to the building
in accordance with the original plans, or by doing as our
architect and fellow-member, Mr. Joseph Reed, suggests—
namely, to continue the floor of the library over the theatre
and throw the whole upper floor into one chamber, while
the space beneath will give two more commodious rooms.
Whatever may be done, I trust the exterior of the building
will not be overlooked, for it is beginning to have a really
dilapidated appearance ; and if we are to have, as it appears
likely, a magnificent edifice in the Carlton Gardens, we
should for shame’s sake give a little more decent appearance
to the outside of the house of the chief scientific body of
the colony.
In considering the comparatively small number of mem-
for the year 1878. XV
bers of which this Society is composed in proportion to our
population, prosperity, and intelligence, several members of
your Council have from time to time suggested the desir-
ability of broadening its basis, and the Council has given
these suggestions earnest consideration. As you are aware,
our constitution provides that members shall pay two guineas
entrance fee and two guineas annual subscription, except in
the case of country members, where the annual subscription
is one guinea only. Now, it has been suggested that this
subscription is almost prohibitive to many of the young
men of our community whose tastes and education lead
them towards our ranks, and whose enrolment is much to
be desired; and it became a serious question whether the
annual subscription should not be reduced. The Council,
however, ultimately decided to recommend the Society to
add to its constitution the power to admit associates at half
fees, whose privileges would, with a few exceptions, be equal
to those of members, and a committee has been appointed
to devise a scheme which will be laid before a special meet-
ing of the members. If such a course is adopted, I have
little doubt we shall soon have a very welcome addition to
our active members, and that we shall be able to resuscitate
several of the sections for which our constitution provides.
You may recollect that in former addresses I advocated a
pet idea of mine ; and although this has got no further than
it was at our last gathering of this kind, I do not intend to
abandon it, and hope, with your assistance, yet to see it
realised—I mean the occasional delivery in this hall of brief
and special lectures for the record or demonstration of new
interesting facts in physical and other sciences, by members
of the Society to members and their friends.
This will, I think, place you in possession of the principal
facts in connection with the Society’s affairs ; and I will now
briefly review the progress made by some of the public
departments and societies in Melbourne, whose aims are
A
XV1 President's Address
kindred to our own. At the Observatory the usual work in
astronomy, meteorology, &c., has been carried on without
interruption. The great telescope has been occupied with
its special work—observation of the southern nebule—and
it continues to perform satisfactorily. I regret to say, how-
ever, that the drawings of the nebule already observed, and —
which were being lithographed at the time of my last
address, are not yet published. The scheme of inter-
colonial meteorology, concerning which I spoke at some
length last year, is being gradually improved, and, since the
completion of the Western Australian line, our weather tele-
grams embrace the whole of the south coast of Australia,
from King George’s Sound to Cape Howe. The undertaking,
however, labours under a great disadvantage in these
colonies as compared with Europe and America, inasmuch
as the precedence and prompt despatch which is conceded
to weather telegrams in those countries has not yet been
secured for ours. In October last telegrams from America
and England were received at the Observatory, requesting a
look-out for supposed satellites of Mars. Diligent search
was made with the great telescope, whenever the weather |
was favourable, but with no decided results, and it is doubt-
ful if either of the satellites now known to exist was seen
at our Observatory. This failure was somewhat unaccount-
able, as subsequent news informed us that the brightest of
the two satellites had been seen by much smaller telescopes
than our reflector. It may be stated, however, that, owing to
an interruption in telegraphic communication, the telegram
referred to was delayed fourteen days. Mars was rapidly
increasing his distance from us, and after the message was
received a period of cloudy weather stil further delayed
our search until the planet had receded enormously from
the position in which its satellites were discovered, or
subsequently seen by any except the most powerful tele-
scopes.
for the year 1878. XVii
The transit of Mereury across the sun’s disc in May last
was a noteworthy event, and its later phases were success-
fully observed at the Observatory, but no new points of
interest in connection with this phenomenon were noted.
The opposition of Mars on the 6th September last year
occurred when that planet was unusually near to the earth,
and a remarkably good opportunity presented itself of again
determining the solar parallax. In conjunction with Euro-
pean and American observatories, we undertook a series of
observations for parallax in declination, and succeeded in
securing a fine set of measures, extending from 21st July to
22nd October, the results of which will probably be known
by the end of the year.
Encke’s comet again returned to perihelion on July 26th.
Last mail I received a particular request from Professor
Asten, of Pulkowa, that we should endeavour as it came
south to obtain as late observations of it as possible. It is
now too near the sun to be seen, but we hope to pick it up
in afew days. This comet was first observed in 1786, and
since that year it has made 28 consecutive revolutions round
the sun with remarkable regularity ; in only 20 of these,
however, has it been observed. In 1822 it was seen only at
the Observatory of Paramatta. Great interest is attached
to the observation of this comet, owing to the fact that each
succeeding revolution is made in less time than the last, thus
showing that the comet is diminishing its mean distance
from the sun. This would appear to indicate that it
experiences resistance in its course, which, if continued, will
ultimately cause it to fall into the sun. At the present time
its revolution round the sun is accomplished in a period
which is more than two days less than at the time of its
discovery in 1786.
Some important additions to the literature of botanical
science have been made during the past year. Our fellow-
member, Baron von Mueller, the Government botanist, has
A2
XVIil President's Address
published the tenth volume of the well-known Fragmenta
Phytographie Australis,aswellasthe first volume of his work
on the plants of New Guinea, to which I referred in my last
address. The learned baron in this work demonstrates the
close affinity existing between the plants of this large island
and those of North Australia. A further supplement has
lately been added to the work on Useful Plants Suitable
for Oultivation im this Colony, and another publication
which promises to be of great interest and utility has been
commenced. This is a description, with illustrations, of the
eucalyptus trees, the first eleven plates of which have already
been issued. The publication of an illustrated book con-
taining a full description of all the plants hitherto found in
Victoria has lately been authorised, and it is now in the
press. And last, though not least, I would mention a work
on the organic constituents of plants, translated from the
German of Professor Wittstein, and published here privately
by Baron von Mueller, with many new notes and observa-
tions. This book is eminently calculated to assist in the
local analysis of our native vegetation, and will, no doubt,
prove of great utility in this respect.
Another work, by Mr. Guilfoyle, the curator of the
Domain and Botanical Gardens, entitled Australian Botany,
must not be overlooked, more especially as it is likely to
supply a great want felt by young students of this science
in the colony.
The National Museum still continues to advance its
collections illustrative of the different branches of natural
science towards systematic completion, and in several
departments it is now no easy matter to obtain the rarities
which alone are required to fill up the gaps in the general
series of the living and fossil forms of the animal kingdom,
as well as in the sections of geology and mineralogy ; 42,292
species of the higher classes are catalogued as named in the
cases, besides many thousands of the lower classes named,
for the year 1878. xix
but not as yet entered. The efforts of the director towards
perfectly displaying the collections which he has got together,
named, and classified, so as to show fairly the principles of
classification adopted, are seriously hampered by the non-
completion of the building. Parliament voted £4000 for
this purpose last year, but difficulties arose and the money
has lapsed. It is to be hoped that such a national work as
the completion of the museum may not be further retarded
from this cause. The collection continues in great beauty
and freshness of preservation, and the number of visitors is
constantly increasing, 102,572 being recorded for the year
ending on 30th June last. To the publication of six of the
decades of the Paleontology of Victoria, which have been
very favourably received by the scientific press of Europe,
there has just been added the first decade of the Zoology of
Victoria, with beautiful illustrations in colours of the snakes,
fishes, insects, &c., of the colony, the originals, as in the
former work, being all in the national collection. The
other decades will quickly follow, and may be expected to
give an impetus to the study of the natural history of the
colony.
The Public Library and Museums, with the thriving
Schools of Technological Science and Fine Arts, which have
orown up under its shelter, form an institution of which our
community may be most justly proud. Our members will be
pleased to hear that in the laboratories there are now 47
students at work. These are chiefly miners, metallurgists,
electro-platers, dyers, manufacturing chemists, soap and
candle makers, &c.; their studies, of course, have a direct
utilitarian bearing, and it is gratifying to learn that several
have worked out new processes to apply to their trade.
A course of elementary lectures on chemistry has been
delivered by Mr. F. Dunn, to which the pupils of the higher
classes of the public schools were invited. They were well
attended by an average of over 200 adults and scholars, and
x President's Address
it is intended to continue the course. The classes for paint-
ing in the National Gallery now number 49, and the
School of Design 110 students—a fact which is signifi-
cant of the increasing hold the fine arts are taking upon
the community, and a sure indication of its intellectual
advancement.
As regards the advancement of medical science in the
colony, we need only glance over the past year’s proceedings
of the Medical Society of Victoria to be assured that this
all-important branch of knowledge is not languishing in our
midst; and the fact that the Society have lately built a new
and commodious hall, in which to hold their meetings and
keep their library, is additional evidence of progress. Among
the proceedings of the past year, while we see the usual pre-
dominance of practical reports of cases, statistics, and more
purely utilitarian matter, it is gratifying to find that the
larger subjects of chemico-physiology, etiology, and research
into the propagation and prevention of disease, have
received a share of attention. As an example, I may
cite Dr. Day’s paper on “'The Chemico-physiological Effect
of Nascent Oxygen,” and Dr. Patrick /Smith’s able contri-
bution “On the Etiology of Typhoid Fever.” No subject
in the whole realm of medical science has greater claims
for investigation than that involved in the latter paper,
especially in our community, where, evidently favoured by
climatic vicissitudes, this fell disease seems to be stalking
upon us with annually-increasing strides. Any really scien-
tific research, reasoning, or even trustworthy statistics
concerning the cause, propagation, and prevention of typhoid
fever, should be hailed as a public boon. I therefore refer
with pleasure to the fact that the literature of the subject
has been reinforced by a very important publication in Mel-
bourne from the pen of Mr. Wm. Thomson, entitled The
Cause and Hatent of Typhoid Fever. The very decided
and opposite opinions held among our medical brethren as
for the year 1878. Xxi
to the cause and propagation of this dreadful malady, indi-
cate the necessity of increased research into its etiology,
which, it is to be hoped, will be prosecuted with the steady
view of discovering the truth, rather than of advocating
favourite opinions and speculations. Human life is largely
concerned in this question, and it takes no great foresight
to estimate of what surpassing value any means of prevent-
ing and staying the spread of this disease will yet become.
The true etiology once found, the hope that it will then be
possible to banish typhoid fever from any community is
surely not an unreasonable one.
Looking back upon the additions to knowledge that have
been made during the past year in the various branches of
science, our attention is arrested by several subjects of more
than ordinary interest, to one or two of which I would now
refer.
The results obtained from the transit of Venus observa-
tions have not yet keen finally dealt with, although partial
deductions from British and French observatories have been
published. Last summer the Astronomer Royal reported
to Parliament on “The Value of the Mean Solar Parallax
Deducible from Observations of the Transit by British Ob-
servers, and the resulting solar parallax was stated to be
8"-764. Mr. Stone, of the Cape of Good Hope, who is one
of our highest authorities upon this subject, questions the
correctness of the conclusions arrived at in this report, and,
in an article which appears in the Monthly Notices of the
Astronomical Society, he gives the result of the observations
treated in his own way, wherein the parallax differs sensibly
from the Greenwich deductions. In the same periodical,’
Captain Tupman, who had charge of the Greenwich compu-
tations, referring to Mr. Stone’s paper, speaks of the method
of treatment of the observations of ingress at Greenwich as
unsatisfactory. This throws more weight on Mr. Stone’s
XXL Presidents Addvress
results, which are here compared with the Greenwich and
with earlier deductions :—
Parallax. Distance.
of Miles.
1. Greenwich results from transit of Venus, 1874 8°764 93,400,000
2. Mr. Stone’s results from do. ee ae 8-884 92,138,000
3. From re-discussion of transit of Venus observa-
tions in 1769 sida Se ie sie 8-910 91,870,000
4, From observations of Mars, 1862 _... >a 8-940 91,561,000
5. M. Cornu’s observations of velocity of light ... 8°860 92,388,000
6. Le Verrier’s classical deductions from planetary
perturbations... Pais rs ses 8'880 92,180,000
These figures will give an idea of how modern observations
approximate to the solar parallax, but they must not be
taken as absolutely conclusive, as the results of the
American and German expeditions, as well as those of the
photographic methods adopted by both British and American
parties, have yet to be taken into account. Moreover, the
recent opposition of Mars has furnished another excellent
opportunity of testing the question, and there can be little
doubt that most trustworthy results will be obtained from
the combination of the northern and southern observations
which were secured from August to November last year,
and towards which our Observatory, as already mentioned,
has contributed a very complete series of measures. The
discovery at Washington by Mr. Asaph Hall of two
satellites of a planet hitherto regarded as being companion-
less, like Venus and Mercury, marks a new era in astro-
nomical science, and adds another laurel to the many
already won in the same field by our American cousins, I
have already spoken of the fruitless search we made here,
and the probable cause of our failure, and I may now add
that this fact, in connection with the comparative ease with
which the satellites were seen with the 26-in. refractor
at Washington, has led to’ comparisons between large
for the year 1878. Xxlli
refractors and reflectors unfavourable to the latter; but in
this I do not acquiesce, for, during our search, stars, far
more minute than the satellites, were traced close up to the
edge of Mars, and had we known of or suspected the
existence of satellites in August or September, and had
favourable weather, I feel confident we should have found
them and kept them in tow; as it was, our watch com-
menced only late in October, in broken weather. “ Moon-
lit” (not “moonless”) Mars is undoubtedly accompanied
by two satellites at least, and the observers at Washington
suspect the existence of a third.- The most remarkable
feature in connection with these bodies is their exceeding
smallness, and their nearness to the primary. The inner
satellite cannot be 4000 miles from the surface of Mars,
or less than one-sixtieth of our moon’s distance from
us; and should there be any Martial astronomers
with good telescopes, they could not be long in doubt
as to whether their moons are inhabited or not. The
estimated diameter of the smallest of these bodies is
only about seven miles, giving a surface of 154 square
miles, equal to a few Australian sheep-runs. The larger and
inner satellite is probably about thirty miles in diameter,
and with a superficial area of 2826 square miles. The
minuteness of these bodies renders it highly improbable
that they will again be seen until the next near approach of
Mars to the earth, about fifteen years hence. Our know-
ledge of the constitution of the sun has again been further
supplemented by help of the spectroscope. The spec-
trum of hydrogen gas, in the bright line form in the chromo-
sphere and reversed in the photosphere, has long since been
recognised, but the presence of no other of our known gases
had as yet been’ ascertained. Professor Draper, however,
about July last year obtained photographs showing bright
lines of oxygen at the extreme blue end of the spectrum
XXIV President's Address
_ occupying the region of Fraunhofer’s G line, and between
G and H, and, therefore, nearly at the limit of the visible
spectrum. Professor Draper also considers that the photo-
graphs afford evidence of the existence of nitrogen, which
also appears in the form of bright lines. This discovery will
necessarily lead to some modification of the hitherto adopted
views of the constitution of the sun’s surface, and adds
another to the already long list of telluric elements found
to exist upon our luminary.
In my last address I referred at some length to the then
recent invention of the telephone. Since then this wonderful
little instrument has been greatly improved, and is now in
actual use in Melbourne, not only as a scientific toy, but as
a means of communication. We had no sooner become
familiar with the telephone than we were astounded by
accounts of a still more wonderful apparatus—the “phono-
graph”—by which, it was stated, sounds and human speech
could be automatically imprinted on a sheet of tinfoil and
reproduced with all the original intonations at will and at
any subsequent time. Still later we hear of the “ micro-
phone,” by which the faintest sounds can be heard by means
of the telephone, highly intensified, and at long distances
from their source. All of these instruments are more
or less familiar to our members, for they have been
exhibited, explained, and commented upon at several of the
ordinary meetings, and I believe there are specimens of them
all in the building to-night. The principles recognised in
the action of the telephone and microphone point to the
existence of an entirely new field for experiment in some of
the less understood properties of magnetism and electricity ;
and although their practical applications are as yet limited,
there can be but little doubt that they will eventually
become of great value to the electrician, physicist, and even
to the surgeon ; indeed, the value of the microphone in
lin
}
oe eS ee ee a ee eee eee aS a
for the year 1878. XXV
surgical diagnosis has already been demonstrated. While a
wonderful future is predicted for the phonograph, at present,
if we except its power of giving a peculiar graphic repre-
sentation of multiple and complex sounds, it cannot be said
to be out of the category of scientific toys.
That branch of biological science which has become known
as the germ theory still justly occupies the attention of
many of the foremost investigators in physics, physiology,
and pathology, while diligent inquiries are also being made
by many less known but earnest seekers after the truth.
The burning part of the question a few years ago was,
whether or not the lower class of organic life was ever pro-
duced by spontaneous generation; this, I think, may be
considered to be finally answered in the negative by the
conclusive results of the experiments of Tyndall, Cohn, and
others. Some of these results were described by our vice-
president, Mr. Foord, at a former conversazione, in which it
was demonstrated that a temperature of 212 deg. Fahrenheit,
long continued, completely sterilised inoculated solutions.
The old maxim, #x nihilo nihil fit, therefore, still holds true
in the arcana of nature. The most important and interest-
ing phase this question has more recently assumed has
reference to the influence exercised by low forms of organic
life upon the human body in health and disease. Professor
Tyndall’s recent experiments show how difficult it is to free
the air we breathe and live in from the myriads of microscopic
and ultra-microscopic germs, plants, and animals that pollute
it, but that, with proper precautions, it is not only possible
to do so, but to keep it so. In air thus thoroughly divested
of all germs and organic life, animal and vegetable sub-
stances which we have generally regarded as possessing
inherent properties of decay and corruption are found, when
once sterilised by boiling, to remain pure and unchanged for
years. There now remains little doubt, therefore, that the
XXV1 Presidents Address
decay of animal and vegetable matter is entirely due to
parasitic organisms which assert their dominion the instant
the vital forces in either cease, or even fall below a certain
standard; there is no decay without these, and Professor
Tyndall shows how they can be kept from their prey.
Under the ordinary circumstances of life these organisms
doubtless play a beneficial part in the great scheme of
nature, but the subtle and invisible power which has thus
been revealed to us is also capable, under certain conditions,
of acting most deleteriously upon human health and life,
and there is a steadily-growing conviction that they play a
most important, if not the only part, in many contagious as
well as simply septic diseases. Should this be demonstrated
beyond a doubt, which I think far from improbable, the results
arrived at by Professor Tyndall unmistakably indicate the
direction which any effort at prevention of such diseases
must take; and it becomes manifest that no researches in
etiology can claim to be scientific or aiming at the truth
which ignore the grand work that has been, and is being,
done in this branch of biological science. One of the most
remarkable achievements in physical science effected during
the present year is the liquefaction of oxygen, nitrogen, and
hydrogen gases, and the solidifaction of the last named—
results approached by the experiments of M. Calletet, in
Paris, and about the same time realised in a far more pro-
nounced form by M. Raoul Pictet,at Geneva. Our expe-
rience of the three states of matter—the solid, liquid, and
gaseous forms, and of the facility with which water, for
example, passes from solid ice to the fluid state, and from
the latter to the state of vapour—has long since led to the
hypothesis which assumes that all material substances which
are not decomposed by alteration of temperature are capable,
under suitable influencing circumstances, of passing through
these three phases; and very much effort has been devoted
for the year 1878, XXV1
to bringing refractory gaseous bodies within the boundaries
of the assumed law. In 1823, Michael Faraday, at the
suggestion of Sir Humphrey Davy, heated hydrate of chlo-
rine in an hermetically sealed glass tube, and made the
discovery of liquefied chlorine gas. Faraday made the
discovery, and, unaided, puzzled out the proper interpre-
tation of the result of the experiment; but that Davy
had a penetrative insight into the nature of the
chemico-physical problem involved in it, seems obvious from
his own words. “One of three things,” he says, “might be
expected to happen as the result of the experiment—either
that the solid. and crystalline hydrate of chlorine would
become a fluid, or that a decomposition of water with for-
mation of euchlorine would take place, or that the chlorine
would separate in a condensed state.” He goes on to point
out how much more is to be effected in future liquefaction
experiments from pressure obtained in sealed vessels than
from refrigeration, and further how the agency of pressure
may be assisted by artificial cold in cases where gases
approach the state of vapour. Faraday, in the course of his
labours, reduced many gases, and Thilorier in 1834 contrived
an apparatus for liquefying carbonic acid in quantity, and
reducing it to the state of snow, which, as a means of
attaining very low temperatures, greatly assisted the course
of subsequent experiment, and indeed is now largely used in
physical investigation and in thearts. In 1845, by the com-
bination of pressure and refrigeration, Faraday succeeded in
adding to the list of gases susceptible of assuming the liquid
and solid states; but still oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen
held out against all experimental coercion, and in that sense
remained still in the category of permanent gases, This is
how the case has stood until the experiments of M. Calletet,
and more especially those of M. Pictet, have been crowned
with the success of breaking down the dividing wall between
xxviii President's Address for the year 1878.
gases and vapours. The collation of Davy’s remarks
appended to Faraday’s paper on the liquefaction of chlorine
(as already given) with Pictet’s method and his theoretical
views, is certainly a matter of interest, but as Mr. Barton
during the evening will explain the details of M. Pictet’s
experiments, and as time presses, I need say no more on this
highly interesting subject. One word, however, may be .
added concerning the converse problem of the liquefaction
and vaporisation of refractory solids. Carbon uncombined
is known only in the solid state; to melt and vaporise it is
a work yet to be accomplished, but with the results recently
achieved we are encouraged to hope for further triumphs,
and the ultimate confirmation by actual experiment of all
that has been premised on theoretical or mathematical
grounds concerning the several states of matter; or should
we fail in this, we may yet hope for experimental proof of
what is defective in the hypothesis, by means comparable to
those by which the almost tenable phlogistic hypothesis of
Stahl was overturned on the application of the deep-search-
ing experimental method of Lavoisier.
P TRANSACTIONS,
Art. l—A New Form of Cirewit Closer for the Firing
of Torpedoes.
By R. E. Josepu, Esa.
[Read 11th April, 1878.]
Art. Il.—Photographs on the Retina.
By JAMES JAMIESON, M.D.
[Read 11th April, 1878.]
AT the meeting of the Berlin Academy of Sciences, on 23rd
November, 1876, there was read a communication from Pro-
fessor Franz Boll, of Rome, on the subject of some remark-
able properties of the retina, which had not till then been
described. He experimented first with frogs, in the follow-
ing manner :—A frog, which had been kept for some time in
the dark, was beheaded, and its eye removed as quickly as
possible. The front of the eye was cut off with scissors,
and the retina lifted from the dark layer behind, when it
was seen to be of an intense red colour, which rapidly faded,
so that in ten to twenty seconds it had disappeared. For
the next thirty to sixty seconds the retina had a satiny
lustre, which also gradually disappeared, leaving the struc-
ture quite colourless and transparent. Boll found that the
colour has its seat in the rods, and not in the cones; and
that it is found in all animals in which there is a well-
developed layer of rods. Even in the rods it is confined to
the outer portion, which is made up of thin plates. Along
with these red rods Boll found a smaller number of green
ones, which also undergo some changes of shade under the
influence of light, but which have not had their properties
well investigated; and he had not, indeed, been able to
discover whether they occur in any other animals than the
amphibia. He tried the effect of exposing the eye to light
B
Di) | Photographs on the Retina. |
of different colours, and obtained interesting results helping
to explain some of the curious phenomena of colour-blindness,
to which reference will be made further on. His communi-
cations are to be found in the Monatsbericht for November,
1876, and January and February, 1877.
The subject obtained considerable development in the
hands of Professor W. Kiihne, of Heidelberg, who has pub-
lished his results in a collected form in the Heidelberg Unter-
suchungen, Vol. I, 1877, with which I am acquainted only
at second hand in Schmidt's Jahrbiicher, No. 10, December,
1877. He found that the colours seen by Boll are not
merely owing to refraction, but that there is an actual
pigment which he has succeeded in isolating in the form of
a solution. His first efforts to obtain optoyrams failed alto-
gether; but he has had more success subsequently by the
help of improved methods. One of his experiments was
conducted in the following way:—The head of a rabbit,
with the one eye fixed open, was held in front of an opening
in a window shutter, and after being covered for five minutes
with a black cloth, was exposed to the light. The animal was
then quickly decapitated, the eye removed under the sodium
light, opened, and laid in 5 per cent. solution of alum. The other
eye was exposed to the light after decapitation. Both retinas
were examined next morning, and found of the usual milky ~
appearance, but close inspection showed on both a sharply
defined quadrangular figure of the same form as the opening
in the shutter. In the eye which had been acted on during
life there was still a reddish colour, but in the other the
figured spot was quite white. In another experiment Kiihne
succeeded in getting a complete picture of a window with
one round-topped and six square panes, white on a red
ground, the cross markings being alsored. The method now
followed is, to place the head of an animal, or the extirpated
eye in a box, whose lid is formed of a plate of dim glass, on
which can be laid figures cut out of black paper. The retina,
on which the figure has become printed, is laid on a porcelain
plate, and dried over sulphuric acid, when the picture is
found to be more permanent. The eyes of other animals
than the rabbit have been used, and Kiihne has found that
of the ox to be sensitive for about an hour after death. The
presence of the pigment is not dependent on the retina being
in a state of freshness as regards its functional capacity. It
is bleached only by light; very quickly (in about thirty
seconds) by direct sunlight, and in twenty to thirty minutes
Photographs on the Retina. 3
by gaslight; whilst in the dark or in the sodium light it does
not disappear in less than twenty-four to forty-eight hours.
During life, and even for some time after death, the colour is
continually renewed, and does not owe its existence there-
fore to the continuance of the circulation of blood in the eye,
but to the layer of epithelium which connects the outer por-
tion of the rods with the choroid.
It was mentioned that Kiihne had obtained the red pig-
ment in solution. Itis got by adding a clear watery solution
of crystallised ox gall to the fresh retina, on which it has a
remarkable effect, causing the plates composing the outer
section of the rods, to fly asunder like coins from a roll, and
then wholly disappear. The solution thus obtained is of a
rich carmine hue, and gradually bleaches in the light, passing
first into yellow. Monochromatic light also acts on it in the
same way, though more slowly, the most active being green
and yellowish green (in about fifteen minutes), then blue in
about an hour, violet still longer, and pure (spectral) red
having very little influence on it.
The part played by retina red in the physiology of vision
can in the present state of our knowledge be little more than
matter of speculation. That it is indispensable to mere
visual perception can scarcely be held, since it is absent, or
at least has not yet been found, in the retina of many
animals which certainly see—such as the pigeon, the hen,
the bat; and further is not to be found in the yellow spot,
the seat of direct vision in man, which has no rods. Its
importance, however, can scarcely be doubted when we con-
sider that it has been discovered in almost all animals, and
also in view of the remarkable influence exerted on it by
ordinary white light. Twocases reported by Dr. Adler, of
Vienna, also testify to its importance. In one of these an
eye which had been blind for several years had no trace of
the red colour. In the other case one eye was partially
blind, and the affected half of the retina was colourless, the
other half showing a distinct rose tint, like that in the sound
eye.
It may serve in some way for the perception of colours,
the varying effect on it of different kinds of coloured light
pointing in that direction. Boll noticed that the microscopic
appearance of the coloured rods was very much the same in
animals which had been kept for a time under red and green
glass, while it differed considerably when the cover had been
blue; and he connected this with the well-known fact that
BZ
A Photographs on the Retina.
colour-blind persons readily confuse red and green, but
rarely red and blue. An important question raised is about
the probability that in every act of visual perception there
is a picture of the object seen printed on the retina by the
action of light on this pigment. If this is so, we may sup-
pose that the nerve fibres are stimulated in varying degrees
by the colouring matter, according to the extent to which it
has undergone the bleaching process. Of course it is easy
to point out difficulties attaching to such opinions. It must
be regarded as certain, however, that in the retina we have
not merely a sensitive surface, like the photographer's plate,
but a self-acting photographic workshop, the retina not only
receiving an impression, but wiping off the old picture and
charging itself in preparation for another. Speculations on
the subject for the present have perhaps little value, and
exact knowledge is likely to increase slowly, since in animals
we can scarcely know with certainty how much is actually
seen, and man cannot be made the subject of experiments.
Of course new modes of investigation may unexpectedly be
discovered, and lead to unexpected extensions of know-
ledge.
Art. IIl.—Sir William Thomson's Electric Replenisher.
By F. J. Prrant, Esq., M.A.
[Read 11th April, 1878.]
Art. IV.—Some Experiments in the Gold Bullion Assay.
By ALFRED Mica SmiTH, B.Sc.
[Read 16th May, 1878.]
THE following series of assays were undertaken at the
suggestion of Mr. George Foord, of the Melbourne branch of
the Royal Mint, and performed there some time ago. The
demonstrations which constitute Part I. are here offered
as a communication in the hope that they may be of use for
reference by some who may not themselves have the oppor-
tunity of performing the exercises, as well as by others,
Some Experiments in the Gold Bullion Assay. 5
who, on going over the same ground for practice, may use
these results for comparison with their own. The method
adopted was the rigorous system in use in the Melbourne
Mint.
PART FIRST.
EXPERIMENTAL DEMONSTRATIONS.
E
To demonstrate the facts on which “ quartation” is based,
or to show the limits of the proportion of gold to silver
within which tt is necessary to keep vm order to part an
alloy of these metals, at the same tyme to note the colours of
the alloys throughout the operation.
From the data obtained to construct the cwrve of “ sur-
charge.”
Synthetical alloys of gold and silver were prepared, rang-
ing from an alloy containing 5 per cent. of gold up to fine
gold, and of the uniform weight of 35 grains each. Twenty
places, as detailed in Table A, were cupelled each with
- copper disc (14 grains) and lead case (84 grains), the
cupellations occupying 21 minutes. The colour and appear-
ance of the buttons having been noted, they were flatted,
annealed, rolled to the 13-1000th of an inch in thickness,
annealed, and coiled according to the usual routine. The
parting was then conducted as follows :—
Nos. 1 to 5, inclusive, were parted separately in flasks.
Each was boiled in 14 oz. of Ist acid (sp. gr. 1.17) for ten
minutes beyond the time at which the red fumes cease to
be evolved.
Washed with distilled water.
Boiled for ten minutes in 1 oz. of 2nd acid (sp. gr. 1.26).
Boiled for ten minutes in 1 oz. of 3rd acid (sp. gr. 1.8).
Washed in two waters, transferred to crucible and an-
nealed.
Nos. 6 to 20 were parted together in the 20 platinum
tray.
Boiled in 22% oz. Ist acid, and for ten minutes after red
fumes cease.
Washed in hot distilled water.
Boiled for ten minutes in 15 oz. of 2nd acid.
Boiled for ten minutes in 15 oz. of 3rd acid.
Washed in two successive hot waters, and annealed.
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Some Experiments in the Gold Bullion Assay. 7
RESULTS.
PARTING PRroporTiIons.—The alloy containing 15 per
cent. of gold (or 1 of gold to 52 silver) went to pieces, the
minuteness of division increasing as the percentage of gold
decreased.
The alloy containing 17% per cent. of gold (or 1 of gold
to 4 7-10th silver) did not go to pieces, nor did the alloys
with higher percentages of gold.
When the ratio of the gold to the silver was 1 gold to
47-10ths silver, or 1 gold to 24 silver, or between these, the
cornet parted well.
SURCHARGE.—With the alloy containing 15 per cent.
gold (1 gold to 52 silver) and those with more silver, there
was negative surcharge.
With the alloy containing 174 per cent. gold (1 gold to
4 7-10ths silver), and those with less silver, there was posi-
tive surcharge.
Between the alloys containing 35 per cent. gold (1 gold
to 1 9-10ths silver) and 40 per cent. gold (1 gold to 13
silver) there was a sudden great rise in surcharge exhibited,
the maximum being near the alloy containing 45 per cent.
gold (1 of gold to 1:22 silver).
In Diagram I. these relations are made visible.
-CoLour.—Bbuttons.—Beginning the examination with No.
1, and passing downwards, the gold could be detected first
in the button containing 50 per cent. of gold (500) by the
faint green tinge it exhibited; this colour increased in
depth with the percentage of gold until the button con-
taining 70 per cent. of gold (700) was reached, at which
point the warm colour of gold appeared. This again kept
deepening until the last,in which the gold was tinged by
the residual copper.
Cornets.—A fter coming from the actds—
Nos. 6 to 13, inclusive, were dark ;
Nos. 14 to 19 bright ; 20 golden.
After annealing—4 to 12 bright yellow.
13 greenish yellow.
Increasing to 15.
16—19 silvery green increasing.
20 coppery.
8 Some Expervments vn the Gold Bullion Assay.
i
To show the progress in parting: the surcharge at the
end of stated wntervals between the time at which the red
fumes cease and the finish of the parting process.
Thirty places prepared (Table B), each 10 grains of fine gold
(99984), with 25 grains of fine silver. Copper and lead
case, as before. Cupelled for 21 minutes, flatted, annealed, ©
passed twice between rollers set at 8-1000ths of an inch,
annealed, coiled, and placed in thimble tray.
Boiled together i in large beakers :—
For 22 minutes in 45 ozs. Ist acid, by which time red
fumes off.
For 15 minutes longer in Ist acid (one being removed per
minute).
For 10 minutes in 35 ozs, 2nd acid (one being removed per
2 minutes).
For 10 minutes in 35 ozs 3rd acid (one being removed per
minute).
Each thimble, as it was removed, was washed in two
successive waters, afterwards al] washed together before
annealing.
The progress is rendered visible in the curve represented
in Diagram IT.
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Some Experiments in the Gold Bullion Assay. 9
TABLE B.
To show the Progress in Parting.
Weight of When Cornets
99984 Gold _ extracted. | Weight of Surcharge.
E taken = tes from ti .
= 10 rain + ees bap i Cornets. (See Diagram IT.)
or — red fumes.
Thousandths of (Unity=10 grains.)|(Unity=10 grains.)
a grain.
Gt +0 1 1:0101 0:01026
2 +0 2 10099 ‘01006
3 +0 3 10091 ‘00926
4 a 4 1:00854(2) ‘00873
5 +0 5 10080 00816
2 aS +0 6 10081 00826
= 7 +0 7 10076 ‘00776
ai 8 +0 8 1:00734 00751
9 +26) *, 9 1:00714 ‘00731
rl LO +0 10 10069 ‘00706
it +0 11 1:0068 "00696
12 +0 12 10068 00696
13 +0 13 10066 ‘00676
14 +0 14 1:00663 00678
(15 +0 15 1-0058 00603
Ls (16 +0 17 100333 00351
arp kay +0 19 1:0029 00306
<< 18 +0 21 10021 ‘00226
# 1 19 +0 23 1:0015 "00166
a (20 +0 25 1:00163 00181
(21 +0 26 100173 700191
22 +0 27 1°:0016 ‘00176
23 +0 28 1/0018 "00146
rg | 24 ot 29 1:0012(4) 00138
ie 25 +0 31 1:0012. 00136
il 26 +0 © 31 1:0012 700136
B | 27 +0 32 1-0013 00146
28 +0 33 1:0010 ‘00116
29 +0 34 10011 ‘00126
30 +0 35 1:0009 -00106
10 Some Experiments in the Gold Bullion Assay.
III.
To show the progress in parting: The rate at which the
silver is dissolved throughout the process of parting.
Twenty-eight places prepared (Table C) each 10 grains
(99984 gold) with 25 grains silver (accurately weighed),
copper and lead as before, and cupellation similarly
conducted.
Cornets placed in platinum thimble tray and boiled in
large beakers.
For 20 minutes in 42 ozs. Ist acid, by which time red
fumes off (one removed every two minutes).
For 10 minutes more in Ist acid (one removed every 2
minutes), washed in Ist water.
For 10 minutes in 2nd acid (one removed per 2 minutes).
For 10 minutes in 3rd acid (one removed per 2 minutes),
washed in two waters.
Each thimble, as it was removed, was washed in two
waters, finally all washed together and annealed.
No. 1 could be readily unrolled, the white of silver visible
on the surface.
No. 2, brittle, on being broken, a core of silver revealed.
Nos. 3 and 4, brittle, could be readily crushed up with the
fingers, but no silver core.
The progress is rendered visible in diagrams III. and IV.,
from which it will be seen that solution proceeds very rapidly
at first, but more slowly as the process is continued, so
much so that the most of the time is consumed in expelling
what may be called the last traces of silver.
Whilst the process of parting extended over 50 minutes,
At the end of the 2nd minute 164 out of the 25 grains
of silver were dissolved.
At the end of the 4th minute 22 out of the 25 grains
of silver were dissolved.
At the end of the 6th minute 244 out of the 25 grains
of silver were dissolved. i
Forty-four minutes further boiling being required to
remove the remaining # of a grain,
At the end of 20 minutes about 1-10 grain was left.
At the end of 30 minutes about 1-20 grain was left.
At the end of 40 minutes about 1-100 grain was left.
At the end of 50 minutes about 1-200 grain was left,
which may be permitted to remain and allowed for as
surcharge.
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Some Experiments in the Gold Bullion Assay. 11
TABLE C.
To Show the Progress in Parting—the Rate at which
the Silver is Dissolved.
No.
2 (
|
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28
Weight of | Weight of
‘99984 Gold| Fine Silver
taken =
10 grains t 25 grains
taken =
—
Thousandths|Thousandths
of a grain.
t+-it
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When Cornets
extracted—
minutes from
commencement.
Weight of
Cornets.
grains.
1°8683
1-29104
1-06854
1°0441
1°0306
1:0200
1:0173
1°0118
1:01094
1°0094
1-0084
1:0076
1-0065
1:0064
1:0055
1:0023
1:0017
1:0014
1-0012
1-0009
1:0012
1:0008
1:0007
1:0007
1:0004
1°0006
1-0006
1:0007
Surcharge.
Unity=10 Unity= 10
grains.
0°86843
29124
“0687
0443
0308
02013
‘01744
‘01193
‘O11
00954
00854
00774
00674
0066
00564
00243
00184
“00152
00134
“00104
“00134
“00104
00082
-00094
“00054
0008
0008
-00084
Silver
dissolved.
Grains.
16°317
220832
24-3148
24-558
24-693
24°7998
24-827
24-882
24-8903
24-906
24-9162
24-924
24-933
24-9354
24-945
24-977
24-9821
24-986
24-988
24-991
24-988
24-992
24-9931
24-993
24-9953
24-9934
24-994
24:993
Silver
dissolved
per 2
minutes.
Grains.
16°317
57712
2-226
0-243
0-135
0°1062
0-0274
0-055
0-0084
0-0154
0-0102
0-0074
0-009
0-0024
0-0094
0°032
0-0054
0-0034
0-002
0-003
ay: On a New Form of
Art. V.—On a New Form of Self-Registering Rain-gauge.
By BR. L. J. ELLEey, FB ace:
Read 16th May, 1878.]
For the ordinary purpose of rainfall observation and
record, the common rain-gauge, where the rain collected is
measured in a graduated glass measure once or twice a day,
is all that is required.
Questions often arise, however, in which the rate at which
heavy rains fall, or the tume over which the fall may be
spread, becomes an important point, and this is especially
the case in cities, large towns and other localities, in connec-
tion with drainage, disposal of storm waters, &c. To meet
such requirements a self-registering rain-gauge, that will
furnish the required information, becomes a valuable and
indeed an essential instrument.
Various forms of self-registering rain-gauges are con-
structed, the best of which are very expensive, while the
cheaper ones are generally very defective and untrust-
worthy.
The form I now submit to the Society can, I think, claim
simplicity and economy in construction, a high sensitiveness
as well as trustworthiness.
The principle is this. The rain which is collected in a
circular area of 10 in. diameter flows at once through the
pipe into (G),asmall copper vase-shaped vessel (i E) holding
about 19°5 cubic inches of water. This vessel is suspended
from an iron bracket by two steel spiral springs (F) made of
the best pianoforte wire, and most carefully tempered. In-
side this vessel is a small glass tube, bent into the form of a
siphon (8), and projecting through the bottom for about 10
or 12 inches, forming an intermittent siphon, which, when-
ever a certain quantity of water has accumulated,
rapidly empties the vessel. This acts so delicately
that it always requires the same quantity, almost to a ~
single drop, to cause it to overflow, and it will always
overflow with this exact quantity. In this gauge it
empties itself for every quarter of an inch of rain collected
in the receiver—that is, when about 19°5 cubic inches (= 4
of an inch fall) have accumulated. As the rain drops into
the vessel from the receiver the suspending spiral springs
Self-Registering Rain-gauge. 13
stretch from the increasing weight, until the vase is full,
when it is about two inches lower than in its empty position.
Immediately it is emptied by action of the siphon, the vessel
recovers its original position.
The other parts are—a common clock (C), which rotates a
cylinder (D) about 4 inches in diameter once in 24 hours ;
on this drum is stretched the paper on which the register is
made. Attached to the vase is a fine wire running over
pulleys (VV) on the top of the bracket, and also attached
toa light brass frame (H) that has a free vertical motion
guided by two stretched German silver wires. As the vase,
therefore, descends with the accumulation of rain, this light
brass frame is raised by means of the fine wire. In the
frame is a freely-suspended glass pen, charged with an ink
made of aniline dye with a little glycerine. The point o1
this pen, which is horizontal (the surface of the registering
cylinder being vertical) rests lightly against the register
paper, and marks it with a clear fine line as the barrel
rotates by clockwork ; this line is straight as long as there
is no rain, but becomes more or less curved according
to the rapidity of any rainfall; as the vase empties itself
the pen at once returns to the zero position, showing
an indentation or “tooth,” as it were, on the register-
paper for every quarter of an inchof rain. A sheet showing
two inches of rainfall has therefore eight indentations or
“teeth” on its register, and the paper being graduated, any
fraction of an inch of rain less than a quarter can be read
off, while graduations parallel with the axis of the barrel
give the times of any phases of the phenomenon.
Reference to Diagram.
A A. Base-plate of cast iron. B. Pillar and bracket of cast iron. C.
Clock. D. Register-drum, or barrel. E. Vase-shaped receiver. F. Spiral
springs suspending vase. G. Pipe leading from collector to receiver. H.
Pen frame. J. Brackets to support base-plate. K. Pinion taking into
large wheel on which the drum is fitted. MM. Dust-tight cover for clock.
P. Pendulum-bob. SS. Syphon. VV. Pulleys for fine wire connecting
receiver and pen frame.
14 The Strength of Columns.
Art. VI—Sitr William Thomson's Form of Daniell’s
Constant Battery.
By F. J. Prrant, Esq., M.A.
[Read 13th June, 1878. ]
Art. VII.—The Strength of Columns.
By W. C. Kernort, M.A.
[Read 13th June, 1878. |
A COLUMN may be defined as a construction piece exposed to
a compression in one direction and otherwise unstrained. |
Columns as thus defined are of constant occurrence in
engineering and architectural structures. About 50 per
cent. of the material in an ordinary roof or bridge truss con-
sists of columns; the piston rod, connecting rod, and various
other important parts of a steam-engine perform the func-
tions of columns; and. immense quantities of cast-iron are
employed in the construction of warehouses, theatres,
churches, and other buildings in the form of columns.
The question of designing a column so as to secure
sufficient strength at a minimum cost is therefore one of
vast practical importance. Columns vary much in size,
shape, and position, but, as a general rule, have one dimen-
sion considerably greater than either of the other two; in
other words, they are comparatively long and slender pieces
of material. Further, they are usually, though not always,
straight. Bent columns, however, being of unfrequent
occurrence, will not be discussed in this paper. A column
is usually compressed in the direction of its length or greater
dimension, and it is immaterial, so far as strength is con-
cerned, whether this direction be vertical, horizontal, or
inclined.
Columns are divided, according to their mode of fracture,
into two great classes. The first of these contains those
which fail by direct or simple crushing, unaccompanied by
The Strength of Columns. 15
any lateral bending. These are technically termed “short
columns,” as this kind of fracture usually occurs when the
ratio of the length to the least transverse dimension is not
particularly large. The “carrying strength” of a short
column—that is to say, the greatest load it will bear with-
out fracture—will, provided the centre of stress of each
cross section coincide with its centre of gravity, be found
by multiplying the area of the least cross section in square
inches by the compressive resistance of the material in
pounds to the square inch. If, however, the column be
loaded with a weight less in any given ratio than its carry-
ing strength, then the stress in every part of the column
wil be dumimished im the same ratio. The carrying
strength of a short column and the compressive stress
upon any part of it under a load less in any given proportion
than the carrying strength, can therefore be determined with
ease and precision. With regard to such columns I have at
present nothing further to say.
The second class includes those columns in which a lateral
bending precedes fracture, and of which the fracture is a
complex phenomenon, intermediate in its character between
that of beams and that of short columns. To these the
appellation of “long columns” is given by writers upon the
subject, fracture of this kind occurring usually when the
ratio of length to least transverse dimension is comparatively
large. It will at once be evident that the question of the
breaking and safe working load of a long column is one of
comparative intricacy.
The question of the breaking load of a long column was
first investigated by Euler, whose paper on the subject is to
be found in the Berlin Memoirs for 1747, and a réswmé of
whose‘ conclusions is given in Unwin’s Machine Design, p.
48, &c. Unwin states that “ Euler’s rules assume the elas-
ticity of the bar to be unimpaired. In that case no increase
of the load would directly cause bending, but a point is
reached at which the equilibrium of the bar becomes
unstable. With less loads, the bar, if bent, will restore
itself to straightness by its elastic resistance to bending ;
with greater loads it is unable to do so, and if any flexure
is produced, however slight, that flexure will be increased
by the action of the load until the bar breaks.”
According to this view the strength of a long column of
square or circular section is proved to vary directly as the
fourth power of its diameter, directly as the modulus of
AG. The Strength of Columns.
elasticity of the material and inversely as the square of its
length between points of inflexion, and the column if origi-
nally straight, will remain so until the load reaches this
critical amount, when equilibrium becoming unstable, some
trivial cause will produce an infinitesimal lateral deflection,
which, rapidly increasing, results in fracture.
Euler’s rules possess the recommendations of mathe-
matical completeness and consistency, and therein contrast
favourably with those of some of his successors.
In 1840 Professor Eaton Hodgkinson communicated to the
Royal Society (of England) an account of a very extensive
series of experiments on columns of various materials,
accompanied by a set of rules empirically deduced there-
from, and in 1857 contributed the results of a further set of
trials on a comparatively large and practical scale. In his
paper of 1857 he says:—“In commencing experiments in
my former research on this subject, and keeping in view the
theory of Euler, I sought with great care for the weight
which would produce incipient flexure in columns, and more
particularly in those of cast-iron. In this metal flexure
commenced with very small weights, much smaller than
would be useful to load pillars with in practice; and I
became convinced that no such point existed in cast-iron, or,
at any rate, none that would be useful to the engineer; and
my subsequent experiments upon wrought-iron pillars have
been attended with very little more success in seeking for
the weight producing incipient flexure.”
Failing thus to reconcile his observations with Euler’s
investigation, he abandoned that investigation altogether,
and proceeded to obtain a purely empirical formula, based
upon no theory whatever, and simply intended to represent
in a concise but merely approximate form the average result
of a very extended series of experiments. According to
these experimental researches the ultimate strength of a
solid circular cast-iron column varies directly as the 3.6th
‘power of the diameter and inversely as the 1.7th power o1
the length between points of inflection.
Professor Gordon, Professor Rankine’s predecessor in the
chair of engineering at Glasgow, next proposed a formula
of more convenient form, and apparently based upon a
scientific hypothesis, as to the nature of the stress at the
instant of fracture. This formula is stated by Rankine to
have been deduced from Hodgkinson’s experiments ; but I
find by actual trial that it gives results by no means per-
The Strength of Columns. 17
fectly, or even approximately, in accordance with Hodgkin-
son’s rule in the case of large hollow cast-iron columns.
The breaking load of the great central column supporting
the water tank from which the town of Echuca is supplied,
for example, is 1320 tons by Hodgkinson’s rule, and only
1030 tons by Gordon’s.
More recently still, Professor Cawthorne Unwin, of
Cooper’s Hill Engineering College, has in his work on
Machine Design advocated a return to Euler’s original for-
mula, to the exclusion of those subsequently arrived at.
The ultimate strength of the Echuca column will be 900
tons, according to his version of Euler’s results.
Thus it will be seen that most serious differences of
opinion exist with reference to the behaviour of long
columns under strain, and to the proper algebraical expres-
sion for their breaking loads. With the exception of
Hodgkinson the writers above referred to appear to base
their formula rather upon their opinion of what ought to be
than upon their observations of what is. Hodgkinson, on
the other hand, abandons in despair the attempt scientifically
to explain the facts, and is content carefully to observe and
record actual cases of fracture, and empirically to construct
a formula having no @ priori signification, but simply
approximating to the average result of his experiments.
The question now suggests itself—Is it possible to re-
concile these differences of opinion, and show any approach
to harmony, or at any rate explanation of the discrepancies
between Euler’s @ priori anticipations and Hodgkinson’s
observed results. I think it is, and will endeavour to throw
some slight further light upon this vexed subject. The first
serious discrepancy is as to the behaviour under an increas-
ing load. Euler says that a column originally straight will
remain so until its load reaches a certain critical amount,
when it will suddenly double up. Hodgkinson says his
columns behaved quite differently—commencing to bend
under loads very small compared with those required for
fracture. These diverse statements may be accounted for as
follows -—Euler necessarily assumed that his column con-
sisted of perfectly uniform material, and that the load was
applied fairly, its line of action passing through the centre
of gravity of each cross section. And I believe that could
these conditions be faithfully complied with in practice,
Kuler’s predictions would be verified. Baker, in his work on
Beams, Columns, and Arches, describes an experiment upon
C |
18 The Strength of Columns.
a very long blade of finely-tempered steel, which behaved in
a manner very closely approximating to that predicted by
Euler; and I have myself obtained corresponding results
from a straight piece of clock-spring very carefully loaded.
The reason why Hodgkinson’s cast-iron rods began to bend
so soon was, I believe, this, that the material was not homo-
geneous, or the load possibly applied slightly eccentrically.
Let us suppose that a solid circular column is softer and
more elastic on one side than the other. The smallest load
will now bend it ; for even if at first the centres of pressure
and of figure are perfectly coincident, the more elastic side
will yield more than the other; this will cause the bar to
bend, the more elastic material being on the concave side;
this bending will cause the centre of pressure of each cross
section to deviate from the centre of figure toward the softer
or more elastic side of the bar, thus throwing a greatly
increased portion of the total pressure on that part of the
column most affected by it. In this way a perceptible
flexure may be produced by a load minute compared with
that necessary for fracture. That this is the true explana-
tion of the anomaly is, I think, rendered certain by two
facts observed by Hodgkinson. The first of these is that
the amount of flexure produced by the same load on columns
of the same size and material varied very greatly, thus
indicating that it depended upon some slight accidental
peculiarity in apparently similar bars. Some of the bars
tested bent visibly under less than one-fifth of their breaking
load, while others remained straight until two-thirds of
that load was applied, thus approximating to LEuler’s
theoretical case. The second fact is that certain hollow
columns through defective casting were much thicker on one
side than the other, and that these when tested bent so that
the thick side was concave and the thin convex ; the greater
hardness and higher co-efficient of the elasticity of the thin
and more rapidly cooled side of the casting more than com-
pensating for its deficiency in substance. If, then, the softer
side became concave in these hollow columns, much more
would it tend to do so in solid ones, where the counter-
vailing influence of extra thickness was absent.
The next discrepancy is this :—EKuler predicted that the
strength would vary as the 4th power of the diameter ;
Hodgkinson found it to be the 3.6th. Now this is nothing
more than I think might have been expected by any one.
acquainted with the softness of large castings as compared
The Strength of Columns. 19
with small ones. The strength of large castings is never
quite so great as that of smaller of the same material, and
the difference between the 3.6th and 4th powers of the
diameter appears to me to be a reasonable allowance for the
effect of this variation of hardness and strength.
To reconcile the square of the length given by Euler with
the 1.7th power of Hodgkinson is perhaps not quite so easy,
and I should prefer not to express an opinion with regard
to it at present.
To determine the breaking load of a pillar is, however,
after all, only a means to an end, only a step towards obtain-
ing that practically valuable result, the safe working load ;
and the next question that arises is—What is the factor of
safety to be? what proportion of the breaking load can we
safely apply in actual construction? And this question
appears to me—and I would wish to say it with all due
- deference to such eminent names as Rankine, Unwin,
Stoney, and Baker—to have been hitherto answered in an
utterly unreasonable and illogical manner. These writers,
one and all, apply a factor of safety to the case of a long
column in the same manner as they would apply it in the
case of a tie-rod or beam, altogether overlooking the fact
that under any ordinary working load the column is either
not bent at all, or at any rate is not bent nearly so much as
it is immediately before fracture, and that consequently the
stress is not only less, but is distributed over each cross-
section with a much nearer approach to uniformity.
In a tie rod a double load implies double tensile stress—
the stress is increased but its distribution is unaffected; in
a beam we believe the same to be the case, but in a long
column a double load not only means double average stress
on any given cross section, but also increased flexure, causing
a very large increase in the ratio in which the maximum
stress exceeds the average. In fact, a double load may
involve quadruple, sextuple, or even tenfold stress, according
to the proportions of the column and the amount of its
flexure.
By a very simple and conclusive mathematical process I
find that in a certain column, tested by Hodgkinson, the
maximum compression upon any part was 43, 320 Ibs. per
square inch under a load of 124,000 lbs., but only 24,500 Ibs.
per square inch under a load of 109, 000. In other words,
an increase of 14 per cent. in the load caused an increase of
no less than 78 per cent. in the maximum stress. Now, the
c2
20 The Strength of Columns:
true factor of safety is the ratio of the ultimate resistance of
the material to fracture to the maximum stress endured by
any part of the piece under strain, and taking the ultimate
resistance to crushing of the material at 90,000 lbs. per
square inch, the true factor of safety was 2.04 under a load
of 124,000 lbs., and no less than 3.67 under the slightly
diminished load of 109,000.
We are therefore led to the following conclusions :—
1. That in a column of perfectly uniform material, loaded
in a perfectly symmetrical manner with a load less than that
required to produce unstable equilibrium, there will be no
flexure, and the stress will be independent of the length, and
may be but avery small fraction of the ultimate compressive
resistance of the material, even under a load closely approxi-
mating to that which would destroy the column.
2. That actual columns will approximate more or less
closely in their behaviour to the above theoretical case,
according to their proportions, the nature of the material,
and the mode of applying the load.
3. That the true factor of safety of a long column cannot
be found by dividing its breaking load by its working load,
but is a function of its flexure also; and that this flexure
depends on slight accidental peculiarities in the material, or
in the way of applying the load, and is therefore not
calculable.
4, That the true factor of safety, or the ratio in which the
ultimate resistance of the material exceeds its working stress
in a long column, is always greater, and generally very much
oreater, than the ratio in which its breaking load exceeds
its working load ; and that consequently the present method
of dimensioning errs on the side of safety, and involves
waste of material.
5. That in order to arrive at a rational method of dimen-
sioning, we must determine by numerous experiments, under
practical conditions, the greatest probable flexure, under
working loads, of columns of different materials and of
various cross sections.
The term breaking load as applied to long columns
appears to me objectionable and likely to lead to confusion,
not being properly analogous to that of tension rods and
beams. I would suggest the term “critical load” as prefer-
able, on the analogy of the “critical angle” in optics.
Respiration of Plants and Animals, 21
Art. VIIL—A New Point of Resemblance im the
Respiration of Plants and Animals.
By JAMES JAMIESON, M.D.
[Read 13th June, 1878. ]
RESPIRATION in plants consists just as it does in animals, in
the inhalation of oxygen and the exhalation of an approxi-
mately equivalent quantity of carbonic acid. This process,
though masked under ordinary circumstances by the more
active deoxidizing action of the green parts of the plant,
seems, according to recent investigations, to be constantly
going on, and to be as necessary to the life and health of the
plant as of the animal. The deoxidizing action of the green
organs, carried on by means of the chlorophyll contained in
them, is tolerably well known, and consists in the splitting
up of carbonic acid into oxygen and carbonic oxide. The
oxygen is wholly, or in great part, set free in the air, while
the carbonic oxide seems to enter into some kind of com-
bination with the chlorophyll, as a preliminary to the
formation of more complex compounds, and especially of the
various hydro-carbons. A series of investigations on this
point are contained in a paper by Adolf Baeyer, in the
Chemasches Centralblatt, 1871, pp. 27—38, and also translated
in a slightly condensed form in the Journal of the Chemical
Society, 1871, pp. 331—341. My object is not, however, to
enter into any details on this process, which is one of
assimilation, but rather to consider the mechanism of
respiration in the proper sense of the word, which is essen~
tially associated with processes of regressive metamorphosis.
Some observations which I have made seem to throw light
on the chemistry of the respiratory function in plants, and I
desire therefore to report the result of them, incomplete and
fragmentary as they are.
For the proper understanding of the particular point on
which I wish to lay stress, and which, after consulting the
best accessible authorities, J am led to believe is new, or at
least very little known, it will be necessary to mention cer-
tain facts connected with the better-known chemistry of the
function of respiration in the higher animals. The red colour
of blood is due to the presence in it of large numbers of
22 - A New Pownt of Resemblance in the
discs or corpuscles, infiltrated with a red colouring matter
of very complex constitution called heemoglobin. These red
corpuscles take up oxygen while the blood is passing through
the capillaries of the lung, the oxygen entering into loose
combination with the hemoglobin. As the blood flows in
the systemic circulation through all parts of the body, the
oxygen is gradually given off, and enters into definite com-
binations with the tissues undergoing disintegration; one
of the main ultimate products of the oxidation process being
carbonic acid, which is taken up by the blood and carried to
the lungs, there to be exchanged for a fresh supply of
oxygen. The following passage from Hermann’s Physio-
logy (English translation, p. 47) gives shortly what is gener- -
ally admitted as to the properties of the oxygen contained
in the blood, though there is not perfect unanimity on all
points, as I will afterwards show:—“ As blood when satu-
rated with oxygen takes up exactly as much of that gas as
corresponds to the amount which its hemoglobin can com-
bine with, it follows that all the loosely combined oxygen of
the blood is linked to hemoglobin. The oxygen of the blood
is given up so readily to oxidizable substances that it has
been thought to be present in the form of active oxygen, or
ozone O,. The following properties of blood appear to
favour this view :—(1.) Both the blood corpuscles and
hemoglobin are so-called ‘ ozone-transferrers —that is, they
possess the power of immediately transferring ozone from
substances in which it is present (as turpentine which has
been kept for a long time) to readily oxidizable substances
(ozone reagents, such as tincture of guaiacum, which be-
comes blue by oxidation—Schcenbein, His.); for this reac-
tion the presence or absence of oxygen in the blood is of no
importance (for instance, it may be saturated with CO). (2.)
Blood and hemoglobin can themselves ozonize oxygen, so
that in presence of air they can cause guaiacum tincture to
become blue (A. Schmidt); if the blood itself contains
oxygen the presence of air is not necessary ; it is necessary
if the blood has been saturated with CO (Kiihne and Scholz).
On the activity of its oxygen depends the decomposition of
sulphuretted hydrogen by blood. It is therefore very pro-
bable that the oxygen naturally contained in blood is present
in the form of ozone, or in some similar condition.”
With regard to the first of the properties, viz., the power
possessed by hzemoglobin of acting as an “ozone-transferrer,”
there is no room for difference of opinion, that quality
Respiration of Plants and Annals. 23
indeed being made the basis of a valuable test for blood,
with which the name of Dr. Day, of Geelong, is associated.
Tincture of guaiacum and peroxide of hydrogen may be
brought together without any change of colour appearing ;
but as soon as a minute trace of blood or hzemoglobin is
added a deep blue is struck. The presence of ozone in the
blood, as first asserted by Professor Alexander Schmidt in
1862, and confirmed by W. Kiihne (Lehrbuch der Physiolo-
guschen Chemie, 1868, p. 214) and others, has been doubted
by some physiologists, and indeed quite lately by Dr. Michael
Foster in his Textbook of Physiology, first edition, 1877,
p. 240. As there is not yet by any means unanimity of
opinion as to the nature of ozone and its characteristic re-
actions, the dispute may be mainly about names, there being
really agreement that the oxygen in the blood is more
active, 7.e., combines more readily with reducing substances,
than the ordinary form existing in the atmosphere. The
transformations undergone by oxygen in the vegetable
economy do not seem to have been traced in the same way.
For the purpose of discovering the present state of know-
ledge on the subject I have gone through the most likely
sections in Sachs’ Textbook of Botany, in Watts’ Dictionary
of Chemistry, including the supplements, and in the Dic-
tionnaire de Ohemie, of Wurtz, as well as through the
articles most likely to touch on the subject in the Journal
of the Chemical Society, and the Chemisches Centralblatt for
the last few years, and have been able to find nothing but the
vaguest statements. My own observations were first made
some years ago in the course of a series of experiments
mainly designed to test the reliability of the guaiacum test
for blood, the results being embodied in a paper in the Aus-
tralian Medical Journal for October, 1869. At that time
I did not see the full bearing of these observations on the
subject now under discussion ; but having occasion again to
take the matter up recently I have been able to reach more
definite conclusions. The recent experiments have been
made chiefly with fruits of different sorts, especially apples
and pears, though what is true of them holds good of most
other fresh vegetable structures and expressed juices. If a
drop of tincture of guaiacum be allowed to fall on a freshly
cut surface of an apple or pear, which has not been too
long pulled and is not decayed, it will generally be
found that a blue colour is quickly struck. Again, if a few
crumbs of biscuit or other cooked starch are sprinkled on
2A A New Point of Resemblance wn the
a similar surface, and a little of a strong solution of iodide
of potassium added, the starchy particles will become gra-
dually brown and then black from the formation of iodide
of starch. Here, then, we have the recognised reactions
characteristic of the presence of ozone. The rapidity and
intensity of these reactions will be found to vary with
different articles or different specimens of the same article ;
and they may fail altogether, as in very watery fruits, such as
some grapes, though even with these the guaiac reaction
may be perceptible in a green berry from the same bunch.
I have not observed this reaction with the soft pulpy
fruits which quickly decay, such as the strawberry or peach,
perhaps because the specimens were not fresh enough,
while with the apple and pear both reactions may be
obtained though the fruits have been pulled for a consider-
able time.
With reference to the agent providing these reactions it
may certainly be said :—(1.) That it is not merely ordinary
oxygen absorbed and dissolved in the vegetable juice; and
this, both on account of these reactions and from the fact
that Cahours (Comptes Rendus, 1864, LVIII., pp. 495 and
653) could obtain carbonic acid gas and nitrogen, but never
oxygen, from expressed fruit juices. (2.) It is not newly-
formed oxygen, separated by the chlorophyll, which may
possibly in part be diffused into the structures below the
surface as well as liberated into the atmosphere, since
Pellucci has shown (Chemisches Centralblatt, 1872, p. 356)
that the oxygen developed under water in sunlight by various
plants does not act on starch and iodide of potassium like
ozone, agreeing therein with the results obtained by Mulder
and others, v. Hoppe-Seyler’s Physiologische Chemie, 1877,
p. 47. These reactions are also given by sections of pulled
fruits, which, though capable of carrying on a process of
respiration for a time, no longer liberate oxygen; and also
by underground organs like the potato, turnip, &., which
never perform that function. (3.) It is not probable, in
spite of these reactions, that the substance is actually dis-
solved ozone, since it is scarcely conceivable that it could
continue to co-exist for any length of time with the complex
mixture of solid and dissolved organic matters contained in
fruits. We are therefore in a manner shut up to the con-
clusion—(4.) That the oxygen is in a form of loose com-
bination, as it isin the blood, and therefore capable of being
slowly given off in a very active form to combine definitely
Respiration of Plants and Animals. 25
with oxidizable substances. Cahours (op. cit.) and others
often since have found that fruits, during their period of
growth, appropriate carbon and give off oxygen, like other
oreen parts of the plant; but that when ripening they
cease to do so, and begin to inhale oxygen and give off
carbonic acid ; the chemical changes taking place during the
process of maturation being essentially oxidation phenomena.
It is also well established that many fruits, such as the apple,
the pear, and the orange, continue the maturation process
after separation from the parent stem, acting in a manner like
independent organisms. If placed in a close vessel contain-
ing air, a portion of the oxygen gradually disappears, and is
replaced by carbonic acid. A difficulty was felt by Cahours
in explaining the continued exhalation of CO, from fruits
enclosed in an atmosphere of nitrogen or hydrogen, which he
could ascribe only to some fermentation. Fremy, in a note
to the communication of Cahours, tries to explain it as being
due to the slow process of combustion going on in the
interior of the fruit, which is no doubt true; but is at the
same time rather an insufficient explanation, without some
account such as is here given of the state in which the
oxygen exists while that slow combustion is going on, the
full explantion being that the oxygen is stored up in loose
combination, to be given off as required for the formation of
oxidation products and among them CO,,.
With reference to the substance with which the oxygen is
temporarily combined I cannot speak very definitely ; it is
certain, however, that in fresh fruits and other vegetable
substances there is an element which is possessed of the
same ozone-transferring property as hemoglobin. If a fresh
section does not supply spontaneously the blue colour on
the application of tincture of guaiacum, it can be brought
out by the addition of a drop of solution of peroxide of
hydrogen ; and ifit had appeared spontaneously, the peroxide
has the effect of rendering the blue more intense. I have
found that in fruits, when long-kept, the ozone reaction
is gradually enfeebled, the power of inhaling oxygen
being lost and the amount stored up gradually con-
sumed. On the other hand, the ozone-transferrer may still
be detected when the fruit has become over-ripe and has
entered on the stage of incipient decay, disappearing
entirely, however, in parts which have become actually
rotten. When fruits, &c., are cooked either with moist or
dry heat, both this substance and the active oxygen are
26. A New Point of Resemblance in the
destroyed, no blue colour being produced by guaiacum alone
or on the addition of peroxide of hydrogen. It is known
that other substances contained in the animal economy, and
belonging to the protein group, such as fibrin, myosin,
globulin, act like hzemoglobin in the way of carriers of
ozone. I conclude, therefore, from analogy, as well as from
its properties above described, that in fresh vegetable sub-
stances there is contained an ingredient, probably albumin-
ous, which acts as an ozone-transferrer, and may be presumed
to be the agent with which oxygen enters into loose com-
bination. It certainly is not chlorophyll, which has been
compared with hemoglobin (by Baeyer in his paper referred
to: above) on account of the property which they possess in
common of combining with CO. The difference in function,
however, is well marked, chlorophyll causing the elimination
of oxygen, while hemoglobin enters into combination with
it. In addition, the substance whose nature I am consider-
ing exists abundantly in the interior portions of fruits and
in many other structures, such as the potato, turnip, &c.,
which never contain chlorophyll. I think it probable
that considerable difficulty will be found in isolating
this substance, both on account of its destructibility and
because it is almost uniformly diffused through fresh
vegetable structures. It is probably intimately asso-
ciated with the vascular: tissue, since I have found that the
ozonic reaction, as well as the ozone-transferring function,
in fruits are most marked and persistent near the core,
where the vessels from the stalk are more abundant than in
the outer, more purely cellular, parts. A perhaps more
doubtful opinion is that this substance is attached to the
small cells or granules, called by Sachs “aleurone grains,”
which, according to him, are mainly proteinaceous. They
resemble somewhat in size the red blood corpuscles, and I
have sometimes thought that minute sections of fruits, which
had been rendered blue by guaiacum, when examined under
the microscope showed the most intense colouration at the
spots where these aleurone grains occurred in groups.
Whether what I have ventured to advance by way of
opinion prove to be correct or not, the following points have,
I think, been established :—(1) That the oxygen inhaled by
plants as well as by animals enters first into some form of
loose combination whereby it is ozonized or rendered active ;
and (2) that plants contain a substance, other than chloro-
phyll, having some important points of analogy with the
Respiration of Plants and Animals. 27
heemoglobin of animals, acting like it as an ozone-transferrer.
It cannot, however, yet be regarded as more than fair pre-
sumption that this substance is that with which oxygen
becomes loosely combined.
ArT. IX.—Note of the Great Meteor of June 8th, 1878.
By R. L. J. Every, F.BS.
[Read 11th July, 1878. |
THERE is one point in connection with the apparition of the
great daylight meteor of June 8, 1878, which is remarkable and
interesting—that is the apparent exactness with which diffe-
rent observers, hundreds of miles apart, erroneously localise
certain phases of the phenomenon, and the imaginary nearness
to the observers at which these phases occurred, leading one
to the conclusion that usual human experience in judging of
distance, &c., is altogether at a loss in the case of such pheno-
mena as this. The meteor appeared about 3 p.m. on June 8,
and was seen at Sydney, off the N.S.W. coast at sea, at Yass,
Braidwood, Cooma, Omeo, over many parts of Gippsland,
at Geelong, Ballarat, Seymour, &c., &e., and by sifting all the
reports, and allowing for difference of local time, all about
the sume time. There can be no doubt it reached its mini-
mum distance from the earth somewhere in the zenith of
Kosciusko, and passed nearly over the zeniths of Cooma and
Omeo. From Seymour it was seen in the east, about 30°
high; from this its height may be roughly estimated as over
100 miles, while by two different observers at different
places a bursting-up of the meteor was witnessed, followed
at an estimated interval of from 10 to 15 minutes by loud
explosions—most probably one explosion and its aerial echoes.
This would give us an estimate of its distance from these
observers of nearly 200 miles.
At Cooma, Yass, and about that district, it was firmly
believed to have come to the earth in the neighbourhood,
and to have fell by the side of Jellimatong; indeed, it was
reported that fragments were picked up in that district.
The explosion seemed to be quite close to the observers, and
was called by some an earthquake.
28 Notes on the Great Meteor of June 8th, 1878.
Now from Mr. Christian Ogilvie, at Omeo, I received a
very interesting account of the meteor as seen in the Omeo
district by numerous observers, and here also the explosion
was localised at the mountain called the “ Brothers.” Two
observers, five miles from the mountain, in different direc-
tions, describe it “as if the mountain had burst,” and “like
the crash of an enormous falling rock, followed by
thunder.”
It is not probable, I think, that there could have been two
explosions of this meteor, but that whoever witnessed the
apparition and heard the explosion, estimated it to have
taken place in his immediate vicinity, although there can
be little doubt that the meteor was at no time during its
appearance within 80 or probably 100 miles of the earth.
Observers at Seymour describe having seen the meteor
burst, though no sound, of course, reached that district.
Art. X.—The Perception of Colour.
By JAMES JAMIESON, M.D.
[Read 17th October, 1878. ]
A FEW months ago, in a short communication to this
Society (“Photographs on the Retina,” 11th April, 1878), I
endeavoured to give an account of what was then known of
the properties of the colouring matter called retina-purple.
More extended observations have tended to establish further
the importance of photo-chemical processes in the act of
vision. That the retina contains colouring matter, capable
of undergoing rapid changes under the action of light, and
that pictures of objects can be printed on the retina by help
of it (optograms of Kiihne), would alone be sufficient to
suggest its functional importance. The well-known per-
sistence of visual impressions, 2¢, the fact that after
looking at an object, especially a bright one, we can still
see it if the eye is immediately closed, the outlines
gradually becoming less distinct till the picture fades away,
is best explained by the alternate destruction and
restitution of the retina-purple by light and in the dark.
Boll has found the colour of the human retina deeper and
The Perception of Colour, 29
more intense after a night’s sleep than later in the day;
and in this may be found an explanation of the great
sensitiveness to light of an eye which has been long in the
dark. The transparent retina has become more fully satu-
rated with the pigment, and more tumultuous chemical
changes go on, with correspondingly intense stimulation of
the optic nerve. This varying sensitiveness of the retina at
different times of the day has been made the subject of
exact experiment by M. Auguste Charpentier (Academy of
Sciences, 20th May, 1878, v. Gazette Medicale, 23, 1878).
He found that the difference of acuteness in the rested and
active eye holds good with all kinds of light. For instance,
the eye which has been kept dark for 15 to 20 minutes
experiences a luminous sensation, with a minimum of green
hight equal to 16, while the eye which has been, active
requires a minimum of 121; the comparative amounts of red
light under the same conditions being 12 and 50, and of blue
16 and 400. As Charpentier argues, it is impossible to
conceive of this difference of sensibility being due to fatigue,
in any proper sense of the word, since the eye which had
been in exercise had merely been performing its normal
function. The explanation, as he says, is to be found in
the comparative amount of retina-purple under the different
conditions investigated by him, the sensitiveness to light
being in direct proportion to the chemical changes in the
pigment produced by that light. In a further note
to the Academy (27th May, 1878, Gazette Medicale, 24,
1878), M. Charpentier reported that according to his
direct observations 1t seems to result, that where there is
less of the red substance in the retina there is less
luminous sensibility, and that when the red is in excess that
sensibility is exaggerated. These facts taken together seem
to put beyond doubt that the retina-purple plays a very im-
portant, perhaps essential, part in the physiology of vision.
When we proceed to apply the knowledge recently gained
in a more special way, difficulties increase. I propose, how-
ever, to consider in how far the discoveries of Boll and
Kiihne throw light on the very difficult question of the
perception of colour, and before doing so it is necessary to
indicate shortly the generally accepted view on that subject.
Early in the present century Dr. Thomas Young proposed a
theory which has been, with slight modifications, adopted by
Helmholz, and accepted generally by physiologists. It is to
the effect that in every spot of the retina capable of receiving
op The Perception of Colowr.
colour impressions there must be a number of distinct
nerve terminations, each sensitive to the impression produced
by a single colour. An analysis of the components of white
light led him to fix on three as the least possible number
of these nerve terminations capable of being acted on by
red, green, and violet respectively. By the combination of
these three colours, or of two of them in varying proportions,
either white light or any intermediate colour can be pro-
duced. White light is the combined sensation resulting
from the equal stimulation of all three nervous elements ;
and so with varying degrees of stimulation of one or more,
the particular colour perception results, yellow, for instance, ~
being the colour perceived when the terminations for red
and green are about equally stimulated, and the one for
violet little or not at all. This hypothetical explanation of
the phenomena has been almost universally accepted as a
satisfactory one, since with the help of the minimum of
secondary hypotheses it could be applied so as to account for
certain peculiarities and abnormalities of the colour-sense.
The theory as a whole of course rests on the doctrine of the
specific energy of different nerves and nerve terminations ;
the doctrine, namely, that each nerve responds only to one
particular stimulus, the optic nerve to light, the auditory
nerve to sound, and so on. On the Young-Helmholz
theory it is assumed that, in addition to the specific energy
of the optic nerve, as a whole, there are fibres or fibre-
terminations endowed with specific energies adapting
them for receiving different colour impressions. It might
‘be questioned in how far such an extension of the doctrine
is allowable, unless we are prepared to accept a similar
differentiation of the elements of the other nerves of
special sense. It would perhaps be applying the reductio
ad absurdwm test to such an extension of the doctrine, to
what might be called secondary specific energies, to assume
that there must be in the olfactory nerve, or its surface
endings, a special element susceptible only to the stimulus of
one odorous substance, one each for every possible smell
between otto of roses and assafcetida. I do not know that
it is allowable to make that extension of the doctrine in the
case of the optic nerve, merely because we can indicate a
possible minimum number of elements in it so endowed,
while in the case of the other special senses there is no
approach to such a limitation. I make this criticism with
all humility, knowing that it is in opposition to the opinion
The Perception of Colour. 31
of the most eminent physiologists. It is certain, however,
that histology gives no support to the theory of three or
more distinct percipient elements existing together in all
parts of the retina, all the rods and cones in one part of
the retina of the same animal being of similar construction,
so far as can be shown by the microscopes at present in use.
A difference in the index of refraction of different
elements would perhaps be sufficient, without any dif-
ference of form; but that is merely another hypothesis
framed to obviate a difficulty in accepting an opinion
which is itself hypothetical. A simpler, and therefore more
feasible, view of the phenomena of colour perception is to
reoard it as the result of photo-chemical changes in the
retina ; though, in the present state of our knowledge, it
may be somewhat premature to attempt to apply it for the
explanation of all the peculiarities of that function, normal
and abnormal. In my last communication the suggestion
could only be ventured that the retina-purple may serve in
some way for the perception of colours. The great ditiiculty
then lay in the circumstance that Boll and Kiihne agreed in
stating, that the colouring matter was not to be found in
the cones; and yet the macula lutea is the part of the retina
most sensitive to colour, that sensitiveness being most
marked in the fovea centralis, which contains only cones
and no rods. There are sufficient reasons, however, for
supposing that there was error in denying the presence of
retina-purple in that region, or in the cones generally. The
layer of pigment cells on which the rods and cones rest is
the source of supply of the purple, which it seems to
manufacture and store up. Now these cells are more abun-
dant behind the yellowspotthan at any other part of theretina.
Dr. Schmidt-Rimpler has reported (Archiv fiir Ophthalmolo-
gle, xx1., 3, 1876) that in perfectly fresh human eyes he found
the macula lutea of a reddish-brown colour, which gradually
faded, giving place to the usual yellowish hue; the last
speck of red, however, being seen in the centre of the fovea.
That Kiihne did not detect the red colour in the cones is
probably to be explained by the delicate points of these
structures allowing of its more rapid disappearance than
from the broader based rods ; this explanation being made
more probable by the fact that the transformations of the
retina-purple under the influence of light go on slowly, and
are therefore most easily observed in the amphibia and car-
tilaginous fishes, whose retinal rods are unusually large. It
32 The Perception of Colour.
was necessary to dispose of this preliminary difficulty, since
the result of growing knowledge of the structure and
functions of the organ of vision has been to connect colour
impressions specially with the cones.
If it be granted that retina-purple plays an important part
in the act of vision, as has been shown, we are in a position
for considering facts and arguments in favour of its im-
portance in the perception of colour. The first point in
favour of that view is the fact that light of different colours
acts differently on it. An experiment of Kiihne’s shows this
in a very unmistakable manner. He arranged frogs’ retinas
on a screen, and exposed them simultaneously to the
whole length of the solar spectrum. He found the bleach-
ing process begin with, and pass successively through
greenish-yellow, yellowish-green, bluish-green, greenish-blue,
blue, indigo, and violet; later, through pure yellow and
orange ; much later,through ultra violet ; and finally, through
red. He found that the human retina is bleached by blue
to violet in twelve minutes, by green in twenty-five minutes,
and by red only in about eight hours. He further found
that the various stages in the transformation of the pig-
ment, from red through orange to yellow, as well as the
ultimate disappearance of all colour, are passed through
with varying rapidity. Green light rapidly brings about
the change to yellow, but complete decomposition is then
slower; while with violet light the change to yellow is made
very slowly, but from that point the advance to complete
transparency is rapid. Whether the transformations of the
retina-purple differ in kind as well as in the rapidity of
their production, under the influence of light of different
colours, has not been determined, very little being yet known
with regard to its chemical constitution; and even less is
_ known of the nature and function of the green colour found
in certain rods in the retina of the frog, though it also varies
under the action of different kinds of monochromatic light.
It is established that the photo-chemical changes in the
retina are not the same under the stimulus of different
colours, and it is therefore fair matter of hypothesis that
the sensation of colour is produced by the action of
different modifications of the retina-purple or other
pigments on the fibres of the optic nerve. Absolute
demonstration of this mode of production of sen-
sations of colour is, for obvious reasons, difficult, per-
haps impossible of attainment; but its claim to acceptance
The Perception of Colowr. 33
will be all the greater if it throws a clearer light on, or
gives a simpler explanation of the phenomena, than the
current theory. MM. Landolt and Charpentier have
shown (Gazette Medicale, 10, 1878), that before any
colour is recognised for what it is, a variety of phases are
passed through, the first being a simple luminous sensation ;
and that gradually the chromatic character of the light is
perceived. It has also been long known that a different
length of time is required for the perception of different
colours, red requiring the longest time. On the theory
of Young, it is not easy to see why this should be the
case; why a nerve termination, specially adapted for the
perception of one colour, should respond more slowly to the
stimulus of that colour than a second nerve termination
does to another colour, by which alone it is acted on. On
the photo-chemical theory it meets with a simple expla-
nation in the varying action of different rays on the
pigmentary matter of the retina, red light transforming it
mostslowly. In thesame way when we take the remarkable
abnormality of vision, known as Daltonism, the superiority
of the photo-chemical hypothesis is apparent. In the vast
majority of cases red is the colour which is not seen, there
being cases in which very intense red can be detected, but
not duller shades. On Young’s theory this is to be
explained only on the supposition that one of the three
new elements, whose existence is postulated, is awanting,
or has wholly or partially lost its excitability; but no
explanation is afforded of the fact, that it is almost always
the element susceptible to red which is thus defective. On
the hypothesis of photo-chemical action the explanation is
much simpler and more easily acceptable. The least refran-
gible (red) rays have Jeast action on the pigment of the
retina, even when isolated; they are also normally absorbed
in great proportion by the transparent media of the eye;
and it is only necessary to suppose a slight increase of that
resistance to their passage to account for their total absorp-
tion, the same increase of resistance having a slighter effect
on the more refrangible rays. In this way the partial or
total blindness to red would be accounted for, the perception
of other colours being inappreciably impaired.
There is another point which at first seemed to throw
serious difficulty in the way of this view of the mechanism
of the production of impressions of colour. The retinas of
most birds and reptiles have none of this retinal colour, and
D
34 The Perception of Colowr.
yet there is reason to suppose that birds at least have a well-
developed colour sense. There had long ago been observed
in the rods and cones of the retinas of these animals spherical
fatty drops of red and yellow colour, which have been sup-
posed by physiologists to be of importance in colour percep-
tion, but they differ from the retinal purple in that light has
not much effect in bleaching them. An investigation of
their nature and properties by Dr. Capranica (Annales
@ Oculistique, lxxviii., p. 144, 1877) has revealed, however,
that as regards solubility and reactions the colouring matter
contained in these globules agrees completely with that in
the pigment layer of the frog’s retina, and that the difference
between the red and yellow is only one of concentration.
When dissolved in alcohol, chloroform, or sulphuret of carbon,
this pigment is decolorised by the action of light, the diffe-
rent forms of monochromatic light acting on it as on retina-
purple, with which it has therefore the closest affinities.
The photo-chemical sensibility, according to Capranica,
depends on the amount of fatty matter associated with it.
These isolated coloured globules may therefore be presumed
to play the same part as the more diffused colour in the
retina of the mammalia.
Enough has been said, I think, to make it at least highly
probable that the perception of colours is essentially con-
nected with photo-chemical processes, and the admission of
this interpretation has the further advantage that it brings
this function into closer analogy with other special senses,
the optic fibres being stimulated by particles of chemical
substances just as the olfactory and gustatory nerves are by
particles of odorous and sapid substances, and the auditory
nerve terminations by mechanical pressure or the impact of
the minute bodies known as otoliths.
In addition to the references given in this and the previous
communications, | may state that the data on which the
argument in this paper is based have been obtained mainly
from the following authorities :—
(1.) A review of the literature on retina-purple in the
ee Journal of the Medical Sciences, July,
1878.
(2.) Wilhelm Schoen. Die.Lehre vom Gesichtsfelde und
semen Anomalien, 1874.
(3.) ae Human Phystology (English translation},
1875.
(4.) Wilhelm Wundt, Lehrbuch der Physiologie, 1868.
On the supposed Intra-Mercurial Planet. 35
ArT. XI.—On the swpposed Intra-Mereurial Planet.
By R. L. J. Evtery, F.RS.
[Read 14th November, 1878. ]
THE announcement that during the total eclipse of the
29th July last, visible in the United States of America,
Professor Watson had discovered an unknown body near
the sun, supposed to be an intra-mercurial planet, has
revived the almost dormant question of the existence of
such a body, and awakened fresh interest in the earlier
observations of the supposed planet Vulcan. It will be
known to some of you, no doubt, that long since, the
celebrated Leverrier demonstrated that Mercury’s perihelion
moved 40 seconds per century faster than it should do,
taking into account the gravitating action of only the known
planets of the system. This he most easily accounted for by
supposing that there were between Mercury and the sun a
group of small planets. Adopting this theory, various re-
corded observations of the passage across the sun’s disc of
dark round bodies, at a more rapid rate than ordinary sun
spots, were adduced as evidence of the existence of such
planets; but the untrustworthiness of some of these ob-
servations, and the failure of experienced observers to detect
the phenomena while scrutinising the sun’s surface at the
very times the reputed passages occurred, has hitherto so
weakened the only proofs adduced—except the theoretical
one of Leverrier’s—that he alone, I believe, out of all expe-
rienced astronomers, still had strong faith that intra-
mercurial planets or a planet would yet be discovered,
On March 21st, 1877, a transit of the supposed body
across the sun’s disc was announced as probable by Lever-
rier, and a systematic search was kept up by all the
principal observatories of the world during the days indi-
cated, but nothing was discovered. The American astrono-
mers, probably made more sanguine by the recent discovery
by one of them of the satellites of Mars, seized the oppor-
tunity of the late eclipse for examining systematically the
immediate vicinity of the sun during the moments of totality,
at which times it is possible to detect comparatively small
stars very close to him, except in the rays of the corona,
36 The supposed Intra-Mercurial Planet.
- Professor Watson, a well-known and experienced astronomer,
who observed the eclipse at Rawlins, Wy., devoted himself
to this work, and by help of specially contrived and extem-
porised accessories to his equatorial, made a methodical
search, which according to accounts already to hand appears
to have been, in some degree at least, successful. The first
announcement that Professor Watson had discovered Vulcan
was received with incredulity, and our veteran English
Astronomer Royal thought it highly probable that @ Caner
had been mistaken for the sought-for planet; you will
remember also I stated at a former meeting that although
the discovery of an intra-mercurial planet had been notified,
it was not by any means received by astronomers as esta-
blished. More recent advices, however, add considerably to the
probabilities that Professor Watson has actually discovered
a planet moving inside the orbit of Mercury. The chart
shown will give you an idea of the position of the body, as
well as that of @ Cancri when observed, which at once dis-
poses of Sir George Airy’s suggestion that that star had
been mistaken for a planet. Professor Watson says “that
while searching with his specially-fitted telescope he came
across a ruddy star of the four and a-half magnitude which
had a perceptible disc, the magnifying power being only 45.”
He says also “it was much brighter than 6 Canerz,” which is
the fifth magnitude. It has been suggested that the object
seen might have been a comet, but: Professor Watson spe-
cially remarks that “there was no appearance such as
would be expected if it had been a comet ;” and further, that
he feels warranted in believing it to be an «intra-mer-
curial planet. Although I do not think this observation
alone will establish the existence of a new planet
beyond all doubt, it at all events makes it highly probable,
and will stimulate astronomers to avail themselves of every
possible chance of ratifying Professor Watson’s observation.
A Mr. Swift, a well-known American observer of comets,
also saw a “strange star,” and although the positions he
gives do not quite agree with those of Professor Watson, his
observation is admitted to be in a great measure cor-
roborative. It is pointed out in Nature, No. 463, that
a search along the Kcliptic within 10° or 12° each side
of the sun with large refractors provided with long
dew caps, blackened inside, will afford the best and
probably only chance of recovering Professor Watson's
planet, until the total eclipse of 1882,
The Sounds of the Consonants. 37
Art. XII.—The Sounds of the Consonants, as Indicated by
the Phonograph.
By ALEX. SUTHERLAND, M.A.
[Read 14th November, 1878.]
On its first discovery, the phonograph was hailed with
much satisfaction by those who are devoted to the study of
music as a physical science, but a few months of actual ex-
perience have shown that their hopes were by no means
likely to be fulfilled. As a means of registering sounds the
phonograph is not to be compared with methods that have
long been known; the phonautograph of Leon Scott, the
manometric flame of Konig, the graphic method of Duhamel,
all give results that are more easy of interpretation than
the phonograms printed by the new instrument on tin-foil.
It is almost impossible to see, much less properly to estimate,
the minute and delicate curves contained in the dots which
make up the phonogram. A microscope gives little assist-
ance, for when one looks down into an indentation present-
ing intricate surfaces of curves in three dimensions, the
unaided eye can distinguish little of any importance in its
appearance,
Various contrivances have already been adopted for the
purpose of examining these indentations more thoroughly ;
one observer has made careful sections of the tin-foil, and by
magnifying these to the extent of about 400 diameters has
been able to verify the results already obtained by other
instruments. Jenkins and Ewing in their recent articles
in Nature described multiplying arrangement which they
have used with success in order to obtain magnified trac-
ings of the marks obtained by singing the vowels into the
phonograph. In this way they have made careful analyses
of the wave forms which constitute the vowel sounds i and
© when sung in different notes. But they cannot claim to
have discovered a single new fact. The truth seems to be
that while the tin-foil on which the phonograms are im-
printed is impressed with moderate ease, there is yet enough
' of mechanical resistance to destroy altogether the finer sorts
of vibrations,
Now we know from Helmholtz’s researches that while
33 The Sounds of the Consonants.
the pitch and intensity of a note depend on the rapidity and
amplitude of its vibrations, its richness, and indeed all
that serves to give character to the note, depend on the num-
ber and kind of secondary vibrations with which the main
vibration is attended. Thus if the note is attended by its
octave, that is, if in addition to the vibrations which give
the note itself, there are present a secondary set of vibrations
of twice the rapidity, then we have a sound which the ear
recognises at once as musically the same note, and yet it
perceives a richness and fulness which was not present in
the simple tone. If to this double set of vibrations there
be added a third set, three times as rapid as the first, there
is again a change in the quality of the tone; and while a
musician would say that the note was the same, the ear
would nevertheless declare that though the pitch and inten-
sity were the same, the character is notwithstanding quite
different.
It was from the consideration of this last element, the
quality of the note, that Helmholtz was able to originate
the theory now generally accepted as to the nature of the
vowel sounds. Every set of vibrations given off either by
the human voice or by any musical instrument tends to
strengthen itself by the addition of a series of harmonics,
the first being twice as rapid as itself, the next three times,
the next four times, the next five times, and so on. Thus,
if the sound be C we may have this note strengthened by
the addition of the C above, by the G above that, by the
next C, the next EH, the next G again, and so on.
Now it is possible by means of resonators to strengthen
any one of these secondary vibrations, and so completely
alter the character of the note produced ; if a person were
to sing the same note through funnels of different shapes
the sounds would still be recognised by the ear as the same
note, but each would have its own distinctive character. _
This is all that takes place when a vowel is pronounced
by a human voice; a certain note is emitted by the larynx,
the mouth is shaped into a resonator so as to strengthen
certain of the harmonics of that note. If the mouth is
partially opened, and the cavity made somewhat round by
the action of the under-jaw, we have the second partial tone
strengthened and made equal, or in some cases more intense
than the fundamental note; the result is that the primary
vibration is followed by a second equal to it, and so the
phonogram gives for the long sound of 6 a series of dots
The Sounds of the Consonants. 39
arranged in pairs; in the word “mole,” pronounced in a
deliberate way but without dwelling unnecessarily on the
syllable, there are about ninety of these pairs of vibrations
to make up the vowel sound.
Cer OOP or OO
The long sound of @ or 00 as in “ roof” consists of the fun-
damental note strengthened by its third partial, that is if the
vowel be spoken on the note C, there will be added to this a
series of vibrations corresponding to the G of the octaveabove.
The marks produced consist of a series of pear-shaped dots
closely contiguous, the broad end representing the place
where the fundamental is reinforced by its second harmonic,
the narrow end representing the secondary smaller vibrations.
S&S @& @& @..
In the word “roof,” pronounced with moderate rapidity,
there are between forty and fifty of these impressions to
represent the vowel sound.
The vowel 4, as in “far,” consists of the fundamental
note strengthened by both the second and third partials;
hence its phonograms partake of the characters both of 6
and of a. A slightly pear-shaped dot is followed after a
definite interval by a much smaller dot. In the word “ far”
it takes from 150 to 170 of these pairs to give the vowel
sounds.
eS * ~
The sound “awe” has altogether four partials, the funda-
mental tone together with its three first harmonics; its
phonogram seems to consist of two pear-shaped dots of which
the second is slightly less than the first.
SS &
The remaining vowels I have made no effort to analyse,
but their phonograms, so far as 1 can make out, are—
6 &e
ac ff >
it Gnu =p
It is plain, then, that while music can be produced by
simply reproducing the fundamental vibration we can hope
40 © The Sounds of the Consonants. -
to reproduce a vowel sound only by adding to that funda-
mental its proper harmonic. Now, for the first and second
harmonics the phonograph does this with sufficient distinct-
ness, hence we get the vowels 0 and w and @ well enunciated ;
but when we come to produce the vowels é, au, ti, &., the
results are vague, for the vibrations are too feeble to register
themselves properly on the tin-foil, and so, while the fun-
damental note is loudly sounded, the vowel is almost beyond
recognition.
The ear has the power of analysing all these vibrations,
but when the sound is drawn by any of the graphic methods
the eye does not recognise each of them as a distinct vibra-
tion, but sees a single set of vibrations, whose lines are
broken and varied by the super-position of the smaller sets.
In the phonograms, as seen on the tin-foil, we see the fun-
damental vibrations marked as a row of prominent dots; the
harmonics appear either as smaller dots between, or as
variations in the thickness and depth of the main juncture.
This is the origin of the pear-shaped dots which recur so
often, and also of the dashes which seem as though drawn
out in some places and thickened in others. Among the
consonants we have to distinguish two very different classes.
The sibilants and liquids have wave-forms of their own
which are no less constant and definite than those of the
vowels ; but the remainder which form the real consonants
have no wave vibrations peculiar to themselves ; perhaps it
might be more correct to say that they have no vibrations
whatever, but exist only as modification of the vowel
sounds.
First, as to the liquids.—Of all the letters there is none
that gives so marked a phonogram as R. This consists
of groups of dots varying from four to ten, according to
the amount of roughness put in the letter, and these
groups are separated by intervals equal to about four
of their wave lengths. The dots are similar in shape to
those of the vowel ti, and so we reach the conclusion that
the liquid 7 is nothing more or less than the vowel w inter-
rupted twenty or thirty times in a second.
The letter / has a simple sound; its phonogram consists
of a series of bars, with smooth surfaces, that is, there are no
harmonics visible, =——= == =<; the curve dips into the tin
foil, and then rises by an unbroken sweep. This is what we
should expect ; for in pronouncing this sound the mouth is
closed by the tongue being placed close against the palate,
The Sounds of the Consonants. 41
while the breath issues through the narrow passage then
left. The larynx produces its note, consisting of the funda-
mental vibrations with its harmonics, but there is now no
resonating cavity to strengthen any one of these harmonics,
and so the letter / passes forth as an almost purely musical
note; none of the harmonics being strengthened, they are
unable to make any impression on the tin-foil, and so we
have nothing more than a series of simple dashes.
M seems likewise to consist of a series of dashes, but at
the end of every dash there occurs a small dot indicating, I
suppose, the existence of some harmonic. The sound of
this letter is made by allowing the breath to pass through
the nose, and the nasal cavity must in some manner act as
a resonator, giving prominence to certain of the partials,
but this effect is weak in comparison with the similar action
by which the mouth produces the vowel sounds. At the
same time the nasal cavities cannot have all to do in the
production of the sound of m, for if while sounding this
letter we raise the tongue and so contract the cavity of the
mouth, even though the latter is still kept shut, we change
from the sound of m to that of , in which the long dash is
divided into a shorter dash, followed by a dot, so that the
phonogram of n is a short dash with two dots.
The phonograph is of little use in the determination of
wave-forms for sibilants. It is difficult to obtain records of
these sounds, and their excessive minuteness makes it diffi-
cult to decide as to their shape. They seem, however, to
consist of an excessively numerous series of small dots.
The remaining consonants are all formed in the same
way, that is by either checking or letting go the breath ; at
the beginning of a syllable, we suddenly permit the
sound to escape, at the end we suddenly stop it, and the
ear recognises these sudden changes as consonants. The
change may take place in three ways, either sharply and
instantaneously, in which case we have the hard consonants
p, t, k, or rather more gradually, which gives the softer
sounds of b, d, g, or it may take place by stopping or com-
meneing the sound without at the same time stopping or com-
mencing the breathing. If we stop a sound at the end of a
syllable, but allow the breath still to pass out, we have the
sounds of f, v, th, or ch. The phonograms placed on the
table show the differences between these three classes of
consonants. With the explosive consonants p, t, k, the
vowel sounds commence sharply; with the soft consonants
42 The Sounds of the Consonants.
b, d, g, there is a gradual swell in the intensity of the dots,
showing that the vowel sound was at first permitted to
escape by degrees. With the aspirates f, v, th, and ch,a
series of indeterminate marks either precedes or follows the
vowel sound, showing that the breath was escaping before
or after the vowel had sounded.
Now, the difference between the corresponding consonants
in these three classes is much more difficult to make out.
Why; we may ask, should the sudden stoppage of a sound
by the lips be recognised as the letter p, and the sudden
stoppage of the same sound by the teeth and tongue be
recognised as the letter ¢, or if the tongue and palate be
employed to do exactly the same thing why should we
recognise the resulting consonant as kh?
An examination of the phonograms gives some clue to
this distinction. It will be found that on pronouncing a
syllable beginning with p such as “pa” before the vowel sound
has properly begun, there will be found a few marks which
do not really belong to that vowel but have more affinity to
the vowel ti; the explanation is that if the lips are closed,
and we open them to emit the full sound a, we do not at
once reach the necessary resonating cavity, we have to pass
through the intermediate stages. Now these intermediate
stages are the resonating cavities which give the various
sounds of t, and though these are very few in comparison
with the subsequent vowel vibrations they are sufficient to
be recognised by the ear, and so we can tell at once that
it must have been the lips which permitted the sudden
passage of the sound.
When the consonant is produced by the tongue and teeth,
as in the letter ¢, before the vowel commences we have the
marks corresponding to é short; and when the consonant
is k, the vowel is preceded by marks corresponding first to
the long é, and then to a, as in “ may.”
Hence the formation of all the consonants. They are
either hard, soft, or aspirated; and the ear judges as to
whether they are formed by the lips, teeth, or palate, by
observing the vowels through which the sound glides before
dwelling on the main vowels.
Thus we find that all sounds, to which the human voice
gives rise, consist of vibrations of fixed periods, with their
harmonics ; the presence of these harmonics determines the |
nature of the vowel, and moreover enables us to decide by
the ear as to which of the consonants has been uttered.
Experiments made on a Sample of Pig Iron. 48
Art. XIII.—Eaperiments made on a Sample of Pig Iron
recewed from the British and Tasmanian Iron Com-
pany, Port Lempriere, Tasmania.
By J. Cosmo NEWBERY AND FREDERIC DUNN,
[Read 12th December, 1878. ]
DuRiInG the month of November, 1876, a sample of pig iron
was sent to the laboratory for examination and report.
Upon treating a portion of this iron (which had been very
finely ground) in a flask and boiling on the sand-bath with
-nitrohydrochloric acid (1$ parts of hydrochloric to 1 of
nitric acid) the iron was readily attacked. When all action
had ceased the supernatant liquor was carefully decanted off
from the residue. The latter was found to have a peculiar
bronze-like appearance. This powder was at first believed to
be “nitride of titanium,’ but upon further investigation
was found to be a compound of chromium iron and car-
bonaceous matter.
The pig iron which was found to contain the most chro-
mium was coarse-grained and crystalline, having a. white
lustre somewhat resembling “spiegeleisen” in appearance,
but its lustre was of a less brilliant white colour, and the
crystal plates very rough.
This sample gave a residue on treatment with nitro-
hydrochloric acid of 9°38 per cent. of a bronze-coloured ©
chromium compound (calculated to the total pig), whereas a
sample of pig iron which was of much finer grain and
granular in structure gave 1°52 per cent. of the same
peculiar compound.
The pig iron when treated with hydrochloric and sul-
phuric acids gave different results to that obtained by
nitric acid.
TREATMENT WITH HypDROCHLORIC ACID.
The pig iron was broken up into pieces about the size of
a bean, placed in a flask, and boiled with hydrochloric acid.
After all effervescence had ceased the vessel was taken off
the sand-bath and transferred to a quiet place, in order that
the small particles might settle at the bottom. The super-
natant liquor was then decanted off, the residue was re-treated
44 Haperiments made on a Sample of Pig Iron
with hydrochloric acid, decanted again, and residue well
washed and dried. A magnet was then passed through it so
as to take up any particles of metallic iron which might be
left undecomposed. Upon examining the residue with the
microscope, peculiar bronze-coloured, star-like crystals were
observed. Owing to the large amounts of silica and
carbonaceous matter which are left, it is very difficult to
separate the little bronze-like stars. These stellate forms
contain a large percentage of chromium as a component
part in combination with iron. A sufficient quantity has
not yet been obtained for a quantitative analysis. This diffi-
culty is due to their solubility in boiling hydrochloric acid.
If they are boiled with nitric acid they lose their bronzy
appearance, and become silvery white; are very slowly dis-
solved by this acid. |
They are very slowly acted upon by sulphuric acid,
TREATMENT witH Nitric ACID.
Small pieces of pig iron, if boiled with nitric acid, leave
silvery white plates. When these appear the acid solution
was carefully decanted off and the plates well washed with
distilled water, and re-treated with nitric acid, and boiled.
They were washed out into a suitable vessel and dried.
These plates are not magnetic, so that any undissolved iron
could be removed by a magnet.
_A large proportion of these metallic silvery-looking
plates are dissolved, owing to their long-continued boiling
in this acid.
The following are the analyses which have been made of -
various samples of this compound :—
CY") 2a BDO! GN Eas)
Percentage of iron 53) oo. 87°44 83:92 84:78 84:60 84:69 84°44
9 chromium - 12°71 16:07 15°73 15°40 15°90 15°56
p carbon ... e. trace — — — = _
100°15 99°99 100°51 100°00 100°59 100-00
No. 1. Is the analysis of the first sample of silvery white
plates obtained. The plates were not thoroughly freed from
undissolved iron, hence the high percentage.
No.2. This sample was re-treated for some time in nitric
acid, washed well with distilled water, dried, and the magnet
passed through the mass, and is therefore the purest sample.
The iron and chromium were estimated by a process founded
on that given by “Crooke’s Select Methods in Chemical
Analysis,”
From the British and Tasmanian Iron Company. 45
Nos. 1, 3, 5. The chromium and iron were estimated in
these samples by the fusion method, which is described in
Fresenius’ Quantitative Chemical Analysis.
Nos. 4, 6. The iron in these samples was carefully deter-
mined by a standard solution of permanganate of potash, and
the chromium estimated by loss.
In appearance these non-magnetic scales resemble osmiri-
dium, being of a greyish silvery white, and are brittle.
Hydrochloric acid readily dissolves these plates, forming
an emerald green solution. Long boiling is required, how-
ever, to get a complete solution.
Towards the end of the operation, small particles having
a bronze-like appearance float in the liquid; these can only
_ be dissolved by continued boiling in the concentrated acid.
Sulphuric acid readily attacks the plates. They are not
acted upon by acetic acid.
A portion of these plates were boiled in a flask with nitric
acid for a very long time, and were entirely dissolved.
There is not the slightest doubt that a large percentage of
these silvery plates are dissolved, owing to the long-continued
boiling which the pig iron receives during its solution in
nitric acid.
TREATMENT WITH SULPHURIC ACID.
Stellate forms are obtained if the pig iron be treated in
the same manner as is described under the “hydrochloric
acid treatment.”
TREATMENT WITH NITROHYDROCHLORIC ACID.
A portion of the finely pulverised iron was treated in a flask
with hot nitrohydrochloric acid until a bronze-like powder
made its appearance ; water was then added to stop the
action of the acid, and the powder separated and collected :
the iron residue was again treated with acid.
_ The bronze powder thus obtained was purified by re-treat-
ing with nitrohydrochloric acid and well washing.
If the bright bronze powder be left exposed to moist air
it becomes slightly tarnished and shows a_ beautiful
iridescence.
If boiled in nitric acid for a short time, it loses its pecu-
liar bronzy appearance and is converted into those silvery
white non-magnetic scales, the same as those obtained in
the residue, after boiling the pig iron in nitric acid.
46 Experiments made on a Sample of Pig Iron
The filtrate from these plates was tested to see if any
chromium had gone into solution ; only a slight reaction was
obtained.
The bronze powder upon treating with sulphuric acid and
boiling is readily attacked, carbonaceous particles being
liberated ; the continued action of the sulphuric acid on the
latter causes the evolution of foetid hydrogen, the solution
assuming a brownish black appearance, which upon further
boiling assumes a green colour.
Hydrochloric acid dissolves this powder, but the peculiar
bronzy appearance remains to the last. The solution is of
a fine emerald green colour ; carbonaceous particles separate
during the solution ; a peculiar hydrocarbon smell is evolved.
Acetic acid fails to dissolve this bronze powder, and is
therefore useful in separating any free iron which may be
mechanically mixed with it.
A portion of the powder was ground in an agate mortar
with water; it loses its bronze-like appearance, becoming
steel-crey, carbonaceous matter being liberated (this shows
that the carbonaceous matter is merely mechanically dis-
seminated), the non-magnetic, metallic particles being left
behind.
Upon analysis the bronze powder was found to contain in
100 parts :—
Percentage of iron ... soe ise ‘aceon a
chromium ... ae peat 59)
5 carbonaceous matter Me a Ae
s silica ose fg sia (eae
100°85
The analysis shows that when separated from the carbon
it has the same composition as the nitric acid residue. The
following is its composition, after deducting the carbon and
silica :—
Percentage of iron ... a3 ai -. 8432
oh chromium ... ave ... 15°68
100-00
TREATMENT WITH ACETIC ACID.
100 grains of finely-ground pig iron were placed in a flask
and gently boiled with acetic acid.
From the British and Tasmanian Iron Company. 47
During solution the acid at first readily attacks the iron,
the liquid assuming a green tint, afterwards passing into a
deep brown.
After treating the finely-divided iron two or three times
with fresh portions of acetic acid, the liquid becomes nearly
colourless, holding very little iron in solution, and not any
chromium ; on further boiling with acetic acid chromium
was taken into solution.
When all action had ceased there were obtained 37 grains
of insoluble pig iron, of which 2°20 grains were non-magnetic,
metallic particles, the remaining 34°8 grains being magnetic.
Upon analysis the non-magnetic portion gave in 100
parts :—
Percentage of iron ... Poe ie ent AO
- chromium ... =e ae SOO
¥ carbon a ihe ... trace
100-29
On treating these particles with nitric acid they are con-
verted into those silvery white plates. They correspond
exactly to the non-magnetic particles mentioned under the
heading of “ Treatment with the Magnet.”
Upon treating a portion of the magnetic particles in
boiling hydrochloric acid, a few bronze-like stars were
obtained, corresponding to those mentioned under the
“ Hydrochloric acid treatment ;” treating a portion also in
boiling nitric acid for a short time the silvery white plates
are obtained. These, upon analysis, gave in one hundred
parts. :—
Percentage of iron ... it Ses --. 84°60
‘: chromium ... co bad ee 40)
100:00
TREATMENT WITH THE MAGNET.
The pig iron was ground to a very fine powder. One
hundred grains were then placed upon a glazed sheet of
paper and the magnet held in close proximity to the mass,
when the magnet became covered with metallic particles.
These were shaken on to a sheet of paper, thus separating
the magnetic from the non-magnetic. The magnetic particles
were then ground to a finer state of division, and re-treated
with the magnet several times.
48 Experiments made on a Sample of Pig Iron
By this treatment there were obtained 2°48 per cent. of
bright, metallic, non-magnetic particles, and 7-43 per cent. of
slightly magnetic, metallic particles.
Upon analysis one hundred parts of the non-magnetic
particles contained :—
Percentage of iron ... ge see coe 80°44
ia chromium ... Sse I se ed ely
. carbon ee WAS ... trace
100°39
Upon boiling a portion of these particles in nitric acid,
they were converted into the silvery plates.
One hundred parts of the slightly-magnetic particles gave,
upon analysis :—
Percentage of iron ... ae a 1 OFS
hi chromium ... ie sachin Aes
im silica and undetermined ... 1:17,
100-00
A number of these slightly magnetic particles were boiled
in a flask with nitric acid (1 part of nitric acid with 2 parts
of distilled water) until the solution ceased to be coloured
by the dissolved iron. Those silvery white particles as
mentioned under the “ Nitric Acid Treatment,” were obtained.
Upon analysis these plates gave in 100 parts -—
Percentage of iron ... are 2 we 8444
i} chromium ... a sod?) ESS
100:00
This shows that a large percentage of those non-magnetic
silvery plates are left in the magnetic mass, even after very
careful treatment with the magnet; this no doubt is owing
to the plates being impregnated with the surrounding
particles of metallic iron.
The quantity of star-like forms in the hydrochloric and
residue did not suffice for an exact analysis, but their. be-
haviour with acids shows that they differ in composition
from the silvery plates.
One sample of the iron gave minute prismatic needles in
place of plates, upon treatment with nitrohydrochloric acid.
These examinations show that the assumption that the
chromium is alloyed or combined with the whole mass of
From the British and Tasmanian Iron Company. 49
the iron is incorrect, but that at any rate, most, if not the
whole, of it is as two or more definite compounds of iron and
chromium diffused through the mass of iron. Different
portions of the same pig iron contain variable percentages of
these compounds.
The sample of pig iron from which these results were ob-
tained gave 898 per cent. of chromium in one part, and
6°63 per cent. in another.
Art. XIV.—Formation of Hyalite by the Action
of Ammonia.
By J. Cosmo Nrewsery, B.Sc.
[Read 12th December, 1878. |
In the examination of building stones used in Melbourne I
have noticed that the greatest amount of decay takes place
during the summer months, December, January, and Feb-
ruary, and that the stones which harden on exposure harden
most during those months; also, that taking two portions of
the same stone, saturating one part with water, and leaving
the other dry, the wet stone hardens first, the hardening
taking place from the outside inwards.
Analysis of the outer portions of these hardened stones
shows an excess of silica, more or less hydrous, and nearly
always giving distinct traces of ammonia.
In the Geological Survey Reports, Nos. 4 and 5, I have
called attention to some of these peculiar passages of silica
from the inner to the outer parts of the stone, and shown
that all our freestones, except those already hardened by
exposure, are acted on with considerable rapidity by
ammonia and carbonate of ammonia. Some are hardened
by this action and some are disintegrated. Those which
are destroyed fall gradually away, the cementing material
_ being decomposed by the ammonia, and the quartz grains
are left free to fall or be washed away by the rain.
In the stones which are not destroyed but harden, some
other action takes place; the cementing material between
the sand grains is not softened, but it changes from a dull
E
50 Formation of Hyalite by the Action of Ammonia.
opaque or white clayey cement to a vitreous or quartz-like
material, eventually, as may be seen on the surface of many
of our sandstone ranges, to a dense quartzite.
On the Grampian range, at the Blue range at Mansfield,
and at Freestone Creek in Gippsland, the rocks are usually
very hard silicious sandstones at the surface, and give when
crushed and washed little or no clayey matter; but a few
inches, or at most a few feet, from the surface on the same
beds the character changes, and on crushing and washing
the cementing material may be obtained as a nearly white
clayey material like kaolin.
I have to a limited extent succeeded in changing clayey
sandstones to hard silicious sandstones by causing them to
absorb ammonial solutions in such a manner that the liquid
was absorbed at one end of the stone and evaporated at
the other, and obtained an outer surface hard and sili-
cious like that found in nature.
With stones containing silicia in a hydrous form, like the
Oamaru, New Zealand, limestone, the passage is most marked.
In a few weeks the outer or evaporating surface gave upon
analysis twice as much silica as the interior of the stone.
Thus, besides mere transfer of silica, the ammoniacal
solutions of silica are capable of producing actual meta-
morphism, changing the character and structure of the
silicate rocks.
Some eighteen months ago I placed some clean infusorial
earth from Talbot in a solution of ammonia. The whole of the
earth was composed of the transparent forms of diatoms,
w.e., nearly pure hydrous silica. Recently examining the
contents of the bottle, I find that a portion of the silica has
been dissolved in the ammonia, giving a solution containing
‘771 per cent. of silica; at 212 it lost 0-1 per cent., and 0:01
on heating to about 350. The amount of hydrous silica in
solution is therefore over 500 grains to the gallon, far in
excess of that held in solution in the waters of the hot
springs of New Zealand.
The solution of silicate of ammonia may be boiled till all
excess of ammonia has been expelled, and according to
Pribram (Watts’ Sup.), 1 equivalent of ammonia is left in
solution with 80 of silica.
This boiled solution, in contact with bases, forms crystal-
lisable hydrous silicates. When evaporated to dryness it
deposits the silica as a film, which shrinks and cracks as the
last of the water is driven off.
Formation of Hyalite by the Action of Ammonia. 51
In this solution of silica, held in solution by ammonia,
which we may obtain from almost any, if not all, of our
Springs or subterranean waters, we have, no doubt, one of
the active agents of metamorphic action. Just above the
surface of the liquid on the sides of the vessel I find a botry-
oidal coating of hydrous silica, in all respects identical with
the mineral hyalite.
In this artificial hyalite there are some infusorial forms
which have been entrapped. Most of them seem to be
partly dissolved ; some are mere skeletons of the original
form. |
In the mineral hyalite from our basaltic formations my
assistant, Mr. Dunn, finds distinct traces of ammonia, and
as we know ammonia is present in all our subterranean
waters, we have a means of accounting for these films or
crusts of botryoidal silica, and probably for the veins and
masses of chalcedony and opal found in the decomposed
voleanic rocks.
A curious change has taken place in the residue of the
infusorial earth from which the solution was made. All
the forms of diatoms have vanished, and instead I find a
fine granular powder. The mass has shrunk considerably,
and is covered by a friable film.
2
1878.
PROCEEDINGS.
ROYAL SOCIETY OF VICTORIA.
ANNUAL MEETING.
13th March, 1879.
The President in the chair—Present, 14 members.
The Annual Report and Balance-sheet for 1878 were read, as
follows :—
“6 Report of the Council of the Royal Society of Victoria -
for the year 1878.
“Your Council has the honour to report that the following
papers were read during the session of 1878 :—
“ On the 11th of April Dr. Jamieson read a paper on ‘ Photo-
graphs on the Retina; Mr. Josephs exhibited .a new form of
circuit closer for torpedo firing; and Mr. Pirani exhibited Sir
William Thompson’s electric replenisher.
“On the 16th of May Mr. Foord read a résumé of Mr. A. M.
Smith’s paper on ‘Gold Bullion Assay ; Mr. Kernot exhibited a
phonograph constructed by Mr. Kirkland.
“On the 14th of June Mr. Pirani exhibited Sir William
Thomson’s new form of Daniell’s constant battery ; Mr. Kernot
read a paper on the ‘ Strength of Columns; Dr. Jamieson read a
paper on ‘Some Points of Resemblance in the Respiration of
Plants and Animals; and Mr. Sutherland exhibited a phono-
raph.
cc On the 11th of July Dr. Wilkie submitted a paper on the
eycloid curve ; Mr. Pirani exhibited a microphone.
“Qn the 12th of September Mr. Ellery read a paper on a pro-
posed new method of employing photography in military surveys.
“On the 17th of October Dr. Jamieson read a paper on ‘The
Perception of Colour.’
“On the 14th of November Mr. Ellery read a paper on ‘ The
Supposed Intramercurial Planet,’ and Mr, Sutherland read a
54 Proceedings, &c., for 1878.
paper on ‘The Sounds of the Consonants as Indicated by the
Phonograph.’ |
“On the 12th of December Mr. Cosmo Newbery read a paper
on the ‘ Occurrence of Chromium in the Iron Ore of Tasmania,’
and another ‘On the Formation of Hyalite by the Action of
Ammonia on Infusorial Earth ; Mr. Ellery exhibited the singing
and the sensitive flame.
“Volume XIV. of the Society’s transactions was issued on the
11th of July, and duly forwarded to members and to the Societies
entitled to receive it. Volume XV. is now in the press, and will
be ready for issue in April.
‘“‘ During the past year the Society has made provision for the
admission of associates, who shall have all the privileges of
membership except that of voting, but shall pay no entrance fee,
and shall pay an annual subscription of one guinea per annum.
Six gentlemen have been elected associates of the Society.”
55
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Proceedings, &c., for 1878.
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'SLHSSVY ANV SHILITIGVIT AO LNAWALYVLS
Proceedings, &c., for 1878. 57
The Report and Balance-sheet were both adopted.
Nominations were received for the election of officers, which was
postponed till next meeting. |
A committee, consisting of Messrs. Ellery, Foord, Pirani,
Joseph, Kernot, Sutherland, and Dr. Jamieson, was appointed to
report on the desirability of instituting a course of lectures.
ORDINARY MEETINGS.
11th April, 1878.
R. L, J. Ellery, Esq., F.R.S., in the chair.—Present, 25 members,
G. F. H. Ulrich, Esq., F.G.8., resigned his position on the
Council.
Mr. A. Sutherland was elected Honorary Secretary in place of
H. K. Rusden, Esq., resigned.
Mr.R. E. Joseph exhibited a new form of circuit closer for use
in the firing of torpedoes.
Dr. Jamieson read a paper on “ Photographs on the Retina of
the Hye.”
Mr. Pirani exhibited Sir William Thomson’s replenisher, and
explained its action.
(Signed) Rost. L, J. ELLEry.
16th May, 1878.
R. L. J. Ellery, Esq., F.R.S., in the chair—Present, 21 members.
H. Moors, Esq., was elected a member of the Council, in place
of G. F. H. Ulrich, Esq., resigned.
Mr. J. B. Cohen and Mr. W. M. Madden were duly elected
members.
Mr. Ulrich was elected a corresponding member.
Mr. G. Foord read a paper by Mr. A. M. Smith on ‘‘ Gold
Bullion Assay,” and a short discussion ensued.
Mr. Ellery described and exhibited a new form of self-registering
rain gauge.
Mr. Kernot exhibited a phonograph constructed by Mr. Kirk-
land, jun., but stated it had not yet been successful in speaking.
(Signed) Rost. L. J. ELery.
14th June, 1878.
R.L, J. Ellery, Esq., in the chair—Present, 21 members.
Mr. F. J. Pirani exhibited three cells of Sir William Thom-
son’s new force of Daniell’s constant battery.
5Bu. - Proceedings, &c., for 1878.
Mr. Kernot read a paper on the “Strength of Columns.” It
was resolved that this paper be printed and discussed at the next
meeting.
Dr. Jamieson read his paper on a “ New Point of Resemblance
in the Respiration of Plants and Animals.” It was resolved that
this paper also should be printed and discussed at the next meet-
ing.
Mr. Sutherland exhibited a phonograph, which made some
rudimentary efforts at speech, and the meeting then closed.
(Signed) Rost. L. J. ELLEry.
11th July, 1878.
R. L. J. Ellery, Esq., in the chair—Present, 18 members.
Mr. C. F. Clough was elected a member of the Society.
A discussion then took place on Mr. Kernot’s paper on the
“Strength of Columns.”
Dr. Wilkie submitted a paper on the Cycloid Curve, which was
accepted as read.
Mr. Ellery described the great meteor which had recently been
visible over a large part of Australia.
Mr. Pirani exhibited a microphone, and a series of interesting
experiments were made with it.
(Signed) Rost. L. J. Eviery.
12th September, 1878.
R. U. J. Ellery, Esq., in the chair—Present, 12 rae
Six gentlemen were nominated for membership.
' It was resolved that a special meeting should be held to consider
the recomendation of the Council as to the admission of associates
to the Society.
The postponed discussion then took place on Dr. Jamieson’s
paper.
Mr. Ellery read a note descriptive of a new method of employing
photography in military surveys.
(Signed) Rost, L, J. ELLEry.
17th October, 1878.
R. L. J. Ellery, Esq., in the chair.
The following gentlemen were elected ordinary members :—F.
RR. Godfrey, Esq., Dr. Browning, Dr. Le Fevre, A. R. Walker,
Esq.
ae
Proceedings, &c., for 1878. 59
Dr. Thornton, Bishop of Ballarat, was elected a country
member.
Sir Samuel Wilson was elected a life member.
Dr. Jamieson read his paper “ On the Perception of Colour.”
(Signed) Rost. L. J. ELLERY.
14th November, 1878.
R. L. J. Ellery, Esq., in the chair.
Resolved—That in future ad interim members of Council shall
retain office only so long as those members whom they replace
would have retained it.
Mr. Ellery read a paper on “The Supposed Intramercurial
Planet.”
Mr. Sutherland read a paper onthe “ Sounds of the Consonants
as Indicated by the Phonograph.”
Discussion on this paper was held over till next meeting.
(Signed) Rost. L, J. ELuery.
12th December, 1878.
R. L. J. Ellery, Esq., in the chair—Present, 12 members.
Six gentlemen were elected associates, namely—Mr. Challen,
Mr. Allman, Mr. Goldstein, Mr. Morris, Mr. Olliver, and Mr.
Kirkland, jun.
A discussion then tock place on Mr. Sutherland’s paper, in which
Mr. Pirani and several other members joined.
Mr. Cosmo Newhery read his paper, entitled, “On the Occur-
rence of Chromium in the Iron Ore of Tasmania,” and also a
paper on the “ Formation of Hyalite by the Action of Ammonia
on Infusorial Earth.”
Mr. Ellery exhibited the singing and the sensitive flame.
(Signed) Rost. L. J. ELLERY.
Name.
Objects,
Members and
Honorary Mem-
bers.
Patron,
Officers.
Management.
Ordinary Meet-
ings
Annual General
Meetings.
Retirement of
Officers,
LAW S.
a
I. The Society shall be called “The Royal Society
of Victoria.”
II. The Royal Society of Victoria is founded for the
advancement of science, literature, and art, with
especial reference to the development of the resources
of the country.
III. The Royal Society of Victoria shall consist of
Members and Honorary Members, Corresponding Mem-
bers, and Associates, all of whom shall be elected by
ballot.
IV. His Excellency the Governor of Victoria, for
the time being, shall be requested to be the Patron of
the Society.
V. There shall be a President, and two Vice-Presi- |
dents, who, with twelve other Members, and the follow-
ine Honorary Officers, viz., Treasurer, Librarian, and
two Secretaries of the Society, shall constitute the
Council.
VI. The Council shall have the management of the
affairs of the Society.
VII. The Ordinary Meetings of the Society shall be
held once in every month during the Session, from
March to December inclusive, on days fixed by and
subject to alteration by the Council with due notice.
VIII. In the second week in March there shall be a
General Meeting, to receive the report of the Council
and elect the Officers of the Society for the ensuing
year.
IX. All Office-bearers and Members of Council,
except the six junior or last elected ordinary Members,
shall retire from office annually at the General Meeting
in March. *The names of such Retiring Officers are to
be announced at the Ordinary Meetings in November
and December. The Officers and Members of Council
so retiring shall be = for the same or any other
office then vacant.
Laws. 61
X. The President, Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, Secre- Hlection of
taries, and Librarian shall be separately elected by
ballot (should such be demanded), in the above-named
order, and the six vacancies in the Council shall then be
filled up together by ballot at the General Meeting in
March. Those members only shall be eligible for any
office who have been proposed and seconded at the Ordi-
nary Meeting in December, or by letter addressed to one
of the Secretaries, and received by him before the Ist
March, to be laid before the Council Meeting next
before the Annual Meeting in March. The nomina-
tion to any one office shall be held a nomination to
any office the election to which is to be subsequently
held. No ballot shall take place at any meeting unless
ten members be present.
XI. No Member whose subscription is in arrear shall Members in
take part in the election of Officers or other business of =”
the meeting.
XII. An Address shall be delivered by the President Inaugural ad-
of the Society at either a Dinner, Conversazione, or pene
extra meeting of the Society, as the Council for the »
time being may determine, not later than the Ordinary
Meeting in June in each year.
XIII. If any vacancy occur among the Officers, vacancies.
notice thereof shall be inserted in the summons for the
next meeting of the Society, and the vacancy shall be
then filled up by ballot.
XIV. The President shall take the chair at all Duties ot
meetings of the Society and of the Council, and shall ?¢"*
regulate and keep order in all their proceedings; he
shall state questions and propositions to the meeting,
and report the result of ballots, and carry into effect
the regulations of the Society. In the absence of the
President the chair shall be taken by one of the Vice-
Presidents, Treasurer, or ordinary Member of Council,
in order of seniority.
XV. The Treasurer may, immediately after his elec- Duties of
tion, appoint a Collector (to act during pleasure), pers
subject to the approval of the Council at its next
meeting. The duty of the Collector shall be to issue
the Treasurer’s notices and collect subscriptions. The
Duties of Secre-
taries.
Meetings of
Council.
Quorum.
62 Laws.
Treasurer shall receive all moneys paid to the Society,
and shall deposit the same before the end of each
month in the bank approved by the Council, to the
credit of an account opened in the name of the Royal
Society of Victoria. The Treasurer shall make all
payments ordered by the Council on receiving a
written authority from the chairman of the meeting.
All cheques shall be sioned by himself, and counter-
signed by one of the Secretaries. No payments shall
be made except by cheque, and on the authority of the
Council. He shall keep a detailed account of all
receipts and expenditure, present a report of the same
at each Council Meeting, and prepare a balance-sheet
to be laid before the Council, and included in its
Annual Report. He shall also produce his books
whenever called on by the Council.
XVI. The Secretaries shall share their duties as they
may find most convenient. One or other of them shall
conduct the correspondence of the Society and of the
Council, attend all meetings of the Society and of the
Council, take minutes of their proceedings, and enter
them in the proper books. He shall inscribe the
names and addresses of all Members in a book to be
kept for that purpose, from which no name shall be
erased except by order of the Council. He shall
issue notices of all meetings of the Society and of the
Council, and shall have the custody of all papers of
the Society, and, under the direction of the Council,
superintend the printing of the Transactions of the
Society.
XVII. The Council shall meet on any day within
one week before every Ordinary Meeting of the Society.
Notice of such meeting shall be sent to every Member
at least two days previously. No business shall be
transacted at any meeting of the Council unless five
Members be present. Any Member of Council absent-
ing himself from three consecutive meetings of Council,
without satisfactory explanation in writing, shall be
considered to have vacated his office, and the election
of a Member to fill his place shall be proceeded with at
the next Ordinary Meeting of Members, in accordance
with Law XIII.
Laws. 63
XVIII. One of the Secretaries shall call a Special Special Mectings
Meeting of Council on the authority of the President or ”
of three Members of the Council. The notice of such
meeting shall specify the object for which it is called,
and no other business shall be entertained.
XIX. The Council shall call a Special Meeting of the special General
Society, on receiving a requisition in writing signed by Mectines.
twenty-four Members of the Society specifying the
purpose for which the meeting is required, or upon a
resolution of its own. No other business shall be
entertained at such meeting. Notice of such meeting,
and the purpose for which it is summoned, shall be
sent to every Member at least ten days before the
meeting.
XX. The Council shall annually prepare a Report annual Report.
of the Proceedings of the Society during the past
year, embodying the balance-sheet, duly audited by
two Auditors, to be appointed for the year, at the
Ordinary Meeting in December, exhibiting a statement
of the present position of the Society. This Report
shall be laid before the Society at the Annual Meeting
in March. No paper shall be read at that meeting.
XXI. If it shall come to the knowledge of the gypusion of
_ Council that the conduct of an Officer or a Member is Members.
injurious to the interest of the Society, and if two-
thirds of the Council present shall be satisfied, after
opportunity of defence has been afforded to him, that
such is the case, it may call upon him to resign, -
and shall have the power to expel him from the
Society, or remove him from any office therein at its
discretion. In every case all proceedings shall be
entered upon the minutes.
XXII. Every candidate for election as Member Flection of Mem-
or as Associate shall be proposed and seconded by ates.
Members of the Society. The name, the address, and
the occupation of every candidate, with the names of
his proposer and of his seconder, shall be communi-
cated in writing to one of the Secretaries, and shall be
read at a meeting of Council, and also at the following
meeting of the Society, and the ballot shall take place
at the next following ordinary meeting of the Society.
Members shall
sign laws.
Conditions of
Resignation.
Honorary
Members.
Subscriptions,
64 Laws.
The assent of at least five-sixths of the number voting
shall be requisite for the admission of a candidate.
XXIII. Every new Member or Associate shall
receive due notice of his election, and be supplied with
a copy of the obligation,* together with a copy of the
Laws of the Society. He ‘shall not be entitled to
enjoy any privilege of the Society, nor shall his name
be printed in the List of Members, until he shall have
paid his admission fee and first annual subscription,
and have returned to the Secretaries the obligation
signed by himself. He shall at the first meeting of
the Society at which he is present sign a duplicate of
the obligation in the Statute Book of the Society, after
which he shall be introduced to the Society by the
Chairman. No Member or Associate shall be at liberty
to withdraw from the Society without previously
giving notice in writing to one of the Secretaries of
his intention to withdraw, and returning all . books
or other property of the Society in his possession.
Members and Associates will be considered liable for
the payment of all subscriptions due from them up
to the date at which they give written notice of their
intention to withdraw from the Society.
XXIV. Gentlemen not resident in Victoria, who
ave distinguished for their attaimments in science,
literature, or art, may be proposed for election as
Honorary Members, on the recommendation of an
absolute majority of the Council. The election shall
be conducted in the same manner as that of ordinary
Members, but nine-tenths of the votes must be in
favour of the candidate. .
XXV. Members of the Society, resident in Mel-
bourne, or within ten miles thereof, shall pay two
guineas annually, Members residing beyond that dis-
* The obligation referred to is as follows :—
Roya Society or Victoria.
I, the undersigned, do hereby engage that I will endeavour to
Pemne the interests and welfare of the Royal Society of
ictoria, and to observe its laws, a8 long as I shall remain a
Member or Associate thereof.
(Signed)
Address
Date
Laws. 65
tance. and Associates shall pay one guinea annually.
The subscriptions shall be due on the Ist of January
in every year. At the commencement of each year
there shall be hung up in the Hall of the Society a
list of Members and Associates, upon which the pay-
ments of their subscriptions as made by Members and
Associates shall be entered. During July notice shall
be sent to Members and Associates still in arrears.
At the end of each year a list of those who have not
paid their subscriptions shall be prepared, to be con-
sidered and dealt with by the Council.
XXVI. Newly-elected Members shall pay an Entrance fees,
entrance fee of two guineas, in addition to the sub- “*
scription for the current year. Newly-elected Asso-
ciates shall not, be required to pay any entrance fee.
Those elected after the 1st of July shall pay only half
of the subscription for the current year. If the
entrance fee and subscription be not paid within one
month of the notification of election, a second notice
shall be sent, and if payment be not made within one
month from the second notice, the election shall be
void. Members, resident in Melbourne, or within ten Lite Member
miles thereof, may compound for all Annual Subserip- *"”-
tions of the current and future years by paying £21;
and Members residing beyond that distance may com-
pound in like manner by paying £10 10s. Associates
on seeking election as Members shall have to comply
with all the forms requisite for the election of Mem-
bers, and shall pay an entrance fee of two guineas.
XXVII. At the ordinary meetings of the Society P Durations of
the chair shall be taken punctually at eight o'clock, mee
and no new business shall be taken after ten o'clock.
XXVIII. At the Ordinary Meetings business shall Order and mode
be transacted in the following order, unless it be the business.”
specially decided otherwise by the Chairman :—
Minutes of the preceding meeting to be read,
amended if incorrect, and confirmed.
New Members to enroll their names, and be in-
troduced.
Ballot for the election of new Members.
Vacancies among officers, if any, to be filled up.
Business arising out of the minutes.
Communications from the Council.
F
66 Laws.
Presents to be laid on the table, and acknowledged.
Motions, of which notice has been given, to be
considered.
Notices of motion for the next meeting to be
given in and read by one of the Secretaries.
Papers to be read.
Strangers. XXIX. No stranger shall speak at a meeting ot
the Society unless specially invited to do so by the
Chairman.
oad XXX. At no meeting shall a paper be read, or
transacted. business entertained, which has not been previously
notified to the Council.
ee XXXI. The Council may call additional meetings
whenever it may be deemed necessary.
Wasitere: XXXII. Every Member may introduce two visitors
to the meetings of the Society by orders signed by
himself.
aa pecans XXXII. Members and Associates shall have the
privilege of reading before the Society accounts of
experiments, observations, and researches conducted by
themselves, or original papers, on subjects within the
scope of the Society, or descriptions of recent dis-
coveries, or inventions of general scientific interest.
No vote of thanks to any Member or Associate for
his paper shall be proposed.
Or depute other XXXIV. If a Member or Associate be unable to
attend for the purpose of reading his paper, he may
delegate to any Member of the Society the reading
thereof, and his right of reply.
Members must =oXXXV. Any Member or Associate desirous of
give notice of : : > ade
their papers. Yeading a paper shall give in writing to one of the
Secretaries, ten days before the meeting at which he
desires it to be read, its title and the time its reading
will occupy.
seaied XXXVI. The Council may permit a paper such as
described in Law XXXIJIL., not written by a Member
of the Society, to be read, if for any special reason it
shall be deemed desirable.
( fapers pelong to §=- XXX VII. Every paper read before the Society shall
be the ae sae thereof, and immediately after it has
Laws. 67
been read shall be delivered to one of the Secretaries,
and shall remain in his custody.
XXXVIII. No paper shall be read before the Society Papers must be
or published in the Transactions unless approved by 2"
the Council, and unless it consist mainly of original
matter as regards the facts or the theories enunciated.
XXXIX. Should the Council feel a difficulty in Counc may
deciding on the publication of a paper, the Council Members.
may refer it to any Member or Members of the
Society, who shall report upon it.
XL. Should the Council decide not to publish a ces Lae
paper, it shall be at once returned to the author. ro)
XLI. The author of any paper which the Council Members may
has decided to publish in the Transactions may have of their papers.
any number of copies of his paper on giving notice of |
his wish in writing to one of the Secretaries, and on
paying the extra cost of such copies.
XLII. Every Member and Associate whose sub- Members to have
scription is not in arrear, and every Honorary Member, actions.
is entitled to receive one copy of the Transactions of
the Society as published. Newly-elected Members
shall, on payment of their entrance-fee and subscrip-
tion, receive a copy of the volume of the Transactions
last published.
XLII. Every book, pamphlet, model, plan, drawing, Property.
specimen, preparation, or collection presented to or
purchased by the Society, shall be kept in the house of
the Society.
XLIV. The Library shall be open to Members and Library.
Associates of the Society and the public at such times
and under such regulations as the Council may deem
fit.
XLV. The legal ownership of the property of the Legal ownership
Society is vested in the President, the Vice-Presidents, pee:
and the Treasurer for the time being, in trust for the
use of the Society; but the Council shall have full
control over the expenditure of the funds and manage-
ment of the property of the Society. |
XLVI. Every Committee appointed by the Society committees
shall at its first meeting elect a Chairman, who shall °° °"™™"
subsequently convene the Committee and bring up its
F 2 |
68 7 Laws.
report. He shall also obtain from the Treasurer such
grants as may have been voted for the purposes of the
Committee.
Report before ~ = XLVII. All Committees and individuals to whom
any work has been assigned by the Society shall pre-
sent to the Council, not later than the Ist November
in each year, a report of the progress which has been
made; and, in cases where grants of money for scientific
purposes have been entrusted to them, a statement of
the sums which have been expended, and the balance
of each grant which remains unexpended. Every
Committee shall cease to exist on the 1st November,
unless re-appointed.
Grants expire, = XLVIII. Grants of pecuniary aid for scientific pur-
poses from the funds of the Society shall expire on the
1st November next following, unless it shall appear by
a report that the recommendations on which they were
granted have been acted on, or a continuation of them
be ordered by the Council.
Personal ex-
penses not to be ~~ LIX. In grants of money to Committees and indi-
paid. viduals, the Society shall not pay any personal expenses
which may be incurred by the Members.
eet L. No new law, or alteration or repeal of an existing
law, shall be made except at the General Meeting in
March, or at a Special General Meeting summoned for
the purpose, as provided in Law XIX., and in pursuance
of notice given at the preceding Ordinary Meeting of
the Society.
a LI. Should any circumstance arise not provided for
in these laws, the Council is empowered to act as may
seem to be best for the interests of the Society.
eee nen LIT. In order that the Members and Associates of the
Society prosecuting particular departments of science
may have opportunities of meeting and working
together with fewer formal restraints than are neces-
sary at the Ordinary Meetings of the Society, Sections
may be established.
Namesandnum- ,{TI. Sections may be established for the following
ber of Sections. z
departments, v1z.:—
Section A. Physical, Astronomical, and Mechanical
Science, including Engineering.
Laws. 69
Section B. Chemistry, Mineralogy, and Metal-
lurgy.
Section C. Natural History and Geology.
Section D. The Microscope and its applications.
Section E. Geography and Ethnology.
Section F. Social Science and Statistics.
Section G. Literature and the Fine Arts,including
Architecture.
Section H. Medical Science, including Physiology
and Pathology.
LIV. The meetings of the Sections shall be for scien- Meetings of
tific objects only.
LY. There shall be no membership of .the Sections Members of
as distinguished from the membership of the Society. ““"""
LVI. There shall be for each Section a Chairman to Officers of
preside at the meetings, and Secretary to keep minutes *“"°"*
of the proceedings, who shall jointly prepare and for-
ward to one of the Secretaries of the Society, prior to
the Ist of November in each year, a report of the
Proceedings of the Section during that year, and such
report shall be submitted to the Council:
LVIi. The Chairman and the Secretary of each Sec- Mode of ap-
tion shall be appointed at the first meeting of the Ofticers of Sec-
Council after its election in March, in the first instance °°"
from Members of the Society who shall have signified
to one of the Secretaries of the Society their willing-
ness to undertake these offices, and subsequently from
such as are recommended by the Section as fit and
willing.
LVIII. The first meeting of each Section in the year a ee
shall be fixed by the Council; subsequently the Section
shall arrange its own days and hours of meeting, pro-
vided these be at fixed intervals.
LIX. The Council shall have power to propose Corresponding
gentlemen not resident in Victoria, for election in the
same manner as ordinary Members, as Corresponding
Members of the Society. The Corresponding Members
shall contribute to the Society papers which may be
received as those of ordinary Members, and shall in
return be entitled to receive copies of the Society's
publications,
Privileges of
Associates.
70 Laws.
LX. Associates shall have the privileges of Members
in respect to the Society’s publications, in joining the
Sections, and at the Ordinary Meetings, with the
exception that they shall not have the power of voting
for the election of Officers; they shall also not be
eligible as Officers of the Society.
MEMBERS
OF
The opal Soctetp of Victoria.
ORDINARY.
Allan, A. C., Esq., Yorick Club
Alcock, Peter C., Esq., Temperance Hall
Andrew, Henry M., Hsq., M.A., Wesley College
Anderson, Major J. A., Melbourne Ciub
Browning, J. H., Esq., M.B., Brunswick-street, Fitzroy
Barker, Edward, Esq., M.D., Latrobe-street, Melbourne
Barnes, Benjamin, Esq., Murray Bridge, Echuca
Bage, Edward, Hsq., jun., Fulton-street, Hast St. Kilda
Barton, Robert, Esq., F.C.S., Royal Mint, Melbourne
Beaney, J. G., Esq., F.R.C.S. Ed., Collins-street
Bear, J. P., Esq., M.L.C., Melbourne Club
Blair, Joha, Esq., M.D., Collins-street East
Brown, H. J., Hsq., Park House, Wellington-parade, East Mel-
bourne
Cohen, J. B., Esq., A.B.A., 5 Jolimont Square
Clarke, G. P., Esq., F.C.S., Apollo Candle Works, Footscray
Danks, John, Esq., Bourke-street West
Dobson, E., Esq., A.I.C.E., Grey-street, Hast Melbourne
Duerdin, James, Esq., LL.B., Eltham-place, Stephen-street
Ellery, R. L. J., Esq., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., &c., Melbourne Observa-
tory .
Fevre, G. Le, Esq., M.B., 122 Collins-street East
Fitzpatrick, Rev. J., D.D., Archbishop’s Palace, East Melbourne
Foord, Geo., Esq., F.C.S., Alma-road, St. Kilda
Foster, C. W., Esq., Collins-street Hast
Fulton, John, Esq., M.D., Collins-street East
ie List of Members.
Gardiner, Martin, Esq., Crown Lands Department, Queensland
Gilbert, J. E., Esq., Melbourne Observatory
Godfrey, F. R., Esq., Redan-street, East St. Kilda
Grut, Percy de J., Esq., E. S. & A. C. Bank, Gertrude-street,
Fitzroy
Goldstraw, F., Esq., M.A., Wesley College
Harrison, Thomas, Hsq., Registrar-General’s Office
Henderson, A. M., Esq., C.E., 3 Collins-street West
Higinbotham, Thomas, Esq., M.I.C.E., Melbourne Club
Howitt, Edward, Esq., Yorick Club
Humphreys, J. Bywater, Esq., Yorick Club
Hunt, Robert, Esq., Royal Mint, Sydney
Irving, M. H., Esq., M.A., Hawthorn
Jamieson, James, Esq., M.D., Collins-street East, Melbourne
Joseph, R. E., Esq., Swanston-street
Kernot, W. C., Esq., M.A., C.E., Melbourne University
Lynch, William, Esq., Collins-street West
M‘Coy, F., Professor, Melbourne University
M ‘Gowan, 8. W., Esq., Hast St. Kilda
Madden, Wyndham M., Esq., Trinity College, Melbourne
Maloney, Patrick, Esq., M.B., Lonsdale-street Hast, Melbourne
Manton, C. A., Esq., The Treasury
Moerlin, C., Esq., Melbourne Observatory
Moors, H., Esq., Office Chief Commissioner of Police, Melbourne
Morris, R., Esq., 10 Hawke-street, West Melbourne
Munday, J., Esq., care of Alfred Woolley & Co., Melbourne
Muntz, T. B., Esq., C.E., Town Surveyor’s Office, Prahran
Murray, R. L., Esq., Railway Department, Melbourne
Nanson, E. J., Professor, M.A., Melbourne University
Neild, J. E., Esq., M.D., Collins-street Hast
Newbery, J. Cosmo, Esq., B.Sc., Technological Museum
Noone, J., Esq., Lands Department
Parkes, Edmund 8., Esq., Bank of Australasia
Parnell, E., Esq., Latrobe-street West
Paul, Rev. A., Chapel-street, Hast St. Kilda
Patching, H. §., Esq., Lygon-street, Carlton
Phelps, J. J., Esq., Melbourne Club
Pirani, F. J., Esq., M.A., C.E., Melbourne University
List of Members. 73
Rudall, J. T., Esq., F.R.C.S., Collins-street East
Skene, A. J., Esq., M.A., Lands Department
Steel, W. H., Esq., C.E., Public Works Department
Sutherland, Alex., Hsq., M.A., Carlton College, Fitzroy
Wallis, A. R., Esq., Woodford, Kew
Walker, Alex. R., Esq., 40 Latrobe-street West
Watis, W. O. , Esq. ., C.E., City Surveyor, Town Hall, Melbourne
Waugh, Rev. J. 8. , Wesley College
Wigg, H. C., Esq., E.B.C.S. , Lygon- street, Carlton
Wilkins, Alfred, Esq., care of J. Henty and Co.
Willimot, W. C,, Collins-street West
CouNntTRY MEMBERS.
Bland, R. H., Esq., Clunes, Victoria
Bone, William, M.D., Castlemaine
Bradley, R. 8., Esq., Grammar School, Stawell
Burrows, Thomas, Esq., Sandhurst
Caselli, H. R., Esq., Ballarat
Clough, C. F., Esq., A.I.C.E., Forest Hill, South Yarra
Conroy, James Macdowall, Esq., Deniliquin, N. 8. Wales
Gould, Louis Le, Esq., C.E., Shire Hall, Ballan
Henderson, J. B., Esq., Water Supply Department, Sandhurst
Howitt, A. W., Esq., P.M., F.G.S., Sale 2
Hopkins, D. M., Esq., Haglehawk, Sandhurst
Kane, Rev. H. P., M.A., Brighton
Keogh, Laurence F., Esq., Warrnambool
M‘Gillivray, P. H., Esq., M.A., M.R.C.S. Ed., Sandhurst
Murray, Stewart, Esq., C.E., Kyneton
Officer, S. H., Esq., Mount Macedon
Ogier, J. C. H., Esq., Yorick Club
Thornton, Right Rev. Dr., Bishop, Ballarat
Taylor, W. F., M.D., Warwick, Queensland
Wyatt, Alfred, Esq., P.M., Yorick Club
Ta List of Members. |
LirzE MEMBERS.
Barkly, His Excellency Sir Henry, London
Barry, His Honour Sir Redmond, M.A., Supreme Court
Bleasdale, Rev. I. J., F.G.S., &c., San Francisco
Bosisto, Joseph, Esq., M.L.A., Bridge-road, Richmond
Butters, J. 8., Esq., Victoria Club
Detmold, William, Esq., 44 Collins-street Hast
Katon, H. F., Esq., Treasury, Melbourne
Elliot, Sizar, Esq., 7 Yarra-street, South Yarra
Elliot, T. 8., Esq., Railway Department, Spencer-street
Flanagan, John, Hsq., 8 Collins-street Hast
Gibbons, 8. W., Esq., F.C.S., Collins-street Hast
Gillbee, William, Hsq., M.R.C.S. Ed., Collins-street
Higinbotham, Hon. George, M.A., Chancery-lane, Melbourne
Iffla, Solomon, Esq., L.F.P.S.G., Emerald Hill
Mueller, Baron Von, F.R.S.; Ph.D., C.M.G., South Melbourne
Niewoleon, Germain, Esq., Coliins-street
Nicholas, William, Esq., F.G.8., Melbourne University
Rawlinson, Thomas, Esq., C.E., Granite Terrace, Fitzroy
Reed, Joseph, Esq., Hlizabeth-street South, Melbourne
Reed, Thomas, Esq., Fiji |
Smith, A. K., Esq., MLA. C.E., &c., Leicester-street, Carlton
Thompson, H. A., Esq., Lucknow, New South Wales
Were, J. B., Esq. (K.C.D., Denmark ; K.O.W., Sweden), Collins-
street West
White, E. J., Esq., F.R.A.S., Melbourne Observatory
Wilkie, D. E., Esg., M.D., &c., Collins-street West.
Wilson, Sir Samuel, Knt., Oakley Hall, East St. Kilda
List of Members. 75
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Ktheridge, Robert, Esq., junr., F.G.S., 17 Rankeillor-street, Edin-
burgh, Scotland
Ulrich, G. H. F., Professor, F.G.S., Dunedin, Otago, N.Z.
Woods, Rev. Julian E. Tenison, F.G.S., Surrey Hills, Sydney
HonorRARY MEMBERS.
Clarke, Sir Andrew, Colonel, C.B., R.E., Calcutta
Goepper, H. R., M.D., Ph.D., Breslau
Haast, Julius, Esq., Ph.D., F.G.S., Canterbury, New Zealand
Neumayer, George, Professor, Ph.D., Bavaria
Perry, Right Rev. Charles, D.D., Avenue-road, London
Scott, Rev. W., M.A., Sydney, N.S. W.
Smith, John, Esq., M.D., Sydney University, N.S. W.
Todd, Charles, Esq., C.M.G., F.R.A.S., Adelaide, S.A.
Thomson, Sir Wyville, Professor, Edinburgh
76 © List of Institutions, &e.,
LIST OF THE INSTITUTIONS AND LEARNED
SOCIETIES THAT RECEIVE COPIES OF THE
SOCIETY
“TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL
OF VICTORIA.”
BRITISH.
Royal Society ...
Royal Society of Arts
Royal Geographical Society
Royal Asiatic Society
Royal Astronomical Society
Royal College of Physicians
Statistical Society
Institute of Civil Engineers
Institute of Naval Architects
The British Museum
The Geological Society
Museum of Economic Geology
Meteorological Society...
- Anthropological Society ...
Linnean Society ee
Athenzum si
College of Surgeons
Zoological Society
“ Geological Magazine”
“Quarterly Journal of Science”
“Journal of Applied Science”
Colonial Office Library
Foreign Office Library
Agent-General of Victoria
“ Nature ” as “3,
University Library Sor
Philosophical Society
The Bodleian Library
Public Library 5a
Owen’s College Library ...
Free Public Library
Literary and Philosophical Society
Yorkshire College of Science
London
London
London
London
London
London
London
London
London
London
London
London
London
London
London
London
London
London
London
London
London
London
London
London
London
” Cambridge
Cambridge
Oxford
Liverpool
Manchester
Manchester
Manchester
Leeds
That Recewe Copies of the “ Transactions.” 77
Royal Society ... ah sia os Edinburgh
University Library see es sve Edinburgh
Royal Botanical Society ... aed ies Edinburgh
Philosophical Society ... Hee ie ... Glasgow
University Library uss ms ... Glasgow:
Institute of Engineers of Scotland. bil ... Glasgow
Royal Irish Academy te Me Me ee!) Dublin
Trinity College Library .. a aw © Dablin
Royal Geological Society of Ireland ie o>) (Drath
Royal Dublin Society ... a see 20 Dublin
EUROPEAN.
Geographical Society _.... be an aa Paris
Acclimatisation Society ... A Ba ee Paris
Royal Academy of Sciences Bs Ake ... Brussels
Royal Geographical Society Mee Sie Copenhagen
Academy of Science sas Be a Stockholm
Academy of Science En ve uae sve” (Uipsal
Royal Society ... es ae bee «. . Upsal
The University as ie eos Christiania
Imperial Academy wet aa St. Petersburg
Imperial Society of Naturalists oe re .-. Moscow
“ Petermann’s Geological Journal”... Jee Hamburgh
Society of Naturalists... ot = Hamburgh
Royal Institution ane .-. Utreeht
Royal Netherlands Meteorological Society eee ... Utrecht
Geological Society ~~ Lf Darmstadt
Linnean Society ae a Darmstadt
Academy of Natural History wie ; ... Giessen
Geographical Society _... oni _ Frankfort-on-Main
Royal Academy of Science ae ae ... Munich
Royal Academy see bass .. Vienna
Royai Geological Society... «Sei EMLsitede ... Wienna
Royal Geographical Society see a ... Vienna
Royal Botanical Society ... ses > de ... Ratisbon
Imperial Academy wi vse ss ... Breslau
Society for Culture of Science ee ree ... Breslau
Royal Society of Sciences ... Leipzig
Imperial Leopoldian Carolinian Academy ‘of German
Naturalists Be We Le ... Dresden
Royal Society ... sed aoe ae 1..¥ ie Berhin
_ Geographical Society _..... ae ai .. Berlin
Society of Naturalists... ont uh bd, Halle
Physico-Graphico Society whe os iat Lund
Bureau of Nautical Meteorology ... ae Stockholm
Academy of Arts and Sciences... 4 ... Modena
78 Inst of Institutions, &c.,
Royal Society ... she oe Goettingen
Natural History Society .. age os ... Geneva
Royal Academy of Science ae ea. .» Madrid
Royal Academy of Science AC Ds ... Lisbon
Society for Culture of Science... ee ... Bremen
Royal Academy of Agriculture... ie .... Florence
Italian Geographical Society i ie ... Florence
Academy of Sciences... ... Bologna
Royal Institute for Science, Literatur = and Art He Milan
Royal Society of Science ‘ - ic g&Naples
Academy of Sciences... =a ot a Turin
Scientific Academy of Leghorn ... cehen ... Leghorn
Academy of Sciences... ie. i ag Lyons
Physical and Medical Society Be Some Wiirtemburg
Helvetic Society of Natural Sciences onan tess Pre ine Areata
Society of Natural History and Medicine ... Heidelberg
Academy of Science... - bau at _.. Palermo
AMERICAN.
American Academy ... a a ... Boston
Geographical Society ... soe is ... New York
Natural History Society ... ~ we ane .... Boston
Smithsonian Institute ... Asie ad Washington
American Philosophical Society... = tie Philadelphia
Academy of Science 5 ... St. Louis, Missouri
War Department, United States Navy oie Washington
Department of the Interior one bale Washington
Davenport Academy of Natural Sciences... Towa, U.S.
ASIATIC.
' Madras Literary Society ... ae ies ... Madras
Geological Survey Department ... ge ... Calcutta
Royal Bengal Asiatic Society bias hs --- Calcutta
Meteorological Society ... seit Sak Mauritius
Royal Society of Netherlands se ee .. Batavia
CoLONIAL.
Parliamentary Library ... ase bai Melbourne
University Library me as sik Melbourne
Public Library... sie tae Melbourne
Registr ar-General’s Department ee a Melbourne
Medical Society ne a ae Melbourne
German Association a os te Melbourne
Atheneum... sae soa wae Melbourne
That Receive Copies of the “ Tramsactions.” 79
Keclectic Association of Victoria
Chief Secretary’s Office
School of Mines
Sandhurst Free Library ..
Free Library
Free Library
Free Library ...
Philosophical Society
South Australian Institute
Royal Society ...
Linnean Society of New South Wales
The Observatory a
Royal Society ...
New Zealand Institute
Otago Institute
Melbourne
Melbourne
Ballarat
Sandhurst
Fitzroy
Echuca
... Geelong
Adelaide, S. A
S.A
Sydney, N.S.W,
Sydney, N.S.W.
: Sydney, N.S.W.
Hobart Town, Tasmania
Wellington, N.Z.
Dunedin, N,Z,
Mason, Firth & M‘Cutcheon, Printers, 51 & 53 Flinders Lane West, Melbourne.
“i
.
TRANSACTIONS —
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
society of Victoria, |
(en ee
2
. Edited under the Authority of the Couneil of the Society. — a : Se 5 4
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a ‘THE AUTHORS OF THE SEVERAL PAPERS ARE SOLELY RESPONSIBLE FOR THE SOUNDNESS OF THE
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FLINDERS LANE WEST.
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ISSUED 1hth MARCH, 1878.
-
AGENTS T0 THE SOCIETY. : a
| WILLIAMS & NORGATE, 14 HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON.
To whom all Se aepeliate nS for transmission to the Royal rp of Victoria. : ye ap
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PROCEEDINGS
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VOLS: 217,
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_ .THE AUTHORS OF THE SEVERAL PAPERS ARE SOLELY RESPONSIBLE FOR THE SOUNDNESS OF THE
OPINIONS GIVEN AND FOR THE ACCURACY OF THE STATEMENTS MADE THERELN.
MELBOURNE:
MASON, a igs S522 be 5S bee 2 M‘CUTCHEON, PRIS
FLINDERS LANE WEST,
ISSUED 11th JULY, 1878.
~
AGENTS TO THE SOCIETY.
WILLIAMS & NORGATE; 14 HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON:
‘To eB aH communications for transmission to the Royal-Society of Victoria
’ _ from ail pe of Europe should be sent.
PROCEEDINGS
: Fa : Lente OF atte ; |
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-. '“7§sueHD loth APREL, 1879. ©
= sree uruors OF THE seein PAPERS ARE SOLELY RESPONSIBLE FOR THE sores OF THE
OPINIONS GIVEN AND. FOR THE ACCURACY OF THE STATEMENTS MADE TIEREIN. ‘ ¥,
= MELBOURNE: . RARE get at
{ MASON, FIRTH & M‘CUTCHEON, PRINTERS, | J =.
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AGENTS TO THE SOCIETY.
_ |. WILLIAMS & NORGATE, 14 HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON;
PIES, To.whom all communications for transmission to the Royal Society of Victoria
: : ‘from all parts of Europe should be sent.” :
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