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TRANSACTIONS 


AND 


PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


Aoval Society of Victoria. 


VO. ATV: 


PART I. 


Edited under the Authority of the Council. 


ISSUED SEPTEMBER 1887. 


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from all -parts of Europe, should be sent. 


1887. 


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CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXIV.—PART I. 


Sa er a 


PAGE 
Art.I.—The Oceanic Languages Semitic.—Part II. By the 
Rev. D. Macpona.p, Fate, Havannah Harbour, New 

Hebrides ae Be a ee Ae 1—41 


II.—Notes on Fungi in Mines.—Part Il. By H. T. Tispauu 41—44 


III.—Notes on the Occurrence of Glaciated Pebbles and 
Boulders in the so-called Mesozoic Conglomerate 
of Victoria. By EH. J. Dunn, F.G.5S. He or 44—46 


IV.—Notes on Fungi in Mines.—Part I. By H. T. Tispaun 46—47 
V.—On the production of Colour in Bird’s Eggs. By 


A. H. 8. Lucas, B.Se., M.A. ve 52—60 

VI.—The Geology of the Portland Promontory, Western 
Victoria. By G. 8S. GrirritHs, F.G.S. .. 61—80 

Vil.—On the value of J and the value of g. By Professor 
H. M. Anprew, M.A. .. es aes 80 

VilIl.—Note on the Proposed Photographic Charting of the 
Heavens. By R. L. J. Huuery, F.R.S., F.R.A.S... 80 


PROCEEDINGS ee ae 6 is ape vi 83—94 


ue de 


oN a — 4. ara 
a oa - . ‘ iN i 

ite tan is 
ae ahi ae 


Royal Society of Victorta. 


Patron. 
HIS EXCELLENCY SIR HENRY BROUGHAM LOCH, K.C.B. 


President. 
PROFESSOR W. C. KERNOT, M.A., C.E. 


Vice- Presidents. 
E. J. WHITE, F.R.A.S. | J. COSMO NEWBERY, B.Sc.,C.M.G. 


Bon. Creasurer. 
HENRY MOORS. 


Hon. Secretaries. 
H. K. RUSDEN. | G. W. SELBY. 


Hon. Aibvarian. 
JAMES E, NEILD, M.D. 


Council. 
E. BAGE, Jun. ; R. L. J. ELLERY, F.R.S., F.R.AS. 
C. R. BLACKETT, F.C.S. G. S. GRIFFITHS, F.R.G.S. 
A. H. 8. LUCAS, B.Sc., M.A. L. HENRY, M.D. 
S. McGOWAN. JAMES JAMIESON, M.D. 
W. H. STEEL, C.E. | H. F. ROSALES, F.G.S8. 


ALEX. SUTHERLAND, M.A. | J.T. RUDALL, F.B.G.S. 


A it ane i ie Kai y eres tas aie 


Demet fA Ad 


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it EL: Va PNR 
Ae ie a iy 


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TRANSACTIONS. 


Art. 1.—The Oceanic Languages Semitic : 


By Rey. D. Macponatp, Fate, Havannah Harbour, New 
Hebrides. 


[Read 10th March, 1887.] 


Ill. THE PRONOMINALS. 


Under this head are included the Demonstrative Pronouns, 
meaning this (here), that (there); and the same Demon- 
stratives used as Articles or Emphatics; as Relatives; as 
Interrogatives ; as Indefinites; and as Reflexives. 


$1. THE DEMONSTRATIVES. 


a. The Fatese demonstrative elements may be thus 
given :— 
ma (fa, wa, wo). 
cue. O, Us 0; 
SU, Se. 
li, lu (rd, ru, 7a). 
Nt, WN, NO. 
ke (ga). 
te, UU. 


Se CoN 


The forms in brackets are phonetic variations. Of these 
seven demonstratives, 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 are sometimes used 
alone with a noun, meaning simply “this,” as fatw stone, 
jfatu ua, fatu i, fatu se, fatu im, fatu ke, this stone. The 
other two, 4 and 7, are used thus only in compounds, but 
their use in this way, and in other ways, clearly shows that 
they are demonstrative elements exactly like the other five. 
The compound demonstrative expressions are very common 
in Fatese (as indeed in other languages). Thus 1, 3 give 
mesa bs 2 ua; 5, 2,-nar; 1, 5, wane; 5, 6, naga ; 
Bs-8; netu ; Dy 3, Nis ; 4, 6, arog. Then we have sometimes 
three elements heaped together, or) éven. four, as, I; 5,..6 
uanaga ; 4,1,2,riuat; 5, 3, 7, nistu; 6, 3, 7, histu ES 
uantu ; 6, 5, 7, kintu 3 A, i e 6, 7u or riuanuga ie DAM 

B 


2 
4, 
2 


? ? 


ae The Oceanic Languages Semitic: 


eriuat. Sometimes the same element is doubled, as nin. 
The general effect of this heaping together of demonstatives 
is emphasis: compare the vulgar English emphatic “this ’ere” 
for this. 


These seven demonstratives are, as has been shown in JI. 
(on the Numerals), universal in Oceanic; this of course does 
not mean that they are all equally in use in every dialect. 
In the above the principal phonetic changes are in 1, m to f 
(v), wu (w), though those in 4, J to 7, and in 5, k to g, are also 
to be noted. 


b. The Malagasy demonstratives are thus given in Griffith’s 
Grammar, and are compounded, as will be seen, of the above 
seven elements :— 


Sing. aty, itoy, itony, 10, rzato, zatony, this. 

Pl. wreto, vretoy, retony, vreo, izatoana, these. 

Sing. trod, my, irikitra, vrokatra, that. 

PL. wretoana, wreny, vreroana, those. 

Sing. or Pl. izao,izany, ilehy, wy, this, that, these, those. 


The element |] (m) appears to be wanting in these, though 
it may be among them disguised as o (wu); it undoubtedly is 
in the Malagasy, as will be seen below. In the foregoing, 
ras tor’, U7 40r ¢, jt 10r ke. 

c. The Malay demonstatives may easily be seen to be 
composed of the same elements. Thus i, itu, nwn, and 
Javanese tka punika (p for m) same as Fa. wanaga. That 
s, k, and m (as p), and 7 for /, sometimes as d, are original 
demonstrative elements in Malay, as well as 2, , and ¢, will 
abundantly appear as we proceed. 


' d. The Samoan demonstratives are composed of the same 
elements : — 


Sing. o lenez, siner, sia, this. 

Pl. 2a, nei, these 

Sing. 0 lea, o lena, o lela, send, sisi, siasi, sinasi, that. 
Pl. na, those. 


In these (0 is sometimes if not always for ko) 1 and 7 are 
wanting; but they are found in other Maori-Hawaiian 
dialects, as for instance, 7, Tahiti teze, tera, tena, this, that ; 
and 1 as a prefixed demonstrative or article in Tahiti vau, 
Maori waw (for muku), I, and Tahiti vera (ef. Fa. nara, 
I. § 24), they. This vera is for mera. 


The Pronomimals. 3 


§ 2. COMPARISON. 


a. The Semitic demonstrative elements, exactly corres- 
ponding to the above as they do, may be thus given :— 


1. ma. 

Bey Uy. by, Bs For these see Dillman, Eth. Gr., 
3. 8, Z SS 62-65. 

Beh Ldn 14% 

5. an, Nh. NotTe.—3 and 7 were originally the 
6. ka. same. 

ic bd. J 


For 1, ma, this, see Sayce, Assy. Gram., p. 60. This ma 
appears as the interrogative, &c., in all the Semitic, and in 
all our four Oceanic dialects. 

b. These seven demonstrative elements are also heaped 
together in the Semitic dialects for emphasis, exactly as in 
the Oceanic, thus :— 


Semitic. 


Heb. hua, hia, see L., § 23. 


Eth. u‘tu, Tig. ete 
Chald. den, dena. 
Chald. dek, Arb. daka 
Chald. diken 

Chald. hanak 

Chald. hen, Assy. annu 


Talmud inhu 
Tig. neswu 

Tig. nate 

Syr. horko (here) 
Assy. wllu 


Eth. eleku, Amh. elehe, pl. 


Eth. elu, pl. 

Heb. eleh, pl. 

Eth. elekuetu, eleketu, pl. 
Kth. elontu, pl. 

Chald. zlen, pl. 

Eth. ze, Heb. zeh 

Assy. swatu 

Assy. naga, aga 

Assy. ‘agannu, ’aganna 
Assy. agassu 


Oceanic. 
Sam. ia, Malay zvya (for 2a), 
Tongan aia. 
Mg. ity, My. ctu 
Tah tena, Mg. ttony 
Santa Cruz deka, Santo ituga 
Vanua Lava tigen 
Santo neka, naka 
Mg. my, My. wi, Fa. in, 
Na, Ne 
Fa. mea, My. iia 
Fa. 11s 
Fa. netw 
Fa. ervk (this) 
Mg. aroa, Fa. arat 
Mg. tlehy, sing. and pl. 
Mg. reo, pl. 
Tanna traha, cilia, ala, pl. 
Mg. troakatra, vrikitra, sing. 
Mg. vreto, pl. 
Mg. zreny, pl. 
Fa. se 
Mg. izato 
Lakon theog, Java ika 
Norbarbar gene, Fa. kin 
Fa. kis 
B 2 


4 | The Oceanic Languages Semitic: 


Assy. ammuw (ma) Eromanga 7mo, yamu 
Assy. SW’asu, Susu Sam. sias2, sist 
Tig. ezvw, sing., pl. Mg. izao, sing., pl. 


Mod. Syr. ant, pl, sing. Sam. 7d, pl., sing. 


Note in the foregoing, on both sides, the change of k to h, 
and of / to 7; and as to the latter, compare further Ges. Heb. 
Dict. s.v. aru. Note also that the whole seven elements, 
and they only, occur on both sides of the comparison in 
these compounds. : 


§ 3. ARTICLES OR EMPHATICS. 


a. The articles or emphatics by which is meant simply 
demonstratives, pre-fixed or post-fixed to nouns, have, as the 
above seven demonstrative elements applied in this particular 
way, already all come under notice in I. and IL, on the 
Personal Pronouns and Numerals, especially in the latter: 
see II, § 2. It was there remarked that these are found used 
with other nouns, as well as with the numerals. Thus (5) Fa. 
nakasu, nakau, Mg. ny hazo, tree ; (4) Sam. le lagi, (2) Fa. 
elugt, (5) Mg. ny lanitra, heaven; (1) Sam. masina, Sulu 
fasina, the moon; (5) Fa. nilagz, (1) Sam. matagz, the wind ; 
(1) Fa. makau, a cluster; (7) Ma. tekau, ten ; (6) Api or Epi, 
kabarvo, (3) sumberio and vario, Sanguir vwran, the moon; 
(4) My. rumah, (5) An. neom, (1) Ahtiago fezom, (3) Fa. 
suma, house; (6) My. kanak, and anak, (3) Mg. zanak, 
child; (1) My. bintang, Celebes bitwy, Sam. fetu, Fa. maset, 
An. moyeuv (final v emphatic), (4) Ja. luntang, (6) Mg. 
kintana, Ceram tot, Matabello town, star. In the above 
examples the word for “star,’ as will appear, begins with 
t (nt), so that we have as articles prefixed to it m (b, f, &c.), 
land k. In many cases these articles have been regarded 
by Europeans and even by natives, as parts of the original 
word, so that, for instance, the Fatese often say naswma for 
sumad, house, as if s were a part of wma, the original word. 
So the Samoans say o le laau, as if the la of laaw were 
radical, as Bopp also thought it was, in trying to trace it to 
the Sanserit brakasa; Prakrit rukka, (see his work “ Uber 
die Verwandtschaft der Malayisch-Polynesischen Sprachen, 
mit den Indisch-Europaischen,” p. 4); whereas it is the 
article prefixed to the original word aw for kaw, wood, tree. 
This may be called the unconscious article, and its being so 
unconscious, points to far distant ages in the past, when it 
was the consciously used article. Note in the above som? 


The Pronominals. 5 


of the same suftixed as emphatics, as in the Numerals, to 
which we now add, completing the list thus :— 


Yap. tuv, An. moyeur, star. 

Epi vario, moon; Mota matat, eye. 
My. alas (Mg. ala), forest. 

My. layar (Tag. laywg), sail. 

Mg., My. volana, bulan, moon. 
Rotti bulak, moon. 

Sumatra bulet, moon. 


TESS eae 


b. The same may now be shown with the Personal 
Pronouns thus :— 


PREFIXED. 


Tah. ovaw, Ma. wau, I, Tah. vera, they. 

. Tanna zau, Fyi kor au (ko 7 au), I. 

. Mg. zaho, I, Tag. siya, he. 

. Sumatra rehu, New Guinea law, I (1V., s 4, L.). 
Torres Islands mau, Santo nau, I. 

Sam. ‘ow (for kokw), Fa. kinau, i. 

New Guinea tau, Negrito tiyac, I. 


ST Ste Go BO 


POSTFIXED. 


Fa. komam, Mota kamam, we. 

Pentecost kamai, Paama komaz, My. kam, we. 

Fa. akamus (also akam, kumw), ye. 

Mallicolo amru, ye (but ru compares with “eo” 
in Mg. anareo, probably). 

Fiji kemuni, ye. 

. Torres Islands noke (for nawke), I. 

. Duke of York muat, ye. 


Penn Ge Oat 


NID OH 


ce. The Fatese articles are 7, with vowel before or after, as 
m, Nt, or na, the common. article, and e which is more rare, 
and the indefinite articles, te (=any, whatever), and szkez, 
“one,” “an.” Used only with names of persons, we have 
masculine, or with names of males, ma, and feminine, or 
with names of females, laz (le, /2). 

The Malagasy articles are 2, ra, and ny (pronounced as 
Fa. 12), of which 7 and va are used only with proper names, 
and ny is the common article, and identical with Fa. v2, 
an, na. The indefinite is iray, “one, “an.” 


6 | The Oceanic Languages Semitic : 


The Malay has no article like Fa. ni, Mg. ny. But int 
and itu, this, as Crawford remarks (Cr. p. 28), are used 
sometimes as “‘ equivalent to our definite article, the.” The 
indefinite is sa, “one,” “ an.’ 

The Samoan common article is le, o is often used with it, 
as o le Atua, God; or alone, as o Tangaloc, Tangaloa. The 
indefinite article is se. 

d. The commonest Oceanic article is n (nt, ny, &c.), and 
it is identical with Fa. wm, na, Mg. iny, My. ini, this. It 
prevails in Madagascar and Papuanesia. Several articles 
are more or less common to Papuan and Maori-Hawaiian, as 
Sam. ‘0, Fi. ko; Tah. e, Fa. e, ora. Te is common in Maori- 
Hawaiian, Santa Cruz te, Fa. (indefinite) te. The other 
articles are of comparatively limited use, except Sam. le. 
The Malay, which has no general article like the other three 
branches of Oceanic, makes up for it by a peculiarly large 
use of suffixed emphatics, somewhat like the Syriac. The 
unconscious article in the Malay, as J (d), in duwa, lima, 
2, 5, is found also in the other branches. 


§ 4. ARTICLES AND EMPHATICS, COMPARISON. 


ad. Kor the same demonstrative elements, so many as 
used, attached to the Semitic numerals (conscious and un- 
conscious articles), see Il. As to the Semitic personal 
pronouns, see I., an (5) is the demonstrative most commonly 
used, prefixed as an article. Thus it is, especially in the 
pronouns of the first and second persons, found generally in 
all the Semitic dialects: Heb. anoki, I. Arb. anta, thou, 
Heb. anachnu, Arb. nachnu, we, Arb. antum, ye. Now 
this same element (5) is the one most commonly used thus, 
with the pronouns in Oceanic, especially in Papuan and 
Malagasy, also, see I. Thus second person, Mg. hianao 
(ki ankao), My. angkaw (ankau), Fa. nago (nako), Mota 
iniko, With respect to this an (5), prefixed to the personal 
pronoun as an article, it is undoubtedly one of the most 
ancient features of the Semitic languages, and as, in Oceanic, 
the Papuan has it as fully as the Heb. or Arb., and 
more fully than the My. or Ma-Ha., or even perhaps 
the Mg. We see that in this point it preserves a 
more archaic aspect than these other two _ branches. 
But the Mg. and Pa. equally have this article as the 
common article for all nouns. Im Assyrian, we have 


ad 


The Pronominals. 7 


s (3) in see, he, si, she; in Harar & (6) in skhakh, and the 
same in Assy. cata, thou, Mod. Syr. achton, ye. Tigre niska, 
thou, nisu, he, nis (5, 3) compound article, or nis, this, ka, 
thou, and uw, he. We find also in Semitic the same suftixed 
as emphatics, Tigre nisus, he, anas, I, nisatekwimos, ye. 
In this last example 7, s, t (5, 3, 7) are heaped together and 
prefixed, while s (3) is also suffixed. See Fa. akamus, ye, 
in § 3. In Chald. himon, they, we have 7 (5) final. 

b. Generally, as to nouns, the well-known Semitic articles, 
Heb. ha, Phen. a, Fa. Tah. e, a, § 3, is prefixed, but in 
Syriac it is suffixed as an emphatic. So Arb. al or le (as 
often pronounced), Sam. le (South Arb. m or wm), is prefixed. 
The Ethiopic has no article (prefixed), but appears to have 
traces of the same post-position article (in the Amharic w), 
as the Syriac. According to Halevy, the Sabaean (Himyaritic) 
has as suffixed articles or emphatics, hw, etymologically 
identical with Syriac a, m, and n, or hew (hu and x). This 
m (“mimation”) he describes as “a true indefinite article” 
(the other two being definite), and he compares it with the 
Arb. nunation: see his “Etudes Sabeennes,” VI. Thus 
Sabaean suffixes to nouns (1), (2), and (5), or (2, 5). 

ce. But, in addition, generally all the demonstrative par- 
ticles are found occasionaliy used in the Semitic like articles: 
just as in Oceanic: see Malay above. As the Latin zlle 
became the article in the Romance dialects, so manifestly 
both the Semitic and Oceanic articles have been analogously 
derived, that is, the article was originally a demonstrative, 
meamme “this,” or “he,” “she,’)‘4it,”.\Thus im 'Tigre, 
Jno. ix., 34, we have with sab, man, the demonstrative ete 
(Eth. u%u, he, this, the), as an article, etesab — the man. 
So, in verse 24, we have eze, this in ezesab = the man: 
compare, in verse 39, ze (ith, ze, Heb. zeh, this), in zeolam 
= the world. In Syriac, in like manner we have hwo, this, 
used as an article, for instance, in Acts vill. 35, huo ketobo 
= the Scripture. In Mod. Syr. “in general, the pronouns 
0, €é, and ani, are used for the definite article :” Stoddart, 
Gr., p. 145. This o is in the Heb. hua, and e, hia. In the 
Semitic and Oceanic, demonstratives are found used both 
before and after the noun (though most commonly after), 
hence we find also articles or emphatics both prefixed and 
post-positive. 

d. The Fa. article e (or sometimes q@), as in e kobu, or 
ekobu, the house, is, as Gabelentz (“‘Sesake-Sprach ”) saw, a 


8 | The Oceanic Languages Semitic: 


shortened form of the personal pronoun, third singular, 
and so, of course, in Tah. e (a). Maori a, Samoan 7 (with 
pronouns), San Christoval a, e, 2, Mg. 7, and My, a, in aku, I 
(and apa, what?) So Heb. ha, Phen. a, Syr. a, Sabaean hu, 
Eth. and Amharic uw (Halevy VI.), Mod. Syr. 0, @, are all 
shortened forms (Halevy) of the pronoun of the third person 
singular, which in Heb. is hua, hia. In Syr., Sab., Eth., and 
Amh., it is suffixed, in Heb. and Phen., prefixed. Eth. like 
Malay, uses no prefixed article, but uses for the article 
sometimes wu, which is identical with Malay tu, also in 
like manner used for the article: see for Eth., Dillm., Gr., 
§ 172 a, and note; and for Malay, above, § 33 6. The 
common Semitic pronominal article an, im, is the common 
Pa. and Mg. article, not only with pronouns, but nouns, as 
an, ni, ny, in, na. What in Arb. is al (le), the article is 
also in Samoan the article le. Thus to exhibit the foregoing 
tabularly :— 


ARTICLES PREFIXED. 


(7) Tah. te (Rarat. te) Syr. dé (below § 5, 6.) 
(2) Fa. e, a, Sam. o Heb. ha 

San Christoval e, 7, a Phen. @ 

Tah. e, Ma. o Mod. Syr. 0, é 

My. a, Mg. 4 
(4) Sam. le Arb. al (le) 


(5) Fa.in,ni,na, Me.ny,an Heb., &. an, mm 
Tag. ang (an), Article 
and Relative of Java 
img in ingkang, Rela- 
tive and Article. 

It must be remembered that, though these articles on 

both sides are undoubtedly identical etymologically, that 
does not imply that they are wsed identically in all points, 
and in fact they are not. The Mg. am is found, like the 
Heb. an, used with the pronouns in hianao (anao) thou, 
thee, hianario (anario) ye, and in anay, us. Anareo is for 
ankareo, and this has exactly the same elements as Amharic 
alanta, ye (ta being same as ka, by interchange of ¢ 
nd k), for ala = reo (areo) = these: see I. The placing of 
he plural demonstrative before (Amh.) or after (Mg.) 
he personal pronoun is a mere matter of syntactical 
transposition. 


The Pronominals. is) 


ARTICLES OR EMPHATICS SUFFIXED. 


Oc. § 3, IL. § 2. Se, abon, a, b. 

(1) v, m Sabaean ™m 

(2) 0, 2 Sabaean hu, Amh. uw, Syr. a 
(3) s Tigre s 

(5) na, n, na Sabaean 7 


The remark as to etymological identity, and possible or 
actual difference of use, under the preceding table, applies here 
also. It will be observed that not all the seven demonstrative 
elements are on the Semitic side; this, however, may be set 
down to our ignorance of ancient (and even modern) vulgar 
Semitic dialects. In Se., as in Oc, the numeral “one” is 
also used for the indefinite article ‘“‘an,” “a.” We formerly 
showed (in II.) that the numeral “ one ” itself is of pronomi- 
nal origin. 


§ 5. RELATIVES. 


a. In what follows, the bracketed figures refer to the 
demonstrative elements as numbered in § 1 a, or § 2 a. 


Mg. My. Fa. (Pa.) Sam. (Ma.-Ha.) 
iza0 yang te 0 le 
lihy nen UanNe Tah. te, ter 
Ja. sang, kung Ngo Rarat. te 


Tag. ang (an), na 
Ja. mngkang (inkan) 

There is a close connection between the article and the 
relative ; yang is often = the; fez is te, the, and 2 (2); 0 lé 
is o le, the, and e (2). For izao, and lehy, see § 2, b. Fa. 
wane (1, 5) is like the English “that,” demonstrative and 
a. as also is My. nen (5, 5), and Fa. S. dialect, naga 

5, 6). 
b. COMPARISON. 
samg (8, 5), izao (2, 3,2) Eth. za (3, 2), Assy. sa, Heb. 
asher, she (2, 3, 4) 


kang (6, 5) Heb. kz (6, 2) 

yang, (a, see below, c.) Amh. yo, (of Eth. 2a, Dillm. 
| § 144 a.) 

té (7, 2), te Chald. di (7, 2), Syr. dé, d 

o lé Mod. Arb. elit, el, (Eth.ela, pl.) 

nago, nen, ang, NG Eth. enta (5, 7) 

wane (1, 5) Arb. man (1, 5), ma, Sab. 


ban, ba 


ip The Oceanic Languages Semitic: 


The Arb. man and ma differ from wane in being used 
“substantively,” Wright, Arb. Gr. § 248. In Fa, tea is used 
for both genders and numbers also substantively, and stands 
for he who, they who, that which, what. The Fa. wane 
preserves the original demonstrative force much more than 
the Arb. man, which can hardly be said to preserve it at all. 
The Amh. “ prefixed relative pronoun” yame is, like Fa. tea, 
used substantively for all genders and numbers. 


In Javanese (Crawford, Dissertation, p. 20) “the definite 
article is represented by the relative pronoun” kang, or sang. 
The ceremonial is ingkang, perhaps for inkan, if Fa. naga 
(for naka), thus inka-n, naka. Now in Mod. Syr. (Stoddart, 
p. 183) the ordinals are formed by prefixing the relative 
pronoun d, as an article, to the cardinals; d was also used 
thus in Anc. Syr., Uhlemann’s Cr. § 78, B 2, ¢. So in Fa, 
My., and Javanese ka, or ke (Fa.), identical with the relative 
pronoun Ja. kang, Heb. ki, is used exactly like the Syvr. d, 
as an article, prefixed to the cardinals, forming ordinals, 
thus :—Fa. ketolu or katolu, My. katiga, Ja. katalu, Mod. 
Syr. detela, Tahiti te toru, “third.” It occurs also in Mg. 
as ha, in, e.g., hateloana, three days; where, however, it does 
not form the ordinal. Now, for the Javanese katalu, we find 
in Javanese also pengtalu, “third,” that is peng appears to 
be a relative pronoun article ike ka. A comparison especially 
of the prefixed relative articles used in forming the verbal 
nouns in Ja, Mo., My., Tag, and Fa., shows clearly that it 
is, and that this p (of peng) is identical with (1), and the 
well-known Semitic prefixed relative article m (1) used in 
forming verbal nouns. Peng is the same as pun in Ja. 
punika, Fa. wanaga, see § 1, « The prefixed relative 
articles used in forming the verbal nouns are ka (in Mg. as 
ha) in My., Ja. Tag., and Mg., and in Ma. as kai; and p 
(in Mg. as mp and f) in My., Ja, Tag., and Mg., Fa., Tag., 
and Mg. also use n, as Fa. na, wm, Tagala ang (an), and 
Mg. ny. Fiji uses a, az, (and na, naz), which compares with 
Amh. ya (7a). Fa. uses te and tea in like manner. The Mg. 
My., Ja., and Tagala p (mp f), prefixed relative article, used 
in forming nouns from verbs, is, as will be shown, etymologi- 
cally identical with the common Semitic ™ similarly used. 


c. The relative (or relative article) is used in Oc. Se. 
prefixed to the pronoun, usually the suffix pronoun, to 
form the separate Possessive, both with and without an 
intervening Preposition. We treat here of the relative thus 


The Pronominals. ll 


used without the Preposition, leaving the other till the 

Prepositions come to be considered :— 

(2)a. Fa, Mg, Ma. (and Sam.) pretix a, Amh. ya, as 
Fa, agu, Mg. ahy, Ma. aku, Amharic yane, my, &e. 

(5) n. Fa., Mg., and Tah. prefix na, an, &c., Eth. enti., Tig. 
nat, and perhaps na, as Fa. anau, Mg. nyahy, 
Tah. nau, Eth. entiaya, Tig. nati, my, &e. 

(4) 1. Eromanga ari, Sam. la, Ethiopic eli, as Ero. ariyau, 
Sam. la‘u, Eth. elaya, my ; Ero. arika, Sam. lau, 
Eth. eliaka, thy, &c. 

(3) s. Tanna sa, Sam. sa, Ethiopic 2, as Ta. sevau, Sam. sa‘u, 
Eth. zzaya, my, &e. 

(7) t. Eromanga ete, Tah. ta, Mod. Syr. d, as Ero. etiyo, Tah. 
twu, Mod. Syr. diyi, my; Ero. eteko, Tah. ta oe, 
Mod. Syr. diuk, thy, &e. 


§ 6. INTERROGATIVES. 


a. What? 
Mg. My. Fa. (Pa.) Sam. (Ma.-Ha.) 
inondg apa Msifa ole & 
ino Mand isa se a 
imnona pa insifana Ma. aha, ha 
ino Gin pabila) wmsana 
apa sefe Tah. eaha 
Mand nafite Ha. he aha 
nefe 
WAse Rarat. eaa 
nefeha 
Mota sava, sa 
Epi aba or apa 
Tanna nufe, tufe 
An. wnhe 


Stripping off the well-known articles and emphatics, we 
find that there is in all these but one interrogative element : 
thus Malay apa is the same as Ma.-Ha. aha, aa, @, and Fa. 
nefe, Tanna nufe, An. ihe, is the same as Mg. ino, and 
Fa. nife is the same as My. apa, as is more clearly seen by 
stripping off the articles ne and a, which leaves fe = pa = 
what? In like manner, Rarat. aa is the same as Mg. ino, 
An. whe, of which the articles @ and 7 being stripped off, 
this is more evident in a@ = 0 = he = what? Motasa, 
article s and @ = what? is by contraction for sava, as Fa. 
isa, article ins and a = what? is for insefa. Fa. nefe = 


2 The Oceamrce Languages Semitic : 


sefe = what? the only difference being in the articles ne 
and se. Finally, to this interrogative element (0, pa, ma, fa, 
ua, fe, ha, he, a,) whether with or without a prefixed article, 
we find sometimes a demonstrative emphatic, meaning 
“this,” suffixed, as in Mg. in ona, My. mana, Fa. mse 
jana, or ims dna, and na fete, An. ne vitar, My. a patah, 
Fa. ne feha (on ne fesa), uwase. The interrogative element 
in the above is originally (1), that is ma, and the phonetic: 
changes of this m here exhibited, are already familiar to us. 
For the prefixed and suffixed demonstratives (articles or 
emphatics), see above. 


6. Comparison. 


(in) o, (o le) a, (s) a Heb. mah 
(ins) a, (se) a, (a) a, (in)he Arb. ma 
(a) ha, (a) pa, (se) fe Eth. m2, Syr. mo 
(sa) va, (ne) fe, (tu) fe Sab. ma and ba, or va (m 
: (inse) fa to 6 or v) 
(in) ona, mana Syr. mun, Mon, mono 
(nse) fana, (ins) ana Amh. mene 
(na) fete, (ne) vitaa Mod. Arb. made 
(a) patah Mod. Syr. mude 
c. Who? 
Mg. My. Fa. (Pa.) Sam. (Ma.-Ha.) 
10 siapa séi, Sé Oo a 
ZOVY supa Set, fe 
Mand, Ero. me (dw) = Ma. a war 
Tan, ba Tah. o var 
An. thi, Fi. 0 cer 
Santo ise 


Mallic, kihe 

Of these Fa. fe, Eromangan me (dialect wz), Tanna ba, 
Tahiti vat, Maori wat, Sam. ai, are identical, and consist of 
two parts, ma (1), as in @ and 6b above, and 2, the personal 
pronoun, third singular: see I., §§ 13, 23. Mg. zovy, My. 
siapa, sapa, Fa. séi, Fiji cét (2e, ther), Aneityum thi, are 
also identical, being exactly the same as those in the 
preceding sentence, with article s prefixed: thus Fa. sez 
(north dialect) is Fa. fei (south dialect), with (3) article s 
prefixed, sefer (Mg. zovy) being contracted to sé, or sé, as 
Me. zovy is to za in 72a; and as Mota sava is to sa, and Fa. 
sefa or safa to sa, and safana to sana, see a above. 


The Pronominals. 13 


d. Comparison— Who ? 


Mg. My. Fa. (Pa.) Sam. (Ma.-Ha.) 
meé, ba, fei, vai, for mat = Heb. ma (for mai = 
Wat, eb what, he, or she? what, he, or she?) 


sét, Use, 12d, with (3) article cf. Heb. zehmz= this, who? 
supa, Zovy s prefixed 
Mand Mod. Arb. man, Ch. man 
Sab. man, ban, or van 


Who? plural: see I. §§ 6, 7, 24. 
Ero. meé-e-me 


Ma. wat ma cf Heb. mi hemah = who, they? 
Fa. se mei, se mant 

Fa. nara fei, nara sé Amh,. alaman = these, who ? 
Santo ro se 


§ 7. INDEFINITES. 


a. In the Oceanic-Semitic, the interrogatives (1) in §6, 
single or re-duplicated, and with or without prefixed or 
suffixed emphatics, are used as indefinites, or relative 
indefinites, signifying “what,” “that, which,” ‘“ whatever,” 
‘some,’ “of what kind soever,” “ something,’ “somewhere,” 
&e.; and “ whoever,” &e., thus :— 


Ma. aha, My. apa, Fa. sefa Heb. mah, Arb. ma 


Fa. matuna, fatwna Ch. mah, mahdi 
Syr. medem 
My. apaapa Heb. mewmah 
Me. na inona na Mona 
My. mana Syr. mono, Amh. mene 


So the personal interrogative who? is used indefinitely in the 
sense of “ whoever,’ “some one,” “some,” “any one,” thus :— 


Fa. se, Mota 2se7 Heb. m2 
Mg. nazovy nazovy, na iza 
NA 120, 
My. stapa siapa : 
My. mana Arb. man 


In the Oceanic-Semitic, many other pronominals, indefi- 
nites, &c., are formed from the seven demonstrative elements 
in §$1, 2. As usual, in this also the Oc. has greater variety. 


b. But very remarkable, and worthy of special notice, is 
the use of the above (a) indefinite (1) after the verb, which is 


14 The Oceanic Languages Semitic : 


preceded by the negative, somewhat as we say in English 
“at all,” “however,” &c., as “he did not come aé all,” thus: 
Fa. “ti mas mau,’ Amh. ‘“alematame” (i.e. ale mata me), 
Fo. (Ma.-Ha.) ‘(si mai mau,” Aniwa (Ma.-Ha.) “si mai mana.” 

These (leaving out the verbal pronoun) may all be rendered 
in English, literally, ‘“‘not come at all,” or “not come 
however ;” but as actually used, this suffixed indefinite 
makes no translatable difference in the sense, giving merely 
a vague emphasis. Harari agrees with Amharic in this use 
of this suffixed indefinite: see for Amharic Isenberg, Gr. 
pp. 152, 3; and for Harari, Burton’s “Footsteps in East 
Africa,’ Appendix. 

§ 8. REFLEXIVES. 

In Mg. “self” is expressed by heany, or tena, or niany 
tena. These words are purely demonstrative, Compare 
Maori ano, self, and Arb. hanu, ‘ipse (tu).” Tena compares 
with My. den, self, Maori tonw, simply, only, self. The My. 
common word for “self” is dart, which looks like a redupli- 
cation of the personal pronoun, 3rd singular, dia, he, she, it. 
Dia is for ria, that is lia ; compare duwa for rwwa, that is 
luwa, the numeral 2. It (dirz) is also used for “ he,” and in 
Javanese as dewe (Ja. often vocalises My. 7) it alone is used 
for he, she, it. This diz2 is substantially identical with Eth. 
lala, lali, “er er, er selbst, selbst,” Dillm. Gram. §§ 62, 150. 
Like the Ethiopic lalz, it takes the genitive suffix of the 
pronoun, as Eth. lalikamw, My. dirikamu, yourselves, &e. 

But the further discussion of Reflexive Pronouns will 
come under the Verb in its Reflexive or Reciprocal forms. 


Note 1.—Also we shall now be prepared, as we proceed, to 
recognise the pronominal particles used in the conjugation of 
the Verb, formation of Nouns, Substantives, or Adjectives, 
and in Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions. 


Note 2—As to the Alphabet and changes of letters, all 
that need be said, till they come to be specially treated, 
is that in I and II. changes in letters the Oceanic are 
exhibited very fully in the words compared ; and that, as to 
a comparison of Oceanic alphabets and letter changes with 
Semitic (see the Oceanic-Semitic words in I. and II. for some 
examples of letter changes), we find no other principles 
exemplified than those we find in comparing the various 
Semitic dialects, as to Alphabets and letter changes, with 
each other. 


The Verb. 15 


IV. THE VERB. 
§ 1. Before speaking of the Verb proper, it seems desirable 
to say a word or two as to the following particles. 


a. The particle of comparison in Oceanic-Semitice is k’ 
(alone or combined with other particles) “as,” thus :— 


Mg. My. Fa. (Pa.) Sam. (Ma.-Ha.) 
tahaka bagaar taka, takan jumper 
bagibagt baka, Fi. vaka 
koa ka 
hoatra Ja. kaya, kadi kite, kita 


Sunda kawas kua 
So “how?” literally ‘(as what?” thus :— 


ahoana bagymana kwa 
kuin 
akory mMangapa kasa, kasafa 
Bugis mago kaswna 
kaibea 
Epi kavar 
Fi. vakaever Saapefea 
b. Comparison, “as,” “ thus.” 
ha Heb. ka, ke 
hadi, kite Aram. kade, kediz 
tuha, taka Syr. dak 
Mod. Syr. daka 
takane (“as this”) Syr. dak ’ano (“as this ”) 
hoatra, kawas Eth. kamaze (‘as this”) 
hua Eth. Arb. kama 
baga (2), faa, baka, vaka Heb. bek (oh) 
bagaimana Eth. bakama 
bagini Sab. bakana, Heb. beken 
Comparison, ‘‘ how ?” (“as what ?”) 
kaibe E 
kavar Tigre kamaa 


kua (kuwa) 

kuin, ahoana, akory 
kasafa, kasa, kasana 
mangapa, mago 
bagimana 

vakaever, fawpefer 


16 The Oceanic Languages Semitic : 


The Oceanic-Semitic particles “as” is ka, to which is 
prefixed the preposition 0’, Eth. ba, “in,” “to,” without 
any appreciable difference often in the sense, either in. 
Semitic or Oceanic: see the above examples. In Fate, we 
say either “ bisa baka Fate,” or “ bisa ki Fate,” speak Fatese, 
literally “speak as Fate.” So Eth. kama = bakama = as. 

2. Now the ka or ki which we have just seen, denotes 
“as” with or without the preposition ba, denotes also a 
preposition “to,” “towards,” &c,as we shall now see, and 
as before, with or without ba. 

Halevy (‘‘ Etudes Sabeennes,” IX.) has shown that in 
Sabaean ka = “to” is used as the sign of the accusative 
and even of the dative, exactly as the preposition le in 
Hebrew, and especially in Syriac. In Ambh. ka (or ha) 
denotes “to, from, out of, (more) than,’ Isenberg, Gr., p. 154. 
We have already seen, III, §§ 1, 2, that ka (6) is an 
Oc.-Se. demonstrative particle, and IIT, § 5, that hi is a 
relative pronoun in Hebrew. As the preposition “to,” 
“towards,” we find it thus :— 


Mg. My. Fa. (Pa.) Sam. (Ma.-Ha.) 
ho and hank = any ka, akan ka ) 
(ank is perhaps | mea kr 


for ka) 

The other preposition, Eth. ba, Heb. be, ba, Arb. 62, fi, ba, 
Syr. ba, Fiji ver, Aneityum vai, is found joined with the 
preceding (k’) in the sense of “ to,” “towards,” thus :— 


Mg. My. Fa. ’ Sam. 
bagi, baka baka Ma. whaka 
: d. baka 
Fiji vaka = Fa. baka.= “as,” “thus ;” so Sam. faa, § 1: 


and My. bagi = Fa. baki, baka = Ma. whaka = “to,” 
“towards,’ § 2. But the Fate baka,-Fi. vaka, “as,” has the 
Heb. and Eth. ka, “as,” whereas the My. bagi, Fa. baka or 
baka, Ma. whaka, “ to,’ has the Sabaean and Amharic ka 
“to.” And so again, the causative prefix, Fa. baka, Fi. vaka, 
Sam. faa, Ma. whaka, is neither of these, neither “as,” nor 
“to,” though it has been generally held to be one or the 
other, or rather both, compare IIT, § 16. It cannot be “as,” 
because the ka which alone has the force of “as,” is very 
often entirely wanting in the Oceanic causative prefix; and 
it cannot be ‘‘ to,” because the 0’ and #&’ which express “to” 
are sometimes both wanting in the Oceanic causative prefix. 


The Verb. 17 


The causative prefix, baka, is explained below as 6 for m, 
the participial m, a, the causative prefix, and ka, verb 
substantive. For ka is not only as we have seen, a demon- 
strative, the particle of comparison “as,” and a preposition 
“to,” but as we shall now see, also a final conjunction “ that,” 
“to,” “in order that,” and a verb substantive much used 
as an auxiliary. 

§ 3. The final conjunction ha, signifying “ that,” “ to,” 
“in order that :”— 


Mg. My. Fa. Sam. 
ka, woka ka, ga i, 
Ma. hia 
COMPARISON. 
ka Arb. ka Tig. ka 
d (for kt) Heb. ki 
kia 


§ 4. VERBS SUBSTANTIVE. 


These fall naturally to be considered before discussing the 
conjugation of the Verb. 


a. The particle ka, as a verb substantive. Owing to the 
practice in Oceanic-Semitic of prefixing the negative adverb 
to the verb substantive, and forming a compound word, 
meaning literally “is-not,’ “no,” we have a simple means of 
comparing Oc. and Se. verbs substantive. The three principal 
Semitic negative adverbs are Arb. ma, Heb. lo, la, le, 
Eth. ale, always prefixed, and Eth. 7 (or az) also always 
prefixed. Now these are the three principal negative 
adverbs in Oceanic also—Heb. le, Sam. le, Fa. t2, ta, 77, and 
tsi, My. ta, Mg. ts‘y and dz, are all identical; see for the 
phonetic changes of J II., on the numeral 2, where also Sam. 
retains the original l. 


Now the verb substantive fe is found thus in Oceanic, 
with prefixed negative :— 


(with 7 negative) 


Mg. My. Fa. Sam. 
tsia (for tsika) tak tika lead (for le kai) 
Palan diak rika 
diahoe (di akoe) tstka 

tsva 


18 The Oceanic Languages Senvitic : 


Compare Arabic la yakun, layaku. 
(with m negative) 


My. bukan ef. Arb. ma yakun | 

Utanata (Pa.) pakana | 

Lifu pako, Epi maka Mod. Arb. (Baghdad) maku 
(with 7 negative) 

Sam. i‘ai, Tongan tkar Eth. ako 


As to the weakening of the initial & of this verb to h or 
a breathing in Mg. and Sam., compare the Amharic in 
which it is likewise changed to h. In Arabic its final n 
is sometimes elided. The Arb. kana is much used as an 
auxiliary: Eth. kon, Amh. hon, My. kana, to be able, seem 
radically identical with this, as also Mg. hay, to be able. 
My akan, shall, will, may belong here. 

b. The common verb substantive in Malay is ada, to be, 
identical with Mg. ary. This by the change of / to 7, and d, 
ef. numeral 2, in II., is identical with Eth. halawa, halo, 
Amh. ala, Tic. alt, verb substantive, to be, and used as 
an auxiliary. Halevy derives the Arb. article al or hal 
from this verb, that is, he derives this demonstrative from 
this verb. In My. with the negative we find it thus :— 
tiada, tida, tada, tadak, and in Mg. as tsiary, tsiadry, 
(Errub and Maer lola), Ambrym tolo, Bisayan dilt, Amharic 
lela. 

With m negative we find it in Epi. maraka = My. ta dak. 
Paama boel, Maori hore. Halevy (Polynesian Grammar) 
suggests that oloo is a verb substantive in Samoan : Pratt 
(Sam. Gr.) gives it as loo. 

c. In Mg. isy is the common verb substantive, with 
negative tsy, isy, ts, “isy. This is identical with Heb. es, 
Arb. aisa, with negative ‘laisa, leis, Syr. ith, with negative 
lath, Ch. ita and lo ita. This Semitic verb substantive is 
used also as an auxiliary in Heb., and especially in Aramaic. 
It seems to be this verb substantive that we have with 
negative ma in Segaar mati, Onim matio, Papua kowiay, 
marate. Connected with this probably, is the demonstrative 
t, IIL, § 2, a (7), or s (8), as some Semitic scholars think: 
see Ges. Heb. Dict. s. v., eth, at end. 

d. In Fa. the common verb substantive is bi, fi, in one 
dialect bat or bet, in another mz. This verb substantive is 
found widely used in the New Hebrides, with and without 
the negative. With negative it isin Fa. tiba, riba, tab. It 


The Verb. 19 


is identical with Arb. fi, literally “in,” and Arb. jih, Eth. bu, 
literally “in, it,” used as a verb substantive in Mod. Arb., 
Caus. de Percival, Gram. Arab. Vulg., §§ 286-7, and in 
Ethiopic, Ludolf-Dict. s.v. With negative Eth. aleba, is 
identical with Fa. tiba, riba ; the Arb. with negative ma, is 
ma fi or ma fihk. With Fa. bi, bei, bai, is identical Tahiti 
var, ‘to be.” 

e. The Javanese verb substantive is ana, to be, to possess. 
This is found in Mg. manana, to possess, for which see 
Griffith's Me. Gr., p. 31. It is identical with Heb. hinneh 
(Ges. Dict., the demonstrative, ITT. § 2, a. (5), used as a verb 
substantive, or auxiliary.) Arb. ime (Newman, Handbook 
Mod. Arb., p. 43), Eth. ene (Dillmann, Eth. Gr. § 160, «.) 
and Amharic na, with pronoun na wé, “he is,’ which Isen- 
berg (Gr. p. 64) calls “the Irregular and Defective Verb 
Substantive.” In Oceanic, with the negative it appears in 
for instance, Gaudalcanar mania. Fa. ane, en (see Sf), 
means to be, to abide, to dwell. 

f. It has been shown in I, that the Personal Pronoun, 
third singular, is the same in Oceanic and Semitic. This 
pronoun originally demonstrative, III, § 1, 2, a. (2), was in 
Heb. hua, hia, Mod. Arb. hu, hie, Syr. hu, hi, u, 7, Mod. Syr. 
0, é, &c., used as the verb substantive, and in fact, was 
radically identical with the well-known very ancient ver) 
substantive (much used as an auxiliary) Heb. hayuh, Ch. 
hawah, Syr. hwo and wo, in Mod. Syr., often a mere vowel. 
Hence in Mod. Syr. (Stoddart, p. 34), 1t is impossible to tell 
whether the modern verb substantive is derived from the 
ancient verb substantive or pronoun. So in Oceanic we 
find the verb substantive (whether derived from the ancient 
verb substantive or pronoun, amounts to the same thing), 
with the negative thus :— 


(With negative 1.) 


Gaudalcanar taw, Ysabel teo, Eromanga taw?, Fiji tuwe, 
Tongan ta. Syr. lau, or lao, and lowo, Mod. Syyr. le, wa, &e. 


(With negative m.) 


Ysabel bai, Gaudalcanar maz, Mara-masiki mau, Florida 
muda, Nifilole bawo, Mod. Arb. mahu, mu. Compare me jih, 
mmeemene: fle is fe, “in,” “is.’-and h for hu, “he,” “is.” 
The derivation of the preposition fi, and pronoun hw helps 
to explain how they can be used as verbs substantive. 
Compare also Mod. Syr. biwa, present participle of the verb 

Cc 2 


20 The Oceanic Languages Semitic: 


wa, to be. For Arb. fi, Eth. ba, &., the derivation suggested 
by Halevy is the best. He derives it from the verb, which 
in Heb. is ba, to enter, come, the cognates in Arb. being ba 
and fa. 

The Fa. an, ane (see é.) 1s sometimes pronounced 4d, as if 
a were the verb substantive and the m suffixed to it for 
emphasis, “is, there.” The 1 certainly suggests the ideas of 
emphasis and distance. With the participial m (soon to be 
discussed) this in Fa. is ma, and man, as “i ma rarua,” it is 
in the canoe, or “i man tafa,” he is (away or yonder) on the 
hill) In Fa. av is used as an auxiliary to denote continuing 
action, as 2s, in “he 7s talking.” 

g. Note how most of these verbs substantive either are 
derived from pronominals, or become pronominals; for in 
every case it may not be easy to determine whether the 
verbal or pronominal idea was the more original. This 
throws a new light on the demonstrative elements in III. 
§§ 1, 2; with (2) compare 7 in this section; with (3) and 
(7), ¢.; with (4), b.; with (5), e.; and with (6), a. 

h. This throws light also on many of the Oceanic Personal 
Pronouns. Thus to take those beginning with /, it seems 
that the J, changed sometimes to 7, and d (see b. above) is 
rather the verb substantive than the article, IIL. § 3, b. (4), 
though, as this verb substantive and article are radically 
identical, it is difficult sometimes to distinguish between 
them. A comparison of form and use will prove however 
that it is really in this case sometimes the verb substantive 
used as an auxiliary and not the article :— 


I Thou He We Ye They 
Pt. Moresby law 
Lobo lakw 
Sumatra  vrehw TL0 dio 
Malay daku dikau dia dikaw dia 
Ja dika 
Mg, rika 
roky 
Nigrito dicamw 
Fa. ru(eru) 
Dual ra (era) 
Sam. Dual] la 
Epi le 
Eth. haloku haloka halo halokemu halaww 


Avsnh. adlahu alah ale alu 


The Verb. 21 


These generally correspond thus Fa., Eth., Amh., 7 or ¢7u, 
halawu, alw = they are, they were. Fa. erw is a “ verbal 
pronoun,” and corresponds to the auxiliary use of the Eth. 
and Amh. With Eth. elu, originally elwm = they are, ela 
feminine, simple meaning “these:” compare the common 
word for “they” or “these” in Oceanic (see I.) “They are” 
readily became “they” and “these.” This thoroughly 
explains the prefixed / (7, d) in the numeral 2, Mg. oa, 
My. duwa, Fa. rua, Sam. lua (see IL.), and in the Dual 
Verbal Pronoun, Fa. ra, or era, Sam. la (see I.) ; originally 
identical that with the Numeral is the Article, that with the 
Pronoun is the Verb Substantive. And thus we see also 
why the numeral is rua, lua (7-ua, l-ua), the pronoun ra, 
la (r-a, l-a), the numeral being the separate dual pronoun 
uma, huma, with the article / prefixed to it, whereas the 
pronoun is really the 3rd person dual of the perfect of the 
verb substantive. Thus va, la consists of 7 or 1, the verb 
substantive, and the suffixed verbal dual pronoun «@, contracted 
for huma, as it is found in, for instance, Arb. (@ contracted 
for hwma) in the 3rd person dual of the perfect of verbs. 
Ra, era, and la, and Fa. rw or erw (8rd person plural of the 
perfect of the verb substantive), point to a very ancient 
time when the Oceanic languages possessed the suffixes of 
the perfect, and we may infer the imperfect inflexion also, 
like all the ancient Semitic languages; and when probably 
the ancient Semitic mother-tongue of the Arb. and Eth. had 
not yet given birth to these two daughters ; but when, even 
then, before the Oceanic branch shot out over the sea, and 
become separate from the parent stem, the original hwma, as 
suffixed to the verb 3rd person dual perfect, had become 
contracted to a. 

It is quite certain then, that in Oceanic, some of the 
personal pronouns, whether separate or verbal pronouns, are 
really ancient Semitic inflexional compounds of the personal 
pronouns and a verb substantive, that in common use have 
come to be regarded as mere personal pronouns, or even in 
the third person, as mere demonstratives, like “this” or 
“« these.” | 

Take another Semitic verb substantive in Arb. kana, with 
sometimes the 1 elided, Eth. kon, usually as ka in Oceanie, 
with the » elided, and compare Eromangan kik, Fate kag, 
and kaiga (for kak, kaika,) Harari akhakh, Malay kungkau 
(cf. dikaw), thou, with Eth. konka, thou art (Arb. konta), 
second person singular of the perfect. 


aw 
} 


22 The Oceanic Languages Semitic: 


The third great Semitic verb substantive and auxiliary, 
see f. above, is generally in Oceanic, and often in Mod. Syr., 
a mere vowel, and on this account, and because of the 
difficulty or impossibility of always distinguishing between 
the verb substantive and the demonstrative radically con- 
nected with it, we do not discuss it in this connection at 
present. As to the verbal pronouns or “ fragmentary pro- 
nouns,’ we find them in some dialects of Oceanic and Mod. 
Syr., the ancient so-called tense-inflexion being lost, used 
with the participle: see Stoddart, p. 161. But neither in 
Mod. Syr. nor Oceanic are they all the same as in the 
ancient Semitic. Yet some are the same, and those inde- 
pendently formed are equally with the ancient Semitic 
verbal pronoun, fragments of the full or separate pronoun, 
and having the same elements radically identical. See the 
separate and verbal pronouns in I., and compare the suffixed 
nominative “fragments” in the so-called “ pronominal ad- 
junctive” of the Malagasy. 

A fourth great Semitic verb substantive, see c. above, has 
the same ambiguity (verb or demonstrative) about it, and is 
used with the personal pronoun before a participle for the 
finite verb, thus Heb. eshka moshia, thou savest, literally 
“thou-art saving.” This explains the Oceanic method, and 
particularly the Mg. pronoun with the verb, thus, 7zaho = 
Jam; izy, he is; izahay, we are ; isikia, we are, inclusive ; 
that is, the Mg. iza, ist, is substantially identical with 
the Heb. verb substantive, esh, Aram. ith, and the compound 
of this with the personal pronoun expresses with the 
participle the finite verb: compare Negrito siko, Heb. eshka, 
thou (art), and Negrito stkwm, Heb. eshkem, ye (are), with 
Syr. itha, Iam, compare Sam. za, I (am). 

Again, to take the ambiguous or demonstrative verb 
substantive ot e above, it is used exactly in the same way 
before a participle in Semitic for the finite verb: thus 
compare Heb. hinka, Mod. Arb. wnnek, Amh. nah, with 
Sumatra enko, Mota iniko, Motlav. inek, nek, Fa. nago (for 
nako), Malay angkau (for ankaw), thou (art), the last is 
plural: compare Heb. hinkem, Arb. innekom, with it, and 
with Fa. nimu (for nikemu), ye (are). So compare My. 
amia, Fa. enea, nai, with Arb. inneho, Heb. hinno, Amh. 
awe, he (is). 

§ 5. In the Semitic languages we find sometimes the finite 
verb, in the present, past, and future tenses, expressed in 


The Verb. 23 


the manner just pointed out, by these verbs substantive or 
pronominal particles with personal pronouns attached, along 
with the participle; or by the participle alone: Ges. Heb. Gr. 
§ 134. The participle with the separate personal pronoun, 
or noun in the nominative, in Anc. Syr. denoted the present 
tense (see Ahlemann’s Gram. § 64, 2, a); in the same way, 
and sometimes by help of the auxiliary verb and particles, 
it denoted the past and the future, Ibid. B. and C.; and the 
various moods, Ibid. 3. In Syr., Ibid. § 65, 1, A., the present 
is expressed “usually by the participle,” in the manner just 
noted; and so the past, Ibid. B. The Oceanic Semitic 
personal pronouns in the nominative include, more or less 
clearly, the idea of the verb substantive. The tenses of the 
Oceanic verb are, generally speaking, as we shall now see, 
expressed in the above way by means of the participle ; the 
ancient Semitic tense-forms, called the perfect and imperfect, 
having disappeared from the Oceanic, perhaps to a still greater 
extent than from the Mod. Syr. 


§ 6. THE TENSES. 

a. The Present. The present tense in Oceanic is expressed 
generally by the participle alone, but sometimes emphasised 
by a verb substantive or particle. Crawford (My. Gr. p. 48) 
says, “The verb in its simple or compound form expresses 
present time, when no other is specified or implied, as 
diya makan, he eats.” So Mg. izy mihinana, Fa. 7 kani, 
Nam. e‘ai ota (ps. ‘wina), he eats. In the Sam. alone, in 
these examples, a particle e is used. In this word, m is 
prefixed in Me. and My., not in Fa. and Sam. But in Mg. 
azy matahotra, My. diya manakut, Fa. i mitaku, Sam. 
e mata‘u oid, he fears, the m is prefixed in all. But while 
this verb never appears in Fa. and Sam, without the m, in 
Ms. we have it as tahotra, and in My. as takut. This 
prefixed m is most used in Mg, next most in My.,; and 
in Mg. it is most used in the present tense, and hence by 
some people has come erroneously to be regarded as a mere 
sign of the present in that language. It is, however, in Mg. 
what it is in My., Fa. and Sam., and that is, the m of the 
participle, and it is because it is such that it so naturally 
and usually expresses the present, though it not infrequently 
expresses the past in Oceanic. This m is undoubtedly 
identical with the common and well-known Semitic , 
originally pronominal (III. § 2, w (1), Ges. Heb. Gr. § 52, 1) 
of the participle; and the Semitic participle, with and without 


24 The Oceanic Languages Semitic: 


the prefixed m, is used in exactly the same way as the 
corresponding Oceanic participle, to express usually the 
present tense, but pretty often also the past: see § 5. This 
m will frequently come before us as we proceed in connection 
with the other parts of our subject. 

In My. the verb substantive ada, in Sam. loo and 0, § 4, b, f, 
in Fa. mo, bo, coming before the participle, have the same 
effect as the verb substantive in English before the present 
participle, as, ada makan = bo kani = is, or are eating. 
Fa. mo or bo is the verb substantive in § 4, 7, with the 
participial m prefixed, or it is the participle of the verb 
substantive. For the Sam. sign of the present (also of the 
future): see § 4, 7 


b. The Past. 
Mg. My. Fa. Sam. 
iD de, dv ka ua (also present) 
(d. kur) Ma. kua 
(¢, with Tag. na Fi. ka Tongan na 
adverbs) | Lan. 2.4m, Sam. 2a 
Fi. a Rarat. @ 


Fi. sa (also present 
and future) 


1. VN, in, na. For this demonstrative verb substantive 
auxiliary in Semitic: see § 4, e. It is used in Heb. with the 
participle to denote the present, the past, and the future: 
see § 5, and Ges. Dict. s. v. hinneh, at end. In Motlav (Pa.), 
it denotes the present, and also in Tagala (present and past), 
in Fiji, it denotes the future. 

2. Sa (past, present, and future) ; ¢, Sam. te (present and 
future). For Semitic, see § 4, ¢. 

3. Ka, kui, wa, kua (Tongan gua, Fotuna ko, present ; 
Rarat., Fotuna, Aniwa, ka, Florida and Gaudaleanar ke, Mg. 
h (for k), ho (for ko, with adverbs), future. For Semitic, 
see § 4, a., Mod. Syr. ke, narrative tense. | 

4. De, di, past and future. For Semitic, see § 4, 0. 

5. A, 7. For Semitic, see § 4, f Mod. Syr. a or 4, 
narrative tense. 

In Hawaiian, é before the verb, sign of present and future, 
after the verb, “signifies previous, beforehand, and forms 
thus, with the preterite a sort of pluperfect, and with the 
future a second future,’ as wa lawe e au, I had taken, 
e lawe e au, I shall have taken, Hale, Po. Gr. So in Fa., 


The Verb. 25 


but in Fa. the e is put immediately after the sign of the 
preterite, ka (= ua, Hawaiian), and future, ga (= e, 
Hawaiian), thus a ka e ban, I had gone, a ga e ban, I shall 
have gone. For a pluperfect and future perfect formed by 
the same verb substantive, § 4, /, put after a preterite and 
future: see Uhlem. Syr. Gr., § 65, D.A., cf. Mod. Syr., 
Stoddart, p. 40. 


c. Future. 
Mg. My. Fa. Sam. 
h akan ga bo @, te 
de, di ga uo 

go Rarat. ka 
ka fo Fotuna 
ba mo Aniwa \ 
Florida ke Tah. e 
Fi. na 


Mota te, Tan. te 
San Christoval 2 
na, see b. 1. 
. te, see b. 2. 
._ h (for k), ka, ke, see 6. 3. 
. de, di, see b. 4. 
e, 2, see b. 5. The Syr. verb substantive (§ 4 7) before 
the participle expressed the future. 
6. ka, ga, Fa., see § 3. 
7. mo, bo, fo, see a. above. 
8. ba, mba (Mg. fa, mba) = ga,in 6. Compare Arb. fa, 
which sometimes “plays the role of a final conjunction.” 


§ 7. THe Moops. 
The Imperative, or Permissive, Conjunctive and Infinitive. 


OH G9 bO 


Mg. My. Fa. Sam. 
ef. ho and hi de ba 1a @, ina @ 
aoka (for as, § 4, f:) ko, ki ia (for kia) 
bafo, kofo Rarat. ka 
Fi. me kia 
Mota sz 


Gaudalcanar tz 
1. ko, kt, 1a, ka, kia, see a. 2. 
2. ba, me, see a. 3. ; 
< 3. aa &, ko fo, ba fo (contracted to bo), see for e and jo, 
6, ¢. 


26° The Oceanic Languages Semitic : 


So in Chaldee, the final conjunction, le (originally Arb. 1) 
prefixed thus to the same verb substantive, gives it a “ con- 
junctive, optative, and imperative power,’ Ges. Heb. Dict., 
s.v. 1. The Chaldee conjunction is le, the Fa., Fi.,and Sam. 
equivalents, ba, Fi. me (Arb. fa; ki, ta (for kia), ka (Arb. 
ka, Tigre ka), have already been dealt with. Gaudalcanar 
tz compares with Ch. Syr. dz, de, and Mota sz, with Eth. za, 
Sam. and Hawaiian 72a, with Arb. an, final conjunctions ; 
and with Sam. ima e; compare An. namu (mu = Fa. mo, 
fo, bo, § 6, a.) The infinitive thus expressed is like the 
English “to go,” or “that he go,” eg., “I told him to,” or 
“that he should go ;” so Mod. Syr. Stoddart, p. 166. Thus 
the Oceanic uses the same particles before the verb to 
express these moods as the Semitic; the Anc. Se. uses 
generally the imperfect (“future”) of the verb after these 
particles, but sometimes the participle: Syr. Gr. §64. The 
Oc., like the Mod. Syr., having lost the inflexion of the 
imperfect, uses the participle instead after these particles, just 
as does the Mod. Syr.: Stoddart, p. 108. This of course 
follows from the fact that in the tenses, §§ 5, 6, the participle 
has, in Mod. Syr. and Oceanic, taken the place of the 
Ane. Se. imperfect. In Oc.-Se. the infinitive is sometimes 
expressed by one verb following another, without any 
prefixed particle; the following verb in Oc. is the participle: 
compare Syr. for the same, Gr. § 64. 

My. de is to be compared with the Chaldee final conjunc- 
tion le, Arb. li. 

4, The infinitive verbal noun will be treated of below. 


5. The My. imperative is expressed very much like the 
English by the verb used alone, as makan, eat, or with the 
pronoun following it, makan kamu, eat ye. 

6. The Mg. expresses the imperative, 2nd person, by 
suffixing @ to the verb, as mandrobo, to flatter, mandroboa, 
flatter, So Javanese suffixes a, and sometimes a7, as balang, 
to throw, balanga, throw, ion, to order, onan, order. 
Crawford, Diss. p. 25, says, “The Javanese imperative 
affords, with the exception of the Javanese genetive, the 
only example, that I am aware of, in the Malayan languages 
of an inflexion.” This Mg. and Ja. @ is undoubtedly the 
same @ which is suffixed to the ordinary imperative in Heb. 
to form the emphatic imperative (Ges. Gr. § 48, 5), as “qum, 
stand up, guma, up! ten, give, téna, give! In Mg. also the 
suffixing of this a causes the accent to be strongly thrown 


The Verb. 27 


torward towards the end of the word, thus, “mandrara, to 
forbid, mandrara, forbid.” So mandeha, to go, mandehdana, 
begone! And the suffixed av of the Javanese seems also 
undoubtedly the same as the ai of the Energie Imperative 
of the Arb., as wgtul, ordinary imperative, kill, ugtulan, kill! 


§ 8. THE PARTICIPLE. 


We have seen in the foregoing that the Oc. verb, 
present tense, corresponds to the Anc. Semitic participle. 
The m participial inflexion is one of the striking features 
of the Semitic languages, as it is also in an unmistakable 
manner of the Oceanic languages: see § 6. More will be 
found below on the passive participle with m, and the 
formation of verbal nouns. 


§ 9. PARTICLES CONNECTING THE VERB WITH ITS OBJECT. 


a. These particles direct the action of the verb to the 
object, giving it either a transitive or a causative force. 
Many of them have been glued on as suffixes to the verb, 
especially in Mg. and My., though in Fa. and Sam. also, and 
now appear in the dictionaries as radicals ; thus the verb 
“to drink” appears in the My. dictionary as minum, as if 
the final m were a radical letter, whereas a comparison of 
dialects, Fa. manu, Sam. vu, shows that it is not, being the 
suffixed transitive particle. Not all verbs take these particles 
in Oceanic ; some govern the object directly, without any 
intervening particle :— 


Mg. My. Fa. (Pa.) Sam. 
(a) kan, % ki, bake 2, UW 
ami. Ja. ake, akan Js 9%, mA, ti, 10 aa, te 

1,0, kakan st, saki, make Rarat hk 
Bugis 72 taki, raki, nake 2, W 


Fi. a, ca, ga, ka 

ma, na, ra, ta 

Va, Wa, ya, caka 
kaka, laka, maka 
raka, taka, vaka 
waka, yaka 

Ero. ra, ira, pu, or bu 
An. 27a, vai, an 
Tan. ya, te 

Epi. ba, ban, ka, kan 
Florida lz, lagi 

Ut, Vagr 


28 The Oceanic Languages Semitic : 


b. The force of these, and the extent to which they are 
used in different dialects vary. In Mg. a, in Sam. te (ia te) 
are used before pronouns. We may now compare :— 


1. A, ta, i, ki, ya. Arb. iya, ka, ki, kan (“to”), Amh. ka, 
Eth. kiya, Sab. ka. 

2. An, ni. Tig. en-, or ne, accusative sign. Heb., Ch., an, 
en, “nun epenthetic,” or ‘nun demonstrative.” 


3. Ca, te, ti, ta; sit. Heb. oth, et. 


4. Mg. ami, Fa. mi, Fi. ma, Heb. im, Arb. ma, ko ame 
(“ with,” &.) 


5. Ri, ra, li, vra (to, at”), Heb. le, Arb. la. 
6. Ba, va, bu, vi, fi (to, in”) Syr. ba, Heb., Arb., Eth. ba. 


Eth. kiya, Arb. vya, Heb. oth or et, are pronominals or 
demonstratives used as signs of the accusative before 
pronouns. But Eth. kiya in Sabaean as ka (Halevy 93, 
rightly) is used as the mark of the verb object before 
pronouns and nouns; Heb. et is so also; and Arb. tya, 
identical with Eth. hiya, as ki, 4, and 4a, ‘or ya, is used 
in Oc. as the mark of the verb object before nouns and 
pronouns. On the origin of kiya, see Dillmann Eth. Gr. 
§§ 65, 150. Thus Sam. i, ia, 1s for kv, kia, and so of course 
Malay 71s for ki, as Arb. Lyd (another form nearer the 
original is hiya, Wr. Arb. Gr. I. § 188) is for kiya. For the 
pronominal origin of Heb. oth, et (Aram. at, iat or yat), see 
Ges. Heb. Dict. s. v. Eth. kiya is a compound of the 
demonstrative k’, and the demonstrative used as the 3rd 
person singular 2, or za, he, ipse, self, Ges. s. v. This is why 
these compounds, Eth. kiya, Arb. cya or hiya, Heb. oth or et, 
Aram. yath (i.e. va th, cf. Sam. 2a te), also have the meaning 
sometimes of self. As to the double use as a demonstrative 
and a preposition, see III. §§ 1, 2, and IV. § 2; and as to 
the derivation of prepositions generally from pronominals, see 
Bopp, work cited, p. 113. It is certain, however, that not all 
the Oc.-Se. prepositions are derived from pronominals. 


c. As to the prepositions 1, 4, 5, 6, their general meanings 
are given above, but when used as particles connecting the 
verb with its object, it is impossible to give briefly their 
very various meanings and uses. The dictionaries and 
grammars must be consulted. For instance, 5 is much used, 
especially in Aramaic, as a mere mark of the verb object, 
as it is in Bugis 72, Eromanga ira, ra (Gordon’s M. S. 


The Verb. 29 


Grammar), Aneityum 7a, vrai (in Gabelentz) ; exactly so, 1, 
ka (ki, 2, &c.), is often used as a mere mark of the verb 
object in Sabaean, and in My., Fa., and Sam. (7 for /i, ef. 
Raratongan). So also 6, ba. &c., is used in Heb. sometimes 
as a mere transitive particle (Ges.) between the verb and its 
object, as in Fi. vet and An. vai (in Gabelentz). In each of 
these three particles, the notion of motion to is radical. In 
Hazlewood’s Fi. Gr., 2nd Ed., p. 33, it is said, “it appears 
also to be a rule that verbs of motion will take va for their 
termination, as lakova” (lako, to go), and on p. 35, va is 
identified with the preposition vez, “to,” ‘in,’ literally “in 
it,’ An. vai, it being pointed out that “va in the Rewa 
dialect is still the same as vez or ki, to:” compare IIL, § 2. 
Fi. combines these two prepositions, thus kivei (ki first) = 
Fa. baki, Maori whaka, Malay bagi, “to,” “towards,” (ba 
first). The preposition, 4, ‘with,’ &., is very common in 
Mg., Papuan, and Ma.-Ha. But when used as a particle 
between the verb and its object, its meanings are very 
various, as may be seen by consulting on the one hand, the 
Mg. Dict. of Freeman and Johns, and Cr. Gr., pp. 198, 221-2 ; 
and on the other, Ges. Heb. Dict., under the word. 


d. It has already been remarked that the verb followed 
by these particles, has either a transitive or causative force. 
Thus Fi. “sobuca na vanua (go down), sobutaka na vanua 
(take down),” that is, the latter with compound particle, 
taka, is causative, the former has 7@ merely pointing to the 
verb object. Compare Fi, rogo ca, to hear (cw makes it 
transitive), rogo taka, or rogorogo taka, to tell, to cause to be 
heard. In Fa. this verb is transitive, by merely putting the 
object after it without any particle, like ca, but the particle 
ki, instead of taka, makes it causative, as rog nafisan, hear 
the word, rogorog ki nafisan, proclaim, or make to be heard 
the word. In My. the transitive is dangar, in which the 
particle 7, 5, is glued on to the verb danga = Fa. rogo, 
(pronounced vongo), and Ero. dig? (pronounced ding). 
My. 2 (for kz) and kan (kz strengthened by demonstrative 7 
or an), are exactly like the others, thus My. tangisi, to 
bewail, and tangiskan, id., are the same as Fi. tagica and 
tagicaka, Fa. tagisi, all being merely transitive ; but in My. 
takuti, takutkan, to frighten, the particles (i and han) give 
the verb a causative force. To both of these words, tangis 
and takwt, before the particles 7 and kan are attached, it is 
to be noted that the particles s and ¢ had been in ancient 


30 The Oceanic Languages Senitic : 


times attached, so that now they are treated as if a part of 
the root. This, however, they are not, for these verbs in, for 
instance, Fa. are intransitive, tagz, to wail, tagist, transitive, 
to bewail, Sam. tagi, to wail, passive, tagista (when the 
same particle s appears); Fa. mitaku, to fear: cf Sam. 
mata ‘u, Fa. transitive, nutau kz, Bugis, mataw rr, Sam. 
passive, anucta ‘utia, In which the same ¢ transitive particle, 
as in takut, appears: cf. also Mg. matahotra (which seems 
to be for mataku-ra, rather than mataku-ta: compare 
ampitahorind, in which the tr is 7), in which the tr may be 
for 7, the same transitive particle (72), as appears in the 
Bugis. These examples show how the verb object particles 
or ancient prepositions used as such, have become disguised 
in the lapse of ages, and made to appear radical parts of the 
verbs ; and they show also, that at least, to a large extent, 
the particles are used for one another in different dialects, in 
Oceanic, just as in Semitic. Such particles sometimes gave 
to the verb, in Semitic also, a causative as well as a transitive 
force ; thus Ges. says, “Since be in this signification is a 
particle of transition, it is not to be wondered at that it 
should give a transitive power to some verbs, and even a 
causative, such as is elsewhere expressed by the conjugation 
Hiphel.” The common Oceanic particle giving this causative 
force to some verbs is @ (for ki), or ki, ku, either compounded 
with other particles for emphasis, as ake, kan, or alone, and 
synonymous with ba as a “particle of transition,” having 
the meaning of “ to.” 


e. With respect to the Sam. passives tagista, mata‘utia, 
the s and @ are the verb object particles, and the other 
particles, as well as these are found in the Ma.-Ha. passives 
i, and reciprocal form 2, and in the Mg., My., Fa. and Sam. 
verbal noun terminations 3, thus :— 

2. Sam. %, 4%, fad, saa, tar, mae nae, lat. 

l. Ma. kia, ngia, Sam. fia, gia, lia, mia, sia, tia. 

3. Ma ranga, manga, wnga, Sam. saga, taga, ‘aga, laga, 
fuga, maga, aga. 

In these ga (1.e. nga) is for na, the original 2 having 
been changed to ng. The verbal noun terminations, 3, in 
Fa. are a or end, siend, tiena, kien, rien, flen, mien, nien 
(the final @ not always pronounced, e is for a); so My. 
san, tun, gan, Tan, pan, man, nan; so Mg. ana, sana, zana, 
tana, hana (for kana), rana, funa, vana, mand. 


The Verb. 31 


In the above 1, 3, the first letter is in every case the verb 
object particle, with which we are now familiar ; in 2 these 
particles are, except the first, compounded (cf. Fi. aka, vaka, 
&e.) of a, fa, sa, ta, ma, na and la, and ki. It may be 
remarked that these particles are found occasionally in the 
Sam. Dict. glued on to the simple verb (as in Mg. and My., 
and sometimes in Fa.), for instance “% in tafa%, fad in atoja%, 
w% in gavat, tut in lapatad, sad in leoleosa%, nad in taonw%, 
and ma‘t in tanwmat. 

Note.—The Semitic preposition (often used like the above 
1, 4, 5, 6, as a verb object particle) “from,” &c., in Heb. and 
Arb. min, nv, Syr. men, Eth. éma, Sab. m, b (Halevy 95) is 
undoubtedly in Oceanic used as a verb object particle like 
the above, but it need not be said that it is impossible to 
distinguish it, so far as its form or sound is concerned, owing 
to phonetic similarity and corruption from 4 (7m), and 6 (b). 
It can only be distinguished from them by the sense and the 
usage. 


§ 10. THE DERIVED VERB Forms. 
A. The Causative. 


This is formed by a prefixed particle which is really the 
same in every case, though sometimes apparently different, 
thus :—- 


Mg. My. Fa. Sam. 
1. ma, man, &e. ma,man ba, bt Ma. wha 
a, wv mang Fi. Mota va 
: Ja. a, an Lifu, Marea 
2. manupt, mampa, ang  Aneityum 7 
ampr, ampa, ampan Ero. api 
3. maha, mampaha Fa. baka, faka Sam. faa 
aha, anvpaha Fi. vaka Ma. whaka 
Mota vaga Rarat. aka 


The causative particle in all these prefixes is a, which 
sometimes, but rarely, is weakened to é or? Thus to take :— 


Ll. Mg, ma, man, Fi, Fa., Mota ba, va, Ma. wha, and My. 
ma, are all identical But Mg. ma is a compound of the 
participial m, and the causative prefix a; in the future and 
past tenses only the w appears, as velona, alive, mamelona, 
make alive, future hamelona, shall make alive, past namelona, 
made alive. The w alone therefore is the causative prefix. 
Compare Lifu and Mare a. In Fa. ba, Fi. va, Ma. wha, the 


32. The Oceanic Languages Semitic : 


participial m is changed into b, v, and wh, and like the My. 
m in ma is inseparably attached to the a, that is (as in the 
Mod. Syr. causative) only the participle is used. 


2. We have the very same as this Fa. ba, F1. and Mota va 
Ma. wha, in An. imi, Ero. ampi, Mg. ampi, ampa; but to 
this also Mg. prefixes the participial m. The same is found 
sometimes in Papuan, Araga as ma va (Codrington, “The 
Melanesian Languages,’ p. 187.) It is really doubling the 
participial m, though unconsciously. 


3. In Mg. maha we have the participial m as before 
separable, a the causative prefix, and the verb substantive 
hv (see above § 4, a., and § 6, b.), so that aha means make to 
be. In Papuan and Ma.-Ha. this m being as before insepar- 
able and changed to 6, f, and v, and wh, in baka, faa, vaka, 
whaka, vaga, and in Mg. itself, as in 2, inseparable and 
changed into mp., as in ampa, in ampaha. Again as in 2, 
before ampa, so before mapaha, Mg. admits the participial m. 

b. The above may be thus shown :— 

1. The simple caus. Oc. prefix Mg. a. Lifu, Mare a. 

2. This a@ with the participial m (changed to b, f, v, wh, 
mp, &e.) as Me. ampa, An. vmi, Ero. ampe, My. ma, Fa. ba 
(bt), Fi, Mota va ma, wha. 

3. The simple a prefixed inseparably to the verb substan- 
tive Mg. aha, Rarat. aka. 

4. The a with the inseparable m, in 2, prefixed inseparably 
to this verb substantive, Mg. ampaha, Fa. baka, faka, Fi. 
vaka, Mota vaga, Sam. faa, Ma. whaka. 


Note 1.—Perhaps Rarat. aka belongs to 4, not to 3. 


Note 2.—While the above as compared are etymologically 
identical, allowance must be made for difference of use. 


Nore 3—In Mg. and My. man, mang, Ja. an, ang, the 
n, ng, may be roughly described as euphonic, though, as will 
be seen below, they are not perhaps purely euphonic. The 
other phonetic changes are mainly those of ™ (participial) to 
b, f,v, wh, and mp. The a also appears sometimes, but 
rarely, as 7 or €. 

c. Comparison: see Semitic Grammars. 


The causative is formed in Syr., Assy., Arb., and Eth., by 
prefixing a. (sometimes weakened to 6, 7%), this has been 
softened from ha, of which the h is retained in Sab. and 


The Verb. 33 


Heb. This h is generally believed by Semitic authorities to 
be weakened from an original s (sometimes si and f¢, in 
Shaphel and Thaphel) : see Dillmann, § 79, Wright L., § 45, 
Halevy, p. 37, points out that this / is regularly s in one 
Sab. dialect. Shaphel, as well as Aphel, is used in Aram. 
In Assy., Shaphel is the more prevalent, as well as original 
form: Layer, Assy. Gr., p, 63. The causative participle has 
of course the ™ prefixed, and its vowel was originally « as 
preserved yet in Heb. and Syr. The Syr. causative parti- 
ciple is of the form Maphel, Heb. Maktil. This participle 
came to be used sometimes in Syr. as a distinct causative 
form, and was called the Maphel (conjugation) form, and 
it is the only causative form now used in Mod. Syr.: 
Stoddart, p. 110. 

Thus the @ of b. 1, is the a of the Aphel form; and the 
ma (ba, fa, &e.) of b. 2, is the ma of the Maphel form ; in 
b. 3, we have the Aphel or causative of the verb substantive, 
ha, ka ; and in b. 4, the causative of the same Maphel form. 

Norr.—As to the nasal n, ng, of b., note 3, while it is so 
far euphonic, it may sometimes or 1n some measure, represent 
the consonant of the original Semitic causative particle : 


Mg. My. Fa. Sam. 
live, velona idwp maurr, El. vola ola 
die, maty mate mate (Fi. id.) mate 
fear, tuhotra takut mitaku mata “uw 

An. imtae 
Causative. 
mamelona mangidupr bakamaure Jauaola 
Fl. vavola 

mahafaty mamatikan Fi. vakamatea tamate 
mahatahotra manakuti bakamatakuki faa 


An. imumtac mata “wv 


Note 1.—Fi. and My. use the transitive suffixes with the 
causative ; in Fa. kz is often used in like manner. 


Notr 2.—The same changes of this participial m to f, 
and mp, occurs in the verbal nouns. So also in Mg. 
fahadimy ny, ampahadimy ny (dimy 5). Compare Mg. 
“faharoany, ampaharoany, the second,” for change of fa 
and ampa; and compare Santo “vakaruana, second ” 
(Gordon). For “to do a second time,’ the Mg. uses in the 
foregoing instances, the causative prefix without the verb 
D 


\ 


34 The Oceanic Languages Semitic : 


substantive ha, as manindroa, for manvroa, 2.e., marua = 
Epi. varua ; so for ‘to do a third time,” Mg. manintelo, for 
manitelo, ie, matelo = Epi. vatolu. In Fa. and Sam. the 
causative of the verb substantive (ku) is used, as bakatolu, 
faatolu, bakarua, faalua. To turn the numeral into a verb, | 
with very various meanings is common to Oc. and Se.: 
compare in Heb. the numeral 3, which treated as a verb, 
Piel form, has as one of its meanings (Ges), “ to do a third 
time ;” and the numeral 10, which in either the Piel or 
Hiphil (causative) form, means “to give tithes,” “ to tenth.” 
In these it is not the verb form, but usage, that has 
determined special meanings. 

It may be observed that just as in Pa. and Ma.-Ha. va, 
and vaka have about the same force (My. never uses the verb 
substantive, ka, thus) ; so Mg. ma, and maha, and mampa, 
and mampaha, have all about the same force, thus :—isy, to 
be, manisy and mampisy, to make to be; so vitrikia, 
vigour, causative mahavitrikia, and mampahavitrikia, to 
make vigorous, to inspirit. 

d. It will be noticed in the above that the Sam. causative 
of the verb mate, to die, is tamate; that is the causative 
prefix ista. This is a well-known causative prefix in the Ma.- - 
Ha. Halevy (Ro. Gr. § 54) has observed that in most, if not 
all, of these dialects, tw 1s also employed as a causative prefix, 
“as Tahiti tamd, to cleanse, from md, clean.” It is especially 
common in Tahiti: see the Tah. Dict. s. v., where it is said 
to have the same force as faa. Sam. faafana, to warm food 
over again, Tah. tahana, Mg. maenafana, and mahafanafana. 

This ta, causative prefix, is the tha or ta that appears in 
Syr. Thaphel (Heb. Tiphel) of which we formerly spoke. 

e. If we have in Oceanic the one form of the Semitic 
causative prefix in ta, it is only reasonable to expect to find 
the other sw (Shaphel or Saphel). In Fa. we have jera, or 
berafera, to be scattered, dispersed ; taferafera, scattered 
(reflexive to be explained below); My. tabur; causative 
sabera ki, to scatter (anything); My. stbar; Java sabar 
(and mawur),id. In Fa. we have gara (kara), strong; the 
causative of which is szgiv, to strengthen, to make strong. 
In Sam. we find a word vila in viligia, to air, dry in the 
wind, and in savili, to blow. Compare fue and safue, to 
beat ; lulu and salulu, to shake. Compare also My. salam 
(Ja. silam) to dive, immerge, plunge, with kalam, to sink to 
to the bottom, and dalam, deep. 


The Verb. 35 


f. The signification of the Se. causative form is 1, transitive 
or causative ; 2, intransitive ; and 3, intensive: see the Se. 
Grammars, and particularly Syr. Gr. § 23, 2, and § 24, 2, 
- comparing the Mod. Syr. It may be remarked that Saphel 
_ (Shaphel) is commoner in Fa. and My., and Thaphel (Tiphel) 
in Tahitian, than they are in, for instance, Hebrew. 
Nore 1.—The force and use of My. causative prefix ma 
_ (Ja. a) has been somewhat obscured by the enormous use in 
_ that dialect of the transitive suffixes, or rather suffix 7 (ki), 
kan, yet Marsden rightly called it the “ transitive prefix.” 
Note 2—In Meg. manka (for maka), and maha are 
identical, being the one a mere phonetic variation of the 
other. 


B. The Reflexive or Reciprocal. 


In Mg., My., Fa., and Sam., along with the causative or 
transitive, we find the intransitive Reflexive or Reciprocal 
forms, now to be considered : 


a. The simple Reflexive. 


Mg. My. Fa. Sam. 
a bebo. © [2, 1a] [zna, ia, &e.] 
4 
miha Madura e 
tha 


Meg. 7 is the reflexive pronoun, self. It is identical with 
the personal pronoun, third person, in Mg., My., Fa., and 
Sam. In Madura, ¢ is the same; thus causative Mg. ma, a, 
Madura a, reflexive Mg. mi, 7, Madura e. This latter is 
called the passive (or which it serves), by Crawford. Fa. 1 
or id, is simply the pronoun, third person singular, used also 
for “self” in the accusative ; and Sam. 7, in ina, and 7a, is 
the same, and used thus, forms in that dialect, and Ma.-Ha. 
generally, the passive, that is, the refiexive-passive. 

Comparison— 

The Mg. reflexive form compares substantially with the 
Assy. and Heb. niphal, Arb. infala, and Sab. similar forms. 
This ancient Semitic form is made by prefixing to the verb 
the reflexive pronoun (in Heb. hin), apparently the personal 
pronoun, third person, strengthened by the demonstrative 7, 
and this 7 is often assimilated. This personal, in Heb. hua, 

D2 


36 The Oceanic Languages Semitic : 


hia, is identical with the Oc., Mg. 7. Sam. suffixes both the 
Mg. 72, as ia, and the Semitic 7m, as ima. Mg. also suffixes 
ind, using it for the passive, like the Sam. 

It is remarkable that the Mg. and Javanese infix retains 
the 7, as does the Semitic, thus Mg. fiteka, deceit, finrataka, 
deceived ; faoka, wipe, finaoka, wiped ; vidy, buy, vinidy, 
bought. So Javanese charita, a tale, chinarita, to be told ; 
rayah, to plunder, rinayah, to be plundered; panggih, to 
find, ponanggih, to be found, (Crawford, Diss. pp. 24, 27). 
The Arb. XIV. and XV. forms infix 1 after the second 
consonant of the triradical verb. So of quadrilaterals, the 
_ IIIRp form “corresponds to the VIITH of the triradical, with 
this difference, that the characteristic 7 is not prefixed, but 
inserted between the second and third radicals,” Wr. Gr. § 71. 

In Assy. the compound reflexive tan is infixed after the 
first radical in “ Iftaneal,’ as zctwm, ictantwm. In Ambh. 
this tan is prefixed. 


b. The Reflexive prefix ta. 


This, as already observed, occurs (see above, A. e¢.) in Fa. | 
taferafera, My. tabur, scattered, of which see the causative 
in the place cited. So Fa. tagara, strong (Shaphel szgirz, to 
make strong), My. tagar, id. Fa. folo, to twist, tafolo, 
twisted, &c., &c. See Codrington, work cited, for this prefix 
in other Papuan dialects, pp. 183-4. Sam. fulr, tafuli, Fa. 
tafulus ; fo, tafo%, to turn over, return; tagulu, My. 
dangkur, to snore, Fa. goro, koro; My. ngrok. My pelaka, 
broad, mitapelaka, to be wide; boroaka, taboroaka, bored 
through ; borotsaka, nutaborotsaka, to slip. My. prefixed 
tar, “ passive,” may be this ta and 7 reflexive pronoun (as in 
bar, see below): cf. Amh., as to form of compound tan. 

Comparison— 

Fa. bora, to slit, tear lengthwise, Arb. fara, id.; Fa. 
tabare, to be opened (as a door), to be chinked, Arb. tafarre 
(VTH form) slit, rent. This ta, reflexive pronoun, is also the 
prefix of the Arb. VITH form ; it compares with the Syr. eth, 
in Ethpeel, Ethpaal, &c. The Arb. VTH is made by pre- 
fixing this ta to the IIND, which is intensive by doubling, 
like Piel, the second radical. Hence in Fa. this form is 
often intensive, as bisa, to speak, tabisa, to speak earnestly ; 
ust, to investigate, tdéusi, to investigate thorcughly, Arb. 
takuzzt, id. Fa. usi is for kusi, the k being sometimes 
pronounced. This twis prefixed in the three Eth. “ Reflexive- 


The Verb. 4) 


Passive” forms, and in the Amh. [VrTH form (passive and 
reflexive,” 


¢. The Reciprocal Prefix. 


Mg. My. Fa. Sam. 
ofa be, bar bi, fu fe 
Fi. ver 
Fagani far 
Mota var 


This combines the causative and the reflexive prefixes, 
the Mg. being reflexive and causative, the others causative 
and reflexive ; and in Fi. and Sam., are suffixed also to the 
verb with this prefix, the transitive particles, ¢g., 17 in F1. 
veilomant, Sam. fealofant. The causative prefix alone, or 
aided by these, directs the attention away to a more distant 
and complicated object, to ‘‘ one another,” instead of “ one- 
self” (reflexive form). But it is the same reflexive pronoun 
7, in both the simple Reflexive and the Reciprocal. The 
My. bar compares with the Mota var (Codrington), but bar 
forms intransitives, or the simple Reflexive, var the 
Reciprocal. Is this r = dirt (My.) = self? My. be much 
_used in talking (Marsden), as bar is in writing, may be 
identical with Sam, fe. Fa. bi, fi form is sometimes re- 
ciprocal, and sometimes intransitive or simple reflexive, 


like Malay. 

Comparison— 

The prefix in Syr. Ethtaphal, like the Mg. is reflexive 
and causative, Assy. [taphal, and that in Assy. Istaphal or 
Istanuphel, is like the My., Fa, and Sam. causative and 
Reflexive; so (by “ transposition”) Syr. Eshtaphel. In 
these we have eth or ta (see 0.), or tan. As to meaning, 
there is exact enough correspondence; “ Eshtaphel has 
sometimes a passive, and sometimes a reciprocal signification, 
or it forms intransitives : see Syr. Gr., § 24, 2. 


§ 11. Tue Passtve Voice. 


In Oc. the passive voice is either formed by a, the 
reflexive pronoun attached to the verb, or b, a verb sub- 
stantive, or c, it is marked by a prefixed m. As to a— 


Mg. Sam. 
1. ma. ana l. ~na, 1a, a 
2. fina, nina, mind 2. fia, gia, lia 


sina, tuna Mia, Sia, tia 


38 The Oceanic Languages Semitic : 


In 1 we have the Oc.-Se. reflexive pronoun alone in 7, 2a, 
a, or strengthened by the demonstrative 7 (see § 10, B. a). 
But here it is suffixed, there prefixed or infixed. In 2, the 
initial consonants f, 7, m, &e., in mina or mia, fina or fia, 
&c., are the transitive or verb object particles: see § 9, e. 
Halevy (Ro. Gr.§ §55-6) observes, “ It is remarkable that some 
of the active verbs of the Eastern dialects seem to be derived 
from the passive forms of New Zealand,as . . . kini, 
N.Z., to pinch, passive kinitia, Hawaiian “initi, to pinch.” 
This verb is in Fa. kini, as kina naus, “nip reeds,” kinitia, 
“nip or pinch it.” Thus kinitia is not passive at all in Fa., 
and the ¢ is simply the transitive particle directing the 
action of the verb to ia, “it,” or “self” When Fa. uses this 
wa (or 2) for “ self,” as it sometimes does (with and without a 
transitive particle), the expression is always reflexive, not 
passive ; on the other hand, in Sam. the expression is always 
passive, the original reflexive meaning having passed into 
the passive. 


1. The Malagasy, rarely the Ja., often infixes this in, which 
the Mg. usually, the Sam. always, suffixes, and the original 
reflexive meaning has passed into the passive. The Mg. 
drops, or does not use the » with the suffixed reflexive 
pronoun in the “Imperative passive,” as “sotro, drink, 
sotroina, is drunk ; imp. sotroy, let it be drunk, 7.e. drink ;” 
prefixed to the verb in Mg. it is also without the n, and 
reflexive rather than passive, as it is also in Sam. and Fa. 
(prefixed) : § 10, B. a. b. The Se. Niphal form is much used 


as a passive. 


2. The reflexive pronoun ta prefixed makes a form 
frequently used as a passive in Oc. and Se. My tar forms a 
passive: § 10, B. a. 6b. As to the “change of the reflexive 
into the passive” in Indo-European, as well as in Semitic, 
see the Note in Ges. Heb. Gr. § 51, p. 86. 


b. The passive formed by a prefixed verb substantive. 


My. Fa. (Pa.) 
di.-, ka- Fiji, ra-, ka- 
Ja. da-, ka- 


(My. kana) 
My. di and Fi. ra are probably the same. My. dz seems 


to be an abbreviation of the verb substantive ada, which is 
identical with Mg. ary and ala, Tig. ali, Eth. halo, see § 4, b. 


The Verb. 39 


In the Fa. ra does not form a passive, thus, wsi, to follow, 
&e., rast, to follow, literally, is following. 

My. ka (and kana) is same as Fi. ka: for this verb 
substantive, see § 4, a. In Oc., as well as in Arb., it is found 
as an auxiliary, not only of tense and mood, but also of voice. 
Here as in Arb. (Newman, § 133) it is used “to make a 
passive verb, as in English.” This formation is also found 
in Ma. and Me. 

ce. The passive (in a limited sense) marked by a prefixed 
m. This 7 is the participial m, and it is of course not to it 
that the passive force of the word is due. 


Fa. baku, to pluck out, mafaku, Sam. mafa “ifa %, 
plucked out. 

Fa. ligi, ligisi, to pour out, passive maligisi, maligi, Sam. 
malig, poured out. 


Fa. lubaki, to pour out, passive malubaki, poured out ; 
reflexive-passive, talubaki, id. 


Mg. My. Fa. Sam. 
malemy lamah meilun (soft) 
malemilemy - meilumlum 
Manizy . nipis, mimpis maniferifi manifinifi 

(thin) 
mafanafana pando (ben) mafanafana 
mafand Ma. mahana, 

warm 


These are simply participles or verbal adjectives, and 
correspond to the Semitic participles or verbal adjectives, 
formed from the active or passive voice of the verb, by 
prefixing m. In Ma., mahana is an adjective, “ warm ;” 
in Tahiti, it is a noun, signifying “ the sun,” “a day.” 

d. The Fa. like the Mod. Syr., makes little use of the 
passive, and like the Mod. Syr. can only express it usually 
by a periphrasis. 


§ 12. THe VERBAL Nouns. 
a. The verbal noun suffix, ana, an. 


In Mg, My., Fa., and Sam., a verbal noun is formed by 
suffixing to the verb 7, an, ana; this in Sam. and Ma.-Ha., 
has been corrupted to nga, anga. This verb may have 
suffixed to it a transitive particle, before taking the verbal 
noun particle ; thus My. minwm, has the transitive particle 


AQ) The Oceanic Languages Semitic: 


m, to which the an is suffixed, giving mimwman. Hina in 
Ma.-Ha. (cf. Halevy, Po. Gr. § 57), we have the simple 
anga, and with the transitive particles, kanga, manga, &e.; 
and so in Mg., My., and Fa., see § 9, ¢e. In Fa. at least, the 
verbal noun, with, has a slightly different meaning from 
that without the particle ; with it, it is active, without it, 
passive (cf. Halevy, loc. cit.) The verbal noun of mate, to 
die, is in Mg, hafatesana, My., kamatian, Fa., nwmatiana, 
Mangareva (Ma.-Ha.), materanga, (and matenga), dying, 
death. My. and Fa. are without a transitive particle, but 
Mg. and Mang. have the one s, the other 7: see § 9, @. 
for lists. 


b. The Verbal Noun Prefixes. 


1. In the above words, hafatisana, My. kamatian, ka, 
ha is prefixed, and in Fa namatian, na is prefixed. 
Fa. na is the article, and ka (ha), is an article also; see 
III. § 5. This article ka, with another pronominal element, 
2, as kai, prefixed, forms in Maori the verbal noun denoting 
the agent, as hanga, make, hathanga, maker. 

2. The relative article in My. forming the verbal noun 
denoting the agent, is pa, connected with the interrogative 
pa and for ma, see III. § 5. In Mg. this is mp (and f/f), 
as in the case of (the identical) participial m, § 10, A. 
e, note 2. Examples—My. pambunuh, Mg. mpamono, 
a killer, one who kills. The same relative article, My. p, 
Mg. f, is used with the verbal noun that is formed by 
the suffix an, as My. pambunuhan, murder; and Mg. 
has fahafatisana, as well as hafatisana, death. Me. fisotro, 
drink tea, is an example of the f prefixed, without the 
suffixed an. 

It will be observed that the suffix an gives the verbal 
noun a passive signification. Fa. famien (fami, to eat), 
may mean edtable, to eat, for eating, and food. 


c. Comparison— 


1. Suffix an. We find this in all the Semitic languages, 
and the word korlean, offering, may be taken as an example. 
In Eth., Dillm. Gr. § 122, -an and -na form abstract substan- 
tives, as, berhan, light, from barha, to be bright, and erekan, 
and erekana, nudity, from areka, nudus fuit; so Fa. 
malamala, to be naked, malamalan, nakedness. Dillmann 
says of this av “sie ist sicher fiirwortlichen ursprungs.” It 
is the common Se. demonstrative an, na: see III. §§ 1-2. 


The Verb. 41 


2. The prefixes p, 7p, f, are all phonetic variations of the 
one original m. This is the m, of pronominal origin, that 
plays so conspicuous a part as a formative prefixed letter in 
the Se. languages, forming nouns from verbs. Thus the 
Aram. (cf. Ges. Gr. § 84, II. 14) forms the infinitive of the 
verb by it, and (Isenberg, Amh. Gr. 62) in Amh. “ the 
infinitive or verbal substantive is formed by the prefixion 
of mw to the simple form.” Dillmann (Eth. Gr. § 113) says: 
“dagegen ist der in allen Semitischen Sprachen vielgebrauchti 
Vorsaz ma im Sinne von der, welcher, oder das, was (der 
Fragewurzel § 63 entstammerd), auch im Aeth. tiberaus stark 
verbreitet um Aussageworter, nabur Participia mit partici- 
pahnlichen Adjectiven, und Sachworter abzuleiten.” Like 
Me. mp, My. pa, this Eth. ma forms the verbal noun 
denoting the agent, Dillm. § 114. And like Meg. f, My. p, 
this Eth. ma forms nouns denoting the instrument, vessel, 
‘production, thing of any kind, action, manner of the action, 
Dillm. § 115. 

§$ 13. The foregoing discussion covers a good deal, but not 
the whole of the ground. 


Corrections— | 

I. § 25. The comparison between tomi and tome is given 
up. 

IT. § 11, 3. It should have been stated that Sumatra 
sukoorang, 9, 1s perhaps from sa, 1, and koorang, “less.” 


Art. IL—On the Fungi Growing m Mines. 
By Henry THomas TIsDALL, F.LS. 
[Read March 10, 1887.] 

Parr 


The northern portion of the district between the River 
Thompson and the River M‘Allister, in Gippsland, is covered 
with a series of hills, ranging from 1000 to 3000 feet above 
the level of the sea. These hills form three main ridges 


running northward, and culminating in Mounts Aberfeldy 
and Useful. 


42 On the Fung Growing im Mines. 


Geologically speaking, it is all of upper silurian formation, 
the stratification showing shales, sandstones, alternating 
with layers of hard diorite and quartz. During a trip with 
Mr. Reginald Murray, he pointed out the horizontal layers 
of basalt overlying the almost vertical rocks, Mount Useful, 
Mount Aberfeldy, Fullarton’s Spur; in fact, nearly all the 
higher mountains in the district are covered in this manner, 
while the lower hills show no trace of later volcanic action. 
- Masses of orthocerate limestone are found in the basin of the 
River Thompson. One enormous mass, over 200 feet thick, 
rises out of the Deep Creek. 

Veins of quartz abound everywhere, and in some places 
it becomes auriferous. Cohen’s reef is a splendid specimen 
of these auriferous veins; like the rest of the rocks in the 
district, the strike of this reef trends 20° west of north, and 
it has a westerly underlie. The lode itself is very rich in 
minerals, iron and arsenical pyrites abound, and for years 
it yielded an average of 2 ozs. to the ton. The total 
quantity of gold obtained has already reached nine tons. 
When first discovered, the gold-bearing stone was at the 
surface, but northwards it dips so much that long tunnels 
had to be driven, and shafts sunk in order to follow its 
course. In the Long Tunnel, for instance, the adit level was 
commenced about 100 feet above Stringer’s Creek; it is 
driven in about 800 feet, principally through hard diorites 
intersected with occasional veins of quartz; at the end of the 
tunnel a large chamber was excavated about 100 feet long 
by 40 feet wide. Here are placed the pumping and winding 
engines, worked entirely by compressed air, obtained through 
iron pipes from an immense pneumatic engine outside. The 
shaft is sunk in the middle of the chamber, and has been 
opened out at every hundred feet in order to catch the ever- 
dipping lode. They are opening out now at the nine hundred 
feet level. The plan adopted for opening a level is to drive 
a tunnel from the shaft until it cuts the lode, then work 
upwards to the next level, removing everything between the 
hanging wall and the other side. This varies in thickness 
from five to fifty feet, the empty space is then filled up with 
mullock. The tunnels in the various levels are lined with 
round timber, about two feet in diameter, placed vertically 
a few feet asunder. The logs on each side of the tunnel are 
kept apart by cap pieces of the same size, heavy slabs, placed 
horizontally, reach from one set of timber to the next, thus 
covering both walls and ceiling with wood. In the older 


On the Fungi Growing in Mines. 43 


and unused tunnels this timber is covered with fungoid 
growths. Masses of white silky hyphomycetes hang from 
the roof, shaped like stalactites, and often reach four or 
five feet in length. The timber used in the mine consists 
chiefly of Eucalyptus Sieberiana, E. Capitellata, E. Obliqua, 
EK. Amygdalina, E. Viminalis; the first of these, E. Sieberiana, 
is by far the best ; it lasts many years. It is remarkable to 
see the great varieties of colours assumed by the fungi in the 
mines, when we consider that they never receive any light 
from the sun. White is certainly the prevailing hue, but 
black, red, scarlet, delicate pink, and all shades of brown 
and yellow, are quite common. An instance of the rapidity 
of growth of this vegetable product, came under my notice 
whilst in Walhalla) The manager had occasion to have a 
- plat cleared of timber and well scraped at 12 oclock 
midnight, at 6 next morning he was astounded at finding 
the whole plat covered with fungi. He immediately sent for 
me, and I found that not only were they fully grown, but the 
spores perfectly ripe. It was an Agaricus (Psathyrella). 
Berkeley gives wonderful instances of the rapid growth of 
fungi, and Dr. Lindley says that the cells of the Lycoperdon 
giganteum multiply at the extraordinary rate of 60,000 
million in a minute. The growth of fungi, even when 
deprived of light is exemplified by Dr. Badham’s story 
of a gentleman placing a cask of wine in a cellar by itself for 
three years; the cask leaked ; a fungus sprung up, and grew 
to such a size that when the cellar was opened it was com- 
pletely filled by this winebibbing vegetable, the empty cask 
was found on the top of the fungus, pressed closely against 
the roof. Dr. Carpenter mentions that the paving stones in 
the town of Basingstoke were completely lifted out of their 
places by the growth of Agarics underneath. The most 
noticeable plant in the mine is the Hyphomycetes already 
mentioned ; it hangs down from the roof, sometimes by a 
narrow stem formed of loose fibres, then swells out very 
much, finally tapering towards the end. It is entirely 
composed of very fine silky fibres, interwoven so as to form 
a kind of fleece. So watery are these fungi that, having 
dried one five feet long and eighteen inches in diameter, it 
_ just weighed one ounce. On submitting a piece to the 
microscope, very small transparent cells may be perceived 
fastened like tiny nobs on the hairs, these are the spores, 
and they fall off in such quantities that the air is quite 
full of them ; I feel convinced that the stifling suffocating 


44 Notes on the Occurrence of Glaciated Pebbles and 


feeling, which comes over any one that breathes the atmo- 
sphere of the tunnel for some time, is due to their presence. 
A curious species of Cantharellus is not uncommon, it is of 
a brownish-yellow, tinged with a delicate green. In the 
dark corners behind the posts, bright yellow patches may 
be perceived ; these are polyporei. A very pretty Agaricus 
(Mycena) is found at the foot of partly decayed posts, it grows 
on the dust which crumbles off. In a future paper I propose 
to deal more systematically with this subject. 


Art. II].—Notes on the Occurrence of Glaciated Pebbles 
and Boulders in the so-called Mesozoic Conglomerate 
of Victoria. 

By E. J. Dunn, F.GS. 


[Read May 12, 1887.] 


At Wooragee, near Beechworth, there occurs a con- 
glomerate of peculiar character. In a base of fine clay are 
distributed in a heterogenous manner, well rounded pebbles 
and boulders of many varieties of schist, quartz-rock, sand- 
stones, shales, granite, agate, jasper, porphyry, &c., and also 
angular and sub-angular fragments and masses of rock. 

The approximate area of this conglomerate was com- 
municated to the Mining Department in 1871. The depth is 
not known, but in the very early days of gold mining in this 
neighbourhood, a shaft was sunk 100 feet into it, at Magpie 
Swamp, without piercing the underlying rock. This con- 
glomerate rests either upon granite or silurian beds. 
Outliers of similar conglomerate occur to the N.W. of 
El Dorado ; at various points on the road between Wan- 
garatta and Kilmore; and are also mentioned by Mr. R. A. 
F. Murray, in the Geological Survey Progress Report for 
1884, as existing at Bacchus Marsh, at the Barrabool Hills, 
and in South Gippsland. In this report, a glacial origin is 
suggested, as best explaining the peculiarities of this con- 
glomerate, but no distinct striations had been observed in the 
pebbles. 


Boulders in the so-called Mesozoic Conglomerate. 45 


In New South Wales, what appears to be the same 
conglomerate, is described by Mr. C. 8. Wilkinson, F.GS., 
Government Geologist, and allusion is made to the oreat 
angular masses found in it, and a glacial origin also 
surmised, but no direct evidence was attained of. stri- 
ations. 

Quite recently, while examining the conglomerate at 
Wooragee, I detected distinct striations on the boulders and 
pebbles, and also observed flat surfaces, and the peculiar 
fractures of the pebbles, so characteristic of conglomerates 
that have been formed through glacial action. 

In South Africa, what appears to be the exact counterpart 
of this conglomerate, exists. It is known there as the 
Dwyka conglomerate, and it forms the base of a great 
system of fresh water strata. The lowest division of these 
beds is known as the Ecca beds or Lower Karroo beds. 
They are probably carbonaceous in the lower portion, and 
are characterised by an abundance of fossil wood (silicified), 
and by a Glossopteris that appears to be identical with the 
Glossopteris Browniana of New South Wales; also small 
sauroid remains. The second division is known as the 
Karroo beds, and best known for its richness in sauroid and 
other remains that have been so wonderfully worked out by 
Sir R. Owen. The third and newest division is known as 
the Stormberg beds, in the lower portion of which are 
the coal measures, and workable seams of coal. Associated 
with the coal seams, are shales thickly studded with fern 
impressions, among which Sphenopteris Elongata, Pecopteris 
Odontopteroides, Cyclopteris Cuneata, Taeniopteris Daintreei, 
&e., abound. 

The glaciated nature of the conglomerate was established 
in South Africa in 1872, by the writer finding numerous 
examples of striated, grooved, and otherwise glaciated stones 
on the banks of the Orange River, but the full extent and 
the relations of this conglomerate to the Karroo beds was 
not fully worked out until last year, when my report on 
it was published by the Cape Government. 

Sir R. Owen after having all the available fossil evidence 
before him, inclines to the view that the Karroo beds belong 
to the carboniferous period ; if such is the case, the glacial 
conglomerate in South Africa must, at any rate, be palzeozoic 
in age, and enquiry is suggested as to whether the Victorian 
conglomerate is not older than mesozoic. 


AG On the Fungi Growing in Mines. 


Should the conglomerates on the two continents prove to 
be stratigraphically identical, they will furnish excellent 
bench-marks for working out the comparative geology of 
the two regions. 

Examples of the striated stones from Wooragee, are placed 
in the Technological Museum for inspection. 


Art. IV.—On the Fungi Growing in Mines. 
By Henry Tuos. Tispauy, F.LS. 
[Read May 12, 1887.] 
Part II. 


In accordance with my promise, I visited Walhalla during 
the Easter holidays, in order to secure some fresh specimens 
of Fungi from the Long Tunnel Mine. Mr. Ramsay Thomson, 
the manager, gave me every facility for exploring the mine ; 
but warned me that the fresh timber and increased ventilation 
would greatly impede, if not entirely destroy, my chances of 
SUCCESS. 

I arrived on Thursday afternoon, and as the next day 
would be a holiday, Good Friday, I was only allowed to 
visit number three level. 

This tunnel was dry and very warm, and I found the 
managers assertion was quite correct; for instead of having 
to stoop or almost crawl, as formerly, amongst half rotten ~ 
timber, crushed down to less than three feet by the superin- 
cumbent rock masses, I found upright seven-foot posts 
supporting a good roof, the whole being well slabbed and 
made very comfortable for every one except myself, as, alas, 
fungi were apparently things of the past. After traversing 
nearly a thousand feet of the level, I was rewarded by 
finding a partly deserted nook, with roof and sides fairly 
covered with fungi. Hyphomycetes hung from the cap 
timbers, their fleecy masses taking innumerable shapes, the 
commonest being like a huge pear made of snow, hanging 
by a long thin dark stem. Amongst these I discovered a 
very pretty agaricus ; it hung from the roof by means of a 
number of fine thread-like fibres, springing from abovt the 


On the Fungi Growing im Mines. 47 


centre of the pileus; these fibres join in one string, and are 
fastened to the partly decayed roof. The pileus was a pure 
creamy white, flattish, but the margin turned downward 
and then inward, margin not even, but bulging in separate 
lobe-like sections. In other specimens, the campanulate 
form, with a fairly even edge, was common. ‘The lamelle, 
at first a beautiful hight orange, afterwards becoming brown ; 
the gills were decidedly forked, fleshy, shallow and separated. 
These characteristics would place them amongst the genus 
Cantharellus Fe. 

As I quite agree with the remarks made by our President 
at the last meeting, namely, “‘That the main object of an 
outlying Society, such as ours, is more the obtaining of facts 
and placing them on record, than of merely theorising 
concerning them,” I am quite content, therefore, to state 
such characteristics concerning fungi as [ am in a position 
to describe, leaving the responsibility of classification to such 
veterans in science as Dr. Cooke or Professor Berkeley. 

To return to our cantharellus, the fibres connecting the 
pileus with the timber of the roof do away with the use of 
the stem, which is accordingly absent, and its place is shown 
by a raised ring, similar in width and thickness to the 
lamellze. The plant is generally solitary, but very often 
three or four grow so close together as to overlap ; and, 
in some instances, I discovered groups of several dozens 
springing from bundles of fine dark intermixed fibres. 

A very curious hydnum was occasionally to be found 
hanging from the beams by innumerable fine silky hairs 
springing from all upper portions of the pileus, which 
consists of a rough whitish floccose membrane. The 
hymenium is spread over spines, which are cylindrical, or 
rather conical, very even, tapering towards the tops; each 
of which ends in a circular plane. These spines grow rather 
crowded, and are of an orange yellow colour. 

It might be supposed that at a thousand feet below the 
surface seasons would cease to influence plants, but I found 
that many fungi were either altogether absent, or their hard 
dry remains only left to tell the tale. I was very anxious 
to explore the lower and damper levels of the mine, so I 
went down at midnight after Good Friday. In the sixth 
and eighth levels I found many fungi that would not grow in 
the dryer atmosphere of No. 3. T was particularly struck 
with some lovely agarics growing in tufts from the decayed 


48 On the Fungr Growing in Mines. 


remains of a hyphomycetes hanging from the roof, pileus ~ 
campanulate, strize very distinct, giving the edge a crenulate 
form ; so soft and brittle were they that I did not succeed 
in saving a single specimen; however, I stood under an 
umbrella, up to my ankles in water, for nearly half an hour, 
to get a fair sketch of the plants with their surroundings. 
The lamellee grow from the margin in two lengths, remote, 
white stem, almost translucent, long, attenuated towards 
centre, solid, with very short floccose hairs. In No. 8 level 
it was very wet, and fungi were to be found even on 
comparatively new timber. A semi-transparent polyporus 
is very common, hard, very uneven, all over knobs and 
excrescences, except where the hymenophorum appears, 
the pores are small, but deep and irregular, and the 
hymenium presents a bright orange, contrasting well with 
the browns and glassy grays of the matrix. Some of the 
slabs were almost covered with a creeping hyphomycetes, 
spreading out in all directions, in the same manner as lichens; 
they are protean in shape, some as fine as threads, creeping 
in radial form from a somewhat thicker centre; in other 
specimens the branches get wider and wider until they look 
like ribbons, but the ends of all invariably split up into very 
fine threads. The foregoing are formed of exceedingly fine 
soft silky fibres, which take root in the timber as they 
radiate, making it impossible to remove them without 
destruction. In one species the substance is thicker and 
the structure is not so soft and silky but rougher, almost 
corky, although still brittle. This fungus is covered with 
excrescences, and all the specimens I found were divided 
into three thick branches, each ending in knobs thicker than 
the stems; the knobs were coloured brown, whilst the 
remainder was white with occasional brown patches. 
Another distinct species was leathery, and peeled off easily 
from the post on which it grew ; the structure was floccose, 
and all branches ended in from three to five pointed ends, 
even in the very young plants the clavate endings were | 
distinctly visible. I noticed that the timber most lable to 
the attacks of fungi was that of the messmate (Eucalyptus 
Obliqua) easily recognisable by its bark. I should mention 
that the clavate endings were of an elongated cone-shape, 
white, and velvety to the touch, but much firmer than the 
rest of the plant. In a very wet part of No. 8 level the 
rotten timber produced a very pretty agaric, pileus 
campanulate, of a light lavender colour, strize well-marked, 


On the Fungi Growing in Mines. 49) 


making the edge of the pileus uneven. The stem long, solid 
and firm, the lamellze white and remote. I was so impressed 
with its likeness to the agarics, which I found on the 
decayed hyphomycetes in No. 6 level, that I went back to 
compare them, but the colour, general shape and mode of 
growth are so different that I am convinced they are a 
separate species, though both evidently belong to the 
genus Agaricus Mycenz, as the spores are white, the form 
campanulate, margin straight, and stem cartilaginous. In 
No. 8 level I found some very poor half dried specimens 
of an exeeedingly curious fungus, no living ones could be 
observed anywhere. Mr. Thomson has forwarded me some 
since, and | have examined them minutely. They grow in 
bunches, like wire grass, hanging down from the cross beams 
as long branched fibres. The stems are solid, varying from 
4 inch in diameter to mere threads. The cross section is 
nearly circular, flattening slightly where the stem branches, 
which it invariably does dichotomously. The mode of 
branching is peculiar ; the stem becomes thicker and flatter, 
then stops short, and the twin branches sprout from each 
side, widening abruptly. The substance of the plant, as 
revealed by the microscope, is floccose, the fine hairs being 
closely pressed together. A thick, very dark purple bark 
surrounds the stem, this becomes brittle when dry, and 
sometimes scales off At the tips of the branches the bark 
ceases, and a light coloured fleshy substance appears; this 
is quite white in the living plant, and is crowded with tiny 
spores, fastened like bunches of black grapes. The form of 
this fungus seems to me to bring the algze and fungi into 
very close relationship ; it looks exactly like seaweed, as it 
hangs from the roof, floating loosely in the air. 

Some years ago my attention was drawn by a miner to 
an extraordinary vegetable production growing in No. 3 
level, at the base of some rotten slabs; being anxious to 
watch its growth, I would not remove it, and I determined 
to copy it an situ. I obtained four candles, placed them on 
the ground with the flames touching, then I lay down at 
full length on the dry floor of the drive, and after a couple 
of visits, obtained a faithful, if not artistic copy of the 
fungus. The main portion of the plant was stiff, 1 might 
say leathery, and this was crossed by girdles made of fine 
white silky hairs, each of these hairs was dotted all round 
With spores. I visited the mine several times to examine 
the fungus, and as it seemed to retain its original form, I at 

E 


50 On the Fungi Growing in Mines. 


length intended to remove it out of danger, but I had delayed 
too long ; the ruthless foot of some passing miner must have 
kicked it from its hiding place and I saw it no more. Since 
then I have diligently explored, but was never successful in 
finding another specimen. A miner brought me a species 
of clavaria, which he said he had picked off a post in No. 3 
level, but I have never been able to find one of that 
particular kind myself. 


Many kinds of club-shaped fungus have been found by 
me in the mine, but I have not been fortunate enough to 
get sufficient data in the shape of spores, &c., to determine 
their proper classification. However, Baron von Miiller has 
kindly promised to send the specimens to Europe, with my 
notes thereon, and doubtless, in a short time I shall be 
enabled to append a full and correct list of them, with 
descriptions in the Transactions of the Society. 

I have questioned the miners concerning luminous fungi 
in the mines, but they say they have never seen any; this 
is singular, for agaricus candicans 1s very plentiful in the 
neighbourhood, and Humboldt is quite enthusiastic as to 
the splendour of some luminous species in mines. In fact, 
that is the only mention I have seen of fungi in connection 
with mines. Another curious proof of nature’s modifying her 
apparently fixed rules, is exemplified in some of the agarics 
and hydnei which I found. The rules amongst these orders 
are, that the hymenium should turn from the light, and that 
the stem, if any, should support the plant above it. Of course, 
there is no light except the passing candle of the miner, but 
the hymenium faces such as there is; again, the stems in these 
plants are suppressed altogether, and fibres from the top of 
the pileus support the weight which is placed below it. 

Turning from the plants themselves to their effect on 
those who are brought in close and hourly contact with 
them, I may premise, by stating the well-known fact, that 
fungi are plants that imbibe oxygen and exhale carbonic 
acid, this alone would have a prejudicial effect on those 
working j in their neighbourhood. 

Professor eneelees speaking on this subject, in his 
“ Outlines of British Fungiology,” says, “ Fungi were long 
regarded as the mere creatures of putrescence, ae therefore, 
as the consequence, not the cause of disease, but almost 
everyone is now ready to acknowledge what a weighty 
influence they have in inducing diseased condition. Un- 


On the Fungi Growimyg im Mines. 5] 


fortunately, the fungi which occur in the diseases of man, 
have seldom been examined by persons intimately acquainted 
with these fungi, so that the species or even genera in 
question are often doubtful. It is, however, certain that 
many of those which are found on different parts of the 
mucous membranes of animals, in a more or less advanced 
stage of growth, are like the fungi of yeast, referable to 
common species of mould. It is not probable, that in 
these cases, fungi originate disease, though they frequently 
ageravate it. ‘The spores of our common moulds float about 
everywhere, and as they grow with great rapidity, they are 
able to establish themselves on any surface where the 
secretion is not sufficiently active or healthy to throw off 
the intruder. Where the spores are very abundant, they 
may sometimes, like other minute bodies, obstruct the 
minute cells of the lungs, but there is no reason to believe 
that they induce epidemic diseases.” 


I may here remark, that I had not seen the foregoing 
paragraph when I first formed the idea that fungi spores 
might have something to do with the lung diseases common 
amongst miners, but whilst hunting up information on the 
subject, I came across this passage which certainly upholds 
my preconceived idea. The greater proportion of the fungi 
which I have been describing, are certainly closely related 
to the moulds referred to by Professor Berkeley ; in fact, 
I have very little doubt that they are nothing but huge 
overgrown members of the same family, swollen to ex- 
travagant dimensions by the heat and moisture by which 
they are surrounded. In Dr. Cunningham’s report of his 
“Microscope Examination of Air,” conducted in India (1872), 
he says, ‘That spores and similar cells were of constant 
occurrence, and were generally present in considerable 
numbers. ‘That the majority of cells were living, and ready 
to undergo development on meeting with suitable conditions 
was very manifest, as in those cases in which preparations 
were retained under observation for any length of time, 
germination rapidly took place in many of the cells.” 


With reference to the size of these spores, Dr. Cooke 
remarks, that “The largest spore is microscopic, and the 
smallest known scarcely visible under a magnifying power 
of 360 diameters.” Taking into consideration the confined 
Space in which miners must necessarily work, and the 
immense number of spores from such a quantity of fungi as 

E 2 


52 On the Fungi Growing in Mines. 


used to crow in the tunnels, I think we may safely take it 
for granted that fungi are, or were, deleterious to weak lungs. 
The next question then is how to get rid of them? The 
manager of the Long Tunnel at any rate has answered this 
question, to a certain extent, In a very practical way, for his 
repairs have nearly extirpated the fungi from some of the 
levels. But if we turnagain to professor Berkeley’s ‘‘Outlines,” 
we find the following: “The rapidity with which spawn 
penetrates, and the depth to which it enters, is often quite 
surprising. The most solid timber in a few months will 
sometimes show unequivocal traces of spawn. I have seen, 
for instance, elm trunks which were perfectly sound when 
felled, penetrated by the end of the second year with spawn 
to within a few inches of the centre; and in this case it 
must be remembered that vegetation goes on in the trunk 
for nearly a twelvemonth before any fungi can establish 
themselves.” Now it is simply absurd to suppose that a 
mining company could keep on constantly renewing timber 
to keep down these destructive pests. Several gentlemen 
belonging to our Society suggested painting the timber with 
certain acids, and I intended to try this plan at Walhalla, 
but my short stay prevented me; however, I have asked 
the manager, Mr. Ramsay Thomson, to paint certain marked 
posts with different acids, and so find out which is the best, 
and I have little doubt that he will accede to my request. 
The following remedies are mentioned by Berkeley—salt, 
lime, sulphate of copper, corrosive sublimate, and arsenic. 
If we are fortunate enough to hit on a really good and cheap 
remedy, we will not only be able to show how to extirpate 
an enemy to human life, but also to offer a premium to mine 
owners to use the remedy, for if the fungi in mines can be 
destroyed the timber will most certainly last twice as long. 


Art. V.—On the Production of Colour in Birds’ Eggs. 
By A. H. 8. Lucas, M.A. Oxon., B.Sc. Lond. 
[Read May 12, 1887.] 


The question of the cause of the coloration of birds’ eggs 
has often been referred to, but has not, to my knowledge, 
been adequately treated of in any work on Oology. Perhaps 


On the Production of Colour in Birds’ Eggs. 53 


we may consider the latest views on the subject to be those 
enunciated by Mr. H. Seebohm in his lecture at the London 
Institution, December 20,1886. I had published in the 
Melbourne Leader of December 26, 1885, a popular account 
of the colours of Australian birds’ eggs, in which I advanced 
suggestions which seemed to me to throw light on the 
subject. After reading the abstract in Nature of the 
interesting lecture by this high authority, I have thought it 
worth while to make a more formal scientitic record of the 
ideas broached in the Leader. 

My hypotheses may well be encountered with criticism, 
but they do serve at least very conveniently to connect a 
multitude of facts together. The antiquity of the Australian 
Avi-F'auna, and the preservation of ancient types, render a 
comprehensive consideration of Australian eggs of the greater 
value. My suggestions have been founded on studies of large 
collections, and after a certain amount of experience in the 
field. Australian eggs yield a rich abundance of facts which 
are of scientific interest per se, and which will be of still 
higher value if we can discern their bearing on biological 
problems. 

We take it that the natural or original colour of birds’ 
egos is the pure white of the mineral substance (carbonate of 
lime) of which they are composed, just as the natural colour 
of bone is white, and that, too, of the shells of mollusca, &c. 
All shells are secreted by animal membranes. In the 
mollusca, an external layer of membrane usually remains free 
from admixture of mineral matter, as an animal epidermis, 
which can be peeled off. But this is not the case with birds’ 
egos ; they possess a membranous lining, generally white, 
occasionally brownish or bluish, but outside this the animal 
substance and mineral matter are intimately commingled to 
the very surface. Colour, if produced, is then, in almost all 
egos, inorained. Often it can be detected incorporated in 
inner layers of the shell, as blotches beneath the sur- 

ace. 

Birds’ eggs have many foes. Even where man has not 
appeared upon the scene, a number of systematic nest- 
robbers exist. Snakes, the great lace-lizard (Hydrosaurus 
or Varanus varius), which takes such liberties with the 
settlers’ hen roosts, the “native cats” (Dasyurus viverrinus 
and D. maculatus), perhaps the bush rats, and last, but by no 
means least, other birds, and especially the crows, are very 
destructive of our native birds’ eggs, and of the young birds 


54 On the Production of Colour in Birds Eggs. 


in the nest. To such intruders pure white eggs would be 
a conspicuous and gratuitous advertisement, and the birds 
would be exposed to undue danger while in the egg. As 
has been remarked hundreds of times before, we accordingly 
find that white eggs, and especially eggs of shining or pearly 
whiteness, are almost always found in nests which either 
conceal the egos completely, or which are themselves com- 
pletely concealed. Thus the cookatoos, parrots, parrakeets, 
and other members of the family, in almost all cases, 
build in holes of trees, usually high up and quite out 
of reach. Owls build in holes of large gum trees; 
kingfishers, including the laughing jackass (Dacelo gigas), 
in holes of trees or banks; the diamond birds, the roller, and 
bee-eater, in holes in trees or in burrows. The penguins 
and many of the petrels lay their eggs at the extremities of 
long burrows in the ground, facing the sea. The eggs of all 
of these groups of birds are white. 

The eggs of the doves, pigeons, and podarguses are 
beautifully white, often shining as if enamelled. The birds 
construct slight nests of twigs, placed crosswise on horizontal 
branches of trees. Much light can pass through the inters- 
tices between the twigs, and it is a difficult matter, even for 
the trained human eye, to detect from below whether there 
are eggs in the nest or not. Here the white, light-reflecting 
egos are at a positive advantage. 

The Australian finches conceal their eggs in the depths 
of relatively huge covered baggy nests, provided with side 
spout-like entrances. The eggs are in no way visible from 
without, are securely stowed away, and are pure white. 
All of the English finches, on the contrary, lay in open 
nests, and the eggs are spotted, usually, too, on a neutral- 
tinted ground. In this case we may presume that we have 
preserved the ancestral type in Australia. 

Since a glaring uniform white must be a dangerous colour 
for exposed eggs, we are not surprised to find that variations, 
favourable to preservation, have been originated and preserved, 
and that colour is now a protection to the great majority of 
egos. In all cases we have to consider two questions: 
(1) How could the colour have been acquired? and (2) How 
is the colour now protective or otherwise beneficial? That 
natural selection would be called into play to preserve 
favourable markings or tints we may allow, but we believe, 
with Mr. Seebohm, that “natural selection is not the cause 
of evolution ” in this case, “ but only its guide.” 


Un the Production of Colour in Birds Eggs. 55 


The first question then is, how could the colour have 
been acquired? and I do not know that anyone has 
attempted hitherto to give any answer to it. The following 
has occurred to me as a probable explanation of the process ; 
at least the phenomena are referred back to principles 
already recognised. 

In the first place, it is important to note that the shell of 
the ovum is formed in the third portion of the oviduct 
(‘the uterus”), and entirely during the 12-18 hours which 
immediately precede the expulsion or laying of the egg. 
This is the length of the period in the case of the common 
fowl; we may assume, generally, a similar number of hours, 
probably shorter, in the case of the smaller species. That the 
formation of the shell is a process distinct from the formation 
of the yolk, is further brought before us strikingly, by an 
experiment of M. Tarkhanoff: He introduced a small ball 
of amber into the upper part of the ovarium, and obtained 
later on a quite normal egg, with chalaze, albumen, and 
shell, but with the ball of amber in place of a yolk. 

At the breeding season, the females of certain animals are 
well-known to be especially impressionable, and we think 
that the effect of the surroundings during the time of the 
formation of the shell, upon the mental or nervous consti- 
tution of the bird, is a main factor in the production of 
colour in the eggs. Any variations of value are seized on 
by natural selection, and transmitted by the principle of 
heredity. Individuals at the present day are influenced in 
part by the surroundings, but mainly restricted by the 
tribal habits of generations. We have, in fact, sufficient 
adherence to type for an experienced collector to be tolerably 
sure of the species of bird to-which a particular ege belongs, 
but sufficient variation to make him wonder at the differences 
which often exist between eggs of the same clutch. As we 
find in all groups, that some species are more stable and less 
variable than others, so the eggs of some birds are apparently 
fixed in colour and pattern, while those of others vary 
within wide limits. 

We will now consider in detail, the influence of surround- 
ings, and the utility of the effects produced. 

The general tint of the egg is often protective. The 
colour of the ground prominently before the vision of the 
laying bird, is reproduced in various shades in the 
eggs of the pheasants and partridges, and in our mallee 
hen (Leipoa ocellata) and megapode. In the rich brown 


56. = =On the Production of Colour in Birds’ Eggs. 


variety of the egg of the domestic fowl, we probably see 
the colour developed in the feral state, now usually lost 
by reversion to the original white, as there is no longer 
advantage to be gained by its retention. 

In addition to the protective ground tint, darker spots 
and markings lend further security. The eggs of the sand- 
pipers and dottrells cannot be distinguished, even when 
seen, from the sands on which they lie, without close con- 
centration of the attention. Grouse and quail, rails and 
night-jars, plovers and terns, oyster-catchers and gulls, all 
lay on the ground, with or without nests, and the egos 
exhibit different shades of the soil or of the rocks, with an 
appropriate ornamentation of spots, blotches, and smears. 

White eggs become similarly less conspicuous if the white 
be broken up, by the introduction of spots or blotches 
of shading. This is a very simple, but by no means, 
ineffective means of avoiding detection. The eggs of the 
Australian shrike-thrushes, white-winged corcorax, and 
frontal shrike-tits, are good instances of exposed white eggs 
so protected. In many families it 1s noteworthy that those 
kinds of eggs which are quite concealed are white, while 
those which are exposed are speckled or freckled. In the 
tree swallows and martins, we find a graduated series. The 
egos of the English sand-martin, laid at the ends of tunnels 
in soft sandstone, are quite white. Those of the Australian 
tree-martin which lays in spouts of trees, are very slightly 
spotted. Those of the fairy martin, laying ia social colonies, 
under the eaves of houses, &, are more freely flecked. 
Lastly, the English swallow, and the Australian welcome 
swallow, which builds under bridges, or in shallow spouts 
of trees, in more exposed situations, are plentifully covered 
with spots. So amongst English titmice (a family want- 
ing in Australia), the only purely white eggs are those 
of the long-tailed titmouse, whose long and roomy mossy 
nest, with side entrance, often contains a clutch of a dozen 
or fourteen eggs. The warblers, the larks, and the honey- 
eaters, are other families of birds with spotted eggs. 

The experiments of Jacob (Genesis xxx. 37-43) are 
recorded as having been successful in producing mottled 
colours in the animals under his charge. By the simple 
device of placing green rods before them at the time of 
conception, in which he “ pilled white strakes, and made the 
white appear which was in the rods.” ‘And the flocks 
conceived before the rods, and brought forth cattle ring- 


On the Production of Colour in Birds Eggs. 57 


straked, speckled and spotted.” It is then not difficult to 
understand that surrounding objects of very different 
appearance, but of unequally coloured surface, might as 
readily produce spots and speckles on bird’s eggs, as on the 
skins of mammals. 

In the case of the honey-eaters, we may venture a surmise 
as to what the parti-coloured objects are which produce the 
spotted eggs. ‘The eggs of these birds are of various shades 
of ground colour, white, buff, salmon, flesh-coloured, with 
small dots or flecks of purple, chestnut, reddish-brown, or 
even black. ‘The birds, as their name denotes, may be seen 
busily extracting the honey from the flowers by means of 
their long tongues. Familiarity with pale and warm-tinted 
flowers and with the dotted orange, red, purple, or black 
anthers, may possibly account for the coloration of this 
type of ege. 

Many birds which nest in trees or bushes have eggs 
which are of a pale or darker green ground hue, speckled or 
splashed over with olive or brown, reminding one of the 
different shades of the surrounding foliage, and, moreover, 
difficult to see from a distance through a bower of leaves. 
Such are the eggs of the crows, magpies, and crow-shrikes, 
the species of grauculus, the English black-birds, and the 
Australian mountain thrush and robins. In this case both 
origin and use of the colour are apparent. 

Kegs with irregular streaky lines of bizarre appearance 
are found in a few families. In England, the yellow-hammers 
and buntings are good examples. In Australia, we have the 
Pomatoston. ‘The eggs of the latter are about an inch long 
and three-quarters of an inch at the widest, olive-brown, 
with all kinds of hieroglyphic pencillings in black. Both 
families line their nests with hair, and the eggs are pretected 
by their resemblance to the lining of the nest. Gould simi- 
larly remarks, in speaking of the Victorian lyre-bird, “the 
colour resembles, in fact so closely, that of the feathers with 
which the nest is lined, that it is not easy to detect the egg.” 

Kegs of a pale bluish or greenish uniform tint are common. 
Such neutral tints are found in the grebes, cormorants, 
swans, ducks, and geese, the mangrove bitterns, the glossy 
ibis ; and attaining to the deepest and loveliest shade in the 
herons. Just as the hue of the eggs of the pheasants, &c., 
may have been suggested by that of mother earth ever 
before their eyes, so these tints of the water birds’ eggs may 
have arisen from the contemplation of vast sheets of water. 


58 On the Production of Colour in Birds Eggs. 


and the consequent impression upon the mental organisation 
of the parents. This peculiarity of colour, too, has been of 
service in rendering the eggs less easy of detection, as being 
of neutral hues, or as resembling, more or less, the water 
around or near the nest. 

But the brightest blues of all occur, very exceptionally, 
in groups of birds of totally different habits, in no way 
adapted to an aquatic life. Such are, for instance, amongst 
English birds, the thrush and the starling, the hedge 
sparrow and lesser redpole, the wheatear, and to a less 
extent, the stone-chat and whin-chat. Amongst Australian 
birds, are those of the naturalised Indian or Ceylon mynah, 
the coach-whip bird, and the wedge-bill, and the species of 
Zosterops, a small family allied to the honey-eaters. Such 
examples, it is to be noted, are extremely scarce. It is 
difficult to surmise the causes which can have combined to 
produce this unique coloration. If the “motive” be pro- 
tection, it must fall under the general principle, that 
intruders are shy of the brightly coloured objects. Some 
support for this view may be derived from Mr. Bates’ well- 
known observations on deterrent colours amongst insects. 
lt is difficult, moreover, to discover a blue in the surround- 
ings of the birds, which could produce so pronounced a 
mental conception of this colour. It may be the blue of the 
butterflies on which they feed. It may be the blue of the 
aerial vault above. It would seem, if this second suggestion 
be the right one, that very few indeed of the birds have 
their attention attracted strongly by the azure of the skies, 
while they occupy their aerial homes. 

The eggs of the ostrich vie in colour with the pale yellow 
sand of the African desert, in which they are buried for the 
sake of incubation by the sun’s heat; but those of the emu, 
laid in the Australian bush, are, as every one knows, dark 
green. Here we have an indication that the Australian 
bush is not made up of yellow sandy deserts. The emu, in 
fact, scoops out a hole in the ground amongst low scrub, and 
contemplates eucalypts and salt-bush, and other dull vegeta- 
tion. Its egos are exposed and protected by their colour. 
The cassowary, laying and living amongst the bright green 
of the tropical grasses, and the vivid green of a more 
diversified tropical foliage, produces lighter and brighter 
green eggs. 

With the birds of prey the mental perception of habitual 
surroundings seems to have been intense (as might have been 


On the Production of Colour in Birds Eqgas. 59 
gg 


expected from their known keenness of vision), and the 
influence upon the colouring of the eggs remarkable. The 
nests of the eagles, falcons, and hawks are large, and exposed 
on the tops of trees or on the ledges of lofty cliffs. The eggs 
are generally more or less blotched with rusty red, presenting 
a marked resemblance to old blood spots, such as the family 
are so well acquainted with. The nankeen kestrel breeds 
in spouts of trees, where, of course, the colour cannot 
be protective, yet the eggs retain the family peculiarity. 
Here we see natural selection apparently ruled out of court, 
and mental receptivity as the sole cause of the variations in 
the one specified direction. The eggs of the other members 
of the family are, from their situation, maccessible, and it 
therefore seems very questionable whether the factor of 
natural selection has operated at all in the case of the eggs 
of this group. 

We find very different degrees of development of the 
blotches. In one clutch of the sparrow-hawk (Accipiter 
torquatus) one ege was white, a second smudged, and the 
third well blotched. In a clutch of the goshawk (Astur 
approzimans), again, one egg was smudged, one smudged 
and blotched, and the other blotched. Similar gradations 
are to be observed in the average colour of the species. The 
eggs of the harriers (Circus), which lay on or near the 
ground, and generally among thick scrub, and those of the 
crested hawk (Baza subcristata), which builds in the holes 
of trees, are pure white ; and we have gradually more and 
more colour introduced, until the climax is reached by 
the brown hawks (Jeracidea berigora) and kestrels 
(Tinnunculus cenchroides). 


Great irregularity and much play of variation amongst 
individuals, characterise eggs, which derive their colour 
from changing and varying appearances. We obtain thus 
a natural explanation of the infinite variety of colouring in 
the egos of the rapacious birds, and of such birds as the 
magpies and the sparrows. 


Many birds continue to protect their eggs themselves, 
consciously or unconsciously. Some, as the partridge, will 
cover up the eggs when they leave the nest. The grebes 
lay eggs which are at first white, but become stained by 
mud from the body of the sitting mother bird, usually brown 
and gradually browner, a tint well in keeping with the 
colour of the nest, of the dead reeds and leaves. Many of 


60 On the Production of Colour in Birds’ Eggs. 


the sea birds, too, by fouling their eggs, no doubt materially 
assist In preserving them. 

The English cuckoo commonly chooses the nests of larks 
or of wagtails for its egg. When found in the nest of a lark, 
especially of a tit-lark, the ege is very dark ; and when 
found in that of a wagtail, much lighter. This looks lke 
proof positive of the effect of mental impression in producmg 
the colour of the egg. More rarely, the ege of the cuckoo is 
found in other nests, such as that of the hedge sparrow. 
Jt is most likely that in this case, the cuckoo had in the 
course of nature laid its egg, and not being able to find an 
appropriate nest near, was driven to make use of that 
readiest to hand. For nothing could be more conspicuous 
than the contrast between the colours of the eggs. Our 
Victorian cuckoos are likewise eclectics. The pallid cuckoo | 
often plants its cream or flesh-coloured and spotted eggs in 
the nests of honey-eaters, the eggs of which its own 
thus resemble. The bronze cuckoo patronises the dome- 
shaped nests of little birds, in which the egg will not be 
seen, and into which it doubtless conveys its egg by means 
of the bill, for the cuckoo is much too large a bird to obtain 
entrance into the nest by the tiny opening which serves for 
the rightful owners. The brush and the narrow-billed cuckoos 
place their egos in the nests of superb warblers and acanthizas, 
and the eggs of both are white, with very fine dots. 

The subject it will be seen is as yet still entirely in the 
domain of observation. Experiments are wanting. It is to 
be hoped that they will be forthcoming. Opportunities 
exist, notably in the case of the domestic birds, and of 
birds which breed easily in confinement. But we must 
not expect too much, to be able to produce extreme effects. 
Mr. E. B. Poulton’s interesting series of experiments on 
the production of colour in the pupze of certain British 
Lepidoptera, show that the capacity for variation in each 
species is (for a single generation) limited, and that the 
variations tend in quite definite directions. It is probable, 
however, that results of sufficient, and perhaps in some 
cases of striking, interest are to be obtained by careful and 
systematic experimentation. And the field is open. 


Art, VIL—The Geology of the Portland Promontory, 


Western Victoria. 
By G. 8S. GriFFirus, F.G.8. 
[Read June 9, 1887.] 


The area which I propose to describe is a promontory, 
terminating in three bold rocky headlands, Capes Bridge- 
water, Nelson, and Grant, and two open bays, and these 
features jointly constitute one of the most southerly exten- 
sions of Australia. The town of Portland, which gives its 
name to this promontory, is situated on the eastern side of 
its neck. 

If we take a map of the locality, and run a line from 
Narrawong due west, until it cuts the beach at Discovery 
Bay, it will mark the base of the promontory, which we 
shall find to be about twenty-two miles across, while the 
length of its coast line is some sixty miles. The promontory 
is for the most part a low table land, which increases in 
height as we go from north to south, and which has bold 
bluffs for most of its sea margin. Where the coast is low, as 
it is between Whalers Bluff and Narrawong, the strand 
crosses the site of a former shallow arm of the sea, the bed 
of which has been elevated just sufficiently to form dry 
land, and the old margin of this ancient bay is formed in 
part of bold bluffs, similar to those which edge so much 
of the promontory. The surface of this tableland is very 
undulating, which characteristic 1s, on the south-western 
edge, largely due to the presence of sand dunes, and else- 
where is the result of unequal erosion. Its highest points 


~ are Mount Richmond, 740 feet high, and the extinct Bridge- 


water volcano, 449 feet. 


IL.—Its EXTERNAL RELATIONS. 


From a geological point of view, the Portland Promontory 
is but a corner of a large area occupied by upraised seabeds 
of Tertiary age. Some time in the Eocene, if not before 
it, the south coast of Victoria and South Australia was 
depressed, and the ocean extended several great arms for 
considerable distances within the present shore line. One 


62 The Geology of the Portland Promontory, 


of these gulfs stretched from near Adelaide to near Geelong, 
and occupied a great part of the valley of the Lower Murray. 
The Grampians and the Otway Ranges were islands in this 
tertiary sea. Miocene marine beds are exposed in the banks 
of the Murray at the north-west bend, and in the cliffs of 
the south coast, in patches from the head of the Australian 
Bight to Western Port, and a snow-white horizontal stratum 
of that formation is visible in the craters of some of the 
volcanoes which stud the centre of the region. These 
miocene beds rest unconformably upon mezozoic rocks at 
Cape Otway ; upon paleozoic rocks in South Australia; and 
upon both of these formations at different points around the 
Grampians. They are nearly everywhere covered by beds 
of a more recent age, and at Portland, the miocene rock 
forms the base-course of the cliffs. 

The area having been covered with marine deposits, was 
then raised sufficiently to expose them to view, and these, 
with others of zolian or volcanic origin, which are super- 
imposed, will form the subjects of this sketch. 


Jl.—TwHE PoRTLAND PROMONTORY. 


In this locality the undermentioned formations are 
exposed, but I would remark, that no single section any- 
where contains all the members : 

Recent.—The sand dunes of the coast; the marine sands 
and clays of Narrawong Bay; the marine shell bed of Nelson; 
the latest lava flows of the Bridgewater volcano. 

Pleistocene.—The false bedded or eolian limestone; the 
lower lava flows of Bridgewater. 

Pliocene.—The lava flows of Nelson, and the lowest flows, 
with the bedded volcanic ash, of Bridgewater. 

Upper Miocene or Upper Murravian.—The oyster bed 
of Whaler’s Bluff; the lava flows of Portland Bay. 

Lower Miocene or Lower Murravian.—tThe foraminiferous 
limestone, or chalk with flints, of Portland Bay. 


Ii1.—TuHeE MIocENE FORMATIONS. 


The foraminiferous limestone, or chalk with flints. This 
rock is a conspicuous feature in the cliffs at Portland. The 


Western Victoria. 63 


exposed portion forms a syncline about two miles long, the 
crest of which rises some thirty feet or so above the beach 
at the Whaler’s Bluff, whilst the extremities dip out of sight 
at the lighthouse to the south, and at the Narrawong siding 
to the north. 

The upper edge of the synclinal fold has a serrated 
appearance, probably due to the slipping down of masses of 
the much decomposed miocene basalt, which forms the 
upper portion of the cliff. 

The rock is a snow-white material, moderately hard, but 
friable, and very porous. Its matrix is a chalky dust, a 
mass of microscopic foraminifera, which have been identified 
as being for the most part, globerigina bulloides, and orbulina 
universa. There is with these an abundant admixture of 
bryozoa, echini, pectens, terebratellee, and pteropods, all more 
or less broken, and an occasional fishbone. The coarser 
ingredients are often arranged in layers one or two inches 
thick, and of considerable horizontal extent. These layers. 
stand out in a slight relief on the cliff face, and this seems 
to be due to the presence in them of great numbers of 
siliceous organisms, which afford, by thei partial decom- 
position, a siliceous cement, less affected by weathering 
than the calcareous cement which elsewhere binds the mass. 

This chalk-like limestone is overlaid, conformably as it 
seems, by a bed composed principally of oyster shells (Ostrea 
Sturtiana). Owing to the talus of loose decomposed lava 
from overhead, it is not easy to say what may be the exact 
thickness of this bed, but I think that it probably averages 
a foot. 

These two formations, the limestone and the oyster bed, 
weather more slowly than the volcanic rock above them, 
and consequently, the cliff face, where it is built up of these 
different materials, presents a section having a marked 
character. The portion composed of lava, slopes at an angle 
of about forty degrees, while that of limestone is almost 
vertical. (See Sketch H.) 

These formations (the limestone and the oyster bed) are 
exposed at the surface only in one locality, that of the 
Borough of Portland. The outcrop there extends from the 
Courthouse, along the Cliff Road, to the bridge at the 
mouth of the Wattle Hill Creek, a distance of about a 
quarter of a mile, and thence it runs inland up the valley, 
for about a mile. The creek has cut through a great 
thickness of volcanic rock, and it has eroded to a small 


64: The Geology of the Portland Promontory, 


extent the underlying chalk limestone; thus the exposure 
of the latter at this spot is to be accounted for. 

Although the chalk-limestone dips under foot at the 
Portland lighthouse, and is not again visible until the 
South Australian border is approached, yet there is evidence 
of its continuity. It must outcrop in the sea bed, not far 
beyond low water mark, and that frequently, for flints 
derived from it are plentiful on the beach as far as I went, 
viz., up to the east end of Discovery Bay. At Danger Point 
I found, thrown up on the lava rocks, a block of this chalk, 
about 20 Ibs. in weight. The mass was clasped by the 
roots of a thick fucus (macrocystis pyrifera). Probably the 
seaweed had been violently torn up in some storm, and being 
very tough, it had wrenched the block of chalk, on which it 
had grown, out of its sea bed, and then had, by its great 
buoyancy, floated it ashore. Again at Bridgewater, there isa 
stratum of pure white colour, which forms a most conspicuous 
undulating stripe along the cliff face, for it is sandwiched 
in between ash-beds of a dark brown or buff colour. It is 
about five inches thick. It appeared to be the ejected 
powdery débris of a chalk substratum, that had been drilled 
through as the vent of the volcano was being formed. 
There can be little doubt but that the rock occurs there 
at a comparatively shallow depth. 

Investigations by the Rev. Julian Woods and Professor 
Tait, into the fossils of these formations, and of their exten- 
sions along the coast and elsewhere, place the oyster beds in 
Upper, and the foraminiferous limestone in the Lower the 
Murravian  series—-respectively the equivalents of the 
Upper and Lower Miocene. 


IV.—TuHeE Voutcanic Rocks. 


Rocks of volcanic origin cover a large portion of the 
Promontory. The most considerable accumulation occurs 
along the south-west shore of Portland Bay. It extends 
from Cape Grant to the Narrawong siding; thence it turns 
to the north-west, or inland ; its thinned edge crosses the 
railway line near the nine mile post ; it overlaps Bat’s ridges 
on the north side of them; and then it dips under the 
falsebedded limestone at the Black Gully on the Bridge- 
water road. Probably there are outliers of this much eroded 
rock outside of this area, just as there are small patches of 
the underlying limestone exposed within it. 


Western Victoria. 65 


The Rev. Julian Woods thought that this lava flowed 
from a crater situated where isolated rocks now form the 
group known as the Laurence Rocks. I know of no facts 
inimical to this theory, and the circumstance that the 
lava beds thin out as they recede from that neighbourhood 
is in its favour. I searched carefully for elongated vesicles 
in the lava, as evidence of the direction of its flow, but 
could find none 7 situ, though I saw them in many of the 
loose boulders, where they were valueless tome. It is right 
to say, that Mr. Dennant, F.G.S., questions this view, on the 
ground that the Laurence Rocks are capped with limestone 
and not with ash, as asserted by Mr. Woods. As I did not 
visit the islets, I cannot say which of these authorities gives 
the correct facts, but 1t seems to me that such a low vent 
might easily have become covered up with a limestone 
deposit subsequently, and, therefore, I think that Mr. Woods 
may be right in his theory as to the location of the crater, 
even if he should prove to have been wrong as to the nature 
of the capping. 


The lava of this area is in some places at least 150 feet in 
depth, but the mass is built up of an enormous number of 
separate flows. These vary in thickness from one to ten 
feet. The beds are lenticular in transverse section, and 
none that I saw were more than 100 yards wide. They are 
bedded more or less horizontally. The thickness of the 
whole mass varies greatly within short distances, and I 
think that much of this inequality is due to aqueous erosion, 
for the most marked differences occur in the neighbourhood 
of the existing or of the sites of former watercourses. The 
biggest of these have but a feeble flow now, though it 
is likely that during some portion of the post-miocene 
period their streams were of a much greater volume than 
they are to-day, and consequently, that they then had 
much more power. This eroding action has been further 
promoted by the fact that the coast edge has been rising 
rather faster than the parts inland; for just as a circular 
Saw cannot cut into a log unless the latter be pushed 
against it, so a stream, that has reached its base-level 
of erosion, cannot deepen its channel, unless the latter is 
being raised so as constantly to expose a lower stratum of 
of its floor to the scour. The south-east margin of this 
peninsula has cockled up, but the flowing water has preserved 
its channel by cleaving the rim to sea level. 

E 


66 The Geology of the Portland Promontory. 


In places the lava lies immediately upon the miocene 
shell bed, but I did not detect any changes in the latter, 
such as are usually caused by contact with heated masses. 

I was much struck with the great differences in colour, 
degree of hardness, vesicularity, decomposition, and thickness 
of bedding, displayed by the lava within short distances. 


Woods has tested the rock, and he assigns to it the 
following composition :— 


Si. O, oe ia Ne ‘60 
Fe. O. “ee ae ne 20 
ATO. om ats ee 10 
Ca. O. | 

Mg. 6. atts wae ae ‘10 
FeO: 1-00 


He terms it an augitic or doleritic lava, and it seems to 
me that it might equally well be called an andesite. 


A fine grained yellow, slightly vesicular and very decom- 
posed lava occurs in a little bay immediately south of the 
lighthouse. It is found at, and a little above, the low water 
level, and its softness probably accounts for the formation of 
the little bay. Similar flows occur at the sea level in all the 
indentations between this bay and Danger Point, and I 
noticed that wherever the coast juts out the rock at the sea 
level is a dark durable lava. The yellow lava appeared to 
me to be of a more acid nature than the darker kinds, for it 
preserves its light colour even where it is very hard and 
undecomposed. At Black Nose Point the rock is a dark © 
massive hard basalt, and it is so very vesicular that a gas 
cavity, which I measured, had a major axis 18 inches long 
and a minor one measuring 12 inches; and I saw many 
others as large as it. A tiny rivulet enters the sea near to 
this point, and thereabouts the cliffs lose their height, and 
then the coast forms a low double shelf. (See Sketch K.) 
A pebble ridge extends from this place to Danger Point, 
a distance of one mile. The boulders are of basalt, with an 
abundant admixture of rolled blocks of volcanic ash, and 
fiints. The ash may come from the Laurence Rocks, one 
mile to seaward of the ridge; but if it does not, it is hard to 
say whence it is derived, as there is no other deposit of the 
material, known to me, nearer to it than Cape Bridgewater, 
which must be 15 miles distant. This volcanic formation 


Western, Victoria. 67 


dips out of sight under pleistocene limestone about two miles 
to the west of Cape Grant. 

Another volcanic flow occurs at Cape Nelson. The 
traveller from Portland strikes the south end of Nelson 
Bay, at a point about two miles from the lighthouse. He 
there finds himself standing on the brink of an amphi- 
theatre of limestone cliffs, almost vertical, and in height 
from 150 to 200 feet. 

The beach which fringes the centre of the bay disappears 
towards its two seaward extremities, and here the lofty 
cliffs are undercut by the waves. Hereabouts also, there is 
a slight bend in the line of cliff, low down on the salient 
angle, of which a bed of black lava is a conspicuous feature 
in the buff coloured wall. It is about three or four feet 
thick ; it appears to be about thirty feet above the sea level, 
and it dips inland, 7¢., to the south-west, at an angle of 
about six degrees. The same bed re-appears in the next 
jutting point, which is distant about 300 yards to the south. 
A second flow appears below it, some twenty feet thick of 
limestone lying between the two beds. The bottom flow 
forms the base of the cliff Here again, the dip of the flow 
is inland (south-west), but the angle is about ten degrees. 
(See sketch T.) 

As the clifis were inaccessible, [ had to make my observa- 
tions from above, at a distance of about 250 yards. 

The lava again creeps up the cliff from under foot 
as we proceed south, and it forms its base, from this 
pot outwards, all round the cape. I was able to 
descend and examine it only at one point, and that was 
under the hghthouse. The cliff there is 180 feet high. The 
upper 100 feet consists of a current bedded calcareous sand- 
stone (termed by me limestone, for brevity), and the lower 
80 feet of black lava, the latter formation apparently sub- 
dividing again into two major divisions, each akout 40 feet 
thick, and each made up of several flows. The lava forms 
two platforms, and the cliff bas a profile shown in the sketch. 
(See sketch M.} 

The under surface of the limestone is as level as a shelf, 
and in some places, it projects over the lava as much as 
20 and 25 feet. (See sketch J.) The latter weathers the 
faster of the two rocks, and its face is tattooed with the 
concentric rings of brown and yellow, characteristic of the 
decay of lava. From the centres of many of these boulders 
nodules of darker rock project, and a great number of 

F 2 


68 The Geology of the Portland Promontory, 


greenish-white zeolites stud the surface of the lava, standing 
out in bold relief. Streams of hard water leak out at the 
junction of the two formations. These have coated much of 
the lava with a crust of slippery magnesian travertine. Its 
colour varies between shades of dirty brown and dirty green, 
but these tints may be due to the growth of microscopic 
plants on the moistened surfaces. Every pool in the upper 
rocks has a margin of lime crystals, due to the evaporation 
of this hard water. As the water drips from the limestone 
cornice it forms stalactites, the white forms of which, being 
relieved by the shadow cast behind them by the deep ledge, 
stand out as a rude dog-tooth moulding along the junction. 
(See sketch V.) The step-like profile of the cliff indicates a 
change in the sea level. Volcanic rock appears to underlie 
the whole of this cape. It dips under limestone in Bridge- 
water as in Nelson Bay, but what its northerly extension 
under the limestone may be, it is impossible to say. 

The third occurrence of volcanic rocks within this area is 
at Cape Bridgewater. The dunes end, and bold hills begin, 
at the west end of Bridgewater Bay, half way between 
Vance’s and McKinlay’s. At the point where the fishermen’s 
undercliff road starts, smooth wave-worn tabular rocks peep 
up through the sand of a wide beach, between the high and 
low water marks. These are stratified ash beds of a buff 
colour, but they are speckled with minute black cinders. 
The layers are each from one to four inches thick, and the 
tint of each is proportioned to the abundance of the cinders. 
On the beach one hundred yards south of these ash beds 
other smoothed rocks crop up, but they are composed of a 
dark hard lava. Immediately beyond these rocks, beds 
of both ash and lava are to be seen in the face of the cliff. 
The ash here is intensely hard, and is very massively bedded. 
The colour of the upper part is buff, and that of the lower is 
brown, and the upper edge of the brown bed forms a 
syncline. The dip of the beds varies both in angle and 
direction within short distances. The angle of those first 
seen does not exceed ten degrees, and their dip is north- 
east; but near McKinlay’s (half a mile further south) the 
dip is first east, then east south-east, while their angle has 
risen to 40°. The ash begins to contain larger scoria as 
we go south, and these have their vesicles filled with 
amygdules. The upper edge of the ash is some 25 feet above 
the beach, and the upper part of the bold cliff is composed 
of the false-bedded limestone, first noticed at Cape Nelson. 


Western Victoria. 69 


At the fishermen’s huts, the limestone rests directly on the 
lava, but it is unaltered along the plane of contact. 

About a quarter of a mile south of the fishermen’s huts 
the cliff shows an interesting section. At the top there is 
about 40 feet of limestone, then 30 feet of thick bedded lava, 
3 feet of olive green ash, in thin layers, then eight or nine 
distinct shallow flows of black slaggy lava ; and under these 
5 or 6 feet of olive green bedded ash, and then the face is 
marked by a bouldery beach. The special feature of the section 
is the lower lava flow. The nine thin beds of the latter form 
a mass crescentic in section, with the horns pointing slightly 
downwards. It is about 20 feet thick in the centre, and at 
a distance of 50 feet on either side of the central point it 
tapers out. No parting material separates the several flows; 
the lowest lies conformably upon an ash bed, and is tolerably 
compact, but the top one has a slaggy scoriaceous surface. 
The south edge of the flow is truncated, by the cliff turning 
sharply to the west, so as to give a section of it almost at a 
right angle to that just described. In this longitudinal 
section the lava and ash beds are seen to have a dip to the 
east of forty degrees. (See sketches X' and X*) 

About 50 yards south of the crescentic-sectioned lava beds, 
the ash beds are traversed by a vertical lava dyke, which, 
emerging from the sea, rises to a height of about fifty 
feet. It is composed of two slabs of about equal size, the 
total thickness of the dyke being about two feet; its 
strike is north-east and south-west. The ash beds are 
darker for a few inches on either side of it, as if they were 
somewhat burnt. 

Mr. Dennant has recently stated, that this dyke joins the 
overlying basalt, and his paper contains a drawing showing 
such a junction. After a very careful examination of the 
cliff, I must say that I could see no such confluence. The 
dyke tapers toa point at the top, and terminates in the ash at 
a considerable distance beneath the lava. There may bea 
junction, nevertheless, though it is not visible in the section. 
To the south of the dyke most of the cliffs rose sheer out of 
deep water, and could not be reached. Examined through a 
glass, they presented a solid smooth wall of ash 250 feet high, 
and nearly vertical. It will be noticed, that between the 
first place of appearance of the ash and this point, a distance 
of half a mile, the ash beds have increased in thickness from 
5 feet to 250 feet, and their dip has increased from ten to 
forty degrees. The cinders contained in the ash have 


70 The Geology of the Portland Promontory, 


increased from the size of peas up to that of blocks a foot 
long. At some points I noticed pseudo-dykes in the ash, 
formed of a sort of soapstone. 

Having ascended the cliffs from the fishermen’s huts, I 
found that the limestone disappeared about half way up the 
hill, at about 200 feet above sea level, and lava, weathered 
into boulders, then showed through the turf When nearly 
over the dyke, I found that the hill rose inland from the 
cliff edge very steeply. Its crest is a few hundred feet 
distant from the cliff edge, and it has an altitude of 449 feet. 
Over an area of six or seven acres the surface is a mass of 
rugged lava. Immediately to the north of this outcrop is a 
a slight hollow or dell, in extent about one acre. This 
depression may be the nearly obliterated vent of a small and 
much decayed volcanic cone. A lava flow extends from the 
rocky crest towards the south-west; it is about a chain 
wide and a quarter of a mile long, and it does not reach the 
sea. This flow has a quite fresh look, and it is the only one 
within this area that I have seen, which has such a very 
recent appearance. Both the strike of the lava dyke and the 
dip of the lenticular lava bed are directed towards this 
crater. The dip of the ash beds from a point near Vance’s 
up to Cape Bridgewater forms a series of radial lines, which 
centre here also, and if the strikes of the several beds were 
worked out, I believe that they would form segments of 
circles grouped around this hill. 

About a mile south from the crest of this extinct volcano, 
the cliffs, from trending south-east, turn abruptly to the west. 
This corner forms Cape Bridgewater. Directly the cape is 
rounded the ash beds dip steeply to the north-east, and 
disappear under level bedded lava flows, which then form 
the whole height of the cliff. A mile to the west this cliff is 
150 feet high perpendicular, and built up of level layers of 
solid lava, as regular in their courses as mason work. A 
thin stratum of the false-bedded limestone and some loose 
sand cap the whole. (See sketch P.) 

At Liddle’s Watering Place, a spot some three miles 
north-west of the crater, the cliffs are 130 feet high ; the 
lava portion being about 70 feet, and the limestone 60 feet 
thick. The lava is hard and dark, and occurs in rude 
hexagonal columns. It has been cut into two well-marked 
wide platforms, and the upper one is greatly encrusted with 
travertine, deposited by the calcareous springs. (See 
sketch R.) 


Western Victoria. 71 


It will be noticed that the height of the lava in the cliffs 
just west of Cape Bridgewater is 150 feet. At Liddle’s it is 
only 70 feet, and at White’s, only a mile away, it disappears 
altogether under the limestone, which, appearing at the Cape 
as a layer a foot or so through, becomes 60 feet thick at 
Liddle’s, and is still deeper at White’s. Therefore it appears 
to me, that this cinder cone was breached on its south-west 
side, at the extreme point of Cape Bridgewater, where the 
wall of ash ends abruptly, leaving a chasm which was then 
filled to its brim with lava flows. 

I set down the ages of these volcanic rocks as being 
pliocene, pleistocene, and recent. At Portland the extremely 
decomposed and oldest flows lie conformably upon the 
Upper Miocene oyster beds. At Nelson Bay a lava bed is 
intercalated between beds of limestone of pleistocene age, and 
at the Bridgewater crater a great thickness of rock is crowned 
by a little lava flow, already described, which looks as fresh 
as if it had welled out but afew years ago, although the 
lower flows dip under the pleistocene limestone. 


V.—THE PLEISTOCENE, OR FALSE-BEDDED EOLIAN 
LIMESTONE. 


This is the most extensive formation exposed in this 
district, and its position upon the western or windward side 
of the promontory, challenges attention when we are con- 
sidering its mode of origin. The rock is a moderately 
compact breccia, composed of broken marine organisms, 
mainly shells, cemented together by a calcareous paste, which 
is coloured by iron oxides. These latter give to the strata 
various shades of red, yellow, and grey. ‘The stone appears 
to harden with exposure, and this probably is the result of 
the more complete solidification of the external portions, by 
the infilling of all the interstices of that part of the breccia, 
with travertine, supplied by the soakage through it of rain 
and spray, carrying carbonic acid. 

The composition of the rock seems to vary slightly from 
point to point, for Mr. Woods describes it as containing 
lime, magnesia, and silica, with traces of sesqui-oxide of iron, 
and sulphate of lime, while Mr. Dennant says that it is 
a carbonate of lime, with four per cent. of silica. 

The formation is composed of beds from 10 to 20 feet 
thick, and these are disposed horizontally. They are all 


72 The Geology of the Portland Promontory, 


markedly false or current bedded, the minor laminations ~ 
being about two inches thick, and seldom longer than 
15 or 20 feet. The latter dip in all directions, and at all 
angles up to about thirty degrees. Mr. Dennant asserts 
that their dip is often gud-qua-versal, though I cannot 
confirm this statement. 1 understand, that a dip to be qua- 
qua-versal, must slope from a centre, but I have discovered 
none that were so arranged; still, if the term may be 
stretched to describe strata which, being contiguous, dip in 
all directions, but which nevertheless, have no relation to 
any common centre, then I can admit that it is applicable 
in this case. 

Another statement made by Mr. Dennant is, that the 
laminations of the strata are “always parallel to the 
bedding planes.” My observations failed to discover any 
example of this parallelism. ‘The laminations were at an 
oblique angle to the bedding planes in all the sections that I 
saw, and I noticed that nearly everystratum was characterised 
by a mean angle of dip peculiar to itself, and that this 
mean angle was persistent in the same stratum, over long 
distances. The section at Liddle’s Watering Place is an 
interesting example of this peculiarity. (See Sketch R.) 

The formation is very barren of fossils, but Professor Tate 
has discovered in the South Australian extension of the 
deposit, land shells at various depths. Upon the evidence 
afforded by these land shells, the rock has been pronounced 
to be of an eolian origin. Mr. Dennant believes that it is a 
mass of consolidated sand dunes, and states that the outline 
and structure of the original dunes are displayed in some of 
the cliffs, but I have not been able to recognise them, even 
in the “ Cloven Rock,” the locality which he instances. The 
stratification of the rock, as illustrated by the Liddle’s Water- 
ing Place section, is I think, incompatible with the view that 
the formation consists of sand dunes merely consolidated, 
for there, each stratum has its own horizontally arranged 
peculiarities of colour and lamination, a feature which is not 
illustrated in the sections of any sand dunes that I have seen, 
and which could not be produced, as far as I know, where 
the materials accumulate upon the undulating surfaces 
assumed by blown sand. | 

It may be said that the horizontal bedding planes are 
merely divisional joints, due to changes in the materials 
occurring subsequent to their deposit. Were such their 
origin then, the false bedding would, as often as not, pass 


Western, Victoria. 73 


out of one stratum into the next, and the colouring matter 
would be distributed without reference to the lines of joint. 
Now, I have already said that each pair of bedding planes 
enframes its own pattern of dip, and that it outlines a 
particular tint. Such a linear distribution of these features 
must indicate a different age, and a separate, though other- 
wise similar origin for each stratum in the formation, and if 
this deduction be allowed, then it must also be admitted 
that the rock cannot be merely consolidated sand dune. 

The embedded land shells would appear to indicate that 
its origin must be eolian, but it seems to be equally clear, 
that the several strata must have been, ab origine, so 
many distinct formations deposited at different times, and 
under conditions which, although mainly similar, were 
variable in some minor respects. It seems to me that each 
of these rock courses is but the truncated remnant of a 
separate generation of sand dunes, a thin horizontal slice of 
their confluent hardened bases. What agency is there that 
could grind down such mammillated deposits, until but a 
a thin veneer of the material of each one is left? The only 
one known to me is that of the sea, assisted by repeated 
slight land oscillations. Rapid and repeated changes in the 
sea level are not improbable occurrences upon a coast line 
which is studded with volcanic craters, and scarred with 
raised beaches. The latter phenomena testify to a condition 
of unstable equilibrium existing between the subterranean 
forces, which would account for the mobility of its surface, and 
would explain its alternate emergence and immersion ; its 
burial under a beach drift at one period, and its dis- 
appearance under a shallow sea at another. 

This limestone deposit does not appear to be a thick one, for 
many years ago, two bores were put through it in a search 
after coal in Nelson Bay. The records of the strata passed 
through appear to have been lost, but Mr. Must, who with 
the Messrs. Henty, controlled the enterprise, tells me that 
the first bore was sunk on the top of the limestone cliff, 
and that it was stopped by basalt. The second one 
was started on a ledge which occurs low down in the 
face of the cliff The rod passed through the limestone 
into a thin stratum of red sandstone, and then through 
beds of red and blue clay. It was stopped in the latter 
at a total depth of only seventy feet. This would give 
250 feet as the thickness of the limestone at this point, 
and this is probably as thick as it is anywhere. No basalt 


74 The Geology of the Portland Promontory, 


was met with in the second bore, and no chalk, although it 
is likely that the latter would have been reached within a 
short distance further down, as elsewhere, a shallow deposit 
of red and blue clays overlies it.* 

For instance, a Mr. Smith has sunk to obtain water in his 
strawberry garden, near to the Bridgewater Road, and 
within the Borough of Portland. He tells me that after 
passing through beds of red and blue clay, and then through 
a shell bed, the bore entered the chalk, and struck water at 
a depth of thirty feet. At this spot there is no eolian lLme- 
stone, and the surface stratum is a very thin deposit of 
decomposed lava. 

The centre of the Portland Promontory is occupied by a 
low range of hills, known as Bat’s Ridges. These hills are 
an extension of this limestone formation, and they are 
perforated by many caves, some of which are of consider- 
able length. Professor Tate has assigned this limestone for- 
mation to the pleistocene period, and while the Rev. Julian 
Woods says that it is pliocene, Mr. Dennant describes it as 
“* Recent.” 


VI.— THE RECENT FORMATIONS—THE SAND DUNES. 


Sand dunes occur in long narrow strips, bordering those 
portions of the coast which are exposed to the strong south 
westerly winds which prevail here. 

Their spread inland appears to me to be an exceedingly 
recent movement, due to artificial causes. Mr. Kennedy 
who has resided at Bridgewater for forty years, tells me 
that when first he came to the district, the sand dunes were 
very much narrower than they are now, and that their 
surfaces were then bound down by various grasses. These 
began to be eaten down when cattle were introduced, and 
the coastwise traffic commencing simultaneously, the dray 
wheels destroyed the roots left by the cattle, and so let loose 
the sand. By these means the surface features of the parts 
adjacent to the coast have been greatly altered of late years. 

The dunes are composed of comminuted shells, mixed 
with a little siliceous sand. The materials are coarser than 
those which compose the false-bedded limestone, and they 


* Had these operations been conducted under the direction of any one 
with geological knowledge, the bore would have been started in the 
neighbourhood of the Botanical Gardens, at Portland, in the chalk. The 
money was wasted in putting a bore through the limestone at Nelson Bay. 


Western Victoria. 75D 


are considerably coarser than the sand now on the beach at 
the spots where I took samples for comparison, but Mr. 
Dennant tells me that he has found beach sand in the 
locality of a very similar character. 

Where the dunes have been breached I saw some very 
faint traces of bedding, the layers being about two inches 
thick. I saw no horizontal divisions, and no linear arrange- 
ment of either dip or colour, such as characterises the 
false-bedded limestone. On the contrary, all the material 
seemed to be perfectly homogeneous and almost structureless 
at every level that 1 could examine it. 


VII.—MaARINE BeEpDs, BRIDGEWATER. 


On the summit of the Cape Nelson cliffs, 180 feet above 
sea level, the limestone is partly covered by a sand bed, 
which originally may have been three or four feet thick, 
but which is now so far blown away that only wind-swept 
and smoothed knolls are left. All these knolls are capped 
by a bed of recent shells, two or three inches thick. 

A similar shell bed occurs further inland, as for instance 
where the Bridgewater road crosses a little rivulet opposite 
to Wilson’s farm. This spot must be two miles from the 
beach and about 175 feet above sea level. The vehicular 
traffic has cut trenches into the soil and these expose 
shallow sections. These show a stratum of shells a few 
inches below the surface. The shell bed rests upon a shallow 
sand bed, and this lies upon the pleistocene limestone. As 
the road winds round and over the hills, this bed is noticed 
closely following their contours, indicating that they are 
parts of the bed of a sea or lake which has disappeared. 

I noticed upon the crests and sides of many of the hills, 
patches of a much whiter and denser limestone. These may 
be deposits of travertine, due to the oozing out of drainage 
waters, which have now, from some cause, ceased to flow; 
but I understand Mr. Woods to say, that they are marine 
deposits, formed when these rocks were the bed of a shallow 
sea, and that he has found marine fossils in them. These 
marine deposits have suggested to me that, at the time 
when the land stood 200 feet lower than it does now, 
and when these hills were just immersed, that then 
high lava cliffs probably extended as a sea wall or break- 
water for some miles to the south of the present coast line. 


76 The Geology of the Portland Promontory, 


That these cliffs were somewhere breached so as to admit 
the sea over the lower land behind them, and thus an 
inland sea was created, resembling, in the form of its sea 
wall, Port Phillip Bay, Port Jackson, or the Gippsland 
Lakes. In the quiet waters of such a closed-in sea, the 
undulating surfaces of the limestone hills, with their shelly 
investiture, might have been preserved intact. Similar 
shaped banks now occur in Port Phillip Bay, especially 
towards the Heads, and they are known to be similarly 
covered with shells. The slowly retreating waters of Port 
Phillip Bay are to-day leaving behind them, all round its 
shores, shell beds in nowise different in appearance from 
those on the hills and cliffs of Nelson and Bridgewater. 
These shell beds are intermediate in age between the 
pleistacene limestone and the recent dunes. 


VIIJ.—MarineE BeEps, BoLWARRA. 


Between Portland and Narrawong the cliffs recede inland. 
Alluvial flats, crossed by low sand ridges, take the place of 
the bold hills of lava and limestone. A very old resident 
of Portland, Mr. Douglass, to whom I am considerably 
indebted for local information, tells me that a farmer living 
on these flats has bored for water. The rod passed through 
many beds of drift sand, mud, and clay, and reached a depth 
of 100 feet without meeting with any indication of a bed- 
rock. From the nature of these beds, I judge that the 
locality was once the site of an arm of the sea, and the 
present contour of the land suggests that, in the immediate 
past, a narrow strait cut off the bold extremity of the 
Portland promontory from the main land, leaving it a small, 
steep-sided, volcanic island. 


IX.—TuHe RAIsED BEACHES AND THE SEA CAVES. 


All along this coast there is evidence of much recent — 
change in the sea level. On the Portland beach, in front of 
the Court House, the chalk cliffs are undercut, showing that 
the waves once reached them. The entire cliff face is 
vertical, and is so sharply cut and so slightly weathered, 
that much time cannot have elapsed since this happened ; 
but the grass-grown sand heaps at their bases indicate that 
the sea has retreated. 


Western Victoria. 77 


Nearly opposite to the south end of this cliff, a boulder 
bed bars the creek mouth, the boulders of which have 
probably accumulated in comparatively deep water. Now, 
however, it forms a grass-grown ridge, about 6 feet high, 
and permanently out of the. water, so “that houses have been 
built upon it. The sea is now removing this spit by cutting 
it backwards. 

Mr. Pile, a shipping agent long resident at Portland, 
assures me that a shallowing movement has been continuous, 
rapid, and marked along the south coast for many years 

ast, 

The local fishermen say that many well-known rocks, to 
reach which they had to wade through the surf thirty years 
ago, are now high and dry ; and the masters of the coasting 
steamers declare that, from the Otway westward, the sound- 
ings are getting shoaler. And there is other evidence which 
shows that an upward movement of the land, or the retreat 
of the ocean, has a considerable antiquity. For instance, in 
the sloping face of the cliff, underneath the Portland light- 
house, I found a bed of recent shells 2 feet thick (sandwiched 
between beds of decomposed basalt, which are evidently 
only so much talus), and situated about 30 feet above sea 
level. (See sketch I.) 

Between Blacknose and Danger Points, there is a raised 
beach, about one chain wide, and this also is about 30 feet 
above sea level. It is covered with a growth of large ti-tree 
and shrubs. (See sketch K.) 

In Nelson Bay, the limestone cliffs are from 150 to 200 
feet high, and nearly perpendicular. At a considerable 
height above the beach, there is a shelf which runs for 
miles. It is quite a chain wide in many parts and it is well 
covered with trees and shrubs. (See Sketch L.) 

At Cape Nelson there are two well defined platforms cut 
out of the basalt, one at about 10 feet, and the other at about 
30 feet above sea level. (See Sketch M.) 

As Bridgewater is approached by the road, the country is 
ridged and furrowed with rolling hills, mostly parallel with 
the beach. Half a mile east of Vance’s the road enters a 
trough formed by two of these land rolls. The seaward 
ridge seems to be merely a sand dune, but the inland one, 
presents to the road a vertical wall of limestone, undercu 
into caves. I estimate that the base of this cliff must be 
quite 20 feet above sea level, and be seven chains distant 
from high-water mark. This is an old sea cliff, and its 


78 The Geology of the Portland Promontory, 


appearance is best shewn in the sketch and section. (See 
Sketches S! and S?) 

At Cape Bridgewater a wide flat platform occurs in the 
hard ash beds some three or four feet above low water level; 
it has once been quite a mile long, but it has been oreatly 
broken down. It is now 50 feet wide in places, and it is 
level in a striking degree. (See Sketch O.) 

At Liddle’s watering place there are two ledges in the 
basalt, one about five feet, and another at about 25 feet 
above sea level. (See Sketch R.) | 

All these platforms are now disappearing. The action of 
the sea at its present level is highly destructive of the lower 
ones, and in the very act of breaking them down it is carving 
out a still lower shelf some 15 or 20 feet below those which 
are being destroyed. 

In consequence of this action, the ledges everywhere are 
more or less breached; in many places they have been almost 
entirely removed, and the remnant form ragged edged, but 
broad flanges along the cliff foot. 

Another evidence of the altered levels is supplied 
by the caves at Bridgewater. They occur only in the 
cliffs which are composed of volcanic ash. The largest 
one is situated at the extreme point of this Cape, which 
it drills through. My examination of it was hurried 
by the nature of the weather, so that I had not time to 
measure its dimensions, but I should say, that it is about 300 
feet long, 60 feet wide, and 40 feet high. At low water the 
floor of the south or ocean end is three feet above the tide, 
and that of the north or Bridgewater Bay end, has then 
about four feet of water over its sill. The sea flows into the 
cave for a distance of about 70 feet in ordinary weather, and 
the waves break upon a steeply inclined beach of sand and 
shingle. 

Fifty yards west of this cave there is another one 
which is about 50 feet long, 30 feet wide, and 10 feet high 
near the entrance. It is situated about 30 feet above sea 
level, and its mouth is almost closed up with grass-grown 
cliff-talus. The upper end of the cavern is full of large and 
sinall water-worn boulders. The fishermen told me that the — 
cave mouth had been choked with fallen rock as I saw it, 
during all the twenty-five years of their residence at the 
Cape. 

A third cave, known as the water cave, lies immediately 
north of the big cave. Its floor is still so deep under water 


Western Victoria. 79 


that in fine weather the rollers do not break when they 
enter it. I judge that the depth of water must be 20 feet. 

A fourth cave, near by, is three or four feet above high 
water mark, and it is so dry that the fishermen have lived 
in it for months at a time. 

The positions of these caverns relative to the sea level, 
point to a still proceeding elevatory movement of the coast. 

The big cave must have been quite 20 feet lower when 
the ocean carved it out. The second of those described is 
now far out of reach of the waves. It must have stood 50 
feet lower than it does to day, when the grind of the surf 
bored it out of the rock, and ages may have passed since its 
rolled stones were last wet with the surf. 

The fisherman’s cave must have altered its level by 
24 feet, but the great water cave is still in the course of erosion 
having its floor about 20 feet beneath the sea surface, and 
its roof 15 feet above it. Every lift of the sea must roll the 
grinding shingle upon its floor, and, in rough weather, the 
air suction due to the draw-back, must be an enormous 
force, quite sufficient to drag out of its walls every block of 
stone that the battering of the breakers has loosened. 

While the existence of these raised beaches is evidence of 
an upward movement, the occurrence of exceedingly deep 
water at the very foot of some of the cliffs is an indication 
that the present elevatory movement was immediately pre- 
ceded by a considerable depression. If we take the Admiralty 
chart and note the soundings we shall see that the cliffs on 
the east side of Cape Grant have their bases in 72 feet of 
water. They rise almost sheer from that great depth. The 
soundings and the outlying rocks show that the present line 
of cliffs does not represent the original southern edge of the 
lava flow. That margin lay out in the offing. Its present 
position is due to the fact that the cliff has been cut back by 
the sea. The rocky floor, now 70 feet deep under water, 
must once have been at least 50 feet higher, to allow the 
waves to operate upon the mass out of which its precipices 
have been carved. Since that time there has been a down- 
ward movement, and an upward one, the latter of which 
has long been in progress, and has, moreover, been varied by 
several periods of rest. 


CONCLUSION. 
It may be noticed, that my sketch map differs materially 
from the Geological map issued by the Government. I might 


80 The Geology of the Portland Promontory. 


say, that before I commenced the task of preparing mine, 
to avoid going over ground already occupied, I took the 
precaution of asking at the office of the Geological Survey 
Department what data it possessed in relation to the Portland 
promontory. In reply to this enquiry I was told that the 
Government Geological Surveyors had not visited it, and 
that the department had no official records of its character, 
nor any plans of the district. My map does not pretend to 
be more than a first sketch. Before it can be complete 
many details will have to be filled in, and some parts of the 
boundaries of the formations on the north-western base of 
the promontory may be modified, as the result of a fuller 
examination. In the mean time, if it should point out an 
interesting field of work to other geologists, it will have 
served its purpose. 


Art. VII—On the value of J, and the value of g. 
By Proressor H. M. AnpRew, M.A. 


[See Proceedings, page 91.] 


Art. VIII —Note on the Proposed Photographic Charting 
of the Heavens. 
By R. L. J. Evuery, F.RS., F.R.AS. 


[ See Proceedings, page 93.] 


COS TOEAN EN) 5 STEROID Ba SSO 
eee ey 
= —— 


iT | 
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ane HOG 
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. ie ———EEE = SS Wk PAG, i 
== EE g ——— - — —— —— Ss 5S ae Le IO) Ups LY a) AG 
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== TESS ae “aore" 


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M L as & 
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s 
Waites Liddle Kenrudys dolinol bh. A: Ahinlay. » Lanews 4s 4ufedho ih. 5 


THE PORTLAN PROMONTORT 
Kieast, Section yum ok 4o Dusenvery hay abeul Ap 


le 


wf A PL. = 
ES Lad. rae thishene Sirmestene RRR Noh D umes 


aE Micceiie hyoti hal ES 


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the anew heads onthe coast be Lottevedythub, rH ,refar bs Aectional dramas. 


ae 


GEOLOGICAL 
SKETCH MAP 


OF THE 


PIATLAND PROMONTORY 


SCALE TWO MILES TOTHE INCH | 


48 Grafh EGS. etl, 


a Pe 


a 


ishlon, | See eee, 2 | (CLIFF PROFILES amd RAISED BEACHES, PORTLAND PROM™®. 
snl of Zo E = Dl H i K 
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nd tyrone) A. ; 
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two miles Nb. of bape elton haghthous 
bach, 


a em 


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Bridqueraler fay . Forteclion sexs “< ‘ 1S, Dui lhe . 
E - — ation nrowiteol, wuhtrarrvine ; = 

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AA tata 


PROCEEDINGS. 


. | 
; 
: ; 
ss ae r 
sd *, 
: : 


1887. 


PROCHKEDINGS. 


ROYAL SOCIETY: OF VICTORIA. 


|N.B.—The remarks and speeches in the discussions are taken 
down verbatim by a shorthand writer, and afterwards written 
out at length with a typewriter, for reference and repro- 
duction, if required; and therefore, more is seldom given 
herein than an indication of their general drift. If any 
person should wish to refer to the verbatim report, he can 
apply to the Secretary to the Society, who will give him an 
opportunity of transcribing it; or if he reside at a distance, 
so much as he requires will, upon payment of the cost of 
reproducing it, be forwarded to his address. | 


ANNUAL MEETING. 
Thursday, 10th March, 1887. 


Present: the President, Professor W. C. Kernot, in the chair, 
and twenty members and associates. 
The following Office-bearers for the ensuing year were duly 


--elected :—President, Professor W. ©. Kernot, M.A.; Vice- 
’ Presidents, Mr. J. Cosmo Newbery, B.Sc., C.M.G., and Mr. 


HK. J. White, F.R.A.S.; Treasurer, Mr. H. Moors; Librarian, 
Mr. J. E. Neild, M.D. ; Secretaries, Mr. H. K. Rusden and 
Mr. G. W. Selby ; Members of Council, Mr. E. Bage, Mr. C. R. 
Blackett, F.C.S., Mr. A. H. S. Lucas, M.A., F.G.S., Mr. 8. W. 
McGowan, Mr. W. H. Steel, C.E., and Mr. Alexander Sutherland, 


M.A. The following Members of Council continued in office :— 
pir, R. L. J. Ellery, F.R.S., Mr. G. 8. Griffiths, F.R.G.S., 


Mr. Louis Henry, M.D., Mr. James Jamieson, M.D., Mr. H. F. 
Rosales, F.G.S., and Mr. J. F. Rudall, F.R.C.S. 

The Annual Report of the Council and Balance-sheet for 1886 
were then presented, and after some discussion as to the manner 
in which the credit balance was brought to account, and some 

G 2 


S84. Proceedings, &e., for 1887. 


questions asked and answered respecting the Davy Fund, they 
were received and adopted on the motion of Mr. Marks and 
Mr. A. H. Jackson, as follows :— 


ANNUAL REPORT. 


Your Council has the honour to report that the following 
papers were read during the session of 1886 :— 

On the 11th March, Dr. M‘Gillivray’s “‘ Description of New or 
Little-known Polyzoa,” Part X., and Rev. D. Macdonald’s ‘‘ The 
Oceanic Languages Semitic.” 

On the 8th April, Mr. F. A. Campbell’s “On the Stability of 
Structures in regard to Wind Pressure.” 

On the 13th May, Mr. Griffiths’ ‘‘ Notes on Kerguelen’s Land.” 

On the 10th June, Mr. Wakelin’s “On the Possibility of the 
Force Producing Gravitation not Acting Directly on every 
Particle of a Planet,” and Mr. F. A. Campbell’s ‘On the Stability 
of Structures in Relation to Wind Pressure, No. 2.—Bridges.” 

' On the 8th July, Dr. M‘Gillivray’s “Description of New or | 
Little-known Polyzoa,” Part XI., and Dr. Verbeek’s “ Report on 
the Eruption of Krakatoa.” 

On the 12th August, Professor Kernot’s paper “On Lightning 
Conductors,” and Mr. W. M. Bale’s “On the Genera of the 
Plumulariide, with Observations on various Australian Hydroids.” 

On the 9th September, Mr. Griffiths’ “On the Official Reports 
of the Tarawera Eruption.” 

On the 14th October, Mr. A. W. Howitt’s “On the Area of 
Intrusive Rocks at Dargo,” and Mr. A. H. 8. Lucas’ “On the 
Sections displayed in the Coode Canal,” and “On the Sound © 
Organs of the Green Cicada.” 

On the 11th November, Dr. M‘Gillivray’s “‘ Descriptions of New 
or Little-known Polyzoa” Part XII, and “Catalogue of the 
Marine Polyzoa of Victoria,” and Mr. John Dennant’s “ Notes on 
Post Tertiary Strata in South-western Victoria.” 

On the 9th December, Professor Krause’s ‘‘On the Tripolite 
_ Deposits at Lilicur,” and Mr. F. A. Campbell’s “On the Want of 
a Uniform System of Experimenting upon Timber.” 

During the year five gentlemen were elected as ordinary 
members of the Society, namely, the Hon. F. D. Derham, and 
Arthur Lynch and A. C. Wannon, Esqs., on the 13th May; and 
Wm. Lucas and Gerard Wight, Esqs., on the 12th August. Three 
as country members, namely, John Dennant, Esq., on the 8th 
April; D. M. Davies, Esq., M.L.A., on the 10th June; and 
W. D. T. Powell, Esq., on the 9th September. Six as Associates, 
namely, R. W. Chapman, James F. Cole, and Sydney Horsley, Hsqs., 
on the 13th May ; and T. E. Jackson, Richard Matthews, Esqs. 
Dr. J. J. Wild, on the 10th June; 


Proceedings, &e¢., for 1887. 85 


Dr. R. D. M. Verbeek, of Buitenzorg, Java, author of an 
elaborate report on the Krakatoa Eruption, was, on the 9th 
September, specially elected as an honorary member under 
Law XXIV. 

On the 3rd June the Council appointed as members of an 
Australian Antarctic Exploration Committee (jointly with the 
Royal Geographical Society of Australia, Victorian Branch, who 
appointed a like number) Professor Kernot, Messrs. Ellery, 
Griffiths, Rusden, Selby, and Dr. Wild, and the Committee was 
re-elected in December, to enable it to act during the recess. 
Also, on the 11th November, Messrs. Ellery, Griffiths, and Rusden 
were appointed as a Printing Committee to attend to the prepara- 
tion of the Twenty-third Volume of the Transactions during the recess. 

A conversazione was held in the new Masonic Hall, Collins 
Street Hast, on the 26th October, at which His Excellency the 
Governor and a large number of ladies and gentlemen attended. 
The President delivered his annual address, Mr. Griffiths read a 
paper on ‘Antarctic Exploration,” and Mr. Sutherland gave a 
paper on “ Allotropism,” illustrated by experiments. <A record of 
the numerous and interesting exhibits will be found in the 
Proceedings of the Society, Vol. XXIII., which will be issued in 
the course of the month. Your Council regrets that it could not 
be completed before, and recommends that in future, for many 
reasons, the annual volume be printed off as soon as possible after 
the last meeting in each session. 

Your Council desires to remind members that the shorthand 
writer’s notes of the discussions are written out at length with a 
type-writer, and preserved for reference if desired, and that this 
will account for tne brevity of the notes of speeches in the printed — 
Proceedings of the Society. 


Report oF SEcTION A. 


The papers contributed during the past year have been less 
numerous than in former years, but the subject matter has been 
more closely connected with practical work than in some previous 
papers. 

The following papers were read :— 

March 31st.—“ Boiler Explosions,’ by Professor Kernot. 

April 28th.‘ The Testing of large Dynamos,” by Mr. John 
Booth, M.C.E.; ‘Modern Marine Indicator Diagrams,” by 
Mr. C. W. Maclean, C.E. 

May 26th.—‘Collimation in Levels,” by Mr. G. R. B. 
Steane, C.E. 

June 30th.—Discussion continued on the last-mentioned paper, 
and “Some Notes on Mr. J. A. L. Waddell’s pamphlet on Japan 
Railway Bridges,” were read by Professor Kernot ; another paper, 
“On Safety Valves,” was read by Mr. C. W. Maclean, C.E. 


Proceedings, &e., for 1887. 


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88 Proceedings, &c., for 1887. 


‘The Annual General Meeting then adjourned and an ordinary 
meeting was held. The President in the chair. . 

_A ballot was taken for the following gentlemen, who were 
declared duly elected ; namely, as members:—Mr. A. H. Jackson, 
se. 8.C:5. Mr. J. B.ohewis; Mr J. J-Wild Ph. De RaGas 
and as associate :—Mr. W. H. Irvine. 

Letters were read from Dr. Verbeek, of Buitenzorg, Java, 
acknowledging the notice of his election as an honorary member 
of the Society, and one from Captain Fairweather, of Dundee, 
respecting Antarctic Exploration. 

.The Librarian reported that 200 volumes had been added to 
the Library during the recess. 

Dr. Wild then gave an abstract of a paper contributed by the 
Rev. D. Macdonald, Fate, New Hebrides, on “The Oceanic 
Languages Semitic.” (Article I. Transactions.) It was resolved 
that the paper be printed in the Transactions of the Society. 

Mr. H. T. Tispatu then read some “Notes on Fungi in Mines.” 
(Article II. Transactions), which were mainly introductory to 
further papers which he proposed to read on the same subject, 
and related to the mines at Walhalla. 

Discussion ensued, in which the President, Mr. Marks, Mr. 
White, Mr. Lucas, Mr. Blackett, Mr. Sutherland and Mr. Tisdall, 
took part. 


Thursday, Apri 14th, 1887. 


_ In consequence of the death of Mr. 8. W. McGowan, a member 
of the Council, the April meeting was postponed as a tribute of 
respect and regret. 


Thursday, May 12th, 1887. 


Present: the President, Professor W. C. Kernot, M.A. (in the 
chair), and 25 members and associates. 

The Librarian Dr. Neild, announced that 155 volumes and 
Scientific Periodicals, had been received since the last meeting. 

The PresipENT mentioned with regret, the recent death of 
Mr. 8. W. MacGowan, who was one of the oldest and most active 
members of the Council of the Society, besides being a public 
officer of long service and great value. On the motion of Mr. 
Ellery and Mr. White, the Hon. Secretary was desired to address 
a letter of condolence to Mrs. McGowan, expressive of the great 
regret of the Society, and sympathy with her in her bereavement. 

Mr. ELLery proposed that Mr. Bosisto be elected a member of 
Council, in place of Mr. McGowan, deceased. The matter was 
referred to the Council. 


Proceedings, &e., for 1887. 89 


The Presrpent then referred to the railway accident of the 
preceding evening, by which among others Mr. J. Cosmo Newbery, 
Vice-President of the Society had been injured severely, and 
Mr. E. 8. Parkes an old member of the Society, had been killed. 

The Presipent then read a letter from the Trustees of the 
“Elizabeth Thompson Fund, of $25,000 bequeathed by Mrs. 
Elizabeth Thompson, of Stamford, Conn., U.S.A., for the 
advancement and prosecution of scientific research im is broadest 
sense,” inviting applications for assistance. 

Mr. GRIFFITHS read a paper (contributed by Mr. E. J. Dunn, 
F.G.8.) entitled, “Notes on the Occurrence of Glaciated Pebbles 
and Boulders in the so-called Mesozoic Conglomerate of Victoria.” 
(Article III. Transactions.) Discussion ensued, in which Mr. 
Ellery, Mr. Lucas, the President, and Mr. Griffiths took part. 

Mr. H. T. Tisdall then read a paper (No. 2), “On the Fungi 
Growing in Mines,” (see Article IV. Transactions), which he 
illustrated with plant and drawings. Discussion ensued, in which 
the President, Mr. Griffiths, Dr. Jamieson and Mr. Tisdall took 
the principal part. 

Mr. A. H. 8. Lucas, M.A., then read a paper, “On the 
Production of Colour in Birds’ Eggs.” (See Art. V., Transactions.) 
Discussion ensued in which Dr. Jamieson expressed the opinion 
that a larger amount of evidence would be required to prove the 
theoryadvanced. Mr. Lucas replied and the proceedings terminated. 


/ 


Thursday, 9th June, 1887. 


Present : the President, Professor W. C. Kernot (in the chair), 
and 16 members and associates. 

The following gentlemen were duly elected by ballot :—Professor 
David Orme Masson, as a member of the Society ; Mr. C. H. 
Richards, as a country member of the Society ; and Mr. Pietro 
Baracchi, Mr. James’ Blackburn, Rev. A. W. Cresswell, Mr. W. 
S. Dawson, Dr. Thomas Porter, and Mr. G. A. M. Pringle, as 
associates. 

Mr. JosepH Bosisto having been nominated by the Council as 


a member thereof, in the place of the late Mr. 8S. W. McGowan, 


was duly elected. 

Tt was resolved that a congratulatory address to Her Majesty 
upon her Jubilee, should be prepared and presented at the 
approaching Levee. 

The PrEsIDENT announced that the Microscopical Society of 
Victoria had offered to amalgamate with the Royal Society, and 
to form Section D, for the study of the Microscope and its applica- 
tions ; that the Council had accepted the offer, under Law LIIL.; 


90 Proceedings, &c., for 1887. 


and that the members of the Microscopical Society would probably 
be balloted for at the next meeting of the Royal Society. He 
hoped that other Scientific Societies would follow the example set 
by the Microscopical Society. 

The Librarian, Dr. NEILD, in making his usual report upon the 
Library, refereed £0 the President’s recent munificent donation of 
£2000 to the University, to be devoted to Scholarships in Physics 
and Chemistry, and trusted that others would do likewise. 

The Prestpent thanked Dr. Neild for his ‘“ honourable 
mention” of the fact, and gave as his reasons for specially 
supporting the Sciences of Physics and Chemistry, rather than 
his own profession of Engineering, that they had been particularly 
interesting to him in his “early career ; ; that they really were the 
bases of all other sciences ; and that he thought that their 
importance had scarcely been adequately recognised hitherto in 
the University. 

Mr. G. 8. Grirritus, F.G.S., then read a paper “On the 
‘Geology of the Portland Promontory.” (Article VI., Transactions.) 

Mr. ELuery thought the paper embodied valuable work. He 
regretted that the Geological Survey of the country had been 
discontinued before the Portland district had been surveyed. The 
Society and the colony were all the more obliged to Mr. Griffiths 
for his contribution to geological knowledge. He thought the 
Government would, perhaps, publish the ” sketch maps which 
Mr. Griffiths had made. 

Mr. SUTHERLAND ‘regretted that such work had been neglected 
by the State, and that it should be left to such gentlemen as Mr. 
Howitt, Mr. Stirling, and Mr. Griffiths, who could devote only 
their holidays to it. Their work was not only very creditable, but 
extremely valuable. He alluded to the theory, that the land as 
well as the sea was gradually rising and subsiding, but it appears 
from Dr. Croll’s “ Climate and Time,” that it was the sea only 
and not the land which did so. 

Mr. ELLERY said it was commonly asserted that there was such 
gradual elevation and subsidence, but he thought the evidence 
was extremely doubtful. It was a question very difficult to 
determine, and required continued observations during centuries. 
High and low water marks are occasionally great subjects of 
dispute, and he doubted if they could be fixed with accuracy. 
He had recommended the establishment of tide gauges at various 
places in the Straits. 

Mr. Wuite remarked on the constant removal and uncertainty 
of land marks, which would otherwise be useful. 

After some remarks from the President as to the care with 
which statements on the subject should be received, Mr. Griffiths 
expressed his thanks for the criticism upon his paper, and replied 
to it at some length ; and the meeting adjourned. 


Proceedings, &c., for 1887. 91 


Thursday, 14th July, 1887. 


Present: the President, Professor Kernot (in the chair), and 
40 members and associates. 

Professor W. Baldwin Spencer was duly elected by ballot a 
member of the Society. 

The PRESIDENT congratulated the Society upon the nature of 
the first business of the evening, which was the absorption into the 
Royal Society of the members of the late Microscopical Society, 
who would now form Section D, as provided in Law LIII. 

Mr. Evuery moved the formal admission of 41 members of the 
late Microscopical, as members of the Royal Society, and 5 as 
honorary members. Fourteen of them were already members of 
the Royal Society. The others will elect before the lst January 
next, whether they will be members or associates of the Royal 
Society. No entrance fee will be asked from any of them, as they 
bring with them to the Royal Society, their library, microscopes, 
and other property. 

It was intended to hold a special meeting of the Council after 
the conclusion of the business of the evening, at which the officers 
of Section D would be appointed. 

Mr. C. R. Buackett seconded the motion, and all the members 
of the late Microscopical Society were then duly elected members 
of the Royal Society. 

Mr. Lucas moved the appointment, to effect a systematic 
Biological Survey of Port Phillip, of a Committee of the following 
gentlemen :—Mr. W. M. Bale, Rev. A. W. Cresswell, M.A., 
Dr. McGillivray, Professor W. Baldwin Spencer, Mr. C. A. 
Topp, M.A., LL.B., Mr. J. Bracebridge Wilson, M.A., and 
Mr. Lucas, B.Sec., M.A. 

Mr. ELuery seconded the motion, but hoped the researches 
of the Committee would not be restricted to Port Phillip. Bay. 

The motion was carried. 

Professor ANDREW then read his “ Note on the Value of J, and 
the Value of g.” He said that the remarks he had to make on 
the value of /, the mechanical equivalent of heat, were due to a 
paragraph in ‘ Notes on Popular Science,” by Dr. J. E. Taylor, 
F.G.8., which appeared in The Australasian, of 12th August, 1882, 
which stated that Dr. Joule had re-determined the value of this 
important physical constant, which was given as a 774:1 foot 
pound per degree Fahrenheit for Manchester. He had accepted 
the statement made so circumstantially, and quoted it in his 
University classes. He had, however, failed to find any corrobo- 
ration of Dr. Taylor’s science letter in any of the scientific 
journals. On the contrary, Professor Everett, in the last edition 
of his Unity and Physical Constants, published at the end of last 
year, gives 1878 as the date of Joule’s latest experiment, and 


a2 Proceedings, &e., for 1887. 


773°24 as the value of J for sea Level at Greenwich. It was, 
however, somewhat remarkable that, assuming 32°151 (ft. sec.) as 
the value of g in Melbourne, this number became 774:16 foot lbs. 
degree Fahr., which closely corresponds with the result given in 
Dr. Taylor’s science letter to The Australasian. This led him to 
his second note, on the value of g, or the intensity of the force of 
gravity. Professor Neumeyer, when in Melbourne, had in 1860 
made a series of observations with a modification of Kater’s 
pendulum in the cellar of a house in Domain Road, which was for 
the purpose connected with the then newly-built observatory by a 
telegraph wire. Mr. Ellery had informed him that no results had 
been obtained, or at least published, as Neumeyer found a defect 
in his pendulum after returning to Berlin. Professor Andrew 
suggested that, although for all practical, and for most scientific 
purposes, the computed value of g for Melbourne, as given in his 
previous note, might be used, yet its value by direct observation 
ought to be found. He would suggest that as he had made pro- 
vision for a clock and an experimental pendulum in the plans 
for the physical laboratory which the University Council was 
doing its best to get built and equipped, the Royal Society might 
subsidise the University grant, and get apparatus which would 
be better than what would be absolutely necessary for students 
in physics, or the Society might fairly undertake the investigation. 

Mr. Every said that the difficulty to which Professor Andrew 
had referred was connected with a comparison of the determination 
of the lengths of the Bessel pendulum employed, made at home, 
here, and then again on Professor Neumeyer’s return. These 
seemed to show a permanent elongation, and so the results had 
been set aside. There would be no difficulty in accepting the 
suggestion ; the Observatory would render all possible assistance. 

Mr. Waite said that when he went to Berlin a few years ago 
he talked with Professor Neumeyer about his pendulum observa- 
tions in Melbourne, and was assured that the discrepancies 
mentioned by Mr. Ellery had been overcome, and results had 
been obtained. 


The Prestpent remarked that for engineering purposes the 
rough values 772 and 32 for the J and g were sufliciently 
accurate, yet that, as a scientific Society, it behoved them to 
determine them with the utmost accuracy. 

Professor ANDREW suggested that Professor Neumeyer should 
be asked by the President to send the results of his observations 
in 1860 to the Society, as they would be most interesting and 
valuable. | 

The PRESIDENT announced the receipt of, and laid upon the 
table, a medal and diploma from the Victorian Commissioners to 
the Colonial and Indian Exhibition, for the exhibits of the Royal 


Proceedings, &e., for 1887. 93 


Society. Also a copy of the Illustrated Handbook of Victoria, 
issued by the Victorian Commissioners at the Exhibition. 

Mr. Exrery then read a note “On the Proposed Photographic 
Charting of the Heavens.” He said that for some years, 
photography had been a very useful hand-maiden to astronomy. 
Since the introduction of the rapid gelatine plates, the utility of 
photography in that direction had been immensely increased. 
Very greatly.improved photographs of comets and other heavenly 
bodies could now be taken under that process. During the last 
three or four years, too, immense strides had been made in the 
direction of charting the stellar heavens. In Paris particularly 
they had made great progress in that direction. By means of 
Special telescopes at the Paris Observatory, they had obtained 
charts of stars down to the 14th magnitude that had astonished 
everyone who had seen them. Last year a circular was sent from 
the Paris Observatory, intimating that a conference was to be 
held at Easter this year of all astronomers who could attend, to 
consider as to the best means of carrying out a scheme for the 
complete photographic chart of the heavens. As Mr. Russell, 
Government Astronomer of New South Wales, had determined to 
go to the old country about that time, he (Mr. Ellery) did not think 
it necessary to accept theinvitation. The conference was held, and 
it decided that this great work should be carried out. But there 
were in the southern hemisphere only a very few observatories, 
compared with the number in the northern hemisphere. Indeed, 
the number was so few, that it was considered doubtful at first 
whether the scheme could be effectively carried out. It was 
estimated that the cost for each national observatory would be 
about £4000 for instruments and appliances. The work would 
extend over some years. At the conference Mr. Russell expressed 
his opinion that the co-operation of the Melbourne and Sydney 
Observatories might be considered assured. He (Mr. Ellery) laid 
the matter before the Government, and the Government quite 
concurred in the proposal. He believed that the Melbourne 
Observatory would take its part in the scheme. Two new 
observatories were wanted for the purpose, one in the Island 
of Réurion, and the other in the southern part of New Zealand. 
Nearly all the present observatories in the southern hemisphere 
were in similar latitudes, and if observatories were established at 
the places just mentioned, a little more ground could be covered. 
Tt had been found that stars down to the 15th and 16th magnitude 
could be obtained on a photographic plate by exposure for one or 
two hours. The smaller the star, the longer the exposure must be. 
To get photographic pictures of stars during that period, the 
telescope must be kept moving with the apparent movements of 
the stars. For that purpose, a clockwork arrangement was 
necessary, and of such a perfect character as to be scarcely 


94 Proceedings, &c., for 1887. 


attainable. In taking the Paris photographs, not only was 
clockwork used, but there was an auxiliary means of shifting the 
telescope by hand. The mechanical means of getting the precise 
motion required occupied the attention of the conference. He had 
not received all the detailed reports of the proceedings, so he 
scarcely knew what was finally decided upon in that direction. 
The telescope required for the scheme had an aperture of 13in., in 
diameter, and was about 13ft. in length, and the object glasses 
had been made with optical properties such as would give good 
photographic images on the plates. It was proposed to take in a 
field of about four degrees for each plate, and the plates would be 
arranged in a uniform order, and would overlap. It was expected 
that about 4,000,000 stars would be charted, so that the 
arrangement of the plates would be no light task. A great many 
stars of small magnitude were photographed which could not be 
seen by the eye, even with the best telescopes. It was very 
possible that many more stars would be found on these plates than 
could be seen. As to the movement of the telescope, a very 
ingenious apparatus had been contrived by Mr. Grubb. If it 
fulfilled expectations, one of the great difficulties in the way of 
carrying out this great work would be surmounted. It had been 
arranged that all the photographic plates should be made by one 
maker, and it was agreed that it was very desirable that all 
telescopes should be of one particular class and size, and, if 
possible, by the same makers. It would be at least another year 
before operations could be begun, and the work would occupy five 
or six years. 

The PRESIDENT said with reference to the statement that stars 
could be photographed, although invisible to the telescopically 
assisted eye, the rays from them being actinic rather than 
luminous, that it was a question whether some others might not 
be lost if some are gained. He estimated that some 100,000 
photographs would have to be taken and compared. This would 
give some idea of the enormous work involved. If it were 
possible to obtain such a chart by any means 2,000 years old, it 
would be of immense value to us now; 2,000 years hence, 
posterity will have such materials towards furnishing a history 
of the heavens. 

Mr. Wuite thought it scarcely possible to keep a star bisected. 
by mechanical means, on account of variations of temperature 
constantly varying refraction. The work of cataloguing the stars 
when photographed, will take many years to complete. As the 
work must be done, the sooner it begins the better. 

Mr. ELtery mentioned that some years ago he had obtained 
photographs of different coloured stars in groups, which reversed 
their relative sizes. Those photographs would be useful now. If 


Proceedings, &e., for 1887. Q5 


stars were photographed to the 10th magnitude there would he 
nearly 2,000,000 of them ; if to the 11th there would be nearly 
double that number. The chart would furnish a good basis for 
future work by furnishing a true picture of the heavens at a 
certain date, and would mark a very important epoch in the 
science of astronomy. 

The meeting then adjourned. 


Ks Pe Byor 


STILLWELL AND CO. PRINTERS, 78 COLLINS STREET EAST, MELBOURNEW 


TRANSACTIONS 


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PROCEEDINGS 


oval Society of Victoria. 


VObs | XO EV. 


PART II. 


Edited under the Authority of the Council. 


ISSUED JULY 1888. 


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MELBOURNE: 
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AGENTS TO THE SOCIETY: 
WILLIAMS & NORGATE, 14 HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON, 


To whom all communications for transmission to the Royal Society of Victoria, 
from all parts of Europe, should be sent. 


1888. 


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CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXIV.—PART I. 


PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS 


_ Arr. IX.—On the Brennan Torpedo. Professor Kurnot, M.A. .. 


X.—Notes on Some Determinations of Chlorine in the Water 
of the Yarra. By C. R. Buackett, Esq., F.C.S. 


XI.—On Certain Metamorphic and Plutonic Rocks at Omeo. 
By A. W. Howirt, Esq., F.G.S. : 


XI.—Descriptive Notes on a Victorian Haloragis, and a 
Pluchea. By Baron F. von Muruuer, K.C.M.G., 
F.R.S., M.D., &e. 4 


XIII.—Observations on the Movements of Detached Gills, 
Mantle Lobes, Labial Palps, and Foot in Bivalve 
Molluses. By D. McAtpine, Esq. sia 


XIV.—On Rainfall and Flood Re 


DyG. i. B. 
StTeane, Hsq. b 3 sf 


XV.—Some Experiments on the Range of Action of the 
’ Digestive Ferments. By J. Jamizson, Esq., M.D. 


XVI.—The Structure and Classificatory Position of Megas- 
~ eolides Australis. By Professor W. Baupwin 


Spencer, B.A. a Pa ae ne 


XVII.—Description of Some Papuan Plants. By Baron von 
Mur .uer, K.C.M.G., F.R.S8., M.D., &e. a 


XVUI.—Two Hitherto Unrecorded Plants from New Guinea. 
By Baron von MuEter, K.C.M.G., F.R.S., M.D., &e. 


XIX.—The Production of the Tides, Mechanically Considered. 
By T. Waxe tn, Esq., B.A. (Greytown, N.Z ) 


Opituary :—(Samuel Walker McGowan—Edmund Samuel Parkes 
—Sir Julius Haast, K.C.M.G., F.R.S., D.Sc. Camb.— 
Solomon Iffla, L. B.C.P. - Glasgow —Balfour Stewart, 
¥.R.S. ) 


PROCEEDINGS 
List of MEMBERS .. 


List oF LEARNED SOCIETIES IN EXCHANGE 


PAGE 

iI— xxii 
97 
97—99 
100—131 
139—141 
141—149 
149—158 
159—163 
164—168 
168—174 
174—175 
176—178 
179—182 
183—199 
201—208 
210—215 


ite 


‘is Dawe 


Roval Society of Victoria. 


£887. 


Patron. 


HIS EXCELLENCY SIR HENRY BROUGHAM LOCH, K.C.B. 


Altesident, 
PROFESSOR W. C. KERNOT, M.A., C.E. 


Vice - Presidents. 


HK. J. WHITE, F.R.A.S. | J. COSMO NEWBERY, B.Sc., C.M.G. 


® 


Hon. Crewsurer. 
HENRY MOORS. 


Hon. Secretaries. 


H. K. RUSDEN. | G. W. SELBY. 


Hon. Hibrarian. 
JAMES E. NEILD, M.D. 


Council. 
E. BAGH, Jun. R. L. J. ELLERY, F.R.S., F.R.AS. 
C. R. BLACKETT, F.C.8. G. 8. GRIFFITHS, F.R.GS. 
A. H. 8. LUCAS, B.Sc., M.A. L. HENRY, M.D. 
S. McGOWAN. JAMES JAMIESON, M.D. 
W. H. STEEL, CE. H. F. ROSALES, F.G.S. 


ALEX. SUTHERLAND, M.A. J. T. RUDALL, F.R.C.S. 


f Tet i ie 


PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. 


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PRESIDENTS ADDRESS 
Delivered by Prorressor W. C. Krrnot, M.A., C.E., December 9th, 1887. 


It would ill befit the President of a Society bearing the 
title “ Royal,” to commence his Annual Address in the 
present year, without reference to the great event that has 
marked it, the jubilee of the reign of Her Majesty Queen 
Victoria. The period of fifty years extending from A.D. 1837 
to A.D. 1887, has not only been marked by the reign of one 
of the worthiest sovereigns that ever filled the British throne, 
but also has been characterised by such unprecedented 
activity in all branches of scientific investigation, and such 
an amount of progress in the practical application of scientific 
results, as to become unique in the history of the world. 

Surrounded as we are every day by the outcome of 
all this intellectual labour, we are apt to take our railways 
and steamships, our tramways and telegraphs as a matter 
of course, and to forget that the world went on its way for 
many thousands of years without the aid of any of these 
modern appliances of civilisation. 

In order to realise the magnitude of the changes that 
have taken place during the present reign, let us turn 
our attention to the state of the physical sciences and their 
applications at the date when the young Princess Victoria 
suddenly found herself in possession of the British crown, 
and contrast it with what we see around us at the present 
moment. 

Unquestionably, the most remarkable advance, and the 
one calculated to have the profoundest effect upon the 
human race, is the establishment of the great telegraphic 
system which at present encloses the whole earth in its 
network of wires, that like the nerves of the human body, 
convey intelligence almost instantaneously to the most 
distant parts. Fifty years ago, this had no existence what- 


_ ever. An excellent Encyclopedia published as late as 1841, 


A 


x President's Address for the year 1887. 


after describing various modes of signalling by flags, boards, 
or beacon fires on mountain tops, concludes thus :—“ Of late 
years several very interesting experiments have been made 
of the practicability of conveying intelligence with the speed 
of lightning by means of galvanism.” 

The practical application and commercial success of the 
electric telegraph is by common consent of the leading 
electrical experts, dated from an experiment made by 
William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone, on the 
25th July, 1837, about one month after the coronation of 
Her Gracious Majesty. On this occasion, intelligible 
messages were sent between Huston Square and Camden 
Town, a distance of about two miles, by means of five 


copper wires, laid in grooves in a triangular wooden rail and — 


five magnetic needles at each end which were deflected by 
the currents of electricity passing through the wires. Cooke 
and Wheatstone’s apparatus was patented on December 12, 
1837, but for some years little was done with it. At last, 
however, it was taken up by the Government, and by the 
railways, the former recognising its probable value in time 


of war, the latter its usefulness in controlling the operations - 


of that great system of transit which was beginning to 
spread its giant arms abroad through the length and breadth 
of the kingdom. 

In 1850, a new and most important departure was made. 
Up to this time it was supposed that the telegraph wire 
could traverse the dry land only, and that the seas must 
continue, as heretofore, to separate nation from nation, but 
now a wire covered with an insulating coating of gutta 
percha was laid across the Straits of Dover, and Great 


Britain was telegraphically united with the Continent of 


Europe. This pioneer cable, though so soon destroyed by 


friction, lasted long enough to prove the practicability of — 
submarine telegraphy, and was replaced in the following | 
year by a permanent armoured cable, resembling in its } 


essential features, those now in use. 


In 1858, a proposal which at first seemed utterly absurd — 


in its audacity, was at vast expense carried into effect, and 


) 


President's Address for the year 1887. xi 


a cable was laid across the bed of the Atlantic from Europe 
to America. Like the little pioneer cable from Dover to 
Calais, this at first proved short-lived, but as with advancing 
years valuable experience was accumulating, and cables of 
gradually increasing length being laid across minor seas, the 
attempt was at last repeated with perfect success, and 
the year 1866 saw Atlantic submarine telegraphy an 
accomplished practical commercial fact. Since then the 
work has been steadily advancing, until the familiar poles 
and wires are now found in the wilds of Central Australia, 
the deserts of Africa, the snowy wastes of Siberia, and the 
prairies of America, and the cables extend across all the 
seas from North America across the Atlantic, and through 
the Mediterranean, the Red Sea, and Indian Ocean, down 
to New Zealand, the world being bound in one vast net- 
work of wires, from north to south, and from east to west; 
the only partas yet untraversed being the Pacific Ocean, across 
which a cable is now being urgently demanded. Up to the 
present time, 115,000 miles of submarine cable, costing 
altogether, nearly £40,000,000, have been laid, while the 
length of land line is beyond counting. And while the 
telegraphic nerve system of the globe has been so rapidly 
extending, its capabilities in the way of rapid transmission 
have also advanced. In the pioneer experimental telegraph 
of 1837, five wires were used to convey one message, and it 
was considered good work to send five words per minute, 
now six messages may be sent simultaneously along one 
wire, and by the aid of the Wheatstone automatic instrument, 
nearly five hundred words a minute can be sent. 

And to whom is this mighty development due? Like 
most great inventions, it is the aggregate result of the 
labours of many. It was long expected and many years in 
preparation. Men of theory and men of practice alike aided, 
the former patiently investigating phenomena of apparently 
no practical interest ; the latter appreciating and applying 
principles, which in the absence of their more contemplative 
brethren, they could never have discovered. Thales of 
Miletus, and Gilbert. of Colchester, laid the foundation ; 

A 2 


xii Presidents Address for the year 1887. 


Galvain, Volta, Oersted, Ampere, Coulomb, Weber, carried 
on the work ; Ronalds, Cooke, Wheatstone, Davy, Steinheil, 
Morse, and others, commenced the practical application ; 
Field, Sir W. Thompson, Fleming, Jenkin, John Pender, 
and others, showed how it was possible to work a submarine 
eable even across the Atlantic Ocean, while innumerable 
workers of less note, gave valuable assistance by perfecting 
details and adding to the ever growing stock of experimental 
knowledge. And so it is, that a great invention is like a 
coral reef, the aggregate results of the life long labours of 
multitudes of workers, the majority of whom are soon 
forgotten, and every one of whom is in a thousand ways 
dependent on those who preceded or assisted him. 

And what will be the ultimate effect of this wondrous 
system of communication? One thing is certain, and that 
it has already revolutionised commerce by enabling the 
wants of one part of the world to be instantaneously known 
in every other part. Another is, that it has facilitated in 
an enormous degree, the government of large empires from 
one centre. Fifty years ago, it took months for intelligence 
to travel from distant parts of the British Empire to its 
metropolis. The greatest disasters, physical or political, 
might occur in Canada, India, or Australia, and weeks or 
even months would pass before the news reached London, 
and months more before assistance could be sent. But now, 
if the remctest part of the empire be menaced, the fact is 
immediately known at head quarters, and measures taken 
accordingly. Thus, by the aid of the telegraph, the whole 
empire can act in unison in meeting a common danger. 
May we not look forward to the day when the whole world 
shall be federated, when war shall be abolished, when © 
general questions shall be decided at one central metropolis, — 
into which information is continually pouring, and from 
which commands are constantly proceeding to the most 
distant parts of the earth with the speed of lightning. And 
what of the effect of the telegraph upon the development of 
the human mind? What this will be we can hardly yet 
imagine. For thousands of years, even the noblest and 


Presidents Address for the year 1887. xiii 


wealthiest of men lived in a narrow groove. Their attention 
was occupied with the small affairs of their own little sphere. 
The most stirring events, the most startling changes might 
occur a few hundred miles away, but the news if it arrived 
at all, came so late and in so imperfect a form, that people 
failed fully to realise what had happened. To the average 
citizen, everything beyond a radius of a very few miles was 
nebulous, unreal, mysterious. But now all is changed ; the 
telegraph and the newspaper acting in concert, supply full, 
complete, and prompt intelligence of the public events 
of the whole civilized world to the humblest member of 
the community, while the facilities of travelling enable a 
thousand persons to see the great and famous cities of the 
world, when one saw them a half century ago. Is it not 
reasonable to suppose that when these favouring influences, 
which can hardly be said to have been in action to any 
oreat extent until the last twenty years, have had full play 
for a century, the average human intelligence will be 
stimulated and human sympathies broadened to an extent 
beyond all present imagining? The day was when: the 
world was divided into small communities, distrustful of 
each other, when the word stranger was synonymous with 
enemy, when kindness, honesty, and truthfulness were 
supposed to be duties only within the small circle of the 
family or tribe, and when the traveller to other lands often 
paid the penalty of his curiosity with the loss of his life or 
liberty. The day is coming and that right speedily, when 
all men shall be brothers, when information, sympathy, and 
assistance in time of calamity shall flow to the farthest ends 
of the earth ; and in bringing about this great and glorious 
consummation, the electric telegraph will have been one of 
the most potent agents. 

I have spoken somewhat fully about the telegraph, owing 
to its Jubilee being practically coincident with that of the 
present reign. But there are other branches of applied 
science which, if they did not exactly originate in the 
eventful year 1837, have, nevertheless, advanced tenfold 
more during the Jubilee period than they had ever done before. 


XIV President's Address for the year 1887. 


An excellent Encyclopedia in the University Library, 
bearing date 1828, speaks of the locomotive engine as a 
slow clumsy machine, quite in the experimental stage, and 
of which the utmost that could be hoped, was that it might 
possibly replace horses in the laborious operation of moving 
heavy merchandise and minerals, while the writer becomes 
quite scornful at the expense of certain foolish enthusiasts. 
who imagined that a future greatly improved locomotive 
might come into competition with that grand old British 
institution—the stage coach. But a year later it was 
demonstrated to the British public by actual trial, that it 
was possible to convey passengers with comfort and safety, 
at the incredible speed of 20 miles per hour, or twice as 
fast as swift coaches on the best roads. That day con- 
stituted the real birthday of the vast passenger railway 
system of the world. For some years, however, progress 
was not very rapid. The engines were small and feeble, 
and capable of attaining a fair speed and carrying a payable 
load on very level railways only. By 1837, however, the 
weight of engines had advanced to about half of that of the 
average locomotive of the present day, while the proportions 
and details of the machine were gradually being assimilated 
to those with which we are familiar. As the locomotive 
improved in power and efficiency, so railways, though at 
first confined to level districts, before long extended into 
hilly and even mountainous parts, needing steep grades, and 
curves of a sharpness at first deemed impracticable ; the 
speed also increased, until the public, who had been at first 
incredulous as to the modest rate of 20 miles per hour, began 
to complain as to the tardiness of trains travelling at double 
that pace. It will thus be seen, that railways may not 
unreasonably be regarded as having passed out of the 
experimental stage and commenced to assume their present 
position of commercial and social importance at a date roughly 
approximating with Her Majesty’s accession to the throne. 
At that time the mileage of British railways was only 200, 
while now it is not far short of 20,000, while in other lands 
the total length of lines, of which hardly any existed in 


Presidents Address for the year 1887. XV 


1837, is counted by hundreds of thousands of miles. 
Practically next to the effect of instantaneous conveyance 
of information upon our commercial and social relations and 
mental development, we may place that of rapid and 
convenient transit of goods or passengers by land or sea. 
Steam navigation achieved its early successes long before 
1837, but up to that date steamers were practically confined 
to rivers, estuaries, and locai coasting service, one vessel 
with auxiliary steam power had, it is true, crossed the Atlantic 
in 1819, but nothing further had come of the experiment. 
In 1838, however, Trans-Atlantic navigation with full- 
powered steamers, as distinguished from sailing vessels 
provided with small auxiliary steam power, commenced in 
earnest, and from that day to this, the size and speed of 
Atlantic steam liners has increased, until instead of vessels 
of 1300 tons propelled by paddles driven by engines of 450 
horse-power, at a speed of seven or eight knots per hour, we 
have screw steamships of six times the tonnage and twelve 
times the power, travelling at more than double the speed. 
This great advance in velocity has been due to a combination 
of causes—first, increased size, which is advantageous because 
the resistance of the water being mainly due to surface 
friction, increases only in proportion to the surface, and not 
in proportion to volume. Consequently, a two-fold increase 
of linear dimensions involves only a four-fold increase in 
resistance, while it secures an eight-fold power of carrying 
machinery and fuel ; secondly, some advantage has no doubt 
accrued from improvements in the form of vessels; but 
thirdly, the most notable gain has been due to improve- 
ments in engines and boilers. Instead of working at a 
pressure of only about 20 lbs. above the atmosphere, with 
boilers filled with dense brine and coated with saline 
incrustations of great thickness with large heavy slow 
moving engines, working with but little expansion and 
consuming 7 lbs. of coal per horse-power per hour, we now 
have, thanks to surface condensation, compounding, and the 
substitution of the compact and quick running screw for the 
slow and ponderous paddle-wheel, comparatively small and 


XV1 President's Address for the year 1887. 


light engines working at a high speed with steam of 150 lbs. 
per square inch, expanded most effectively in three cylinders 
of successfully increasing size, and not consuming more than 
1d1bs. of coal per horse-power per hour. With vessels then 
of far larger size, and engines that obtain four times as much 
power from the coal consumed, no wonder greatly enhanced 
speed results. And the great success of Trans-Atlantic 
steam navigation has naturally led to the use of similar 
vessels elsewhere, so that now all seas are traversed by 
magnificent ocean steamships, and places distant from each 
other by the whole diameter of the earth, are brought 
within a little more than one month’s voyage. With such 
vast improvements in steamers, sailing vessels are constantly 
falling more and more into the back ground. 

In 1837 the aggregate tonnage of British steamers was 
less than 70,000, while that of the British ships was over 
2,000,000. In 1883 the steam and sailing tonnage was 
equal, each being 3,500,000, while in 1885 the steam 
tonnage was nearly 4,000,000, and the sailing tonnage not 
much over 3,000,000. We may then I think fairly claim 
the establishment of the great ocean steam service of the 
world, with all its momentous consequences as having taken 
place entirely within the Jubilee period. Thus we see that 
telegraphs, railways, and ocean steam navigation, application 
of science to practical uses of the most enormous importance, 
and affecting most profoundly the social and commercial 
relations and mental development of the human race, all 
belong to the past fifty years, which period must for all 
future time be looked upon .as in one most inportant 
respect the most remarkable the human race has yet seen. 

The introduction of railways, with their necessary bridges 
and viaducts, &c., and the substitution of iron for wood in 
ship-building, together with the continually increasing use 
of machinery for all kinds of industrial processes, has involved 
a very large increase in the production of iron and steel, 
the amount of crude or pig iron of British origin being 
1,120,000 tons in 1837, and 8,529,000 tons in 1883, while 
the other nations of the world, whose iron production fifty 


President's Address for the year 1887. XVil 


years ago was merely nominal, now supply over 12,000,000 
tons per annum. ‘This increased production has naturally 
led to improved processes, so that now steel, which, not 
many years since, was known only in small quantities as a 
material for swords, knives and the like, is now used in 
thousands of tons for rails, ships, and bridges. 

There is another and very different direction in which 
human well-being has been enormously enhanced during 
the present reign. Fifty years ago, anesthetics were 
unknown, and surgical operations were invested with a 
degree of horror which now we find it difficult to realise. 
The pain endured under even comparatively simple 
operations was so fearful that the unhappy patient not 
unfrequently died from the shock, while in almost every 
case recovery was seriously retarded. Consequently, surgical 
relief was had recourse to in but an exceedingly limited 
number of cases, and the desire to avoid unduly protracting 
_ the intolerable sufferings of the patient, led to a hurried and 
consequently imperfect style of operating, that most seriously 
- impaired the prospects of satisfactory recovery. 

Now all this is changed. By the aid of chloroform, ether, 
nitrous oxide, and other anawsthetics, including as the latest 
and perhaps the most remarkable, the local anzsthetic, 
cocaine, the patient is relieved of all pain, and the operation 
can proceed with as much care and deliberation as the 
dissection of a dead subject. Consequently, not only do we 
employ surgical aid in thousands of cases where fifty years 
ago it would have been regarded as utterly inapplicable, but 
the result of each individual operation is immensely more 
satisfactory than of old. The most serious surgical operation 
is probably that for the removal of ovarian tumour, and this 
is stated to have been first successfully accomplished in 
London in 1842. For several years the mortality under 
this operation was 50 per cent. Since then, however, owing 
to use of anzethetics, and the adoption of special precautions 
to secure perfect freedom from germs of disease, the mortality 
has been enormously reduced; one leading British practi- 
tioner having, it is stated, operated 251 times during the 


XViil President's Address for the year 1887. 


years 1884 to 1887 with only 2 deaths ; while the labours of 
two English surgeons in this directions, during the past 30 
years, are calculated to have added to the lives of their 
patients an aggregate of nearly 43,000 years. Up to the 
Victorian era, surgery was in its infancy; during the 
Victorian jubilee it has advanced to a lusty manhood. The 
present reign we may claim to have witnessed a development 
as great and beneficent in this direction as in that of rapidity 
and convenience in travelling, and prompt communication of 
information. 

These then are the great practical advances, the applica- 
tions of scientific investigations to ends of public utility, 
that must through all future history be held to distinguish 
the reign of Queen Victoria. 

In other directions, too numerous to mention, has there 
been steady growth, increased efficiency, and extended 
application, but the above-mentioned advances are unique, 
startling, and epoch-making. The beautiful art of photo- . 
graphy, the improvements in textile manufactures, the 
discovery of new therapeutic agents, the application of 
machinery in a thousand ways to lighten human labour, the 
general adoption of gas for lighting, and the more recent 
application of electricity, the invention of the telephone, the 
introduction of tramways in large cities, improved roads in 
country parts, the bridging of streams and estuaries, or the 
construction of tunnels beneath them, and a thousand other 
useful improvements are second only in importance to the 
more striking advances first mentioned. 

In the realm of pure science, as distinguished from useful 
application, the three most salient facts are the establish- 
ment of the doctrines of the molecular constitution of matter, 
of the conservation of energy and of evolution, and with 
regard to these, I cannot do better than quote from a recent 
deliverance of no less an authority than Professor Huxley. 
He says: “I have said that our epoch can produce achieve- 
ments in physical science of greater moment than any other 
has to show, advisedly ; and I think there are three great 
products of our time that justify the assertion. One of 


President's Address for the year 1887. X1X 


them is that doctrine concerning the constitution of matter, 
which for want of a better name, I will call ‘ molecular ;’ 
the second is the doctrine of the conservation of energy ; 
the third is the doctrine of evolution. Each of these was 
pre-shadowed, more or less distinctly, in former periods in 
the history of science ; but, so far is either from being the 
outcome of purely inductive reasoning, that it would be 
hard to overrate the influence of metaphysical, or even 
theological considerations on the development of all three. 
The peculiar merit of our epoch is, that it has shown how 
these hypotheses connect a vast number of seemingly 
independent partial generalisations, and it has given them 
that precision of expression which is necessary for their 
exact verification, and that it has practically proved their 
value as guides to the discovery of new truth. All these 
three doctrines are intimately connected, and each is 
applicable to the whole physical cosmos. But as might 
_ have been expected from the nature of the case, the first 
two grow mainly out of the consideration of physico- 
chemical phenomena, while the third in great measure owes 
its rehabilitation, if not its origin, to the study of biological 
phenomena.” 

To dilate upon these three great doctrines would take far 
more time than could be spared to-night, and would need 
language intelligible but to few. I shall, therefore, content 
myself with stating that as regards the first, atoms are no 
longer matters of speculation as in the days of Democritus 
and Lucretius, but are real recognisable units, the relative 
weight of volume of which are well-known, while several 
independent but converging lines of investigation enable us 
to approximate to their actual size. That as regards the 
second, the last half century has witnessed numerous careful 
experiments, demonstrating that heat and mechanical energy 
are interchangeable, so much heat disappearing for so much 
mechanical work done, or so much mechanical work expended 
in the production of a corresponding quantity of heat. 

In connection with these researches the name of Joule has 
acquired an imperishable fame, and his labours in this 


RK Presidents Address for the year 1887. 


direction did not commence until some years had elapsed 
after Queen Victoria’s coronation. Similarly other forms of 
energy, such as electricity in motion, sound, &c., can be 
obtained in return for so much mechanical work. Energy, 
including all these various powers as special manifestations, 
is constant in quantity. It may be called the currency of the - 
universe, capable of being translated into various forms, but 
capable as a whole of neither increase or decrease. This 
doctrine is fatal to the hopes of that race of enthusiasts, even 
now. by no means extinct, who endeavour to discover what — 
is popularly called perpetual motion, but which really means 
an inexhaustible source of mechanical power. The proper 
appreciation of the doctrine of the conservation of energy at 
once shows that to hope to create or increase mechanical 
work by the use of complex arrangements of levers, springs, 
and wheels, is just as unreasonable as to hope to create or 
increase the quantity say of a fluid like water by simply 
passing it through a complex arrangement of pipes or 
passages—a project which, as far as I am aware, no one has 
yet been insane enough to expend his time and labour upon. 

This great law is expressed thus by the eminent physicist, 
Clerk Maxwell :—“ The total energy of any body, or system 
of bodies, is a quantity which can neither be increased or 
diminished by any mutual action of such bodies, though it 
may be transformed into any one of the forms of which energy 
is susceptible,” and its utility in guiding both the scientific 
investigator and the practical mechanician is beyond all 
expression. 

And, lastly, evolution—the grand doctrine that every thing 
is passing steadily through regular and orderly stages of 
growth and development—first dimly hinted at by early 
Greek thinkers, touched now and then by the scientists of 
the seventeenth and following centuries, but never worked 
out until the present half century, in which the united labours 
of astronomers, geologists, and biologists have impressed it 
so deeply upon the public mind, that whether it be in news- 
paper, sermon, lecture, or ordinary conversation, our thoughts 
and words are tinged and flavoured with it. 


Presidents Address for the year 1887. XXi 


Darwin’s great work, the “Origin of Species,” saw the 
light in 1859, and took the whole biological world by 
surprise; and since then its applications in the field of 
biology, and its extension, in the hands of Herbert Spencer, 
to sociology, have been subjects of the most profound and 
abiding interest. 

As for other scientific advances, time would fail to tell of 
progress in electricity, in spectrum analysis, in chemistry, 
and a thousand other ways. But the amount of scientific 
work going on at present in one direction may be roughly 
indicated by the statement, made on the best authority, that 
“more chemical analyses are now made in one day than were 
accomplished before Liebig’s time in one year.” 

The present year is interesting from a scientific point 
of view in several other ways. One hundred years ago 
James Watt had but very recently perfected his famous 
improvements in steam engines, and was struggling to get 
his engines into use. Two hundred years ago exactly, 
Newton was engaged in publishing the “ Principia,” that 
marvellous work that ended the perplexities of astronomers, 
by once for all explaining the intricate motions of the 
heavenly bodies as a necessary consequence of the known 
laws of motion, and the newly enunciated law of universal 
oravitation. Three hundred years ago, the laws of motion 
had just been enunciated by Galileo, and the science of 
statics, that had stood still sincé the day of Archimedes of 
Syracuse had received an enormous advance through the 
enunciation of the proposition known as the parallelogram 
of forces by the Dutch Engineer Stevinus. The period 1587 
to 1590 witnessed the birth of modern experimental science. 
Then, and not till then, did natural philosophers escape from 
medizeval misconceptions, and set out on a new and hitherto 
unsuspected road, that has led to such glorious results. 

Ladies and Gentlemen,—I have on the present occasion 
departed from the time-honoured practice of giving a resumé 
of the scientific work of the past year, and the progress of 
the various local institutions. This practice, excellent and 
useful in its way, had through long continued annual 


XX Presidents Address for the year 1887. 


repetition, grown somewhat monotonous and wearisome, 
while the great public event of 1887 suggested, and I think 
you will agree, justified a special departure. I shall there- 
fore conclude by merely mentioning that the Royal Society 
of Victoria has held its usual meetings throughout the year ; 
that papers of interest and value have been read and discussed ; 
that we have welcomed to our midst the Microscopical 
Society, which has, as I think, most wisely decided to 
discontinue its independent existence and become a section 
of the more comprehensive body ; that we have inaugurated 
a systematic biological survey of the waters of Port Phillip 
Bay, the first fruits of the results of which are open to 
your inspection to-night; that our joint project with the 
Geographical Society to explore the Antarctic regions is 
recelving a growing support, and will, we hope, in time be 
carried into effect; and lastly, that we deplore the loss, 
through death, of earnest and steady workers in the cause of 
science in the cases of Sir Julius von Haast, of Canterbury, 
New Zealand, whose eminent services in many branches of 
science had rendered his name famous throughout the world 
of science; of Dr. Iffla, of South Melbourne, one of the 
founders of the Philosophical Society, which afterwards 
merged into the Royal Society of Victoria, and one of the 
foremost promoters of the now historical Burke and Wills 
exploring expedition; and of Mr. A. F. Oldfield, a most 
industrious botanist, who did much to elucidate the flora of 
Tasmania and Western Australia, and who enjoyed the 
thorough confidence and esteem of Sir Joseph Hooker and 
Baron F. von Mueller. Mr. Oldfield died at an advanced 
age, and during his closing years suffered from the sad 
affliction of total blindness. But while death year by year 
makes havoc in the ranks of scientific men, it is pleasing 
to note that the gaps are as constantly being filled by 
young and enthusiastic workers, who carry on the labours 
bequeathed to them, and thus the great temple of scientific 
truth grows ever higher and more complete. 


. 


ArT, 1X.—Remarks on the Early History of the 


Brennan Torpedo. 


By Proressor Kernot, M.A., C.E. 


[See Proceedings. } 


Art. X.—Notes on Some Determinations of Chlorine in 


the Water of the Yarra. 
By C. R. Buacxert, F.CS. 
[Read August 11, 1887. ] 


The opening of the Fisherman’s-bend Canal, in accordance 
with Sir J. Coode’s plan, would seem to have caused a great 
change in the character of the water in the Yarra-river. In 
1854, Mr. Newbery made some determinations of the amount 
of chlorine in the water. The quantity has much increased 
even on the surface, but at the bottom it is now as fully 
charged with salt as the water of Hobson’s Bay on the 
suriace at low tide, or indeed more so. 

There are several points of interest in considering the 
differmg amounts of chlorine at high and low tide ; it would 
seem to conclusively prove that the heavy tidal water slowly 
creeps up at the bottom of the stream, and that the fresh 
water coming down the river floats more or less upon the 
surface, unless when there is a vigorous churning-up by the 
numerous steamers which are constantly during the day 
moving to and fro. At the time when my samples were 
taken, the river was unusually still and free from traffic. 

Another point arrests attention, and that is the very rapid 
way in which the amount of salt decreases as we ascend: the 

H 


98 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 


stream after leaving the Paper Mills. On reaching the 
Gardens, at the time we took samples of the water, the 
proportion went down much more than was anticipated. 
No doubt considerable variations take place in this respect. 
Rain and high tides undoubtedly exercise much effect. The 
bed of the river is, I am informed so formed between these 
points which I have indicated, as to account to some large 
extent for this sudden diminution of the saline constitu- 
ents. 


Sea water is known to be impregnated with magnesium 
chloride. The water of the ocean and seas “is subject to 
some variations, according to the part where it is collected. 
The waters of the Baltic and Black Seas are less salt than 
the average.” The waters of the Mediterranean in the 
Levant are more salt than near Gibraltar, the variations 
ranging from 3°5 to 4 per cent. A complete analysis of our 
Australian sea water has not yet been done, but would be 
both a useful as well as an interesting piece of original 
work. 


I may add that the removal of the Falls and cutting 
of the new channel has not been an unmixed evil from a 
sanitary poit of view. The antiseptic power and the 
precipitating influence of chloride of sodium in the Yarra 
should have an effect on the contaminations constantly 
entering it. Some little time ago there was a great outcry 
about stenches on the Yarra, but those bad smells arose 
chiefly from the operations carried on for the construc- 
tion of Princes Bridge. The contractor pumped the water 
out of the lagoons in the vicinity of the bridge, and this 
water was highly charged with decayed organic matter. 
Moreover, the water from the lagoons had filtered into the 
river, and had left decayed organic matter in the earth 
through which it passed, and this earth had been disturbed, 
and smelt very badly. But the public has been under the im- 
pression that the Yarra itself was in a worse state than it had 
been in for many years. Since the operations I have referred 
to have been concluded, one can walk along the banks of 
the Yarra without having his olfactory nerves offended. The 
Yarra must naturally be contaminated, but it is no longer 
a public nuisance. I hope, however, that efforts will 
be made to keep the Yarra as free as possible from con- 
tamination, for I do not wish to minimise the dangers 
arising from the pollution of the stream. 


Chlorine wm the Water of the Yarra. 


99 


Yarra Water taken September 30, 1884, by Mr. Cosmo Newbery. 


1. Above Princes Bridge—surface 7°2 per gallon 
ee os oe bottom i bead a 
3. Opposite Paper Mills—surface 8°17 99 
4, £ oA bottom 9°08 FP 
5. Above Falls Bridge-—surface 9°08 He 
6. “a 9 bottom 3°15 js 
7. Below ie surface 19°08 fe 

Surface Falls Bridge .. San Ak he 

Bottom be oe e- 36°8 

aM: ¥ os 2409 
Spencer-st. bottom . 306°24 


Estimation of the amount of Chlorine (combined) im the Water 


of Yarra River at various places, at 


Tide. May 23rd, 26th and 27th, 1887. 
No. Plage. Chlorine = NaCl. 
1 | Spencer-st. 170-4 = 280°6 
2 » SA) LUG = aoe, 
peeiebalictordge, West..| 31-5. =  d5:9 
4 * oe Bast 1300°8 = 2127-0 
5 Fs raeastiice |) eoarO) == 52°7 
6 a » Hast 1290-8) = 2193-9 
7 | Paper Mills 16:0.) = 26°36 
8 af uf .. | 1240-4 = 2042°9 
9 | Botanical Gardens.. 7AtS | Cee 4°61 
10 i a 42-0 = 69-17 
21 Johnston-st. 2 3°78 
22 45 ied 25 = 3°78 
25 | Dight’s Falls, below Die | ee 3°78 
24 - >> above 7aX)) 3°29 
11 | Spencer-st. 118-0 = 194-34 
12 a 1244:°0 = 2048-8 
13 | Falls, West 36°93 = «59°78 
14 Be 1295°0 = 2132°86 
15, rae Hast 20.0 ie == 49°82 
16 - . 1176:0 = 1936-87 
17 | Paper Mills SoS kao 
18 éy Je Tile) = 18-11 
19 | Gardens Ome 4-28 
20 % Ben) a= 5°76 
25 Johnston-st. 24 — 3°95 
26 Dek ee aE 
27 | Port Melbourne 1052°8 = 1733°9 
28 | Heads 1470:0 = 2421:0 
29 | Yan Yean 20 = 3-294 


High Tide and Low 
Grams per Gallon. 


High Tide, 2.34 p.m. 


Surface 
Bottom, sp. gr. 1025-1 
Surface 


Bottom ,, 1025-0 
Surface 
Bottom ,, 1023°8 
Surface 
Bottom! =. 9) 1023-0 
Surface 
Bottom ,, 1002-0 
Surface 


Bottom & Bottom = 
Ss 


39 9 


LOW 
Surface 
Bottom, sp. gr. 1023°8 
Surface 
Bottom 
Surface 
Bottom 
Surface 
Bottom 
Surface 
Bottom 
Surface 
Bottom 
Sp. gr. 1018-0 
1027°5 


TIDE 


1024: 


29 


1022: 


29 


3 


ArT. XI.—WNotes on | Certain Metamorphic and Plutonte 
Rocks at Omeo. 


By A. W. Howitt, F.G.S. 


In writing on the subject of the Metamorphic Rocks at 
Ensay * I said that the conclusions to which their study had 
led me were also those to which I had been brought by the 
examination of similar phenomena in the Omeo district, 
where the relations of the sedimentary, metamorphic, and 
plutonic rocks may be observed and studied on a much wider 
scale. In the present paper, I desire to bring under notice 
certain observations which I have made on the relations of 
the metamorphic and plutonic rocks in one part of the 
valley of the Livingstone Creek. 

These notes refer only toa part of the Omeo district, that 
is to say, toa strip of country extending from the Tongeo 
Gap in the Great Dividing Range to near the junction of the 
Livingstone Creek, with the Mitta Mitta River at Hinno- 
munjie. 

The road from Ensay and from the valley of the Tambo 
. River ascends the Great Dividing Range from Tongeo, by 
way of the Tongeo Gap, at an elevation of 2800 feet above 
sea level, and thence follows the slopes of the eastern side 
of the Livingstone Valley to the township of Omeo, at about 
500 feet below the elevation of the Gap. 

To the right-hand of the Tongeo Gap, in going to Omeo, 
are the Bowen Mountains, rismg to some 1500 feet or more 
above it. These mountains are almost wholly composed of 
highly inclined and more or less altered sediments, which 
have, in places, still retaimed the familiar facies of the older 
caleanacte or goldfields series of this district. The wide 
sloping valley fallme from them towards Livingstone Creek 
1S composed of varieties of regional metamor rphic schists 
together with masses of intrusive granites and quartz diorites, 
the former being the most prevalent. 

From near the Tongeo Gap, and running in a direction 
which approximates to “N. 30° W., that is to say, to the mean 
strike of the lower Silurian formations, there is a more or less 
well-marked contact of the plutonic and altered sedimentary 


*««The Sedimentary, Metamorphic, and Igneous Rocks of Ensay.” 
Transactions Royal Society of Victoria, vol. xxii, p. 64. 


Metamorphic and Plutonic Rocks at Omeo. 101 


rocks, which crosses Livingstone Creek just below the 
northern end of the Hinnomunjie Morass, and thence 
extends probably to the Mitta Mitta River, if not beyond. The 
total distance of the contact which I have observed is not 
less than ten miles. 

Speaking generally, the rocks on the north-east side of this 
contact are varieties of metamorphosed sediments, which, at 
a distance from it, still retain the outward semblance of the 
alternating argillaceous and arenaceous beds of the Silurian 
formations, while near to the contact, they are in places so 
metamorphosed as no longer to be recognisable when seen in 
hand samples. On the south-western side of the contact the 
rocks are almost wholly crystalline intrusive rocks, mostly 
granites, and with, in places, small areas of gneiss. 

This contact represents a great fault, the amount of down- 
throw on the north-eastern side having brought the sedi- 
mentary strata within the influence of the intrusive rock 
masses. It is not possible to say how much has been the 
amount of down-throw, for there is not any standard which 
may be taken for reference. The sedimentary rocks have 
been almost completely denuded for long distances on the 
south-western side of the contact, and those that remain 
in the nearest localities, as for instance on Mount Living- 
stone, or in Mountain Creek, are so much metamorphosed 
as to afford no measure of comparison. Nor can any data be 
obtained from the relative position of the contsct planes in 
those places and at Wilson’s Creek or Hinnomunjie Morass. 


The sections and diagrams which accompany these notes, 
together with the analytical examinations of the rocks 
collected, will give further insight into the interesting 
features of this locality. 


Hinnomunjie Morass.—-The line of contact, as I have 
already said, crosses Livingstone Creek at a short distance 
below the Hinnomunjie Morass, and thence extends, | know 
not how far, towards or beyond the Mitta Mitta River. 
The line of contact is not a regular one when locally 
examined, yet, when traced for some distance in its course, 
it will be found to maintain a general direction approaching 
to north-west. Moreover, on looking across the undulating 
country crossed by it, the difference in outline of the schist 
hills on the one side, and of the granite hills on the other, is 
often quite perceptible to the accustomed eye. The local 
irregularity in the contact line is due to the protuberance 


102. Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 


of the granites into the tracts of schist, in promontory-like 
extents, which are again connected with lesser masses, or 
with dykes and veins which pass across or between the beds 
of schist. Moreover, there are numerous places where 
greater or less extents of granitic rocks have been exposed 
in the schist areas, especially in the Wilson’s Creek district, 
by denudation at distances of more than a mile from the 
oranite contact. 


The manner of the contact between the granites and the 
schists will be understood from the following descriptions :— 


The first sample of contact which I shall note, is situated 
about a mile from the northern end of the Hinnomunjie 
Morass, in a small gully which runs down to Livingstone 
Creek from the west side. The actual contact has been laid 
bare in a horizontal section. The schists are nearly vertical, 
on a strike of N. 55° W. They are greyish in colour, and 
the less quartzose beds are micaceous and glistening, and 
very frequently nodular in character. Irregular veins of 
quartz follow the strike, or cut across the beds. The 
granites which are on the western side of the contact 
extend from it into the schists, and also pass as dykes 
between the beds, or appear as apparently isolated masses 
at a distance, surrounded by them. The intrusion of the 
granites does not appear to have much bent or contorted the 
beds of schist, which, however, are cut off across the strike, 
as well as being in places detached in portions from the 
main mass. 


The essential features of this contact are given in Fig. 1, 
Plate 1, and I collected examples of the schists, and of the 
granites, as to which the following details will give infor- 
mation :— | 

The first samples illustrate the micaceous and the 
quartzose beds which alternate with each other just as do 
the argillaceous and quartzose beds of the local Silurian 
sediments. The first sample is of a grey-coloured, very fine 
erained mica schist. It is much corrugated on a small scale, 
and is distinctly nodular. Under the lens one can make 
out colourless mica in small flakes, some black mica in less 
amount, and also some minute crystals of black tourmaline. 
Examined as a thin slice under the microscope, the main 
mass of the rock is seen to be of muscovite mica, intermixed 
with a brown magnesia mica. In places the muscovite is 
the sole mica; in others the magnesia mica preponderates, 


Metamorphic and Plutonic Rocks at Omeo. 1038 


and there are also places where the plates of both of the micas 
are larger than the average. Throughout the whole slice 
there are very numerous small prisms of tourmaline, which 
are translucent in tints of brown, the O ray being brown 
and the E ray being almost colourless. The prisms are 
mostly arranged with their C axis in the plane of the slice, 
and therefore, I observed but few cross sections. So far, 
however, as I could observe, the prisms are mostly six-sided, 
and are hemi-hedrally terminated. ‘The size of the prisms 
varies from ‘08 inches down to ‘02 inches in length, and from 
‘04 inches to ‘01 inches in width. Many of the crystals are 
much eroded, and also include what appear to be small 
masses of quartz. 

The second sample examined is of a somewhat fissile grey 
coloured schist, tinted in places with ferruginous stains. The 
foliations are glistening with minute plates of muscovite, 
and under the lens one can observe, in addition to them, 
flakes of brown mica, and numerous prisms of tourmaline of 
minute size. There are slight traces of nodular structure in 
this schist. An examination of a thin slice of this rock — 
shows that it is composed of a considerable amount of quartz 
im grains, intermixed with flakes of muscovite and magnesia 
mica, the latter being strongly pleochroic. There are great 
numbers of minute tourmaline crystals distributed through- 
out the slice. In places the magnesia mica preponderates 
over the muscovite, as was the case in the sample last 
described. The principal, if not the only, difference in the 
two samples, is that in the latter quartz is in considerable 
percentage, and that the magnesia mica occurs in crystals 
and not in overlapping plates. As I have shown in Fig. J, 
Plate I., portions of the schists have been detached, and are 
included in the eranite. In order to see what changes had 
been effected by the action of the magma upon such 
fragments of the sedimentary rocks, 1 examined one such 
sample (¢ in Fig. 1, Plate I.) with the following results :— 

The hand sample is a finely crystalline rock, having in 
places a schistose arrangement ; but taken as a whole, it 
much resembles some of the very crystalline dark-coloured 
varieties of hornfels. Under the pocket lens it can be made 
out to be a mixture of quartz grains, and very numerous 
minute, splendent, rather short prisms of tourmaline of a 
black colour. In a thin slice under the microscope, this 
rock is seen to be composed of quartz grains and very 
numerous crystals of tourmaline, which is transparent in 


104 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 


tints of brown. These crystals do not le in any definite 
direction in the slice, although they form bands in it, thus 
producing a schistose appearance. ‘They are mostly short 
and rather stout, prismatic crystals, three, six, or nine-sided, 
and hemi-hedrally terminated. The dimensions of these 
erystals are about the same as those last described. They 
are, and especially the larger ones, much eroded and 
cavernous, and include numerous particles of quartz. The 
crystals are pleochroic, the E ray being nearly colourless, 
while the O ray is a dark golden brown. These observa- 
tions were further confirmed by an examination of a number 
of these beautifully splendent crystals which I isolated by 
means of hydrofluoric acid. The main mass of this rock is 
composed of numerous grains of quartz, with a few small 
grains of triclinic felspar. 

It seems to me that this rock represents a portion of schist 
in which the bases have been converted into tourmaline, 
with also an access of silica as quartz. 

The Muscovite granite at this contact varies much in 
grain. In some parts, the constituent minerals are up to an 
inch across, while as to others, all that can be said is, that it 
is slightly coarser than that of the average rocks of the 
neighbourhood. 

I separated samples of the felspar, mica, and quartz for 
examination. 

The felspar is yellowish in colour. In places, it 1s some- 
what intergrown with quartz, after the manner of “ graphie 
oranite.” Under the pocket lens it also shows those 
irregular veinlets of a second felspar on OP (001), and 
coPco (010), which indicate a microperthite. J found on 
examining a thin slice prepared from the most perfect 
cleavage (OP), that this felspar is a well-marked example, 
the albite veins being very characteristic, as well as the 
twinned structure of the microcline, which is the form of 
the potassa felspar. 

A slice from the less perfect cleavage (« 0) showed me 
also the familiar appearance of irregular veinlets of albite, 
traversing the slice at angles between 60° and 65° to the 
trace of the perfect cleavage. A second set of veinlets were 
also interposed in the plane OP, and which in places connected 
with theotherseries. The inclusions in this felspar are confined 
to grains of quartz, and rarely plates of muscovite. Through 


the kindness of Mr. J. C. Newbery, C.M.G., Mr. Jas. C. Fraser 


Metamorphic and Plutonic Rocks at Omeo. 105 


most obligingly made the subjoined quantitative analysis of 
this felspar in the laboratory of the Technological Museum :— 


ANALYSIS No. 1.—MICROPERTHITE.* 


uO; 62:13 
Al.,O, 24°35 
Fe.,O, al ou ni; tr. 
Na.,O ae ny hi 6°66 
K,O © we. ida EP 83] 
H,O Hig; Bis ue ‘50 

101°95 


The mica is the usual silvery coloured muscovite found in 
these rocks, in plates, and in irregularly shaped crystals, 
having an hexagonal, that is to say, a modified rhombic 
outline. When least altered, the cleavage plates have a 
slightly smoky tint by transmitted light. The optical 
characters of this mica are as usual, and it is according to 
Reusch’s test, a mica of the second order. 


I subjoin a quantitative analysis of this mica:— 


ANALYSIS No. 2.—MUSCOVITE. 


Fl es ay: he 15 
SiO, mae a mu 44-67 
Al.,O wae nee ae! 37 44 
Fe.,O; ae Mi 4h ‘48 
Fe.O oe oe. 33 oH 
Ca.O nee a ae ‘26 
Me.O a uf Ae ‘42 
K.0O Lise Hee re 10:90 
_ Na.,O Us ee Ms 1:24 
H,O ay whe nee 3°76 
100°23 

Hyegroscopic Moisture 4G 2°18 
Sp. gr. nee a 2-758 


The quartz of this granite is somewhat glassy in appearance, 
and contains numerous fluid cavities without bubbles. It 
shows cloudy obscuration when examined by polarised light, 
indicative of strain. 


* The grains of free quartz were picked out from the sample before analysis. 


106 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 


The less coarse parts of this granite mass, though still 
large in grain, is of such a texture that a fairly correct 
estimate of its composition can be made by examining a thin 
slice of good extent. 

I found in it muscovite in broad crystals, with irregularly 
bounded planes parallel to the C axis. Some individuals 
included grains of quartz. The felspar is in less amount, 
being mainly orthoclase, with a smaller proportion of 
plagioclase, which occurs in ill-formed crystals with irregular 
twinning. The quartz is in large amount, and of the same 
character as that spoken of before. In the mica, felspar, and 
quartz there are numerous small spheroidal masses of black 
opaque iron ore, which is probably of secondary origin. 
This rock is, therefore, to be classed as a coarse-grained 
muscovite granite. 

Another interesting exposure of the contact is laid open 
in a guily somewhat nearer to the Hinnomunjie Morass. 
Here the surface details are supplemented by a vertical 
section in the banks of the gully immediately adjoining. 
This exposure is, I think, a little to the eastward of the 
general line of contact, if one may assume that at this spot it is 
at the extreme western extremity of the masses of schist. But 
the schists and the granites are so much interlocked that it 
is not always safe in the absence of a detailed survey to 
speak with certainty as to any particular spot in this line 
being the main contact. The schists are here surprisingly 
regular in their strike and dip considering their relation to 
the granites. They are alternations of somewhat narrow 
micaceous and quartzose beds. They are always at a high 
angle of dip, and frequently vertical on a strike of near 
N. 45° W. Fig. 2, Plate L, represents diagrammatically the 
relations of these schists, and of the granites which are in 
contact with them. It will be seen that the granites have 
come up as veins or dykes between the schist-beds, and that 
at the principal contact these intrusive rocks are massive, 
and fill a space which was once occupied by the schists which 
are, as I have represented, cut off sharply, and in places are 
more or less included in the intrusive rock. 

In proceeding across the strike of the schists, beyond the 
line of section and in a. north-easterly direction, the granite 
veins decrease in number, and the schists are less altered, 
until at perhaps a distance of a mile they have much the 
normal appearance of the argillaceous schists of Reedy — 


Creek. 


Metamorphic and Plutonic Rocks at Omeo. 107 


The mineralogical characters of these schists will be 
understood better from the following examples. The letters 
prefixed to the descriptions refer to those appended to the 
diagram Fig. 2, Plate I. 

(a) Nodular mica schist striking N. 30°-40° W. The beds 
at this place are not all of them nodular, and they vary also 
in colour and in the relative amounts of quartz and mica. 
This sample I examined in a thin slice. I found the main 
mass of the rock to be a mixture of brown magnesia mica, 
and of colourless muscovite in small overlapping plates. 
In this are very numerous short, stout, light-coloured crystals 
of tourmaline from ‘004 x ‘002 inches down to 0015 x ‘001 
inches in dimensions. There is a considerable amount of 
black iron ore scattered throughout the slice. No quartz 
is visible in the several slices examined. I have to thank 
Mr. Jas. C. Fraser for the subjoined analysis of this rock :— 


ANALYSIS No..3.—Mica ScuHIST. 


81.0, te. BAS ay} 58°87 
Al.,O. ve eS: ee 16°95 
ea |=: nF ee 8°62 
Fe.O — “ee ae 3°93 
Ca.O o a: ay ve 
K,O ee ie ee 5°98 
Na,O AS me AG 1:48 
Li.,0 bee A) aM Ges 
BO, Ve 33: io tr. 
99-12 


A second sample from the same place (a Fig. 2, Plate I) 
is of one of the quartzose beds. In the hand sample it is a 
somewhat fissile schist of a greyish to yellowish colour, and 
the foliations very glistening with plates of muscovite. 
Under the lens can be seen plates of rather pearly mica, very 
little brown magnesia mica, and numerous crystals of tour- 
maline can be made out. Under the microscope a thin 
slice of this rock shows a far greater amount of quartz than 
there is in those beds of which the last described is a sample. 
With the quartz grains there is a colourless mica, and there 
are numerous tourmaline crystals of somewhat larger size than 
those in the last-mentioned rock. These crystals lie mostly 


* Determined by spectroscope only. 


108 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 


in the micaceous foliations, and are generally broken across. 
The principal difference between this rock and the last one 
described is in the scarcity comparatively of magnesia mica, 
and in the large amount of quartz in grains of various 
SIZES. 

The subjoined analysis was kindly made for me in the 
laboratory of the Technological Museum, by Mr. Jas. o 
Fraser :— 


AnaLysis No 4.—QuARTZOSE Mica ScuHist.* 


$1.0, By $e ee 72°60 
Al..O; a 9:03 
Fe.,0; 10:00 
Fe.O 1:05 
Ca.O 50 
Meg.O 3a le 
K,O 2-44 
Na,O 2°62 
H,O 50 

101-86 


I selected a third sample from a quartzose bed adjoining 
a dyke at ¢, Fig. 2, Plate 1. It is composed of rather large 
rounded to angular grains of quartz, full of inclusions, and 
with fluid cavities without bubbles. The inclusions are 
mostly minute rounded flakes of dark brown mica, such as 
I have frequently observed in quartzose hornfels at Swift's 
Creek and in other parts of North Gippsland. Besides the 
quartz there are flakes of muscovite in less amount than the 
numerous small, greenish-coloured prisms of tourmaline. , 
In order to complete the comparison of varieties of these 
schist beds, I selected a fourth example, being one taken 
from close to the contact at the place marked (e) in the 
diagram section, Fig. 2, Plate I. This sample is strongly 
nodular, but otherwise much resembles in appearance the 
second example at (a.) Judging from the example of a thin 
slice, this rock is composed of quartz in angular grains, 
scattered through a ground mass of muscovite mica. Fluid 
inclusions are common in the grains of quartz, which differ 
much in size. Tourmaline crystals of minute size are also 
numerous, arranged parallel to the foliations. Most of these 
crystals have, as in other samples, been broken across the 


* IT found the specific gravity of a sample of this rock to be 2-723. 


Metamorphic and Plutonic Rocks at Omeo. 109 


prism. ‘These samples of the schists sufficiently describe the 
character of all the beds shown in the section, the only 
difference being that some are more nodular than others, or 
that in places the quartzose beds predominate over the 
micaceous ones, or vice versd. 

An inspection of the diagrams given, which sufficiently 
well copy the reality, shows that the schists have been 
invaded by the granites, which, in places, fill spaces at one 
time occupied by the schists, and in other places, at further 
distances, have penetrated between the beds and more rarely 
across them. Where the contact line is well marked, the 
schists are cut across, and the granites abut against the 
truncated ends, and also include fragments of the beds 
which have been detached, and have become surrounded by 


the magma. The general character of these granites in mass | 


is a rather coarse crystalline, or crystalline granular 
compound of felspar, muscovite, and quartz, analogous to 
that described previously at p. The dykes and veins which 
lie between the schist beds are, however, as a rule, much 
coarser in structure than the granite masses, and may, in 
some cases, be rightly designated as Pegmatite. But since 


this name has, to some degree, become associated with the _ 
conception of dykes which are not, strictly speaking, igneous 


and intrusive*, it may be well to use the general term 
“muscovite granite.” These dykes vary in the locality 
taken as an illustration from 6 inches up to 36 inches in 
width. With the larger ones I found quartz veins to be 
associated, thus recalling the “ plutonic quartz veins” which 
I have spoken of elsewhere +. In this locality these veins 
seem so far to have proved entirely barren of gold or ores of 
metals. In Fig. I, Plate II, I have sketched one of the 
dykes of muscovite granite which occur in the section 
described. J chose this dyke for the reason that it represents 
the fair average sample, while at the same time it is, in 
parts, not too coarse in texture for a thin slice for microscopic 
examination. It is composed of felspars of two kinds, 
muscovite mica and quartz. The potassa felspar is in 


* Kalkowsky remarks as follows :—‘‘ Es ist nun aber zu beachten dass 
solche Pegmatite fast stets ‘gang granite’ sind, also massen deren anogene 
Entstehung zehr zeifelhaft ist die viel mehr durch mancherlei chemische 
und mechanische Processe unter uns unbekannten Verhalt nissen gebildet 
worden sein modgen.”—EHlemente der Lithologie, p. 66. 


+ Notes on the Area of Intrusive Rocks at Dargo. Transactions Royal 
Society of Victoria, Vol. XIII., p. 152. 


110 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 


comparatively large irregularly-shaped masses, without any 
striation, and obscuring in partial fields. As there is no 
trace of cleavage, and as there are no bounding planes 
developed, observations as to the angle of obscuration could 
not be made. The percentage of potassa in the subjoined 
analysis renders it, however, most likely that these felspars 
are as I have classed them. Besides these larger individuals, 
there are also smaller fragments of the same. The other 
felspar is a plagioclase in much wasted crystals. The only 
obscuration angles which I could measure with any confi- 
dence, gave 2° approximately on OP (001), and 11° 
on oP (100.) The mode of twinning resembles that of 
oligoclase. 

Muscovite mica is in large crystals which have been 
much corroded at the sides. Where the section cuts the 
erystal at a slight angle with the base, the slice has a peculiar 
mottled-appearance, due to the overlapping of numerous 
consecutive cleavage plates. But where the section coincides 
with the basal cleavage, the slice is optically perfectly 
homogeneous, and polarizes with uniform tint of colour. 
There are no inclusions, and the mica seems to me to be of 
the same period of formation as the felspar, but to be 
younger than the quartz. The quartz is in large masses, 
filling in all spaces, and including portions of broken up 
felspars of both kinds, and also small flakes of muscovite. I 
made a quantitative analysis of a portion of this dyke 
which was apparently but little decomposed, but also 
somewhat more quartzose than the part examined under the 
muicroscope :— 


ANALYsIs No. 5.—MUSCOVITE GRANITE. 


81.0, ae AN 8 76:10 
UO) a ee sa bad 15°95 
HerO. yee: 4. ee tr. 
Ca.O nes 23 
Mg.O 1] 
K,0 3°27 
Na.,O 2°90 
H,O 1-16 

99°72 

Hygroscopic Moisture sag 18 


Sp. er. one 2-673 


Metamorphic and Plutonic Rocks at Omeo. 111 


At (¢) in the section Fig. 2, Plate L., there is a close-grained 
dyke of a dark-greenish colour , lying between the schists, and 
about three feet in thickness. 

When examined in a thin slice, I observed that it was 
extremely altered from the usual character of such dykes in 
this district, and of the original structure but little remained. 
In parts there had been an extensive deposition of 
quartz in irregularly-formed concentric radial crystals, 
forming masses which, when rotated between crossed 
nicols, “showed strong traces of a black cross. Here and 
there in the portions outside these quartz masses, I 
could trace the outlines of former lath-shaped crystals 
of felspar, scattered among numerous groups of grains 
and tufts of a dark-green mineral, which I did not find to be 
sensibly dichroic. Were it not for this, I should be inclined 
to consider it one of the chlorite groups of minerals. Mr. 
Jas. C. Fraser found in an examination of a sample of this 
rock, (05 per cent. of boracic acid. All that I can say is, 
that it probably in its original condition was a diabase 
porphyrite, and that it seems to have been subjected to 
metamorphism at the same time with the schists enclosing it. 

Before speaking generally as to the conclusions to be drawn 
from a consideration of the phencmena observed at the 
contact of the granites and the mica schists in the two 
localities now described at Hinnomunjie Morass, it will 
be well to review slightly different, and yet analogous 
appearances, in connection with another part of the same 
contact, which can be studied at Wilson’s Creek, at a distance 
of several miles south east from the locality which I have 
now described. 

Wilson’s Creek rises in the Bowen Mountains, and in the 
spur, which runs from it in a north westerly direction over 
Mount Cook, towards Livingstone Creek. It crosses the 
line of contact of the granites ‘and schists about a mile and a 
half above its junction with Livingstone Creek. Thus the 
upper part of its course is over the metamorphosed schists, 
and the lower over the granites. 

In Fig. 8, Plate L, I have given a diagrammatic section 
along that part of its course which covers the most important 
features, 

In the following descriptions, the letters used at the com- 
mencement of the several paragraphs refer to that section :— 

(a.) Spotted schists dipping N. 60°, E. at 70°. These beds 
conform in their strike and in their alternation of quartzose 


112 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 


and fine-grained beds, with the Jess altered formations in the 
same sequence in the Bowen Mountains, which can be again 
followed across their strike still further to the eastward, to 
where in the Tambo Valley, between Tongeo and Bindi, they 
have all the familiar facies of the Silurian strata of the 
district. I regard these schists as being metamorphosed 
lower paleeozoic sediments, and in all probability of lower 
Silurian age. 
' Under the microscope, I found a thin slice prepared from 
one of the fine-grained beds, to be a minute mixture of small 
flakes of a colourless alkali mica, with a very little magnesia 
mica of a yellowish colour, and a small amount of quartz in 
grains of minute size. 

Throughout the whole mass, there is much graphite 
distributed in minute specks, which in places are aggregated 
into small masses. Of this rock I made the subjoined 
quantitative analysis :— 


ANALYSIS No. 6.—MicA SCHIST. 


Cr 3°32* 
P.O; 10 
Si.0, 64-00 
Al.,03 19°82 
Fe.,O4 3°50 
Ca.O 32 
Me.O 2:14 
KO 4A 
Na..O 1-10 
H,O 2-23 
10094 
Hygroscopie Moisture Ave 85 
Sp. er. se 4.5 2°651 


I also examined a quartzose schist which adjoined the 
above. I foundit to be composed mainly of grains of quartz, 
some of which contain numerous fluid cavities. Surrounding, 
and lying between the quartz grains are small ragged flakes 
of magnesia mica, which are much bleached in colour, and 


* As this percentage of graphite appeared to me to be high, I madea second 
determination for control, which gave 3°40 per cent. The graphite which 
separated, on treating the finely powered rock with pure hydrofluoric acid 
and sulphuric acid, and boiling the residue with water, was apparently in a 
pure state, but on ignition for nearly two hours left a considerable ash. . 


Metamorphic and Plutonic Rocks at Oneo. 113 


as is usual in such cases, this is associated with an exclusion of 
iron, which has been deposited as magnetite adjoining them 
and also in neighbouring fissures. Muscovite is in rather 
more amount than the other mica in lath-shaped flakes. In 
this mass are some minute crystalline grains, which are 
colourless, have a wrinkled surface, strong marginal. total 
reflection and polarize with red and green tints of the first 
order of colours. I found one such crystal which had a 
prismatic form, and which obscured parallel to the sides. 
These data seem to indicate zircon. 

(b.) The schists here are a little more altered, and have 
micaceous nodules. They are vertical on a strike of N. 80° W. 

(c.) Rather coarse schists having a gneissose appearance. 
The strike is probably N. 60° W., the beds being vertical. 
In a microscopical examination, I found this rock to be 
composed of much quartz in grains, alkali mica in 
aggregates of small flakes, together with a little brown 
magnesia mica. 

A dyke crosses the beds at this place. The ground mass 
of the rock was probably felspathic, but it is now greatly 
altered into a pale green-coloured fibrous chlorite. In this 
ground mass are a “few much altered felspars, in which no 
striations are distinguishable in more than traces. There 
are also chlorite pseudomorphs after some mineral, possibly 
augite. ‘This dyke may be a porphyrite, but it is so much 
altered that a satisfactory diagnosis 1s not to be arrived at. 

(d.) At this place the schists are in a still more altered 
condition than those seen last on the line of section. They 
have an appearance resembling that of a fine-grained gneiss, 
and they strike N. 45° W. A sample of one of these schists, 
when examined as a thin slice under the microscope, I found 
to be composed of quartz and mica in about equal amounts, 
but in places the former predominates slightly, while in 
other places the contrary is the case. The quartz is in 
angular grains of the character usual to some metamorphic 
schists. It has very few fluid cavities, but it includes 
numerous minute oval or rounded microliths of a brown 
colour, which appear to be mica. The mica in this rock is 
of two kinds, first a colourless alkali mica either in 
individual crystals or in masses of flakes or small scales, 
which are then surrounded by brown magnesia mica. 

Throughout the slice there are masses of iron ore, which 
in some instances are clearly aggregates of imperfect crystals. 
These masses also include flakes of muscovite. 


114 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 


(e.) The schists at this place are very massive, no bedding 
_ being visible and only indistinct foliation in the rock. 
I found a sample, of which I prepared a thin slice, to be very 
micaceous, most of the mica being a yellowish or colourless 
alkali mica, the colourless portion being either in plates 
or else in plumose or fan-shaped groups of plates. The 
yellowish-coloured mica is fibrous, or is in small scales, 
and it fills in spaces. This yellow fibrous mica also 
surrounds other minerals, and seems to be due to later 
alteration, and has some resemblance to damourite. There 
are also numerous patches of pleochroic brown mica in 
which I observed in places minute crystalline inclusions, 
round which there is a dark to black halo which disappears 
when the slice is rotated, so that the traces of the basal 
cleavage are perpendicular to the plane of the polarizing 
nicol. The pleochroism of the halo is only visible in the 
vertical sections of the mica, and not in those which are 
parallel to the basal cleavage, in which the inclusion is 
surrounded and concealed by a permanent circular opaque 
black patch. In these latter sections the dark halo is seen, 
but it undergoes no change in rotating the slice. In 
connection with these phenomena are to be noted numerous - 
 erystals and grains of iron ore, or possibly ilmenite, although 
in no case did I observe any of the characteristic alteration 
products of that mineral.* Many of these crystals of ore 
can be recognised as being hexagonal, but in most cases the 
outlines of the crystals are eroded or worn away; other 
cases are where there are mere skeletons of crystals, part of 
the form being indicated merely by minute black grains in 
rows. These ores are connected in some cases with the 
brown mica, and with the halos surrounding the microliths 
of which I have spoken. These observations suggest that 
the pleochroic halos may be due to local molecular aggrega- 
tion of iron in the mica. 


As is usual in other parts of the district, there are two 
alternating varieties of these schists, one of which is more 
quartzose than the other. 


_* Minute portions of iron ore which I extracted from the powdered rock 
did not give me any reactions for titanium when examined with fluxes before 
the blowpipe. 


t+ Rosenbusch notes these occurrences in mica, and suggests the above 
explanation in his ‘‘ Physiographie der Mineralien,’’ 2nd edition, p. 192. 


Metamorphic and Plutome Rocks at Omeo. 115 


The main mass of a slice prepared from a sample of the 
quartzose variety I found to be composed of almost equal 
sized grains of quartz and felspar, the former being the 
more plentiful. There are also here some grains of quartz 
of much larger size than the average, and these are all 
much broken. AJl the quartz grains, large and small, have 
numerous fluid cavities, and also include numerous small 
reddish-brown flakes of mica. 

By far the greater number of the felspar grains are simple, 
and appear to be orthoclase. The few which are compound 
I consider to be oligoclase near to albite, if not indeed the 
latter. They much resemble similar felspar grains which 
occur in some of the quartzose schists at Ensay. 

In the mass of the rock which is thus composed of quartz 
and felspar there is an amount of mica equal perhaps to 
one-fifth of the whole. The greater part of the mica is a 
yellowish to light-brown magnesia mica, not strongly pleo- 
chroic, the remainder being muscovite. The mica lies 
between and around the grains of quartz and felspar, and 
has, as it seems to me, been formed later than either of 
them. <A few yellowish tourmaline crystals, with a few 
small grains of magnetite, (7) complete the composition of 
this rock. 

It is to be noted that in these schists, which adjoin an 
intrusive mass or large dyke of aplite, felspar and tour- 
maline appear, and that the schists generally have assumed 
a structure and composition differing in a marked manner 
from those at (a) which were taken as a starting point, 
because they were a fair example of the mica schists which 
extend from the Bowen Mountains across towards Hinno- 
munjie, and which are perhaps also representative of the 
metamorphism of those strata -generally anterior to that 
further alteration which was produced by the granites. 

(7.) There is here an exposure of a mass of granite. The 
surrounding schists are much contorted, and are spotted and 
micaceous. The sample of schist which I examined from 
this place is fine grained, and composed of numerous grains 
of quartz, among which are small flakes of a brown mica 
and of muscovite. The mica has in places a parallelism, and 
thus produces the appearance in the slice of foliation. A 
few light-coloured grains of tourmaline complete the rock. 
The granite is rather light-coloured, and is composed of 
felspars, mica, and quartz. The principal felspar is orthoclase 
in irregularly bounded crystals, which in some cases include 

12 


116 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 


veinlets of a second felspar, thus being a microperthite. In 
one instance I found the felspar intergrown with quartz in 
the “graphic” manner. Some of the orthoclase felspars 
are quite fresh, while others are converted into pinite 
pseudomorphs, accompanied by the usual large plates of 
muscovite mica which I have observed in such cases in some 
of the Ensay rocks. That these pseudomorphs are after 
potassa felspar is shown by portions remaining centrally in 
one or two cases still unaltered. A few triclinic felspars 
occur also in smaller crystals, having small obscuration 
angles. Some of the crystals of muscovite are probably 
original, whilst others are certainly secondary, as, for 
instance, the micaceous aggregates of the pseudomorphs. 


Brown, strongly pleochroic magnesia mica appears also to 
be one of the earlier-formed minerals, as it is extensively 
eroded, and has ragged edges, portions of which have, in 
places, been detached. The same pleochroic halos surround- 
ing minute crystals, of which I spoke a few pages back, 
appear here also under the same conditions. Here also such 
of the minute included crystals which I could examine had 
a prismatic habit, with rounded edges, and a longitudinal 
obscuration. Their comparative rarity and their minuteness, 
so far, have prevented me from isolating any for separate 
examination, and their real nature must therefore still 
remain uncertain. This granite mass is about thirty paces 
across on the line of section, and then the schists continue 
much broken up, disjointed, and in places decomposed. 


(g.) The schists at this place are very massive, and are 
traversed by small veins of aplite and of quartz. They are 
jointed, but the bedding is obscure, if not obliterated. Ina 
hand sample the rock is buff-coloured, with a schistose 
structure, and under the lens it has the appearance of being 
a rather minute mixture of yellowish-coloured felspar, 
quartz, and mica. Under the microscope I found this rock 
to resemble in its structure that described at (e), but it is 
rather coarser in grain, and with fewer felspars as compared 
to the quartz grains. The felspars form connected veins of 
varied width, separating the quartz grains into rude 
foliations connected with each other. Muscovite mica 
occurs in crystals among the felspars, and seems to be one of 
the earlier-formed minerals. There are also a few light- 
coloured flakes of magnesia mica, and a few greenish prisms 
of tourmaline complete the composition of this rock. 


Metamorphic and Plutonic Rocks at Omeo. 117 


(h.) At this place the schists are much jointed, and the 
foliation is not marked; yet, on looking at the rocks in 
mass, they can be seen to be contorted in structure. A rude 
fohation dips at 52° to N. 20° E. There are traces of granite 
veins with schorl. The hand sample of this rock is of a 
light buff colour, with a schistose character produced by 
alternations of light and dark-coloured foliations. Examined 
by means of the pocket lens, the light-coloured portions 
appear to be a minute mixture of felspar and quartz, and 
the dark-coloured portions to be the same with a large 
proportion of a dark-coloured mica. Throughout this surface 
larger plates of muscovite are visible. 

_ This preliminary diagnosis 1s borne out by an examination 

of a thin slice. The main mass of the rock is composed of 
quartz and mica, with a somewhat less amount of felspar in 
grains. In places these grains are ageregated together, and 
are surrounded by grains of quartz larger in size. These 
felspar ageregates suggest that they are the broken 
fragments of one individual. The grains of quartz are 
much separated by flakes of muscovite and of magnesia 
mica, the latter being much chloritised. This chlorite 
polarizes with faint tints. The quartz grains include fluid 
cavities, and also numbers of minute, rounded, brown and 
colourless microliths. Iron ores and a few broken and 
cavernous crystals of tourmaline complete the list of 
component minerals. 

(v.) The schists here are thick bedded, dipping 8. 65° W. 
at 78°. Ina hand sample the appearance is much that of 
the last described rock, but it is rather darker in colour, and 
perhaps not quite so minutely crystalline. 

In a thin slice the rock is seen to be mainly composed of 
interlocking grains of quartz, which are full of rounded 
microliths, both of a brown colour and colourless. Brown 
mica flakes are plentiful among the grains of quartz. In 
places, what may be called the ground mass of the rock, is 
not quartz, but felspar, in which are included the quartz 
grains. Most frequently this felspar has been converted 
into an aggregate of minute flakes of mica of a yellowish 
colour. In addition to these components there are a few 
yellowish-coloured tourmaline crystals, which, as in other 
samples of these rocks, have been eroded and wasted since 
their crystallisation. 

(k.) The schists at this place dip N. 20° E. at 81°, and 
are traversed by small aplite veins. The sketch, Fig. 3, 


118 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 


Plate I1., gives roughly the features of these beds. A sample 
from the bed marked (a), which I examined in a thin slice, 
I found to be foliated by alternate bands of brown pleochroie 
mica and quartz in crystalline grains. The interspaces are 
filled by a mixture of flakes of brown mica and a lesser 
number of flakes of muscovite, or else filled by small masses 
of pinite, with relatively large plates of muscovite. As in 
other rocks in this section, the brown mica contains, but not 
in all cases, minute inclusions surrounded by pleochroic 
halos. In addition there are also grains of orthoclase among 
the quartz grains. 

A second sample which I examined was from one of the 
finer-grained beds (b), which, here as elsewhere in this 
district, alternate with those which are quartzose. I found 
it to differ from that last described. It has a well-marked 
foliated structure. The greater part of the slice has, at, one 
time, been a ground mass of orthoclase felspar, in which 
were included grains and irregular patches of quartz, thus 
producing a structure resembling that which is termed 
‘“‘ graphic” in the granites. In the greater part of the slice 
the felspar has been converted into a colourless or slightly 
yellow alkali mica, while, in other places, the felspar is still 
unaltered. This felspar appears to be orthoclase. The areas 
of felspar and quartz or of mica and quartz are separated 
by foliations of brown mica with a little muscovite. In 
places the foliations bulge out round small masses of felspar 
and quartz with a little mica, simulating, on a small scale, 
the so called “eyes” in some rocks. In some of the felspar 
areas there are places where the brown mica preponderates, 
in others, it is the muscovite together with small grains of 
quartz. A few smal] crystals of tourmaline are scattered 
throughout the mass. There are also a few scattered crystals 
of iron ore, having traces of hexagonal outlines. Most of. 
these are in the neighbourhood of the brown mica, of which 
some individuals have pleochroic halos. 

In this rock the felspar and quartz appear to have 
crystallised almost simultaneously, forming a ground mass 
in which are the micas and the iron ores. 

(l.) he schists, which up to this place were much as last 
described, become here more massive, but with traces ot 
bedding, and an apparent strike of N. 40° W. They are also 
traversed by small winding veins of aplite and quartz. 

(m.) The rocks at this place are massive and much jointed, 
and are traversed by a strong dyke of “graphic granite,” 


Metamorphic and Plutonic Rocks at Umeo. 119 


nine to ten feet in thickness, and striking N. 10° E. There 
is also hére a strong dyke of basic rock on the same strike, 
which I did not further examine. 

The crystalline granular character of these rocks raises a 
doubt whether they may not be, in fact, members not of the 
schist group in a metamorphosed condition, but of the 
granites. Yet their resemblance in some respects to portions 
of the most altered of the schists which I have described, 
and the absence of any defined contact, cause me to hesitate 
as to the class to which I should assign them. I shall again 
refer to this, after describing the remainder of the section, 
and I now proceed to give some data as to the mineral 
composition of these rocks at (7m). 

The dyke of “ graphic granite” is a good example of one 
of the extreme forms in which the granites of this neigh- 
bourhood not infrequently occur. It seemed to me to be 
worth further examination. It is light-coloured, or of a light 
yellowish tint. It has a platy structure in places, due to a 
tendency to split along the cleavages of the felspars, which 
are similarly oriented over considerable spaces, for instance, 
over several inches square. The larger part of the rock 
seems to be felspar, and the lesser part quartz, in grains 
and in veinlets, producing in the planes of separation those 
figures which have given a name to this kind of rock. 
Where there are fissures traversing the rock, secondary 
muscovite has been produced. 

Examined in a thin slice, I found this rock to be com- 
posed of microcline and quartz, with a very little secondary 
muscovite mica. The microcline is twinned in the well-known 
manner, and contains portions which are not twinned, and 
which re-act with polarized light, as does the monoclinic 
potassa felspar. Albite is in considerable amount, and occurs 
in veinlets, in small twinned crystals in the microcline, and 
more rarely outside of it. The quartz has no crystalline 
form, but is in irregularly-shaped masses, such as are well 
known in graphic granite. The rock is traversed by fissures 
which have been filled partly by the comminuted felspar, and 
partly by secondary muscovite resulting therefrom. Round 
some of the quartz grains there are radiating cracks and 
disturbances of the microcline twinning, indicating strains. 

On these data, this rock may be described as a graphic 
granite, and from its occurrence as a dyke at this place, may 
be considered allied to, but, in all probability, younger than 
the aplites. 


120 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 


A quantitative analysis which I made of this rock is 
given below :— 


Ana.tysis No. 7.—GRAPHIC GRANITE. 


S10, sel: LE, As 70°91 
Al sOnt (ike. aS ae 15°32 
eso: Bs “a tr. 
Ca.O a4 a ae ‘58 
Mg.O ES Ane Le ‘07 
K,O as buts bids 10:07 
Na.,O pest Pek a 253) 
H,0 se Ms ee “51 
eA 7 

Hygroscopic Moisture ry "15 
Sp: ems. ae 2564 


(n.) Here are massive erpatailinie granular rocks with 
aplite veins. A strong dyke of this rock traverses them, — 
dipping probably N. 20° E. about 40°. A hand sample from 
this place is very fine grained and siliceous, and has no 
resemblance to the thick-bedded schists which I have 
described at (z.) These rocks resemble some of the crystal- 
line granular parts of the bedded schists, but are themselves 
only faintly schistose in places ; whilst in others there are 
crystalline granular patches of small size, whose composition 
of felspar and quartz, with but little muscovite, approximates 
im appearance to aplite, while it shades off also into the 
surrounding rock. I must leave for future determination 
the exact relations of these rocks to the schists on the one 
hand, and to the intrusive granites at no great distance on 
the other ; but I may point out that it may be possible that 
we have here an instance in which the sediments under the 
influence of the exudations from the plutonic magma have 
more or less, in re-crystallising, assumed their character. I 
have long since seen, and have pointed out, that large masses 
of the lower parts of the Silurian sediments must have been 
absorbed by the plutonic magmas. 

(0.) From (x) to this point there are but few rocks visible, 
and they are al] of a massive appearance. A sample collected 
at (0) proved, on examination as a thin slice, to be 
interesting. There is in it a ground mass, which is formed 
in places of orthoclase felspar, which surrounds and includes 
rounded or sub-angular grains of quartz, and this is 


Metamorphic and Plutonic Rocks at Omeo. 121 


analagous to the structure of the rocks lately described. In 
places the quartz also surrounds portions of felspar. Most 
usually the felspar has been converted into small flakes of 
alkali mica, which lie at various angles to each other. The 
result simulates portions of mica schist enclosing quartz 
grains. On the whole this rock is very quartzose, the grains 
being angular to rounded, and in places showing strain. 
Between the grains, and also bordering the felspar, there are 
in places small flakes of brown mica which extend down 
into fissures, and which are, therefore, probably secondary in 
formation. There are in this rock hexagonal and imperfect 
crystals of iron ore, and also a few scarce crystals which I 
refer, upon erounds before stated, to Zircon. 

At about two hundred yards from this spot is the 
boundary of the Granites, and there being on the one side 
massive rocks with faint traces of foliation, and on the other 
well-marked porphyritic granites. I have here marked on 
the section a second possible contact (#.) In order to 
compare the doubtful rocks with the porphyritic granites 
which they adjom on the north-east side, I made a 
quantitative analysis of both samples. The first to be 
described is the one on the north-east side—that is to say, 
on that side on which the schists are found. The sample is 
a rather fine-grained, crystalline granular rock, dark grey in 
colour, with in places lighter portions, giving it a slightly 
schistose appearance. 

An examination of a thin slice of this rock gave me the 
following results, and I found it to be composed of the 
following minerals :— 

(a.) Orthoclase in eroded crystals, most of which have 
been much altered to muscovite, which either is scattered 
through the crystal or entirely replaces it. In parts the 
orthoclase crystals have been broken up, and much of the 
resulting debris has gone to produce mica. The orthoclase 
was formed before the triclinic felspars, which have been 
altered in an analogous manner to the former. The low 
extinction angles of the plagioclase indicate albite or 
oligoclase. Muscovite occurs not only as alteration products 
replacing felspars, but also as larger flakes and crystals of an 
earlier formation. Intergrown with the muscovite, but also 
independently of it, is a brown pleochroic magnesia mica 
which, where unaltered, is much corroded and “ tattered,” 
and where altered, has been converted into a pale- coloured 
chlorite. As is very common in this chloritisation, the 


122 3Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 
fe - SEs | 
process has also eliminated iron ore. The greater part of 
the rock is composed of quartz grains, which have been 
crystallised last of all. 

The subjoined analysis is of this sample :— 


ANALYSIS No. 8. 


P.O; ‘06 
SLO, 69°79 
Al.,O3 16°47 
Fe.,03 53 
Fe.O 2°97 
Ca.O 73 
Mzg.O 1:95 
K,O 344 
Na.,O 1:68 
H,O 99 
98°61 

Hyeroscopic Moisture bas 49 
Spier.) ee tee 


Close adjoining this rock is the boundary of the granites, 
which are porphyritic with orthoclase felspars. A sample 
which I collected close to the boundary is a light-coloured . 
crystalline granular rock, of medium texture, containing two 
micas, felspars, and quartz, and with porphyritic crystals of 
tather greasy-looking orthoclase. 

A quantitative analysis of this sample is as follows :— 


ANALYSIS No. 9.—GRANITE. 


P.O; 2 ae uP 05 
81.0, ja “ae 2) M3'SZ is 
Al,Os sat ae s. 16:62 
Fe.,O3 be: de a 43 
Fe.O a ae wail Wz 
Ca.O de As ae 71 
Meg.O Jee oa: #2 1:60 
K,O ale cee ee 6:48 
Na.,O ni, bye Wee 1°80 
H,O0 fal Be ike TA 
100:02 
Hygroscopic Moisture aA ina 


Spilan alle =. (2462 


Metamorphic and Plutonic Rocks at Omeo. 123 


An examination of a thin slice of this sample by the 
microscope shows that it is composed of two kinds of mica, 
two felspars and quartz, and that, therefore, in accordance 
with the classification of Rosenbusch, which I follow, it is a 
granite. 

The crystals of orthoclase are larger than those of the 
accompanying plagioclase. They are also more converted 
into mica. Instances occur of intergrowth with quartz. 
Various stages of alteration can be followed out in this slice, 
from a conversion of the edge of the crystal more or less 
into muscovite, to the complete conversion into that mica. 
Intermediate stages show portions of felspar still intact. In 
one eroded crystal, the section of which was approximately 
parallel with OP (001), I observed a number of angular 
fragments of plagioclase. These had the appearance of being 
parts of a former whole, and if so, would indicate more than 
one generation of triclinic felspars. For the plagioclase 
erystals in this rock, which are subordinate in number to 
those of orthoclase, are better formed, are smaller, and are 
less altered, and may, therefore, be considered as formed at 
a later period than the orthoclase. The obscuration of these 
triclinic felspars indicate oligoclase rather than albite. 

In one or two instances I observed the environment of a 
simple crystal by a margin which was twinned. Muscovite 
mica is in a few large crystals which appear to be of an 
older generation than the remaining small flakes, or aggre- 
gates of flakes, which are certainly alteration products. Yet 
even some of the larger flakes of muscovite extend into the 
felspars. 

The magnesia mica is brown in colour, and distinctly 
pleochroic. It was one of the earlier-formed minerals, but 
is present only in small amount. The crystals are in places 
crushed and broken, and the isolated flakes are tattered or 
torn across, and in the latter case I observed, where the 
fracture was filled in with minute flakes of muscovite. This 
mica has in some cases dark pleochroic halos surrounding 
microliths such as I have betore described. 

An inspection of the two analyses, Nos. 8 and 9, shows a 
great similarity of composition, and this, together with the 
mineral composition of the two rocks and their proximity to 
each other, strongly suggests the conclusion to which I have 
before referred, that the crystalline granular rocks shown 
between the letters (x) and (w’) in the section may, per- 
haps, be unusual forms, in which the intrusive rocks have 


124 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 


erystallised. For the present I must leave this in a state 
of doubt. 

At this point the diagram section terminates, but the 
granites extend westwards, without break, along the course 
of Wilson’s Creek, to its junction with Livingstone Creek, 
and thence to the hills on the western side. When examin- 
ing these hills, I found that the granites still extended, 
with slight alteration of composition, and that in places they 
assumed a gneissose structure. But I did not, within a 
distance of about two miles from Livingstone Creek, meet 
with even any traces of such schists as those which I have 
described as being on the north-eastern side of the contact. 
How far to the west the granites extend, Iam at present not 
able to state.* 

The porphyritic structure of the granites of Wilson’s Creek 
is well marked, and on the western side of Livingstone Creek 
the felspar, which is the porphyritic mineral, is in places 
remarkably fresh and unaltered. I examined one of these 
felspars, with the following results :— 


Awnatysis No. 10.—OrtTHOCLASE (Microperthite). 


SiO, a a! ay 63°60 
Al.,O3 sat Be ee 20:20 
Ca.O aa te a ‘31 
Meg.O Bs ee Ne ‘15 
K,O abe re a 8:05 
Na.,O ek ae ee 6:43 
H,O ve os Ey a2 

99-26 


In this felspar the optic axial plane is perpendicular to the 
plane of symmetry, with horizontal dispersion, as is usual in 
orthoclase. 

In a thin slice prepared from a basal cleavage plate, the 
main field obscures parallel to the edge P.M., but there are 
places which obscure at an angle of about 3° from that 
direction. Small interpositions of quartz and of a second 
felspar are in veinlets, and also in the direction of the prism, 
o P. (110). The felspar veinlets are probably albite, and 
do not differ from analogous interpositions in some of the 


* This examination does not refer to the country south of the junction of 
Day’s Creek with Livingstone Creek. 


—— —_ eS ee 


Metamorphic and Plutonic Rocks at Omeo. 125 


microperthites, except in so far that they are very minute 
and in small amount. When the slice is placed in such a 
position that the plane of vibration of the orthoclase is 
parallel to that of the polarizer, the nicols being crossed, and 
the field therefore obscure, the space surrounding any one of 
the quartz inclusions depolarizes the ray, and permits light to 
pass. Bat in the space thus illuminated a black cross shows, 
whose arms are parallel to the ortho and clino-diagonals 
respectively. On rotating the slice some 3° from this position, 
the arms of the cross close together into a black bar having 
that direction, the field still being light. These appearances 
indicate that the felspar surrounding the quartz grain is in 
a state of strain. 


A slice prepared from the second cleavage, namely, parallel 
to the clino-pinnacoid, shows the familiar appearance of 
minute veinlets of the second felspar (albite), which cross 
the trace of the perfect cleavage at an angle approximating 
to 65°. The potassa felspar in this slice obscures at 5° 20’ 
referred to the same datum. 


These appearances explain the occurrence of soda in the 
analysis, although the percentage found is larger than I 
should have expected from the inspection of the two slices 
which I prepared. 

The felspar is an orthoclase, intergrown with a proportion 
of albite, after the manner of the microperthites. 


It will now be advantageous to summarise the results 
to whicb these descriptions of the rocks lead me, first 
commencing with the schists :— 


The schists which I have described occur only on the 
north-eastern side of the contact, and extend thence for 
some miles towards Hinnomunjie, the Omeo Plains, and the 
Bowen Mountains. On the south-western side of the 
contact there are no schists similar to these, but such as can 
be found are of a more gneissose structure, with only 
subordinate traces of mica schist. 

When the country is examined for a distance from the 
contact on its eastern side, the inference seems to be justitied 
that the schists are the metamorphosed representatives of a 
sequence of sedimentary formations, which can be seen in 
their least altered forms in the Bowen Mountains; more 
especially on the eastern sides of these mountains, where, 
between Tongeo and Bindi, they have the appearance of the 
Silurian formations, and are at any rate in a highly inclined 


\ 


126 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 


position, and stratigraphically mferior to the Devonian 
formations at Bindi. 

The general appearance of the regionally metamorphosed 
members of this sequence of beds, as seen at the Omeo Plains 
and at the upper part of Wilson’s Creek, is that of a series of 
fine-grained and sometimes nodular or spotted mica schists, 
approaching phyllites in places, and which alternate with 
fine-grained to coarser quartzose beds, all being tilted at 
high angles of dip, on an approximately north-western 
strike. This amount of metamorphism decreases towards 
the Bowen Mountains, and increases towards the fault. It 
becomes especially marked near the contact, or where, as at 
Wilson’s Creek, there are outlying patches of the intrusive ~ 
rocks. The distance to which the increased amount of 
metamorphism extends, varies. It may be taken at about a 
quarter of a mile, at Hinnomunjie Morass, while at Wilson’s 
Creek it is not less than a mile. This increased alteration is 
shown also by the presence in almost all the samples which 
I examined from the altered zone, of microscopic crystals of 
tourmaline in great numbers. The general change in the 
schists, which may be attributed to the action of the intrusive 
granites, seems to have been at Hinnomunjie Morass a more 
complete crystallisation of the previously (regionally) meta- 
morphosed sediments, in larger plates of muscovite and 
biotite micas, and the production of numerous crystals of 
tourmaline. 

Analagous alterations occur at Wilson’s Creek at a distance 
of a mile from the contact, but are there partly due to the 
influence of strong masses of granite outlying from the 
contact. The changes seen in proceeding towards the contact 
at Wilson’s Creek, are the appearance of grains of felspar in 
increasing numbers ; the formation in portions of the schist 
of what I am inclined to term a “‘ ground-mass ” of orthoclase 
and quartz, and the increasing silicification of the rock. 

Finally, there are for some little distance from the margin 
of the porphyritic granites, a set of crystalline granular 
rocks, which in sume respects resemble both series, and as to 
which I am unable at present to determine to my own 
satisfaction, whether they are re-crystailised schists re-acted 
upon by the granitic exudations, or abnormal forms of the 
intrusive rocks. 

Certain distinctions may therefore be made between the 
metamorphic rocks in this locality. The first group includes 
the regionally metamorphosed schists on the eastern side of 


Metamorphic and Plutonic Rocks at Omeo. 127 


the contact; the second group includes the more strongly 
metamorphosed mica schists, with tourmaline crystals and 
the gneissose schists at Wilson’s Creek. The alterations in 
the second of the above groups I attribute to metamorphism 
produced by the intrusive granites, and by the younger 
porphyritic rock-masses connected with them. Thus in one 
sense the metamorphic rocks adjoining the contact might be 
not inappropriately spoken of as “contact schists,” if it is 
desirable to limit the use of the term “regionally meta- 
morphic,” to those schists whose peculiar mineral and 
physical composition, and structure, are the result of 
dynamical metamorphism. 

The intrusive rocks in the area herein dealt with are 
granites, whose western extent I have not determined. 
This mass of granite has associated with it marginal masses 
and strong dykes of muscovite granite, passing in places 
into aplite. These are clearly younger than the main 
eranite mass, as are also other dykes of pegmatite, aplite, 
and graphic granite, which are found at the contact or 
beyond it in the schist area. The granites, therefore, taken 
as a whole, including all the above varieties, represent an 
intrusion of plutonic rocks of several consecutive ages of 
the same period of plutonic invasion, and the series is 
increasingly acid, the later dykes being mainly of orthoclase 
(microperthite) and muscovite, or of orthoclase and quartz. 
Finally, the veins and even strong dykes of crystalline 
quartz, or of quartz and tourmaline (schorl) which are 
associated with these granites, represent the last portions of 
still fluid (uncrystallised) magma. 

The line of contact is an irregular one, although the 
general direction is constant, and approaches the mean 
strike of the lower paleozoic formations. The invasive 
rocks protrude into the schist tract in promontories, and 
appear within it in isolated patches laid bare by denudation, 
but which no doubt, are connected below with the main 
granite mass. Thus when we picture to ourselves this mass 
adjoining the schist contact, and the numerous surface out- 
crops and veins of granite in the schists, we must see that 
these all represent a much larger extent of granite sub- 
terraneously, which at one time as a magma, invaded the 
schists both horizontally from the contact and vertically 
from below, where it “ corroded ” its way upwards into the 
schist masses. An inspection of the contacts laid bare by 
denudation, shows that the intrusive masses now occupy 


128 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 


spaces which at one time were filled by sediments, but that 
their action has not at all times been one of fercible intrusion, 
for at Hinnomunjie the schists are cut off, but not contorted. 
At Wilson’s Creek, however, their action seems to have 
been accompanied by more violence and also with greater 
metamorphic effect, and this may have been due to there 
having been at that place stronger plutonic activity. For 
at rather over a mile in a south-west direction from the 
contact at Wilson’s Creek, there is situated a rocky hill, 
known locally as the Frenchman’s Hill, which marks the 
site of a considerable eruption of igneous rocks younger 
than the granites, but I believe connected with them. To 
this younger plutonic magma I attribute the metamorphic 
action which I observe in some of the granites, and perhaps, 
also the “finishing touches” in the schists nearest to it. 
As the granites and the granite dykes penetrated the schists 
and metamorphosed them, so did the quartz-bearing and 
quartzless porphyries of the Frenchman’s Hill, penetrate in 
masses and in dykes, both the granites and the schists, and 
re-act upon them. 

It remains to remark upon the gneisses which, in some 
places, as for instance at the junction of Wilson’s Creek, and 
in a gully on the western side of Livingstone Creek, and 
nearly opposite Day’s Creek, form part of the granitic rocks. 
These gneisses are in fact merely structural forms of the 
granites, and are strictly analogous to the gneisses, which in 
the Swift’s Creek area and elsewhere, are often the margins 
of the intrusive masses. They probably result from 
pressure upon the consolidating magmas, and it is between 
gneisses of this class and the plutonic masses that a complete 
passage can be traced. Where, however, such gneissose forms 
of the intrusive rocks occur near to contacts with the 
regional schists in the Omeo district, there appears, unless 
under most favourable surface conditions, and with the most 
careful inspection, to be a continuous sequence from the 
granitic rocks to gneiss, and from gneiss to mica schist, and 
finally through less altered rocks to the normal lower 
paleozoic sediments. It is evident that under such 
conditions, it is only in places where the streams have laid 
bare a series of such rocks, that the break between the 
schistose forms of the igneous rocks and the schistose 
forms of the metamorphosed sediments can be seen 
and recognised. Examinations elsewhere in places where 
the actual sequence of the rock formations is obscured by 


Metamorphic and Plutonic Rocks at Omeo. 129 


surface accumulations have led to the erroneous belief, which 
for long I also shared, that there is at Omeo a passage from 
the granitic rocks to the lower paleozoic sediments, and 
that therefore the former are the completely metamorphosed 
forms of the latter. 

Where the granitic rocks have no margin of gneiss at 
their contact with the sediments, and where the latter have 
undergone very greatmolecular recrystallisation, the difficulty 
of a true diagnosis is very great, and questions arise which 
may require “possibly to be revised by the light of more 
extended examination and research. 

In the present investigation, my attention has been 
attracted more by the appearances suggestive of chemical 
action producing changes in the sediments, than of altera- 
tions brought about by dynamical metamorphism. The 
effects observed are such as may, I think, be attributed in 
part to mineral exudations from the plutonic magmas, as 
also to the volatile emanations therefrom, such as Fluorine 
or Boron, which have evidently been strongly active at the 
contacts, and under the exceptional conditions which must 
have obtained there, have produced a recrystallisation 
of the already regionally metamorphosed schists. Such 
results were more marked in the district which I have 
described in this paper, than those which could ve attributed 
to the compression and dislocation of rock masses subjected 
to shearing strain. These latter phenomena can be studied 
better in other parts of the Omeo district, and would properly 
orm the subject of a separate memoir. 


The general conclusions to which the study of the 
phenomena noted in this bapes has led me may be briefly 


stated as follows :— 


(1.) The contact referred to represents an extensive fault, 
with a downthrow on the north-east side of undetermined 


depth. 


(2.) The schists on the north-east side most probably 
represent some of the regionally metamorphosed lower 
palzeozoic sediments (Silurian). 

(3.) The schists were let down within the influence of 
the plutonic magmas which invaded them, both horizontally 
from the contact and from below upwards. 

(4.) The regional schists were probably phyllites and fine 


grained mica schists, and by the further action of the 
K 


130 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 


invading granites, have been converted for some distance 
from the contact into mica schist, tourmaline schist, and 
forms of gneiss. 


(5.) The numerous masses and veins of crystalline quartz . 
which occur at or near the contact, as well as the veins of 
quartz associated with mica (muscovite), with felspar 
(microperthite), and with tourmaline (schorl), must be 
regarded as emanatous from the consolidating granites, 
and, therefore, as of plutonic origin, and thus, so far as 
the quartz veins concerns, to be distinguished from the 
auriferous quartz veins of the district. 


(6.) The period of geologic time at which the granite 
magmas invaded the schists cannot be stated with precision, 
but it may be broadly stated that it was probably 
synchronous with the period of plutonic activity in the 
Gippsland Alps—that is to say, at the close of the Silurian 
or the earlier part of the Devonian periods. 


DESCRIPTIONS OF PLATES. 
Prats i 


Fig. 1. Diagram section (horizontal) near Hinnomunjie 
Morass, about 200 feet in length, at the contact of the 
muscovite granites with mica schists. (@) Alternating 
beds of micaceous and quartzose schists striking 
N. 55° W. (b) Muscovite granites. (c) Tourmaline 
schist. 


Fig. 2. Diagram section (horizontal), about 400 feet in 
length, near Hinnomunjie Morass, across the contact of 
the muscovite granites with the mica schists. (a and /) 
alternating micaceous and quartzose beds striking 
N. 30°-70° W. (b 6b’) Dykes of muscovite granite. 
(c) Dyke of metamorphosed basic igneous rock. (d) 
Dyke of muscovite granite, Plate II, Fig. 1. 


3. Diagram section (vertical) at Wilson’s Creek. (a) 
Spotted fine-grained mica schist, alternating with 
quartzose beds dipping N. 60° E. at 70°. (6) Similar 
beds, but more altered and disturbed. (c) Gneissose 
schists, strike probably N. 60° W. (d) Schists resemb- 
ling a fine-grained gneiss in contact with strong dykes 


Plate . | 


Up 


HMMM oe 


Fist kk Tos 


& 


Fig 3 


Plate.Il 


Fig. 


Metamorphic and Plutonic Rocks at Omeo. 131 


of muscovite granite. Strike of beds N. 45° W., see 
Plate II., Fig. 2. (e) Rather massive, much altered 
schists. (7) Spotted and micaceous schists, much 
contorted, and in contact with a large mass of muscovite 
granite. (g) Massive schists traversed by veins of 
aplite and quartz. (h) Schists having a rude foliation, 
dipping N. 20° E. at 52°. (v) Thick-bedded schists, 
dipping 8. 65° W. at 78°. (&) Rather massive schists 
in alternating micaceous and quartzose beds, with veins 
of aplite, dipping N. 20° E. at 81°. (/) Very massive 
schists, traversed by small winding veins of aplite 
and quartz. (m) Massive rocks, much jointed, and 
having a crystalline granular structure, traversed 
by a dyke of graphic granite. (7) Massive crystalline 
eranular rocks traversed in places by veins of 
aplite or muscovite granite. (0) Quartzose crystalline 


granular rocks. (p) Porphyritic granite. (« and a’) 


probable contacts. The rocks contained between these 
two points are of doubtful character. (y) Dykes of 
muscovite granite, aplite, and graphic granite. (2) 


Basic dyke. 


Puate II. 


.1. Dyke of muscovite granite (pegmatite) near Hinno- 


munjie Morass. (a) Mainly felspathic, with a little 
quartz and muscovite. (b) Coarse crystallisation of 
orthoclase, and quartz with bunches of muscovite. (c) 
Rather translucent crystalline quartz. (d) Fine-grained 
mica schist. 


. 2. Contact of schists and muscovite granite at Wilson’s 


Creek. (a) Gneissose schists striking N. 45° W. (6) 
Muscovite granite. | 

3. Outcrop of schist, see Plate 1, Fig 3—(h). (a) 
Rather quartzose mica schist. (6) Nodular mica schist 
(c) Band of aplite. The schists dip N. 20° E. about 80° 


Art. XII.—Remarks on a New Victorian Haloragis, and 
on the occurrence of the Genus Pluchea within the 


Victorian Territory. 


By Baron FERDINAND VON MUELLER, K.C.M.G., 


M.D., Ph.D., F.RS., &e. 
[Read September 8, 1887.1] 


HALORAGIS BAEUERLENTI. 


Very tall, glabrous ; leaves comparatively large, all opposite 
and of equal form, somewhat decurrent into the short stalk, 
lanceolar, crenate-serrulated, faintly veined, the apex of 
the serratures deciduous, leaving a callous base, the upper 
leaves not much smaller, and never alternate; flowers, at 
least in part, axillary and solitary ; two of the calyx-lobes 
deltoid, the two others dilated, or truncate-rhomboid; tube of 
the calyx, when fruit-bearing, expanded into four broadish, 
conspicuously-veined membranes, of these, on each side 
of the somewhat compressed tube two approximated ; styles 
four, very shert; stigmas beardless; fruit rather large, 
four-celled, pendant from a stalklet of half or nearly its 
length ; pericarp spongy ; seeds irregularly developed. 

Between rocks in ravines on and near the summit of 
Mount Tingiringi, at an elevation of about 5000 feet ; 
W. Baeuerlen. This remarkable and seemingly quite local 
plant attains a height of five feet, the stem finally gaining . 
an inch in thickness. Branches spreading ; branchlets 
opposite, quadrangular, as well as the young shoots often 
of a reddish tinge. Leaves mostly from one to two inches 
long and from one-third to balf inch broad, flat, gradually 
narrowed into the acute apex, dark-green above, somewhat 
lighter colored beneath ; the leaves of young shoots pinnati- 
lobed in their lower portion. fPedicles, so far as seen, 
solitary in the axils, but perhaps also sometimes racemosely 
arranged, as would appear from remnants of flowering 
summits of branchlets. Stamens as yet unknown, only 


New Victorian Haloragis and Genus Pluchea. 133 


fruit-bearing specimens having been obtained. Fruit 
roundish-ovate in outline, from hardly one-quarter to fully 
one-third inch long, the four surrounding membranes two 
and two confluent with the broadest lobes of the calyx, and 
decurrent much beyond the fruit-cells, the latter small in 
proportion to the pericarp. Matured seeds not available 
yet. 

This species shows most affinity to H. racemosa, from the 
mild coast-region and low hills of South-western Australia, 
the only other congener (unless H. alata and H. monosperma), 
which attains to great height; but the leaves are generally 
shorter, their denticles rather curved inward than spreading 
and soon getting blunt; the floral leaves often at least do 
not become much diminished in size; the fruit is pro- 
portionately broader, its longtitudinal membranes are more 
expanded and not almost equally distant, while its endocarp 
is harder. Whether the petals are gradually much acuminated 
and generally longer than the stamens, as those of H. race- 
mosa, remains yet to be ascertained. The last-mentioned 
species should also be placed into the section of oppositi 
flore. Mr. W. Webb found it on Mount Lindsay (Mrs. 
M‘Hard) near the Blackwood River. In various respects 
our new sub-alpine plant is allied also to H. scordioides, 
H. alata and H. Gossei. Now an apt opportunity is afforded 
to point out, that the genuine H. alata from New Zealand 
and the Chatham Islands cannot be regarded as absolutely 
identical with the East Australian plant, admitted under 
that name into the Flora Australiensis, in as much as the 
small blunt and often downward-bent appendages at the 
angles of the fruit in the legitimate species do not occur in 
any of the Australian specimens seen by the writer of these 
remarks; besides, the leaves of our plant are longer and 
narrower, also more decurrent into the stalk, while the floral 
leaves are more reduced to bracts; indeed the Australian 
plant verges closely to H. serra, but has four styles, as also 
a four-celled and four-seeded fruit ; either as a variety or 
as a distinct specific form it might be distinguished under 
the name exalata. 

H. cordigera has been traced to the Serpentine River 
(F. v. M.) ; the fruit is shorter than the calyx-lobes, and not 
rarely bearing hairlets. 

H. scoparia bears a fruit roundish-ovate, compressed, 
beyond the base upwards slightly quadrangular, much 
longer than the calyx-lobes, two-celled and two-seeded. 


134 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 


H, hexandra was seen by the writer of these lines near 
King George’s Sound and the Shannon; the leaves, when 
fresh, are carnulent. 

H. odontocarpa extends to the Gascoyne River (Forrest), 
to Youldeh and Oudabinna (Tietkens), to the Elizabeth 
River (Giles), to the Lachlan River (Tucker). 

H. serra ranges to the Clarence River (Beckler), Hunter 
River (Miss H. Carter). 

H. exalata was obtained at Mount Dromedary (Reeder), 
on the Burnett River (Hely) ; the leaves are paler beneath ; 
the stigmas are not conspicuously bearded. 

H. rotundifolia varies in height from one-half to four 
feet ; 1t is perennial, like nearly all its congeners ; we know 
this plant now from Karri-Dale (Walcott), the Shannon, the 
Collie, the Preston, and the Serpentine Rivers (Ff. v. M.) 
The leaves are sometimes not at all larger than those of 
H. micrantha, to which species this plant bears some 
resemblance in the capillary branchlets of the panicle and in 
the minute fruits. 

H. scordioides has an irregularly wrinkled, truncate- 
globular, somewhat quadrangular fruit, not much longer 
than the calyx-lobes. 

H. micrantha has been sent from Walcha by Mr. Crawford. 

H. depressa occurs on Mount Field, at elevations from 
3 to 4000 feet, also on Mount Kosciusko (F. v. M.) 

’ H, teucrioides has been found in New England (C. Stuart), 
in Yorke’s Peninsula (Tietkins), near Streaky Bay and 
Fowler’s Bay (Mrs. Richards), in Kangaroo Island (Prof. Tate). 

H. tetragyna reaches the Tweed (Hickey), the Dawson 
River (O’Shanesy), and the Darling Downs (Lau). 

H. leptotheca is contained in our collections now, also from 
King’s Sound (Hughan), Yeldham Creek (Armit), Trinity 
Bay (Fitzalan). H. acanthocarpa, to which Bentham joins 
H. leptotheca, seems rather to constitute a form of H. 
tetragyna, which latter would, early in the century, be much 
more readily accessible to Brogniart than the intra-tropical 
H. leptotheca. 

H. eluta extends to the Castlereagh River (Woolls), Mac- 
quarie River (Betche), Darling River (Burkitt), Lachlan 
River (Tucker), Gawler Range (Ryan), Condamine River 
(Hartmann), Bogan (Morton), Dawson River (O’Shanesy). 
Contrary to what the specific name would imply, this plant 
seldom attains a height of two feet; some of the leaves 
assume occasionally quite a lanceolar form. 


New Victorian Haloragis and Genus Pluchea. 135 


H. rudis is often erect, but seems never a tall species; the 
branchlets are remarkably robust ; the leaves have a particu- 
larly thick pale margin. 

H. nodulosa was gathered by the writer at the Greenough 
and Irwin Rivers; eastward, it extends to Israelite Bay 
(Miss Brooke), and Esperance Bay (Dempster). 

H. paniculata occurs on the Collier, Preston, and 
Blackwood Rivers (F. v. M.) 


HALORAGIS PYCNOSTACHYA. 


Erect, rather dwarf; beset with spreading soft hairlets, 
leaves firm from lanceolar to rhomboid-ovate, flat, serrulated, 
almost sessile, the lower opposite, the upper scattered ; flowers 
in dense terminal spikes ; bracts ovate-lanceolar, foliaceous, 
about as long as the flowers or somewhat longer ; flowers 
singly sessile in each axil; calyx-lobes four, almost deltoid, 
much shorter than the four outside short hairy petals ; 
stamens eight ; stigmas conspicuously bearded ; fruit small, 
subtle-downy, somewhat quadrangular, rough from two 
transverse rows of minute granules, above the upper row 
contracted and streaked, usually one-celled and one-seeded. 
Near Israelite Bay (Miss Brooke). Differs from H. conferti- 
folia in the longer and less dense vestiture, in much larger 
and less crowded stem-leaves, in broader and shorter calyx- 
lobes, in more noduligerous and upwards more conspicuously 
contracted fruits, the latter reminding of those of H. nodulosa. 

H. heterophylla must include also H. ceratophylla, accord- 
ing to the respective drawings by De Caisne, and by Bauer; 
it belongs more particularly to the coast-regions, while 
H. aspera pertains chiefly to the inland country, and thus 
not occurs in Tasmania. Further, the H. pinnatifida (A. Gr. 
non J. H.) seems a state of H. heterophylla; Endlicher 
derived his plant from Shoalwater Bay; his description 
accords fully with the earlier one given by Brogniart, except 
the remark on the supposed unisexuality of individual 
plants, pronounced evidently from imperfect material. Our 
collections show this species to inhabit the following 
localities beyond those already recorded: Gordon River 
(Miss Oakden), Mount Lofty (Tepper), Barossa Range 
(Dr. Behr), Wannon River (Sullivan), Emu and Creswick 
Creek (Rev. W. Whan), Loddon, You Yangs, Snowy and 
Hume Rivers (F. v. M.), Genoa (Baeuerlen), Paramatta 


136 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 


(Woolls), Moona (Crawford), Hunter River (Miss H. Carter), 
Clarence River (Beckler), Richmond River (Miss Edwards), 
New England (Stuart), Armidale (Parrot), Tweed (E. Hickey), 
Brisbane River (Leichhardt), Comet River (O’Shanesy), 
Georgina River and Gainsford (Bowman), Warrego and 
Maranoa (Barton), Burdekin River (F. v. M.), Mount 
Surprise (Armit). The flowers are sometimes fascicled, 
and occasionally supported by long floral leaves. Forms 
with particularly long and narrow leaf-lobes, seemingly 
also belonging to this species, bear much resemblance to 
Meionectes. At the whole it is less robust than the 
following :— 

H. aspera was originally in 1836 collected by Sir Thomas 
Mitcheil on the Murrumbidgee ; it has a wide range, thus 
is known from the Upper Darling River (Wuerfel), Warrego 
(Mrs. Cotter), Barcoo (Schneider), Charlotte Waters (C. 
Giles), James and Finke Rivers (Kempe), Evelyn Creek 
(A. King), Mount Everard (E. Giles), Musgrave Ranges 
(Forrest), Hucla (Carey). Any endeavour to separate H. 
glauca specifically from H. aspera, would prove futile ; for 
unison the latter name is preferable. Under the name 
sclopetifera a plant is separable from H. aspera, either as a 
variety or perhaps as a distinct species, on account of its 
verrucular calyx, which when fruit-bearing, is copiously 
beset at the summit with narrow dilated and often simply 
or doubly-hooked excrescences, its leaves are from linear- 
lanceolar to broad-linear; it is known only from Norman 
River and Spear Creek (Th. Gulliver), and from Aramac 
Creek (Dr. Poulton). 

H. acutangula extends to Point Sinclair; its leaves are 
rather flat and often somewhat denticulated. 

Hf. salsoloides has staminate and pistillate flowers on 
distinct plants, as first observed by Messrs. Haviland and 
Deane, who found this rare species at Double Bay, consociated 
with Casuarina nana ; it is often only half-a-foot high, even 
when fruiting, and then somewhat reminds of Tillaea recurva. 
Specimens from any mountain region never came under the 
writer's notice. 

H. Gosset was found near the Finke River (Rev. H. 
Kempe), at Ularing (Young), at Alice Springs (Ch. Giles), in 
the glen of Palms (E. Gites), on the Mulligan River (Cornish), 
Field River (Winnecke), Nickol, Cane and Ashburton Rivers 
(Forrest), Exmouth Gulf (Carey) ; occasionally the fruits are 
tetramerous. 


New Victorian Haloragis and Genus Pluchea. 137 


H. trigonocarpa was obtained at the Gascoyne River by 
the Hon. John Forrest, and a variety with linear leaves at 
Lake Austin by Mr. H. 8S. King. 

H. digyna is now known also from Israelite Bay (Miss 
Brooke), Eucla (Oliver), and Lake Bonney (F. v. M.); its 
calyx-lobes occur sometimes of deltoid form, and they 
number not rarely like the petals styles and fruit-cells 
three or four; but, though the fruit may be quadrangular, 
it is only one .or two-seeded. From H. digyna cannot be 
held apart as a species H. mucronata. Sometimes the fruit 
produces callous extrusions, thus far reminding of the imner 
sepals of Rumex ; the margin of the petals turns sometimes 
bluish. 

Hf. pityoides occurs on the Arrowsmith River (F. v. M.) ; 
it is Drummond’s plant 706; the calyx-lobes are almost 
deltoid, the fruit is sometimes densely beset with hairlets. 
H. pusilla is closely allied to the foregoing. 

Hl. monosperma forms somewhat leafy spikes to the 
length of three inches; according to specimens sent by 
Mr. G. MacRae; the petals are almost white, gradually 
pointed, not prominently keeled, and fully to one-quarter 
inch long ; thus, as far as blooming is concerned, it proves 
the most conspicuous among its many congeuers, so far 
approaching the Loudonias, to which it baars similarity 
also in tall growth, while it verges to the Serpiculas in 
carpologic characteristics ; but the fruit of a few other species 
may ripen also only one seed, notably those of H. tetragyna 
in India, as pointed out by Mr. C. B. Clarke in Sir Joseph 
Hooker’s Flora of British India, IT, 431, and as noted 
already by C. Koenig. 

H. trifida will likely prove a Myriophyllum, while the 
H. cyathiflora, to judge from Fenzl’s descriptive notes, may 
possibly be a gyrostemonous plant. 

In concluding these short references to Australian Halor- 
ages, it might yet be observed that the genus Meionectes 
can no longer be maintained, after what we more recently 
have learned of the numerical inconstanecy of the floral 
divisions in several species of Haloragis. Indeed, Meionectes 
became impaired in its generic position already by the 
discovery of a dimerous species as well of Loudonia as of 
Myriophyllum, and Bentham also noticed before that his 
Haloragis tennifolia was closely connected with Meinoctes 
Brownii. In placing that plant under Haloragis now, 
the generic name serves aptly for specific signification. 


138 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 


PLUCHEA CONOCEPHALA. 


Eurybia conocephala, F. v. M. in the Transactions of the 
Victorian Institute, I., 36. 


Dwarf-shrubby, much branched; leaves small, obovate 
or spatular-cuneate, flat, entire, as well as the branchlets 
grey velvety ; flower-headlets sessile, singly terminating 
branchlets imperfectly dioecious ; involucre at first almost 
hemiellipsoid-cylindrical, at last obverse conical ; involucral 
bracts in several rows, rounded-blunt, near the upper end 
somewhat velvet-downy and fringy-ciliate, the outer bracts 
abbreviated, the lowest verging to an oval form, the inner 
bracts gradually elongated, narrowly elliptical-cuneate, and 
finally beyond the middle recurved; receptacle minute ; 
flowers few within each involucre and extending considerably 
beyond it; corolla of the perfect staminate flowers slightly 
dilated above the middle, those of the most developed 
pistillate flowers thinly cylindrical, the five lobes of either 
rather long, comparatively narrow, hardly spreading ; style 
glabrous ; achenes narrow-cylindrical, scarcely angular, quite 
glabrous ; bristlets of the pappus numerous, almost biseriate, 
nearly equal in length, almost plumously ciliate. In arid 
calcareous tracts of country from the Wimmera, Darling, and 
Murray Rivers, extending westward as far as Eucla, the 
northern limits of the species remaining hitherto unascer- 
tained. 

When the writer of these observations discovered already 
in 1848 this remarkable plant, he placed it in the Cassinian 
genus Hurybia (since reduced to Olearia and later still to 
Aster), on account of great external resemblance to Aster 
pimeloides, though at the time some abnormal characteristics, 
such as the absence of ligulate corollas, were recognised and 
subsequently recorded. The plant is now transferred to 
the mainly tropical genus Pluchea, of which it is the most 
southern species, although Pluchea Eyrea was traced, in 
1851, also so far south as the apex of Spencer’s Gulf. For 
including this plant in Pluchea it is however needful to 
extend somewhat the limits of that genus, in as much as 
each individual plant seems to produce within its involucres 
one only of the two states of flowers, as only few flowers 
occur in each involucre, as the flowers with imperfect anthers 
produce also a five-lobed corolla, as the bristlets of the 
pappus are very copious, therefore not uniseriate, and 


New Victorian Haloragis and Genus Pluchea. 139 


moreover, long ciliated. Some degree of dicecism is 
however characteristic also of P. tetranthera and P. 
baccharoides, while pappus-bristlets in a single or in more 
than one row, and with various extent of denticulation or 
even ciliation, occur together in some other genera of 
Composite, for instance, in Senecio. The remarkable 
narrowness of the stigmata in our species, as well as their 
structure, are quite in accord with Pluchea, so also the 
sagittate base of the anthers, although the latter is reduced 
to extreme minuteness. This Pluchea, however, connects the 
genus evidently with the exclusively American Baccharis, 
and a section in Pluchea, as Natho-Baccharis might be 
established for it. The involucral bracts of P. conocephala 
arise all closely together from the exceedingly small 
receptacle ; the corollas when dry are dull and dark-coloured 
towards the summit, but may be purplish when fresh ; 
those of the staminate flowers being shorter than those of 
the others; the filaments are comparatively short; the 
terminal plate of the anthers is almost semi-lanceolar ; the 
stigmas of the flowers with rudimentary anthers are fully 
exserted, those of the other kind of flower much enclosed 
and thicker than in many other species; the achenes are 
comparatively long. The pappus is almost that of Pterigeron. 
Additionally it may also here be noted, that Eurybia rudis 
is transferable to Hrigeron, in which genus it should form 
a distinct section. 


Art. XIII.—WNotes from the Biological Laboratory, 
Ormond College. 


L Observations on the Movements of Detached Gills, Mantle- 
lobes, Labial Palps, and Foot in Bivalve Mollusks. 
By D. McALPINE, Esq. 
[Read October 13, 1887.] 


The present paper will only deal with the results of these 
observations, without giving any detailed description. 

It has long been known that the gills, for instance, of 
bivalve mollusks, exhibit ciliary motion in a very marked 


140 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 


manner, but it has not hitherto been observed, that an 
entire gill, or portion of a gill, when detached from the 
body is capable of moving visibly and at a measurable rate 
of speed. It does seem strange, no doubt, that a large and 
important portion of the body, such as the gill, firmly fixed 
during life, and playing the part of a stationary engine, by 
creating currents in the water by means of its cilia, should 
become when detached, a locomotive engine, and the energy 
formerly spent in creating currents, now apparently utilized 
in driving the gill itself. And the wonder is not lessened, 
but increased, when we consider that the sea mussel, 
provided with such organs, capable when detached, of 
roaming about pretty actively, is one of the most inactive 
of animals in the adult state, even rooted to the spot where 
it lives by means of its byssus. Not only does the gill 
move thus, but other parts as well, all of them being richly 
provided with cilia. In fact there are four principal portions 
of the sea mussel which exhibit this independent movement 
when detached, viz., the mantle-lobes, the labial palps or 
tentacles, and the foot, as well as the gills. 


It is generally known that cilia retain their activity even 
after the death of the animal, and that ciliary motion may 
be beautifully seen in detached pieces of any of the parts 
mentioned, but the point now to be insisted on is, that 
there is visible and measurable movement in these parts 
when detached. And there is at least a threefold interest 
attaching to an investigation of this sort. 


There is first of all the peculiarity of detached portions of 
an animal comparatively high in the scale, retaining to a 
certain extent independent vitality, moving about and often 
rotating, as we shall see, in a certain definite manner 
and direction. Such an appearance is always interesting, 
whether it be the detached portion of a hydra, or of an 
earthworm, the wriggling tail of a lizard, or the detached 
leg of a spider. 


Then there is a further interest when it is known that 
this movement in the mollusk is due, in whole or in part, 
to the action of cilia, for it may throw light upon the action 
of the ciliated epithelium of our own bodies, say of the lining 
membrane of the nose or of the windpipe. 

And lastly, it will be interesting to determine the 
functions of the parts when attached to the body, judging 
from their behaviour when free, and see if such movements 


Biological Laboratory, Ormond College. 141 


can throw any light upon their actions when in organic 
connection with other parts. 

It was while examining the gills of the sea mussel in the 
ordinary course for medical students, at the Biological 
Laboratory, Ormond College, that a clue was obtained to 
the independent motion of the gills, and afterwards of the 
other parts as well. At first the movement was thought to 
be microscopic, only to be determined by a micrometer, but 
T soon found out that it required the largest of plates to 
allow free scope to the movements of translation and 
rotation. 

For convenience, the subject will be considered under a 
fourfold heading, and in the order named :— 


I.—Labial palps, inner and outer. 
Ji.—Gills, inner and outer. 
III.—-Mantle-lobes. 
IV.— Foot. 


And a further division into four sections is necessary, 
each dealing with one special part of this particular 
enquiry :— 

(a) Nature, direction, rate, and duration of movement in 
each of the above four parts when detached and free to 
move. 


(5) Bearing of the observed movements on the probable 
functions of the parts concerned. 


(c) Motive power employed in producing the movement. 
(d) Effects of re-agents, &c., on movement. 
Only the first section will be dealt with now. . 


Before proceeding a step further, it will be necessary to be 
agreed as to the position from which the moving parts are to 
be viewed, since it is impossible to have them detached 
and observed in motion in their natural position. If the 
valves of the shell are separated in the usual way, by 
inserting a knife at the ventral surface and passing it round 
the posterior end until the posterior adductor muscle is cut 
through, then if the two valves are spread out flat, with 
their pointed ends directed anteriorly, the right and left 
valves will be just reversed from our own right and 
left. This is the position from which our observations 


142 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 


will be made as to the direction of movement. Further, 
in describing movements of rotation it will be found ver 
convenient to use the terms right-handed and left-handed, 
as is done in connection with the rotation of the plane of 
polarization. So when rotation occurs in the direction of the 
hands of a watch, as seen by the observer, it will be called 
right-handed, and when in the opposite direction, left- 
handed ; and the Labial Palp, for instance, according to its 
rotation, will be spoken of as right-handed or left-handed. 


I—LABIAL PALPS. 
1.—Inner Palps. 


Ifa Palp is detached as near its base as possible, and laid 
on a plate with the liquid from the shell, then its motions 
are easily observed. 

The movement is one of regular rotation, the palp 
revolving about one end in a steady manner, and in a 
definite direction. There may be forward, or backward, or 
lateral movement combined with this, but when once the 
palp has fairly become accustomed to its free condition of 
existence, rotation is its characteristic movement. This 
rotatory motion is probably due to the fact that the basal 
(cut) end is destitute of cilia, and so there is a tendency to 
turn round that spot as on a pivot. The palp, however, can 
also rotate upon its tip, and we can hardly account for 
making it the pivot on purely mechanical grounds. 

The right and left inner palps detached turn awards, the 
left turning to the left, while the right turns to the right. 
If there are obstacles in the way, such as dirt-particles in the 
water, or solid bodies of any kind, then the sensitive tip, 
ever, seemingly, on the alert, soon backs out and clears away 
from it, even although it should involve a change of course. 
Thus, I have seen a palp, when placed in a dirty liquid, turn 
backwards for a short distance, until it had shaken itself 
clear of adhering rubbish, and then go forward in its regular 
course, as if nothing had happened. If either palp is reversed, 
then it might be anticipated that the direction of movement 
would be also reversed, but as the result of several trials it 
was found that the direction was the same, the left inner 
being right-handed and the right inner left-handed. 

Numerous continuous observations were made, over 
extended periods of time. It generally happened that the 


Biological Laboratory, Ormond College. 143 


rate was slow at first, then gradually quickened, attained its 
maximum speed, and finally declined. The greatest speed 
attained was found to be a complete revolution in 1? minutes. 
Left.—F¥ or 15 recorded revolutions, the slowest was 17 minutes, 
the quickest 2} minutes, and the average 6 minutes. The 
first revolution took 11 minutes, and the last (recorded) 
17 minutes. If a partial average be taken, including from 
the 4th to the 12th round, when the rate was comparatively 
regular, it would give 3 minutes per round. The left 
reversed, performed 12 revolutions at an average rate of 
8 minutes. The motion was very steady, and after the first 
round, which took 16 minutes, the rate was either 7 or 
8 minutes. A second specimen tried, performed 12 revolu- 
tions at an average rate of 64 minutes. The first round 
took 104 minutes, and afterwards they varied from 7} 
to 5 minutes. It is always to be understood that the 
palp continued revolving after the recorded observations. 
fiaght.—For 26 recorded revolutions, the slowest was 
60 minutes, the quickest 1? minutes, and the average 
84 minutes. It commenced with a revolution in 5 minutes, 
about the middle (14th) attained to the quickest in 1? minutes, 
and ended with the slowest in 60 minutes. A partial average 
for the more steady rounds, comprising from the 6th to the 
19th inclusive, gave 24 minutes per round. The record was 
closed for the right after completing 26 rounds, when it 
became perfectly still, as if exhausted. It was still sensitive, 
however, as it quivered on being touched with a pin, and 
next morning it had shifted its position. The right reversed, 
moved very slowly, although it rotated in the usual manner 
by making the base the pivot. The first round occupied an 
hour, but deducting time stuck, it only took 28 minutes ; 
the second round 22 minutes, and the third 20 minutes. 
Another specimen was tried, and in 12 revolutions gave an 
average rate of 54 minutes per round. The first round took 
7% minutes, the last 8} minutes, and the intermediate rounds 
from 4 to 54 minutes. 


2.—Outer Palps. 


The movements generally resemble that of the inner palps. 
The outer palps appear to be capable of more sustained effort 
than the inner, as indicated by their more regular rotation 
for longer periods. The tip appears to be exceedingly 
sensitive. It might be thought from their general resemblance 


144 Transactions of the Royal Socrety of Victoria. 


to the inner, that the direction of movement would be the 
same, but it is just the reverse of the inner of the same side. 
Thus the right rotated to the left, or outwardly, while the 
left rotated to the right, also outwardly. While this is the 
normal direction, I observed that it was occasionally 
reversed. This change might last for a few rounds, and 
then the original normal direction would be resumed. That 
the direction can be changed, and the original resumed 
again is rather an important observation, showing that 
the arrangement is not altogether a mechanical one, which 
causes the palps to move in a particular direction, like the 
hands of a clock. 


The rate happened to be more regular than in the inner. 
This 1s evident from the fact that I was able to observe 
their movements over extended periods of time and through 
a number of rounds (50) without their movements becoming 
feeble or sluggish. 


Left.—The left was observed for 20 rounds moving to the 
right with great regularity. The average was 74 minutes 
to the round, the slowest being 9§ minutes, and the quickest 
6 minutes. It commenced at the rate of 6 minutes per 
round, and with a steady pace, varying from 6 to 9 minutes. 
The 20th round was performed in 74 minutes. The move- 
ment still continued when I ceased recording. 

Right—The rvigbt was observed continuously for 50 
rounds, and for given periods of time the rate was pretty 
constant. The general average was 5 minutes to the 
round; the slowest record was at the commencement, with 
25 minutes to the round, and the quickest was 2 minutes. 
The partial average for the 20 best continuous rounds, from 
the 13th to the 32nd inclusive, was 3 minutes, and the 
middle round of the whole (25th) was 2 minutes. The palp 
was going at the rate of 4 minutes to the round, when I 
left off observing, and the 51st round took 54 minutes. 
Both left and right continued to move for some time after- 
wards, as I observed them for 25 minutes rotating as usual. 

In this series of observations, extending over 4 hours, 
there was no variation in the direction, the left always 
revolving to the right, after being fairly started, and the 
right always to the left. But in a second continued series 
of observations, there was considerable variation im the rate 
and regularity, and a change in one of them once in the 
direction of movement. 


Movements of Detached Portions of Biwalve Molluscs. 145 


An outer and inner palp were laid out at 11 p.m. to test 
how long they would retain movement, and next morning 
both were found moving. The morning after both again were 
found to have moved, and on the evening of the same day 
the inner palp moved visibly, while the outer was sensitive, 
but not motile. Hence one of the palps, at least, retained 
its power of movement for 48 hours, but this duration was 
afterwards completely eclipsed by the palp of the fresh 
water mussel (Unio), which actually continued to rotate 
for eight days. 

A comparison may now be profitably instituted between 
the outer and inner palps as to direction and rate of 
movement, taking the partial average as a fair one. 


WABI? i. 
Lert. DIRECTION. AVERAGE Rate. 
Outer - Left-handed, outward - 7} mins. per round. 
Inner - Right-handed, inward - 3 7 
RIGHT. 
Outer - Right-handed, outward - 3 _,, . 
Inner - Left-handed, inward ra oe ‘6 


The outer rotate outward, the inner rotate inward, and 
this suggests a difference of function which we shall see 
actually exists. But it is also suggestive of some difference 
of structure or relative position, and the latter is found to 
be the case. 

There is not any important difference in the rate of speed, 
except with the left outer, and its inherent slowness is 
borne out by two series of observations. No general 
conclusion can be drawn from the fact, but it remains that 
the left outer is fully twice as sluggish as the others when 
detached, and even regularly so, for each quarter round was 
frequently two minutes, thus completing a round in eight 
minutes. 


I1.—GILLs. 
The gills will be named as in the following sclieme :— 
| Inner. 
Gull ae Outer. 
wae Richt Inner. 
s ' Outer. 


146 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 


_ The left and right gills were first experimented on as a 
whole, 7.¢., taking inner and outer of same side together. 
Next, inner and outer were observed separately, and lastly, 
small portions were taken. 

As regards the power of movement possessed by the gills, 
perhaps, no more striking illustration could be given of it, 
than the fact, that either a single gill or a small portion of 
it, can travel along a moist surface even when held vertical, 
- and if the plate is turned upside down, the gill still 
continues to move. 

Dr. Carpenter, in his well-known work on the microscope, 
in referring to the ciliary motion exhibited by the gill of 
the sea mussel under the microscope, has remarked, “ Few 
spectacles are more striking to the unprepared mind, than 
the exhibition of such wonderful activity as will then 
become apparent in a body, which to all ordinary observa- 
tion, is so inert.” But if he had only looked beyond his 
microscope, and ‘applied ordinary observation, he would 
have seen the spectacle of the moving gill, the wonderful 
result of the lashing of the cilia. 

It is also remarkable that in a sedentary animal like the 
mussel, more than one-half of its body by weight, when 
detached and free to move, is capable of independent 
motion. I took three mussels of average size, and after 
allowing them to drain sufficiently, weighed the entire body 
as taken from the shell. Then the gills, mantle-lobes, and 
labial palps were detached and weighed, and it was found 
that ths of the soft body by weight could move about. 

The movement is both translatory and rotatory. The 
former being a gliding movement, with the free ventral 
margin always behind. The direction is always that of the 
cut surface, and the rotation as a rule, takes place with the 
posterior end as a pivot. 

As the result of numerous determinations at different 
times, I have found that the gills, both imner and outer, 
move at an average rate forward, of two minutes to the 
inch. They frequently cover an inch in | minute, and are | 
sometimes much slower, but on the whole I have found 
them time after time, in succession, doing an inch 
in 2 minutes. The average rate for a small piece is 
the same as for the entire gill The rate of the vertical 
ascent is more variable. The right inner gill ascended an 
inch three times in succession, respectively in 9, 104, and 
11 minutes, thus giving an average of 10 minutes to 


Movements of Detached Portions of Bivalve Molluscs. 147 


the inch. The left inner did the same in 14, 13, and 10 
minutes respectively, thus giving an average rate of 12} 
minutes to an inch. Both ills travelled hor ‘izontally at the 
regular rate of 2 minutes to ythe inch. The quickest vertical 
ascent was made by a right outer gill doing 1 inch in 7 
minutes. The average rate when turned upside down was 
24 minutes to the inch. Left inner gil], detached on the 
evening of the 2nd, was found moving visibly with cila in 
active movement on the evening of the 4th, so that in 
this instance, motion continued for at least 48 hours. 


TII.—MANTLE-LOBES. 


The right and left mantle-lobes are just lateral expansions 
of the integument, arising dorsally from the body-wall, and 
attached ventrally to each valve of the shell by the thickened 
muscular margins, which are pigmented posteriorly and 
provided with tentacular processes. The inner surface only 
of the mantle is ciliated, and the direction of the ciliary 
current is outward and backward. On the thin membranous 
body of the mantle, the current is towards the exterior, 
while on the thick muscular margin it is towards the 
posterior end of the body. The movement is rotatory, for 
although there is a certain amount of forward movement, it 
only occurs, as it were, in the course of the rotation. 

The entire left mantle-lobe was detached and placed in 
water, with its outer or non-ciliated surface uppermost. It 
began to glide away at once, but soon rotated upon its 
posterior end, turning towards the cut surface. It completed 
a round in 4 hours 20 minutes, and the quarter rounds were 
successively 1 hour 5 minutes, -1 hour 17 minutes, 1 hour 
21 minutes, and the last in 37 minutes. 

Right and lefs mantle-lobes were next taken and divided, 
each into two portions, the brown tentacular muscular 
margin being separated from the remainder. The brown 
marginal portion did not move just at first, but afterwards 
it travelled considerably. The whitish muscular margin, 
with the thin body of the mantle-lobe, moved visibly, the 
muscular margin taking the lead and dragging the rest along. 
The white and brown portions continued moving the day 
after being detached, and both were found to be sensitive, 
though not moving, 48 hours after being detached. The 
pigmented portion is particularly sensitive to stimulation, 
readily responding to the prick of a pin. 

L 2 


148 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 


Ve oor 


The foot is a thick muscular brownish tongue-shaped body, 
ventrally situated, and its tip directed anteriorly. From the 
posterior end, which is comparatively uncoloured, the byssus 
for attachment is given off. By virtue of its secreting this — 
byssus, the foot is the fixing organ of the mussel, but the 
free portion of the foot is capable of great expansion and 
contraction, and is really a very active member. When the 
valves gape a little it can protrude itself beyond the mouth 
and outside the shell, or it can turn itself round and project 
behind, or when the shell is firmly closed it may protrude on 
the ventral surface. The foot is richly ciliated, there is a 
slight notch at the free end, making the tip slightly bifid. 


If the free portion of the foot is detached and laid in water 
sufficient to cover it, movement will take place. The move- 
ment is of two kinds—translatory and rotatory—the former 
being the normal one. The direction of translation is straight 
forward and away from the cut surface. The tip always led 
the way, and it might sometimes diverge a little to the right 
or left, but the general trend was a direct straight line. 
The direction of rotation, with the dorsal surface uppermost, 
was right-handed. The rate of rotation was, a complete 
round in 6 hours 47 minutes. 

The rate of translation was fairly tested in a specimen, 
with dorsal surface uppermost, which moved 6 inches in 
5 hours 55 minutes, or at the average rate of 1 inch per 
hour. With such a slow rate of movement, it is, of course, 
impossible to say exactly when movement ceases. Accord- 
ingly I have taken the safe plan of giving duration up to a 
time after which a little movement was known to occur. A 
specimen was thus known to retain its power of movement for 
at least 73 hours, or about 3 days. 

Thus the wonderful result is arrived at, that in the 
common sea mussel, which has been known and studied for 
so long, there is a latent power of independent movement in 
detached parts, which has hitherto escaped notice. 


It is one of the marvellous surprises of Natural History to 
see the seeming biologival paradox of parts when attached 
to the living body apparently ert, but when detached from 
it, in active motion. The gliding gill and the rotating palp, 
the moving mantle-lobe and the creeping foot, show what a 
stock of vital energy must be stored up in the soft-bodied 
mollusc imprisoned within the walls of its shell. 


Movements of Detached Portions of Bivalve Molluscs. 149 


Similar comparative observations have been made on the 
fresh water mussel and the oyster. Even detached portions 
of the frog have been found to move, and it will be a genuine 
surprise to physiologists to learn, that the heart of the frog, 
so long and so much investigated, has likewise a wonderful 
power hitherto unnoticed, that of travelling about when 
detached from the body, having covered a distance of 
half-an-inch in 10 minutes. These and other matters will, 
however, require separate treatment. 


Art. XIV.—Rainfall and Flood Discharge. 
By G. R. B. STEANE, 
[Read November 5, 1887.] 


The subject of maximum Flood Discharge is one of 
considerable importance to the engineering profession, 
particularly to those upon whom falls the responsibility of 
constructing drainage outlets, culverts, bridges, &«. Though 
the subject has been practised for thousands of years and 
there have been millions of opportunities for observation, 
the bulk of the opportunities have been lost, owing to the 
fact that the surrounding circumstances have not been 
observed, and the information has not been published. 


A few engineers have paid attention to the matter of 
river discharge and published the information, but on the 
whole, I think, the subject has been neglected. I know of 
very many instances where costly works have been con- 
structed to answer certain purposes and have failed, causing 
damage to many times the value of a proper structure. As 
an evidence of the difference of opinion held by authorities, 
I cannot refrain from referring to evidence given at an 


150 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 


enquiry held on the Cootamundra disaster, where five 
engineers gave different opiions—one said the culvert was 
not sufficient to take 4 inch of rain in 24 hours, and another © 
said it would take 28inches of rain in 24 hours. Matters 
being thus, I need no other excuse for referring to this 
subject. 

Mr. Beardmore, in his Manual of Hydrology, has devoted 
a section to discharge from rivers, and gives a list from 
many sources. Mr. L. de A. Jackson in his Hydraulic 
Manual, devotes a space to it. Mr. Neville in his work also 
devotes a space to it. 

As a preliminary to the subject, I submitted a paper to 
this Society, Notes on Hydrology, in June 1883. In June 
1885, in Section A, I also submitted a paper on Rainfall 
and Flood Discharge, and with the hope of preparing a 
paper worthy of: submitting here, I posted more than 150 
circulars to engineers, but failed to elicit any data. I have, 
therefore, to submit this paper, bald as it is, with the hope 
that other information may be supplied by those who may 
have had better opportunities for observing. I claim a 


little indulgence for introducing matters of an elementary ~ 


character with the data I submit. 

The amount of discharge depends on many circumstances. 
The amout of rain ; size of area, especially the nature of the 
area varying from rock to beds of sand; the form of the 
area; inclination of surface, whether dry or soaked. I 
propose only to deal with the maximum discharge, and that 
due to the rainfall only ; the maximum discharge depends 
on the maximum rainfall. 

The rainfall has been observed as to the total daily fall 
in many places, but the same attention has not been paid to 
the amount in times of short duration (B), and the area 
over which that rain falls. We have records such as an 
inch in fifteen minutes, but no evidence of the extent of 
such rains. The maximum discharge must take place from 
any watershed, when with the maximum rainfall over the 
whole area, it has continued long enough for a drop from 
the extreme distance to join drops from the whole of the 
area at the outlet. Hence the time the water takes to 
travel the longest distance must be an element in the 
discharge, and we must approximate the rain which falls in 
that time. Supposing it to be such a length as to take an 
hour to travel, we must appreximate the rain—suppose it 
an inch. 


Rainfall and Flood Discharge. 151 


The next, and a difficult and serious matter in the estimate, 
is the soakage. During the average time that the discharge 
at any instant has been travelling, soakage has been taking 
place, and the amount of soakage varies much more than the 
rain. I have no doubt that parts of sandy areas, such as 
Caulfield and Brighton, will absorb water faster than any 
rain that ever fell. 


For the purpose of arriving at the form a simple formula 
should take, it appears to me to be necessary to assume 
quantities which cannot be fixed. The rainfall, for instance, 
T assume to vary as the cube root of the time:—J inch in 
41 hour, 2 inches in 2 hours, 4 inches in 16 hours, 8 inches 
in 54 days. The observed quantities I give at the end (A). 
If the total maximum rain be assumed to vary as time’, the 

ea 
fe oe fall will vary as ee 
time time’ 
a constant narrow width, and assume the water to flow at a 
constant rate, which though not true, the tendency is to 
equalise, as the grades near the extreme limits are generally 
steeper. The area will vary as the time the water has to 


travel, and the discharge will vary as area area 


time? length* 

Then, if we assume length to vary as Varea, | = a’, as 
for similar figures and substitute we obtain discharge varies 
as area’, This takes no account of soakage, or varying 
inclinations. 

That is, that the maximum discharge will depend on the 
area, and inversely on some power of the length, and this is 
the form that I have adopted. 

For small areas of clay and rock, and tolerably impervious 
surfaces in larger areas, I have for the present adopted the 
following in the same form :— 


Assume the watershed 


area sq. chains x 181 
length chains’ + 1800 


The co-efficients for which I have obtained from the following 
three recorded observations :— 


Discharge cubic feet per second = 


Maximum discharge 4 feet per second from 4 acres, 
length 7 chains. 

Bendigo Creek 4100 feet per second from 10,000 acres, 
length 74 miles. 

Coliban 10,000 feet per second from 64,000 acres, length 
22 miles. 


152 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 


The first two are my own, the last was obtained from a 
report on the Coliban works, which also mentioned a reported 
discharge of 32,132, but this I think doubtful. I should 
like, if I could obtain the necessary data, to obtain co- 
efficients for various average character of watersheds. I 
need hardly remark that this formula would be inapplicable 
for very absorbent ground or sandy areas. 


We may also estimate the discharge in a more direct 
manner. 


Let At! = rainfall for any period, = = rate of fall, for 


instance so many inches per hour, where ¢ is the time the 
water takes to travel the length of the watershed. If we 
put S for hourly soakage, as it will take less than ¢ for the 
average time for the whole of the water to reach the outlet, 


it may be ¢ or = and knowing that 1 inch rain per hour 


represents very nearly a discharge of 1 foot per second per 
acre, we arrive at the following :— 


(acres)f ht ae 
tA ( pitiGal ) = discharge per second. 
As time and the length depend on each other, substitute 
: = t, we obtain 

a (a: ve s ) = discharge. 
Again, assuming s v x to be constants, we obtain 

y | 19 

«(J-w) oe (#-¥) 

Which corresponds very nearly with Mr. Burge’s No. 3 
x 
«(a) 

The effect of soakage being omitted, hence I have adopted 


‘ 181 : : 
discharge = a F=+ 1800 @ and / in chains. 


Ravafall and Flood Discharge. 153 


The objection to this formula is, that when applied to 
very large areas and long rivers, the high power of the 
length reduces the quantity too rapidly ; I would therefore 
alter @ and / to miles, and adopt different co-efficients. 

The following formule are given in Mr. Jackson’s 
“ Hydraulic Manual :—” 

ist. () = kh, 27 (K} 

2nd. Q = k, 100 (K}} 

and. @) =k, 1300 K (L)- 
Q = discharge cubic feet per second; K area square miles ; 
L length miles; and k, k, kh; local co-efficients. 

The first is most simple, but / varies so much as to 
make it inconvenient, and no attention is paid to the shape. 


The second is a modification of Col. Dickens’ formula, 
which was suited to Bengal, but k « 1 to 24. 


The third was deduced by Mr. Burge, of Madras. 

4th. Mr. Jackson proposes Q = he 100 (K)! 
I don't know the object of a numerical constant and a 
variable constant. (7) 


5th. Mr. Hawkesley, an eminent authority, supplies a 
formula for the diameter of outlet pipes log. dia. inches = 
3 log. area acres + log. length, in which sewer falls 1 ft. + 6°8. 

| 10 
by using Mr. Hawkesley’s formula for discharge D = C' ae 
it is easily proved that the formula 5 is constructed on the 
assumption that the discharge varies as K' without regard 
to form. j 
6th. Mr. B. Zeigler, of Zurich, supplies the following 


formula R= 7 x c*Vs— 
a 
7 being average rain, C= coef., varying from ‘75 for cities and 


‘31 for suburbs, s — fall in area or grade per 1000, and a = 
area drained, giving # resultant rain discharge, and this I 


find to vary as S? K?, but by this if under the sign becomes 
greater than 1, the result is incorrect. Three inches of rain 


with grade ;, and jacre will give a rain discharge ot 
5-3 inches, evidently wrong for small areas. 


154 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 


Transactions of the Institute of C.E. England, 1883, on 
Improvement of River Broye. Mr. Gangnillet gives the 
form as 

b 


discharge = ¢ x V K for floods 


and the maximum discharge is said to vary as a curve of an 
equilateral hyperbola. 


Lieutenant P. P. L. O’Connell, Associate of Institute of 
C.E., im January 1868, argued that the maximum discharge 
from similar water-sheds varied as the curve of a common 
parabola. — 


On the whole, I think it may be agreed that a simple 
formula can only be a rough approximation. 


_ For tolerably impervious surfaces, such as clay, a useful 
simple approximate formula for the sectional area of a 
waterway, 1s the following :-— 


“62 
area of culvert in square feet = (area in acres) 
only a rough approximation. 


In conclusion, I supply a few facts which have come under 
my own observation, a list kindly supplied by Mr. Gordon, 
and also a list that I have acquired from time to time from 
various sources. I would also direct attention to a list in 
Mr. Beardmore’s Hydrology, and pages 94 and 95, Vol. XX. 
Transactions of the Victorian Royal Society 1883 ; and hope 
that some experienced in Hydrology may supply information 
at some future date on this, to me, interesting subject. 

Some years ago, a borough was founded with a creek 
through its centre. It was found to be a considerable detri- 
ment. The local Council decided that it would be advisable 
to remove two bridges and cover over a considerable part of 
this creek. Their surveyor prepared a design with about 
190 feet area waterway for 10,000 acres, and application 
was made for a Government grant; the grant was allowed 
subject to approval of the Government Engineers. The 
Government Engineers reported that the waterway was 
excessive, and recommended that it should be reduced by 4. 
That surveyor was an obstinate man and would not cede 
the third. Ultimately, the plan was approved and the 
creek was covered, and I have seen floods over that many 
times a year. I pulled that culvert up and put down a new 
one 370 feet area. Since the time I refer to, a culvert was 


Rainfall and Flood Discharge. 155 


put down at Cootamundra, with a water-shed of somewhat 
similar character, but 13,000 acres instead of 10,000, with 
a sectional area of 52feet. The result known, a flood— 
verdict, abnormal flood. | 


(a.) 
HEAVY RAIN STORMS. 

Duration. Rate PER Hoor. Locaity. Date. 
2 min. oe Go? Ian ets Sandhurst oe 28/11/82 
ae He be her te ? ae a 
Loe se ASA) War yg se siete Melbourne oe 10/3/77 
2035; ie G7 ea (7 Ne Ballarat te —/3/76 
30 ,, Pera DA”, eae a sis is 2/3/64 
(Cie vs DV apias Se Sandhurst ae 11/2/77 
90 ,, ae 75 3; of Se HP ~F 
24 hours .. I Se - Sandhurst <5 16/3/78 
aL ae 7 aE 2 eee Beechworth .. 31/8/75 
48) 5, oe 10K, te Sandhurst -» 15-16/3/78 
30: 5 «s cgi Ae Gordons ete 6/1/87 
GE, bi 28 35 oe Ballarat a 6/1/86 
TZ) 2, fe oF ts se Melbourne... 6/1/86 


(6) 


At Ontario, 10th July, 1883, 41in. of rain fell, and ex- 
tended over an area 50 miles by 20 miles. Eliptical in form. 

Prof. F. E. Niphe (Science, p. 409, 1884), says from 
47 years observations, at St. Louis, he arrived at the 
conclusion that the duration of a rain was inversely pro- 
portional to the violence. 

Sir J. W. Bazelgate (Journal, Franklyn Institute, 1882), 
says 2°641in. rain fell in 19 hours over the whole of the 
London Metropolitan District. 


156 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 


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Rainfall and Flood Discharge. 


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158 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 


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Art. XV.—Eapervments on the Range of Action of the 
| Digestive Ferments. 


By JAMES JAMIESON, M.D. 


[Read November 5, 1887.] 


No subject in the whole range of physiology has had more 
attention given to it, than that of digestion. Especially 
since Dr. Beaumont published the results of his observations 
and experiments on St. Martin, there has been almost an 
uninterrupted series of investigations into the properties of 
the digestive juices, and the ferments contained in them. 
But in spite of the excellent work done, there are still points 
left unsettled, this being true especially of the active con- 
stituents of the pancreatic juice. It has long been known 
that the pancreas forms a secretion possessed of very 
powerful digestive properties, and these of a very mixed 
kind. It has been proved to be capable of digesting all 
three of the chief ingredients of food, viz., the albumens, the 
fats, and starch, though there has not been much progress 
made in the direction of isolating, in a pure state, 
the ferments which exert these actions. Pancreatine, or 
pancreatic extract, is assumed to contain at least three 
distinct ferments—itrypsin, the solvent of albuminous sub- 
stances ; steatopsin, that which emulsifies fats, and splits 
them up into their constituents ;- and amylopsin, the ferment 
which converts starch into sugar. Of these, only the first 
thas been obtained in the separate state, and in a tolerably 
pure form; but of them all it is known, that they exert 
their special actions best, if not only, in alkaline or neutral 
media. The pancreatic juice itself is alkaline in reaction, 
and complete neutralisation of the acid contents of the 
stomach, when poured into the small intestine, is secured 
by the further help of the bile which is also strongly 
alkaline. But, while it has been sufficiently shown that 
the pancreatic secretion, in the fresh state or in the form of 
an extract, does convert starch into sugar, and albumen into 
peptones, in an alkaline mixture, there has been almost no 
exact enquiry into the influence exerted on it by acidulation 
of the media in which it may be called upon to act. And 


160 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 


yet this is by no means an idle enquiry. For although 
within the body, under normal conditions, an alkaline, or at 
least a neutral reaction of the chyme may be secured, almost 
immediately after it has passed out of the stomach, there is 
sufficient practical reason for desiring to know whether 
the activity of the pancreatic ferments is stopped by the 
presence of an acid, and ifso, in what degree of concentration. 
For these ferments have now entered largely into commerce, 
and are used in various ways as helps to digestion. It is 
important to know the limits to the range of their action, so 
that agents which are powerful for good, when rightly used, 
may not be misapplied. And further, it is interesting to 
know the fate of such agents, when subjected to conditions 
other than those they ordinarily meet with; whether, that is 
to say, their powers are only kept in abeyance temporarily, 
or are completely destroyed. 

Experiments with the view of testing these points have 
become possible, only since good and reliable forms of these 
ferments have been prepared, and the importance of having 
them tested is increased by the fact, that they are now 
largely used in practical medicine. The first of these uses 1s 
in the preparation of artificially digested food, for adminis- 
tration in cases where digestion is greatly impaired, or where 
for any reason it is desired to spare the labour to the stomach 
involved in carrying on the process of digestion. For this 
purpose, the pancreatic ferments have a marked superiority 
over pepsin, which acts only on albumens, and does so only 
in acid solutions. But when it is proposed further to give 
these pancreatic preparations internally, as a help to 
digestion, the question is at once raised, whether there 
is not simple waste in doing go, there being considerable 
grounds for supposing that their powers are in complete 
abeyance in the presence of the acid of the gastric juice. 
And even supposing that this abeyance of activity is proved 
to come about in the stomach, there remains the further 
question, whether the ferments themselves are actually 
destroyed by continued exposure to the action of the acid 
and pepsin of the gastric juice, or are capable of resuming 
activity when an alkaline reaction is again brought about 
in the duodenum. It was for the purpose of testing — 
these points that the following experiments were devised. 
The preparation tested was the article of well-established 
activity, known as zymine, a powder containing the 
mixed ferments formed by the pancreas. In the stomach 


Range of Action of Digestive Ferments. 161 


there may be found a variable amount of acid (hydro- 
chloric acid), according to the stage and activity of 
digestion, and the character of the food; but there is good 
reason to suppose that it readily reaches the proportion of 
1 part in 500 of the mixed contents of the stomach. A 
considerable time, as much as three or four hours, may elapse 
before the extreme degree of acidity is reached; but there 
ean be no doubt, after the observations of Beaumont and 
others, that an intensely acid secretion is poured out as soon 
as the lining membrane of the stomach is stimulated by the 
contact of food. 

The first series of experiments consisted in heating a 
mucilage of 10 grains of arrowroot in 20 cubic centimetres 
of water, for two hours, at 95° F’., under different conditions as 
regards reaction and presence or absence of the ferment :— 


I. Mucilage heated alone for two hours, still remained 
thick, and would not filter. 


II. Mucilage heated, as above, with addition of 2 grains 
each of zymine and bicarbonate of soda. In a few minutes 
there was distinct thinning of the mixture, which at the end 
of the time was quite liquid, and filtered easily. 


Ill. Mucilage, with 2 grains of zymine only. The result 
was the same as in No. II., though the mixture had a very 
slight acid reaction. 


IV. Mucilage, with z>5é55 part of hydrochloric acid, and 
2 grains of zymine. 


V. The same, but ae od part of acid. 
VI. The same, but z¢b5 part of acid. 


Even with No. IV., there was some retardation of the 
solvent action, while with No. V., and still more with 
No. VL, there was a considerable amount of the swollen 
starch left in clotty pieces at the end of two hours. 


VIL. and VIII. To test this effect further, and with 
reference both to the amylolytic and tryptic elements in the 
mixed ferment, 10 grains of zymine were heated for two 
hours at 95° F., in 40 c. ctrs. of water, containing zoo part 
of hydrochloric acid. The mixture was then divided into 
two eyual parts, to one of which was added pressed fibrin, 
10 grains, and to the other, 10 grains of starch boiled in 
20 c. cs. of water. Each of these was again kept for a full 

M 


162 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 


hour at 95° F., but little if any solvent action was observed 
at the end of that time. 

It was thus made clear that the action of the mixed 
ferment is almost completely checked in the presence of 
hydrochloric acid, in the proportion of 1 part per 1000, and 
to a considerable extent when the acid was present in the 
strength of 1 to 5000. 


IX. For the purpose of discovering whether loss of power 
was only temporary, or if the ferment had been permanently 
injured ; the mixtures of starch and acid (Exps. IV., V., 
and VI.) were rendered alkaline, by the addition of 2 grains 
of bicarbonate of soda to each, and again kept at 95° F. for 
two hours. In that which had contained only zo$55 of the 
acid, there was complete liquefaction, while in those which 
had contained 3755 and zea respectively, there was slight. 
breaking down of the clotty particles, but no great change. 
In both of these, therefore, there had been permanent injury 
to the ferment. though it did not seem to be completely 
destroyed. 


X. For the purpose of discovering whether this destructivu.. 
would be effected by the presence of pepsin in the acid 
mixture, the following experiment was carried out. Zymine 
(10 grains) was heated for two hours at 95° F., in 40 ¢. ctrs. 
of water, with 10 grains of Fairchild’s scale pepsin, acidulated 
to the strength of 1 in 1000. At the end of that time the 
mixture was divided into two equal parts, each of which 
was rendered slightly alkaline with bicarbonate of soda, and 
heated again for an hour with 10 grains of pressed fibrin, 
and the mucilage of 10 grains of starch respectively. It 
was found that both the fibrin and the starch were almost 
completely dissolved. This difference from the experiment 
before detailed (IX.), was due probably to the larger 
amount of zymine present, 5 grains instead of 2. It was 
made clear that the pepsin, as such, had not acted at all on 
the zymine, though placed under very favourable conditions 
for doing so. 


For the sake of completeness, the following counter- 
experiment was tried :— 


XI. Five grains of pepsin were kept at 95° F. for 2 hours, 
along with 5 grains of zymine and 2 grains of bicarbonate of 
soda. Hydrochloric acid was then added in sufficient amount 


Range of Action of Digestive Ferments. 163 


not only to neutralise the soda, but to leave an excess equal 
to 1 part in 500 of the mixture. To this was then added 
coagulated white of egg in thin slices, and the whole kept 
for 3 hours at 100° F. At the end of that time the albumen — 
was not appreciably altered ; while similar slices, treated in 
the same way with fresh pepsin and hydrochloric acid, 
] in 500, were found, at the end of 3 hours, to be completely 
dissolved. The quality of the pepsin being thus shown to 
be good, it follows that the treatment to which it had been 
subjected had had a destructive influence on it. Whether 
this was owing chiefly to the action of the bicarbonate of 
soda, or to that of the zymine, remains, of course, undeter- 
mined, though the probability is that the latter Praga 
is the correct one. 


As this question did not enter into the scope of the 
original inquiry, though it is of great interest, it had to be 
left, the investigation having proved sutiiciently laborious. 


The general conclusions are :— 


I. That the pancreatic ferments are not merely temporarily 
‘ inhibited in their digestive action by small quantities of 
hydrochloric acid, but are permanently injured, when the 
strength of the acid reaches the proportion of 1 to 1000, or 
even 1 to 5000, for 2 hours. 


II. That pepsin does not seem to have any power, in 
association with the acid, in bringing about or even hastening 
this destructive action. 


III. That, on the contrary, the trypsin of the pancreatic 
secretion seems to bring about the destruction of pepsin in 
slightly alkaline solutions. 


I have to acknowledge my great obligations to Mr. 
Frederick Dunn, public analyst, for assistance in the way 
of carrying out the practical details of the experiments. 
Without that assistance, indeed, I fear that the inquiry 
would scarcely have been carried out at all. 


M 2 


Art. XVI—The Anatomy of Megascolides Australis. 


By Proressor W. BALDWIN SPENCER. 
[Received October 6, read November 10, 1887.| 


The following is an abstract of the full paper which, 
with illustrations, is in course of publication as a separate 
monograph. Since it was written and read before the 
Society, a short account of the macroscopic anatomy ot 
the same worm has been published in the Journal of the 
Linnean Society of New South Wales by Mr. Fletcher, 
whose paper was read in September, one month before 
the reading of this paper. The papers were written quite 
independently of one another, and, as far as the macroscopic 
anatomy of this interesting worm is concerned, are in almost 
perfect accord. | 

Professor M‘Coy’s description in the Prodromus of the 
Zoology of Victoria (Decade 1, Pl. 7), contains the first 
account published of the worm, and deals merely with its 
external anatomy. In this description the worm is placed 
in the family Lumbricide, and thus close to the common 
earth-worm, a mistake which would appear to have been 
due to the counting of the annuli as segments. 

Mr. Fletcher does not seem to have recognised the worm 
from Professor M‘Coy’s description, and himself giving a 
perfectly correct one, placed it in his genus Notoscolex, 
containing several other species, so that in his recent paper 
the worm appears under the name of V. Guppslandicus. 


The worm lives in deep burrows, principally by the sides 
of creeks in Gippsland. The burrow is devoid of “castings” 
at its mouth, is of about the diameter of ? to 1 inch, and 
contains a slimy fluid ; but only in very rare cases any trace 
of leaves dragged into it. With care, the animal, whose 
presence can easily be recognised by a peculiar gurgling 
sound made when retreating through its burrow, can be dug 
out. It has been described as brittle, but though it easily 
tears, the word “brittle” is most imapplicable, as it stretches 
to a very great amount before even tearing. Its odour, as 
pointed out by Prof. M‘Coy, is very characteristic, resembling 
somewhat that of creosote. 


The Anatomy of Megascolides Australis. 165 


The body varies in length from three to six feet, or even 
longer, and contains upwards of 500 segments. Anteriorly, 
it is somewhat swollen and hard, due to the very strong 
septa internally. The anterior segments contain from two 
to four annuli, which are often incomplete and slightly 
irregular. The seement boundaries are clearly marked, and 
posteriorly to about the 18th segment each one shows in the 
median dorsal line a large “ dorsal pore,” through which, in 
contraction of the body, the ccelomic fluid is pressed out in 
little jets. In the middle and posterior regions of the body 
the septa are inserted into the body-wall somewhat anteriorly 
to the line bounding the segment externally. Segments 13 
to 20 are usually of a dark purple colour, are provided with 
an especially strong development of nephridia, and have 
externally to the muscle layers a strongly-marked develop- 
ment of glands. Ventrally, a portion which, as described 
by Professor M‘Coy, is evidently equivalent to the cingulum 
of other worms, is found on the 17th, 18th, and 19th 
segments, where it forms three white prominent ridges, in 
the middle one of which are the male apertures. The whole 
of this region is called clitellum by Mr. Fletcher. 


The setze are arranged in four pairs in each segment, but 
cannot be seen in front of the 13th segment. 


_ The paired external openings of the receptacula seminis 
lie between the 8th and 9th and the 9th and 10th segments, 
the oviduct openings close to one another ventrally on the 
14th segment, and the male on two small papille in the 
part of the cingulum on the 18th segment, and correspond in 
position to the internal two pairs of setee, which here cannot 
be seen macroscopically. No nephridio-pores can be detected. 


SEPTA. 


The first clear septum bounds anteriorly the fifth segment. 
Posteriorly, as far as the 16th segment, the septa are very 
thick, strong, concave anteriorly, and bound to one another 
by numerous connecting strands of muscle. Behind this 
they become membraneous until the hinder end of the body 
is reached, where they become again more muscular and 
have very. definite supporting strands, radiating from the 
walls of the alimentary canal. This strong anterior and 
posterior development gives the worm great power of rapid 
swelling of its body so as to become very tightly jammed 


166 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 


against the burrow walls, and renders it difficult to extract 
_ the worm from its hole. The posterior end especially seems 
to have a strong power of suction. 


ALIMENTARY CANAL. 


The mouth is overhung by the ridged prostomium, and 
leads into the strong muscular pharynx, extending back to 
the 5th segraent. 

There is a good development of salivary glands which 
microscopically appear to resemble nephridia in structure. 

The 5th segment contains the short cesophagus and longer 
gizzard, then follows the long intestine which, in segments 
12 to 18, contains a series of very vascular dilatations, and 
from the 19th runs backwards to the terminal anus. Its 
walls are very distinct, yellow-brown in colour, and consist 
internally of an epithelium of deep cylindrical cells, with 
large nuclei and nucleoli, external to these a layer of circular 
muscle fibres, then a series of longitudinal fibres, and then 
a layer of cells whose thin internal ends send processes 
between the longitudinal fibres, and perhaps deeper still 
whilst their external parts are filled with yellow-brown 
eranules. The cells contain large nuclei, and are to be 
regarded simply as modified cells of the membrane lining 
the body cavity. There is no structure present representing 
the typhlosole. 


NERVOUS SYSTEM. 


This resembles that of the ordinary worm, save that the 
distinction into ganglia and connecting commissures is not so 
clearly marked. Sections show clearly its double nature, 
and the arrangement of the large ganglion cells on the 
ventral and lateral aspects, and of the fibres in a double 
longitudinal band dorsally and internally. Dorsally are 
three, and at times, even four, of the so-called giant-fibres 
present. Each one, however, is very distinctly not hollow, 
but has the form of a solid homogeneous rod, surrounded by a 
considerable amount of ensheathing connective tissue. Three 
pairs of lateral branches pass off in each segment, and im 
sections can be traced towards the surface till they spread 
out on the internal side of the circular muscles in the body- 
wall. 


The Anatomy of Megascolides Australis. 167 


CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 


A dorsal and ventral vessel are present. Lateral vessels, or 
“hearts,” connect the two in the 13th to 6th segments 
inclusive, and from the 14th segment forward a lateral 
vessel is present on each side, and a small supra-intestinal 
branch in each segment. Posteriorly there is no direct 
connection between the dorsal and ventral vessels, and the 
former gives off two pairs of branches in each segment to 
the walls of the alimentary canal, in which they come to lie 
just externally to the cylindrical epithelium. 

Around the dorsal vessel posteriorly is a curious ensheathing 
structure which gives off more or less solid diverticula into 
the body cavity. These processes are filled with distinctly 
nucleated, somewhat granular, polygonal cells. The nature 
and function of this structure is as yet unknown. In each 
segment it opens into the coslom close to the anterior septum. 


NEpPHRIDIA (OF Two KinDs). 


(1) Very numerous, and varying in number in different 
segments. They are especially numerous in the 13th to 
20th segments, and are scattered irregularly over the body 
wall. ach consists ot a much coiled duct which is clearly 
antra-cellular, and surrounded by connective tissue very 
rich in blood vessels. These nephridia have no internal 
openings. (2) A series of larger nephridia in the middle 
and posterior regions, one pair in each segment, with distinct 
ciliated funnels opening internally. <All the nephridia are 
connected with a network of ducts lying beneath the cceelomic 
epithelium, from which others pass off to open externally, so 
that there are many irregularly arranged nephridio-pores 
am each segment. There seems to be one main duct 
continuous from segment to segment on each side ventrally. 


REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS. 


(1) Female.—Ovaries paired and attached by short stalks 
to the septum bounding anteriorly the 13th segment. The 
two ciliated rosettes are in the same segment, and the 
oviducts leading from them open externally on the 14th 
segment. 

The Receptacula seminis are large, prominent, paired, 
sac-like structures in the 8th and 9th segments. A curious 


168 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 


muscular slip runs up each side of the sac, which opens by 
a very short stalk with a small indication of a caecum. 
Distally, the sac tapers considerably. 

(2) Male.—Testes, small paired bodies, very similar 
macroscopically to the ovaries in the 10th and 11th 
‘segments. A similar pair of bodies may be found often in 
the 12th segment. The ciliated external openings of the vasa 
deferentia are very clearly marked, but the ducts themselves 
can only be traced backwards in sections. The ducts are 
remarkable in that they never unite with one another, but 
run back in the body-wall parallel and close to each other 
till they reach, and separately enter, the duct leading from 
the prostate gland to the exterior. The prostate glands are 
largely developed in the 18th segments, and from them the 
paired ducts run down to open externally on the small 
papillee. 

The vesicule seminales vary in development in different 
specimens. They form white, solid, racemose bodies, in which 
the spermatozoa are seen in various stages of development. 
They may be found connected with the faces of the septa, 
in the 11th, 12th, 15th, and 14th segments, and can always 
be distinguished macroscopically from the testes and ovaries 
by the definite position and size of the latter. 


Art. XVII.—Description of some Hitherto Unknown 
Australian Plants. 


By Baron von MUELLER, K.C.M.G., M.D., Ph.D., F.B.S. 
[Read December 12, 1887.] 


ACACIA BAILEYANA. 


Arborescent ; branchlets prominently angular, somewhat 
furrowed, glabrous or beset with short spreading hairlets ; 
leaves bi-pinnate, almost sessile or on very short stalks, 
glabrous or the main-rhachis bearing hairlets when young, 
as well as the branchlets and flower-stalks somewhat 
whitish from ceraceous bloom ; pinnules usually in three or 


Some Hitherto Unknown Australian Plants. 169 


four or sometimes in two pairs, oval or broad-elliptic in 
outline, almost sessile, a very conspicuous depressed glandule 
between each pair; leaflets in from four to twenty closely 
approximated pairs, sessile, rather short, linear, flat, blunt at 
the base, slightly acute at the apex, their carinular venule 
faint ; rhacheole greenish-margined; headlets of flowers 
small, in elongated almost glabrous axillary and also 
paniculate terminal racemes ; bracts minute, ciliolated, their 
upper portion suddenly roundish-dilated ; calyx bluntly 
short-lobed, hardly half as long as the deeply five-cleft 
corolla; fruit straight, broadish, almost flatly compressed, 
smooth, rather elongated, at both ends blunt, along the 
anterior side dehiscent ; ‘pericarp cartilaginous-chartaceous ; 
seeds oblique-pendent, ovate-elliptic, much compressed, 
black, with hardly any lustre, their areole on each side 
large ; arillar appendage pale, cymbous-semiorbicular, less 
than half as long as the seed; funicle comparatively short, 
slightly twisted. 3 

A small tree of particularly graceful aspect; leaves 
crowded ; well developed pinnules about one inch long; 
leaflets generally from +4 to 34 inch broad ; headlets on very 
thin stalklets of double or triple their length, containing 
from 10 to 18 flowers; fruits mostly from 2 to 3 inches 
long and about half an inch broad, dull-brownish outside ; 
seeds scarcely a quarter of an inch long. 

This species seems always to have been passed as A. poly- 
botrya; but it differs essentially from that species in glabrous 
leaves, with usually less numerous and always shorter 
. pinnules, the form of which gives a very peculiar aspect to 
the plant; in smaller and particularly narrower leaflets, with 
hardly any intervening spaces between them; in highly 
developed glandules on the rachis ; in glabrous thinner and 
often also longer stalks of the headlets of flowers, with still 
smaller basal bracts; in deeper lobed corolla; in broader 
fruit not constricted between the seeds, further in probably 
larger arillar appendage, so far as can be judged from com- 
parison of fruit of A. polybotrya, available here in a young 
state only. Stature, bark, wood and odour of flowers of 
the two trees may also be quite different. The height of 
the tree, so far as known, seldom exceeds 15 feet; the bark 
is of a greyish or slaty colour and smooth ; the flowering 
time is about the earlier part of September. 

The species is named in honour of Mr. F. M. Bailey, from 
whom flowering branchlets were received, taken at Brisbane 


170 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 


from a tree in Bowen’s Park, the origin of which could 
not with certainty be traced. Somewhat later, fruiting 
specimens were sent by the Rev. Dr. Woolls, who got them 
from Mr. H. D. Coker of Brookfield, through Mr. John 
Dawson of Humberstone; he found this rare species only 
near Cootamundra on one of the sources of the Murrumbidgee 
and near To-morrow on a tributary of the Lachlan River on 
stony ridges up to an elevation of about 1600 feet. It 
must, however, be rare, as no other material pertaining to 
this species occurred formerly in the Museum Collections of 
Australian Plants, formed by me here since 1847. Quite 
recently A. Baileyana has been found also near Wagga 
Wagea by Messrs. Garland and Deane. <A. polybotrya 
has a rather wide range, inasmuch as it is now known 
also from the vicinity of Keppel-Bay (Rev. Jul. Tenison 
Woods), from the sources of the Condamine River (EH. Bowman), 
and from Drummond’s Range (P. O’Shanesy). The bark is 
locally used for tanning; the flowers are pale yellowish. 

Adjoined are some notes of unrecorded localities of various 
Acacias :— 


Acacia truptera—near the Upper Darling River (Rev. H. 
Milne Curran). 
_ Acacia cochlearis—Upper Kalgan River (F. v. M), 
near Hampton Range (J. Forrest), near Esperance Bay and 
Russell Range (Dempster), near Cape Arid (Maxwell) ; also 
in Drummond’s Collection 289. A. latepes seems a variety. 

Acacia lanigera—Hume River (Ch. French, jun.) 

Acacia genistordes—between the Gascoyne and Ashburton 
Rivers (E. Giles). 

Acacia tenwifolia—near the Cann River (Edwin Merrall.) 

Acacia rupicola—Wirrabara (J. R. Love), Kangaroo 
Island (Tepper). 

Acacia oxycedrus—Lake Leake (Prof. Tate). - 

Acacia leptoneura—Sources of Swan River (Miss J. Wells), 
between the Murchison River and Juin (EH. Giles) ; also in 
Drummond’s collection under 303. 

Acacia rigens—Gawler Ranges (C. Ryan), Murrumbidgee 
(Ff. v. M.) 

Acacia sevrpifolia—Upper Darling River (Rev. J. Milne 
Curran). 

Acacia lycopodifolia—Thompson River (J. W. Birch), 
Macdonnell Ranges (E. Giles), Roebuck Bay (Martin), DeGrey 
River (Carey). 


Some Hitherto Unknown Australian Plants. 171 


Acacia galioides—Dangar’s Creek, Cape and Flinders 
Rivers (Bowman), Newcastle Range ( ‘Ay mit.) 

Acacia Baueri—Richmond River (Fawcett), Fraser's 
Island (W. Bl). 


g (Rev. B. Scortechini). 

Acacia confer yee ics "Har tmann), Comet and 
Callan Rivers (O’Shanesy), between Clermont and Gainsford 
(Bowman), Lake Elphinestone, (Mrs. Dietrich.) 

Acacia vomeriformis—near Ballarat (D. W. Spence), near 
Meredith (S. Johnson), Upper Ovens River (Mrs. M‘Cann). 

Acacia lineata—near the junction of the Ovens and 
Murray Rivers (C. French), near Cobar (Rey. J. M. Curran). 

Acacia fasciculifera—Severn (C. Hartmann), between the 
Dawson and Burnett Rivers (F. v. M. 

Acacia faleata+-Comet River (O’Shanesy), Mount Drome- 
dary (Reader). 

Acacia penninervis—New England (C. Stuart), Severn 
(Hartmann). 

Acacia microbotrya—near Stirling’s Range (F. v. M.), 
Irvin River (Miss Guerin). 

Acacia vestita—Gulgong (Dr. Barnard). 

Acacia stipulosa—King’s Sound (A. Hughan), Fitzroy 
River (Maitl. Brown). 

Acacia sclerophylla—Murrumbidgee (Tucker), Lachlan 
River (F. v. M.) 

Acacia excelsa—Darling Downs (Law), Comet River and 
Blackwater Creek (O’ Shanesy), Severn (Hartmann), Port 
poner (Fitzalan), Walloon (Bowman), Flinders River 
F. v. 

Bone bnernata—Myall River (Fawcett). 

Acacia alpina—Mount Bogong (J. Stirling), Mount 
Hotham (Rev. E. W. Nye). 

Acacia cyperophylla—near Cobar (Rev. J. Milne Curran). 

Acacia glaucescens—Apsley. River (A. R. Crawford), 
Genoa, at 3000 feet (W. Baeuerlen). 

Acacia elata—Hunter’s River (Rev. Dr. Collett), sources of 
Barrington, Gloucester and Manning Rivers (Aug. Rudder), 
Apsley River (A. R. Crawford). 

Acacia Mitchelli—near Portland Bay (Ch. Green), near 
Meredith (S. Johnson). 

Acacia pentadenia—Shannon, where it attains a height 
of 30 feet (F. v. M.) 

Acacia Gilberti—Warren River (Walcott), Blackwood 
River (F. v. M.); also Drummond 314. 


172 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 


Acacia nigricans—Porongerup (F. v. M.) 

Acacia strigosa—Pinjarrah (Rev. J. S. Price), Shannon 
(F’. v. M.) 

Acacia Drummondi—Stirling’s Range (F. v. M.), Black- 
wood River (Mrs. M‘Hard), Greenough River (C. Grey) ; 
Drummond 315. 

Acacia Farnesiana—Shark Bay (Mrs. Gribble.) 

Acacia Bidwilli—Mitchell River (E. Palmer). 


GREVILLEA KENNEDYANA. 


Branchlets and leaves beset with short appressed greyish 
hairlets ; leaves scattered or somewhat fasciculated, rigid, 
linear, entire, pungently pointed, revolute along the margin; 
flowers comparatively large, in axillary and terminal umbels; 
bracts fugacious; petals bright-red, about twice as long as 
the glabrous stalklets, only from much above the middle or 
near the summit reflexed, outside glabrous, inside extensively 
beset with tender ‘whitish hairlets ; torus elongated, almost 
in a straight line continuing the stalklet; hypogynous 
glandule semi-annular and also upwards protracted ; pistil 
glabrous ; ovulary conspicuously stipilate ; style nearly half 
exserted ; stigma lateral; fruit oblique-ellipsoid, pointed at 
the upper end, slightly granular-rough outside; seeds linear- 
or narrow-ellipsoid, channelled, greyish outside, with a short 
pale terminal appendage. 

Between rocks on Grey’s Ranges (W. Baeuerlen). 

An ample shrub, attaining a height of about five feet, 
flowering downward even to near the base of the stem. Leaves 
mostly from 2 to I inch long, with a single groove under- 
neath, many of the leaves spreading. Umbels sessile, the 
flowers exuding a mellaginous fluid. Total length of petals 
nearly an inch, but apparently less through the terminal | 
curvature. Fruit turgid, about ? meh long. 

This beautiful plant is as yet only known from a single 
locality ; it is dedicated to Mrs. M. B. Kennedy, of Wonna- 
minta, who not only contributed since some years to the 
writers collections, but also from her and her consort’s 
hospitable home promoted the searches of the discoverer 
of this plant. In its affinity the newly found species 
approaches G. acuaria, but the leaves are much thicker 
and deeply grooved beneath, the flowers are much larger, 
the torus is proportionately far more extended, and the 
ovulary is not unilaterally and suddenly protruding as that 


Some Hitherto Unknown Australian Plants. 173 


of G. acucaria, whereby already quite a different form 
of fruit is indicated. In general aspect our new plant is not 
dissimilar to G. Huegelii, the leaves of which however are 
always dissected, the flowers corymbously arranged, the 
petals outside, as well as the stalklets, invested with 
appressed shining hairlets, but inside glabrous, the style is 
less emerged and the fruit shorter, broader and compressed. 

This seems an apt opportunity of bringing under notice 
the fruit of G. anethifolia, recently sent from the vicinity of 
Cobar by the Rev. J. Milne Curran. It is about 4 inch 
long, suprabasally fixed to the slender stipes, oblique-ovate, 
turgid, slightly rough, but glabrous outside; the seeds are 
concave-convex, pale, oval and without any conspicuous 
expanding membrane. 

Some other hitherto unrecorded notes on Grevilleas are 
added : 

G. pterosperma occurs as far south as Lake Albacutya 
(Mr. Ch. French). 

G. cirstifolia was found on the summit of Mount Lindsay 
by Mr. W. Webb. 

G. floribunda was noticed on the Severn by Mr. C. 
Hartmann. 

G. ericifolia was gathered on the Ovens River by Mr. J. 
C. Martin, and near Mount Elgin by Mr. St. El. Dalton. 

G. longistyla grows on the Upper Hunter River, accord- 
ing to Mr. L. Stephenson. As many as 21 segmenis have 
been counted on some of the leaves. 

G. guncifolia was brought from the Berkeley Ranges by 
Mr. Adolph Wuerfel, from the Mulligan River by Mr. 
Cornish; from near the Darling and Lachlan Rivers, 
by Mr. Tucker. 

G. Dryandri is now also known trom near Port Darwin, 
through Mr. Holtze. 

G. gibbosa extends to the Upper Thomson River (Mr. R 
C. Burton). This species mediates the transit to the genus 
Hakea, its pericarp and seeds bearing much resemblance to 
those of H. cycloptera and H. platysperma. 

G. trinervis has been detected in New England, near 
Walcha, by Mr. R. Crawford. 

G. ramosissima has been sent from the Upper Lachlan 
River by Dr. Lauterer; from near Omeo by Mr. James 
Stirling ; from near the Upper Ovens River by Mrs. M‘Call ; 
from near the Hume River by Mr. M‘Kibbin. 


174 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 


G. Goodi was collected by Mr. Armit near the Robertson 
and Perry Rivers; fruit woody, broad-ovate, about 2 inch 
long, pointed ; seeds without any expanding membrane. | 

G. annulifera was traced to Shark Bay as well as 
G. lencopteris (F. v. M.) 

G. striata was noticed as far south as Cobar by the Rev. 
J. M. Curran. 

G. mimosoides advances eastward to the Palmer River, 
according to Mr. Wycliff: 

G. Victorie was collected at Tooma by Miss Campbell. 


Art. XVIIIL—Two Hitherto Unrecorded Plants 
from New Gurnea. 


Described by BARoN von MUELLER. 
ELAEOCARPUS SAYERI. 


Tall-shrubby and _ straggling or finally arborescent ; 
branchlets slender, as well as leaf-stalks and inflorescence 
much beset with greyish short soft hairlets; leaves com- 
paratively small, firm, conspicuously stalked, ‘mostly ovate- 
lanceolar and oradually long acuminated, rounded at the 
base, remotely serrulate-crenulated, almost glabrous, their 
costular venules prominent beneath, the ultimate venules 
closely reticular-connected; racemes short; flowers com- 
paratively small; stalklets recurved, slender, longer than 
the flowers; petals about as long as the sepals, whitish, 
upwards broader, beset with appressed shining hairlets 
particularly outside, acutely fringed at and. towards the 
summit; stamens from 12 to 22, slightly invested with 
minute hairlets ; filaments about half as long as the cells of - 
the anthers ; terminal bristlet of the latter conspicuously 
curved ; pistil beset with a somewhat velvet-silky vestiture ; 
ovulary attenuated gradually into the conical-filiform style, 
two-celled ; torus conspicuously raised. On Mount Obree, 
at an elevation of about 7000 feet (Cuthbertson and Sayer). 

i. Munror, which among the numerous congeners comes 
nearest to the new species above defined, differs in tall 
arboreous stature, want of general vestiture, leaves much 
paler beneath, larger flowers, more slender style and possibly 
also in fruit. . Greejffet is separated from the new Papuan 
congener by much larger leaves, quite short pedicels, some- 


Two Unrecorded Plants from New Guinea. 175 


what broader sepals, almost glabrous petals and stamens, as 
well as by the thinner style. 

Through recent access to better material it has been 
ascertained, that the Papuan plant, formerly regarded as a 
variety of LH. Armhemicus, constitutes a distinct species, 
to which now the name 4. Reedyi has been given; it differs 
from £. amoenus already in smaller flowers on shorter 
stalklets with almost glabrous petals and anthers, lesser 
number of stamens and very short filaments; a very similar 
species occurs in New Caledonia. 


DENDROBIUM CUTHBERTSONL 


Dwarf, tufty, except the calyx-tube glabrous; roots 
elongated, filiform, flexuous; stems very short, leafy; 
petioles clasping, towards the base dilated ; leaves small, 
brcad-linear, narrowed towards both ends, ’ rather acute ; 
flowers solitary, terminal, relatively large, lightly carmine- 
red, on conspicuous pedicels; bract ample clasping ; calyx- 
tube slender, somewhat papillular-rough ; calyx-lobes and 
lateral petals of about equal length; the lateral calyx- 
lobes deltoid-semilanceolar; their prolongation quite descend- 
ing, about twice as long as the lobes, narrowly conic- 
cylindrical, rather blunt; upper calyx-lobe lanceolar-ovate ; 
lateral petals cuneate-obovate; labellar petal somewhat 
shorter than the two other, likewise membranous, orbicular- 
ovate, very concave, entire, almost smooth, darker red 
upwards, scantily conspersed with stalked glandules ; 
gynostemium hardly half as long as the labellar petal, 
upwards gradually blunt-dilated and incurved, dorsally 
terminated by a minute narrow and acute denticle ; anther 
dull-purplish ; pollen-massules pale-lilac, equal-sized in each 
pair; fruit slender. 

On Mount Obree, at elevations from 6000 to 8000 feet 
(Cuthbertson and Sayer). 

Whole plant only about two or three inches high ; leaves 
flat, seldom above an inch long, often shorter, so far as seen 
not exceeding ¢ inch in breadth. Total length of flower 
nearly one inch. Ripe fruit not obtained. 

This decorative species is dedicated to the leader of the 
expedition, sent this year by the Victorian Branch of the 
R.G.S.A. to New Guinea. It differs as well from D. puni- 
ceum as D. cerasinwm in solitary still larger flowers, with 
broader, blunt and subtle-venulated petals. 


Art. XIX.—The Production of the Tides, Mechanically 
Considered. 


By T. WAKELIN, Esq., B.A. 


[Read December 15, 1887.] 


Let us suppose the earth to be composed of grains of sand, 
all separate, not one grain in actual contact with another. 
Let us further suppose, for a moment only, that the force 
which draws them, as is supposed, towards the moon, acts 
equally on every particle—on every grain of sand. In this 
case the earth will keep its form, whatever form it may 
have. 

Now let us take, in part, the actual case. The grains of 
sand composing the earth on the side nearest the moon are 
drawn by a greater force than are the grains composing the 
earth on the side farthest from the moon. This foree—the 
eravitative force of the moon on the earth—varies inversely as 
the square of the distance from the moon’s centre, supposing 
the moon to be a perfect sphere, and knowing that the 
attractive force of the moon may be considered as con- 
centrated at the moon’s centre. I only wish here to deal 
with the principle of the moon’s action in producing the 
tides, or rather one of the principles. I have been unable to 
tind any work in Wellington which treats of the Dynamical 
Theory of the Tides, or of anything relating to it, except 
what is contained in Newcomb’s “ Popular Astronomy,” and 
I wish here, therefore, to keep to the direct action of the 
moon, as it is generally understood. 

Let us consider the action of the moon on three portions 
of the earth :—(a) the portion nearest the moon; (6) the 
portion in the centre of the earth; and (¢) the portion of 
the earth farthest from the moon. The first portion (a) is 
drawn by a greater force than the second—the central 
portion (5), and it therefore bulges towards the moon. ‘The 
second portion (b) is drawn by a greater force than is the 
third portion (c), and this last portion, therefore, is left a 
little behind, and bulges away from the moon. These two 
bulgent portions are the two tides. The force producing these 
two tides is measured by the difference of the accelerations 


Production of Tides, Mechanically Considered. 177 


produced by the moon in the respective portions of the 
earth considered—a, b, and c. 

The total mass of the moon is about one-eightieth of that 
of the earth, and her mean distance about 240,000 miles 
(Newcomb). The moon is thus distant about 60 semi- 
diameters of the earth. Whatever may be the earth’s 
attractive force on a small mass at its surface, the moon’s 
attractive force is goth of ”A,th of Ath of this force—the 
earth’s attractive force. The tide-producing force of the 
moon (in part) is, however, only as the difference between 
doth of Ath of Ath and sth of Ast of Ast of the earth’s 
attractive force on a small mass at its surface. The 
calculation is too tedious to go through, and it is only 
required to have some idea of the magnitude. It will 
suffice here, therefore, to say that the tide-producing power 
of the moon is very much less than a millionth of the power 
of the earth to draw a small mass at its surface towards its 
centre. | . 

The tide-producing force of the moon being so small 
compared to the power of the earth to draw a mass at its 
surface towards its centre, how can it possibly pull up from 
the surface of the earth a portion of its liquid surface? It 
is impossible for a very small force to lift up a small mass 
when there is a vast force pulling it down. The moon, 
however, certainly produces the tides. The only question 
is, how ? 

Now, water is slightly compressible, and the pressure of 
the upper portion of the oceans is very great on the lower 
portions. If this pressure were weakened, as by the action 
of the moon, the elasticity of the water would cause the 
ocean to swell up where the pressure was relieved. If my 
memory serves me rightly, Mr. Murray, of the ‘“ Challenger 
Exploring Expedition,” in a lecture at Edinburgh, estimated 
that if the force of gravity of the earth were to be suspended, 
the waters of the ocean would swell up, raising the water- 
level over the earth by 500 feet. Now the tide-producing 
power of the moon reduces the force of gravity of the earth, 
and thus relieves the pressure of the water of the ocean 
under the moon. The ocean, owing to the elasticity of the 
water, swells up, and a tide is produced. 

Is the elasticity of the water sufficiently great to produce 
the actual tide of, say four feet in the open ocean ? 

The relief of pressure here producible by the moon is less 
than one-millionth of the pressure produced by the force 

N 


178 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. 


of gravity of the earth acting on the oceans, the tide thus 
producible would be less, therefore, than one-millionth of 
500 feet. This would be a mere ripple on the actual tide. 

When the weight of air over any place is greater than the 
average for that place at that time of the year, it produces, 
if on the ocean, a hollow in its surface, and of course there 
must be a corresponding rise around this hollow. Now, the 
moon weakens the force of gravity of the earth under the 
moon (and on the opposite side of the earth also), and the 
weight or pressure of water under the moon is less than the 
weight or pressure of water at places on the earth (oceanic 
regions) at right angles to a line drawn from the moon’s 
centre to the earth’s centre. The greater pressure of water 
at places a great distance from the vertical moon will 
therefore cause a hollow there and a rise, wave, or tide 
under the moon, that is, if the action of the moon could 
immediately produce its full effect. Time must, however, 
be allowed to overcome the inertia of the water. The rise, 
or tidal wave of water therefore follows some time after the — 
vertical moon. 

The reasoning in this paper therefore shows :—First, that 
it is impossible for the slight attractive force of the moon to 
lift up a body of water directly agavnst the vastly greater 
force of gravity of the earth drawing this water down. 
Second, that it is the greater weight of water at a great 
distance from the moon’s vertical, so to speak, that makes a 
hollow there, and a corresponding rise nearer the moon’s 
vertical. 


Obituary. 


—_ 


SAMUEL WALKER McGowan. 


Mr. McGowan was born on the 4th of January, 1829, at 
Kingston, Ontario, Canada, where he received his early education. 
He studied for the legal profession for four years at Toronto, until 
the death of his father in 1847. He then attended lectures on 
natural science, and learnt the Morse system of telegraphy under 
its inventor, Professor Morse, from whom he received high 
testimonials. He then served successively in the Toronto and 
Buffalo Electro-magnetic Telegraph Company, the Montreal 
Telegraph Company, and the New York, Albany, and Buffalo 
Telegraph Company until 1852, when, upon the advice of 
Professor Morse, he came to Melbourne, where he landed early 
in 1853. He brought with him materials and instruments for 
establishing a telegraph company ; but the Government having 
decided to assume the management of the local telegraphs, he 
tendered for their construction ; his offer was accepted, and the 
work was so satisfactorily performed, that he was appointed to 
the charge of the Telegraph Department, which he retained till 
his death, on the 18th April, 1887. He was also Deputy 
Postmaster General since the amalgamation of the Post and 
the Telegraph Departments in 1885. In 1886 he received twelve 
months’ leave of absence on full pay, with the view of obtaining 
all the latest information in Europe and America respecting 
telegraphs and telephones. He returned to Melbourne in April 
1887, with abundant materials for a voluminous report. He had 
suffered at the commencement of his return voyage from an attack 
of congestion of the lungs. Upon his arrival, however, he felt 
well enough to resume duty, but served one day only, when he 
had a relapse, and rapidly became so much worse, that he had an 
operation performed on the morning of the 18th of April, and 
died about 9 o’clock the same evening. 

He was an able, energetic, and conscientious public officer. 
Besides organising and managing from the commencement the 
whole telegraph service of Victoria for 34 years, he also acted as 
Captain of the Torpedo Corps, and served on the Council of the 
Royal Society at various times since 1862, where his valuable 
assistance and counsel were highly appreciated. Here his loss 
was felt more than in the country at large, for many of his 
colleagues were privileged to be his intimate friends. 

N 2 


180 Royal Society of Victoria. 


EDMUND SAMUEL PARKES. 


Mr. Parkes, though for many years a member of the Royal 
Society, was too entirely devoted to the claims of his profession 
to admit of his taking an active part in its proceedings, further 
than by occasional attendance at the Council’s Conversaziones; he 
was, however, known and respected by many HSH CES of the 
Society and of its Council. 

He began his business life in the office of a leading firm of 
London shipbrokers. From that he passed into the London and 
Westminster Bank, where he acquired the experience and know- 
ledge which he applied to such good purpose in his subsequent 
career. He afterwards joined the Alliance Bank of London, as 
Manager, and on leaving it he received a flattering testimony of 
the ‘estimation in which his services were held. In 1867 he 
accepted the appointment of Inspector in the Bank of Australasia 
in Melbourne, where he became General Inspector in 1871, and . 
Superintendent in 1876. He enjoyed the highest reputation as a 
banker among bankers. He was unfortunately killed in the 
railway collision which occurred on the 11th of May, at Chapel 
Street, Windsor, being so severely injured that he only survived 
about three hours. He was fifty-three years of age. He had lost 
his wife within the year preceding, and left a numerous family. 


Sir Jutius Haast, K.C.M.G., F.R.S8., D.Sc. Camb. 


Julius Haast, who was a Member of the Academy of Sciences, 
Paris, &c., and Honorary Member of the Royal Society of Victoria, 
was born at Bonn on the Ist of May, 1824. He emigrated to 
Auckland, N.Z., in December 1858, where his scientific career as 
Government Geologist included important researches in geology, 
geography, zoology, botany, and meteorology, records of which are 
preserved in the scientific journals of New Zealand. In 1886 he 
proceeded to Europe as Commissioner for New Zealand at the 
Indian and Colonial Exhibition, and afterwards visited most of 
the principal cities of Europe, obtaining thence valuable contribu- 
tions for the Canterbury Museum. His lamented death took place 
unexpectedly on the 16th of August, 1887, at Christchurch. 


Sotomon Irria, L.R.C.P. Glasgow. 


Dr. Iffla was born in Jamaica in 1821, but was for some years 
at Philadelphia, U.S.A., before going to Scotland, where he 


Obituary. 181 


received his medical education, graduating at Glasgow in 1844, 
He soon afterwards came to Australia, and settled first in 
Adelaide, where he practised his profession for a short time. 
He then came to Melbourne, where he established himself 
first in Stephen Street, and then in Collins Street, and was for 
several years known as a successful practitioner and magistrate. 
He was one of those who met at the Mechanics Institute on 
the 17th June, 1854, and founded the Philosophical Society of 
Victoria, in which he served in various years as member of 
Council, Treasurer, and Vice-President. In the end of 1861 he 
left town and settled at Wood’s Point, where he was appointed 
Coroner, Registrar, and Public Vaccinator, and followed profes- 
sional pursuits also. When the glory of Wood’s Point waned, 
Dr. Iffla returned to Melbourne, and became a citizen of South 
Melbourne, where he not only enjoyed a good practice, but took 
an active part in municipal, magisterial, and political affairs, and 
was mayor of the city when the new Town Hall was opened by His 
Excellency the Marquis of Normanby, in 1881. He was also an 
official visitor of the Yarra Bend and Sunbury Lunatic Asylums. 
He had travelled a good deal, and his extensive information, 
genial manners, and instructive conversation contributed to secure 
for him the high esteem of a large circle of friends. He had been 
for some time in delicate health, and took a trip to Queensland to 
recruit it. Shortly after his return, however, he had an attack of 
congestion of the liver, which unfortunately terminated fatally 
on the 14th of September, 1887. 


BALFoUR STEWART, F.R.S. 


In common with the scientific world at large, our Society has 
to lament the loss of Professor Balfour Stewart, F.R.S., on the 
22nd December, 1887. It is long since he was a member of the 
Royal Society of Victoria, but it is pleasing to note the fact that 
he was an original member of both the Victorian Institute and 
the Philosophical Society of Victoria in 1854, which bodies were 
combined in 1855, under the name of the Philosophical Institute of 
Victoria, which, in 1859, received the Royal permission to take 
the title of the Royal Society of Victoria. The second paper read 
before the Philosophical Society of Victoria was by Mr, Stewart, 
on the 10th September, 1854, “On Certain Laws Observable in 
the Mutual Action of Sulphuric Acid and Water.” Of this only 
an abstract was published. Two other papers of his appear in the 
first volume of its Transactions for the same year, one “ On the 
Influence of Gravity on the Physical Condition of the Moon’s 


182 Royal Society of Victoria. 


Surface,” and the other “‘On the Adaptation of the Eye to the 
Nature of the Rays which Emanate from Bodies.” The Society 
soon after lost his services, as he returned to England to enter upon 
his subsequent brilliant scientific career, the leading achievements of 
which are epitomised by Prof. P. G. Tait in “ Nature” for the 
29th December last. Some twenty years before his death he was — 
severely injured in a railway accident, from the effects of which 
he never completely recovered. Professor Tait knew him better, 
‘it is presumed, than any one in Australia, and he concludes his 
notice thus :—“ Of the man himself I cannot trust myself to 
speak. What I could say will easily be divined by those who 
knew him intimately, and to those who did not know him, I am 
unwilling to speak in terms which, to them, must certainly appear 
exaggerated.” 


‘1887. 


PROCEEDINGS. 


ROYAL SOCIETY OF VICTORIA. 


[N.B.—The remarks and speeches in the discussions are taken 
down verbatim by a short-hand writer, and transcribed by a 
type-writer, for reference and reproduction, if required ; and 
therefore, more is seldom given herein than an indication of 
their general drift. If any person should wish to refer to 
the verbatim report, he can apply to the Secretary to the 
Society, who will give him an opportunity of transcribing 

* it; or if he reside at a distance, so much as he requires will, 
upon payment of the cost, be forwarded to his address. | 


llth August, 1887. 


Present : the President,- Professor W. C. Kernot, in the chair, 
and forty-two members and associates. 

The PREsIDENT read a letter from the Secretary of the Royal 
Society of South Australia, dated 6th, stating that the idea of 
having special meetings in connection with the Exhibition there 
had been abandoned, as the Government would make no reduction 
in railway passes. It conveyed a cordial general invitation to the 
members of the Society to visit Adelaide. 

He next read a letter from the Field Naturalists’ Club, 
reporting the passing of a resolution in favour of vesting Wilson’s 
Promontory and adjacent islands and waters in a Board of 
Trustees, to preserve the flora and fauna and fisheries, and as a 
resort for public recreation. The co-operation of the Royal 
Society was earnestly requested. 

Mr. Lucas and Mr. Wuitse moved that the proposal be adopted. 
The Victorian Academy of Arts had endorsed it. 

Mr. Buackett and Mr. Grirritus thought more information 
desirable, and moved that the question be referred to the Council. 
Carried. 


184 Royal Society of Victoria. 


The President then vacated the chair, which was taken by Mr. 
White, Vice-President, and gave an account of the early history 
of the Brennan Torpedo. This invention had been purchased by 
the Imperial Government for £110,000. The President had 
acted as the inventor’s consulting engineer, and he explained by 
means of a model the method of its propulsion at the rate of 25 
miles an hour for more than half a mile. The first trial satisfied 
every expectation. It could be turned right or left by the same 
means that effected its progression. The trials in Melbourne 
were satisfactory, and the torpedo was then taken to England 
and subjected to various tests during nearly seven years before it 
was purchased. The President could not say why—since the sale 
—a full description, with drawings of this torpedo had been 
suffered to appear in Engineering of 24th June and Ist July. 

Mr. BiackeTT commented on the extraordinary fact of the 
publication of the secret, which had been carefully kept until 
after the sale. 

Mr. Buackert then read “A Note on Some Determinations of 
Chlorine in the Water of the Yarra.” 

Discussion ensued, in which Mr. White, Mr. Ellery, Mr. 
Griffiths, the President, and Mr. Blackett took part. 

Mr. A. W. Howrrr then read his paper, “On Certain Meta- 
morphic and Plutonic Rocks at Omeo.” After a question from 
Mr. Griffiths, to which Mr. Howitt replied, it was resolved that 
the paper be printed at once. 

The reading of Baron von Miieller’s ‘Description of a 
Victorian Haloragis,” was postponed, and the meeting adjourned. 


Thursday, 8th September. 


Present: the President, Professor Kernot, in the chair, and 
twenty members and associates. 

The PRESIDENT reported that the Council had considered the 
proposal of the Field Naturalists’ Club to reserve Wilson’s 
Promontory as a national park, and recommended the Society to 
co-operate with the Field Naturalists’ Club in urging its reservation 
upon the Government. A large scale map of the Promontory, 
presented by Mr. W. H. Steel, C.E., was laid upon the table. 

Baron von MuELLER recommended that a portion of South-east 
Gippsland should also be reserved. He had travelled all over it in 
1853, and he thought that the native plants and animals should 
be preserved from destruction by the proposed reservation. Part 
of the Promontory was then occupied by stockholders. 

The PRESIDENT said that the Council had consulted a gentleman 
who had recently been all over the Promontory, and found that 


| Proceedings, &c., for 1887. 185 


none of it was now in occupation. He thought that not only this, 
but many other national parks should be carefully preserved. 

Mr. Ruspen said that the proposal demanded careful consider- 
ation. The reservation would be useless unless a sufficient staff of 
caretakers were provided to protect animals, birds, fisheries, and 
plantations, which would involve considerable expense. If this 
were done, the reserve would become a very important and 
valuable one. 

The question was then postponed for further consideration. 

The PresipENT reported that the recommendations of the 
Antarctic Exploration Committee were receiving the consideration 
of Her Majesty’s Government, and were probably then being 
entertained by the British Association. He read a letter from 
Captain Wharton, Admiralty Hydrographer, presenting a new 
admiralty antarctic chart. 

On the motion of Baron von MUELLER a vote of thanks to the 
Hydrographer was agreed to. i 

Baron von MUELLER hoped that the present season would not 
be lost. He understood that Sir Allen Young was willing to 
accept the leadership of the expedition in a few weeks, and he 
trusted the British Government would grant £5000, which, with 
£5000 from the Colonies, would suffice for a reconnoitering 
expedition. 

Baron von MvuEtter then presented his paper on a “ Victorian 
Haloragis and a Pluchea,” which, being of a purely technical 
character, was accepted as read. (See Transactions, Art. XII.) 


Baron von MUELLER said, instead of reading my paper, 
which is of an entirely technical character, I shall only make 
a few remarks, especially as my essay is in process of being 
incorporated in our Transactions. 

The specimen in my hand, the Haloragis Baeuerlein, 
represents a plant entirely new to the flora of the Colony of 
Victoria. It was found just on the boundary line near the 
source of the Genoa River, by Mr. Baeuerlin. It is note- 
worthy, that it is not particularly allied to any indigenous 
species from New South Wales or Tasmania, as might be 
anticipated, but to one in West Australia. There are some 
remarkable facts in connection with the geography of plants, 
which have in instances like the present one, great significance. 
It is rather an attractive plant, and it has come before me 
more particularly, while, on special request from the Field 
Naturalists’ Club, I am elaborating the key to the system of 
Victorian plants, so that during my investigations, those 
forms which were not known before, had to be inserted. 
This one was discovered while a special effort was made last 


186: Royal Society of Victoria. 


year to get the Eastern part of Gippsland phytologically 
further explored. 

The second plant, the Pluchea Conocephala, which I have 
the honour of submitting, was collected as far back as 1848 
by myself, on the Murray River. The species is not orna- 
mental, but highly interesting. The plant for a long time 
was only imperfectly known, and thus my original view of 
its affinity remained adopted; but while some additional 
material was coming in, I was in a better position to 
investigate it, and found it belonged to the almost tropical 
Pluchea, not yet on record as represented in Victoria. That 
genus was named in memory of an amateur naturalist, the 
Abbé Pluche, who lived about the middle of the last century. 

I would remark, that the printing of the key to Victorian 
Plants has actually commenced. I am aware that I have 
tried rather sorely, the patience of those particularly 
interested in this work; but the fact is this, the method 
which the Hon. Dr. Dobson more especially desired to be 
adopted is a very difficult one, requiring great care, much 
time, and circumspect toil in working out. It is in accord 
with the system, brought out first by the celebrated Lamarck, 
at the end of the last century. The method is so difficult, 
that unless very great caution is exercised, it is lable to 
mislead, or to render the search for the names of plants even 
bewildering ; therefore its practical application has very 
‘seldom been attempted, and more particularly not over a 
large area. The wider the area, the more difficult is the 
task. The Rev. Mr. Spicer has with very praiseworthy zeal 
undertaken such a dichotomous enumeration of the plants 
of Tasmania, which comprises only about half the number 
of our plants; but although he did not work on a very 
elaborate or strictly systematic plan, he experienced great 
difficulties. Thus I found that I had to devote far more 
research than I originally proposed to the work desired ; but 
now it seems that I am gradually and successfully emerging 
from what I at times thought would bea hopeless task. The 
system to be adopted is a kind of dualism. It has to be 
applied to 1900 different species of plants in Victoria, nearly 
double as many as the plants of Great Britain and Ireland ; 
and they have besides to be put into several hundred genera 
and natural orders. Indeed, it proved a very complicated 
effort. 

The President said that the preparation of the dichotomous 
key must have been a serious matter. It had been heard of 


Proceedings, &c., for 1887. 187 


as having been in progress for a long time past, and he 
trusted that when it was seen, it would be available to 
everyone. Unfortunately, the Botanical and Biological 
Section was rather thinly represented in that evening’s 
meeting. The investigation of the flora of the Colony, if 
recorded in the Transactions, would give great value to them 
in the eyes of naturalists in other parts of the world. 


The discussion on Mr. Howitt’s paper was adjourned to the 
following meeting. 

The PRESIDENT requested Baron von Miieller. to take the chair, 
which he did, and the President then exhibited some models of 
Engine-Governors and Dynamometers, of which he conversationally 
explained the construction, and replied to questions and remarks 
from Mr. A. C. Wannan and Baron von Mueller. 


ooo 


Thursday, 13th October, 1887. 


Present: the President, Professor Kernot, in the chair, and 
thirty-two members and associates. 

Mr. Hugh Conley was elected by ballot, an associate of the 
Society. ; 

The PREsIDENT announced that the usual Conversazione would 
be held on Friday, the 9th December. 

The PRESIDENT reported that Professor Spencer was unable to 
attend to read his promised paper on “ The Structure and Classi 
ficatory Position of Megascolides Australis,” which was therefore 
postponed. 

Mr. GRIFFITHS moved the suspension of the laws so far as 
necessary, to enable Mr. D. McAlpine, who was not a member of 
the Society, to read a paper, entitled: ‘‘ Observations on the 
Movements of Detached Gills, Mantle Lobes, Labial Palps and 
Foot in Bivalve Molluscs.” This was agreed to, and Mr. 
McAlpine read his paper (see Transactions, Art. XIII.) 

The PresIDENT remarked on the curious facts that had been 
described by Mr. McAlpine; others of a similar kind had before 
been described. 

Dr. Jamieson said that original observations were always 
interesting. It was, however, not uncommon to find detached 
portions of bodies make independent movements ; he had antici- 
pated something more from the paper. The ciliary action in 
question, usually took place on a fixed surface, and swept up 
and drove particles along the surface. When detached and 
placed on a fixed surface, the cilia, by their normal action, moved 
the unattached body along the surface. He compared this 


188 Royal Society of Victoria. 


action to that of men rowing in a boat firmly anchored. They 
would not move the boat, but would sweep along bodies floating 
on the water, whereas if the boat were released, they would move 
the boat. The enquiry was interesting, and must have involved 
much time and labour. It was well known that the cilia did 
mechanical work in the living body, as by sweeping mucus, 
particles of dust, &c., out of the air passages, and it might be 
possible to determine the amount of power exerted by them from 
the range of movement produced by them in the way shown by 
Mr. McAlpine. 

Mr. Brackett asked whether the ciliary motion had been itself 
observed, and whether, if so, it was proportional to the rate of 
observed motion. 

Mr. McAtpine said the paper was a fragment, and the 
important part of it was to follow in a paper on the oyster. He 
had drawings of the palp in its natural position, but while under- 
going rotation it became altered so as to be unrecognisable by 
comparison with the drawing. All the parts are ciliated, and the 
motion was in the opposite direction to the stroke of the cilia. 
The cilia were capable of changing directions, of reversing them- 
selves and causing an object to move in the opposite direction. 
In a separate paper he proposed to treat of motion of the frog’s 
heart. 

On the motion of Messrs. White and Blackett, the thanks of 
the Society were voted to Mr. McAlpine for his interesting paper. 

Mr. G. R. B. Steane’s paper “ On Rainfall and Flood Discharge,” 
was held over for the next meeting. 


Thursday, 10th November, 1887. 


Present : the President, Professor Kernot, in the chair, and 
thirty-five members and associates. 

Mr. J. D. Lillis, Mr. W. T. Kendall, M.R.C.V.S., and Mr. J. 
Cohen, M.R.C.V.S., were duly elected by ballot, members of the 
Society. To save time, ballot papers were used as formerly, 
instead of balls. 

The Lisrarian reported the receipt of 30 scientific publications 
since the last meeting of the Society. 

The Presipent reported that the Conversazione would be held 
in the Atheneum Hall, on Friday, the 9th December. 

Mr. Lucas reported progress on the subject of the reservation 
of the Promontory as a National Park. It was proposed that the 
Promontory and the adjacent islands and waters should be vested 
in trustees, to preserve the native fauna, flora, and fisheries, and 
for public recreation. The Academy of Art and the Royal 
Geographical Society supported the proposal of the Field 


Proceedings, &c., for 1887. 189 


Naturalists’ Club. The Council of the Royal Society had taken 
evidence on the subject, and unanimously passed a resolution in 
favour of the project. The reasons for it were, that though 
Victoria has small local reserves, it has no National Parks like 
those lately reserved in the United States and New South Wales. 
The Promontory is specially fitted for the purpose, by its natural 
definite boundaries, its diversified scenery, its accessibility by 
railway, the absence of vested interests, and its comparative 
isolation, on account of the narrow and barren sandy isthmus 
which constituted the approach by land to it. It was said on 
good authority to be adapted for the growth of kauri pine. Its 
reservation would give facilities for the development and protection 
of the fisheries. The trustees should have the power of licensing 
residences there. 

The PReEsIDENT said that Victoria should have a National Park. 
New South Wales had one in which the scenery was of a striking 
character. The Promontory included mountains 2300 feet high, 
and immense valleys almost impassable from the dense vegetation. 

On the motion of Mr. Lucas and Mr. Griffiths, it was resolved 
“That it is desirable that this Society should combine with the 
Field Naturalists’ Club and the Society of Artists, in taking steps 
to secure the vesting of Wiison’s Promontory, and the islands and 
waters adjacent, in a Board of Trustees, for the purposes of a 
National Park and Reserve, for the preservation of the flora and 
fauna, for the conservation of fisheries, and for public recreation.” 

The motion was carried unanimously. 

The PRESIDENT said that the next paper was on “The Structure 
and Classificatory Position of Megascolides Australis,” the giant 
earth-worm of Gippsland. In the absence of Professor Spencer, 
at King’s Island, he invited Mr. Lucas, with whom he had left the 
paper, to read it. 

Mr. Lucas said the paper was of a technical nature, and that he 
would read such parts as were likely to be of general interest, and 
leave further details to be gathered from the monograph which 
Professor Spencer proposed to publish on the subject. He then 
read portions of the paper. 

The PresiIDENT said it was gratifying to find that so new and 
interesting a biological problem had been thoroughly worked out. 
The worm was one of the most curious creatures in the world, and 
has at last been fully described. 

Dr. WiLD said that it was remarkable that giant earth-worms 
were found only at the extremities of three Continents, viz., the 
Cape, at Ceylon, and in Victoria. He asked if this resembled the 
others ? 

Mr. Lucas thought that those found at the Cape and Ceylon 
were not as large as Megascolides Australis, and they differed 
generically. 


190 Royal Society of Victoria. 


Mr. GrirFiTtus remarked that this worm did not appear to 
fulfil the same function as the common worm, of bringing castings 
to the surface, and it appeared not to have the calciferous glands 
which Darwin had found to be among the most important organs 
of earth-worms, and necessary to dispose of the leaves which 
constituted their principal food. 


Mr. Lucas said that wherever the burrows reached the surface, 
they were at right angles to it, and perfectly level. There 
were no castings at the mouth of the burrow. Professor Spencer 
represented no calciferous glands, and he had remarked on the 
absence of leaves in the burrows. The differences in the habits 
of this worm from those of others seems certain. 


The Prestpent and Mr. Rosaues believed that there was no 
limestone near the habitat of the Megascolides Australis. 


After a few further remarks on the subject 


Mr. G. R. B. STeANE read a paper on “ Rainfall and Flood — 
Discharge.” (See Transactions, Art. XIV.) 


The PRESIDENT said the subject was one of the first importance 
to a civil engineer, and yet there was. scarcely any subject. upon 
which there was a greater diversity of opinion and practice. He 
knew bridges designed by eminent authorities, varying from an 
eighth of the size he considered correct to sixteen times the 
necessary size, and those bridges cost thousands of pounds. That 
was. the extraordinary state of the practice. Most astonishing 
differences appear in the opinions of leading engineers on this 
subject. At Cootamundra, there were 25 square feet of openings 
for every square mile. Three leading New South Wales engineers 
swore that the openings were abundantly large. At Melbourne, 
openings of 100 feet to the square mile are found, and in the 
country where the ground is more absorbent, there were openings 
of 40 square feet to the square mile. One of our Railway Sur- 
veyors allowed 40 square feet to the square mile for areas of four 
or five square miles roughly timbered and unabsorbent. Experience 
appeared to show that this was about right; but others allow 
less, and disasters sometimes occur costing thousands of pounds. 
He found a difficulty in obtaining information on the subject. 
Mr. Steane was working in the right direction. The diagram on ~ 
the blackboard represented the beginning of an investigation 
which would become useful as information accumulates. Above a 
horizontal line, dots represent by their position the area in square 
feet of openings in certain structures, the history of which is 
known. Some are of too recent erection to be of value as data ; 
but time will tell, and the record will be kept. Some which 
appear to have caused disasters are a long way below the data 
line. One bridge over the Upper Yarra has an opening of 80,000 
square feet, while one at Melbourne thirty miles lower down the 


Proceedings, &c., for 1887. 191 


same stream draining a much larger area, has one of only 8000. 
How are these reconcilable ? 

The further discussion of the subject was postponed. 

Dr. JAMIESON read a paper on “Some Experiments on the 
Range of Action of Digestive Ferments.” (See Trans., Art. XV.) 

In reply to Mr. Ellery, Dr. Jamieson said an experiment was 
made as to whether it was good to have food given in a digested 
form. Young animals seemed not to thrive so well on it as on 
raw material. But there is no doubt that persons may be kept 
alive with digested food who could not get on with undigested 
food. Injections of digested food do better than those of un- 
digested. 

Dr. Rupatt said that the new digestive ferment papain had a 
power of digestion greatly in excess of that of pepsine, and that 
promised to be a useful discovery. 

In reply to Mr. White, Dr. Jamieson said that a small amount 
of common salt was useful, and the President said that in New 
Guinea it appeared to be a specific for the cure of native ailments. 


ANNUAL CONVERSAZIONE. 


A Conversazione was given by the Council of the Royal Society, 
in the Atheneum Hall, on Friday, the 9th December, 1887, and 
was attended by a large gathering of ladies and gentlemen. 

The large hall was reserved for the display of exhibits, and the 
hall on the first floor was seated for the audience to hear the 
President’s address, which he delivered at eight o’clock, and will 
be found prefixed to part 2 of this volume. 

ProressoR W. BALDWIN SPENCER then gave an address on 
the subject of Megascolides Australis, illustrated with a number of 
Specimens and large diagrams on screens. (See Transactions, 


Auth: VE) 
The following is a list of the exhibits shown in the large hall :— 


1. Sectional Models of Steam Engines, and other Models of 
Machinery. Exhibited by Professor W. C. KERNor. 


Seismograph, Thermograph and Barograph. By R. L. J. 
Euuery, Esq., F.R.S8. 


3. Two Microscopes and Microscopic Slides, Hydrostatic 
Balance, New Mercurial Vacuum Pumps, Spiral 
Balance for taking the Specific Gravity of Solids. 
By Mr. C. R. Buackert, F.C.8. 


4, Winshurst Electrical Machine. By Professor H. M. 
ANDREW, M.A. 


bo 


[92 


13. 


14. 


Royal Society of Victoria. 


. Thoma Microtome and Knife, with Imbedded Cancer in 


position for section cutting; Microscope and Lamp, 
with Mounted Section of the same Cancer, showing 
Cancer-cells; Frame of Photo-Micrographs of Para- 
sites, Fleas, Hydatid, Liver Fluke, &.; Micro- 
photographic Appliances complete. By Mr. W. Batt, 
F.R.M.S., Hon. Secretary of Section D. of the Royal 
Society. 

Tabular and Mechanical Aids to Calculation, including 
Arithmometer, Slide Rules, Logarithms, &e. By Mr. 
J. J. FENTON. 

Electric Office Indicator, and a New Typewriter. By Mr. 
JoHN Boortu, M.C.E. 


. Screw Guage on a new principle, measuring to the 40 


thousandth part of an inch, manufactured by Messrs. 
Elliott. By Mr. Ropert Barron. 
New Microscope, by Zeiss of Jena, with Abbe’s 
illuminating system, oil immersion lens of latest 
pattern and high illuminating power; Specimens of 
the Bacillus Tuberculosis, stained by the method 
invented by Dr. Koch. By Mr. F. W. Etsner. 
Katoptric Illustrations, the Sphengescope with a watch in 
motion; a Binocular Microscope with Crystallisations 


of Metals. By Mr. Sypney W. Gippons, F.C.S. 


1. Harmonograph. By Mr. Henry Cornett. 
. Large Wheel of Life (Zoetrope) with Diagrams prepared 


from photographs of living animals in motion; Two 
Electric Clocks under shade; a Simple Device for 
Copying and Enlarging Drawings or Plans; Cubits 
Shaky Cards (an optical illusion). By Mr. Horatio 
YEATES. 

Stereoscopic Prints and Architectural Photographs. By 
Mr. J. H. Harvey. 

Stereoscopic Photographs. By Mr. WaLKER. 

Stereoscopic Photographs and a Revolving Stereoscope ; 
also Negatives, Transparencies and Prints. By Mr. 
MUSGROVE. 

Stereoscopes and Stereoscopic Photos. By Mr. Bex. 
Exhibited on behalf of the Amateur Photographic 
Association of Victoria, Mr. J. H. Harvey, Hon. Sec. 
Impressions of Leaves of Lepidophyllum, &c., from the 
Coal Measures of Zwickau (Saxony); a Large Petre- 
faction from the Secondary Limestone Formation 
of Alcolea, province of Guadalajara (Spain); a large 
Quartz Specimen of ‘“ Hauben Quartz,” from Geyer 

(Saxony). By Mr. H. Rosazes, F.G.S8. 


15. 


16. 
17. 


18. 


1: 


20. 


21; 


22. 


Proceedings, &c., for 1887. 193 


Berthon Telephone Transmitters; Berliner Telephone 
Transmitters ; Hunning’s Improved Telephone Trans- 
mitters; Thompson’s Telephone Valve Transmitters ; 
Telephone Receivers by Ader, Aubrey, Telloux, and 
D’Arsonval; Thompson’s Telephone Membrane Receiver ; 
Siemen’s Potential Meter ; Low Reading Ammeter and 
Voltmeter; New Standard Ohm (Paris Standard) ; 
Section of Telephone Exchange, Switchboard connected ; 
Thirty Volt Incandescent Lamps, supplied from a Storage 
Battery. By Mr. Grorce SmIpert. 

Barrow and Drum of Copper Wire; Field Insulators 
and Karth Plates; Vibrating Sounders; Pair of 
Heliographs. By Lieut. L. H. Cuase. 


Submarine Mining Apparatus. Exhibited by Capt. R. E. 
JOSEPH, on behalf of the Submarine Mining Company 
Corps of Engineers. 

Model of “Ogilvie’s Patent Double-wedge Storm Tiller,” 
or Automatic Break for steering Ironclads and other 
hard-steering ships in heavy storms. By Capt. F. C. 
Rowan. 

Centrifugal Machine for Cleaning Mercury; Centrifugal 
Accumulator. By Mr. Opuine, C.E. 

Apparatus used in Embryological Work; Apparatus 
used in the process of Section-cutting, viz., hardening 
of the specimens, embedding of the specimens in 
paratiin, cutting sections (1) by the freezing, and (2) 
by the ‘continuous series” method, preparation of the 
sections, and mounting of them for microscopical 
examination ; the Third or Pineal Eye of Lizards: 
Specimens and Diagrams of “‘ Megascolides Australis,” 
the Giant Earth-worm of Gippsland. By Professor W. 
BaLDWIN SPENCER, on behalf of the Biological Depart- 
ment of the University of Melbourne. 

Specimens Dredged in the Inner Waters of Port Phillip ; 
Collection of Sponges made by Mr. J. BRAINBRIDGE 
Witson in Victorian Waters; Collection of Sponge 
Skeletons of Victorian Forms and of Victorian Crustacea 
and Echinodermata made by Mr. A. H. 8. Lucas, B.Sc., 
M.A., F.G.S., and exhibited by the latter on behalf of 
the Port Phillip Biological Exploration Committee of 
the Royal Society. 

Collection of Australian Coleoptera ; Collection of Hum- 
ming Birds; Collection of Rifle Birds, viz., Ptiloris 
Alberti, Ptiloris Paradisea, Ptiloris Victoriae; Cras- 
pedophora Magnifica. By Mr. C. Frencou, F.LS. of 
the Botanical Museum. 

O 


194 Royal Society of Victoria. 


23 Collection of Victorian Marine Polyzoa, and Microscope. 
By Mr. JosEPH GABRIEL. 


4. Pond Life; Fresh Water Polyzoa. By Mr. F. Barnarp. 


. New Geological Map of Australia. Exhibited by Mr. C. 
W. LancTREE, Secretary of the Mining Department. 


a ) 
Or 


26. Map of the Wilson Promontory, showing the area which 
it is proposed to form into a National Park for the 
preservation of the Fauna and Flora of Victoria. 
Contributed by Mr. W. H. Steet, C.E., of the Public 
Works Department. 

27. Geological May of the Wilson Promontory. By the 
Royal Society. 

28. New Chart of the Antarctic Regions. Presented to the 
Royal Society by the Hydrographer to the Admiralty. 

29. Objects collected in New Guinea. Exhibited by Mr. A. 
C. MacponaLp, Hon. Sec. Royal Geographical Society 
of Victoria. 

30. Book entitled, ‘Travels in Siberia, or Official Report of 
the Paris Academy of Science on the Observations of 
the Transit of Venus in 1762.” Exhibited by Mr. 


J. E. PRInceE. 
31. Herbarium. By Baron F. von Muvetier, K.C.M.G., 
E.R.S. 


. Map of the Yan Yean Water Supply System and Photo- 
graphs of some of the works, were exhibited by Mr. 
W. Davipson, C.H., Engineer-in-charge. 


Qo 
bo 


Thursday, December 15th, 1887. 


Present: the President, Professor Kernot, M.A., in the chair, 
and twenty members and associates. 

Mr. Percy Wilkinson was duly elected by ballot as an associate. 

Messrs. James E. Gilbert and R. E. Joseph, were re-elected as 
Auditors. 

The PRESIDENT invited nominations of office-bearers for election 
at the Annual Meeting in March 1888, and in reply to Mr. 
Marks, said that Mr. Newbery hoped to return from Europe and 
take an active part in the work of the Society. 

Four nominations for the Council were received. 

The PresipENT read the reply which had been received to the 
address tendered by the Society to Her Majesty the Queen on the 
occasion of her Jubilee. 


Proceedings, &c., for 1887. 195 


The PreEsIDENT called attention to a specimen of a new and 
interesting acacia, forwarded by Baron von Mueller for the 
inspection of members. 

The PresipENT then read the Progress Report of the Port 
Phillip Biological Survey Committee, and said it was evident that 
the Committee, judging by this very satisfactory report, was 
taking up the matter in a suitable spirit, and intended to do the 
work thoroughly. 

Mr. Exitery moved the adoption of the Report, expressing 
great pleasure at finding that a start had been made at such very 
desirable and useful work. Much had been done by a few 
energetic individuals, such as Dr. McGillivray, Mr. J. Bracebridge 
Wilson, and others. The information collected by them should be 
collated by the Committee in a permanent form. He hoped to 
see the results in the Transactions before long. Mr. Rosales 
seconded the motion. 

At the invitation of the President, Professor Spencer on the 
part of the Committee, gave a short account of the work done. 
It was surprising how much had been done before by individuals. 
Mr. Wilson had a very complete collection of the sponges in the 
bay, which were exhibited at the Conversazione. The biological 
results would appear in the Transactions. The motion for the 
adoption of the report was then put and carried. 

The Lisprarian reported the receipt of 85 new scientific 
publications. 

The discussion on Mr. G. R. B. Steane’s paper was then resumed. 

At Mr. Evtery’s suggestion, Mr. Steane gave a resumé of the 

paper “ On Rainfall and Flood Discharge,” which was read at the 
last meeting. (See Transactions, Art. XIV.) 
- Mr. ELiery pointed out the great importance of the question, 
as regards roads, drainage, and water conservation. Mr. Steane 
had collected a large quantity of exceedingly useful information. 
He had shewn that in districts like Sandhurst, there was little 
soakage ; of other districts, very little was known of the run off, 
or of the differences that took place in the course of the year. 
This could be determined for different classes of soil. A know- 
ledge of the intensity of rain, especially in the towns, is very 
desirable. In Sandhurst, rain had fallen for five minutes at the 
rate of six inches an hour. To learn this important datum, one 
or more self-registering rain gauges should be maintained in 
every borough. The only records at present are at the Observa- 
tory. But a thunderstorm is sometimes only a few yards in 
width, so that rain gauges should be multiplied as much as 
possible, as the engineer should know exactly what he has to 
contend with. He also required to learn the discharge of rivers. 

Mr. Newton C. Jennines, C.E., F.R.LB.A., a visitor for 
whom, at the request of Mr. Ellery, permission was granted to 


OF 


196 Royal Society of Victoria. 


address the meeting, said that being a stranger in Victoria, he 
was diffident in speaking to the question, and regretted that he 
had not heard Mr. Steane’s paper in full. A formula for the run 
off of flood waters would be of great value. To apply it to 
different classes of soil would be difficult; their absorbent qualities 
might, however, be tested. The average and maximum rainfall 
should be ascertained ; when the soil was saturated, the run off 
would be greater. In India, there are large numbers of rain 
gauges, but not enough for satisfactory results. ‘The police are 
found the most reliable persons to have charge of them. The- 
gauges should be exactly alike, and the same height from the 
ground. It towns where the absorption was at a minimum, about 
80 per cent. of the run off was generally provided for. 

Mr. Evtery said it was certain, though unexplained, that 
gauges registered more the nearer the ground, irrespective of 
splash, for it decreased up to 30 feet, although not so much in dry 
seasons. 

Mr. Wuite thought the subject could scarcely be treated 
scientifically. If a formula were found applicable now, it may 
not be so in say 20 years, as physical and atmospherical conditions 
change, and the removal of forests would produce a difference. 

Mr. JENNINGS said the methods of measuring the discharge of 
rivers was very defective. It was recently proposed to divert the 
main river at Rangoon. He took the discharge with floats, and 
with electric gauges, and at various depths he found great differ- 
ences. He thought the electric gauges were the best, as they 
could be applied at any part of the section of the river. 

Mr. Euuery thought the method employed here was very 
imperfect ; obstructions and friction had to be taken into account. 

Mr. Sreane described the method used by him. 

The PresIDENT said the discussion illustrated well the peculiar 
position of engineers. They have to estimate on wretchedly 
inadequate data, for the expenditure of millions. He had to leap 
in the dark and hope for the best. Superfluous millions are spent 
on some bridges and culverts, and yet occasionally an accident 
like that at Cootamundra occurs. Men of experience in South- 
east Australia allow 40 square feet to the square mile of catchment, 
and they appear to be about right. But some formula is urgently 
required, and it is to be hoped that Mr. Steane will continue 
his important work of collecting data. A law can only be deduced 
from an abundance of facts. 

Baron voN MvuELLER’s ‘ Description of some Papuan Plants,” 
was accepted as read, being purely technical. (See Transactions, 
Articles XVII. and XVIIL.>) 

A paper “On the Production of the Tides Mechanically 
Considered,” by Mr. T. Waxketin, B.A., of Greytown, N.Z., was 
then read by the President. (See Transactions, Art. XIX.) 


Proceedings, &c., for 1887. 197 


Mr. WHITE said it was impossible to treat the tides dynamically. 
The best mathematicians had tackled the subject, but it was still 
said that the dynamical theory was a disgrace to science. The 
tides at the Port Phillip Heads differed from the Admiralty tables 
by four hours. 

Mr. Extery said that Mr. Wakelin in all his papers started a 
speculation, but went no further. 

Dr. Wixp noticed that Mr. Wakelin stated that he had a 
difficulty in obtaining books to consult. That partly accounted 
for his inability to conceive how the small moon could raise the 
waters of the ocean against the attraction of the earth. 

After a few more remarks the discussion terminated. 


REPORT OF THE PORT PHILLIP BIO- 
LOGICAL SURVEY COMMITTEE, 


Presented and read on 15th December, 1887. 


W. M. Bats, F.R.M.S. P. H. McGiitvray, M.R.C.S. 
Rev. A. W. CressweLt, M.A. | W. Batpwin Spencer, B.A. 
A. H. S. Lucas, M.A., B.Sc. | C. A. Topp, M.A., F.LS. 

J. BRACEBRIDGE Witson, M.A. 


REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE APPOINTED BY THE 
ROYAL SOCIETY OF VICTORIA TO INITIATE A 
BIOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PORT PHILLIP. 


Your Committee have held four meetings, on July 30, August 19, 
September 30, and November 28. 

At the first meeting, all the members being present except Mr. 
Bale, whose duties detained him, the objects to be aimed at by 
the Committee were more precisely defined. It was resolved : 
J. That a catalogue of the existing literature relating to the 
fauna and flora of Port Phillip be compiled, and that annual 
additions should be made of such similar publications as shall 
appear in each succeeding year. It was decided that by Port 
Phillip should be indicated the salt waters inside of a straight 
line joining Point Lonsdale to Point Nepean. That the 


198 Royal Society of Victoria. 


systematic survey should be limited to Port Phillip as thus 
defined, but that any results of scientific value which can be 
obtained in other Victorian seas should be, as far as possible, 
recorded. The work of compilation of existing books and papers 
bearing on the living forms of Port Phillip, &c., was divided 
amongst the Members of the Committee. 


II. That Port Phillip be divided into a number of littoral 
and marine stations to be determined from the charts, and that 
the stations be numbered, and the life-forms of each explored 
under the direction of the Committee. 


Ill. That a base catalogue of the plants and animals found 
living in Port Phillip should be prepared, each species to have 
appended to it the numbers of all the stations from which it is 
recorded. 

IV. That an extended catalogue of the plants and animals 
should also be prepared, and that under the heading of each species 
all particulars observed concerning its life, history, associations, 
and commercial value, be inserted. 


V. That the specimens obtained should be submitted for 
identification to competent scientists, in order to secure as far as 
possible absolute accuracy in the published records. 


VI. That the Committee shall arrange, as opportunity arises, 
for the investigation of such biological questions as may be 
suggested by the material acquired. 


VII. That the Committee shall, from time to time, furnish the 
Royal Society with reports of the results of their work. 

Your Committee decided to ask the Council for a grant of £50, 
in aid of their researches, and acknowledge with gratitude the 
generous spirit in which their request was granted. 

Mr. A. H. 8. Lucas was appointed Honorary Secretary and 
Treasurer of the Committee. 

It was decided that, pro tempore, the specimens obtained should 
be kept at the University, under the care of Professor Spencer and 
the Hon. Secretary. 

A large order for spirit and for jars, bottles, and preservative 
re-agents, was given to Messrs. Felton, Grimwade and Co., and 
the Committee have to acknowledge the kindness of Mr. HK. Bage, 
a Member of the Council, in aiding them greatly in their selection. 

A first list of thirty-two stations was carefully drawn up by 
the Committee, the outer ones in accordance with the extensive 
previous experience of Mr. Bracebridge Wilson. 

Three dredging excursions have already been made to the inner 
stations, viz., to Hobson’s Bay, Laverton Bay, and Brighton, and 
some shore work has also been done by the members. Arrange- 
ments have been made for an early visit to Geelong, and the outer 
stations of the Bay will receive attention during the summer 


199 Proceedings, &e., for 1887. 


months. Mr. Wilson has been having his yacht repaired, and 
will continue his work in this field in the ensuing vacation. 


A large number of animal specimens have been obtained, and 
will be exhibited at the general Conversazione. Great care has 
been exercised in preserving them in such a condition that they 
shall be fit for histological as well as for zoological examination. 
Several interesting lunicates, annelids, and alcyonatians have been 
taken. Mr. Wilson has recorded Amphioxus from the South 
Channel, and Mr. Lucas is engaged on a careful comparison of 
this indigenous specimen with the European form. TZ'rigonia has 
been found in Laverton Bay. 

Some of the number of our active workers took part in the 
King’s Island Expedition of the Field Naturalists’ Club. This to 
a certain extent deferred work in the Bay. ; 

Your Committee have much pleasure in announcing that records 
of the work done previously on the sponges by Mr. Wilson will 
pass through their hands, Mr. Wilson having forwarded to 
the University Biological School, through your Committee, the 
whole of his fine and well-preserved collection. 

The Committee is in communication with several eminent 
specialists in England and in the colonies, in order to secure their 
services in the identification of species. 

In reviewing the work done, the Committee would point out 
that the preliminary arrangement of necessity involved much care 
and time, but they trust that the lines on which the survey has 
been inaugurated are broad and scientific, and that the results 
obtained will, in consequence, be easily classified, and of more than 
local value. It is, of course, during the summer vacation that 
most of the members of your Committee are more free from 
professional engagements, and we hope to be able to devote much 
more time accordingly to the survey, with which the Royal Society 
have entrusted us. 


Signed on behalf of the Committee, 


A. H. 8. LUCAS, 
29th November, 1887. ‘ Hon. Sec. 


The collections of specimens of Sponges dredged in the inner 
waters of Port Phillip, by Mr. J. Bracebridge Wilson, M.A. ; of 
Victorian Forms of Sponge Skeletons, and of Victorian Crustacea 
and Echinodermata, by Mr. A. H.S. Lucas, M.A., B.Sc., formed a 
prominent and interesting portion (No. 21 in list) of the objects 
exhibited in the large hall of the Athenzum at the Conversazione 
on the 9th December. 


Pht FOLGE 


MEMBERS 


OF 


Ghe Roval Society of Victoria. 


PATRON. 
Loch, His Excellency Sir Henry Brougham, K.C.B., &., &e. 


Lire MEMBERS. 


Bage, Edward, jun., Esq., Redan-street, East St. Kilda. 

Barkly, His Excellency Sir Henry, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., Carlton 
Club, London. 

Bosisto, Joseph, Esq., C.M.G., M.L.A., Richmond. 

Butters, J. S., Esq., Collins-street West. 


Eaton, H. F., Esq., Treasury, Melbourne. 
Elliot, T. 8., Esq., Railway Department, Spencer-street. 
Elliott, Sizar, Esg., 18 Malvern-road, Prahran. 


Gibbons, Sidney W., Esq., F.C.S., care of Mr. Lewis, Chemist 
Collins-street East. 
Gilbert, J. E., Esq., Money Order Office, G.P.O. Melbourne. 


Higinbotham, His Honour Chief Justice, Supreme Court. 
Howitt, Edward, Esq., Rathmines-road, Auburn. 


Mueller, Baron F. Von, K.C.M.G., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., Arnold- 
street, South Yarra. _ 


Nicholas, William, Esq., F.G.8., Melbourne University. 
Nicholson, Germain, Esq., Domain-street, South Yarra. 


Reed, Joseph, Esq., 9 Elizabeth-street South. 
Rusden, H. K., Esq., 75 Greville-street, Prahran. 


White, E. J., Esq., F.R.A.S., Melbourne Observatory. 
Wilson, Sir Samuel, Knt., Oakleigh Hall, East St. Kilda. 


202 Royal Socrety of Victoria. 


ORDINARY MEMBERS. 


Allan, Alexander C., Esq., Fitzroy-street, St. Kiida. 

Allan, M. J., Esq., 268 Smith-street, Collingwood. 

Allen, W. W., Esq., Wellington-street, Kew. 

Anderson, Major J. A., Melbourne Club. 

Andrew, Professor H. M., M.A., Melbourne University. 

Archer, W. H., Esq., F.LS., F.LA., J.P., Maryvale, Upper 
Hawthorn. 


Baker, F. H., Esq., Bridge-road, Richmond. 

Ball, W. , Esq. OL Bourke-street East. 

Barnard, E, , Esq., Kew. 

Barnes, Benjamin, Esq., Queen’s Terrace, South Melbourne. 

Beaney, Hon. J. G., M.D., M.R.1.A., F.R.C.S. Ed., Collins-street 
East. 

Bear, J. P., Esq., 834 Collins-street West. 

Beckx, Gustave, Esq., 58 Punt-road, South Yarra. 

Behrendt, P., Esq., C.H., 35 Queen-street. 

Bennetts, W. R., Esq., 180 Brunswick-street, Fitzroy. 

Blackett, C. R., Esq., F.C.S., 10 Burlington Terrace, Lansdowne- 
street, Hast Melbourne. 

Bradley, R. 8., Esq., Queen’s College, Barkly-street, St. Kilda. 


Campbell, F. A., Esq., C.E., Working Men’s College, Latrobe- 
street. 

Chapman, Jas., Esq., Beemery Park, Caulfield. 

Clarke, George Payne, Esq., F. C. S., Apollo Candle Works, 
Footscray. 

Clendinnen, Dr. F., Malvern-road, pee 

Cohen, J oseph B., Esq. ., A.R.I.B.A., Public Works Department, 
Melbourne. 

Cohen, J., Esq., M.R.C.V.S., Tattersall’s Bazaar, Exhibition-st. 

Cornell, Henry, Esq., Barkly-square, East Richmond, 36 Collins- 
street West. 

Corr, J. R., Esq., M.A., Holstein House, Murphy-street, South 
Yarra. 

Culcheth, W. W., Esq., F.R. Met. Soc., 31 Temple Court, 86 wer 
street West. 


Daley, W. J., Esq., St. Kilda-street, Elsternwick. 

Danks, John, Esq., 42 Bourke-street West. 

Davidson, William, Esq., C.E., Melbourne Water Supply Office. 
Davy, J. W., Esq., 61 Bourke-street Hast. 

Derham, Hon. Fred. J., 4 Queen-street. 

Deverell, Spencer R., Esq., 264 Alexandra-parade, North Fitzroy. 
Duerdin, James, Esq., LL.B., 105 Collins-street West. 

Dunn, Frederick, Esq., Little Flinders-street West. 


List of Members. 203 


Ellery, R. L. J., Esq., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., &c., Melbourne Observa- 
tory. 


Fitzpatrick, Rev. J., D.D., Archbishop’s Palace, East Melbourne. 
Foord, Geo., Esq., F.C.S., Royal Mint, Melbourne. 
Fox, W., Esq., Robe-street, St. Kilda. 


Goldstein, J. R. Y., Esq., Office of Titles. 

Gotch, J. 8., Esq., 236 Albert-street, Hast Melbourne. 

Griffiths, G. S., Esq., F.G.S., Garrosky, Domain-road, South 
Yarra, 22 Collins-street West. 

Grut, Percy de Jersey, Esq., E. 8. & A. C. Bank, Collins-street 
West. — 


Halley, Rev. J. J., St. Helen’s Road, Upper Hawthorn. 
Heffernan, E. B., Esq., M.D., Brunswick-street, Fitzroy. 
Henderson, A. M., Esq., C.E., 9 Elizabeth-street South. 
Henry, Louis, Esq., M.D., Sydney-road, Brunswick. 

Hewlett, T., Esg., M.R.C.8., Nicholson-street, Fitzroy. 

Hicks, Johnson, Esq., Office of Patents, Melbourne. 
Hubbard, J. Reynolds, Esq., 3 Market-street, Melbourne. 
Hull, W. Bennett, Esa., 70 Temple-court, Collins-street West. 


Inskip, Geo. C., Esq., F.R.I.B.A., 5 Collins-street East. 


Jackson, A. H., Esq., B.Sc., F.C.S., College of Pharmacy, Swanston- 
street. 

James, HE. M., Esq., M.R.C.S., Collins-street East. 

Jamieson, James, Esq., M.D., 129 Collins-street Hast. 

Joseph, R. E., Hsq., Electric Light Company, Sandridge-road, 
Melbourne. 


Kendall, W.T., Esq., M.R.C.V.S., Veterinary Institute, Brunswick. 
Kernot, Professor W. C., M.A., C.E., Melbourne University. 


Le Fevre, G., Esq., M.D., M.L.C., 93 Collins-street East. 

Lewis, J. B., Esq., Alexandra House, Brougham-st., Hotham Hill. 

Lillis, J. D., Esq., 129 Victoria-street, North Melbourne. 

Lilly, Arnold, Esq., 221 Albert-read, South Melbourne. 

Lucas, A. H. S., Esq., B.Sc. M.A., F.G.S., 5 Angelo-street, 
South Yarra. ; 

Lucas, William, Esq., 3 Queen’s Terrace, St. Kilda-road. 

Lynch, William, Esq., St. James’ Buildings, William-street. 


M‘Coy, Professor F., F.R.S., Melbourne University. 

M‘Petrie, A., Esq., Rouse-street, Port Melbourne. 

Macdonald, A. C., Esq., 15 Market Buildings, Collins-street West. 
Main, Thomas, Esq., City Surveyor’s Office, Melbourne. 

Manton, C. A., Esq., The Treasury. 

Marks, Edward Lloyd, Esq., F.C.8., Waverley Hotel, Collins-place. — 


204 Royal Society of Victoria. 


Masson, Professor D, O., M.A., Melbourne University. 

Moerlin, C., Esq., Melbourne Observatory. 

Moloney, Patrick, Esq., M.B., Collins-street East, Melbourne. 
Moors, H., Esq., Chief Secretary’s Office, Melbourne. 

Morley, J. L., Esq., Glenville House, Drummond-street, Carlton. 
Muntz, T. B., Esq., C.E., 41 Collins-street West. 


Nanson, Professor E. J., M.A., Melbourne University. 

Neild, J. E., Esq., M.D., Bilton House, 17 Spring-street. 
Newbery, J. Cosmo, Esq., B.Sc., C.M.G., Technological Museum. 
Noone, J., Esq., Lands Department. 


Phelps, J. J., Esq., Melbourne Club. 

Pickells, W. E., Esq., F.R.M.S., 33 Flinders-street West. 
Ploos van Amstel, Jonkheer Daniel, 49 Collins-street West. 
Prince, J., Esq., Henry-street, Windsor. 


Ralph, Dr. T. 8., care of Rev. Mr. Appleton, Queensberry-street, 
Carlton. 

Rennick, Charles, Esq., Ajmere, Shipley-street, South Yarra. 

Rennick, Francis, Esq., Railway Department, Melbourne. 

Ridge, Samuel H., Esq., B.A., 188 Victoria Parade, East Melb. 

Rosales, Henry, Esq., F.G.S., Alta Mira, Grand View Grove, 
Armadale. 

Rowan, Captain EF. C., 29 Queen-street. 

Rowand, C., Esq., Town Hall, Prahran. 

Rudall, J. T., Esq., F.R.C.S., corner of Spring and Collins-streets. 

Rule, O. R., Esq., Technological Museum, Melbourne. 


Sargood, Hon. F. T., M.L.C., Elsternwick. 

Sayce, O. A., Esq., Austral Vinegar Works, St. Kilda-road. 

Selby, G. W., jun., Esq., 194 Fraser’s Buildings, Queen-street. 

Shaw, Thomas, Esq., Woorywyrite, Camperdown. 

Skene, A. J., Esq., M.A., Lands Department. 

Spencer, Professor W. Baldwin, B.A., Melbourne University. 

Springhall, John A., Esq., General Post Office. 

Smith, Bruce, Esq., 18 Market Buildings, Market-street. 

Steane, G. R. B., Esq., C.E., Cunningham-street, Northcote. 

Steel, W. H., Esq., C.£., Public Works Department, Treasury 
Gardens. 

Stirling, James, Esq., F.L.8., Mining Department, Melbourne. 

Sutherland, Alex., Esq., M.A., Carlton College, Royal Park. 

Sweet, Geo., Esq., Wilson-street, Brunswick. 


Talbot, Robert, Esq., M.D., Brunswick. 

Temperley, J. R., isq., C.E., Barkly-street, St. Kilda. 

Thomson, Wm. K., Esq., Bowbell Terrace, Station-street, Carlton. 

Tisdall, H. T., Esq., F.L.8., Bruton House, Kerferd-road, Albert 
Park. 

Topp, C. A., Esq., M.A., LL.B., F.L.S., Pakington-street, Kew, 


List of Members. 205 


Vale, Hon. W. M. K., 13 Selborne Chambers, Chancery-lane. 
Vautin, Claude T. E; Esq., care of J. N. Wallace, Esq., 52 
Bourke-street East. 


Wagemann, Captain C., 40 Elizabeth-street. 

Wallis, A. R., Esq., Woodford, Chapman-street, Hotham. 
Wannar, Alex. C., Esq., City Road, South Melbourne. 

Way, A. S., Esq., M.A., Wesley College. 

Welshman, Wm., Esq., Holcomb Terrace, Drummond-st., Carlton. 
Whitley, David, Esq., Murphy-street, South Yarra, 

Wigg, Henry C., Esq., M.D., F.R.C.8S., Lygon-street, Carlton. 
Wight, Gerard, Esq., Phoenix Chambers, Market-street. 

Wild, Dr. J. J., Ormond House, 112 Drummond-street, Carlton. 
Willmott, W. C., Esq., Lloyd’s Rooms, Collins-street West. 
Wilson, James, Esq., 10 Johnston-street, Collingwood. 

Wilson, J. 8., Esq., Pottery Works, Yarraville. 

Woods, Hon. John, M.L.A., Spottiswoode. 

Wyatt, Alfred, Esq., P.M., Yorick Club. 


Country MEMBERS. 


Bechervaise, W. P., Esq., Post Office, Ballarat. 
Bland, R. H., Esq., Clunes. 
Browning, J. H., Esq., M.D., Quarantine Station, Portsea. 


Chesney, Charles Alfred, Esq., C.E., Tindarey Station, Cobar, 
Bourke, N.S.W., and Australian Club, Melbourne. 

Clough, C. F., Esq., A.M.I.C.E., Engineer-in-Chief’s Office, 
Adelaide, S.A. 

Conroy, James Macdowall, Esq., Wingham, Manning River, New 
South Wales. 


Davies, D. M., Esq., M.L.A., Parliament House, Melbourne. 
Dawson, J., Esq., Rennyhill, Camperdown. 
Dennant, J., Esq., F.G.S., Castlemaine. 


Field, William Graham, Esq., C. Ee Railway Engineer-in-Chief’s 
Department, 1] Melbourne. 
Fowler, Thomas Walker, Esq., C.E., P Mecoke street, Hawthorn. 


Godfrey, F. R., Esq., Pevensey, Hay, N.S.W. 
Gregson, W. H., Esq., Sale. 


‘Henderson, J. B., Esq., Water Supply Department, Brisbane. 
Howitt, A. W., Esq., P.M., F.G.S., Sale. 
Hunt, Robert, Esq., Royal Mint, Sydney. 


Jones, J. J., Esq., Ballarat. 
Keogh, Laurence F., Esq., Brucknell Banks, Cobden. 


206 Royal Socrety of Victoria, 


Loughrey, B., Esq., M.A., C.E., City Surveyor, Wellington, New 
Zealand. . 
Luplau, W., Esq., Lydiard-street, Ballarat. 


McClelland, D. C., Esq., State School, Buninyong. 
MacGillivray, P. H., Hsq., M.A., M.R.C.S. Ed., Sandhurst, 
Manns, G. 8., Esq., Leneva, near Wodonga. 

Manson, Donald, Esq., Elgin-buildings, Sydney. 

Moffat, W. T., Esq., Romsey. 

Munday, J., Esq., care of J. Hood, Esq., Exchange, Melbourne. 
Murray, Stewart, Esq., C.E., Kyneton. 

Myles, Dr., Winchelsea. 


Naylor, John, Esq., Stawell. 


Oddie, James, Esq., Dana-street, Ballarat. 
Oliver, C. E., Esq., C.E., Yarra Flats. 


Powell, Water D. T., Esq., Harbour Department, Brisbane, 
Queensland. 


Richards, C. H., Esq., School of Mines, Sandhurst. 


Stuart, Rev. J. A., B.A., Harkaway, near Berwick. 
Sutton, H., Esq., Sturt-street, Ballarat. 


Vickery, 8S. K., Esq., Ararat. 


Wakelin, T., Esq., B.A., Greytown, Wellington, New Zealand. 

Wall, John, Esq., Town Hall, Sebastopol, Ballarat. 

Williams, Rev. W., Pleasant-street, Ballarat. 

Wilson, J. B., Esq., M.A., Church of England Grammar School, 
Geelong. 


Wooster, W. H., Esq., Bolwarrah. 


CoRRESPONDING MEMBERS. 


Bailey, F. M., Esq., The Museum, Brisbane. 

Clarke, Hyde, Esq., 32 St. George’s Square, London, 8. W. 

Etheridge, Robert, Esq., jun., F.G.S., Department of Mines, 
Sydney. 

Stirton, James, Esq., M.D., F.L.S., 15 Newton-street, Glasgow. 

Ulrich, Professor G. H. F., F.G.8., Dunedin, Otago, N.Z. 

Wagner, William, Esq., LL.D., Philadelphia, U.S.A. 

Woods, Rev. Julian E. Tenison, F.G.S., Union Club, Sydney. 


HonorARY MEMBERS. 


Clarke, Colonel Sir Andrew, K.C.M.G., C.B., C.I.E., London. 
Goepper, H. R., Esq., M.D., Ph.D. 
Neumeyer, Professor George, Ph.D., Hamburg. 


List of Members. 207 


Perry, Right Rev. Charles, D.D., Avenue-road, London. 
Scott, Rev. W., M.A., Kurrajong Heights, N.S.W. 
Todd, Charles, Esq., C.M.G., F.R.A.S., Adelaide, S.A. 
Verbeek, Dr. R. D. M., Buitenzorg, Batavia, Java. 


ASSOCIATES. 


Anderson, D., Esq., Fair View, Stawell. 

Askew, David C., Esq., C.E., 43 Bourke-street West. 

Bage, C., Esq., M.D., 81 Toorak-road, South Yarra. 

Bage, W., Esq., C.E., Fulton-street, St. Kilda. 

Bale, W. M., Esq., Walpole-street, Hyde Park, Kew. 

Baracchi, Pietro, Esq., Melbourne Observatory. 

Blackburn, J., Esq., 140 Fitzroy-street, Fitzroy. 

Booth, John, Esq., C.E., Rennie-street, Coburg. 

Brockenshire, W. H., Esq., C.E., Railway Department, Yea. 

Brownscombe, W. J., Esq., Bridge Road, Richmond. 

Challen, Peter R. , Esq. , Post Ottice, Talbot. 

Champion, H. V., Esq., Council Chambers, Williamstown. 

Chapman, Robert W., Esq., Lincoln-street, Richmond. 

Chase, L. H., Hsq., Queensberry-street, Carlton, or Railway 
Department, Selborne Chambers. 

Clark, Lindesay, Esq., Main Camp, Yarra Flats. 

Cole, J as. F'., Esq., 194 Fraser’s Buildings, Queen Street. 

Colvin, Owen F., Esq., Melbourne University. 

Conley, H., Esq., Union Bank of Australia, Collins-street West. 

Creswell, Rev. A. W., St. John’s Parsonage, Camberwell. 

Crouch, C. F. Esq., 7 Darling-street, South Yarra. 

Danks, A. T., Esq., 42 Bourke-street West. 

Dawson, W.8., Esq., Runnymede, Essendon. 

Dunlop, G. H., Esq., 60 Montague-street, South Melbourne. 

Edwards, J. E., Esq., Colonial Telegraph Exchange, 133 Little 
Collins Street East. 

Fenton, J. J., Esq., Office of Government Statist. 

Finney, W. H., Esq., 81 Graham-street, Port Melbourne. 

Fletcher, R. E., Esq., 2 Exchange Court, Princes-st., Dunedin, N.Z. 

Fraser, J. H., Esq., Railway Department. 

Gabriel, J., Esq., Simpson’s Road, Collingwood. 

Gaunt, Thos., 14 Bourke-street East. 

Grant, A. M., Esq., Kerferd-road, Albert Park. 

Guilfoyle, W. R., Esq., F.L.8., Botanical Gardens. 

Haig, R. G., Esq., 23 Market-street. 

Harding, F., Esq., 28 Little Flinders-street West. 

Hart, Ludovic, Esq., 109 Hlizabeth-street. 

Holmes, W. A., Esq., Telegraph Engineers’ Office, Railway 
Department, Spencer-street. 

Horsley, Sydney, Esq., Melbourne University. 


208 Royal Society of Victoria. 


Howden, J. M., Esq., 46 Elizabeth-street. 

Irvine, W. H., Esg., Selborne Chambers, Chancery-lane. 

Jackson, F. C., Esq., 47 Great Davis-street, South Yarra. 

Kernot, Frederick A., Esq., Royal Park, Hotham. 

Kirkland, J. B., Esq., Lygon-street, North Carlton. 

Lindsay, James, Esq., 172 Bouverie-street, Carlton. 

Lucas, T. P., Esq., M.R.C.8., Belgrave-street, Brisbane. 

Maclean, C. W., Esq., Walsh-street, South Yarra. 

Magee, W. 8S. T., Esq., Toorak-road, South Yarra. 

Maplestone, C. M., Esq., Princes-street, Kew. 

Matthews, Richard, Esq., Errebendery, Hanabalong, N.S.W., wé 
Hillston. 

Mills, H. W., Esq., Glan-y-mor, Brighton. 

Moors, E. M., Esg., University, Sydney. 

Murray, L. L., Esq., West Beach, St. Kilda. 

Murray, T., Esq., C.E., Victoria Water Supply Department. 

Newham, Arthur, Esq., B.A., Trinity College, Melbourne. 

Outtrim, Frank Leon, Esq., Morris-street, Williamstown. 

Parry, E. W., Sydney-road, Carlton. 

Paul, A. W. L., Esq., Railway Works, Stratford, Gippsland. 

Phillips, A. E., Esq., 29 Perth-street, Prahran. 

Porter, Thomas, Esq., M.D., 2 Royal Villas, Victoria Parade. 

Pringle, G. A. M., Esq., Melbourne Observatory. 

Quarry, Herbert, Esq., Alma Cottage, Macaulay-road, Kensington. 

Rennick, E. C., Esq., Mont Albert Road, Balwyn. 

Rennick, W. R., Esq., Denham-street, Hawthorn. 

Schafer, R., Esq., 17 Union-street, Windsor. 

Shaw, A. G., Esq., Shire Hall, Bairnsdale. 

Shaw, E., Esq., 5 Lydia Terrace, Moor-street, Fitzroy. 

Slater, H. A., Esq., 121 Collins-street West. 

Smibert, G., Esq., General Post: Office. 

Smith, Alex. C., 90 Cecil-street, South Melbourne. 

Smith, B. A., Esq., Imperial Chambers, Bank-place, Collins-st. W. 

Smith, HE. L., Esq., Hazelhurst, George-street, Kast Melbourne. 

Steane, W. P., Esq., 63 Park-street West, South Melbourne. 

Stewart, C., Hsq., 9 Murphy-street, South Yarra. 

Taylor, Norman, Esq., Studley Park Terrace, Simpson’s-road, 
Richmond. 

Thompson, J. J., Hisq., 11 Bouverie-street, Carlton. 

Thorne, T. Rhymer, Esq., General Post Office. 

Tyers, A., Esq., C.H., 3 St. James’ Buildings, William-street. 

Walsh, Fred. 5 LOC 6 Bridge-street, Sydney. 

Wilkinson, A. Percy, Esq., Mount Zion, Broken Hill, N. S.W. 

Williams, Gy. , Esq., C.E. , Queenscliff, 

Wilson, i ames, Esq., Belmont, 10 Johnston-street, Collingwood. 

Wills, Arthur, Esq., Camelon, Ascot Vale Road, Ascot Vale. 

Wing, Joseph, Esq., 33 Wellington-street, Collingwood. 


LIST OF THE INSTITUTIONS AND LEARNED 
SOCIETIES THAT RECEIVE COPIES OF THE 
“TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE 


ROYAL SOCIETY OF VICTORIA.” 


ENGLAND. 


Agent-General of Victoria 
Anthropological Institute 

Bodleian Library 

Botanical Gardens 

British Museum Sane 
Colonial Office Library ... 

“ Hlectrician ” 3: 

Foreign Office Library 

Geological Society 

Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers 
Institution of Civil Engineers 
Linnean Society 

Literary and Philosophical Society 
Natural History Museum Ci 
Naturalist’s Society 

“« Nature ” 

Owen’s College Library 
Philosophical Society 

Royal Asiatic Society 

Royal Astronomical Society 

Royal Colonial Institute .. 

Royal Geographical Society 

Royal Microscopical Rociety 

Royal Society ... 

Statistical Society 

University Library 


ScoTLAND. 


Botanical Society 
Geological Society 
Royal Observatory 
Royal Physical Society 


London 
London 
Oxford 

Kew 
London 
London 
London 
London 
London 


Niaweasnle 


London 
London 
Liverpool 
London 
Bristol 
London 
Manchester 
Cambridge 
London 
London 

. London 
. London 
London 
London 
London 


. Cambridge 


Edinburgh 

Edinburgh 

Edinburgh 

Edinburgh 
P ss 


210 Royal Society of Victoria. 


Royal Society ... 

Royal Scottish Society of Arts 
Scottish Geographical Society 
University Library 
University Library 


TRELAND. 


Natural History and Philosophical ee 26 
Royal Dublin Society Ee 
Royal Geological Society 

Royal Irish Academy . 

Trinity College Library .. 


GERMANY. 


Gartenbauverein 

Grossh. Hessische Geologische Anstalt 

Konigl. Botanische Gesellschaft 

Konigl. Offentl. Bibliothek 3 

Konigl. Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften 
Konigl. Sachs Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften 
Konig]. Societat der Wissenschaften 

Nat urforschende Gesellschaft 

Naturforschende Gesellschaft 

Naturforschende Gesellschaft 

Naturhistorisch Medizinischer Verein 
Naturhistorische Gesellschaft 
Naturhistorisches Museum 

Naturhistorisches Museum 
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein 
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein... 
Oberhessische Gesellschaft fiir Natur & Heilleande 
Schlesische Gesellschaft fiir Vaterland. Cultur. 
Verein fiir Klkunde ee 

Verein fiir Erdkunde .... see 

Verein fiir Naturkunde .,, 


AUSTRIA. 


K. K. Akademie der Wissenschaften 
K. K. Geologische Reichsanstalt 

K. K. Geographische Gesellschaft ... 
K. K. Naturhistorisches Hofmuseum 
Imperial Observatory 


Edinburgh 
Edinburgh 
Edinburgh 
Edinburgh 


... Glasgow 


Belfast 
Dublin 
Dublin 
Dublin 
Dublin 


Darmstadt 
Darmstadt 
Regensburg 
. Dresden 
Berlin 
Leipzig 
Gottingen 
Emden 
Halle 
Leipzig 


Heidelberg 


. Hanover 
Hamburg 

. Hanover 
Bremen 
Frankfurt 
Giessen 
Breslau 
Darmstadt 
Halle 
Kassel 


Wien 
Wien 
Wien 
Wien 
Prague 


Inst of Institutions, ée. 211 


SWITZERLAND. 
Geographische Gesellschaft aS a4 .. Berne 
Geogr. Commerc. Gesellschaft . pe? St. Gallen 
Geoor. Commerc. Gesellschaft se ; fe Aarau 
Bele civerische Naturforschende (ecolaclixehe: fr3 Berne 
Société de Physique et d’Histoire Naturelle ... ... Geneve 
FRANCE. 
Académie des Sciences et Belles-Lettres et Arts Ne Lyon 
Société Académique Indo—Chinoise a AP Paris 
Société de Géographie _... pe is ote Paris 
Société Geologique de France ae ee .2 Paris 
ITALY. 
Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale Vittorio Emanuele ai Roma 
British and American Archeological Society 22) SEvOnie 
Museo di Zoologia ed Anatomia Comp., R. Universita Torino 
Ministero dei Lavori Pubblici ms oe ws Roma 
Reale Academia di Scienze Bas ... Palermo 
Reale Academia di Scienze, Lettre Ed Arti .... ee Lucea 
Regia Academia di Sas Lettere ed Axi ... ... Modina 
Socisté Geografica Italiana Hs Rae Roma 
Societa eine di Scienze Nacorali: S%e ALS Pisa 


SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 


Real Academia de Ciencias Exactas, Fisicas y Naturales Madrid 
Sociedade de Geographia ae oa oe yo LES On 


HoLLAND AND BELGIUM. 


Académie Royale de Belgique i Bruxelles 
Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Weten- 
schappen ... a tee ae ... Batavia 
Natural Science Society . e axe Amsterdam 
Natuurkundig Genootschap tas Gave Groningen 
N ederlandisch Botan. Vereeinging .. ons Nijmegen 
Magnetical and Meteorological Obser vatory ... .. Batavia 
Société Hollandaise des Sciences... es ... Haarlem 
Société Provinciale des Arts et Sciences ae .. Utrecht 


P 2 


212 - Royal Society of Victoria. 


DENMARK, SWEDEN, AND Norway. 


Academie Royale 


Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Belsky an 


pea dee Sciences 


RussiA AND ROUMANTA. 


Institut Météorologique de Roumanie 

Jardin Botanique Impérial e 
Société des Naturalistes de la Nouvelle Russie 
Société Impériale des Naturalistes ... 

Société Imperiale Russe de Géographie 


Inpia AND Mauritius. 
Geological Survey of India 
Madras Literary Society 
Meteorological Society 
Natural History Society 
Royal Bengal Asiatic Society 


CHINA AND JAPAN. 


Astronomical Observatory 


China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society ce 


Imperial University 
Seismological Society of Ji apan 


CANADA. 


Canadian Institute 


Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada 


Royal Society of Canada . os 


UNITED STATES. 


Academy of Natural Sciences 

Academy of Natural Sciences 

Academy of Sciences 

American Academy of Arts and Sciences 
American Geographical Society 


Copenhague 
Kjobenhavn 
Jhristiania 


Bucharest 

St. Petersburg 
Odessa 
Moscow 

St. Petersburg 


Caleutta 
Madras 
...Mauritius 
Bombay 

. Calcutta 


Hong Kong 
.. Shanghai 
Tokio 

Tokio 


Toronto 
Ottawa 
.. Montreal 


Davenport 
Philadelphia 
San Francisco 
: Boston 
New York 


List of Institutions, ée. 213 


American Philosophical Society... ~ Philadelphia 
Bureau of Ethnology _... bis 7 Washington 
Colorado Scientific Society .... Denver 
Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science ‘and Art New York 
John Hopkins University oh ai Baltimore 
“‘ Kosmos ” és ae ao San Francisco 
Maryland Historical Society sh sik Baltimore 
Natural Academy of Sciences MS hell Washington 
Office of Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army ah Washington 
Philosophical Society ee ae Washington 
** Science ” teh das ty is New York 
Smithsonian Institute... oe ss Washington 
Society of Natural History yi ‘i ... Boston 
Society of Natural Sciences en rE ... Buffalo 
United States Geological Survey ... ey Washington 
MExIco. , 
Ministerio de Fomento ... .1. . Mexieo 
Observatorio Meteorologico, Magnetico Central ~' ... Mexico 
Observatorio Astronomico National r. ... Tatubaya 
Sociedad de Ingenieros de Jalisco ... sa . Guadalajara 


Secretaria de Fomento .... a ae Guatemala 


ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 


Academia de Ciencias... poe B, ... Cordoba 


AUSTRALASIA.— VICTORIA. 


“Age” ih ae Fs, ie Melbourne 


“ Argus” nas ‘ide ve ae Melbourne 
Atheneum =... is “fe Melbourne 
Astronomical Observatory uae an Melbourne 
Australian Health Society ae si Melbourne 
“ Australian Journal of Pharmacy ” ae Melbourne 
Chief Secretary’s Office... us ~ Melbourne 
Department of Mines and Water Supply a5 Melbourne 
Eclectic Association of Victoria... ts ‘Melbourne 
Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria... Se Melbourne 
Free Library ... ee a. eee ... Echuca 
Free Library ... Le See ee ... Geelong 
Free Library ... a ces Sandhurst 
Geological Society of Australasia A = Melbourne 


German Association fot ber5 Pn Melbourne 


214 — Royal Society of Victoria. 


Medical Society 

Parliamentary Library 

Pharmaceutical Society of Australasia 

Public Library 

Office of the Government Statist 

Royal Geographical me 

School of Mines 

School of Mines 

School of Mines 

University Library be 

Victorian Chamber of Commerce (Manufactures) 
‘Victorian Engineer ” sd 
“‘ Victorian Government Gazette ” 

Victorian Institute of Surveyors 


New SoutH WALES. 


Australian Museum 

Astronomical Observatory 

Linnean Society of New South Wales 
Parliamentary Library BE 
Public Library 

Royal Geographical Society 

Royal Society ... 

Technological Museum 


SoutH AUSTRALIA. 


Parliamentary Library ... =e 
Royal Society of South Australia ... 


QUEENSLAND. 


Parliamentary Library 
Public Library .. 

Royal Geographical Society 
Royal Society of Queensland 


TASMANIA. 


Parliamentary Library 
Public Library .. 
Royal Society of Tasmania 


Melbourne 
Melbourne 
Melbourne 
Melbourne 
Melbourne 
Melbourne 
. Ballarat 


Castlemaine 


Sandhurst 
Melbourne 
Melbourne 
Melbourne 
Melbourne 
Melbourne 


Sydney 
Sydney 
Sydney 
Sydney 
Sydney 
Sydney 
Sydney 
Sydney 


.. Adelaide 


*e. Adelasde 


.. Brisbane 


.. Brisbane 


.. Brisbane 
.. Brisbane 


Hobart 
Hobart 
Hobart 


List of Institutions, &e. 215 


New ZEALAND. 


Auckland Institute and Museum ... Auckland 
Colonial Museum and Geological Survey Department Wellington 
New Zealand Institute ... bss ih Wellington 
Otago Institute red +? aaa ... Dunedin 
Parliamentary Library ... pea : Wellington 
Public Library ie ive e Wellington 


STILLWELL AND CO., PRINTERS, 78 COLLINS STREET EAST, MELBOURNE. 


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