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TRANSACTIONS 


AND 


PROCEEDINGS 


OF    THE 


NEW  ZEALAND  INSTITUTE 

1907 


VOL.    XL 

(TWENTY-SECOND    OF    NEW    SERIES) 


EDITED  AND  PUBLISHED  UNDER  THE  AUTHORITY  OF  THE 
BOARD  OF  GOVERNORS  OF  THE  INSTITUTE 


Issued  June,  1908 


WELLINGTON,    N.Z. 
JOHN    MACKAY,    GOVERNMENT    PRINTING    OFFICE 

KEGAN,  PAUL,  TRENCH,  TRUBNER,  AND  CO.,  PATERNOSTER  HOUSE, 
CHARING  CROSS  ROAD,  LONDON. 


CONTENTS 


TRANSACTIONS. 


I. — Miscellaneous.  pages 

Art.     XII.  Early   Visits   of   the  French   to   New  Zealand. 

By  Dr.  Hocken,  F.L.S.  . .  . .    137-153 

XIII.  The  Passing  of  the  Maori :     An  Inquiry  into 
the  Principal  Causes  of  the  Decay  of  the 
Race.     By  Archdeacon  Walsh    . .  . .    154-175 

XV.  Maori   Forest   Lore  :     Being   some   Account   of 
Native  Forest  Lore  and  Woodcraft,  as  also 
of  many  Myths,  Rites,  Customs,  and  Super- 
stitions connected  with  the  Flora  and  Fauna 
of  the  Tuhoe  or  Ure-wera  District :    Part  I. 
By  Elsdon  Best  . .  . .  . .    185-254 

XXXI.  On  Isogonal  Transformations :     Part  II.      By 

Evelyn  G.  Hogg,  M.A. . .  . .  . .   333-339 

Right-sidedness.     By  Joshua  Rutland  '. .   339-340 

D'Urville's    Exploration    of 
in    1827.     Translated  by   S. 


XXXII 
XL 


XLII. 
XLVI. 

XLIX. 


Captain    Dumont 

Tasman   Bay 

Percy  Smith,  F.R.G.S...  ..  ..416-447 

Metre.     By  Johannes  C.  Andersen     . .  . .   466-485 

The   Struggle  for  Foreign  Trade.     By  H.   W. 

Segar,  M.A.     . .  . .  . .  . .   520-533 

A  Preliminary  Note  of  a  Metaphysical  Research. 

By  Maurice  W.  Richmond,  "B.Sc,  LL.B.  ..   538-540 


II. — Zoology. 

VII.  Recent  Observations  on  New  Zealand  Macro- 
lepidoptera,  including  Descriptions  of  New 
Species.     By  G.  V.  Hudson,  F.E.S.  . .    104-107 

VIII.  Description  of  a  New  Ophiuroid.     By  H.  Far- 

quhar  . .  . .  . .  . .  108 

IX.  A  Heteropterous  Hemipteron  of  New  Zealand. 

By  G.  W.  Kirkaldy       .  .  . .  . .  109 

XVI.  Additions     to     the     New     Zealand     Molluscan 

Fauna.     By  W.  H.  Webster,  B.A.  . .   254-259 

XVII.  The  Bipolar  Theory.     By  H.  Farquhar  . .   259-261 

XVIII.  Notes  on  the  Destruction  of  Kumaras  from  the 
Friendly    Islands    (Tonga),    caused    by   an 
Imported  Weevil,  with  Descriptions  of  the 
Larva,  Pupa,  and  Perfect-  Insect,  &c.     By 
Major  T.  Broun,  F.R.E.S.  . .  . .   262-265 

XIX.  Notice  of  the  Occurrence  of  the  Lesser  Frigate- 
bird  (Fregata  ariel)  in  the  North  Auckland 
District.     By  T.  F.  Cheeseman,  F.L.S.      . .   265-266 


n  < 


}  9 


3  9 

-     --4 


IV 


Contents. 


PAGES 

Vkt.      XX.    Notes    on    the    Occurrence    of    certain    Marine 
/'<  ptilia  in  New  Zealand  Waters.     Bv  T.  F. 
Cheeseman,  F.L.S.         .  .  . .  . .   267-269 

XXII.  Preliminary  Note  on  some  Stages  in  the  De- 
velopment of  a  Polychcete.  By  H.  B.  Kirk. 
M.A...  ..  ..  ..  ..   286-288 

XXXIII.  |A   New    Placostylus   from    New   Zealand.      By 

Henry  Suter    . .  . .  . .  . .    340-343 

XXXIV.  Result   of   Dredging  for   Mollusca  near  Cuvier 

Island,  with  Descriptions  of  New  Species. 

By  Henry  Suter  . .  . .  . .    344-359 

XXXV.   Descriptions   of  New  Species  of  New  Zealand 

Mollusca.     By  Henry  Suter         . .  . .   360-373 

XXXVI.  Notes  on  some  New  Zealand  Marine  Mollusca. 

By  Tom  Iredale  . .  . .  . .   373-387 

XXXVII.  A  Preliminary  List  of  the  Marine  Mollusca  of 

Banks  Peninsula.     By  Tom  Iredale  . .    387-403 

XXXVIII.  List  of  Marine  Molluscs  collected  in  Otago.     By 

Tom  Iredale    .  .  . .  . .  . .    404-410 

XXXIX.   List  of  Marine  Mollusca  from  Lyall  Bay,  near 

Wellington.     By  Tom  Iredale     . .  . .   410-415 

XLIII.  The  Disappearance  of  the  New  Zealand  Birds. 

By  Dr.  R.  Fulton  ..  ..  ..485  500 

XLIV.  The  Little  Barrier  Bird-sanctuary.     By  James 

Drummond,  F.L.S.,  F.Z.S.  . .  '  . .   500-506 

XLVH.  Further    Notes    on     Lepidoptera.     By    George 

Howes,  F.E.S.  . .  . .  .  •   533-534 

XLVIII.   Additional  Notes  on  the  Kea.     By  George  R. 

Marriner,  F.R.M.S.         . .  '   . .  . .    534-537 


III. — Botany. 

1.   Young  Stages  of  Dicksonia  and  Oyathea.     By  G. 

B.  Stephenson,  M.Sc.    . .  . .  . .  1-16 

IIL  The  Development  of  some  New  Zealand  Conifer 
Leaves  with  regard  to  Transfusion  Tissue 
and  to  Adaptation  to  Environment.     By 
Miss  E.  M.  Griffin,  M.A.  . .  . .       43-72 

\  X I .  <  'ontributions  to  a  Fuller  Knowledge  of  the 
Flora  of  New  Zealand  :  No.  2.  By  T.  F. 
Cheeseman,  F.L.S.,  F.Z.S.  ..  ..270-285 

XXIII.  I )escription  of  a  New  Species  of  Veronica  ( Linn. ). 

By  D.  IVtrie.  M.A..  F.L.S.  ..  ..   288-289 

XXIV.  Account  of  a  Visit  to  Mount  Hector,  a   High 

Peak  of  the  Tararuas,  with  List  of  Flower- 
ing-plants.    By  D.  Petrie,  M.A.,  F.L.S.    ..289-304 
XXV.  Some  Hitherto-unrecorded  Plant-habitats  (III). 

By  L.  Cockayne,  Ph.D.  ..  ..304-315 

XXVI.  Notes  on  the  Spread  of  Phytophthora  infestans, 
with  Special  Reference  to  Hybernating 
Mycelium.     By  A.  H.  Cockayne  ..316-320 

XLI.  Notes  on  Botanical  Nomenclature;  with  Re- 
marks on  the  Rules  adopted  by  the  Inter- 
national Botanical  Congress  of  Vienna.  By 
T.  F.  Cheeseman,  F.L.S.,  F.Z.S...  ..   447-465 

XLV.  The  Grasses  of  Tutira.     By  H.  Guthrie-Smith. .   506-519 


Contents. 


IV. — Geology  and  Chemistry. 

Art.         II.  Some   Aspects   of   the   Terrace- development   in 

the  Valleys  of  the  Canterbury  Rivers.     By 

R.  Speight,  M.A.,  B.Sc. 

IV.  Some   Observations  on  the  Schists  of  Central 

Otago.     By  A.  M.  Finlayson,  M.Sc. 

V.  Geologyof  Centre  and  North  of  North  Island. 

By  P.  Marshall,  M.A.,  D.Sc. 
VI.   Fossils'  from  Kakanui.     By  J.  Allan  Thomson, 

B.A.  (Oxon.),  B.Sc. 
\.    The  Scheelite  of  Otago.     Bv  A.  M.  Finlayson, 

M.Sc. 
X  I.  Some  Alkaline  and  Nepheline  Rocks  from  West- 
land.     By  J.  P.  Smith.. 
XIV.  On   a   Soda   Amphibole   Trachyte   from   Cass's 
Peak,    Banks   Peninsula.     By   R.    Speight, 
M.A.,  B.Sc. 
XXVII.  Note  on  the  Gabbro  of  the  Dun  Mountain.     By 

P.  Marshall,  M.A.,  D.Sc. 
XXVIII.  The    Analyses   of    certain    New   Zealand   Meat 
Products.      By     A.     M.     Wright,     F.C.S. 
(Berlin),  M.Am.C.S. 
XXIX.  The    Fixation    of    Atmospheric    Nitrogen    by 
Nitrogen-fixing    Bacteria   in   certain   Solu- 
tions.    By  A.  M.  Wright,  F.C.S.  (Berlin), 
M.Am.C.S. 
XXX.  The  Transformation  of  Barley  into  Malt.     By 
Percy  B.  Phipson,  F.C.S. 


PAGES 

16-43 

72-79 

79-98 

98-103 

110-122 

122-137 

176-184 
320-322 

322-324 

324-326 
326-332 


LIST  OF  PLATES  AT  THE  END  OF  THE  VOLUME. 

To  illustrate 

Plate.  Article 

I-V.  Young  Stages  of  Tree-ferns.— Stephenson      . .  I 

VI-VIIa.  Terrace-development. — Speight         . .  . .  II 

VIII-X.  Leaves  of  Conifers.— Griffin             .  .  . .  Ill 

XI-XII.  Central  Otago  Schists. — Finlayson  . .  . .  IV 

XIII.  Geological  Map. — Marshall               .  .  . .  V 

XIV.  Kakanui  Fossils. — Thomson               . .  . .  VI 
XV.  Macro-lepidoptera. — Hudson               . .  . .  VII 

XVI.  Scheelite. — Finlayson         . .              . .  . .  X 

XVII-XIX.  Rocks  from  Westland.— Smith           . .  . .  XI 

XX-XXI.  M ollusca.—  Webster            ..              ..  ..  XVI 

XXII.  Imported  Weevil.— Broun  . .             .  .  . .  XVIII 

XXIII.  Development  of  Polychcete. — Kirk    . .  . .  XXII 

XXIV.  Right-sidedness.— Rutland                ..  ..  XXXII 
XXV.  New  Placostylus.—STJTER     ..              ..  . .  XXXIII 

XXVI,  XXVII,  XXX.  New  Mollusca.  — Sutep.          ..  ..  XXXIV 

XXVIII-XXX.  New  Mollusca.— Sjjter        ..  ..  XXXV 

XXXI.  New  Mollusca.—  Iredale    . .              . .  . .  XXXVI 

XXXII-XXXIV»  Keas.— Marriner              ..              ..  ,.  XLVIII 


NEW     ZEALAND     INSTITUTE. 


ESTABLISHED  UNDER  AN  ACT  OF  THE  GENERAL  ASSEMBLY  OF  NEW 
ZEALAND  INTITULED  "THE  NEW  ZEALAND  INSTITUTE  ACT,  1867"; 
RECONSTITUTED  BY  AN  ACT  OF  THE  GENERAL  ASSEMBLY  OF  NEW  ZEA- 
LAND   UNDER    "THE    NEW    ZEALAND    INSTITUTE    ACT,    1903." 


Board  of  Governors. 

EX   OFFICIO. 

His  Excellency  the  Governor. 
The  Hon.  the  Colonial  Secretary. 

NOMINATED    BY   THE    GOVERNMENT   UNDER   CLAUSE    4. 

A.  Hamilton  ;    E.  Tregear,  F.R.G.S.  ;    John  Young  ;    J.  W. 

Joynt,  M.A. 

ELECTED    BY   AFFILIATED    SOCIETIES    UNDER   CLAUSE    4. 

Wellington  :  Martin  Chapman,  K.C. ;  Professor  T.  H.  Easter- 
field,  M.A.,  Ph.D.  Auckland:  D.  Petrie,  M.A.,  F.L.S.  ; 
J.  Stewart,  C.E.  Napier:  H.  Hill,  F.G.S.  Christchurch  : 
Professor  Charles  Chilton,  D.Sc.,  F.L.S. ;  C.  C.  Farr,  D.Sc. 
Westland  :  T.  H.  Gill,  M.A.  Nelson  :  L.  Cockayne,  LL.D. 
Otago:  Professor  W.  B.  Benham,  D.Sc,  F.R.S. ;  G.  M. 
Thomson,  F.L.S.,  F.C.S.     Manawatu  :  K.  Wilson,  M.A. 

OFFICERS   FOR   THE    YEAR    1908. 

President:  G.  M.  Thomson,  F.L.S.,  F.C.S. 

Hon.  Treasurer:  Martin  Chapman,  K.C. 

Editor  of  Transactions  :  G.  M.  Thomson,  F.L.S.,  F.C.S. 

Secretary  :   Thomas  King. 

AFFILIATED   SOCIETIES.  DATE    OF   AFFILIATION. 

Wellington  Philosophical  Society    ...  10th  June,  1868. 

Auckland  Institute  ...  ...  10th  June,  1868. 

Philosophical  Institute  of  Canterbury  22nd  October,  1868. 

Otago  Institute   ...  ...  ...  18th  October,  1869. 

Westland  Institute  ...  ...  21st  December,  1874. 

Hawke's  Bay  Philosophical  Institute  31st  March,  1875. 

Southland  Institute  ...  ...  21st  July,  1880. 

Nelson  Institute...  ...  ...  20th  December,  1883. 

Manawatu  Philosophical  Society     ...  16th  January,  1904. 


Vlll 


Neiv  Zealand  Institute. 


HONORARY  MEMBERS 

(ELECTED    SINCE    THE    INCEPTION    OF    THE    INSTITUTE). 


1870. 


Agassiz,  Professor  Ltfuis. 
Drury,  Captain  Byron,  R.N. 
Finsoh,  Dr.  Otto. 
Flower,  Professor  W.H.,  F.R.S. 
Hochstetter.  Dr.  Ferdinand  von 


Hooker,  Joseph    I)..    M.D..    F.R.S. , 

C.B. 
Mueller,     Ferdinand     von,      M.D.. 

F.R.S.,  C.M.G. 
Owen,  Professor  Richard,  F.R.S. 
Richards,  Rear-Admiral  G.  H 


L871. 


Darwin,  Charles.  M.A.,  F.R.S. 
Gray,  J.  E.,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S. 


Lindsay,  W.  Lauder,  M.D.,  F.R.S. E. 


Grey,  Sir  George,  K.C.B. 

Huxley,  Thomas  H.,  LL.D..  F.R.S 


187^. 

J   Stokes,  Vice- Admiral  J.  L. 


1873. 


Bowen,      Sir      George      Ferguson, 

G.C.M.G. 
Cambridge,    the   Rev.    O.    Pickarn, 

M.A.,  C.M.Z.S. 


Giinther,    A.,    M.D.,    M.A.,    Ph.D., 

F.R.S. 
Lvell,   Sir   Charles,  Bart.,    D.C.L., 

F.R.S. 


McLachlan,  Robert,  F.L.S. 
Newton,  Alfred,  F.R.S. 


1874. 

Thomson,  Professor  Wyville,  F.R.S. 


1875. 


Sclater,    Philip    L.,    M.A.,    Ph.D. 

F.R.S. 


Filhol,  Dr.  H. 

Rolleston,     Professor      G.,      M.D., 
F.R.S. 

1876. 

Beiggren,  Dr.  S.  Etheridge,  Professor  R.,  F.R.S. 

Clarke,  Rev.  W.  B.,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 


1877. 

Baird,  Professor  Spencer  F.  I    Weld,  Frederick  A.,  C.M.G. 

Sharp,  D.,  M.D. 


L878. 


Garrod.  Professor  A.  H.,  F.R.S. 
Miiller.  Professor  Max,  F.R.S. 


Tenison-  Woods,  Rev.  .1.  E.,  E.L.S. 


I  S80. 
The  Most  Noble  the  Marquis  of  Normanby,  G.C.M.G, 


Honorary  Members. 


IX 


1883. 


Carpenter,  Dr.  W.  B.,  C.B.,  P.R.S. 
Ellery,  Robert  L.  J.,  P.R.S. 


Thomson,  Sir  William,  P.R.S. 


Gray,  Professor  Asa. 
Sharp,    Richard     Bowdler,      M.A., 
P.L.S. 


1885. 

Wallace,  R.  A.,  P.L.S. 


1888. 


Beneden,  Professor  J.  P.  van. 
Ettingshausen,  Baron  von. 


McCoy,  Professor  F.,  I). So.,  C.M.G., 
F.R.S. 


1890. 


Liversidge,     Professor     A.,      M.A., 
P.R.S. 


Nordstedt,  Professor  Otto.  Ph.D. 
Riley,  Professor  C.  V. 


1891. 


Davis,  J.  W.,  P.G.S.,  P.L.S. 


Goodale,    Professor   G.    L.,    M.D., 
LL.D. 


1894. 


Codrington,  Rev.  R.  H.,  D.D. 


Dyer.  Professor  W.  Thiselton,  M.A. 
C.M.G.,  P.R.S. 


1895. 
Mitten.  William,  F.R.S. 


Langley,  S.  P. 


Agardh,  Dr.  J.  G. 

Lubbock.    Sir    John,    Bart.,    P.C., 
F.R.S. 

1901 


1896. 

I  Lydekker,  Richard.  B.A.,  F.R.S. 

1900. 

Massee,  George,  F.L.S.,  P.R.M.S. 


Eve,  H.  W.,  M.A. 
Goebel,  Dr.  Carl. 


Howes,  G.  B.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S. 


1902. 
Sars,  Professor  G.  0. 

1903. 

Klotz,  Professor  Otto  J. 


1904. 
David,    Professor    T.      Edgeworth,  |   Rutherford,    Professor    E.,     D.Sc, 


F.R.S. 


F.R.S. 


Beddard,  F.  E.,  F.R.S. 
Milne,  J.,  F.R.S. 


New  Zealand  Institute. 

1906. 

|   Brady,  G.  S.,  F.R.S. 


Dendy,  Dr.,  F.R.S. 
Diels,  L.,  Ph.D. 


1907. 


Meyrick,  E.,  B.A.,  F.R.S. 
Stebbing,  Rev.  T.  R.  R.,  F.R.S. 


PEESIDENTS. 

1903-4. 
HuttoD,  Captain  Frederick  WollastoD,  F.R.S- 

1905-6. 
Hector,  Sir  James,  M.D.,  K.C.M.G.,  F.R.S. 


1907-8. 

Thomson,  George  Malcolm,  F.L.S.,  F.C.S. 


LI  BR-AR.Y 


NEW  ZEALAND  INSTITUTE  ACT. 


The  following  Act  reconstituting  the  Institute  was  passed  by 
Parliament  : — 

1903,  No.  48. 

An  Act  to  reconstitute  the  New  Zealand  Institute. 

[18th  November,  1903. 

Whekeas  it  is  desirable  to  reconstitute  the  New  Zealand 
Institute  with  a  view  to  connecting  it  more  closely  with  the 
affiliated  institutions : 

Be  it  therefore  enacted  by  the  General  Assembly  of  New 
Zealand  in  Parliament  assembled,  and  by  the  authority  of  the 
same,  as  follows  : — 

1.  The  Short  Title  of  this  Act  is  "The  New  Zealand 
Institute  Act,  1903." 

2.  "The  New  Zealand  Institute  Act,  1867,"  is  hereby 
repealed. 

3.  (1.)  The  body  hitherto  known  as  the  New  Zealand 
Institute  (hereinafter  referred  to  as  "the  Institute")  shall 
consist  of  the  Auckland  Institute,  the  Wellington  Philoso- 
phical Society,  the  Philosophical  Institute  of  Canterbury,  the 
Otago  Institute,  the  Hawke's  Bay  Philosophical  Institute,  the 
Nelson  Institute,  the  Westland  Institute,  the  Southland  Insti- 
tute, and  such  others  as  may  hereafter  be  incorporated  in 
accordance  with  regulations  to  be  made  by  the  Board  of 
Governors  as  hereinafter  mentioned. 

(2.)  Members  of  the  above-named  incorporated  societies 
shall  be  ipso  facto  members  of  the  Institute. 

4.  The  control  and  management  of  the  Institute  shall  be  in 
the  hands  of  a  Board  of  Governors,  constituted  as  follows  : — 

The  Governor  ; 

The  Colonial  Secretary  ; 

Four  members  to  be  appointed  by  the  Governor  in 
Council  during  the  month  of  December,  one  thou- 
sand nine  hundred  and  three,  and  two  members  to 
be  similarly  appointed  during  the  month  of  Decem- 
ber in  every  succeeding  year  ; 

Two  members  to  be  appointed  by  each  of  the  incor- 
porated societies  at  Auckland,  Wellington,  Christ- 
church,  and  Dunedin  during  the  month  of  December 
in  each  alternate  year ; 


xii  Neiv  Zealand  Institute. 

One  member  to  be  appointed  by  each  of  the  other 
incorporated  societies  during  the  month  of  Decem- 
ber in  each  alternate  year. 

5.  (1.)  Of  the  members  appointed  by  the  Governor  in 
Council  two  shall  retire  annually  on  the  appointment  of  their 
successors  ;  the  first  two  members  to  retire  shall  be  decided 
by  lot,  and  thereafter  the  two  members  longest  in  office  with- 
out reappointment  shall  retire. 

(2.)  Subject  to  the  provisions  of  the  last  preceding  subsec- 
tion, the  appointed  members  of  the  Board  shall  hold  office 
until  the  appointment  of  their  successors. 

6.  The  Board  of  Governors  as  above  constituted  shall  be  a 
body  corporate,  by  the  name  of  the  "  New  Zealand  Institute," 
and  by  that  name  they  shall  have  perpetual  succession  and  a 
common  seal,  and  may  sue  and  be  sued,  and  shall  have  power 
and  authority  to  take,  purchase,  and  hold  lands  for  the  pur- 
poses hereinafter  mentioned. 

7.  (1.)  The  Board  of  Governors  shall  have  power  to  appoint 
a  fit  person,  to  be  known  as  the  "  President,"  to  superintend 
and  carry  out  all  necessary  work  in  connection  with  the  affairs 
of  the  Institute,  and  to  provide  him  with  such  further  assist- 
ance as  may  be  required. 

(2.)  It  shall  also  appoint  the  President  or  some  other  fit 
person  to  be  editor  of  the  Transactions  of  the  Institute,  and 
may  appoint  a  committee  to  assist  him  in  the  work  of  editing 
the  same. 

(3.)  It  shall  have  power  to  make  regulations  under  which 
societies  may  become  incorporated  to  the  Institute,  and  to 
declare  that  any  incorporated  society  shall  cease  to  be  in- 
corporated if  such  regulations  are  not  complied  with,  and  such 
regulations  on  being  published  in  the  Gazette  shall  have  the 
force  of  law. 

(4.)  The  Board  may  receive  any  grants,  bequests,  or  gifts 
of  books  or  specimens  of  any  kind  whatsoever  for  the  use  of 
the  Institute,  and  dispose  of  them  as  it  thinks  fit. 

(5.)  The  Board  shall  have  control  of  the  property  herein- 
after vested  in  it,  and  of  any  additions  hereafter  made 
thereto,  and  shall  make  regulations  for  the  management  of  the 
same,  for  the  encouragement  of  research  by  the  members  of 
the  Institute,  and  in  all  matters,  specified  or  unspecified,  shall 
have  power  to  act  for  and  on  behalf  of  the  Institute. 

8.  Any  casual  vacancy  on  the  Board  of  Governors,  how- 
soever caused,  shall  be  filled  within  three  months  by  the 
society  or  authority  that  appointed  the  member  whose  place 
has  become  vacant,  and  if  not  filled  within  that  time  the 
vacancy  shall  be  filled  by  the  Board  of  Governors. 

9.  (1.)  The  first  annual  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Governors 
hereinbefore  constituted  shall  be  held  at  Wellington  on  some 


New  Zealand  Institute  Act.  xiii 

day  in  the  month  of  January,  one  thousand  nine  hundred  and 
four,  to  be  fixed  by  the  Governor,  and  annual  meetings  of 
the  Board  shall  be  regularly  held  thereafter  during  the  month 
of  January  in  each  year,  the  date  and  place  of  such  annual 
meeting  to  be  fixed  at  the  previous  annual  meeting. 

(2.)  The  Board  of  Governors  may  meet  during  the  year  at 
such  other  times  and  places  as  it  deems  necessary. 

(3.)  At  each  annual  meeting  the  President  shall  present  to 
the  meeting  a  report  of  the  work  of  the  Institute  for  the  year 
preceding,  and  a  balance-sheet,  duly  audited,  of  all  sums 
received  and  paid  on  behalf  of  the  Institute. 

10.  The  Board  of  Governors  may  from  time  to  time,  as  it 
sees  fit,  make  arrangements  for  the  holding  of  general  meet- 
ings of  members  of  the  Institute,  at  times  and  places  to  be 
arranged,  for  the  reading  of  scientific  papers,  the  delivery  of 
lectures,  and  for  the  general  promotion  of  science  in  the 
colony  by  any  means  that  may  appear  desirable. 

11.  The  Colonial  Treasurer  shall,  without  further  appro- 
priation than  this  Act,  pay  to  the  Board  of  Governors  the 
annual  sum  of  five  hundred  pounds,  to  be  applied  in  or 
towards  payment  of  the  general  current  expenses  of  the 
Institute. 

12.  (1.)  On  the  appointment  of  the  first  Board  of  Go- 
vernors under  this  Act  the  Board  of  Governors  constituted 
under  the  Act  hereby  repealed  shall  cease  to  exist,  and  the 
property  then  vested  in,  or  belonging  to,  or  under  the  control 
of  that  Board  shall  be  vested  in  His  Majesty  for  the  use  and 
benefit  of  the  public. 

(2.)  On  the  recommendation  of  the  President  of  the  In- 
stitute the  Governor  may  at  any  time  hereinafter,  by  Order  in 
Council,  declare  that  any  part  of  such  property  specified  in 
the  Order  shall  be  vested  in  the  Board  constituted  under  this 
Act. 

13.  All  regulations,  together  with  a  copy  of  the  Transac- 
tions of  the  Institute,  shall  be  laid  upon  the  table  of  both 
Houses  of  Parliament  within  twenty  days  after  the  meeting 
thereof. 


REGULATIONS. 

The  following  are  the  new  regulations  of  the  New  Zealand 
Institute  under  the  Act  of  1903  : — 

The  word  "Institute"  used  in  the  following  regulations 
means  the  New  Zealand  Institute  as  constituted  by  "  The 
New  Zealand  Institute  Act,  1903." 


xiv  New  Zealand  Institute. 

Incorporation  of  Societies. 

1.  No  society  shall  be  incorporated  with  the  Institute 
under  the  provisions  of  "  The  New  Zealand  Institute  Act, 
1903,"  unless  such  society  shall  consist  of  not  less  than 
twenty-five  members,  subscribing  in  the  aggregate  a  sum  of 
not  less  than  £25  sterling  annually  for  the  promotion  of  art, 
science,  or  such  other  branch  of  knowledge  for  which  it  is 
associated,  to  be  from  time  to  time  certified  to  the  satisfaction 
of  the  Board  of  Governors  of  the  Institute  by  the  President 
for  the  time  being  of  the  society. 

2.  Any  society  incorporated  as  aforesaid  shall  cease  to  be 
incorporated  with  the  Institute  in  case  the  number  of  the 
members  of  the  said  society  shall  at  any  time  become  less 
than  twenty-five,  or  the  amount  of  money  annually  subscribed 
by  such  members  shall  at  any  time  be  less  than  £25. 

3.  The  by-laws  of  every  society  to  be  incorporated  as  afore- 
said shall  provide  for  the  expenditure  of  not  less  than  one- 
third  of  the  annual  revenue  in  or  towards  the  formation  or 
support  of  some  local  public  museum  or  library,  or  otherwise 
shall  provide  for  the  contribution  of  not  less  than  one-sixth  of 
its  said  revenue  towards  the  extension  and  maintenance  of  the 
New  Zealand  Institute. 

4.  Any  society  incorporated  as  aforesaid  which  shall  in  any 
one  year  fail  to  expend  the  proportion  of  revenue  specified  in 
Regulation  No.  3  aforesaid  in  manner  provided  shall  from 
henceforth  cease  to  be  incorporated  with  the  Institute. 

5.  All  papers  read  before  any  society  for  the  time  being 
incorporated  with  the  Institute  shall  be  deemed  to  be  com- 
munications to  the  Institute,  and  then  may  be  published  as 
Proceedings  or  Transactions  of  the  Institute,  subject  to  the 
following  regulations  of  the  Board  of  the  Institute  regarding 
publications  : — 

Regulations  regarding  Publications. 
(a.)  The  publications  of  the  Institute  shall  consist  of — 

(1.)  A  current  abstract  of  the  proceedings  of 
the  societies  for  the  time  being  incorporated  with 
the  Institute,  to  be  intituled  "Proceedings  of  the 
New  Zealand  Institute  "  ; 

(2.)  And  of  transactions  comprising  papers  read 
before  the  incorporated  societies  (subject,  however, 
to  selection  as  hereinafter  mentioned),  and  of  such 
other  matter  as  the  Board  of  Governors  shall  from 
time  to  time  determine  to  publish,  to  be  intituled 
"  Transactions  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute." 

(b.)  The  Board  of  Governors  shall  determine  what  papers 
are  to  be  published. 


Regulations.  xv 

(c.)  Papers  not  recommended  for  publication  may  be  re- 
turned to  their  authors  if  so  desired. 

(d.)  All  papers-  sent  in  for  publication  must  be  legibly 
written,  typewritten,  or  printed. 

(e.)  A  proportional  contribution  may  be  required  from 
each  society  towards  the  cost  of  publishing  Pro- 
ceedings and  Transactions  of  the  Institute. 

(/".)  Each  incorporated  society  will  be  entitled  to  receive 
a  proportional  number  of  copies  of  the  Transac- 
tions and  Proceedings  of  the  New  Zealand  Insti- 
tute, to  be  from  time  to  time  fixed  by  the  Board  of 
Governors. 

General  Regulations. 

6.  All  property  accumulated  by  or  with  funds  derived 
from  incorporated  societies,  and  placed  in  charge  of  the  In- 
stitute, shall  be  vested  in  the  Institute,  and  be  used  and 
applied  at  the  discretion  of  the  Board  of  Governors  for  public 
advantage,  in  like  manner  with  any  other  of  the  property  of 
the  Institute. 

7.  Subject  to  "The  New  Zealand  Institute  Act,  1903," 
and  to  the  foregoing  rules,  all  societies  incorporated  with 
the  Institute  shall  be  entitled  to  retain  or  alter  their  own 
form  of  constitution  and  the  by-laws  for  their  own  manage- 
ment, and  shall  conduct  their  own  affairs. 

8.  Upon  application  signed  by  the  President  and  counter- 
signed by  the  Secretary  of  any  society,  accompanied  by  the 
certificate  required  under  Regulation  No.  1,  a  certificate  of 
incorporation  will  be  granted  under-  the  seal  of  the  Institute, 
and  will  remain  in  force  as  long  as  the  foregoing  regulations 
of  the  Institute  are  complied  with  by  the  society. 

9.  In  voting  on  any  subject  the  President  is  to  have  a 
deliberate  as  well  as  a  casting  vote. 

Management  of  the  Property  of  the  Institute. 

10.  All  donations  by  societies,  public  Departments,  or 
private  individuals  to  the  Institute  shall  be  acknowledged 
by  a  printed  form  of  receipt,  and  shall  be  entered  in  the 
books  of  the  Institute  provided  for  that  purpose,  and  shall 
then  be  dealt  with  as  the  Board  of  Governors  may  direct. 

Honorary  Members. 

11.  The  Board  of  Governors  shall  have  power  to  elect 
honorary  members  (being  persons  not  residing  in  the  Colony 
of  New  Zealand),  provided  that  the  total  number  of  honorary 
members  shall  not  exceed  thirty. 

12.  In  case  of  a  vacancy  in  the  list  of  honorary  members, 
each  incorporated  society,  after  intimation  from  the  Secretary 

ii — Trans. 


xvi  New  Zealand  Institute. 

of  the  Institute,  may  nominate  for  election  as  honorary  mem- 
ber one  person. 

13.  The  names,  descriptions,  and  addresses  of  persons  so 
nominated,  together  with  the  grounds  on  which  their  election 
as  honorary  members  is  recommended,  shall  be  forthwith 
forwarded  to  the  President  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute, 
and  shall  by  him  be  submitted  to  the  Governors  at  the  next 
succeeding  meeting. 

14.  The  President  may  at  any  time  call  a  meeting  of  the 
Board,  and  shall  do  so  on  the  requisition  in  writing  of  four 
Governors. 

15.  Twenty-one  days'  notice  of  every  meeting  of  the  Board 
shall  be  given  by  posting  the  same  to  each  Governor  at  an 
address  furnished  by  him  to  the  Secretary. 

16.  In  case  of  a  vacancy  in  the  office  of  President,  a 
meeting  of  the  Board  shall  be  called  by  the  Secretary  within 
twenty-one  days  to  elect  a  new  President. 

17.  The  Governors  for  the  time  being  resident  or  present 
in  Wellington  shall  be  a  Standing  Committee  for  the  purpose 
of  transacting  urgent  business  and  assisting  the  officers. 

18.  The  Standing  Committee  may  appoint  persons  to  per- 
form the  duties  of  any  other  office  which  may  become  vacant. 
Any  such  appointment  shall  hold  good  until  the  next  meeting 
of  the  Board,  when  the  vacancy  shall  be  filled. 

19.  The  foregoing  regulations  may  be  altered  or  amended 
at  any  annual  meeting,  provided  that  notice  be  given  in 
writing  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Institute  not  later  than  the 
30th  November. 


TRANSACTIONS 


TRANSACTIONS 


OF   THE 


NEW   ZEALAND  INSTITUTE 

1907. 


Art.  I. — Young  Stages  of  Dicksonia  and  Cyathea, 
By  G.  B.  Stephenson,  M.Sc. 

[Read  before  the  Manawatu  Philosophical  Society,  20th  June,  1907. J 

Plates  I-V. 

Introduction. 

Of  late  vears  it  has  been  recognised  that  anatomical  relations 
that  are  not  directly  dependent  on  the  mode  of  life  of  the  plant 
often  indicate  with  some  certainty  community  of  descent.  But 
Bower  (Phil.  Trans.,  1900),  in  his  work  on  the  leptosporangiate 
ferns,  practically  omits  anatomical  structure  from  considera- 
tion. He  points  out  affinities  from  the  character  of  the  sorus. 
But  it  was  hoped,  in  the  present  work,  that  a  study  of  the  early 
stages  of  the  different  genera  of  tree-ferns  would  show  that 
their  community  of  descent  was  shown  by  similarity  of  struc- 
ture ;  and  especially  that  the  method  of  attaining  a  tubular 
stele  from  a  solid  strand  would  show  distinct  constant  cha- 
racters. But  it  has  been  found  that  there  is  a  striking  similarity 
in  the  early  stages  of  all  the  modern  feins  investigated.  Spore- 
lings  of  Lomaria,  Hypolepis,  Doodia>  Asplenium,  Polypodvum.' 
punetatum,  Pteris  incisa,  all  show  a  similar  stelar  structure  to 
the  tree-fern  sporelings.  It  is  only  when  the  tubular  stele  begins 
to  break  up  that  marked  distinctions  appear.  Probably  in  the 
great  group  of  more  modern  ferns  there  is  great  variability 
even  in  the  early  stages  of  the  sporophyte  and  the  attainment 
of  similar  structure  by  plants  only  remotely  related  in  the  group- 
In  connection  with  this  study,  cultures  of  the  prothallia  of 
Dicksonia  squarrosa  and  three  Cyatheas — dealbata,  medullaris,  and 
Cunninghamii — were  grown.  The  prothallia  and  the  young  spor- 
ophytes  were  imbedded  in  paraffin,  cut  with  the  microtome,  and 
stained  on  the  slide.  The  work  was  carried  on  in  the  laboratory 
of  the  Auckland  University  College,  and  the  writer  will  always 
recognise  a  heavy  debt  of  gratitude  to  Professor  H.  P.  W.  Thomas. 
1— Trans. 


2  Transactions. 

Sexual  Generation. 

"^The  spores  of  the  four  tree-ferns  studied  all  germinated 
very  quickly — in  two  or  three  weeks  (fig.  52).  The  slits  of 
■dehiscence  were  generally  very  narrow,  and  the  spore-case  re- 
mained attached.  The  normal  heart-shaped  prothallium  was 
rapidly  attained,  and  was  similar  in  form  and  development  to 
that  of  the  Polypoiiaceai.  But  the  tree-ferns'  prothallium  ex- 
hibits excessive  variability.  The  apical  cell  may  arise  (especially 
in  Dicksonia)  in  the  cell  next  to  the  spore  (fig.  57),  or  a  long 
filament  be  formed  ;  or  even  after  the  apical  cell  is  formed  it 
may  grow  out  into  a  filament  (fig.  62).  In  well-nourished 
prothallia,  after  about  seven  segments  have  been  cut  off,  by  a 
vertical  pericline  in  the  apical  cell  a  three-sided  initial  is  cut 
out,  and  a  small  -  celled  meristem  now  comes  to  occupy  the 
depression  at  the  apex.  Normal  prothallia  produce  a  few 
antheridia  and  then  archegonia  on  the  "  cushion."  "  Ameristic  " 
prothallia,  as  usual  in  ferns,  produce  antheridia  only. 

The  prothallia  (of  Dicksonia  especially)  produce  adventi- 
tious "  shoots "  very  readily  if  conditions  are  unfavourable. 
Filiform  upright  branches  spring  especially  from  the  margins 
of  male  prothallia,  and  produce  abundant  antheridia.  In  a  few 
cases  one  of  these  "  shoots  "  formed  an  apical  cell  and  formed  a 
normal  prothallium. 

Antheridia. 

All  the  forms  examined  were  similar  in  the  structure  of 
the  complex  normal  type  of  antheridium  and  in  the  variety  of 
the  reduction  forms. 


Normal  Development. 

(a.)  Rudiment:  lighter  green,  and  more  de.ise'.y  protoplasmic,     (b.)  Gap 

cell,     (c.)  Upper  ring  cell,     (d.)  Lower  ting  cell,     (e.)  Pedicil. 

In  Dicksonia  an  opercular  cell  was  often  cut  out  from  the 
cap  cell,  and  the  ring  cells  were  sometimes  divided.  In  the  re- 
duced antheridia  few  walls  are  formed. 


Ausknce  of  Pedicel. 


Stephenson. —  Young  Stages  of  Dicksonia  and  Cyathea.      3 

The  sperms  take  some  time  to  mature,  and  during  this  time 
the  wall  is  not  easily  permeable.  The  wall  seems  to  be  chemically 
altered  for  a  time,  so  that  the  nearly  mature  sperms  may  not 
be  injured  if  the  prothallium  is  suddenly  wetted. 

The  sperms  are  ejected  rather  flatly  coiled,  and  as  soon  as 
the  pellicle  is  softened  in  the  water  they  spring  out  of  it  as 
if  they  were  in  a  state  of  great  tension.  This  movement  is  very 
jerky,  especially  at  first.  After  half  an  hour  they  swim  more 
regularly,  and  straighten  out  more  as  death  approaches. 

The  "  ring  wall  "  in  Cyathea  is  peculiar  in  that  it  is  attached 
to  the  peripheral  wall.  Docs  this  give  us  a  suggestion  as  to 
how  the  ring  wall  originated  from  a  form  as  in  Osmunda  ? 


Osmunda. 


Cyathea. 


Campbell  ("  Messes  and  Ferns")  considers  that  the  antheridia 
are  intermediate  between  the  Polypodiaecce  and  the  Hymeno- 
■phyllacece. 

Archegonia. 

The  archegonia,  £s  Campbell  states,  are  simply  those  of  the 
Polypodiacece.  It  was  found  that  the  chief  variations  were  in 
the  basal  cell  and  the  ventral-canal  cell.  A  single  basal  cell 
was  nearly  always  present ;  there  were  rarely  two  (fig.  12), 
and  rarely  the  cell  seemed  to  be  absent. 

The  ventral-canal  cell  was  cut  off  from  the  apex  of  the  central 
cell.     Rarely  it  seemed  to  be  due  to  the  primary  neck  cell. 

In  young  prothallia  forming  the  first  few  archegonia  the 
divisions  of  the  segments  at  the  apex  do  show  some  regularity. 
The  basal  segment  mav  become  the  archegonium  -  rudiment 
(fig.  21a). 


r 


Archegonia  may  be  formed  at  a  distance  behind  the  apex. 
The  first  wall  is  parallel  to  the  surface  of  the 
thallus — separating  the  "  cover  "  cell,  which 
immediately  divides  by  a  vertical  wall  parallel 
to  the  long  axis  of  the  thallus,  and  soon  a  wall 
at  right  angles  to  this  follows. 


View  of  Coveb 
ell  from  above 


4  Transactions. 

The  basal  cell  is  now  cut  off  at  the  base,  and  the  central  cell 
■grows  up  between  the  cell-rows  of  the  developing  neck  (fig.  13), 
and  the  primary  neck  cell  is  cut  off  (fig.  14),  and  later  divides  into 
:two.  When  the  neck  is  full-grown  the  ventral-canal  cell  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  egg  cell.  When  the  egg  is  mature,  and  before 
fertilisation  has  taken  place,  the  cells  surrounding  the  egg  are 
.generally  divided,  so  that  a  small-celled  layer  surrounds  the 
egg  (fig.  20). 

Sometimes  in  Cyathea  one  or  two  cells  break  away  on  the 
opening  of  the  neck. 

The  nucleus  of  the  egg  cell  becomes  very  clear,  and  stains 
little  just  before  fertilisation,  and  the  nucleolus  rapidly  decreases 
.in  size. 

Should  an  egg  cell  fail  to  be  fertilised,  the  walls  of  the  colls 
: surrounding  are  rapidly  cuticularised  and  turn  brown.  This 
process  prevents  bacteria  and  fungi  from  penetrating  the  soft 
walls  round  the  egg  (fig.  20).  A  similar  cuticularisation  takes 
place  in  prothallia  attacked  by  fungi.  A  straight  row  of  cell- 
walls  becomes  cuticularised,  and  the  part  invaded  by  the  fungus 
is  thus  cut  off. 

Sporophyte. 
Embryo. 

The  embryo  is  closely  similar  to  that  of  the  Poly pod iacece. 
Immediately  after  fertilisation  the  cells  of  the  neck  that  are 
near  the  venter  grow  closely  together  and  cut  off  communication 
with  the  outside.  The  oospore  grows  considerably  before 
dividing,  the  nucleus  remaining  clear  and  nucleolus  beinsj  evi- 
dent. After  the  octants  are  formed,  divisions  become  irregular, 
and  the  oval  form  is  soon  lost.  A  large  apical  cell  is  early  re- 
cognisable in  one  of  the  cotyledonary  octants,  and  this  grows 
and  divides  more  rapidly  than  the  rest. 

The  stem  quadrant  shows  little  division  for  a  time,  and 
when  the  first  leaf  is  fully  developed  appears  as  a  green  lateral 
protuberance  on  the  leaf-base.  The  second  leaf  arises  opposite 
the  first,  and  the  third  almost  opposite  the  second.  The  root 
is  as  in  the  Polypodiacere.  The  extent  of  foot-formation  de- 
pends largely  on  the  thickness  of  the  prothallium.  The  octants 
th  it  give  rise  to  stem,  leaf,  and  root  are  not  in  the  same 
plane. 

Th  ■  first  wall  in  the  embryo  is  at  right  angles  to  the  plane 

of  the  thallus,  and  the   half    nearest   the   apex   of   the   thallus 

becomes    stem    and    leaf;    and     this    is    the    besl    disposition 

■of    the   primary  organs,   whether   the  thallus  is  horizontal    or 

vertical. 

i 


Stephenson. — Young  Stages  of  Dicksonia  and  Cyathea.     5 

The  Young  Sporophyte. 

The  first  leaf,  guided  perhaps  by  its  positive  heliotropism, 
soon  appears  between  the  prothallial  lobes,  and  in  Dicksonia, 
if  the  embryo  is  far  from  the  apex,  the  leaf  may  break  through 
the  thallus. 

The  blade  of  the  first  leaf  of  Dicksonia  consists  nearly  always 
of  two  equal  lobes  (fig.  77),  but  sometimes  a  simple  spathulate 
form  occurs  similar  to  that  of  Cyathea  dealbata  (fig.  78).  In 
C.  Cunninghamii  a  more  complex  form  is  found.  The  attainment 
of  the  more  complex  form  by  Dicksonia  and  C.  dealbata  is  de- 
pendent on  the  conditions  of  growth.  For  instance,  under  un- 
favourable conditions  C.  dealbata  may  form  as  many  as  five 
spathulate  leaves. 

The  first  leaf,  except  at  the  veins,  consists  of  two  layers  of 
•cells,  with  well-developed  intercellular  spaces  (fig.  1). 

"  Rodlets  "  projecting  into  the  air-spaces  are  not  yet  pre- 
sent in  Dicksonia,  but  occur  in  the  first  leaf  in  Cyathea.  These 
cuticular  threads  or  rodlets  are  found  in  many  different  kinds 
of  ferns,  and  probably  point  to  some  similar  metabolic  pro- 
cess. 

The  young  leaves  of  Dicksonia  are  marked  out  from  the 
others  by  the  presence  of  hairs.  These  are  sparsely  scattered 
over  the  leaves  along  the  line  of  the  veins,  and  consist  of  eight 
or  nine  cells  united  into  a  slender  filament,  the  terminal  cell 
being  somewhat  larger  and  rounder.  The  cells  of  the  filament 
become  larger,  with  brown  thick  walls,  as  the  plant  grows,  and 
finally  we  reach  the  long  brown  robust  hairs  of  the  mature 
plant,  which  protect  the  growing  point  and  developing  leaves, 
and  later  serve  to  retain  moisture  on  the  stem  for  the  aerial 
roots. 

In  the  young  Cyatheas  (plants  of  four  or  five  leaves)  short 
ramenta  are  present  on  the  petiole,  and  especially  at  its  base; 
but  C.  dealbata  remains  glabrous  for  some  time.  C.  medvllaris 
is  more  nearly  similar  to  Dicksonia.  Fig.  73  shows  a  long  sec- 
tion of  apex  of  Dicksonia  (six  leaves),  and  fig.  76  a  similar  stage 
of  Cyathea,  showing  the  developing  ramenta  (r). 

Petiolar  Wings. 

The  first  few  leaves  have  a  bulky  green  thin-walled  cortex 
in  the  petiole.  But  as  the  leaves  become  more  robust  the  as- 
similating tissue  is  found  only  in  lateral  wings,  and  later  still 
in  clusters  of  thin-walled  cells  forming  discontinuous  streaks  on 
each  side  of  the  petiole.  These  groups  are  cut  off  and  die;  a 
lignification  of  the  f.v.  bundles  begins.  They  are  probably 
for  aeration  of  the  developing  leaf. 


Transactions. 


Stomata. 

Verv  numerous  in  first  leaves,  especially  in  Dicksonia.  The 
mother  cell  is  cut  out  from  the  acroscopic  end  of  the  elongating 
cells  ;  auxiliary  cells  are  absent.  In  the  mature  form  (figs.  46, 
47)  an  auxiliary  cell  is  present,  but  there  is  much  variation. 

Slit  of  stoma  parallel  to  line  of  greatest  growth. 

Petiole. 

Dicksonia  squarrosa. 

In  the  first  leaf  there  is  a  simple  stele  consisting  of  three  or 

more  tracheids  grouped  into  a  solid  strand,  and  surrounded  by 

two  or  three  layers  of  parenchyma   and   an   endodermis.     The 

bundle  is  collateral,  the  few  phloem 
elements  being  on  one  side,  but 
the  elements  are  more  evenly  dis- 
tributed frs  we  descend  to  the 
foot. 

In  later  leaves  the  number  of 
tracheids  rapidly  increases,  and  as- 
sumes the 
form  of  a 
shallow  U, 
with  defi- 
nite spiral 
protoxylem 
in  the  centre 
(fig.  4). 


Diagram  of  Bundle 
at  this  Stage. 

(a.)  Phloem  absent  in  the  bay. 
(b. )  Endodermis.  (c. )  Tracheids. 
{d.}  Protoxylem  group.  (e.)Fro- 
tophloom.  (/.)  Ptricycle,  with 
origin,  with  endodermis  in  a 
single  original  layer. 


(a.)  Phloem  extends  to 

A  few  leaves  later  the  protophloem  here-  an('  is  not  found  in- 
i  •    ,      ,i  .      __  side  the  bay.     (6.)Protc- 

is  broken  up  into  three  separate  masses   xyk.m         J  fJ  ^rtkn 

(fig.   5).   but  the  xylem    forms    a    con-    of  pinna.   (cJMfcdianp-o- 
tinuous  arc.  toxylemgr<  up.  (d.) Xylem 

Later  again  the  groups  of  tracheids   elements, 
formed  round  the  protoxylem  groups  are  not  contiguous,  and  now 
the  arc  is  ready  to  break  up  into  three  separate  bundles  (fig.  5). 

When  the  stem  is  about  J  in.  and  the  largest  leaf  2  in.  the 
petiolar  bundle  breaks  up  into  three  separate  portions,  but 
these  three  fuse  together  again  before  the  pinnae  are  given  off. 


protoxylem 


Q     S 


OP 


£*» 


Base  of  Petiole. 


3  4 

J  1st  below  First  Pinna 


Differences   between   the    petiole    at   this   stage    and    when 
mature  are  unimportant,  being  only  due  to  increase  of  size.     In 


Stephenson. —  Young  Stages  of  Dicksonia  and  Cyathea.      7 


the  mature  form  the  breaking-up  into  separate  bundles  takes 
place  very  early.  The  separate  bundles  (fourteen  or  fifteen) 
take  their  origin  almost  directly  from  the  protruding  lips  of  the 
leaf-gap.  But  the  bundles  always  show  a  single  protoxylem 
group,  and  always  fuse  into  a  continuous  arc  before  the  first 
pinna  is  given  off. 

The  protoxylem  of  the  first  few  petioles  is  persistent,  but 
later,  when  the  petiole  is  marked  by  very  rapid  growth,  the 
protoxylem  cells  are  destroyed.  Provision  is  made  for  this  in 
a  single  layer  of  small  dense  cells  that  surround  the  protoxylem. 
These  grow  into  the  spaces  that  are  left  by  the  destruction  of 
the  spiral  cells  (fig.  8,  c.p.  ;   fig.  9,  d.L). 

The  phloem  tissue,  hardly  distinguishable  in  the  first  few 
petioles,  later  contains  very  large  sieve-tubes.  These  occur 
at  first  only  on  the  convex  side  of  the  arc,  but  they  finally  form 
a  ring.  In  the  mature  petiole  the  sieve-tubes  are  numerous, 
but  each  tube  is  in  contact  with  at  least  one  parenchyma  cell 
(fig-  7). 

Petioles  of  other  ferns  were  examined — Gleichenia  flabettata 
and  Cunninghamii,  Aspidium  aculeatum,  and  Hypolepis  distans — 
and  though  the  sieve-tubes  were  numerous  each  bordered  on  a 
parenchyma  cell. 

Cyathea. 

The  first  bundle  is  marked  by  collateral  (fig.  2),  and  the 
cell-layer  inside  the  endodermis  is  densely  granular. 

In  very  young  leaves  the  petiolar  arc  breaks  up  into  three, 
and  then  there  is  no  fusion,  as  in  Dicksonia,  before  the  pinnse 
are  given  off.  Smaller  differences  from  Dicksonia  are  in  the 
large  size  of  the  last-formed  metaxylem  and  the  variation  in 
position  of  the  protoxylem  group. 

Pinna  prom  Petiole. 
Dicksonia. 
In  the  first  leaf  of  Dicksonia  the  venation  is  generally  dicho- 
tomous.  In  later  leaves  the  successive  pinnae  arise  by  segments, 
being  given  off  from  the  free  ends  of  the  bundle  arc.  *  But  when 
the  bundle  has  three  groups  of  protoxylem  elements  only  the 
two  lateral  groups  provide  for  the  pinna?. 


rocoxy/em 
group 


pinna,  bundle 


12  3  4 

A    Series    of    Sections    showing    the    Derivation     of    the    Pinn.e 
Bundle  from  the  Petiolar  Bundle. 

Later  leaves  show  a  similar  process. 


8 


Transactions. 


Cyathea. 

In  the   first  few  leaves  the  process  is  similar  to   that    in 
t  Dicksonia,  but  then  differences  arise  because  the  arc  is  perma- 
nently broken  into  three. 


First  Stage.     (Leaf,  total  length,  2 in.) 
(«.)  Pinna  bundle,     (b. )  Lower  median  bundle  takes  part  in  the  process. 


.1  z  3 

Second  Stage.     (Leaf,  total  length,  10  in.) 

Then  the  two  small  bundles  (c)  and  (d)  approach  and  fuse. 


U 

O 


y 


u 


u 


a, 
b 


{a.)  Upper  band  in  pinna,     (b.)  Lower  band  in  pinna. 

A  similar  fusion  is  seen  in  Pteris  incisa,  Polypodium  punctatum, 
and  Hypolepis  distans. 

The  third  and  final  stage  is  similar  to  the  second  stage,  but 
the  bundles  are  more  numerous. 


(a.)  Upper  band,     (b.)  Lower  band,     (c.)  Segments  for  pinna. 

Gwynne  Yaughan  suggests  that  the  curved  form  of  petiole 
stele  is  primitive  (Loxsoma) ;  but  this  does  not  help  us  in  deciding 
affinities.  The  curved  form  is  simply  the  most  convenient  as 
regards  strength  and  insertion  of  pinna-bundles. 

Roots. 

Similar  in  origin  in  the  embryo  and  in  later  development, 
and  branching  to  the  Polypodiacece. 

<  Iften  in  Dicksonia  in  slender  plants  there  is  only  one  root 
per  leaf  for  eight  or  nine  leaves.  The  first  few  roots  hardly 
branch  at  all.  In  Dicksonia  in  the  slender  diarch  strand  there 
arc  few  protoxylem  elements,  but  in  Cyathea  (fig.  32)  they  vary 


Stephenson. — Young  Stages  of  Dicksonia  and  Cyathea.      9 

between  two  and  five,  the  number  partly  depending  on  the 
branches  given  off. 

When  lignification  of  the  cortex  is  taking  place  a  few  cells 
— especially  well  marked  in  C.  Cunninghamii  —  opposite  the 
oligogenetic  rows  remain  thin-walled  for  some  time,  probably 
as  long  as  they  are  likely  to  produce  lateral  rootlets.  The 
endodermis  stains  deeply  in  acid  fuchsin,  but  the  oligogenetic 
rows  do  not  stain. 

The  mature  roots  of  C.  medullaris  are  more  robust  and  more 
variable  than  the  others.  Triarch  and  even  tetrarch  bundles 
are  sometimes  found  (De  Bary).  This  calls  to  mind  the  poly- 
arch  bundles  in  the  Hymenophyllacece. 

The  Vascular  System  op  the  Stem. 

The  tracheids  are  scalariform  in  the  foot  of  the  embryo, 
but  become  spiral  in  first  leaf  and  root. 

Figs.  25-29  show  the  changes  in  the  stele  at  this  stage  as 
we  ascend  from  the  root  (fig.  25)  to  the  protostele  above  the 
foot.  The  tracheids,  at  first  extended  in  a  line  (fig.  26),  become 
clustered  as  the  foot  is  reached  (fig.  27)  and  turn  into  a  hori- 
zontal position.  They  turn  into  the  vertical  position  again,  and 
now  the  phloem  is  clustered  to  one  side  in  the  collateral  bundle 
of  the  petiole. 

The  tracheids  of  the  second  leaf  fit  directly  on  to  those  of 
the  first,  and  so  a  solid  strand  is  found.  But  there  is  generally 
a  change  from  the  protostele  to  the  tubular  form  of  stele  before 
the  third  leaf  is  given  off.  But  the  time  is  very  variable,  and 
in  Cyathea  dealbata  especially  the  protostele  may  persist  for 
five  or  six  leaves.  Sometimes  the  transition  took  place  between 
the  foot  and  the  insertion  of  the  first  leaf  (figs.  85-88).  Here 
a  few  parenchymatous  cells  appear  among  the  xylem  elements 
(fig.  86),  and  rapidly  increase  in  number  (fig.  87),  and  then 
the  segment  is  given  off  to  the  leaf.  Figs.  79-81  show  the  third 
leaf  given  off  in  C.  dealbata  from  a  protostele.  Here  a  parenchyma 
cell  appears  in  preparation  for  the  giving-off  of  the  leaf,  as  in 
Dicksonia.  But  generally  the  transition  in  Cyathea  is  more 
irregular.  Figs.  37-41  show  the  process  in  C.  Cunninghamii. 
The  sections  are  of  the  internode  between  the  first  and  second 
leaves.  The  number  of  tracheids  remains  almost  constant  during 
the  change.  ci..„./-^     <-.        _^ 

i:S  ^  o  or' 

'  2  3  a 

Diagram  of  Xylem,  showing  Transition. 
(a.)  Part  directly  below  third  leaf,     (b.)  Cauline  part,     (c.)  Part  below 
second  leaf,     (d.)  Tnird  leaf  given  off  here  a  little  above,     (e.)  Second 
leaf  now  given  off  here. 


10  Transactions. 

i 

Figs.  82-84  show  the  change  in  C.  Cunninghamu  at  the  base- 
of  an  older  plant  (between  first  and  second  leaf).  It  will  be 
noted  that  there  is  a  considerable  increase  in  the  number  of 
tracheids  over  a  series  in  a  younger  plant  (transition  also 
between  first  and  second  leaf).  In  the  younger  plant  there  is 
almost  constantly  a  single  layer  of  tracheids  on  the  ring  ;  while 
in  the  same  internode,  if  the  plant  has  now  seven  or  eight  leaves, 
there  are  two  or  three  layers  of  tracheids  in  a  similar  transition 
region.  But  without  a  great  number  of  series  it  could  not  be 
stated  that  there  is  a  late  differentiation  of  tracheids  outside 
the  primary  ring. 

After  the  siphonostele  is  attained  the  stem  increases  rapidly 
in  breadth.  A  well-defined  endodermis  is  not  present  till  the 
stem  is  about  T\j  in.  long. 

Sieve-tubes  are  ill  defined  in  the  first  petiole,  and  it  is  only 
after  six  or  seven  leaves  have  been  formed  that  the  tubes  begin 
to  assume  the  characteristic  form.  Distinct  sieve-tubes  do  not 
appear  inside  the  tubular  stele  for  a  considerable  time. 

Fig.  43  shows  typical  solenostelic  structure,  but  at  once  the 
leaf-gaps  begin  to  elongate,  and  persist  throughout  an  internode. 

[In  the  running  steins  which  take  their  origin  from  buds 
formed  early  in  the  life  of  the  plant  a  robust  solenostele  is  found 
till  the  runner  nears  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  leaves  are 
crowded  again.] 

Change  takes  p'ace  gradually  till  the  mature  form  is  reached  : 
the  leaf-gaps  elongate,  the  number  of  orthostichies  is  increased, 
the  outline  of  the  stele  becomes  wavy,  and  the  lips  project 
to  give  off  the  leaf  f.v.  bundles. 

The  medullary  bundles  of  the  Cyatheas  do  not  begin  to  be 
formed  till  the  pith  is  fairly  broad. 

Near  the  apex,  where  the  developing  ring  is  still,  meriste- 
matic  groups  of  cells  are  separated  h}*  parenchyma  from  the 
ring,  and  these  give  the  medullary  bundles  (fig.  42). 

Mucilage. 
No  signs  of  a  mucilage  system  in  the  early  stages  :  mucilage- 
cells  appear  after  the  tubular  stele  is  established  ;    in  the  petiole 
especially  they  form  regular  rows. 


I*T7T?T    6 


Diagram   showing  Origin  ok  a    Muotlagb-cbll   Row.     (Longitudinal 

section  of  Leaf. ) 

(a.)  Apex  of  lenf.      (b.)  Muril:i<;o  row. 

In  the  petiole  the  rows  follow  the  protoxylciu  groups  rather 
closely,  the  rows  being  generally  in  the  bays  of  the  vascular  arcs. 


Stephenson. — Young  Stages  of  Dicksonia  and  Cyathea.    11 

Protoxylem. 

The  spiral  elements  of  the  petiole  just  join  on  to  the  stem, 
hut  the  elements  of  the  stem  are  scalariform. 

In  fig.  41  the  two  cells  px  are  the  protoxylem  of  the  next 
leaf  ;  these  cells  die  out  in  the  section  lower  down.  Fig.  44 
shows  the  stem  protoxylem,  but,  as  in  Loxsoma  (Gwynne 
Vaughan),  these  elements  are  scalariform. 

Stelar  Structure. 

Up  to  the  last  few  years  consideration  of  the  stele  has  been 
on  the  lines  laid  down  by  Van  Tiegheai,  but  lately  more  attention 
has  been  paid  to  the  vascular  structure  of  ferns,  and  a  study 
of  the  ontogenetic  development  has  modified  the  old  stand- 
point. For  instance,  Jeffrey  evidently  considers  the  polystelic 
structure  to  be  derived  from  the  protostele  through  the  siphono- 
stele.  For  in  an  abstract  (Proc.  Roy.  Soc.)  of  a  paper  (full 
paper  not  seen)  which  appeared  in  the  Phil.  Trans.  Roy.  Soc. 
there  is  the  following  :  "Starting  from  the  conception  that  the 
polystelic  structure  does  not  originate  by  the  repeated  bifurca- 
tion of  the  epicotyledonary  central  cylinder,  but  that  the  latter 
first  becomes  a  concentric  fibro- vascular  tube,  with  gaps  for 
the  branches  alone  .  .  ."  And  in  a  note  in  the  "  Annals 
of  Botany  " — "  Lindsaya,  a  new  type  of  fern  stele  "  (Tansley 
and  Lulham)  :  "  Thus  Lindsaya  seems  to  furnish  a  phytogenetic 
link  hitherto  wanting  between  the  protostele  and  solenostele, 
and  this  view  is  distinctly  supported  by  the  occurrence  of  the 
same  stage  in  the  ontogenetic  series." 

Thus  the  old  views  are  being  modified.  The  single  strands 
no  longer  make  us  overlook  the  conducting  system  as  a  whole. 
The  internal  parenchyma  is  excluded  from  the  stele  (Jeffrey) ; 
the  endodermis  is  no  longer  regarded  as  of  great  morphological 
importance ;  and  a  study  of  the  ontogeny  is  held  to  be  necessary 
for  the  right  understanding  of  any  form  (c/.  Farmer  and  Hill 
— Angiopteris  :  ;'  It  would  appear  to  be  probable  that  no  right 
understanding  of  a  difficult  vascular  structure  is  possible  apart 
from  a  study  of  its  ontogenetic  development  "). 

The  presence,  then,  of  the  protostele  in  the  early  stages 
of  modern  types,  and  the  persistence  of  the  protostele  in  forms 
like  Gleichenia  and  Schizcea,  point  to  the  protostele  as  the  earliest 
form  of  stele.  But  there  are  two  questions  —  (1.)  Is  this  proto- 
stele made  up  of  leaf-traces,  or  is  it  partly  cauline  ?  (2.)  And 
how  did  the  transition  to  the  solenostele  take  place  ? 

(1.)  In  forms  with  crowded  leaves  like  Cyathea  and  Dicksonia 
it  would  be  easy  to  agree  that  differentiation  of  the  stele  followed 
the  differentiation  of  the  petiole  bundles ;   and  in  the  earliest 


12  Transactions. 

stages  of  the  tree-fern  the  stem  f.v.  elements  are  essentially  con- 
nected with  leaves,  though  later  there  is  some  differentiation  be- 
tween the  leaf-traces  to  provide  a  complete  ring  and  to  prepare 
for  the  insertion  of  leaves  higher  up  the  stem.  But  probablv  the 
mode  of  growth  in  Gleichenia  and  Loxsoma  is  the  more  primitive, 
and  that  in  the  ferns  with  crowded  leaves  is  a  later  development, 
leading  to  the  reduction  of  the  cauline  strand.  In  the  primitive 
types  we  may  assume  that  the  first  bundle  system  was  differ- 
entiated to  minister  to  the  needs  of  a  rapidly  elongating  spike 
or  strobilus.  Then,  as  the  vegetative  appendicular  organs 
became  larger,  strands  would  be  differentiated  in  them,  and 
fit  on  to  the  central  strand.  Then  later,  as  the  leaves  outnum- 
bered the  sporophylls  and  the  leaves  were  crowded  on  the  stem, 
the  cauline  strand  was  reduced,  and  on  some  ferns  practically 
gives  way  to  leaf-traces. 

(2.)  How  did  the  transition  to  the  solenostele  take  place  ? 
Of  course,  we  can  see  that  the  ring  is  a  better  arrangement 
of  the  f.v.  elements  than  the  solid  strand.  If  the  stem  is  to  be 
upright  and  bear  a  crown  of  leaves,  only  a  few  xylem  elements 
will  be  needed,  and  these  will  strengthen  the  stem  more  and  be 
better  placed  for  leaf-insertion  if  they  are  in  a  ring  ;  and  the 
large  undifferentiated  pith  may  serve  as  a  starch  and  water 
reservoir. 

But  how  did  the  ring  develop  from  the  solid  strand  ?  Now, 
in  Gleichenia  we  have  a  solid  strand  in  the  stem  and  a  curved 
strand  in  the  leaves  ;  and  when  a  part  of  the  stem  stele  is  cut 
off  for  the  leaf,  the  segment  remains  attached  to  the  main  stele 
while  it  is  assuming  a  curved  form  ;  and  especially  in  G.  flabellata 
the  meristele  remains  attached  at  its  edges  to  the  stem  stele 
for  some  time.     Thus  are  formed  "  nodal  islands." 

Tansley  and  Lulham  suggest  that  by  the  continuation  of 
the  nodal  islands  through  the  internode  above  and  below  a 
structure  like  Lindsaya  would  be  reached — Lindsaya  being,  then, 
a  phytogenetic  link  between  the  protostelic  and  solenostelic 
types. 

But  it  seems  probable  that  the  transition  has  taken  place 
quite  independently  in  several  groups,  and  the  process  need 
not  be  similar  in  all.  In  the  Schizceacece  the  protostele  is  pro- 
bably primitive,  but  siphonostely  and  even  polystely  has  been 
reached  in  Anumia  (Boodle).  Similarly  hi  the  Glekheniacea 
the  protostele  persists  in  many  forms,  but  a  solenostele  has  arisen 
in  G.  pectinata  (Boodle). 

In  the  Marattiacecp,  from  the  life-history  of  Angicphris  (Fanner 
and  Hill,  1902),  the  change  from  protostele  to  siphon., stele  is 
due  to  parenchyma  cells  appearing  in  the  centre  of  the  xylem 
and  the  leaf  removing  a  segment  stretching  to  this  pith.     The 


Stephenson. — Young  Stages  of  Dicksonia  and  Cyathea.     13 

change  is  somewhat  similar  in  Helminthostachys  (Lang,  1901,. 
"  Annals  of  Botany  "). 

Perhaps  it  will  not  be  out  of  place  to  refer  to  the  running 
stem  given  off  from  the  leaf-base  in  Lomaria  procera.  The 
stele  is  at  first  solid,  and  this  may  grow  for  some  distance,  and 
even  branch  dichotomously.  But  sooner  or  later  a  weak  strand 
of  parenchyma  cells  appears  in  the  centre  of  the  xylem,  and 
rapidly  increases  in  bulk.  An  island  of  sclerenchyma  then  ap- 
pears in  the  centre  of  this  parenchyma,  and  this  a  little  later  is 
surrounded  by  an  endodermis  ;  and  now  phloem  elements  are 
clearly  visible  inside  the  xylem  ring.  The  runner  now  presents 
a  robust  solenostelic  structure.  Later,  when  leaves  begin  to 
be  given  off,  the  leaf -gaps  elongate,  and  typical  polystely  results. 

From  a  hurried  study  of  Aspidium  aculeatum  piantlets,  it 
seemed  that  robust  plants  with  a  strong  protostele  had  paren- 
chyma cells  among  the  xylem,  and  small  weak  plants  had  a  small 
solid  strand.     The  transition  is  similar  to  Dicksonia. 

Only  a  study  of  the  early  stages  of  a  large  number  of  ferns- 
will  show  whether  there  is  any  constancy  in  the  method  in  which 
the  transition  is  made — constancy  in  groups  of  related  ferns,, 
or  even  in  the  same  fern  with  the  sporelings  under  varied  con- 
ditions of  nutrition.  I  incline  to  think  that  the  method  of  change 
from  solid  strand  to  tubular  stele  is  dependent  somewhat  oil 
the  rapidity  of  growth.  If  growth  is  rapid  and  the  stem  broadens- 
quickly,  some  of  the  elements  of  the  xylem  strand  will  not  need 
to  function  as  wood  elements,  and  so  will  remain  undifferentiated. 
This  will  be  the  beginning  of  the  pith.  It  was  due  in  the  early" 
history  of  the  stele  to  broadening  of  the  stem,  and  consequent 
loss  of  function  of  some  of  the  more  deeply  placed  water-carriers, 
and  these  remained  undifferentiated  ;  then  the  stem  widened 
further,  and  the  segment  of  the  xylem  cut  out  for  the  leaf  ex- 
tended right  to  the  pith ;  and  then  phloem  elements  would  ex- 
tend down  into  the  pith,  because  the  pith,  now  it  is  not  cut  off 
from  the  leaves  by  the  xylem  ring,  can  be  advantageously  used 
for  storage  of  starch. 

Polystely  is  only  a  well-marked  variety  of  the  tubular  stele- 
Here  the  continuous  ring  is  broken  up  by  gaps  other  than  those 
above  the  leaf-insertion.  The  change  from  the  tube  to  the 
extreme  polystely  of  some  Polypodiwms — cf.  P.  serpens  and  P. 
nova-zelandice—is  due  to  change  of  stem-habit.  When  the 
rhizome  becomes  thick  because  it  is  used  for  water  and  starch 
storage,  and  a  creeping  habit  necessitates  no  mechanical  strength- 
ening, then  only  those  wood  elements  of  the  primitive  ring 
are  differentiated  which  are  needed  for  water-carriage.  The 
ring  could  have  been  widened  and  attenuated,  but  this  would 
not  serve  so  well  as  the  network  that  represents  the  tube. 


14  Transactions. 

Conclusion. 

The  study  of  the  structure  of  the  few  tree-ferns  examined, 
and  their  comparison  with  other  forms,  makes  me  feel  that  the 
form  of  the  stele  is  too  directly  adaptive  to  prove  relationship. 
Among  the  modern  ferns  the  function  of  the  stem  decides 
the  form  of  stele.  If  the  stem  is  a  creeping  one,  and  not  too 
bulky,  then  a  tubular  stele  is  found — c/.  some  species  of  Pteris, 
Hypolepis,  Polypodium  punctatum,  runners  of  Dichsonia  and  of 
Lomaria  procera. 

If  the  creeping  stem  is  extensively  used  for  storage  of  starch 
and  water,  then  extreme  polystely  will  be  found.  If  the  stem 
is  upright  and  the  leaves  crowded,  a  tubular  stele,  with  leaf- 
gaps,  will  result,  as  in  the  tree-ferns,  and  in  a  less  developed 
form  in  large  forms  of  Polypodium  pennigerum  and  Aspidium 
aculeitum. 

The  transition  from  the  solid  strand  to  the  tubular  form  in 
any  particular  fern  now  is  not  important  from  an  historical 
point  of  view.  Perhaps  the  idea  that  in  the  ferns  function  in- 
sures differentiation,  and  unless  there  is  functioning  to  be  done 
no  differentiation  follows,  suggests  how  thrt  parenchyma  appeared 
in  bulky  stems  in  the  first  place  ;  and  the  same  tendency  results 
in  extreme  polystely  in  some  ferns  now. 

But  as  far  as  the  relationship  between  Dichsonia  and  Cyathea 
is  concerned,  though  no  single  similarity  will  prove  anything, 
yet  the  similarity  of  means  employed  in  the  young  plants  in 
overcoming  the  environm  ;nt  at  a  great  many  points  does  point 
to  a  similar  inherited  constitution. 


EXPLANATION'  OF  PLATES  I-V. 

Plate  I. 

Fig.     1.  Transverse  section,  first  leaf  Dichsonia  squarrosa.      x  125. 

Fig.    2.  Transverse  section,  petiole  fi/st  leaf   Cyathea  dealbata.     x  250. 

end.,  endodermis  ;  ph.,  phloem  ;  p.c,  dense  perioyole. 
Fig.     3.  Transverse  section,  stele  of  same  plant  (as  in  fig.  2);    starch  »5. 

yet  ab:iont.      x  250. 
Fig.    4.  Transverse  section,  third  petiole  of  Dicksonia ;    collateral  stele. 

x  175. 
Fij.    5.  Transverse  section,   potiole   Dicksonia.      In   next   leaf   meristele 

breaks  into  three,     x  125. 
Fig.    6.  Transverse  soction,  single   bundle  of   mature  petiole  Dicksonia. 

x  80.     pph.,  p.'otophloem ;  s.t.p.,  sieve-tubo  parenohyma ;  &p., 

cavLy  p  irenchyma. 
Fig.     7.   Part  of  potiole  bundle,  showing  relation  between  s.t.  and  paren- 

chymv     x  175.     x.p.,  parenohymi  cells,  rich  in  starch,  lining 

the  xylem  cells. 
Fig.    8.  Another  pirt  of  sam%  showing  cavity  pirenohy ma.      x  250. 


Stephenson. — Young  Stages  of  Dicksonia  and  Cyathea.     15 

Fig.  9.  Transverse  section,  immature  petiole,  x  250.  px.,  protoxylem  ; 
i.v.,  young  tracheid  ;  d.l.,  dense  layer  of  cells  surrounding  the 
protoxylem,  f-nd  growing  in  to  form  the  cavity  parenchyma. 

Fig.  10.   Bundle  of  leaf  of  Dicksonia,  near  end  of  leaflet,      x  250. 

Fig.  11.  Bundle  of  leaf  of  Cyathea  dealbata,  near  end  of  leaflet,      x  250. 

Plates  II,  III. 

Figs.  12-18.  Vertical  (microtome)  sections  of  prothallia  of  Dicksonia 
squarrosa  parallel  to  longitudinal  axis  of  thallus.  The 
sections  show  the  development  of  the  archegonium.     x  250. 

Fig.  19.  Sections  parallel  to  surface,  showing  cells  cut  off  in  the  paren- 

chyma surrounding  the  egg  cell,      x  250. 

Fig.  20.  Similar  section,  showing  cuticularisatkn  of  walls  of  venter. 

X  250. 

Figs.  21-24.  Surface  views  of  young  prothallia  and  their  first  archegcnia. 
The  shaded  cells  are  the  archegonium  mother  cells  (C. 
medullaris).     x  250. 

Figs.  25-29.  Transition  from  stele  of  root  (fig.  25)  to  just  below  foot 
(fig.  27)  to  protostele  of  stem  (fig.  29).      x  250. 

Fig.  30.  Transverse    section,    first   rcot    C.    dealbata.      Characteristic 

thickened  layer,      x  250. 

Fig.  31.  Mature  root  D.  squarrosa.     c,  compressed  tissue,      x  120. 

Fig.  32.  Part  mature  rcot  C.  Cunninghamii,  showing  separated  pro- 

toxylem.     x  120. 

Figs.  33-36.  C.  dealbata.  Four  successive  transverse  sections  near  rpex,. 
showing  insertion  of  protoxylem  elements  of  the  petiole 
■Ti>  xi>  on  to  those  of  stem  s-y-e^.  s3  and  ss  are  connected 
with  next  leaf,      x  250. 

Figs.  37-41.  Transition  protostele  to  siphcnostele  in  C.  Cunninghamii^ 
between  first  and  second  leaves,      x  250. 

Fig.  42.   Early  stage,  medullary  bundle,  C.  Cunninghamii.      x  250. 

Fig.  43.  Solenostele  in  a  Dicksonia,  -fa  in.  long,      x  60. 

Fig.  44.  Transverse  section  near  apex  of  runner  of  D.  fibrosa,  shewing 

the  scalariform  irregularly  disposed  first-formed  xylem. 
X  80. 

Fig.  45.  Transverse  section,  stem,    mativre    Dicksonia.     Trochoids   in 

rather  regrdar  rows,  with  parenchyma  between.  Well- 
defined  layer  of  sieve-tubes,      x  60. 

Plate  IV. 

Figs.  46,  47.  Epidermis  developing  leaf,  C.  dealbata  and  D.  squarrosa. 

Fig.  48.  Apex  leaf,  longitudinal  section. 

Fig.  49.  Stoma,  nearly  mat  me,  seen  from  below. 

Figs.  50-59.  Developed  prothallia,  D.  squarrosa. 

Figs.  60-68.   Cyathea  Cunninghamii.     Figs.  60-63,  abnormal  forms,  due  to 

overcrowding;     figs.     64-68,    antheridia    en    fikmentcus 

protha'lia. 
Fig.  69.  Verticfl    section,    embryo,    with    basal   and    quadrant    walls 

darkened,     c,  apical  cell,  first  leaf  ;    st.,  stem  quadrant  ; 

/.,  foot  quadrant. 
Fig.  70.  Later  embryo.     Only  root  and  first  leaf  have  grown  much. 

Figs.  71,  72.  Embryos  dissected  out  and  mounted  whole. 
Fig.  73.  Dicksonia,   six   leaves  ;    longitudinal  section,  shewing  apical 

cell. 
Fig.  74.  Transverse  section,  similar  stage. 

Fig.  75.  Transverse  section,   mature  apex  of  C.   dealbata.     Segments 

cut  off  in  order  (sv  s2,  s3). 


16  Transactions. 

Fig.   76.   Longitudinal    section,    apex     0.    Cunninghamii    (seven    leaves). 

r.,  ramenta. 
Fig.   77.   Young  plant,  D.  squarrosa. 
Fig.   78.   Young  plant,  C.  dealbata. 

Plate  V. 

Figs.  79-81.  Pi-otostele  of  C.  dealbata,  giving  off  petiole  bundle  (xv  xx). 
A  parenchyma  cell  (p.)  first  appears  in  the  xylem.      x  330. 

Figs.  82-84.  C.  Cunninghamii.  Protostele  to  siphonostele.  x  330.  I,  the 
first  leaf,  has  been  given  off  here.  In  fig.  84  note  the 
distinction  between  the  parenchyma  of  seconddeaf  bay 
and  that  of  stem  (bilow  third  leaf). 

Figs.  85-88.  Dicksonia   squarrosa.     Similar   transition.     Sections    between 
the   first  leaf  and  the  foot   (the  plant   had  four  leaves) 
X  330,     In   fig.    86,    p.,   parenchyma   cells  appearing  ;   in 
fig.  87,  parenchyma  increased — px.,  protoxylem  from  the 
leaf  ;   fig.  88,  above  insertion  of  leaf. 


Art.  II. — Some  Aspects  of  the  Terrace-development  in  the  Valleys 

of  the  Canterbury  Rivers. 

By  R.  Speight,  M.A.,  B.Sc 

[Read  before  the  Philosophical  Institute  of  Canterbury,  \st  Mm/.  1H07.J 

Plates  VI-VIIa. 

Part  I. 

Explanatory. 

The  substance  of  this  paper  formed  part  of  an  ex-presidentml 
address  delivered  before  the  Philosophical  Institute  of  Canter- 
bury. Considerable  alterations  and  additions  have  been  made 
-to  it,  but  the  main  conclusions  stated  originally  have  been 
retained,  and  further  evidence  put  forward  in  support  of  them. 
The  paper  attempts  to  give,  first  of  all,  some  account  of  the  mode 
•of  formation  of  the  terraces  in  the  main  river- valleys,  and  then 
considers  the  evidence  of  elevation  and  depression  of  the  land 
during  late  geological  times.  Without  attempting  to  summarise 
and  criticize  all  that  has  been  written  on  the  subject,  the  author 
gives  some  account  of  this,  especially  in  its  bearing  on  terrace- 
formation,  and  finally  he  draws  attention  to  the  importance  of 
frost  erosion  in  the  Canterbury  mountains,  and  suggests  that 
the  supply  of  waste  is  a  powerful  factor  affecting  the  erosive 
power  of  the  rivers,  and  therefore,  directly  or  indirectly,  the 
■conditions  favourable  to  terrace-development. 


Speight. — Terrace-development  of  Canterbury  Hirers.     17 

Introductory. 

The  rivers  of  Canterbury  which  will  be  considered  in  this 
^paper  are  those  of  the  middle  district — viz.,  the  Waimakariri, 
Rakaia,  Ashburton,  and  Rangitata.  They  closely  resemble  each 
■other  as  regards  the  conditions  under  which  the  valleys  were 
formed  with  the  partial  exception  of  the  Ashburton,  so  that 
statements  made  about  one  generally  apply  to  all.  They  all 
rise  in  the  main  range  of  the  Southern  Alps,  or  close  to  it,  and 
flow  in  a  south-easterly  direction  till  they  reach  the  sea,  the 
first  half  of  their  course  being  through  the  mountainous  region 
■of  western  Canterbury,  and  the  second  half  across  the  plains 
which  fringe  this  region  on  the  south-east.  The  rocks  of  the 
first  portion  consist  principally  of  folded  slates,  sandstones, 
greywackes,  and  allied  sedimentaries  chiefly  of  Lower  Mesozoic 
age.  Palaeozoic  rocks  doubtless  occur  on  the  eastern  and  western 
margins  of  the  mountain  region,  but  the  general  absence  of  fossil 
evidence  renders  their  true  age  difficult  to  determine. 

The  folding  of  these  rocks  occurred  most  probably  in  Upper 
Jurassic  times,  but  traces  of  an  earlier  folding  are  also  found. 
They  are  distinguished  throughout  the  whole  area  by  excessive 
jointing,  which  has  rendered  them  particularly  susceptible  to 
-the  disintegrating  action  of  frost,  and  has  caused  them  to  split 
readily  into  more  or  less  rectangular  and  prismatic  blocks. 
This  effect  is  so  marked  that  many  of  the  mountains  are,  for 
several  thousand  feet  in  altitude,  covered  with  a  coating  of 
debris  so  thoroughly  that  solid  rock  is  scarcely  visible.  This  is 
constantly  moving  down  to  lower  levels  under  the  influence 
of  the  transporting  agents  which  operate  in  mountain  tracts, 
but  principally  owing  to  the  torrents  formed  by  melting  snows. 

The  rocks  of  which  the  plains  have  been  formed  consist 
chiefly  of  gravels,  more  or  less  perfectly  rounded,  and  of  sands, 
silts,  and  mud.  The  last  predominates  in  the  outer  margin 
of  the  plains.  There  is  in  some  cases  an  admixture  of  volcanic 
material  and  limestone,  but  these  are  of  relatively  minor  im- 
portance. 

The  western  mountain  area  formed  at  one  time  part  of  a 
great  peneplain,  and  this  has  now  been  thoroughly  dissected. 
The  paths  of  the  rivers  are  generally  at  right  angles  to  the  strike 
of  the  beds,  so  that  the  main  streams  may  be  called  consequent, 
while  the  tributaries  are  generally  parallel  to  the  strike,  and  are 
therefore  subsequent ;  but,  owing  to  the  age  of  the  river-valleys 
and  the  influence  of  other  disturbing  agencies,  marked  departures 
from  this  rule  frequently  occur.  A  recent  severe  glaciation, 
after  the  valleys  had  reached  a  mature  stage,  exerted  great 
influence  on  them,  and  its  effects  are  still  plainly  evident.  The 
rivers  are  all  perfectly  graded  at  the  present  time,  but  it  is  highly 


18  Transactions. 

likely  that  they  had   reached   an  approximately   similar   con- 
dition in  Oligocene  times,  as  pointed  out  hy  Captain  Hutton. 

Although  the  mountain  tract  of  the  province  has  heen  tho- 
roughly dissected,  the  plains  are  practically  undissected,  if  we 
omit  consideration  of  that  dissection  which  is  due  immediately 
to  the  rivers  themselves.  They  receive  hardly  any  tributaries 
after  they  leave  the  mountains  ;  the  rain  which  falls  on  the 
plains  soaks  rapidly  through  the  porous  beds,  and  finds  its  way 
to  the  sea  by  percolation  through  the  underlying  shingle.  The 
rivers  do  receive  some  tributaries — e.g.,  the  Kowhai  runs  into  the 
Waimakariri,  and  four  rivers  coalesce  to  form  the  Ashburton — 
but  they  all  rise  in  the  foothills,  and  derive  little  of  their  water 
from  the  rainfall  on  the  plains.  It  is  therefore  evident  that 
there  is  a  marked  contrast  between  the  physiographic  conditions 
of  the  upper  portion  of  the  rivers  and  that  of  their  lower  courses, 
and  hence  the  conditions  which  affect  the  terrace-development 
are  highly  dissimilar. 

If  we  examine  the  valleys  of  the  large  rivers  we  find  that 
their  courses  may  be  divided  into  four  parts,  relative  to  their 
terrace-development:  (1.)  The  torrent  path,  where  terraces  are, 
as  a  rule,  absent.  (2.)  A  wider  valley  path,  where  the  rivers  are 
aggrading  their  beds,  river  terraces  being  absent,  but  glacial 
terraces  or  shelves  common.  (3.)  A  gorge  path,  where  rivers 
burst  through  the  outer  range  of  Palaeozoic  rocks  on  a  line  running- 
through  Mount  Hutt  and  Mount  Torlesse  :  in  this  case  the 
terraces  have  their  highest  development.  (4.)  A  plain  path — 
i.e.,  the  path  from  the  foot  of  the  mountains  to  the  sea,  where 
terraces  are  again  strongly  developed,  but  are,  as  a"  general 
rule,  of  a  simple  and  continuous  character. 

The  Torrent  Path. 

The  rivers  begin  as  fair-sized  streams  from  the  terminals- 
of  glaciers,  and  this  part  of  their  course  shows  the  general 
characters  of  torrent  and  glacial  erosion.  The  valleys  are 
typically  U-shaped,  with  flat  floors  and  sides  so  steep  as  to  be- 
at times  unscalable  for  miles.  They  show  signs  of  having  been 
recently  swept  clean,  but  are  filling  again  with  waste  coming  in 
from  the  sides.  There  are  no  terraces  except  those  due  directly 
to  glacier  action.  Lateral  moraines  occasionally  form  terraces, 
but  only  in  those  places  where  they  have  been  protected  from 
the  scouring  action  of  the  wild  torrents  which  sweep  this  portion 
of  their  valleys.  A  frequent  position  for  these  terraces  is  round 
the  end  of  a  spur,  and  they  slope  down  the  valley  at  a  steep 
angle,  indicating  a  rapid  fall  in  the  level  of  the  surface  of  the 
glacier,  owing  to  its  expanding  as  it  accommodated  itself  to  a 
part  of  the  valley  where  the  cross  section  was  greater.     The 


Speight. — Terrace-development  of  Canterbury  Rivers.     19 

valley-walls  also  show  signs  of  the  truncation  or  partial  trunca- 
tion of  the  spurs.  This  is  often  attended  by  the  formation  of 
short  glacier  shelves  due  to  the  erosive  action  of  the  glacier. 
These  shelves  occur  particularly  where  the  glacier  came  over 
the  shoulder  of  a  spur  and  cut  down  its  bed  in  a  manner  analogous 
to  the  action  of  a  corroding  stream.  Good  illustrations  of  this 
are  to  be  seen  towards  the  head  of  the  Waimakariri,  up  the 
Bealey  River,  at  Arthur's  Pass,  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  West  Coast  Road  between  the  Cass  and  the  head  of  Sloven's 
Creek ;  but  these  last  cases  belong  to  another  part  of  the  river- 
valley. 

The  Valley  Path. 

The  first  part  of  the  river-course  grades  into  the  second. 
Here  the  valley  is  flatter  and  wider,  and  still  shows  signs  of  glacier 
erosion  ;  glacial  terraces  or  shelves  are  common  in  much  the 
same  position  as  in  the  first  part  of  the  river-course,  frequently 
in  sets  of  three,  as  noted  by  Captain  Hutton.  In  some  cases 
it  seems  likely  that  terraces  are  formed  by  the  erosive  action 
of  tributary  glaciers.  These  are  turned  round  by  the  resistance 
of  the  main  glacier  at  the  junction,  and  made  to  override  the 
projecting  spurs  on  the  downstream  side  of  the  valley.  The 
spurs  are  thus  cut  down  to  a  marked  degree,  and  show  true 
terraces  of  primary  erosion.  These  terraces  are  cut  out  of  solid 
rock,  and  have  a  steep  fall  downstream— steeper  than  the  grade 
of  the  valley,  and  of  no  great  length  parallel  to  its  axis.  This 
action  is  most  probably  going  on  now  where  the  Ball  Glacier 
joins  the  Tasman  ;  and  if  we  could  see  the  side  of  the  valley 
underneath,  it  would  almost  certainly  show  these  glacier  terraces. 
Good  illustrations  occur  where  a  large  stream,  the  name  of  which 
is  unknown  to  me,  joins  the  Waimakariri  on  its  south  bank 
about  six  miles  above  Bealey.  This  case  is  a  most  important 
one,  as  it  shows  conclusively  that  even  the  smaller  tributary 
valleys  were  formed  previous  to  the  recent  glaciation.  The 
stream  enters  the  main  river  by  a  channel  cut  out  of  the  solid 
rock,  and  in  the  bottom  of  this  glacial  striae  are  plainly  visible, 
running  across  the  bed  of  the  stream  and  nearly  parallel  to  the 
axis  of  the  main  valley.  The  channel  must  have  been  eroded 
previous  to  the  glaciation,  as  it  is  very  well  marked,  and  depressed 
about  50  ft.  below  the  level  of  the  surrounding  rocks,  which  are 
remarkably  ice-worn  as  well,  and  form  part  of  a  truncated 
spur  entering  the  main  valley  at  right  angles.  It  appears  almost 
impossible  that  the  channel  of  the  stream  can  have  been  formed 
solely  by  glacier  erosion,  and  the  recency  of  the  glaciation  is 
emphasized  by  the  perfection  of  the  markings  in  a  position 
where  they  are  very  likely  to  be  effaced. 


20  Transactions. 

Apart  from  the  glacier  shelves  there  are  no  terraces,  as  in 
this  portion  of  their  course  the  rivers  are  aggrading  their  beds. 
The  supply  of  waste  is  almost  inexhaustible.  It  is  poured  in  by 
every  tributary  stream  and  every  shingle-slip,  and  the  grade 
of  the  river  is  not  sufficient  for  its  transportation.  Where  the 
tributaries  are  large,  the  result  is  to  flatten  the  grade  of  the 
main  river  above  the  junction  and  to  push  the  main  river  over 
to  the  opposite  side  of  the  valley.  This  effect  is  especially 
marked  in  the  case  of  the  Bealey  River.  Surveys  carried  out 
by  Mr.  Edward  Dobson,  C.E.,  when  searching  for  the  best  route 
to  the  West  Coast,  show  undoubtedly  that  the  grade  of  the 
Waimakariri  has  been  considerably  modified,  in  the  manner 
suggested,  by  the  action  of  this  large  tributary.  The  main 
river  is  not  competent  to  remove  the  load  poured  into  it. 

This  portion  of  the  river-valley  has  been  deepened  bv  glacier 
erosion,  though  not  to  any  great  extent,  as  the  roches  moutonnees 
in  the  Rangitata,  Rakaia,  and  Waimakariri  valleys  show  ;  but 
the  rivers  have  no  power  now  to  form  terraces,  except  very  low 
and  temporary  ones. 

The  valleys  at  the  head  of  Lakes  Pukaki  and  Tekapo,  in 
the  basin  of  the  Waitaki,  show  the  conditions  which  prevailed 
in  all  the  valleys  in  Canterbury  after  the  maximum  glaciation 
was  past.  A  lake  occupied  the  Lower  Rakaia  Valley,  ponded 
back  by  a  bar  stretching  across  the  mouth  of  the  gorge  ;  a  similar 
lake  filled  the.  Waimakariri  Valley  from  the  gorge  as  far  as  the 
junction  with  the  Hawdon  River,  if  not  farther,  and  in  all  pro- 
bability one  existed  in  the  Rangitata. 

The  formation  of  these  lakes  is  due  to  one  of  two  causes — 
(1)  to  the  elevation  of  the  land  along  an  axis  which  coincides 
with  the  outer  range  forming  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  Southern 
Alps  ;    or  (2)  to  glacier  erosion. 

Tf  this  axis  of  elevation  really  exists,  it  would  be  approximately 
in  a  line  with  that  running  through  the  Kaikoura  Mountains, 
where  crustal  movements  are  now  going  on.  This  axis  has, 
without  doubt,  extended  from  the  Kaikouras  in  a  south-westerly 
direction,  and  perhaps  the  great  Waipara  fault  has  been  associated 
with  this  earth-movement.  The  fault  is  of  very  recent  date, 
and  coincides  with  the  gorge  of  the  Waipara  River,  and  has  a 
downthrow  to  the  north  of  over  1,000  ft.  Unless  this  fault  is 
due  to  lateral  movement,  it  is  necessary  that  a  thickness  of  1,000  ft. 
has  been  removed  from  rocks  about  the  Weka  Pass  and  Waipara 
River,  for  the  escarpment  of  the  Mount  Brown  beds  presents 
a  tolerably  even  line  both  north  and  south  of  the  fault-line. 
The  physical  features  are  more  easily  explained  by  a  lateral 
movement  of  the  rocks,  resulting  in  fracture  along  the  jjorge  of 
the  Waipara.     The  force  producing  this  rupture  must  have  come 


Speight.— Terrace-development  of  Canterbury  Rivers.     21 

from  the  south-east,  and  it  is  therefore  likely  that  it  affected 
the  rocks  further  south-west.  If  this  axis  extends  into  mid- 
Canterbury,  it  might  account  for  the  slight  break  in  the  grade 
of  the  rvers  which  occurs  at  their  gorges.  They  have  a  flat 
grade  above  and  a  steeper  grade  below,  as  the  following  table 
taken  from  Haast's  "  Geology  of  Canterbury  "  will  show  : — 

Distance       Fall  of 
in  Rivers, 

Rangitata—  Miles.        per  Mile. 

From  junction  of  Havelock  and  Clyde  to 

beginning  of  plains  . .  29  35 

From  beginning  of  plains  to  railway     . .     23£  39f 

From  railway-crossing  to  sea  . .  . .       8|  29 

Ashburton — 

From  Clearwater  Creek  to  beginning  of 

plains  near  Two  Brothers  . .  . .     11^  37* 

From  Two  Brothers  to  railway  . .     25  44 

From  railway  to  sea . .  . .  . .     10|  28| 

Rakaia — 

From  junction  of  Wilberforce  River  to 

Gorge  Island        . .  . .  . .     19  25* 

From  Gorge  Island  to  railway  . .     21*  23* 

From  railway  to  sea  . .  16  234; 

Waimakariri — 

From  junction  of  Bealev  River  to  junction 

of  the  Esk  River..  ..  ..21  24 

From  junction  of  Esk  River  to  junction  of 

Kowhai  River       . .  . .  . .     17  33 

From  junction  of  Kowhai  to  White's  old 
accommodation  -  house   at  height  of 
605  ft.    ..  ..  ..  ..15  26| 

From  White's  accommodation-house  to 

tidal  boundary     . .  . .  . .     22  27£ 

The  flat  grade  followed  by  a  steeper  grade  is  apparent  in 
the  Rangitata,  Ashburton,  and  Waimakariri ;  but  in  the  case 
of  the  Rakaia  there  is  no  marked  break  :  its  bed  is  almost  uni- 
formly graded  for  a  long  part  of  its  course.  This  difference  in 
grade  may  be  due  to  crustal  movements,  but  I  think  it  is  more 
probably  due  to  glacier  erosion  ;  however,  there  is  no  impossi- 
bility that  it  may  be  due  to  both  causes.  The  Canterbury 
valleys  are  of  very  ancient  date,  and  were  developed  to  a  mature 
stage  before  the  recent  glacier  extension.  The  glaciers  hollowed 
out  their  middle  portion,  particularly  where  two  valleys  join, 
but  left  across  the  mouth  a  bar  of  solid  rock,  owing  to  the  falling  - 
off  in  erosive  power  near  the  terminal  face.  Behind  this  bar 
there  is  always  a  deep  depression  or  basin  in  the  solid  rock — 


22  TraJisactions. 

as  much  as  500  ft.  in  the  case  of  the^Rakaia— and  the  hypothesis 
of  the  axis  of  elevation  seems  hardly  competent  to  explain 
this  remarkable  occurrence  in  the  valleys  of  all  the  principal 
rivers. 

The  deepened  portion  of  the  valley  has  been  filled  with 
glacial  silt  and  angular  debris  from  the  hills  ;  traces  of  old  sub- 
lacustrine  fans  or  deltas  are  to  be  seen  in  many  places.  These 
sedimentary  beds  are  now  being  eroded  by  the  rivers  as  they 
cut  down  through  the  bars  of  solid  rock  that  form  the  main 
floor  of  the  gorges  by  which  the  rivers  issue  on  to  the  plains. 
The  present  shape  of  the  river-valleys  is  due,  therefore,  to  the 
modifying  action  of  glaciers  and  other  agencies  on  a  previous 
matured  stream  system,  the  rough  features  of  which  were  ante- 
cedent to  the  glacier  extension.  With  this  explanation  it  will 
be  possible  to  consider  the  third  division  of  the  rivers'  course 
as  regards  their  terrace-development. 

The  Gorge  Path. 

In  this  paper  I  apply  the  term  "  gorge  path  "  to  that  part 
of  the  river-course  from  its  first  meeting  the  lacustrine  beds 
above  the  bar  of  rock  till  it  has  freed  itself  from  all  rock  obstruc- 
tions in  the  upper  portion  of  the  plains.  It  is  only  the  middle 
section  of  this  which  shows  the  true  character  of  a  river  gorge  ; 
but  it  is  most  convenient  to  consider  the  more  extended  length 
with  regard  to  the  terraces. 

The  three  principal  rivers  of  northern  Canterbury  burst 
through  the  outer  range  of  mountains  by  gorges  of  a  similar 
type.  The  Ashburton  Gorge  was  formed  under  peculiar  con- 
ditions, owing  to  the  great  changes  in  the  directions  of  drainage 
caused  by  the  extension  of  the  glaciers.  If  we  take  the  Rakaia 
as  a  typical  case,  we  have  a  river  flowing  through  a  bed  of  glacial 
silt  which  partially  filled  the  old  Rakaia  Lake,  and  then  coming 
to  a  winding  gorge  cut  out  of  the  solid  rock  which  forms  the 
floor  of  a  wide  valley.  This  valley  is  nearly  three  miles  in  width, 
tolerably  flat,  but  covered  with  heaps  of  morainic  and  fluvio- 
morainic  matter.  The  river  flows  in  meanders  at  a  depth  of 
nearly  500  ft.  below  the  main  floor.  This  winding  trench  was 
begun  immediately  after  the  ice  began  to  retreat,  no  doubt 
while  the  lake  was  in  existence  above  the  solid  bar  of  rock. 
Owing  to  increased  power  of  corrasion,  the  river  has  deepened 
its  meanders  far  below  the  upper  floor  of  the  gorge,  and  is  now 
actively  removing  the  projecting  spurs  between  them.  Several 
cases  of  nearly  demolished  spurs  and  of  islets  in  the  river-bed 
which  are  now  quite  cut  off  are  to  be  seen  in  the  Waimakariri 
as  well  us  in  the  Rakaia. 


Speight. — Terrace-development  of  Canterbury  Rivers.     23 

Overlying  the  outer  portion  of  the  flat  valley  are  the  gravels 
of  the  Canterbury  Plains.  They  rise  in  the  Waimakariri  fully 
200  ft.  above  the  wide  floor  of  the  upper  gorge,  and  are  found  at 
places  in  the  gorge  itself..  The  plains  are  formed  by  the  over- 
lapping and  coalescing  of  the  fans  of  great  Pleistocene  and 
Post-Pleistocene  rivers,  and  have  covered  up  nearly  all  irregu- 
larities in  the  solid  floor  of  the  land  ;  though  at  such  places  as 
Gorge  Hill,  Burnt  Hill,  View  Hill,  the  older  rocks  are  visible 
above  the  level  of  the  plain.  Owing  to  the  rivers  cutting  down 
through  the  gravels  the  solid  floor  has  been  exposed  in  other 
cases.  In  this  gorge  portion  the  terrace- development  is  most 
perfect.  In  the  Rakaia,  sixteen  terraces  maybe  counted  from 
the  top  of  the  heaps  of  morainic  matter  down  to  the  level  of  the 
river — that  is,  in  a  height  of  500  ft.  The  other  river-valleys 
show  similar  phenomena,  though  perhaps  the  sequence  is  not  so 
complete. 

It  seems  highly  likely  that  this  portion  of  the  river-valley 
was  filled  by  gravels  up  to  a  certain  level  previous  to  the  glacier 
maximum,  as  the  moraines  and  fluvio-morainic  deposits  overlie 
the  gravels  at  the  mouth  of  the  gorge.  This  filling-up  might 
have  happened  several  times  during  the  Tertiary  era,  as  our 
valleys  were  largely  excavated  before  the  Oligocene  period,  as 
emphasized  by  Captain  Hutton,  and  it  is  possible  for  a  glacier 
to  override  even  loose  gravels  at  its  terminal  face  without  dis- 
placing them.  Some  of  the  lower  gravel-beds  just  below  the 
Rakaia  Gorge  are  so  highly  coloured  by  hydrated  iron- oxide 
as  to  afford  an  easy  means  of  distinguishing  them  from  the 
upper  gravel-beds.  This  points  to  a  considerable  lapse  of  time 
in  order  to  allow  for  this  oxidation,  and  suggests  a  much  older 
date  for  the  lower  gravels.  However,  this  evidence  is  by  no 
means  conclusive.  The  fact  that  the  glacier  deposits  overlie 
the  gravels  of  the  plain  is  important,  as  showing  that  the  exten- 
sion of  the  glaciers  was  subsequent  to  the  deposition  of  the 
gravels  in  this  upper  portion  of  the  plains. 

Terraces  near  the  Gorge. 

An  examination  shows  that  a  great  majority  of  the  terraces 
in  this  part  of  the  river's  course  are  connected  in  some  way 
with  obstructions  met  with  by  the  river  as  it  cut  its  bed  through 
the  lacustrine  silt  just  above  the  gorge  proper,  or  through  the 
gravels  of  the  plains  just  below  it.  A  number  in  the  gorge 
itself  are  rock-cut  terraces  covered  with  a  thin  veneer  of  gravel. 

As  nearly  all  terraces  are  the  remains  of  former  flood  plains — 
whether  they  are  cut  terraces  or  built  terraces,  or  formed  by  a 
combination  of  both  processes — any  circumstances  which  tend 
to  preserve  these  flood  plains  will  favour  terrace-development. 


24  Transactions. 

I  select  the  Rakaia  Gorge  as  typical  of  all  the  rivers,  because 
it  is  the  simplest  in  form,  and  now  consider  how  the  terraces 
arise  here  in  the  light  of  the  fact  that  they  are  the  remains  of 
former  flood  plains. 

In  the  Rakaia  Gorge  they  are  nearly  all  connected  with 
obstructions  : — 

(1.)  The  highest  ones  are  intimately  related  with  the  morainic 
heaps  of  the  old  glaciers,  or  those  heaps  of  morainic  material 
but  roughly  assorted  by  fluvio-glacial  action.  The  rough  angular 
and  subangular  blocks  were  rather  difficult  to  remove  by  river 
action,  and  they  protected  portions  of  the  original  gravels,  or 
they  allowed  flood  plains  to  be  built  up  under  their  protection 
either  on  the  upstream  side  or  on  the  downstream  side  of  the 
obstruction.  The  topmost  terraces  are  nearly  all  associated 
with  these  morainic  heaps,  and  they  form  a  series  totally  distinct 
from  the  lower  ones. 

(2.)  The  lower  series  of  terraces  have  in  most  cases  some 
connection  with  the  underlying  hard  rocks,  which  in  the  Rakaia 
Gorge  are  principally  volcanic.  The  flood-plain  remnants  arc 
frequently  on  the  downstream  side  of  prominent  bluffs  of  solid 
rock.  These  protect  flood  plains  which  have  been  built  up  on  a 
foundation  of  solid  rock  or  cut  out  of  former  river  gravels.  The 
bluff  causes  the  stream  to  move  across  towards  the  opposite 
bank.  Flood  plains  are  therefore  likely  to  form  under  its  pro- 
tection, as  there  is  likely  to  be  relatively  slack  water  immediately 
below  it  in  which  suspended  matter  is  dropped.  A  flood  plain 
is  thus  rapidly  formed,  and  when  formed  the  bluff  continues 
to  protect  it,  prolong  its  life,  and  thus  promote  terrace-develop- 
ment. If  these  terraces  have  been  formed  on  a  floo:  of  solid 
rock  they  will  be  doubly  secure,  owing  to  the  influence  of  cause 
No.  3,  mentioned  subsequently.  If,  however,  they  are  terraces 
cut  out  of  old  gravels,  the  bluff  will  still  exert  a  protective 
influence.  The  former  condition  explains  the  occurrence  of 
most  of  the  terraces  in  the  gorge  proper  ;  immediately  after  the 
river  has  passed  through  the  gorge,  the  latter  is  the  most  im- 
portant. The  sheltering  action  of  bluffs  is  very  apparent  in  the 
Ashburton  and  Waimakariri  Valleys. 

(3.)  The  third  condition  which  promotes  terrace-development 
near  the  gorge  of  the  river  is  the  occurrence  of  defending  ledges 
of  solid  rock,  which  the  river  exposes  as  it  lowers  its  bed  through 
the  gravels  and  lacustrine  silts  above  the  rock  bar,  or  through 
the  gravels  of  the  plains  immediately  below  it.  The  influence 
of  defensive  ledges  was  urged  by  Hugh  Miller  the  Younger  in 
a  paper  read  before  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh  in  the  year 
1882.  I  have  not  been  able  to  see  this  paper,  but  an  account 
of  Miller's  theory  was  published  in  the  "  American  Journal  of 


Speight. — Terrace-development  of  Canterbury  Bivers.     25 

Science,"  vol.  xii.  1902,  by  Professor  W.  M.  Davis  when  describ- 
ing the  Terraces  of  Westfield  Kiver,  Mass.  The  phenomena  he 
there  'describes  are  reproduced  in  our  rivers  :  good  examples 
occur  in  the  Kakaia,  but  excellent  ones  are  to  be  seen  in  the 
Waimakariri  at  Little  Gorge  Hill,  where  the  railway  crosses. 

It  may  be  urged  that  there  is  no  great  difference  between 
cause  (2)  and  cause  (3).  It  is  quite  true  that  a  defending  ledge 
may,  under  certain  circumstances,  become  a  protecting  bluff ; 
but  the  latter  will  be  after  the  bluff  has  done  duty  as  a  defending 
ledge  and  the  river  has  lowered  its  bed  considerably.  However, 
in  very  many  cases  the  action  is  quite  distinct,  and  some  pro- 
tecting bluffs  have  never  been  defending  ledges. 

(4.)  The  same  result  is  obtained  also  by  the  defending  action 
of  a  tributary  stream  which  pours  in  a  load  of  sediment.  Ac- 
cording to  the  general  law  of  stream  action,  a  tributary  if  fully 
supplied  with  waste  will  deposit  it  on  joining  the  main  river 
flowing  on  a  gentler  grade.  In  any  case,  the  tributary  pushes 
the  main  stream  over.  This  action  is  much  the  same  as  a 
defensive  ledge.  The  bank  is  defended  from  the  destructive 
action  of  the  main  stream  by  the  force  of  the  tributary.  If  the 
main  river  can  lower  its  bed,  then  we  shall  expect  to  have  a 
series  of  terraces ;  but  they  are  different  in  character  from  those 
due  to  the  previous  causes.  They  are  usually  lower  and  broader, 
and  the  sequence  is  more  perfect ;  they  are  extremely  common, 
and  seen  in  almost  every  case  when  one  stream  joins  another. 
Thev  afford  the  most  complete  record  of  the  oscillations  of  a 
river  across  its  bed,  and  are  more  remarkable  in  this  respect 
than  those  due  to  cause  (3).  Splendid  examples  of  such  terraces 
are  to  be  seen  at  the  junction  of  the  Kowhai  with  the  Waimaka- 
riri, and  also  at  the  junction  of  Woolshed  Creek  with  the  South 
Ashburton. 

Closely  connected  with  the  action  of  tributary  streams  is 
that  of  ta!us  cones.  One  of  the  causes  of  the  partial  destruction 
of  the  terraces  is  the  formation  of  talus  cones  from  the  high 
shingle  banks.  These  grow,  owing  to  the  erosion  towards  the 
head  of  the  cone,  till  intermittent  streams  flow  down  them. 
Erosion  then  proceeds  apace.  In  this  way  a  portion  of  the 
terrace  is  rapidly  destroyed ;  but  the  cone  or  fan  on  the  floor  of 
the  river-valley  protects  the  remaining  portion  of  the  terrace 
from  the  erosive  action  of  the  river,  so  that  rapid  destruction 
of  one  portion  prolongs  the  life  of  the  remainder.  This  action 
is  to  be  seen  in  many  places  near  the  Rakaia  Gorge. 

Cases  of  all  these  four  modes  of  terrace-development  are 
to  be  seen  in  the  gorge  itself,  or  immediately  after  the  river 
debouches  on  to  the  plains.  In  the  Rakaia  they  may  be  seen 
as  far  down   as   the   Curiosity   Shop   beds,    about   three    miles 


26  Transactions. 

below  the  Gorge  Bridge,  where  harder  sandstones  and  limestones 
underlie  the  shingle.  Here  there  is  a  good  example  of  the  com- 
bined effects  of  the  above-mentioned  agencies.  A  protecting 
bluff  determines  the  commencement  of  a  terrace  on  its  down- 
stream side,  and  also  protects  the  bank  so  as  to  cause  one  on 
its  upstream  side.  The  bluff  also  acts  as  a  defensive  ledge 
to  the  higher  terraces,  which  were  at  first  dependent  on  the 
larger  and  more  resistent  blocks  of  the  terminal  moraine  of  the 
Old  Rakaia  glacier.  A  little  above  the  bluff  are  excellent 
examples  of  the  protective  action  of  talus  cones,  and  ou  the 
opposite  side  of  the  river,  a  little  higher  up,  of  the  action  of  a 
tributary  stream  developed  from  a  talus  cone. 

All  the  above-mentioned  causes  are  in  operation  in  the  Ash- 
burton  and  Waimakariri  Rivers,  but  it  must  be  noted  that  all 
terrace  remnants  cannot  be  assigned  to  them.  A  number  of 
smaller  remnants  are  not  related  in  any  way  to  obstructions  — 
that  is,  as  far  as  can  be  detected  at  present.  It  is  possible 
that  some  of  the  terraces  above  the  gorge,  where  the  river  is 
cutting  out  the  silt  and  gravels  filling  the  old  lake,  rnay^be  the 
remains  of  old  lacustrine  beaches. 

The  Plain  Path. 

The  fourth  division  of  the  river-course  is  that  across  the 
plains,  when  the  river  no  longer  meets  solid  obstructions  in  its 
bed.  The  terraces  here  are  simple  and  continuous  in  character; 
the  sequence  is  not  so  complete,  as  the  remains  of  flood  plain* 
are,  as  a  rule,  fewer  and  higher.  The  river-bank  sometimes 
drops  from  the  level  of  the  plain  to  that  of  the  water,  a  distance 
of  as  much  as  400  ft.  in  a  single  face.  These  terraces  are  caused 
by  the  river  moving  across  its  bed  lowering  its  channel  as  it 
does  so,  making  and  again  destroying  its  flood  plains.  One 
reason  why  the  terraces  are  so  high  is  that  the  lower  ones. 
being  composed  of  loose  and  incoherent  materials,  are  readilv 
removed,  and  the  river  is  able  to  3wing,  in  some  cases,  the  whole 
width  of  its  former  highest  channel.  The  high  terraces  are 
formed  by  the  river  planing  off  a  strip  every  time  it  swings 
across  its  bed,  and  swinging  to  the  full  width  possible  a  large 
proportion  of  the  times.  There  is  thus  a  tendency  to  produce 
high  and  simple  terraces.  These  are  higher,  however,  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  plains,  and  gel  lower  as  the  river  approaches  1  lie 
sea;  in  fact,  it  is  certain  that  the  Waimakariri  is  rapidly  raising 
its  bed  in  its  lower  portion — so  much  so  that  it  threatens  danger 
to  Christchurch,  and  demands  the  erection  of  costly  protective 
works  as  a  defence  in  flood -time.  On  one  occasion,  in  the  year 
1868,  the  river  burst  through,  flooded  the  neighbouring  country, 
took  a  course  by  an  old  river-bed,    and  ran  in  a  considerable 


Speight. — Terrace-development  of  Canterbury  Rivers.     27 

body  of  water  right  through  the  city.  The  danger  of  this  re- 
curring is  all  the  more  serious  as  the  river  is  now  showing  a 
decided  tendency  to  wear  away  its  southern  bank.  The  Rangi- 
tata  and  Rakaia  are  also  aggrading  their  lower  portions  in  all 
probability.  Mr.  Edward  Dobson  informs  me — and  examina- 
tion of  the  railway-levels  confirms  his  statement — that  the  river 
is  running  at  a  higher  level  at  the  Rakaia  railway-bridge  than 
its  old  bed  immediately  north  of  it.  The  old  bed  is  about  three 
miles  and  a  half  wide,  and  bounded  on  the  north  by  a  high 
terrace,  which  the  railway  descends  near  the  Bankside  Station. 
At  the  foot  of  this  terrace  the  bed  is  317  ft.  above  sea-level ;  but 
at  about  two  miles  and  a  half  from  it,  going  south,  the  level 
of  the  bed  rises  to  339  ft.,  and  falls  in  the  next  mile  to  337  ft., 
which  is  the  level  of  the  water  at  the  bridge.  This  last  height 
,  is  subject  to  slight  variation,  depending  on  the  position  and  size 
of  the  anastomosing  streams.  These  facts  seem  to  show  that 
in  former  times  the  river  ran  20  ft.  below  its  present  level,  and 
that  in  all  probability  it  is  now  filling  up  the  broad,  flat  trench 
which  it  once  eroded  out  of  the  tolerably  level  plains.  It  is 
thus  showing  the  characters  of  a  stream  on  a  fan,  though  in  this 
case  the  fan  is  confined  by  the  old  river  terraces. 

The  section  across  the  Rakaia  river-bed  at  the  railway  is 
most  instructive.  The  railway  surveys  show  that,  in  most  cases, 
the  low  terraces  within  the  main  terrace  are  not  absolutely 
flat,  but  have  a  slight  inclination  away  from  the  river,  being 
higher  at  the  edge  than  they  are  some  distance  back.  They  thus 
exhibit  a  form  which  resembles  in  some  degree  the  scarp  slope 
and  dip  slope  of  sedimentary  rocks.  The  scarp  corresponds  to 
the  terrace,  and  the  dip  slope  to  the  gently  backward-falling 
surface  of  the  terrace.  This  resemblance  is  merely  one  of  form, 
and  not  of  structure,  and  it  is  exactly  what  might  have  been 
expected  in  a  case  where  terraces  are  partly  due  to  erosion,  and 
partly  to  building  up  a  flood  plain,  the  latter  process  being 
the  more  important.  It  is  unfortunate  that  this  interesting 
sectionrcannot  be  reproduced. 


Part  II. 

From  the  foregoing  description  of  the  mode  of  occurrence 
of  the  terraces,  it  is  evident  that  there  must  be  some  cause 
or  causes  of  exceptional  character  which  have  contributed  to 
their  formation.  In  order  that  a  river  may  form  terraces  on 
the  scale  that  occurs  here,  it  must  have  considerable  power  of 
corrasion,  both  vertical  and  lateral,  and  in  order  to  form  high 
terraces  the  former  must  be  relatively  more  important.  I  will 
therefore   consider  the  circumstances  that  affect  the  power  of 


28  Transactions. 

corrasion,     and    discuss    briefly  their    bearing   on  the    case    in 
■question. 

The  three  main  circumstances  which  affect  the  corrasive 
power  of  a  river  are — (1)  its  gradient.  (2)  its  volume,  and  (3)  its 
load. 

The  Gradient. 

The  following  table,  taken  from  Haast's  "  Geology  of  Canter- 
bury," gives  the  grade  of  the  rivers  on  that  part  of  their  course 
between   tbeir   gorges   and   the   sea.     Alongside  this,   for   pur- 
poses of  comparison,  I  have  also  put  the  grade  of  the  plains 
where  the  rivers  cross  them  : — 

Slope  of  Slope  of 

Rivers  in  Plains  in 

Feet  per  Feet  per 

Mile.  Mile. 

Waimakariri        . .  . .  . .     28  36 

Rakaia..  ..  ..  ..23*  39i 

Ashburton  ..  ..  . .     40~  42i 

Rangitata  . .  . .  . .     37  45 

These  figures  give  the  average  slope,  but  in  both  the  grade 
of  the  rivers  and  also  in  that  of  the  plains  there  is  a  perceptible 
flattening  on  approaching  the  sea. 

The  following  features  are  shown  by  this  table  : — 

(1.)  The  rivers  all  have  a  steep  slope  as  they  cross  the  plains — 
in  fact,  they  are  still  mountain  torrents.  They  should  therefore 
be  eroding  their  beds  very  rapidly,  as  their  banks  are  com- 
posed of  incoherent  material,  were  the  erosive  power  given  by 
their  high  grade  not  partly  counteracted  by  other  influences. 
Owing  also  to  this  lack  of  consolidation,  lateral  corrasion  is 
relatively  great.  In  the  upper  portion  of  the  plain  track,  vertical 
corrasion  is  more  important,  so  that  the  terraces  are  higher  ; 
but  in  the  lower  part,  lateral  corrasion  becomes  more  important, 
and  the  terraces  are  much  broader  and  lower. 

(2.)  The  slope  of  the  bed  is  dependent  on  the  size  of  the 
river.  The  smallest  river  has  the  most  rapid  fall  per  mile,  and 
the  largest  river — the  Rakaia — the  least  fall. 

(3.)  In  every  case  the  slope  of  the  plain  is  greater  than  the 
slope  of  the  river,  but  there  is  no  connection  between  the  slope 
of  the  plains  and  the  size  of  the  present  river  crossing  them. 

Changes  in  the  Height  of  the  Land- 
As  the  grade  of  the  rivers  will  depend  either  directly  or  in- 
directly on  the  height  of  the  land  above  sea-level  and  its  dis- 
tance from  the  sea,  it  is  necessary  here  to  consider  the  evidence 
for  elevation  and  depression. 


Speight. — Terrace-development  of  Canterbury  Rivers.     29 

(].)  Evidence  for  a   Recnet  Elevation. 

The  existence  of  peat-beds,  as  well  as  buried  logs — that  is. 
an  old  land  surface — is  proved  by  artesian-well  borings  in  the 
Christchurch  area.  Peat  has  been  found  at  the  following  depths  : 
at  Ward's  brewery,  400  ft.  ;  at  Sydenham,  500  ft.  ;  and  at  Isling- 
ton, 700  ft.,  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  As  the  first  two 
places  are  less  than  20  ft.  and  the  last  only  112  ft.  above  sea- 
level,  the  evidence  is  convincing  that  the  land  stood  at  least 
600  ft.  higher  than  at  present  when  the  outskirts  of  the  plains 
were  formed.  This  proveo  a  substantial  elevation  in  recent 
geological  times  ;  and  as  artesian  borings  are  put  down  further 
a  greater  elevation  may  be  proved,  as  only  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood  of  the  Port  Hills  has  solid  rock  been  reached  by 
such  borings. 

Additional  positive  evidence  of  an  increased  height  of  the 
land  is  to  be  found  in  the  bays  which  surround  Banks  Peninsula. 
They  are  all,  or  nearly  all,  drowned  valleys,  and  were  formed 
when  the  land  was  higher.  In  most  cases  they  are  valleys 
which  have  been  formed  wholly  by  water  action.  In  the 
cases  of  Akaroa  and  Lyttelton  Harbours,  the  original  craters 
of  volcanoes  have,  perhaps,  been  enlarged  by  explosions,  but 
certainly  have  been  further  amplified  by  water  erosion  and 
extended  into  the  valley  form.  The  exposed  floors  of  these 
valleys  grade  into  the  submerged  portion.  The  usual  depth 
of  the  bay  near  its  outlet  to  the  ocean  is  from  6  to  8  fathoms — ■ 
that  is.  from  40  ft.  to  50  ft. — and  this  gives  the  minimum  eleva- 
tion necessary  to  allow  the  valleys  to  be  formed.  But  all  the 
bays  have  been  filled  to  a  marked  extent  by  mud  washed  from 
the  hillsides,  so  that  no  accurate  estimate  can  be  made  of  the 
depth  of  the  rock  floor  beneath.  Borings  in  search  of  arte- 
sian water-supply  put  down  in  the  valley  behind  Sumner  failed 
to  reach  either  water  or  solid  rock  at  a  depth  of  200  ft. 

The  date  of  this  elevation  is  difficult  to  determine  in  the 
absence  of  any  fossil  evidence  or  any  other  accurate  time  indi- 
cation;  but,  taken  in  conjunction  with  the  evidence  from  arte- 
sian wells,  it  is,  I  think,  of  fairly  recent  date.  Another  proof 
that  the  land  has  recently  been  higher  is  afforded  by  the  shape 
and  position  of  the  valleys  of  the  streams  near  Timaru.  In 
most  cases  they  are  submerged  where  they  enter  the  sea. 

The  evidence  from  the  valleys  as  well  as  that  from  the  wells 
proves  conclusively  that  the  land  was  recently  much  higher, 
certainly  as  much  as  600  ft.  This  elevation  would  produce 
a  great  extension  of  the  land  eastward,  as  the  sea-bottom  is 
sensibly  flat  till  the  hundred-fathom  line  is  reached  at  a  distance 
of  about  forty  miles  from  the  present  coast-line.  Then  the  depth 
increases  very  rapidly  to  over  1,000  fathoms  within  the  next 


30  Transactions. 

few  miles.  This  submarine  bank  or  shelf  no  doubt  marks  the- 
utmost  eastward  extension  of  the  land  since  Pliocene  times. 
The  fan  of  the  Rakaia  and  Ashburton  at  one  time  stretched 
further  east  than  the  present  coast-line,  as  pointed  out  by  Sir 
Julius  von  Haast.  This  would  probably  have  been  so  extended 
during  a  period  when  the  land  was  at  a  higher  level.  On  de- 
pression setting  in,  the  outer  segment  of  the  fan  was  swept 
away  owing  to  its  being  exposed  to  the  full  force  of  the  heavy 
seas  and  the  strong  northerly  drift  on  the  coast ;  and  this  would, 
no  doubt,  contain  that  portion  where  the  streams  were  actively 
aggrading  their  beds.  In  the  case  of  the  Waimakariri,  however, 
this  portion  has  only  been  submerged,  not  actively  eroded, 
owing  to  the  protection  afforded  by  the  volcanic  mass  of  Banks 
Peninsula  and  its  submarine  easterly  and  north-easterly  exten- 
sion. Soundings  marked  on  charts  show  this  extension,  and  also 
show  that  the  depth  increases  very  gradually  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Waimakariri  for  some  distance  out  into  Pegasus  Bay. 
The  coast-line  here  is  not  marked  by  any  cliff  such  as  occurs 
on  that  part  of  the  Ninety-mile  Beach  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Ashburton  River  and  on  the  coast  near  Oamaru.  In  this  place 
erosion  of  the  coast-line  by  the  action  of  the  waves  is  extremely 
rapid,  and  threatens  serious  loss  in  the  near  future  unless  ade- 
quate protection  is  given. 

An  elevation  of  even  600  ft.  would  have  considerable  eff-vt 
on  the  climate  of  the  country.  In  the  first  place,  it  would 
largely  increase  the  extent  of  country  above  the  snow-line,  and 
hence  cause  a  great  extension  of  the  glaciers.  The  present 
terminal  face  of  the  Tasman  Glacier  is  2,460  ft.  above  sea-level  ; 
an  increased  height  of  the  land  of,  say,  600  ft.  would  bring  it 
down  nearly  to  the  upper  end  of  Lake  Pukaki,  which  is  1,550  ft. 
above  sea-level — that  is,  supposing  the  glacier  would  reach  the 
same  distance  above  sea-level  in  time  of  high  land  as  of  low 
land.  This  supposition  may  not  be  strictly  accurate,  as  it  is 
quite  possible  that  the  glacier  would  come  down  further  owing 
to  the  increased  accumulations  of  snow;  but  even  if  not,  the 
effect  of  the  elevation  would  still  be  very  marked. 

The  effect  of  high  land  is  easily  seen  on  comparing  the  size 
of  the  glaciers  at  the  head  of  the  Waimakariri  and  Rakaia  with 
those  near  Mount  Cook.  Even  allowing  for  the  increased 
average  height  of  the  peaks  in  the  last-named  locality,  the 
glaciers  are  of  enormously  greater  importance  and  come  down 
to  a  much  lower  level.  The  height  of  the  terminal  face  of  the 
Tasman  Glacier  is  2,460  ft.,  while  that  of  the  Lyell  Glacier  at 
the  head  of  the  Rakaia  is  3,568  ft.,  and  that  of  the  Waimakariri 
4, 1 62  ft.  above  sea-level. 

It  is  possible,  therefore,    that,    owing   to   increased   snowfall 


Speight. — Terrace-development  of  Canterbury  Rivers.     31 

■due  to  elevation  and  to  larger  collecting-grounds,  the  proved 
elevation  of  600  ft.  would  cause  a  marked  glacier  extension  ;  it 
might  even  cause  a  glacier  epoch.  Captain  Hutton  has  previously 
explained  the  advance  of  the  glaciers  as  due  to  increased  height 
of  the  land,  and  pointed  out,  from  biological  evidence,  that  there 
could  have  been  no  marked  refrigeration  of  the  climate. 

Another  effect  of  elevation  of  the  land  would  be  to  cause 
desert  or  steppe  conditions  to  prevail  on  the  plains  at  the  foot 
of  the  mountains.  Owing  to  their  increased  height,  the  mountains 
would  intercept  more  of  the  moisture  brought  by  prevaibng 
westerly  winds  from  the  Tasman  Sea,  which,  owing  to  its  depth, 
probably  existed  under  the  same  conditions  then  as  now.  The 
mountains  would  then  intercept  more  moisture,  and  cause  it  to 
fall  as  snow  on  the  higher  levels.  Their  eastern  slopes  near 
Mount  Hutt  and  Mount  Torlesse  receive  their  chief  rainfall 
from  the  west ;  but,  when  the  higher  central  ranges  cut  off  this 
moisture,  the  eastern  slopes  would  receive  much  less  of  this 
westerly  rain.  Further,  owing  to  the  coast-line  being  so  far 
to  the  east  of  its  present  position,  there  would  be  on  the  plains 
a  smaller  rainfall  from  the  prevailing  winds  which  at  present 
supply  the  coastal  lands.  Even  at  the  present  time  the  plains 
of  Canterbury  experience  a  modified  steppe  climate.  The  average 
rainfall  for  Hokitika  is  about  119  in.  per  year,  while  at  Lincoln, 
near  the  eastern  border  of  the  Canterbury  Plains,  it  is  only 
25  in.,  and  in  one  year  it  fell  as  low  as  14  in.  The  average 
annual  rainfall  for  Christchurch  is  only  23  in.  These  steppe 
conditions  would  be  intensified  during  a  period  of  elevation, 
and  the  climate  would  resemble  that  of  Patagonia  or  Thibet 
as  it  is  at  present. 

The  present  steppe  conditions  are  marked  by  the  great 
number  of  xerophilous  plants  which  are  found  in  Canterbury 
and  Otago,  and  there  are  indications  from  their  life  history 
that  the  desert  conditions  were  at  one  time  more  severe. 

In  his  admirable  paper  on  the  "  Plant  Geography  of  the 
Waimakariri,"  Dr.  Cockayne  draws  special  attention  to  the 
present  climatic  conditions  of  the  country,  and  emphasizes  the 
existence  of  steppe  conditions.  When  speaking  of  the  eastern 
climatic  plant-region  he  says,  "  The  cecological  condition  of 
this  region  is  essentially  xerophilous.  This  is  not  to  be  wondered 
at  when  the  small  rainfall  and  constant  drying  winds  in  con- 
junction with  the  usually  stony  soil  is  considered."  In  this 
same  pap?r,  in  giving  expression  to  an  opinion  of  Diels,  the 
great  cecological  and  systematic  botanist,  he  further  says, 
''  Diels  was  much  struck  with  the  extreme  xerophilous  character 
■of  many  plants,  which  he  considered  out  of  all  proportion  to 
any  severity  of  climate  they  have  now  to  endure.    At  the  present 


32  Transactions. 

time  the  driest  regions  of  New  Zealand  are  less  arid  and  possess- 
a  more  equable  climate  than  Middle  Europe,  so  he  considered 
Carmichaelia,  Hymenanthera,  Corokia,  and  some  others  to  be 
descendants  of  a  forest  flora  which  had  been  forced  to  retreat 
northwards  during  a  rising  of  the  land,  which  led  to  the  formation 
of  a  dry  easterly  steppe  region,  where  survivors  of  the  forest 
had  become  modified  and  assumed  the  structure  and  physi- 
ognomy of  desert  plants."  If  this  opinion  of  Diels  is  correct,. 
I  think  the  conditions  are  easily  explained  by  an  increased 
height  of  the  mountains  modifying  the  climate.  However,  Dr. 
Cockayne  shows  in  his  paper  that  the  present  conditions  are- 
severe  enough  to  account  for  the  plant  modifications.* 

(2.)  Evidences  of  Depression. 

The  evidence  for  the  lowering  of  the  land  below  its  present 
level  is  as  follows  : — 

(1.)  Marine  terraces  occur  at  Kaikoura,  Port  Robinson, 
Amuri  BlufE,  Motonau,  Conway  River,  and  at  Banks  Peninsula. 
They  are  found  as  high  as  600  ft.  above  present  sea-level  at 
Amuri  Bluff.  The  first  five  of  these  have  been  recorded  pre- 
viously by  Haast,  Hutton,  Hector,  and  McKay,  but  the  last 
case  has  not  been  previously  noted  as  far  as  I  am  aware.  The 
evidence  for  this  is  as  follows  :  Round  the  coast  of  Banks 
Peninsula  the  headlands  have  in  many  cases  flat  extremities. 
The  lava-flows  which  form  them  dip  outwards  at  low  angles, 
but  the  edges  of  the  streams  are  truncated  and  cut  level  on  the 
upper  surface.  The  greatest  height  at  which  I  have  noted  this 
marine  terrace  is  at  Lyttelton  Heads,  where  the  elevation  is 
over  450  ft.  ;  the  same  phenomenon  can  be  seen  at  Whitewash 
Head,  near  Sumner,  and  at  the  Long  Lookout  Point.  It  is 
well  marked,  besides,  in  other  places.  The  height  of  this  terrace 
diminishes,  as  a  rule,  on  those  parts  of  the  coast-line  which  would 
be  exposed  during  submergence  to  strong  currents  and  heavy 
seas.  It  is  low  on  the  southern  side  of  the  peninsula.  I  have 
not  come  across  in  any  place  traces  of  marine  organisms,  but 
it  is  not  likely  they  would  occur  plentifully,  or  be  preservt  d 
when  they  did  occur,  in  such  a  position.  One  of  the  principal 
conditions  which  promote  rapid  erosion  on  rocky  coasts  seems 
to  be  the  presence  of  strong  currents,  which  can  sweep  away  the 
material  dislodged  by  w;.v>'  and  other  action.  Headlands  which 
stretch  out  far  into  the  sea,  particularly  if  the  water  be  deep 
on  either  side,  will  therefore  commonly  show  a  marked  wave-cut 

*])r.  Cockayne  has  told  me  privately  that  he  has  latterly  modified 
his  opinion  somewhat,  and  now  thinks  that  present  conditions  are  hardly 
severe  enough  to  account  for  the  xerophilouS  plant  forms. — R.  S. 


Speight. — Terrace-development  of  Canterbury  Rivers.     33 

terrace,  while  an  even  coast-line  will  show  none.  Thus  we  have 
the  remarkable  shore  platforms  at  Kaikoura  Peninsula,  but 
hardly  any  sign  of  them  on  the  steep  hills  to  the  north  and 
south.  The  conditions  would  be  extremely  favourable  for  the 
cutting  of  distinct  shore  platforms  on  the  spurs  of  Banks  Penin- 
sula during  a  period  of  depression. 

(2.)  The  existence  of  the  silt  deposit  or  loess  was  held  by 
Captain  Hutton  to  be  a  proof  of  subsidence.  If  it  is  a  marine 
deposit,  it  undoubtedly  proves  that  the  land  was  much  lower — 
quite  1,000  ft. — as  may  be  inferred  from  the  distribution  of  the 
deposit,  and  its  present  occurrence  so  far  above  sea-level  would 
be  a  proof  of  subsequent  elevation.  However,  there  are  strong 
reasons  for  believing  it  is  a  wind  deposit,  and  I  know  from 
conversations  with  Captain  Hutton  that  he  was  not  quite  satis- 
fied with  some  of  his  evidence.  One  difficulty  which  strikes  me 
with  regard  to  Captain  Hutton's  contention  is  the  following  : 
The  so-called  silt  must  have' been  formed  of  glacial  rock-flour 
during  a  period  of  severe  glaciation — i.e.,  during  a  period  of 
marked  elevation  of  the  land.  All  observers  are  agreed,  I 
believe,  in  this.  Now,  Captain  Hutton's  theory  demands  that 
it  should  have  been  distributed  into  its  present  position  by 
marine  action  during  a  time  of  depression  of  the  land.  It  is 
absolutely  impossible  that  the  two  processes  could  have  gone 
on  simultaneously  in  the  Canterbury  area.  If  the  silt  were 
swept  down  by  great  rivers  issuing  from  the  glaciers  and  dis- 
tributed by  the  sea  at  their  mouths,  the  area  of  deposition  would 
be  forty  or  fifty  miles  to  the  eastward  of  the  present  coast-line. 
Further,  if  the  sea  advanced  to  cover  the  Canterbury  Plains, 
the  glaciers  would  then  have  disappeared,  or  have  lingered  on 
only  the  very  highest  parts  of  the  Southern  Alps.  The  sea  must 
therefore  have  distributed  the  silt  during  a  time  of  depression 
posterior  to  the  time  of  elevation  when  glaciation  was  at  its 
maximum.  It  would  have  been  expected  that  the  silt  would  be 
thickest  in  the  hollows  and  on  lower  ground.  Such  is  not  the 
case,  however  ;  it  shows  a  marked  tendency  to  be  thickest  on 
the  spurs  and  to  thin  out  on  low  ground.  In  this  way  it  closely 
resembles  the  distribution  of  the  loess  in  the  Valley  of  the 
Mississippi,  to  explain  which  the  aid  of  the  sea  has  never  been 
called  in. 

Professor  A.  Heim,  of  the  University  of  Zurich,  an  observer 
of  wide  experience,  and  an  authority  of  the  greatest  weight  on 
glacial  and  allied  problems,  differed  with  Captain  Hutton  on 
this  point.  After  a  visit  to  New  Zealand  he  published  in  Zurich, 
in  the  year  1905,  a  paper  which  has  many  valuable  observations 
on  geological  problems  in  this  country.  The  following  is  a 
translation  of  his  remarks  in  this  work  on  our  so-called  loess  : 
2— Trans. 


34  Transactions. 

'  When  the  great  glaciers  which  were  thrust  forward  to  the 
outlets  of  the  alpine  valleys  receded,  and  the  ground  moraines 
which  were  left  behind  were  dried  up  by  the  north-west  wind 
(Fohn),  then  the  fine  dust  was  blown  far  over  the  surface  right 
up  to  the  sea.  The  deposit  of  dust  accumulated  in  the  form  of 
the  fertile  loess.  Then,  as  we  see  in  many  parts  of  Germany, 
the  loess  covered  the  land-surface,  sometimes  from  half  a  metre 
to  a  metre  in  thickness,  and  sometimes  from  10  to  '15  metres. 
Where  it  breaks  away  on  the  upper  edge  of  the  river-bed  region 
it  forms  perpendicular  walls,"  and  here  long-buried  moa-bones 
frequently  appear.  But  even  now  the  loess  formation  is  going 
on.  We  have  ourselves  seen  how  thick  are  the  clouds  of  dust 
whirled  up  from  the  broad,  shingly  river-beds  by  the  north-west 
wind  and  spread  over  the  cultivated  land.  The  rain,  when  it 
falls  afterwards,  unites  the  dust  with  the  agricultural  land. 
A  part  of  the  fertility  of  the  eastern  plains  depends  on  the  loess 
covering." 

After  a  general  consideration  of  the  evidence,  and  from  my 
own  observations,  I  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  loess 
has  not  been  beneath  the  sea.  It  is  very  thick  on  the  hills 
between  Tai  Tapu  and  Birdling's  Flat,  but  is  completely  swept 
away  from  those  places  which  have  been  exposed  to  lake  or  sea 
erosion.  It  could  not  exist  in  its  peculiar  position  on  the  tops 
of  spurs,  &c,  if  they  had  been  washed  by  the  sea  since  it  was 
laid  down.  Further,  if  it  had  been  a  marine  deposit  it  should 
have  covered  the  whole  landscape  irrespective  of  its  form,  and 
it  is  unlikely  that  it  has  been  removed  by  denuding  agents 
from  so  many  places  and  left  comparatively  untouched  on  the 
spurs  and  the  sides  of  valleys.  I  am  therefore  inclined  to  think 
it  was  a  wind  deposit  during  the  steppe  conditions  of  a  higher 
land  and  drier  climate,  with  severe  windstorms  sweeping  from 
great  river-beds  greater  clouds  of  dust  than  are  seen  now  in  the 
Rakaia  and  Waimakariri,  although  these  are  by  no  means  of 
insignificant  proportions  at  the  present  time. 

The  deposit  of  loess  covers  up  the  old  shore  platforms  on 
the  south-west  side  of  Banks  Peninsula,  therefore  the  depression 
during  which  they  were  formed  was  pre-loess,  and  therefore 
before  the  great  glacier  extension.  If  this  is  really  so,  it  serves 
to  emphasize  the  recency  of  this  extension.  The  general  order 
of  events  would  therefore  be  a  period  of  low  laud,  when  the 
marine  terraces  were  formed,  then  an  elevation  in  glacier  times, 
followed  by  a  depression  till  now,  with  probably  minor  periods 
of  slight  elevation.  There  is  a  slight  elevation  going  on  now, 
as  maybe  seen  from  the  wave-worn  caves  at  Sumner  qo"w  several 
feet  above  high-water  mark,  and  the  bands  of  sand-dunes  between 
Christchurch  and  the  sea.     This,  no  doubt,  accounts  for  the  low. 


Speight. — Terrace-development  of  Canterbury  Rivers.     35 

broad  terraces  to  be  seen  in  the  lower  reaches  of  the  Avon  and 
Heathcote  Rivers. 

The  elevation  of  the  land  is  always  considered  a  most  important 
point  in  causing  terrace-development,  but  this  is  chiefly  in  those 
cases  where  rivers  have  been  near  their  base-level.  Subsequent 
elevation  causes  them  to  form  terraces  owing  to  the  restoration 
to  them  of  their  power  of  corrosion.  This  is  the  case  of  the 
Avon  and  Heathcote  terraces  just  mentioned. 

Now,  the  Canterbury  rivers  have  a  remarkably  steep  grade, 
and  a  depression  of  the  land  would  hardly  be  felt  in  their  upper 
and  middle  portions.  I  think  it  very  probable  that  if  the  land 
were  lowered  till  the  shore-line  corresponded  with  the  main 
line  oi  railway,  the  erosive  power  of  the  streams  near  the  gorges 
would  be  only  very  slightly  altered.  Further,  if  terracing  were 
due  to  elevation  it  should  be  progressive  upstream  from  the 
coast,  whereas  the  contrary  is  the  case  :  the  terraces  are  highest 
in  their  upper  portions. 

I  do  not  think  that  change  in  the  height  of  the  land  has 
materially  affected  the  erosive  power  of  these  rivers.  Near  the 
sea-coast  it  has  undoubtedly  exerted  some  influence,  and  the 
raising  of  the  bed  of  the  Waimakariri  near  Belfast  is  most  pro- 
bably due  to  continued  depression  of  the  land. 

The  Volume  and  Load. 

Other  causes  must  therefore  be  sought  to  explain  the  river 
terraces.  If  we  consider  change  in  volume,  we  are  forced  to 
conclude  that  our  rivers  have  shrunk  in  volume  from  what  they 
were  in  the  glacier  epoch.  If  our  mountains  were  higher,  they 
would  intercept  more  snow,  and  the  average  volume  of  the  rivers 
would  be  greater.  The  largest  rivers  of  Canterbury,  such  as 
the  Waitaki  and  Eakaia,  drain  the  highest  portions  of  the  Alps  ; 
further,  the  Rangitata,  with  a  comparatively  small  drainage- 
basin,  is  nearly  as  large  a  river  as  the  Waimakariri  with  a  large 
drainage-basin,  because  the  small  area  supplying  the  Rangitata 
is  an  area  of  high  mountains,  where  the  glaciers  are  larger. 
Our  rivers  are  therefore  smaller  than  they  were,  and  they  would 
not  be  likely,  therefore,  to  be  able  to  terrace  their  beds  were 
this  not  accompanied  by  a  marked  diminution  in  the  load. 

It  is  important  to  notice  here  the  different  grade  of  the 
plains — that  is,  of  the  old  glacier  rivers  as  compared  with  the 
grade  of  the  present  rivers.  They  are  all,  without  exception, 
running  on  a  gentler  gradient  now  than  formerly.  If  we  except 
the  hypothesis  of  elevation  along  an  axis  through  the  outer 
range  of  mountains,  we  are  forced  to  conclude  that  the  last 
important  cause — viz.,  the  load  of  the  river — is  the  predominating 
factor  in  determining  whether  the  rivers  could  terrace  the  plains 


36  Transactions. 

or  not.  The  volume  in  all  probability  is  now  less,  the  grade 
of  the  rivers  is  less,  and  yet  terraces  are  formed  on  a  tre- 
mendous scale. 

Part  III. 

The  existence  of  enormous  supplies  of  waste  in  the  valley 
of  a  river  profoundly  influences  its  action.  The  energy  of  a 
stream  is  limited,  and  its  excess  is  chiefly  spent  on  transportation 
and  corrasion.  It  will  therefore  be  evident  that  terrace-forming 
must  be  connected  in  some  wav  with  the  load  a  stream  carries. 
If  the  load  is  excessive,  there  will  be  no  energy  left  for  lowering 
its  bed,  and  hence  for  forming  permanent  terraces.  Manv  of 
the  laws  governing  streams  may  be  studied  by  examining  the 
miniature  fans  and  deltas  formed  at  the  roadside  or  in  other 
places  after  heavy  rain.  The  following  order  of  events  is  ap- 
parently true  for  a  miniature  fan  as  for  our  large  rivers : — 

During  flood-time  the  stream  is  fully  loaded  with  waste  from 
the  surrounding  country,  but  drops  it  on  the  gently  sloping 
ground,  thus  raising  its  bed.  Terraces  are  absent.  When  the 
height  of  the  flood  is  past,  the  supply  of  waste  falls  off — only 
smaller  particles  are  carried  ;  and  there  is  an  excess  of  energy 
left  over  for  corrasion,  and  the  fan  is  terraced,  on  a  small  scale 
it  is  true,  but  the  processes  and  the  sequence  of  events  are  just 
the  same  as  on  a  large  scale.  If  this  is  so,  the  degradation  of 
its  bed  by  a  river  which  is  fully  loaded  in  flood-time  will  occur 
principally  as  the  flood  is  falling,  and  will  continue  till  the  river 
is  running  clear  again  and  carrying  no  sediment.  I  have  re- 
peatedly noticed  this  order  of  events  on  shingle  fans,  and  I  have 
received  confirmation  of  these  facts  from  engineers  whose  busi- 
ness it  is  to  supervise  the  fords  across  the  streams  on  the  Christ- 
church-Hokitika  Road.  It  must  be  remembered  that  our  rivers 
when  in  flood  are  undoubtedly  highly  charged  with  waste,  and 
therefore  differ  greatly  from  the  condition  of  ordinary  streams 
when  in  flood.  These  may  be  discoloured  by  fine  particles. 
and  may  even  move  stones  along;  but  the  supply  of  waste  on 
the  Canterbury  mountains  is  exceptional  in  amount,  therefore 
our  rivers  in  flood-time  are  comparable  to  the  excessively  charged 
streams  of  a  small  fan,  and  the  sequence  of  events  is  apparently 
the  same,  although  the  conditions  are  somewhat  different. 

I  think  it  can  be  proved  that  when  the  volume  of  a  stream 
diminishes,  the  transporting  power  falls  off  in  a  slightly  greater 
ratio  than  the  energy.  The  result  of  this  will  be  that,  when  a 
stream  is  fully  Loaded,. on  a  diminution  in  volume  there  will  be 
an  excess  of  energy  left  over  for  corrasion,  and  the  stream  will 
therefore  channel  its  bed.  The  explanation  of  this  phenomenon 
may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  with  a  falling  volume  the  larger 


Speight. — Terrace-development  of  Canterbury  Rivers.     37 

particles  are  dropped  first,  and  if  there  is  not  an  approximately 
equal  quantity  of  smaller  material  for  the  river  to  move  in  place 
of  the  material  dropped  there  will  be  an  excess  of  energy  left 
over  for  corrasion.  Under  ordinary  circumstances  there  is  an 
insufficient  supply,  and  so  the  river-channel  is  lowered. 

The  supply  of  waste  has  such  an  important  bearing  on  the 
corrasive  power  of  a  river  that  a  consideration  of  the  circum- 
stances which  control  the  supply  in  the  Canterbury  mountains 
will  be  relevant  here.  One  of  their  most  striking  features  is 
the  vast  supply  of  debris  supplied  by  their  slopes  exposed  to 
frost  erosion.  This  effect  is  so  marked  that  whole  mountain- 
sides are  covered  with  angular  debris,  which  is  continually  moving 
downwards,  but  especially  so  in  the  case  of  shingle-slips.  These 
are  often  from  2,000  ft.  to  3,000  ft.  in  height,  and  may  be  as 
much  as  a  mile  wide.  The  reasons  for  this  excessive  supply  of 
waste  are  as  follows  :  (1.)  The  iointed  character  of  the  rocks 
in  the  drainage-basins  of  the  rivers.  (2.)  Owing  to  intense 
folding  of  the  rocks,  they  frequently  dip  at  very  steep  angles, 
and  therefore  the  weakest  beds  are  exposed  to  the  atmosphere 
without  being  protected  by  more  resistent  beds.  (3.)  The  age  of 
the  folding  dates  back  to  Mesozoic  times,  and  therefore  weather- 
ing agents  have  been  able  to  exert  their  influence  to  a  marked 
extent.  (4.)  The  range,  both  annual  and  diurnal,  of  the  tem- 
perature is  very  great.  (5.)  The  absence  of  close  plant-covering 
over  large  areas.  All  these  causes  promote  extensive  disintegra- 
tion, and  any  explanation  of  the  life  history  of  our  rivers  must 
take  them  into  account. 

One  of  the  principal  factors  determining  the  production  of 
waste  is  the  extent  of  mountain-slope  not  protected  by  a  close 
covering  of  vegetation.  The  area  of  most  vigorous  denudation 
is  between  the  snow-line  and  the  upper  limit  of  this  covering. 
The  snow  protects  the  underlying  rocks  to  a  certain  extent ; 
but,  nevertheless,  even  here  the  denudation  is  rapid,  but  espe- 
cially on  those  steep  faces  where  snow  cannot  he.  When  the 
snow  is  turned  to  ice  the  effect  is  somewhat  similar.  Erosion 
will  not  proceed  as  rapidly  under  the  ice  as  on  the  slopes  at  a 
higher  and  lower  level  free  from  ice,  but  exposed  to  the  action  of 
frost.  The  effect  of  elevation  of  the  land  mil  be  to  make  the 
area  above  the  snow- line  greater  and  to  expose  a  much  greater 
area  to  the  influence  of  frost.  The  part  affected  in  the  Southern 
Alps  is  principally  that  between  the  3,500  ft.  and  the  7,000  ft. 
contour  lines.  If  the  land  were  raised,  the  country  affected 
would  be  approximately  that  between  the  same  levels,  but  the 
area  included  would  be  very  much  greater  ;  although  this  would 
be  diminished  by  the  accumulation  of  ice  in  hollows  where  it 
could  not   melt.     Large   areas   below  the   snow-line   would   be 


38  Transactions. 

covered  with  glaciers ;  but,  in  spite  of  this,  the  area  exposed  to 
frost  action  would  be  more  extensive,  and  therefore  the  supply 
of  waste  would  be  in  excess.  A  very  large  amount  of  erosion 
due  to  glaciers,  as  estimated  by  the  proportion  of  sediment  in 
the  rivers  flowing  from  their  terminal  faces,  is  due  primarily  to 
the  action  of  frost  on  the  hillsides  above  the  glaciers. 

The  supply  of  waste  in  this  case  would  be  increased  during 
elevation,  owing  to  the  previous  loosening  action  of  the  plants 
on  the  rocks  rendering  them  subject  to  other  weathering 
agencies  ;  again,  if  this  were  also  attended  with  a  general  desicca- 
tion of  the  climate  on  the  mountains  fronting  the  east,  the 
supply  of  waste  would  be  further  increased  owing  to  the  dis- 
appearance of  the  protective  plant-covering. 

From  a  general  survey  of  the  country  in  the  upper  basins 
of  our  rivers  I  am  of  opinion  that  the  period  of  maximum 
weathering  has  passed.  The  old  and  mature  shingle- slips  are  far 
larger  than  those  now  existing.  Vegetation  in  many  cases  has 
got  the  better  of  the  moving  shingle,  and  in  some  cases  the  old 
fans  are  completely  covered  with  forest.  Our  shingle-  slips  at 
the  present  time  are  diminishing  in  extent,  and  they  will  con- 
tinue to  do  so  unless  the  plant-covering  is  destroyed  either  by 
nature  herself  or  by  man. 

The  excess  of  waste  during  a  period  of  elevation  accounts 
for  the  present  form  of  the  Canterbury  Plains.  They  have  been 
formed  by  the  overlapping  fans  of  great  glacier  streams,  as  can 
be  conclusively  proved  by  carefully  contouring  their  surface. 
The  contour  lines  show  them  to  have  been  formed  in  exactly 
the  same  way  as  an  ordinary  shingle  fan,  except  that  their  grade 
is  more  gentle.  They  were  built  up  to  their  present  height 
when  the  rivers  were  overloaded  with  sediment,  during  a  time 
of  high  land,  severe  glaciation,  and  acute  frost  action.  On  the 
land  being  depressed,  the  supply  of  waste  would  fall  off,  and  the 
rivers  would  begin  to  terrace  their  old  deposits  in  a  manner 
analogous  to  that  in  which  a  stream  terraces  its  fan  during  a 
falling  flood.  This  action  was  certain  to  occur  unless  the 
volume  of  the  river  fell  off  in  a  relatively  greater  proportion.  I 
believe  that  such  would  not  occur  in  Canterbury,  owing  to  the 
excessive  amount  of  waste  which  would  be  poured  into  the  rivers 
falling  off  in  a  greater  ratio  than  the  decrease  in  snow  or  rain. 

It  will  be  noted  in  every  case  that  the  grade  of  the  rivers  is 
less  than  that  of  the  plains  ;  the  rivers  are  therefore  able  to  do 
their  work  on  a  gentler  slope  than  formerly.  This  can  only  be 
due  to — (1.)  Elevation  of  the  interior  of  the  country  since  the 
plains  were  formed.  (2.)  Rivers  having  a  greater  volume,  and 
therefore  power  to  move  their  load  on  a  gentler  grade  :  this  is 
extremely  unlikely.     (3.)  A  diminution  in  the  supply  of  waste  : 


Speight. — Terrace-development  of  Canterbury  Rivers.     39 

this  last  appears  to  rne  the  most  satisfactory  explanation.  No 
doubt  the  erosion  of  its  bed  which  the  river  is  enabled  to  per- 
form owing  to  the  diminution  of  the  supply  of  waste  would  tend 
to  be  neutralised  by  the  depression  of  the  land  proved  on  page 
32.  If  the  land  had  been  low,  and  the  former  supply  of  waste 
comparatively  small,  this  depression  would  have  been  sufficient 
to  produce  aggradation  instead  of  corrasion.  But  the  land  is 
still  high,  the  rivers  are  still  powerful  torrents,  and  the  supply  of 
waste  fast  diminishing.  These  factors  are  sufficiently  great  to 
nullify  the  effect  of  depression  in  the  higher  portion  of  the  river- 
course  ;  but  the  rivers  have  now  reached  such  a  stage  in  their 
development  that  in  their  lower  course  aggrading  is  now  going 
on :  hence  depression  has  made  its  influence  apparent.  This 
is  what  might  reasonably  have  been  expected ;  and,  if  depression 
continues,  this  effect  will  become  more  and  more  marked,  so 
that  the  terraces  will  tend  to  disappear.  However,  should  the 
slight  elevation  which  has  taken  place  recently  continue, 
aggrading  in  the  lower  portion  of  the  river- course  will  cease  and 
terracing  will  be  resumed. 

I  have  been  confirmed  in  my  conclusion  that  the  supply  of 
waste  is  a  controlling  factor  in  the  terrace- development  of  our 
rivers  by  observation  of  the  history  of  shingle  fans.  In  their 
youthful  stage  they  are  built  up  by  an  aggrading  stream  ;  in 
their  vigorous  middle  period  they  are  partly  channelling  their 
fans  and  partly  building  them  up  on  their  outskirts  ;  when  they 
reach  their  mature  stage  they  become  channelled  and  terraced 
by  the  stream  that  runs  through  them.  This  terracing  closely 
resembles  that  on  the  plain  course  of  our  rivers.  It  is  more 
marked  near  the  apex  of  the  fan,  and  falls  off  towards  the  fringe 
This  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the  river  is  more  confined 
near  the  apex  of  the  fan,  and  therefore  more  capable  of  vertical 
corrasion.  But  it  is  also  due  to  the  fact  that  in  former  times 
of  excessive  supply  of  waste  that  waste  was  chiefly  deposited 
just  below  the  gorge.  It  may  perhaps  be  due  to  increase  in 
volume  of  the  river  as  it  enlarges  its  drainage-area.  However, 
increase  in  volume  will  not  explain  the  fact  that  after  every 
freshet  a  stream  apparently  terraces  its  fan  on  a  diminishing 
volume. 

In  his  accounts  of  the  formation  of  the  Canterbury  Plains, 
Captain  Hutton  maintained  that  they  had  been  levelled  by  the 
sea  and  subsequently  raised,  so  that  the  rivers  were  able  to 
terrace  them.  If  this  were  the  case,  terracing  should  progress 
up  -  stream,  should  show  a  maximum  development  near  the 
sea,  and  not,  as  in  this  case,  near  the  gorges.  If,  however,  the 
loess  is  not  marine  but  of  eeolian  origin,  as  seems  very  probable, 
and  since  it  is  incapable  of  resisting  marine  erosion,  there  can- 


40  Transactions. 

not  have  been  any  recent  elevation  of  more  than  a  few  feet. 
The  general  recent  direction  of  land  movement  has  been  down- 
ward, and  this  is  indicated  also  by  the  aggradation  going  on 
in  the  Lower  Waimakariri  and  Rakaia. 

The  evidence  afforded  by  Otago,  where  river- terracing  is 
also  shown  on  a  gigantic  scale,  points  distinctly  to  a  sinking- 
land.  Unless  there  has  been  at  the  same  time  an  increase  in 
the  rainfall — and  as  long  as  conditions  have  been  the  same  over 
the  Tasman  Sea  there  seems  to  be  no  reason  why  this  should 
have  increased  on  the  mountains — we  are  at  once  driven  to  con- 
sider the  supply  of  waste  to  be  a  predominating  factor  in  ter- 
race-formation in  the  valleys  of  the  Canterbury  rivers.  If  we 
consider  those  parts  of  the  world  where  terraces  are  greatly 
developed— e.g.,  British  Columbia,  the  Rocky  Mountains  region, 
the  Himalayas,  and  Patagonia — we  must  be  struck  by  the  fact 
that  they  have  all  passed  through  a  severe  glaciation,  when 
waste  filled  the  valleys,  and  now  terracing  is  actively  going  on. 
Elevation  of  the  land  has  had  an  important  effect  in  some  cases, 
but  not  in  all.  It  seems  that  too  little  consideration  has  been 
given  to  the  control  exerted  by  excessive  waste- supply. 

Note. 
I  have  omitted  mention  in  the  above  of  the  effect  which  sag- 
ging of  the  coast-line  might  have  had  on  the  formation  of  terraces. 
Owing  to  the  loading  of  the  coast-line  with  enormous  quantities 
of  waste  from  the  land,  it  is  highly  likely  that  differential  lowering 
of  the  crust  has  taken  place,  and  is  probably  going  on  now  ; 
perhaps  the  general  lowering  since  the  glacier  maximum  may  be 
intensified  in  the  coastal  regions  by  this  process.  It  is  highly 
likely  that  a  large  syncline  has  been  forming  under  the  Canter- 
bury Plains  and  to  seaward  of  them,  dating  from  some  time 
posterior  to  the  Upper  Cretaceous  period,  and  that  the  coal- 
measures  and  overlying  limestones  and  other  beds  have  ex- 
perienced the  results  of  this  movement.  Very  interesting  evi- 
dence on  this  point  has  been  afforded  by  the  cruise  of  the 
steam-trawler  "  Nora  Niven."  Mr.  Edgar  Waite,  Curator  of  the 
Canterbury  Museum,  informs  me  that  at  certain  positions  along 
the  coast  large  pieces  of  brown  coal  were  brought  up  in  the 
trawl.  They  were  frequently  from  2  ft.  to  3  ft.  in  length,  and 
weighed  at  times  over  1  cwt.  They  were  obtained  from  the 
following  stations  :  No.  39,  twenty-six  miles  east  of  Timaru  ; 
depth,  28-31  fathoms.  No.  42,  thirty-one  miles  north-east 
of  Timaru  ;  depth,  21-24  fathoms.  No.  54,  twenty-seven  miles 
north-east  of  Godley  Head;  depth,  21-27  fathoms.  No.  57, 
four  miles  east-south-east  of  Waiau  River  ;  depth,  26  43  Eathoms. 
Their  occurrence  at  such  a  uniform  depth,  their  absence  else- 


Speight. — Terrace-development  of  Canterbury  Rivers.     41 

where,  and  their  large  size  renders  it  highly  improbable  that  they 
were  carried  to  these  places  either  by  ocean-currents  or  by  rivers. 
In  fact,  pieces  of  coal  of  such  size  would  be  quickly  reduced  to 
fragments  in  any  of  the  rivers  which  cut  through  the  coal- 
measures.  It  seems,  therefore,  highly  probable  that  such  masses 
have  come  from  outcrops  of  coal  in  positions  which  come  to  the 
level  of  the  sea-bottom  in  the  localities  where  they  are  found. 

Similar  occurrences  of  coal  outcropping  on  the  sea-bottom 
are  recorded  from  the  North  Sea.  If  this  is  really  so,  then  the 
brown-coal  measures  of  Malvern,  Mount  Somers,  and  of  other 
places  along  the  foot  of  mountains  probably  extend  eastward 
under  the  plains  in  the  form  of  a  great  syncline,  and  reappear 
at  a  depth  of  about  150  ft.  below  sea-level  about  thirty  miles 
to  the  eastward  of  the  present  coast-line  on  the  scarp  of  the 
continental  shelf.  It  is  therefore  likely  that  sagging  of  the 
crust  has  gone  on  in  Post-Cretaceous  times,  but  with  .periods 
of  depression  and  elevation,  as  proved  by  the  marine  terraces 
on  Banks  Peninsula.  If  this  has  gone  on  recently,  it  would 
no  doubt  affect  the  form  of  the  terraces  ;  but  I  am  inclined 
to  think  that  its  effect  is  not  apparent,  unless  the  depression 
of  the  land  which  went  on  since  the  glacier  maximum  is  partly 
due  to  this  cause.  The  effect  of  this  depression  is,  without 
doubt,  apparent  in  the  lower  courses  of  the  present  rivers,  as 
explained  previously. 

In  conclusion,  I  have  to  express  my  sincere  thanks  to  the 
following  gentlemen  for  their  kindly  criticism  and  generous 
advice  and  assistance  on  many  points  :  Dr.  L.  Cockayne,  Dr. 
F.  W.  Hilgendorf,  Messrs.  E.  G.  Hogg,  E.  K.  Mulgan,  E.  M. 
Laing,  T.  H.  Jackson,  Edgar  R.  Waite,  and  Edward  Dobson, 
C.E. 

Bibliography. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  papers,  &c,  which  have  been  referred 
to  in  the  above,  or  which  have  some  direct  bearing  on  the  sub- 
ject :— 

Haast,  Sir  J.  von  :  "  Geology  of  Canterbury  and  Westland,  with  a 
Special  Chapter  on  the  Formation  of  the  Canterbury  Plains." 

Haast,  Sir  J.  von  :  "  On  the  Geology  of  the  Canterbury  Plains." 
Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  vi. 

Thomson,  J.  T.  :  "On  the  Glacial  Action  and  Terrace-formation 
of  South  New  Zealand."  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  vi.  (This 
paper  draws  special  attention  to  the  resemblance  between 
the  mode  of  forming  a  river-fan  and  that  of  the  plains.) 

Crawford,  J.  C.  :  "  On  the  Old  Lake  System  of  New  Zealand, 
with  Some  Observations  on  the  Formation  of  the  Canterburv 
Plains."     Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  viii. 


42  Transactions. 

Hardcastle,  J.  :  "  Origin  of  the  Loess-deposit  of  the  Timaru 
Plateau."     Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxii. 

Cox,  S.  H.  :  "  Report  of  the  Geological  Survey,  Mount  Somers 
and  Malvern  Hills  District,  1883."  (This  gives  a  good 
description  of  the  geological  structure  of  the  rocks  in  the 
districts  named,  and  in  particular  those  near  the  Rakaia 
Gorge.) 

Hutton,  Captain  F.  W.  :  "On  the  Cause  of  the  Former  Great 
Extension  of  the  Glaciers  in  New  Zealand."  Trans.  N.Z. 
Inst.,  vol.  viii. 

Hutton,  Captain  F.  W.  :  "  Note  on  the  Silt-deposit  at  Lyttelton." 
Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xv. 

Hutton,  Captain  F.  W.  :  "On  the  Lower  Gorge  of  the  Waimaka- 
riri."     Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xvi. 

Hutton,  Captain  F.  W.  :  "  The  Geological  History  of  New- 
Zealand."     Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxxii. 

Hutton.  Captain  F.  W.  :  "On  the  Formation  of  the  Canterbury 
Plains."     Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxxvii  (1904). 

Hutton,  Captain  F.  W.  :  "  Report  on  the  North-east  Portion 
of  the  South  Island."     Geological  Survey  Report,  1872-3. 

Hutton,  Captain  F.  W.  :  "  The  Origin  of  the  Fauna  and  Flora 
of  New  Zealand."  "  Annals  of  Natural  History,"  vol.  xv 
(1885). 

In  these  articles  Captain  Hutton  puts  forward  his  views 
as  regards  the  reason  for  the  extension  of  the  glaciers,  the 
evidence  for  the  marine  origin  of  the  loess,  and  for  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Canterbury  Plains.  As  they  come  from  such  a 
distinguished  author,  they  are  worthy  of  the  greatest  con- 
sideration. 

Cockayne,  Dr.  L.  :  "  The  Plant  Geography  of  the  Waimakariri." 
Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxxii. 

This  paper  gives  an  excellent  account  of  the  present 
climatic  conditions  of  the  basin  of  the  Waimakariri,  as  well 
as  of  its  oecological  botany.  Special  attention  has  been 
paid  to  the  xerophilous  plants,  and  to  the  reasons  for  their 
frequent  occurrence  in  this  area. 

Hikendorf,  Dr.  F.  W.  :  "  The  Influence  of  the  Terrestrial  Rota- 
tion  on  the  Canterbury  Rivers."  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxxix 
(1906). 

This  paper  is  a  valuable  contribution  to  the  literature 
dealing  with  the  river-terraces.  In  it  the  author  attempts 
to  prove  that  the  earth's  rotation  has  affected  the  form 
of  the  terraces.  While  admitting  that  this  is  a  vera  causa, 
yet  the  geological  difficulties  in  the  way  of  conclusively 
demonstrating  its  effect  are  so  great  that  I  cannot  regard 
the  conclusion  as  satisfactorily  established.     The  labour  and 


Gkiffin. — Development  of  Neiv  Zealand  Conifer  Leaves.    43 

care  which  the  author  has  displayed  in  collecting  his  data 
are  worthy  of  admiration,  and  this  paper  will  always  remain 
a  standard  one  with  reference  to  the  form  of  the  cross  section 
of  the  river-beds  from  terrace  to  terrace,  whatever  the  cause 
of  this  form  may  be. 
Dr.  Albert  Heim,  Professor  :  "  Neujahrsblatt  von  der  Natur- 
forschenden  Gesellschaft  auf  das  Jahr,  1905,  Neuseeland.*' 
Zurich,  1905. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES  VI-VIIa. 
Plate  VI. 

1.  Looking  south-west  through  the  Rakaia  Gorge.     The  terrace  in  the  fore- 

ground has  been  eroded  largely  from  solid  rock,  outcrops  of  which 
can  be  seen  on  its  level  surface  in  three  places. 

2.  Upper  Waimakariri.     Partially  truncated  spur,  taken  from  the  top  of 

another  on  opposite  side  of  river-bed,  which  is  here  about  three-quarters 
of  a  mile  wide. 

3.  Looking  down  Rakaia  River  from  the  Gorge  Bridge,  showing  river-bed 

and  high  terraces. 

Plate  VII. 

1.  River  Hawden,  at  junction  with  the  Waimakariri,  showing  aggrading 

shingle-streams  filling  up  the  bottom  of  an  old  lake-bed. 

2.  Upper  Waimakariri  River,  showing  rochcs  moutonnees  and  glacial  terrace, 

near  top  of  picture. 

Plate  VIIa. 
Map  of  part  of  Canterbury  District. 


Art.  III. — The  Development  of  some  New  Zealand  Conifer 
Leaves  with  regard  to  Transfusion  Tissue  and  to  Adaptation 
to  Environment. 

By  Miss  E.  M.  Griffin,  M.A. 

Communicated  by  Professor  A.  P.  W.  Thomas. 

[Read  before  the  Auckland  Institute,  14th  November,  1906.] 

Plates  VIII-X. 

The  present  investigations  have  been  confined  principally  to 
species  of  two  genera,  Podocarpus  and  Dacrydium,  both  belonging 
to  Eickler's  and  later  to  Engler's  group  Podocarpece,  which  by 
many  botanists  are  regarded  as  being  more  or  less  primitive 
Conifers. 

As  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  ascertain,  the  species  taken 
as  the  objects  of  this  research  have  not  yet  been  investigated 


44  Transactions. 

with  regard  to  the  development  of  their  leaves.  In  only  one 
place  have  I  seen  the  structure  of  any  of  them  described. 
Mr.  Worsdell,  in  his  valuable  paper  on  "  Transfusion  Tissue,"* 
has  just  indicated  the  structure  of  one  New  Zealand  Conifer, 
Podocarpus  totara,  presumably  of  the  mature  leaf  ;  but,  as  will 
be  seen  later,  a  slightly  different  structure  has  been  seen  in 
fresh  material.  More  will  also  be  said  in  connection  with  this 
paper  when  the  origin  of  transfusion  tissue  in  the  Podocarpece 
is  discussed. 

Another  paper  dealing  with  a  similar  subject  is  one  entitled 
"  Centripetal  Wood  in  Leaves  of  Conifers,"  by  Ch.  Bernard,  f 
Unfortunately  I  have  not  a  copy  of  this  paper,  but  from  a  short 
summary  of  it  which  appears  in  the  Journ.  Micros.  Soc.  Lond., 
Dec,  1904,  it  seems  that  he  has  confined  his  attention  entirely 
to  the  bundle,  and  in  particular  to  transfusion  tissue.  From 
his  results  he  arrives  at  the  same  conclusion  as  does  Mr.  Worsdell 
with  regard  to  the  origin  of  transfusion  tissue  in  Conifers. 

Papers  dealing  with  the  structure  of  other  Conifer  leaves 
seem  to  be  very  numerous,  but  only  a  very  small  number  of  them 
deal  with  leaves  from  the  standpoint  of  development  in  a  par- 
ticular species.  The  most  important  work  in  this  direction  is 
one  by  Aug.  Daguillon,  "  Recherches  morphologiques  sur  les 
feuilles  des  Coniferes,"  written,  "  pour  obtenir  le  grade  de  docteur 
es  sciences  naturelles"  in  1890.  Daguillon  has  taken  for  his 
research  the  leaves  of  some  species  belonging  to  the  genera 
Abies,  Picea,  Cedrus,  and  Larix,  and  has  confined  himself  to 
strictly  morphological  (in  the  limited  sense  of  the  word)  con- 
siderations of  their  development.  In  dealing  with  the  Podo- 
carpece, while  keeping  in  view  the  morphological  aspect,  I  have 
endeavoured  in  each  species  to  go  a  step  further  and  to  ex- 
plain the  development  by  physiological  considerations.  This 
paper  of  Daguillon's  will  be  dealt  with  later,  at  the  end  of  this 
thesis,  where  a  short  comparison  of  the  morphological  results 
obtained  in  these  two  rather  widely  different  groups  of  Conifers 
will  be  given.  It  has  been  thought  best  not  to  institute  com- 
parisons with  outside  groups  in  the  main  part  of  this  paper, 
as  these  would  obscure  the  connection  between  the  more  closely 
allied  species.  The  following  is  the  summary  given  by  Daguillon 
at  the  end  of  his  work  (a  translation  has  been  given  for  clear- 
ness) : — 

In  the  Abietinece — (1.)  The  existence  of  primordial  leaves — 
i.e.,  of  leaves  intermediate  between  cotyledon  and  mature  leaves 
— is  constant.  (2.)  The  passage  from  the  primordial  form  can 
take  place  without  numerous  transitions,  as  in  Pinus,   or  by 

*  Trans.  Linn.  Sue.  Lond.,  1897. 

|  Beiheft.  Z.  Bot.  CentralbL,  svii.  (1904). 


Geiffin. — Development  of  New  Zealand  Conifer  Leaves.     45 

insensible  transitions,  as  in  Abies.  (3.)  This  passage  is  some- 
times characterized  by  a  modification  of  phyllotaxis.  (4.)  Some- 
times marked  by  a  change  in  the  epidermal  surface.  (5.)  Nearly 
always  accompanied  by  the  development  below  the  epiderm  of 
one  or  more  sclerenchymatous  layers,  which  afford  the  leaf 
protection  and  support.  (6.)  The  pericyclic  sclerenchyme,  which 
encloses  more  or  less  completely  the  median  vein,  acquires  a 
considerable  development.  Further,  among  the  two  sorts  of 
elements  of  which  it  is  composed  (cells  with  bordered  pits  and 
fibres  with  smooth  membranes),  the  latter  are  often  absent 
from  the  primordial  leaves,  appearing  with  the  passage  from 
the  primordial  to  the  definite  form.  (7.)  In  certain  genera 
(Abies  and  Pinus)  the  fibro-vascular  system  of  the  median 
vein,  proceeding  from  a  single  bundle  of  the  stem,  bifurcates 
in  the  interior  of  the  adult,  while  it  remains  simple  in  the  pri- 
mordial leaf.  (8.)  In  all  cases  the  number  of  conducting  elements 
of  the  xylem  and  of  the  phloem  augments  when  the  primordial 
passes  into  the  mature  leaf.  (9.)  When  foliar  parenchyma  is 
heterogeneous  and  bifacial  the  differentiation  of  the  palisade 
parenchvma  is  generally  accentuated  in  the  adult  leaves. 

Before  proceeding  to  the  main  part  of  the  work,  it  might 
be  as  well  to  add  a  word  or  two  about  .the  material  used,  and 
its  preparation  for  sections.  In  all  cases  the  leaves  have  been 
obtained  directly  from  nature  in  different  localities  round  about 
Auckland.  As  far  as  possible,  only  plants  growing  under 
exactly  the  same  environment  have  been  used  for  the  different 
developmental  stages. 

The  sections  from  which  most  of  the  drawings  have  been 
made  were  cut  by  hand.  It  was  found  impossible  to  get  very 
good  results  from  material  imbedded  in  paraffin  and  cut  by  the 
microtome.  The  great  thickness  of  the  epidermis  and  hypoderm 
no  doubt  largely  accounts  for  this — in  the  first  place  making 
penetration  hard  during  imbedding  processes,  and  in  the  second 
place  causing  an  obstruction  to  the  razor,  especially  in  trans- 
verse sections.  By  stripping  off  the  epidermis  and  hypoderm 
good  results  were  obtained  by  the  microtome  in  longitudinal 
sections  (radial  and  tangential)  of  the  vascular  bundle  in  the 
cotyledons  of  two  species  of  Podocarpus. 

The  method  of  double-staining  with  haemalum  and  saffranin 
has  been  found  the  most  convenient  and  differential.  Sections 
treated  thus  have  been  supplemented  by  others  which  have 
been  mounted  straight  in  a  mixture  of  glycerine,  alcohol,  and 
saffranin.  These  sections  are  much  less  likely  to  have  become 
distorted,  while  the  saffranin  marks  off  well  such  tissues  as  are 
lignified. 


46  Transactions. 

The  drawings  have  all  been  done  with  the  aid  of  a  camera 

lucida. 

Classification  of  Species  taken.     (Engler.) 

Group  . .  . .  •  •   Taxace^;. 

Subgroup     . .  .  .  . .   Podocarpe^e. 

Genera         . .  . .  . .   Podocarpus  and  Dacrydium. 

Species — 

1.  Podocarpus  totara  (totara). 

2.  ,,  ferruginea  (miro). 

3.  „  spicata  (matai). 

4.  ,,  dacrydioides  (kalrikatea). 

5.  Dacrydium  cupressinum  (riimi). 

6.  ,,  Kirlcii. 


Podocarpus  totara. 

The  leaves  of  this  species  have  been  chosen  as  an  intro- 
duction to  this  genus  on  account  of  their  simple  but  well-marked 
transitions,  which  all  point  to  the  greater  adaptation  of  the 
maturer  plant  to  surroundings  which  call  for  a  xerophytic  habit. 
With  the  exception  of  young  plants  with  cotyledons,  all  the 
leaves  of  the  different  stages  were  gathered  within  not  so  many 
yards  of  one  another. 

Young  Plants  with  Cotyledons. 

The  cotyledons  of  this  species  are  interesting,  for  they  re- 
main much  longer  on  the  plant  than  they  do  in  other  species 
of  this  genus.  They  may  be  found  on  plants  several  inches 
high,  which  have  an  appreciably  thick  and  woody  stem.  There 
is  a  marked  development  seen  in  the  cotyledons  on  the  older 
plants  from  those  on  the  younger.  There  is  a  general  increase 
in  thickness  of  cuticle  and  epidermis  for  protection,  and  in- 
crease of  vascular  tissue  for  conduction.  This  development  is 
best  shown  by  a  study  of  transverse  sections  of  the  two. 

Young  Cotyledon,  §  in.  long. — The  epidermal  cells  are  pro- 
tected by  a  fairly  thick  cuticle,  and  have  well-thickened  outer 
and  side  walls. 

The  stomata  occur  on  both  surfaces,  but  more  on  the  lower 
than  on  the  upper.  They  are  only  a  very  little  sunk,  and  heme 
very  little  overarched  by  neighbouring  epidermal  cells.  There 
is  an  air-space  beneath  each. 

The  sclerenchymatous  hypoderm  is  not  developed  except 
just  at  the  margins,  where  more  protection  is  required. 

The  chlorophyll  parenchyma  shows  rather  a  high  degree  of 
differentiation.  At  each  margin  of  the  leaf  we  find  ordinary 
parenchyma,  the  diameter  of  which  is  the  same  in  all  direc- 
tions. Below  the  epidermis,  on  the  upper  side  of  the  leaf,  we 
find  cells  more  or  less  elongated  at  right  angles  to  the  surface, 


Griffin. — Development  of  New  Zealand  Conifer  Leaves.     47 

while  on  the  lower  side  there  is  a  tendency  to  elongation  parallel 
to  the  surface.  The  cells  in  between  these  two  layers  are  elon- 
gated in  the  direction  of  the  margins,  which  is  very  desirable, 
considering  the  distance  there  is  between  the  bundles  and  from 
these  to  the  margins.  Here  and  there  between  these  elongated 
cells  we  find  ordinary  parenchyma  cells,  which  are  often  seen 
in  transverse  section  to  form  lines  stretching  across  at  right 
angles  to  the  elongated  cells.  These  cross-rows  probably  serve 
for  quicker  communication  between  the  upper  and  lower  sur- 
faces. None  of  the  elongated  cells  show  any  signs  of  lignifi- 
cation,  which  cannot  be  expected  at  this  stage  of  development. 

Vascular  bundles  :  There  is  no  sharply  marked  off  endo- 
dermis  roimd  each  bundle  ;  the  pericycle  is  one  or  two  cells  thick. 
The  protophloem  forms  a  well-marked  crescent-shaped  zone  of 
crushed  elements,  while  the  active  phloem  elements  are  arranged 
in  three  or  four  radial  rows.  The  sieve-tubes  at  this  develop- 
mental stage  are  long  and  narrow  elements  which  still  have 
nuclei  and  horizontal  transverse  walls.  Above  the  phloem  are 
the  xylem  tracheids.  These  are  spiral  or  pitted  elements,  or 
elements  with  both  spiral  markings  and  bordered  pits,  which 
latter  commonly  occur  on  the  oblique  end  walls.  On  the  ventral 
side  of  these  elements  we  find  the  protoxylem  with  more  or 
less  irregular  and  crushed  spiral  thickenings.  At  the  sides  of 
the  xylem  are  one  or  two  rather  larger  elements,  the  transfusion 
tracheids ;  while  occasionally  an  element  is  found  on  the  ventral 
side  of  the  wood,  which  therefore  corresponds  to  centripetal 
xylem.  Sacs  containing  a  substance  with  tannin  reaction  also 
occur  at  the  sides  and  on  the  ventral  side  of  the  bundle  in  the 
pericycle.  I  may  mention  in  passing  that  these  sacs  have  very 
much  the  appearance  of  large  tracheids  under  certain  treat- 
ments, but  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  their  nature  when  they 
are  treated  with  ferric  chloride. 

It  is  rather  interesting  to  note  the  gradual  decrease  of  tra- 
cheids in  the  bundle  towards  the  apex.  In  a  section  very  near 
the  apex  we  find  the  number  reduced  to  six  or  seven,  whereas 
near  the  middle  and  base  we  find  as  many  as  twenty.  The 
number  of  transfusion  tracheids  at  the  sides  has  increased, 
for  we  find  groups  of  twos  and  threes  against  the  one  or  two 
in  the  middle  section.  These  elements  have  spiral  and  pitted 
markings,  which  are  seen  in  transverse  section  on  the  slightly 
oblique  transverse  walls. 

Older  Cotyledon. — Transverse  section  :  This  presents  typically 
the  same  appearance  as  the  preceding  section.  It  is  charac- 
terized, however,  by  a  much  thicker  cuticle  and  by  thicker 
epidermal  walls.  The  thickened  hypoderm  also  appears  along 
the  sides  here  and  there  as  one  or  two  isolated  cells.     The  pali- 


48  Transactions. 

sade  form  of  the  parenchyma  cells  on  the  upper  surface  is  rather 
more  regular,  while  the  middle  cells  are  narrower  and  longer 
on  the  whole  than  those  of  the  preceding  section. 

In  the  vascular  bundle  we  find  a  more  clearly  defined  endo- 
dermis  and  a  general  increase  of  the  conducting  elements.  In 
the  greater  number  of  the  bundles  we  find  a  tendency  for  the 
bundle  to  split  into  two.  We  find  larger  transfusion  elements 
at  the  sides  than  in  the  younger  cotyledon. 

It  is  rather  interesting  to  note  the  complete  absence  of 
resin-canals  in  the  cotyledons,  especially  when  in  accordance 
with  a  prolonged  period  of  growth  these  leaves  have  assumed 
a  differentiated  character  as  great  or  even  greater  than  the 
succeeding  leaves. 

Young  Leaf  on  the  same  Plant  as  the  Cotyledons,  \  in.  long. 

The  leaf  in  transverse  section  presents  a  long  and  narrow 
appearance  like  the  cotyledon,  but  it  differs  in  having  a  mid- 
rib up  which  runs  the  single  vascular  bundle  of  the  leaf. 

The  cuticle  is  thicker  again  than  that  of  the  cotyledon,  especi- 
ally at  the  margins,  and  there  are  also  thicker  walls  around  the 
epidermal  cells. 

The  stomata  here  occur  only  in  four  longitudinal  rows  on 
each  side  of  the  vascular  bundle,  on  the  lower  surface  only,  and 
are  much  more  sunk — obvious  protections  against  excessive 
transpiration. 

The  hypoderm  occurs  as  one  or  two  rows  at  the  margins, 
and  extends  a  considerable  way  from  there  in  a  continuous 
band  round  the  sides.  There  is  another  continuous  band  above 
the  vascular  bundle,  while  between  the  margin  and  the  bundle 
it  occurs  in  irregular  groups  of  two  or  three. 

The  chlorophyll  parenchyma  presents  much  the  same  charac- 
ters as  the  cotyledon. 

In  the  vascular  bundle  the  most  striking  difference  from  the 
cotyledon  is  the  presence  of  a  resin-canal.  This  is  placed  in 
connection  with  the  phloem,  and  presents  the  same  characters 
as  in  other  Conifers,  secretory  cells  surrounded  by  a  ring  of 
strengthening  cells.  The  endodermis  is  better  marked,  and  in 
the  pericycle  we  find  abundant  transfusion  tracheids  showing 
transitions  out  from  the  protoxylem  {px),  through  the  centri- 
fugal tracheids  at  the  sides,  to  the  transfusion  tracheids  in  con- 
tact with  the  endodermal  cells.  The  elongated  cells  of  the 
chlorophyll  parenchyma  are  just  outside  of  the  separating 
endoderm  eel's,  and  hence  in  direct  communication  with  these 
tracheids.  The  phloem  has  the  same  character  as  before,  but 
the  crushed  protophloem  elements  do  not  form  so  conspicuous 
a  part  of  the  bundle. 


Griffin. — Development  of  Neiv  Zealand  Conifer  Leaves.     49 

Older  Leaves. 

The  leaves  on  plants  of  two  to  four  years'  growth  show  a 
gradual  development  of  cuticle  and  hypo-derm.  In  the  chloro- 
phyll parenchyma  are  found  slightly  lignified  elements  in  con- 
nection with  the  bundle  transfusion  tracheids,  which  have 
greatly  increased  in  number.  In  a  plant  about  2  ft.  high,  very 
well  developed  accessory  transfusion  tissue  was  found.  Mr. 
Worsdell  himself  found  only  very  slight  lignification  in  this 
species,  but  here,  at  this  stage,  there  are  undoubted  lignified 
walls  in  certain  of  these  cells.  The  walls  are  much  thickened, 
and  have  pits  which  do  not  show  any  signs  of  bordered  thicken- 
ing. These  lignified  elements  are  in  direct  communication  with 
elements  which  show  no  signs  of  lignification,  but  which  also 
have  pits  on  their  walls.  Mr.  Worsdell  inclines  to  think  that 
cells  of  this  structure  are  not  equivalent  in  function  to  cells  in 
a  similar  position  in  Cycas.  He  thinks,  on  account  of  the  pre- 
sence of  simple  pits,  the  thickness  of  their  walls,  and  scattered 
arrangements,  that  these  elements  are  more  of  the  nature  of 
stone  cells,  and  are  not  used  for  conduction,  but  merely  serve 
the  mechanical  function  of  strengthening  the  leaf.  These  cells 
do  undoubtedly  serve  for  this  purpose,  but  I  think  their  position 
in  direct  communication  with  the  normal  transfusion  tracheids 
shows  that  they  also  serve  for  the  equally  important  function 
of  carrying  out  water  towards  the  margin. 

Mature  Leaves. 

The  leaves  of  the  shrub  and  mature  stages  are  very  similar 
in  structure,  but  differ  in  arrangement  on  the  stem.  The  leaves 
of  the  shrub  stage  stand  out  more  or  less  at  right  angles  to  the 
stem,  but  in  the  mature  stage  they  are  arranged  in  a  closer 
spiral,  and  form  a  much  smaller  angle  with  the  stem.  This  is 
obviously  a  xerophytic  adaptation.  The  structure  of  these 
leaves  does  not  differ  greatly  from  the  young  leaf  already  fully 
described.  The  stomata  are  more  numerous,  and  are  confined 
still  to  the  lower  surface,  and  well  away  from  the  vascular 
bundle,  which  is  protected  by  a  continuous  line  of  hypoderm. 
Undoubted  accessory  transfusion  tissue  was  found,  but  the 
cell-walls  did  not  appear  so  strongly  lignified  as  in  the  younger 
stages.  In  the  vascular  bundle  the  number  of  transfusion 
tracheids  at  the  sides  has  greatly  increased.  A.  few  tannin- 
sacs  occur  on  the  ventral  side. 

Summary,  P.  totara. 

Summarising  the  principal  points  in  connection  with  the 
anatomical  development,  we  find, — 


50  Transactions. 

In  the  cotyledon,  a  sclerenchymatous  hypoderni  at  the 
margins,  and  at  a  later  stage  one  or  two  isolated  elements  along 
the  sides ;  stomata  on  both  surfaces ;  highly  differentiated 
parenchyma  cells,  and  two  vascular  bundles,  with  tannin-sacs, 
but  no  resin-canal ;  very  few  transfusion  tracheids,  and  a  great 
number  of  crushed  protophloem  elements.  Near  the  apex  of 
the  cotyledon  we  find,  less  wood  in  bundle  and  more  transfusion 
tracheids  at  sides,  while  in  the  older  cotyledon  we  see  a  tend- 
ency for  the  bundles  to  divide  up  again. 

In  leaves  of  the  same  plant,  hypoderm  elements  along  sides  ; 
stomata  deeply  sunk  only  on  under  -  surface ;  one  vascular 
bundle,  with  a  resin-canal ;  and  a  greater  number  of  trans- 
fusion tracheids  and  less  crushed  protophloem. 

In  later  stages,  fully  developed  sclerenchymatous  hypo- 
derm  ;  greatly  modified  accessory  transfusion  tissue,  with  pits 
and  lignified  walls. 

In  shrub  and  mature  stages,  the  same  characters  in  the  trans- 
fusion tissue  ;  greater  development  of  chlorophyll  parenchyma, 
both  of  palisade  and  irregular- shaped  cells.  In  the  shrub,  leaves 
standing  out  at  right  angles  ;  in  the  mature  tree,  more  parallel 
to  stem. 

In  all  stages  we  see  a  gradual  increase  in  the  number  of 
transfusion  tracheids  from  the  early  stages  to  the  later. 

The  development,  then,  of  P.  totara  is  chiefly  marked  by 
the  acquisition  of  protective  characters  and  by  the  production 
of  increased  facilities  for  conduction,  especially  of  water,  both 
in  the  bundle  itself  and  towards  the  margins.  The  mature 
form  does  not  differ  greatly  from  the  leaf  of  the  first  year,  and 
shows  many  points  of  resemblance  even  with  the  cotyledon. 

Origin  of  Transfusion  Tissue.  • 

Now,  from  the  cotyledon  up  to  the  mature  leaf  there  appears 
in  every  stage  undoubted  transfusion  tracheids.  These  I  have 
verified  not  only  by  double  stained  transverse  sections,  but 
also  by  longitudinal  sections,  both  radial  and  tangential. 

Mr.  Worsdell,  in  his  paper  on  "  Transfusion  Tissue,"  says, 
concerning  Podocarpus  totara.  — "  In  the  much  shorter  and 
narrower  leaf  of  this  species  it  is  interesting  to  note  the  complete 
absence  of  this  tissue  [i.e.,  transfusion]  in  the  leaf.  Here  the 
central  mesophyll  cells  are  elongated  in  the  direction  of  the 
margin  of  the  leaf,  but  are  thin- walled  and  unpitted.  I  was 
able  to  determine,  however,  the  presence  of  a  very  slight  ligni- 
fication  of  their  walls."  These  remarks  are  directly  opposed 
to  what  the  present  writer  has  found  in  the  leaves  of  this  species. 
I  do  not  know  what  material  Mr.  Worsdell  had  at  his  disposal, 
or  what  methods  he  used  in  obtaining  his  results,   but  with 


Griffin. — Development  of  New  Zealand  Conifer  Leaves.     51 

material  gathered  straight  from  nature  I  have  certainly  found 
undoubted  transfusion  tracheids  and  undoubted  lignification 
in  the  accessory  transfusion  tissue. 

I  should  like  to  add  here  an  opinion  concerning  the  probable 
origin  of  transfusion  tissue  in  the  species  I  have  investigated. 
Mr.  Worsdell's  paper  does  not  leave  much  doubt  as  regards 
the  origin  of  transfusion  tissue  in  those  two  primitive  groups 
of  gymnosperms,  the  Cycadales  and  the  Gingkoales.  In  both 
these  groups  we  see  at  some  period  a  great  development  of 
centripetal  xylem.  In  Cycas  it  is  this  wood  which  does  most 
of  the  conducting  work  of  the  plant  in  the  leaf  and  petiole,  the 
centrifugal  xylem  playing  quite  an  inconspicuous  part.  It  is 
therefore  natural  here  that  if  any  modification  takes  place  in 
any  tracheids  for  the  conduction  of  water  out  to  the  sides,  it 
will  be  in  those  of  the  centripetal  xylem.  This  will  be  so  not 
only  because  of  their  much  greater  number,  but  also  because 
the  centrifugal  wood  is  probably  of  very  much  later  develop- 
ment here,  formed  after  the  leaf  has  been  functional  for  a  con- 
siderable period.  In  the  cotyledons  of  Gingko  the  centrifugal 
wood  is  again  the  better  developed,  and  the  previous  remarks 
will  also  apply  here.  In  Mr.  Worsdell's  figure  of  the  leaf,  how- 
ever, it  does  not  seem  very  clear  as  to  which  elements  are  cen- 
trifugal and  which  centripetal ;  the  centripetal  elements  marked 
are  much  smaller  than  those  of  the  centrifugal,  and  also  smaller 
than  an  element  marked  "px,"  which  seems  to  form  a  direct 
transition  to  the  transfusion  tracheids  at  the  sides  of  the 
centrifugal  xylem.  It  does  not,  therefore,  seem  clear  in  this 
case  why  these  tracheids  should  be  regarded  as  formed  from 
the  centripetal  xylem  (vide  Trans.  Linn.  Soc.  Lond.,  Dec,  1897 
pi.  23). 

When  we  come  to  what  we  consider  the  more  advanced 
group  of  gymnosperms — i.e.,  the  Coniferce — the  centripetal  wood 
has  fallen  out  of  use,  its  place  having  been  taken  by  the 
centrifugal.  It  seems,  therefore,  more  natural  in  this  case  that 
this  wood,  which  even  in  the  cotyledons  has  usurped  the  func- 
tion of  the  centripetal  in  the  matter  of  conduction,  should  also 
be  the  one  to  become  modified  for  transfusion  tracheids. 

When  starting  on  the  study  of  the  Podocarpece  leaves  I  fully 
expected  to  gain  further  evidence  in  support  of  Mr.  Worsdell's 
theory,  and  it  was  only  after  the  development  had  been  traced 
in  several  species  that  I  was  forced  to  see  that  the  evidence  in 
the  Podocarpece  pointed  much  more  strongly  in  favour  of  the 
origin  of  transfusion  tracheids,  the  greater  number  at  least 
from  centrifugal  rather  than  from  centripetal  xylem.  Mr. 
Worsdell  has  said  nothing  as  regards  the  origin  of  this  tissue 
in  the  Podocarpece,  having  confined  himself  merely  to  denoting 


52  Transactions. 

its  position  in  the  mature  leaf  of  two  species  of  Podocarpus ; 
while  in  the  third  species  (totara),  as  has  already  been  pointed 
out,  he  was  unable  to  find  any  at  all.  I  therefore  feel  more  at 
liberty  to  express  an  opinion  with  regard  to  this  group.  It 
seems  rather  a  premature  proceeding  to  confine  the  origin  of 
transfusion  tissue  in  all  gymnosperms  to  centripetal  wood  when 
the  evidence  is  conclusive  only  in  the  lowest  groups. 

Now,  in  the  Podocarpece — of  which,  for  the  development  of 
transfusion  tissue,  P.  totara  may  for  the  present  be  taken  as  a 
type,  the  development  being  similar  in  the  following  species — 
in  no  section  either  of  the  cotyledon  or  of  the  mature  leaf  was 
there  any  great  development  of  centripetal  xylem,  the  elements, 
if  any,  being  very  occasional  even  in  the  cotyledons,  where 
we  should  most  expect  to  find  them.  From  the  cotyledons 
upwards  the  transfusion  tracheids  were  always  at  the  side  of  the 
centrifugal  wood,  and  in  many  cases,  as  will  be  seen  from  the 
drawings  of  the  bundle,  there  were  direct  transitions  to  them 
from  the  px  through  the  centrifugal  tracheids  which  extended 
out  towards  the  sides.  In  every  species  there  was  a  marked 
increase  in  the  number  of  transfusion  tracheids  from  the  earliest 
to  the  later  stages,  where  there  is  no  evidence  of  any  centripetal 
xylem  ever  having  been  formed.  These  transitions,  which  in 
many  cases  make  it  hard  to  distinguish  which  is  to  be  regarded 
as  centrifugal  wood  and  which  as  transfusion  tracheids,  to- 
gether with  this  gradual  increase  in  number  from  the  earliest 
to  the  later  stages,  seems  to  give  almost  conclusive  evidence 
in  these  species  of  their  origin  not  from  the  centripetal  but 
from  the  centrifugal  xylem.  Near  the  apex  of  the  young  cotyle- 
don we  actually  see  the  wood  of  the  bundle  passing  out  to  the 
sides,  and  serving  as  transfusion  tracheids.  When  one  or  two 
elements  of  centripetal  wood  have  been  formed,  in  many  cases 
they  have  been  preserved  and  used  on  the  ventral  surface  as 
transfusion  tracheids,  but  I  see  no  reason  because  of  this  why 
we  should  regard  all  transfusion  tracheids  as  having  been 
formed  on  this  side  of  the  px,  and  then  as  passing  out  and 
attaching  themselves  in  direct  communication  with  the  centri- 
fugal tracheids  at  the  sides. 

The  character  of  these  elements  does  not  in  any  way  alter 
this  opinion :  there  are  transitions  here  out  through  tracheids 
at  the  sides  from  the  px.  In  the  case  of  P.  totani  it  will  be  seen 
from  the  longitudinal  section  of  the  shrub-leaf  how  greatly 
modified  are  these  elements  on  the  outer  edge,  appearing  almost 
like  parenchyma  cells,  and  very  hard,  in  many  eases,  to  dis- 
tinguish from  these.  I  have  found  undoubted  cases  where  the 
walls  are  only  very  slightly  lignified,  the  reaction  of  the  wall 
being  more  that  of  cellulose,  but  which  have  undoubted  bordered 


Griffin. — Development  of  New  Zealand  Conifer  Leaves.     53 

pits  on  their  walls.  This  seems  to  point  to  the  fact  that  some 
at  least  of  the  outer  transfusion  elements  are  formed  from 
modified  parenchyma. 

The  presence  of  bordered  pits  in  the  transfusion  tracheids 
seems  constant  in  this  species,  where  they  occur  in  the  maturer 
stages  on  the  oblique  transverse  walls,  being  plainly  seen  in  trans- 
verse sections.  The  character  of  these  tracheids  varies,  as  does  the 
character  of  the  wood.  In  the  cotyledon  they  hardly  difEer  at  all 
from  the  wood  of  the  bundle,  except  in  length ;  in  both  cases 
there  is  present  a  great  amount  of  spiral  thickening  on  the  walls. 

It  may  be  noted  here  that  the  above  remarks  in  no  way 
detract  from  Mr.  Worsdell's  important  discovery  concerning 
the  presence  of  centripetal  wood  in  Conifers.  The  investigation 
of  these  species  has  added  further  evidence  of  this,  though  this 
wood  is  not  so  markedly  developed  here  as  in  species  described 
by  Mr.  Worsdell.  What  the  writer  has  endeavoured  to  show  is 
that  Mr.  Worsdell  has  carried  his  discovery  too  far  when  he 
ascribes  the  origin  of  transfusion  tissue  in  all  gymnosperms 
to  centripetal  wood,  and  to  that  alone. 

The  next  two  species  are  of  a  very  similar  nature  to  tlie  one 
I  have  just  fully  described,  but,  as  a  rule,  are  much  simpler. 
In  parts,  for  briefness  and  clearness,  I  shall  give  the  description 
more  in  the  form  of  notes. 

Podocarpus  ferruginea  (Miro). 

In  most  respects  this  leaf  is  much  simpler  than  P.  totara,  for 
we  do  not  find  such  marked  modification  for  protective  purposes, 
nor  such  highly  differentiated  parenchyma  in  the  earlier  stages. 

The  first  two  leaves  of  the  seedling,  as  in  totara  also,  are 
placed  opposite  one  another,  alternating  with  the  two  cotyledons, 
and  standing  out  at  right  angles  from  the  stem.  The  succeed- 
ing leaves  arise  also  in  alternate  pairs,  but  lie  almost  in  the 
same  plane  as  the  stem  ;  hence  we  get  apparently  a  single  row 
on  each  side  of  the  stem ;  but  even  in  older  plants  we  can  trace 
four  rows  of  leaf-bases  down  the  stem. 

Cotyledons. 

The  cotyledons  of  miro  die  much  sooner  than  those  of  totara  ; 
they  remain  only  till  the  young  plant  has  six  or  seven  leaves  to 
assimilate  for  it.  The  cotyledons  of  which  I  cut  sections  were 
growing  under  a  large  miro  in  moist  and  shady  conditions. 

In  transverse  section  they  are  a  great  contrast  to  those  of  totara. 

In  the  epidermis  we  find  only  slight  development  of  cuticle, 
and  only  slightly  thickened  walls  in  the  epidermis — thicker  on 
the  under  surface,  which  in  germination  is  the  more  exposed. 


54  Transactions. 

The  stomata  occur  chiefly  on  the  upper  surface,  only  an 
occasional  one  on  the  lower  :  this  is  also  for  protection. 

Of  hypoderm  in  the  usual  form  of  sclerenchyma  there  is  no 
trace,  but  certain  large  cells  in  the  layer  below  the  epidermis 
have  become  modified  to  form  tannin-sacs,  more  on  the  dorsal 
or  under  surface  than  on  the  upper,  where  are  most  stomata. 
These  sacs  also  occur  in  great  numbers  around  the  xylem. 

The  chlorophyll  parenchyma  is  very  homogeneous,  consisting 
only  of  larger  and  smaller  parenchyma  cells. 

The  vascular  bundles  are  much  larger  than  those  of  the 
totara  cotyledons.  This  seems  as  if  increased  provision  had 
been  made  to  carry  a  greater  supply  of  water  to  make  up  for 
the  poorer  protection  against  transpiration.  Below  the  vascular 
bundle  we  find  two,  occasionally  one  or  three,  resin-canals.  The 
presence  of  tannin-sacs  was  noted  before. 

The  xylem  forms  a  well-marked  group  of  centrifugal  ele- 
ments, and  there  are  one  or  two  isolated  tracheids  at  the  sides 
of  the  bundle  and  on  the  ventral  side  of  the  wood. 

The  phloem  is  also  well  developed,  and,  as  in  totara,  there  is 
a  crescent  of  crushed  protophloem.  These  crushed  elements 
are  separated  by  three  or  four  rows  of  parenchyma  cells  from 
the  resin-canal. 

Hence  we  see  that  in  most  respects  the  cotyledon  is  simpler 
than  that  of  P.  totara,  but  it  will  be  noted  that  there  is  an  in- 
crease of  vascular  tissue  in  the  bundle. 

Young  Leaves. 

These  were  on  the  same  plant  as  the  cotyledon,  and  are  from 
Jn  in.  to  \  in.  in  length.  They  are  very  simple  in  structure. 
In  transverse  section  we  note  briefly  : — 

Epidermal  walls  thicker  than  those  of  cotyledon,  and  cuticle 
better  developed. 

Stomata  on  both  surfaces,  but  more  on  lower  than  upper. 
Here  the  upper  is  the  more  exposed,  not  the  lower,  as  in 
cotyledon. 

Chlorophyll  parenchyma  differentiated.  Upper  palisade  and 
lower  looser,  some  elongated  towards  margins. 

In  the  vascular  bundle  the  chief  difference  from  cotyledon 
is  the  presence  of  a  single  resin-canal  instead  of  two  or  three. 
Tannin-sacs  and  transfusion  tracheids  occur. 

Plants  approximately  Two  Years  Old. 

These  are  from  6  in.  to  7  in.  high,  and  the  leaves  from  \  in. 
to  £  in.  in  length.     We  note  briefly  : — 

The  cuticle  and  epidermis  more  thickened  than  in  previous 
stage. 


Griffin. — Development  of  Neio  Zealand  Conifer  Leaves.     55 

Stomata  only  on  lower  surface. 

Chlorophyll  parenchyma,  same  arrangement  as  preceding 
section,  but  more  developed. 

Vascular  bundle  same  as  stage  1,  only  more  elements. 

Succeeding  Stages. 

In  the  succeeding  stages  we  find  a  greater  development  of 
cuticle,  and  there  are  a  few  cells  corresponding  to  a  hypoderm. 
The  number  of  transfusion  tracheids  is  much  increased,  and  the 
vascular  and  chlorophyll  cells  much  better  developed. 

Though  the  maturer  stages  are  better  protected  than  the 
younger,  and  have  stomata  only  on  the  lower  surface,  yet  we  note 
that  in  every  stage  of  leaf  there  is  an  absence  of  a  sclerenchy- 
matous  hypoderm,  and  that  the  middle  parenchyma  cells  are 
only  very  slightly  elongated  towards  the  margin,  and  there  is 
no  lignification.  In  view  of  the  difference  of  leaf-structure, 
it  is  very  interesting  to  compare  miro  with  totara  with  respect 
to  habitat.  As  we  should  expect  from  the  character  of  the 
leaves,  the  totara  is  found  in  much  more  exposed  conditions 
than  the  simpler  miro.  The  observations  of  the  authoress 
on  their  habitat  have  been  confined  to  places  north  of  Kotorua  ; 
but  nowhere  was  the  miro  found  in  an  exposed  environment, 
while  the  totara  was  frequently  found  where  only  the  hardiest 
of  plants  were  surviving. 

Podocarpus  spicata  (Matai). 

This  species  is  rare  in  this  part,  but  is  more  common  in  the 
South  Island.  I  was  unable  to  get  any  of  the  earliest  stages 
or  of  the  mature,  so  I  have  not  traced  the  course  of  development. 
I  found,  however,  plants  about  2  ft.  in  height  and  young  trees. 
I  will  just  indicate  the  structure  of  their  leaves,  since  they  are 
to  some  extent  intermediate  between  totara  and  miro.  These 
young  trees  are  very  hard  to  distinguish  from  miro,  having  the 
same  arrangement  of  leaves,  and  are  also  somewhat  similar  in 
shape,  but  are  blunter  at  the  apex  and  whitish  in  appearance 
underneath. 

Young  Plants  about  2  ft.  high. 

This  particular  plant  was  growing  in  an  exposed  position, 
and  both  its  leaves  and  stem  were  coloured  rather  a  bright- 
bronze  pink,  the  youngest  leaves  and  stems  pink,  the  older  ones 
more  bronze-coloured.  This  is  due  to  the  presence  of  a  pigment 
in  the  cell-sap  of  the  epidermal  cells — perhaps  anthocyanin — 
and  it  is  there  for  protective  purposes.  The  leaves  of  this  plant 
were  very  short,  and  had  blunt  apices,  which  make  the  leaf 
more  oblong  in  shape. 

The  anatomy   is   similar   to   that  of  miro  :    no   hypoderm, 


56  Transactions. 

stomata  only  on  lower  surface,  and  the  same  vascular  bundle. 
The  advance  is  in  the  character  of  the  chlorophyll  parenchyma, 
for  here  we  find,  in  the  middle,  cells  which  on  either  side  of  the 
bundle  are  well  elongated  towards  the  margins.  They  have  pits 
on  their  end  walls,  but  the  lignification  is  very  slight. 

In  the  shrub  stage  the  leaves  were  much  longer,  and  green 
in  colour.  Their  structure  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  pre- 
ceding leaf. 

This  species,  then,  is  interesting,  for  to  some  extent  it  is  an 
intermediate  form  between  the  two  preceding. 

Podocarpus  dacrydioides  (Kahikatea). 

We  now  come  to  a  species  whose  foliage  is  very  different 
from  that  of  the  three  forms  already  described.  Kirk  gives  the 
general  appearance  and  height  of  kahikatea  in  his  "  Flora," 
and  in  his  description  notes  that  the  young  plants  are  always 
of  a  deep-bronze  colour.  This  is  not  always  the  case  ;  young 
plants  growing  in  the  shade  of  the  bush  are,  as  a  rule,  of  a  bright- 
green  colour.  Those  that  grow  in  open,  exposed  places,  how- 
ever, tend  to  assume  a  dull-bronze  colour.  This  is  due  to  a 
colouring  substance  in  the  epidermal  cells,  and  is  very  probably 
of  a  similar  nature  to  that  found  in  matai ;  but  I  have  not 
investigated  its  nature  in  either  of  the  species.  Its  object  in 
young  plants  is  no  doubt  to  protect  them  from  excessive  light. 
Hence  in  these  young  plants  we  find  developed  a  remarkably 
high  power  of  adaptability  to  environment,  by  which  young 
plants  grown  in  the  open  can  protect  themselves  from  the  effect 
of  a  too-intense  light. 

Which  Form  of  Foliage  is  the  more  primitive? 

From  the  earliest  stages  there  are  two  distinct  forms  of  foliage, 
both  forms  of  which  are  greatly  reduced.  One  form  is  flattened, 
and  in  appearance  is  very  like  a  very  much  reduced  totara- 
leaf  ;  these  are  arranged  in  rows  along  two  sides  of  the  lateral 
branches.  The  other  form  is  shorter,  awl-shaped,  and  adpressed 
in  spiral  arrangement  to  the  stem.  Both  kinds  of  leaves  vary 
a  good  deal  in  size  and  exact  shape  throughout  development. 
In  some  cases  we  find  gradual  transitions  from  one  form  into 
the  other,  but  very  often  abrupt  changes  take  place. 

In  the  three  preceding  species  the  leaves  were  all  of  the  same 
kind,  and  the  development  in  each  was  a  more  or  less  obvious 
adaptation  to  environment,  the  younger  stages  being  the  simplest, 
and  the  development  gradual.  In  the  case,  however,  of  a  plant 
with  distinct  dimorphic  foliage  the  development  is  not  so  simple, 
and  we  are  confronted  with  the  question,  Which  form  is  the 
more  primitive  ?     Is  the  flattened  form,  which  Kirk  says  is  the 


Griffin. — Development  of  New  Zealand  Conifer  Leaves.     57 

juvenile  form,  or  the  awl-shaped,  which  is  the  mature  form, 
the  more  primitive  ?  This  is  a  question  which  needs  careful 
observation  before  it  can  be  answered.  It  has  generally  been 
thought  that  the  flattened  form  is  the  more  primitive,  and  that 
the  awl-shaped  is  the  modified  form.  This  is  not  the  case  ;  the 
flattened  form  is  really  the  modified  leaf,  and  the  awl-shaped 
the  more  primitive.  By  a  very  careful  observation  of  the  ex- 
ternal form  alone  this  conclusion  would  be  arrived  at,  and  it  is 
strengthened  so  as  to  leave  no  doubt  at  all  by  the  study  of  the 
anatomical  structure. 

Let  us  first  just  look  at  the  relative  positions  of  the  two 
kinds  of  leaves  on  a  plant.  By  a  comparison  of  a  number  of 
plants  we  arrive  at  this  conclusion — i.e.,  the  flattened  form  is 
never  found  on  main  stems,  but  only  on  the  lateral  branches. 
The  rounder  form  occurs  on  both  the  main  stem  and  on  the 
lateral  branches  at  different  periods  of  development.  Again, 
the  flattened  forms  are  not,  as  has  been  supposed,  the  first- 
formed  leaves  on  a  germinating  plant.  If  a  seedling  be  carefully 
examined  during  germination  it  will  be  seen  that  the  awl-shaped 
leaves  are  those  which  appear  first  on  the  main  stem.  One  or 
two  of  these  leaves  are  also  formed  at  the  base  of  the  branches 
of  the  first  whorl,  but  higher  up  we  find  only  the  flattened  form. 
This  form  is  the  only  one  found  on  the  lateral  branches  in  older 
plants,  with  the  exception  of  the  prophylls,  which  soon  die  off. 
When  the  plant  has  reached  a  certain  stage,  however,  the  awl- 
shaped  leaves  too  begin  to  appear  on  the  lateral  branches,  and 
the  other  form  becomes  rather  smaller  and  not  so  flattened. 
In  the  mature  stage  the  awl-shaped  leaf  is  the  general  rule  on 
both  stem  and  branch,  being  finally  triumphant. 

Now,  the  lateral  branches  are  alone  in  a  suitable  position 
for  assimilation,  and  since  they  alone  have  flattened  leaves,  we 
surely  must  conclude  that  these  branches  bear  the  modified 
form  so  as  to  increase  the  surface  for  assimilation.  This  theory 
is  strengthened  by  the  fact  that  all  lateral  branches  tend  to 
stand  out  at  right  angles  to  the  stem,  and  hence  expose  the 
whole  surface  of  the  leaves  to  the  sun.  For  confirmation  of 
the  theory  we  shall  have  to  compare  the  anatomical  structure 
of  the  two  forms  on  the  same  plant. 

Leaves  of  Seedling  Six  Months  Old. 
Flattened  Form. 
The  leaf  is  on  first  sight  apparently  a  much  reduced  specimen, 
similar  in  shape,  in  transverse  section,  to  the  preceding  species ; 
but  the  strange  position  of  the  vascular  bundle  strikes  one  at 
once.  This  is  nearer  one  margin  than  the  other,  and  the  resin- 
canal  is  opposite  the  nearer  margin.     I  will  now  give  the  struc- 


58  Transactions. 

ture  of  this  form,  and,  later,  a  comparison  with  the  awl-shaped 
leaf  will  leave  no  doubt  as  to  what  changes  have  taken  place. 

The  epidermis  at  this  early  stage  is  very  much  thickened, 
as  is  also  the  cuticle. 

The  stomata  are  confined  to  four  regions,  which  are  the 
corners  of  a  rectangle,  with  the  bundle  for  the  centre. 

The  hypoderm  is  well  developed,  but  does  not  form  a  con- 
tinuous band. 

The  chlorophyll  parenchyma  at  the  margins  and  along  the 
sides  consists  of  large  ordinary  parenchyma  cells.  In  the  middle 
of  the  leaf,  radiating  out  from  the  bundle  to  the  sides  and  mar- 
gins, are  long,  narrow,  and  in  some  cases  curved,  elements. 
These  would  evidently  serve  for  conduction  of  water,  but  it  is 
doubtful,  however,  whether  they  owe  their  modification  primarily 
for  this  purpose.  The  smallness  of  the  leaf  makes  this  modi- 
fication unnecessary,  and  it  is  more  probable  that  they  originated 
in  quite  a  different  manner,  as  will  be  seen  by  a  comparison 
with  the  next  section. 

The  vascular  bundle,  as  seen  in  the  diagram,  is  slightly  nearer 
one  end  than  the  other.  It  contains  a  resin-canal  opposite  the 
nearer  margin,  which  is  strengthened  by  a  row  of  sclerenchyma. 
The  px  is  turned  towards  the  further  margin,  and  between  the 
px  and  the  resin-canal  are  the  very  scanty  elements  of  phloem 
and  wood.  There  are  two  or  three  elements  of  transfusion 
tracheids  starting  from  the  px  and  running  out  to  the  sides, 
and  an  occasional  element  is  also  found  outside  the  px  corre- 
sponding to  centripetal  xylem. 

Awl-shaped  Leaf. 

The  cuticle  and  epidermis  are  better  developed  in  the  awl- 
shaped  leaf.  This  may  be  expected,  for  the  two  kinds  of  leaves 
are  exposed  to  the  same  conditions,  and  the  smaller  form  has  so 
little  tissue  that  it  would  wither  very  easily  unless  it  had  great 
protection  against  excessive  transpiration.  This  view  is  not 
altered  by  the  fact  that  transpiration  is  lessened  by  decrease 
of  surface. 

The  stomata  here,  as  in  the  preceding  leaf,  occur  in  four 
regions,  but  two  regions  are  here  about  opposite  the  vascular 
bundle,  the  other  two  being  on  the  sides  representing  the  upper 
surface  of  the  leaf. 

The  hypoderma  is  well  developed  at  the  two  most  prominent 
margins,  but  is  broken  by  the  stomata  along  the  rest  of  the 
surface. 

The  arrangement  of  the  chlorophyll  parenchyma  differs  in 
one  important  respect  from  that  of  the  preceding  leaf  :  there 
are  no  elongated  elements  on  the  morphologically  lower  surface 


Gkiffin. — Development  of  New  Zealand  Conifer  Leaves.     59 

of  the  leaf,  only  one  layer  of  small  parenchyma  being  between 
the  resin-canal  and  the  hypoderm.  The  elongated  elements  on 
the  upper  surface  are  not  nearly  so  long  as  those  of  the  flattened 
leaf,  and  are  fewer  in  number,  as  we  find  only  one  row. 

The  vascular  bundle  is  like  the  preceding  one,  only  very 
much  reduced,  there  being  only  three  or  four  elements  of  phloem 
and  wood.  The  px  is  turned  towards  one  of  the  more  prominent 
margins,  as  in  the  preceding  section,  and  it  is  more  obvious 
here  that  the  two  sides  nearest  the  resin- canal  represent  the 
lower  surface,  whilst  the  two  nearest  the  px  represent  the  upper. 

Origin  of  Flattened  Form. 

Now,  it  has  already  been  pointed  out  that  from  the  order 
of  succession  and  the  arrangement  on  the  stems  the  awl-shaped 
leaves  should  be  considered  the  more  primitive.  The  first  leaves 
are  formed  while  the  cotyledons  are  still  inside  the  endosperm, 
and  hence  are  shut  up  between  them.  These  young  leaves 
have  therefore  a  very  constant  environment  in  the  successive 
generations.  The  leaves,  however,  after  the  cotyledons  have 
expanded  are  subjected  to  much  more  varying  conditions,  and 
hence  some  slight  variations  in  form  might  prove  advantageous 
under  a  given  condition,  and  thus,  in  course  of  time,  become 
"  selected."  In  this  case  it  would  seem  probable  that  the 
voting  plant  at  a  certain  period  of  its  history  found  that,  after 
the  store  of  food  had  been  used,  the  greatly  reduced  awl-shaped 
leaves  presented  an  inadequate  surface  for  assimilation.  Hence 
by  natural  selection  it  may  have  gradually  acquired  the  more 
flattened  form,  which  now  appears  at  a  very  early  stage  in  the 
cycle  of  development.  This  theory  is  borne  out  by  a  com- 
parison of  the  transverse  sections  of  the  two  forms,  where  we 
find  out  also  the  detailed  evidence  of  the  change.  It  was  seen 
that  in  the  awl-shaped  leaves  the  elongated  elements  were 
absent  on  the  morphologically  lower  surface  of  the  leaf,  and 
only  one  row  was  present  on  the  upper.  In  the  flattened  form, 
however,  we  find  elongated  elements  on  both  sides  of  the  bundle, 
and  these  are  also  longer  and  more  numerous  on  the  upper 
surface  of  the  bundle.  The  leaf  has  not  actually  flattened,  in 
the  sense  of  detracting  from  the  thickness  to  add  to  the  width, 
but  has  extended  itself  out  on  two  sides  by  the  elongation  of  its 
parenchyma.  By  this  extension  a  flattened  form  of  leaf  has 
arisen,  for  the  width  of  the  new  leaf  is  much  greater  in  proportion 
to  its  thickness.  We  may  therefore  speak  of  the  extension  as 
a  flattening  process — i.e.,  the  leaf  has  become  flattened  in  the 
median  plane. 

The  flattening,  further,  has  taken  place  in  such  a  direction 
that  a  dorsi- ventral  arrangement  of  the  leaves,  in  two  rows, 


60  Transactions. 

one  on  each  side  of  the  stem,  is  necessary  so  that  advantage 
may  be  taken  of  the  increased  surface.  The  young  lateral 
branchlets,  with  the  flattened  leaves  ranged  down  each  side, 
present  somewhat  the  form  of  a  pinnate  leaf.  The  stem  is 
very  slender,  and  the  leaves  towards  the  apex  become  smaller, 
the  apex  itself  being  occupied  by  imperfect  small  leaves.  As  a 
general  rule  these  young  lateral  branches  are  of  limited  growth. 

If  the  flattening  had  been  towards  what  corresponds  to  the 
margin  of  a  flat  leaf,  the  appearance  in  transverse  section 
would  have  been  just  that  of  a  reduced  totara-leaf.  The  bundle 
would  then  have  occupied  a  central  position,  slightly  nearer  the 
lower  surface  than  the  upper.  The  protoxylem  would  have 
been  turned  towards  an  upper  flat  surface,  the  resin-canals 
towards  a  lower,  while  at  each  side  of  the  bundle,  towards  the 
margins,  would  have  extended  similar  elongated  elements  to 
those  of  totara.  The  actual  flattening  has,  however,  taken 
place  in  the  opposite  direction,  so  that  each  apparent  upper 
and  lower  surface  of  the  leaf  consists  half  of  the  mor- 
phologically lower  surface  and  half  of  the  morphologically 
upper  surface.  In  other  words,  the  median  line  of  the 
dorsal  and  ventral  surfaces  has  become  in  each  case  a  margin. 
This  makes  the  protoxylem  face  one  of  the  margins,  but  at  the 
same  time  it  is  opposite  the  upper  surface,  while  the  resin-canal 
has  a  position  similar  with  regard  to  the  lower  surface. 

It  may  be  noted  again  that  the  position  of  the  whole  bundle, 
including  the  resin-canal,  remains  nearer  one  margin  than  the 
other — that  is,  nearer  the  lower  than  the  upper  surface. 

The  dorsi-ventral  arrangement  may  have  taken  plac1  simul- 
taneously with  the  flattening.  If  this  did  not  happen  so,  and 
the  flattened  leaves  still  remained  in  spiral  arrangement  -on  the 
branch,  the  effect  would  be  rather  to  decrease  than  to  increase 
the  surface  for  assimilation.  The  leaves  would  then  present 
their  margins  to  the  sun,  as  is  the  case  in  many  species  of  Euca- 
lyptus. 

The  plant  seems  to  have  gone  to  an  unnecessary  amount  of 
trouble  to  insure  the  flattened  form  and  dorsi-ventral  arrange- 
ment, but  it  is  impossible  to  know  all  the  factors  at  work  in 
producing  this  result.  Perhaps  it  is  to  the  advantage  of  the 
plant  in  assimilation  and  transmission  of  food  to  have  a  part 
of  both  wood  and  phloem  in  direct  communication  with  each 
flat  surface.  The  arrangement  of  the  leaves  in  the  bud  may 
be  one  factor  in  producing  the  flattened  form.  I  have  not  yet 
followed  out  all  the  details  of  the  development  in  the  young 
seedlings. 

Having  now  found  out  how  the  flattening  has  taken  place, 
and  which  form  is  the  more  primitive,  it  will  perhaps  be  in- 


Griffin. — Development  of  New  Zealand  Conifer  Leaves.     61 

teresting  to  note  briefly  the  further  modification  of  each  form 
in  the  succeeding  changes  of  development. 

Plant  entering  on  Second  Year. 

The  anatomy  of  the  two  forms  of  leaves  is  very  similar  to  that 
of  the  younger  stage,  but  shows  an  advance  in  the  hypoderm, 
which  in  both  forms  is  better  developed  at  the  sides  than  in  the 
preceding  stage,  and  in  the  vascular  bundle,  which  in  both  forms 
has  a  greater  number  of  conducting  elements.  The  number  in 
the  rounder  form  is,  as  a  rule,  less  than  in  the  flattened  form. 
The  transfusion  tissue  is  well  developed  in  both,  consisting  of 
large  tracheids  showing  transitions  out  from  the  px  to  the  endo- 
derm,  on  the  other  side  of  which  are  elongated  parenchyma 
cells,  which  at  this  stage  show  no  signs  of  lignification.  There 
is  an  occasional  lignified  element  above  the  px  which  may 
represent  centripetal  xylem,  kept  at  this  period  as  a  transfusion 
tracheid  on  account  of  the  unusual  relation  of  the  px  to  the 
elongated  parenchyma.  The  resin-canal  in  both  is  very  large 
in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  bundle,  as  will  be  seen  from  the 
figures. 

Plants  Three  or  Four  Years  Old. 

Here  we  see  the  maximum  development  of  the  flattened  form. 
Not  only  are  the  leaves  on  the  lateral  branches  more  flattened 
and  narrower  in  transverse  section,  but  the  leaves  on  the  main 
stems,  while  they  keep  their  awl  shape,  are  here  also  inclined  to 
be  flattened,  as  can  be  seen  in  transverse  section.  This  increased 
•surface  for  assimilation  will  be  of  great  service  to  the  young 
plant  at  this  period,  because  it  has  now  reached  the  stage  when 
it  must  struggle  hard  for  its  existence  if  it  is  to  make  a  place 
for  itself  among  the  other  forms  of  vegetation.  In  both  these 
leaves  and  those  on  older  plants  we  find  an  increase  of  trans- 
fusion tissue,  especially  at  the  sides  of  the  bundle.  We  also 
find  that  the  middle  elements  of  the  parenchyma  become  un- 
doubtedly lignified,  which  shows  that  these  elements,  which 
perhaps  in  the  first  place  had  their  origin  for  a  different  pur- 
pose, have  now  become  specialised  further  for  the  conduction 
of  water. 

Mature  Foliage. 

Here  we  find  on  both  stem  and  lateral  branches  none  but 
very  much  reduced  awl-shaped  leaves  about  T^  in.  in  length. 
This  is  the  general  rule  for  the  mature  plants,  which  grow  as  is 
usual  in  large  forests.  When  they  grow  in  forests,  branches 
with  leaves  are  found  only  at  the  top,  for  these  alone  can  reach 
the  sunlight,  for  assimilation  and  natural  selection  tend  to  the 
extinction  of  useless  organs.     In  more  open  positions,  however, 


62  Transactions. 

trees  may  grow  to  a  fair  height,  still  keeping  branches  near  the 
ground,  and  it  is  on  these  trees  that  a  more  flattened  form  of 
foliage  sometimes  occurs.  This  form  does  not,  however,  differ 
in  any  important  respect  from  the  preceding  leaves,  so  I  will 
describe  only  the  usual  type  of  mature  foliage. 

As  a  general  rule  the  leaf  is  triangular  in  section,  the  base 
representing  the  upper  surface.  This  form  is  more  like  the  early 
stages  of  the  awl-shaped  leaves.  It  is  interesting  to  note  the 
bulging -out  of  the  upper  surface  in  certain  of  the  mature  leaves, 
showing  that  even  here  the  leaves  are  liable  to  more  or  less 
modification. 

The  arrangement  of  the  chlorophyll  parenchyma  is  rather 
different  from  that  of  the  preceding  leaves.  The  row  of  cells 
round  the  leaf  next  to  the  hypoderm  has  here  become  modified, 
and  forms  closely  packed  palisade  parenchyma.  In  the  pre- 
ceding forms  the  parenchyma  round  the  edge  was  composed 
of  loose  and  irregular  parenchyma  cells.  On  the  lower  surface 
occur  only  irregularly  shaped  parenchyma  cells ;  on  the  upper 
surface  their  place  is  taken  by  elongated  cells,  which  are  rather 
irregular.  This  arrangement  is  very  analogous  to  that  of  the 
youngest  awl-shaped  leaves,  where,  however,  there  was  only 
one  row  of  irregular-shaped  parenchyma  between  the  bundle 
and  the  lower  surface. 

In  the  vascular  bundle  we  do  not  find  any  increase  in  the 
number  of  elements  of  true  xylem  ;  there  is  rather  a  decrease. 
The  transfusion  elements  are,  however,  much  better  developed, 
forming  great  groups  at  the  sides  of  the  bundle,  and  extending 
round  also  on  the  ventral  side.  It  seems  as  if  nearly  the  whole 
of  the  xylem  had  here  become  modified  into  this  tissue. 

Remarks  on  Origin  of  Transfusion  Tissue  in  Kahilatea. 

It  will  be  as  well  here  to  add  a  few  separate  remarks  on 
the  origin  of  transfusion  tissue,  as,  owing  to  the  differences  in 
form,  this  tissue  is  arranged  somewhat  differently.  The  posi- 
tion in  this  leaf  in  no  way  contradicts  what  was  said  concern- 
ing the  origin  earlier.  Ir»  this  species,  as  in  the  preceding  ones, 
there  is  hardly  any  development  of  centripetal  xylem  in  the 
younger  stages.  If  there  had  been  any  the  tracheids  would 
most  likely  have  been  preserved  as  transfusion  tracheids  in  the 
flattened  form  of  leaf,  for  increasing  facilities  of  conduction  out 
towards  the  spurious  margins.  When  transfusion  tracheids  do 
occur  in  the  younger  stages,  they  occur  more  often  at  the  true 
sides  of  the  bundle,  forming  transitions  outwards,  as  in  the  pre- 
vious species.  I  have,  however,  found  an  occasional  tracheid  on 
the  ventral  side  of  the  wood  in  young  plants  about  two  years  old 
{vide  plate)  ;  while  in  older  plants  we  see  transfusion  tracheids 


Geiffin. — Development  of  Neiv  Zealand  Conifer  Leaves.     63 

starting  to  be  formed  on  all  sides  of  the  bundle,  seemingly  aris- 
ing directly  from  the  px.  This  is  a  later  development,  arising 
out  of  the  increase  in  parenchyma  tissue,  for  there  is  not  nearly 
so  marked  a  development  seen  in  the  awl- shaped  leaf  of  the 
same  stage.  In  the  mature  leaf  we  see  this  development  car- 
ried further,  and  transfusion  tracheids  occur  on  all  sides  of  the 
bundle,  and  arising  in  some  cases  from  the  px  on  the  ventral 
surface.  This  leaf  would  form  a  strong  support  for  Mr.  Wors- 
dell's  theory,  unless  the  intermediate  forms  had  been  studied. 
We  may  regard  here  the  transfusion  tracheids  on  the  ventral 
surface  as  a  later  development  of  centripetal  xylem,  arising  on 
account  of  the  needs  of  the  leaf,  but  not  as  modified  primitive 
centripetal  xylem. 

We  will  now  pass  to  two  species  of  a  different  genera — 
Dacrydium  cupressinum  and  D.  Kirkii  —  and  show  where  they 
differ  from  the  species  of  the  preceding  genus.  We  will  take 
D.  cupressinum  first,  as  it  shows  in  its  foliage  many  points  of 
resemblance  with  the  last  species. 

Dacrydium  cupressinum  (Eimu). 

Of  this  species  I  was  fortunate  in  finding  all  forms  growing 
under  the  same  conditions,  from  young  germinating  plants  to 
mature  foliage.  The  mature  leaves  of  this  species  are  very 
hard  to  distinguish  from  those  of  the  kahikatea,  especially  when 
separate  from  the  mother  tree.  Both  are  awl-shaped,  and 
arranged  spirally,  closely  adpressed  to  the  branches.  The  leaves 
of  the  rimu  are,  however,  slightly  longer,  and  not  quite  so  closely 
adpressed  to  the  stem  as  those  of  kahikatea.  Both  trees,  when 
growing  amongst  other  trees  in  the  forest,  lose  their  lower 
branches.  The  height  of  the  tree  thus  makes  it  very  hard  to 
distinguish  the  difference  in  foliage  when  viewed  from  the  ground  ; 
but  these  trees  can  readily  be  distinguished  by  other  points. 
One  of  the  most  important  of  these  is  that,  while  the  lateral 
branches  of  the  kahikatea  are  erect,  those  of  the  rimu  are  pendu- 
lous. Hence  the  rimu  is  greatly  used  for  ornamental  purposes, 
while  the  kahikatea  is  but  rarely  so  used.  If  grown  in  the  open, 
as  in  cultivation,  the  rimu  may  grow  to  a  great  height  while 
still  keeping  pendulous  branches  low  down  on  the  main  stem. 
An  analogy  to  this  was  seen  in  the  kahikatea.  In  the  young 
stages,  however,  there  is  a  great  difference  in  the  appearance 
of  the  young  plants  of  these  two  species  :  this  is  due  to  the 
absence  of  dimorphic  foliage  in  the  rimu.  Here  we  find  only 
narrow  awl-shaped  leaves  arranged  spirally  round  the  stem.  We 
find  little  or  no  flattening  of  the  leaves,  though  there  is  a  slight 
tendency  in  the  earbest  stages  to  flatten  each  side  of  the  bundle, 


64  Transactions. 

though  not,  as  in  kahikatea,  towards  the  upper  and  lower  sur- 
faces. These  awl-shaped  leaves  are,  however,  much  longer 
than  those  of  the  awl-shaped  kahikatea,  varying  in  length  in 
the  younger  stages  from  \  in.  to  tl  in.  in  the  mature. 

It  would  be  a  very  interesting  study  to  compare  the  rate  of 
growth  of  young  plants  of  these  two  species  of  the  same  age, 
and  growing  near  each  other  under  exactly  the  same  conditions, 
and  thus  find  out  which  form  of  leaf — the  shorter,  flatter  form 
of  the  kahikatea,  or  the  longer,  narrower  one  of  the  rimu — is 
more  advantageous  for  plant-growth. 

Further  differences  will  be  noted  in  the  more  minute  struc- 
ture of  the  leaves  in  the  various  stages. 

Cotyledons  compared  with  those  of  other  Species. 

The  cotyledons  bear  a  great  resemblance  to  those  of  miro 
and  kahi-katea,  both  in  general  shape  and  structure. 

The  epidermal  cells  have  thickened  walls  and  cuticle,  especi- 
ally on  the  lower  surface.  This  seems  to  be  a  general  rule 
among  the  cotyledons  of  the  Podocarpeos,  and  probably  of  other 
Conifers  also,  though  I  have  not  seen  it  remarked  on.  This  is  no 
doubt  due  to  the  mode  of  germination.  The  young  cotyledons 
stay  inside  the  seed  for  some  time  to  absorb  the  food,  and 
hence  the  upper  surfaces  are  pressed  together  and  are  thus  pro- 
tected, while  the  lower  surfaces  are  exposed  as  soon  as  the 
hypocotyl  appears  above  the  surface  with  the  bases  of  the 
cotyledons. 

The  stomata  also  appear  much  more  regularly  on  the  upper 
surface  in  the  Podocarpece.  In  this  particular  species  they  occur 
only  on  the  upper  surface,  a  position  similar  to  that  found 
in  the  kahikatea  cotyledon  in  its  youngest  stages,  and  in  miro 
they  are  more  numerous  on  the  upper  surface.  The  fact  that 
the  stomata  are  produced  on  the  upper  surface  and  then  are 
exposed  when  the  cotyledons  open  out  may,  in  some  measure, 
account  for  the  fact  that  the  cotyledons  last  for  so  short  a  time. 
In  the  cotyledons  of  totara,  which  last  for  a  considerable  time, 
we  find  great  thickening  of  the  epidermis  on  both  sides,  and 
stomata,  though  they  occur  on  both  surfaces,  are  very  much 
greater  in  number  on  the  lower.  This  provision  for  the  future 
is  in  accordance  with  the  highly  specialised  character  in  other 
directions. 

Hypoderm,  as  in  miro  and  kahikatea,  is  absent. 

The  chlorophyll  parenchyma  is  homogeneous,  like  that  of 
miro ;  and,  like  miro,  tannin -sacs  occur  beneath  the  lower 
epidermis  and  round  the  bundle. 

In  the  vascular  bundle  there  is  only  rarely  found  a  resin- 
canal.     These  canals  are  not  found  universally  in  the  cotyledons 


Griffin. — Development  of  New  Zealand  Conifer  Leaves.     65 

of  the  Podocarpece.  We  find  none  even  in  the  more  advanced 
stages  of  totara,  none  in  the  early  stage  at  least  of  kahikatea, 
while  we  find  two  or  three  in  miro.  In  this  particular  leaf  we 
find  small-celled  parenchyma  in  the  place  where  the  canal  should 
appear.  The  number  of  elements  in  the  wood  is  very  small, 
and  the  protophloem  does  not  form  as  well-marked  a  crescent 
as  in  most  of  the  preceding  species.  I  was  unable  to  find  any 
trace  of  isolated  transfusion  tracheids,  but,  as  will  be  seen[  in 
the  figure,  the  wood  tends  to  arrange  itself  out  on  either  side  of 
the  fx,  and  the  outermost  tracheids  are  the  largest. 

Leaves  of  Young  Plants  with  Cotyledons. 

We  see  in  this  leaf  a  tendency  to  elongate  out  at  the  sides 
of  the  bundle. 

The  epidermis  has  well-developed  outer  walls  on  both  surfaces, 
and  there  is  no  sclerenchymatous  hypoderm. 

The  stomata  are  still  only  on  the  upper  surface,  and  remain 
ho  throughout  the  development.  Hence  we  see  that  in  this 
leaf  these  organs  never  occur  on  the  lower  surface  ;  their  position 
in  the  cotyledon  is  advantageous  in  the  later  stages.  The  posi- 
tion of  the  stomata  on  the  first  leaves  of  the  different  species 
varies.  In  totara,  in  the  first  stage,  stomata  occur  only  on 
the  lower  surface ;  whilst  in  miro  we  find  at  this  stage  a  few 
still  retained  on  the  upper  surface,  though  in  the  succeeding 
stages  they  occur  only  on  the  lower.  This  brings  out  again 
the  early  provision  totara  makes  for  the  protection  of  its  first 
leaves. 

In  the  chlorophyll  parenchyma  we  find  the  row  of  cells 
next  to  the  epidermis  modified  into  palisade  parenchyma,  but 
the  rest  is  homogeneous. 

The  vascular  bundle  is  very  much  reduced  ;  there  are  only 
chree  or  four  elements  of  phloem  and  wood,  and  no  trace  of 
transfusion  tracheids.  There  is  a  small  resin-canal  beneath^the 
bundle. 

The  Succeeding  Leaves  on  Older  Plants. 

These  gradually  increase  in  diameter,  and  are  triangular 
in  transverse  section,  except  on  the  more  mature  trees,  where 
they  are  oval  in  young  conical  trees  and  four-sided  on  the  older 
forest  forms.  The  increase  in  diameter  is  usually  correlated 
with  a  decrease  in  length,  a  provision  for  protective  purposes. 
The  mature  foliage  is  very  like  that  of  the  mature  kahikatea, 
but  can  readily  be  distinguished  by  the  smallness  of  the  resin- 
canal.  The  number  of  palisade  cells  in  the  chlorophyll  paren- 
chyma increases  as  the  tree  gets  older,  till  in  the  mature  leaf 
we  find  this  tissue  arranged  in  rows  of  three,  radiating  out  from 
3— Trans. 


66  Transactions. 

the  vascular  bundle,  or  running  in  rows  from  the  lower  to  the 
upper  surface.  The  vascular  bundle  does  not  vary  much  except 
in  size.  In  the  mature  leaf  there  are  lignified  elements  present 
in  the  pericycle,  but  I  have  not  ascertained  their  nature  in  this 
species.  They  do  not  show  any  markings  on  their  walls  in 
transverse  section,  but  these  may  perhaps  be  seen  in  sections 
•cut  longitudinally. 

Dacrydium  Kirkii. 

This  species  is  very  rare,  and  is  confined  to  the  north,  where 
only  a  very  few  trees  occur.  The  material  which  has  been  used 
was  got  by  Professor  Thomas,  of  this  college,  from  a  district 
north  of  Auckland.  I  have  none  of  the  very  early  stages,  all 
investigation  being  confined  to  a  single  young  plant,  about 
7  in.  or  8  in.  high,  and  to  the  foliage  of  the  mature  tree  ;  but 
in  this  case  the  mature  tree  alone  forms  a  very  interesting  study. 
On  the  young  plant  there  occurred  only  one  land  of  leaf — one 
like  that  of  miro  or  totara,  and  in  transverse  section  almost 
identical  ir  shape  and  size  to  that  of  a  totara-leaf.  On  the 
mature  tree  we  also  find  this  kind  of  foliage,  but  longer  and 
broader.  In  addition  to  this  large  leaf,  we  find  almost  every 
stage  of  reduction,  to  very  small  scale-like  leaves,  separate 
from  the  stem  only  at  their  apices.  On  a  single  branch  one 
form  may  be  seen  gradually  merging  into  the  other,  or  we  may 
find  quite  abrupt  changes.  On  this  particular  tree  the  larger 
form  predominated  on  the  lower  branches  ;  further  up  there 
was  a  mixture  of  the  two  ;  while  on  the  top  branches  only  scale 
leaves  were  found. 

This  example  of  dimorphic  foliage  in  a  Dacrydium  forms 
a  great  contrast  to  the  example  of  P.  dacrydioides.  In  the  latter 
we  saw  that  dimorphic  foliage  only  occurred  on  the  younger 
plants,  whilst  in  the  former  it  is  found  only  on  the  mature. 
That  of  kahikatea  is  an  example  of  adaptation  in  the  interme- 
diate stages,  the  primitive  form  reinstating  itself  finally  on  the 
mature  tree.  In  Dacrydium  Kirkii,  however,  the  opposite  is 
the  case,  for  here  we  have  an  example  of  adaptation  late  in  life, 
the  adapted  foliage  being  on  the  mature  tree.  The  large,  broad 
lamina  is  well  adapted  in  the  early  stages  for  vigorous  growth, 
but  is  evidently  unsuitable  in  the  mature  state. 

We  saw  that  in  totara  and  miro  the  mature  leaf  was  always 
more  reduced  than  those  of  the  intermediate  stages.  Dacrydium 
Kirkii  has  carried  this  reduction  to  the  extreme.  This  extra- 
ordinary amount  of  reduction,  occurring  in  one  and  the  same 
mature  tree,  and  accounting  for  the  intermingling  on  one  tree 
of  two  totally  distinct  kinds  of  foliage,  is  perhaps  not  paralleled 
by  any  other  tree  in  existence. 


Griffin.-—  Development  of  Neiv  Zealand  Conifer  Leaves.     67 

Anatomical  Structure. 

The  structure  of  leaves  on  the  young  plant  corresponds  very 
closely  to  that  of  a  miro-leaf  on  a  plant  of  the  same  size,  though 
the  shape  in  transverse  section  is  more  like  a  totara-leaf. 

The  large  form  of  the  mature  leaf  is  also  very  similar,  hut 
has  increased  enormouslv  in  size  in  comparison  with  the  former 
leaf. 

We  still  find  a  total  absence  of  hypoderm,  and  find  stomata 
still  in  the  middle  region  of  the  upper  surface,  as  well  as  in 
great  numbers  on  the  lower. 

We  find  a  remarkably  small  amount  of  differentiation  in 
the  chlorophyll  parenchyma,  considering  the  great  expanse  of 
leaf.  In  this  also  the  leaf  agrees  closely  with  miro.  The  middle 
elements  are  only  very  slightly  elongated,  and  show  no  signs 
of  lignification  ;  on  the  upper  surface  we  find  one  or  two  rows 
of  wide  palisade  parenchyma,  while  the  rest  is  composed  of 
loosely  arranged  irregular-shaped  parenchyma. 

The  vascular  bundle  is  of  great  size,  the  phloem  being  better 
developed  than  the  wood.  Transfusion  tracheids  are  well  de- 
veloped at  the  sides  of  the  bundles. 

We  see  by  this  transverse  section  that,  of  all  leaves  of  those 
we  have  studied,  this  leaf  is  the  least  adapted  for  the  prevention 
of  excessive  transpiration.  It  has  the  largest  expanse  of  leaf,, 
no  sclerenchymatous  hypoderm,  and  in  addition  it  bears  sto- 
mata on  the  exposed  upper  surface.  Taking  these  facts  into 
consideration,  we  should  not  be  surprised  that  the  tree  has 
endeavoured  to  make  up  for  these  deficiencies  by  a  reduction  of 
its  leaves  in  length  and  breadth. 

I  have  cut  sections  of  various  stages  of  reduction  to  see  if 
the  reduction  in  length  and  breadth  is  correlated  with  any 
anatomical  changes.  None  of  any  importance  occur  till  the 
leaf  has  been  very  greatly  reduced,  and  closely  united  to  the 
stem.  The  reduction  in  length  is  as  great  or  greater  in  pro- 
portion to  the  reduction  in  width. 

Reduced-scale  Leaf  :    Free  Tip. 

We  note  a  great  difference  in  size  from  the  last  stage.  We 
see  that  the  margins  are  greatly  strengthened  and  are  curved 
round  the  stem  to  serve  for  the  protection  of  the  neighbouring 
leaves.  In  the  middle  of  the  upper  surface  we  see  a  bulge  out 
of  tissue.  This  is  a  continuation  up  of  the  region  of  the  leaf 
where  it  joins  the  stem. 

In  the  chlorophyll  parenchyma  we  also  find  changes.  Here 
we  find  the  palisade  parenchyma  on  the  lower  surface  and  the 
looser  on  the  upper,  instead  of  vice  versa  as  in  the  preceding 


68  Transactions. 

stages.  This  naturally  follows,  for  the  under  surface  is  now 
the  more  exposed.  In  the  bundle  we  find  a  reduction  of  elements 
corresponding  to  the  reduction  in  size,  but  there  are  still  large 
groups  of  transfusion  tracheids  at  the  sides  of  the  bundle. 

Transverse  Section  :    Base  tvhere  Leaf  has  joined  Stem. 

Stomata  :  We  find  no  stomata  now  on  the  upper  surface, 
for  the  region  in  which  they  occurred  has  become  joined  to  the 
stem.  The  stomata  are  then,  on  the  final  stage,  only  on  the 
lower  surface,  and  are  here  on  the  exposed  surface  ;  but  they 
are  greatly  sunk,  and  are  protected  by  the  very  close  adpression 
of  the  leaf  to  the  stem,  and  by  the  overlapping  of  neighbouring 
leaves. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  give  a  summary  of  this  leaf,  the 
description  being  scarcely  more,  but  it  may  be  as  well  to  mention 
again  that — (1.)  In  Dacrydium  Kirhii  we  have  an  example  of 
dimorphic  foliage  in  a  different  genus  to  that  of  kahikatea.  This 
dimorphic  foliage,  however,  occurs  only  on  the  old  plants,  while 
in  kahikatea  it  occurs  only  in  the  younger  stages.  The  dimorphic 
ioliage  in  D.  Kirlii  was  a  result  of  reduction  from  the  more 
primitive  form  ;  that  of  kahikatea  was  the  result  of  an  enlarge- 
ment of  this  form.  (2.)  In  this  leaf  we  have  an  example  of 
stomata  preserved  on  both  surfaces  of  a  broad  leaf  to  the  mature 
stage.  Stomata  at  this  stage  were  absent  from  the  broad  leaves 
of  totara,  miro,  and  matai.  The  presence  of  these  stomata. 
and  the  absence  of  a  sclerenchymatous  hypoderm,  makes  it 
possible  to  explain  why  a  reduction  has  taken  place  in  this 
species. 

Comparison  of  Different  Forms  of  Leaves. 

The  species  I  have  chosen  represent  very  fairly  the.  different 
types  of  foliage  found  in  the  New  Zealand  Podocarpece  ;  but,  as 
my  thesis  is  already  very  extensive,  I  shall  not  be  able  to  give 
at  present  a  comparison  of  these  species  with  the  other  forms. 
I  should  like  to  add,  however,  that  the  most  common  form  of 
leaf  in  the  New  Zealand  Podocarpea'  is  that  represented  by 
totara,  miro,  matai,  and  the  earlier  stages  of  Dacrydium  Kirhii. 
Of  these  species  the  totara-leaf  represents  the  most  advanced 
form  of  this  type,  miro  and  Dacrydium  Kirhii  the  simplest, 
whilst  matai  is  intermediate  between  the  two.  A  comparison  of 
the  structure  in  the  "  broad  lamina  "  leaves  of  the  Podocarpece, 
in  conjunction  with  their  habitats,  might  lead  to  some  very 
interesting  phytogenetic  considerations.  The  totara  is  obviously 
the  best  adapted  for  living  in  exposed  positions,  and  it  is 
found  where  miro  and  matai  could  not  survive.  This  type 
of   foliage,   which,    in    many    respects,    corresponds   to    Tarns 


Gkiffin. — Development  of  New  Zealand  Conifer  Leaves.     69 

■baccata,  is  supposed  to  represent  the  most  primitive  type 
of  Conifer  leaf.  The  prevalence  of  this  type  in  New  Zealand 
Conifers  is  very  suggestive  when  we  consider  the  complete 
isolation  of  New  Zealand  from  other  countries,  an  isolation 
which  can  only  have  taken  place  at  a  very  early  geological 
period. 

Very  different  from  the  first  type  of  foliage  are  the  reduced 
forms  also  found  in  the  New  Zealand  Podocarpea?.  The  reduction 
in  Dacrydium  Kirkii  is  a  later  development  in  its  life-history,  but 
in  rimu  and  kahikatea  we  find  from  the  beginning  of  develop- 
ment very  much  reduced  forms.  This  reduction  incites,  both  in 
kahikatea  and  in  rimu,  an  attempt,  though  very  different  in 
each,  to  increase  the  surface  for  assimilation  in  the  young  plants. 
It  is  very  probable  that  this  reduced  form  may  have  been 
derived  through  scale  leaves  like  those  of  the  mature  Dacrydium 
Kirkii,  but  it  is  not  within  the  scope  of  this  thesis  to  go  into 
phytogenetic  details  regarding  the  origin  of  the  different  types  of 
Conifer  foliage. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  here  to  draw  any  further  conclusions 
as  regards  the  anatomical  development  in  these  species,  as  I 
have  given  summaries  and  comparisons  as  I  have  proceeded. 
My  investigations  have  not  been  extensive  enough  to  draw 
many  general  conclusions  for  the  whole  group,  but  I  should  like 
to  show  before  concluding  how  far  the  development  in  these 
species  agrees  with  that  of  the  Abietinece.  For  this  purpose  I 
will  give  a  very  short  summary  and  comparison  on  parallel  lines 
to  that  of  M.  Daguillon,  which  is  quoted  in  the  introduction 
of  this  thesis. 

1.  In  the  Podocarpeo3,  as  in  the  Abietinew,  the  existence  of 
leaves  intermediate  between  the  cotyledon  and  mature  leaves 
is  constant. 

2.  The  passage  from  the  primordial  form  in  all  species 
investigated  shows  insensible  transitions.  We  find  nothing  to 
compare  with  Pinus,  for  though  in  the  two  plants  with  dimorphic 
foliage— Podocarpus  dacrydioides  and  Dacrydium  Kirkii — we  find 
often  abrupt  changes,  insensible  transitional  forms  also  occur. 

3.  In  the  Podocarpeaj,  as  in  the  Abietinea?,  the  passage  is 
sometimes  marked  by  a  modification  of  phyllotaxis  —  e.g., 
totara. 

4.  Sometimes  by  a  change  in  the  epidermal  surface.  This 
change  is  perhaps  more  marked  in  species  of  the  Podocarpeae 
than  in  the  Abietinew.  One  or  two  parallel  changes  occur  in 
species  of  the  two  groups,  especially  as  regards  the  position 
of  stomata. 

5.  In  both  groups  there  is  a  development  below  the  epiderm 
of  a  sclerenchyrnatous  hypoderm,  though  we  find  remarkable 


70  Transactions. 

exceptions  in  the  eases  of  miro,f  niatai,  and  Dacrydiuni  Kirhii. 
It  might  be  noted  here  again  the  frequent  occurrence  in  the 
Podocarpece  of  tannin-sacs  in  the  layer  next  to  the  epidermis. 
Daguillon  does  not  mention  anything  of  the  kind  as  occurring 
in  the  Abietinece. 

6.  It  is  interesting  to  note  the  almost  complete  absence  of 
"  pericyclic  sclerenchyma "  in  the  Podocarpece ;  one  or  two 
isolated  fibres  alone  occur.  The  only  strengthening  development 
here  is  the  row  of  sclerenchyma  cells  round  the  resin-canal. 
This  must,  however,  form  a  very  strong  support  for  the  leaf, 
owing  to  the  arrangement  of  these  cells  in  a  circle.  Daguillon 
also  notes  the  presence  of  transfusion  tissue  in  the  pericycle, 
but  its  distribution  is  very  different  in  the  two  groups.  In  the 
Abietinece  it  generally  extends  right  around  the  bundle,  often 
appearing  to  be  connected  with  the  phloem  ;  in  the  Podocarpece 
this  tissue  generally  occurs  in  groups  at  the  sides  of  the  bundle. 
From  the  position  of  the  transfusion  tracheids,  as  shown  in 
Daguillon's  figures,  it  seems  more  likely  that  they  originated 
from  the  centrifugal  than  from  the  centripetal  xylem.  Daguillon 
himself  says  nothing  about  their  origin,  evidently  regarding 
them  as  modified  pericyclic  cells.  Tannin-sacs  occur  in  the 
pericycle  of  many  Podocarpece. 

7.  A  bifurcation  of  the  bundle  like  that  occurring  in  the 
later  stages  of  the  Abietinece  does  not  occur  in  the  Podo- 
carpece. The  bundles  of  the  mature  leaves  are,  however, 
broken  up  by  medullary  rays.  It  is  in  the  case  of  a  co- 
tyledon— i.e.,  that  of  totara — that  we  find  the  most  parallel 
development. 

8.  In  both  groups  the  "  number  of  conducting  elements  of 
the  xylem  and  of  the  phloem  augments  when  the  primordial 
passes  into  the  mature  leaf." 

9.  In  both  groups  also  "  when  the  parenchyma  is  hetero- 
geneous and  bifacial  the  differentiation  of  the  palisade  paren- 
I'livma  is  generally  accentuated  in  the  adult  leaves." 

We  see  from  this  summary  and  comparison  that  in  the 
Abietinece  there  are  many  anatomical  developments  similar  to 
those  we  have  noted  in  some  of  the  Podocarpeo?.  This  similarity 
in  development  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  entirely  different 
matter — similarity  of  structure.  The  leaves  of  the  two  groups 
are  generally  very  different  both  in  external  form  and  in  the 
arrangement  of  their  component  anatomical  elements.  But  in 
both  groups,  to  put  the  mutter  generally,  disregarding  all  specific 
differences,  the  development  tends  to  the  differentiation  of 
tissues  for  protection  and  strength,  and  also,  both  in  the  bundle 
and  in  the  parenchyma,  to  modifications  for  increasing  the 
power  of  conduction. 


Griffin.— Development  of  Neiv  Zealand  Conifer  Leaves.     71 

To  sum  up  in  a  few  words  :  the  development  of  the  successive 
stages  of  Conifer  leaves  is,  to  a  very  great  extent,  merely  the 
acquisition  in  the  mature  leaves  of  better  appliances  for  the 
manufacture  of  food,  and  for  its  protection  during  the  processes 
of  assimilation. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES  VIII-X. 

Lettering  used  in  Figures. 

cut.  Cuticle.  peric.  Pericycle. 

epid.   Epidermis.  t.t.  Transfusion  tissue. 

hyp.  Hypoderm.  p. ph.  Protophloem. 

l.sur.par.  Lower  surface  parenchyma.  ph.  Phloem. 

upp.sur.par.  Upper  surface  parenchyma.  x.  Xylem. 

e.par.  Elongated  parenchyma.  px.  Protoxylem. 

acc.t.t.  Accessory  transfusion  tissue.  cpx.  Centripetal  xylem. 

t.s.  Tannin-sac.  scler.  Sclerenchyma. 

end.  Endodermis.  r.c.   Resin-canal. 

The  following  are  transverse  sections,  unless  otherwise  stated:  — 

Plate  VIII. 

Fig.     1.  Vascular  bundle,  youngest  stage ;  totara  cotyledon,      x  192. 

Fig.     2.  Vascular  bundle,  apex,  young  cotyledon  ;  totara.      x  192. 

Fig.     3.  Vascular  bundle,  older  cotyledon,      x  192. 

Fig.    4.  End  of  young  cotyledon,     x  192. 

Fig.     5.  Vasculav  bundle,  youngest  leaf,      x  192. 

Fig.     6.  Tangential  section,  young  cotyledon;  totara.      x  192. 

Fig.     7.  Outlines,  transverse  section — (a)  cotyledon  ;  (6)  young  leaf,     x  12. 

Fig.     8.  Vascular  bundle,  older  totara-leaf.      x  192. 

Fig.     9.  Radial  longitudinal  section  through   outer  elements  transfusion 

tissue  ;   shrub  ;   totara.      x  100. 
Fig.  10.  Transverse   section,    showing   transitions   in   size    of   transfusion 

tracheids  from  px  to  endodermis  ;   shrub  ;   totara.      x  100. 
Fig.  11.  Middle  elements  ;   older  leaf,  totara.      x  100. 
Fig.  12.   End  of  mature  leaf,  totara.      x  100. 
Fig.  13.  Outlines,    transverse    section — (a)    mature    totara ;     (b)    mature 

miro  ;    (c)  youngest  leaf  ;   (d)  cotyledon  (miro).      x  12. 

Plate  IX. 

Fig.  14.  Bundle  of  cotyledon;  miro.      x  164. 

Fig.  15.  End  of  cotyledon ;  miro.      x  100. 

Fig.  16.  Tangential  section,  bundle,  cotyledon;  miro.      x  164. 

Fig.  17.  Bundle,  older  leaf,  miro,  stage  1.      x  164. 

Fig.  18.  Bundle,  stage  2  ;   miro.      x  164. 

Fig.  19.  Radial  longitudinal  section  transfusion  tissue ;  mature  miro. 
X164. 

Fig.  20.  Awl-shaped  leaf,  stage  1  ;  kahikatea.      x  100. 

Fig.  21.   Flattened  leaf,  stage  1  ;   kahikatea.      x  100. 

Fig.  22.  Bundle,  awl-shaped  leaf,  second  year  ;   kahikatea.      x  192. 

Fig.  23.  Bundle,  flattened  leaf,  second  year  ;   kahikatea.      x  192.  ^ 

Fig.  24.  Outlines,  transverse  sections — (a)  cotyledon  ;  (6)  stage  1,  awl- 
shaped  ;  (c)  stage  1,  flattened  form  ;  (d)  leaf,  awl-shaped, 
on  plant  three  years  old  ;  (e)  flattened  form  on  three-year-old 
plant  ;   (/,  g,  h)  different  mature  forms  ;   kahikatea.      x  22. 


72  Transactions. 

Plate  X. 

Fig.  25.  Flattened  form,  plant  three  years  old,  lower  surface  elements  ; 

kabikatea.      x  192. 
Fig.   26.  Flattened  form,  plant  three  years  old,  upper  surface  elements; 

kahikatea.      x  192. 
Fig.  27.   Bundle,  mature  kahikatea.      x  192. 
Fig.  28.  Rimu  ;    bundle,  cotyledon,      x  192. 
Fig.  29.  Transverse  outlines — (a)  cotyledon  ;   (b)  stage    1  ;     (c)    stage  2  p 

(d)  stage  3  ;  (e)  shrub;  rimu.      x  22. 
Fig.  30.  Stage  1  ;  rimu  ;   bundle,      x  192. 
Fig.  31.  Stage  2  ;  rimu.     x  192. 
Fig.  32.  Stage  3  ;  rimu.      x  192. 
Fig.  33.  Mature  leaf  ;  rimu.      x  192. 
Fig.  34.  Transverse  outlines,    Dacrydium  Kirkii — (a,    b,    c)   sections   from 

apex  to  base  of  mature  scale  leaf  ;    (d)  large  form  of  leaf  ;    (e) 

large  form,  natural  sizo  ;   (/)  scale  form,  natural  size,      x  12. 


Art.  IV. — Some  Observations  on  the  Schists  of  Central  Otago, 
By  A.  M.  Finlayson,  M.Sc. 
Communicated  by  Dr.  P.  Marshall. 
[Read  before  the  Olago  Institute,  8th  October,  1907.] 
Plates  XI  and  XII. 

1.  Denudation  Forms. 

Many  of  the  Central  Otago  ranges  are  capped  by  vast  as- 
semblages of  rock  hummocks  or  buttes.  These  are  well  dis- 
played on  the  Dunstan,  Old  Man,  Carrick,  and  Rough  Ridge 
Ranges,  also  at  Barewood  and  Macrae's.  As  we  approach  the 
coast  these  hummocks  become  more  numerous  and  smaller, 
till  they  finally  disappear.  They  are  best  seen  near  mature 
river  development,  while  sufficient  erosion  removes  them  alto- 
gether. They  are  thus  not  enduring  features  of  the  landscape, 
but  are  brought  into  existence,  and  again  destroyed,  by  erosive 
activity. 

These  peculiar  forms  have  been  remarked  by  several  observers, 
notably  the  late  Captain  Hutton*  and  Mr.  T.  A.  Rickardf ; 
but  the  only  one  who  discusses  their  nature  is  Rickard,  who 
studied  them  at  Barewood.  As  he  observes,  they  are  generally 
composed  of  more  siliceous  and  resistant  portions  of  the  rock. 
Basins  and  cavities  are  frequently  developed  near  their  base, 

*  P.  W.  Hutton,  •'  Geology  of  Otago"  (Dunedin,  L875),  p.  91. 
fT.  A.   Rickard,  "  GSoldfielda  of  Otago,"  Trans.  Am.  Inst,  Min.  Eng., 
vi  1.  xxi,  p.  411. 


Finlayson. — Schists  of  Central  Otago. 


73 


and  these  are  seen  to  face  generally  to  the  north — i.e.,  to  the 
midday  sun.  The  formation  of  these  cavities  is,  therefore,  pro- 
bably due  to  changes  of  temperature,  and  to  freezing,  and  con- 
sequent disintegration. 

No  writer,  however,  has  sufficiently  emphasized  the  import- 
ance of  joints  in  the  production  of  these  hummocks,  for  to  this< 
factor  their   formation  is  chiefly  due.     This  is  evident  from  a 


OTS! 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  1. 

study  of  them  in  any  one  locality,  where  they  are  seen  to 
be  roughly  square  in  plan,  with  their  corresponding  sides 
parallel. 

Castle  Rock,  on  the  Dunstan  Range,  in  the  form  of  two  large 

turrets,  shows  very  con- 
spicuously the  effect  of 
the  jointing  (fig.  2). 

The  buttes  are  seen  to 
best  advantage  in  dis- 
tricts of  horizontal  strata, 
and  this  is  why  they 
are  so  conspicuous  along 
the  summits  of  many 
of  the  ranges,  where  the 
bedding-planes  of  the  schist  are  generally  horizontal.  Where  the 
dip  increases  they  become  irregular ;  and  with  a  nearly  vertical 
dip,  as  on  the  fault- line  at  the 
south  end  of  the  Pisa  Range,  they 
appear  as  nearly  upright  minarets 
or  "  bayonet  peaks  "  (fig.  3). 

It  thus  appears  that  the 
amount  of  dip  is  the  chief  cause 
of  their  varying  form,  the  joint- 
ing of  the  rocks  the  cause  of 
their  existence. 

The  combined  effects  of  spher- 
oidal weathering  and  of  split- 
ting along  joint-planes  have  been 
the  cause  of  the  numerous  resemblances  in  the  rock-hummocks 
to}  human  forms,  such  as  the  Monk  on  the  Carrick  Range, 
and  the  Celebrities  on  the  Skipper's  Road. 


Fig.  3. 


74  Transactions. 

» 

2.  Fracture  Cleavage. 

This  phenomenon,  hitherto  undescribed,  is  well  displayed 
in  the  lower  schists  at  Alexandra  and  on  the  Dunstan  Range. 
Here  we  find  a  series  of  cross-fractures  rilled  with  quartz,  and 
inclined  to  the  foliation  or  flow-cleavage  planes  at  an  angle  of 
45°  (Plates  XI  and  XII).  The  veins  thus  formed  are  widely 
spaced  and  discontinuous. 

This  is  a  typical  example  of  fracture  cleavage  developed  by 
shearing  in  the  zone  of  rock-fracture.  Its  mode  of  origin  has 
been  pointed  out  by  C.  R.  van  Hise,  who  says,  "  In  the  zone 
of  rock-fracture,  where  the  differential  stress  surpasses  the 
ultimate  strength  of  the  rock,  there  may  be  produced  a  fissility 
in  two  sets  of  intersecting  planes  equally  inclined  to  the  greatest 
pressure."*  In  Otago  one  set  is  generally  emphasized  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  other.  The  name  "  fracture  cleavage "  is  due 
to  C.  K.  Leith,  who  has  discussed  its  nature  at  length  in  his 
monograph  on  "  Rock-cleavage. "f 

In  some  of  the  upper  members  of  the  schists,  shearing-planes 
occur  frequently  along  the  foliation-planes,  and  there  result 
slip-bands  marked  by  a  line  of  crushed  and  broken  rock.  These 
are  well  seen  in  some  of  the  railway-cuttings  in  the  Taieri  Gorge. 

It  thus  appears  that  the  effect  of  shearing  -  stress  differs 
according  to  the  depth  of  the  rocks  affected,  since  fracture 
cleavage  in  the  lower  schists  gives  place  to  slip-bands  along  the 
foliation-planes  in  the  upper  schists. 

3.  The  Chlorite-schists. 

Distinctive  types  of  chlorite- schist  occur  generally  near  the 
base  of  the  mica-schists,  notably  the  coarse  chlorite-schist  on 
the  Dunstan  and  Pisa  Ranges,  and  the  granular  chlorite-schist 
in  younger  beds  at  Cowcliff  Hill,  near  Gibbston.  These  have 
all  the  characteristics  of  metamorphosed  igneous  rocks,  an 
origin  which  was  suggested  by  Hutton  for  some  bands  of  chlorite- 
schist  near  Queenstown.J 

Field  Relations. 

The  two  types  referred  to  are  interbedded  with  the  mica- 
schists,  in  bands  varying  from  50  ft.  to  300  ft.  thick.  They 
are  frequently  underlain  by  thin  distinctive  bands  of  micaceous 
quartz-schist,  which  may  represent  altered  contact  rock. 


*  C.  R.  van  Hise,  "Principles  of  North  American  Pre-Cambrian 
Geology,"  U.S.  Geol.  Survey,   L6th  Annual  Report,  part   i.  p.  (143. 

fC.  K.  Leith,  "  Rock-cleavage,"  Bulletin  No.  239,  U.S.  Geol. 
Survey  (1905),  p.  119. 

JF.  W.  Hutton,  "The  Foliated  Rocks  of  Otago,"  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.. 
vol.  xxiv  (1891),  p.  360. 


Finlayson. — Schists  of  Central  Otago. 


75 


Composition. 
The  following  analyses  show  the  composition  of  these  rocks  : — 


l. 

2, 

3. 

4. 

5. 

Si0.2 

.      42-97 

39-90 

49-18 

41-28 

46-28 

ALA 

.      16-06 

8-22 

15-09 

18-48 

12-96 

Fe203 

7-92 

13-12 

12-90 

9-44 

4-67 

FeO 

6-05 

7-26 

,  , 

8-20 

6-06 

MnO 

0-45 

0-39 

,  B 

,   , 

TiO, 

2-75 

2-06 

,  . 

,  r 

CaO 

.      11-45 

14-09 

10-59 

7-04 

10-12 

MgO 

3-24 

2-26 

5-22 

7-48 

8-71 

K,0 

0-90 

2-57 

1-51 

2-21) 

3-75 

Na.O 

2-64 

3-41 

3-64 

3-52J 

C0.2 

3-45 

4-01 

,   t 

,   , 

.  . 

so., 

0-16 

Nil 

.   . 

.   . 

.  . 

H,0 

1-33 

2-00 

1-87 

2-74 

3-34 

99-37         99-29         100-00         100-39         95-89 

1.  Chlorite  -  schist,  Dunstan  Ra.  ;  Anal.,  J.  S.  Maclaurin 
(Bull.  No.  1,  N.Z.  Geol.  Surv.,  1906,  p.  42). 

2.  Chlorite- schist,  Gibbston  ;   Anal.,  A.  M.  Finlayson. 

3.  Chlorite-schist,  Klippe,  Sweden  ;  quoted  by  Roth,  Ge- 
steinsanalejsen,  1884,  p.  8). 

4.  Epidote-schist  from  diabase,  South  Mountain,  Pa.  ;  C.  H. 
Henderson,  Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  xii,  p.  82. 

5.  Diabase,  Point  Bonita,  Calif.  ;  F.  L.  Ransome,  Bull. 
Geol.  Dept.  Univ.  Calif.,  i,  106. 

The  features  of  the  two  Otago  types  are  the  low  silica  per- 
centage, and  the  high  proportions  of  lime,  magnesia,  and  notably 
titanium.  These  figures  indicate  a  basic  igneous  rock.  Analyses 
3  and  4,  of  chlorite-schist  and  epidote-schist  respectively,  show 
analogous  features.  No.  5,  of  a  typical  diabase,  is  inserted  for 
comparison,  and  shows  close  correspondence  in  respect  of  the 
main  constituents. 

Petrography. 

Under  the  microscope,  type  No.  1  (Plate  XII,  2)  shows  a 
mass  of  chlorite  fibres  and  scales  imbedded  in  elongated  granules 
of  quartz,  the  structure  being  perfectly  schistose.  Rutile  is 
abundant  in  elongated  crystals ;  plagioclase  and  magnetite 
are  accessories,  though  the  last  is  frequently  very  coarse  and 
strikingly  developed  in  large  and  thickly  clustered  octahedra. 
Calcite  and  epidote  are  very  abundant,  and  the  rock  is  sometimes 
so  highly  epidotised  as  to  constitute  an  epidote-schist.  Some 
specimens  carry  pyrite  in  large  flattened  cubes.     The    altera- 


76  Transactions. 

tion  of  the  rock  is  too  intense  to  determine  whether  this  con- 
stituent is  original,  but  it  was  at  least  introduced  prior  to  the 
dynamic  metamorphism  of  the  schist,  the  large  size  of  the  indi- 
viduals being  the  result  of  recystallization  during  metamor- 
phism. 

Type  No.  2  (Plate  XII,  3a)  is  less  schistose,  and  preserves 
more  of  its  original  structure.  It  is  composed  of  a  mass  of 
labradorite  and  quartz  crystals  thickly  grouped,  the  interspaces 
being  occupied  by  fibres  of  chlorite,  a  good  deal  of  calcite  and 
epidote,  with  rutile  plentiful  and  magnetite  accessory.  The 
feldspars  are  roughly  rectangular,  and  simple  or  once  twinned. 
The  absence  of  polysynthetic  twinning  indicates  secondary 
recrystallization.  Both  feldspars  and  quartz  are  crowded  with 
crystals  of  epidote  having  a  marked  centric  arrangement.  The 
rock  is  practically  a  feldspar-schist. 

The  specific  gravity  of  these  rocks  varies  from  2-9  to  3-2. 

Conclusions. 

Judging  from  the  above  lines  of  evidence,  there  is  no  doubt 
that  the  schists  described  are  altered  flows  or  sheets  of  basic 
igneous  rocks,  contemporaneous  with  the  associated  mica-schists 
of  sedimentary  origin. 

4.  Igneous  Intrusions. 
The  So-called  Porphyrites  of  the  Carrick  Range. 

Both  Hutton  and  Ulrich  refer,  in  their  "  Geology  and  Gold- 
fields  of  Otago,"  to  dykes  of  porphyrite,  or  hornstone-porphyry, 
on  the  Carrick  Range,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Carrick  reefs.* 
Careful  examination  failed  to  locate  these  dykes,  and  I  can  only 
conclude  that  both  these  authorities  have  been  misled  into  call- 
ing dykes  some  outcrops  of  dark  iron-stained  gossan  near  old 
Carricktown.  These  have  frequently  a  brecciated  structure, 
and  the  resulting  appearance  resembles  a  porphyritic  rock  with 
phenocrysts  of  quartz.  The  outcrops  are,  however,  simply  the 
barren  caps  of  lodes. 

Two  magnesian  dykes  occur  in  Central  Otago  which  were 
unknown  to  Hutton,  and  which  have  not  been  hitherto  de- 
scribed. 

Gibbston  Dyke. 

This  occurs  across  the  Kawarau  River  from  Gibbston,  about 
half  a  mile  up  the  left  branch  of  the  Springburn,  a  tributary 
of  the  Gentle  Annie.  The  schist  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
intrusion  has  been  highly  crushed  and  disturbed.     The  dyke 


*  Hutton  and  Ulrioli,  "  Geology  of  Otago  "  (Dunidin,  1875),  pp.  31  and  157. 


Finlayson. — Schists  of  Central  Otago.  11 

is  composed  of  altered  olivine  rock,  and  sections  show  the 
characteristic  mesh  structure  of  serpentine  derived  from -olivine* 
Where  least  altered,  it  is  a  black  serpentine  rock,  showing  occa- 
sional good  cleavage-surfaces  of  hypersthene.  The  serpentine- 
in  more-altered  portions  graduates  into  talc,  and  the  rock  is 
traversed  by  veins  of  calcite  and  chrysotile  asbestos. 

The  surrounding  rock  is  a  fine-grained  mica-schist  with  a 
band  of  fine  chlorite-schist.  For  a  distance  of  6  ft.  from  the 
contact  the  mica-schist  has  been  altered  into  a  highly  quartzose 
schist,  with  a  striking  development  of  biotite  blades  arranged 
across  the  foliation  -  planes.  The  chlorite  -  schist  shows,  as  a 
result  of  the  intrusion,  numerous  actinolite  needles.  This 
development  of  the  magnesia  minerals,  biotite  and  actinolite, 
is  a  characteristic  contact- effect  of  magnesian  intrusions. 

Moke  Creek  Dijke. 

This  occurs  on  the  right  bank  of  Bushy  Creek,  300  yards 
above  its  junction  with  Moke  Creek,  between  Kilpatrick  and 
Moke  Lakes.  It  lies  on  approximately  the  same  line  of  strike 
as  the  Moke  Creek  copper  lode,  and  is,  like  the  other,  a  serpent- 
inked  olivine  rock.  The  outcrop  is  very  obscure,  and  highly 
weathered  into  a  talcose  serpentine,  with  remnants  of  massive 
dark-green  serpentine. 

This  dyke  is  particularly  interesting,  in  that  an  analysis- 
of  the  serpentine  showed  it  to  contain  0-075  per  cent,  of  copper. 
Copper  -  ores  are  frequently  associated  with  magnesian  rocks, 
and.  this  proximity  of  a  copper  -  bearing  dyke  to  a  copper  lode 
strongly  suggests  that  the  ore  in  the  lode  has  been  formed  from 
a  previous  concentration  of  the  ore  in  an  ultrabasic  magma 
beneath. 

5.  On  the  Presence  of  Segregated  Gold  in  the  Schist. 

The  majority  of  writers — notably  Hector,*  Ulrich,f  McKay,}: 
and  Rickard§ — in  order  to  account  for  the  vast  amount  of  alluvial 
gold  in  Otago,  claim  that  the  schists  carry  gold  segregated  in 
the  quartz  laminae.  In  the  first  place,  the  contention  is  un- 
necessary, as  is  evident  from  a  careful  study  of  the  lodes 
in   Otago.     In  the    second    place,   only    two    examples    have 

*  Sir  J.  Hector,  "  Outline  of  New  Zealand  Geology "  (Wellington, 
1886),  p.  83. 

t  Hntton  and  Ulrich,  "  Geology  of  Otago  "  (Dunedin,  1875),  p.  157. 

J  A.  McKay,  "Gold-deposits  of  New  Zealand"  (Wellingtcn,  1903), 
p.  68. 

§  T.  A.  Rickard,  "  Goldfields  of  Otago,"  Trans.  Am.  Inst.  Min.  Eng., 
vol.  xxi,  p.  442. 


"78  Transactions. 

been  recorded,   and  both  of  these  rest  on  unsatisfactory  evi- 
dence. 

McKay  records  the  occurrence  of  gold  in  laminated  quartz 
at  Green's  Reef,  Ophir.*  Both  Ulrichf  and  Park!  have  con- 
clusively shown  that  there  is  here  a  zone  of  crushed  rock  on  the 
line  of  a  fault,  through  which  mineralising  solutions  have  risen. 
The  crush-zone  is  penetrated  by  cross-veins  and  "  flats "  of 
quartz  carrying  pyrite  and  gold,  and  leaving  no  doubt  as  to  the 
secondary  origin  of  the  metal.  This  instance  must  therefore  be 
rejected. 

H.  A.  Gordon  states  that  gold  has  been  found  in  the  schist 
near  the  Bullendale  lode,  Skipper's.§  He  did  not  describe  or 
figure  the  specimen,  nor  did  he,  apparently,  take  any  precautions 
to  observe  from  where  it  was  taken,  which  was  very  necessary 
in  the  case  of  a  wide  mullocky  lode  like  that  at  Bullendale. 
where  a  broad  belt  of  country  has  been  intersected  by  several 
parallel  fissures,  and  the  intervening  rock  impregnated  with 
auriferous  pyrite. 

I  examined  a  reported  instance  near  Butcher's  Gully,  Alex- 
andra, ||  which  proved  to  be  on  the  line  of  a  crush-zone,  highly 
mineralised,  the  rock  being  penetrated  by  "  flat  "  veinlets  of 
quartz  resembling  laminated  quartz. 

My  conclusion  is  that  the  occurrence  of  gold  in  the  schist 
laminse  is  not  borne  out  by  observation. 

The  presence  of  gold  in  the  schist  would  therefore  require 
to  be  tested  by  careful  analysis,  and,  in  view  of  Wagoner's 
recent  researches  on  the  presence  of  gold  in  various  rocks, ^[ 
it  is  quite  probable  that  the  mica-schists  of  Otago  may  carry 
minute  quantities  of  gold.  It  is,  however,  inconceivable  that 
the  quantity  present  could  ever  induce  one  to  claim  such  as  the 
main  source  of  the  alluvial  gold  of  Otago. 

The  first  investigator  who  opposed  the  view  that  the  alluvial 
gold  of  the  drifts  was  derived  from  segregated  gold  in  the  schists 
was  Professor  James  Park,  in  his  report  on  the  Alexandra 
Subdivision,**  and  to  him  I  am  greatly  indebted  for  the  many 
facilities  and  opportunities  he  gave  me  during  my  work  with 
him  on  the  Cromwell  Subdivision. 


*A.  McKay,  "  Gold-depositB  of  New  Zealand"  (Wellington,    1903), 

p.  08. 

f  "  Handbook  of  New  Zealand  Mines  "  (Wellington,  1887),  p.  75. 

%  J.  Park,  Bulletin  No.  2,  N.Z.  Geol.  Surv.,  L906,  p.  29. 

S  "  New  Zealand  Mining  Eandbook"  (Wellington,  L906),  p.  33. 

|]  Mutton  and  Ulrich,  "  Geology  of  Otago  "  (l)unedin.  1875),  p.  167. 

"I  Luther    Wagoner,    "Detection   and    Estimation   of   Small    Quantities 
of  Gold  and  Silver,"  Trans.  Am.  Inst.  Min.   Mug.,  vol.  xxxi,  p.  798. 

**  Bullotin  No.  2,  N.Z.  Geol.  Surv..   L906. 


Marshall. —  Geology  of  North  Island,  79 

EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES  XI  AND  XII. 
Plate  XL 

1.  Fracture  cleavage  in  rock-face,  lower  schists,  Alexandra.     (Photo  by 
Professor  Park.) 

Plate  XII. 

1.  Fracture  cleavage  in  boulder,  Bannockburn  Bridge.     (Photograph.) 

2.  Section  of  chlorite-schist,   Dunstan  Range.      Magnetite  (black)  marks 

the  foliation-planes.     Chlorite  (cloudy)  and  quartz  (clear)  are  present. 

X   32  diameters. 
3a.  Section  of  granular  chlorite-schist,  Gibbston.     Shows  large  recrystal- 

lized  feldspars  and  quartz,      x   32  diameters. 
36.  Same  negative  as  3a ;    printed  deep,  to  show  centric  arrangement  of 

epidote  and  twinning  of  feldspar. 


Art.  V. — Geology  of  Centre  and  North  of  North  Island. 
By  P.  Marshall,  M.A.,  D.Sc. 

[Bead  before  the  Otago  Institute,  \0th  September,  1907.] 
Plate  XIII. 

A  great  deal  of  interest  is  attached  to  the  northern  part  of 
the  North  Island  from  a  geological  point  of  view.  This  interest 
is  partly  a  result  of  the  direction  of  the  trend  of  the  land,  which,, 
somewhat  to  the  west  of  north,  offers  a  striking  contrast  to  that 
of  the  rest  of  the  Dominion,  which  is  directed  north-east  and 
south-west.  It  is  of  some  importance  to  know  whether  this 
direction  of  the  northern  portion  indicates  a  new  structural 
direction,  or  whether  the  land  is  composed  of  broken  fragments 
of  mountain-ranges  parallel  to  the  great  structural  feature  of 
the  North  Island — the  Tararua-Euahine-Kaimanawa-Raukumara 
chain. 

Additional  interest  attaches  to  the  extreme  north,  because 
here  Mr.  McKay  has  mentioned  the  occurrence  of  intrusive 
masses  and  "  sills  "  of  crystalline  rocks  of  plutonic  character,, 
which  he  has  classified  with  the  syenites.  Except  for  the 
occurrence  of  tonalites  and  other  dioritic  rocks  from  the  Cape 
Colville  Peninsula,  and  of  granites  as  boulders  in  conglomerates 
at  Alexandra  and  at  Gisborne,  plutonic  rocks  are  unknown  in 
the  North  Island.  From  a  popular  point  of  view,  the  greatest 
interest  attaches  to  this  part  of  New  Zealand  because  volcanic 
action  has  been  more  pronounced  here  than  elsewhere,  and  is 
still  maintained  spasmodically.  No  comprehensive  attempt  has 
been  made  to  deal  with  these  volcanic  areas  since  Hochstetter's 
time,  though  much  information  has  been  gained  by  several 
investigators  in  various  parts  of  the  district. 


80  Transactions. 

In  a  short  paper  of  this  kind  it  will  be  impossible  to  attempt 
anything  more  than  a  general  discussion  of  these  three  matters. 

A  reference  to  any  map  which  shows  the  contours  of  the 
western  Pacific  at  once  makes  it  clear  that  the  northern  peninsula 
is  not  continued  far  as  a  submarine  ridge  below  the  waters 
of  the  Pacific.  Still,  there  are  submarine  ridges  parallel  to  it. 
A  small  ridge  of  this  nature  lies  relatively  close  to  the  land, 
but  does  not  extend  far  to  the  north.  Over  a  portion  of 
it  the  water  is  less  than  500  fathoms  in  depth.  A  second 
ridge,  of  much  greater  importance,  lies  five  hundred  miles  to  the 
west.  This,  like  the  other,  has  a  fairly  large  portion  which 
is  less  than  500  fathoms  below  the  surface  of  the  water. 
The  ridge  continues  as  far  north  as  New  Caledonia  without  in 
any  place  dipping  below  the  1,000-fathom  level. 

There  is,  however,  another  submarine  ridge  of  some  import- 
ance north  of  New  Zealand.  Commencing  about  three  hundred 
miles  north  of  the  Bay  of  Plenty,  this  ridge,  less  than  1,000 
fathoms  below  the  sea-level,  extends  continuously  nearly  as 
far  north  as  Samoa.  In  ordinary  maps  it  is  not  indicated 
as  continuous,  but  as  divided  into  two  portions  between  the 
Kermadecs  and  the  Tonga  Islands.  There  does  not  appear 
to  be  any  reason  to  divide  the  ridge  into  two  parts  in  this  manner. 
It  is  true  that  those  soundings  that  have  been  made  between 
these  groups  of  islands  indicate  rather  deeper  water,  but  none 
of  the  soundings  are  in  the  direct  line  of  the  ridge,  and  all 
parts  of  it  are  extremely  narrow.  The  evidence  that  is  avail- 
able seems  to  point  to  the  continuous  nature  of  the  ridge  rather 
than  to  its  separation  into  two  parts.  The  ridge  appears  to  be 
a  continuation  of  the  trend-line  of  the  main  structural  features 
of  New  Zealand.  Wherever  the  ridge  rises  to  the  surface  it 
-displays  volcanic  rocks,  as  at  the  Kermadecs  and  at  Tongatabu, 
though  it  must  be  remembered  that  Professor  Thomas  has 
obtained  specimens  of  syenite  from  the  former  group.  To  the 
•east  of  this  ridge  there  is  a  deep  rift  in  the  bed  of  the  Pacific. 
In  places  it  is  5,000  fathoms  in  depth,  and  there  appears 
to  be  definite  evidence  that  it  is  4,000  fathoms  and  more 
in  depth  throughout  a  distance  as  great  as  the  length  of  the 
ridge  that  borders  it  so  closely  on  the  west.  The  evidence  in 
favour  of  the  continuity  of  the  rift  is  similar  to  that  given  above 
— viz.,  in  those  places  where  discontinuity  is  generally  repre- 
sented in  maps  no  soundings  have  been  made  in  the  direct 
line  of  the  rift. 

So  far  as  submarine  contours  go,  it  appears  from  the  fore- 
going statements  that  there  is  no  definite  evidence  as  to  the 
nature  of  the  northern  peninsula.  Trend-lines  there  undoubtedly 
are,  and  some  of  these  are  parallel  to  but  not  continuous  with 


Marshall. — Geology  of  North  Island.  81 

the  peninsula.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  strong  evidence  of 
pronounced  structural  lines  in  the  bed  of  the  Pacific  in  the 
same  direction  as  the  mountain-ranges,  and,  if  an  intermediate 
depth  of  1,600  fathoms  be  disregarded,  actually  continuous  with 
the  dominant  structural  features  of  the  North  Island. 

If  we  turn  to  the  rocks  of  this  portion  of  the  land  we  find 
three  main  types — (1)  volcanic  rocks  of  many  kinds  ;  (2)  Caino- 
zoic  sediments,  probably  of  Miocene  age ;  and  (3)  intensely 
folded  and  often  contorted  sandstones  and  shales,  which  have 
been  classed  as  Carboniferous,  though  there  is  no  definite  evidence 
that  they  are  older  than  the  Mesozoic.  With  these  are  associated 
in  many  northern  localities  the  plutonic  rocks  previously  noted. 

Of  these  three  rock-groups,  the  first  two  are  not  folded,  and 
therefore  afford  no  evidence  as  to  the  structural  features  at 
present  being  considered.  The  slates  and  sandstones  have, 
however,  been  subjected  to  earth-pressure  of  an  intense  nature, 
and  it  is  from  them  that  information  is  to  be  expected.  Though 
the  whole  of  the  area  has  been  geologically  examined,  it  is  a 
remarkable  fact  that  there  is  in  the  reports  that  describe  the 
country  practically  no  statement  as  to  the  direction  of  the 
strike  and  dip  of  these  older  sediments.  I  was  able  to  make 
a  few  observations  last  summer  in  the  Bay  of  Islands,  and  here 
the  beds  are  much  contorted,  and  are  often  so  changed  that  the 
stratigraphic  planes  are  completely  obscured.  However,  from 
the  observations  that  could  be  made,  there  appeared  to  be  a 
north  or  north-north-east  strike,  and  the  same  direction  appeared 
to  be  represented  in  the  hills  between  Mangonui  and  the  Oruru 
Valley,  and  in  the  shales  that  are  occasionally  displayed  in  the 
range  extending  from  Reef  Point  to  Raetea.  This  statement 
is  very  general,  but  it  remains  the  only  indication  of  the  structural 
lines  of  the  country.  So  far  as  it  goes,  it  indicates  that  the  trend 
of  the  land  is  not  a  result  of  structural  characters,  but,  as  it  were, 
accidental,  because  here  it  happened  that  fragments  of  moun- 
tains with  a  northerly  strike  in  many  ranges  were  left  in  such 
large  numbers  as  to  constitute  an  apparent  north-westerly 
trend.     This  view  is  in  accord  with  that  expressed  by  Suess. 

At  present  a  portion  of  the  district  is  being  examined  in  detail 
by  the  reorganized  Geological  Survey,  so  definite  information 
mil  shortly  be  forthcoming. 

The  second  matter  of  special  interest  is  the  occurrence  of 
plutonic  rocks  at  various  places,  which  has  been  noted  by  McKay, 
who  referred  them  to  syenites  or  diorites.  At  Mangonui  Town- 
ship McKay  states  that  these  rocks  are  interbedded  with  sand- 
stones and  shales.  Of  this  no  evidence  could  be  seen.  Certainly 
the  character  of  the  rocks  varied  somewhat :  the  colour  is  darker, 
and  they  are  more  compact  in  some  places  than  in  others.     When 


82  Transactions. 

examined  under  the  microscope  it  was  seen  that  the  differences- 
were  due  to  unimportant  variations  in  a  diorite  rock.  The  rock 
is  not  coarse-grained,  and  the  feldspar  is  nearly  all  triclinic,  ande- 
sine  and  oligoclase  being  chiefly  present.  All  the  ferro-magnesian 
mineral  is  hornblende,  but  it  is  much  decomposed  into  serpen- 
tinous  and  chloritic  substances.  There  is  some  magnetite.  In 
the  absence  of  analyses,  the  rock  appears  to  approach  the  syenites 
somewhat  closely.  At  Ahipara  other  specimens  were  obtained 
that  appear  to  represent  the  mass  that  extends  from  that  locality 
to  Reef  Point,  though  the  actual  specimens  were  obtained  from 
Ahipara  only.  The  rock,  again,  is  not  particularly  coarse-grained, 
and  in  hand-specimens  is  less  grey  than  the  diorite  mentioned 
above.  The  separate  minerals  are  clearly  seen  in  hand-specimens, 
and,  in  addition  to  feldspar  and  a  dark  ferro-magnesian  mineral, 
olivine  was  evidently  present. 

When  seen  in  thin  sections  the  rock  is  at  once  identified 
as  an  olivine  norite.  The  feldspar  is  a  basic  variety  of  labra- 
dorite.  Augite  is  plentiful,  and  but  slightly  schillerised.  The 
hypersthene  is  not  abundant,  and  is  generally  associated  with 
olivine,  which  is  rather  frequent.  This  appears  to  be  the  only 
olivine  norite  recorded  from  New  Zealand,  though  it  is  probable 
that  similar  rocks  exist  in  the  Darran  Mountains,  near  Milford 
Sound.  Other  specimens  of  plutonic  rocks  were  obtained  from 
the  Raetea  Saddle.  They  were  almost  entirely  norites,  but 
were  wanting  in  olivine. 

In  those  sections  that  were  seen  the  relations  between  the 
plutonic  rocks  and  the  Mesozoic  shales  were  not  clearly  dis- 
played. No  actual  contact  was  observed,  but  from  the  irregular 
succession  of  the  rocks  on  the  road  to  the  Raetea  Saddle  it  was 
evident  either  that  the  Mesozoic  sediments  rested  on  a  highly 
eroded  surface  of  plutonic  rock,  or  that  the  plutonic  material 
was  intruded  into  the  sediments,  and  is  therefore  of  Post- Meso- 
zoic age.  This  is  the  view  taken  by  McKay,  and,  although 
it  is  impossible  to  mention  any  section  that  negatives  it, 
there  are  a  few  facts  which  suggest  that  more  vigorous  investi- 
gation is  yet  required.  It  is  obvious  that  the  intrusion  of  such 
large  masses  of  plutonic  rock  would  be  likely  to  induce  much 
contact  action,  yet  when  search  was  made  in  the.  sediments  no 
evidence  of  contact  action  could  be  found,  even  when  the  out- 
crop of  norite  was  close  at  hand.  The  slight  schillerisation  of 
the  pyroxene  also  indicates  that  the  plutonic  matter  has  been 
subject  to  much  dynamic  action  since  its  formation.  Since 
there  is  no  evidence  of  earth-movements  in  this  district  since 
the  period  of  folding  of  the  Mesozoic  sediments,  it  would  appear 
that  the  norite  received  its  character  of  schillerisation  at  a 
period   not   later   than   that   of   the   folding   of  the   Mesozoic 


Marshall. — Geology  of  North  Island.  83 

sediments.  As  this  folding  probably  took  place  immediately 
after  their  deposition,  it  appears  that  the  norite  can  hardly 
be  of  Post-Mesozoic  age. 

The  volcanic  rocks  extending  from  Mount  Egmont,  Ruapehu, 
and  the  Bay  of  Plenty  northward  have  not  received  much  atten- 
tion, so  far  as  general  statements  are  concerned,  since  Hoch- 
stetter's  time.  Apparently  he  made  extensive  collections,  but 
only  a  few  of  his  specimens  appear  to  have  been  submitted  to 
microscopical  or  chemical  examination.  A  few  of  them,  how- 
ever, were  described  by  Zirkel.*  All  of  them  are  classified  as 
rhyolites,  though  with  very  different  structures  in  the  different 
specimens.  Of  those  examined,  the  majority  were  collected 
near  Taupo  and  near  Rotorua,  though  there  were  examples  of 
obsidian  from  Tuhua  as  well.  Mica  was  identified  in  many 
examples,  but  no  rhombic  pyroxene. 

As  a  result  of  his  observations,  Hochstetterf  classed  the 
whole  of  the  volcanic  rocks  of  New  Zealand  in  two  divisions, 
called  an  older  and  a  younger  series.  The  different  occurrences 
in  the  region  under  discussion  were  classed  as  follows  : — 

I.  Older  volcanic  rocks.     Tertiary  and  older  Quaternary  (Pluto- 

volcanic). 
(a.)  Northward  of  Auckland  Harbour,  on  the  west.     Ande- 

site  and  dolerite  breccias,  with  dykes  of  basalt. 
(b.)  South  of  Manukau,   and  thence  to  Aotea  Harbour. 

Basalt  conglomerates  and  basalts  without  distinct 

cones. 
(c.)  Volcanic  table-land  between  upper  and  middle  Wai- 

kato.     Pumice  and  trachyte  tuffs,  with  old  extinct 

craters  of  trachytic,  andesitic,  and  doleritic  rocks. 

II.  Younger    volcanic    formation.     Acid    and    basic    products. 

Cones  with  distinct  or  stuffed-up  craters, 
(a.)  Taupo  zone.     Rhyolitic  and  trachytic  lavas.     Obsi- 
dian and  pumice  important.     Includes  the  large 
volcanoes  around  Taupo. 
(b.)  Mount  Egmont.     This  may  belong  to  the  older  period. 
(c.)  Auckland  zone.     Sixty-three  eruption-points,  with  dis- 
tinct craters  and  lava-flows. 
(d.)  Bay   of   Islands.      Between   Hokianga   and    Bay   of 
Islands.     Similar  to  Auckland  zone. 
Since  Hochstetter's  time  important  work  has  been  done  by 
Professor  Thomas.      The   results    of   his    first    paperf  may  be 
thus  summarised :  Augite-andesites  were  found  at  Mount  Edge- 
cumbe ;    Ngauruhoe ;    Ruapehu,    west   side ;    Wanganui  River, 

*  "  Reise  der  '  Novara  '  :   Geologie,"  vol.  i,  p.  109. 
t  "  Reise  der  '  Novara  '  :    Geologie,"  vol.  i,  p.  200. 
J  Thomas,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xx,  p.  306  et  seq. 


84  Transactions. 

on  west  side  of  Taupo  ;  Whangamata  Bay,  West  Taupo  ;  Titi- 
raupenga.  Khyolites  were  found  in  several  places.  Some 
contained  quartz,  brown  hornblende,  and  augite.  Spberulitic 
and  axiolitic  types  were  mentioned,  and  a  banded  type  from 
Motutaiko  Island,  in  Lake  Taupo. 

In  a  second  paper*  the  rocks  of  Tongariro  are  described 
as  typical  augite-andesites,  but  in  a  few  instances  there  was  a 
little  olivine — e.g.,  the  summit  of  Tongariro,  at  the  red  crater, 
and  at  Otukou.  It  is  noticeable  that  in  all  of  Professor 
Thomas's  descriptions  there  is  no  mention  of  the  occurrence 
of  rhombic  pyroxene. 

Captain  Huttonf  described  many  rocks  from  this  district. 
Rhyolites  are  recorded  from  Taupo  ;  hornblende-rhyolite,  from 
Lake  Tarawera  and  Lake  Rotorua  ;  augite-rhyolite,  from  Atea- 
muri ;  enstatite  -  rhyolite,  from  Lake  Taupo  ;  chlorite-rhyo- 
lite,  from  Okaro ;  pitchstone,  from  Maketu,  Tauranga,  and 
Mayor  Island ;  spherulitic  pitchstone,  from  Eotorua ;  obsi- 
dian, from  Mayor  Island,  Taupo,  and  Lake  Rotoiti.  Trachyte 
is  recorded  from  the  Sugarloaves,  Taranaki,  but  subsequently 
Hutton  classified  this  rock  as  an  andesitej  ;  from  Whangarei, 
based  on  an  identification  of  Cox§  ;  from  Runanga,  Napier- 
Taupo  Road,  based  on  an  identification  of  Hector ||.  Horn- 
blende -  andesites  are  recorded  from  Sugarloaves,  Taranaki ; 
Mount  Egmont ;  eastern  base  of  Mount  Ruapehu ;  Tokatoka  ; 
Kaipara.  Augite  -  andesites,  from  Mount  Egmont ;  Mount 
Pirongia ;  Okaro ;  Mount  Tarawera,  eruption  of  1886.  Ensta- 
tite-andesite,  from  Sugarloaves,  Taranaki ;  Ruapehu  ;  Horohoro  ; 
White  Island  ;  Puponga,  in  Manukau  Harbour  ;  Helensville  ; 
Kamiti,  in  Kaipara  Harbour  ;  Whangarei  Heads.  Olivine-ande- 
site,  from  Mount  Egmont.  A  dolerite  is  recorded  from  Kake- 
puku ;  and  basalt  from  Mount  Eden  and  Rangitoto,  near 
Auckland.    ■  t 

Thomas, ^[  in  a  report  on  the  Tarawera  eruption,  published 
by  the  New  Zealand  Government  in  1888,  has  mentioned  the 
rocks  of  Mount  Edgecumbe  as  augite-andesite,  and  the  lava 
emitted  as  bombs  from  Tarawera  in  1886  is  also  described  under 
the  same  name. 

Hill**  has  described  the  rocks  of  Ruapehu  as  basalt,  trachyte, 
and  andesite. 

*  Thomas,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxi.  p.  349  et  acq. 
t  Hutton,  Royal  Soc.  N.S.W.,  1889,  p.  L02  U  scq. 
t  Hutton,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst,,  vol.  xxxi,  p.  483. 
§  Cox,  Geological  Reports,  1876-77,  p.  95. 
||  Heotor,  Geological  Reports,  1870-71. 

^1  Thomas,  "  Report  on  Eruption  of  Tarawera,''  pp.  13  and  58. 
**  Hill,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxiv,  p.  617;  also  Trans.  Aust,  Assoc 
Adv.  Sci.,  vol.  iii,  p.  170. 


Marshall. — Geology  of  North  Isla?id.  85 

Park"  has  mentioned  dolerite,  phonolites,  porphyritic  tra- 
chytes, and  pitchstone  as  occurring  on  Kuapehu  ;  but  neither 
of  these  last  two  authors  appears  to  have  made  anything  more 
than  a  field  examination  of  the  rocks. 

Rutleyf  has  described  a  large  number  of  rhyolites  from  the 
Rotorua  area.  Several  of  these  suffered  from  geyser-action 
and  have  become  more  or  less  silicified.  Descriptions  of  rocks 
from  Tuhua  (Mayor  Island),  in  the  Bay  of  Plenty,  are  included 
in  this  paper. 

A  different  type  of  rock,  a  pantellaritic  liparite  lava,  has 
recently  been  described  by  F.  von  WolffJ  from  Mayor  Island. 
This  is  the  only  mention  of  soda-rich  types  from  the  district 
— at  any  rate,  in  technical  descriptions. 

During  the  presence  of  the  "  Discovery  "  expedition  in  New 
Zealand,  rocks  were  collected  by  Ferrar  near  the  Aratiatia 
Rapids,  on  the  Waikato  River.  They  have  been  described  as 
rhyolites  and  andesites  by  Rastall.§  Reference  is  here  made  to 
a  peculiar  reddish  pyroxene  that  it  is  stated  may  be  strongly 
soda-bearing. 

The  Auckland  rocks  have  also  been  described  by  Shrewsbury,  || 
who  classed  them  all  as  basalts. 

The  literature  referring  to  the  Thames  rocks  and  those  of  the 
Cape  Colville  Peninsula  is  quite  extensive,  but  there  is  a  very 
general  agreement  as  to  the  rock-types  and  the  succession  of 
lavas.  The  most  recent  publication  on  the  district  appeared  in 
1905,  from  the  pen  of  Professor  Sollas^J,  with  descriptive  notes 
by  A.  McKay.  Photographs  of  many  of  the  rock-types  appear 
in  this  work. 

It  is  recognised  by  all  workers  in  this  field  that  the  andesites 
are  very  varied  in  type  and  structure.  They  range  from  dacites 
to  hypersthene  andesites,  with  some  olivine.  Augite  and  horn- 
blende types  occur  as  well,  but  there  are  no  unusual  minerals 
present.  Sollas  speaks  in  several  places  of  the  micropcecillitic 
structure  as  peculiar.  The  mineral  with  which  this  structure 
is  most  commonly  associated  he  has  identified  as  quartz. 
Coarsely  spherulitic  rhyolites  from  this  locality  have  received 
considerable  attention  from  Rutley**  and  Sollas.ff    The  spheru- 

*  Park,  Geological  Reports,  1886,  p.  70. 

f  Rutley,  Quart.  Journ.  Geol.  Soc,  vol.  lvi,  p.  493  et  seq. 

t  F.  von  Wolff,  "  Centralblatt  fur  Mineralogie,  &c,  1904,"  p.  208  et  seq. 

§  Geological  Mag.,  Decade  v,  vol.  ii,  p.  403  et  seq. 

||  Shrewsbury,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxiv,  p.  366. 

^f  Sollas,  "  Rocks  of  Cape  Colville  Peninsula,"  2  vols.  ;  Government 
Printer,  Wellington. 

**  Rutley,  Quart.  Journ.  Geol.  Soc,  vol.  lv,  p.  449  et  seq.,  particularly 
p.  466 ;   also  vol.  lvi,  p.  509. 

ft  Sollas,  "  Rocks  of  Cape  Colville  Peninsula,"  vol.  i,  pp.  120,  121. 


86  Transactions. 

lites  are  nearly  an  inch  in  diameter  at  times,  and  have  irregularly 
curved  radiating  arms.  Rutley  regards  the  objects  as  a  result 
of  refusion  of  the  rhyolite.  Sollas  rejects  this  explanation,  and 
states  that  these  features,  as  well  as  certain  isotropic  feldspars, 
have  resulted  from  processes  of  decomposition.  This  explana- 
tion he  afterwards  withdrew,  but  did  not  substitute  another. 

A  peculiar  type  of  rock  with  a  semi-brecciated  appearance 
is  called  by  Professor  Sollas  "  wilsonite."  He  suggests  that  its 
peculiar  structure  is  due  to  the  association  of  fragments  of  lava 
ejected  during  an  eruption  which  retained  their  viscosity  until 
they  reached  the  ground. 

A  very  complete  bibliography  of  the  literature  of  Cape  Col- 
ville  geology  is  given  in  the  introduction  to  Professor  Sollas's 
work.*  Unfortunately,  it  is  impossible  to  represent  the  results 
of  different  authors  here.  This  is  less  regrettable  because  they 
are  in  essential  agreement  as  to  all  the  main  features.  Re- 
ference, however,  should  be  made  to  the  geological  map  of  the 
district  in  the  second  volume,  and  a  similar  map  by  Professor 

Park.f 

In  the  second  volume  of  Professor  Sollas's  report  there  are 
descriptions  of  rocks  collected  by  McKay  on  the  western  spurs 
of  the  Kaimanawa  Range.  J  Some  of  these  are  probably  material 
ejected  by  Ruapehu  and  its  neighbours,  for  the  rocks  agree  with 
those  of  the  volcanoes  in  all  essential  particulars.  Others  agree 
with  rocks  near  Lake  Taupo.  Other  descriptions  are  given  of 
rocks  from  the  Sugarloaves,  Taranaki.  The  only  special  feature 
to  notice  is  the  occurrence  of  hypersthenej  in  one  example  as  a 
core  of  a  hornblende  crystal. 

Fox,§  in  a  paper  on  the  volcanic  rocks  near  Auckland,  has 
described  certain  tuff-beds  as  being  formed  of  fragmentary  matter 
ejected  by  the  Cape  Colville  eruptions,  and  others  as  formed 
during  the  eruptions  of  the  Waitakerei  volcanoes. 

The  physiography  of  this  region  has  been  referred  to  by 
many  authors.  Hill,  in  particular,  and  Park  have  described 
the  physiography  of  the  Ruapehu  region,  and  further  descrip- 
tions have  been  added  by  Von  Friedlander,||  who  visited  the 
district  after  the  eruption  of  Te  Mari  in  1896.  Marshall  and 
Alison  have  also  written  on  the  subject  in  the  volumes  of  the 
"  New  Zealand  Alpine  Journal."  Thomas,  in  papers  quoted 
above,  has  dealt  fully  with  Tongariro.  An  accurate  map  of 
Tongariro  has  been  drawn  by  Cussen. 

*  Sollas,  "  Rocks  of  Cape  Colville  Peninsula,"  vol.  i,  p.  124. 
|-  Park,  "  Geology  and  Veins  <>f  Hauraki  Goldnelds,     N.Z.  Inst.  Min. 
Eng.,  I  HOT. 

I  Solhis,  "  Rocks  of  Cape  Colville  Peninsula,"  vol.  ii,  pp.   l(>0-65. 
§  Fox,  Trans.  N.Z.   Inst.,  vol.  xxxiii.  p.  462  ct  ••>"/ 
||  Friodlander,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxxi.  p.  4'.ts. 


Marshall. — Geology  of  North  Island.  87 

The  general  features  of  the  physiography  of  the  whole  dis- 
trict were,  of  course,  fully  outlined  by  Hochstetter,*  who  travelled 
throughout  the  district  in  1864.  The  general  results  of  his  work 
require  no  very  great  modification,  though,  of  course,  there 
has  been  much  change  in  the  Tarawera  and  Rotomahana  dis- 
trict as  a  result  of  the  eruption  of  1886. 

Another  description  has  been  given  by  Marshall!  and  by 
Gregory. J  Cussen§  has  written  papers  on  the  changes  in  the 
course  of  the  Waikato  River,  as  well  as  a  paper  on  the  country 
to  the  west  of  Taupo,  that  is  still  very  imperfectly  known. 

McKay 1 1  has  lately  discussed  the  locality  of  the  eruption, 
from  which  all  the  pumice  was  dispersed. 

In  regard  to  the  age  of  the  outburst  of  volcanic  action  in 
this  part  of  New  Zealand,  we  have  Hill's^f  statement  that  there 
is  a  pumice-bed  interstratified  with  Miocene  (Cretaceo-tertiary} 
clays  at  Tolaga  Bay.  Park**  states  that  the  activity  of  Rua- 
peliu  and  Egmont  began  in  the  newer  Pliocene.  In  the  Thames 
district  Parkff  gives  the  Upper  Eocene  age  for  the  commence- 
ment of  volcanic  action.  Hectorff  states  that  the  Thames 
andesites  are  of  Cretaceo-tertiary  age.  Hutton§§  places  the 
Thames  andesites  doubtfully  in  the  Oligocene,  and  the  volcanic 
rocks  of  the  central  region  in  the  Pliocene.  Afterwards ||||  he 
states  that  the  eruptions  began  in  the  Miocene. 

In  this  paper  an  attempt  will  be  made  to  combine  the  results 
obtained  by  the  various  authors  named  above  with  the  observa- 
tions made  by  the  author  of  this  paper. 

Age. 

A  recent  paper  by  Professor  Park^j  has  revised  the  classifica- 
tion of  the  Cainozoic  rocks  of  New  Zealand.  Nearly  all  the 
Cretaceo-tertiary  rocks  of  Hector,  as  well  as  his  Eocene  rocks, 
are  referred  to  the  Miocene  as  a  result  of  a  fresh  examination  of 
typical  sections.     If  this  reasonable  conclusion  is  adopted,  an 

*  Hochstetter,  "  New  Zealand,"  1867. 

f  Marshall,  "  Geography  of  New  Zealand,"  p.  73  et  seq.  ;   Whitcombe 
and  Tombs,  1905. 

X  Gregory,  "  Australasia,"  vol.  i,  pp.  577-82  ;    Stanford. 

§  Cussen,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xx,  p.  316;    vol.  xxvi,  p.  398. 

||  McKay,  Mines  Reports,  1899,  p.  16. 

If  Hill,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xx,  p.  304. 
**Park,  Geological  Reports,  1886,  p.  71. 
ft  Park,  "  Hauraki  Goldfields,"  p.  13. 
XX  Hector,  "  Outline  of  New  Zealand  Geology,"  p.  87. 
§§  Hutton,  "  Geology  of  New  Zealand,"  Quart.  Journ.  Geol.  Soc,  1885, 
p.  192. 

Illl  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxxii,  p.  172. 
ifjfPark,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxxvii,  p.  491. 


88  Transactions. 

important  change  must  be  made  in  the  age  of  the  Thames 
andesites,  which  rest  on  rocks  that  have  hitherto  been  classed  as 
Cretaceo-tertiary.  They  must  be  accepted  as  of  Upper  Miocene 
age  at  the  earliest. 

Hill's  observations  prove  the  Miocene  age  of  some  acid 
eruptions,  probably  that  of  the  interior  region  near  Taupo  ; 
so  it  appears  that  volcanic  action  commenced  in  the  Thames 
and  Taupo  regions  almost  simultaneously  towards  the  end  of 
the  Miocene  period. 

At  Auckland,  Fox  has  shown  that  the  scoria-beds  in  the 
Waitemata  series  are  of  the  same  nature  as  the  Waitakerei 
rocks,  and,  as  the  Waitemata  beds  are  Upper  Miocene,  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  great  series  of  Waitakerei  andesites 
are  of  Upper  Miocene  age.  The  main  features  of  the  Waitakerei 
rocks,  stratigraphical,  petrographical,  and  physiographical,  are 
repeated  at  many  points  further  north,  notably  at  Kamiti, 
Kaipara  Harbour  ;  Manaia  Peaks,  Whangarei  ;  the  entrance  to 
Hokianga  ;  St.  Paul,  aud  the  surrounding  district,  Whangaroa  : 
south  of  Mangonui ;  North  Cape  district.  It  therefore  seems 
reasonable  to  refer  all  these  areas  to  eruptions  of  Upper  Miocene 
age.  In  making  this  correlation,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  rocks  have  most  striking  characteristics  in  common,  and 
that  in  several  cases  actual  stratigraphical  evidence  that  war- 
rants such  a  correlation  is  to  be  found.     • 

There  is  little  evidence  as  to  the  age  of  the  rocks  of  Karioi 
and  Pirongia.  Stratigraphically  they  rest  upon  Miocene  lime- 
stones, and  are  possibly  of  late  Miocene  age.  The  rocks  are 
dolerites,  and  differ  markedly  from  all  other  volcanic  material 
of  the  North  Island,  so  far  as  my  experience  goes. 

Another  group  of  rocks  about  which  there  is  at  present 
but  little  information  is  that  of  the  older  basalts  between  Kerikeri 
and  Orotere,  and,  further  on,  between  Mangonui  and  Ahipara. 
I  know  of  no  stratigraphical  evidence  as  to  their  age,  and  they 
are  here  termed  "  older  "  merety  because  of  the  mineralogies! 
changes  of  serpentinisation  that  they  have  undergone,  and 
because  of  the  extensive  weathering  changes  by  which  their 
surface  has  been  altered.  At  Kerikeri  they  rest  on  Miocene 
rocks. 

There  appear,  then,  good  evidences  of  great  volcanic  activity 
towards  the  close  of  the  Miocene;  but  this  activity  was  more 
pronounced  in  the  northern  part  of  the  district  than  in  the 
southern,  for  in  all  the  extensive  Miocene  rocks  near  Wanganui 
there  are  no  pumice  or  fragments  of  volcanic  rock  to  be  found, 
even  in  the  upper  rocks  of  the  series.  That  this  period  of 
activity  extended  into  the  Pliocene  is  possible,  though,  owing 
to  the  general  absence  of  Pliocene  deposits,  there  is  no  absolute 


Marshall. — Geology  of  North  Island.  89 

proof  of  the  statement.  Such  Pliocene  deposits  are,  however, 
found  in  the  Hawke's  Bay  and  Wanganui  districts.  The  former 
district  has  been  described  by  Mr.  Hill,*  who  mentions  pumice 
and  volcanic  material  in  the  Upper  Pliocene  only.  From  this 
it  appears  that  the  volcanic  action  which  distributed  pumice 
in  the  Miocene  became  dormant  in  the  Upper  Pliocene,  or 
became  extinct,  and  a  new  district  became  active  in  its  place. 

At  Wanganui,  Parkf  has  stated  that  volcanic  material  is 
found  in  the  Upper  Pliocene  only.  This  agrees  with  Hutton'sf 
statement  and  with  that  in  his  geological  history  of  New^Zea- 
land.§  With  these  statements  my  observations  entirely  agree, 
and  I  would  add  that  the  lower  gravels  of  volcanic  material 
in  the  Upper  Pliocene  at  Wanganui  contain  a  much  larger 
quantity  of  pebbles  of  Mesozoic  sediments  and  of  rhyolites  than 
the  higher  strata  of  gravels,  which  consist  almost  entirely  of 
andesitic  pebbles.  This  suggests  that  in  the  early  Pliocene 
the  sediments  of  the  range  west  of  Taupo  had  not  become  so 
nearly  obliterated  by  volcanic  ejecta  as  now,  and  that  the 
Ongaruhe  was  then  cutting  its  gorge  vigorously  through  the 
white  rhyolite,  while  the  Wanganui  did  not  have  its  head- 
waters obstructed,  in  bringing  gravels  from  the  Kaimanawas, 
by  the  huge  andesitic  masses  of  Ruapehu  and  his  fellows.  Later 
on,  as  Ruapehu  grew,  the  source  of  sedimentary  pebbles  was 
cut  off,  and  the  steep  slopes  of  Ruapehu  yielded  more  and  more 
material  to  the  streams  that  coursed  down  its  sides. 

Further  north  the  volcanic  cones  at  Auckland  are  of  extremely 
recent  age.  Their  lava-streams  flowed  down  valleys  that  still 
exist.  So  recent  are  the  lavas  that  streams  still  flow  beneath 
them  through  the  loose  scoriaceous  matter  of  their  lower  surface. 
In  no  instance  has  a  stream  cut  a  higher-level  channel  on  the 
surface  of  the  lava.  The  same  remarks  apply  to  the  volcanic 
matter  at  Whangarei  and  at  the  Bay  of  Islands.  ThisTvolcanic 
action,  however,  appears  to  have  lasted  a  considerable  time. 
The  rocks  of  the  plateau  of  the  lower  Waikato  are  similar  to 
those  of  the  Auckland  caves.  Though  still  quite  fresh  at  a 
little  distance  from  the  surface,  there  is  a  deep  and  fertile  soil 
formed  from  the  lava,  and  streams  have  cut  deep  channels 
through  it.  The  same  remarks  apply  equally  to  the  Bay  of 
Islands.  It  appears,  then,  that  though  the  present  cones  and 
their  lava-flows  are  of  extremely  recent  age,  they  represent  only 
the  final  effort  of  a  long  period  of  activity,  which  may  have  com- 
menced in  the  Pliocene. 

*Hill,  Tram.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vcl.  xx,  p.  301. 
t  Park,  Geological  Reports,  1886,  p.  71. 
j  Hutton,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xix,  p.  339. 
§  Hutton,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxxii,  p.  173. 


90  Transactions. 

Physiography  of  the  District. 

So  many  writers  have  already  discussed  this  aspect  of  the 
subject  that  little  need  be  added  here.  There  are,  however,  a 
few  matters  that  seem  to  have,  in  part,  escaped  attention 
previously,  and  others  which  allow  of  very  different  interpreta- 
tions. 

The  actual  craters  of  the  large  volcanoes  have  often  been 
described.  It  will,  perhaps,  be  interesting  to  make  a  few  remarks 
on  the  crater  of  Ngauruhoe,  which  I  have  visited  six  times  since 
1891. 

The  two  earliest  accounts,  by  Dyson  and  Bidwill,  represent 
the  crater  as  a  profound  abyss  which  could  not  be  descended 
on  any  side,  nor  could  the  bottom  be  seen. 

In  December,  1890,  it  was  possible  to  walk  all  over  the 
bottom  of  the  main  crater,  though  steam- jets  of  some  size  were 
to  be  found  in  many  places.  Round  each  steam-jet  there  was  a 
small  cone  of  sulphur.  The  small  scoria  cone  on  the  north  rim 
of  the  main  crater  was  then  much  more  active  than  the  main 
crater  itself. 

A  year  later  the  crater  had  completely  changed,  and  there 
was  a  large  pit  near  the  centre  of  the  main  crater.  This  pit 
was  the  scene  of  rather  violent  activity,  and  it  was  impossible 
to  see  to  the  bottom  of  it. 

But  little  change  has  taken  place  since  that  time,  though 
the  pit  has  become  larger,  and  has  changed  its  position  rather 
to  the  west,  so  that  in  December,  1906,  its  western  side  coincided 
with  the  western  flank  of  the  mountain.  At  this  time  the  moun- 
tain was  rather  inactive,  and  it  was  possible  to  see  to  the  bottom 
of  the  pit.  It  was  about  250  ft.  in  depth,  with  nearly  vertical 
sides,  which  were  encrusted  with  sulphur,  and  from  which  steam 
issued  in  clouds.  At  the  bottom  of  the  crater  was  a  pond  of 
water  of  a  bluish-green  colour.  There  was  a  scum,  apparently 
of  sulphur,  and  the  water  was  in  ebullition.  Sulphuretted 
hydrogen  was  being  emitted  in  small  quantity,  but  sulphur- 
dioxide  was  in  far  larger  amount.  The  small-rim  crater  to 
the  north  was  nearly  quiescent. 

In  February,  1907,  the  mountain  became  rather  violent, 
and  emitted  large  quantities  of  dust,  which  fell  over  the  country 
to  leeward.  The  mountain  was  ascended  in  March,  during  the 
continuance  of  the  active  phase.  The  crater  appeared  to  have 
undergone  no  material  change,  but  the  shower  of  acid  rain 
and  mud  prevented  me  from  making  more  exact  observations. 
The  mud  was  six  inches  deep  on  the  rim  of  the  crater,  and 
■extended  2000  feet  down  the  side  of  the  cone. 

The   craters    on    Ruapehu    and    Tongariro    have    undergone 


Marshall. — Geology  of  North  Island.  91 

no  material  change  within  the  period  of  my  observations,  and 
they  have  been  accurately  described  by  many  observers. 

The  violent  eruptions  of  Tarawera  in  June,  1886,  have  been 
so  fully  described  by  Hector,  Hutton,  Percy  Smith,  and  Thomas, 
as  well  as  a  host  of  other  writers,  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  refer 
further  to  them  here.  The  features  of  this  volcanic  area  have 
lately  been  examined  by  Bell,*  and  the  changes  that  have  oc- 
curred since  the  eruption  are  described  by  him. 

An  important  feature  of  the  physiography  of  the  district 
is  described  by  Cussen. f  This  is  the  range  of  old  folded  sedi- 
ments here  referred  to  as  Mesozoic,  though  stated  by  Cussen, 
in  conformity  with  the  usual  custom,  to  be  Carboniferous.  The 
range  commences  ten  miles  to  the  west  of  Tongariro,  and  extends 
throughout  the  country  to  the  west  of  Taupo.  There  is  little 
doubt  that,  though  the  old  sediments  have  actually  been  found 
only  in  few  places  on  this  range,  it  is  really  an  old  denuded 
range  which  has  been  smothered  beneath  the  accumulation  of 
volcanic  material.  This  range  was  first  discovered  by  Hoch- 
stetter. 

The  deep  dry  valleys  found  at  intervals  in  the  pumice  country 
are  deserving  of  some  notice.  They  are  especially  frequent  on 
the  north  of  Taupo.  In  many  of  them  no  water  has  ever  been 
known  to  flow,  yet  they  are  150  ft.  to  200  ft.  in  depth,  with 
nearly  vertical  sides,  and  30  or  40  yards  wide,  and  often  of 
great  length.  Even  if  heavier  rainfall  is  assumed  to  have  taken 
place  in  the  past,  it  is  hard  to  account  for  these.  The  eruption 
of  Tarawera  afforded  a  clue  to  their  origin,  for  the  torrential 
downpours  of  condensed  steam  and  mud  which  succeeded  the 
eruption  caused  the  erosion  of  such  channels  in  several  places, 
notably  near  the  road  between  Rotorua  and  Wairoa.  It  seems 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  dry  channels  have  generally  been 
formed  in  this  way. 

Another  physiographical  feature  which  is  most  striking  is 
the  steep,  straight-sided  form  of  many  of  the  hills  in  this  region. 
Horohoro  is  a  well-known  example.  The  straight  sides  are 
formed  of  rhyolitic  lava  in  most  cases,  though  Cussen  states 
that  Titirangenga,  in  which  straight  sides  are  noticeable,  is 
formed  of  augite-andesite.  These  remarkable  hill-forms  have 
been  described  as  fault-lines  along  which  the  surrounding  land 
has  fallen  in.  Hochstetter  first  held  this  view,  and  more  re- 
cently GregoryJ  has  adopted  it,  and  the  theory  was  mentioned 
by    Marshall. §     Gregory    describes    one    fault-plane    along    the 

*  J.  M.  Bell,  Geograph.  Journal,  1906,  p.  369. 

t  Cussen,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xx,  p.  320. 

%  Gregory,  "  Australasia,"  vol.  1,  p.  582 ;  Stanford. 

§  Marshall,  "  Geography  of  New  Zealand,"  1905,  p.  183. 


92  Transactions. 

flank  of  the  Paeroa  Mountains  parallel  to  the  Tarawera  fissure. 
These  vertical  scarps  are  general  in  the  whole  district.  They 
are  noticeable  at  Ngatira,  on  theJRotorua  line,  where  the  railway 
enters  the  plateau.  They  are  prominent  on  the  Rotorua  side 
of  thisTplateau  and  on  the  flanks  of  Ngongotaha,  on  Tarawera 
itself,  and  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  district  such  scarps 
are  very  prominent  on  the  sides  of  all  the  streams  that  cross 
the  railway-line  between  Mokau  and  Porootarao.  It  is  evident 
that  these  features  are  most  general,  and,  as  in  the  southern 
district  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  they  are  due  to  the  resistant 
nature  of  the  rhyolite,  there  is  no  reason  why  the  same  explana- 
tion should  not  be  accepted  for  Horohoro  and  its  fellows.  If 
these  features  are  due  to  faulting,  it  is  remarkable  that  the  erup- 
tion of  Tarawera  should  have  occurred  in  solid  rock,  midway 
between  two  profound  adjacent  faults  parallel  to  it,  for  the 
sides  of  Tarawera  have  notably  this  scarped  form. 

The  distribution  of  pumice  has  long  attracted  attention. 
Cussen  has  suggested>that  it  was  derived  from  the  Taupo  basin, 
for  he  noticed  that  the  pumice  on  the  west  of  the  lake  became 
coarser  as  the  lake  was  approached.  McKay  has,  for  reasons 
of  a  similar  nature,  stated  that  eruptions  probably  took  place 
somewhat  to  the  east  of  Taupo.  He  rightly  states  that  the 
distribution  of  the  pumice  is  so  great  that  it  is  almost  impossible 
that  it  should  have  been  the  product  of  a  single  volcano.  He 
supposes  that  many  of  the  vents  have  afterwards  been  smothered 
in  the  products  of  other  volcanoes.  This  statement  of  McKay 
probably  represents  as  near  an  approach  to  exactitude  as  can 
at  present  be  made.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  reasonable  to 
regard  the  lake-basins  of  the  volcanic  region  as  areas  that  have 
been  affected  by  violent  explosions,  possibly  of  a  hydrotherma! 
or  perhaps  of  a  truly  volcanic  nature.  That  lake-basins  can  be 
formed  by  such  explosions  we  have  good  evidence  in  Lake  Roto- 
mahana,  and  its  contours  are  not  strikingly  different  from  those 
of  the  other  lakes.  If  the  explosion  were  accompanied  with 
volcanic  action  and  emission  of  acidic  tuff,  we  have  in  the  present 
depressions  of  the  volcanic  plateau  sufficient  points  of  emission 
to  account  for  the  distribution  of  pumice.  The  form  of  Lake 
Taupo  is  particularly  suggestive  of  an  explosive  origin,  though 
its  present  dimensions  do  not  probably  represent  merely  the 
area  of  the  exploded  depression.  Such  a  cataclysm  causes  the 
outlet  to  be  stopped  up,  and  the  gathered  waters  gradually 
spread  over  the  adjacent  lowlands. 

It  is  noticeable  that  though  the  actual  melted  rock  at  Tara- 
wera was  andesitic,  yet  pumice  of  an  acidic  nature  was  more 
widely  dispersed  than  the  andesitic  tuff.  If  this  view  is  correct, 
the  lakes  of  the  volcanic  country  must  be  regarded  as  filling 


Marshall. — Geology  of  North  Island.  93 

explosion  cavities,  as  Lake  Rotomahana  actually  does.  It  is 
perhaps  advisable  in  connection  with  this  part  of  the  subject 
to  state  that  there  is  every  reason  against  the  supposition  that 
the  pumice  was  derived  from  any  of  the  present  volcanic  cones. 
Without  any  known  exception,  all  the  cones  of  the  district  are 
formed  of  andesitic  rocks  from  top  to  base. 

So  far  as  the  nature  of  the  rocks  is  concerned,  I  am  able 
to  make  a  few  additions  to  the  descriptions  given,  and,  in  view 
•of  the  large  amount  of  literature  now  available,  to  generalise 
rather  more  widely  as  to  the  distribution  of  various  rock-types. 

Rhyolites  of  many  types  are  found  throughout  the  dis- 
trict. The  purely  glassy  type,  obsidian,  is  found  at  Mayor  Island 
and  near  Tarawera  ;  spherulitic  obsidians  are  common  at  Roto- 
rua  and  near  Wairakei.  The  glassy  base  is  usually  trichitic. 
Spherulitic  rhyolites  are  very  abundant.  The  coarse  types,  from 
the  Cape  Colville  Peninsula,  contain  nests  of  angular  quartz 
grains  and  some  tridymite.  I  am  quite  unable  to  agree  with 
either  Rutley  or  Sollas  as  to  the  origin  of  the  spherulites.  While 
being  somewhat  diffident  in  this  matter,  I  cannot  regard  them 
-as  either  due  to  refusion  or  to  decomposition.  They  appear  to 
be  essentially  original,  though  the  exact  conditions  necessary 
to  their  formation  cannot  at  present  be  defined.  They  are  the 
last  objects  to  form  during  consolidation  of  the  rock.  At  Lake 
Taupo  and  in  many  other  places  there  is  a  banded  rhyolite. 
When  examined  microscopically  the  darker  bands  are  found 
to  consist  of  axiolitic  structures  of  indefinite  length,  and  the 
other  portion  consists  chiefly  of  microscopic  spherulites,  and 
sometimes  the  micropcecillitic  structure  of  Sollas  is  distinct. 
The  rhyolites  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the  district,  in  the  valley 
of  the  Ongaruhe,  have  a  groundmass  in  which  there  is  little 
individualisation  of  minerals,  and  the  rock  has  markings  that 
somewhat  resemble  the  damascened  patterns  on  a  gun-barrel. 
Tridymite  is  common  in  this  type  of  rock,  but  quartz  is  absent. 
The  minerals  which  have  crystallized  out  are  not  very  numerous. 
Quartz  occurs  quite  infrequently,  but  its  place  is  generally  taken 
by  tridymite  in  very  small  aggregates.  In  the  spherulitic  rhyo- 
lites of  Tairua  quartz  is  found  in  nest-like  aggregates,  and  dis- 
tinct grains  are  found  in  some  Taupo  rhyolites  and  in  the  silicified 
tuff  of  the  Huka  Falls.  Feldspar  is  found  in  all  but  the  more 
glassy  varieties.  Often  it  is  confined  to  minute  radially  arranged 
microlites  in  the  spherulitic  types,  but  distinct  crystals  are 
found  in  the  rocks  that  are  not  particularly  glassy.  It  is  most 
abundant  from  rocks  in  the  south  and  west  of  the  district. 
Sanidine  is  relatively  infrequent,  for  nearly  all  the  crystals 
belong  to  triclinic  forms,  apparently  between  albite  and  oligo- 
■clase. 


94  Transactions. 

Of  other  minerals,  hornblende  is  sometimes  found,  but  is  not 
very  frequent.  Biotite  is  still  more  uncommon.  Hypersthene 
is  by  far  the  most  usual  of  all  ferro-magnesian  minerals,  especi- 
ally in  the  southern  portion  of  the  district,  though  further  north 
its  place  is  taken  by  hornblende  in  some  measure.  Augite  is  un- 
common. The  pumice  offers  no  special  peculiarities,  for  it  is 
merely  vesicular  scoria  of  the  rhyolites. 

Few  analyses  of  the  rhyolites  have  been  published.  Hoch- 
stetter*  quotes  some  analyses  of  hot- spring  deposits  near  Ro- 
torua.  Some  of  these  appear  to  be  silicified  rhyolites.  Mac- 
laurin  and  Pondf  give  analyses  of  pumice.  The  percentages  of 
lime  and  magnesia  are  somewhat  higher  than  is  usual  in  this 
type  of  rock.  Determinations  of  silica  are  given  in  "  Rocks 
of  Cape  Colville  Peninsula.''^  The  percentage  is  rather  more 
than  70. 

There  appears  to  be  no  record  of  rhyolites  occurring  any- 
where to  the  north  of  Cape  Colville,  except  in  the  Great  Barrier 
Island.  The  only  example  known  to  me  is  a  dyke  penetrating 
the  Manukau  breccias  at  Karekare  :  it  resembles  those  from 
the  Ongaruhe  Valley. 

Trachytes  :  The  only  example  of  this  group  of  rocks  that 
I  have  had  was  taken  from  one  of  the  small  hills  near  the  Kai- 
para.  It  is  composed  almost  entirely  of  feldspar  microlites, 
but  there  is  also  a  little  biotite. 

Andesites  :  These  rocks  have  a  wider  occurrence  than  the 
rhyolites,  and  differ  among  themselves  more  in  mineralogical 
composition,  but  less  in  structure. 

Dacites  have  a  considerable  distribution  in  the  Cape  Colville 
area,  and  many  of  them  are  coarsely  porphyritic.  Sollas  has 
described  them  under  several  names.  Hornblende,  pyroxene, 
and  hypersthene  dacites  all  occur.  The  last  are  least  frequent. 
The  minerals  occasionally  occur  together,  though  hypersthene 
and  hornblende  are  not  associated  in  more  than  two  or  three 
specimens  of  dacites. 

Outside  of  the  Cape  Colville  area  dacites  have  not  been  re- 
corded, so  far  as  I  know.  I  have,  however,  had  specimens  of 
hornblende-dacite  from  the  Hen  and  Chickens  Islands,  and  in 
the  main  volcanic  area  Tauhara  is  formed  of  a  hornblende- 
hypersthene-dacite.  The  hornblende  has  a  peculiar  reddish 
colour. 

Of  other  andesites  there  is  a  great  variety.  The  Cape  Col- 
ville Peninsula  has  numerous  representatives  of  almost  every 


*  Eochstetter,  "  NVw  Zealand,"  p.  ».V>. 

t  Pond  and  Maclaurin,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxxii,  p.  233  et  seq, 

X  Vol.  ii,  pp.  303,  304. 


Marshall. — Geology  of  North  Island.  95 

type,  though  I  do  not  know  of  descriptions  of  any  mica-andesite. 
Hornblende-andesites  are  less  usual  than  hypersthene-bearing 
varieties,  and  augite-andesites  are  not  very  common.  Two  or 
more  of  these  minerals  may  occur  together.  The  structures, 
too,  are  many.  Besides  the  ordinary  structures  of  andesitic 
rocks,  Sollas  has  described  the  micropoecillitic,  in  which  quartz 
forms  grains  of  relatively  large  size,  with  highly  irregular  bound- 
aries, and  in  the  grains  are  included  the  constituents  of  the 
groundmass.  Spherulitic  varieties  are  also  described  in  some 
number. 

Mount  Egmont  consists  entirely,  so  far  as  my  researches  go, 
of  andesitic  rocks.  The  usual  type  is  a  hornblende-augite- 
andesite,  in  which  the  augite  is  a  pale  green.  The  hornblende 
is  sometimes  completely  resorbed,  and  an  augite-andesite  re- 
sults. Occasionally  a  little  olivine  is  found.  This  description 
agrees  with  that  of  other  workers,  though  Hutton  first  described 
the  Sugarloaf  rocks  as  trachytes,  and  he  has  also  mentioned  a 
hypersthene-augite-andesite  from  this  locality.  Sollas  mentions 
a  little  hypersthene  in  one  type  :  I  have  found  none  in  any  of 
my  sections.  Mr.  R.  Browne  sent  me  some  fine  lamellar  speci- 
mens of  haematite  which  were  obtained  from  a  tuff-bed  on  the 
lower  slopes  of  Mount  Egmont. 

Ruapehu  and  its  neighbours  are  entirely  formed  of  hyper- 
sthene-augite-andesite, so  far  as  I  know.  Specimens  have  been 
collected  all  over  the  east  and  south  sides  of  the  mountain,  and 
from  the  west  and  north  sides  collections  have  been  made  from 
streams.  The  augite  is  pale  brown,  and  the  hypersthene  is 
strongly  pleochroic.  There  is  no  hypersthene  in  the  groundmass, 
which  is  usually  hyalopilitic,  though  sometimes  pilotaxitic.  A 
little  olivine  is  occasionally  found.  It  is  usually  surrounded  by 
numerous  hypersthene  crystals.  I  have  found  no  hornblende 
in  any  of  my  numerous  specimens,  and  no  examples  of  phonolites, 
basalts,  or  trachytes,  mentioned  by  Park  and  Hill.  In  Thomas's 
descriptions  of  the  rocks  of  these  mountains  there  is  no  men- 
tion of  hypersthene.  This  must  be  regarded  as  an  oversight, 
for  the  mineral  occurs  so  invariably  in  my  specimens  that  I 
cannot  fail  to  think  that  some,  at  any  rate,  of  his  must  have 
contained  it. 

Hypersthene-andesites  are  recorded  by  Hutton  from  many 
•other  localities,  and  augite-andesites  from  many  by  Thomas. 
The  latter  mentions  this  rock  as  the  product  of  the  eruption 
of  Tarawera  in  1886.  This  statement  has  been  confirmed  by 
Hutton  and  Rutley.  The  specimens  I  have  gathered  from 
this  volcano  are  hypersthene-augite-andesites  again,  but  the 
rock  is  very  fine-grained,  and  identification  of  the  minerals  is 
not  easy,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  hypersthene  occurs. 


96  Transactions. 

In  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  one  appears  justified 
in  making  the  statement  that  nearly  all  the  cones  that  rise 
above  the  rhyolite  plateau  are  formed  of  hypersthene-augite- 
andesites.  Tauhara  appears  to  be  the  only  exception  re- 
corded. 

It  may  here  be  stated  that  Hochstetter  referred  to  many  of 
these  rocks  as  trachydolerites,  and  that  this  name  has  been 
widely  adopted  in  the  reports  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  the 
past. 

Hypersthene-andesites  have  a  considerable  development 
further  north.  All  the  specimens  that  I  have  gathered  from 
the  Waitakerei  region  belong  to  this  type,  and  from  the  Little 
Barrier  Island  a  pure  hypersthene-andesite  was  given  me  by 
Mr.  Cheeseman,  F.L.S.  At  Whangarei  Heads,  Parua  Bay,  a 
similar  rock  was  found.  At  Whangaroa  hypersthene-andesites 
and  hornblende  -  hypersthene  -  andesites  were  obtained  from 
St.  Paul's  Dome.  One  is  probably  justified  in  assuming  that 
these  rocks  occur  in  the  other  regions  where  the  typical  Manukau 
breccia  occurs — viz.,  at  Hokianga  and  at  the  North  Cape. 

In  the  central  region  it  can  be  clearly  seen  that  distribution 
of  pumice  succeeded  earlier  eruptions  of  the  Ruapehu  region, 
for  at  Waiouru  and  in  the  Onetapu  Plains  pumice  rests  on  the 
surface  of  andesitic  rocks.  That  the  distribution  of  pumice  was 
succeeded  by  eruption  of  andesitic  matter  is  shown  by  the 
andesite  tuff  that  rests  on  the  pumice  in  the  same  localities. 

Basaltic  rocks  show  less  variation,  and  have  a  wider  occur- 
rence. Pirongia  and  Karioi  appear,  from  the  specimens  that 
I  have  collected,  to  be  formed  entirely  of  a  porphvritic  rock 
of  this  class,  which  is  perhaps  best  called  a  dolerite.  The  olivine 
is  much  serpentinised,  augite  in  large  crystals  is  plentiful,  and 
andesine-labradorite  feldspar  as  well.  The  groundmass  is  augite 
feldspar  and  magnetite.  Amongst  New  Zealand  rocks  this 
type  resembles  some  of  the  dolerites  of  Dunedin  more  closely 
than  any  others  that  I  have  seen. 

The  older  basalts  which  occur  north  of  Kerikeri,  and  between 
Kaitaia  and  Ahipara,  are  very  fine-grained ;  olivine  much 
serpentinised,  and  fine  ;  feldspar  very  plentiful,  as  well  as  augite 
and  magnetite.  I  do  not  know  the  localities  from  which  the 
eruption  of  these  took  place. 

The  rocks  of  the  cones  at  Auckland  and  of  the  Waikato 
plateau,  as  well  as  those  of  the  Bay  of  Islands,  have  always 
been  classed  as  basalts.  All  that  I  have  examined  prove  to  be 
basanites.  The  nepheline  is  not  present  in  any  quantity,  but  it 
can  be  detected  by  gelatinisation  and  Btaining,  as  well  as  by  the 
cubes  of  salt  obtained  when  the  solution  derived  from  treatment 
of  the  rock-powder  with  hydrochloric  acid  is  evaporated.     These 


Marshall. — Geology  of  North  Island.  97 

basanites  are  usually  fine-grained,  though  this  character  is  far 
less  noticeable  in  the  specimens  from  the  Waikato  area,  which 
are  relatively  coarse  but  even-grained,  and  thus  different  from 
the  Karioi-Pirongia  rocks. 

A  consideration  of  these  statements  will  show  that  our  know- 
ledge at  present  allows  us  to  classify  the  products  of  volcanic 
action  as  follows  : — 

1.  Later  Miocene, — 

(a.)  Andesites  of  Cape  Colville  Peninsula. 
(6.)  Andesites  of  Manukau  breccias  in  their  many  occur- 
rences, 
(c.)  Rhyolites  of  north  of  Taupo. 
(d.)  Dolerites  of  Pirongia'and  Karioi.* 
(e.)  Older  basalts  of  Kerikeri.* 

2.  Later  Pliocene, — 

(a.)  Hornblende-andesite  of  Mount  Egmont. 
(b.)  Augite-hypersthene-andesite   of  Ruapehu  and  other 
cones  of  the  plateau. 

Hypersthene-dacite  of  Tauhara. 

Basanites  of  lower  Waikato. 


(c 
(d. 

3.  Recent 
(a. 
(b. 
(c. 


Andesites  of  Ngauruhoe  and  Tongariro. 

Basanites  of  Auckland  and  Bay  of  Islands. 

Andesite  of  Tarawera. 
A  very  interesting  type  of  basanite  is  found  in  the  Domain 
volcano,  Auckland,  in  the  form  of  ejected  blocks  only.  The 
iron-ore  is  ilmenite  ;  feldspar  is  oligoclase-andesine  ;  olivine  in 
elongated  crystals  ;  augite  is  violet,  and  shows  strong  pleo- 
chroism,  and  sometimes  has  a  fringe  of  segerine ;  nepheline 
idiomorphic  and  small ;  ophitic  and  micrographic  structures 
are  well  shown,  the  latter  as  typically  as  in  the  celebrated  type 
from  the  Labauer  Berg. 

Summary. 

There  is  little  evidence  in  regard  to  the  structural  meaning 
of  the  direction  of  the  North  of  Auckland  Peninsula. 

That  the  plutonic  rocks  of  Mangonui  and  Ahipara  are  diorites 
and  norites,  but  no  evidence  is  available  as  to  whether  they 
are  intrusive  or  older  than  the  Mesozoic  sediments. 

Volcanic  rocks  are  chiefly  rhyolitic  in  the  central  region, 
but  the  rhyolites  are  penetrated  by  andesitic  pipes,  over  which 
large  cones  have  been  built  up. 

The  lake-basins  are  probably  areas  of  violent  hydrothermal 
explosions,  and  from  these  explosions  pumice  was  distributed. 

*  Perhaps  early  Pliocene. 
4 — Trans. 


98  Transactions. 

The  sharp  scarps  of  many  of  the  rhyolite  hills  do  not  indicate 
the  action  of  faults,  but  are  due  to  erosion. 

The  sequence  of  eruptive  rocks  is  suggested. 

Note. — Specimens  lately  collected  by  Mr.  R.  Speight  show  that 
hornblende-andesite  with  much  hypersthene  occurs  on  the  north  slope  of 
Ruapehu,  and  also  on  A  Tama.  This  confirms  Hutton's  statement. 
The  rock  resembles  that  of  Egmont  in  some  respects,  but  must  be 
scantily  distributed  on  Ruapehu. 

Since  the  above  was  in  type  I  have  received  specimens  of  rock  from 
the  Patua  Range,  north  of  Mount  Egmont,  from  Mr.  N.  Cochrane,  and 
others  from  near  Albatross  Head,  Kawhia,  from  Mr.  R.  Browne.  In 
both  instances  the  rocks  are  similar  to  those  of  Mount  Egmont,  except 
that  pyroxene  is  entirely  absent. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  XIII. 

1.  Recent  and  Pleistocene.     Sands,  gravels,  and  pumice. 

2.  Cainozoic.     Chiefly  Miocene  limestones  and  marls. 

3.  Mesozoic.     Chiefly  Triassic  shales  and  sandstones. 

4.  Rhyolite.     Eruption  began  in  Miocene. 

5.  Hornblende-andesite,  Mount  Egmont ;   dacite,  Tauhara. 

6.  Andesites  of  Cape  Colville.     Eruption  in  Miocene. 

7.  Manukau  breccia.     Hypersthene-andesites,  Miocene. 

8.  Volcanoes  of  rhyolite  plateau.     Hypersthene-andesites,  Upper  Pliocene 

to  Recent. 

9.  Dolerite  of  Pirongia  and  Karioi  (Miocene  ?). 

10.  Basanites.     Waikato,  Auckland,  &c. 

11.  Older  basalts  of  Kerikeri. 

12.  Diorites  and  gabbros.     Age  uncertain. 

Note. — The  map,  Plate  XIII,  is  largely  based  on  the  work  of  McKay, 
Park,  and  Cox  so  far  as  the  boundaries  of  the  sedimentary  and  volcanic 
rocks  are  concerned.  The  author  alone  is  responsible  for  the  boundaries 
of  the  different  divisions  of  volcanic  rocks. 


Art.  VI. — Fossils  from  Kakanui. 

By  J.  Allan  Thomson,  B.Sc. 

Communicated  by  G.  M.  Thomson. 

\Rnid  In ■■fori  tin  Otago  Institute,  8th  October,  1907.] 

Plate  XIV. 

The  fossils  treated  of  below  were  collected  in  1903,  when  the 
author  was  working  at  the  gem  gravels  of  Kakanui.  After  a 
preliminary  determination  of  the  species,  they  were  submitted 
to  Captain  Hutton,  and  agreement  was  reached  as  to  the  names. 
He  recommended  that  the  generic  names  in  Zittel's  "  Text- 
book   of   Palaeontology"    (translation,    C.    R.    Eastman,    1900) 


Thomson. — Fossils  from  Kakanui.  99 

should  be  uniformly  applied,  and  also  that  publication  should 
be  delayed  till  his  revision  of  the  Tertiary  Brachiopoda  came 
out.*  In  the  meantime  the  author  removed  to  England,  and 
found  it  necessary  to  send  off  the  manuscript  of  his  paper  on 
the  gem  gravels  of  Kakanuif  before  receiving  the  revision. 
Consequently  the  latter  paper,  which  gives  an  account  of  the 
beds  from  which  the  fossils  were  taken,  does  not  always  employ 
the  names  to  which  in  the  former  paper  Captain  Hutton  gives 
his  authority.  The  necessary  corrections  will  be  made  by 
substituting  Terebratula  for  Liothyrina,  and  Terebralulina  for 
Notothjris  (on  p.  488  et  seq.),  and  filling  in  the  new  species  from 
those  described  below. 

Corals. 

Isis  dactyla,  Tenison- Woods. 

1880  :    "  Corals  and  BryozoaJ  of  the  Neozoic  Period  in  New 
Zealand,"  p.  7,  fig.  1. 

This  species  is  common  in  the  limestones  at  Kakanui.  Some 
specimens  agree  well  with  the  description ;  the  condyles  in 
some  cases  are  more  conical  than  those  figured  by  Tenison- 
Woods,  while  others  have  the  condyles  depressed,  with  a  small 
central  cone. 

Isis  hamiltoni,  nov.  sp.     Plate  XIV,  fig.  1. 

Short,  thick,  cylindrical,  often  branched,  sides  irregularly 
longitudinally  striated,  sometimes  striae  branching ;  condyle 
depressed,  with  a  small  central  cone  ;   radiately  striated. 

This  species  seems  to  be  the  same  as  one  figured  by  Duncan. § 
With  regard  to  the  identification  of  the  genus,  he  says  in  another 
paper,^[  "  The  calcareous  bodies  form  little  trunks  or  columns 
varying  in  height  and  in  the  amount  of  external  striation.  The 
branches  commence  from  the  calcareous  bodies,  and  not  from 
the  horny  matter.  It  is  this  branching  from  the  calcareous 
body  which  distinguishes  the  genus  Isis  from  Mopsea,  in  which 
the  branching  starts  from  the  horny  substance.  Hence,  if 
branching  calcareous  bodies  are  found,  they  may  be  safely  at- 
tributed to  the  first-named  genus  ;  but  if  calcareous  bodies  with- 

*  "  Revision  of  the  Tertiary  Brachiopoda  of  New  Zealand,"  Hutton, 
Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxxvii,  p.  474. 

f  "  The  Gem  Gravels  of  Kakanui,  with  Remarks  on  the  Geology  of  the 
District,"  Thomson,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxxviii,  p.  482. 

J  This  was  published  as  part  iv  of  "  Palaeontology  of  New  Zealand  "  by 
the  Colonial  Museum  and  Geological  Survey  Department. 

§  Quart.  Journ.  Geol.  Soc,  1875,  p.  675,  and  pi.  xxxviii,  figs.  1  and  la. 

^f  "  On  some  Fossil  Alcyonaria  from  the  Australian  Tertiary  Deposits," 
torn,  cit.,  p.  673. 


100  Transactions. 

out  branches  present  themselves,  they  may  belong  to  Mopsea, 
or  to  parts  of  Isis  where  no  branching  occurs.  Usually, 
however,  the  Mopsece  have  extremely  slender  polyparites,  so 
that  probably  all  stout  and  simple  calcareous  bodies  belonging 
to  the  Isidinece  should  be  classified  as  belonging  to  the  genus 
Isis." 

The  specimens  now  described,  being  often  branched,  are 
therefore  placed  in  the  genus  Isis. 

This  species  differs  from  Isis  dactyla,  Tenison- Woods,  in 
that  the  condyles  are  radiately,  not  concentrically,  striated. 
It  is  abundant  in  the  greensands  accompanying  the  limestones 
at  Kakanui. 

Graphularia,  sp. 

Quadrate  calcareous  axes  referable  to  this  genus  are  frequent 
in  all  the  limestones  of  the  Oamaru  district.  They  are  very  similar 
to  Gr.  robince,  McCoy.* 

Brachiopoda. 
Terebratula  gravida,  Suess.  Plate  XIV,  fig.  2. 
f  1865  :  Waldheimia  gravida,  Suess,  Reise  der  "  Novara," 
Palse.,  p.  56,  pi.  ix,  figs.  5a  and  5&.  1886  :  Terebratida, 
sp.  (figure  only),  Hector,  "  Catalogue  of  the  New  Zealand 
Court,  Indian  and  Colonial  Exhibition,"  p.  57,  fig.  6.  1905  : 
Terebratula  gravida,  Hutton,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  1905,  p.  475. 

The  larger  Brachiopoda  occurring  abundantly  in  the  quarry 
limestone  were  originally  labelled  W.  gravida  by  Hutton,  as 
specimens  in  the  Otago  Museum  show.  When,  however,  in 
Canterbury,  he  obtained  specimens  showing  the  brachial  arms, 
he  hesitated  to  identify  it  with  Suess's  species,  and  labelled  it 
merely  Terebratula,  sp.  The  Kakanui  shell  differs  from  Suess's 
description  in  showing  no  deltidium,  as  the  thickened  anterior 
wall  of  the  foramen  grows  forward  over  the  umbo  of  the  dorsal 
valve.  But  as  Suess's  figures  show  no  deltidium  and  no  brachial 
arms,  this  identification  should  hold  good. 

This  species  is  extremely  abundant  in  the  quarry,  and  occurs 
in  all  stages  of  age.  That  figured  is  an  old-age  form,  showing 
a  fold  in  the  dorsal  valve.  It  is  not  unlike  some  British  oolite 
species.  Younger  forms  are  smoother,  the  walls  of  the  foramen 
are  not  so  thickened,  and  the  umbo  is  more  produced. 

It  also  occurs  in  the  the  limestone  underlying  the  mineral 
breccia.  At  Oamaru  Cape  the  individuals  are  smaller,  and  the 
umbo  is  more  produced. 

*  Prodrom.  Palse.  Vict.,  Dec.  v,  p.  :?_\  pi.  xlviii.  figs.  2-4. 
•(•The  references  to  species   in   (his   paper  do  not    have  any  pretence 
io  completeness.     For  the  sake  of  brevity,  only  such  ace  pven  as  hear  on 

ill.-   name  and   priority  of  the  Species. 


Thomson. — Fossils  from  Kakanui.  101 

Terebratulina  suessi,  Hutton.     Plate  XIV,  fig.  5,  a,  b,  and  c. 
1865  :    Terebratulina,   sp.,    Suess,   Reise  der  "  Novara,"  Palse., 

p.  57,  pi.  ix,  fig.  6.     1873  :    Terebratella  suessi,  Hutton,  Cat. 

Tert.  Moll.  N.Z.,  p.  37.     1905  :    Terebratulina  suessi,  Hutton, 

Revision,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  p.  475. 

In  the  "  Novara  "  palaeontology*  Suess  refers  to  this  species 
as  Terebratulina,  but  in  the  description  of  the  plate  (ix)  he  calls 
it  Terebratella,  sp.  ;  and  Hutton,  in  his  earlier  paper  (1873), 
followed  him  in  this,  correcting  the  genus  in  1905.  The  simi- 
larity to  T.  scouleri,  Tate,  is  most  marked,  and  the  latter  may 
have  to  disappear.  The  ear-like  processes  on  the  dorsal  valve 
characteristic  of  Terebratulina  have  not  been  noticed  in  earlier 
descriptions. 

This  species  is  abundant  in  the  quarry  limestone,  and  also 
occurs  in  the  fossiliferous  layers  of  the  Kakanui  breccias,  as  well 
as  on  Oamaru  Cape. 

Photos  of  the  shell,  and  of  the  interior  of  the  dorsal  valve, 
showing  the  loop,  are  given.  The  photos  show  two  varieties 
of  shape  and  ornamentation,  between  which  all  intermediate 
forms  may  be  found. 

Magellania  sinuata,  Hutton.     Plate  XIV,  fig.  3. 

1873  :  Waldheimia  (?)  sinuata,  Hutton,  Cat.  Tert.  Moll.  N.Z., 
p.  26.  1885  :  Terebratella  (?)  sinuata,  Hutton,  Quart.  Jo  urn. 
Geol.  Soc,  1885,  p.  553.  1905  :  Terebratella  sinuata,  Trans. 
N.Z.  Inst.,  1905,  p.  478. 

Captain  Hutton  considered  these  specimens  to  be  the  same 
as  his  Waldheimia  sinuata.  They  agree  also  with  specimens 
in  the  Otago  Museum  labelled  by  him.  They  differ,  however, 
frorn  his  description  in  having  a  deltidium  conspicuous,  if  small, 
and  in  having  a  sharply  keeled  umbo.  The  description  should, 
then,  read  :  "  Shell  orbicular-trigonal,  valves  subequal ;  beak 
very  short,  umbo  keeled  ;  hinge-line  angular  ;  deltidium  con- 
spicuous. Ventral  valve  with  a  broad  marginal  sinus  ;  dorsal 
valve  convex  ;    margin  much  sinuated." 

There  is  no  evidence  that  the  brachial  loops  are  twice  joined 
to  the  septum,  so  the  original  generic  determination  is  sustained, 
except  that  Magellania  has  now  replaced  Waldheimia. 

This  species  is  abundant  in  the  Kakanui  greensands,  and 
presents  considerable  variety  in  form,  partly  due  to  crushing. 
The  margins  in  stout  shells  are  little  sinuated.  It  approaches 
M.  lenticularis.  Some  rather  similar  shells  were  considered  by 
Captain  Hutton  as  new,  but  the  amount  of  material  gathered 
does  not  justify  the  description  of  new  species. 


*  Suess,  Reise  der  "Novara,"  Palse.,  p.  57. 


102  Transactions. 

Terebratella  kakanuiensis,  Hutton.     Plate  XIV,  fig.  4. 
1905  :    Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  p.  479. 

The  specimens  on  which  Captain  Hutton  founded  this  species 
were  furnished  by  the  author  ;  they  were  collected  from  the 
quarry,  North  Head,  Kakanui. 

The  following  description,  prepared  before  the  receipt  of 
Captain  Hutton' s  revision,  will  simplify  in  some  particulars 
his  description  :  Broadly  ovate  ;  greatest  width  at  middle  ; 
slightly  longer  than  wide  ;  valves  equally  convex,  a  ridge  on 
the  ventral  valve,  extending  from  umbo  to  margin,  dividing 
it  into  three  lobes  ;  dorsal  valve  with  a  deep  sinus  from  the 
centre  to  the  anterior  margin  ;  umbo  produced  and  slightly 
curved,  bluntly  keeled  ;  foramen  large,  incomplete  ;  deltidium 
a  small  triangular  plate  on  either  side.  Surface  smooth,  with 
inequi distant  lines  of  growth  ;  loop  short,  reflexed,  and  doubly 
attached. 

This  species  differs  from  T.  rubicunda  in  its  much  deeper 
dorsal  sinus  and  shorter  loop.  Captain  Hutton  considered  it 
the  probable  ancestor  of  T.  rubicunda.  It  somewhat  resembles 
the  figures  of  T.  woodsii* 

LiAMELLIBRANCHS. 

Pecten  sectus,  Hutton. 

1873 :    Pecten  secta,   Hutton,   Cat,   Tert.   Moll.,   p.   30.     1886  : 
Pecten  sectus,  Hutton,  "  Mollusca  of  the  Pareora  and  Oamaru 
Systems  of  New  Zealand,"  Proc,  Linn.  Soc.  N.S.W.,  p.  235. 
Two  types  of  Pecten  differing  from  known  species  were  con- 
sidered by  Hutton  to  be  the  young  of  this  species.     Their  de- 
scription may  be  of  value  : — 

(a.)  Left  valve  slightly  convex,  orbicular-trigonal ;  angle  as 
long  as  high  ;  ears  unequal ;  the  anterior  one  with  4  radiating 
ribs  and  fine  transverse  striae.  The  whole  shell  is  thrown  into 
10  plicae,  each  dividing  at  the  margin  to  2  ribs,  the  hollows  being 
also  occupied  by  2  slightly  smaller  ribs  ;  the  ribs  spring  from 
the  middle  zone  of  the  shell ;  concentric  lines  of  growth  ;  margin 
crenulate  and  sinuous.     Size,  f  in. 

(6.)  Right  valve  flat ;  shell  thrown  into  10  plicae,  each  splitting 
into  3  ribs  near  the  bottom,  the  hollows  with  1  rib  ;  surface 
with  very  fine  concentric  striae,  and  also  oblique  striae. 

Cardita  benhami,  nov.  sp. 

Shell  very  convex,  subquadrate,  slightly  inequilateral ;  26-30 
large  radiating  ribs,  nodulose,  a  little  smaller  than  the  inter- 


*Tatc.  Trans.  Phil.  Soc.  Adelaide,  1880. 


Thomson. — Fossils  from  Kakanui.  103 

spaces ;  lunule  small,  cordate ;  umbones  recurved.  Height, 
|  in.  ;    length,  |  in. 

This  species  differs  from  C.  australis,  Quoy,  as  described 
by  Hutton*  as  Venericardia  australis,  in  having  always  more 
than  22  ribs.  It  would,  however,  be  included  under  the  more 
general  description  of  the  same  species  by  G.  F.  Harris. f  He, 
however,  admits  several  of  Tate's  Australian  species,  which 
do  not  differ  more  from  G.  australis  than  does  this  variety ; 
hence  the  foundation  of  a  new  species  for  the  purposes  of  com- 
parison with  Australian  Tertiary  shells  is  justified.  Of  these, 
C.  benhami  resembles  most  C.  delicatula,  Tate,  and  C.  granuli- 
costata,  Tate. 

The  only  locality  observed  was  in  the  fossiliferous  layers 
of  the  tuff  underlying  the  limestone  on  the  cliffs,  North  Shore, 
Kakanui.     It  is  here,  however,  fairly  abundant. 

Gasteropoda. 
Turbo  marshalli,  nov.  sp.     Plate  XIV,  fig.  6. 

Shell  turbinate-conical,  imperforate  ;  spire  depressed,  whorls 
5-6,  convex,  acutely  keeled  ;  2  keels  on  the  body-whorl ;  orna- 
mentation ;  tubercles  on  the  keel,  about  13  to  a  whorl,  but  none 
on  the  second  keel  on  body- whorl ;  between  keels  and  upper 
suture  of  each  whorl  are  spiral  granulose  lineations,  absent 
between  the  keels  and  the  lower  suture.  Aperture  subcircular, 
entire  ;   outer  margin  thin.     Operculum  elliptical. 

This  species  has  the  same  occurrence  as  the  last.  It  re- 
sembles no  other  known  New  Zealand  Turbo. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  XIV. 

Fig.  1.  Isis  hamiltoni  ;  natural  size. 
Fig.  2.  Terebratula  gravida  ;  natural  size. 
Fig.  3.  Magellania  sinuata  ;  natural  size. 
•Fig.  4.  TerebratdLa  kakanuiensis  ;    x  3. 
Fig.  5.  Terebratulina  suessi  ;  X  4.     a,  b,  two  extreme  varieties  ;    c,  interior 

of  dorsal  valve,  showing  arm-loop. 
Fig.  6.  Turbo  marshalli  ;   natural  size,     a,  Turbo  marshalli  ;   b,  side  view 

of  operculum  ;   c,  face  of  operculum. 


*  Cat.  Tert.  Moll.  N.Z. 

t  Cat.  Tert.  Moll.  Brit.  Mus.,  1897,  part  i,  Australasia. 


104  Transactions. 


Art.     VII.  —  Recent     Observations     on     Neiv    Zealand    Macro- 
lepidoptera,  including  Descriptions  of  New  Species. 

By  G.  V.  Hudson,  F.E.S. 

[Read  before  the  Wellington  Philosophical  Society,  1st  Mai/,  1907.] 

Plate  XV. 
Anosia  plexippus. 

During  May,  1906;  two  specimens  of  this  rare  and  handsome 
butterfly  were  brought  to  me,  having  been  captured  at  Makara 
Beach  ;  a  third  was  seen  in  the  same  locality,  and  a  fourth 
observed  flying  about  the  Queen's  Wharf  in  the  city. 

The  appearance  of  this  rare  insect  at  an  exposed  locality 
like  Makara  Beach,  almost  in  the  middle  of  winter,  is  remarkable, 
and  cannot  at  present  be  explained. 

Limnas  chrysippus.     Plate  XV,  figs.  6,  7  (under-side). 

Mr.  Edwin  C.  Sherlock  informs  me  that  in  March,  1901, 
a  boy  captured  a  specimen  of  this  butterfly  about  four  miles 
from  the  Thames.  Mr.  Sherlock  at  once  visited  the  locality. 
and  was  fortunate  enough  to  see  another,  but  he  could  not 
capture  it.  No  other  specimens  have  since  been  taken,  and. 
so  far  as  I  am  aware,  these  are  the  only  recorded  instances  of 
the  insect's  appearance  in  New  Zealand. 

The  figures  which  accompany  this  paper  were  copied  from 
Mr.  Sherlock's  specimen,  and  the  following  is  a  brief  description 
of  the  same  insect :  The  expansion  of  the  wings  is  almost  3  in. 
The  forewings  are  bright  orange-brown,  darker  towards  the 
costa,  and  very  broadly  bordered  with  black  at  the  apex, 
tapering  off  at  the  tornus  ;  there  is  a  number  of  clear  white 
spots  near  the  apex.  The  hindwings  are  paler  orange-brown. 
with  three  obscure  brownish-black  spots  near  the  middle,  and  a 
broad  black  terminal  band  containing  one  or  two  paler  spots.  On 
the  under-side  the  forewings  are  very  broadly  shaded  with  rich 
blackish-brown  ;  there  is  a  large  patch  of  dull  greenish-yellow 
above  the  white  spots  near  the  apex.  The  hindwings  are  bright 
ochreous  -  yellow  with  a  black  border,  containing  numerous 
white  spots,  and  three  central  black  marks  bordered  with  white. 

This  species  somewhat  resembles  Anosia  plexippus,  but 
may  easily  be  distinguished  from  that  insect  !>v  its  smaller 
size  and  by  the  veins  on  the  upper  side  of  the  forewings  not- 
being  marked  in  black. 

According  to  Mr.  W.  F.  Kirby,  Limnas  chrysippus  occurs 
throughout  Africa,  west  Asia,  the  East  Indies,  and  Greece. 


Hudson. — Neiv  Zealand  Macro-lepidoptera.  105 

Diadema  bolina. 

Two  specimens  of  this  fine  butterfly  have  occurred  at 
Wellington  during  this  summer  —  one  captured  by  Leslie 
Roskruge  near  the  Government  Buildings  in  April,  and  another 
captured  by  Mr.  Bannehr  in  Cuba  Street. 

Melanchra  omoplaca,  Meyr.,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xix,  p.  24. 
(Melanchra  umbra,  Hdsn.,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxxv, 
p.  243.) 

Mr.  Meyrick  informs  me  that  the  species  described  by  me  as 
above  is  identical  with  M.  omoplaca. 

Orthosia  fortis,  Butl.  (Miselia  iota,  Hdsn.,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst., 
vol.  xxxv,  p.  243.) 

During  a  recent  examination  of  the  collection  of  New  Zealand 
Lepidoptera  formed  by  the  late  Mr.  R.  W.  Fereday,  and  now 
in  the  Christchurch  Museum,  I  detected  an  insect  labelled 
"  Orthosia  fortis,"  which  is  clearly  identical  with  the  species 
described  by  me  as  Miselia  iota. 

Ophideres  maturna,  Lin.     Plate  XV,  fig.  5. 

Two  specimens  of  this  extremely  handsome  species  have 
been  recently  found  in  New  Zealand — one  captured  at  Makara 
Beach  by  Mr.  Cook  in  May,  1906,  and  kindly  given  to  me  by 
Mr.  W.  R.  Morris  ;  another  captured  at  Dunedin  by  Mr.  George 
Howes,  F.E.S.,  in  March,  1907.  Mr.  Froggatt  informs  me  that 
this  is  one  of  the  banana-moths,  and  I  conclude  that  it  has  been 
artificially  introduced  into  New  Zealand  amongst  consignments 
of  that  fruit.  The  following  is  a  brief  description  :  The  expan- 
sion of  the  wings  is  about  3f  in.  The  head  and  thorax  are  pale 
reddish-brown.  The  forewings  are  very  broad,  triangular,  with 
the  termen  slightly  waved  and  bowed,  pale  yellowish-white, 
entirely  covered  with  numerous  brown  and  reddish-brown  short 
wavy  stripes  ;  the  central  portion  of  the  wing  has  strong  bronzy- 
golden  reflections,  this  portion  being  divided  into  three  fairly 
defined  patches  by  two  oblique  whitish  bands  ;  there  are  two 
large  and  two  small  bright  reddish-brown  spots  in  the  centre 
of  the  wing.  The  hindwings  and  abdomen  are  rich  orange- 
yellow,  with  a  terminal  black  band  and  two  round  black  spots 
near  the  middle. 

Xanthorhoe  chlorias,  Meyr.,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xvi, 
p.  80.  (Venusia  princeps,  Hdsn.,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol. 
xxxv,  p.  244.) 

This  correction  is  also  necessary. 


106  Transactions. 

Lythria  siris,  n.  sp.     Plate  XV,  fig.  1. 

This  very  neatly  marked  little  species  was  discovered  by 
Mr.  J.  H.  Lewis  on  the  Old  Man  Range,  Central  Otago,  at  an 
elevation  of  about  4,000  ft. 

The  expansion  of  the  wings  is  a  little  over  §  in.  The  fore- 
wings  are  slaty-grey,  with  light  reddish-brown,  black,  and  pale- 
yellowish  markings  ;  there  is  a  very  small  grey  area  at  the  base, 
followed  by  a  wavy  transverse  reddish-brown  band  ;  next  two 
yellowish- white  bands  enclosing  a  very  narrow  yellowish-brown 
area  ;  then  a  strongly  waved  whitish  line,  followed  by  a  narrow 
black  line  and  a  broad  reddish-brown  line  ;  the  central  area  is 
broad,  slaty  -  grey,  with  a  reddish-brown  discal  dot  ;  this  is 
followed  by  an  extremely  sharply  angulated  series  of  lines, 
consisting  of  a  narrow  reddish-brown  line,  a  narrow  black  line, 
a  narrow  yellowish-white  line,  and  a  shaded  orange-brown  line  ; 
the  termen  is  shaded  with  dark-brown  with  a  very  fine,  wavy, 
whitish  line  and  a  series  of  small  reddish-brown  spots.  The 
hindwings  are  golden-yellow,  the  basal  and  terminal  portions 
broadly  clouded  with  black,  and  a  very  wavy  central  black 
line.  The  cilia  of  all  the  wings  are  brownish-grey.  The  female 
is  paler,  and  much  less  distinctly  marked  than  the  male. 

The  perfect  insect  appears  in  February. 

Notoreas  orphnsea,  Meyr.     Plate  XV,  figs.  2,  $  ;  3,  S  ■ 

In  January,  1905,  I  captured  two  specimens  of  this  very 
distinct  species  on  the  Humboldt  Range,  at  the  head  of  Lake 
Wakatipu,  at  an  elevation  of  about  4,500  ft.  above  the  sea- 
level. 

The  expansion  of  the  wings  of  the  male  is  nearly  If  in.  ;  of 
the  female,  1^  in.  The  fore  wings  of  the  male  are  very  dark 
greyish-black,  speckled  with  paler  grey  ;  there  are  several  small 
black  marks  on  the  veins,  and  an  obscure  yellowish-brown 
transverse  line  at  about  § ;  the  hindwings  are  dark-grey, 
speckled  with  paler  grey  ;  the  cilia  of  all  the  wings  are  pale 
greyish-white,  strongly  barred  with  blackish-grey.  The  body  is 
black ;  the  head  and  thorax  are  densely  clothed  with  long  black 
hair ;  the  antennae  are  heavily  bipectinated.  The  female  is 
much  paler,  with  numerous  obscure  blackish  transverse  lines  on 
both  fore  and  hind  wings  ;  the  forewings  are  faintly  clouded 
with  yellowish-brown  towards  the  base  and  termen,  and  all  the 
wings  have  a  terminal  row  of  small  but  conspicuous  oblong 
black  marks.  The  antenna-  arc  simple,  and  the  head  and 
thorax  are  moderately  clothed  with  short  black  hairs. 

This  species  may  be  at  once  distinguished  from  any  of  the 
varieties  of  Dasyuris  hectori  by  the  hairy  clothing  of  the  head 
and  thorax,  and  the  strongly  bipectinated  antenna'  of  the  male. 


Hudson. — New  Zealand  Macro-lepidoptera.  107 

Paragyrtis  inostentata,  Walk.      {Dichromodes   griseata,    Hdsn., 
Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxxv,  p.  244.) 
This  correction  is  also  necessary. 

Dichromodes  simulans,  n.  sp. 

This  species  was  discovered  by  Mr.  J.  H.  Lewis  on  the  Old 
Man  Range,  Central  Otago,  at  an  elevation  of  about  4,000  ft. 

The  expansion  of  the  wings  is  about  |  in.  The  forewings 
are  dull  bluish-grey,  with  two  obscure  slender  yellowish-brown 
bands  ;  there  are  three  jagged  blackish  transverse  lines,  one 
at  £,  one  near  the  middle,  and  one  at  £ ;  there  is  a  series  of 
black  and  bluish-grey  marks  on  the  termen.  The  hindwings 
are  yellowish-brown,  clouded  with  dull-brown  towards  the  base 
and  termen,  leaving  the  central  portion  paler.  The  cilia  of  al! 
the  wings  is  yellowish-brown  mixed  with  black. 

This  species  has  a  deceptive  resemblance  to  Notoreas  jidva, 
from  which  it  differs  in  the  following  respects  :  The  wings  are 
somewhat  broader,  the  transverse  lines  more  indented,  the  cilia 
not  strongly  barred,  and  the  antennae  of  the  male  unipectinated. 

The  perfect  insect  appears  in  February. 

Porina  senex,  n.  sp.     Plate  XV,  fig.  4. 

This  interesting  species  was  discovered  by  Mr.  J.  H.  Lewis 
on  the  Old  Man  Range,  Central  Otago,  at  an  elevation  of  about 
4,000  ft. 

The  expansion  of  the  wings  of  the  male  is  about  If  in.  All 
the  wings  are  very  sparsely  covered  with  hair-like  scales.  The 
forewings  are  very  pale  ochreous,  irregularly  mottled  with 
blackish-grey.  There  are  two  rather  large  irregular  patches  of 
the  pale  ground-colour  on  the  dorsum  near  the  base,  and  two 
obscure  oblique  bands  parallel  with  the  termen.  The  hind- 
wings  are  brownish-grey,  with  the  veins  and  termen  strongly 
marked  in  dark-brown.  The  body  is  ochreous-brown,  with 
several  tufts  of  very  pale  ochreous  hair  near  the  middle.  The 
antennae  are  strongly  bipectinated. 

A  single  male  specimen  of  this  insect  was  bred  in  February 
from  a  pupa  found  under  stones  as  above. 

The  only  other  New  Zealand  Porina  with  pectinated  antennae 
is  P.  dinodes.  The  present  insect  may  be  immediately  dis- 
tinguished from  that  insect  by  its  very  much  smaller  size. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  PLATE  XV. 

Fig.  1.  Lythria  siris,  male.  Fig.  4.  Porina  senex,  male. 

Fig.  2.  Notoreas  orphncea,  female.  Fig.  5.  Ophideres  rnaturua. 

Fig.  3.  Notoreas  orphncea,  male.  Fig.  6,  7.  Limnas  chrysippus. 


108  Transactions. 


Art.  VIII. — Description  of  a  New  Ophiuroid. 

By  H.  Farquhar. 

Communicated  by  Professor  H.  B.  Kirk. 

[Read  before  the  Wellington  Philosophical  Society,  2nd  October,  190".] 

Ophiocoma  bollonsi,  n.  s. 

The  disc  is  somewhat  irregularly  round,  slightly  swollen 
above,  with  a  thick  rounded  edge  ;  about  18  mm.  in  diameter. 
The  arms  are  about  60  mm.  long,  3  mm.  wide  at  the  base,  and 
tapering  evenly  to  a  fine  extremity.  The  disc  is  covered  above 
with  rnicroscopica^y  rough  granules,  evenly  and  closely  placed 
at  the  centre,  but  somewhat  more  open  and  irregular  towards  the 
edge,  with  a  few  irregular  bare  patches  ;  the  granules  extend  a 
little  beyond  the  edge  of  the  disc  on  the  plates  of  the  oral  sur- 
face in  the  interbrachial  spaces,  where  they  are  longer  than 
those  above,  a  few  being  like  small  spinelets.  The  scaling  on 
the  oral  surface  is  fine  and  even.  The  mouth-angles  have  four 
or  five  irregular,  bluntly  pointed  mouth-papillae  on  each  side, 
those  within  smaller  than  the  others.  The  tooth-papillae  are  very 
numerous  and  small,  like  small  bluntly-pointed  spinelets.  The 
mouth-shields  are  round  or  slightly  oval,  with  a  small  peak 
within  ;  side  mouth-shields  triangular,  with  rounded  angles  and 
emarginate  sides,  meeting,  or  almost  meeting,  within.  The  upper 
arm-plates  are  diamond-shaped,  with  rounded  angles,  slightly 
overlapping.  The  side  arm-plates  are  prominent,  meeting 
neither  above  nor  below  ;  they  bear  five  or  six  (six  near  the 
disc)  rounded,  somewhat  flattened,  tapering,  bluntly  pointed, 
granular  arm-spines,  the  lower  ones  shorter  than  those  above  ; 
the  length  of  the  longest  is  6  mm.  There  are  two  rounded, 
leaf- like  tentacle-scales,  about  twice  as  long  as  broad,  on  the 
lower  edge  of  the  side  arm-plates  adjacent  to  the  lowest  arm- 
spine.  The  under  arm-plates  are  broader  than  long,  and  rounded 
without.  The  colour  of  the  dried  specimen  is  chocolate -brown 
above  and  paler  below,  the  spines  being  brownish-grey. 

The  unique  type  specimen,  which  is  in  the  Dominion  Museum 
at  Wellington,  was  dredged  up  by  Captain  Bollons,  of  the  Go- 
vernment steamer  "  Hinemoa,"  in  16  fathoms  of  water,  between 
Stephen  Island  and  the  mainland,  when  laying  a  telegraph 
cable  to  Stephen  Island  lighthouse.  This  is  the  first  species 
of  the  genus  Ophiocoma  found  in  New  Zealand  waters.  I  have 
to  thank  Mr.  Hamilton,  Director  of  the  Dominion  Museum,  for 
the  opportunity  of  describing  this  species. 

The  type  specimens  of  Ophiactis  nomentis,  described  in  the 
last  volume  of  the  Transactions,  are  in  the  Dominion  Museum  at 
Wellington. 


Kirkaldy. — Heteropterous  Hemipteron  of  N.Z.         109 


Art.  IX. — A  Heteropterous  Hemipteron  of  New  Zealand. 
By  G.  W.  Kirkaldy. 

[Read  before  the  Philosophical  Institute  of  Canterbury,  3rd  July,  1907.] 

In  vol.  xxxii,  pp.  408-9,  of  the  Transactions  Mr.  T.  White  pub- 
lished a  short  paper  on  some  supposed  spiders  ("  Arachnids  : 
the  Small  Pond  in  the  Forest ").  I  would  suggest  that  these 
were  a  species  of  the  heteropterous  hemipteron  Microvelia,  a 
tiny  sort  of  water- strider,  the  account  of  the  behaviour  of  the 
"  spiders  "  applying  very  well  to  that  of  Microvelia. 

Some  years  ago  I  described  a  species  of  this  genus  from 
New  Zealand,  and,  as  it  was  published  in  a  French  journal 
perhaps  little  accessible  to  most  residents  in  New  Zealand,  I 
append  a  translation  now  : — 

Microvelia  macgregori  (Kirk.). 

Aydrcessa  macgregori,  Kirkaldy,  1899 :  '  Revue  d'Entomologie." 
xviii,  91-2. 

Apterous  Form. — Long  and  fairly  narrow,  about  2^  times  as 
long  as  wide.  4th  segment  of  the  antennae  about  twice  as  long 
as  the  3rd,  which  is  about  £  longer  than  the  2nd,  the  latter 
subequal  to  the  1st.  Rostrum  reaching  as  far  as  the  base  of 
the  pronotum.  Pronotum  rugose,  not  carinate.  Femora  neither 
tuberculate  nor  dentate  ;  fore  femur  ^  longer  than  the  tibia, 
which  is  ^  longer  than  the  tarsus  ;  middle  femur  a  little  longer 
than  the  tibia,  which  is  \  longer  than  the  tarsus,  the  2  tarsal 
segments  subequal ;  hind  tibia  \  longer  than  the  femur  and 
2i  times  as  long  as  the  tarsus,  the  2  tarsal  segments  subequal. 

Blackish,  with  a  narrow  band  of  silvery  pubescence  on  the 
interior  lateral  margin  of  the  eyes  ;  antennae  lurid  or  flavo- 
tegtaceous,  the  4th  segment  always  lurid  ;  a  wide  band  across 
the  anterior  margin  and  a  narrow  band  across  the  posterior 
margin  of  the  pronotum,  reddish-yellow ;  coxae  and  femora 
yellowish,  testaceous  ;  tibiae  and  tarsi  more  or  less  lurid.  Be- 
neath, greyish-black. 

Length,  2£  mm.  ;   width,  nearly  1  mm. 

Hab. — New  Zealand. 

This  description  is  incomplete,  as  it  lacks  notice  of  the  winged 
form.  The  little  bug  is  surely  well  distributed  in  all  ponds, 
water-troughs,  &c,  and  I  will  be  much  obliged  to  any  one  who 
will  favour  me  with  a  good  supply  for  a  revised  description. 


110 


Transactions. 


Art.  X. — The  Scheelite  of  Otago. 

By  A.  M.  Finlayson,  M.Sc. 

Communicated  by  Dr.  Marshall. 

[Read  before  the  Otago  Institute,  8th  October,  1907.] 

Plate  XVI. 

Scheelite  occurs  in  greater  or  less  quantity  in  a  large  number 
of  the  auriferous- quartz  veins  in  the  Otago  goldfields.  The 
country  rock  of  the  veins  is  for  the  most  part  a  quartzose  mica- 
schist,  graduating  into  phyllite  and  slate.  It  is  included  in 
Sir  James  Hector's  "  foliated  schists,"*  and  in  the  Wanaka 
and  Kakanui  series  of  the  late  Captain  Hutton.f 

Only  those  veins  which  carry  scheelite  in  exploitable  quantity 
will  here  be  considered,  and  these  may  be  conveniently  grouped 
into  two  classes — (1)  fissure- veins  ;  (2)  bedded  or  segregated 
veins.  The  latter  occur  exclusively  in  the  Macrae's  district ; 
the  former  class  includes  all  other  known  scheelite-veins. 

(1.)  Fissure-veins. 
Glenorchy  Reef. 

This  outcrops  on  the  steep  left  bank  of  the  Bucklerburn,  a 
mile  and  a  half  above  its  mouth  at  Glenorchy.  The  country 
rock  is  a  slate,  striking  north  and  south,  and  dipping  to  the  west 
at  from  30°  to  50°.  The  vein  strikes  east  and  west,  and  dips 
to  the  north  at  a  mean  angle  of  15°.  It  has  been  followed  on 
the  surface  for  about  half  a  mile,  is  well  defined,  with  fairly 
smooth  walls,  and  carries  a  strong  continuous  seam  of  quartz 
throughout.     Its  width  between  walls  varies  from  1  ft.  to  5  ft. 

In  accordance  with  the  varying  width  of  the  walls,  the  vein 
is  lenticular  in  longitudinal  section,  a  feature  which  evidently 
indicates  some  displacement  of  the  walls  of  the'  original  fissure 
(%  1). 


Fig.  1. 


*  Sir  J.  Hoctor,  "  Outline  of  New  Zealand  Geology  "  (1886),  p.  83. 

t  Captain  F.  W.  Hutton,  "  Geology  of  Otago  "    Dunedin,  1875),  p.  29. 


Finlayson. — Scheelite  of  Otago. 


Ill 


The  accompanying  sketch  section  (fig.  2),  along  No.  2  level, 
illustrates  this  feature. 


Fig.  3. 


HmnHBI  Quartz  K^T^ZZ  Mu/lock    or  formation  S 

Fig.  2. — -Section  along  No.  2  Level,  Glenoechy  Reef. 

The  seam  of  quartz  generally  occupies  the  centre  of  the  lode- 
formation,  being  separated  from  the  walls  by  a  few  inches  of 
pug.     Frequently,  however,  the  seam  splits  into  two  branches, 

leaving  a  horse  of 
country  rock  between 
(fig.  3). 

The  quartz  is 
seamed  throughout 
with  thin  parallel 
strings  of  mullock, 
highly  pyritized. 

The  reef  carries 
scheelite,  not  gene- 
rally in  very  clean 
patches,  but  more  or 
less  quartzose.  It  does  not  cling  particularly  to  either  wall, 
but  is  generally  seen  along  mullock  stringers.  The  bands  or 
seams  of  scheelite,  though  discontinuous,  are  fairly  well  defined. 
The  lode  is  auriferous,  but  its  assay  value  for  gold  is  very 
small. 

Eecent  prospecting  in  the  Eees  Valley  and  Bucklerburn 
has  disclosed  other  reefs  carrying  scheelite,  some  of  which  are 
now  being  developed. 

Alia  Reef,  Bendigo. 

This  lies  at  the  head  of  a  small  gully  just  over  the  western 
spur  of  Bendigo  Creek,  and  about  three  miles  to  the  east  of  the 
old  Bendigo  battery.  Its  strike  is  116°,  and  it  stands  almost 
vertically,  with  frequent  irregularities.  The  country  rock  is 
a  flat-lying  quartzose  schist,  and  the  outcrop  of  the  reef  has 
been  proved  for  nearly  half  a  mile. 


112 


Transactions. 


Near  the  east  end  of  the  old  workings  the  vein  is  thin  and 
the  seam  of  quartz  insignificant.     Followed  west,  it  increases  in 


St  oped 


Fig.  4. — Section  across 
Alta  Reef. 


Fig.  5. — Section  across 
Alta  Reef. 


width,  and  has  a  sinuous  and  irregular  course,  with  numerous 
leaders  coming  in  on  both 
walls.  The  accompanying 
sketches  (figs.  4  and  5)  illus- 
trate the  characters  of  the 
vein. 

Near  the  end  of  an  adit 
driven  close  to  the  old  bat- 
tery-site scheelite  is  seen  in 
conspicuous  bunches  on  and 

near  the  south   wall,  which  Fig.  6. 

is  here  poorly  defined  (fig.  6). 

The  scheelite  in  this  reef  has  never  been  exploited,  but  the 
reef  was  successfully  worked  for  gold  in  the  early  days. 

Veins  on  the  Lammerlaw  Range,    Waipori. 

Several  of  the  small  gold-bearing  veins  on  the  Lammerlaw 
and  Burnt  Ranges,  near  Waipori,  carry  scheelite,  sometimes 
in  considerable  quantity,  but  they  have  never  been  developed 
to  any  extent. 

A  notable  occurrence  of  the  mineral  is  in  the  antimony-reef 
at  Stony  Creek,  nine  miles  from  Waipori  Township.  At  one 
point  in  this  reef  scheelite  and  stibnite  were  found  in  close 
association,  and  accompanied  by  gypsum.  This  last  is  evidently 
a  product  of  secondary  origin,  resulting  from  oxidation  of  the 
sulphide  ore  and  interaction  with  the  scheelite. 

Among  other  occurrences,  scheelite  has  been  found  in  the 
Barewood  reef,  and  in  the  Saddle  Hill  reef. 

(2.)  Bedded  Veins. 

The  reefs  of  Macrae's  are  bedded  or  segregated  veins,  and 
are  of  peculiar  interest  in  that  they  embrace  all  the  veins  of  this 


Finlayson. — Scheelite  of  Otago. 


113 


class  in  Otago.  The  Macrae's  goldfield  occupies  an  area  of 
two  hundred  square  miles  between  Dunback  and  the  Taieri 
River,  and  extending  from  the  Mareburn  in  the  north  to  the 
Stoneburn  in  the  south. 

The  country  rock  is  an  argillaceous  mica-schist,  with  much 
interfoliated  quartz.  With  few  exceptions,  it  has  throughout 
the  area  a  uniform  strike — north-west  and  south-east — and  a 
north-easterly  dip  of  from  10°  to  20°.  The  veins  consequently 
all  have  that  dip,  allowance  being  made  for  local  irregularities. 

A  description  of  the  features  to  be  seen  in  Messrs.  W.  and  G. 
Donaldson's  mines  will  sufficiently  illustrate  the  characters  of 
the  veins. 

Donaldson's  Reef,  Mount  Highlay. 

This  outcrops  10  chains  up  the  hill  to  the  west  of  a  small 
creek  running  north  to  the  Mareburn.  The  hanging-wall  is  very 
ill  denned,  and  for  a  distance  of  40  ft.  beyond  the  wall  the  country 
rock  is  impregnated  with  pyrite,  and  crossed  by  frequent  slides. 
Near  the  hanging-wall  a  few  lenticular  bunches  of  segregated 
quartz  appear. 

The  vein,  near  its  outcrop,  is  cut  by  a  north-south  fault, 
which  has  dragged  it  down  in  a  very  striking  manner,  and  open- 
cast work  along  the  fault-line  displays  a  good  section  (fig.  7). 
Both  walls  are  here  smooth  and  slickensided,  as  a  result  of  the 
faulting,  and  the  hanging-wall  country  is  much  twisted  and 
broken. 


Fig.  7. — Section  across  Donaldson's  Lode,  at  Fault-line. 

Followed  west  up  the  flank  of  the  hill,  the  foot- wall  continues 
well  defined,  with  a  varying  seam  of  quartz,  but  the  hanging - 
wall  loses  its  individuality,  the  lode-material  grading  off  into 
crushed  and  veined  country  rock. 

The  reef  carries  from  10  dwt.  to  15  dwt.  of  gold  per  ton, 
and  scheelite  in  places. 

Golden  Point  Reef. 

This  outcrops  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Deep  Dell,  directly 
south  of   Mount   Highlay.     It  has   a   mean   north-easterly  dip 


114 


Transactions. 


of  10°,   and   has  been  opened  up  by  a  considerable  amount  of 
tunnelling. 

In  general,  the  reef  varies  in  thickness  from  1  ft.  to  over  6  fr., 
its  mean  width  being  3  ft.  The  foot-wall  is  generally  smooth 
and  fairly  defined,  the  hanging- wall  indistinct.  As  in  the  Glen- 
orchy  reef,  and  from  the  same  cause,  frequent  rolls  occur,  illus- 
trated in  the  section  (fig.  8). 


Upper  leveL 
Lcr/er  /eve/,.L^. 


Fig.  8. — Longitudinal  Sketch  Section,  Golden  Point  Reef. 


The  quartz  occurs  in  a  seam  from  6  in.  to  4  ft.  thick,  the 
remainder  of  the  lode-formation  being  composed  of  soft  structure- 
less pug,  graduating  into  veined  and  crushed  country  rock, 
and  crossed  by  frequent  slides.  The  seam  generally  follows  the 
foot-wall,  but  sometimes  divides  into  two,  one  on  each  wall. 
It  occasionally  crosses  from  one  wall  to  the  other,  and  a  seam 
may  wedge  out  on  one  wall,  while  another  comes  in  on  the  other 
wall  immediately  opposite. 

The  Ounce  Reef. 

This  lies  four  miles  south-east  from  Macrae's  Township,  on 
the  left  bank  of  a  small  stream  running  into  Murphy's  Creek. 
The  outcrop  of  the  reef  is  anticlinal,  due  to  a  local  rock-fold, 
and  the  vein  peters  out  on  the  limbs  of  the  anticline  (fig.  9). 


Fig.  !).— Section,  Ounce  Reef. 

It  thus  simulates  the  saddle-reef  type  of  Bendigo,  Victoria. 

Several  other  outcrops  in  the  Macrae's  and  Mount  Highlay 
districts  have  been  prospected  and  intermittently  worked  for 
gold,  but  nearly  every  one  that  has  been  developed  has  been 
found  to  carry  more  or  less  scheelite.  The  gold-value  of  the 
lodes  varies  from  4  dwt.  to  12  dwt.,  mostly  free-milling. 


Finlayson. — Scheehte  of  Otago.  115 

It  is  significant  that  all  the  reefs  in  this  district  outcrop 
on  a  single  plane  in  the  schist.  This  indicates  that  the  horizontal 
shearing  movement  which  localised  the  reefs  followed  a  particular 
zone  in  the  rock,  although  it  is  quite  likely  that  there  may  be 
one  or  more  zones  or  levels  of  lode- formation  beneath  the  one 
now  exposed. 

(3.)  The  Scheelite. 

This  mineral  occurs,  firstly,  in  segregated  masses  of  varying 
size,  typically  seen  at  Macrae's.  These  generally  cling  to  the 
foot-wall,  and  frequently  pass  right  into  the  country  rock,  the 
foot-wall  being  then  obscured.  These  comparatively  pure  masses 
grade  off  into  highly  quartzose  ore  scattered  through  the  gangue. 
Secondly,  it  occurs  in  irregular  veins  in  the  quartz  leaders  and 
stringers,  as  well  as  in  the  larger  quartz  seams.  It  may  con- 
stitute a  whole  vein,  or  it  may  have  a  broad  or  narrow  selvage 
of  quartz  on  either  side. 

The  hand-specimen,  which  always  contains  some  quartz, 
has  a  specific  gravity  of  5-12,  that  of  the  pure  mineral  being 
5-9  to  6-1  (Dana).  It  is  yellowish-white  in  colour,  brittle  and 
friable,  with  an  irregular  fracture.  It  shows  interrupted  cleavage- 
surfaces,  and  is  massive  in  habit,  no  crystals  being  found,  as  far 
as  my  observations  showed. 

Microscopic  Characters. 

In  section  (Plate  XVI,  a,  b),  the  mineral  is  dark-brown,  with 
a  high  refractive  index.  In  isotropic  sections  a  faint  positive 
uniaxial  figure  may  be  seen.  The  interference  colours  are  more 
usually  yellow  and  red  of  the  first  order.  The  individuals  are 
large,  with  sharp  boundaries  and  pointed  or  pyramidal  termi- 
nations. Two  interrupted  sets  of  cleavage-traces  crossing  at 
40°  are  seen  in  suitable  sections,  these  being  the  characteristic 
cleavages,  p  (111)  and  e  (101).  The  cleavage-lines  are  frequently 
crossed  by  irregular  fractures,  along  which  the  mineral  is  dark 
and  clouded.  A  faint  lamellar  structure  is  occasionally  seen, 
resembling  polysynthetic  twinning.  The  lamellae,  however,  are 
alternately  broad  and  narrow,  and  can  be  distinguished,  though 
with  difficulty,  in  ordinary  fight.  The  appearance  is  probably 
a  strain-effect. 

Chemical  Composition. 

The  following  analysis  indicates  the  average  composition  of 
Otago  scheehte.  Quartz  is  always  present  in  intimate  associa- 
tion, as  shown  in  Plate  XVI,  a  and  b  ;  in  the  analysis  this  con- 
stituent was  eliminated,  and  the  figures  recalculated  to  100  per 
cent. 


116 


Transactions. 

Per  Cent 

wo3 

•                                              •     •                                               ■      .                                              a 

.      80-58 

CaO 

t 

.      18-98 

MgO 

,                                               . 

0-20 

FeO 

, 

0-24 

Feo03 

.       Nil. 

MnO 

, 

.       Nil. 

C02 

• 

.       Nil. 

10000 

The  FeO   and  MgO   are   probably  present  as  isomorphous 
tungstates,  and  the  mineral  composition  is  then  as  follows  : — 

Per  Cent. 
CaWO.  ..  ..  ..  ..      97-63 

101 


FeW04 
MgW04 


1-36 


10000 
The  commercial  scheelite  of  Otago  is  thus  not  the  pure  calcium 
compound.     The  absence  of  manganese  indicates  that  there  is 
no  admixture  of  wolfram. 

The  mineral  carries  distinct  traces  of  molybdenum  in  varying 
quantities  up  to  1  per  cent.  The  methods  used  in  estimating 
this  constituent  were  those  of  Rose,*  of  Ruegenberg  and  Smith,  f 
and  of  Ibbotson  and  Brearley.f  A  search  was  made  for  cerium 
and  the  other  rare  earths,  both  chemically  and  spectroscopically, 
but  with  negative  results. 

Analyses  by  Traube§  of  scheelite  from  various  localities  are 
here  inserted  for  reference  and  comparison,  and  the  universal 
association  of  molybdenum  is  of  peculiar  interest.  In  his  figures 
for  New  Zealand  scheelite,  it  will  be  observed  that  he  records  no 
iron  and  no  magnesia,  but  the  particular  locality  from  which 
his  samples  were  collected  is  not  recorded. 


Locality. 

Zinnwald 


» 


Altenberg 


G. 
5-88 
603 
601 
603 
606 
607 


wo, 
71-08 
75-29 
76-78 
77-84 
78-04 
77-54 


MoO:,. 

8-23 

3-98 

3-69 

2-23 

1-92 

2  03 


CaO. 

20-33 

20-34 

19-86 

19-48 

19-57 

19-91 


*  H.   Rose,    Handbuch    (1<t    Anal.    Choline    (Sechte    Auflage,     1ST  I). 
358. 
•f-  Ruegenberg  and  Smith,  Journal  Amer.  ('hem.  Sue,  vol.  xxii.  |>.  77-. 
J  II)l)otson  anil  Bicarlcy.  Journal  ('hem.  Soc.  1000,  Alistr.  ii.  ]>.  445. 
§  J.  D.  Dana,  "  System  of  Mineralogy,"  Gth  ed.  (1800),  p.  087. 


Finlayson. — Scheelite  of  Otayo 


117 


Locality.                            G.  W03.  Mo03.  CaO. 

Schwargenberg(a)               ..  6-12  79-94  Tr.  19-57 

(a)              ..  6-02  80-17  0-07  19-49 

Schlaekeuwald    ..              ..  6-13  79-76  Tr.  19-67 

Haslithal             ..             ..  614  80-16  Tr.  19-65 

Traversella(fc)      ..              ..  6-06  78-57  1-62  19-37 

(/;)     ..              ..  6-04  79-68  0-76  19-29 

CarrickFels.       ..             ..  601  79-97  0-35  19-27 

Pot  Mine,  South  Africa(c)  5-96  70-57  8-09  20-05 

71-59  7-63  20-51 

Mount  Kamsay,  Tasmania  6-09  79-77  Tr.  19-65 

New  Zealand      . .             . .  601  80-29  Tr.  19-44 
(a)  MgO,  trace.             (b)  Ce203,  trace.             (6)  CuO,  0-34. 


(4.)  Deposition  op  the  Scheelite. 

Microscopic  examination  of  the  ore,  and  chemical  analyses  of 
the  wall-rock  of  the  veins,  prove  that  the  scheelite  has  been 
formed  by  metasomatic  processes — namely,  by  combination  of 
tungstic  acid  with  lime-bearing  minerals  in  the  adjoining  rock. 

Microscopic  Evidence. 

The  relations  of  scheelite  and  calcite,  as  seen  under  the 
microscope,  are  very  striking.  Plate  XVI,  c,  shows  scheelite  in 
clear  granules  with  fresh  sharp  boundaries  enclosing  a  corroded 
core  of  calcite,  and  indicating  the  replacement  process  by  which 
the  ore  has  been  formed.  This  phenomenon  is  best  studied  at 
Macrae's,  where  the  country  rock  contains  a  considerable  amount 
of  calcite.  In  general,  the  scheelite  is  always  fresh,  the  calcite 
where  seen  is  much  attacked  and  corroded.  Several  of  the 
plates  accompanying  Mr.  Lindgren's  classic  work  on  "  Metaso- 
matic Processes  in  Fissure-veins  "*  show  very  similar  processes 
to  that  illustrated  in  the  above  plate. 

A  similar  association  of  scheelite  and  calcite  is  occasionally 
seen  in  sections  cut  from  Glenorchy  ore.  A  characteristic  fea- 
ture of  the  Glenorchy  mineral  is  the  manner  in  which  strings 
of  pyrite  occur  along  the  border  between  scheelite  and  gangue 
(Plate  XVI,  d).  The  pyrite  thus  appears  to  have  segregated 
along  the  line  of  most  intense  metasomatism.  The  process  of 
osmosis,  regarded  by  many  authorities  as  the  central  factor 
in  ore-deposition, f  would  evidently  be  equally  favourable  to 
the  formation  both  of  scheelite  and  of  pyrite,  the  latter  being, 
like  the  former,  essentially  a  replacement  product. 

*  '•  Genesis  of  Ore-deposits,"  Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Man.  Eng.,  1901,  p.  498. 
t  H.    P.    Gillette,    "  Osmosis  as  a   Factor  in   Ore-formation,"   Trans. 
Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  vol.  xxxiv  (1903),  p.  710. 


118 

Transactions. 
Chemical  Evidence. 

The  following  analyses  show  the  nature  and  extent  of  wall- 

rock  alteration  at  Glenorehy  :— 

1                                 o 

3. 
217 

4 

H20 

..      2-42             2-71 

—   0-25 

Si02 

..    56-68           52-49 

4200 

—  14-68 

A120,         - 

..      9-96           12-38 

9-96 

Fe203        . 

..      5-92             612 

4-97 

—    0-95 

FeO 

..      6-77             2-42 

1-94 

-    4-83 

CaO 

..      9-96             6-58 

5-26 

—    4-70 

MgO 

..      1-55             119 

0-95 

—    0-60 

K20 

..      2-86             5-82 

4-62 

+     1-76 

Na20 

..      2-41             2-86 

2-32 

—   009 

MnO 

..      0-21             012 

010 

—   0-11 

Ti02 

..      0-56             0-48 

0-40 

—   0-16 

FeS2 

..       Nil              5-61 

4-48 

+    4-48 

C02 

..      Nil              1-25 

100 

+    100 

99-30 


10003 


80-17 


+ 


7-24 
-  26-37 

1.  Unaltered  rock.  — - — 

2.  Altered  rock.  —  19-13 

3.  Altered  rock,  recalculated  on  a  basis  of  constant  alumina. 

4.  Gains  and  losses  of  altered  rock. 

The  considerable  loss  of  silica  in  the  wall-rock  is  characteristic 
of  the  veins  throughout  Otago.  The  notable  loss  of  lime  and 
addition  of  carbon-dioxide  and  potash  indicate  that  the  mineralis- 
ing solutions  carried  alkaline  tungstates  and  carbonates.  Re- 
action with  the  wall-rock  resulted  in  the  addition  of  carbon- 
dioxide,  and  in  exchange  between  lime  of  the  rock  and  potash 
of  the  solutions,  with  the  formation  of  scheelite  in  the  lode. 

The  next  group  of  analyses  indicates  the  processes  at  Macrae's 
(samples  from  Golden  Point). 


1. 

•j 

3. 

4. 

H20 

. .      0-70 

1~24 

0-67 

—   003 

Si02 

..    7002 

60-58 

30-29 

—  39-73 

A1203        . 

. .      5-67 

11-34 

5-67 

.   . 

Fe203        . 

. .      3-68 

4-88 

2-44 

—    1-18 

FeO 

. .      3-38 

2-56 

1-28 

—    210 

CaO 

. .      7-80 

4-31 

2-15 

5-65 

Mgo 

..      1-20 

0-62 

0-31 

—    0-89 

K20 

. .      0-78 

301 

1-50 

+    0-72 

Naa0 

..      1-22 

5-12 

2-56 

+    1-34 

FeS2 

. .       Nil 

4-27 

2  13 

+    213 

co2 

. .      642 
100-87 

2-92 

146 
5046 

—    4-96 

100-85 

+    4-36 

-54-71 

—  50-35 


Finlayson. — Scheelite  of  Otago.  119 

1.  Unaltered  rock  ;   specific  gravity  =  2-695. 

2.  Altered  rock  ;   specific  gravity  =  2-693. 

3.  Altered  rock,  recalculated  on  a  basis  of  constant  alumina. 

4.  Gains  and  losses  of  altered  rock. 

In  this  case  the  loss  of  half  the  total  mass  of  the  rock,  in- 
cluding 40  per  cent,  of  the  original  rock,  is  in  accordance 
with  the  fact  that  the  Macrae's  veins  are  segregated  veins.  In 
other  words,  wall-rock  +  lode  (gangue)  =  original  rock.  This 
approximate  equation  will  hold  good  for  volumes  as  well  as  for 
masses — that  is  to  say,  the  wall-rock  has  suffered  a  correspond- 
ing diminution  of  50  per  cent,  in  volume.  This  explains  why 
the  specific  gravity  of  the  altered  rock  (2-69)  is  equal  to  that 
of  the  unaltered  rock. 

Further,  there  is  to  be  observed  in  the  wall-rock  a  depletion 
of  lime  and  addition  of  alkalies,  as  at  Grlenorchy,  and  likewise 
due  to  the  processes  by  which  the  scheelite  was  deposited.  The 
notable  loss  of  carbon-dioxide  is  no  doubt  due  to  the  destruc- 
tion of  calcite  during  the  metasomatic  action. 

The  bunchy  tendency  of  the  ore,  particularly  at  Macrae's,  is 
evidence  of  the  segregation  of  the  mineral  during  the  forma- 
tion of  the  lodes. 

(5.)  Genesis  op  New  Zealand  Tungsten-ores. 

J.  D.  Irving,  in  a  description  of  the  tungsten-deposits  of  the 
Black  Hills  of  South  Dakota,*  deposits  which  occur  in  associa- 
tion with  crystalline  limestone,  has  divided  tungsten-ore  de- 
posits into  two  classes  : — 

(1.)  "  Primary  deposits,"  associated  with  granitic  rocks,  in 
veins  with  cassiterite,  and  minerals  such  as  tourmaline,  beryl, 
and  fluor-spar.  Such  were  concentrated  by  the  pneumatolytic 
phase  of  activity  of  the  granitic  magma. 

(2.)  "  Secondary  deposits,"  formed  by  solution  of  bodies  of 
the  first  type  and  metasomatic  redeposition  in  higher  levels. 

The  scheelite  of  Otago  is  thus  a  typical  secondary  deposit. 
As  regards  the  other  type,  it  is  probable  that  the  wolfram  of 
Stewart  Island,  which  has  been  described  by  Mr.  Alex.  McKay 
as  occurring  in  the  neighbourhood  of  granitic  rocks,  and  in 
association  with  cassiterite,  gahnite,  and  topaz, f  is  a  primary 
deposit  as  defined  above. 

.Further,  it  is  evident  that  the  tungstic  acid  of  the  scheelite 
has  ascended  through  the  schists  by  way  of  the  lode-fissures, 


*  J.   D.  Irving,   "  Wolframite  in  the  Black  Hills  of  South  Dakota," 
Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  vol.  xxxi  (1902),  p.  683. 

t  A.  McKay,  "  Reports  of  Geological  Explorations,  1888-89,"  p.  74. 


120  Transactions. 

and  the  fact  that  tungsten  is  a  characteristic  element  in 
ore  -  deposits  associated  with  granitic  rocks  leads  to  the  in- 
ference that  the  magmas  beneath  were  largely  granitic  in 
character. 

(6.)  The  Scheelite-mining  Industry. 
Rise  and  Progress. 

The  history  of  scheelite-mining  in  Otago  dates  from  about 
1888,  when  the  first  mine  was  opened  up  on  the  Glenorchy 
reef  by  the  Lake  Wakatipu  Scheelite  Company,  and  an  expensive 
ore-dressing  plant  was  installed.  Some  27  tons  of  dressed  ore 
was  shipped  to  Hamburg,  but  the  price  was  low — £20  to  £29 
per  ton  ;  and  after  two  years  the  demand  ceased,  and  the  com- 
pany liquidated,  after  an  outlay  of  £3,000. 

About  two  years  ago  the  mine  was  taken  over  by  a  new 
company,  and  a  crushing  and  dressing  plant  installed.  With  a 
good  market  and  improved  methods  of  concentration,  this  com- 
pany is  making  rapid  strides. 

On  the  Macrae's  field  scheelite  was  first  exploited  in  1893, 
by  Messrs.  A.  B.  Kitchener  and  William  Donaldson,  who  sent 
6^  tons  of  40-per-cent.  ore  from  the  Golden  Point  Mine  to  London. 
The  returns  did  not  leave  much  profit,  but  the  work  was  per- 
severed with,  and  a  later  shipment  realised  £58  per  ton.  The 
market  was  subsequently  transferred  to  Hamburg,  and  the 
demand  and  price  steadily  increased.  Improved  plant  was 
installed,  and  considerable  prospecting  for  scheelite  was  carried 
on,  in  consequence  of  the  success  attending  Messrs.  Donaldson's 
efforts.  Up  to  date  the  Golden  Point  Mine  has  produced 
scheelite  to  the  value  of  £24,000,  the  price  having  risen  pro- 
gressively in  the  last  fifteen  years  from  £20  to  £160  per  ton. 
During  this  period  400  tons  of  ore  has  been  shipped  from 
Macrae's,  while  the  Glenorchy  Mine  during  the  last  eighteen 
months  has  dressed  60  tons. 

Present  Mining  Methods. 

There  are  at  present  three  working  mines — Messrs.  Keid 
and  Lee's  Glenorchy  Mine,  and  Messrs.  W.  and  G.  Donaldson's 
two  mines  at  Macrae's.  The  method  in  vogue  of  concentrating 
the  ore  is  to  pass  the  pulp  from  the  battery  where  it  is  crushed 
over  shaking-tables  or  vanners,  where  it  is  dressed  to  an  average 
value  of  65  per  cent,  of  tungstic  acid  (WO:1),  the  impurities 
being  quartz  and  pyrites.  The  ore  thus  concentrated  is  dried, 
bagged,  and  shipped. 

For  crushing  the  ore  there  are  five  stamps  in  operation  at 
Glenorchy,  ten  at  Golden  Point,  and  a  5  ft.  Huntington  mill  at 


Finlayson. — Scheelite  of  Otago.  121 

Mount  Highlay.  The  concentrating-tables  used  are  a  Wilfley 
at  Glenorchy  and  Mount  Highlay,  a  Woodbury  and  Frue 
vanner  at  Golden  Point.  Of  these,  the  Wilfley  appears  to  find 
most  favour.  The  Glenorchy  company  have  lately  installed 
a  Wilfley  slime-table,  with  the  object  of  recovering  the  slight  loss 
in  the  tailings. 

The  pulp  is  dried,  over  small  wood  or  coke  furnaces,  a  method 
that  would  scarcely  be  suitable  for  a  large  output.  Further, 
a  more  efficient  method  of  drying — or,  rather,  roasting — would 
burn  off  the  sulphur  of  the  pyrites,  and  thus  indirectly  raise 
the  percentage  value  of  the  ore,  which  is  a  desideratum  in 
view  of  the  fact  that  the  price  per  unit  or  per  cent,  varies 
with  the  percentage. 

Prospects. 

The  success  of  the  industry  in  Otago  has  been  due  to  the 
steadily  improving  market  at  Hamburg,  to  which  the  ore  is  now 
shipped,  and  to  greater  attention  on  the  part  of  present  firms  to 
the  securing  of  clean  and  high-grade  concentrates.  The  pro- 
blem of  concentration  is  a  very  importatnt  matter,  as  a  poorly 
dressed  ore  will  soon  cause  buyers  to  fight  shy  of  the  mine  which 
ships  it.  The  market,  also,  requires  to  be  studied.  In  1900, 
Messrs.  G.  P.  Blackwell  and  Sons,  metal-merchants,  of  Liverpool, 
reported  thus  :  "  The  indiscriminate  shipping  of  tungsten-ore 
from  Australia  and  New  Zealand  is  unwise,  and  has  depressed 
the  market,  which  is  a  peculiar  one,  and  requires  careful  handling. 
Shippers  should  send  their  ore  through  one  channel  to  a  firm 
which  understands  the  business,  and  can  keep  the  market 
firm."* 

In  view  of  the  steadily  increasing  demand  for  tungsten,  the 
prospects  of  the  scheelite  industry  in  Otago  must  be  considered 
bright.  Unfortunately,  the  fluctuations  which  have  hitherto 
occurred  in  the  market  affect  the  production  of  small  mines. 
This  can  only  be  guarded  against  by  insuring  that  the  mines 
shall  be  backed  by  sufficient  capital,  which  would  render  them 
secure  against  closing  down  in  the  face  of  a  slightly  lowered 
quotation,  an  event  which  has  happened  more  than  once  in  New 
South  Wales  and  Queensland. 

Considering  the  success  of  the  present  producing  mines,  it  is 
highly  desirable  that  the  other  scheelite-veins,  both  in  Otago 
and  Marlborough,  should  be  taken  up,  and  there  can  be  little 
doubt,  provided  the  market  remains  firm,  that  they  would 
prove  successful  ventures. 


New  Zealand  Mines  Record,  16th  November,  1900,  p.  176. 


122  Transaction*. 


Conclusion. 


I  must  here  express  my  indebtedness  to  Messrs.  W.  and  G. 
Donaldson,  of  Macrae's,  and  Messrs.  George  Reid  and  Robert 
Lee,  jun.,  of  Glenorcby,  for  the  many  facilities  and  liberties 
they  allowed  me  during  my  examination  of  the  mines.  To 
Dr.  P.  Marshall  and  Mr.  D.  B.  Waters,  of  the  Otago  School  of 
Mines,  my  warmest  thanks  are  due  for  much  valuable  advice 
in  the  laboratory  and  in  the  preparation  of  this  paper. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  XVI. 

a.  Section  of  scheelite,  showing  cleavage,  and  quartz  (white),      x  36  dia- 
meters. 
6.   Scheelite,  clouded,  with  quartz  stringers,      x  36  diameters. 

c.  Illustrates    metasomatic    replacement.     Dark    fragments    of    scheelite, 

with  calcite  in  the  centre  of  the  photograph,      x  36  diameters. 

d.  Scheelite  (dark),  separated  from  gangue  (white)  by  strings  of    pyrite 

(black).     The  specimen  was  taken  from  Glenorchy.     x  3  diameters. 


Art.  XI. — Some  Alkaline  and  Nepheline  Rocks  from  WesUand. 

By  J.  P.  Smith. 
Communicated  by  Dr.  Marshall. 

[Read  before  the  Otago  Institute,  12th  November,  1907.] 
Plates  XYII-XIX. 

The  rocks  about  to  be  described  were  obtained  from  the  gravels 
of  the  watershed  of  the  New  River  and  its  tributaries.  They 
embrace  a  series  of  hypabyssal  rocks  ranging  from  acid  granite 
porphyries  to  basic  lamprophyres  and  gabbro  diabases.  Very 
few  of  the  examples  have  been  found  in  situ,  but  there  is  every 
reason  to  believe  that  the  whole  of  the  series  were  set  free  by 
erosion  from  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Hohuna  Range  and 
from  the  adjoining  Te  Kinga  Mountain.  The  humidity  of  the 
climate  and  a  heavy  rainfall  has  clothed  the  hillsides  of  Westland 
with  a  dense  forest  growth  and  a  depth  of  humus  matted  with 
roots  which  effectually  conceals  the  rock-surfaces.  It  is  only 
above  the  bush-line,  or  upon  the  precipitous  side  of  some  deeply 
incised  creek,  or  in  some  artificial  cutting,  that  exposures  of 
the  underlying  rocks  occur.  These  limited  exposures  afford 
sufficient  evidence  to  permit  the  rocks  of  the  different  forma- 
tions to  be  classified  and  the  areas  of  the  formations  to  be 
defined.  They,  however,  give  few  opportunities  to  examine  or 
locate  any  dykes  which  may  traverse  these  formations.     It   is. 


Smith. — Alkaline  and  Nepheli-ne  Rocks,   Westland.     123 

therefore,  only  from  the  detrital  rocks  derived  from  the  erosion 
of  the  now  bush-covered  mountains  that  a  knowledge  of  many 
of  the  dyke  rocks  can  be  obtained. 

So  far  as  is  known,  the  Arahura  and  Kanieri  formations  of 
the  new  geological  survey  are,  with  the  exception  of  the  Pounamu 
series,  remarkably  free  from  intrusions  ;  but  the  Tuhua  forma- 
tion— an  intrusive  mass  itself — is  seamed  in  all  directions  with 
narrow  dykes.  Already  in  the  Hokitika  sheet  of  the  new  survey 
outcrops  of  the  following  dyke  rocks  have  been  located  and 
the  rocks  described  :  Pyroxene  and  hornblende  camptonites, 
pyroxene  and  hornblende  porphyrites,  diabases,  and  an  augite 
diorite. 

The  Tuhua  formation  is  a  great  granitic  intrusion,  with  its 
major  axis  roughly  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  main  range.  As 
the  flanks  of  the  granite  hills  which  expose  this  formation  are 
in  many  places  covered  with  detritus  to  a  height  of  several 
hundred  feet  above  sea-level,  the  outcrops  are  not  continuous, 
but  appear  as  huge  bosses  and  isolated  groups  of  hills.  The 
Tuhua  formation  has  been  subjected  to  glaciation.  The  ice- 
sheet  at  the  period  of  maximum  extension  flowed  around  and 
frequently  over  the  summits  of  the  granitic  mountains.  Enor- 
mous erosion  resulted,  and  upon  the  retreat  of  the  ice-sheet 
deep  deposits  of  morainic  matter  covered  the  depression  between 
the  main  alpine  range  and  the  granite  range,  and  between  the 
granite  range  and  the  ocean.  The  rivers  emerging  from  the 
retreating  ice-cap  immediately  began  the  reassortment  of  the 
glacial  drift,  and  this  work,  with  decreasing  intensity,  has  con- 
tinued on  to  the  present  time. 

The  rocks  herein  described  were  collected  from  the  fluviatile 
gravels  in  the  beds  of  the  present  streams  and  from  the  auriferous 
gravels  deposited  at  higher  levels  by  streams  no  longer  existing. 
They  were  gathered  from  the  beds  of  the  New  River  and  its 
tributaries  on  the  right  bank,  and  from  the  higher-level  gravels 
between  the  New  River  and  Arnold  River  basins,  but  not  from 
the  Arnold  basin  itself. 

A  rough  estimate  of  the  rock  contents  of  the  gravels  was 
made  in  three  or  four  localities  ;  they  contain  about  80  per  cent, 
of  greywackes,  some  10  per  cent,  of  slates,  phyllites,  argillites, 
quartzites,  sandstones,  and  conglomerates  from  the  Arahura 
and  Kanieri  series,  and  10  per  cent,  of  rocks  from  the  Tuhua 
series.  Roughly,  perhaps  about  1  per  cent,  of  the  Tuhua  rocks 
may  be  classed  as  of  hypabyssal  origin,  of  which  the  larger 
proportion  are  much-decomposed  feldspar-porphyrites,  and  the 
balance  consist  of  the  rocks  herein  described.  Locally,  these 
rocks  are  known  to  the  miners  as  ironstones.  They  are  recog- 
nised by  their  dark-green  to  black  colour,  and  by  their  tendency 


124  Transactions. 

to  weather  m  concentric  layers.  The  shells  of  decomposed 
rock  surrounding  the  boulder  illustrated  were  more  than  2  ft. 
in  thickness.  In  some  of  the  smaller  boulders  only  a  kernel  of 
fresh  rock  remains  (Plate  XVII,  fig.  1). 

The  basic  and  alkaline  basic  rocks  collected  have  a  wide 
range,  and  include  an  interesting  series  of  tinguaites,  tinguaite- 
porphyries,  vogesites,  camptonites,  diabases,  and  rocks  ap- 
proaching monchiquites  associated  with  theralites  and  gabbro- 
diabases.  The  latter  may  possibly  be  deep-seated  representa- 
tives of  the  other  rocks ;  but,  until  their  plutonic  or  hypabyssal 
origin  can  be  determined  from  outcrops  in  the  field,  they  will 
be  classed  with  the  dyke  rocks. 

The  numbers  under  which  the  rocks  are  described  are  the 
field  numbers  of  the  specimens  as  collected.  Only  those  which 
represent  the  different  types,  or  show  transitional  characters  of 
an  interesting  nature,  have  been  described. 

The  specimens  collected  numbered  131,  from  each  of  which 
one  or  more  sections  were  prepared,  and  only  in  exceptional 
cases  were  any  two  rocks  found  to  be  exactly  similar.  They 
grade  gradually  from  one  type  to  another  throughout  the  whole 
series.  The  suggested  inference  is  that  the  whole  series  are 
genetically  the  product  of  one  alkaline  magma,  which  has  under- 
gone a  gradual  differentiation  during  the  period  in  which  the 
dykes  were  injected. 

108.  Tinguaite.  Megascopieally,  a  semi-translucent  green 
rock,  with  vitreous  fracture,  resembling  pitchstone.  Micro- 
scopically, a  network  of  segerine  crystals,  with  occasional 
phenocrysts  of  anorthoclase  distributed  in  a  groundmass  of 
anorthoclase,  cancrinite,  and  nepheline.  The  flegerine  is  brownish- 
green  in  colour,  and  occurs  in  crystals  of  blade-like  habit,  some- 
times frayed  at  the  ends.  It  gives  straight  extinction  and 
moderate  pleochroism,  dark-green  for  vibrations  parallel  to  the 
longitudinal  axis,  and  yellow-green  perpendicular  to  it.  It  also 
occurs  as  needles  and  microlites,  without  any  approach  to 
orientation.  It  is  idiomorphic  to  all  other  minerals,  the  terminal 
ends  of  the  individuals  sometimes  penetrating  the  feldspar. 
The  feldspar  occurs  in  two  generations,  the  earlier  being  idio- 
morphic. Rectangular  phenocrysts  are  sparingly  developed  : 
crystals  of  long  blade-like  habit  are  frequent.  Although  these 
consolidated  after  the  pyroxene,  they  are  only  occasionally 
penetrated  by  it,  but  appear,  to  have  pushed  the  segerine  aside, 
or  to  have  developed  alongside  the  already  crystallized  pyroxene. 
A  few  of  the  broader  crystals  show  Carlsbad  twinning.  The 
groundmass  of  the  rock  is  composed  of  cancrinite,  nepheline. 
and  anorthoclase  in  allotriomorphic  relations:  the  small  plates 
of  anorthoclase  with  ragged  outlines  <jive  nndnlatory  extinction. 


Smith. — Alkaline  and  Nepheline  Bocks,  Westland.     125 

The  cancrinite  is  recognised  by  its  low  refractive  index  and  its 
interference  colours  of  the  first  order.  It  is  completely  dissolved 
in  40  per  cent.  HC1,  and  gelatinises  when  heated.  In  some 
parts  of  the  rock  it  shows  tendencies  to  form  plates  of  rectangular 
outline,  but  is  generally  shapeless.  The  nepheline  follows  the 
same  habit,  and  is  difficult  to  distinguish  by  optical  means ;  but 
when  the  two  minerals  are  dissolved  out  of  a  slice  with  dilute 
HC1,  and  only  the  pyroxene  and  feldspar  left,  the  quantity  of 
nepheline  present  can  be  estimated  by  comparison  with  an 
untreated  slice.  It  is  present  in  about  equal  quantities  with 
the  cancrinite.  Iron-ores  are  absent.  A  minute  quantity  of 
isotropic  matter  is  present,  which  may  be  analcite,  but  more 
probably  nepheline  cut  parallel  to  the  base.  Omitting  the 
rectangular  anorthoclase  phenocrysts,  which  occur  sparingly, 
the  proportions  of  the  respective  minerals  are  approximately  : 
Pvroxene,  10  per  cent.  ;  feldspar,  60  per  cent.  ;  cancrinite, 
15  per  cent.  ;  nepheline,  15  per  cent.  Owing  to  the  elongated 
and  partly  panidiomorphic  habits  of  the  feldspars  in  the  ground- 
mass,  the  structure  differs  from  those  of  described  tinguaites. 
It  approaches  most  nearly  to  the  Norwegian  tinguaites  described 
by  Brogger.  but  is  coarser  textured,  both  as  regards  the  develop- 
ment of  the  feldspars  and  the  segerine.  The  latter  frequently 
attains  a  length  of  0-5  mm.,  and  the  feldspars  0-75  mm.  The 
structure  somewhat  resembles  that  of  a  fine-textured  holocrystal- 
line  dolerite,  and  this  structure  is  maintained  in  the  groundmass 
with  few  exceptions  throughout  the  whole  of  this  series  of 
tinguaites,  tinguaite-porphyries,  and  some  of  the  vogesites. 

72.  A  finer  -  textured  tinguaite,  without  phenocrysts  of 
anorthoclase  ;  it  also  differs  from  the  former  in  that  it  contains 
less  cancrinite,  but  has,  in  addition  to  the  pyroxene,  some  almost 
completely  resorbed  crystals  of  an  amphibole,  probably  horn- 
blende, the  iron  from  the  alteration  of  which  is  present  as 
granular  magnetite.  This  rock  also  shows  a  fluxional  arrange- 
ment of  the  segerine  needles  and  feldspars,  which  are  rudely 
orientated  in  the  direction  of  movement :  this  is  most  notice- 
able around  the  skeletons  of  the  amphiboles.  (Plate  XVIII 
fig.  8.) 

114.  A  coarse  -  textured  tinguaite,  containing  numerous 
phenocrysts  of  anorthoclase,  and  more  rarely  of  microcline  with 
corroded  boundaries.  The  ferro-magnesian  contents  are  repre- 
sented by  serpentine  after  augite  and  small  plates  of  hornblende. 
Some  of  the  augite  cores  remain  unaltered.  The  order  of  con- 
solidation is  reversed  in  this  rock.  The  feldspar  nepheline  and 
cancrinite  in  the  groundmass  are  allotriomorphic  to  each  other, 
but  idiomorphic  towards  the  serpentine  and  hornblende,  which 
they   penetrate   in    crystals   with   well-defined   boundaries.     As 


126  Transactions. 

the  minerals  of  the  groundmass  present  the  same  relations  to 
both  the  amphibole  and  the  pyroxene,  the  amphibole  may  be  a 
secondary  mineral,  and  possibly  the  augite  sometimes  passed 
over  to  serpentine  and  sometimes  to  hornblende. 

34.  Has  a  tinguaitic  groundmass  typical  of  this  series,  con- 
sisting of  nepheline,  cancrinite,  and  feldspar — much  of  which 
is  perthite — with  aegerine  microlites.  With  the  exception  of 
the  segerine,  the  minerals  of  the  groundmass  are  allotriomorphic. 
The  rock  contains  well-developed  phenocrysts  of  hornblende, 
in  long  needles  and  as  prisms  with  polygonal  boundaries,  and 
also  augite  in  prisms.  There  are  large  phenocrysts  of  perthite 
with  marginal  corrosion  and  of  anorthoclase  undergoing  altera- 
tion to  muscovite.     (Plate  XVIII,  fig.  7.) 

107.  Is  a  similar  rock  to  114,  but  contains  some  remark- 
able examples  of  leucocrasia.  Megascopically  the  appearance 
of  the  rock  is  peculiar,  the  tinguaitic  portion  being  dark-grey 
to  black  in  colour,  whilst  the  leucocratic  patches  are  almost 
white.  In  the  field  the  white  portions  were  mistaken  for  parts 
of  the  intruded  rock  attached  to  or  included  in  the  intrusive, 
but  a  section  cut  across  what  appeared  to  be  the  junction 
shows  that  such  is  not  the  case.  The  white  rock  consists  of  a 
hypidiomorphic  even-textured  aggregate  of  anorthoclase,  the 
plates  frequently  measuring  2  mm.  in  diameter,  and  enclosing 
ophitically  but  sparingly  ragged  crystals  of  green  common 
hornblende.  The  larger  phenocrysts  of  feldspar  in  the  tingu- 
aitic portion  are  undergoing  alteration  to  muscovite.  (Plate  XIX, 
fig.  11.) 

32.  Tinguaite  porphyry.  Though  the  previously  described 
rocks  are  porphyritic  by  a  recurrence  of  the  feldspars  in  two 
generations,  this  is  the  first  example  in  which  the  recurrence 
takes  place  with  the  essential  mineral,  the  nepheline.  Without 
the  nepheline  phenocrysts  the  rock  is  similar  in  all  respects  to 
No.  114,  including  the  serpen tinous  mineral  after  augite.  The 
porphyritic  nephelines  form  good  hexagonal  tables,  1  mm.  to 
1£  mm.  in  diameter.     (Plate  XVIII,  fig.  6.) 

With  the  disappearance  of  the  nepheline  and  cancrinite  the 
rocks  pass  into  the  family  of  the  lamprophyres.  Some  of  these 
have  been  classified  as  vogesites  and  others  as  camptonitos. 
It  will  be  noticed  that  those  in  which  the  dominant  feldspar- 
is  anorthoclase  have  been  classed  as  vogesites,  which  may  not 
be  strictly  correct. 

49.  Vogesite.  A  groundmass  of  shapeless  elongated  and 
ragged  crystals  of  anorthoclase,  enclosing  microlites,  needles, 
lath-  and  blade-like  crystals  and  polygonal  tables  of  augite  and 
hornblende.  Many  of  the  colourless  augites  and  pale-brow n 
hornblendes  are  surrounded  by  a  resorption  border  of  aegerine 


Smith. — Alkaline  and  Nephcline  Rocks,   Westland.     127 

or  segerine-augite  in  fine  grains.  This  rock  also  exhibits  the 
phenomena  of  leucocrasia.  The  patches  consist  of  a  hypidio- 
morphic  aggregate  of  anorthoclase  and  a  deep-green  hornblende. 
In  the  normal  rock  the  crystals  of  hornblende  occasionally 
attain  a  length  of  2  cm.  The  pleochroism — (a)  very  pale- 
brown,  (b)  brown,  (c)  dark-brown — shows  the  hornblende  to  be 
barkevikite ;  but  in  the  abnormal  rock  represented  by  the 
leucocratic  patches  the  pleochroism  of  the  hornblende  is — 
(a)  very  pale-yellow,  (b)  olive-green,  (c)  yellowish-green — and 
the  mineral  is  probably  common  hornblende. 

101.  Vogesite.  The  groundmass  of  this  rock  is  largely  com- 
posed of  an  alkali  feldspar,  with  panidiomorphic  development, 
associated  with  a  small  quantity  of  a  colourless  mineral  with  a 
higher  refractive  index  and  low  polarization  tints.  A  chemical 
test  for  mellilite  was  made,  but  did  not  result  in  the  precipita- 
tion of  any  gypsum  needles.  The  mineral  is  therefore  not 
identified.  The  phenocrysts  are  colourless  to  pale-pink  augites 
and  pale-brown  hornblendes,  with  perfect  outlines,  and  exhibit- 
ing a  great  variety  of  sectional  shapes.  Both  minerals  occur 
in  two  generations.  The  augite  is  often  surrounded  by  a  thin 
green  resorption  boundary  of  crypto- cry stalline  segerine  or 
eegerine-augite.  Some  of  the  larger  hornblendes  attain  a 
length  of  4  mm.,  and  the  pleochroism  shows  them  to  be  barke- 
vikite.    (Plate  XIX,  fig.  12.) 

95.  A  rock  differing  from  the  last  described,  in  that  the 
feldspar  is  distinctly  determinable  as  anorthoclase,  and  occurs 
in  smaller  proportions.  The  augite  in  the  groundmass  is  in 
shapeless  colourless  grains.  Some  of  it  is  serpentinised,  and 
the  porphyritic  augites  are  also  attacked.  Crystals  of  partially 
serpentinised  olivine  with  a  peripheral  border  of  magnetite  are 
not  infrequent.  The  hornblendes,  although  not  so  prominent 
as  in  the  former  rock,  possess  good  crystallographic  outlines. 
(Plate  XIX,  fig.  14.) 

116.  This  is  an  intermediate  rock  between  the  vogesites 
and  the  camptonites.  It  resembled  No.  95,  except  that  ser- 
pentinisation  is  more  advanced,  and  plagioclase  is  present,  but 
not  to  the  same  extent  as  the  anorthoclase. 

123.  Is  also  an  intermediate  rock,  the  alkali  and  Hme-soda 
feldspars  being  about  equal  in  quantity.  In  addition  to  the 
hornblendes — which  here  assume  a  more  tabular  habit,  with 
a  tendency  to  lose  their  idiomorphism  —  there  occurs  an 
occasional  plate  of  deep-brown  biotite  and  a  few  large  pheno- 
crysts of  perthite.  The  perthite  is  surrounded  by  a  zone  of 
partially  untwinned  plagioclase,  and,  in  addition  to  simple 
Carlsbad  twinning,  some  phenocrysts  are  Baveno  twins.  Pseudo- 
morphs   of   serpentinous    material    after    augite    are    present, 


128  Transactions. 

and  a  little  a?gerine  more  or  less  intergrown  with  the  hornblende. 
The  liine-soda  feldspar  is  'abradorite.  A  micro-chemical  and 
staining  test  for  nepheline  was  made  without  any  results. 

28,  51,  76.  These  are  also  fine-textured  intermediate  rocks, 
with  very  subordinate  feldspar,  and  ultra-basic  in  composition. 
Microscopically,  they  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  Brogger's 
farrisite,  but  a  chemical  test  failed  to  discover  the  presence 
of  mellilite.  The  feldspar  is  partly  anorthoclase,  and  the  balance 
a  basic  plagioclase  with  the  extinction  angle  of  bytownite. 
28  contains  pseudomorphs  of  serpentine  after  augite,  with 
occasional  cores  of  the  original  mineral  remaining.  The  horn- 
blende occurs  in  two  generations,  with  sharply  idiomorphic 
outlines.  51  has,  in  addition  to  a  sprinkling  of  magnetite  dust, 
some  plates  of  pyrite,  probably  of  secondary  origin.  In  76  the 
augites  are  fresh,  but  these  are  serpentinous  pseudomorphs 
after  olivine.  Without  the  accessory  feldspar  the  rocks  would 
be    monchiquites,    which    they    most   nearly   resemble.     (Plate 

XVIII,  fig.  5.) 

100.  Camptonite.  The  hornblendes  differ  from  those  in  the 
vogesites  and  some  of  the  transitional  rocks  in  that,  although 
preserving  the  same  sharpness  of  outline,  they  do  not  tend 
to  assume  the  elongated  and  belemnitic  forms.  The  augite 
is  partly  serpentinised,  and  is  subordinate  to  the  hornblende, 
which  constitutes  nearly  one-half  of  the  rock.  Borders  of 
segerine  surround  some  of  the  hornblende  phenocrysts,  and 
small  independent  crystals  of  segerine  are  present.  The  feldspar 
is  labradorite,  with  a  maximum  extinction-angle  of  32°.     (Plate 

XIX,  fig.  13.) 

40,  82,  84,  97.  Diabase  and  olivine-diabase.  In  the  group 
represented  by  these  sections  the  hornblende  has  almost  dis- 
appeared, and  only  occurs  as  small  granules,  whilst  the  crystal- 
lization of  the  feldspar  has  preceded  that  of  the  ferro-magnesian 
minerals  in  the  groundmass.  The  feldspar  labradorite  is  in 
columnar  crystals,  with  an  occasional  rectangular  plate,  but 
without  law  of  arrangement.  The  augite,  partially  serpentin- 
ised, is  in  small  grains,  without  definite  shape,  and  interstitial 
to  the  feldspar.  In  some  of  these  rocks  there  is  a  recur- 
rence of  the  augite,  which  appears  as  phenocrysts.  Olivine  is 
frequently  present,  partly  serpentinised,  but  generally  with 
good  kernels  of  fresh  mineral  surrounded  by  serpentine,  and 
this  again  by  a  thin  margin  of  finely  granular  magnetite,  which 
gives  the  outline  of  the  original  crystal,  and  shows  that  before 
alteration  the  olivine  possessed  good  crystal  forms.  In  some  of 
the  sections  there  is  a  little  isotropic  matter.  These  rocks  are 
classified  as  diabase  and  olivine-diabase  according  to  whether 
the  niagnesian  mineral  is  absent  or  present  :    hut   some  of  them, 


Smith. — Alkaline  and  Nepkeline  Rocks,  Westland.     129 

with  the  isotropic  matter  present,  approach  closely  to  the  rocks 
named  "  teschenites  "  by  Hohenegger. 

57.  A  porphyritic  diabase  from  the  Te  Kinga  boss.  Mega- 
scopically  it  appears  to  be  a  feldspar  porphyry,  but  under  the 
microscope  the  basic  nature  of  the  rock  is  apparent.  The  large 
feldspar  phenocrysts  are  labradorite,  with  a  maximum  ex- 
tinction-angle of  42°  ;  they  show  incipient  epidotization,  and  an 
alteration  into  muscovite.  The  groundmass  consists  of  ragged 
crystals,  needles,  and  microlites  of  a  basic  feldspar,  with  a  tend- 
ency to  crystallographic  development,  set  in  a  micro-granular 
augite  arranged  interstitially  to  the  feldspar.  Iron-ore  is  plenti- 
fully distributed  through  the  rock  as  dust,  cubes,  and  longer 
rectangular  sections  ;  the  two  former  are  magnetite,  but  the 
longer  sections  may  be  ilmenite.  Some  of  the  augite  is  ser- 
pentinised. 

91.  A  rock  intermediate  between  the  diabases  and  the  basic 
lamprophyres.  Here  the  feldspars  have  almost  disappeared, 
but  what  there  is  still  bear  the  same  relations  to  the  augite  of 
the  groundmass  as  in  the  diabases.  Augite  is  the  dominant 
mineral,  and  occurs  in  two  generations,  the  intratelluric  as 
plates  idiomorphic  towards  the  augites  of  the  groundmass,  but 
not  possessing  good  crystal  faces,  and  in  the  groundmass  as 
granules.  Another  form,  as  diopside  in  pi  enocrytts,  is  present 
with  good  outlines.  There  is  a  little  hornblende,  which  ap- 
pears to  be  a  secondary  mineral,  as  is  also  a  clear  serpentinous 
aggregate  occasionally  seen  in  small  plates.  A  little  secondary 
quartz  fills  cavities  in  the  rock.  The  accessory  feldspar  is 
labradorite. 

By  the  gradual  assumption  of  the  hypidiomorphic  structure 
these  rocks  pass  into  theralites  and  gabbro-diabases.  From 
what  is  known  of  the  Hohuna  Range,  a  large  granitic  boss  clothed 
with  a  dense  mass  of  vegetation  up  to  the  winter  snow-line,  and 
with  few  exposed  rock-surfaces  below  that  altitude,  it  is  doubtful 
whether  the  whole  of  the  rocks  herein  described  do  not  come 
to  the  surface  in  the  hypabyssal  form.  Although  many 
sections  have  been  made  of  the  granitic  rocks  from  this  and 
the  Te  Kinga  boss  by  the  author  and  others,  so  far  no  nepheline 
syenites  with  which  tinguaites,  camptonites,  and  allied  rocks 
are  usually  associated  have  been  found.  It  is  possible  the 
gabbro-diabases  may  form  a  marginal  apophysis  of  the  granite 
mass.  As  boulders  the  gabbro-diabases  are  no  more  common 
in  the  fluviatile  gravels  of  the  New  River  system  than  the  voge- 
sites  and  camponites,  and  do  not  occur  so  frequently  as  the 
tinguaites.  In  the  beds  of  the  mountain  torrents  draining  the 
northern  slopes  of  the  Hohunas  they  appear  to  be  more  common, 
but  there  is  no  evidence  that  they  outcrop  at  the  surface  in 
5 — Trans. 


130  Transactions. 

large  masses,  and  the  inference  is  they  occur  as  dykes.  The 
fact  that  some  of  the  gabbros  are  theralites,  and  carry  nephe- 
line, points  to  the  possible  association  of  the  already  described 
hypabyssal  types  of  rock  with  a  gabbro-magma  rather  than 
with  a  syenitic  one. 

In  the  Te  Kinga  railway  quarry,  near  the  Rotomanu  Station, 
one  of  the  very  few  excavations  made  in  the  Tuhua  rocks, 
in  a  face  some  two  chains  in  length,  two  decomposed  dykes 
are  exposed,  in  addition  to  a  mass  of  soft  basic  rock  which 
never  came  to  the  surface,  the  exposed  upper  portion  of  which 
is  surrounded  by  a  halo  of  contact  metamorphism  from  2  ft. 
to  3  ft.  in  thickness  separating  it  from  the  overlying  granites. 
Sections  made  from  this  intrusion  are  described  under  No.  55, 
but  the  specimens  collected  were  not  fresh  enough  to  enable 
a  complete  description  to  be  written.  In  the  "  No.  1  Bulletin  " 
of  the  New  Zealand  Geological  Survey,  Dr.  Bell  says,  "  The  top 
of  the  Hohuna  Range  and  its  southern  slopes  are  seamed  in 
places  with  narrow  basic  dykes."  The  northern  slopes  above 
the  bush-line  have  not  been  examined  lithologically,  but  shep- 
herds who  have  traversed  this  precipitous  country  say  that 
black  seams — probably  basic  dykes — are  frequent  in  the  granites. 
From  the  evidence  in  the  Te  Kinga  quarry  and  on  the  Hohuna 
Range  itjwould  seem  that  in  places  erosion  has  removed  so  much 
of  the  granite  that  only  a  shell  now  covers  a  basic  igneous  rock. 

The  specification  of  the  questionably  plutonic  representatives 
of  the*series  is, — 

119.  Theralite.  In  the  gabbro-diabases  it  is  impossible  to 
determine  the  presence  of  nepheline  with  certainty  by  optical 
means,  and  micro-chemical  tests  only  revealed  its  presence  in  one 
rock.  Half  a  gramme  of  the  powdered  rock  was  dissolved  in 
dilute  HC1,  and  the  solution  slowly  evaporated  in  a  beaker. 
Before  dryness  was  reached  water  was  added,  and  evaporation 
continued  to  remove  excess  of  chlorine.  When  saturation  was 
nearly  reached,  evaporation  was  finished  on  glass  slides,  with 
the  result  that  quantities  of  crystals  of  sodium-chloride  were 
deposited.  Staining  only  revealed  the  presence  of  a  mineral 
which,  on  the  application  of  hydrochloric  acid,  formed  gela- 
tinous silica.  The  presence  of  nepheline  thus  determined  places 
the  rock  in  the  family  of  the  little-known  theralites.  It  consists 
of  large  twinned  crystals  of  schillerised  ;egerine.  with  good 
<•rvst.allogra.phic  outlines,  a  basic  plagioclase,  a  lirown  hornblende, 
and  a  little  nepheline  in  panidiomorphic  relations,  together 
with  a  small  quantity  of  interstitial  allotriomorphic  augite  con- 
verted into  serpentine.  A  few  cubes  and  grains  of  magnetite 
are  present.  The  feldspar  is  labradorite.  and  appears  both  in 
columnar  crystals  ami  as  rectangular  plates  with  zonary  banding. 


Smith. — Alkaline  and  Nej)heli)ic  Bocks,   Westland.     131 

Some  of  the  hornblendes  are  ophitically  enclosed  in  the  large 
cegerines  (Plate  XIX,  fig.  9). 

3.  Olivine  gabbro-diabase.  Large  olivines  and  pink  augites 
are  relatively  common  ;  there  is  a  quantity  of  biotite  and  brown 
hornblende  in  small  narrow  crystals.  The  feldspar-labradorite 
occurs  in  large  plates  and  in  columnar  crystals.  It  is  idio- 
morphic  towards  both  the  olivine  and  the  augite,  but  the  latter 
are  allotriomorphic  to  one  another.  Some  large  columnar 
crystals  of  labradorite  are  ophitically  enclosed  in  the  olivine. 
Frequently  where  the  feldspar  penetrates  an  olivine  one  corner 
of  the  feldspar  crystal  is  rounded.  The  iron-ore,  which  is  plenti- 
ful and  assumes  crystallographic  forms,  is  titaniferous.  The 
rock  is  quite  fresh. 

121.  Another  olivine-augite- feldspar  rock,  with  very  sub- 
ordinate hornblende.  It  has  a  typically  diabasic  groundmass  of 
augite  and  labradorite,  enclosing  large  grains  of  olivine  without 
definite  shape  and  phenocrysts  of  labradorite.  One  large  feld- 
spar crystal  \  in.  in  length  has  a  narrow  margin  of  clear  labra- 
dorite ;  but  the  interior  of  the  crystal  consists  of  augite  and 
feldspar  in  about  equal  proportions,  together  with  a  little  ilmen- 
ite.  The  augite  assumes  the  disposition  of  a  graphic  inter- 
growth  ;  but,  as  the  whole  of  it  does  not  extinguish  simultaneously, 
it  is  evidently  an  inclusion  in  the  crystal.  Grains  of  ilmenite 
are  plentifully  distributed  throughout  the  rock. 

99.  Is  an  augite-feldspar  rock,  with  very  subordinate  olivine. 
The  phenocrysts  are  augite  in  conspicuous  plates,  with  a  tendency 
to  idiomorphism  and  crystals  of  labradorite-feldspar  changing 
to  epidote  and  calcite.  The  groundmass  consists  of  feldspar 
and  augite  in  diabasic  relations.  The  olivine  is  serpentinised 
into  a  clear  pale-green  mineral,  with  hardly  perceptible  dichroism 
and  isotropic.  Titaniferous  iron-ore  is  common  both  as  grains, 
and  with  rectangular  outline,  and  pyrite  occurs  in  large  crystals 
associated  with  a  pale-green  serpentine,  which  is  birefringent 
in  polarised  light,  shows  no  definite  structure,  but  is  rather  a 
confused  aggregate  of  fibres. 

37.  An  olivine-augite-feldspar  rock,  contains  the  olivines  in< 
large  shapeless  grains,  and  has  as  phenocrysts  large  augites, 
perthites,  and  labradorites  with  idiomorphic  outlines.  The 
groundmass  differs  from  any  of  the  previously  described  gabbro- 
diabases  in  that  it  consists  of  a  panidiomorphic  aggregate  of 
labradorite,  partially  serpentinised  augite,  hornblende,  and 
ilmenite. 

130.  Another  variety  is  interesting  owing  to  the  large  develop- 
ment of  the  augite  phenocrysts,  some  of  which  are  more  than 
|  in.  in  length.  There  are  inclusions  of  brown  hornblende  in 
the    augite    crystals.     The    phenocrysts    present    good    crystal 


132  Transactions. 

faces,  and  are  set  ink{a  panidiomorphic  groundmass  of  labra- 
dorite,  serpentinised  augite,  hornblende,  and  iron-ore,  much  of 
-which  is  titaniferous. 

55.  A  coarse-grained  basic  rock  from  the  Te  Kinga  quarry, 
"where  it  occurs  projecting  some  15  ft.  up  from  the  floor  of  the 
■quarry  into  the  solid  granite,  which  covers  it  to  a  depth  of  50  ft. 
The  exposed  portion,  some  12  ft.  high  by  15  ft.  wide  at  the  base, 
evidently  increases  in  size  in  depth.  The  granites  show  no  signs 
of  having  been  displaced  by  the  intrusion,  but  the  intrusive 
is  surrounded  by  an  aureole  of  completely  altered  rock  between 
2  ft.  and  3  ft.  in  thickness,  the  result  of  the  metamorphism 
induced  by  the  contact.  So  completely  altered  is  this  envelope 
that  it  is  impossible  to  say  whether  it  belongs  to  the  intruded 
or  the  intrusive.  Near  the  granite  it  consists  of  a  granular 
aggregate  of  quartz  and  biotite,  which  becomes  more  quartzose 
close  to  the  granite  contact.  Part  of  the  mica  is  in  long  rect- 
angular flakes,  with  longitudinal  striation,  which  does  not  always 
extend  from  end  to  end  of  the  crystal ;  the  balance  is  in  shape- 
less plates.  Nearer  the  intrusive  the  rock  consists  of  a  colourless 
mica,  with  chlorite,  some  very  subordinate  biotite  and  quartz, 
and  a  little  iron-ore,  apparently  magnetite.  The  micas  and 
quartz  are  allotriomorphic  :  the  chlorite  appears  in  radiating 
sheaves,  with  a  rude  suggestion  of  flow  structure,  and  the  rock 
would  certainly  be  classed  as  a  schist  if  it  occurred  under  any 
other  conditions.  The  intrusive  rock  is  soft  and  close  to  the 
contact-zone,  partially  decomposed,  but  much  fresher  samples 
can  be  secured  from  the  centre  of  the  mass.  It  consists  almost 
exclusively  of  augite,  hornblende,  and  calcite,  with  very  sub- 
ordinate olivine  feldspar  and  iron-ores.  Some  of  the  calcite 
may  represent  feldspar,  but  much  of  it  is  of  foreign  origin,  and 
occurs  in  cracks.  The  magnetite  is  present  as  dust,  and  as 
grains  with  crystal  boundaries.  The  augite  and  hornblende 
have  a  strong  tendency  to  crvstallographic  development,  and  are 
idiomorphic  to  any  feldspar  that  occurs.  What  little  Eeldspar 
there  is  is  principally  anorthoclase,  and  a  lew  crystals  of  basic 
plagioclase,  with  high  extinction-angles.  Patches  of  serpentinous 
mineral  are  present,  usually  in  contact  with  the  calcite.  It  is 
birefringent,  with  lattice  structure,  but  more  probably  resulted 
from  the  alteration  of  the  olivine  than  hornblende. 

In  addition  to  the  basic  and  basic-alkaline  rocks  already 
described,  there  is  an  acid-alkaline  series,  which  possibly  resulted 
from  a  variation  of  the  acid  granitic  magma  from  which  the 
granites  of  the  Tuhua  series  were  genetically  derived.  With 
our  present  knowledge  of  magmatic  differentiation  it  is  within 
the  bounds  of  possibility,  although  hardly  probable,  that  the 
wholejof    the    described    rocks,    including    the    ejanites.    are    the 


Smith. — Alkaline  and  Nepheline  Rocks,  Westlaud.     133 

product  of  one  differentiated  magma,  of  which  the  granites 
represented  the  first  phase.  The  differentiation  would  then 
appear  to  have  been  one  of  increasing  alkalinity,  followed  by  one 
of  increasing  basicity.  The  granitic  magma  was  originally 
slightly  alkaline,  as  microcline  and  microperthite  are  common 
accessory  minerals  throughout  the  intrusion,  and  become  more 
important  in  the  earlier  variations  represented  by  the  aplites  and 
the  pegmatites.  The  next  differentiation  of  which  we  have  any 
evidence  is  that  of  a  granite  porphyry,  a  hypabyssal  rock  in  which 
the  alkalinity  reached  its  highest  point  before  it  was  masked  by 
the  increasing  basicity,  supposing  the  whole  series  to  have  the 
same  genetic  origin.  Between  the  granite  porphyry  and  any 
of  the  rocks  already  described  there  is  a  petrological  gap  both 
structural  and  mineralogical  which  may  possibly  be  represented 
by  the  porphyries  and  porphyrites  mentioned  as  occurring  in 
the  detrital  rocks,  but  which  are  weathered  too  much  for  in- 
vestigation. Chemically,  the  gap  may  not  be  so  great  as  it 
appears.  The  author  regrets  that  he  had  neither  the  time 
nor  the  means  at  his  disposal  to  make  a  chemical  analysis  of  the 
different  rocks  described,  by  which  method  alone  could  the 
extent  of  the  apparent  gap  be  determined.  Whether  further 
explorations  in  the  field  will  throw  more  light  on  the  subject 
remains  to  be  seen.  The  granite  porphyry  is  interesting  in  that 
it  contains  riebeckite,  an  amphibole  the  occurrence  of  which 
has  never  hitherto  been  recorded  in  New  Zealand. 

A  description  of  one  of  the  aplites  and  the  porphyry  is  here- 
with appended. 

115.  Aplite.  Megascopic-ally,  a  fine-grained  white  rock  re- 
semb  ing  Carrara  marble.  Microscopically,  that  which  for  con- 
venience of  description  may  be  called  the  groundmass  exhibits 
granulitic  structure,  and  consists  essentially  of  roughly  equi- 
dimensional  grains  of  quartz,  orthoclase,  and  microcline.  In 
this  mosaic,  with  a  tendency  to  hypidiomorphic  structure, 
occur  somewhat  larger  grains  of  micrographic  intergrowths  of 
quartz  and  feldspar,  microperthite,  and  microcline  microper- 
thite. A  yet  stronger  development  of  microperthite  is  present 
in  roughly  rectangular  plates  without  well-defined  outlines,  in 
which  sometimes  the  mineral  is  twinned  in  accordance  with  the 
Baveno  law.  As  accessory  minerals,  a  brown  biotite  is  sparingly 
distributed  in  small  shapeless  plates,  and  the  iron-ores  are 
represented  bv  a  little  scattered  magnetite  dust  and  a  few  scales 
of  haematite.  '  (Plate  XIX,  fig.  10.) 

19.  Riebeckite  granite  porphyry.  A  rock  with  a  cream- 
coloured  ground,  with  brown  spots.  A  small  lens  reveals  the 
spherulitic  nature  of  the  groundmass  sufficiently  to  enable  the 
rock  to  be  classified  as  a  granite  porphyry  in  the  field.     Under 


134  Transactions. 

the  microscope  the  groundmass  is  seen  to  consist  of  complete 
spherules  and  sectors  of  spherules,  with  the  interstices  between 
their  peripheral  boundaries  filled  in  with  micropegmatite  and  a 
quartz  mosaic.  Approximately  the  area  covered  by  the  spheru- 
litic  growths  is  about  two-thirds  that  of  the  total  groundmass. 
Some  of  the  individual  spherules  attain  a  diameter  of  3  mm. 
The  peripheral  boundaries  of  the  best-developed  spherules  are 
not  perfect  circles.  The  final  consolidation  of  the  rock  appears 
to  have  taken  place  before  the  development  of  the  spherules 
was  completed.  In  parts  the  spherules  have  impinged  upon 
one  another,  and  the  boundaries  of  the  two  individuals  are 
coterminous.  Where  this  happened  further  development  could 
not  go  on,  and  this  seems  also  to  have  been  the  case  where  the 
space  between  the  two  individuals  is  filled  with  a  fine  granular 
mosaic  of  quartz.  Here  the  growth  of  the  spherule  ceased  when 
no  more  feldspar  matter  was  available  ;  but  where  the  inter- 
vening space  is  filled  with  a  micropegmatitic  intergrowth  the 
spherule  has  continued  to  advance,  and  at  the  final  consolida- 
tion a  portion  of  the  micropegmatite  arranged  itself  in  delicate 
fern-like  outgrowths  around  and  continuous  with  the  spherule. 
A  radial  growth  corresponding  to  sectors  of  a  spherule  occur 
around  the  phenocrysts,  and  extend  some  distance  into  the 
groundmass.  The  spherules  are  composed  of  a  pegmatitic 
intergroAvth  of  quartz  and  orthoclase  varying  in  texture  from 
cryptopegmatitic*  near  the  centre  to  micropegmatitic  near  the 
circumference.  Arranged  radially  to  the  centre,  and  some- 
times extending  nearly  the  complete  radius  of  the  spherule,  are 
needles,  long  blade-like  crystals  and  peg-shaped  inclusions  of 
riebeckite.  This  mineral  is  present  in  larger  crystals,  with 
ragged  outlines  and  no  definite  shape  in  the  groundmass,  between 
the  spherules  ;  and  in  many  portions  of  the  slices  the  larger 
crystals  occur  with  their  longer  axis  tangentially  arranged 
around  the  outer  edge  of  a  spherule.  Riebeckite  also  occurs 
as  minute  inclusions  in  the  quartz  and  perthite  phenocrysts. 
By  transmitted  light  the  colour  of  the  mineral  is  indigo  blue, 
and  the  pleochroism — (a)  black,  (b)  dark-blue,  (c)  brownish- 
yellow — appears  to  correspond  most  nearly  with  that  of  the 
riebeckite  described  by  Le  Verrier  from  Corsica  ;  it  also  re- 
sembles that  from  Dongo  Hiiro,  described  by  Prior.  The  needle- 
like  blades  in  the  spherules  attain  a,  length  of  1  mm.  The 
phenocrysts  are  quartz  and  perthite.  Some  of  the  quartz 
crystals  have  sharp  outlines  and  angles  ;  in  others  the  angles 
are  rounded  by  corrosion.     The  quartz  is  relatively  free  from 


*  Perhaps  this  term   is  not    strictly   correct,  as   the   -tructurc  can  be 
resolved  under  a  magnification  of  4oo  diameters. 


Smith. — Alkaline  and  Nepheline  Bocks,  Westland.     135 

inclusions ;   and  fluid-pores,  so  typical  of  the  quartz  of  granite 
porphyries,  are  absent.     A  few  minute  glass  inclusions  without 
bubbles  and  the  riebeckite  inclusions  already  mentioned  are  all 
that   can   be   made   out.     The   perthite   phenocrysts   show  less 
signs  of  corrosion  and  a  greater  variety  of  shape.     Some  are 
rectangidar  to   square   plates  ;     others   of   elongated   blade-like 
habit,    occasionally   reaching   7  mm.   in   length   by  0-4  mm.    in 
breadth.     Those  with  elongated  habit  have  undulose  extinction. 
In  many  of  the  sections  of  the  mineral  both  the  component 
feldspars  extinguish  simultaneously  ;    in  others  there  is  a  dis- 
tinct  angular  interval   between   extinction  ;     and  there   is   no 
crystalline  continuity  between  the  feldspars  of  the  phenocrysts 
and  the  sectors  of  spherules  radiating  from  them.     In  some  of 
the  perthites  the    feldspars    are    orthoclase    and  anorthoclase ; 
in  others   the    nature    of   the   triclinic   feldspar   has   not  been 
determined.      In   some    of    the    slices    there    is    an  occasional 
crystal   of    sphene.      Omitting  the   rare    accessory  sphene  and 
the    iron-ores    which    may    possibly    be    of    secondary   origin, 
the    sequence    of    crystallization    in    the    consolidation    of   the 
rock  is:    (1)  riebeckite;    (2)  quartz   and   perthite  phenocrysts; 
(3)  spherulitic    growths  ;    (4)  the    quartz    mosaic    and   micro- 
graphic  intergrowths  representing  the   balance    of   the  ground- 
mass.     It   is   just   within  the   bounds   of   possibility  that  the 
riebeckite  may  occur  in  two  generations,  that  in  the  interstitial 
groundmass  being  the  prior,  and  that  in  the  spherules  a  subse- 
quent   crystallization    contemporary    with   the    growth    of   the 
spherules ;  but  the  evidence  is  strongly  in  favour  of  the  amphi- 
bole  having  conformed  to  the  normal  order  of  consolidation, 
and  only  occurring  in  one  generation.     The  development  of  the 
spherules  appears  to  have  proceeded  in  the  following  manner  : 
Starting  from  a  centre,  the  nature    of    which  cannot  be  dis- 
tinguished, the  formation  and  consolidation  of  the  cryptopeg- 
matite  proceeded  outwards,  the  process  of  crystallization  push- 
ing the  larger  and  broader  plates  of  riebeckite  before  it,  but 
turning  the  needle-like  blades — which  it  ultimately  enclosed — 
in  the  direction  in  which  they  offered  the  least  resistance  to  the 
process — that  is,  radially.     Needles  of  riebeckite  which  escaped 
this  first  capture  were  seldom  included  in  the  outer  zone  of  the 
spherule.     Any  mass  too  large  to  be  moved  by  the   energy   of 
crystallization    was    included    in    the    radiating   body   of   the 
spherule,  the  growth  of  which  proceeded  on  the  further  side  of 
the  inclusion  as  if  the  obstacle  did  not  exist  (see  Plate  XVIII, 
fig.  4.  where  a  grain  of  quartz  is  included  between  the  centre 
and  the  periphery  of  a  spherule).     After  the  process  had  con- 
tinued outward  beyond  the  length  of  the  included  needles  of 
riebeckite,  the  micrographic    growth    of  the   spherule   is    com- 


136  Transactions. 

paratively  free  from  inclusions,  and  without  any  traces  of 
secondary  iron-ore  dust,  so  that  resorption  of  the  amphibole  in 
this  zone  did  not  take  place.  The  outer  zone  of  the  spherule 
consists  of  a  delicate  fern-like  growth  of  micropegmatite.  The 
change  from  crypto-  to  micro-pegmatitic  structure  is  gradual 
from  the  centre  of  the  spherule  to  the  circumference.  The 
branching  of  the  outward  creeping  fern-like  growths  did  not 
generally  occur  until  two  or  three  fifths  of  the  radius  of  the 
spherule  had  been  attained.  Optically  the  spherules  extinguish 
in  sectors  as  the  stage  or  the  nicols  are  revolved  ;  in  some  the 
sectors  are  narrow,  in  others  considerable  areas  are  extinguished 
at  the  same  time.  (Plate  XVIII,  fig.  4,  and  Plate  XVII,  figs.  2. 
and  3.)  . 

The  sections  of  the  rocks  described  have  been  compared  with 
sections  of  rocks  from  the  most  notable  alkaline  petrol ogical 
provinces  of  the  world — viz.,  the  Arkansas  rocks,  described 
by  Williams ;  the  Christiania  rocks,  described  in  Brogger's 
famous  memoir  ;  and  the  rocks  of  the  Serro  do  Tingua,  in 
Brazil,  described  by  Hussack.  For  the  loan  of  slides  of  these 
collections,  and  for  his  ready  assistance  and  advice,  I  am  deeply 
indebted  to  Dr.  P.  Marshall,  of  the  Otago  University 


EXPLANATION|OF|PLATES?XYII-XIX. 

Plate  XVII. 

Fig.  1.  A  gabbro-diabase  boulder.  The  rounded  water-worn  appearance 
is  due  to  spheroidal  weathering.  A  part  of  the  shell-like 
concentric  weathered  easing  can  be  seen  adhering  to  the  stone 
beneath  the  right-hand  end.     Eight-mile  Creek  Diggings. 

Fig.  2.  (No.  19.)  Grain  of  quartz  enclosed  in  spherule  ;  ragged  crystals 
of  riebeckite  surrounding  periphery  of  spherule. 

Fig.  3.  (No.  19.)  Showing  fern-like  growths  in  outer  part  of  spherules 
and  sectors  of  spherules. 

Plate  XVIII. 

Fig.    4.  (No.  19.)  Riebeckite  in  granite-porphyry. 

Fig.    5.  (No.  28.)  Lamprophyre  approaching  monchiquite. 

Fig.     G.   (No.  32.)  Tinguaite-porphyry,  showing  large  crystal  of  nepheline. 

Fig.  7.  (No.  34.)  Tinguaite,  containing  aegerine-hornblende-augite,  nephe- 
line, cancrinite,  perthite,  and  anorthoolase. 

Fig.  8.  (No.  72.)  Tinguaite,  containing  segerine,  nepheline,  cancrinite, 
and  anorthoelase.  with  some  resorbed  amphibole. 

Plate  XIX. 

Kg.    9.  (No.  119.)  Theralite.     Large  twinned  schulerized  crystal  of  eegerine 

occupies  tlie  left-hand  half  of  figure;  the  balance  is  labrador- 
itc,  hornblende,  nepheline  and  augite  with  iron-ores. 

Fig.  10.  (No.  115.)  Microperthite  in  aplite. 

Pig.  11.  (No.  107.)  Tinguaite  showing  junction  of  normal  rock  with  leu- 
cocratic  patch. 


Hocken.— Early  Visits  of  the  French  to  New  Zealand.    137 

Fig.  12.  (No.  101.)  Vogesite.  The  phenocrysts  are  hornblende  and  augite, 
the  latter  having  a  border  of  segerine  set  in  a  groundmass 
of  which  the  larger  portion  is  an  alkaline  feldspar. 

Fig.  13.  (No.  100.)  Camptonite.  Augite  and  hornblende  phenocrysts  set 
in  a  ground  of  labradorite. 

Fig.  14.   (No.  95.)  Yogesite.     Crystals  of  augite  and  hornblende  set  in  a 

groundmass  of  anorthoclase,  with  a  little  augite. 

Note. — All  the  sections  are  to  a  magnification  of  26  diameters. 


Art.  XII.— Early  Visits  of  the  French  to  New  Zealand. 
By  Dr.  Hocken,  F.L.S. 

[Read  before  the  Otago  Institute,  \0th  September,  1907.] 

The  visits  of  French  voyagers  to  New  Zealand  form  a  feature 
of  great  interest  in  our  early  history,  and  it  may  with  truth 
be  added  that  by  them  much  of  the  first  work  of  exploration 
on  these  coasts  has  been  performed.  Their  contributions  to 
the  scientific  knowledge  of  the  country  were  not  only  of  an 
extensive  character,  and  of  the  highest  value,  but  were  also  the 
first  made  in  point  of  time,  if  we  except  the  comparatively 
scanty  contributions  made  during  Cook's  first  and  second 
voyages,  chiefly  by  Banks,  and  afterwards  by  the  Forsters, 
father  and  son.  If  there  be  time,  I  shall  refer  to  these  more 
fully  later  on ;  but  the  subject  grows  so  extensively  under 
one's  research  and  pen  as  to  be  incompressible  within  the  limits 
of  a  single  paper. 

The  strange  charm  and  romance  which  always  invested  old 
New  Zealand  with  a  halo  of  glory  peculiarly  its  own  seemed  to 
have  an  especial  attraction  for  the  vessels  of  the  French.  That 
halo  has  long  since  vanished,  never  to  return,  dissipated  by  the 
modern  methods  of  colonisation  and  trade,  steam,  and  electricity. 
Whilst  New  Zealand  must  ever  remain  the  world's  ultima  ihule, 
it  has  been  dragged  from  its  former  obscurity,  and  upon  it  must 
henceforward  beat  that  fierce  light  which  so  long  has  beaten 
upon  the  old  communities.  One  reason  for  this  great  attraction 
to  the  French  may  have  been  the  tragic  occurrence  of  nearly 
one  hundred  and  forty  years  ago,  when  Marion  and  so  many  of 
his  crew  were  murdered  by  the  Natives  at  the  Bay  of  Islands 
as  Cook  called  it,  but  the  Bay  of  Treachery  as  Marion's  country- 
men renamed  it. 

The  first  visit  of  the  French  to  New  Zealand  was  made  by 
Captain  De  Surville,  of  the  "  St.  Jean  Baptiste,"  so  far  back  as 


138  Transactio?is. 

December,  1769,  at  the  very  moment  when  Cook  was  exploring 
the  North  Island.  A  further  curious  fact  of  this  is  that,  though 
both  voyagers  were  within  a  few  miles  of  each  other,  neither 
knew  of  the  other's  proximity.  On  the  9th  December,  Cook 
discovered  and  named  Doubtless  Bay,  and  then  sailed  north  ; 
a  week  later,  De  Surville  entered  it,  at  which  time  Cook  was 
just  opposite,  sailing  down  the  west  coast  of  the  island,  which 
here  is  but  a  few  miles  across.  Unlike  the  great  commander, 
De  Surville  was  actuated  by  no  spirit  of  scientific  discoverv, 
but  by  the  greed  of  gain  and  the  search  for  gold.  Representing 
two  or  three  speculators,  he  had  sailed  from  Pondicherry,  the 
capital  of  the  French  possessions  in  India,  with  the  view  of 
discovering  a  wonderful  island  which  report  said  not  only 
abounded  in  gold  and  other  riches,  but  was  populated  by  a  curious 
colony  of  Jews.  For  six  months  he  traversed  the  Pacific  on  this 
unsuccessful  quest,  until  brought  up  by  the  New  Zealand  shores 
at  Doubtless  Bay,  into  which  he  sailed,  giving  it  the  very  British- 
sounding  name  of  Lauriston  Bay,  for  which  there  is  an  interesting 
explanation.  John  Law,  of  Lauriston,  near  Edinburgh,  is  quite 
an  historical  person  of  an  eventful  career,  which  for  present 
purposes  may  be  summarised  by  saying  that  he  emigrated  to 
France  in  1705,  where  he  initiated  various  wild  schemes  and 
speculations,  finally  becoming  Comptroller-General  of  Finance 
to  Louis  XV.  His  nephew  was  James  Francis  Law,  with  whom 
this  story  deals,  and  who  was  appointed  Governor  of  Pondi- 
cherry, the  capital  of  the  French  settlements  in  India.  This 
gentleman  seems  to  have  been  imbued  with  his  uncle's  speculative 
spirit,  for  it  was  he  and  a  friend,  M.  Chevallier,  who  chiefly 
fitted  out  the  "  St.  Jean  Baptiste  "  on  her  wild-goose  chase 
over  the  Pacific.  Thus,  in  compliment,  this  bay  was  named 
Lauriston,  and  a  creek  within  it  Chevallier.  There  is  always 
some  value,  and  interest  certainly,  in  recording  the  origin  of 
place-names,  so  apt  are  they  to  become  forgotten,  and  then 
unknown.  Within  this  beautiful  far-north  bay  now  lies  the 
Pacific  Cable  station,  its  small  staff  of  workers  alone  representing 
the  once  teeming  Native  population  which  long  ago  preceded 
to  Te  Reinga  those  who  now  are  so  quickly  following  them. 
De  Surville's  stay  extended  over  three  weeks,  and  during  this 
time  he  received  the  utmost  hospitality  from  the  Natives — a 
hospitality  which  he  shamefully  requited.  Many  of  his  sailors 
suffered  from  severe  illness,  and  it  was  necessary  to  bring  them 
ashore  ;  here  the  Natives  showed  every  kindness  to  the  invalids, 
assisting  them  with  food  and  shelter.  Their  miserable  state 
was  rendered  still  more  so  by  a  furious  storm  of  hurricane 
force,  of  which  Cook  makes  mention  ;  in  it  one  of  the  boats 
was  missing,  which  strict  inquiry  and  search  failed  to  recover. 


Hocken. — Early  Visits  of  the  French  to  New  Zealand.    139 

De  Surville,  rightly  or  wrongly,  suspected  the  Natives  of  having 
stolen  it,  and  on  this  assumption  resorted  to  most  cruel  measures, 
burning  their  houses  and  canoes,  maltreating  them,  and  finally 
taking  as  a  prisoner  on  board  his  vessel  the  chief  Naginoui,  who 
had  proved  himself  the  sick  sailors'  most  faithful  friend,  and 
had  offered  his  whare  to  them  as  a  shelter.  The  surgeon  of  the 
vessel,  Duluc,  thus  continues  the  story  :  "  I  was  greatly  sur- 
prised to  see  that  the  Indian  who  had  been  carried  on  board, 
tied  hands  and  feet,  was  the  chief  who,  directly  he  had  selected  a 
site  suitable  for  the  sick,  brought  me  some  dried  fish  in  the 
most  feeling  manner,  asking  for  no  payment.  No  sooner  had 
the  poor  fellow  recognised  me  than  he  threw  himself  at  my 
feet,  and  with  tears  in  his  eyes  implored  me,  so  far  as  I  could 
guess  his  words  to  mean,  to  protect  and  intercede  for  one  who 
had  helped  me  when  I  myself  so  greatly  needed  help.  I  explained 
as  well  as  I  was  able  that  he  should  suffer  no  harm.  He  clasped 
me  in  his  arms,  pointing  to  the  land  of  his  birth,  from  which  he 
was  being  torn.  Happily  for  me  the  captain  took  him  to  his 
cabin,  for  I  was  distressed  beyond  measure  to  witness  this  un- 
fortunate man's  dread  of  the  fate  before  him."  Poor  Naginoui 
did  not  long  survive.  The  sweetness  of  man's  flesh,  of  dried 
shark,  and  pounded  fernroot  were  for  him  no  more,  and  within 
two  months  after  his  cruel  abduction  he  died,  and  was  cast 
overboard,  when  the  vessel  was  off  Juan  Fernandez.  Those  who 
contend  for  retributive  justice  may  here  recognise  an  example 
in  the  conclusion  of  this  sad  story.  A  fortnight  later,  De  Surville 
was  drowned  whilst  attempting,  in  the  ship's  boat,  to  cross  the 
bar  of  Chiloa,  on  the  coast  of  Peru.  Thus  was  perpetrated,  so 
far  as  New  Zealand  is  concerned,  the  first  of  many  acts  of  cruelty 
and  injustice  on  the  part  of  the  white  man  from  which  the 
Natives  have  subsequently'  suffered.  Well  may  the  savage  take 
utu,  or  vengeance,  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  wrong  which 
his  rule  and  practice  impel  him  to  right.  The  Abbe  Rochon, 
who  collected  the  account  of  this  expedition  and  of  that  which 
follows,  published  them  in  a  volume  of  great  rarity,  concluding 
it  thus  :  "  But  the  manner  in  which  he  treated  those  Natives 
who  had  the  misfortune  to  come  across  him,  his  seizures  of 
defenceless  men  who  trusted  to  his  faith,  the  artifices  he  adopted 
to  deceive  those  who  had  the  good  sense  to  mistrust  him,  will 
always  be  a  stain  on  his  memory  in  the  eyes  of  those  who  have 
any  sentiment  of  humanity  and  justice."  Those  words  retain 
their  weight  and  application  until  to-day. 

The  next  visit  in  point  of  order  was  a  most  eventful  one,  and 
ended  in  terrible  catastrophe.  It  was  an  expedition  under- 
taken in  1771-72  by  Captain  Marion  du  Fresne,  an  able  and 
zealous  officer  of  the  French  marine,   who,  like  others  of  his 


140  Transactions. 

countrymen  at  this  time,  was  fired  by  the  desire  of  making  dis- 
coveries in  the  comparatively  unknown  South  Seas.     It  con- 
sisted, as  was  usual  in  those  days,  for  mutual  assistance  and 
support,  of  two  companion  vessels — the  "  Marquis  de  Castries," 
commanded  by  the  Chevalier  Duclesmeur,  and  the  "  Mascarin," 
commanded  by  Marion,  who  had  also  charge  of  the  expedition. 
The  vessels  sailed  from  Mauritius,  or  the  Isle  of  France,  as  it 
was  then  called.     The  course  taken  was  by  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  Van  Diemen's  Land,  New  Zealand,  Guam,  Manila,  and 
thence  home.     For  six  days  they  anchored  in  Frederick  Henrv 
Bay,    Van    Diemen's    Land,    searching,    but    unavailingly,    for 
water.     Their  reception  by  the  natives  was  of  a  very  unfriendly 
and,  indeed,  ferocious  kind.     One  incident  serves  to  show  how 
easy   it   is   to   misinterpret   the   actions   of   savages,  and   what 
unexpected   results  may    follow  therefrom.     When   M.    Marion 
landed,  a  savage  stepped  out  from  the  group  of  Natives  and 
offered  him  a  firebrand,  apparently  in  order  to  light  a  little 
pile  of  wood.     The  commander,  thinking  that  this  was  a  cere- 
mony intended  to  show  that  he  was  credited  with  pacific  inten- 
tions by  the  islanders,  did  not  hesitate  to  light  the  pile.     But 
it  immediately  appeared  that  this  was  quite  wrong,  and  that 
the  acceptance  of  the  brand  was  an  acceptance  of  a  defiance,  or 
a  declaration  of  war.     Thereupon,  with  a  fearful  cry,  the  whole 
mob   of   Natives   attacked  the   party  with   stones  and  spears, 
wounding  several.     The   Natives  are  described  as  of  ordinary 
height,   black,   with  woolly  hair  tied  in   knots    and  powdered 
with  red  ochre.     Several  had  on  the  skin  of  the  chest  those 
white  ornamental  scars  or  cicatrices  which  it  is  known  are  so 
common  amongst  Australian  blacks.     Finding  the  country  as 
wild  as  its  inhabitants,  Marion  sailed  for  New  Zealand,  and  it 
is  here  that  the  mournful  interest  of  his  voyage  lies.     For  a 
month — this  was  in  April,  1772 — the  vessels  were  lying  off  and 
on  the  west  and  north  coasts  of  the  North  Island,  and  here 
Marion  pays  a  high  tribute  to  the  chart  which   had  already 
been  laid  down  by  Cook,  and  by  which  he  was  steering.     "  I 
found  it,"  he  says,  "  of  an  exactitude  and  of  a  thoroughness  of 
detail  which  astonished  me  beyond  all  powers  of  expression, 
and  I  doubt  much  whether  the  charts  of  our  own  French  coasts 
are  laid  down  with  greater  precision."     At  last  the  anchor  was 
dropped  in  the  Bay  of  Islands,  not  far  from  the  island  of  Motuara, 
upon  which  the  sick  were  placed  and  a  guard  picketed.      The 
Natives  speedily  came  on  board,  unarmed,  and  with  the  greatest 
confidence,  and  soon  created  a  most  favourable  impression  upon 
the   visitors — a  very   different  one,   indeed,   from   that  of   the 
Van-Diemonians.     A  small  trade  or  barter  sprang  up,  and  in  a 
few  days  there  was  the  most  affectionate  feeling  between  the 


Hocken. — Early  Visits  of  the  French  to  Nciv  Zealand  x    141 

two  people.     The  Frenchmen  were  invited  to  visit  the  various 
settlements,  an  invitation  which  they  accepted,  always,  however,, 
taking  the  precaution  to  go  well  armed.     The  description  given 
of  their  villages  and  pas,  food,  implements,  clothing,  and  per- 
sonal qualities  is  alike  minute  and  interesting.    The  careful  obser- 
vations made  and  the  critical  faculty  displayed  in  this  voyage 
compare  well  with  those  of  present  ethnological  methods,  and  it  is 
satisfactory  to  see  in  that  accomplished  compendium  of  research 
on  the  Maori  and  Polynesian  which  has  recently  appeared  that 
Professor  Brown  has  availed  himself  of  Marion's  details.     Every 
assistance  was  given  them  whilst  procuring  kauri  spars.     They 
were  invited  everywhere,  everything  was  shown  them,  and  every 
gratification  and  dalliance  in  the  power  of  the  savages  to  be- 
stow was  bestowed.     And  so  passed,  for  the  rough  sailors,  a 
delightful  time — a  whole   month   in  paradise.      Gradually  any 
fears  or  suspicions  first  entertained  regarding  their  hosts  were 
'ulled.     They  penetrated  considerable  distances  into  the  country, 
returning  far  in  the  night,  and  accompanied  by  joyous  escorts 
of  Natives,  who  carried  them  when  tired.     So  far,  indeed,  was 
confidence    established,    that    Marion    gave    orders    that    boats 
visiting  the  shore  should  go  unarmed,  though  this  was  in  spite 
of  the  warnings  of  his  lieutenant,   Crozet,  who  constantly  re- 
minded him  of  Tasman  and  Massacre  Bay.     At  last  came  the 
catastrophe.     Marion,  with  fifteen  officers  and  men,  went  ashore, 
and  did  not  return  at  nightfall.     This,  however,  excited  no  sus- 
picion on  board  the  vessels.     The  following  morning  the  long- 
boat, with  eleven  men,  was  sent  ashore  for  wood  and  water. 
Shortly  afterwards  one  of  this  number  was  descried  swimming 
towards  the  ship.     A  boat  was  lowered  at  once,  and  the  man 
picked  up,   badly   wounded.     His  story  filled  every  one  with 
consternation    and    fury.      It    appeared    that    on    landing    the 
sailors  of  the  long-boat  were,  as  usual,  met  and  accompanied  by 
the  Natives  ;    they  separated  to  collect  their  supplies,  and  were 
then  attacked  furiously  by  the  Natives,   who  murdered  every 
one  with  the  exception  of  the  narrator,  who  succeeded  in  hid- 
ing himself  in  the  dense  bush.     It  was  at  once  apparent  that 
Marion  and  his  party  must  have  shared  the  same  fate.     An 
armed  detachment  was  immediately  sent  on  shore  to  render 
aid  to  two  or  three  Httle  depots  or  outposts.     This  was  success- 
fully accomplished,   and  Lieutenant   Crozet  skilfully   managed 
to  collect  all  his  tools  and  firearms,  and  to  conduct  his  party  of 
sixty  strong  along  the  sea-shore  to  the  point  of  re-embarkation. 
Now  came  the  exciting  moment.     They  were  followed  and  half 
surrounded  by  an  ever-gathering  throng  of  wild  savages  intent 
upon  an  attack,  who,  with  loud  yells,  tauntingly  shouted,  "  Ta- 
couri  mate  Marion,  Tacouri  mate  Marion  " — Tacouri  has  killed 


142  Transactions. 

Marion.     With  difficulty  Crozet  restrained  his  men  from  firing 
into  the  crowd,   promising  them  vengeance   when   safety  was 
insured.     A  thousand  men  had  crowded  on  them  by  the  time  the 
boats  were  reached,  and  these  were  launched  with  the  greatest 
difficulty.     With  a  wild  yell  the  savages  then  rushed  forward  to 
the  attack,  but  a  well-directed  volley,  followed  by  another  and 
another,  struck  them  with  panic,  and  averted  otherwise  certain 
massacre.     The  remainder  of  their  stay  in  New  Zealand,  whilst 
collecting  material  for  the  further  voyage,  was  one  of  incessant 
watch,  harass,  and  skirmish,  and  concluded  with  that  general 
reprisal  which  all  craved  for — villages  and  canoes  were  burnt, 
and  as  many  Natives  were  shot  as  failed  to  keep  out  of  harm's 
way.     Abundant  evidence  was  discovered  as  to  the  sad  fate  of 
their  lost  comrades.     Articles  of  clothing  were  found  or  seen  on 
the  persons  of  the  Natives  ;   Tacouri,  who  kept  well  out  of  reach, 
was    wearing    Marion's    scarlet    and    blue    mantle.     The    most 
sickening   proofs   of  cannibalism   abounded.     Gladly   at   length 
the  voyagers  pursued  their  homeward  voyage,  conferring  on  the 
scene  of  their  terrible  disaster  the  name  of  Port  de  la  Trahison — 
Bay  of  Treachery — Bay  of  Islands,  as  it  had  been  named  by 
Captain  Cook  two  years  before.     The  North  Island  was  taken 
possession  of  by  Marion  in  the  name  of  the  King,  and  by  him 
named  France  Australe,  but  it  is  needless  to  add  that  Cook  had 
in  this  matter  anticipated  him.     What  was  the  cause  of  this 
savage  outbreak,  which,  on  the  face  of  it,  appears  an  instance 
of  the  blackest  treachery  ?     Crozet  says,  "  They  treated  us  with 
every  show  of  affection  for  thirty-three  days,  with  the  intention 
of  eating  us  on  the  thirty-fourth."     The  Abbe  Rochon — a  friend 
of  Marion's,  and  the  editor  of  his  voyage— considered  it  an  ex- 
ample of  the  savages'  lex  talionis — revenge  taken  for  injuries 
done  by  De  Surville,  and  referred  to  above.     Captain  Dillon,  the 
discoverer  of  the  fate  of  La  Perouse,  was  told  by  the  Natives 
in  1827  that  a  quarrel  arose  with  the  seamen  about  a  fishing- 
seine.     Dr.   Thomson,   in   his   "  Story   of  New   Zealand,"    con- 
cludes that  it  was  due  to  some  violation  of  tapu  ;   and  the  Rev. 
Samuel  Marsden,  as  the  result  of  his  inquiries,  resorts  to  the 
same   conclusion.     I   am,    however,    inclined   to   consider   that, 
in  the  present  instance  at  least,  no  other  explanation  is  required 
beyond  that  of  the  perfidy  and  rapacity  which  are  such  eminently 
marked  traits  of  savage  character.     Long  afterwards  the  sicken- 
ing circumstances  of  the  event  found  a  place  in  New  Zealand 
song  and  story,  and  whenever  Frenchmen  visited  these  shores 
they  were  known  as  of  the  "  bloody  tribe  of  Marion  " — an  un- 
deserved   appellation.     They    were    also    called    the     '  Wiwis," 
doubtless  from  the  frequent  use  of  their  affirmative,  oui.     The 
work  in  which  this  eventful  expedition  is  preserved  was  pub- 


Hocken. — Early  Visits  of  the  French  to  New  Zealand.    143 

lished  in  1783,  and  is  of  great  rarity.  It  was  edited  by  the 
Abbe  Kochon,  who,  whilst  a  cleric,  was  also  an  accomplished 
geographer  and  extensive  traveller ;  he  should,  indeed,  have 
formed  one  of  this  unfortunate  expedition.  The  work  was  well 
translated,  edited,  and  illustrated  seventeen  years  ago  by  Mr.  H. 
Ling  Roth,  who,  unfortunately,  omits  the  quaint  plates  and 
charts  of  the  original  (seven  in  number),  the  preface  by  the 
Abbe  Rochon,  and  also  his  important  appendix  relative  to 
De  Surville.  The  omission  is  difficult  to  explain,  though  from 
the  preface  there  seems  to  be  some  perplexity  or  doubt  in  Mr. 
Roth's  mind  as  to  whether  there  was  more  than  one  original 
edition.  This  difficulty,  however,  was  laid  to  rest  in  a  review 
by  the  present  writer,  written  upon  the  appearance  of  Roth's 
translation.  It  will  be  observed  that  these  voyages  date  about 
and  shortlv  after  Cook's  first  voyage  and  discovery  of  New 
Zealand  in  "l  769-70. 

The  next  of  our  visitors  to  these  coasts  were  the  members 
of  that  interesting  expedition  sent  out  by  the  French  Govern- 
ment in  1791  to  search  fo>r  their  lost  navigator,  La  Perouse, 
of  whom,  it  will  be  remembered,*  no  tidings  whatever  had  been 
received  after  his  departure  from  Botany  Bay  in  March,  1788. 
The  vessels  of  the  expedition  were  the  "  Recherche  "  and  "  Espe- 
rance,"  under  the  command  of  Captains  Bruny  Dentrecasteaux 
and  Huon  Kermadec.  These  names  will  be  recognised  in  con- 
nection with  the  Huon  pine,  the  Kermadec  and  Recherche 
Islands,  and  Dentrecasteaux  Straits.  Two  or  three  days  in 
March,  1793,  were  spent  off  the  north  coast  of  New  Zealand 
in  intercourse  with  the  Natives,  but,  remembering  the  fatal 
disasters  that  had  befallen  Marion,  no  attempt  was  made  at 
landing,  and  the  vessels  passed  on  to  Tongatabu.  The  history 
of  this  voyage  was  written  by  Labillardiere,  the  celebrated 
naturalist.  It  was  he  who  first  brought  to  Europe  plants  of 
the  New  Zealand  flax,  which  he  successfully  cultivated  and 
experimented  on  with  regard  to  the  comparative  strength  of 
its  fibre.  It  may  be  added  that  though  the  quest  of  the  ex- 
pedition was  extensive,  and  extended  over  two  years,  no  clue 
whatever  was  found  of  La  Perouse's  missing  vessels,  the  "  Astro- 
labe "  and  "  Boussole."  The  mystery  that  for  forty  years, 
had  enveloped  them  like  an  impenetrable  cloud  was  dissipated 
by  a  countryman  of  our  own,  Captain  Dillon,  an  old  ship-captain, 
who  nearly  a  century  ago  plied  amongst  the  Pacific  islands, 
and  had  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  New  Zealand  wild  life 
of  that  date.  Following  up  the  slight  traces  of  a  few  glass  beads, 
buttons,  and  ornaments,  he  discovered  in  1827  the  undoubted 
fate  of  La  Perouse,  and  the  wreck  of  his  vessels,  which  occurred 
at  Vanikoro,  the  southernmost  island  of  the  Santa  Cruz  group. 


144  Transactions. 

For  these  services  he  was  made  by  the  King  of  France  a  Chevalier 
of  the  Legion  of  Honour,  and  received  a  pension  of  4.000  fr. 
a  year.  The  account  of  his  adventures,  and  of  this  search, 
is  of  the  most  enthralling  kind,  and  was  published  in  1829, 
followed  by  a  French  translation  in  1830. 

Returning  from  this  digression,  a  period  of  thirtv-one  vears 
elapsed  between  the  visit  of  Labillardiere  in  1793  and  that 
of  Lieutenant  Duperrey  in  1824.  But  during  this  period  New 
Zealand  had  been  rapidly  emerging  from  her  age-long  obscurity. 
Not  only  was  that  faint  figure  on  the  map — so  like  a  note  of 
interrogation— which  Tasman  had  allotted  to  her  now  replaced 
by  her  true  position  and  shape,  but  the  rough  whalers  and  sealers 
were  around  her  coasts,  and  for  ten  years  Mr.  Marsden  and 
his  missionaries  had  endeavoured  to  introduce  to  her  the  blessings 
of  the  Gospel  and  civilisation,  but,  alas  !  so  far  with  but  little 
success.  Duperrey  commanded  the  corvette  "  La  Coquille " 
during  her  voyage  round  the  globe,  and  he  spent  a  fortnight 
of  April  in  the  Bay  of  Islands,  which  was  the  rendezvous  of 
vessels  for  rest  and  refreshment.  Unfortunately,  the  history  of 
this  portion  of  his  visit  was  not  included  in  that  magnificent 
work  published  by  the  French  Government  descriptive  of  the 
voyage.  The  atlases  contain,  however,  eight  fine  plates  of  the 
Natives,  their  implements,  &c,  and  view  of  the  mission  premises 
at  Kerikeri.  This  deficiency  is,  however,  the  less  to  be  regretted, 
being  greatly  supplied  by  some  personal  observations  of  M. 
Dumont  D'Urville,  a  junior  officer  of  the  expedition,  to  whom 
later  reference  will  be  made,  and  a  geographical  memoir  on 
New  Zealand  by  M.  de  Blosseville,  also  a  junior  officer.  Both 
were  most  assiduous  in  collecting  information  from  whaling 
■captains,  Natives,  and  other  sources,  Math  the  result  that  much 
curious  and  valuable  information  not  met  with  elsewhere  is 
given  on  many  points.  D'Urville  describes  the  secrecy  and 
mystery  with  which  a  chief  entered  his  cabin,  carefully  shut 
"the  door,  and  then  produced  from  under  his  mat  a  beautifully 
tattooed  head,  which  he  offered  to  sell  for  a  little  gunpowder. 
With  great  delight  he  told  its  story,  and  pointed  out  its  beauties, 
showing  where  and  how  the  fatal  blow  had  been  delivered,  and 
where  a  dog  had  made  off  with  part  of  the  jaw,  beside  a  few 
other  similar  details  ;  but,  as  no  sale  was  effected,  the  chief 
declared  that  he  would  restore  the  head  to  the  tribe  with  which 
he  was  at  war,  and  so  restore  peace — another  way  of  offering 
the  olive  branch.  Whilst  the  sailors  revelled  in  the  haka  and 
other  dances  of  the  women,  the  chief  viewed  them  with  sovereign 
disdain  and  contempt.  But  let  there  be  a  war-dance,  his  aspect 
changed  at  once,  and  he  could  no  longer  preserve  the  dignity 
and  constraint  he  imposed  on  himself  in  the  presence  of  his 


Hocken. — Early  Visits  of  the  French  to  New  Zealand.    145 

new  friends  :  his  features  lighted  up,  his  eyes  rolled  in  their 
orbits,  his  knees  shook  convulsively,  he  thrust  his  tongue  out 
of  his  mouth,  and  presently,  in  spite  of  himself,  he  joined  heart 
and  soul  in  the  yells  and  leaps  of  the  warriors.  The  "  Coquille  " 
brought  down  with  her  from  Sydney,  in  polite  compliance  with 
Mr.  Marsden's  desire,  Mr.  George  Clarke  and  family,  who  had 
b^en  awaiting  a  suitable  opportunity  to  proceed  to  the  Bay 
of  Islands  as  one  of  the  band  of  missionary  settlers  there.  Mr. 
Clarke's  name  is  well  known  in  early  New  Zealand  history  as 
Protector  of  Aborigines,  an  appointment  conferred  on  him  by 
Governor  Hobson  in  1840,  and  filled  by  him  with  advantage 
to  both  colonists  and  Natives  during  the  stormy  period  of  those 
early  days. 

The  next  visit  to  bo  recorded  is  that  of  Captain  D'Urville, 
who  circumnavigated  the  globe  during  the  years  1826  to  1829. 
On  this  occasion  he  commanded  the  old  vessel  in  which,  as  junior, 
he  had  sailed  two  years  before  with  Duperrey  ;  but  now  her 
name  was  changei  from  the  "  Coquille  "  to  the  "  Astrolabe," 
in  memory  of  La  Perouse,  whose  sad  fate  was  yet  shrouded  in 
mystery,  and  still  unceasingly  deplored.  Her  crew  were  eighty 
in  number,  thirteen  of  whom  were  officers  and  scientific  men, 
and  as  such  their  names  will  ever  b3  held  in  repute — Quoy, 
Gaimard,  Lesson,  and  De  Sainson.  The  stay  in  and  about  the 
coasts  of  New  Zealand  extended  over  two  months — from  January 
to  March,  1827 — during  which  time  D'Urville  sailed  up  the 
west  coast  of  the  South  Island  from  about  Cape  Foul  wind, 
through  Cook  Strait,  and  along  the  whole  east  coast  of  the  North 
Island,  finally  departing  from  the  Bay  of  Islands.  Throughout 
this  course  he  added  greatly  to  our  geographical  knowledge, 
though  gained  in  the  face  of  violent  storms,  and  bos^t  more 
than  once  with  imminent  danger  of  shipwreck.  This  was  espe- 
cially the  case  whilst  exploring  Massacre  (or  Tasman's)  and 
Blind  Bays.  With  these  his  name  will  ever  be  associated  in 
D'Urville  Island,  Astrolabe  Roads,  the  Croixelles,  and  the  famous 
French  Pass,  through  which  at  ebb  and  flow  the  waters  rush 
with  all  the  fury  of  a  cataract.  He  first  sailed  through  these 
tumultuous  waves,  pointing  out  to  the  mariner  how  he  might 
thereby  save  twenty  miles  of  his  course  ;  and  the  story  of  those 
few  but  exciting  moments  is  told  with  such  dramatic  force  as 
to  be  worth  repeating.  He  is  now  about  to  proceed  northward 
from  his  anchorage  in  Tasman's  Bay  to  Admiralty  Bay,  through 
the  French  Pass.  ;'  Throughout  the  evening  and  the  night  the 
unvarying  east  wind  blew  with  fury  and  in  violent  gusts.  Our 
position  was  still  more  precarious  than  on  the  previous  nights, 
for,  had  we  drifted,  the  wind  would  have  driven  us  directly 
upon  the  reef  of  the  pass,  and  there  our  lot  could  not  have  been 


146  Transactions. 

doubtful.  At  last  day  broke,  with  better  auspices,  which  seemed 
to  promise  me  a  favourable  wind.  Not  to  neglect  anv  pre- 
cautions in  my  power,  I  pulled  to  the  S.E.  point  of  the  pass, 
and  climbed  to  the  summit  of  the  hill  which  overlooked  it. 
This  was  no  easy  matter,  owing  to  its  steepness  and  the  dense 
fern  which  clothed  it.  Arrived  at  the  top,  I  took  in  the  whole 
position,  and  concluded  that,  taking  even*  precaution,  I  could 
sail  through  the  narrow  channel.  Still,  my  eyes  were  not  blind 
to  its  danger,  and  to  the  fact  that  failure  meant  catastrophe. 
Involuntarily  my  gaze  turned  to  the  corvette,  so  beautiful,  so 
well  equipped  in  all  respects  to  perform  her  long  and  important 
voyage,  and  so  full  of  her  living  freight.  And  then  I  thought 
that  by  a  word  from  me  her  destruction  might  be  accomplished 
amongst  the  rocks  at  my  feet,  and  that  my  whole  crew  of  officers 
and  men,  who  so  long  had  dwelt  aboard  as  in  a  home,  might 
be  cast  on  the  inhospitable  shores,  perhaps  to  perish,  never 
again  to  see  their  relatives  and  friends.  Thoughts  such  as  these 
shook  my  resolution,  but  only  for  a  moment,  and  I  then  returned 
on  board  determined  to  try  my  fortune.  At  7  o'clock  the  anchor 
was  hove  and  dropped  again  6  fathoms  nearer  the  vessel.  Soon 
after,  the  breeze  becoming  steadier  and  more  moderate,  and  the 
sea  quieter,  I  determined  to  get  under  sail,  so  as  to  better  handle 
the  vessel.  We  had  taken  up  the  stream  cable  astern,  and 
faced  the  bows  so  as  to  catch  the  wind  the  moment  the  anchor 
was  raised.  All  this  was  quickly  done.  At  the  same  moment 
the  storm  trysails,  foresail,  and  foretopsail  were  unfurled,  and 
for  some  minutes  we  steered  well  ;  but  the  moment  we  entered 
the  pass,  the  impetuous  current  swept  us  to  port.  In  vain  I 
put  the  helm  hard  down,  and  clewed  the  sails  so  as  to  stand 
in  for  the  land.  The  corvette  refused  to  steer,  and,  mastered 
by  the  current,  she  could  not  avoid  being  carried  towards  the 
rocks  which  terminated  the  reef,  and  on  which  I  knew  there 
were  not  more  than  10  ft.  or  12  ft.  of  water.  Shortly  after, 
the  '  Astrolabe  '  touched  twice  ;  the  first  shock  was  slight,  but 
with  the  second  there  was  an  appalling  grinding  noise,  followed 
by  a  prolonged  shock.  In  a  moment  the  corvette  stood  still. 
and  listed  over  to  port,  which  gave  me  some  hope  that  she  was 
neither  on  the  rocks  nor  stove  in.  At  this  moment  the  crew 
raised  a  terrified  cry.  With  a  bold  voice  I  shouted  out,  '  It  is 
nothing  ;  we  are  clear.'  And,  indeed,  the  current,  sweeping 
the  vessel  along,  forbade  her  from  resting  on  the  fatal  rock, 
and  then  the  breeze  springing  up  enabled  us  again  to  steer,  and 
thus,  freed  from  our  fears,  we  glided  with  filled  sails  into  the 
peaceful  waters  of  Admiralty  Bay,  our  sole,  loss  being  a  few  frag- 
ments of  the  keel,  which  floated  in  the  eddy  around  us.  My  pre- 
occupation in  sailing  the  vessel  prevented  me  from  seeing  anything 


Hocken. — Early  Visits  of  the  French  to  New  Zealand.     147 

-else  around  me,  but  those  of  my  companions  who  could  give  more 
attention  said  it  was  a  magnificent  sight  to  see  the  '  Astrolabe  ' 
bending  down  as  though  to  allow  the  surrounding  whirlpools 
to  engulf  her,  and  then,  gracefully  rising,  sail  with  majesty 
through  them  to  the  quieter  waters  beyond."  Such  is  the 
thrilling  story  of  this  courageous  and  resourceful  sailor  who 
first  sailed  through  and  named  the  French  Passage.  Even  now, 
though  steam  has  robbed  it  of  every  danger,  the  passenger 
traverses  it  with  awe  and  bated  breath.  The  remainder  of 
M.  D'Urville's  stay  in  New  Zealand  was  marked  by  further 
dangers,  due  to  tempestuous  weather,  which  seems  to  have 
been  raging  round  its  coasts.  His  visit  to  the  Bay  of  Islands, 
however,  greatly  made  amends.  It  was  of  over  a  week's  dura- 
tion, and  he  was  warmly  received  by  his  former  friends  the 
missionaries,  the  brothers  Henry  and  William  Williams  espe- 
cially. He  made  extensive  surveys  along  the  eastern  coast, 
and  collected  valuable  information  regarding  the  Natives  and 
the  natural  history  of  the  country.  One  of  his  remarks  exhibits 
singular  prevision  where  treating  of  possible  future  settlement 
in  the  country.  His  points  of  selection  were  the  neighbourhood 
of  Cook  Strait,  and  then  the  Hauraki ;  fourteen  years  later  at 
these  spots  were  founded  Auckland  and  Wellington.  On  his 
return  to  France  the  results  of  this  expedition  were  printed 
by  the  Government  in  the  most  elaborate  and  sumptuous  manner 
in  eleven  octavo  volumes  of  letterpress  and  six  folios  of  accom- 
panying maps  and  illustrations.  These  consist  not  only  of  the 
history  of  the  voyage,  but  of  scientific  contributions  to  most 
departments  of  science,  and  all  are  of  great  value.  Two  of  the 
volumes  are  devoted  to  New  Zealand,  and  really  form  a  standard 
reference  on  the  subject,  and  although,  unfortunately,  but  little 
known,  are  well  worthy  of  translation.  In  one  closely  printed 
volume  of  800  pages  is  brought  together  from  every  source 
what  may  be  considered  the  chronicles  of  New  Zealand  from 
the  discovery  by  Tasman  to  date.  Altogether  our  indebtedness 
to  this  great  voyager  and  his  celebrated  companions  is  not  to 
be  overestimated.  His  name  remains  with  us  not  only  attached 
to  important  surveys,  but  also  to  many  of  our  New  Zealand 
plants. 

In  October,  1831,  Captain  Laplace,  in  the  discovery  vessel 
<c  La  Favorite,"  spent  a  week  at  the  Bay  of  Islands  to  rest  and 
refresh  his  crew,  enfeebled  and  almost  decimated  by  diseases  of 
tropical  climes.  Short  as  the  stay  was,  he  made  an  accurate 
survey  of  portions  of  this  large  bay,  many  of  its  inlets,  the 
Kawakawa  River,  and  adjacent  country.  The  charts  are  re- 
markably accurate,  of  artistic  beauty,  and  with  all  the  finish  of 
engravings.     To  him  again  are  we  indebted  for  further  early 


148  Transactions. 

and  complete  surveys.  The  results  of  Laplace's  interesting 
voyage  were,  like  those  of  his  predecessors,  issued  by  the 
French  Government  in  the  same  magnificent  style  of  type  and 
illustration,  and  again  showed  the  right  of  France  to  stand 
in  the  foremost  rank  of  cultivated  nations,  and  of  her  splendid 
recognition  and  aid  of  scientific  labour.  Unlike  D'Urville, 
who  abounded  in  facts  and  observations,  and  rejoiced  in  the 
details  of  his  travel,  Laplace  prefers  to  treat  his  subjects  from 
a  speculative  or  philosophic  side,  whether  they  be  the  manners 
and  customs  of  a  savage  people,  the  usages  of  people  more 
advanced,  or  the  growth  and  policy  of  a  young  colony.  H::s 
style  is  most  interesting,  as  where,  for  instance,  he  discusses 
the  policy  of  France  and  England  in  distant  seas,  the  punish- 
ment of  crime  by  penal  servitude,  and  the  development  of  Eng- 
land's colonies  of  New  South  Wales  and  Van  Diemen's  Land. 
Short  though  his  sojourn  was,  and  disagreeable  as  we  must 
conclude  it  to  have  been,  it  nevertheless  resulted  in  the  making 
of  some  early  history,  and  hence  has  a  special  interest  for  us. 
He  describes  the  Natives  as  filthy  and  detestable,  the  chiefs  as 
not  worthy  of  the  name,  and  the  women,  excepting  the  young 
girls,  as  disgusting  specimens  of  humanity.  Nor  has  he  much 
good  word  for  the  missionaries  ;  he  compares  them  unfavour- 
ably with  those  of  his  own  Church,  accuses  them  of  greed,  and 
bitterly  complains  of  their  refusal  to  render  assistance  to  his 
sick  sailors.  He  states,  what  was  certainly  untrue,  that  they 
spread  the  report  amongst  the  Natives  that  the  great  French 
vessel,  with  four  hundred  men  on  board,  had  come  for  the  pur- 
pose of  avenging  the  death  of  Marion  and  of  seizing  the 
country.  It  is  certain  that  he  saw  in  New  Zealand  no  man's 
land,  and,  unappropriated  as  it  was,  a  country  admirably  suited 
for  French  possession  in  the  Pacific,  and  it  is  probable  he  took 
no  pains  to  conceal  such  an  opinion.  Tie  this  as  it  ma.}',  the 
following  interesting  document  was  sent  to  King  William  by 
thirteen  chiefs,  who  thus  sought  his  protection.  It  was  signed 
by  them  the  day  after  the  "  Favorite  "  had  dropped  anchor  at 
Kororareka,  hence  her  arrival  was  not  unexpected  : — 

To  Kini:  William,  fche  gracious  chief  of  England. 
Kim;  William, — We,  the  chiefs  of  New  Zealand,  assembled  at  this 
place  called  the  Kerikeri.  write  to  thee,  lor  we  bear  that  thou  art  the  great 
chief  of  the  other  side  the  water,  since  (he  many  ships  which  come  to  our 
land  are  from  thee.  We  are  a  people  without  possessions.  We  have  no- 
thing hut  timber,  flax,  pork,  and  potatoes.  We  sell  these  things,  however. 
to  your  people,  and  then  we  see  the  property  of  Europeans.  It  is  only 
thy  land  which  is  liberal  towards  us.  From  thee  also  come  the  missionaries, 
who  leach  us  io  believe  in  Jehovah  God  and  in  Christ  His  Son.  We  have 
he.  rd  the  tribe  of  Marion  is  at  hand,  coming  to  take  away  our  land,  there- 
fore we  pray  thee  to  become  our  friend,  and  the  guardian  of  these  islands, 
lest  the  teasing  of  other  tribes  shwuld  come  near  to  us,  and  lest  strangers 


Hocken. — Early  Visits  of  the  French  to  New  Zealand.    149 

should  come  and  take  away  our  lands.  And  if  any  of  thy  people  should  be 
troublesome  or  vicious  towards  us  (for  some  persons  are  living  here  who 
have  run  away  from  ships),  ve  pray  thee  to  be  angry  with  them,  that  they 
may  be  obedient,  lest  the  anger  of  the  people  of  this  land  fall  upon  them. 
This  letter  is  from  us,  from  the  chiefs  of  New  Zealand. 

This  curious  document  evidently  bears  the  impress  of  the  mis- 
sionary hand,  which,  like  that  of  Laplace,  shows  patriotic  senti- 
ment. It  would  be  foreign  to  the  idea  of  this  paper  to  pursue 
this  episode  further,  and  it  must  suffice  to  add  that  the  out- 
come and -reply  was  the  appointment  in  1833  of  Mr.  James 
Busby  as  British  Resident  at  the  Bay  of  Islands.  The  letter  of 
the  chiefs  was  forwarded  to  the  Colonial  Secretary  at  New  South 
Wales  by  the  hands  of  the  Rev.  William  Yate,  the  missionary, 
in  order  to  be  transmitted  to  the  King. 

An  interval  of  more  than  six  years  now  elapsed  before  the 
next  two  visits  of  the  French,  and  these  followed  in  close  suc- 
cession, creating  increased  suspicion  and  alarm  amongst  the 
Natives.  In  April,  1838,  the  corvette  "  Heroine,"  under  com- 
mand of  Captain  Cecile,  anchored  in  the  Bay  of  Islands,  where  she 
remained  for  more  than  a  month.  Like  that  of  her  predecessors, 
part  of  her  business  was  to  survey  the  adjoining  shores,  and  to 
facilitate  the  work  small  flags  were  erected  on  various  points. 
The  Natives  concluded  that  this  indicated  the  first  steps  towards 
seizing  their  country,  and  in  great  excitement  sought  the  opinion 
and  advice  of  their  friend  and  principal  missionary,  Mr.  Henry 
Williams,  who  laughingly  allayed  their  fears.  The  wildest 
reports  fly  abroad  in  times  of  panic,  and  now  it  was  reported 
that,  as  the  missionaries  were  inciting  the  Natives  to  attack  the 
"'  Heroine,"  the  captain  had  taken  the  precaution  of  double- 
shotting  his  guns. 

Another  source  of  distress  and  alarm  which  specially  involved 
the  missionaries  was  the  arrival  shortly  before  of  the  French 
missionary,  Bishop  Pompallier.  This  was  followed  by  great 
excitement  and  ill  feeling,  the  Natives  taking  sides,  and  more 
than  once  placing  the  bishop  in  some  jeopardy.  To  quell  or 
allay  this  was  one  of  the  objects  of  the  corvette's  visit, 'and, 
though  amidst  military  salutes  and  salvos  of  artillery  the 
episcopal  dignity  was  speedily  secured,  no  real  peace  was  made 
between  the  contending  parties,  and  old  settlers  began  to  wonder 
what  was  the  next  move  on  the  board. 

A  few  months  later,  in  October  of  the  same  year,  the 
frigate  "  La  Venus,"  also  on  a  voyage  of  scientific  and  other 
discovery,  came  into  the  Bay  of  Islands,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Captain  Du  Petit- Thouars,  and  also  remained  a 
month.  The  vessel  had  then  arrived  from  Tahiti,  after 
inflicting  most  severe  —  and,  as  many  considered,  most  un- 
warranted—  punishment    on    Queen   Pomare   [and    her   unfor- 


3RAR 


150  Transactions. 

tunate  subjects.  The  offence  alleged  was  that  two  Roman 
Catholic  priests  who  had  landed,  desirous  of  promulgating  their 
faith,  were  forbidden  to  remain,  and,  refusing  to  leave,  were 
gently  if  forcibly  removed.  A  full  account  of  this  peculiar 
transaction,  which  finally  ended  in  the  cession  of  Tahiti  to 
France  in  1843,  is  given  in  "  Polynesian  Reminiscences  "  by 
Mr.  Pritchard,  the  British  Consul  at  Samoa  and  Fiji.  As  with 
the  other  voyages  published  by  the  French  Government,  that 
of  the  "  Venus "  is  magnificently  produced.  Three  hundred 
and  fifty  pages  relate  to  New  Zealand,  the  Natives,  Bishop 
Pompallier's  mission,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Lang's  '  Letters  to  the 
Earl  of  Durham "  regarding  New  Zealand,  and  to  Baron  de 
Thierry,  who  was  so  curiously  connected  with  the  early  history 
of  New  Zealand,  and  of  whom  many  pages  might  be  written. 
In  the  folio  atlas  is  a  view  of  a  Native  village,  an  excellent  chart 
of  the  Bay  of  Islands,  and  other  illustrations. 

In  March  and  April  of  1840  the  intrepid  D'Urville  paid 
his  third  visit  to  New  Zealand,  whilst  in  command  of  another 
voyage  of  discovery  round  the  world  and  towards  the  South  Pole. 
One  of  the  vessels  of  the  expedition  was  his  old  corvette  the 
"  Astrolabe,"  the  other  the  "  Zelee."  An  additional  feature 
of  interest  to  us  in  connection  with  this  visit  is  that  New  Zea- 
land had  become  a  British  colony  two  months  before,  so  that 
no  longer  might  France  covet  its  possession.  The  Treaty  of 
Waitangi  was  signed,  Captain  Hobson  was  in  supreme  command, 
and  •the  infant  settlement  was  full  of  speculation  and  excite- 
ment. All  this  is  well  described  by  D'Urville,  who  is  unsparing 
in  his  criticism  of  these  events.  His  first  stay,  however,  was  at 
the  Auckland  Islands,  at  that  time  full  of  the  bustle  and  activity 
of  whaling  and  sealing  parties,  and  he  relates  something  of 
this  wild  life  and  adventure.  Brought  up  by  a  wall  of  ice,  his 
efforts  to  reach  the  South  Pole  abruptly  terminated  after  reach- 
ing the  latitude  of  64°  S.  Returning  slowly  north,  and  roughly 
surveying  the  coast  past  Stewart  Island,  the  Molyneux,  and 
Cape  Saunders,  off  which  he  was  nearly  wrecked,  he  sailed 
inside  the  Otago  Heads,  then  a  whaling  settlement  belonging 
to  the  brothers  Weller,  of  Sydney.  The  description  of  the 
scenes  around  him  is  not  cheering.  The  Natives  especially  in- 
spired him  with  disgust — so  different  from  those  whom  he  had 
seen  on  his  previous  voyage  in  1828.  Contact  with  the  whalers 
had  ruined  them.  No  longer  were  they  the  proud  and  haughty 
savage  warriors  :  they  were  like  impudent  mendicants,  dressed  in 
filthy  rags,  their  hovels  miserable  and  poisonous,  with  a  little 
straw  on  the  ground  for  bedding.  Old  Taiaroa  is  specially 
singled  out  for  description.  The  whole  settlement  appears 
to  have  been  of  the  most  debased  kind  ;    but  it  is  not  necessary 


Hocken. — Early  Visits  of  the  French  to  New  Zealand.     151 

to  describe  it  further.     Still  proceeding  up  the  east  coast,  a 
short  stay  was  made  at  Akaroa  and  Banks  Peninsula. 

Five  months  later — in  August,  1840 — the  French  vessel 
"  Comte  de  Paris "  entered  the  Akaroa  Harbour  with  sixty 
emigrants  on  board,  only  to  find  her  arrival  anticipated  by  the 
English  man-of-war  "  Britomart."  With  a  more  detailed 
account  of  this  incident  this  paper  may  be  fitly  concluded.  It 
is  very  probable  that  D'Urville  had  knowledge  of  the  expected 
arrival  of  this  vessel,  in  which  case  his  visit  to  Akaroa — a  har- 
bour somewhat  difficult  of  approach  by  a  sailing-vessel  —  is 
explained.  He  did  not,  however,  hold  it  in  any  estimation  as 
a  place  for  settlement ;  it  was  somewhat  superior  to  Otago,  and 
that  was  the  outside  of  its  merits.  His  sojourn  at  the  Bay  of 
Islands  was  of  four  days'  duration  ;  but,  as  already  intimated, 
the  amount  of  information  he  and  his  officers  collected  regarding 
the  new  condition  of  things  was  very  extensive,  varied,  and 
certainly  not  favourable  to  the  English,  whom  he  apparently 
viewed  as  interlopers,  about  to  drive  away  all  trade  but  their 
own,  and  usurp  to  themselves  the  Bay  of  Islands,  hitherto  free 
to  all  nationalities.  Many  little  incidents  occurred  to  mark  as 
well  as  mar  his  short  sojourn.  Shortly  after  his  arrival  at 
the  Bay  of  Islands  Captain  Hobson's  secretary  paid  him 
an  official  visit,  offering,  on  behalf  of  Captain  Hobson,  any 
assistance  or  services  which  could  be  rendered.  The  inter- 
view was  formal  and  trivial,  and  any  discussion  on  the 
subject  of  taking  possession  was  avoided  by  D'Urville,  who 
concluded  the  interview  by  informing  the  secretary  that,  whilst 
happy  to  return  the  visit,  it  must  be  to  Captain  Hobson  simply 
as  an  officer  of  the  Royal  Navy,  and  not  as  the  Governor  of 
a  British  colony.  D'Urville  could  not  therefore  have  been 
astonished,  on  returning  the  visit,  to  find  the  Governor 
"  out,"  and  not  expected  to  return  until  the  evening.  He 
called  upon  Mrs.  Williams,  the  wife  of  the  missionary ;  her 
reception,  he  remarked,  was  cold,  but  polite.  Still,  he  had 
something  his  own  way.  The  1st  of  May  was  the  anniversary  of 
King  Louis  Philippe's  accession  to  the  throne,  and  this  he  cele- 
brated with  ceremonial  proper  to  the  occasion.  The  vessels 
were  dressed  in  flags,  and  a  thundering  salute  of  twenty-one 
guns  broke  the  echoes  of  the  surrounding  hills — a  proceeding 
thrice  repeated  during  the  day.  The  British  man-of-war 
"  Buffalo,"  from  Sydney,  dropped  her  anchor  early  the  same 
morning,  but  neglected  for  a  long  time  to  display  her  flag,  in 
compliment  and  in  accordance  with  the  etiquette  obtaining 
between  ships  of  war  of  different  nations.  The  "  Buffalo " 
was  evidently  sent  down  on  patrol  duty,  and  to  watch 
D'Urville's    movements,     for    as     his    vessels    finally    left    the 


152  Transactions. 

harbour  the  "Buffalo"  followed,  to  see  them,  as  it  were, 
safely  off  the  premises — a  proceeding,  says  D'Urville,  "  which 
did  not  in  the  least  touch  our  susceptibility,  but  amused 
us  greatly."  Upon  his  return  to  France,  D'Urville  devoted  him- 
self to  the  publication  of  his  great  voyage,  aided  by  many  col- 
laborators. Its  various  parts — twenty-three  volumes  in  all, 
octavo  and  folio,  costing  nearly  1,500  fr. — were  not  completed 
until  1853,  but  they  appeared  in  all  the  splendid  rendering 
that  the  French  Government  knew  so  well  how  to  bestow  upon 
them.  Alas  !  D'Urville  was  not  destined  to  see  much  of  his 
magnum  opus  through  the  press.  In  the  prime  of  his  life  and 
vigour — for  he  was  but  fifty-two  years  of  age — his  labours  were 
abruptly  terminated  by  a  frightful  catastrophe.  He,  his  wife, 
and  only  son  took  train  for  Versailles  on  the  2nd  of  May,  1842 — 
being  less  than  two  years  after  his  return — for  a  day's  pleasure. 
Shortly  after  starting  the  axle  of  one  of  the  carriages  broke 
when  the  train  was  at  full  speed,  involving  a  total  wreckage. 
The  carriages  and  engine,  piled  together,  took  fire,  and  seventy- 
four  of  the  unfortunate  passengers,  locked  in  the  carriages 
and  thus  helpless,  were  incinerated.  Amongst  them  was 
D'Urville  and  his  family,  their  remains  being  recognised  with 
difficultv.  So  perished  this  eminent  sailor,  a  loss  to  his  country 
and  to  science,  and  who,  despite  the  chagrin  and  annoyance 
expressed  in  his  last  pages  relating  to  New  Zealand,  had  a  warm 
sentiment  and  affection  for  British  people. 

In  conclusion,  and  to  complete  this  sketch,  I  return  to  the 
"  Aube,"  the  last  of  our  early  French  visitors,  to  which  is  at- 
tached another  episode  in  our  history.  The  full  and  authentic 
story — for  it  has  had  variations — was  told  by  me  in  a  former 
paper  many  years  ago,  and  again  in  the  columns  of  the  Argus 
during  the  progress  of  a  somewhat  warm  discussion.  It  need 
not,  therefore,  be  now  recounted  at  great  length.  Years  before 
this  colony  became  a  bright  ornament  of  the  British  Crown,  its 
shores  were  constantly  frequented  by  whalers  of  all  nationalities. 
Amongst  them  was  one  Captain  Langlois,  who  professed  to  have 
bought  from  the  Natives,  in  1836,  30,000  acres  on  Banks  Penin- 
sula, including  the  site  of  the  present  Town  of  Akaroa.  On  his 
return  to  France  he  induced  several  gentlemen — members  of 
mercantile  houses  in  Havre,  Nantes,  and  Bordeaux — to  form 
themselves  into  an  association  for  the  purpose  of  founding  a 
colony  in  New  Zealand.  It  is  said  that  Louis  Philippe  furthered 
the  project  with  substantial  assistance.  In  March,  1840,  ac- 
cordingly, the  whaling  vessel  "  Comte  de  Paris  "  sailed,  under 
the  command  of  Captain  Langlois,  with  sixty  souls  on  board, 
and.  after  a  voyage  of  five  months,  reached  Akaroa  on  the 
lfith   of   August.      The   day  before  —  the    15th — the   corvette 


Hocken. — Early  Visits  of  the  French  to  New  Zealand.    153 

"  LTAube,"  one  of  the  French  squadron  maintained  for  the 
purpose  of  looking  after  the  interests  of  the  French  whalers  in 
the  Pacific  seas,  arrived  at  Akaroa  from  the  Bay  of  Islands  to 
act  as  tender  or  convoy  to  the  expected  emigrant  vessel.  What 
must  have  been  the  intense  chagrin  and  annoyance  of  her  com- 
mander, Captain  Lavaud,  to  find  that  H.M.S.  ;'  Britomart," 
Captain  Owen  Stanley,  had  anticipated  him  by  four  days,  and 
that  the  British  flag  was  floating  and  British  authority  already 
established  !  The  fact  was  that  immediately  on  learning  the 
mission  of  the  French  war-vessel  Captain  Hobson  despatched  on 
this  service  the  "  Britomart,"  then  lying  at  anchor  in  the  Bay 
of  Islands.  That  old  and  well-known  settler  Captain  William 
Barnard  Rhodes — familiarly  known  as  ;'  Barney  Rhodes  " — 
did  a  good  service  at  that  time  which  should  here  be  recorded. 
In  November,  1839,  he  and  his  partners,  Messrs.  Cooper  and 
Holt,  who  conjointly  traded  between  New  South  Wales  and 
New  Zealand,  sent  several  head  of  cattle  to  Akaroa.  Receiving 
private  information  that  the  French  emigrants  might  be  expected 
there,  Captain  Rhodes  lost  no  time  in  erecting  a  large  flagstaff 
on  the  spot  now  known  as  Green's  Point,  and  gave  instructions 
to  Green,  who  had  charge  of  his  cattle,  that  when  the  French 
arrived  he  was  to  hoist  the  British  flag,  drive  the  cattle  under 
it,  and  inform  the  officer  on  landing  that  the  South  Island  had 
been  taken  possession  of  for  the  Queen  by  Messrs.  Rhodes, 
Cooper,  and  Holt.  Whatever  may  or  might  have  been  the 
legal  value  of  such  precautions  taken  by  a  non-official  subject 
of  Her  Majesty  it  is  needless  to  discuss  ;  but  they,  at  any  rate, 
exhibited  patriotism,  foresight,  and  ingenuity.  Probably  the 
deeds  of  both  Captain  Stanley  and  of  Captain  Rhodes  were  really 
unnecessary,  inasmuch  as  Colonel  Bunbury  had  taken  formal 
possession  of  the  South  Island  at  Cloudy  Bay  on  the  17th  June, 
1840,  two  months  previously. 

Long  ago  has  the  warm  sentiment  of  mutual  respect  and 
friendship  dissipated  the  envy  and  ill  feeling  which  once  dis- 
figured the  great  French  and  British  nations.  Now  they  are 
close  friends  and  allies,  and  through  the  long  future  may  there 
be  but  one  rivalry  between  them — that  of  best  helping  forward 
whatever  advances  the  progress  of  humanity  and  knowledge. 


154  Transactions. 


Art.   XIII. — The  Passing  of  the  Maori :    An  Inquiry  into  the 
Principal  Causes  of  the  Decay  of  the  Pace. 

By  Archdeacon  Walsh. 

[Read  before  the  Auckland  Institute,  8th  July,  1907.] 

That  the  Maori  is  gradually  though  rapidly  passing  away  there 
can  be  no  doubt.  Any  one  who  has  lived  for  even  a  few  years 
in  the  Maori  country,  or  who  has  visited  the  Native  districts 
from  time  to  time,  has  the  fact  forced  upon  him.  The  large 
kaingas  have  shrunk  to  a  fraction  of  their  former  size  ;  many 
of  the  smaller  ones  have  disappeared  altogether  ;  tribal  gather- 
ings that  ten  or  twenty  years  ago  mustered  thousands  now 
barely  muster  hundreds  ;  the  Native  contingent  is  less  and  less 
conspicuous  at  the  race  meetings,  agricultural  shows,  and  other 
country  gatherings  ;  while  the  picturesque  groups  and  figures 
that  once  gave  such  interesting  variety  to  the  city  and  town 
populations  are  now  the  exception  rather  than  the  rule.  In 
spite  of  various  statements,  based  on  census  returns  and  on 
local  personal  observation,  that  the  Maori  is  holding  his  own, 
or  even  increasing  in  numbers,  the  fact  is  patent  that,  taking  it 
as  a  whole,  the  race  is  fast  dying  out,  and  that,  if  the  decay 
continues  at  the  present  rate,  a  comparatively  short  time  will 
witness  its  extinction,  though  perhaps  for  a  few  generations  some 
gradually  diminishing  traces  of  mixed  blood  may  be  observable 
in  the  white  population.  The  object  of  the  present  papei  is  to 
try  and  trace  some  of  the  principal  causes  that  have  combined 
to  produce  this  wholesale  and  rapid  decay. 

Maximum  Population. 

Most  of  the  present  Maori  tribes  trace  their  origin  from  the 
great  heke  or  Polynesian  migration  which  occurred  some  five 
hundred  years  ago;  but  there  is  abundant  evidence  that  the 
country  was  already  occupied  by  a  numerous  population,  with 
whom  sooner  or  later  the  Polynesian  immigrants  came  into 
collision.  These  original  inhabitants  seem  to  have  been  of  a 
peaceable  disposition,  and  tradition  states  that  they  were  often 
the  victims  of  a  wholesale  slaughter.  As  is  usual  in  such  cases, 
once  the  strength  of  the  beaten  party  was  sufficiently  broken 
the  remnant  of  the  able-bodied  men  would  be  taken  for  slaves 
and  the  women  for  wives,  when  the  aboriginals  would  be  ab- 
sorbed in  the  invaders,  who  increased  and  multiplied  until  they 


Walsh. — The  Passing  of  the  Maori.  155 

practically   occupied  all  the   open   fertile    land    of    the   North 
Island,  as  well  as  a  considerable  portion  of  the  South. 

At  what  period  this  mixed  race — to  which  the  present  in- 
quiry is  confined — reached  its  maximum  it  is  quite  impossible 
to  say,  nor  can  we  even  approximately  guess  the  number  they 
may  have  reached.  Doubtless  the  population  was  at  all  times  a 
fluctuating  one  ;  and  as  the  tribes  grew  in  strength,  a  natural 
desire  for  expansion,  a  dispute  over  territory,  or  some  other 
cause  would  bring  them  into  collision,  and  the  quarrel  once 
started  would  often  develop  into  a  war  of  extermination.  In 
these  disputes  allies  would  be  sought  on  either  side,  combinations 
of  adjacent  tribes  would  be  formed,  and  the  fight  would  go  on 
to  a  finish,  or  until  both  sides  were  exhausted,  and  by  the  time 
the  final  battle  was  fought,  or  a  truce  arrived  at,  a  whole  dis- 
trict would  be  almost  depopulated.  By  degrees,  however,  the 
tribes  that  were  not  wholly  extinguished  would  be  nursed  up 
again  :  new  alliances  would  be  formed,  and  in  time,  under 
favourable  conditions,  the  population  would  be  brought  up  to, 
or  might  even  exceed,  its  former  numbers. 

Captain  Cook  estimated  the  Maori  population  at  the  time  of 
his  visits  to  New  Zealand  (A.D.  1769-74)  at  about  a  hundred 
thousand ;  but  his  estimate  is  no  more  than  a  rough  guess 
based  on  very  imperfect  data.  It  must  be  recollected  that  his 
observations  extended  only  to  a  very  partial  acquaintance  with 
the  coast-fine,  that  he  never  penetrated  inland,  and  that  even 
on  the  coast  he  entirely  missed  some  of  the  most  populous  dis- 
tricts. Waikato,  the  Hot  Lake  country,  the  Auckland  Isthmus, 
Kaipara,  Hokianga,  and  many  other  places  teeming  with  popu- 
lation had  for  him  no  existence,  and  any  information  he  might 
have  acquired  from  Native  sources  would  be  too  vague  to  form 
the  basis  of  an  opinion. 

There  is  abundant  evidence  to  prove  that  Captain  'Cook's 
estimate  was  far  too  low.  This  evidence  lies  chiefly  in  the 
marks  of  occupation  which  the  Maoris  have  left  in  the  multitude 
of  fortified  positions  and  in  the  immense  area  of  land  bearing 
traces  of  former  cultivation.  The  number  and  size  of  the  pas 
throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  North  Island  is 
amazing.  Judge  Maning  states*  that  from  the  top  of  one  pa 
he  had  counted  twenty  others  within  a  range  of  fifteen  or  twenty 
miles,  and  along  the  Oruru  Valley  a  range  of  hills  four  or  five 
miles  long  has  nearly  every  summit  scarped  and  terraced, 
some  of  the  works  being  so  extensive  that  it  would  take  a  thou- 
sand men  to  hold  the  position  and  probably  a  far  greater  number 
to  construct  the  works.     In  regard  to  the  area  of  land  formerly 

*  "  Old  New  Zealand,"  Chap.  xiii. 


156  Transactions. 

under  cultivation,  practically  all  the  open  fertile  country  of  the 
North  Island  shows  unmistakable  signs  of  agricultural  opera- 
tions. The  clay  hill-sides  of  the  north  are  covered  with  surface 
drains,  the  volcanic  plains  of  Taranaki  are  perforated  with 
the  ruas  or  storage-pits,  all  over  the  Waikato  delta  the  pumice 
land  has  been  excavated  for  sand  to  spread  over  the  kumara 
plantations  :  every  narrow  river -valley,  every  little  shingle  patch 
along  the  coast,  and  every  sheltered  nook  under  the  sea-cliffs 
has  been  utilised ;  even  on  the  rocky  scoria  flats  the  loose  stones 
have  been  laboriously  gathered  into  heaps  to  clear  the  ground 
for  the  early  crops. 

It  is  not,  of  course,  to  be  supposed  that  anything  like  the 
total  number  of  the  pas  or  the  entire  area  of  cultivated  land 
were  occupied  at  any  one  time.  Tribes  would  be  driven  off. 
and  whole  tracts  of  land  would  be  deserted,  perhaps,  for  a  long 
period  ;  and,  even  where  the  inhabitants  were  unmolested,  the 
land  would  be  temporarily  worn  out  and  new  pieces  brought 
under  cultivation.  Many  of  the  pas,  moreover,  were  built  only 
to  serve  some  temporary  purpose,  while  many  more  would  be 
deserted  for  a  new  site  to  suit  the  varying  fortunes  of  the  occu- 
pants. If  the  fighting  strength  of  a  pa  was  much  reduced,  a 
large  fortification  would  be  untenable,  and  a  new  one  of  more 
modest  dimensions  would  be  constructed  on  another  spot ;  while . 
if  the  numbers  greatly  increased,  a  more  roomy  situation  would 
have  to  be  found.  Still,  taking  all  this  into  consideration — and 
even  allowing  that  many  of  the  pas  may  have  been  of  pre- 
Hawaikian  origin — the  traces  of  occupation  are  so  extensive  that 
it  is  safe  to  estimate  the  population  before  the  decav  com- 
menced, not  at  one,  but  at  many  hundreds  of  thousands. 

Commencement  of  Decay. 

Some  writers,  in  attempting  to  account  for  the  rapid  dis- 
appearance of  the  Maori,  have  put  forward  a  theory  that  the 
race  was  already  in  an  advanced  stage  of  decay  by  the  time  of 
Captain  Cook's  discovery.  It  is,  of  course,  possible  that  a  period 
of  internecine  strife  of  more  than  common  intensity  may  have 
occurred  which  for  the  moment  would  have  reduced  the  popula- 
tion ;  but  the  Maoris  were  a  healthy,  vigorous,  and  prolific 
race,  and  a  season  of  comparative  political  rest  would  have  boob 
brought  them  up  to  their  normal  numbers.  They  had  not  yet 
entered  on  that  condition  of  decadence  whose  lines  are  gradually 
though  surely  converging  to  a  vanishing-point.  However  humi- 
liating to  the  self-esteem  of  the  white  man,  it  must  be  confessed 
that  it  is  the  contact  with  European  civilisation  that  has  proved 
the  ruin  of  the  race.  From  the  moment  that  the  pakeha  found 
&  footing    in    the  country,    by   an    inevitable   chain  of  causa- 


Walsh. — The  Passing  of  the  Maori.  157 

tion  the  thousands  have  dwindled  into  hundreds,  and  the 
hundreds  to  tens,  until  the  dying  remnant,  of  lowered  physique 
and  declining  birth-rate,  are  the  sole  representatives  of  perhaps 
the  finest  aboriginal  people  the  world  has  ever  produced. 

Firearms. 

One  of  the  first  steps  towards  the  extinction  of  the  Maoris 
was  the  acquisition  of  firearms.  Two  or  three  guns  made  a 
war-party  practically  invincible  when  the  enemy  was  unprovided 
with  these  weapons.  When  the  Maoris  heard  the  report,  and 
saw  the  warriors  fall  without  apparently  being  struck,  they 
thought  that  some  of  the  atuas,  or  ancestral  deities,  had  come 
down  to  join  in  the  fight,  and  a  wild  panic  and  general  stampede 
would  ensue,  when  they  would  be  butchered  without  resistance 
with  the  spear  and  mere.  "  We  can  fight  against  men,"  they 
said,  "  but  who  can  fight  against  the  gods  ?  " 

The  first  recorded  instance  of  the  use  of  the  new  weapon  in 
Maori  warfare  was  in  the  case  of  a  small  party  of  Ngapuhi  who, 
with  only  two  old  flint-lock  guns,  made  a  raid  down  the  west 
coast  of  the  North  Island  in  about  1818.  After  every  battle 
they  stopped  to  feast  on  the  slain,  and  took  care  that  no  sur- 
vivors were  left  to  carry  the  alarm  to  the  next  settlement.  About 
the  same  time  another  party  of  the  same  tribe  made  a  similar 
expedition  along  the  east  coast  as  far  as  Tauranga.  But  these 
adventures  were  as  nothing  to  those  carried  out  a  few  years 
later  by  the  great  chief  Hongi  Ika,  who  about  this  time  became 
head  over  the  various  branches  of  the  Ngapuhi,  who  extended 
from  the  Bay  of  Islands  to  Hokianga. 

Hongi  was  well  acquainted  with  the  ways  of  the  pakeha,  and 
had  already  witnessed  the  effect  of  his  weapons.  If  he  could 
only  secure  a  sufficient  supply  of  arms  and  ammunition  he  could 
make  himself  supreme  ruler  of  the  whole  Maori  race.  He  had 
helped  to  welcome  the  Rev.  Samuel  Marsden  to  the  country, 
and  had  taken  the  infant  mission  settlement  at  Rangihoua 
under  his  protection  ;  and  when  in  1820  one  of  that  body — 
Mr.  Thomas  Kendal — proposed  to  go  to  England  to  help  in 
bringing  out  a  Maori  dictionary  and  grammar,  he  volunteered  to 
accompany  him  and  assist  him  in  the  work.  On  his  arrival 
Hongi  was  presented  to  King  George  IV,  and  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  a  number  of  influential  persons,  who  were  greatly  taken 
with  his  intelligence  and  his  professed  desire  for  the  improve- 
ment of  his  people.  His  modest  request  for  a  bodyguard  of 
twenty  soldiers  was  discouraged,  and  his  attempt  to  procure 
any  quantity  of  weapons  met  with  no  success.  The  King, 
however,  made  him  a  present  of  a  suit  of  armour,  while  the 
good  people  who  credited  his  benevolent  intentions  gave  him  a 


158  Transactions. 

number  of  ploughs,  harrows,  &c,  to  help  him  in  his  work  of 
civilisation. 

On  reaching  Sydney — at  that  time  the  distributing  port  for 
the  colonies — he  managed  to  exchange  his  stock  of  agricultural 
implements  for  a  number  of  muskets,  which,  with  others  that  his 
people  had  already  acquired  from  the  whalers  in  the  Bay  of 
Islands,  brought  his  armoury  up  to  three  hundred  pieces,  with  a 
proportionate  amount  of  ammunition.  Landing  in  New  Zea- 
land, he  found  his  own  people  at  war  with  the  Natives  of  Hau- 
raki,  or  Thames  district,  and  here  for  the  first  time  he  tried  the 
effect  of  his  new  weapons,  when,  after  burning  all  the  villages 
and  killing  hundreds  on  the  field  of  battle,  he  brought  two  thou- 
sand prisoners  home  to  the  Bay  of  Islands. 

This  was  in  1821,  and  for  the  next  ten  years  Hongi  kept 
the  whole  country  in  fire  and  bloodshed,  making  an  expedition 
every  year.  If  a  tribe  helped  the  people  with  whom  he  happened 
to  be  engaged  that  tribe  would  be  the  next  to  receive  his  attention. 
When  preparing  for  a  campaign  he  would  hoist  his  flag — a  red 
blanket — over  his  pa,  and  send  messengers  to  the  various  sub- 
tribes  in  the  neighbourhood  ;  and  should  any  of  these  have  the 
hardihood  to  refuse  to  supply  a  contingent,  they  had  to  reckon 
with  him  on  his  return.  In  this  way  he  successive!}'  raided 
the  Thames,  the  Waikato,  the  Auckland  district,  Rotorua, 
Poverty  Bay,  Kaipara,  &c,  finishing  with  Whangaroa,  where  he 
received  a  shot  through  the  lungs,  which  eventually  caused  his 
death.  It  is  estimated  that  at  least  one-fourth  of  the  total 
number  of  Maoris  in  New  Zealand  perished  in  these  wars,  and 
probably  another  fourth  were  swept  away  in  the  raids  of  Waharoa, 
Te  Wherowhero,  and  Rauparaha,  the  latter  of  whom  penetrated 
as  far  as  Kaiapohia  (Kaiapoi),  in  the  middle  of  the  South  Island. 
When  we  reflect  that  the  warriors  engaged  were  the  very  flower 
of  the  Maori  people,  we  can  understand  that  the  loss  to  the  race 
was  quite  beyond  numerical  computation. 

The  Price  of  the  Guns. 

Once  the  deadly  effect  of  the  new  weapon  had  been  realised, 
the  possession  of  a  sufficient  number  of  muskets  became  absolutely 
necessary  lor  the  existence  of  a  tribe,  and  the  whole  country 
from  the  northern  peninsula  to  Cook  Strait  —  became  engaged  in 
a  frantic  struggle  to  obtain  the  wherewithal  to  purchase  a  supply. 
Dressed  flax  (PhorutiuiH  lenar)  was  the  only  article  of  sufficient 
value  to  offer  in  exchange.  A  ton  of  this  material  fetched  £120 
in  the  Sydney  market,  and  a  ton  was  the  price  of  a  gun  worth 
perhaps  half  that  number  of  shillings.  In  order  to  waste  no- 
time,  and  to  be  near  their  work,  the  Maoris  deserted  the  high 
and  airy  situations  of  the  pas,  and  lived  in  makeshift   wharcs  oil 


Walsh. — The  Pas&ing  of  the  Maori.  159 

the  low  swampy  grounds  where  the  raw  material  was  to  be 
found  ;  and  here,  their  cultivations  neglected,  overworked  and 
half-starved,  men,  women,  and  children  toiled  night  and  day  for 
months  together— spurred  by  the  penalty  of  death — scraping  the 
flax-leaves  strip  by  strip  with  a  sharp  shell.  The  mortality,  as 
might  be  expected,  was  appalling.  Men  and  women  sickened 
and  died,  and  few  children  were  reared.  In  fact,  the  entire  race 
was  put  to  a  strain  from  which  it  has  never  recovered.* 

The  flax  was  gathered  up  by  traders  from  Sydney,  who 
cruised  round  the  coast  in  smart  schooners,  fitted  with  boarding- 
nettings,  and  carrying  an  armed  crew.  Their  logs  were  not 
generally  published,  but  many  stories  are  told  of  the  inhuman 
atrocities  they  committed  in  their  intercourse  with  the  Natives. 
Every  skipper  was  a  law  unto  himself,  and  he  settled  the  "  Native 
difficulty  "  in  his  own  way  as  he  went  along. 

One  of  the  heaviest  prices  paid  for  the  guns — and.  in  its 
far-reaching  effects,  one  of  the  principal  causes  of  the  decay 
of  the  Maoris — was  the  institution  known  as  that  of  the  "  ship- 
girls."  From  the  time  of  Captain  Cook,  the  unmarried  women 
were  always  very  free  in  their  intercourse  with  the  ship's  com- 
panies, and  as  the  visits  of  vessels  became  more  numerous  this 
intercourse  took  the  form  of  an  organized  trade.  About  the 
beginning  of  the  last  century  the  Sydney  whalers  commenced 
to  come  to  the  New  Zealand  waters,  and  by  the  third  decade 
they  appeared  in  considerable  numbers,  as  many  as  thirty-five 
la  rue  ships  sometimes  lying  together  off  the  beach  at  Kororareka, 
in  the  Bay  of  Islands,  where  about  a  thousand  white  people — 
escaped  convicts,  ticket-of-leave  men,  runaway  sailors,  and  other 
adventurers — were  congregated.  The  ships  usually  remained  in 
harbour  for  several  months  every  summer,  victualling,  refitting, 
&c,  and  during  this  time  it  was  not  uncommon  for  the  captain 
to  take  a  temporary  wife,  while  a  number  of  girls  lived  more 
or  less  promiscuously  with  the  sailors  and  with  the  people  on 
the  shore. 

Owing  to  the  number  killed  in  battle  during  Hongi's  wars 
the  women  greatly  outnumbered  the  men.  Every  year,  at  the 
commencement  of  the  "  season,"  the  chiefs  would  muster  the 
young  widows  and  girls  in  the  various  outlying  settlements,  and 
convev  them  in  parties  to  the  Bay  of  Islands,  when  they  were 
regularly  farmed  out,  the  district  of  Hokianga  alone  contributing 
some  two  hundred.  For  several  months  these  future  mothers 
of  the  race  lived  in  the  wildest  debauch,  the  proceeds  of  the 
trade  being  chiefly  spent  in  the  purchase  of  guns  and  ammuni- 
tion.    Arms  had  to  be  got,  whatever  might  be  the  cost. 

*  Of.  "  Old  New  Zealand,"  Chap.  xiii. 


160  Transactions. 

Though  Kororareka  bore  such  an  infamous  reputation  as 
to  merit  the  title  of  the  "  Alsatia  of  the  Pacific,"  the  place  was 
not  singular  in  this  inhuman  abuse.  Wherever  a  ship  put  in. 
the  same  game  went  on  to  a  greater  or  less  degree.  At  Hokianga. 
when  a  ship  came  for  a  load  of  the  kauri  spars  for  which  this 
port  was  noted,  she  would  fire  a  salute  as  she  sailed  up  the  river, 
and  by  the  time  the  anchor  was  dropped  the  canoes  would  be 
seen  paddling  down  from  the  tributary  streams  filled  with  an 
excited  crowd  of  men  and  women,  the  former  to  help  to  load  the 
vessel  and  the  latter  to  live  with  the  sailors  while  the  work- 
was  going  on. 

Long  after  the  festive  days  of  Kororareka  and  Hokianga 
were  a  thing  of  the  past  the  traffic  lingered  on  in  the  timber 
districts,  and  even  the  bushman  on  the  tramp  would  have  con- 
sidered himself  inhospitably  treated  if  on  arrival  at  a  Maori 
settlement  a  young  girl  were  not  allotted  to  him.  along  with 

free  lodgings  and  the  best  food  the  village  could  afford. 

I 

Waipiro. 

It  is  stated  that,  contrary  to  what  is  usual  amongst  savage 
peoples,  the  Maoris  on  their  first  contact  with  Europeans  did 
not  take  readily  to  ardent  spirits.  On  the  contrary,  they  showed 
such  an  aversion  that  they  gave  them  the  name  of  wai-}>ir<> 
(stinking  water),  and  refused  to  touch  them  after  a  first  trial. 
The  taste  probably  first  came  with  the  association  with  the 
sailors  just  described,  as  well  as  with  the  shore  whalers,  who  had 
their  stations  all  along  the  coast  from  the  extreme  north  down 
to  Stewart  Island.  But  after  a  time  the  craving  for  intoxicating 
drink  became  the  ruling  passion,  and  the  money  no  longer  required 
for  the  purchase  of  arms  was  spent  in  securing  a  supply.  It 
almost  seemed  as  if  the  system,  weakened  by  the  fatigues  of 
war,  privation,  and  vice,  required  some  kind  of  a  stimulant. 
and  for  many  years  every  Land  Court,  tribal  meeting,  marriage, 
and  funeral  was  the  scene  of  unlimited  indulgence.  The  evil 
woidd  not  have  been  as  great  as  it  was  had  the  liquor  been  of 
even  average  quality;  but  a  special  brand  was  stipplied  for  the 
"  Native  trade,"  which  was  maddening  in  its  immediate  effect 
and  poisonous  in  its  ultimate  results,  (asks  of  adulterated  beer 
and  kegs  of  doctored  rum  were  carted  out  to  the  pas,  while 
belated  stragglers  from  the  publichouses  might  be  seen  trying 
to  struggle  borne,  or  lying  l>v  the  wax-side  in  a  comatose  con- 
dition—women unable  to  suckle  their  babies,  and  the  men  unable 
to  help  them  along. 

This  craze  went  on  for  more  than  a  generation,  more  or  less,. 
all  over  the  country;  but  about  twenty  or  twenty-five  years 
ago  the  habit  began  to  be  given  up.     Wholesale  drinking  is  now- 


Walsh. — The  Passing  of  the  Maori.  161 

practically  a  thing  of  the  past,  and  in  most  districts  a  drunken 
Maori  is  the  exception  rather  than  the  rule.  Still,  the  evil  was 
done,  not  to  be  undone  ;  and  its  efiect — especially  on  the  children 
begotten  and  reared  under  the  conditions  described — is  incal- 
culable. 

Change  op  Habits. 

The  partial  adoption  of  European  customs  and  modes  of 
living  largely  contributed  to  the  decay  of  the  Maori,  and  that 
which  under  other  conditions  might  have  been  a  blessing  has 
only  proved  a  curse.  This  is  nowhere  more  apparent  than  in  the 
case  of  their  housing  and  clothing.  It  might  appear  at  first 
sight  that  a  dwelling  built  in  European  style — well  lighted, 
floored,  and  properly  ventilated — would  be  more  conducive  to 
health  than  the  dark,  smoky  whare — hermetically  sealed  when 
the  door  was  shut — in  which  the  inmates  slept  on  mats  spread 
on  the  ground  around  a  smouldering  fire.  The  same  comparison 
might  be  made  between  a  comfortable  suit  of  European  clothes 
and  the  scanty  waist-mat  which  hardly  covered  their  nakedness 
— supplemented  in  wet  weather  by  a  clumsy  rain-cloak  which 
might  keep  the  wearer  dry,  but  scarcely  kept  out  the  cold. 
The  converse  is  really  the  case.  The  whare  was  usually  built 
on  the  sunny  side  of  a  hill,  in  a  situation  both  airy  and  dry, 
and  it  was  sheltered  from  cold  blasts  by  the  palisading  of  the 
pa.  If  the  weather  was  damp  or  chilly,  a  handful  of  embers 
would  raise  the  temperature  to  any  desired  degree.  There  was 
no  trouble  about  wet  clothes  or  insufficient  blankets,  and  the 
double  or  triple  coating  of  raupo  which  covered  the  walls  effectu- 
ally kept  out  the  draughts,  while  if  ventilation  were  needed 
the  sliding  door  had  only  to  be  pushed  back.  Little  incon- 
venience would  be  caused  by  the  cramped  dimensions  of  the 
domicile,  as  the  whare  was  simply  a  sleeping-apartment,  the 
porch  formed  by  the  projecting  gable  being  used  as  the  sitting- 
room,  while  the  cooking  and  eating  were  carried  on  in  a  separate 
building,  or,  if  the  weather  were  fine,  in  the  open  air.  The 
European  style  of  dwelling  would  be  very  well  if  the  Maori 
were  able  to  live  up  to  it ;  but,  with  the  exception  of  the  more 
fortunate  Natives  about  the  east  coast  who  derive  an  income 
from  the  rent  of  their  lands,  and  a  very  small  percentage  scattered 
throughout  the  country  who  have  been  able  to  adapt  them- 
selves to  the  new  conditions,  the  Maori's  attempt  to  live  like 
the  pakeha  is  generally  a  failure.  In  the  first  place,  the  house 
is  usually  in  a  bad  situation.  For  convenience — to  be  near  the 
cultivation — it  is  often  built  on  the  low  ground,  probably  in  the 
vicinity  of  a  swamp  full  of  stagnant  water  and  decaying  vegetable 
matter.  Then,  it  is  seldom  finished.  It  is  a  bare  shell  of  weather- 
6— Trans. 


162  Transactions. 

board  or  split  paling,  often  unlined  and  without  paper  or  scrim. 
There  is,  perhaps,  a  chimney  of  slabs  or  galvanized  iron ;  but  no 
body  of  heat  can  be  maintained,  and  the  only  effect  of  the  fire 
is  to  draw  in  the  cold  air  from  the  hills  or  the  malaria  from  the 
marshy  ground.  Moreover,  the  Maori  generally  lives  from  hand 
to  mouth,  and  has  barely  sufficient  for  present  necessities.  On  a 
cold  night,  when  a  crowd  of  visitors  come  to  put  up  with  him — 
and  his  native  hospitality  forbids  him  turning  any  away — he  has 
to  share  his  scanty  supply  of  bedding  among  them  as  far  as  it 
will  go  ;  and  when  he  conies  in  out  of  the  wet  he  rarely  troubles 
to  change  his  clothes,  if,  indeed,  he  have  another  suit  to  change 
into,  but  simply  takes  off  his  coat  and  boots,  wraps  himself  in  a 
blanket,  and  steams  until  he  is  dry.  What  wonder,  therefore, 
that  even  when  a  Maori  is  possessed  of  a  European  house  he 
often  lives  in  it  as  little  as  possible,  and  prefers  to  squat  by  a 
fire  in  an  open  shed  ?  It  is  the  nearest  he  can  get  to  the  old 
Native  system — the  system  that  suits  him  best. 

The  adoption  of  European  methods  of  cultivation  was,  of 
course,  inevitable  ;  and  the  Rev.  Samuel  Marsden.  the  founder 
of  the  mission  to  the  Maoris,  thought  that  when  they  were  pro- 
vided with  ploughs  and  bullock-teams  they  would  enter  on  a 
new  era  of  progress.  The  new  era  certainly  dawned,  but  it  was 
not  the  era  expected  by  that  great  humanitarian  ;  or,  to  be 
more  correct,  the  new  era  did  not  fulfil  its  early  promise.  In 
the  pre-European  days  every  kind  of  work  was  organized  and 
regulated.  Whether  it  was  the  breaking-up  of  land,  or  the 
planting  or  taking-up  of  the  crop,  the  people  worked  in  gangs 
under  the  direction  of  a  leader,  who  marked  the  time  with  a 
song,  to  which  the  workers  answered  with  a  chorus.  Each  class 
of  work  had  its  appointed  season,  determined  by  recognised 
signs  and  portents,  as  the  age  of  the  moon  or  the  blooming  of 
a  certain  tree  or  flower,  while  in  cases  of  doubt  or  uncertainty 
the  time  would  be  fixed  by  the  tohunga  and  the  regulation 
enforced  by  the  chief.  Growing  crops  were  under  strict  tapu, 
and  it  was  believed  that  any  breach  or  neglect  of  the  tapu  would 
involve  serious  disaster.  In  this  way  punctuality  was  secured, 
the  labour  was  greatly  lightened,  and  the  work  done  with  cheer- 
fulness and  hope.  All  hands  worked  together  like  a  well-ordered 
team,  and  each  bore  his  full  share  of  the  common  burden.  For 
a  time  the  new  system  seemed  to  promise  very  well,  and  as 
long  as  something  of  the  old  tribal  spirit  was  kept  up  large 
quantities  of  wheat,  maize,  potatoes,  &c,  were  grown,  with  the 
assistance  of  European  implements,  all  over  the  country.  But 
as  the  authority  of  the  chief  declined,  the  co-operative  spirit 
passed  away,  while  the  mere  fact  that  the  work  was  easier  in- 
duced an  element  of  failure.     The  fatal  indolence  and  procrasti- 


Walsh. — The  Passing  of  the  Maori.  163 

nation  of  the  Maori  asserted  itself,  and  the  crops  were  often 
put  in  too  late,  or  under  improper  weather  conditions,  to  be 
neglected  during  the  growing-season  ;  or,  perhaps,  in  the  middle 
of  a  job  a  death  would  occur  in  the  neighbourhood,  or  some  other 
reason  for  a  hui  would  eventuate,  when  all  hands  would  clear 
out  for  a  week  or  more,  and  leave  the  work  to  take  care  of  itself. 
The  consequence,  is  that  the  Maoris  have  become  disheartened, 
and  the  whole  thing  is  done  in  an  abortive  and  slovenly  manner. 
There  is  less  and  less  cultivation  done  every  year  ;  large  areas  of 
fertile  land  lie  waste.  In  many  districts  there  is  a  chronic 
shortage  of  provisions — often  even  semi-starvation. 

Introduced  Diseases. 

In  his  original  state  the  Maori  seems  to  have  been  ideally 
healthy.  As  a  usual  thing  he  only  died  of  old  age,  unless  he 
were  slain  in  battle  or  fell  a  victim  to  maakutu  or  witchcraft. 
Tradition  states  that  some  six  generations  ago — perhaps  150 
years — a  plague,  which  appears  to  have  been  a  kind  of  spotted 
fever,  swept  over  the  country  with  very  fatal  results.  In  Taia- 
mai,  a  fertile  and  populous  district  inland  of  the  Bay  of  Islands, 
the  number  of  deaths  was  so  great  that  the  survivors  cleared 
out  in  a  general  stampede,  leaving  the  place  to  be  occupied  by 
the  Ngapuhi,  who  spread  from  Hokianga.  It  is  very  probable, 
however,  that  as  many  of  the  deaths  occurred  from  panic  as  from 
the  effects  of  the  disease.  The  visitation  passed  away,  leaving  no 
evil  results  ;  but  with  the  advent  of  the  pakeha  new  diseases  came, 
and  came  to  stay.  Certain  (venereal)  complaints  which  appeared 
for  the  first  time  do  not  seem  to  have  made  the  havoc  that 
might  have  been  expected,  though  there  is  little  doubt  that  they 
helped  to  lower  the  system  and  weaken  its  power  of  resistance  to 
other  maladies.  By  great  good  fortune  smallpox  has  never 
made  its  appearance  among  the  Maoris,  but  measles  and  typhoid 
fever  have  proved  most  fatal.  The  former  has  swept  through 
the  country  on  several  occasions,  sometimes  almost  exterminat- 
ing whole  settlements — e.g.,  when  only  two  individuals  escaped 
out  of  a  popiilation  of  three  hundred  in  a  kainga  near  the  Moly- 
neux  River.  The  remedies  used  for  the  measles  were  often  more 
fatal  than  the  disease  itself.  Finding  that  a  bath  in  cold  water 
would  cause  the  spots  to  disappear,  whole  parties  would  im- 
merse themselves  in  a  running  stream,  with — as  might  be  ex- 
pected— the  most  fatal  results.  Typhoid  fever  makes  its  ap- 
pearance every  few  years,  and  once  it  has  visited  a  settlement 
it  is  sure  to  recur  whenever  the  atmospheric  and  other  condi- 
tions are  favourable  for  its  development.  Of  late  years  many 
of  the  Native-school  teachers  have  tried  to  cope  with  this  in- 
sidious disease.     They  have  supplied  the  Maoris  with  medicine, 


164  Transactions. 

and  have  instructed  them  in  the  elements  of  the  rules  of  health, 
but  from  want  of  proper  sanitation,  and  from  the  impossibility  of 
getting  any  course  of  treatment  carried  out,  their  efforts  have 
been  mostly  unavailing.  Besides,  the  Maori  is  at  all  times  an 
unsatisfactory  patient.  Once  his  vitality  falls  below  a  certain 
point  he  loses  heart,  and  frequently  dies  from  the  mere  want  of 
an  effort  to  live.  From  an  epidemic  of  typhoid  fever  a  hundred 
died  in  a  village  in  the  north  out  of  a  population  of  five  hundred 
a  few  years  ago,  at  a  time  when  almost  every  settlement  had  a 
similar  visitation.  Asthma  and  consumption  probably  always 
existed  among  the  Maoris  to  a  certain  extent,  but  under  the 
healthy  conditions  that  obtained  in  their  primitive  state  their 
prevalence  was  greatly  limited.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the 
receptivity  of  the  Native  for  these  and  their  contingent  diseases 
— bronchitis  and  pneumonia— has  proportionately  increased  with 
the  generally  lowered  tone  produced  by  the  causes  already 
enumerated.  At  the  present  time,  throughout  the  north — the 
region  in  which  the  contact  between  the  races  has  been  the 
longest  and  most  intimate — it  is  rare  to  find  a  really  sound 
Maori.  Most  of  the  old  people  are  troubled  more  or  less  with 
asthma,  while  amongst  the  young  and  apparently  the  most 
robust  cases  of  consumption  develop  with  marvellous  rapidity. 

The  Hui. 

One  of  the  most  fatal  mediums  for  the  propagation  and 
spread  of  disease  is  the  modern  hui.  There  have,  of  course, 
always  been  huis.  They  are,  in  fact,  an  essential  feature  of 
Maori  economy  ;  but  the  modern  hui  possesses  certain  elements 
which  did  not  obtain  in  the  old  days.  A  hid  is  a  gathering 
of  the  tribe,  the  hapu,  or  the  family,  and  may  be  held  for  any 
purpose  of  common  interest,  whether  political,  social,  or  religious 
— for  a  tribal  meeting,  for  the  welcome  of  distinguished  visitors, 
for  a  marriage,  or  a  funeral.  Any  Maori  is  free  to  assist  at  a 
hui,  and  European  visitors  are  always  made  welcome.  In  a 
very  large  hui,  to  which  parties  come  from  a  distance,  it  is  not 
unusual  for  them  to  bring  contributions  of  provisions,  bnl  the 
tangata  whenua,  or  local  Maoris,  are  always  considered  as  the 
entertainers,  and  it  is  a  point  of  honour  for  them  to  supply 
as  large  a  quantity  of  the  very  best  that  the  tribe  or  settlement 
can  afford,  even  if  they  have  to  go  short  for  months  afterwards. 
Up  to  some  twenty  years  ago  it  was  customary  for  the  enter- 
tainers to  erect  temporary  sheds  of  rawpo  or  nikau  to  serve  as 
sleeping-places  for  the  visitors,  the  discussions  being  carried  on 
in  the  open  air.  Of  late  years,  however,  it  has  become  the 
practice  to  have  in  every  settlement  of  importance  a  large  hall, 
built  of  sawn  timber,   to  serve   the  double  purpose  of  hostelry 


Walsh. — The  Passing  of  the  Maori.  165 

and  meeting-house.  Although  the  style  and  dimensions  vary 
considerably  with  the  importance  of  the  settlement,  the  general 
plan  is  the  same.  The  hall  is  a  long  building,  entered  from  the 
end.  A  bare  strip  some  8  ft.  or  10  ft.  wide  runs  up  the  centre 
of  the  floor,  and  the  space  between  this  and  the  side  walls  is 
littered  down  with  fern  or  mangemange,  covered  with  mats  of 
green  flax.  This  serves  as  a  sleeping-place  for  the  Maoris,  who 
lie  with  their  heads  towards  the  wall,  from  which  they  are  sepa- 
rated by  a  kind  of  narrow  trough  filled  with  fern,  which  acts 
as  a  general  spittoon.  Each  Maori,  on  entering,  takes  his  place 
— a  kind  of  seniority  being  observed — the  principal  men  occupy- 
ing the  upper  end,  and  the  women  and  children  gathering  near 
the  door.  The  food,  which  is  cooked  outside,  is  set  on  the 
floor  in  the  central  space,  the  Maoris  squatting  in  a  row  along 
each  side.  The  business — if  there  is  any  to  be  done — is  con- 
ducted by  a  sort  of  informal  debate,  which  is  often  carried  on 
far  into  the  night ;  and  the  hui,  for  whatever  purpose  it  may 
have  been  called  together,  usually  lasts  until  the  stock  of  pro- 
visions shows  signs  of  giving  out. 

It  would  be  impossible  to  conceive  of  a  more  perfect  medium 
for  the  dissemination  of  disease  than  the  hui  as  it  is  now  con- 
ducted. As  it  is  important  to  have  plenty  of  food,  the  larger 
meetings  are  held,  if  possible,  soon  after  the  crops  have  been 
harvested — -that  is  to  say,  in  the  late  autumn,  when  the  weather 
is  often  cold  and  wet.  A  crowd  of  men,  women,  and  children 
are  packed  together  more  closely  than  the  passengers  on  an 
emigrant-ship.  A  large  percentage  are  suffering  from  some 
pulmonary  complaint,  or  from  some  inherited  constitutional 
delicacy  which  renders  them  peculiarly  accessible  to  infection. 
Night  and  day  they  are  lying  in  damp  clothes — as  they  never 
wholly  undress — and  breathing  a  mephitic  atmosphere,  poisoned 
by  the  exhalations  from  so  many  bodies  and  from  the  general 
spittoon.  A  person  suffering  from  influenza  comes  in,  and  in  a 
few  hours  the  disease  has  gone  the  round  of  the  house.  Some- 
times a  death  occurs,  and  the  body  is  kept  for  days  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  food,  while  the  tangi  (mourning)  goes  on.  Diseases  con- 
tracted at  the  hui  are  taken  away  to  the  homes  of  the  visitors, 
where  fresh  centres  of  infection  are  started  ;  and,  although  a 
new  supply  of  bedding  is  provided,  the  germs  remain  about 
the  building,  to  be  nursed  into  life  on  the  next  occasion  it  is  used. 

Wars  with  the  Europeans. 

It  was  only  to  be  expected  that  sooner  or  later  the  Maoris 
would  come  into  conflict  with  the  invading  race.  This  first 
happened  when,  in  1845,  Hone  Heke  cut  down  the  flagstaff 
in  the  Bay  of  Islands.     This  action  resulted  in  a  war  that  lasted 


166  Transactions. 

for  two  years,  and  included  a  good  deal  of  sharp  fighting.  Owing, 
no  doubt,  to  the  spirit  introduced  by  the  missionaries,  and  the 
influence  of  their  families,  the  contest  was  prevented  from 
developing  ■  into  a  war  of  extermination.  It  was  conducted  on 
new  and  civilised  lines.  There  was  no  cannibalism  or  slaying 
of  the  wounded.  With  the  exception  of  the  Kororareka  episode, 
property  was  respected,  and  non-combatants  were  unmolested. 
It  was,  in  fact,  more  of  a  tournament  than  a  war — a  trial  of 
strength,  which  left  no  sting  behind  it. 

But  it  was  very  different  with  the  war  of  1860.  This  war 
began  in  Taranaki,  and  lasted  for  ten  years,  spreading  over  a 
third  of  the  North  Island,  including  Taranaki,  Waikato,  and 
the  districts  about  Poverty  Bay.  Ten  thousand  men  were  en- 
gaged on  the  European  side  ;  and  it  is  estimated  that  some 
£12,000,000  was  expended  before  the  contest  was  brought  to 
a  conclusion.  Considering  the  large  forces  engaged  on  both 
sides,  the  number  of  men  killed  in  the  field  was  comparatively 
trifling  ;  but  the  effect  of  the  campaign  as  a  factor  in  the  pass- 
ing of  the  Maori  was  deep  and  far-reaching.  Multitudes  of  the 
most  robust  and  vigorous  men  were  withdrawn  from  the  work 
which  in  normal  times  was  barely  sufficient  to  maintain  them 
in  comparative  comfort.  These  had  to  be  fed,  and  the  produc- 
tion and  transportation  of  the  food  more  than  taxed  the  ability 
of  the  women  and  non-combatants.  Houses  and  cultivations 
had  to  be  abandoned  in  the  country  accessible  to  the  troops, 
and  hunting  and  fishing  grounds  were  deserted.  For  years 
this  kind  of  thing  went  on.  The  whole  population  of  a  vast 
area  extending  from  sea  to  sea  was  kept  in  a  state  of  unnatural 
tension,  and  it  would  be  impossible  to  estimate  the  numbers 
that  perished  from  sickness  and  privation. 

On  the  conclusion  of  the  war  all  Native  land  beyond  a  certain 
line  was  confiscated  by  the  Government,  and  the  Maoris  had 
to  fall  back  and  form  new  settlements  as  best  they  could,  often 
with  the  total  loss  of  any  live-stock  they  might  have  possessed. 

Te  Whiti. 

The  long  delay  of  the  Government  in  fulfilling  their  promise 
to  allocate  land  to  those  Natives  who,  though  living  within  the 
confiscated  area,  had  not  taken  up  arms  caused  much  disap- 
pointment and  distress.  Brooding  over  their  wrongs,  and  seeing 
no  hope  of  redress,  they  at  last  found  a  mouthpiece  in  Te  Whiti, 
who  arose  as  a  prophet  in  1880,  and  established  himself  at  Pari- 
haka,  a  few  miles  south  of  New  Plymouth.  It  was  assumed 
that  he  was  about  to  start  on  the  warpath  like  a  second  Te 
Kooti,  and  once  more  the  country  was  got  under  arms.  A 
large  force  of  Constabulary  and  Volunteers  was  got  together. 


Walsh. — The  Passing  of  the  Maori.  167 

Redoubts  were  built  and  Parihaka  was  invested.  But  the  ex- 
pected uprising  did  not  take  place.  The  prophet  had  neither 
arms  nor  ammunition.  He  was  really  a  "  passive  resister,"  and 
was  quite  willing,  if  necessary,  to  suffer  martyrdom.  Te  Whiti  had 
been  educated  by  a  Wesleyan  missionary,  the  Rev.  Mr.  Riemen- 
schneider,  and  had  made  a  deep  study  of  the  Bible,  which  he 
seemed  to  know  from  beginning  to  end.  He  saw  in  his  oppressed 
and  downtrodden  countrymen  a  type  of  the  dispersed  Israel, 
and  he  applied  to  them  the  promises  of  future  restoration. 
In  order  to  promulgate  his  doctrine  he  held  meetings  every 
month  at  Parihaka,  with  a  grand  festival  in  the  month  of  March. 
To  these  the  Maoris  flocked  from  all  quarters— at  first  from  the 
kaingas  near  at  hand,  but,  as  the  idea  caught  on,  from  settle- 
ments several  days'  journey  away  in  the  bush  country.  They 
came  in  hundreds  and  thousands — on  horseback,  in  bullock- 
drays,  and  on  foot — bringing  cartloads  of  provisions  ;  and 
when  they  returned  they  would  repeat  the  wonderful  message 
at  their  homes,  and  attract  fresh  visitors  to  the  next  meeting. 
There  was  to  be  no  weapon  lifted  against  the  oppressor.  Every- 
thing would  come  right  by  Divine  interposition,  when  all  the 
Maoris  that  had  been  slain  in  the  war  would  come  to  life  again, 
and  the  pakeha  would  retire  into  the  sea  and  molest  them  no 
more.  The  only  thing  that  could  be  construed  into  an  overt 
act  of  rebellion  was  a  sort  of  object-lesson  intended  to  bring 
their  grievances  under  the  notice  of  the  Government,  when  parties 
of  Maoris  were  sent  out  to  plough  up  some  of  the  land  in  Euro- 
pean occupation.  This  was  taken  as  a  declaration  of  war,  and 
a  great  excitement  arose  among  the  settlers,  when  the  Govern- 
ment, by  way  of  bringing  matters  to  a  crisis,  poured  an  over- 
whelming armed  force  into  Parihaka.  The  Riot  Act  was  read 
to  a  peaceable  crowd  of  women  and  children,  wholesale  arrests 
were  made,  cattle  and  horses  were  seized,  and  houses  and  crops 
were  destroyed,*  while  in  order  to  bring  the  matter  within 
the  scope  of  the  law  the  West  Coast  Settlements  Act  was  passed, 
the  legislation  to  have  retrospective  action.  Te  Whiti  and  a 
number  of  his  followers  were  sent  to  prison,  but  on  his  return 
the  meetings  were  held  as  before.  The  movement,  however, 
gradually  died  out,  and,  although  the  prophet  continues  to 
prophesy,  he  has  long  ceased  to  be  an  active  factor  in  Maori 
politics,  f 

Though  no  blood  was  shed  in  connection  with  the  Te  Whiti 
movement,  it  had,  nevertheless,  a  very  fatal  effect  on  the  Maoris 
among  whom  its  influence  extended.     Half  their  time  was  spent 


*  Cf.  "  Long  White  Cloud,"  by  Hon.  W.  P.  Reeves,  p.  308. 
t  Te  Whiti  has  died  since  this  paper  was  written. 


168  Transactions. 

in  going  backwards  and  forwards  and  attending  the  meetings, 
while  the  hope  of  a  future  deliverance  left  them  no  interest  for 
the  practical  work  of  the  present.  At  the  meetings  multitudes 
were  crowded  together,  without  proper  accommodation  and 
with  no  attempt  at  sanitary  arrangements.  Fever  took  pos- 
session of  Parihaka,  and  resulted  in  wholesale  sickness  and 
death,  while  the  infection  was  carried  home  and  spread  through 
the  settlements  ;  and  this,  combined  with  the  overstrain  and 
excitement,  the  irregular  living,  and  unhealthy  conditions, 
caused  a  shrinkage  in  the  population  of  Taranaki  probably 
unequalled  at  any  other  time  or  place. 

The  Land  Laws. 

By  the  misconstruing  of  a  clause  in  the  Treaty  of  Waitangi,* 
the  "  right  of  pre-emption  "  has  always  been  interpreted  as  the 
"  sole  right  of  purchase."  This  has  prevented  the  Maoris  from 
dealing  with  a  private  individual  in  the  disposal  of  their  lands, 
and  has  forced  them  to  sell  to  the  Government  if  they  wish 
to  sell  at  all.  The  result  is  that  the  Government  can  buy  at 
their  own  price  and  sell  in  the  open  market,  making  perhaps 
500  or  600  per  cent,  on  the  transaction.  In  the  hope  of  some 
tardy  justice,  the  owners  have  largely  reserved  their  lands 
from  sale,  although  they  would  willingly  part  with  the  greater 
portion  if  they  could  be  sure  of  a  fair  price  ;  and,  though  titular 
owners  of  vast  estates,  they  are  condemned  to  live  in  poverty 
and  perhaps  destitution. 

Under  the  old  regime  the  land  was  the  property  of  the  tribe 
as  a  whole,  and  the  cultivation  at  each  kainga  was  done  on  a 
co-operative  system,  under  the  direction  of  the  local  chiefs  ; 
but  since  the  supreme  compelling  force  has  passed  away,  and 
the  interests  and  ambitions  of  the  various  members  of  the  tribe 
have  become  differentiated,  it  has  become  necessary  to  indi- 
vidualise the  ownership,  so  as  to  secure  to  each  man  the  fruits 
of  his  labour.  In  order  to  accomplish  this,  the  Native  Land 
Court  was  established,  and  of  late  years  Native  Committees 
elected  by  the  tribal  owners  have  been  set  up  to  allocate  the 
various  claims,  their  decisions  to  be  confirmed  or  otherwise  by 
a  Judge  of  the  Court  on  evidence  taken  amongst  the  claimants. 
The  system  seems  simple  and  fair  enough  until  it  comes  to  be 
worked  out,  but  then  the  trouble  begins.  The  claims  are  made 
on  such  various  and  conflicting  grounds  that  it  is  often  impossible 
to  come  to  a  decision  thai  will  be  satisfactory  to  all  parties; 
while,  from  the  fact  that  the  .Maoris  are  so  interrelated,  a  Clevel- 
and unscrupulous  man,  with  little  or  no  real  right,  can  often 

*  Sec  Appendix 


Walsh— The  Passing  of  the  Maori.  169 

work  up  a  claim  that  will  satisfy  the  Court.  The  result  is  that 
a  rehearing  is  applied  for,  and  the  Court  sits  again,  perhaps 
after  an  interval  of  several  months,  and  with  no  better  satisfac- 
tion in  the  end.  Meanwhile  all  the  expenses  of  the  Court  come 
off  the  land,  and  as  the  sessions  usually  occupy  several  weeks, 
or  perhaps  months,  these  are  very  considerable.  All  this  time 
the  Maoris  are  excited  and  unsettled.  Their  home-work  is  largely 
neglected.  Those  who  have  come  from  a  distance  hang  about 
the  township  in  which  the  Court  is  held,  and  live  in  great  dis- 
comfort in  tents  and  makeshift  whares,  many  of  them  spending 
their  enforced  leisure  in  drinking  and  gambling  at  the  local 
hotel.  It  requires,  however,  a  majority  of  the  persons  interested 
to  bring  a  block  of  land  before  the  Court ;  and,  in  view  of  the 
great  expense  attending  the  proceedings,  as  well  as  the  frequently 
unsatisfactory  nature  of  the  decisions,  it  is  often  years  before 
those  who  are  desirous  of  having  their  claims  defined  can  induce 
the  rest  of  the  tribe  to  undertake  a  step  fraught  with  so  uncertain 
issues.  Meanwhile  the  enterprising  and  industrious  Maori  is 
severely  handicapped,  as,  even  if  he  obtain  the  tacit  consent  of 
the  tribe  to  occupy  and  improve  a  piece  of  land,  he  has  no 
guarantee  that  his  home  will  not  be  broken  up  and  the  fruit 
of  his  labour  go  to  another  claimant  whenever  the  land  goes 
through  the  Court,  as  sooner  or  later  it  is  sure  to  do.  The 
consequence  is  that  the  whole  settlement  is  kept  back  and 
discouraged.  The  man  whose  enterprise  and  industry  would 
give  a  lead  to  his  neighbours  loses  heart,  while  the  rest  are 
deprived  of  an  example  which  would  help  to  raise  them  in  the 
scale  of  civilisation. 

There  is  another  point  in  which  the  land  laws  press  very 
heavily  upon  the  Maoris.  In  order  to  substantiate  a  claim  to 
ancestral  land  the  claimant  is  required  to  prove  occupation. 
After  much  delay  and  contention — extending  perhaps  over  a 
number  of  years — it  is  finally  resolved  to  bring  a  block  before 
the  Court  in  order  that  the  rights  of  the  various  claimants  may 
be  defined.  During  all  this  time  every  one  aspiring  to  a  share 
must  have  done  something  to  demonstrate  the  fact  that  he  is 
an  owner.  He  must  make  a  cultivation,  build  a  house,  sell  some 
timber,  assent  to  the  making  of  a  road,  &c.  He  must,  in  fact, 
"  shepherd  his  claim,"  or  his  claim  will  be  jumped.  But  the 
house  is  not  meant  for  a  permanent  dwelling  ;  very  often  the 
fence  is  uncompleted,  and  the  crop  is  allowed  to  take  care  of 
itself.  The  occupation  is  for  the  most  part  purely  technical, 
but  the  work  has  to  be  done  all  the  same,  though  it  involve 
much  useless  labour  and  frequent  journeyings  to  and  fro  over 
long  distances  ;  while,  as  the  Maoris  almost  invariably  take  their 
wives  and  families  along  with  them,  these  have  to  endure  much 


170  Transactions. 

hardship  and  privation,  while  the  real  home  is  often  practically 
deserted  for  months  at  a  time,  and  everything  falls  to  pieces.* 

The  Gumpields. 

Partly  from  the  unsatisfactory  nature  of  the  land  laws, 
occasionally  from  the  failure  of  his  crops,  and  very  often  from 
an  innate  love  of  change  of  occupation,  the  Maori  throughout 
the  northern  district  betakes  himself  to  the  guinfields.  The 
gumfields  are  scattered  over  an  immense  area,  extending  from 
the  Waikato  to  the  North  Cape.  Wherever  throughout  this  area 
the  kauri  is  growing,  or  has  grown  in  former  times,  the  gum  is 
found  in  more  or  less  payable  quantities.  Surface  gum  has 
long  since  disappeared,  and  the  article  has  now  to  be  dug  from 
the  ground,  where  it  has  either  exuded  from  the  roots  of  the  trees, 
or,  falling  from  the  tops,  has  been  buried  by  landslips  or  by 
deposits  from  volcanic  eruptions.  Gum-digging  may  be  roughly 
divided  into  two  classes — viz.,  that  on  the  "  winter  fields."  or 
the  high  tea-tree  ranges,  where  the  ground  is  too  hard  to  work 
in  dry  weather,  and  that  on  the  "  summer  fields,"  or  low  swampy 
situations,  where  digging  would  be  impossible  during  the  wet 
season.  Unless  very  hard  driven,  the  Maoris  seldom  resort  to 
the  winter  fields,  but  throughout  the  summer  and  autumn  they 
are  to  be  found  all  over  the  Auckland  Province  wherever  the 
ground  is  in  a  fit  condition  to  be  worked. 

The  attraction  of  gum-digging  is,  of  course,  the  hope  of  an 
immediate  cash  return,  as  the  gum  has  a  very  high  commercial 
value  ;  but  the  return  in  the  case  of  the  Maori  is  usually  very 
trifling.  In  contrast  to  the  European,  and  especially  the  Austrian 
— who  work  in  a  more  or  less  energetic  and  systematic  manner — 
his  operations  are  of  a  very  desultory  and  superficial  character. 
At  starting  he  is  generally  in  debt  to  the  store,  and  the  output 
of  gum  scarcely  pays  for  the  cost  of  the  provisions  consumed 
on  the  field.  Meanwhile  the  living  arrangements  are  most 
uncomfortable  and  unhealthy.  The  Maoris  generally  go  out  in 
parties — men,  women,  and  children  together.  A  calico  tent,  a 
light  fiame  covered  with  sacking,  or  a  raupo  whare  of  the  rudest 
description  serves  as  a  dwelling  for  each  family.  To  be  out  of 
the  wind  it  is  often  placed  under  the  shelter  of  a  clump  of  tea- 
tree,  in  some  low,  moist  situation.  Living  on  scanty  rations  of 
unaccustomed  and  unwholesome  food,  drinking  bad  water, 
working  all  day  in  the  swamp,  and  exposed  at  night  to  the 

*  Since  this  paper  was  written  certain  amendments  have  been  made 
in  the  land  laws,  but  they  have  brought  no  satisfaction.  The  right  of 
pre-emption  guaranteed  by  the  Treaty  is  not  yet  recognised,  and  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  Court  seem  to  be  more  involved  and  tedious  t  ban  ever. 


Walsh. — The  Passing  of  the  Maori.  171 

miasma  from  the  marshy  ground,  many  of  the  people  suffer 
from  pulmonary  and  enteric  troubles  ;  dysentery  kills  off  the 
young  children,  and  not  infrequently  an  epidemic  of  typhoid 
fever  takes  heavy  toll  of  the  camp.  The  same  thing  goes  on 
from  year  to  year,  for  the  Maori  will  never  learn  from  experience, 
and  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  work  on  the  gumfields  is  sapping 
what  is  left  of  the  vitality  of  the  race  throughout  a  very  large 
section  of  the  Maori  people. 

Native  Schools. 

There  is  a  very  general  belief  that  by  a  course  of  education 
according  to  European  standards  the  Maori  will  be  enabled  to 
avail  himself  of  the  benefits  of  civilisation,  and  so  raise  himself 
towards  the  level  of  the  white  population.  To  this  end  the 
Government  has  established  a  system  of  Native  schools  all  over 
the  country.  These  schools  are,  in  fact,  the  forlorn  hope  of  a 
large  section  of  the  community  who  have  the  interests  of  the 
Maori  at  heart.     We  shall  see  how  this  hope  has  been  fulfilled. 

Tried  by  an  examination  test  the  system  has  been  successful 
enough.  The  attendance  is  generally  satisfactory,  and  the 
average  of  attainment  is  wonderfully  good,  especially  when  we 
consider  that — at  the  commencement,  at  least — the  teaching  has 
to  be  imparted  in  a  language  imperfectly  understood  by  the 
pupils.  In  some  subjects — e.g.,  drawing,  mapping,  singing,  &c. 
— the  average  of  proficiency  is  usually  quite  above  that  of  the 
country  district  schools.  Tried  by  another  standard,  however, 
the  Native-school  system  is  not  so  satisfactory.  In  the  first 
place,  the  school  is  a  "  Native  school  "  :  the  race-distinction  is 
emphasized  from  the  start,  and  carried  on  all  through.  In  the. 
next  place,  there  is  a  good  deal  of  time  wasted  that  might  be 
more  profitably  spent  if  a  school  career  is  to  be  considered  as  a 
preparation  for  adult  life.  The  teacher  conscientiously  tries  to 
keep  up  the  attendance,  and  endeavours  to  attract  the  children 
by  means  of  treats,  games,  singing-classes,  and  so  on,  while 
these,  naturally  preferring  the  excitement  of  the  playground  and 
the  society  of  their  mates  to  the  dreary  monotony  of  the  kainga, 
have  little  or  no  opportunity  of  practising  the  duties  of  the  house 
or  the  cultivation. 

From  a  hygienic  point  of  view,  also,  the  Native  school  is 
generally  prejudicial  to  the  welfare  of  its  attendants.  The 
children  are  often  only  half-fed  and  imperfectly  clothed,  and 
after  walking  perhaps  a  mile  or  two  in  the  rain,  or  lounging  about 
on  the  wet  grass  of  the  playground,  they  have  to  sit  for  hours 
shivering  in  their  damp  garments.  As  a  natural  consequence 
the  germs  of  pulmonary  troubles  are  nursed  into  growth,  their 
general  health  is  undermined,  and  when  an  epidemic  of  typhoid 


172  Transactions. 

or  measles  attacks  a  settlement  it  finds  its  readiest  victims 
among  the  children  of  the  Native  school. 

Though  there  are,  of  course,  individual  exceptions,  still  the 
vast  majority  of  the  Maori  scholars  find  little  or  no  opportunity 
in  adult  life  of  making  practical  use  of  what  they  have  learned. 
The  Maori  is  handicapped  from  the  start,  and  overweighted 
all  through  the  race  of  life.  His  natural  indolence  and  his  love 
of  change  and  excitement  unfit  him  for  the  uninteresting 
monotony  of  steady  effort,  while  his  constitutional  diffidence 
and  his  fear  of  putting  himself  in  the  wrong  act  as  a  bar  to  any 
real  competition  with  the  pakeha.  Thus  it  is  that  numbers  of 
young  men  with  a  sufficient  educational  equipment  to  fit  them 
for  employment  in  a  lawyer's  or  a  surveyor's  office,  or  in  a 
banking  or  mercantile  establishment,  are  to  be  found  cutting 
flax  in  a  swamp,  acting  as  ostler  or  boots  at  a  bush  publichouse, 
or  driving  bullocks  at  starvation  wages  for  a  country  storekeeper. 
Nor  are  the  girls  any  more  fortunate.  In  the  early  days,  when 
white  women  were  scarce,  many  a  settler  found  an  excellent 
wife  in  a  Maori  maiden — not  only  as  a  practical  helpmate,  but 
as  a  refined  and  intelligent  companion.  But  as  European 
population  has  increased  the  race  prejudice  has  correspondingly 
asserted  itself,  and,  no  matter  how  capable  and  attractive  a  girl 
may  now  be,  she  has  very  little  chance  of  rising  in  the  social 
scale.  Her  bright  early  promise  is  unfulfilled.  Hope  is  soon 
lost,  and  she  gradually  sinks  back  to  the  general  level  of  the 
tribe. 

Looking  at  the  question  in  all  its  bearings,  it  must  be  admitted 
that  the  Native  schools  have  not  fulfilled  the  hopes  that  have 
been  reposed  in  them.  In  the  vast  majority  of  cases  they  have 
failed  to  bring  the  Maori  into  closer  touch  with  what  is  best  in 
the  European  civilisation.  They  have  emphasized  the  race- 
distinction,  and  have  deprived  him  of  the  opportunity  of  study 
and  practice  in  many  useful  directions,  while  by  the  inevitable 
conditions  that  surround  them  they  have  largely  contributed  to 
his  physical  decay. 

Summary. 

I  have  enumerated  some  of  the  principal  causes  that  have 
combined  to  produce  the  wholesale  and  rapid  decay  of  the 
Maori  people.  I  might  go  on  to  show  how  at  almost  every  point 
at  which  the  race  has  conic  into  contact  with  the  new  civilisation 
it  has  suffered  a  shock  from  which  it  has  been  unable  to  recover. 
As  Dr.  Yon  Hochstctter  observed  more  than  forty  years  ago, 
"  Despite  the  many  advantages  it  has  brought  to  the  Natives, 
the  European  civilisation  acts  upon  them  like  an  insidious 
poison,    consuming    the    inmost     marrow  of    their  life    ..     .     . 


Walsh. — The  Passing  of  the  Maori.  173 

Compared  with  the  fresh  and  full  vigour  with  which  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  race  is  spreading  and  increasing,  the  Maori  is  the  weaker 
partv,  and  thus  is  he  the  loser  in  the  endless  '  struggle  for  exist- 
ence.' "  * 

The  case  of  the  Maoris  is  analogous  to  that  of  the  New 
Zealand  bush.  The  magnificent  growth  that  has  withstood  the 
storms  of  countless  centuries,  and  that  has  been  able  to  renew 
itself  after  the  ravages  of  volcanic  fires  and  the  deposits  of 
ashes  and  mud,  is  gradually  perishing  before  the  advance  of 
European  settlement.  Even  the  portions  that  have  so  far 
escaped  the  bushman's  axe  are  unable  to  support  the  new  con- 
ditions. The  browsing  cattle,  the  competition  with  foreign 
plants,  the  incursion  of  imported  blights,  all  contribute  their 
share  in  the  general  destruction,  while  even  well-meant  efforts 
at  preservation  often  serve  only  to  hasten  the  decay. 

Doubly  decimated  by  the  guns  of  Hongi,  of  Te  Rauparaha, 
and  Waharoa  ;  worn  out  with  the  agonizing  effort  to  secure  a 
supply  of  weapons  and  ammunition  ;  their  vitality  sapped  by 
the  liquor  traffic  and  the  wholesale  debauch  of  the  mothers  of 
the  race  ;  utterly  wearied  by  the  ten  years'  war  and  its  disas- 
trous consequences  ;  discouraged  by  the  injustice  of  the  land 
laws  ;  and  disheartened  by  an  ever-growing  race  prejudice,  the 
Maoris  of  to-day  are  but  a  dying  remnant  of  the  once  vigorous 
and  populous  tribes.  The  men  and  women  of  fabulous  age 
once  to  be  seen  in  every  Jcainga  have  died  off,  and  none  are 
taking  their  place.  On  a  late  interesting  occasion — the  un- 
veiling of  the  Marsden  cross  in  the  Bay  of  Islands  in  last  March 
— the  only  chief  within  available  distance  that  could  remember 
something  of  the  old  times  was  a  half-caste.  It  is  becoming  a 
rare  thing  in  many  districts  to  see  a  Maori  above  middle  age. 
Young  men  and  women  apparently  healthy  and  robust  are 
cut  off  at  a  few  days'  notice  by  fever  and  rapid  consumption, 
while  children  die  wholesale  from  infantile  diseases  that  would 
be  easily  thrown  off  by  their  white  brothers  and  sisters,  and  the 
shrinking  remnant  is  ever  less  and  less  able  to  resist  the  doom 
of  their  race. 

The  decay,  on  the  whole,  as  I  have  attempted  to  show, 
has  been  rapid,  but  it  has  been  fitful,  and  there  have  been  times 
when  it  almost  seemed  as  if  there  was  a  gleam  of  hope.  Al- 
though the  Rev.  Samuel  Marsden  and  the  early  missionaries 
were  unable  to  restrain  Hongi  from  going  on  the  warpath,  still, 
it  is  unquestionable  that  their  influence  largely  contributed 
to  the  suppression  of  cannibalism,  and  helped  to  secure  a  better 
fate  for  the  thousands  of  prisoners  than  they  would  otherwise 


*  Hochstetter's  "  New  Zealand,"  pp.  220-2-21. 


174  Transactions. 

have  met  with.  At  the  time  that  the  horrors  of  the  "  ship-girl  " 
and  the  liquor  traffic  were  being  enacted  at  Kororareka,  order 
and  decency  reigned  in  the  mission  settlement  at  Paihia,  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  Bay  of  Islands.  The  industrial  and  educa- 
tional system  of  the  Church  station  at  the  Waimate  compelled 
the  admiration  of  Charles  Darwin,  who  visited  the  place  during 
the  voyage  of  the  "  Beagle."*  The  young  women  brought  up  in 
the  missionaries'  households  were  often  sought  as  wives  for 
the  chiefs,  and  the  effects,of  their  training  might  be  seen  in  after- 
life by  the  habits  of  order  and  neatness  they  imported  into  the 
kaingas. 

With  the  gradual  development  of  colonial  life  the  close  con- 
tact of  the  missionaries  with  the  Maori  came  to  an  end,  but  its 
spirit  has  survived  to  some  extent  in  other  agencies.  To  the 
precept  and  example  of  the  Maori  clergy  is  no  doubt  mainly 
due  the  wholesale  stamping-out  of  the  drinking  habit  throughout 
the  northern  district,  while  the  Te  Aute  College  and  St.  Stephen's 
School,  and  the  Hukerere  and  Victoria  Girls'  Schools  have  helped 
to  give  some  of  the  youth  of  both  sexes  a  hopeful  start  in  life. 

But  all  these  checks,  and  any  other  that  might  be  mentioned, 
have  been  but  temporary  and  local.  Taken  altogether,  their 
effect  on  the  general  result  has  not  been  great.  They  have 
failed  to  arrest  the  stream  of  tendency  that  is  sweeping  onward 
with  ever-increasing  power  and  volume,  ever  meeting  with  less 
and  less  resistance. 

The  Maori  has  lost  heart  and  abandoned  hope.  As  it  has 
already  been  observed  in  the  case  of  the  individual,  when  once 
the  vital  force  has  fallen  below  a  certain  point  he  dies  from  the 
sheer  want  of  an  effort  to  live  ;  so  it  is  with  the  race.  It  is 
sick  unto  death,  and  is  already  potentially  dead.  As  Von 
Hochstetter  remarks  again, f  "  The  Maoris  themselves  are 
fully  aware  of  this,  and  look  forward  with  a  fatal  resignation 
to  the  destiny  of  the  final  extinction  of  their  race.  They  them- 
selves say,  '  As  clover  killed  the  fern,  and  the  European  dog 
the  Maori  dog  ;  as  the  Maori  rat  was  destroyed  by  the  pakeha 
rat,  so  our  people  also  will  be  gradually  supplanted  and  exter- 
minated by  the  Europeans.'  " 

The  Census. 

According  to  a  census  taken  last  year|  che  Maori  population 
stood  at  47,721.  This  includes  3,938  half-castes  living  as 
Maoris. 

*  "  A  Naturalist's  Voyage  in  the  '  Beagle,' "  Chap,  xviii. 
■\  Hochstetter's  '•  New  Zealand,"  p.  -I... 
%  New  Zealand  Official  Year-book,  1<K)(>. 


Walsh. — The  Passing  of  the  Maori.  175 

The  Official  Year-book  states  that  each  time  the  census  has 
been  taken  since  1896  there  has  been  a  considerable  increase  in 
the  number.  A  similar  statement  will  never  be  made  in  connec- 
tion with  any  future  census,  and  for  the  following,  reason  :  In 
former  years  it  was  impossible  to  arrive  at  anything  more  than  a 
very  casual  estimate.  The  system  of  enumeration  was  more  or 
less  rough-and-ready,  no  particular  care  was  taken  in  the  appoint- 
ment of  reliable  officers,  and  Maori  information  had  to  be  largely 
relied  on.  The  Maori  mode  of  computation  was  based  on  the 
number  of  able-bodied  men  in  a  hapu  or  hainga,  the  women 
and  children  being  thrown  in  by  a  rough  guess ;  and,  as  the 
Maoris  were  somewhat  suspicious  of  the  motives  of  the  Govern- 
ment, their  returns  were  often  purposely  below  the  mark.  As 
time  went  on  the  enumeration  was  made  with  increasing  accu- 
racy, but  it  was  only  on  the  last  occasion  that  it  was  made  on 
the  lines  of  the  European  census — viz.,  by  a  systematic  house- 
to-house  visitation  by  properly  qualified  officials,  who  were 
accompanied  on  their  rounds  by  intelligent  and  trustworthy 
Maoris.  The  rise  in  the  figures  is  therefore  only  due  to  the 
increasing  accuracy  of  the  returns,  numbers  being  each  time  in- 
cluded that  would  have  escaped  in  former  calculations.  Finality 
has  now  been  reached,  and  the  next  census  will  show  that  the 
Maori  population,  instead  of  increasing,  has  been  diminishing 
all  the  time,  and  that  if  the  present  rate  of  declension  continues 
it  must  soon  reach  the  vanishing-point. 


APPENDIX. 
Article  2  of  the  Treaty  of  Waitangi. 

''  Her  Majesty  the  Queen  of  England  confirms  and  guaran- 
tees to  the  chiefs  of  New  Zealand,  and  to  the  respective  families 
and  individuals  thereof,  the  full,  exclusive,  and  undisturbed 
possession  of  their  lands  and  estates,  forests,  fisheries,  and  other 
properties  which  they  may  collectively  or  individually  possess, 
so  long  as  it  is  their  wish  and  desire  to  retain  the  same  in  their 
possession  ;  but  the  chiefs  of  the  united  tribes  and  the  individual 
chiefs  yield  to  Her  Majesty  the  exclusive  right  of  pre-emption 
over  such  lands  as  the  proprietors  thereof  may  be  disposed  to 
alienate,  at  such  prices  as  may  he  agreed  upon  between  the 
respective  proprietors  and  persons  appointed  by  Her  Majesty 
to  treat  with  them  in  that  behalf." 


176  Transactions. 


Art.  XIV. — On  a  Soda  Amphibole  Trachyte  from  Cass's  Peal; 

Banks  Peninsula. 

By  K.  Speight,  M.A.,  B.Sc. 

\[Read  before  the  Canterbury  Philosophical  Institute,  6th  November,  1907.] 

The  oldest  rocks  found  on  Banks  Peninsula  consist  of  slates, 
cherts,  and  greywackes  of  uncertain  age ;  but  the  last  show  a 
marked  lithological  resemblance  to  Lower  Mesozoic  greywackes 
that  occur  at  the  Malvern  Hills.  The  only  exposure  of  these 
rocks  on  Banks  Peninsula  is  near  Gebbie's  Pass,  where  they 
occupy  a  considerable  portion  of  the  main  ridge,  and  extend 
down  on  both  sides  of  it,  but  especially  towards  the  head  of 
Lyttelton  Harbour.  Here  they  form  a  large  part  of  the  solid 
floor  of  the  valley  in  which  Teddington  lies.  Over  them  lie 
solid  flows  of  rhyolite  and  beds  of  agglomerate  penetrated  by 
dykes  of  rhyolite  and  pitchstone.  The  age  of  these  beds  is  also 
uncertain,  but  they  resemble  very  closely  in  lithological  charac- 
ter the  garnet-bearing  rhyolites  of  Mount  Somers,  Rakaia  Gorge, 
and  the  Malvern  Hills,  which  are  certainly  of  Cretaceous  age, 
as  rhyolite  pebbles  are  found  in  conglomerates  forming  the 
lower  members  of  the  coal-bearing  series,  which,  as  well  as  the 
rhyolites,  overlie  unconformably  Jurassic  sedimentaries.  At 
Mount  Somers,  too,  rhyolite  tuffs,  according  to  S.  H.  Cox,  are 
interstratified  with  coal  -  bearing  beds.  It  is  therefore  highly 
likely  that  the  Gebbie's  Pass  rhyolites  are  of  Cretaceous  age. 

After  a  considerable  lapse  of  time,  during  which  the  rhyolites 
were  heavily  eroded,  the  main  mass  of  Banks  Peninsula  was 
formed,  consisting  chiefly  of  andesites  of  basic  type  and  basalts. 
These  were  poured  out  as  subaerial  lava-flows,  and  thrown  out 
as  scoria  and  ashes  from  two  craters  which  now  form  Lyttelton 
and  Akaroa  Harbours.  Onawe  Peninsula  probably  marks  the 
centre  of  the  latter  volcano,  as  the  extremity  of  the  peninsula 
is  composed  of  a  syenite,  and  this  is  the  only  occurrence  of  a 
plutonic  rock  in  the  locality.  The  remaining  part  of  this  small 
peninsula  near  the  narrow  isthmus  is  principally  formed  of 
intercrossing  dykes  ;  it  thus  shows  the  structure  which  cha- 
racterizes the  neighbourhood  of  the  pipe  of  an  old  volcano. 
Sir  Julius  von  Haast  suggests  that  a  third  centre  of  eruption, 
belonging  to  this  period,  occurs  in  the  valley  of  Little  River. 
He  is  not  very  definite  about  it,  and  says  that  the  remains  of 
the  lavas  that  were  poured  out  from  it  are  not  very  extensive. 
I  believe,  however,  that  he  modified  his  views  somewhat  at  a 


Speight.—  Soda  Amphibola  Trachyte.  Ill 

later  date,  and  considered  that  the  peninsula  was  built  princi- 
pally from  the  centres  of  Lyttelton  and  Akaroa.  I  cannot 
speak  definitely  from  personal  observation  as  regards  this  point, 
but  from  what  I  have  seen  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  it  is  un- 
likely that  a  crater  occupied  the  valley  of  Little  River,  but  that 
the  lavas  occurring  there  were  poured  out  from  both  Lyttelton 
and  Akaroa,  and  that  the  form  of  the  valley  can  be  well  ex- 
plained as  the  result  of  prolonged  stream  erosion.  When  all 
the  lavas  are  basalts  and  basic  andesites,  and  good  sections 
showing  their  relations  are  practically  absent,  an  accurate 
estimate  is  extremely  difficult  to  make.  Good  sections  showing 
contacts  of  the  andesites  with  the  earlier  rhyolites  are  also  rare, 
owing  to  the  completeness  with  which  the  soil  covers  over  every- 
thing. However,  a  section  near  the  end  of  the  spur  which 
divides  Gebbie's  from  McQueen's  Valley  affords  convincing 
proof  of  their  relative  age.  Here  the  actual  contact  is  seen, 
and  andesites  undoubtedly  overlie  denuded  rhyolites. 

The  andesites  always  contain  augite,  with  a  small  amount 
of  olivine  generally  added,  and  thus  show  close  relations  to  the 
basalts ;  but  the  silica  percentage  of  some  varieties  is  too  high 
(about  56)  for  them  to  be  classified  as  such.  There  are  grada- 
tions, however,  from  the  less  basic  to  the  thoroughly  basic  types, 
which  finally  pass  into  undoubted  basalts.  It  is  highly  likely 
that  the  Akaroa  lavas  are  of  a  slightly  later  date  than  those 
from  the  Lyttelton  volcano.  They  are  generally  of  a  more 
basic  character,  true  basalts  forming  a  large  proportion  of  effu- 
sive mass.  This  evidence  is  perhaps  very  unreliable,  but  it  is 
supported  by  the  fact  that  the  crater-ring  of  Akaroa  is  in  a  much 
more  perfect  condition  than  the  Lyttelton  ring,  denudation  not 
having  exerted  such  a  marked  influence  over  its  original  form. 
However,  this  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  more  resistent 
character  of  the  rocks  constituting  it.  In  the  subsequent  sec- 
tion I  have  represented  the  Akaroa  lavas  as  being  slightly 
younger  than  the  Lyttelton  ones. 

The  andesitic  eruptions  from  these  two  centres  were  suc- 
ceeded by  an  outpouring  of  basalts  and  andesites  from  Mount 
Herbert,  and  probably  from  Mount  Sinclair.  The  latter  moun- 
tain forms  the  geographical  centre  of  Banks  Peninsula,  being 
situated  at  the  junction  of  the  Port  Levy,  Pigeon  Bay,  and 
Little  River  Valleys,  with  outlying  parts  extending  nearly  to 
the  edge  of  the  crater-ring  of  Akaroa. 

Sir  Julius  von  Haast  mentions  a  fourth  centre  of  eruption 
at  Quail  Island,  within  Lyttelton  Harbour;  but  this  may  be 
contemporaneous  with  that  at  Mount  Herbert,  and  it  is  even 
possible  that  the  Quail  Island  basalts  came  from  Mount  Herbert, 
and  that  the  connecting  rocks  have  been  removed  by  denudation. 


178 


Transactions. 


On  examining  a  map  of  Banks  Peninsula  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  centres  of  volcanic  activity  lie  approximately  on  a  line 
running  east-south-east  and  west- north- west.  It  seems,  there- 
fore, a  reasonable  inference  that  the  eruptions  took  place  at 
different  points  of  a  fissure  or  line  of  weakness  in  the  earth's 
crust  running  in  that  direction  ;  that  eruptions  broke  out  first 
at  the  Lyttelton  end  of  the  fissure,  and  that  afterwards  the 
centre  of  maximum  disturbance  moved  eastward  to  Akaroa, 
and  then  back  to  Mount  Sinclair  and  Mount  Herbert,  and  possibly 
to  Quail  Island. 

As  the  Lyttelton  volcano  has  thrown  out  rocks  belonging 
to  three  different  periods,  and  perhaps  to  four,  I  think  it  would 
be  convenient  to  refer  to  the  rhyolites  as  the  Gebbie's  Pass 
series,  to  the  olivine-andesites  as  the  Mount  Pleasant  series 
(named  from  one  of  the  chief  peaks  on  the  northern  side  of  the 
harbour  immediately  behind  the  Town  of  Lyttelton),  and  to 
refer  to  the  lavas  which  come  from  Mount  Herbert  as  the  Mount 
Herbert  series.  All  these  are  quite  distinct  in  age  :  the  Gebbie's 
Pass  series  being  almost  certainly  Cretaceous,  the  Mount  Plea- 
sant series  being  early  Tertiary,  and  the  Mount  Herbert  series 
middle  Tertiary  ;  but  the  last  two  are  extremely  uncertain  as 
regards  their  age,  and  may  be  much  more  recent.  Although 
stream  erosion  has  exerted  a  marked  influence  in  forming  valleys, 
yet  the  form  of  the  crater-ring  is  fairly  perfect,  especially  as 
regards  Akaroa,  so  that  a  more  recent  date  may  very  well  be 
assigned  to  the  two  later  series. 


Diagrammatic  Section  of  Banks  Peninsula,  from  Tai  Tapu  to  the 

Coast  near  East  Head. 


1.  Slates  and  groywackos ;  Lower  Mosozoic(?).  2.  Rhyolites,  Gebbie's 
Pass  series ;  Cretaceous.  3.  Augite-andesitoa  and  basalts,  Mount 
Pleasant  series ;  early  Tertiary(?),  perhaps  later.  4.  Basalts  and 
andesites,  Mount  Herbert  series  ;  mid  Tertiary!?),  perhaps  later. 
5.  Syenite,  Onawe  Peninsula;    early  Tertiary (T),  perhaps  later.       "! 

Note. — The  line  of  this  section  is  not  straight,  but  altered 'in 
direction  to  show  the  relative  position  of  the  rocks  of  different  age. 
A  l">"<I  deal  of  the  section  is  problematical,  particularly  that  portion 
between  Mount  Herbert  and  Akaroa  Harbour. 


Speight. — Soda  Amphibole  Trachyte.  179 

The  foregoing  section  shows  the  relative  position  of  the 
different  outpourings  of  volcanic  rocks.  It  will  be  noted  that 
in  it  I  have  classified  the  lavas  from  Akaroa  as  belonging  to  the 
Mount  Pleasant  series ;  but  this  classification  is  merely  tentative, 
and  for  reasons  just  stated  they  should  probably  be  marked  as 

belonging  to  a  later  date. 

©    © 

The  Mount  Pleasant  series  is  penetrated  by  a  remarkable 
series  of  dykes,  well  described  by  Sir  Julius  von  Haast,  who 
pointed  out  in  the  case  of  Lyttelton  that  they  are  oriented  in  a 
somewhat  striking  manner.  They  all,  with  few  exceptions,  con- 
verge on  a  point  at  the  back  of  Quail  Island,  no  matter  in  what 
parts  of  the  crater-ring  they  are  found.  The  dykes  of  the 
Gebbie's  Pass  series  are  not  so  arranged,  while  there  are  none 
visible  in  the  Mount  Herbert  series.  Some  of  these  dykes  have 
been  previously  described  by  Hutton*,  Ulrich,f  Marshall,! 
Filhol,§  Kolenko,||  and  the  author. ^f  They  consist,  as  far  as  is 
known  at  present,  of  dolerites,  basalts,  hornblende,  and  augite 
andesites,  some  containing  olivine,  trachytoid  phonolites,  and 
trachytes,  the  last  being  probably  the  most  numerous,  although 
basaltic  dykes  are  also  common.  Some  of  the  trachytes  con- 
tain hornblende  and  others  augite,  and  they  are  in  general  of 
whitish,  pale-grey,  and  sometimes  of  a  greenish  colour,  and 
very  vesicular.  Chemical  analysis  shows  that  some  contain  a  high 
percentage  of  soda.  It  is  to  this  class  that  the  rock  to  be  de- 
scribed belongs. 

The  Soda  Amphibole  Trachyte. 

Its  Occurrence. 

The  rock  is  found  as  a  massive  dyke  on  the  northern  side 
of  Cass's  Peak,  one  of  the  highest  points  on  the  west  side  of  the 
old  crater-ring  of  Lyttelton.  The  dyke  can  be  traced  fully  half 
a  mile  from  near  the  crest  of  the  ridge,  through  the  Kennedy's 
Bush  reserve,  and  down  one  of  the  valleys  towards  Lansdowne. 
At  times  it  is  fully  60  ft.  wide,  but  it  thins  out  towards  the  top 
of  the  ridge,  and  also  when  followed  down  the  valley.  At  one 
spot  it  was  quarried  as  a  building-stone,  and  several  buildings 
in  Christchurch  were  built   of  it,   notably  the  present  Tourist 

*  "  Eruptive  Rocks  of  New  Zealand,"  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  N.S.W.,  1889. 

f  "  Transactions  of  the  Australasian  Association  for  the  Advancement 
of  Science,"  vol.  4,  1891. 

J  "  On  a  Tridymite  Trachyte  of  Lyttelton,"  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxvi 
(1893). 

§  "  Mission  de  l'lle  Campbell,"  Paris,  1883. 

||  "  New  Zealand  Journal  of  Science,"  vol.  ii. 

If  "  On  a  Doleritic  Dyke  at  Dyer's  Pass,"  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxvi 
(1893). 


180  Transactions. 

Office,  and  it  has  been  used  in  the  construction  of  others.  Blocks 
of  this  stone  occur  in  the  archway  over  the  entrance  to  Canter- 
bury College.  As  a  building-stone  it  is  very  easy  to  work,  and 
stands  the  weather  extremely  well ;  but  its  appearance  is  some- 
what spoiled  by  the  presence  of  fragments  of  the  country  rock, 
which  are  irregularly  distributed  through  it. 

Macroscopic  Appearance. 

The  rock  is  of  a  light  greenish-grey  colour,  with  phenocrysts 
of  feldspar  visible  in  a  rather  porous  groundmass.  A  number  of 
black  specks  also  are  to  be  seen,  and  these  are  either  the  soda 
amphibole  or  aggregates  of  iron-ore  derived  from  it.  No  other 
porphyritic  crystals  are  visible.  The  included  andesitic  frag- 
ments are  of  all  sizes,  up  to  10  cm.  in  length. 

Specific  Gravity. 

The  specific  gravity  determined  immediately  after  immer- 
sion in  water  was  2-35  ;  on  leaving  the  rock  to  soak  for  twenty- 
four  hours  it  was  2-48  ;  and  determined  by  a  specific-gravity 
bottle  it  was  2-57.  These  figures  afford  some  idea  of  the  vesi- 
cular character  of  the  rock. 

Chemical  Analysis. 

A  chemical  analysis  of  the  rock  was  made  in  the  chemical 
laboratory,  Canterbury  College,  by  several  students,  under  the 
direction  of  Dr.  W.  P.  Evans,  who  has  kindly  furnished  me  with 
the  following  result : — 

Per  Cent. 
Si02  70-04 


A1,03 

FeA 

FeO 

CaO 

MgO 

Na20 

K20 

H20 


15-40 

4-65 

Slight  trace  onlv. 
0-55 
4-35 
4-65 
0-57 


100-21 


The  following  points  with  regard  to  this  result  are  specially 
noticeable  :  The  high  percentage  of  Si02  (70-04),  the  low  per- 
centages of  CaO  and  MgO,  and  the  moderately  high  percentage 
of  alkalies  for  a  rock  of  its  character.  These  peculiarities  are 
explained  by  the  microscopical  examination,  and  will  be  deall 
with  more  fully  subsequently. 


Speight. — Soda  Amphibole  Trachyte.  181 

Microscopical  Examination. 

A  microscopical  examination  of  the  rock  shows  it  to  belong 
to  the  trachytes,  but  with  characteristics  connecting  it  with  the 
rhyolites.  The  phenocrysts  are  apparently  all  sanidine,  clear, 
fissured,  some  in  Carlsbad  twins,  their  greatest  length  being 
about  4  mm.  Anorthoclase  was  specially  looked  for,  in  order 
to  explain  the  fairly  high  percentage  of  soda,  but  no  undoubted 
crystals  were  detected,  although  some  of  the  crystals  suggested 
the  microscopic  twinning  of  anorthoclase  very  faintly.  In  the 
absence  of  decided  characters  I  have  classified  them  all  as  sani- 
dine.    No  phenocrysts  of  plagioclase  were  observed. 

The  only  other  porphyritic  mineral  is  the  soda  amphibole. 
This  mineral  occurs  in  very  irregular-shaped  individuals  of  small 
size,  re-entrant  angles  being  extremely  common.  Pleochroism 
is  very  strong,  the  maximum  absorption  occurring  when  the 
cleavage  is  parallel  to  the  short  diagonal  of  the  nicol.  The 
colours  are  a  deep-blue,  greenish-blue,  and  brownish-yellow. 
The  mineral  is  somewhat  opaque,  and  only  translucent  in  thin 
sections.  The  angle  of  extinction  is  therefore  somewhat  diffi- 
cult to  determine,  but  it  ranges  up  to  about  10°,  measured 
from  the  cleavage  traces  in  sections  where  they  are  parallel. 
These  characters  show  the  mineral  to  be,  in  all  probability,  the 
soda  amphibole  arfvedsonite,  or  a  closely  related  variety.  The 
rock  also  contains  aggregates  of  iron-ores,  which  are  apparently 
derived  from  this  amphibole. 

Groundmass. 

The  groundmass  is  noncrystalline,  but  the  size  of  the  in- 
dividual crystals  varies  considerably  in  different  parts  of  the 
dyke.  It  is  composed  chiefly  of  rectangular  and  short  lath- 
shaped  crystals  of  sanidine  frequently  twinned,  with  interstitial 
matter  of  smaller  microlites  of  sanidine,  and  sparingly  plagioclase  ; 
this  last  is  almost  certainly  albite.  The  feldspars  exhibit  at 
times  a  rough  fluxion  structure,  especially  when  the  groundmass 
is  somewhat  coarse  in  texture.  Small  grains  of  quartz  are 
commonly  seen  in  the  groundmass  forming  part  of  the  inter- 
stitial matter  between  the  larger  individuals  of  feldspar.  The 
most  brilliant  polarisation  colours  and  the  index  of  refraction 
(Becke's  test)  show  clearly  that  the  mineral  is  not  tridymite — 
which  might  have  been  expected  in  a  trachyte.  The  high  per- 
centage of  Si02  in  the  chemical  analysis  shows  that  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  free  silica  must  be  present,  and  this  must  occur 
in  the  groundmass,  as  the  clear  phenocrysts  are  apparently 
all  sanidine.  The  soda  amphibole  also  occurs  very  plentifully 
in  the  groundmass,  in  the  form  of  irregular  flakes.  This  exhibits 
the    characteristic    pleochroism    of   the    larger   individuals.     In 


182 


Transactions. 


many  cases  it  is  moulded  on  the  larger  crystals  of  sanidine  in 
the  base,  and  has  evidently  separated  out  at  a  late  period  in 
the  consolidation.  Small  irregular  flakes  of  a  greenish  augite 
also  occur,  but  it  is  very  difficult  to  differentiate  them  from 
the  blue  amphibole,  their  colour  and  faint  pleochroism  being  the 
special  criteria  for  discrimination. 

This  description  of  the  rock  shows  that  it  belongs  to  the 
phonolitic  variety  of  trachyte,  using  that  term  in  its  general 
acceptation — viz.,  a  trachyte  which  contains  sanidine  (and  anor- 
thoclase),  with  alkali  iron  pyroxenes  or  alkali  iron  amphiboles. 

The  microscopical  examination  thus  explains  the  peculiarities 
in  the  chemical  analysis.  The  fairly  large  percentage  of  soda  is 
due  to  the  presence  in  large  quantities  of  the  soda  amphibole 
and  the  green  augite.  The  practical  absence  of  lime  shows  the 
absence  of  all  plagioclase  feldspars  except  albite,  and,  taken  in 
conjunction  with  the  poorness  in  magnesia  and  the  absence  of 
any  other  mineral  explaining  the  percentage  of  iron-oxide,  it 
shows  that  amphibole  is  most  probably  an  almost  pure  soda- 
iron  variety.  This  may  contain  a  small  proportion  of  mag- 
nesia, although  the  presence  of  this  oxide  may  be  due  to  the 
fragments  of  augite  in  the  groundmass.  The  high  percentage 
of  silica,  and  its  presence  in  the  free  state  in  the  groundmass, 
though  rare  in  trachytes,  seems  undoubtedly  to  occur  in  those 
of  orthophyric  character  (vide  Rosenbusch  s  "  Elemente  der 
Gesteinslehre  ").  The  tridymite  trachyte  dyke  from  the  Lyttel- 
ton-Sumner  Road  described  by  Marshall  also  shows  a  high  per- 
centage of  free  silica ;  but  he  came  to  the  conclusion  that  this  was 
of  secondary  origin,  whereas  it  appears  to  me  to  be  a  primary 
constituent  in  the  groundmass  of  this  rock.  I  include  the 
analysis  of  the  tridymite  trachyte  made  by  Marshall  for  the  pur- 
poses of  comparison,  as  well  as  all  other  analyses  which  I  have 
come  across  of  the  trachytes  and  related  rocks  belonging  to  the 
Mount  Pleasant  series. 


Analyses  of  Trachyte  and 

Allied  Dykes  op  the  Mor\r    Pleasant  Series. 



A. 

B. 

('. 

D. 

E. 

F. 

G.            H. 

Si<>„ 

58-93 

59-87 

61-99 

(51-38 

(i(t-()!l 

52-18 

71-09 

70-04 

Al0<)3 

23-95 

21-22 

13  08 

20-60 

17-75 

2(1-0(1 

16-45 

15-40 

Fe«,03       .. 

FeO 

5-43 

4-42 
1-1G 

8-65 

2-57 

3-83 

5-00 

L-50 

0-34 

j-     4-65 

MnO 

014 

4-42 

119 

1-21 

.   , 

.   . 

CaO 

1-75 

2-58 

2-21 

2- 18 

1-20 

4-92 

3-25 

Sight 

i  race 

MgO 

0-96 

0-91 

Trace 

(1-4(1 

1-43 

1-03 

0-89 

0-55 

K20 

4-32 

4-06 

Mil 

Traces 

2-30 

2-35 

4-35 

\a20 

.-Hi  1 

5-34 

4-22 

9-7(1 

1310 

1  i-.-.: 

4-81 

4-65 

H20 

1-36 

3-82 

1-98 

11-79 

0-07 

0-57 

Total      .. 

HI2-3I 

99-70 

1  00-00 

100-00 

10000 

100-00 

99-75 

100-21 

Speight. — Soda  Amphibole  Trachyte.  183 

A.  Trachytoid  phonolite,  Lvttelton-Sumner  Road  ;  analysed 
by  P.  Marshall ;  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxvi  (1893). 

B.  Trachytoid  phonolite,  Heathcofce  ;  analysis  by  T.  Bute- 
ment ;  quoted  by  H.  F.  Ulrich,  Trans.  Aus.  Assoc.  Adv.  Sci., 
vol.  iii  (1891). 

C.  Vesicular  trachyte  from  agglomerate  bed  ;  analysis  made 
in  laboratory  of  the  Geological  Survey ;  quoted  in  Haast's 
"  Geology  of  Canterbury  and  Westland." 

D.  Dyke  (side)  cut  by  tunnel,  No.  29b,  same  dyke  ;  analysis 
made  in  laboratory  of  the  Geological  Survey  ;  quoted  in  Haast's 
"  Geology  of  Canterbury  and  Westland." 

E.  Dyke  (centre)  cut  by  tunnel,  No.  29a,  same  dyke  ;  analysis 
made  in  laboratory  of  the  Geological  Survey  ;  quoted  in  Haast's 
"  Geology  of  Canterbury  and  Westland." 

F.  Dyke  (centre)  cut  by  tunnel ;  analysis  made  in  Paris  by 
Dr.  H.  Filhol ;   "  Mission  de  File  Campbell." 

G.  Tridymite-trachyte,  Lyttelton-Sumner  Road ;  analysis 
by  P.  Marshall ;   Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxvi  (1893). 

H.  Soda  amphibole  trachyte,  Cass's  Peak  ;  analysis  made  in 
chemical  laboratory,  'Canterbury  College  ;  inserted  again  for 
convenience  of  comparison. 

This  list  includes  nearly  all  the  published  analyses  of  trachytic 
and  allied  rocks  of  this  series.  There  seems  to  be  one  or  two 
striking  features  about  some  of  them.  Assuming  that  they  are 
tolerably  correct,  those  marked  D,  B,  F  show  an  abnormal  per- 
centage of  soda,  and  also  a  very  small  percentage  of  potash  ; 
also  A,  B,  C  show  an  excess  of  soda  over  potash.  The  high 
percentage  of  MnO  in  C  is  also  remarkable  ;  this  apparently  ex- 
plains the  presence  of  frequent  thin  coatings  of  a  black  mineral 
resembling  pyrolusite,  which  occurs  on  the  fracture  surfaces  of 
the  rock.  Analyses  A  and  B  undoubtedly  show  the  characters 
of  a  trachytoid  phonolite,  and  C,  D,  E,  and  F  those  of  a  soda 
trachyte.  These  last  rocks  have  anorthoclase  as  a  common 
phenocryst,  but  the  practical  absence  of  potash  in  the  analysis 
is  rather  peculiar.  The  two  analyses  G  and  H  afford  in- 
teresting comparisons.  The  marked  agreement  of  the  silica, 
alumina,  magnesia,  and  the  soda  are  very  noteworthy.  The 
only  differences  appear  to  be  the  greater  proportion  of  iron- 
oxides  and  the  practical  absence  of  lime  in  H.  These  peculiarities 
are  explained  by  the  microscopical  analysis.  There  is  a  fair 
proportion  of  plagioclase  (andesine)  and  a  very  small  amount 
of  iron-bearing  mineral  in  the  tridymite-trachyte.  In  his  de- 
scription of  the  rock  Dr.  Marshall  noted  the  percentage  of  mag- 
nesia without  being  able  to  account  for  it.  On  looking  over  a 
section  of  it  I  found  in  the  groundmass  a  considerable  quantity 


184  Transactions. 

of  greenish -blue  pleochroic  mineral  in  very  minute  fragments, 
which  may  be  either  the  soda  amphibole  or  the  greenish  augite. 
These  would  account  for  the  small  percentage  of  magnesia  that 
does  occur.  This  greenish  mineral  with  slight  pleoehroism  is 
found  in  other  rocks  occurring  as  dykes  in  this  series.  In  some 
cases  it  is  undoubtedly  an  augite  of  a  soda-bearing  variety  ; 
but  in  other  cases  where  it  has  the  bluish  tinge  of  varying  de- 
grees of  intensity  it  is,  in  all  probability,  a  soda-iron  amphi- 
bole. 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  occurrence  of  this  mineral  is 
in  the  syenite  of  Onawe  Peninsula,  Akaroa.  In  his  description 
of  this  rock  Captain  Hutton  says,*  "  The  hornblende  goes  up  to 
005  in.  in  length  ;  when  fresh  it  is  greenish  and  pleochroic, 
changing  from  blue-green  to  yellow-green,  the  polarisation 
colours  not  brilliant."  On  examining  this  rock  further  with  the 
advantage  of  thinner  sections  I  find  the  masses  of  iron-oxides 
which  have  in  most  cases  replaced  the  hornblende  show  not 
merely  a  greenish-blue,  but  a  deep-blue  colour,  aud  in  other 
cases  I  noticed  small  pieces  of  hornblende  exactly  resembling 
the  amphibole  of  Cass's  Peak.  This,  therefore,  seems  to  me  a 
case  of  the  occurrence  of  an  arfvedsonite  syenite.  Just  as  in 
many  dykes  of  the  Mount  Pleasant  series,  this  rock  is  very  light 
in  colour,  and  shows  a  small  proportion  of  iron-bearing  mineral. 

The  fairly  wide  occurrence  of  the  rocks  of  the  phonolitdc 
trachyte  variety  so  closely  connected  with  the  trachytoid  pho- 
nolites,  as  well  as  the  occurrence  of  arfvedsonite  syenite  at  Akaroa, 
is  of  special  interest  when  we  note  the  existence  at  Dunedin  of 
the  magnificent  series  of  alkaline,  rocks  discovered  by  Ulricli, 
and  well  described  latterly  by  Marshall.  The  occurrence  of  the 
rocks  previously  mentioned  in  the  Banks  Peninsula,  area,  shows 
distinctly  that  the  distribution  of  alkali  rocks  in  New  Zealand 
is  wider  than  at  first  supposed. 

*  "  The  Eruptive  Rocks  of  New  Zealand."  I>y  Professor  F.  W. 
Hutton.  Read  before  the  Royal  Society  of  New  South  Wales,  7th  August, 
ISS'.I. 


Best. — Maori  Forest  Lore.  185 


Art.  XV. — Maori  Forest  Lore  :  being  some  Account  of  Native 
Forest  Lore  and  Woodcraft,  as  also  of  many  Myths,  Rites, 
Customs,  and  Superstitions  connected  with  the  Flora  and  Fauna 
of  the  Tuhoe  or  Ure-ivera  District. — Part  I. 

By  Elsdon  Best. 

[Read  before  the  Auckland  Institute,  30th  October,  1907.] 

The  forest  lore  of  the  Maori  people  of  these  isles  is  but  little 
known  to  those  interested  in  ethnographical  studies — or,  at  least, 
the  latter  have  placed  but  little  of  such  lore  on  record.  Hence 
these  notes  are  presented  in  order  to  conserve  some  very  singular 
old-time  customs  and  beliefs  of  the  ancient  Maori.  The  paper 
will  be  by  no  means  a  comprehensive  one,  inasmuch  as  it  merely 
treats  of  a  tithe  of  the  forest  lore  of  a  single  tribe  of  Natives, 
the  unimportant  Tuhoe  or  Ure-wera  clan.  Moreover,  the  old 
men  who  held  full  knowledge  of  the  old  customs,  myths,  and 
quaint  beliefs  have  now  passed  away,  and  much  interesting 
lore  has  died  with  them.  The  items  herein  given  are  but  frag- 
ments, lacking  many  connecting-links  and  explanatory  notes. 
The  ritual  pertaining  to  all  work  connected  with  the  forest 
and  its  fauna  was  of  a  most  extensive  and  pervading  character. 
We  can  give  but  the  skeleton  thereof  ;  the  bulk  of  such  matter 
is  lost. 

Here  follows  some  account  of  the  forests  of  Tuhoeland,  their 
sylva,  flora,  and  fauna,  as  given  not  by  the  botanist  and  ethno- 
grapher, but  by  primitive  man.  He  who  evolved  the  peculiar 
customs,  myths,  and  superstitions  herein  described  shall  tell  of 
them. 

Mythical  Origin  of  Trees  and  Birds. 

The  most  widely  used  term  employed  by  the  Natives  of 
New  Zealand  to  denote  a  forest  is  ngahere  or  ngaherehere.  In 
some  parts,  as  among  the  Aotea  tribes,  the  word  motu  takes 
its  place.  In  others,  the  latter  term  is  only  applied — as  motu 
rak.au — to  an  isolated  clump  of  trees,  a  grove  or  small  wood. 
Such  a  small  patch  of  timber-growth  would  be  called  an  uru 
rakau  by  the  Matatua  tribes. 

There  is,  however,  another  term  used  to  denote  a  forest, 
but  which,  as  a  rule,  is  only  employed  as  a  kind  of  emblematical 
expression.  This  is  the  word  wao,  which  is  usually  connected 
with  the  name  of  the  tutelary  deity  or  personification  of  forests, 
the  great  Tane,  offspring  of  the  Earth  Mother  and  of  Rangi, 
the  Heavens.     Thus,  forests  are  termed  te  wao  nui  a  Tane  (the 


186  Transactions. 

great  forest  of  Tane),  or  te  wao  tapu  nui  a  Tane  (the  great  sacred 
forest  of  Tane).  A  single  tree  or  bird  is  often  spoken  of  as 
though  it  itself  was  Tane.  In  speaking  of  one  of  the  prized 
timber  trees,  such  as  totara,  a  Native  would  often  say,  "  That 
is  your  ancestor,  Tane."  A  canoe  made  of  such  trees  was  often 
termed  te  riu  tapu  nui  o  Tane.  It  was  doubtless  this  feeling 
of  Tane  being  incarnated  in  the  forms  of  trees  and  birds  that 
induced  the  Maori  to  perform  some  very  peculiar  rites  prior 
to  felling  a  tree,  as  also  on  the  opening  of  the  bird-taking  season. 
When  engaged  in  the  task  of  felling  some  rimu  trees  which 
overhung  my  camp,  passing  Natives  would  call  out  to  me,  "  Kai 
te  raweke  koe  i  to  tipuna,  i  a  Tane  "  (You  are  meddling  with 
your  ancestor  Tane)  ;  or,  on  the  fall  of  a  tree,  "  E  !  kua  hinga 
a  Tane  "  (0  !    Tane  has  fallen). 

This  singular  phase  of  primitive  mentality  is  noted  in  all 
Maori  myths — viz.,  the  belief  in  an  anthropomorphic  origin 
and  personification  of  all  things,  such  things  being  looked  upon 
as  the  descendants  of  such  mythical  being,  and  also  as  being 
imbued  with  a  certain  amount  of  his  personality.  Thus  the  origin 
of  the  gourd-plant  (hue)  in  Maori  myth  is  one  Putehue,  a  descend- 
ant of  Rangi  and  Papa  (Sky  and  Earth).  The  saying  of  Putehue 
was,  "  Ko  nga  kakano  o  roto  i  a  au  hei  utu  wai  mo  aku  mokopuna. 
Ko  tetehi  o  nga  kakano  he  tane,  tena  e  kore  ia  e  whai  uri."  (The 
seeds  within  me  shall  become  water-vessels  for  my  descendants. 
But  some  of  them  are  male  seeds  which  will  not  have  offspring.) 
In  this  ancient  myth  we  note  an  early  proof  of  Maori  recognition 
of  sex  in  plants. 

The  following  mythical  genealogy  is  of  a  cosmogonic  nature, 
needing  explanation. 

Maori  Cosmogony  :  The  Cosmogonal  Tree  in  Maori  Myth, 
and  the  Descent  op  Tane  from  the  Same,  through  the 
Sky  and  Earth  Parents.     (From  Ngati-Awa  of  Whakatane.) 

Te  Pu  (root,  origin). 

Te  More  (tap  root). 

'LV  Weu  (rootlets). 

Te  Aka  (creeper,  vine). 

Te  Rea  (growth). 

Te  Wao-nui  (great  wood). 

Te  Knne  (conception,  form). 

Te  Whe  (sound). 

Te  Kore  (chaos,  void). 

Te  Po  (darkness,  &c). 


Rangi  =  Papa 


I  I  I 

Tane-nui-a-rangi  Tangotango  Wai-nui 


Best. — Maori  Forest  Lore.  187 

The  above  names  are  said  to  represent  certain  beings  who 
existed  before  man  was,  and  before  the  sky  and  earth  were 
formed.  Some  Native  mythologists  assert  that  there  were  ten 
beings  named  Te  Pu  (Te  Pu  the  First  to  Te  Pu  the  Tenth), 
ten  named  Te  More,  and  so  on  down  to  Rangi  and  Papa,  though 
it  is  not  clear  as  to  whether  the  ten  were  contemporaries  or 
otherwise.  Others  state  that  Te  Pu  and  Te  More  were  the 
primal  pair,  male  and  female,  who  begat  Te  Weu  and  Te  Aka, 
male  and  female,  and  so  on  down  to  Rangi  and  Papa.  Yet 
another  version  is  that  each  of  these  beings  was  of  a  bisexual 
nature,  and  contained  within  themselves  the  powers  of  repro- 
duction. They  are  not  said  to  have  been  anthropomorphic,  or 
possessed  of  any  faculties  akin  to  those  of  the  genus  homo. 
Rangi,  the  Sky  Parent,  and  Papa,  the  Earth  Mother,  are  the 
first  beings  to  whom  are  allotted  powers  of  speech,  thought, 
and  feeling  in  Maori  myth. 

It  will  be  seen  that  many  of  the  names  in  the  above  genea- 
logical allegory  pertain  to  trees  and  their  growth,  taking  the 
present-day  meaning  of  the  words,  which  takes  the  mind  back 
to  the  cosmogonal  or  universe  tree  of  Oriental  and  Aryan  myth- 
ologies. An  explanation  of  these  names  given  to  me  by  a  very 
old  Native  agrees  with  the  above  bracketed  words,  save  in  the 
case  of  the  first  name.  He  said,  "  Te  Pu  is  the  upper  part ; 
Te  More  is  the  root ;  Te  Weu  represents  the  rootlets  ;  Te  Aka 
means  the  aka  ;  Te  Rea  stands  for  growth,  and  Te  Wao-nui 
for  size  attained ;  Te  Kune  means  form  attained  ;  Te  Whe 
stands  for  wJieke,  the  creaking  sound  of  trees  heard  when  wind 
blows  in  the  forest ;  Te  Kore  implies  nothingness,  non-existence ; 
Te  Po  is  darkness.  From  Te  Po  came  Rangi ;  his  sister  was 
Papa :  these  iwo  produced  Tane,  Tangotango,  and  Wai-nui. 
From  these  sprang  all  things  in  the  world — people,  and  plants, 
trees,  stones,  fish,  animals,  birds,  reptiles,  rats,  insects,  moths, 
spiders,  mosquitoes,  and  all  other  things.  From  Tane  sprang 
men,  trees,  and  birds.  His  descendant  was  Tangaroa-i-te- 
rupetu,  who  begat  Maui,  who  begat  Te  Papatiti-raumaewa, 
who  begat  Tiwakawaka,  who  came  to  this  land  (New  Zealand) 
from  Mataora  in  times  long  past  away." 

The  word  aka,  above,  is  used  to  denote  long,  thin  roots,  and 
is  also  a  generic  term  for  climbing-plants.  Te  Po  is  a  name 
applied  to  the  underworld,  the  place  to  which  go  the  spirits 
of  the  dead  from  this  world  ;  but  it  also  is  applied  to  the  aeons 
of  time  before  this  world  came  into  being — that  is,  before  Rangi 
and  Papa  were.  For,  prior  to  the  forcing-apart  of  Sky  and  Earth 
by  their  son  Tane,  light  was  unknown :  darkness  obtained 
everywhere.  Beings  who  existed  before  the  separation  are  said 
to  have  belonged  to  the  Po.  Those  who  came  after  it  are  said 
to  have  been  of  the  ao  mamma,  the  world  of  light. 


188  Transactions. 

Other  offspring  of  Rangi  and  Papa  we  are  not  here  concerned 
with,  but  we  will  give  the  position  of  Tane  as  preserved  by  the 
Tuhoe  Tribe,  and  given  by  old  Tutakangahau  : — 

'  The  first-born  of  Rangi  and  Papa,  who  carne  into  being 
before  light  was,  before  man  was,  and  before  heaven  and  earth 
were  separated,  were  Te  Kaukau-nunui,  Te  Kaukau-roroa,  Te 
Rupe-tu,  Te  Rupe-pae,  Pekepeke,  Hauaitu,  Te  Manu-waero- 
rua,  and  Tahiri-matea.  The  second  lot  so  born  of  Heaven  and 
Earth  were  Tane-tuturi,  Tane-pepeke,  Tane-ueha,  Tane-uetika, 
Tane-mabuta,  Tane-mataahi,  and  Tane-te-po-tiwha.  The  third 
lot  were  Tane-te-wai-ora,  Tane-nui-a-rangi,  Paia-te-rangi,  and 
Ruaumoko.  The  human  race  is  descended  from  Tane-nui-a- 
rangi  and  Tane-te-wai-ora.  The  offspring  of  Tane-te-po-tiwha 
were  Te  Ao-tu,  Te  Ao-hore,  Hine-tuahoanga,  and  Tangaroa." 

Of  the  many  different  beings  named  Tane  in  the  above 
myth,  Tane-te-wai-ora  and  Tane-te-po-tiwha  are  often  spoken 
of  as  being  separate  and  distinct  from  Tane-nui-a-rangi,  but  all 
the  others  seem  to  be  but  different  names  of  Tane-nui-a-rangi. 
The  name  of  Tane  appears  to  be  changed  according  to  the  dif- 
ferent beings  or  natural  objects  which  originated  with  him.  As 
the  progenitor  of  the  genus  homo  he  is  termed  Tane-nui-a-rangi, 
or  simply  Tane.  As  the  origin  of  trees  and  plant-life  he  is 
Tane-mahuta.  As  the  origin  of  birds  he  is  Tane-mataahi. 
Tane  has  many  other  names,  as  Tane-takoto,  Tane-wai-nui, 
Tane-wai-kokina,  Tane-wai-patato,  Tane-i-te-kapua,  and  those 
given  above. 

Rangi,  the  Sky  Parent,  is  known  in  full  as  Rangi  nui  e  tu 
nei  (the  Great  Heavens  above),  and  Papa-tuanuku  is  the  full 
title  of  the  Earth  Mother.  This  twain  were  the  origin  of  all 
things  on  earth  ;  they  were  the  primal  parents  ;  nothing  existed 
before  them  save  darkness  and  the  mythical  beings  that  were 
the  denizens  of  darkness  and  chaos. 

And  Rangi  and  Papa  were  as  one  in  the  beginning,  for  the 
sky  lay  prone  upon  the  earth,  and  darkness  covered  the  earth. 
Light  was  not.  It  was  Tane  who  forced  the  heavens  upwards 
and  brought  light  to  the  world.  For  the  offspring  of  Rangi 
and  Papa  were  living  in  darkness  on  the  breast  of  the  Earth 
Mother.  They  desired  light  and  space.  Hence  Tane  thrust 
the  sky  upwards  with  his  feet  as  he  lay  on  the  breast  of  Papa. 
So  it  is  said  that  the  branches  of  a  tree  are  the  legs  of  Tane, 
and  the  butt  or  base  of  the  tree  is  the  head  of  Tane.  For  such 
are  the  thoughts  of  the  Maori. 

The  many  names  assigned  to  Tane  is  a  circumstance  that 
carries  the  mind  to  ancient  Asiatic  cults,  and  to  others  far  spread 
toward  the  setting  sun.  For  in  like  manner  did  Merodach, 
the  chief  deity  of  the  Babylonian  pantheon,  bear  many  names, 


Best.—  Maori  Forest  Lore.  1S9 

as  also  Ea,  god  of  the  underworld,  of  reproduction,  of  cultivation, 
and  of  waters.  In  India  we  see  the  same  thing,  as  of  Vritra, 
who  is  Ahi  the  strangler,  and  Vala,  and  Pani,  who  entices  the 
cows  of  Indra  to  leave  their  pastures.  Westward  to  the  setting 
sun  and  eastward  to  the  dawn  one  notes  similar  cases  in  the 
mythologies  of  many  peoples. 

Rangi  also  appears  under  many  different  names  in  Maori 
myth,  as  Rangi-nui,  Rangi-roa,  Rangi-potango,  &c. 

The  first  act  performed  by  Tane  was  the  forcing- apart  of 
heaven  and  earth,  after  which  he  brought  light  to  the  world, 
by  setting  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars  in  the  breast  of  Rangi. 
Having  performed  these  tasks,  Tane  went  in  search  of  the  female 
element.  He  foimd  the  female  nature  in  various  forms,  but 
these  forms  were  not  human.  He  found  Apunga,  by  whom  he 
produced  shrubs  and  the  smaller  birds.  He  found  Mumuhanga, 
who  had  the  totara  (a  tree).  He  found  Te  Pu-whakahara,  who 
became  the  origin  of  the  trees  called  maire  and  puriri.  He 
found  Tu-Kapua,  by  whom  he  had  the  tawai,  kahikawaka,  and 
other  trees.  He  found  Ruru-tangi-akau,  who  bore  the  ake  and 
kahikatoa  trees.  He  found  Rere-noa,  who  produced  the  rata 
and  all  parasitic  and  climbing  plants.  He  found  Hine-wao-riki, 
who  bore  the  kahika  and  matai  trees.  He  found  Mango-nui, 
who  had  the  tawa  and  hinau  trees.  He  found  Punga,  who  be- 
came the  origin  of  the  kotukutuku  and  patate  trees,  as  also  of  all 
insects.  He  found  Tutoro-whenua,  who  bore  Haumia  (roots  of 
the  rarauhe  fern).  He  found  Hine-tu-maunga,  who  had  Para 
whenua-mea  (origin  and  personification  of  flood  waters). 

Other  Natives  give  Pani-tinaku  as  being  the  parent  or  origin 
of  the  sweet  potato,  Hine-mahanga  as  the  parent  of  the  tutu 
(shrub),  Tawake-toro  as  parent  of  the  manuka,  Hine-rauamoa  as 
parent  of  the  kiokio  fern,  Huna  as  origin  of  the  harakeke  (flax), 
Tawhara-nui  of  the  kiekie,  Kakaho  of  the  toetoe,  and  so  on. 

The  sim,  moon,  and  stars  were  the  offspring  of  Tangotango, 
while  Wai-nui  was  the  origin  of  all  waters.  Hence  we  see  that 
in  Maori  myth  life  seems  to  be  shared  in  common  by  men, 
animals,  treer.,  and  plants,  the  heavenly  bodies,  and  water. 

The  idea  of  the  cosmogonal  or  universe  tree  in  New  Zealand 
myths  seems  to  bear  two  aspects — first,  that  the  universe  ac- 
quired form  and  grew  as  does  a  tree  ;  and  again,  that  the  sky 
was  forced  upwards,  and  supported  by  a  tree  in  the  form  of 
Tane,  who  was  the  origin,  personification,  and  tutelary  deity 
of  trees  and  forests. 

The  cosmogonic  tree  in  Maori  mythology  is  a  conception  of 
somewhat  rudimentary  form  when  we  compare  it  with  similar 
myths  in  Japan,  China,  India,  Persia,  Chaldea,  Egypt,  and 
northern  Europe,   but  a  study  of  this  conception,   as  also  of 


190  Transactions. 

many  rites,  customs,  beliefs,  &c,  conserved  in  Maori  ritual, 
myth,  and  folk-lore,  tends  to  a  belief  that  the  remote  ancestors 
of  the  Maori  must  have  for  a  long  period  dwelt  in  a  forest 
country. 

Possibly  the  Indian  concept  of  the  universe  tree  approaches 
more  closely  the  Maori  myth  than  any  other  we  wot  of,  wherein 
Brahma  himself  is  described  as  the  vast  overspreading  tree  of 
the  universe,  of  which  the  gods  are  the  branches.  In  Eastern 
legend  the  cosmic  tree  sometimes  appears  as  the  giver  of  im- 
mortality, whereas  in  Maori  legend  Tane-te-wai-ora  confers  that 
boon  by  means  of  the  "  waters  of  life."  In  Arabia  the  stars 
were  said  to  be  the  fruit  of  the  zodiac  tree,  while  the  Maori  has 
it  that  the  stars  were  the  ornaments  of  the  house  of  Tane-te- 
wai-ora. 

The  custom  of  planting  a  tree  at  the  birth  of  a  child,  with  the 
belief  in  some  mystical  relationship  between  them,  has  obtained 
in  many  lands,  and  has  been  noted  by  the  late  Mr.  John  White 
as  having  been  practised  by  the  Maori  in  former  times.  The 
"  world  pillar,"  allied  to  the  cosmogonic  tree,  was  also  a  Maori 
concept.  The  "  family  tree  "  and  "  community  tree "  have 
not,  I  believe,  been  noted  in  Maori  myth,  but  there  is  some 
evidence  in  favour  of  a  belief  in  phallic  trees.  Such  a  tree  is 
Te  Iho  o  Kataka,  a  hinau  tree  at  O-Haua-te-rangi,  Kua-tahuna, 
a  description  of  which,  and  the  necessary  rites  in  order  to  cause 
a  woman  to  conceive,  we  have  already  placed  on  record. 

We  would  hesitate  to  say  that  the  Maori  practised  tree- 
worship,  although  certain  trees  were,  for  various  reasons,  looked 
upon  as  possessing  certain  supernatural  powers,  or  as  being 
the  material  representation  of  wood  spirits,  or  spirits  of  the 
land,  or  as  being  tapu  because  a  chief  died  near  such  tree,  or  it 
was  used  as  a  burial-place,  or  because  the  severed  umbilical 
cord  of  a  new-born  infant  was  deposited  on  such  tree.  A  tree 
on  or  in  which  such  umbilical  cords  were  placed,  or  under 
which  a  dying  man  had  been  laid,  would  often  be  adorned,  in 
modern  times,  by  means  of  hanging  thereon  bright  -  coloured 
handkerchiefs,  strips  of  cloth.  &c,  from  time  to  time  ;  but  in 
pre-European  days  some  prized  article,  as  a  piece  of  greenstone, 
would  be  placed  on  the  tree,  often  thrust  into  a  crevice  or  fissure 
in  the  bark. 

Now,  a  traveller  who  might  happen  to  see  such  trees  so 
adorned  would  very  probably  be  of  the  opinion  that  the  Natives 
of  the  district  were  tree-worshippers — the  trees  so  adorned,  as 
well  as  tipua  trees  and  uruuru-whenua  tiees,  being  looked  upon 
as  gods.  But  it  needs  a  long  residence  among  a  primitive  people, 
a  deep  interest  in  primitive  cults  and  kindred  studies,  and  a 
tireless  patience,  before  we   can  find  out  what   any  primitive 


Best. — Maori  Forest  Lore.  191 

people  do,  or  do  not,  believe.     I  certainly  would  not  say  that 
the  Maori  was  a  tree-worshipper. 

Tipua. 

The  trees  termed  tipua  are  supposed  to  be  endowed  with 
certain  supernatural  powers.  The  term  tipua  is  often  translated 
as  meaning  "  demon,"  and  it  is  applied  to  anything  possessing 
weird,  supernatural  power,  in  Maori  belief.  There  are  many 
trees,  stones,  &c,  in  Tuhoeland  so  gifted,  say  my  Native  friends. 
The  small  pond  called  Rongo-te-mauriuri,  on  the  summit  of 
Maunga-pohatu,  is  a  tipua.  Our  term  "  enchanted,"  as  used  in 
fairy  tales,  comes  near  to  the  meaning  of  tipua  in  the  present 
case.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Manga-o-hou  tributary  of  the 
Whakatane  River  stands  a  rock  known  as  Te  Komata-o-te- 
rangi,  said  to  have  been  located  there  by  Tane-atua.  Its  in- 
herent power  is  that,  should  a  stranger  to  the  place  pass  near  it, 
then  heavy  rain  will  at  once  come  on,  making  travelling  un- 
pleasant for  that  stranger. 

A  rock  at  Titi-o-kura,  known  as  the  Canoe  of  Taurua-ngare- 
ngare,  is  a  tipua. 

A  log  of  totara  timber,  which  is  known  as  Tangi-auraki,  lying 
in  the  Rangi-taiki  River  at  Nga-huinga,  is  a  tipua.  It  has,  or 
had,  the  power  of  preventing  eels  from  travelling  any  further  up- 
stream. 

Te  Toka  a  Houmea,  a  rock  situated  in  a  paddock  on  Sec- 
tion 261  at  Whakatane,  was  a  tipua  until  the  godless  pakeha 
destroyed  its  magic  powers. 

When  a  stranger  approaches  a  tipua  tree,  stone,  &c,  a  heavy 
fog,  or  mists,  often  descend  upon  the  land.  A  stranger  in 
ascending  the  enchanted  hill  Maunga-pohatu  is  said  to  be  so 
greeted.     The  sun  is  spoken  of  in  old  tales  as  a  tipua. 

Te  Kuri-a-Tarawhata  is  a  tipua  rock  in  the  Whakatane  River, 
near  Pu-kareao.     Tarawhata  was  an  immigrant  from  Hawaiki. 

Te  Puku-o-Kirihika  is  a  stone  tipua  at  Pu-kareao,  and  is 
gifted  with  powers  of  locomotion.  If  any  person  moves  that 
stone  it  will,  ere  long,  return  to  its  former  resting-place. 

Some  of  the  tipua  rocks  at  Wai-kare  Moana  will,  if  touched 
or  interfered  with,  cause  the  wind  to  change,  or  a  gale  to  rise. 

Te  Tapuwae  a  Eke-nui  (the  footprint  of  Eke-nui),  a  mark  on 
a  rock  at  Maunga-pohatu,  is  a  tipua. 

A  small  totara  tree  growing  on  a  tawai  tree  on  the  old  trail 
over  Huia-rau  Range  is  a  tipua.  It  is  at  a  place  called  Te 
Pakura,  and  was  an  uruuru  whenua.  Marae-roa,  a  taiva  tree  at 
Maunga-pohatu,  was  another  such. 

There  are  said  to  be  two  ruru  birds  (owls),  named  Kahu  and 
Kau,  which  frequent  the  forest  at  Te  Purenga,  Rua-toki.     Both 


192  Transactions. 

of  these  birds  are  albinos,  and  are  tipua,  inasmuch  as  they 
give  notice  of  the  fruitfulness  or  otherwise  of  the  approaching 
season.  When  a  person  who  has  an  ancestral  right  to  those 
lands  enters  the  forest  thereof  he  knows  whether  or  not  it  will 
be  a  plentiful  season.  If  when  he  commences  to  set  his  snares 
those  two  white  owls  appear,  that  is  a  sign  that  it  will  be  a  tau 
kai,  or  fruitful  season.  If  when  the  first-snared  bird  is  taken 
and  prepared  the  owls  have  not  appeared,  then  it  is  known 
that  a  tau  hiroki,  a  lean  season,  is  at  hand. 

The  place  from  which  the  Wairau  district  of  Wai-kare  Moana 
derived  its  name  was  a  pond  or  small  lake.  This  pond  was  a 
tipua.  Around  it  were  many  fine  trees,  much  frequented  by 
birds,  and  on  which  quantities  were  snared.  Even  the  hiwi 
(permanently  fixed  rods  on  which  the  poles  with  set  snares  are 
suspended)  on  those  trees  were  adorned  with  carving.  Once 
upon  a  time  a  chief  engaged  in  bird-snaring  at  that  place  told 
his  wife  to  be  very  careful  to  never  pass  before  him  when  carry- 
ing food.  Unfortunately  she  did  so  on  one  occasion,  with  the 
result  that  no  one  has  ever  been  able  to  find  that  lakelet  since  ; 
both  it  and  the  prolific  trees  adjacent  thereto  have  passed  from 
human  ken.  The  term  tipua  is  sometimes  applied  to  fairies  and 
other  forest-  or  mountain-dwelling  beings  supposed  to  possess 
strange  powers. 

Many  of  the  rocks  which  stand  in  the  entrance  to  the  Whaka- 
tane  River,  inside  the  bar,  are  tipua.  The  names  of  those 
rocks  are  Arai-awa,  Toka-mauku,  Toka-roa,  Himoki,  Hoaki. 
and  Ira-kewa. 

Uruuru  Whenua. 
The  custom  known  as  uruuru  whenua,  or  "  entering  the 
Land,"  is  a  peculiar  one.  Scattered  about  the  tribal  lands  are 
certain  trees,  stones,  &c,  which  are  viewed  as  though  they 
represented  the  spirits  of  the  land,  which  must  be  placated  by 
all  persons  who  pass  by  such  tree  or  stone  for  the  first  time,  if 
not  on  every  occasion.  The  ceremony  is  but  brief.  The  way- 
farer plucks  a  branchlet,  or  frond  of  fern,  or  handful  of  grass, 
and  casts  it  down  at  the  base  of  the  tree  or  rock,  repeating  at 
the  same  time  a  brief  charm,  such  as, — 

Tuhituhi  o  tauhou 

Mau  e  kai  te  manawa  o  tauhou 

\\  li.ikapii-i  ki  tautohito. 

This  performance  is  evidently  to  placate  the  spirits  of  the  land, 
and  is  performed  at  many  of  the  tipua  trees,  &c.  described  above. 
It  was  absolutely  necessary  for  a  person  to  do  this  when  passing 
such  a  place  for  the  first  time,  or  trouble  would  be  his  lot.  After 
the  first  passage  it  did  not  matter  so  much,  but  still  the  offering 
-<M   us  to  have  generally  been  made.     If  travellers  were  overtaken 


Best. — Maori  Forest  Lore.  193 

by  mists  or  fog,  a.  person  of  knowledge  among  them  would  pluck 
up  a  stalk  of  fern,  strip  off  the  fronds  thereof,  and  stick  it  in  the 
ground,  base  uppermost.  Splitting  the  upper  part  of  the  stalk 
as  it  so  stood,  he  would  place  therein  a  clod  of  earth,  reciting  a 
brief  charm,  which  would  dispel  the  fog.  Te  Kapa  a  Hine-whati, 
a  tawai  tree  near  the  Wai-horoi-hika  Stream  at  Wai-kare  Moana, 
is  an  uruuru  whenua,  as  also  is  Takuahi-tee-ka,  a  rock  in  the 
Whakatane  River,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Manga-o-hou  Stream. 
Old  Natives  tell  me  that  in  their  youthful  days,  when  this  cus- 
tom was  in  force,  a  clear  space  was  always  seen  round  such 
trees  or  stones,  the  vegetation  having  been  plucked  by  passers- 
by. 

Te  Whanautanga  o  Tuhourangi,  a  stone  near  Mount  Edge- 
cumbe,  is  another  of  these  mediums  of  the  land  spirits,  as  also 
was  a  stone  named  Tu-ki-te-wa,  situated  near  the  Rua-tahuna 
Stream. 

Another  form  of  the  charm  repeated  is, — 

Uruuru  o  tauhou 

Mau  e  kai  te  nianawa  o  tauhou. 

While  in  "  Nga  Moteatea  "  we  find  the  following  : — 

Ka  u  ki  mata  nuku 

Ka  u  ki  mata  rangi 

Ka  u  ki  tenei  whenua 

Hei  whenua 

He  kai  man  te  ate  o  te  tauhou. 

The  author  of  "  Te  Ika  a  Maui  "  translates  the  first  two  lines 
of  this  last  effusion  in  this  wise  : — 

Arrived  at  slippery  point, 
Arrived  at  break  of  day. 

The  slipperiness  of  that  point  must  certainly  have  been  excessive 
— far  too  much  so  for  a  denizen  of  the  Tuhoean  wilderness  to 
attempt  to  pass. 

It  is  said  that  a  person  who  had  performed  the  uruuru  whenua 
rite  would  be  careful  not  to  look  behind  him  as  he  continued  his 
way. 

In  vol.  iv.  of  the  "  Journal  of  the  Polynesian  Society,"  at 
page  55,  may  be  found  some  notes  on  this  same  custom  as  per- 
formed in  Samoa  and  far-away  Corea.  In  New  Zealand  it 
seems  to  have  been  performed  at  most  of  the  tipua  objects. 
Any  stranger  neglecting  this  precaution  might  die  or  be  afflicted 
by  illness,  if  a  storm  did  not  arise,  or  rain  ensue,  as  a  consequence 
of  his  neglect.  These  tipua  were  possessed  of  wairua  (spirit, 
soul),  according  to  some  of  my  Native  friends. 

When  the  Land  Commission  was  sitting  at  Wai-mako,  near 
Wai-kare  Moana,  two  Natives  visited  the  tipua  rock  known  as 
Haumapuhia  and  pulled  off  some  of  the  water-weeds  growing 
7— Trans. 


194  Transactions. 

thereon.  The  demon  responded  b}'  causing  a  heavy  shower 
of  rain,  with  high  wind.  Had  the  storm  not  come,  then  the 
twain  would  probably  have  been  attacked  by  illness — so  said  the 
people. 

A  row  of  stones  known  as  Hine-porete,  situated  on  a  hill 
near  Te  Tiringa.  was  formerly  an  uruuru  whenua. 

All  these  objects,  it  must  be  remembered,  were  viewed  as 
representing  the  spirits  of  the  land,  hence  they  may  be  termed 
sacred  trees  or  stones ;  but  the  Maori  quite  recognised 
the  fact  that  the  tree  or  stone  possessed  no  mana,  or  super- 
natural power,  per  se.  Such  powers  emanated  from  the  guardian 
spirits  of  the  forest  or  land  adjacent  thereto.  The  offerings 
deposited  at  such  places,  or  at  a  tree  or  rock  made  tapu  through 
the  severed  umbilical  cord  of  a  new-born  child  having  been 
deposited  thereon,  or  because  a  dying  chief  had  lain  hard  by — 
these  offerings,  we  say,  whether  a  simple  branchlet  or  a  stone,  or 
a  piece  of  prized  greenstone,  or  a  handsome  piece  of  cloth.  &c, 
were  intended  as  propitiatory  offerings  to  placate  the  gods  or 
demons  of  those  parts.  It  cannot  be  said  with  truth  that  the 
Maori  worshipped  such  trees,  or  anything  else,  for  that  matter. 
The  bright-coloured  handkerchiefs  and  pieces  of  cloth  placed  on 
sacred  trees  by  these  Natives  carries  one's  mind  to  many  a  far- 
off  land — to  the  sacred  date-palm  at  Nejran  "  hung  with  fine 
clothes  and  women's  ornaments  "  ;  to  the  story  of  Phryxus 
hanging  the  Golden  Fleece  on  the  boughs  of  a  sacred  beech-tree  : 
and  to  many  another  tale  of  days  of  old.  The  ancient  lore 
pertaining  to  the  sacred  tree  has  been  compiled  in  a  most  in- 
teresting form  bv  Mrs.  I.  H.  Philpot  in  her  work  on  "  The  Sacred 
Tree." 

It  may  be  observed  that  none  of  these  sacred  or  tipua  trees 
in  the  Tuhoe  district  are  haraka  trees,  as  the  karaka  does  not 
grow  in  this  district.  Many  such  sacred  trees  have  been  pointed 
out  to  me  in  the  Bay  of  Plenty  district,  but  in  no  case  were 
they  karaka.  This  will  dispose  of  the  theory  put  forward  in 
vol.  xxxvi.  (page  12)  of  the  "  Transactions  of  the  New  Zealand 
Institute." 

In  this  our  discourse  on  Tane  and  his  realm  it  may  be  well 
to  state  that  Tane  represents  the  male  element  in  nature  :  hence 
it  was  that  it  was  he  who  sought  the  female  element,  and  so 
produced  trees,  plants,  birds,  insects,  &c,  and  eventually  man. 
Tnc  word  tane  is  also  employed  in  the  Maori  tongue  to  denote 
"male"  and  "husband/"  Tiie  god  Tane  was  essentially  a 
creator. 

Trees  of  a  peculiar  form  of  growth,  albeit  not  in  any  way 
sacred,  are  often  given  names  by  the  Maori.  A  clump  of  totara 
trees  near  Nga-put  ihi    is    known    as  Te    Whanau   a    Mihi   (the 


Best. — Maori  Forest  Lore.  195 

offspring  of  Mihi).  Another  such  situated  on  the  Wai-potiki 
Block  is  called  Te  Whanau  a  Ta-morehu.  Trees  on  which 
birds  were  snared  each  season  were  also  given  names,  as  also 
many  of  those  which  furnished  fruits  for  the  Maori  larder,  as 
Nga  Pukanohi,  a  matai  tree  at  O-kahu,  and  Ure-takohekohe,  a 
grove  of  tutu  at  Rua-toki. 

Mythical  Denizens  op  the  Forest. 

Like  unto  all  other  forest-dwelling,  primitive  peoples,  the 
Maori  peopled  the  realm  of  Tane  with  divers  varieties  of 
mythical  beings — fairies,  water- demons,  and  certain  subter- 
ranean monsters.  The  last-named  were  known  as  tuoro  and  hore. 
These  were  huge  beasts  that  never  appeared  above  ground,  but 
burrowed  through  the  earth,  making  great  tunnels  and  caves, 
and  overthrowing  huge  forest-trees.  A  cave  in  the  bank  of  the 
Whirinaki  River  at  Te  Whaiti  is  said  to  have  been  formed  by 
one  of  these  creatures,  and  is  known  as  Te  Ana-tuoro  (the  Tuoro 
Cave).  Another  dwelt  in  a  pond  called  Otara,  situated  on  the 
summit  of  Maunga-pohatu.  This  monster  is  said  to  have 
formed  the  valley  down  which  flows  the  Wai-kare  Stream  from 
Maunga-pohatu,  the  same  being  a  tributary  of  the  Whakatane 
River. 

The  mythical  monsters  termed  taniivha  seem  to  have  been 
amphibious  creatures  of  a  saurian  type.  Most  of  them  dwelt 
in  lakes  or  deep  holes  in  rivers  and  streams,  but  pursued  their 
prey,  the  hapless  Maori  wight,  on  land.  Others,  like  Te  Kuri- 
nui-a-Meko,  at  Wai-kare  Moana,  lived  on  land,  in  caves  or 
chasms. 

The  fairies,  or  forest  elves,  are  known  as  hehetoro  and  turehu. 
These  appear  to  be  synonymous  terms,  both  applied  to  a  mythi- 
cal people — strange  forest  people  who  dwelt  on  high  wooded 
ranges,  as  those  at  Maunga-pohatu,  Mapou-riki,  Tawhiu-au,  &c. 
They  were  a  very  light-coloured  people  ;  fair  skin  they  had,  a& 
also  light,  reddish  hair.  They  were  wont  to  be  heard  singing,, 
talking,  and  playing  on  flutes  during  foggy  weather.  They  were 
numerous  on  the  forest  peak  of  Turi-o-Haua.  These  heketoro 
were  an  extremely  tapu  folk,  and  should  their  sleeping-places 
be  trespassed  on  by  Natives,  these  fairies  would  at  once  desert 
that  place  and  seek  new  homes.  The  Maoris  say  that  the  turehu 
were  in  the  habit  of  waylaying  and  carrying  off  Native  women 
into  the  forest  in  bygone  days.  A  favourite  resort  of  these 
turehu  is  the  bush  hill  known  as  Titi-tangi-ao,  situated  just 
east  of  the  Whakatane  Butter-factory,  at  Te  Hurepo.  Indeed, 
they  are  apparently  still  in  camp  there,  inasmuch  as  some  were 
seen  at  that  place  in  this  year  of  Our  Lord  1907  by  a  party  of 
Maoris,  who  forthwith  advertised  the   fact    in  the  Whakatane 


196  Transactions. 

County  Press,  together  with  an  invitation  to  all  godless  scoffers 
to  go  and  see  for  themselves. 

Another  species  of  forest-dwelling  folk  were  known  as  nana- 
kia, or  are  so  termed  in  folk-tales.     "  Our  ancestors  called  them 
nanakia  because  they  were  such  a  mischievous  people.     They 
were  a  very  strange  people,  who  lived  in  trees  in  the  forest. 
They  built  no  houses,  and  knew  not  the  use  of  clothing  or  fire. 
They  were  unable  to  kindle  fire,  and  ate  all  their  food  in  a  raw 
state.     They  lived  principally  upon  birds,  the  which  they  trans- 
fixed with  their  long  finger-nails.     Once  upon  a  time  a  Maori 
woman  was  captured  by  these  nanakia,  and  lived  with  them  for 
some  time  before  she  escaped  to  her  own  people.     She  taught 
those  strange  folk  the  arts  of  fire-generation  and  cooking  of 
food.     Friend,   I  will    tell   you   the   story  of  that  woman  :    In 
clays  of  old  a  certain  woman  dwelt  with  her  husband.     One  day 
she  went  into  the  forest  to  procure  food.     She  was  seized  by  a 
nanakia,  who  carried  her  off  to  his  home  in  the  woods.     Her 
husband  waited  in  vain  for  her  return,  but  she  returned  not  ; 
hence  he  set  off  to  search  for  her  in  the  woods.     He  found  her 
basket  lying  on  the  ground,  and  followed  the  tracks  of  his  wife 
and  her  captor  until  he  came  to  the  home  of  the  nanakia.     It 
so  happened  that  that  creature  was  absent  at  the  time,  engaged 
in  catching  birds  to  serve  as  food  for  himself  and  his  captive 
wife.     The  husband  asked  his  wife  when  the  bushman  would 
return  home.     She   replied,    '  Not   for   some   time   yet.'     Then 
he    inquired,    '  How    may    I    conceal    myself  ?  '      The    woman 
replied,  '  I  will  manage  that.'     So  she  dug  a  hole  at  the  place 
where  the  feathers  of  the  birds  caught  by  the  wild  woodsman 
were  thrown  away  when  the  birds  were  plucked.     She  then  told 
her  husband  to  lie  clown  in  the  pit.  whereupon  she  covered  him 
with  feathers.     Soon  after  the  concealment  the  nanakia  returned 
home,  showing  signs  of  anger  and  suspicion  {e  kune  haere  <imt 
mai),  and  cried  out  '  Kunekune  he  tangata  kai  te  Icainga?     The 
woman   remarked,    '  No,    there   is   no    one    here   save    myself.' 
Whereupon   the  nanakia   became   still   more   angry,    while   the 
woman  strove  to  pacify  him.     At  length  his  anger  calmed  down. 
When  night  came  he  slept.     Then  the  woman  arose  and  went 
to  fetch  her  husband.     The  twain  came  to  the  place  where  the 
nanakia  lay.     The  woman  took  her   place  at    the  feet   of  the 
creature,  her  husband  stood  by  his  head.     Then  they  attacked 
him  with  axes.     They  CU1  off  his  head,  hut  his  alius  still  fought. 
They  cut  off  his  anus,  but  his  le^s  still  fought.     They  cut   off 
his  legs,  and  then  it  was  that  the  nanakia   perished.     Even  so 
that  man  of  old  recovered   his  wife,  and  the  twain  returned  to 
their  home.      Now,  while  that  woman  was  kept  a  captive  by  the 
nanakia  she  learned  one  of  the  songs  of  that  strange  folk,  which 


Best. — Maori  Forest  Lore.  197 

song  has  been  preserved  by  our  people  even  unto  the  present 
day.  I  think  you  had  better  write  that  song  down,  that  you 
may  know  what  the  songs  of  those  wild  folk  are  like." 

The  patu-parehe,  or  patu-paiarehe,  were  another  mythical 
folk.  They  were  supposed  to  enter  houses  at  night  and  to 
smite  the  people  sleeping  therein  nigh  unto  death.  The  Maori 
was  apparently  not  aware  of  the  evil  effects  of  charcoal  fires  in 
carefully  closed  earth-covered  huts. 

The  tutumaiao  were  weird-looking  creatures  seen  on  sandy 
ocean-beaches  by  travellers.  They  looked  like  spirits  of  human 
beings,  and  disappeared  as  the  observer  approached. 

In  Maori  myths  dealing  with  ancient  times,  prior  to  the 
colonising  of  New  Zealand  by  the  Polynesians,  we  often  en- 
counter the  names  of  certain  fairies,  or  forest  folk,  known  as 
Te  Tini  o  te  Hakuturi  and  Te  Tini  o  te  Mahoihoi.  They  appeared 
to  be  guardians  of  the  forest,  and,  in  such  legends  as  that  of 
Rata,  they  carefully  guard  and  uphold  the  rights  of  Tane.  In 
several  of  these  old  legends  a  person  goes  into  the  forest  to  fell 
a  canoe,  and  neglects  to  perform  the  necessary  rites  to  take  the 
tapu  of  Tane  off  the  tree,  or  fells  a  tree  that  is  the  emblem  of, 
or  peculiarly  sacred  to,  Tane.  Hence,  when  he  returns  to  his 
work  in  the  morning  he  finds  that  the  above-named  forest  folk 
have  caused  his  tree  to  stand  upright  on  its  stump  once  more, 
and  there  he  finds  it  growing  as  sturdily  as  of  yore.  The  work- 
man encounters  the  forest  folk,  and  explains  his  dilemma, 
whereupon  they  tell  him  that  he  has  neglected  the  necessary 
rites  to  placate  Tane  and  take  the  tapu  off  the  tree.  After 
this  is  done  the  fairy  folk  goodnaturedly  make  the  desired  canoe 
themselves  and  hand  it  over  to  the  erring  woodsman. 

In  the  story  of  the  making  of  the  Matatua  canoe,  Toroa 
seeks  advice  from  Hine-tua-hoanga,  who  tells  him  to  bring  to  her 
the  first  chips  of  Tane-mahuta — that  is,  of  the  tree,  for  it  was 
over  the  first  chips  cut  out  by  the  axe  that  the  ahi  purakau  rite 
was  performed.  Toroa  neglects  to  do  so,  hence  the  fairies 
re-erect  his  tree.  He  returns  to  Hine  for  advice,  and  she  sends 
him  to  one  Tuhoro-punga,  who  says,  "  Take  the  girdle  from  my 
waist,  and,  when  you  fell  your  tree  again,  attach  it  to  the  trunk 
thereof."  Toroa  does  so,  and  the  Hakuturi  folk  demur  not,  but 
make  his  canoe  for  him. 

"  Young  man,"  said  an  old  Native  to  me,  "  Let  me  tell  you 
something  you  do  not  know — the  story  about  a  certain  tree. 
That  tree  is  the  totara.  All  the  trees  of  the  forest  assembled 
once  upon  a  time  and  discussed  the  matter  as  to  whose  legs 
(limbs)  would  reach  unto  their  ancestor,  Rangi  (the  sky).  The 
totara  persisted  that  his  legs  would  reach  to  the  sky.  The  rimu 
said  No,  his  were  legs  that  would  reach.     The  maire  said  his; 


198  Transactions. 

the  rata  said  his ;  the  tawa  and  other  trees  said  the  same  ;  each 
claimed  that  he  alone  might  reach  unto  the  heavens.  So  they 
all  spoke.  Then  the  Mara  strove  to  extend  his  legs  to  the  sky, 
but  he  failed  to  do  so,  and  Avas  so  ashamed  that  he  groaned 
aloud  (ha  nemo  te  tou  o  te  Mara).  There  was  great  applause. 
When  the  wood  of  the  Mara  is  burned  by  fire  it  explodes — a 
popping  sound  is  heard.  That  is  the  sound  it  made  when  it 
failed  to  reach  the  sky.  The  other  trees,  such  as  the  matai, 
that  failed  in  a  like  manner,  make  a  similar  sound  when  burned. 
The  Mara  was  so  ashamed  that  it  retired  to  the  depths  of  the 
forest  and  abode  there,  where  it  may  still  be  found,  surrounded 
by  trees  of  other  tribes.  If,  when  the  wind  is  blowing  hard,  a 
person  listens,  he  will  hear  a  voice  calling  in  the  forest — a  creak- 
ing sound  it  is.  The  person  listening  will  think  that  voice  is 
saying  '  W he  !  Whe  !  Whe  !  Whe  ! '  but  it  is  not  so.  It  is  really 
saying  '  Tou  hemo  !  Tou  hemo  !  '  " 

The  above  is  a  sample  of  the  more  absurd  folk-tales  of  the 
Maori  people  pertaining  to  the  forest.  Such  fables  as  this  are 
much  more  puerile  than  the  primitive  conception  of  the  cosmo- 
gonic  tree,  or  that  of  the  descent  of  animals  and  trees,  &c,  from 
a  common  source. 

Tree  burial  was  practised  to  a  considerable  extent  bv  the 
Maoris  in  former  times.  After  exhumation  the  bones  were 
deposited  in  hollow  trees,  or  among  the  masses  of  Astelia  growing 
on  the  branches. 

Having  no  beasts  of  burden  or  draught,  the  Maori  had  but 
two  methods  of  travelling — walking,  and  travelling  bv  canoe. 
The  primitive  tracks  which  he  formed  through  forest  country 
generally  ran  along  the  ridges  of  hilly  country,  and  sometimes 
along  the  beds  of  streams.  Such  tracks  were  very  narrow,  and 
were  kept  open  by  traffic  and  by  passers-by  breaking  off  any 
branch  which  encroached  upon  the  trail.  These  tracks  often 
bore  distinctive  names.  In  hilly  country  the  Natives  always 
had  special  spots  used  as  resting-places,  termed  tmnnata.  These 
were  situated  on  a  ridge,  or  knoll,  usually  in  a  situation  from 
which  a  good  view  was  obtainable.     In  the  forests  of  Tuhoelaud 

one  often  comes  upon  these  little  clear  spots — albeit  but  EeV 
foot-men  are  now  seen  on  the  trails.  Tn  some  cases  a  track 
might  be  closed  to  all  traliic  for  some  time  by  being  made  ixfpU 
by  a  chief.  For  instance,  were  a  chief  to  become  aware  that 
a  chief  of  a  neighbouring  district  had  used  some  insulting  ex- 
pression towards  him,  he  might  tapu  the  track  leading  to  that 
district,  which  would  cause,  much  inconvenience  until  it  was 
reopened.  That  peculiar  kind  of  insult  known  as  a  tapatapa 
nii^ht  cause  such  an  action. 

In   crossing  wide  rivers  where  no  canoe  was  obtainable,  or 


Best. — Maori  Forest  Lore.  199 

on  which  to  cross  goods,  the  mokihi  was  used.  This  was  a  bundle 
of  dry  leaves  of  raupo,  or  the  flower-stalks  of  flax,  lashed  tightly 
together.  A  Native  would  bestride  this  primitive  craft,  and  use 
a  stick  for  a  paddle.  These  rude  floats  were  constructed  in  the 
form  of  a  boy's  tipcat,  being  brought  to  a  point  at  each  end. 

The    Unseen    Presence    in    Forests  :     Primitive    Man     in 
Fellowship  with  Nature. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  more  primitive  races  of 
man  are  closer  in  touch  with  nature  than  are  highly  cul- 
tured peoples.  In  like  manner  they  retain  more  primitive 
modes  of  thought  and  expression.  The  figurative  and  meta- 
phorical language,  the  quaint  old-time  allegories,  of  such  works 
as  the  Bible  appeal  to  the  Maori  mind  more  than  to  ours, 
and  they  grasp  and  understand  such  language  far  better  than 
do  we.  The  tree  of  the  forbidden  fruit  is  no  real  tree  to  the 
Maori  mind,  and  he  understands  full  well  what  Eve's  friend, 
the  genial  serpent,  stands  for.  For  such  was  the  human  mind 
among  all  peoples  in  the  days  when  man  was  young  apon  the 
earth.  This  state  of  mind  is  a  survival  of  a  still  closer  fellowship 
with  nature  which  must  have  obtained  in  times  long  past  away. 
It  is  a  heritage  of  thought  from  early  man.  Such  language  as 
we  meet  with  only  in  old-time  works  and  poetry  is  the  common 
tongue  of  the  Maori.  The  Maori  is  closely  in  touch  with  nature, 
a  fact  due  to  their  primitive  mentality ;  their  leaning  toward 
anthropomorphic  personifications  ;  their  belief  that  man,  ani- 
mals, birds,  fish,  trees,  &c,  are  all  descended  from  a  common 
source ;  as  also  to  their  mode  of  life — the  incessant  reliance  on, 
and  searching  for,  the  products  of  forest  and  stream,  wherewith 
to  sustain  life. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  original  tribes  of  New  Zealand 
were  living  in  the  hunting  stage  of  culture  prior  to  the  arrival 
of  the  historic  fleet.  They  were  a  non-agricultural  people,  or 
at  most  possessed  only  one  cultivated  product — the  gourd- 
plant.  They  had  to  rely  on  forest,  stream,  and  ocean  for  their 
food-supply — a  neolithic  people  with  the  larder  of  palaeolithic 
man.  Hence  the  forest-dwelling  tribes,  such  as  Tuhoe,  must 
have  been  close  observers  of  nature,  and  would  be  liable  to  place 
great  importance  upon  all  phases  of  nature,  to  strenuously  uphold 
the  cult  of  forest  deities,  to  people  that  forest  with  divers  super- 
natural beings  and  objects  possessing  singular  affinities  with  its 
various  denizens,  animate  and  otherwise.  They  did  more  :  they 
believed  the  land  itself,  and  the  forest,  to  be  endowed  with  a 
certain  personality  or  vital  spirit,  as  we  shall  see  anon. 

But  beyond  and  behind  all  this,  there  comes  to  those  who 
study  Maori  forest  lore  the  central  idea  that  at  some  remote 


200  Transactions. 

period,  long  prior  to  the  arrival  of  the  race  in  Polynesia,  the 
ancestors  of  the  Maori  must  have  dwelt  in  a  forest  country. 
Many  things  tend  to  the  formation  of  this  belief. 

As  to  the  unseen  presence  in  forests,  the  more  primitive 
peoples  seem  to  possess  this  idea,  as  also  a  few* — a  very  few* — 
white  men  who  have  lived  much  alone  in  the  forest  and  are 
imbued  with  a  strong  love  of  nature,  and  perhaps  imaginative 
minds.  When  such  a  man  enters  the  portals  of  the  woods  and 
wanders  companionless  in  their  darkling  depths,  he  is  possessed 
of  a  curious  feeling  that  he  is  not  alone — that  some  presence, 
unseen  of  mortal  eye,  fills  the  solitudes  :  curious  because  he  is 
tempted  to  wander  on  and  explore  the  dusky  recesses  of  the 
forest,  with  a  feeling  that  there  is  something  hidden  from  his 
ken — perhaps  the  wroodland  presence  he  feels  may  be  seen  ere 
long.  The  mental  state  of  our  wanderer  is  one  of  receptiveness 
of  the  effect  of  nature,  and  of  expectancy.  The  haunting  pre- 
sence of  the  forest  causes  primitive  man  to  evolve  myths  of 
fairies,  wood-elves,  and  divers  creatures  of  the  ogre  type.  To 
cultured  man,  freed  from  the  more  primitive  superstitious  feel- 
ings, it  brings  a  feeling  of  pleasure,  of  wondering  contentment. 
But  always  the  receptive  mind,  the  love  of  nature,  the  imagina- 
tive temperament,  must  be  there. 

Then,  again,  there  are  strange  sounds,  of  unknown  origin, 
breaking  upon  the  ear.  Weird  sounds  are  these,  more  especially 
as  heard  at  night  in  forest-depths.  But  you  must  not  erect  a 
tent  and  camp  therein.  Your  bed  shall  be  a  take  rakau,  that 
you  may  look  upwards  and  see  the  great  branches  of  the  Children 
of  Tane  far  above  you,  with  maybe  a  glimpse  of  some  well- 
known  orb,  Venus  or  Jupiter,  or  ruddy  Antares,  through  leaf- 
bound  spaces.  And,  at  such  a  time,  when  your  camp-fire  has 
died  down,  and  the  solitude  has  filled  your  soul,  you  will  greet 
the  gleaming  Cross,  or  the  Kakau,  or  Maui's  Fish,  as  an  old 
and  welcome  friend  that  ties  you  to  the  world  of  life,  where 
men  are. 

"  When  you  hear  in  forest-depths  sounds  like  rustlings — a 
rustling  and  cracking— that  is  what  we  term  a  paranqeki.  Those 
sounds  are  caused  by  human  spirits,  spirits  of  the  dead.  The 
singing  of  the  heketoro  (fairies)  is  quite  a  different  thing." 

The  forest  and  forest  life  has  ever  had  an  important  effect 
on  man.  A  people  settling  in  a  forest  country  must  destroy 
that  forest  or  it  will  conquer  them.  The  forest  is  conservative, 
repressive,  making  not  for  culture  or  advancement.  None  of 
the  higher  types  of  civilisation  of  antiquity  originated  in  forest 
lands.  Primitive  man  remains  primitive  in  sylvan  solitudes. 
Some  day  a  civilised  trihe.  from  open  lands,  happens  along, 
and  hews  down  that  forest.     Then  the  Children  of  Tane,  human 


Best. — Maori  Forest  Lore.  201 

and  arboreal,  alike  disappear,  and  the  place  knows  them  never 
again. 

There  is  much  of  silence  in  the  heart  of  the  forest.  The 
voices  of  the  feathered  Children  of  Tane  are  not  often  heard. 
The  harsh  cry  of  the  kaka  occasionally  grates  upon  the  ear, 
even  in  the  dead  of  night ;  but  for  bird-life  you  must  seek  the 
stream-sides,  the  clearings  and  edges  of  the  forest.  Those  birds 
that  frequent  the  deep  solitudes  are,  as  a  rule,  not  a  noisy  com- 
pany. In  the  small  clearings  of  the  forest,  probably  overgrown 
with,  light  second  growth  of  mako,  puahou,  wharangi,  &c,  you 
will  note,  on  sunny  days,  the  hum  of  innumerable  insects.  At 
times  you  hear  strange  sounds  that  you  cannot  explain  ;  at 
others  the  crash  of  a  fallen  tree  or  branch,  more  especially  in 
wet  weather,  for  continued  rain  will  cause  more  destruction  in 
the  forest  than  does  the  wind. 

Should  a  tree  be  heard  to  fall  in  the  forest  on  a  calm  night, 
such  an  occurrence  is  termed  a  takiari.  It  is  an  evil  omen.  If 
several  trees  are  so  heard  to  fall  on  windless  nights,  then  some 
serious  disaster  will  overtake  the  people  ere  long. 

There  is  yet  another  sound  that  you  will  hear  by  day  and 
night,  which  is  one  as  of  people  talking.  These  sounds  seem 
exactly  like  the  voices  of  persons  talking  at  some  distance.  In 
the  days  of  my  youth,  when  camped  alone  in  the  bush,  I  some- 
times went  in  search  of  those  persons.  I  no  longer  do  so,  but 
they  are  old  friends.  In  the  early  seventies  an  old  soldier  was 
lost  in  the  bush  between  Opotiki  and  Poverty  Bay  for  a  week. 
He  was  at  length  found  and  brought  down  to  a  station  at  Wai- 
kohu.  He  informed  me  that  he  often  heard  those  forest  voices 
talking  during  his  week's  wanderings,  and  used  to  descend  into 
the  gullies  to  find  those  people.  But  he  was  lightheaded  from 
hunger  and  exposure.  Maybe  all  dwellers  in  forest  solitudes 
are  a  bit  lightheaded.     Quien  sabe  ! 

The  forest  solitudes  will  fill  some  who  sojourn  therein  with  a 
great  loneliness  and  misery,  but  to  other  minds  may  bring  a 
great  contentment  and  even  much  calm  happiness. 

The  Sylva  and  Flora  op  Tuhoeland. 

We  will  now  give  a  list,  albeit  an  incomplete  one,  of  those  of 
the  Children  of  Tane-mahuta  that  are  found  in  the  Tuhoe  dis- 
trict— or,  rather,  such  of  them  as  we  know  the  Native  names  of. 
For  there  are  many  plants  the  Maori  names  of  which  have  not 
been  obtained,  as  also  some  of  which  the  botanical  names  are 
not  yet  to  hand. 

Aka.     A  generic  name  for  climbing-plants  and  long,  thin  roots. 
Aka-kopu-kereru.     Clematis,  sp. 
Aka-tea.     Metrosideros  albiflora. 


202  Transactions. 

Aka-kura. 

Aka-poananga.     Clematis,  sp.     (?  C.  indivisa.) 

Aka-ngakan-kiore.     Clematis  parviflora. 

Aka-kahia.     ?  Passi  flora  tetrandra. 

Aka-kiore. 

Ake.     Dodonosa  viscosa. 

Akeake. 

Akiraho.     A  small  tree. 

Angiangi.     A  moss. 

Awanga.    A  variety  of  Phormium  tenax. 

Aoanga.     A  variety  of  Phormium  tenax. 

Hakeka  ;  syn.,  keka,  kakeke.     Himeola  polytricha. 

Hangar oa.     A  plant. 

Hangekange.     Geniostoma  liguslri folium. 

Harakeke.     Phormium  tenax. 

Harore.     A  generic  term  for  fungi. 

Hawai.     A  variety  of  harore. 

Heketara  ;  syn.,  kotara  and  tarakeke. 

Herukeru.     Todea  hymenophylloides  and  T.  suptrba. 

Hinau.     Elwocarpus  dentatus. 

Hinau-puka.     Elaeocarpus  Hookerianus. 

Hokoeka  ;  syn.,  horoeka,  kokoeka.     See  "  Horoekr.'7 

Homangoroa.     Panax  Edgerleyi  (mature  form). 

Horoeka.     Pseudopanax  crassifolium. 

Horopito. 

Houhi.     Hoheria  populnea. 

Houhi-ongaonga. 

Houkou  ;  syn.,  puahou,  parapara.     Panax  arbon  nm. 

Huariki. 

Hue-o-Raukatauri.     Ourisia  ?nacrophi/lla. 

Huki.     A  variety  of  Phormium  tenax. 

Ikaroa.     A  variety  of  gourd  (hue). 

Ipurangi.     A  variety  of  karore. 

Irirangi.     Hymenophyllum  demissiun. 

Iwi-tuna.     Lycopodiwm  Billardieri. 

Ivahakaka.     Astelia  (?  nervosa). 

Kaliia.     Passiflora  tetrandra. 

Kahikatea.     Podocarpus  dacrydioidvs. 

Kahikawaka.     Libocedrus  Donianu. 

Kai.     Young  tree  of  Podocarpus  spicatus. 

Kaikomako.     Pennantia  corymbosa. 

Kai-weta.     Carpodetus  serraius. 

Kaiwhiria.     Hedycarya  arborea. 

Kakaroao.     Rhipogonum  scandens. 

Ka.])onga.      Cyathea  dealbatti.  &o. 

Karaka.     Corynocarpus  Icevigatus. 

Karamuramu.     Coprosma  robusta. 

Karetu.     Hierochloc  rcdoL  n& 

Kareturetu.     A  grass. 

Kauere.      Vifex  lucens. 

Kawakawa.     Piper  excelsum. 

Keka  ;  syn.,  hakeka,  hakeke.      Himeola  pal yfn <•/,,,. 

Kcketuwai.     A  water-plant. 

Kiekie.     Freycinetia  Banksii. 

Kinkio.     Lomaria  procera. 

Kiwikiwi.      Lomaria  fluviatilis. 

Koareare.     Panax  Edgerleyi  (young  state). 


Best. — Maori  Forest  Lore.  203 

Koke.     Dysoxylum  spectabile. 

Kohukohu.     Hypnum  clandestinum- 

Kohuwai.     A  water-plant. 

Kokaha.     Astdia,  sp. 

Kokakoware.     A  variety  of  gourd. 

Kokocka  ;  syn.,  horocka  and  hokoeka. 

Kokomuka.      Veronica,  various  sp. 

Kokomuka-taranga.      Veronica,  sp. 

Kokomuka-tu-tara-whaie.      Veronica,  sp. 

Kopakopa.     Trichomanes  reniforme. 

Kopakopa.     Plant-ago  major. 

Kopukupuku.     Ranunculus  hirtus. 

Kopuru.     A  moss. 

Korokoro-whetu. 

Koromiko.      Veronica  salici folia.     Also  a  generic  term  for  Veronica. 

Korukoru.     A  species  of  Loranthus. 

Kotara.     A  tree;  p;obably  an  Olearia. 

Kotukutuku.     Fuchsia  excorticata. 

Kowhai.     Sophora  tetraptera. 

Kowhai.     Geum  urbanum. 

Kowharawhara.     Astelia,  sp. 

Kukuraho. 

Kumaraliou.     Angelica  rosce folia. 

Kutakuta.     Eleocharis  sphacelata. 

Kuwawa.     Eleocharis  sphacelata. 

Makitikiti.     A  plant. 

Mahoe.     Melicytus  ramiflorus. 

Muheru.     A  species  of  harore. 

Maikaika.     Microtis  porrifolia. 

Miire.     Olea,  sp. 

Makaka  ;  syn.,  rarauhe. 

Mako.     Aristotelia  racemosa. 

Mamaku.     Cyathea  medullaris. 

Maanga-a-kuripapa.     Libertia  ixioides. 

Manekau.     A  species  of  karore. 

Mangeao.     Litscea  calicaris. 

Manono  ;  syn.,  raurekau.     Coprosma  grandifolia. 

Manoao.     Dacrydium  Colensoi. 

Manuka.     Leptospermum  scoparium  and  L.  ericoides. 

Manuka-roa.     A  variety  of  kue  (gourd-plant). 

Mapau.     Myrsine  Urvillei. 

Mipere. 

Maru. 

Maruru.     Ranunculus  hirtus. 

Matai.     Podocar pus  spicatus. 

Matata.     Pteris  incisa. 

Matau.      Uncinia  ferruginea. 

Matau-ririki.      Uncinia  leptostachya. 

Matia.     The  common  blue  pansy  (introduced). 

Matoetoe.     A  plant. 

Matukutuku.     A  plant. 

Matua-mauku.     Hym"nophyllum  dilatatum. 

Mauku.     Asplenium  bulbiferum. 

Maukuuku  ;    syn.,  parei.     Gastrodia  Cunninghamii. 

M-aurea.     A  coarse  tussock-grass. 

Mauri.     Astelia,  sp. 

Mawkai. 


204  Transactions. 

Ma  we.     Galium  umbrosum. 

Mekemeke.     A  species  of  karore. 

Ngaio.     Myoporum  ledum. 

Ngaio.     A  variety  of  Phormium  tenax. 

Ngakau-kiore.     See  "  Ak  ."' 

Namunamu.     Geranium  molle. 

Neinei.     Dracophyllum  lati  folium. 

Nikau.     Bhopalostylis  sapida. 

Niniao.     Helichrysum  glomeratum. 

Ngohungohu.     Cyathodes  acerosa. 

Ngohungohu.     Leucopogon  fascicidatus. 

Ngutu-kaka.     An  epiphyte. 

Ngutu-nui.     A  variety  of  Phormium  tenax. 

Ongaonga.      Urtica  ferox. 

Oue.     A  variety  of  Phormium  tenax. 

Paea.     An  introduced  plant,  perhaps  Brassica  oleracca. 

Paewhenua.     The  common  dock  (introduced). 

Pahau-kakapo.     Dawsonia  superba. 

Pakau-roharoha.     Polypodium  pennigerum. 

Panakenake.     Pratia  angulata. 

Panako  ;  syn.,  petako.     Lomaria  Patersonii. 

Paopao.     Eleocharis  sphacelata. 

Paopao-kutukntu.     A  plant. 

Papa-hueke.     A  liverwort,  a  species  of  Marchantia. 

Papa-koura.      Epilobium  micro phyllum. 

Papauma.     Griselinia  littoralis. 

Paraharaha.     Polypodium  Billardieri. 

Parani.     Lagenophora  petiolata. 

Parapara  ;  syn.,  puahou,  houhou.     Panax  arbor*  inn. 

Pari-taniwha.     A  variety  of  Phormium  tenax. 

Patate.     Schefflera  digitata. 

Pa-totara.     Leucopogon  Fraseri. 

Patu-tikctike.     Coprosma  lucida. 

Peka-a-waka.     Earina  mucronata. 

Pepepe.     Diandla  intermedia. 

Perei.     Gastrodia  Cunninghamii. 

Peretako.     Lomaria  Patersonii. 

Peretao.     Lomaria  Patersonii. 

Petako.     Lomaria  Patersonii. 

Potako-rau-riki.     A  fern. 

Petako-paraharaha.     A  fern. 

Petipeti.      Lomaria  discolor. 

Piki-arero.     Clematis  indivisa. 

Pinakitere.     Pratia  angulata. 

Pipiko.     Aspidium  Richardi. 

Pipiro.     Coprosma  fcetidissima- 

Piripiri.      Ilymi  nophyllinii  drmissum. 

Piripiri.     Accp.na  sanguisorbas. 

Pirita  ;  syn.,  kakareao.      Hhipogonum  scandi  «.«. 

Poananga.      Flowers  (if  piki-arero. 

Poa-taniwha.      Melicopi   simplex. 

Pohue.     Convolvulus,  sp.,  white-  and  pink-flowered. 

Poniu.     Some  edible  introduced  plant. 

Poporo.     Solanum  aviculare. 

Porerarua.      A  plant. 

Porovua.     A  plant. 

PuahOU.      Panax  arbon ■urn. 


Best. — Maori  Forest  Lore.  205 

Puakaito.     Cdmisia  spcctabilis. 

Puapua-a-autahi  ;  syn.,  mekemeke.     A  species  of  harore. 

Puha  (puwha).     A  generic  term  for  many  plants  used  for  food,    as 

greens. 
Puha-tiotio.     A  plant. 
Puhou ;  syn.,  tutu.     Coriaria  ruscifotia. 
Puka.     Grisdinia  lucida. 
Pukatea.     Onaphdiium  lut<o-<dbum. 
Pukatea.     Laurelia  novce-zealandice. 
Pungitangita.     Scotch  thistle  (introduced). 
Punui.     Dicksonia  fibrosa. 
Punui.     Todea  superba. 
Puriri  ;  syn.,  kauere.      Vitex  lucens. 
Puwatawata.     Enargea  marginata. 
Ramarama.     Erroneously  applied  to  Qlearia,  sp. 
Raorao.     A  plant. 
Rarauhe.     Pteris  aquilina. 
Rata.     Metrosideros  robusta. 
Rataroa.     A  variety  of  Phormium  ienax. 
Raukatauri.     Asplenium  flaccidum. 
Raumoa.     A  plant. 
Raupeka.     Earina  suavcohns. 
Raupeti.     A  Sola  num. 
Raupo.     Typha  angustifolia. 
Ramekau.     Coprosma  grandijolia. 
Rauriki.     A  plant. 
Rauroroa.     A  plant. 
Rau-tawhiri.     Pittosporum  tenuifolium. 
Rearea.     Introduced.      ?  Brassica  oleracea. 
Rengarenga.     A  plant. 
Repehinapapa.     Arthro podium  candidum. 
Rereti.     Lomaria  lanceolata. 
Rerewai.     Potamogeton  Cheesemanii. 

Rewarewa.     Knightia  excelsa.     Flowers  termed  "rewa." 
Rimu.     Dacrydium  cupressinum. 
Rimurimu.     A  generic  term  for  mosses. 
Rohutu. 

Ruatapu.     A  variety  of  Phormium  tenax. 
Taihinu  ;  syn.,  tauhinu.     Cassinia  fidvida. 
Takahakaha. 

Takahikahi  ;  syn.,  taranui.     ?  A  sedge  or  coarse  grass. 
Tamatea. 

Taneawai.     A  variety  of  Phormium  tenax. 
Tanekaha.     Phyllodadus  trichonmnoides. 
Tangirru.     Olearia  furfuracea. 
Tanguru-rake. 
Tapairu.     Senecio  Kirkii. 
Tapia.     Tupeia  antarctica. 

Taramea  ;  syn.,  takahikahi.     Aciphytta  Colensoi  (spear-grass). 
Taraheke  ;  syn.,  heketara  and  kotara. 
Tarata.     Pittosporum  eugenioides. 
Tarewarewa.     A  })lant.  either  a  parasite  or  epiphyte. 
Taro-para.     Probably  Marattia  fraxinea. 
Tataramoa.     A  generic  term  for  brambles  and  thorny  shrubs.     The* 

introduced  sweetbriar  is  so  named.     Also  Bubus  australis. 
Tataramoa-turuhunga.     Bubus  australis. 
Tauira-kohe.     A  shrub. 


206  Transactions. 

Ta  wa.     Beilschmiedia  tawa. 

Tawai.     Fagus,  sp. 

Tawaka.     A  species  of  Agaricus. 

Tj.wa.ri.     Ixerba  brexioides.     Flowers  termed  "  whakou." 

Tawhewkeo.     Quintinia  serrata. 

Tawkero.      Weinman  nia  racemosa. 

Tawiniwini.     Gaultheria  antipoda. 

Tawkiwki. 

Teterewkete.     A  species  of  moss,  genus  Polytrichum. 

Ti.     A  generic  term  for  Cordyline,  and  applied  specially  to  Cordyline 

australis. 
Ti-kapu.     Cordyline  Banksii. 
Ti-para.     1  Cordyline  terminalis. 
Ti-tawkiti.     Cordyline,  sp. 
Ti-toi,  or  Toi.     Cordyline  indivisa. 
Ti-kumu. 

Tikiteketeke.     A  species  of  karore. 
Tipitaka.     A  species  of  karore. 
Tirawa  ;  syn.,  wkeki.     Dicksonia  squarrosa. 
Titoki.     Alectryon  excelsum. 
Toatoa  ;  syn.,  tanekiha. 

Toetoe.     A  generic  term  for  many  sedges,  &c. 
Toi.     Cordyline  indivisa. 
Toi.     A  spacies  of  fungus  (a  Taupo  word). 
Tokeraoa.     A  plant. 
Toketaki.     Tne  introduced  dandelion. 
Toro.     Persoonia  torn. 
Toromiro.     Podocarpus  ferrugineus. 
Tonakenake.     A  variety  of  pokue  (Convolvidus). 
Toropipi.     Alseuosmia  quercifolia. 
Toropipa-pukihu.     A  moss. 
Totara.     Podocarpus  totara. 
Tota-rimu.     A  small  plant. 

Totoroene.     Parsonsia  capsular  is,  and  P.  roscea. 
Tu-huhi.     Eugenia  mitre  (hi  unsatisfactory  name). 
Tumitakiiru.     AciphyUa  squarrosa. 
Tuiningi. 

Tuokura.     Dicksonia  lanata. 

Tururu-mauku.     Young  plants  of  Asplenium  bidbiferum. 
Tutae-manu.     A  variety  of  Phorminm  tenux. 
Tutoke.     Aspidium  Richardi. 
Tutukiwi.     Pterostylis  Banksii. 
Tutumako. 

Tututupo.     A  fungus,  genus  Clavaria. 
Upoko-tangata. 

Upoko-taupo.     A  variety  of  hue  (gourd). 
\V  icakura.     Oleichenia  Cunninghamii. 
Wae-kahu.     Lycopodium,  sp. 
Waewae-atua.     A  species  of  karore. 
Wairua.     Fumarin  hygrometrica. 
Wairuru.     A  Bpecies  of  karore. 
W.iiu-atua  ;  syn.,  waiu-o-kahiikiira. 
Whakahau-matua.      A  variety  of  hue  (gourd-plant). 
\\  raoriki.     Ranunculus  rivularis. 
Wkarangi.     Melicopi  ternata. 
Wiiarariki.      A  variety  of  P/ionnium  tenax. 
VVhare-hinu.     A  variety  of  hue  (gourd-plant). 


Best. — Maori  Forest  Lore.  207 

Wliare-kaka. 

Wheki.     Dicksonia  squamosa. 

Wheki.     A  plant, 

Whereki.     The  large  introduced  strawberry. 

Wi.     A  generic  term  for  several  coarse  grasses,  &c. 

Whiri-o-raukatauri.     Lyco podium  Billardieri. 

Whiri-o-raukatauri.     Asplenium  flaccidum. 

Whvi.     Severed  species  of  rushes  (J  uncus). 

The  above  are  the  items  of  the  sylva  and  flora  of  the  Tuhoe 
district  of  which  the  Native  names  have  been  obtained.  There 
are  many  others,  principally  small  plants,  &c,  which  we  do 
not  here  enumerate,  as  this  paper  is  one  dealing  with  Maori 
lore,  not  with  that  of  the  scientific  botanist. 

"  The  aka  (climbing-plants)  which  cling  to  trees- — these  are 
the  things  with  which  Tangaroa  is  captured.  Hence  they  are 
used  as  a  means  to  slay  Tangaroa."  So  sayeth  the  Maori, 
meaning  that  eel-pots  are  constructed  of  stems  of  climbing- 
plants,  and  of  thin  roots. 

The  aka  kopu  kereru  is  the  small  green-flowered  Clematis. 

The  oka-tea  has  a  very  light-coloured  bark,  and  is  extremely 
durable,  hence  it  is  much  used  for  lashing  palisades,  fences,  &c. 

The  poananga  makes  a  brave  show  in  some  parts  of  the 
Rua-tahuna  district  when  in  flower.  The  masses  of  white  blos- 
soms are  seen  on  the  tops  of  lofty  trees,  though  more  numerous 
among  second-growth  timber  at  deserted  cultivations. 

The  ngakau  kiore  is  more  generally  found  in  scrub  and  fern 
country,  where  its  small  yellowish- green  flowers  are  not  very 
conspicuous. 

The  sap  of  the  aka-kura  is  applied  by  the  Natives  to  the 
eyes  in  cases  of  inn  animation. 

The  kahia,  with  its  orange-coloured  fruit  and  handsome 
foliage,  is  here  frequently  seen.  The  stem  of  this  climber  was 
formerly  much  used  as  a  firestick  by  travelling  parties.  It  was 
cut  green  and  allowed  to  become  [quite  dry.  One  end  being  set 
fire  to,  it  was  carried  in  the  hand,  and  would  smoulder  like  punk. 

The  ake  is  not  often  seen  in  Tuhoeland.  The  most  reliable 
war  weapons  were  fashioned  from  this  timber.  A  grove  of 
ake  trees  near  Te  Onepu,  on  the  Whirinaki  River,  is  known  as 
Te  Hokowhitu  a  Ngai-Tawha. 

The  awanga,  or  aoanga,  is  a  variegated  variety  of  Phormium 
tenax. 

The  hakeka,  hakeke,  or  keka  is  the  fungus  of  commerce.  It 
grows  principally  upon  dead  logs  and  stumps  of  karaka,  pukatea, 
taua,  mahoe,  and  kaiwhiria,  and  not  upon  the  living  trees.  It 
appears  to  reach  a  matured  state  about  two  years  after  the 
trees  have  been  felled.  After  that  time  the  quantity  on  such 
timber  seems  to  decrease. 


208  Transactions. 

The  hangaroa  appears  to  be  a  grass,  the  culms  of  which  were 
used  in  making  belts  or  girdles  for  women,  as  also  anklets,  pieces 
of  flax-fibre  being  drawn  through  the  hollow  stems  in  order  to 
strengthen  them.  The  fruit  of  the  papa-koura  is  also  known  as 
hangaroa.  Children  string  these  berries  on  pieces  of  fibre  in 
order  to  form  necklaces  and  bracelets,  as  they  also  use  the 
berries  of  the  sweetbriar. 

The  sap  of  the  hangehange  bark  is  used  as  a  cure  for  a  skin 
complaint  known  as  hawaniivani. 

Hdrakeke  is  the  generic  term  for  'Phormium  tenax,  each 
variety  having  its  distinctive  name. 

Harore  is  a  generic  term  for  many  species  of  fungus,  &c. 
each  having  its  own  distinctive  name.  The  tipitaha  appears  to 
be  the  mushroom,  while  the  maiheru,  which  grows  on  open 
country,  is  probably  the  same  as  the  tiki  tahora.  The  puapua- 
a-autahi,  one  of  the  edible  species,  is  somewhat  poisonous,  and 
has  to  be  cooked  for  a  long  time  in  a  steam-oven  in  order  to 
render  it  innocuous. 

Leaves  of  the  heketara  were  used  in  former  times  wherewith 
to  give  an  agreeable  scent  to  oil  (a  toilet  article).  The  crushed 
leaves,  together  with  the  kopuru  moss,  also  seem  to  have  been 
employed  without  any  agent,  to  impart  a  pleasing  odour  to 
clothing.  If  the  heketara  is  seen  to  blossom  abundantly  it  is 
said  to  be  a  token  of  a  fine  summer  to  follow. 

The  hard  frond-stems  of  the  heruheru  fern  are  said  to  have 
been  utilised  as  teeth  for  hair-combs  in  past  times.  Todea 
superba  is  also  known  as  heruheru. 

The  bark  of  the  hinau  and  hinau-puka  were  used  in  dyeing 
fibre  black  for  being  woven  into  garments.  The  meal  of  the 
berries  of  the  hinau  was  an  important  item  of  the  Tuhoean 
food-supply  in  former  items.  These  berries  have  a  sort  of 
emblematical  name — viz.,  the  Whatu  o  Poutini — perhaps  only 
used  in  song  and  aphorism.  A  gum  which  exudes  from  the 
hinau  tree  is  dissolved  in  the  liquid  used  for  preparing  the  black 
pigment  for  tattooing  purposes.  It  is  said  to  prevent  the 
tattoo-marks  from  fading.  A  hinau  tree  from  which  the  gum 
exudes  without  the  tree  being  cut  or  wounded  is  said  to  provide 
the  best  bark  for  dyeing  purposes.  This  bark  produces  the 
mordant  for  dyeing,  the  fibre  being  afterwards  immersed  in  a 
black  mud. 

The  leaves  of  the  horopito  were  used  by  women  when  weaning 
a  child,  crushed  leaves  of  the  same,  or  of  the  kiwakiwa  fern 
(syn.,  kiwikiivi),  being  rubbed  on  the  breasts  in  older  to  give 
them  a  bitter  taste.  The  berries  of  the  horopito  are  termed 
matou  by  the  Arawa  Tribe.  The  sap  is  used  to  cure  skin- 
diseases. 


Best. — Maori  Forest  Lore.  209 

The  houhi,  known  in  some  districts  as  houi,  houhere,  and 
wkauwhi,  is  a  very  common  tree  in  Tuhoeland.  That  variety 
bearing  a  white  flower  is  a  charming  sight  during  a  season  when 
such  blossoms  are  abundant.  The  deciduous  variety  is  much 
the  larger  specimen  of  these  "  ribbonwoods,"  as  they  are  often 
termed  by  settlers  (being  also  known  popularly  as  "  lacebark  " 
and  "  thousand-jacket  ").  This  tree  may  be  seen  nearly  2  ft. 
in  diameter  and  sometimes  as  much  as  50  ft.  in  height.  It  has 
a  very  insignificant,  non-conspieuous  flower.  The  Tuhoe  Natives 
call  it  houhi-ongaonga,  because* they  have  a  belief  that  it  is  a 
mature  form  of  the  ongaonga  (Urtica  ferox),  saying  that  the 
latter  eventually  develops  a  single  stem  which  grows  into  the 
large  deciduous  houhi — a  very  singular  theory.  This  tree  is 
certainly  deciduous  in  the  Tuhoe  district,  not  partially  so.  The 
bark  of  this  tree  is  extremely  thick.  Its  leaves  are  eaten  by  the 
pigeon.  The  inner  part  of  the  bark  was  sometimes  eaten  by 
refugees  or  others  in  an  extreme  stage  of  hunger.  This  tree 
is  probably  Plagianthus  betidinus,  though  Cheeseman's  Manual 
does  not  mention  its  deciduous  habit,  but  it  speaks  of  Gaga 
Lyalli  as  being  partially  so.  Mr.  Rutland  speaks  of  Plagianthus 
betulinus  and  P.  divaricatus  as  being  evergreen  or  deciduous 
according  to  the  Isituation  in  which  they  grow.  (See  Trans. 
N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxi,  p.  110.)  These  deciduous  trees  are  seen 
orowino-  bv  the  sides  of  streams,  or  a  little  wavun  hillsides,  in 
Tuhoeland,  to  an  altitude  of  at  least  2,000  ft. 

The  puahou  or  houhou  tree,  known  also  as  parapara,  is  very 
common  in  this  district.  It  grows  readily  in  places  where  the 
forest  has  been  destroyed.  Places  thickly  overgrown  with  this 
tree  are  often  alluded  to  as  tau -parapara.  The  old  Maori  name 
of  the  site  of  the  Hawera  Township,  in  Taranaki,  was  Tau-patate, 
the  latter  word  {palate)  being  the  native  name  of  Schefjlera 
digitata.  The  bark  of  the  puahou  is  nibbled  off  and  eaten  by 
horses,  and  they  seem  to  be  remarkably  fond  of  it.  It  may 
possibly  possess  some  saline  property.  The  kaka  parrot  also 
nibbles  off  this  bark,  but  finally  rejects  it,  having  apparently 
derived  some  benefit  therefrom.  Rats  eat  off  the  bark  of  the 
small  trees,  and  also  the  stems  of  the  leaves.  The  term  tahumate 
seems  to  be  applied  to  the  first  puahou  that  blossoms  during  a 
season.  There  is  some  singular  myth  about  this  tree  being  the 
offspring  of  Rehua,  the  latter  being  the  name  of  the  star  Antares, 
as  also  of  one  of  the  old-time  Maori  gods,  though  possibly  the 
star  is  the  visible  form  of  the  god. 

Rehua  =  Puanga. 


I  J  I 

Poanana.  Tahumate.  Puahou. 


210  Transactions. 

My  informant  says,  '  These  were  the  first-born  children  of 
Rehua.  Their  mother  was  Fuanga  (the  star  Rigel  in  Orion). 
These  children  were  horn  in  the  moon  (month)  Mahuru,  the 
fourth  month  of  the  Maori  year.  Observe  that  the  puahofi 
blossoms  in  winter.  It  was  Ruaumoko  that  caused  them  to  he 
born  when  the  earth  was  shaken.  After  those  children  were 
born,  then  the  many  others  were  born.  Puahou  was  born 
in  August,  according  to  your  European  method  of  month-names. 
The  duty  of  those  first-born  of  Rehua  is  to  indicate  the  approach 
of  the  warmth  of  summer.  Puahou  was  the  most  important 
of  the  children  of  Rehua.  Those  children  are  suckling  during 
the  month  indicated."  The  explanation  of  the  above  quaint 
myth  is  in  this  wise :  Rehua  is  spoken  of  in  Maori  myth  as  being 
the  origin  of  the  lolo  bird  (syn.,  tui),  the  inanga  (a  small  fish), 
and  the  trio  above  given.  Poanana  seems  to  be  for  poananga, 
the  large-flowered  white  Clematis.  These  three  first-born  of 
Rehua  and  Puanga  (Airfares  and  Rigel)  show  by  means  of  their 
blossoming  the  coming  of  the  warmth  of  spring.  Ruaumoko. 
the  slumbering  subterranean  monster  of  Maori  myth,  is  said 
to  cause  the  changes  of  season  by  turning  over  and  causing 
an  earthquake,  which  has  the  effect  of  turning  the  warmth, 
or  cold,  of  mother  earth  uppermost,  according  to  the  time 
of  year.  This  act,  in  producing  warmth  towards  the  close  of 
winter,  causes  trees  to  blossom,  and  the  above  are  among  the 
first  to  do  so,  and  hence  are  spoken  of  as  the  first-born.  After 
these,  then  other  children  are  born — that  is  to  say,  other  trees 
blossom. 

The  homanqoroa  tree  is  the  matured  or  tree  fonn  of  the 
koareare  shrub,  according  to  the  Tuhoe  Natives.  The  former 
name  is  applied  to  it  after  the  form  of  its  leaves  is  changed. 
They  have  certainly  pointed  out  to  me  some  which  were  in  a 
sort  of  transition  stage,  bearing  both  forms  of  leaves,  the  hand- 
some star-shaped  leaf  of  the  koareare  {Panax  Edgerleyi)  and  the 
plain,  dark,  glossy  leaf  of  the  Jiomangoroa.  But  Williams's 
Dictionary  gives  havmangoroa  as  Panax  simplex.  However, 
judging  by  the  descriptions  given  in  Cheeseman's  "  New  Zealand 
Flora,"  both  the  Tuhoean  names  apply  to  P.  Edgerleyi. 

The  kahikatai  was  a  most  useful  tree  to  the  Maori  in  former 
times,  on  account  of  the  meat  quantity  of  bird-food  furnished 
by  its  berries.  This  fruit  also  served  as  an  article  of  food  to 
bushmen.  Persons  ascended  the  trees  and  collected  the  berries 
of  the  Icahikatea,  rimu,  and  matai,  which  were  placed  in  a  basket. 
When  full,  the  basket  was  lowered  to  the  ground  by  means 
of  a  cord,  there  emptied  by  an  assistant,  and  drawn  up  again 
to  be  refilled.  These  berries  were  washed  in  order  to  get  rid  of 
any  leaves,  &c,  and  eaten  without  being  cooked  in  any  way. 


Best. — Maori  Forest  Lore.  211 

When  a  kahikatea  tree  decayed,  the  mapara,  or  hard  resinous 
heart-wood,  was  eagerly  sought  for,  and  was  used  for  several 
purposes.  Implements  and  weapons  were  fashioned  therefrom, 
the  wood  being  exceedingly  hard,  durable,  and  difficult  to  break, 
hence  it  carried  a  fine  point.  The  smaller  pieces  of  mapara 
were  used  for  making  torches  for  night  fishing  and  travelling, 
a  number  of  such  pieces  being  tied  together  for  this  purpose. 
Also,  the  finest  pigment  for  tattooing  was  made  from  the  soot 
obtained  from  this  wood  when  burned  in  a  confined  space. 
Thus  this  child  of  Tane  and  Hine-wao-riki  was  highly  esteemed 
by  the  neolithic  Maori.  The  white  sap-wood  of  the  tree  was 
not  prized,  on  account  of  it  lacking  durability.  Canoes  were 
occasionally  made  of  kahikatea,  but  were  much  inferior  to  those 
made  of  totara. 

The  kai*  or  young  tree  of  Podocarpas  spieatus,  is  useful 
to  the  Maori  on  account  of  its  thin,  pliable,  and  tough  branches, 
which  are  used  for  making  eel-pots.  I  have  seen  a  Native 
driven  off  with  much  tongue-lashing  for  taking  these  kai  branch- 
lets  from  the  lands  of  another  tribe  than  his  own. 

The  kaikomako  tree  is  met  with  in  Maori  myth,  for  this 
was  the  principal  tree  into  which  fire,  or  the  seeds  of  fire,  fled 
when  the  memorable  contest  raged  between  Maui,  the  demi-god, 
and  Mahuika,  the  goddess  of  fire.  Hence  it  is  the  best  wood 
from  which  to  fashion  kauahi,  or  fire-sticks,  by  which  to  obtain 
fire  by  friction.  This  tree  is  personified  in  one  Hine-kaikomako. 
She  is  the  fire-concealer  and  fire-conserver  of  mythology.  She 
was  taken  to  wife  by  Ira,  the  fire-seeker.  I  once  related  this 
myth  to  a  little  Maori  girl,  stating  that  Hine  is  seen  now  merely 
in  the  form  of  a  tree,  not  endowed  with  the  powers  of  speech 
and  locomotion.  The  child  remarked,  "  Kua  wkakaaroha  ahau 
ki  a  Hine-kaikomako  "  (I  deeply  sympathize  with  Hine-kaiko- 
mako).    The  child  mind  grasped  and  accepted  the  myth. 

The  kaponga  is  Cyathea  dealbata,  but  the  word  is  sometimes 
used  in  a  generic  sense  to  include  several  or  all  species  of  arbor- 
escent ferns.  The  name  ponga  is  not  used  by  the  Tuhoe  Natives. 
The  kaponga  is  found  in  all  parts  of  the  Tuhoe  district.  The 
hard,  black  fibres  found  in  the  soft  interior  of  the  stem  are 
termed  katott.  The  mamaku  is  not  found  at  Rua-tahuna  and 
other  inland  places,  but  is  seen  in  great  numbers  near  the  coast, 
at  Rua-toki,  Te  Wai-mana,  and  elsewhere.  In  fact,  one  often 
sees  dense  groves  of  very  fine  specimens  on  the  hillsides  or  in 
gullies.  The  soft  interior  of  the  upper  part  of  the  trunk  of  this 
species  (Cyathea  medullaris)  was  largely  used  in  former  days 
as  an  article  of  food,  more  especially  before  the  introduction 

*  Also  termed  kakai. 


212  Transactions. 

of  the  sweet  potato.  It  was  cooked  in  a  steam -oven  for  about 
forty-eight  hours,  the  hard  outside  part  of  the  trunk  having 
first  been  hewn  off.  This  and  other  species  of  fern-trees  are 
remarkable  for  the  great  variety  of  the  epiphvtes  which  thev 
bear,  ranging  from  the  most  minute  plants  (ferns,  mosses,  &c.) 
to  forest-trees  such  as  the  puahou  and  tawhero.  The  two  latter 
are  very  frequently  met  with  under  such  conditions,  sending 
roots  down  the  stem  of  the  fern-tree  to  the  ground.  Some 
specimens  of  wheki  and  kaponga  seem  to  have  their  stems  en- 
closed within  a  network  of  such  roots.  The  harder  stems  of  the 
mamaku  support  a  large  number  of  smaller  epiphytes,  as  ferns 
and  Astelia.  Many  of  the  puahou  (Panax  arboreum)  so  growing- 
are  very  handsome  specimens  of  their  kind,  but  yield  in  pic- 
turesqueness  to  a  very  fine  specimen  growing  on  the  top  of  the 
dead  stump  of  a  forest-tree,  some  20  ft.  in  height,  and  which 
stands  in  open  ground  at  Mingi-nui. 

The  wheki  (Dicksonia  squarrosa)  is  very  common  in  some 
parts,  and  is  much  used  in  the  construction  of  rude  huts  by  the 
Natives.  In  this  species  one  often  sees  the  young  plants  of 
the  same  growing  on  the  stems  of  the  mature  specimens  though 
they  do  not  seem  to  attain  any  size  under  such  conditions,  or 
to  develop  into  branches.  Trunks  of  the  wheki  cut  and  laid  on 
the  surface  of  the  ground  often  put  forth  new  fronds  and  flourish 
for  some  time.  This  species  is  termed  ti-raiva  by  the  Ngati- 
Awa  Tribe,  and  a  hut  the  walls  of  which  are  formed  by  such 
trunks  is  known  as  a  whare  tirawa.  It  is  much  used  in  the 
construction  of  cooking-sheds.  The  tuokura  (Dicksonia  lanata) 
is  found  on  the  high  ranges. 

The  punui  (Dicksonia  fibrosa)  is  very  common  in  the  high- 
lying  districts  of  Tuhoeland.  With  its  thick  stem  and  short 
rigid  fronds  it  cannot  be  termed  a  handsome  species.  Some 
of  the  trunks  are  of  great  size.  The  Natives  hew  off  wide  slabs 
of  the  fibrous  matter  and  utilise  them  in  the  building  of  food- 
stores.  This  material  is  durable,  and  is  a  bai  to  rats,  which 
do  not  seem  able  to  gnaw  through  it. 

The  karaka  tree  concerns  us  little,  as  it  never  obtained  in 
Tuhoeland,  except  a  few  planted  in  former  times  on  the  northern 
frontier,  as  at  Rua-toki.  Natives  say  that  seeds  of  the  karaka 
were  brought  to  the  Bay  of  Plenty  district  in  the  "Nukutere" 
canoe. 

The  kanunuraiuu  is  remarkable  for  having  entered  largely 
into  the  sacerdotal  rites  of  the  Maori  in  former  days,  a  wand  of 
this  small  tree  being  used  by  priests  in  various  ways,  and  rude 
girdles  or  aprons  made  of  its  leafy  branehlets  worn  bv  them 
when  the  sacredness  of  their  duties  prevented  them  retaining 
any  of  their  clothing. 


Best. — Maori  Forest  Lore.  213 

The  karetu,  a  grass  having  a  sweet  scent,  more  particularly 
when  dry,  was  much  used  by  girls  to  make  waist-belts  with, 
as  many  as  twenty  plaited  strands  being  used  to  form  a  belt. 
The  midrib  (tuaka)  was  taken  out  of  each  leaf  before  being  used, 
in  order  to  make  the  leaf  more  pliable  and  prevent  a  breakage. 

The  kareturetu  is  a  grass  the  botanical  name  of  which  I  have 
not  obtained. 

The  kauere,  or  puriri  tree,  is  not  found  in  the  interior,  but 
only  near  the  coast. 

The  kawakawa  is  not  found  at  the  higher  altitudes,  but  is 
fairly  common  nearer  the  coast,  as  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
Whakatane  Valley.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  pukatea, 
nikau,  kiekie,  kohe,  mangeao,  and  divers  plants. 

The  kiekie  was  a  useful  plant  to  the  Tuhoean  bushmen,  inas- 
much as  their  forest  lands  did  not  produce  flax  (Phormium  tenax). 
Belts,  sleeping-mats,  and  rough  capes  were  made  from  its  leaves, 
which  contain  a  durable  fibre.  These  capes  were  made  from 
the  fibre  after  the  leaves  had  been  subjected  to  a  retting  process. 
Mats  and  belts  were  made  of  narrow  strips  of  the  leaves  bleached 
to  a  pleasing  whiteness.  The  kiekie  is  not  found  at  Rua-tahuna, 
but  only  in  the  lower  parts  of  the  valleys,  nearer  the  coast. 
There  is  said  to  be  one  only  plant  of  kiekie  at  Maunga-pohatu, 
which  is  known  as  Te  Kiekie  a  Rangi-wai-tatao,  the  same  Rangi 
having  brought  the  plant  from  the  coast  lands.  That  plant  is 
but  seldom  seen  by  man,  and  only  by  those  whose  days  in  the 
'and  are  numbered.  Should  you  chance  to  see  it,  then  it  is 
high  time  to  hurry  home  and  put  your  earthly  affairs  in  order. 
Tarry  not  on  your  way,  the  gods  are  calling  you.  But  should 
vour  end  not  be  near,  then  you  will  not  see  that  ill-omened 
plant,  pass  you  never  so  close  to  it. 

The  harakeke  (Phormium  tenax)  and  the  kiekie  (Freycinetia 
Banksii)  became  separated  in  the  dawn  of  time,  according  to 
Maori  myth.  The  kiekie  followed  and  clung  to  its  ancestor 
Tane,  hence  you  see  it  clinging  to  the  forest-trees.  But  the 
harakeke  went  to  its  ancestor  Wai-nui  (origin  and  personification 
of  water),  and  even  so  you  now  see  it  growing  in  swamps  and 
by  streams.  The  raupo  also  went  to  its  grandmother  Wai-nui, 
to  be  nurtured  by  her.  The  fruit  and  sweet  flower-bracts  of 
the  kiekie  are  eaten  by  Natives. 

The  kiokio  fern,  like  the  poor,  is  ever  with  us,  being  very 
common.  Cliffs  and  steep  sidelings  bearing  no  large  trees  are 
almost  invariably  covered  with  a  dense  growth  of  this  kiokio, 
or  Lomaria  procera,  as  you  pakeha  folk  term  it.  Hence  the 
expression  pari  kiokio  (kiokio  clif£  or  bluff)  is  a  common  one. 
This  fern  is  said  to  have  originated  with  one  Pari-kiokio,  who 
was  born  of  the  Wai-nui  above  mentioned.     Another  of  Wai- 


214  Transactions. 

nui's  offspring  was  Te  Hinatore,  a  term  applied  to  any  phos- 
phorescent substance. 

The  koareare  flourishes  on  the  high-lying  ranges,  and  has  a 
remarkably  handsome  appearance,  the  leaves  thereof  being  very 
attractive  to  the  eye,  as  also  very  aromatic.  These  leaves  were 
used  as  a  scent  in  former  times,  and  chaplets  were  made  of  the 
green  leaves,  by  the  maids  of  Tuhoe.  The  mature  form  of  this 
tree  is  known  as  homangoroa. 

The  kohe  tree,  termed  kohekohe  in  some  districts,  is  found  only 
in  the  lower  country,  near  the  coast.  Its  berries  are  eaten  by 
the  koko  bird  ;  hence  the  expression,  "  He  koko  kai  kohe.'"  The 
kohe  is  very  easy  chopping,  and  cuts  well  with  a  crosscut  saw. 
but  it  takes  the  conceit  out  of  your  steam-gauge  when  you 
put  a  circular  saw  into  a  kohe  log. 

The  kareturetu  is  a  bush-growing  plant,  resembling  the 
karetu  in  appearance. 

The  kokaha  is  an  Astelia.  The  name  is  applied  by  the  Tuhoe 
Natives  to  the  short-leaved  terrestrial  variety  found  growing  in 
forests,  but  not  to  the  narrow-leaved  mauri,  which  grows  on 
logs  and  the  lower  part  of  tree-trunks,  nor  yet  to  the  kowhara- 
whara,  which  grows  also  on  trees,  but  usually  on  the  branches 
and  upper  parts  of  the  trunk.  One  authority  states  that  the 
kokaha  is  known  as  takahakaha  when  in  flower,  or  perhaps  the 
latter  term  is  applied  to  the  flower.  The  tuaka  or  midrib  of  the 
leaf  of  the  kokaha  is  used  in  hat-making,  while  it?  red-juiced 
berries  were  formerly  sought  for  by  girls  and  women  as  a  face- 
paint,  the  cheeks  being  coloured  therewith.  The  fruit  of  th^ 
kowharawhara  is  eaten.  Leaves  of  Astelia  are  used  to  wrap 
round  eels  when  cooked  by  the  kopekope  process.  The  kokaha 
is  probably  Astelia  trinervia.  Another  species,  found  growing  in 
swamps,  is  probably  A.  nervosa. 

The  koromiko  or  kokomuka  is  plentiful  throughout  the  district. 
by  streams,  in  old  clearings,  or  wherever  it  can  get  a  chance  to 
grow.  The  species  termed  kokomuka-taranga  is  but  seldom  seen 
in  groves  here.  The  kokomuka-tu-tara-whare  is  also  presumably 
a  Veronica,  and  derives  its  Native  name  from  the  fact  that  it 
often  is  seen  growing  on  or  against  the  earth-covered  sleeping- 
huts  of  the  Natives.  Hence  the  name  of  this  species  has  been 
adopted  as  ;i  title  for  "  stick-at-home  "  persons,  and  is  crystal- 
lized in  a  favourite  proverbial  saying,  "  Xa  wai  te  kokomuka 
tu-tara-whare  i  kiia  kia  haere  ?  "  (Who  said  that  the  "  house- 
wall-standing  "  veronica  should  travel  ?)  This  saying  is  said  to 
have  originated  with  one  Rua-te-pupuke,  an  ancestor  of  very 
remote  times.  Some  other  ancient  asked  Rua  to  go  afishing, 
when  he  made  the  above  remark,  meaning  that  he  was  too  old 
tor  exertion,  and  had  grown  to  the  house-wall  like  the  kokomuka. 


Best. — Maori  Forest  Lort  .  215 

Another  form  of  the  above  saying  is,  "  E  kore  au  e  haere,  he 
kokomuka  tu  tara  ivhare."  "He  koromiko  te  rakau  i  tunua  ai 
te  moa  "  (The  koromiko  is  the  wood  with  which  the  moa  was 
cooked)  is  another  saying  applied  to  this  tree.  A  tribe  of  the 
original  Polynesian  people  of  the  Bay  of  Plenty  district  was 
named  Te  Tini  o  te  Kokomnka-tu-tara-whare. 

The  fragrant  moss  called  kopuru  was  used  as  a  scent  in 
former  times  by  the  belles  and  beaux  of  the  Children  of  the 
Mist.  The  kopuru  is  sometimes  a  tohu  mate,  or  token  of  coming 
misfortune.  If  a  number  of  persons  are  near  it  and  its  fragrance 
is  detected  by  only  one  of  such  persons,  then  some  trouble  will 
soon  follow.     Probably  a  person  of  importance  will  die  ere  long. 

The  red  -  flowered  Loranthus  known  as  pirinoa  is  termed 
korukoru  when  in  flower,  or  the  flower  is  so  styled.  It  grows  as 
a  parasite  on  the  tawai  trees  around  Wai-kare  Moana.  Mr.  Field 
gives  rorerore  as  the  Native  name  of  a  red-flowering  Loranthus 
in  the  Taupo  district,  while  Mr.  J.  B.  Lee  obtained  the  Native 
name  of  amaru  for  a  similar  plant. 

The  kotara  is  a  tree  only  found  on  the  high  range  at  Maunga- 
pohatu  in  this  district.  It  has  a  serrated  leaf,  hence  its  Native 
name.  In  former  times  its  fragrant  leaves  were  employed  by 
Natives  as  an  agent  wherewith  to  import  a  desired  scent  to 
toilet-oils,  neck-sachets,  &c,  hence  young  specimens  were  some- 
times transplanted  into  the  village  cultivation-grounds. 

The  kotukutuku,  or  Fuchsia,  is  a  very  common  tree  on  the 
high-lying  lands  of  the  Tuhoe  district,  but  not  so  very  numerous 
in  the  lower  parts  of  the  main  valleys.  This  tree  was  of  no 
great  economic  value  to  the  Natives.  The  fruit  is  eaten  by 
children,  and  also  furnishes  a  food  for  birds.  The  edible  berries 
of  this  tree  are  called  hona  by  the  Tuhoe  Natives.  The  flowers 
are  termed  takawa.  The  kotukutuku  and  houhi-ongaonga  (or 
houhi  puruhi)  are  the  principal  deciduous  trees  of  Tuhoeland. 
The  ongaonga  (Urtica  ferox)  and  tapia  (Tupeia  antarctica)  are 
also  here  deciduous,  and  the  kowhai  is  often  very  nearly  so, 
retaining  scarcely  any  leaves  in  winter. 

The  kowhai  does  not  obtain  to  any  great  extent  in  the  Tuhoe 
district.  The  bark  is  used  by  the  Natives  in  the  form  of  an 
infusion  as  a  medicine  for  internal  pains.  The  flowering  of  this 
tree  is  said  to  mark  the  last  frost  of  the  season,  which  is  known 
as  the  kowhai  frost.  In  some  parts  the  kowhai  flood  or  rains 
is  also  upheld  as  inevitable.  The  plant  Geum  urbanum  is  also 
termed  kowhai. 

The  kukuraho  is  a  swamp-plant  having  hard  black  knobs  on 
its  roots,  which  are  known  as  the  raho  of  Tuna.*     This  Tuna  is 

*  These  roots  were  eaten  formerly,  the  outside  part  peeled  off  first. 


216  Transactions. 

an  alias  of  Puhi,  the  eel-god  of  Maori  myth.  It  has  been  borne 
in  upon  me  that  this  same  Puhi  was  originally  a  snake-god  in 
some  distant  land,  at  an  early  period  in  Maori  history — say, 
aboiit  the  time  when  Tangaroa  was  a  land  deity,  as  I  am  in- 
formed he  used  to  be. 

The  kutakuta,  said  to  be  also  known  as  paopao  and  kuwawa, 
was  formerly  used  in  the  manufacture  of  aprons  and  mourning- 
fillets,  as  we  have  recorded  elsewhere. 

The  small  tuberous  roots  of  the  maikaika  are  eaten  by  Native 
children,  either  raw  or  roasted.  , 

Both  white  and  black  maire  are  found  in  the  Eua-tahuna 
district.  The  black  or  narrow-leaved  maire  is  sometimes  seen 
of  a  great  size.  This  wood  was  used  in  former  days  for  the 
manufacture  of  implements,  such  as  ko  (a  planting-spade  or 
dibble)  and  spades  (rapa  maire)  ;  also  certain  weapons,  as  the 
wahaika,  which  was  fashioned  from  the  roots  of  the  tree. 

The  maire,  sayeth  the  Tuhoean  bushman,  is  one  of  the  trees 
of  which  we  recognise  the  two  sexes.  The  female  tree  is  termed 
maire-rau-ririki,  and  the  male  is  maire-rau-nui.  The  maire  tree 
is  the  offspring  of  Te  Pu-whakahara  and  Hine-pipi.  The  former 
was  a  son  of  Tane,  and  appears  to  be  a  star-name,  or  connected 
in  some  way  with  a  star.  An  old  saying  applied  to  the  hard- 
wooded  maire  is,  "  E  kore  e  ngawhere,  he  maire  tx  woo,  ma  te 
toki  e  tua  "  ;  meaning,  "  It  will  not  break  (or  work)  easily,  it  is 
a  forest-standing  maire,  the  axe  alone  can  fell  it.""  This  saying 
is  also  applied  to  persons.  This  timber  is  a  favourite  fuel  for 
use  in  meeting-houses,  as  it  gives  out  but  little  smoke  and  a 
good  light;  but  if  seeds  are  kept  in  a  house  in  which  maire  is 
used  as  fuel,  then  such  seeds  will  not  germinate  when  planted. 
In  former  times,  when  forest-birds  were  numerous,  the  kereru 
(pigeon)  and  the  koko  (or  tui)  were  wont  to  frequent  in  greal 
numbers  the  maire-rau-nui  trees  to  feed  on  the  berries  thereof, 
when  great  numbers  would  be  snared,  although  they  did  QOl 
fatten  on  that  diet.  The  koko  also  feeds  on  the  berries  of  the 
other  maire  (maire  roro),  but  the  kereru  never  does  so. 

The  mahitihiti  (mahiti  =  to  .spring,  leap)  is  so  named  because 
its  seeds  are  distributed  in  the  same  manner  as  are  those  of 
furze  (whin). 

The  manono  or  raurekau  tree  is  common  on  the  high-lyinjg 
lands  of  Rua-tahnna.  Its  range  is  apparently  about  equal  to 
that  of  the  papawna,  possibly  somewhat  more  extended.  The 
manono  tree,  or  Coprosma  (/raixlifolia,  is  also  known  as  raurekau, 
but  I  am  informed  that  the  latter  name  really  applies  to  the 
leaves  only,  while  the  trunk,  or  tree,  is  manono,  and  the  fruit 
is  termed  kueo.  The  koko  bird  feeds  upon  the  berries,  while 
the  leaf  is  used  by  fowlers  as  a  pepe  or  call  leaf,  with  which  they 


Best. — Maori  Forest  Lore.  217 

imitate  the  cry  of  that  bird,  and  so  attract  it  to  snare  or  pae 
(perch).  In  the  summer-time  a  filmy  white  substance  is  seen 
on  the  leaves  of  this  tree,  which  may  be  detached.  It  was 
formerly  used  by  women  as  an  ornament,  manufactured  into  a 
kind  of  apron,  and  seemingly  also  as  a  pohoi,  a  bunch  of  the 
material  being  suspended  from  the  ear.  This  thin  white  film 
is  termed  Jcahu  raurekau.  A  yellow  dye  was  sometimes  prepared 
from  the  scraped  or  pulverised  bark  of  the  manono  by  means 
of  the  stoneboiling  process.  The  fibre  to  be  dyed  was  then 
boiled  in  the  liquid.  This  dye,  however,  was  but  little  used. 
The  crushed  bark  is  also  applied  to  wounds,  cuts,  or  bruises 
by  the  Natives.  The  inner  bark  was  squeezed  or  pressed  in 
order  to  express  the  sap,  which  was  used  in  cases  of  skin-disease. 
The  bark  has  a  bitter,  pungent  taste.  It  is  inadvisable  to 
handle  this  wood  without  cleansing  the  hands  afterwards.  Mr. 
Strauchon  informs  me  that  if  tobacco  be  rubbed  in  the  hands 
at  such  a  time,  and  smoked,  the  result  is  a  painful  affection  of 
the  throat  and  palate.  A  note  on  this  bark,  by  Mr.  W.  Skey,* 
does  not  contain  anything  remarkable. 

The  manoao  shrub  is  but  seldom  seen  within  the  realm  of 
Tuhoe,  it  being  a  denizen  of  the  plains'  Nor  is  its  absence  to 
be  lamented,  for  a  more  dismal-looking  thing  we  know  not. 
Natives  say  that  if  a  branch  of  this  shrub  is  broken  by  any 
person  raiii  will  soon  follow. 

Of  the  manuka  we  have  both  the  red  manuka  and  white 
manuka,  as  they  are  often  termed  by  settlers.  The  former  is, 
I  take  it,  Leptospermum  scoparium,  and  the  latter  L.  ericoides. 
Both  are  termed  manuka  by  the  local  Natives.  The  timber  of 
both  is  termed  durable,  but  is  not  really  so  when  exposed  to 
wet.  Manuka  fence-posts  of  L.  ericoides  have  a  fife  of  but 
three  years  in  this  district.  The  timber  lasts  longer  as  rails. 
The  wood  of  -white  manuka  was  formerly  used  by  Natives  for 
manufacturing  into  weapons  and  agricultural  implements.  The 
long  fighting-spears  were  made  of  this  timber.  The  bark  of  this 
species  is  much  used  by  the  Maoris  for  roofing  their  huts,  as  it 
is  pliable  and  can  be  stripped  off  the  tree  in  long  pieces.  Hence 
these  trees  were  valued  in  former  times,  and  woe  betide  the 
person  who  presumed  to  take  bark  from  trees  on  land  to  which 
he  had  no  right.  The  outer  bark  is  stripped  off  without  causing 
any  injury  to  the  tree.  The  fragrant  leaves  of  L.  ericoides  were 
formerly  used  wherewith  to  scent  toilet-oil.  Some  Natives  hold 
the  erroneous  belief  that  this  latter  is  the  male  tree  and  the 
red  manuka  the  female  tree,  possibly  on  account  of  the  con- 
spicuous and  abundant  flowers  and  capsules  of  the  latter.     A 

*  Trans.  X.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  ii,  p.  152. 


218  Transactions. 

decoction  of  the  bark  of  white  manuka  is  used  by  Natives  where- 
with to  cure  diarrhoea. 

Mapere  is  the  Native  name  of  a  species  of  toetoe  which  grows 
in  the  bush.     It  has  a  dark-green  leaf  and  black  "  plumes." 

The  maru  is  a  swamp-grass,  or  sedge. 

The  matai  was  one  of  the  most  important  trees  of  the  forest 
to  the  neolithic  Maori,  for  it  wras  included  in  a  group  of  trees 
termed  rakau  rangatira  (important  trees),  as  opposed  to  the 
smaller  or  less  useful  species,  which  are  known  as  rakau  ware. 
or  common  trees.  If  you  remark  to  a  Native  that  his  hair  is 
becoming  grey,  he  will  reply  that  moss  grows  only  on  rakau 
rangatira — alluding  to  the  long  grey  moss  that  is  often  seen  on 
different  species  of  Podocarpus.  Grey  hair  is  also  alluded  to 
as  the  tarutaru  o  Tura,  or  weeds  of  Tura.  Young  trees  of  matai 
are  known  as  kai  and  kakai  among  Tuhoe,  and  as  mai  among 
some  other  tribes.  "  Ko  te  ivahie  tena  i  taona  ai  a  Tupurupuni  " 
(That  is  the  fuel  by  means  of  which  the  body  of  Tupurupuni 
was  cooked)  is  a  saying  connected  with  this  tree.  Tupurupuni 
was  an  ancestor  of  the  East  Coast  Natives,  who  lived  and  was 
slain  at  Poverty  Bay.  Natives  recognise  the  difference  in  ap- 
pearance of  timber,  &c.,  that  exists  among  matai  trees,  as  also 
differences  in  the  "  flesh,"  as  do  our  bushmen.  They  believe 
that  the  variety  which  has  a  dry,  light  inner  wood,  and  splits 
easily,  is  the  female  tree.  The  wood  of  the  matai  was  used  for 
drums  (pahu)  and  some  other  articles,  as  it  is  said  to  possess 
good  sounding -qualities. 

The  common  blue  pansy,  introduced  by  the  early  mission- 
aries, was  named  matia  by  Tuhoe,  after  the  name  of  the  Native 
who  brought  the  first  plant  to  Rua-tahuna. 

The  matukutuku  is  probably  a  Lycopodium. 

The  mauku  fern  (Asplenium  bulbijerum)  is  the  most  common 
fern  in  the  Tuhoean  forests.  The  young  undeveloped  fronds. 
termed  pikopiko,  form  an  article  of  food ;  while  coarse  mats  of 
a  very  temporary  nature  were  plaited  from  its  leaves  and  used 
as  a  covering  at  night  by  refugees  or  persons  camping  out. 
Hence  the  tribal  aphorism,  "  Rua-tahuna  kakahu  mauku  "  (Rua- 
tahuna  of  the  mauku  clothing).  The  young  plants  often  seen 
adhering  in  great  numbers  to  the  leaves  are  termed  tururu 
mauku.  which  was  taken  as  a  tribal  name  by  one  division  of  the 
original  inhabitants  of  the  Bay  of  Plenty  district.  Fronds 
of  this  fern  seem  to  have  been  used  in  certain  rites  connected 
with  the  felling  of  trees,  and  the  making  of  a  new  canoe,  in  days 
of  yore. 

Maukuuku  is  a  secondary  name  of  the  pari  (Grastrodia 
Cunninghamii),  and  is  a  sort  of  term  of  courtesy  for  that  plant, 
the  tuberous  roots  of  which  are  eaten  bv  the  Natives.      If  when 


Best. — Maori  Forest   Lore.  219 

searching  for  the  plant  you  happen  to  mention  its  ordinary 
name  (perei),  then  you  will  not  find  a  single  specimen.  It 
apparently  conceals  itself  when  its  name  is  mentioned.  Hence, 
at  such  a  time  it  is  always  termed  maukuuku.  This  plant  did 
not  originally  spring  from  the  earth,  but  was  formed  by  the 
gods ;  hence,  presumably,  it  has  a  certain  amount  of  tapu  per- 
taining to  it.  The  roots  are  dug  up  in  the  winter  months.  A 
similar  superstition  to  the  above  seems  to  obtain  in  parts  of 
Europe  anent  the  mandrake  -  plant,  and  in  Tahiti  concerning 
arrowroot  and  other  plants,  products,  &c. 

The  maurea,  a  coarse  tussock-grass  of  a  reddish-brown  colour, 
was  formerly  sought  after  for  the  making  of  belts  for  women. 
It  is  common  in  the  Runanga  district.  An  old  proverbial 
saying,  "  He  maurea  kia  whiria"  preserves  the  name. 

The  namunamu  {Geranium  molle)  is  said  by  some  botanists 
to  be  an  introduced  plant.  The  Natives  steep  the  leaves  in 
hot  water  and  apply  them  to  open  wounds.  It  is  said  by  them 
to  be  antiseptic.  The  water  in  which  leaves  of  this  plant,  of 
the  piripiri,  and  some  others  has  been  boiled  is  used  in  the 
same  way.     In  cases  of  bruises  it  is  used  as  an  embrocation. 

The  neinei  (?  Draco phyllum  latifolium)  is  found  at  high  alti- 
tudes in  Tuhoeland.  In  ascending  the  ranges  of  the  interior 
one  often  passes  through  a  belt  of  200  or  300  yards  in  width, 
sometimes  less,  wherein  this  tree  is  common,  while  above  and 
below  such  belt  not  a  specimen  is  seen.  Its  plume-like  bunches 
of  leaves  make  this  tree  a  handsome  and  conspicuous  object. 
Straight  stems  of  the  same  are  sought  after  for  the  making  of 
walking-sticks.  It  is  often  termed  "  spiderwood  "  by  settlers 
and  bushmen,  on  account  of  the  web-like  pattern  seen  when 
a  stem  is  cut  transversely.  The  Natives  hold  the  green  stick 
over  a  fire,  and  when  heated  it  is  beaten  with  a  stick,  so  that 
the  bark  may  be  detached  without  injuring  the  fluted  appear- 
ance of  the  wood  beneath.  In  former  times  a  kind  of  flute  was 
made  from  the  neinei,  the  pith  being  removed  in  the  process. 
I  have  not,  so  far,  seen  the  neinei  near  the  coast. 

The  nikau  is  found  only  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Tuhoe 
district,  in  the  bush  of  the  Rua-toki  and  Wai-mana  districts. 
The  young,  undeveloped  leaves  are  eaten,  and  the  leaves  are 
used  in  thatching  huts. 

The  ngutu  kaka  is  an  epiphytal  plant  found  growing  upon 
the  tawai  tree.  It  takes  root  in  clumps  of  Astelia,  and  sends 
its  roots  downwards  toward  the  ground. 

The  ongaonga  {Urtica  ferox)  is  not  common  in  the  Tuhoe 
district,  but  is  occasionally  seen,  usually  near  streams.  The 
larger  stems  were  peeled  and  the  inside  portion  eaten  in  former 
times.     It  is  said  to  have  a  sweet  taste. 


220  Transactions. 

The  paea,  an  introduced  plant,  is  said  to  have  been  named 
after  the  European  from  whom  it  was  first  obtained.  A  Poverty 
Bay  tradition  states  that  Captain  Cook  was  so  named  by  the 
Natives  of  that  place,  on  account  of  his  calling  out  the  word 
"  Fire  "  when  ordering  his  men  to  fire  upon  the  Natives.  The 
Maori  pronunciation  of  the  word  is  paea.  Or  it  may  have  been 
named  after  Tupaea. 

Some  very  fine  pahau-kakapo  moss  (Daivsonia  superba)  is 
found  in  the  interior,  especially  in  the  Parahaki  district.  The 
general  name  for  mosses  is  rimurimu.  Angiangi  and  koku- 
kohu  seem  to  be  names  both  of  which  are  applied  to  Hypmm 
clandestinus.  The  angiangi,  a  very  soft  species,  is  used  as  a 
sort  of  bandage  or  covering  for  parts  of  the  body  affected  by 
disease,  &c,  and  by  women  as  a  diaper.  It  is  also  used  by 
fowlers  to  cover  a  pewa,  or  bird-snare,  in  order  to  give  it  the 
appearance  of  a  growing  branch.  Colenso  says  of  the  angiangi. 
"A  long,  loose,  pendulous,  filamentous,  white  lichen  (Usnea 
barbata) " — which  is  assuredly  not  the  moss  above  mentioned. 
Moss  was  formerly  used  as  a  sort  of  sock  when  wearing  sandals 
in  crossing  high,  snow-clad  hills,  it  being  stuffed  in  round  the 
foot. 

The  papauma  (Griselinia  littoralis)  nourishes  in  the  Rua- 
tahuna  district.  The  berries  are  known  as  huarihi.  and  are 
eaten  by  the  koko  bird,  which  is  said  to  get  very  fat  on  such 
food.  Kaivariki  is  said  to  be  another  name  of  the  pa  /minim. 
Cuttings  take  root  readily. 

The  berries  of  the  pa-totara  are  eaten  by  children. 

The  pepepe  is  so  called  because  the  leaves  thereof  are  used 
as  bird-calls  (pepe)  by  fowlers. 

The  large-flowered  white  Clematis  lias  two  names  applied 
to  it :  the  flowers  are  termed  poanangd,  while  the  stem  or  plant 
is  piki-arero.  It  is  Clematis  indivisa.  The  species  beaming 
small  greenish  flowers  is  called  aka  kopu  kereru.  The  ngakau- 
kiore  is  Clematis  parviflora.  C.  indivisa  is  sometimes  termed 
aka  poananga.  The  poananga,  whakou  (flowers  of  the  tawari 
tree),  and  kahika  (rata  blossom)  are  said  by  Natives  to  produce 
the  finest  honey.  Leaves  of  the  piki-arero,  as  also  those  of  the 
horopito,  were  used  by  women  to  wean  a  child  from  suckling, 
being  crushed  and  rubbed  on  the  breasts  (see  "'  Kiwikiwi "). 
The  sap  of  the  horopito  was  used  in  cases  of  skin-disease. 

Young  fronds  of  the  paraharaha  and  rereti  ferns  are  eaten 
by  Natives,  being  cooked  as  greens. 

Poporc  :  This  name  is  applied  to  Solatium  aviculare.  Ii 
is  said  to  be  so  termed  before  it  bears  fruit,  but  is  called  kaoho, 
or  kahoho,  after  it  has  once  borne  fruit.  Apparently  fruiting 
specimens  are  known  by  this  latter  name. 


Best. — Maori  Forest  Lore.  221 

The  leaves  of  the  pohue,  tohetaka,  kohukohu  (a  kind  of  chick- 
weed),  panakenake,  pororua,  raupeti,  and  poniu  were  cooked 
and  eaten  as  greens. 

The  puakaito  has  been  observed  only  on  the  high  range  at 
Maunga-pohatu  in  this  district. 

A  sort  of  jelly  was  made  from  the  ripe  berries  of  the  puhou, 
or  tutu,  in  former  times.  This  jelly  was  a  much  appreciated 
food-item,  but  the  process  of  making  it  was  tedious,  as  the 
fruit  had  to  be  carefully  strained,  in  order  that  all  the  poisonous 
seeds  might  be  retained  by  the  strainer.  The  latter  consisted 
of  a  closely  woven  basket,  lined  with  plumes  of  the  toetoe- 
kakaho.  The  seeds  are  termed  huarua.  It  is  said  by  local 
Natives  that  if  a  person  breaks  oft  young  branches,  stems,  of 
the  tutu  that  such  act  will  cause  a  downfall  of  rain  ere  long. 

Natives  formerly  made  cartridge- holders  of  the  tough  wood 
of  the  puka  (Griselinia  lucida). 

An  Olearia  usually  termed  akeake  by  Natives  is  termed 
ramarama  by  the  Tuhoe  Natives.  The  latter  name  is  applied 
by  most  tribes  to  Mijrtus  bullata.  The  wood  of  this  Tuhoean 
ramarama  was  formerly  used  for  making  certain  toys,  as  tops. 
and  kororohu,  because  it  was  thought  to  make  more  sound  than 
most  other  woods. 

The  starchy  rhizomes  of  the  rarauhe  were  an  important  item 
in  the  food-supply  of  the  Natives  in  pre-European  days,  but  are 
seldom  used  now.  The  young  fronds  of  the  rarauhe  are  termed 
mokehu,  while  haumia  is  a  sort  of  emblematical  term  for  the 
roots  or  rhizomes  thereof.  Haumia  was  one  of  the  offspring 
of  Rangi  and  Papa  (Heaven  and  Earth),  and  is  personified,  as 
it  were,  in  the  fern-root.  Haumia  retired  to  the  bosom  of  the 
Earth  Mother  in  order  to  provide  sustenance  for  the  human 
offspring  of  Rangi  and  Papa.  The  enemies  of  Haumia  are 
represented  by  the  Maori  people  (because  they  ate  largely  of 
fern-root).  The  children  (offspring)  of  the  mokehu  are  the 
mosquito  and  sandfly.  These  two  assail  man.  Sandflies  are 
a  dauntless  folk.  It  matters  not  how  many  thousands  be  slain, 
they  reck  not  of  that,  but  still  attack  man.  Nothing  but  fire 
can  stop  them.  The  saying  of  the  warlike  sandfly  is,  "  What 
matter  if  I  be  slain,  so  long  as  I  draw  forth  the  blood  of  the 
Maori  people  of  the  world  "  (Hai  aha  ahau  te  mate  ai,  i  nga  toto 
o  te  iwi  Maori  o  te  ao  ka  pakaru  kai  waho).  The  rarauhe  is  also 
known  as  takaka  and  makaka. 

The  rata  is  a  prominent  feature  in  the  higher  forest  ranges. 
This  huge  tree  was  held  in  much  esteem  in  former  times,  be- 
cause it  was  much  resorted  to  by  birds  seeking  the  honey  con- 
tained in  its  flowers.  Most  of  these  trees  had  special  names,  such 
.as  Te  Tohu  a  te  Ropu,  a  rata  tree  at  O-haua,  which  is  said  to 


222  Transactions. 

be  always  the  first  to  bloom  of  such  trees  in  that  vicinity.  The 
flowers  of  the  rata  are  termed  kahika  and  te  leanohi  o  Tawhaki. 
In  the  old-time  legend  of  Tawhaki  and  his  ascent  to  the  heavens 
it  is  stated  that  after  his  encounter  with  Tama-i-waho  the  hap- 
less Tawhaki  fell  from  the  heavens  and  perished  at  the  place 
where  the  sky  hangs  down.  When  the  people  of  this  lower  world 
awoke  next  morn,  behold  !  the  rata,  the  pohutukawa,  the  kowhai 
trees  were  all  red,  reddened  by  the  blood  (toto)  of  Tawhaki.  Even 
so  the  blood  of  Tawhaki  and  the  kura  (red-feather  ornaments) 
of  his  taiaha  (a  weapon)  are  seen  in  the  blossoms  of  those  trees. 
The  above  does  not  quite  explain  why  the  rata  flowers  are 
termed  the  kanohi  (face  or  eye)  of  Tawhaki.  Possibly  he  be- 
came red  in  the  face  through  ascending  to  such  great  altitudes. 
A  decoction  of  the  bark  of  the  rata,  boiled  for  some  time,  is 
used  by  Natives  to  apply  to  wounds.  As  elsewhere,  most  of 
the  rata  trees  of  this  district  commenced  life  far  sundered  from 
mother  earth,  but  at  some  places — e.g.,  near  Taumata-miere — 
many  terrestrial  specimens  are  seen.  A  rata  at  Heipipi  began 
its  sinful  career  high  up  on  the  branches  of  a  matai,  about  4  ft. 
in  diameter.  Finding  that  the  latter  tree  was  hollow,  the  rata 
sent  a  questing  root-stem  down  the  hollow  centre  of  the  matai, 
which  reached  the  ground  and  found  much  nourishment  therein, 
even  that  it  grew  to  such  dimensions  as  to  rend  asunder  the 
great  trunk  of  the  matai,  which  rent  is  about  8  in.  in  width, 
and  has  killed  the  tree.  The  root-stem  gained  access  to  the 
hollow  centre  of  the  supporting  tree  through  a  knot-hole.  The 
ngutara,  or  so-called  vegetable  caterpillar,  is  found  under  many 
of  these  rata  trees.  These  creatures  were  formerly  collected  by 
the  Natives  and  burned,  the  residue  of  black  ash  being  used  to 
make  a  pigment  for  tattooing  purposes.  The  term  kahika, 
applied  to  the  blossoms  of  the  rata,  seems  to  be  used  in  the 
same  manner  as  is  the  name  whakou  (flowers  of  the  tawari  tree), 
and  some  others — viz.,  the  name  appears  to  be  applied  to  the 
whole  tree  while  it  is  in  flower,  but  no  longer.  Apparently  the 
Maori  is  not  happy  unless  he  can  bring  superstitious  ideas  to 
bear  on  every  subject.  Hence,  when  procuring  the  bark  of  the 
rata  for  medicinal  purposes,  he  will  only  do  so  at  early  morn, 
and  no  person  of  the  hamlet  may  partake  of  food,  or  smoke  a 
pipe,  until  the  medicine  is  prepared,  otherwise  it  will  lose  all 
its  efficiency.  Probably  this  custom  arose  through  the  still- 
room  artist  being  afraid  of  losing  his  breakfast.  The  honey  of 
the  rata  blossom  is  known  as  wai  kaihua.  It  is  eagerly  soughl 
by  the  kaka  birds,  and  when  these  birds  are  seen  on  the  rata 
trees  it  is  known  that  the  rarangi  tahi  season  has  arrived,  bo  the 
bird-snares  are  laid  aside,  and  the  long,  pliant  spears  get  to 
work.     As  the  wise  woodsman  sayeth,   "  Ka  kai  te  kaka   i  te 


Best. — Maori  Forest   Lore.  223 

wai  haihua,  ka  kiia  he  rarangi  tahi."  Another  old  saying  is, 
"  Kei  whawhati  noa  mai  te  rau  o  te  rata,"  which  Sir  George  Grey 
translates  as,  "  Do  not  fly  into  a  passion  (get  red  in  the  face) 
for  no  cause,  like  the  wind  scattering  the  rata  blossom." 
Colenso  gives  it  as  meaning,  "  Don't  pluck  and  fling  about  to 
no  purpose  the  blossoms  of  the  rata  " ;  hence,  "  Don't  become 
ashamed  when  your  lying  is  detected."  The  rata  trees  of 
terrestrial  origin  I  have  seen  only  on  high  ranges  in  this  district, 
while  those  of  epiphytic  origin  are  seen  on  sidelings  and  lower 
ground.  The  former  furnish  the  more  solid  trunk  to  the  splitter 
or  sawyer,  save  in  cases  when  the  latter  develops  but  a  single 
aerial  root. 

The  names  raukatauri  and  whirl- o-raukata-uri  seem  to  be 
applied  to  several  species  of  Lycopodium. 

The  inner  part  of  the  roots  (karito)  of  the  raupo  were  formerly 
eaten,  and  a  kind  of  bread  was  made  from  its  seeds  (tahuna, 
tahune,  hum). 

The   rau-tawhiri  is   said  to  have   been  so  named   because 
branches  thereof  were  used  as  tawhiri — green  branchlets  carried 
in  the  hand  and  waved  during  the  ceremonies  of  receiving  and 
welcoming  visitors.     It  is  known  among  some  tribes  as  kowhiwhi, 
and  is  often  termed  "  silverleaf  "  by  settlers. 

The  rerewai,  an  aquatic  plant,  is  seen  in  ponds  and  other 
placid  waters.  Its  leaves  have  a  very  pretty  effect  as  seen 
floating  on  the  surface  of  such  waters. 

Tne  kohuwai  is  apparently  a  kind  of  aquatic  moss,  while 
retoreto  seems  to  be  the  name  of  the  duckweed. 

Tne  rewarewa  tree  is  very  common  in  some  parts  of  Tuhoe- 
land.  Its  flowers  are  termed  rewa  (He  rewarewa  te  tinana,  he 
rewa  nga  pua). 

Tne  rirnu  tree  is  also  of  common  occurrence,  much  more  so 
than  the  rewarewa  in  the  higher-lying  districts. 

The  taihinu  is  seen  only  in  river-beds  in  the  lower  parts  of 
their  courses. 

The  tamatea  is  found  in  swampy  places  in  open  country, 
and  is  used  as  thatch  for  huts. 

Tne  tanguru  grows  among  fern  and  scrub,  often  on  steep, 
rocky  hillsides.  Its  aromatic  leaves  (?  young  leaves)  were 
gathered  by  the  exquisites  of  Maoriland,  as  also  were  those  of 
the  kotara,  ko-areare,  &c. 

The  tangaru-rake  is  said  to  be  a  species  found  growing  on  the 
summits  of  high  ranges,  where  scrub  alone  prevails. 

The  tapairu  (Senecio  Kirkii)  is  found  on  the  ranges  of  the 
interior,  growing  as  an  epiphyte,  and  also  in  a  terrestrial  form. 
The  white  blossoms  of  the  former  are  very  conspicuous  in  the 
forest. 


224  Transactions. 

The  tapia,  a  true  parasite,  is  very  common  throughout  the 
district,  and  is  deciduous,  losing  all  its  leaves,  at  least  in  the 
Rua-tahuna  district.  It  is  found  growing  on  the  puahou  tree 
(Panax  arboreum),  but  rarely  on  any  other.  In  only  one  in- 
stance have  I  seen  it  growing  on  any  other  species,  and  that  was 
a  kai-weta  tree  (Carpodetus  serratus).  The  berries  are  eaten  by 
Native  children. 

The  tarata  tree  shows  some  very  fine  specimens  in  the  interior, 
its  fine  foliage  being  a  beautiful  sight  in  the  early  summer.  In 
former  times  the  Natives  obtained  an  aromatic  gum  from  this 
tree  by  means  of  wounding  the  trunk.  It  was  used  to  scent 
satchets  with. 

The  taro-para  I  have  not  seen,  as  it  is  found  only  up  the 
Wai-o-eka  River  in  this  district,  but  from  descriptions  given 
by  Natives  I  judge  it  to  be  the  para-tawhiti  of  the  north  (Ma- 
rattia  jraxinea).     Its  large  rhizomes  are  eaten  by  the  Natives. 

The  tawa  is  very  common  throughout  the  Tuhoe  district, 
and  was  a  most  useful  tree  to  the  Maori  in  former  times.  From 
its  trunk  he  fashioned  slender  bird-spears  (maiere  and  tao-roa) 
of  great  length,  while  its  wood  is  an  excellent  fuel.  Its  fruit. 
termed  pokere,  furnished  a  kernel  that  was  one  of  the  principal 
food-items  of  these  Tuhoean  bushmen.  These  kernels  were 
steamed  in  a  hapi  (steam  earth-oven)  for  two  days  and  then 
dried,  when  they  would  keep  for  years.  When  placed  in  the 
steam-oven  they  were  covered  and  surrounded  with  leaves  and 
fronds  of  karamuramu,  hangehanqe,  petako,  paraharaha,  and 
rau-tawhiri.  These  leaves  imparted  a  brownish  colour  to  the 
kernels  that  was  considered  desirable.  When  required  for  food 
these  dried  kernels  were  stoneboiled  and  pounded.  The  kernels 
were  sometimes  roasted  before  a  fire,  and,  when  heated,  exploded 
with  a  popping  sound;  hence  ahi  tawa,  a.  tire  at  which  tawa 
kernels  are  roasted,  is  a  term  sometimes  employed  to  express 
noisiness.  Of  a  noisy  child  it  is  said,  "  Ko  te  ahi  tawa  hat  wha- 
karite  "  (It  resembles  a  tawa  fire).  The  tawa  tree  is  sonn times 
termed  taiva  rau  tangi,  from  the  rustling  sound  made  by  its 
leaves  in  a  breeze.  A  tawa  mapua  is  a  tawa  tree  that  bears 
abundance  of  fruit.  This  fruit  is  a  favourite  food  of  the  pigeon. 
The  straight-grained  white  timber  of  the  tawa  tree  is  described 
by  the  terms  ngako  and  kaupuka.  European  bushmen  divide 
the  tawa  into  two  varieties,  termed  by  them  "white"  tawa  and 
''black'"  tawa.  The  former  has  a  very  white,  easv-spliviing, 
soft  wood,  excellent  chopping  for  the  bushman,  and  is  a  splendid 
fuel  timber.  These  trees  do  not  seem  to  grow  so  large  as  the 
black  variety,  but  are  more  plentiful,  and  often  very  straight 
in  the  grain.  The  Natives  made  their  bird-spears  of  this  kind. 
The  black  tawa  has  a  darker-coloured  timber,  is  much  harder. 


Best. — Maori  Forest  Lore.  225 

and  does  not  split  so  well  as  the  white.  It  is  much  inferior  as 
firewood,  and  the  heart  is  often  quite  black.  This  black  heart- 
wood  is  very  tough.  Sir  George  Grey  has  placed  on  record  two 
old-time  sayings  connected  with  this  tree  :  "  He  tawa  para,  he 
whati  noa  "  (The  brash,  decayed  wood  of  the  tawa  breaks  easily). 
This  is  applied  to  a  person  timid  in  battle,  &c.  "  Ka  niahi  te 
tawa  nho  "  (Now  is  seen  the  strength  of  the  heart-wood  of  the 
tawa) — said  of  an  energetic  fighter,  &c. 

The  tawai  tree  is  plentiful  in  the  high-lying  districts,  as 
Kua-tahuna,  more  especially  on  the  high  ranges.  Some  of  these 
trees  are  of  great  size,  and  the  heart-wood  thereof  is  very  dur- 
able. At  these  high  altitudes  the  tawai  supports  a  great  many 
epiphytical  plants,  for  the  humidity  of  the  air  is  most  marked. 
The  principal  benefit  derived  by  the  Maori  from  this  tree  was 
the  fact  that  the  beech  mast  provided  food  for  the  native  rat, 
great  numbers  of  which  were  trapped  in  former  times.  The 
bark  was  used  in  dyeing  fibres  for  weaving  purposes ;  while  the 
puku  tawai,  a  kind  of  fungoid  growth  on  the  trunk,  was  used  as 
punk  in  fire-generating,  and  as  a  fire-stick.  The  puku  taiva,  a 
similar  growth  on  the  tawa  tree,  was  considered  useless  for  this 
purpose. 

The  tawaka,  a  species  of  Agaricus  found  growing  on  dead  logs 
or  stumps  of  the  tawa,  houhi,  and  mahoe  trees,  was  eaten  by  the 
Natives.  It  is  said  that  when  a  person  has  eaten  of  this  food 
it  is  not  well  that  he  should  go  into  the  cultivations  of  the 
hamlet,  among  the  gourd-plants,  or  the  fruit  of  those  plants 
will  decay  prematurely ;  or,  should  that  person  go  afishing,  he 
will  not  take  a  single  fish. 

The  flowers  of  the  tawari  tree  are  termed  wJial'ou,  which  blos- 
soms make  a  brave  show  in  some  seasons.  In  like  manner  the 
hinau  and  some  other  trees  differ  much  as  to  the  quantity  of 
flowers  produced  in  different  seasons. 

The  taivhero  is  found  in  all  parts  of  the  Tuhoe  district,  and 
may  be  said  to  be  the  most  common  tree  thereof.  Its  bark  is 
sometimes  used  in  the  dyeing  of  fibre  for  making  cloaks,  &c. 
Handles  for  the  large  stone  adzes  were  made  from  branches  of 
tawhero. 

The  two  species  of  Gaultlieria  (67.  antipoda  and  G.  oppositijolia) 
found  here  seem  to  be  both  termed  tawiniwini  by  the  Natives. 
Colenso  gives  koropuku  as  a  name  for  a  variety  of  67.  antipoda. 

The  name  ti  is  used  as  a  generic  term  for  Cordyline.  The 
following  species  are  found  in  the  Tuhoe  district  :  1,  ti  (Cordyline 
australis)  ;  2,  ti-kapu  (C.  Banksii)  ;  3,  toi  (Cordyline  indivisa)  ; 
4,  ti-para  (?  C.  terminalis).  C.  pumilio  I  know  not  in  this  dis- 
trict, while  the  ti-tawhiti  is  doubtful.  The  latter  is  said  to  be 
distinct  from  the  ti-para,  and  was  in  former  times  a  prized  article 
8— Trans. 


226  Transactions. 

of  food.  It  does  not  appear  to  have  grown,  or  been  cultivated, 
in  this  district,  or  at  least  not  in  the  interior,  but  the  name  is 
known  to  the  old  men.  The  following  remark  was  made  by  a 
local  Native  before  the  Land  Commission  :  "  He  ti  tawhiti  te  o  i 
mate  ai  te  tahi  tangata  o  Rotorua,  na  reira  i  tapaia  taua  ingoa  hi 
tetahi  wahine  o  konei  "  (A  ti-taivhiti  was  the  last  food  partaken 
of  by  a  certain  dying  person  at  Eotorua,  hence  that  name  was 
given  to  a  woman  of  this  place). 

The  common  species  of  Cordyline  (C.  australis),  the  "  cabbage- 
tree  "  of  the  settlers,  is  known  as  ti  to  the  Natives,  though  ti  is 
also  a  generic  term  for  all  the  species.  C.  australis  is  known  as 
kouka,  or  ti-kouka,  among  some  tribes  ;  others,  again,  term  it 
whanake.  The  leaves  of  this  species  are  said  to  contain  a  bitter 
sap  which  is  absent  in  leaves  of  the  toi.  Leaves  of  the  latter 
are  said  to  have  been  sometimes  steamed  and  the  fleshy  part 
eaten.  The  tap-root  and  upper  part  of  the  trunk  of  the  ti  were 
•eaten.  After  having  been  steamed  for  about  forty-eight  hours 
it  was  chewed  and  the  fibrous  matter  rejected.  The  roots  con- 
tain sugar  and  farinaceous  matter.  The  leaves  of  C.  australis 
contain  a  strong  fibre,  which  is  much  more  durable  than  that  of 
Phormium  tenax,  hence  it  was  much  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
snares  and  other  articles  exposed  to  the  weather.  Rough 
shoulder-capes  were  also  made  from  these  leaves.  The  ti  are 
much  frequented  by  pigeons  in  the  season,  and  it  was  a  valuable 
tree  to  the  old-time  Maori. 

The  ti-kapu  seems  to  be  known  in  other  districts  as  ti-parae 
and  ti-ngahere,  while  Williams's  Maori  Dictionary  gives  hauora 
as  another  name  for  it.  The  word  parae  is  generally  used  by  the 
Maoris  to  denote  open  country,  but  the  Tuhoe  Tribe  apply  the 
term  to  bush  country,  which  is  somewhat  confusing  to  a  new- 
comer. The  ti-kapu  is  generally  found  about  the  edge  of  a 
forest,  or  on  high  ridges  and  steep  places  where  small  timber 
prevails.  Myriads  of  these  plants  sprang  into  life  on  the  Tau- 
mata-miere  Range  when  the  bridle-track  was  made  and  the  trees 
felled  a  width  of  a  chain.  On  the  high  ranges  of  the  interior 
the  toi  springs  up  on  such  cleared  lines,  though  not  in  such 
greai  numbers.  Of  the  ti-kapu,  the  young  undeveloped  leaves 
(rito)  alone  were  eaten. 

The  toi,  or  ti-toi,  is  known  to  some  tribes  as  ti-mataku-tai 
(ocean-fearing  Cordyline),  which  same  is  an  excellent  name  for  it, 
as  it  does  not  flourish  near  the  coast.  The  kauru,  or  upper  pari 
of  the  trunk  of  the  toi,  was  sometimes  eaten  prepared  as  was  that 
of  the  ti,  but  it  does  not  seem  to  have  been  much  appreciated. 
The  outside  of  the  kauru  was  cut  off  before  bein^  steamed  in 
the  earth-oven  ;  the  tap-root  was  also  eaten  :  while  the  young 
leaves  were  used  as  a  vegetable,  as  we  use  greens.     The  fibre 


Best. — Maori  Forest  Lore.  227 

contained  in  the  leaves  is  exceedingly  strong,  and  such  leaves 
have  a  peculiar  elasticity  when  subjected  to  a  strain  lengthwise. 
This  species  is  sometimes  termed  the  "  mountain-palm,"  and 
is  a  very  handsome  object  as  seen  growing  on  the  high  ranges, 
the  leaves  being  7  in.  and  8  in.  in  width.  The  midrib  (tuaka) 
of  these  leaves  is  of  a  red  colour,  and  was  used  in  making  waist- 
belts,  while  from  the  coarse  fibre  rough  rain-capes  are  made. 
These  capes  are  very  much  more  durable  than  those  made  of 
flax  (Phormium),  and  were  almost  the  only  clothing  used  by  the 
Tuhoe  Tribe  in  former  tribes. 

The  ti-para  I  believe  to  be  C.  terminalis.  But  very  few 
plants  now  exist  in  the  district,  nor  does  it  appear  that  it  ever 
grew  here  in  a  wild  state,  but  only  as  a  cultivated  plant.  It 
was  formerly  grown  by  the  Natives  because  it  was  much  esteemed 
as  an  article  of  food,  the  whole  plant  being  edible.  The  outside 
of  this  species  was  not  removed  when  placed  in  the  steam-oven. 
It  was  the  best-eating  of  all  the  species  of  Cordyline  here  known. 
When  the  stem  of  this  species  has  attained  a  height  of  about 
3  ft.  or  4  ft.  the  Natives  bend  it  down  until  the  upper  part 
touches  the  ground,  and  cover  that  part  with  earth.  It  takes 
root  where  it  is  so  covered,  and  then  the  bent  trunk  between 
the  two  roots  is  cut  out,  cooked,  and  eaten.  When  the  young 
plant  grows  up  it  is  treated  in  a  similar  manner.  A  small  sucker 
planted  in  my  camp  garden  two  years  ago  is  now  2  ft.  in  height, 
and  has  about  a  hundred  leaves,  which  are  1J  in.  wide  in  the 
middle.  This  species  seems  to  be  known  as  ti-pore  among  some 
tribes,  while  Williams  gives  mahonge  as  the  name  of  a  variety 
of  ti-para.  The  following  old  saying  was  given  by  a  member 
of  the  Atiawa  Tribe  :  "  E  kore  e  riro,  he  ti  tamore  no  Rarotonga  " 
(A  chief  possessing  courage,  energy,  &c,  was  said  to  be  able  to 
withstand  a  gale  like  the  branchless  Cordyline  of  Rarotonga. 
Enemies  would  not  conquer  him,  any  more  than  the  wind  could 
overthrow  a  branchless  ti).  In  his  collection  of  Maori  proverbs 
Sir  George  Grey  gives  "  Ehara  i  te  ti  e  wana  ake  "  (When  man 
dies  he  dies  completely;  no  suckers  or  shoots  spring  from  his. 
decaying  body,  as  they  do  from  the  stump  of  a  ti). 

The  ti-kumu,  a  plant  found  only  on  the  summit  of  Maunga- 
pohatu  in  this  district,  appears  to  be  similar  to  the  "  leather- 
plant  "  of  the  south — a  Celmisia.  It  is  mentioned  in,  I  think, 
Dieffenbach's  "  New  Zealand  "  as  being  found  on  Mount  Egmont. 
He  gives  it  the  same  name  as  that  used  by  Tuhoe ;  while  in 
Parkinson's  Journal  it  appears  as  teegcomme — evidently  as  near 
as  an  Englander  could  get  to  it.  Some  tribes  seem  to  have 
utilised  the  ti-kumu  leaf  in  the  making  of  rude  capes,  &c* 


*  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxix,  p.  175;  also  vol.  i,  p.  15,  of  Essay  No.  1. 


228  Transactions. 

The  titfiki,  rimu,  hinau,  and  taiva  trees  do  not  produce  fruit 
every  year,  according  to  my  Native  informants,  but  only  when 
they  like  (kia  puta  tana  hiahia),  then  they  fruit  (katahi  ka  hua). 
A  rimu  tree  may  go  several  years  without  producing  fruit.  From 
the  seeds  of  the  titoki  the  Maoris  formerly  expressed  an  oil  which 
was  used  for  toilet  purposes.  A  strong  bag  was  woven  of  strips 
of  flax-leaves,  being  about  6  in.  in  diameter  and  3  ft.  in  length. 
This  bag  was  termed  a  ngehingehi,  or  kopa  whakaiciri  titoki. 
The  seeds  were  placed  in  it,  and  the  mouth  of  the  bag  tied  up. 
The  bag  was  then  pounded  with  a  club,  so  as  to  crush  the  seeds. 
At  either  end  stood  a  man,  who  held  an  end  of  the  bag  firmly, 
and,  by  turning  in  opposite  direction,  sufficient  pressure  was 
obtained  to  express  the  oil  contained  in  the  berries,  or  at  least 
a  portion  of  it.  One  authority  states  that  hot  stones  were  placed 
among  the  crushed  seeds  to  increase  the  flow  of  oil.  This  oil 
was  placed  in  gourds,  and  scented  by  means  of  placing  therein 
certain  aromatic  leaves,  &c,  as  those  of  the  heketara,  koareare, 
manuka,  and  the  kopuru  moss.  We  have  representations  of  a 
similar  instrument  used  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  who,  however, 
obtained  increased  purchase  by  winding  the  confining  cord  round 
the  long  bag  in  a  spiral  manner,  attaching  one  end  to  one  side 
of  a  square  wooden  frame,  and  passing  the  other  end  through 
a  hole  in  the  beam  on  the  other  side  of  the  frame.  This  end 
was  then  secured  to  a  wooden  bar.  which  gave  a  great  power 
to  the  twisting  process.  Colenso  gives  a  saying  I  have  never 
heard — "  Ko  nga  rangatira  a  te  tau  titoki  " — applied  to  a  person 
of  low  birth  who  obtains  some  of  this  toilet-oil  in  the  season 
when  the  titoki  tree  bears  plenty  of  fruit.  That  man  is  a  chief 
only  in  the  titoki  season.  The  Tuhoe  people  have  a  saying, 
"  Apa  he  peka  titoki "  *  (When  a  man  dies,  his  branches— 
children — live  after  him,  unlike  branches  of  the  titoki.  which  die 
for  ever).  This  rendering  may  be  correct,  but  it  conflicts 
with  several  other  sayings,  as,  "Apa  he  peka  a  bit'"  (Food 
products  grow  again  when  planted,  but  man  when  buried 
appears  no  more). 

Toi,  a  species  of  fungus,  is  not.  1  think,  a  Tuhoe  word.  It  is 
applied  to  a  kind  of  toadstool  that  grows  in  deserted  huts.  &c. 
Toi  ivhenua  is  a  term  used  by  Te  Atiawa — the  people  of  a  place. 
the  permanent  or  original  inhabitants. 

The  introduced  dandelion  (tohetaka)  has  a  very  firm  grip  on 
\'\\  Zealand.  Its  leaves  are  sometimes  eaten  by  Natives, 
cooked  as  greens.  "  Kai  te  moe  1mm  i<<  tohetaka  "  (The  dandelion 
.still  sleeps)  is  said  of  a  late  sleeper.  That  plant  does  not  open 
its  Blowers  until  the  day  is  well  aired. 

*  In  full.  "'  //'   peka  tangata,  «/<"  /"  peka  titoki." 


Best. — Maori  Forest  Lore.  229 

The  toromiro  tree,  known  as  miro  in  many  other  districts,  is  not 
a  very  common  tree  in  this  district,  but  is  much  prized  by  the 
Natives  on  account  of  the  amount  of  food  provided  by  it  for 
the  pigeon,  which  becomes  extremely  fat  when  feeding  on  its 
berries.  Hence  every  tree  of  this  species  is  well  known  by  the 
sub -tribe  on  whose  land  it  stands,  and  most  of  such  trees  are 
known  by  distinct  names,  as  also  are  any  trees  of  other  species — 
Jcakikatea,  matai,  rata,  &c. — that  were  much  resorted  to  by 
birds,  and  were  for  that  reason  favourite  snaring-trees.  The 
Natives  profess  to  know  the  male  and  female  trees  of  toromiro, 
stating  that  the  female  trees  alone  bear  fruit,  while  others, 
which  produce  flowers  only  and  never  fruit,  are  said  to  be  male 
trees.  The  bark  of  the  toromiro  is  used  medicinally  by  the 
Natives :  albeit  these  wax  rahau  medicines,  as  they  term  them, 
are  quite  a  modern  usage. 

The  toetoe-kakaho  is  used  here,  as  in  other  districts,  in  the 
construction  of  huts — the  leaves  as  thatch  occasionally,  the 
flower-stalks  for  lining  the  roof.  Natives  recognise  two  varieties 
of  toetoe-kakaho — one,  known  as  kakaho-matariki,  produces  the 
best  reeds  (culms)  for  house-lining  ;  the  other,  termed  kakaho- 
puha,  has  larger  and  somewhat  crooked  or  bent  culms,  deemed 
inferior  for  the  above  purpose.  Hence  the  following  saying  : 
"  Ka  whakarerea  te  puha,  ka  whai  ki  te  matariki  "  (The  puha  is 
rejected,  the  matariki  sought  after) — a  saying  that  is  made  use  of 
in  speaking  of  persons,  or,  in*  fact,  almost  anything.  The  term 
rake  kakaho  is  applied  to  a  plant  of  this  species  which  produces 
a  large  number  of  straight  culms  of  the  better  kind  for  house- 
lining,  walls  and  roof;  or,  rather,  it  applies  to  the  bunch  or  col- 
lection of  culms,  not  to  the  whole  plant.  "  Te  rake  kakaho  a 
Tunono  "  (the  culm-clump  of  Tunono)  is  a  Ngati-Awa  saying. 
It  was  first  used  to  describe  the  sons  of  one  Tunono.  These 
men  were  all  tall,  and  all  had  grey  hair,  hence  they  were  likened 
to  a  rake  kakaho.  The  following  saying  is  a  well-known  one  : 
"  He  ta  kakaho,  e  kitea  ana  te  oioi  i  te  hau  ;  he  ta  ngakau,  e  kore 
e  kitea  "  (The  crookedness  of  a  culm  is  seen  when  the  wind  blows ; 
the  crookedness  of  the  [human]  mind  is  not  seen).  The  leaves 
of  toetoe-kakaho  do  not  appear  to  be  looked  upon  as  making  very 
good  thatch,  but  are  used  for  huts.  The  rush  (wiwi)  seems 
more  durable. 

The  upoko-tangata,  sometimes  called  toetoe-whatu-manu,  was 
formerly  used  in  the  making  of  kites  (manu),  the  triangular  stems 
being  used  for  that  purpose.  Two  varieties  are  recognised  by 
Natives. 

The  toro-papa  is  evidently  so  named  from  its  curious  growth. 
It  not  only  spreads  underground,  throwing  up  several  stems, 
but  also  such  branches  as  come  into  contact  with  the  earth 
take  root. 


230  Transactions. 

The  totara  is  sometimes  termed  Te  Riu  o  Tane,  because  most 
canoes  were  fashioned  from  that  timber.  This  was,  in  former 
times,  the  most  prized  tree  of  the  forest,  the  foremost  of  rakau 
rangatira.  Its  timber  was  the  best  for  canoes  and  house-build- 
ing and  other  purposes.  The  bark  was  used  for  covering  houses, 
and  vessels  for  containing  water  and  preserved  foods  were  made 
of  it.  Vessels  made  for  the  former  purpose  were  termed  patua, 
and  were  often  used  for  stoneboiling,  as  also  were  kumete,  a 
wooden  trough.  The  bark  vessels,  made  to  contain  preserved 
birds,  rats,  &c,  were  called  papa.  Temporary  patua,  used  to 
hold  water,  were  sometimes  made  from  bark  of  the  mako  and 
houhou  trees,  but  these  would  only  be  serviceable  for  one  day. 
The  Tuhoe  Natives  claim  that  they  recognise  the  male  and 
female  trees  of  totara.  They  call  the  male  (too)  tree  karaka, 
and  the  female  (uwha)  tree  kotukutuku.  The  terms  kouwha  and 
karawa  are  also  used  to  denote  the  female  sex  of  trees.  The 
outer  bark  of  the  karaka  or  male  totara  tree  is  termed  tuanui  ;  the 
inner  bark  is  called  kiri  (the  common  name  for  bark  or  skin). 
The  tuanui  bark  is  thick,  and  peels  off  in  long  strips.  It  is  the 
only  kind  valued.  The  kotukutuku,  or  female  totara,  has  no 
tuanui  bark,  but  only  a  thin  bark  resembling  that  of  the  native 
Fuschia  (kotukutuku)  tree,  hence  the  latter  name  has  been  ap- 
plied to  the  female  totara.  One  informant  tells  me  that  in  ancient 
times  all  the  totara  folk  lived  together,  but  that  after  the  contest 
already  described  in  this  veracious  chronicle  some  of  them  fled 
to  cliffs  and  rugged  lands,  there  to  dwell.  Also,  that  the  matai 
wood  that  pops  when  burned  comes  from  a  male  tree ;  that 
which  does  not  act  so  is  of  a  female  tree.  And  who  am  I  that  I 
should  doubt  these  things  ? 

The  thick-barked  manuka  is  also  termed  the  male  tree  by 
Natives.  This  is  our  "white"  manuka.  The  scientific  botanist 
may  tell  the  simple  autochthones  that  they  are  wrong.  I  de- 
cline to  do  so,  lest  I  lose  my  reputation  for  trusting,  childlike 
faith. 

The  bushmen  of  Tuhoe  say,  "  Only  the  female  trees  bear 
fruit  (Ko  nga  rakau  kouwha  anake  e  hua  ana).  That  product! I 
by  the  male  trees  is  termed  hae  (pollen).  It  is  like  dust,  and  is 
blown  and  carried  by  the  wind.  It  is  not  a  real  hua  (fruit), 
but  a  form  of  pxia  (blossom  or  seed).  It  is  produced  by  male 
trees  of  toromiro,  kafiika,  matai.  &c.  All  trees  are  divided  into 
male  and  female  sexes;  we  recognise  the  male  and  female  sexes 
of  the  totara,  matai,  kahika,  kotara,  and  some  other  trees." 

In  vol.  i  of  the  "Transactions  of  the  New  Zealand  Insti- 
tute," page  13  of  special  essays,  is  an  interesting  account  of  how 
the  Maoris  lightened  the  labours  of  future  canoe-makers  by 
stripping  off  a  piece  of  bark  and  a  portion  of  the  wood  from 
comparatively  young  totara. 


Best. — Maori  Forest  Lore.  231 

I  have  obtained  no  satisfactory  name  locally  for  Eugenia 
maire.  One  Native  gave  puka  as  the  name  thereof,  but  the 
statement  is  unsupported,  and  I  have  little  faith  in  it.  Another 
gave  tu-huhi,  which  is  very  unsatisfactory,  and  might  be  ap- 
plied to  any  swamp -growing  tree.  Such  tree  or  plant  names 
as  the  latter,  and  tu-repo,  tu-tahuna,  tu-tawai,  tu-pari,  piripiri, 
piri-pari,  piri-noa,  &c,  are  objects  of  my  deepest  scorn.  They 
appear  to  be  employed  by  Natives  who  do  not  know  the  proper 
names  of  such  plants,  &c.  It  is  quite  easy  to  call  a  plant  that 
grows  on  cliffs  a  "  cliff-grower,"  but  that  is  not  necessarily  the 
proper  name  of  it.  In  the  north  the  Natives  call  the  above 
tree  maire-tawhake,  and  Mr.  J.  B.  Lee  obtained  ivhakoukou  as 
a  name  for  it,  while  Dr.  Hector  gives  whawhakou. 

A  kind  of  sandal  or  galligaskin  was  made  from  the  tumatakuru 
{Aciphylla  squarrosa)  plant  by  the  Tuhoe  Natives  in  former 
times.  Several  kinds  of  sandals  or  buskins  were  made  and  used 
in  winter-time,  when  crossing  the  high  ranges  of  the  interior, 
which  were  often  snow-covered.  Tuhoe  have  traditions  of  several 
parties  of  travellers  which  were  snowed  up  on  those  ranges 
and  perished  miserably  in  past  times.  When  Hape-nui,  some 
generations  ago,  started  to  cross  the  Huia-rau  Range,  then 
deeply  covered  with  snow,  the  folk  of  Rua-tahuna  tried  to  dis- 
suade him  from  the  attempt.  But  Hape  declined  to  stay,  say- 
ing, "  He  riri  awatea"  Even  so  he  perished.  Paerau,  of  Rua- 
tahuna,  crossed  the  same  range  at  a  time  when  the  summit  at 
Te  Whakairinga  was  very  deeply  covered  with  snow.  He 
marked  the  depth  of  snow  by  cutting  a  notch  in  a  tree,  which 
mark  was  pointed  out  to  travellers  for  many  years  after. 

The  toheraoa  plant  is  said  to  be  so  called  because  if  a  portion 
of  the  seed-head  gets  into  food  it  will  choke  a  person.  Deaths 
have  so  occurred. 

The  tuokura  (Dicksonia  lanata)  appears  to  be  known  as 
tuokura  among  other  tribes.  When  Te  Kahu-o-te-rangi,  of  the 
Wai-roa  district,  East  Coast,  visited  Ngati-Apa,  of  Galatea,  he 
took  as  a  wife  one  Taratara  of  the  latter  people.  Their  nuptial 
couch  was  composed  of  fronds  of  tuokura.  When  Te  Kahu  re- 
turned home  he  left  his  new  wife  behind,  saying,  "  Ki  te  tvhanau 
to  tamaiti  he  tane,  tapaina  ki  te  kahu  o  te  rangi.  Ki  te  whanau 
he  wahine,  tapaina  ki  te  rake  o  tuokura  "  (If  your  child  be  born 
a  male,  name  it  after  the  hawk  of  the  heavens  [his  own  name]  ;  if 
born  a  female,  then  name  it  after  the  rake  o  tuokura).  The 
term  rake  is  applied  to  high  exposed  range-tops  where  few  large 
trees  are  seen,  but  only  scrub  and  very  hardy  plants  and  ferns, 
such  as  the  tuokura. 

The  name  waiu-atua  is  applied  to  several  species  in  different 
■districts,    for   which   see    Cheeseman's    "  New   Zealand   Flora," 


'232  Transactions. 

page  1110.  Ngati-Awa  know  that  name,  and  also  waiu-o-Kahu- 
kura  (the  milk  of  Kahukura).  They  give  the  following  origin 
of  the  name :  Just  before  Pou-rangahua,  of  Kiri-kino,  Turanga 
district,  went  to  Hawaiki  he  seems  to  have  visited  Whakatane, 
where  he  appears  to  have  taken  to  wife  one  Kanioro,  sister  of 
Hoaki  and  Taukata,  who  brought  the  knowledge  of  the  humara 
to  the  Hapu-oneone  people  of  Kakaho-roa,  as  Whakatane  was 
then  called.  It  was  proposed  to  despatch  a  vessel  to  Hawaiki 
in  order  to  obtain  seed  humara  (sweet  potatoes).  Pou  said, 
"  Do  not  sail  until  I  return  here.  I  am  going  home  to  see  my 
child  Kahukura,  at  Kiri-kino.  I  have  noticed  that  when  the 
sun  rises  he  puts  out  his  tongue  in  that  direction,  so  I  think 
'that  away  toward  the  place  where  the  sun  rises  is  some  desirable 
food  hai  whakawaiu  mo  taku  tamaiti  (to  cause  the  child's  mother 
to  give  abundance  of  milk).  When  Pou  returned  to  Kakaho- 
roa  he  found  that  the  Ara-tawhao  had  sailed  without  him,  so 
he  obtained  the  tawau  (milky  juice)  of  the  plant  since  known  as 
waiu-atua  and  waiu-o-Kahukwa.  It  is  probably  Euphorbia 
glauca. 

The  waoriki  plant  (Ranunculus  rivularis)  is  found  in  some 
swamps  of  the  district.  It  is  poisonous  to  stock.  It  may  be 
seen  in  swamps  about  Galatea,  as  also  is  the  white  moss  Sphag- 
num cymbi folium.  The  leaves  of  the  wharangi  are  also  poisonous 
to  stock,  and  the  honey  obtained  from  its  flowers  is  extremely 
hurtful  to  the  genus  homo. 

The  stems  of  the  tonakenake,  a  small  variety  of  pohue,  were 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  eel-pots. 

A  coastal  variety  of  Asplenium  faccidum  is  found  on  the 
Rurima  rocks,  off  Matata. 

A  few  notes  lately  obtained  :  Several  Natives  inform  me 
that  the  kokomuka-taranga  and  kokomuka-tu-tara-whare  are  one 
and  the  same.  Mr.  Cheeseman  gives  the  former  name  for 
Veronica  parviflora  (leaves  1  in.  to  2|  in.  long),  whereas  the 
Tuhoean  kokomuka-taranga  has  leaves  4^  in.  long.  The  tough 
stems  of  the  iwi-tuna  (Lycopodium  Billardieri)  were  formerly 
used  to  put  round  the  neck  for  suspending  ornaments  of  stone, 
&c,  thereto.  The  white  maire  is  here  termed  iiiaire-roro.  The 
black  maire  is  Olea  Cunninghamii.  One  Native  gave  maJieru- 
heru  as  the  name  of  Gleichenia  circinata,  but  it  seems  doubtiul, 
inasmuch  as  other  Natives  do  not  recognise  the  name.  Several 
Natives  state  that  kotara,  heketara,  and  taraheke  are  all  names  of 
one  tree.  Cheeseman  gives  heketara  as  Olearia  Cunninghamii. 
I  have  been  told  that  tororire  is  a  tree-name,  but  have  not 
Learned  as  to  which  tree  it  is  applied.  The  ends  of  the  fronds  of 
the  khvikiwi  fern  are  chewed  as  a  cure  for  ulceration  or  soreness- 
of  the  mouth  or  tongue. 


Best. — Maori  Forest  Lore.  233 

The  general  term  for  the  bark  of  trees  in  this  district  is  kiri, 
which  is  also  used  to  denote  skin ;  hence,  when  bark  is  meant, 
the  phrase  kiri  rakau  (tree-skin,  or  bark)  is  employed.  Other 
words  for  bark  in  various  districts  are  peha,  hiako,  tapeha,  and 
tangai.  Tuhoe  use  the  word  torokiri  for  bark  or  the  outside  of 
a  tree.  They  employ  this  word  to  denote  outside  slabs  from 
a  sawpit  or  mill,  which  are  of  sap-wood  with  bark  on. 

The  term  iho  is  used  for  the  middle  of  a  tree,  the  centre  of 
the  heart-wood.  Taikura  is  the  reddish  heart-wood  between 
the  iho  and  the  sap.  Taitea  is  the  sap-wood.  The  first  term 
■(iho)  is  used  to  denote  the  very  heart,  or  kernel,  oc  anything, 
even  of  a  speech.  Taikura  implies  a  red  or  reddish-brown 
colour,  as  seen  in  the  heart-wood  of  many  trees.  Taitea  denotes 
whiteness,  as  of  sap-wood,  &c. 

An  old  proverbial  expression  says,  "  Ttuia  taitea,  kia  tu  ko 
taikaka  anake  "  (Reject  the  sap-wood  and  leave  only  the  heart- 
wood).  Here  the  word  taikaka  is  used  for  heart- wood — -perhaps 
a  northern  word.  Sir  George  Grey  gives  the  following  words 
for  the  timber  of  the  totara  :  Iho  or  uho,  the  heart ;  next  the 
kaka,  or  hard  part ;  then  the  rangiura,  or  reddest  part ;  then 
the  taitea  or  sap,  which  soon  decays.  The  above  proverb 
means,  Discard  the  useless  or  worthless,  retain  that  which  is 
valuable — a  saying  often  quoted  by  the  Maori.  A  somewhat 
similar  saying  is,  "  He  rakau  tawhito,  e  mau  ana  te  taitea,  i  waho 
ra,  e  tu  te  kohiwi  "  (In  an  old  tree  the  outside  is  sap-wood,  but  it 
encloses  hard,  durable  heart-wood).     (See  "  Kohiwi,"  post.) 

The  Maoris  are  acquainted  with  the  movement  of  sap  in 
trees,  hence  they  cut  off  the  tops  of  certain  species  of  Cordyline, 
intended  for  food,  before  the  sap  rises  in  the  spring. 

The  top  of  a  tree  is  termed  kapuhi  or  matamata — i.e.,  the  very 
highest  part,  the  top  of  the  head.  The  head  of  a  tree  is  kauru  or 
kouru.  The  branches  are  termed  peka  or  manga,  but  a  very 
large  main  branch  or  division  of  a  tree  is  called  ruha.  A  dry, 
dead  branch  is  puanga.  The  word  kawekaweka  is  employed  to 
denote  extreme  length  in  branches.  The  trunk  of  a  tree  is 
termed  the  tinana.  The  base  of  the  trunk  is  the  take.  A 
stump  is  tumutumu  or  kotumu.  Take  is  also  applied  to  the 
root.  Pu  and  putake  are  applied  to  the  base  or  root  of  any- 
thing— of  a  tree,  or  an  argument,  or  action — its  secondary 
meaning  being  "  reason,  cause."  Roots  are  termed  paiaka  and 
pakiaka.  Small  rootlets  or  fibres  are  called  weu,  weru,  and 
piakaaka.  An  old  saying  of  these  bird-snaring,  tree-climbing 
bushmen  is,  "  He  toa  piki  rakau,  he  kai  na  te  pakiaka  "  (The 
fearless  tree-climber  becomes  food  for  a  root.  Some  day  he 
will  fall  from  a  tree  on  to  the  roots  thereof,  and  so  perish). 

The  term  wana  is  usually  applied  to  a  shoot  or  bud,  but 


234  Transactions. 

among  Tuhoe  it  is  used  to  denote  a  young  tree,  a  seedling  (he 
wana  karaka)  ;  while  mahuri  and  kahuri  denote  a  sapling — i.e., 
of  a  larger  growth  than  a  wana.  Huri  is  used  for  "  seed,"  as 
seed  potatoes,  seed  taro,  &c.  Pua  means  '"seed" — apparently 
small  seeds  only — but  is  sometimes  used  for  "  flower."  Puawai 
is  also  applied  to  flowers.  A  large  seed,  as  those  of  the  gourd 
and  pumpkin,  or  a  kernel,  as  those  of  the  tana,  titoki,  &c,  are 
termed  kakano*  Kernels  are  also  termed  iho.  Fruit,  berries, 
are  styled  hua,  which  is  also  used  for  egg  and  the  roe  of  a  fish  : 
hua  manu,  a  bird's  egg,  or  "  bird-fruit" — an  expressive  term. 

As  we  have  already  seen,  the  flowers  of  a  tree  sometimes  bear 
a  special  name,  distinct  from  that  of  the  tree  that  bears  them. 
The  blossoms  of  the  reivarewa  tree  are  termed  rewa,  those  of  the 
tawari  are  known  as  whakou,  &c. 

In  his  work,  "  Evolution  of  the  Idea  of  God,"  Grant  Allen 
states  that  primitive  man,  the  genial  savage,  would  not  possess 
the  faculty  of  perception  to  the  extent  of  perceiving  that  plants 
spring  from  seeds.  I  would  much  like  to  meet  that  primitive 
man.  He  would  be  a  curiosity,  and  very  primitive  withal. 
For  those  are  just  the  things  that  the  savage  does  notice — the 
operations  of  nature.  Were  he  not  so  to  do  he  wrould  not  be  a 
primitive  man  for  long,  nor  any  other  kind  of  man,  for  that 
matter. 

The  pollen  of  trees  is  termed  hae  ;  that  of  some  plants,  as 
rarauhe,  is  nehu  or  puehu.  The  rains  of  January,  which  cause 
the  pollen  of  trees  to  disappear,  are  termed  hikuwai. 

The  Natives  deem  the  abundant  flowering  of  certain  trees 
as  a  sign  of  a  fruitful  season.  The  fourth  month  of  the  Maori 
year,  which  year  begins  about  the  middle  of  June,  is  marked  by 
the  flowering  of  the  puahou,  or  the  appearance  of  its  berries  ; 
the  fifth  month,  by  the  flowering  of  the  kowhai  ;  the  sixth 
month,  by  the  rewa  blossom ;  the  seventh  month,  by  the 
blooming  of  the  kahika  ;  and  the  eighth  month,  by  the  flower- 
ing of  the  tawhiwhi.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  flowering  of 
trees  served  as  time-markers  to  the  Maori.  Thus,  when  intend- 
ing to  burn  off  a  patch  of  rarauhe  fern,  in  order  to  prevent  the 
growth  of  scrub,  and  to  render  the  edible  rhizomes  a  desirable 
white  colour,  the  Natives  would  do  so  when  the  hinau  and 
whakou  blossoms  appeared.  If  they  waited  until  the  rata  and 
korukoru  blossoms  came  the  fern  •  roots  would  be  brown,  and 
the  edible  matter  of  inferior  quality.  Also,  the  kekerewai,  an 
edible  beetle  (().  appears  on  the  manuka  when  that  tree  blossoms, 
and  was  then  sought  for.  It  is  not  seen  in  the  winter.  The 
flowering  of  certain  trees,  the  dying  of  leaves  of  raupo,  &c,  the 

*  Kakano  is  also  used  to  denote  tlio  grain  of  timber. 


Best. — Maori  Forest  Lore.  235 

fall  of  the  leaves  of  the  kotukutuku,  were  signs  of  certain  birds 
being  in  good  condition — it  was  time  to  commence  snaring  the 
same.  There  are  a  great  number  of  such  tohu  (signs,  tokens) 
well  known  to  that  keen  student  of  nature  the  Maori.  He 
may  be  a  bit  primitive,  but  he  knows  the  functions  of  seeds 
and  the  varied  manifestations  of  Dame  Nature  in  the  wao  tapu 
nui  a  Tane. 

The  Maori  has  two  names  for  leaves — raw  and  wha.  The 
first  is  applied  to  all  short  or  comparatively  short  leaves,  how- 
ever broad,  while  the  long  leaves,  such  as  those  of  rawpo  and 
flax  (Phormium),  are  termed  wha.  I  have  also  heard  the  latter 
term  applied  to  leaves  of  the  toi  (Cordyline  indivisa),  kiekie, 
mauri,  &c.  Wha  taro  or  whawha  taro  is  the  leaf-stalk  of  the 
taro.  Some  Natives  maintain  that  while  a  wha  raupo  implies 
the  whole  leaf,  a  flax-leaf,  owing  to  its  different  form,  contains 
two  wha — i.e.,  that  each  half  of  the  leaf  is  a  wha.  This  is  pos- 
sibly correct.  Sir  George  Grey,  in  his  "  Whakapepeha,"  gives 
a  Maori  proverbial  saying,  "  He  wha  tawhara  ki  uta,  he  kiko 
tamure  ki  toi,"  and  translates  wha  tawhara  as  the  "  broad  fruit 
of  the  tawhara.''''  Tawhara  are  the  flower-bracts  of  the  kiekie, 
which  are  eaten  by  Natives. 

Young  shoots  of  the  rarauhe  fern  are  termed  mokehu.  The 
word  kotau  is  employed  to  denote  young  shoots,  as  those  of 
tutu,  pirita,  &c,  and  those  of  rarauhe  before  they  appear  above 
ground.  The  word  pitau  has  a  similar  meaning,  but  is  more 
often  applied  to  young  curled  unexpanded  fronds  of  tree-ferns. 
The  word  koata  is  used  for  the  unexpanded  fronds  of  tree-ferns 
before  they  reach  the  kotau  stage  of  growth,  also  to  those  of  the 
nikau,  and  many  other  trees,  &c,  of  similar  growth.  One  also 
hears  koata  applied  to  young  shoots,  as  those  of  the  tutu.  Pihi 
is  the  general  term  for  shoots  of  plants  ;  and  the  horns  of  cattle, 
goats,  &c,  are  also  termed  pihi  usually,  but  in  the  Waikato 
district  are  called  maire.  The  term  rito  seems  to  be  equivalent 
to  koata,  and  is  applied  to  the  young  unexpanded  leaves  or 
heart  of  a  plant.  The  word  komata  means  young  shoots  of 
plants  and  trees.  The  old  dead  leaves  of  certain  acrogenous 
plants — toi  (Cordyline  indivisa),  and  ti  (C.  australis),  and  others, 
as  also  those  of  flax  (Phormium) — which  dry  leaves  hang  down 
in  masses  for  years  ere  they  become  separated  from  the  trunk — 
that  is,  in  sheltered  situations — are  termed  koka  and  kuka.  The 
former  term,  says  one  authority,  is  applied  to  those  leaves  just 
turning  a  brownish  colour — the  first  symptom  of  decay ;  while  the 
leaves  of  previous  years,  which  are  quite  dry,  are  called  kuka. 
The  kuka  of  C.  indivisa  are  used  in  the  making  of  rough  rain- 
capes,  as  loosely  hanging  outside  pieces  to  turn  the  rain.  These 
two  terms  apply  only  to  such  leaves  as  are  termed  wha,  and 


236  Transactions. 

not  to  leaves  called  rau.  The  Natives  say  that  the  latter  class 
of  leaves  are  killed  by  summer  weather,  which  turns  them 
brown  (kua  tu  pakaka),  but  that  xvha  die  in  a  different  maimer, 
and  hang  long  on  the  plant  or  trunk  after  becoming  dry.  The 
word  tuakoka  is  employed  to  describe  a  poverty-stricken  place 
or  person — "  Ou  mahi  a  te  kainga  tuakoka,  kaore  he  kaka,  he 
aha  !  " 

The  leaves  of  the  gourd-plant  (hue),  pumpkin,  &c,  bear 
different  names.  The  first  two  leaves  put  forth  are  termed  rau 
kakano,  or  "  seed  leaves."  When  a  third  leaf  appears,  it  is  said 
"kua  rau  tara  te  hue."  The  fourth  leaf  is  called  putaihinx 
(putauhinu  among  some  tribes).  When  the  first  runner  (kaivai 
or  waero)  appears,  it  is  styled  uma  (kua  uma  te  hue).  This  shoot 
soon  falls  and  commences  to  run  (toro). 

The  expression  whatu  toto  is  applied  to  the  red-coloured 
sound  heart-wood  of  the  totara  and  matai  trees.  This  timber 
takes  a  long  time  to  dry  out  and  become  light  when  split.  The 
term  komako  is  applied  to  the  lighter-coloured  totara  wood  that 
soon  becomes  light  and  dry.  Aritahi  means  straight-grained 
timber,  easily  split.  That  peculiar  state  of  totara  timber  known 
to  bushmen  as  "  dozy  " — i.e.,  pitted  with  small  holes — is  here 
called  tatarapo  and  kakapo,  but  on  the  west  coast  is  termed 
kaikaka.  This  condition  is  oft  noted  in  totara  growing  on  stony 
ground,  and  it  impairs  the  value  of  the  timber.  Apparently  it 
is  a  state  of  incipient  decay.  Makohe  is  another  word  meaning 
straight-grained,  easy  splitting,  of  timber.  This  state  is  ex- 
pressed as  "  good  rift  "  by  American  Lumbermen — the  timber 
rives  well. 

My  late  friend  Te  Puia  Nuku,  who  was  one  of  the  Tuhoe 
contingent  that  marched  to  Whirinaki  in  the  early  fifties 
in  order  to  save  Ngati-Manawa  from  being  wiped  out  by 
Ngati-Maru,  under  Taraia,  told  me  that  during  the  hostile 
speeches  then  made  the  latter  chief  said  to  the  Tuhoe  war- 
riors, "  Ahakoa  he  iti  te  matakahi,  ka  pakaru  i  a  au  te  totara  " 
(Though  the  wedge  be  a  small  one,  yet  will  the  totara  be  riven 
by  me) — meaning  that  though  Tuhoe  were  numerous  and  versed 
in  warfare,  yet  he  was  a  match  for  them.  Wepiha,  of  Ngati- 
Awa.  promptly  replied.  "  Ac !  Me  he  makohe;  tena,  mehemea 
he  pu  peka  kai  roto,  e  kore  e  pakaru  i  a  koe  "  (Yes  !  If  it  be  good 
rift;  but  if  it  contains  blind  knots,  then  it  will  never  be  split 
by  you).  He  meant  that  Ngati-Maru  might  defeat  ordinary 
fighters,  but  that  so  many  famed  warriors  were  present  that 
they  could  not  hope  for  a  victory.  A  pu  peka  is  the  hard,  in- 
locked  wood  which  composes  the  internal  base  of  a  tree-branch 
— that  part  of  it  that  extends  from  the  heart  of  a  tree  outwards 
to  the  bark,  but  supports  or  shows  no  external  limb  :    it  has 


Best. — Maori  Forest  Lore.  237 

decayed  or  been  broken  off.  A  puku  whenewhene  is  a  "  blind 
knot  "  that  does  not  extend  out  to  the  outside  of  a  tree,  but 
is  sometimes  marked  by  a  puku  or  excrescence  on  the  outside, 
over  which  the  bark  is  intact.  These  "  blind  knots,"  or  branches 
in  embryo,  seem  to  be  also  termed  pu  kanohi.  Toropuku  is  a 
term  apparently  applied  to  an  incipient  knot  inside  a  tree, 
and  perhaps  sometimes  to  the  heart-wood.  The  light-weight 
brittle  inner  wood  of  a  tree  is  termed  puwhawha  and  puanga 
among  Tuhoe.  Puaka  seems  to  be  applied  to  a  rimu  tree  among 
the  Arawa  Tribe.  "  He  rakau  puwhawha  "  is  a  term  sometimes 
applied  to  an  old  man,  presumably  because  he  has  become 
dried  up,  light,  and  withered.  With  this  may  be  compared 
the  famous  saying  of  Pou-whare-kura,  wife  of  Kahu-ngunu  : 
"  Tu  ana  he  rakau  puwhawha,  haere  ana  he  rakau  wharemoaP 

The  decayed  heart- wood  of  the  matai  tree  (i.e.,  natural 
decay,  not  as  affected  by  grubs)  is  termed  popo-a-whaitiri.  The 
word  waipawa  is  used  to  denote  the  dry  brash  wood  of  the  tawa 
tree  when  quite  dead,  dry,  and  light.  It  then  breaks  easily, 
or  flies  well  off  the  axe.  "  Kua  waipawatia  te  rakau  na,,y 
and  "  Te  waipawa  paif"  are  common  expressions.  Clear 
timber — i.e.,  good,  sound,  solid,  straight-grained  timber,  free 
from  shakes,  decay,  ring-shakes,  blind  knots,  or  other  defects — 
is  called  ngako,  an  expression  often  applied  to  the  wood  of  the 
white  tawa.  Mapua  describes  a  tree  bearing  abundantly  of 
fruit :  He  tawa  mapua.  Poike  seems  to  have  a  similar  meaning  : 
Poike  ana  te  hua  o  te  rakau. 

The  term  puarere  implies  "  run  to  seed."  The  words  koiki,. 
kohiwi,  and  paiore  denote  hard,  sound,  dry  heart-wood,  from 
which  all  sap-wood  has  decayed  :  He  koiki  matai.  The  expression 
kohiwi  is  also  applied  to  a  person  who  is  mentally  inert,  absent- 
minded,  or  listless,  who  has  no  heart  for  action.  Should  the 
human  medium  of  a  god  be  deserted  by  such  spirit,  then  it  would 
be  said,  "  E  noho  kohiwi  noa  iho  ana  te  tangata  "  (Nothing  but 
his  kohiwi  remains  ;  his  knowledge- — hence  also  his  power  and 
prestige — has  departed  ;  only  the  earthly  body  is  left).  Koero 
and  hiwi  have  a  somewhat  similar  meaning  to  that  of  koiki, 
but  more  applied  to  anything  that  has  become  dry,  attenuated, 
old  in  appearance,  as  a  dry  weather-beaten  branch.  Another 
way  in  which  the  term  kohiwi  is  employed — viz.  :  "  The  Iho  o 
Kapuru  is  the  name  of  a  cave.  The  iho  (severed  portion  of 
umbilical  cord)  of  Kapuru  was  deposited  there.  He  totara, 
tona  kohiwitangaP  My  informant  seemed  to  mean  that  a 
totara  tree  which  stands  at  that  place  is  all  that  remains  of  the 
iho,  or  that  represents  it. 

As  observed,  the  Tuhoe  Tribe  apply  the  term  parae  to  forest 
lands,  while  pakihi  is  open  land  on  which  nothing  taller  than. 


"2">s  Transactions. 

grass,  sedges,  or  rushes  grow.  Treeless  country  on  which 
fern  or  scrub  grows  is  called  mania.  Nuku  mar  aha  denotes 
open  country,  and  the  term  seems  to  convey  a  sense  of  flatness 
— open  lands  over  which  one  can  see  for  a  considerable  distance. 

High-lying  forest  lands,  such  as  the  high  ranges  of  Huiarau, 
&c,  where  beeches  and  tawhero  are  the  principal  trees,  and  where 
snow  lies  in  winter,  are  termed  hunua  by  the  Tuhoe  Tribe,  while 
the  forests  of  the  lower  country,  which  may  also  be  very  hilly. 
are  known  as  uruora.  It  is  so  named  on  account  of  there  being- 
much  bird-food  in  these  forests  at  a  lower  altitude,  the  trees 
being  kahika,  toromiro,  rimu,  maire,  rata,  &c,  which  do  not 
grow  on  tops  of  high  ranges.  Any  forest  or  portion  of  a  forest 
that  produces  a  great  quantity  of  berries,  seeds,  &c,  on  which 
birds  feed  and  fatten  is  termed  a  whenua  pua,  or  fruitful  land  ; 
sometimes  simply  pua  :  "He  pua  tera  whenua  a  Te  Wera-iti," 
or  "  He  hunua  a  Te  Peke,  engari  a  konei,  he  pua  tenei."  The 
expression  toiora  seems  to  apply  to  hunua  lands.  As  my  inform- 
ant put  it :  "  Ka  tau  ki  te  whenua  tawai,  pipiro,  tuokura,  ko  o  te 
rake  ko  ona  rakau.  Me  tau  ki  reira  taua  toiora,"  (It  applies  to 
tawai,  pipiro,  and  tuokura  lands,  the  trees  of  sterile  lands.  Let 
the  term  toiora  be  applied  there.)  The  term  rake  is  applied  to 
the  poor  high-lying  lands,  such  as  the  upper  slopes  and  summits 
of  high  ranges,  whereon  but  a  thin  layer  of  soil  covers  the  rock. 
The  word  pukahu  is  used  to  denote  the  fibrous,  spongy  mass 
of  rootlets,  moss,  &c,  that  covers  the  ground  in  tawai  forests 
on  the  summits  of  ranges.  Poor,  sterile  surface-matter  on  soil 
is  known  as  akeake.  Tatahou  is  virgin  soil,  while  soil  exhausted 
by  cultivation  is  termed  patohe. 

Scrub  or  brush  is  known  as  tawhao,  ururua,  heuheu,  and 
moheuheu,  but  the  last  two  words  seem  to  be  applied  more  espe- 
cially to  the  growth  of  scrub  and  fern  over  tracks  :  Kua  heuheu 
katoa  te  huarahi  (The  track  is  all  overgrown).  Kua  apiapi  te 
huarahi  has  a  similar  meaning,  the  word  apiapi  meaning  "  filled 
up,  closely  occupied."  Arawheu  is  an  expression  denoting  the 
summer  months  when  paths  are  much  overgrown,  as  the  word 
itself  implies.  Travellers  would  gradually  clear  away  such  ob- 
structions by  breaking  off  encroaching  branches.  In  traversing 
■old-time  trails  of  neolithic  man,  we  sometimes  see  young  trees 
which  have  been  tied  with  an  open  single  knot  by  travellers,  in 
•order  that  such  might  be  cut  and  converted  into  walking-staffs 
when  grown  to  a  desirable  size.  Such  tough  woods  as  young 
hinau  were  so  treated. 

A  second  growth  of  timber,  such  as  grows  up  in  a  forest  - 
clearing,  or  cultivation-ground,  and  which  usually  consists  of 
such  small  trees  as  mako,  kotukutuku,  koromiko,  and  puahou, 
i°  known  as  waipapa  and  wai heuheu.     "  Kua  ivaipapa  te  woe- 


Best. — Maori  Forest  Lore.  239 

renga  "  (The  clearing  has  become  covered  with  second-growth 
timber). 

Driftwood  is  called  tawhaowhao.  Uru  rakau  and  motu  rakau 
imply  a  clump  of  trees,  a  small  wood.  Purei  means  a  tuft,  as 
as  of  rushes,  &c.  ;  while  pur&irei  is  applied  to  the  stump  and 
roots  of  a  tree  torn  up  by  the  roots.  A  single  log  or  tree  lying 
across  a  track  would  be  termed  a  taita,  but  a  mass  of  fallen 
trees,  or  of  drift  timber  in  a  river-bed,  is  called  taiha :  "  Kua 
taihatia  le  huarahi  i  te  rakau." 

Tree-climbing. 

The  Maoris  were,  and  are,  adepts  at  tree-climbing,  for  much 
of  their  food  was  obtained  from  trees,  which  were  ascended 
in  order  to  set  snares  for  birds,  or  for  spearing  the  same,  and 
also  when  in  search  of  various  berries.  For  both  these  purposes 
the  Natives  climbed  to  the  top  branches  of  lofty  forest-trees, 
and  clambered  out  on  the  branches  in  order  to  reach  the  outer 
branchlets.  There  are  three  methods  of  tree-climbing  em- 
ployed by  the  Maori — viz.,  the  piki,  the  tapeke,  and  the  rou 
methods.  To  pifci  a  tree  is  simply  to  climb  it  by  means  of  hand- 
holds— i.e.,  holding  on  to  branches,  &c.  In  the  tapeke  method 
the  climber  "  swarms  "  up  the  tree,  clasping  the  trunk  with  his 
hands,  and  also  gripping  it  with  his  legs.  In  such  cases  as  where 
the  trunk  is  too  large  to  ascend  in  this  manner,  two  loops  of  cord, 
or  some  climbing-plant,  are  employed.  The  feet  are  confined 
in  one  such  cord,  and  the  other  is  grasped  in  each  hand.  After 
drawing  his  feet,  with  their  confining  cord,  upwards,  the  climber 
slips  the  hand-loop  up  the  further  side  of  the  tree.  If  the  bark 
be  rough,  then  the  hand-cord  is  jerked  upwards,  so  as  to  clear 
any  obstruction.  The  rou  method  is  employed  in  cases  where 
the  two  former  plans  are  not  suitable,  and  in  cases  where  the 
tree  is  ascended  often,  as  a  tree  on  which  birds  are  taken  by 
fowlers.  It  is  a  permanent  ladder,  or  is  so  as  long  as  the  poles 
and  lashings  remain  sound.  The  rou  consists  of  saplings  placed 
upright  against  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  and  retained  there  by  means 
of  lashings  passed  round  the  tree,  such  lashings  being  the  stems 
of  climbing-plants.  Two  such  poles  are  placed  parallel  to  each 
other,  like  the  sides  of  a  ladder,  the  rungs  or  foothold  being 
twisted  creepers  of  a  tough  nature,  such  as  aka  tea. 

The  Maori  measured  the  girth  of  trees  with  the  extended 
arms,  the  process  being  termed  whananga  by  the  Tuhoe  Tribe. 
Each  stretch  of  the  two  arms  is  called  a  pae*  If  the  fingers  do 
not  meet  in  so  clasping  a  tree,  or  if,  after  measuring  off  two  or 
more  pae,  the  fingers  do  not  reach  the  starting-point,  then  the 

*  Pae  is  also  used  as  a  verb. 


240  Transactions. 

portion  over  is  termed  hamama  (literally,  "  open,  vacant  "). 
"  Pae  hia  to  rakau  ?  "  (How  man)'-  pae  is  your  tree  ?)  "  Pae  rua  " 
(Two  pae)  ;  or,  "  Pae  toru  hamama  "  (Three  pae  and  a  space 
over). 

Tree-felling. 

In  felling  bush,  in  order  to  make  a  garden  or  cultivation- 
ground,  three  different  methods  are  employed — viz.,  the  autara, 
whakapapa,  and  hapai  tu.  The  first-named  (autara  or  kairangi) 
•consists  in  cutting  down  all  small  stuff  and  in  lopping  off  all 
blanches  of  larger  trees,  leaving  their  trunks  (with  the  bases 
of  branches)  standing.  When  dry  the  felled  bush  is  burned 
off  and  crops  planted.  The  whakapapa  method  consists  of 
felling  all  trees,  save  perhaps  a  few  very  large  ones,  then  burning 
off,  &c,  as  before.  In  some  districts,  where  frosts  prevail, 
potatoes  are  planted  just  before  the  bush  is  felled.  These 
potatoes  grow,  protected  from  the  frosts  by  the  felled  timber. 
When  the  timber  dries  in  the  spring  it  is  burned  off.  The 
potato-plants  are,  of  course,  also  burned,  but  grow  up  again 
more  vigorously  than  ever,  the  soil  being  enriched  by  the  ashes. 
By  this  method  potatoes  are  planted  as  early  as  July,  thus 
insuring  an  early  crop.     This  method  is  termed  whakapara. 

In  lopping  off  branches  in  the  autara  method  every  branch 
must  be  so  cut.  If  only  those  on  one  side  of  the  tree  are  so  cut 
off  it  is  unlucky — he  aitua,  he  pouaru  (an  evil  omen) — a  widow 
or  widower;  the  workman  will  soon  lose  his  wife,  or  will  himself 
die.     Stone  axes  were  employed  for  such  work. 

The  hapai  tu  mode  is  again  different,  for  every  tree  is  felled, 
and  all  logs,  branches,  rubbish,  &c,  removed  from  the  ground 
— except  perhaps  some  large  logs — leaving  the  ground  ready 
to  be  turned  up  for  the  crop.  Observing  a  patch  of  bush  where 
no  big  trees  stood,  I  inquired  the  reason.  The  answer  was, 
';  lie  hapai  tu  pea  na  nehera  "  (Maybe  it  is  a  hapai  tu  of  olden 
days). 

The  usual  term  for  tree-felling  in  this  district  is  tope  rahau, 
but  a  better  term  is  km  rakau.  Waere  =■-  to  clear  by  cutting 
■down  trees  ;  hence  waerenga,  a  clearing.  Para  =  to  cut  down 
bush,  &c. ;  to  clear. 

Stone  Axes. 

The  felling  of  a  tree  of  large  size,  as  when  making  a  canoe, 
obtaining  timber  for  a  large  house,  &c,  was  a  serious  under- 
taking to  the  neolithic  Maori.  It  was  accomplished  by  means 
of  lire  and  stone  axes.  The  process  was  an  exceedingly  tedious 
one.  The  toki,  or  stone  axes,  might  be  better  described  as 
adzes,  inasmuch  as  they  were  helved  as  is  an  adze — or,  rather, 
the  relative  positions  of  head  and  helve  were  similar,  lor  in  no 


Best. — Maori  forest  Lore.  241 

case  were  handles  inserted  in  the  head,  but  the  head  was  lashed 
on  to  the  helve.  The  most  prized  stone  was  the  pounamu,  or 
greenstone,  of  which,  however,  the  Tuhoe  Tribe  do  not  appear 
to  have  become  possessed  to  any  great  extent,  hence  it  was 
used  by  them  principally  for  war-weapons  and  small  axes,  not 
for  large  toki.  Small  adzes  (toki)  were  used  for  fine  work,  as  in 
finishing  off  a  canoe,  &c.  A  small  greenstone  adze  of  this  type 
in  my  possession  is  2^  in.  long,  the  cutting-face  is  If  in.,  while 
the  reke  or  poll  is  but  f  in.  The  thickest  part — i.e.,  the  uma, 
or  swell — is  §  in.  The  greenstone  toki  and  weapons  or  chisels 
were  much  more  highly  valued  than  those  made  of  other  kinds 
of  stone.  The  other  stones  used  for  such  implements  were 
kara,  uri,  onewa,  and  kohurau.  The  first  two  are  black,  the  third 
is  dark-grey,  while  the  last-named  I  am  not  acquainted  with. 

The  different  kinds,  sizes,  &c,  of  these  adzes  were  known 
each  by  its  own  special  name  : — 

Toki  ngao  pae. — A  large,  heavy  axe  for  heavy  roughing- 
out  work. 

Toki  ngao  tu. — -A  medium-sized  axe  (adze)  for  shaping  beams, 
canoes,  &c. 

Toki  ngao  matariki. — A  small  finishing-adze. 

Toki  ivhakarau. — Seems  to  be  the  same  as  the  ngao  matariki. 
(See  "  whakarau"  below.) 

Toki  pou  tangata ;  toki  hohou  pit ;  toki  whawhao  pn. — These 
names  are  applied  to  small  greenstone  toki,  helved  as  adzes, 
sometimes  used  for  fine  wood-working,  but  often  merely  carried 
by  chiefs  as  a  token  of  chieftainship  ;  carried  in  belt,  or  in  hand 
when  making  a  speech.  Sometimes  used  to  despatch  a  stricken 
foe  in  fighting. 

Poki. — Concerning  the  poki  I  have  no  notes  save  two  supplied 
by  Mr.  S.  Percy  Smith,  who  says,  "  The  poki  was  a  big  stone 
axe,  sometimes  18  in.  long,  lashed  on  in  line  with  handle,  not  at 
right  angles  as  an  adze.  I  think  that  poki  is  a  Ngai-Tahu  word, 
but  am  not  sure.  The  old-fashioned  European  axes  were  termed 
poke.  The  poki  was  used  as  a  huge  chisel,  but  without  the  use 
of  a  hammer." 

Toki  titaha. — My  Tuhoe  notes  say,  "  The  old-fashioned, 
long-bladed,  steel  axes  obtained  from  European  traders  in  early 
days.  No  longer  seen."  Williams's  Dictionary  says  "  Toki 
titahi,  or  toki  whakapae  :  the  common  felling-axe."  Tregear, 
in  "  The  Maori  Race,"  applies  these  two  names  to  the  big  stone 
poki  above  described,  which  does  not  agree  with  Williams's  or 
my  own  notes. 

Poke. — The  American  -  pattern  steel  axe.  Not  applied  to 
any  stone  axe. 


242  Transactions. 

Panehe. — A  steel  hatchet.  The  term  not  applied  to  any 
stone  tool. 

Patiti. — An  iron  or  steel  hatchet. 

Williams's  Dictionary  also  gives  panekeneke  as  a  small  iron 
tool,  a  hatchet.  Patiti  kupa  is  said  to  be  the  European  squaring- 
axe,  but  kupa  sounds  suspiciously  like  "  cooper." 

Small  toki  were  carried  in  the  belt,  but  with  large  ones  the 
handle  was  thrust  down  under  the  shoulder-cape,  thus  resting 
on  the  back  of  the  carrier,  being  supported  by  the  head  of  the 
axe  resting  on  the  collar  of  the  cape.  Handles  for  these  stone 
axes — or,  rather,  adzes — were  made  of  the  branch  of  a  tree,  the 
tawhero  and  matai  being  favourite  woods  for  the  purpose.  A 
small  branch  was  selected  for  the  handle ;  a  secondary  branch 
and  a  piece  of  the  main  branch  from  which  it  sprang  was  cut  off 
and  left  adhering  to  the  handle.  The  whole  was  then  reduced 
in  size,  and  properly  shaped,  being  made  smooth  by  means  of 
hard  rubbing  on  the  rough  outside  of  a  kaporu/a,  or  tree-fern. 
Its  shape  was  then  like  a  human  leg  from  the  knee  down- 
wards, including  the  foot,  the  stone  toki  being  lashed  on  to  the 
sole  of  the  foot. 

The  name  of  the  above  adze-like  implement  is  toki,  which 
name  was  also  applied  to  metal  axes  obtained  from  early 
European  voyagers  and  traders.  European  adzes  are  termed 
1,/ijia  and  kapukapu,  so  called  from  their  shape.  The  blades 
of  our  carpenters'  planes  were  formerly  much  sought  after  for 
the  purpose  of  using  as  adzes,  being  lashed  on  to  handles  like 
unto  the  one  described  above.  The  term  tarai  signifies  to 
adze  down  or  hew  a  timber  with  a  kapu  or  toki.  Tarei  is  a 
variant  form  of  the  above  expression.  To  use  a  small  implement, 
as  a  panehe,  to  shape  a  timber  is  described  by  the  term  tukou. 

Regarding  the  term  ivhakarau  used  above,  it  appears  to  sig- 
nify the  finishing-off  process  in  timber-hewing,  the  smoothening 
of  the  surface  with  a  small  toki.  When  a  workman  is  finishing 
off  a  canoe  it  may  be  asked,  "  How  is  So-and-so's  canoe  ?  ': 
The  reply  will  be  "  E !  Kua  oti,  kua  ivhakarau  t<>  toki  "  (0  !  lb  is 
almost  finished,  the  adze  is  just  doing  the  whakarau).  It  is  then 
known  that  the  waimanu  (hollowing-out)  work  is  done,  and  that 
the  surface  is  being  finished  off.  When  the  workman  com- 
mences to  ivhakarau  a  canoe-hull  he  casts  a  small  stone  into  the 
hold  thereof,  in  order  to  preserve  his  knowledge  of  the  art  of 
timber-working,  that  it  may  not  be  lost — Kin  man  tonu  tana 
maramara,  ara  kia  mau  tona  mohiotanqa,  Ida  kore  e  ngaro. 

In  making  stone  axes  and  other  implements  the  Tuhoe 
people  seem  to  have  obtained  the  stone  from  outside  sources, 
the    rocks   within   their   tribal    boundaries   being   principally  a 


Best. — Maori  Forest   Lore.  24^ 

shattered  slate,  and  in  some  parts  sandstone,  limestone,  and 
volcanic  tuff.  Stone  was  obtained  from  the  Wai-kato  district, 
and  also  from  the  Wai-paoa  River,  inland  of  Poverty  Bay.  Pieces 
of  stone  were  first  chipped  (toto)  into  something  like  the  desired 
form,  and  then  reduced,  made  smooth,  and  brought  to  an  edge 
by  means  of  rubbing  on  sandstone — a  very  lengthy  process. 
The  Maori  did  not  use  a  handstone  as  we  use  a  hone  or  whetstone 
for  sharpening  purposes  :  he  laid  the  grindstone  on  the  ground 
and  rubbed  the  implement  on  it.  Two  kinds  of  sandstone  were 
used  by  the  Tuhoe  people  as  grinders — one,  known  as  totara, 
is  a  fine-grained  stone  of  a  reddish  colour  ;  the  other,  termed 
tunaeke,  is  a  coarser-grained,  greenish-coloured  stone.  In  some 
places,  where  a  surface  of  suitable  sandstone  was  exposed,  imple- 
ments were  taken  to  it,  and  the  rubbing  done  there.  At  the 
Mimiha  Creek,  near  Matata,  is  such  a  rock,  in  which  are  many 
grooves  formed  in  days  gone  by  by  the  neolithic  Maori.  Tuhoe 
obtained  the  tunaeke  sandstone  from  a  small  stream  near  Kaka- 
nui,  at  Rua-tahuna. 

Many  of  the  stone  adzes  of  the  Maori  were  given  special 
names,  and  many  are  famous  in  song  and  legend,  such  as  Te 
Awhiorangi,  Te  Manokuha,  Te  Rakuraku-o-Tawhaki,  and  Hui- 
te-rangiora. 

Certain  charms  were  repeated  over  the  stone  toki  used  in 
felling  and  working  timber,  as  in  canoe-making,  hewing  out 
timbers  for  an  important  house,  &c.  Here  is  a  specimen  of  such 
•charms  : — 

Toki  uri,  toki  uri,  toki  araoamo 
Ake  koki  au  i  taku  toki  nei 
Kia  rahirahi  to  kiki 
Kia  rahirahi  to  kaka 
Nohea  te  toki  nei  e  manihi 
Nohea  te  toki  nei  e  manaha 
Te  manaha  nui  a  Tane 
.  Ka  whakarongo  nui  ake 

Nui  ake,  nui  marire 
Koia  ra  tutara  wiwini 
Koia  ra  tutara  wawana 
Nohea  i  toki  ai  ? 
No  runga  i  toki  ai 
Oi! 

Taku  toki  nei  he  riponga,  he  awhenga 
Homai  taku  toki 
Tu  mai  te  toki 
Haurai — e  ! 
Taiki— e  ! 

The  following  is  said  to  have  been  a  song,  of  the  nature  of  a 
charm,  which  was  sung  in  connection  with,  or  as  referring  to, 
the  Whatu  o  Poutini  (apparently  a  term  for  pounamu,  or  green- 
stone) : — 


244  Transactions. 

Kaore  ra,  e  hinc  ! 
He  putanga  ki  te  tonga 
Nou  anake  ra  te  putanga 
Ko  Whakahewa  i  te  rangi 
Nana  i  kimi  ko  Poutini,  ko  Wharaua 
Ko  te  wai  ra  i  tere  ai  te  toki 
Ka  kitea  i  reira,  o  tuhi  ana,  e  rapa  ana 
I  raro  i  to  wkatu  kura  o  Tangaroa 
Ko  whatu  uira  ra  tena 
Ko  wkatu  rarama  ra  tena 
Ka  hewa  e  Rua  tumata  kurukmu 
Tuniata  ka  rewa 

Homai,  wkakapiritia  ki  a  Hine-tua-koanga 
Hai  oro  i  te  toki 
Ho  pua  totara  kauorohia 
Ho  pua  totara  kauorohia 
Kauorohia  te  ati  tipua 
Kauoroliia  te  ati  tawhito 
Hai  whakakoi  ra,  e  hine  ! 
I  to  mata  o  te  toki 
Hai  tuatua  i  te  wao  a  Tane 
*  I  te  tuatua  i  te  wao  a  Tane 
I  te  rnaramara  o  Tukehu 
I  te  taraa  iara  na  Mumuhanga. 
Hai  ara  mo  taua 
Kia  whiti  ai  taua 
Ki  rawahi  o  te  awa 
E  hine  ! 

The  word  kauoro  is  a  form  of  oro,  "  to  grind  by  rubbing  on 
a  stone."  A  grindstone  is  koanga.  Mumuhanga  was,  as  we 
have  seen,  the  origin  of  the  totara  tree,  while  Tukehu  is  said  to 
be  a  daughter  of  hers,  and  the  emblem  or  personification  of  the 
totara. 

In  felling  trees,  should  a  tree  fall  backwards  (not  the  way 
it  was  intended  to  fell  it),  that  circumstance  was  deemed  an 
unlucky  omen.  If  the  tree  hangs  on  the  stum]) — i.e.,  the  butt 
thereof  remains  on  the  stum])  and  does  not  fall  to  earth — that  is 
also  unlucky,  and  is  termed  a  hongi. 

When  a  man  was  employed  in  felling  a  tfee  he  would  expecto- 
rate into  the  titaumu  (scarf,  kerf)  in  order  to  prevent  his  arms 
from  becoming  weary. 

He  lu/pu  i  mahue :  Remarks  omitted.  When  about  to 
engage  in  felling  and  hewing  timber  for  a  house,  canoe,  fort,  &c, 
the  haraJda  or  charm  was  repeated  over  the  stone  tools  in  order 
that  they  might  do  the  work  effectively,  and  that  no  mishap 
occur  to  such  work,  to  the  timbers,  or  workers  thereat.  There 
was  a  certain  amount  of  tapu  pertaining  to  the  destruction  or 
utilising  of  the  Children  of  Tane  (trees),  or  at  least  of  the  more 
important  species  thereof.  When  so  working,  all  chips  must 
be  left  where  the  work  is  done,  and  not  burned  or  taken  awa}-. 
To   do   either   of  these  things   was   deemed   unlucky — the  work 


Best. — Maori  Forest  Lore.  245 

would  never  be  finished  ;  some  untoward  incident  would  prevent 
its  completion  :    so  sayeth  the  Maori. 

There  are  different  methods  of  adzing  timber.  In  finishing 
off  slabs  for  a  house  a  sort  of  pattern  was  often  adzed  on,  marked 
by  the  "  bite  "  of  the  tool  as  it  took  the  timber  at  each  blow. 
These  different  modes  are  known  as  toro,  keretua,  miri,  ao 
marama,  and  ivhakahekeheke. 

In  felling  a  tree  the  Maori  proceeded  in  the  same  way  as  we 
do — that  is,  by  first  cutting  a  front  scarf  on  the  side  towards 
which  the  tree  was  supposed  to  fall,  and  then  cutting  a  back 
scarf  on  the  opposite  side.  A  scarf  was  termed  umu,  imu, 
tuaumu,  tuaimu,  and  tarawaha,  the  last  -  mentioned  being  a 
Ngati-Raukawa  word.  The  front  scarf  I  know  not  any  special 
term  for,  but  the  back  scarf  (skarf)  was  called  the  imu  whaka- 
hinga — i.e.,  the  imu  which  causes  the  tree  to  fall.  To  continue 
a  scarf  right  round  the  trunk  of  the  tree  was  looked  upon  as  the 
work  of  an  ignorant  workman,  as  it  is  with  us.  Such  a  scarf 
was  termed  an  umu  potaka  or  more  potaka.  In  felling  a  big- 
based  tree,  a  stage,  termed  whata  or  whatarangi,  was  erected, 
on  which  the  tree-fellers  stood  to  work.  In  beginning  the  work, 
the  large,  heavy  stone  axe  described  above  under  the  name 
of  poki  was  employed.  Being  fastened  on  in  line  with  the 
handle  (by  means  of  lashings  of  aka,  the  poll  of  the  axe  being 
butted  against  the  base  of  a  scarf  in  end  of  handle),  this  weapon 
was  really  used  as  a  chisel.  The  handle  was  long,  and  held  bv 
several  men,  who  grasped  this  shaft  firmly,  and  at  a  given 
signal  thrust  it  forward  with  all  their  strength,  bringing  the 
huge  stone  chisel  into  contact  with  the  wood  with  considerable 
force.  The  process  may  be  described  as  "  bashing "  rather 
than  cutting  as  do  metal  axes.  Personally  I  would  prefer  to 
use  a  Michigan  double  bit.  Having  "  bashed  "  out  a  groove 
or  channel  of  some  depth  for  a  desired  distance  round  the  trunk, 
the  process  was  repeated  higher  up  the  trunk,  the  two  grooves 
being  horizontal  and  parallel,  and  some  distance  apart,  in  order 
to  allow  room  for  carrying  the  scarf  in,  and  also  to  give  sufficient 
space  to  kindle  a  fire  therein.  Having  formed  these  two  channels, 
the  next  thing  was  to  split  out  the  block  of  timber  between  them. 
This  was  chipped  out  in  pieces  by  the  same  battering  process 
with  the  poki,  and  in  some  cases  hardwood  wedges  were  em- 
ployed. In  the  latter  case  a  perpendicular  groove  would  be 
formed  by  punching  with  a  poki,  in  which  slot  the  point  of  a 
wedge  would  be  inserted,  the  wedge  being  driven  in  by  means 
of  a  heavy  wooden  beetle  or  maul  (ta). 

Having  carried  the  scarf  in  for  some  little  distance  by  this 
process,  a  fire  was  then  kindled  in  the  scarf,  and  kept  burning 
for  some  time.     When  the  inner  part  had  at  last  become  charred 


246  Transactions. 

(and  it  takes  a  long  time,  as  I  well  do  know,  having  tried  it) 
the  fire  was  raked  out  and  the  charred  surface  of  the  wood 
chipped  with  stone  toki.  This  done,  the  fire  was  again  kindled, 
and  the  process  was  repeated,  charring  with  fire  and  chipping 
off,  for  day  after  day  until  the  front  scarf  was  considered  deep 
enough.  The  back  scarf  was  taken  out  in  a  similar  manner, 
the  work  being  continued,  of  course,  until  the  tree  fell.  Certain 
charms  repeated  were  believed  to  be  of  great  assistance  in  this 
labour. 

A  member  of  the  Ngati-Raukawa  Tribe,  Tamati  Ranapiri. 
of  O-hau,  informed  me  that  the  tarawaha  (scarf)  was  cut  out  on 
that  side  of  the  tree  facing  the  wind.  Presumably  this  would 
be  the  back  scarf,  so  that  the  work  would  be  assisted  by  the  wind. 
His  words  were,  "  Ka  tuwhera  te  tarawaha  ki  te  mata  o  te  hau." 
He  used  the  word  karo  to  describe  the  chipping-out  process. 
Ngati-Awa  use  the  term  patoto  to  indicate  the  "  bashing  "  process 
with  the  heavy  stone  axes. 

No  level  cut  could  be  made  in  the  trunk  with  an  ordinary 
adze  like  toki,  but  it  was  often  used  for  chipping  off  the  charred 
inner  surface  (konga  or  panga  ahi)  after  the  fire  was  raked  out, 
and  for  chipping  off  splinters  on  the  face  of  the  scarf. 

On  an  islet  in  the  Wai-kare-iti  Lake  stands  a  totara  tree 
which  some  old  neolith  started  in  to  fell  in  days  gone  by,  but 
only  cut  in  the  front  scarf  about  5  in.  or  6  in.  From  the  top 
to  the  bottom  of  the  scarf  is  about  30  in.  space.  The  two  grooves 
had  been  made  and  the  timber  between  split  out.  The  marks 
of  the  stone  tools  are  plainly  seen  on  the  heart-wood,  but  at  the 
edges  the  sap-wood  and  bark  have  grown  over  the  wound. 

Old  Pio,  of  Ngati-Awa,  had  his  little  say  on  this  subject : 
"  Te  putake  o  te  waka.  Ko  Tane  te  rakau,  e  tu  nei  i  te  ngalxereh <r< g. 
Ka  tirohia,  pae  rua  ranei,  pae  torn  ranei.  Ka  mea  te  iwi  Maori 
me  tua  hei  waka.  Ka  hui  te  iwi  ki  te  tua.  Te  toki,  he  toki  kohatu. 
Te  rua  o  nga  toki,  he  ahi.  Ka  ki  te  tangata — me  noho  tonu  i  te 
taha  o  te  ahi,  i  te  take  o  te  rakau,  i  tetehi  taha  o  te  rakau,  i  te  i»iu 
whakahinga.  Ka  patoto  te  toki  kchatu,  ka  ka  te  ahi  ki  te  wahi 
e  patotia  ana  e  te  toki  kohatu,  ka  hinga,  ka  tareia,  ka  oti,  ka  what 
waka."  (The  origin  of  the  canoe.  The  tree  standing  in  the 
forest  is  Tane.  It  is  examined,  and  may  be  two  pae  [fathoms] 
or  three  [in  circumference].  The  Maori  people  propose  to  fell  it 
and  make  a  canoe.  The  people  assemble  to  fell  it.  The  axe 
[used]  is  a  stone  axe.  Another  axe  [used]  is  fire.  A  person 
says,  "  Remain  by  the  side  of  the  fire  at  the  base  of  the  tree, 
on  one  side  of  it,  at  the  imu  whakahinga."  The  stone  axe  dashes 
against  the  trunk.  Fire  is  kindled  at  the  place  beaten  by  the 
stone  axe.  At  length  the  tree  falls,  it  is  shaped,  and  finished, 
[the  people  become]  canoe-possessed,  &c,  &c). 


Best. — Maori  Forest  Lore.  247 

The  following  account  of  the  rites  pertaining  to  tree-felling 
was  given  by  Tutakangahau,  of  Maunga-pohatu,  a  direct  descend- 
ant of  the  Children  of  the  Mist,  and  our  last  old  warlock  and 
man  of  knowledge  among  Tuhoe  : — 

"  These  remarks  concern  certain  works  performed  by  the 
hands  of  man.  A  person  desires  to  make  a  clearing  in  the 
forest,  or  to  fell  a  tree  for  a  canoe,  or  for  house  timbers,  or 
for  some  other  purpose.  In  the  early  morn  he  goes  to  the 
forest.  He  makes  a  certain  contrivance,  the  semblance  of  an 
axe.  He  takes  a  small  branch,  and  fastens  to  one  end  thereof 
a  leaf  (a  leaf  to  represent  blade  of  axe  is  secured  to  end  of  a 
stick).  He  then  prepares  for  his  task,  girding  himself  by  donning 
a  belt,  at  the  same  time  repeating — 

Kai  te  kiahia  (a  wishing) 
Kai  te  koronga  (a  desiring) 
Kai  a  Tane  (for  Tane). 

He  then  grasps  his  toy  axe,  and  strikes  the  trunk  of  the  tree 

that  he  desires  to  fell  with  the  leaf — although,  of  course  (as  Tu 

quaintly  puts  it),  no  chips  will  fly  with  such  an  axe.     Then  he 

recites  the  following  charm  : — 

He  ao  pukapuka 
He  ao  mahamaha 
He  toki  henahena 
He  toki  ta  wahie 
Ka  pa  ki  tua 
Ka  pa  ki  wako 
Ka  pa  ki  a  Tane. 

He  then  takes  up  the  real  axe  and  strikes  therewith  the  tree. 
When  the  first  chip  flies  off  he  ceases  to  chop,  picks  up  the  chip 
and  carries  it  away,  leaving  his  companion  to  continue  the 
chopping  at  the  tree.  The  man  goes  off  with  his  wooden  chip 
into  the  forest.  At  length  he  stops,  and  listens.  If  he  hears 
the  sound  of  the  axe  beating  on  the  tree-trunk  he  again  goes  on, 
then  stops  again  to  listen.  When  he  can  no  longer  hear  the 
sound  of  the  axe  he  halts  and  kindles  a  fire,  which  is  known 
as  the  ahi  tumuwhenua  (tumuwhenua  fire).  This  fire  is  kindled 
by  the  friction  process.  When  the  fire  burns  up  he  places  the 
chip  in  it  and  repeats  the  following  karakia  (charm,  spell,  in- 
vocation) : — 

Hika  ra  taku  ahi 

E  tumutunm  whenua 

E  aneane  whenua 

E  raro  tiimi,  e  raro  take 

E  Hawaiki 

Ka  hika  ki  te  ihi  o  Tane 

Ka  hika  ki  te  mana  o  Tane 

Noho  mai  i  tua  na 

E  tapu  ana  Tane 

E  niaota  ko  te  rangi  o  Hawaiki — e. 


248  Transactions. 

This  is  the  tumutumu-whenua  fire  (or  rite).  The  chip  is  burned, 
in  this  fire.  This  rite  and  chip  are  for  the  gods.  The  man  non- 
returns to  his  companion  ;  the  chopping  continues,  until  main- 
chips  are  collected,  when  another  fire  is  kindled  by  friction  near 
the  base  of  the  tree.  This  is  the  ahi  purakau  (purakau  fire). 
The  chips  are  burned  in  that  fire.  Food  is  cooked.  This  is  to 
take  the  tapu  off,  that  the  proceedings  may  be  freed  from  tapu. 
This  rite  is  to  (placate)  Tane.  The  other,  the  tumutumu  whenua 
was  to  the  gods.  Now  the  officiating  person  recites  a  karakia 
(incantation,  &c).     This  is  the  karakia  of  the  ahi  purakau  : — 

Hika  ra  taku  alii,  e  Tane 

Hika  ra  taku  alii,  e  Tane 

He  ahi  puraka'.i,  e  Tane 

Ka  hika  i  to  ihi  o  Tane 

Ka  hika  i  te  mana  o  Tane 

Ka  hika  i  te  niavutuna  o  Tane 

Ka  hika  i  te  maruwehi  o  Tane 

Ka  hika  i  te  pukapuki  o  Tane 

Ka  hika  i  te  mahamaha  o  Tane. 

Ka  kai  koe,  ©  Tane 

Ka  kai  hoki  au,  e  Tane 

Ka  mama  nga  pukeaga 

Ka  mama  nga  wananga 

Ka  mama  hoki  ahau 

Tenei  tauira. 

This  rite  takes  the  tapu  off  Tane  (i.e.,  off  trees,  the  offspring  of 
Tane),  to  prevent  him  punishing  the  tree-fellers — to  prevent 
the  axe  being  broken,  or  the  workmen  being  cut  by  an  axe. 
The  closing  lines  mean  that  offerings  (placatory  ?)  are  made  to 
the  pukenga  and  wananga.  When  the  food  (ritual  or  sacerdotal 
feast)  is  cooked,  then  the  taumaha  rite  is  performed.  The  offi- 
ciating priest  takes  a  small  portion  of  the  food,  and  repeats  over 
it  the  charm  termed  a  taumaha,  as  you  Europeans  say  a  prayer 
before  a  meal.  This  not  only  completes  the  lifting  of  the  tapu 
from  the  food,  the  work  and  workmen,  but  is  also  a  pou  (it 
strengthens  or  supports  the  workmen),  and  it  wards  off  evil  in- 
fluences and  sickness  from  the  workers,  and  prevents  them  from 
becoming  unduly  wearied.  It  makes  them  intelligent  and  clear- 
minded  at  their  work,  and  pertains  to  Tane.  Here  is  the  tau- 
maha : — 

Tenei  to  pou  ka  eke 

To  pou  kai  a  koe 

Ko  to  pou  o  tenei  mahi 

Tiaho  i  roto 

Wananga  i  roto 

Korero  i  roto 

Tens  be  umu 

To  umu  ka  eke 

Ko  te  umu  o  tenei  whaihanga 

Ka  ma  taku  hau  tu 

Ka  ma  taku  hau  mahi 


Best. — Maori  Forest  Lore.  249 

Ka  ma  moe  tu 

Ka  ma  moe  rere 

Ka  ma  moe  to  wkakaaralria 

Wliakaarahia  i  te  ata  kapara 

Ka  ma  tatua  man  wawe 

I  te  ata  kapara 

Ka  ma  nga  pukenga 

Ka  ma  nga  wananga 

Ka  ma  koki  matan 

Enoi  taiura. 

By  this  rite  the  priest  has  now  taken  off  the  tapu  pertaining  to> 
the  proceedings  and  the  food.  The  people  can  now  eat  of  the 
food  and  continue  their  labours." 

Such  is  old  Tu's  account  of  these  tree-felling  rites,  the  best 
description  I  have  collected.  The  taumaha  was  recited  over  the 
foods  at  all  ritual  feasts.  Another  form  may  be  seen  at  page  96, 
vol.  xxxv,  of  the  Transactions.  All  religious  rites  were  per- 
formed early  in  the  morning,  before  the  people  partook  of  food, 
or  after  sunset.  When  about  to  perform  any  rite,  the  officiating 
priest  divested  himself  of  all  his  clothing,  and  secured  a  girdle 
round  his  waist.  This  girdle  often  consisted  of  nothing  more 
than  a  few  green  branchlets  of  karamuramu  (a  Coprosma).  The 
true  meaning  of  the  above  ceremonies  and  invocations  was  to 
placate  Tane  (the  origin  and  tutelary  deity  of  forests,  trees,  and 
birds)  and  the  gods  of  the  Maori  pantheon,  that  they  might  not 
resent  the  felling  of  the  tree  or  trees,  and  hence  punish  the  fellers 
thereof  for  their  sacrilegious  act  in  slaying  the  offspring  of  Tane. 
The  first  sacred  fire  and  rite  are  for  the  gods  (atu'a),  the  second 
for  Tane. 

Another  note,  from  Pio,  of  Awa,  is  brief  and  unsatis- 
factory : — 

"  Another  remark :  Persons  go  to  the  forest  to  fell  a  tree 
for  a  canoe.  The  first  thing  done  is  to  kindle  the  ahi  purakau. 
When  it  burns  up,  a  chip,  a  piece  of  bark,  is  put  on  the  fire, 
as  also  some  mauku  (a  fern — Asplenium  bulbiferum).  The  fire 
is  kindled  at  the  base  of  the  tree.     Then  the  karakia  is  recited : — 

Ana  ra  te  ahi 

Ki  te  take  o  te  rakan 

Te  maramara  o  Tane 

Ka  pokaia  koa 

Te  riu  tapn  nui  o  Tane 

Ka  tapakia  koa 

Te  kanru  tapn  nui  o  Tane 

Wliiwkia  mai,  rawea  mai 

Rei  kura,  rei  ora 

Torohei.* 

Then  the  tree  is  felled.     There  will  be  two  scarfs  cut  in  that  tree,, 
the  imu  tua  and  the  imu  whakahinga." 

*  Evidently  incomplete. — E.  B. 


250  Transactions. 

A  reference  to  the  above  rites  may  be  found  in  "  Nga  Mote- 
atea,"  page  105.  For  the  expression  "  Tane  tumuwhenua,"  see 
Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxx,  page  52.  A  Ngati-Awa  note  in  my 
note-book  says  that  when  a  canoe  was  dubbed  out  in  the  forest, 
fronds  of  the  mauku  fern  were  fastened  thereon,  though  the 
meaning  of  the  act  is  not  explained.  In  vol.  3  (page  4)  of  White's 
"  Ancient  History  of  the  Maori  "  a  similar  custom  is  mentioned. 
This  occurs  in  the  well-known  legend  of  Rata  felling  the  forest- 
tree,  which  the  forest  elves  re-erect  on  its  stump,  because  their 
consent  to  the  felling  thereof  has  not  been  obtained.  The 
forest  folk  said  to  Rata,  "  It  is  for  us  to  consent  to  you  cutting 
the  throat  of  your  ancestor,  Tane-mahuta,  and  felling  him. 
When  you  have  felled  your  tree,  then  fetch  some  paretao  (a 
forest  fern)  and  cover  the  butt  (or  stump)  of  your  tree,  and 
then  set  to  at  hewing  the  trunk."  These  forest  elves  were  the 
Tini  o  Te  Hakuturi.  These  folk  were  wont  to  punish  persons 
who  did  not  placate  the  gods  and  spirits  of  the  forest,  as  also 
Tane,  in  that  manner.  They  chanted  a  charm  that  caused  the 
tree  to  stand  up  on  its  stump  again,  and  the  chips  to  return  to 
their  original  position. 

Hauling  Trees. 
When  engaged  in  dragging  heavy  logs  from  the  forest,  such 
.as  the  ridge-pole  of  a  large  house,  or  a*  canoe,  the  hauling-track 
was  carefully  selected  and  cleared.  Skids  were  laid  down,  over 
which  the  heavy  timber  was  hauled.  The  puahou  (or  parapara) 
furnished  these  skids,  it  being  used  because  of  the  slippery 
nature  of  the  surface  of  the  wood  when  the  bark  is  removed. 
Long  forest- creeper  stems  were  attached  to  the  timber  or  canoe, 
and  used  as  drag-ropes.  Such  hanling-work  was  never  done  with- 
out the  use  of  hauling-songs  (tau  to),  of  which  there  were  many. 
These  consisted  of  brief  lines  sung  by  a  fugleman,  and  a  chorus, 
generally  consisting  of  but  one  or  two  words,  to  each  line.  The 
chorus  was  given,  in  deep  tones,  by  the  haulers,  who  all  hauled 
at  the  drag- ropes  as  they  shouted.  People  would  collect  from 
many  hamlets  for  such  a  task,  which  was  conducted  as  a  work- 
ing-bee (tuao).  Women  accompanied  such  parties  to  carry  and 
cook  food  ;  in  fact,  it  was  a  picnic  for  the  whole  subtribe  or 
family  group. 

He  Tau  to  Waka  (A  Canoh-hattling  Song). 

('rue  italicised  words  repeated  by  haulers  as  a  ehorus  and  Bignal  for  united 

action  in  hauling.) 

Ka  piki  te  iw  i 

Ivi  kake  te  iwi 

Pikipiki,  kakekake  J 

Ki  te  rangi  nui  au  e  Bioko  ('!  a  Ue-moko) 

Pouri 

Pouri ! 


Best. — Maori  Forest  Lore. 


251 


Potango 

Potango  ! 

Hakere  ra — i,  man  ra — i 

He  tieke,  he  tieke  Tangaroa  ! 

Tu  mai  te  toki 

Haumi — e  / 

Te  kiwi,  te  maunga  e  tu  mai  nei 

E  tupa 

Hoi  eke  ! 
E  tupa 

Hoi  eke  I 

Tupato 

Hoi  eke  ! 
Homai  te  tu 

Kauaia  ! 

Homai  te  maro 

Kauaia  ! 

Kia  hurua 

Kauaia  / 

Kia  awhea 

Kauaia  ! 

Ki  te  takapu  (?  takupu) 

Kauaia  I 

Ki  te  takere 

Kauaia  ! 

No  te  hanga 

Kauaia  ! 

No  Tane 

Kauaia  / 

Titi— e 

Tata—e  ! 

Kei  te  puke  iti  kei  tatahi 

Niore,  naidre  ! 

I  pati  kau  te  wai  o  te  ure 

Turuki  / 

Turuki 

Turuki  ! 

Paneke 

Paneke  I 

Man  ai  te  tieke 

Tena  koia  I 

Tane  rauiki 

Tane  mama  ! 

Tane  hikitia 

Tane  ha-painga  ! 

Tane  toimaha  ki  te  rangi 

Tane  puha,  tane  mama  ! 

Tane  hik:tia  ki  te  uru 

E  ki  te  rangi  / 

Ka  tapu  te  waka  nei 

Tukutuku  raiva  te  waka  nei  ! 

Nga  whenua  te  waka  nei 

Ko  te  whenua  te  waka  nei  ! 

Aotearoa  te  waka  nei 

Ko  kahukura,  ko  waiho  tere  I 

Turuki,  turuki 

Paneke,  paneke  awa  I 


252  Transactions. 

Should  any  error  be  made  in  the  rendering  of  these  hauling- 
songs,  it  is  looked  upon  as  an  unlucky  omen. 

There  were  certain  rites  performed  at  the  launching  of  a  new- 
canoe,  and  at  the  opening  of  a  new  house,  at  which  religious 
ceremonies  a  human  sacrifice  sometimes  took  place. 

The  idea  of  the  indwelling  spirit  of  the  tree,  as  also  those 
of  tree  gods  or  forest  deities,  are  far  spread  o'er  the  earth.  In 
Burmah,  Siam,  and  other  eastern  lands  this  belief  appears  to 
have  been  universal  and  strong.  Presumably  the  belief  in  tree 
spirits  and  such  small  deer  would  merge  into  that  of  a  god  of 
vegetation  as  a  people  advanced  in  culture.  The  Maori  looked 
upon  Tane  as  the  origin  of  all  trees  and  plants,  but  also  believed 
in  divers  breeds  of  forest  elves,  &c,  and  held  that  the  ancestral 
gods  would  punish  persons  who  interfered  with  any  forest  pro- 
ducts, tree,  or  bird-life,  unless  he  performed  rites  of  placation 
or  propitiation.  In  fact,  a  system  of  placatory  rites  and  in- 
vocations was  the  very  essence  of  Maori  religion. 

"  Takoto  kau  ana  te  tohanau  o  Tane  "  (The  offspring  of  Tane 
lie  low)  is  a  saying  heard  when  a  tree  has  been  felled,  or  a  piece 
of  forest-ground  cleared. 

In  turning  over  a  heavy  log  the  Natives  used  wooden  hand- 
spikes and  levers,  also  a  contrivance  termed  a  poipoi.  A  hole 
was  made  in  one  end  of  the  log  (so  as  not  to  spoil  the  timber 
in  the  middle  of  the  log),  and  one  end  of  a  long  pole  inserted  in 
this  hole.  A  long  rope  was  fastened  to  the  upper  end  of  the 
pole,  and  a  number  of  men  "  tailed  on  "  to  this  line.  By  means 
of  this  crude  windlass  arrangement  a  considerable  leverage  was 
gained.  Old  Tutaka,  my  informant,  was  not  quite  sure,  how- 
ever, that  this  contrivance  was  known  to  them  in  pre-pakeha 
days.  It  may  have  been  adapted  from  our  "  Spanish  wind- 
lass." 

Splitting  Logs. 

The  tools  used  by  the  Maori  in  splitting  timber  for  house 
timbers,  &c,  were  extremely  primitive,  and  consisted  of  wooden 
wedges  and  a  wooden  club  for  a  maul.  This  maul  or  beetle 
was  termed  a  ta,  and  was  simply  a  heavy  club  of  maire  wood,  a 
very  hard  and  close-grained  timber.  The  roots  were  preferred,  as 
being  less  liable  to  split. 

"  Mehemea  ko  te  ta  o  Manunui-taraki "  (It  reminds  one  of 
the  maul  of  Manunui-taraki).  This  Manunui  was  an  ancestor 
who  used  a  remarkably  heavy  maul  with  case  ;  hence  the  above 
saying  is  often  heard  when  a  man  performs  some  noteworthy 
feat  of  strength,  as  in  lifting  weights. 

A  splitting-wedge  is  called  matakahi,  while  a  wedge  used  for 
tightening,  as  in  helvin»   a    European  axe,  was  termed  a  matia. 


Best. — Maori  Forest  Lore.  253 

The  splitting -wedges  were  of  different  sizes.  Small  entering - 
wedges  (hai  toro  i  te  ara)  were  known  as  pipi,  while  large  bursting- 
wedges  were  called  kaunuku.  An  old  Maori  saying  is  this — 
"  Ko  te  pipi  te  tuatahi,  ho  te  kaunuku  te  tuarua  "  (The  pipi  is  first 
used,  then  the  kaunuku) — which  may  be  applied  to  many  situa- 
tions. Bad-splitting  timber,  with  inlocked  grain,  is  described 
bv  the  terms  puti  and  humengemenge,  and  straight-grained  good- 
splitting  timber  as  makohe.  The  term  tahatonga  is  also  applied 
to  timber  difficult  to  split,  because  it  is  said  to  be  a  peculiarity 
of  tahatonga  trees — that  is  to  say,  of  trees  exposed  to  the  south 
winds.  Some  Natives  state  that  the  bark  of  trees  is  thickest 
on  the  north  side,  the  side  facing  the  sun. 

A  proverbial  expression  of  former  times :  "  He  kino  tangata, 
e  kore  e  taea  ;  he  kino  rakau  ka  taea  "  (Human  faults  cannot  be 
overcome,  but  timber  faults  may  be).  This  alludes  to  inferior, 
bad-splitting,  faulty  timber. 

Having  no  metal  tools,  the  working  of  timber  was  an  ex- 
cessively arduous  task  to  the  Maori,  and  much  timber  was 
wasted  in  dubbing  down  logs  or  large  balks  to  the  desired  size, 
for  slabs,  &c. 

When  a  long-continued  rain  occurs  in  spring  or  summer, 
the  expression  whakahapu  kakano  (seed-conceiver)  is  applied  to 
it.  "  It  is  raining,"  remarks  some  one.  "  Nothing  but  the 
trees  blossoming  and  producing  seeds  (or  pollen),"  says  a  per- 
son 'of  knowledge,  "  for  such  is  the  effect  of  rain  during  the 
fourth  to  the  eighth  months  (of  the  Maori  year)  :  it  causes 
male  trees  to  blossom." 

The  expression  taru  kahika  (ta  =  causative  prefix,  hence  taru 
kahika  =  whakaru  kahika)  is  applied  to  a  light  rain  in  summer- 
time, or  to  cloudy,  damp  weather  after  rain,  with  a  sea-breeze, 
or  showery  weather.  Such  is  said  to  cause  the  rata  to  blossom, 
and  to  loosen  and  distribute  the  pollen  of  the  kahika  and  other 
trees.  A  person  says,  "  It  is  raining  ;  we  will  get  wet."  "  Not 
at  aft,"  remarks  another,  "  it  is  only  a  taru  kahika." 

In  Maoriland  the  year  began  in  winter.  Its  commencement 
was  marked  by  the  appearance  of  the  Pleiades  (Matariki)  on  the 
eastern  horizon  just  before  dawn,  which  occurs  about  the  middle 
of  June.  If  the  stars  of  Matariki  are  indistinctly  seen — do  not 
stand  out  distinctly- — that  is  said  to  be  a  sign  of  a  cold,  un- 
prolific  season  to  follow.  But  if  these  stars  stand  out  dis- 
tinctly, then  a  warm,  fruitful  season  follows.  The  four  seasons 
are — takurua,  winter ;  te  koanga,  spring  (digging  or  planting 
season)  ;   raumati,  summer  ;   ngahuru,  autumn. 

The  following  expressions  are  used  to  denote  various  kinds 
of  seasons  : — 


254  Transactions. 

Tau  mahana. — A  warm  season  ;   prolific. 

Tau  horahora ;  tau  hua ;  tau  ruru ;  tau  kai. — A  prolific  sea- 
son ;   food  products  plentiful. 

Tau  matao. — A  cold,  unprolific  season. 

Tau  tuhuroa. — Slow  growth  of  crops ;  late  fruiting  of  trees,  &c^ 

Tau  tane. 

Tau  wahine. — Denotes  quick  growth,  abundant  foliage,  good 
crops. 

Tau  niho  roa. — A  season  during  which  birds  and  rats  eat  all 
kinds  of  food.     Rats  bold  at  eating  crops. 

Tau  maro. — A  backward  season  ;   poor  growth  of  crops,  &c. 

If  the  riroriro  bird  builds  its  roofed  nest  with  the  entrance 
thereto  facing  the  north,  the  prevailing  winds  of  the  coming 
season  will  be  from  the  south.  When  the  forest-trees  com- 
mence flowering,  or  the  fruit  forms,  on  the  lower  branches  first, 
and  so  proceeds  upwards,  a  tau  mahana,  or  prolific  season,  fol- 
lows ;  there  will  be  no  late  frosts.  But  if  such  blossoming, 
&c,  begins  on  the  uppermost  branches,  and  so  on  downwards, 
then  a  tau  matao  ensues. 

Inasmuch  as  our  forest-lore  notes  are  scarce  half-completed, 
we  will  here  cease  our  labours  for  a  space,  leaving  the  balance 
for  the  days  that  lie  before.     E  rau  rangi  pea  ka  kitea. 


Art.  XVI. — Additions  to  the  New  Zealand  Molluscan  Fauna. 
By  W.  H.  Webster,  B.A.,  Waiukn. 
[Re<id  before  the  Auckland  Institute.  l'2tli  December,  1907.] 
Plates  XX  and  XXI. 

Acanthochites  (Loboplax)  mariae,  n.  sp.     Plate  XX,  figs.  1—11. 

Shell  elongated,  elevated,  dorsal  angle  about  110.  Colour 
greenish-grey,  minutely  freckled  with  dark.  Latero-pleural  areas 
crowded  with  flattened  granules,  strap-shaped  or  oval,  as  in 
./.  zelandicus,  all  the  valves  being  bordered  with  irregular, 
raised,  white,  pebble-like  granules  of  the  same  type  as  those 
in  A.  violaceus,  with  which  this  species  also  agrees  in  having  5 
prominent  lobes  on  the  anterior  valve,  the  ribs  being  of  white 
raised  elongated  granules,  the  ribs  of  all  valves  similarly  marked  ; 
another  characteristic  feature  is  the  presence  of  three  almond- 
shaped  white  granules  just  within  the  posterior  edge  of  each 
median  valve.  Dorsal  areas  wedge-shaped,  the  edges  being 
serrated,    sculptured    with    cuneiform    lyrulse.       The    posterior 


Webster. — Additions  to  N.Z.  Molluscan  Fauna.      255 

valve  has  the  tegmentum  longer  than  the  breadth,  the  hooked 
mucro  being  slightly  post-median  ;  the  area  behind  it  is  con- 
cave, white,  composed  of  oblong  granules,  bordered  on  either 
side  by  others  of  longer  form,  but  the  same  colour.  Anterior 
valve  with  5  slits  corresponding  to  the  ribs  ;  median  valves 
with  1  slit ;  posterior  with  many  slits,  the  denticles  being  mostly 
bifid.  In  the  type  these  denticles  are  perpendicular,  and  not 
visible  from  above  ;  in  other  specimens  they  extend  outwards, 
and  may  be  seen  beyond  the  tegmentum  ;  in  such  specimens 
the  mucro  is  not  so  prominent,  the  white  area  narrower,  and 
composed  of  long  granules  like  those  bordering  the  oblong  gran- 
ules of  the  type,  these  latter  being  altogether  absent,  as  also 
are  the  raised  white  borders  of  the  valves.  It  may  be  that 
these  specimens  have  not  attained  their  full  development,  as 
none  of  them  approach  the  type  in  size.  Interior  blue-green, 
white  towards  the  edges.  Girdle  grey-green,  leathery,  a  minute 
pore  at  each  suture,  4  on  anterior  valve.  The  dotted  lines  on 
figs.  5  and  7  show  the  limit  of  the  white  granular  patch.  Figs.  6 
and  7  represent  the  posterior  valve  of  a  second  specimen. 

Length  of  dried  specimen,  35  mm.  ;   width,  18  mm. 

Hab. — Orua  Bay,  Manukau  Harbour  ;   on  rocks  at  low  tide. 

Type  in  my  collection. 

The  type  is  unique  ;  seven  of  the  less-developed  specimens 
were  found.  The  apparent  hybridism  is  striking,  especially 
as  I  have  never  found  A.  violaceus  on  the  west  coast,  though 
a  very  small  form  of  A.  zelandicus  is  fairly  common.  Professor 
Pilsbry  remarks  (Man.,  vol.  xv,  p.  17)  that  another  species  of 
Acanthochites  will  probably  be  found.  I  have  not  given  the 
dentition,  as  it  is  of  little  value  in  determining  the  position  of 
species  or  genera  of  the  Placophora. 

Named  after  my  wife,  who  is  an  enthusiastic  collector. 

Tornatina  oruaensis,  n.  sp.     Plate  XX,  figs.  12-15. 

Shell  cylindrical,  white,  of  3  J  whorls,  slightly  concave  in  the 
crown,  above  the  centre  of  which  projects  the  smooth  proto- 
conch,  tilted  at  an  angle  of  somewhat  less  than  90°.  Sculpture  : 
Faint  growth-lines,  prominent  posteriorly,  following  the  curve 
of  the  outer  lip,  the  surface  scored  with  fine  wavy  spiral  fur- 
rows. Suture  deep.  Type  I  :  Crown  hollow,  the  tilted  apex 
visible  above  it.  Outer  lip  longer  than  the  shell,  advancing 
in  the  centre  and  rounded  anteriorly  ;  columella  arcuate,  with 
a  thin  but  distinct  labial  pad  and  a  very  strong  fold,  which  is 
thickened  anteriorly.  Type  II  :  Apex  subscalar ;  aperture 
shorter  than  the  shell  ;  columella  with  a  much  slighter  fold 
i;han  the  last. 


256  Transactions; 

These  shells  (about  50),  obtained  by  dredging,  show  many 
variations  of  apex  between  these  types  ;  the  protoconch  is 
never  sunk  below  the  crown,  as  in  Cylichna.  In  the  Manual 
no  similar  shell  appears. 

Height,  3  mm.  ;  breadth,  1-25  mm. 

Hab. — Orua  Bay,  Manukau  Harbour  ;   in  3  fathoms. 

Types  in  my  collection. 

Trochus  carmesinus,  n.  sp.     Plate  XX,  figs.  16-18. 

Shell  broadly  conical,  with  4J  slightly  triangulate  whorls 
and  flattened  base.  Colour  pale-pink,  speckled  and  marbled 
with  bright  crimson.  Sculpture  :  The  entire  shell  finely  spirally 
striated,  about  21  on  body- whorl  and  the  same  on  base  ;  a  smooth 
band  round  periphery.  Protoconch  very  small,  of  1^  whorls. 
Suture  distinct,  not  deep.  Aperture  quadrate.  Columella  very 
sloping,  with  a  large  denticle  near  its  junction  with  the  body. 
Umbilicus  :  A  pervious  funnel,  in  which  the  spiral  is  faintly 
visible.     Animal  and  operculum  unknown. 

Height  :    Major  diameter,  8  mm.  ;    minor  diameter,  6-25  mm. 

Type  in  my  collection. 

One  beach  specimen  from  Russell  has  been  iu  my  possession 
for  some  years.  Confirmation  has  now  arrived  in  the  form  of 
two  specimens  from  Cape  Palliser,  found  in  shell  sand. 

Trochus  oppressus,  Hutton,  is  dark-green  in  its  normal 
condition,  and  has  a  band  of  sharp  radiate  wrinkles  beneath 
the  sutures,  the  plain  band  round  the  periphery  alone  being 
polished.  It  is  possible  that  this  is  the  shell  referred  to  by 
Suter  (P. M.S.,  vol.  ii,  pt.  6,  p.  261)  as  having  been  reported  by 
T.  W.  Kirk  from  Wellington. 

Thaumatodon  iredalia,  n.  sp.     Plate  XXI,  figs.  19-22. 

Whorls  4,  last  descending.  Colour  horny,  irregularly  blolehed 
with  dark-brown.  Protoconch  I]  whorls,  striated.  Sculpture  : 
Body-whorl  with  growth-lines,  spiral  striations,  and  13  strong 
ribs,  which  slope  backwards  from  the  siriure.  and  extend,  sloping 
forwards,  into  the  umbilicus,  which  is  pervious,  and  occupies 
}  of  the  major  diameter.  Aperture  advancing  slightly  above. 
The  body  has  I  simple  lamella  within  the  aperture  ;  it  is  hardly 
visible  until  the  shell  is  revolved  so  as  to  see  well  into  the  opening 

(fig-  21> 

Major  diameter,  3-25  nun.  ;    minor  diameter,  3  nun.  ;   height, 

I  ■•")  nun. 

Hab. — Two  specimens,  both  dead,  but  in  perfect  condition,. 
from  Ashley  Gorge,  Canterbury.     (Bush  since  burnt.) 

Type  to  be  presented  to  the  ( 'hristchurch  .Museum. 


Webster. — Additions  to  N.Z.  Mollmcan  Fauna.      257 

Sent  to  me  by  Mr.  T.  Iredale,  a  painstaking  and  enthusiastic 
conchologist,  who  seems  to  be  doing  good  service  in  the  difficult 
branch  comprising  our  marine  minutiae. 

I  have  much  pleasure  in  calling  this  pretty  shell  after  the 
discoverer. 

Thaumatodon  mira,  n.  sp.     Plate  XXI,  fig.  23. 

Whorls  4,  the  last  descending  more  than  that  of  Th.  tan. 
Colour  horny,  banded  with  chestnut.  Protoconch  1|-  whorls, 
finely  malleated.  Sculpture  :  Body-whorl  with  40  varicosely 
angled  sinuous  ribs,  also  growth-lines  and  fine  spiral  striations. 
Umbilicus  pervious,  occupying  ^  of  the  major  diameter.  Aper- 
ture advancing  slightly  above.  The  apex  is  more  deeply  sunk 
than  that  of  Th.  tau,  the  crown  being  quite  hollow.  The  body 
has  a  lamella  within  the  aperture,  not  easily  recognised  as  bifid 
in  the  position  in  which  the  shell  is  drawn  (fig.  23),  but  its  cha- 
racter is  clearly  seen  by  revolving  the  shell  slightly:  In  the 
illustration  the  lower  flange  is  seen  somewhat  sideways,  the 
upper  flange  appearing  edgeways  above  it ;  the  latter  is  more 
prominent  than  the  former.  A  second  short  lamella  is  seen 
on  the  outer  lip  near  the  columella.  Some  specimens  have  a 
callous  white  patch  inside  the  aperture  on  the  periphery,  thus 
almost  linking  them  with  Th.  tau,  which  usually,  however,  has 
a  third  lamella  without  a  white  patch.  The  exterior  of  the 
shell  bears  no  resemblance  to  Th.  tau. 

Major  diameter,  3  mm.  ;  minor  diameter,  2-75  mm.  ;  height, 
1-5  mm. 

Hab. — Waiuku  ;   not  common. 

Type  in  my  collection. 

In  vol.  xxxA'ii  of  these  Transactions  I  mentioned  that  speci- 
mens of  Th.  varicosa  found  in  this  neighbourhood  had  2  lamellae 
in  the  aperture  instead  of  1,  as  recorded  by  Suter  fide  Mr.  E.  A. 
Smith.  A  closer  examination  reveals  the  division  of  the  body 
lamella  into  2  flanges,  which  seems  to  remove  this  shell  from 
Th.  varicosa  :  it  is  still  further  separated  by  the  fact  that  Pfeifler 
describes  Th.  varicosa  as  moderately  umbilicated  and  Th.  tau 
as  widely  so,  while  my  new  shell  is  more  widely  umbilicated 
than  Th.  tau.  The  latter  is  one  of  our  commonest  shells,  and  is 
very  variable  in  the  number  of  ribs  ;  but  their  character  is  con- 
stant. These  shells  also  vary  in  height.  I  have  one  specimen 
almost  the  same  height  as  Charopa  egesta,  which  it  greatly  re- 
sembles in  outline. 

Kellia  bifurca,  n.  sp.     Plate  XXI,  figs.  24-29. 

Shell  somewhat  quadrate,  pale-grey ;  at  first  glance  some- 
what resembling  K.  parva  in  sculpture,  but  a  closer  examination 
9— Trans. 


258  Transactions. 

reveals  the  linear  markings,  which,  though  irregular,  have  one 
general^direction.  The  concentric  growth-lines  are  very  marked, 
dividing  the  entire  shell  into  bands,  in  each  of  which  the  sculp- 
ture varies  somewhat.  Prodisoconch  and  first  \  of  the  shell 
white,  translucent,  and  devoid  of  sculpture  ;  it  follows  that  all 
young  shells  are  likewise  colourless  when  alive  and  white  when 
dead.  Umbones  directed  forwards,  pointed,  shining.  Hinge  : 
a  large  posterior  resilium,  but  no  visible  external  ligament, 
and  no  lunule  ;  1  cardinal  tooth  in  each  valve,  sometimes  ac- 
companied by  a  small  point  under  the  umbo  in  the  right  valve 
and§a  clumsy  thickening  of  the  margin  in  the  left  valve,  as  at 
fig.  29  ;  an  anterior  and  a  posterior  lateral  in  each  valve  ;  in 
some  specimens  a  second  posterior  in  each  valve.  Pallial  line 
entire.  The  shell  is  characterized  by  two  clumsy  internal 
patches  of  varying  shape  in  different  specimens,  extending 
downwards  and  outwards  from  behind  the  hinge  ;  in  young 
shells  these  are  milky,  and  may  be  seen  through  the  shell,  remind- 
ing one  of  the  description  of  Thyasira  albigena,  Hedley  ;  in 
mature  shells  these  patches  spread  and  thicken  clumsily  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  seriously  diminish  the  capacity  of  the  shell. 

Height,  3*25  mm.  ;  breadth,  4  mm.  ;  depth  from  valve  to 
valve,  2  mm. 

Hab. — Orua  Bay,  Manukau  Harbour ;   plentiful  in  3  fathoms. 

Type  in  my  collection. 

Rissoina  coulthardi,  n.  sp.     Plate  XXT,  figs.  30-32. 

Shell  imperforate,  milk-white,  loosely  coiled,  especially  the 
last  whorl,  the  aperture  and  its  posterior  callosity  occupying 
exactly  one-half  the  entire  length  of  the  shell.  Protoconch 
minute,  shining,  colourless.  Whorls  5,  somewhat  flat,  ex- 
tremely glossy,  the  body-whorl  with  a  few  longitudinal  mark- 
ings of  pale-brown  ;  in  some  specimens  these  stripes  are  trans- 
parent. Suture  shallow.  Base  of  one  specimen  (not  the  type) 
with  4  spiral  lines.  Aperture  pear-shaped  ;  a  heavy  callous 
at  the  juncture  with  the  body,  and  a  partly  concealed  arch  in 
the  angle.  Columella  nearly  upright,  with  a  wrinkled  twist 
on  the  outside  of  the  pillar.     Animal  and  operculum  unknown. 

Height,  3  mm.  ;   width,  \\  mm. 

Hab. — Orua  Bay,  Manukau  Harbour ;  fifty  specimens  in 
3  fathoms. 

Type  in  my  collection. 

Mr.  Suter,  who  has  seen  this  shell,  says  that  it  resembles 
his  R.  parvilirata. 

Named  after  the  well-known  family  of  Coulthard,  in  Orua 
Bay,  a  member  of  which  kindly  assisted  me  in  my  dredging. 


Farquhar. — The  Bipolar  Theory.  259 

EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES  XX  AND  XXI. 

Plate  XX. 

Figs.  1-4.  Acanthochites  mariae,  n.  sp. ;  valves  1,  2,  4,  8. 

Fig.  5.                     „                         ,,  valve  8,  profile. 

Figs.  6,  7.                     ,,                         ,,  valve  8,  another  specimen. 

Figs.  9-11.                     ,,                         „  interior  of  valves  1,  4,  8. 

Figs.  12-14.  Tornatina  oruaensis,  n.  sp. 

Fig.  15.                    „                       „      another  specimen. 

Figs.  16-18.  Trochus  carmesinus,  n.  sp. 

Plate  XXI. 

Figs.  19-22.  Thaumatodon  iredalia,  n.  sp. 

Fig.  23.  ,,  mira,  n.  sp. 

Figs.  24,  25.  Kdlia  bifurca,  n.  sp.  ;  right  valve. 

Figs.  26, 27.  „  „       left  valve. 

Fig.  28.  „  ,,       sculpture. 

Fig.  29.  ,,  „        hinge  of  another  specimen. 

Figs.  30-32.  .Rissoina  covlthardi,  n.  sp. 


Art.  XVII.— The  Bipolar  Theory. 

By  H.  Farquhar. 

Communicated  by  Professor  H.  B.  Kirk. 

[Read  before  the  Wellington  Philosophical  Society,  2nd  October,  1907.] 

Since  my  paper  on  the  evidence  for  the  bipolar  theory  in  the 
littoral  marine  fauna  of  New  Zealand*  was  written  I  have 
gathered  a  few  more  scraps,  which  may  be  taken  as  supple- 
mentary. 

Mr.  F.  Chapman,  Palaeontologist  to  the  National  Museum, 
Melbourne,  who  described  the  Foraminijera  recently  dredged 
up  from  110  fathoms  off  the  Great  Barrier  Island,  says,  "An- 
other interesting  feature  of  the  present  assemblage  of  Fora- 
minijera is  the  presence  of  a  large  number  of  forms  which  have 
hitherto  been  found  in  dredgings  from  other,  widely  removed, 
areas,  generally  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere  ;  and  particularly 
from  the  colder  waters  of  the  Temperate  Zone."f 

Three  species  of  marine  Bryozoa  besides  those  given  in  my 
former  paper  appear  to  be  common  to  New  Zealand  and  the 
North  Atlantic — namely,  Cellaria  fisttdosa,  Europe  and  New 
Zealand  ;    Plumatella  princeps,  identical  with  or  closely  allied 

*  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxxix,  p.  131. 
t  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxxviii.  p.  77. 


260  Transactions. 

to  the  European  form ;    and  Mtea  recta,  Arctic  and    Europe, 
closely  related  to  M.  anguina. 

The  nudibranch  mollusc  Goniodoris  castanea  occurs  in  New- 
Zealand  and  Britain.  The  genus  Homoiodoris  has  only  two 
known  species — one  (H.  neozelanicus)  occurs  in  New  Zealand, 
and  the  other  in  Japan. 

The  enteropneust  Dolichoglossus  otagoensis,  Benham,  has  a 
grooved  proboscis,  "  which  is  only  known  in  one  other  species 
(D.  sulcatus,  Spengel)  from  Japan  ;  and  the  polynoid  Physali- 
donotus  squamosus  {Lepidonotus  giganteus,  Kirk)  represents  pecu- 
liarities, indicated  by  its  generic  name,  that  have  hitherto  only 
been  noted  in  two  Japanese  polynoids,  recently  described  by 
Moore  as  Lepidonotus  branchiferus  and  L.  chitoniformis,  but 
which  probably  should  be  included  in  Ehler's  new  genus  just 
mentioned."     (Benham.) 

A  sea-star  from  Japan  closely  allied  to  our  common  littoral 
form  Asterias  calamaria  has  been  described  by  Doederlein  under 
the  name  A.  calamaria,  var.  japonica*  The  New  Zealand 
species  occurs  also  on  the  east  coast  of  Australia  and  in 
Mauritius. 

Although  there  is  but  little  evidence  for  bipolarity  in  our 
land  fauna,  the  fresh-water  fauna  contains  many  bipolar  forms. 
Retropinna  richardsoni  is  the  southern  representative  of  the 
smelt  of  northern  Europe  and  America. 

Of  the  130  species  of  Infusoria  given  in  the  "  Index  Faunao," 
no  less  than  eighty-four  are  said  to  be  identical  with  European 
forms.  I  cannot  say  that  these  identifications  are  correct,  but 
Maskell,  who  was  a  good  observer,  and  had  a  great  deal  of  ex- 
perience in  the  determination  of  microscopic  forms  (Desmidece, 
Coccidw,  and  Aleurodidce),  told  me  shortly  before  his  death  that, 
on  account  of  doubts  expressed  by  a  European  naturalist,  he 
had  reviewed  his  identifications,  and  had  concluded  that  our 
species  could  not  be  separated  from  those  of  Europe. 

Of  the  forty-two  species  of  Rotifera  recorded  from  New  Zea- 
land, thirty-four  are  European. 

The  fresh-water  sponge  Spongilla  lacustris  occurs  in  our 
streams  and  lakes,  and  also  the  common  European  hydra  (//. 
viridis),  and  a  species  of  Cordylophora,  which,  if  not  identical, 
is  nearly  related  to  C.  lacustris. 

"  The  fresh -water  shell  Latia,  which  is  living  in  New  Zealand, 
is  fossil  in  North  America.  It  is  closely  related  to  Gundlachia, 
which  inhabits  Tasmania  and  North  America  ....  The 
fresh- water  spider  Cambridgea  is  almost  identical  with  Argy- 
roneta  of  Europe."     (Hutton.) 

*  Zool.  An/..,  xxv.  p.  :532. 


Farquhar. — The  Bipolar  Theory.  261 

A  number  of  New  Zealand  plants,  especially  those  of  the 
mountains,  have  representative  forms  in  Europe  and  America. 
The  tutu  (Coriaria)  may  be  taken  as  an  example.  "  Our  com- 
mon tutu  (Coriaria  ruscifolia)  occurs  equally  commonly  on  the 
(  hilian  Andes  ;  the  smaller-leaved  mountain  form  (C.  thymi- 
folia)  ranges  along  the  whole  chain  of  the  Andes  from  Chili  up 
to  Mexico ;  while  the  little  narrow-leaved  form  (C.  angustissima) 
appears  to  be  confined  to  the  mountains  of  the  southern  part  of 
the  colony.  Besides  these,  two  or  three  other  species  occur  in 
southern  Europe,  in  the  Himalayan  region,  and  in  Japan." 
(Thomson.) 

The  facts  regarding  the  distribution  of  our  fauna  and  flora 
which  have  been  recorded  appear  to  prove  the  close  alliance  of 
a  large  number  of  species  with  those  of  the  northern  temperate 
and  sub-Arctic  regions  ;  and,  if  some  of  the  forms  now  supposed 
to  be  identical  are  ultimately  found  to  be  distinct,  their  near 
relationship  is,  however,  undoubtedly  established. 

The  most  probable  explanation  of  the  occurrence  of  the 
same  or  closely  allied  species  of  plants  and  animals  at  widely 
separated  stations  is  that  they  occupied  continuous  areas  of 
distribution  in  remote  times,  when  the  physical  conditions  on 
the  earth — climate  and  distribution  of  land  and  water — were 
different  from  what  they  are  now. 

Very  few  of  our  higher  forms  of  animal-life  have  representa- 
tives in  the  north,  but  the  number  of  representative  and  iden- 
tical species  increases  as  we  go  down  to  the  lower  forms.  Mr. 
A.  McKay  informs  me  that  the  same  obtains  among  the  fossils. 
And,  as  regards  time,  a  number  of  our  Upper  Tertiary  fossils 
are  nearly  related  to  or  identical  with  northern  forms  ;  the 
number  increases  in  the  Lower  Tertiary,  and  goes  on  increasing 
through  the  Mesozoic  formations,  till  we  come  to  the  Palae- 
ozoic forms,  almost  all  of  which  appear  to  be  identical  or  nearly 
related  to  those  of  northern  Europe  and  America. 

We  much  need  a  Palaeontology  of  New  Zealand  ;  a  great 
quantity  of  material  has  been  collected,  and  is  waiting  in  Wel- 
lington to  be  worked  up,  but  a  New  Zealand  palaeontologist  has 
not  yet  come. 


262  Transactions. 


Art.  XVIII. — Notes  on  the  Destruction  of  Kumaras  from  the 
Friendly  Islands  {Tonga),  caused  by  an  Imported  Weevil,  with 
Descriptions  of  the  Larva,  Pupa,  and  Perfect  Insect,  &c. 

By  Major  T.  Broun,  F.R.E.S. 

[Rend  before  the  Auckland  Institute,  V2th  December,  1907.] 
Plate  XXII. 

During  the  years  1906  and  1907  I  noticed  numbers  of  imported 
kumaras  that  had  been  badly  perforated  by  weevils,  so  several 
samples  were  secured  and  kept  under  observation  in  glass  jars, 
in  order  that  the  perfect  insect  might  be  reared  and  identified. 
That  operation  was  successful. 

It  was  very  desirable  that  that  tedious  process  should  be 
accomplished,  because  considerable  quantities  of  kumaras  might 
be  illegally  condemned  by  some  experts  of  the  Agricultural  De- 
partment, who,  no  doubt,  might  imagine  that  the  kumaras  were 
infested  with  the  potato-moth  (Lita  solanella),  which  belongs  to 
an  entirely  different  order  of  insects,  and  no  more  resembles  the 
weevil  than  chalk  resembles  cheese.  Indeed,  one  of  the  local 
importers  assured  me  that  such  illegal  condemnation  had 
actually  occurred. 

Not  only  does  this  weevil  attack  kumaras,  which  is  bad 
enough  when  potatoes  are  scarce  and  dear,  but  I  have  also 
reared  it  from  island  oranges.  Here  again  the  question  of  un- 
authorised condemnation  arises,  as  the  only  prohibited  insects 
are  the  Queensland  fruit-fly  (Tephrites  tryoni)  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean species  (Halterophora  capita) ;  but  another  fly,  discovered 
and  described  by  me  (Dacus  xanthodes),  which  is  just  as  destruc- 
tive as  the.  Queensland  species,  though  found  as  far  back  as 
December,  1903,  and  afterwards  reared  in  large  numbers  from 
island  oranges,  mammsD-apples,  grenadillas,  and  more  rarely 
from  pineapples,  has  never  been  included  in  the  schedule  of  the 
Orchard  and  Garden  Pests  Act. 

The  description  of  the  fly  (Dacus  xanthodes)  appeared  on 
page  327,  vol.  xxxvii,  of  the  "  Transactions  of  the  New  Zealand 
Institute "  for  1904,  and  also,  what  is  more  remarkable,  on 
page  306  of  the  report  of  the  Agricultural  Department  for  the 
same  year. 


Beoun. — Notes  on  the  Destruction  of  Kumaras.       263 

Description  of  the  Kumara- weevil. 
Cylas  turcipennis,  Shoenherr. 

Generic  Characters. 

Body  apterous,  subcylindrical,  transversely  convex,  medially 
constricted.  Mandibles  very  short.  Kostrum  one-third  shorter 
than  thorax,  cylindrical,  moderately  slender,  subparallel. 
Scrobes  antemedian,  not  visible  above,  forming  deep  oval 
cavities  underneath  and  prolonged  backwards  as  grooves  extend- 
ing to  the  eyes.  Eyes  longitudinally  oval,  lateral,  finely  faceted, 
distant  from  the  thorax  and  each  other.  Thorax  twice  as  long 
as  broad,  deeply  constricted  behind  the  middle,  base  and  apex 
truncate,  without  ocular  lobes.  Scutellum  absent.  Elytra 
oviform  but  very  elongate;  shoulders  much  narrowed.  Legs 
long ;  femora  slender  and  stalk-like  at  the  base,  somewhat 
clavate  towards  the  extremity  ;  tibise  unarmed.  Tarsi  elongate, 
3rd  joint  deeply  bilobed,  with  dense  brush-like  soles  ;  between 
these  soles  the  atrophied  minute  4th  joint  may  be  detected  ; 
claws  simple. 

Anterior  coxse  large  and  prominent,  almost  quite  contiguous  ; 
intermediate  globose,  separated  by  the  slender  mesostemal 
process.  Metasternum  elongate.  Abdomen  elongate,  the  basal 
2  segments  of  about  equal  length,  their  suture  indistinct  in  the 
middle  ;  3rd  and  4th  short,  with  deep  sutures  ;  5th  slightly 
broader  than  long. 

Male. — Antennas  not  geniculate,  composed  of  9  joints  ;  all 
of  these  are  transverse,  except  the  large  basal  joint,  which  is 
pyriform,  but  slender  at  the  base.  Club  1-jointed  only,  cylindrical, 
nearly  twice  the  length  of  the  preceding  9  joints  combined, 
finely  asperate  and  pilose. 

Female. — Antennal  articulations  2  to  9  of  the  funiculus  are 
each  longer  than  those  of  the  male,  obconical.  Club  elongate- 
oval,  similarly  pubescent,  but  only  about  half  as  long  as  that  of 
the  other  sex. 

Obs. — Lacordaire  terms  the  basal  joint  of  the  antenna?  the 
scape,  giving  8  joints  to  the  funiculus,  but  as  the  antennae  are 
not  elbowed  I  have  described  them  as  9-articulate,  with  the 
additional  1-jointed  club. 

Specific  Description. 

Elongate,  shining  ;    elytra  blue  ;    head  and  rostrum  darker; 
thorax  red  ;    legs  infuscate  red  ;    antennas  nigrescent,  but  with 
the  club  and  the  base  of  the  1st  joint  reddish. 

Rostrum  moderately  slender,  finely  and  distantly  punctured 
rather  more  closely  near  the  apex.     Head  slightly  and  gradu- 


264  Transactions 

ally  narrowed  anteriorly,  with  very  few  minute  punctures,  the 
interoeular  space  rather  dull  and  feebly  bi-impressed.  Thorax 
convex,  nearly  twice  as  long  as  it  is  broad,  behind  the  middle 
deeply  and  widely  constricted,  its  basal  portion  evidently 
narrower  than  the  laterally  rounded  frontal  part,  its  surface 
smooth,  there  being  only  a  few  minute  punctures.  Elytra 
more  than  twice  as  long  as  they  are  wide,  rather  wider  near 
the  middle  than  the  thorax,  much  narrowed  posteriorly  ;  they 
bear  several  series  of  minute  punctures,  in  each  of  these  there 
is  a  very  small  inconspicuous  grey  seta.  Legs  finely  setose  ; 
tibia>  slightly  flexuous,  and  thickened  at  the  extremity  ;  tarsi 
pilose  above. 

Under-side  transversely  convex.  Prosternum  somewhat  in- 
curved in  front.  Metasternum  and  ventral  segments  dark-blue, 
the  coxa?  and  mesosternum  reddish,  sometimes  other  parts  are 
rufescent.  The  short  3rd  and  4th  segments  are  densely  and 
minutely  sculptured.  The  general  sculpture  and  clothing  are 
much  like  those  of  the  dorsum. 

Length,  rost.  inch,  3 J  lines  ;    breadth,  f  line. 

Description  of  the  Larva. 

Length,  3  lines  ;   breadth,  J  line. 

Cylindrical,  with  a  tendency  to  become  a  little  arched ; 
3rd,  4th,  and  5th  segments  just  perceptibly  broader  than  the 
others.  The  head,  1st  segment,  rather  small,  nearly  circular, 
with  a  fine  longitudinal  central  groove,  but  without  other  definite 
sculpture.  Mandibles  short  and  inconspicuous,  dark-brown. 
Trophi  small. 

Along  the  back  there  is  an  ill-defined  linear  impression  be- 
tween the  3rd  and  10th  segments.  The  2nd  and  13th  segments 
are  not  well  delimited,  but  between  the  others  there  are  con- 
tractions, so  that  the  side  of  each  of  these  appears  prominent 
and  rounded.  The  surface  is  minutely  shagreened  and  more  or 
less  uneven,  below  as  well  as  above,  but  not  distinctly  punctate, 
and  there  are  only  a  few  short  greyish  seta?  visible. 

No  eyes  or  legs  are  perceptible  ;  these  latter,  however,  are 
represented  underneath  on  the  sternal  segments  in  front  by 
smooth  nodosities. 

In  the  kumara  itself  the  larvae  are  nearly  white,  but  become 
of  a  pale  brownish-red  after  immersion  in  formalin  and  water. 

Description  of  the  Pu/xi. 

Length,  2\  lines. 

Colour  similar  to  that  of  the  larva.  When  viewed  from 
a  hove,  the  frontal  portion  of  the  protliorax  is  seen  to  bear  6 
minute  tubercles,  2  in  front  and  2  at  each  side  ;  from  each 
of  these  a  moderately  distinct  an<l  rather  long  seta  arises. 


Cheeseman. — Lesser  Frigate-bird  in  North  Auckland.    265 

The  lateral  prominences  near  the  front  represent  the  bent 
4  anterior  legs  and  the  antennae  ;  the  posterior  pair  of  legs 
are  apparent  below.  The  elytra  follow  ;  these  are  obviously 
grooved ;  the  grooves  converge  and  unite  by  pairs  before  reaching 
the  extremity.  The  rudimentary  wings  appear  below  the  elytra, 
and  are  situated  closer  to  the  sides  of  the  body,  but  they  are 
destitute  of  striae. 

Hind-body  with  apparently  9  segments,  the  basal  largest 
and  broadly  grooved  along  the  middle,  the  terminal  somewhat 
transparent  and  provided  with  2  flexuous  appendages,  1  at  each 
side  of  the  extremity. 

Under-side  shining.  Immature  specimens  exhibit  the  head 
and  rostrum,  but  the  former  shows  no  indication  of  eyes.  In  a 
more  advanced  stage  the  black  eyes  and  claws  of  the  tarsi,  as 
well  as  the  fuscous  mandibles,  are  quite  easily  distinguishable 
under  a  good  lens. 

All  the  preceding  descriptions  have  been  taken  from  speci- 
mens reared  by  me  at  Auckland. 

The  attached  illustrations  were  kindly  executed  by  Mr. 
D.  W.  Jones,  the  head  teaoher  of  Papakura  School. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  XXII. 

Fig.  1.    Cylasturcipennis,  male. 

Fig.  2.  „  female. 

Fig.  3.  Section  of  damaged  kurnara.     The  dark  spots  show  the  cavities 

made  by  the  larvae. 
Fig.  4.  Larva. 
Fig.  5.  Pupa. 


Art.  XIX. — Notice  of  the  Occurrence  of  the  Lesser  Frigate-bird 
(Fregata  ariel)  in  the  North  Auckland  District. 

By  T.  F.  Cheeseman,  F.L.S.,  Curator  of  the  Auckland  Museum. 

[Read  before  the  Auckland  Institute,  \'2th  December,  1907.] 
In  the  Supplement  to  the  "  Birds  of  New  Zealand,"  vol.  ii. 
p.  52,  published  in  1905,  Sir  W.  L.  Buller  states,  with  respect 
to  the  lesser  frigate-bird,  that  "  the  example  taken  on  the  Waka- 
puaka  coast  in  1861,  and  still  preserved  in  the  Nelson  Museum, 
is,  so  far  as  I  know,  the  only  instance  of  the  occurrence  of  this 
species  in  New  Zealand."  It  therefore  seems  advisable  to  put 
on  record  the  capture  of  another  specimen,  this  time  on  the 
peninsula  north  of  Auckland.  Early  in  the  month  of  April 
of  this  year  I  received  from  Mr.  G.  V.  New,  of  Pahi,  Kaipara, 
a  freshly  killed  specimen  evidently  referable  to  the  species. 
On  inquiry,  Mr.  New  informed  me  that  on  leaving  his  homestead 


266  Transactions. 

on  horseback  on  the  morning  of  the  30th  March,  with  the  inten- 
tion of  driving  some  sheep,  he  noticed  a  large  bird,  which  at 
a  distance  he  took  to  be  a  hawk,  endeavouring  to  carry  off  a 
young  turkey.  He  immediately  gave  chase  on  his  horse,  when 
the  bird  dropped  the  turkey,  and  settled  in  a  neighbouring 
gully.  Riding  into  this,  with  the  intention  of  frightening  awav 
the  bird,  Mr.  New  found  himself  almost  on  the  top  of  a  large 
bird  altogether  unknown  to  him.  It  was  very  slow  in  rising 
from  the  ground,  so  that  he  was  able  to  seize  it  by  the  tip  of  one 
of  its  wings.  After  a  struggle,  he  succeeded  in  mastering  it, 
and  took  it  home,  where  it  lived  for  a  few  days.  Mr.  New's 
homestead  is  situated  on  a  narrow  neck  of  land  between  the 
Pahi  and  Arapaoa  Eivers,  flowing  into  the  Kaipara  Harbour, 
and  is  about  half-way  between  the  east  and  west  coasts  of  the 
Island — that  is,  between  twenty-five  and  thirty  miles  from  the 
sea. 

On  examination,  the  specimen  proved  to  be  an  adult  female. 
Its  total  length  was  30-9  in.  ;  the  spread  of  the  wings  from  tip 
to  tip  was  60-8  in.  ;  the  length  of  the  wings  from  the  flexure 
to  the  tip  of  the  primaries,  20-75  in.  ;  length  of  tail,  12-5  in.  ; 
length  of  culmen,  3-7  in.  It  will  be  observed  that  these  measure- 
ments correspond  very  closely  to  the  average  of  those  given 
for  Fregata  ariel  by  Mr.  Ogilvie-Grant  in  the  "  British  Museum 
Catalogue  of  Birds "  (vol.  xxvi,  p.  449).  The  specimen  also 
agrees  with  the  description  given  of  the  plumage,  the  white 
collar  round  the  back  of  the  neck,  considered  to  be  one  of  the 
marks  of  the  species,  being  specially  prominent.  The  measure- 
ments, too,  are  considerably  less  than  those  of  Fregata  aquila, 
the  greater  frigate-bird,  the  only  other  member  of  the  genus. 

Although  two  species  of  Fregata  are  generally  accepted  by 
ornithologists,  they  differ  little  except  in  size  and  geographical 
distribution.  The  greater  frigate-bird  is  found  in  all  tropical 
seas,  and  occasionally  strays  into  temperate  regions.  Three  or 
four  instances  of  its  occurrence  in  New  Zealand  have  been  re- 
corded, and  attempts  have  been  made  to  identify  it  with  the 
"  holdoi "  of  Maori  tradition.  In  the  Northern  Hemisphere 
it  has  been  captured  as  far  north  as  the  coast  of  Nova  Scotia,. 
The  lesser  frigate-bird  has  a  more  restricted  range.  It  has  been 
found  from  Madagascar  to  the  Molucca  Islands,  and  from  thence 
southwards  to  Australia,  being  particularly  plentiful  in  Torres 
Strait. 

The  frigate-birds  are  usually  seen  singly  or  in  pairs,  seldom 
congregating  in  any  numbers  except  at  their  breeding-stations. 
They  are  truly  oceanic,  rarely  visiting  the  land,  except  during 
the  nesting  period.  Their  marvellous  powers  of  flight  have 
often  been  described,  and  need  not  be  specially  mentioned  here. 


Cheeseman. — Marine  Reptilia  in  N.Z.    Waters.       267 


Art.    XX. — Notes  on  the  Occurrence  of  certain  Marine  Reptilia 
in  New  Zealand  Waters. 

By  T.  F.  Cheeseman,  F.L.S.,  F.Z.S.,  Curator  of  the  Auckland 

Museum. 

[Read  before  the  Auckland  Institute,  12th  December,  1907.] 
In  studying  the  fauna  of  any  country  considerable  interest 
always  attaches  to  those  species  which,  though  not  regular 
inhabitants,  occasionally  visit  it,  frequently  straying  far  from 
their  proper  homes.  In  the  case  of  the  birds  of  New  Zealand, 
there  is  quite  a  long  list  of  species  which  have  been  recorded 
as  stragglers  or  wanderers,  such  as  the  Australian  shrike 
{Graucalus  melanops),  the  wattled  honey -eater  (Acanthochcera 
carunculata),  the  Australian  swallow  (Petrochelidon  nigricans), 
the  Australian  roller  {Eunjstomus  australis),  and  many  others. 
Full  particulars  respecting  the  occurrence  of  these  species  will 
be  found  in  Sir  W.  L.  Buller's  classic  volumes  on  the  "  Birds 
of  New  Zealand  "  ;  and,  in  addition,  a  considerable  number 
of  short  papers  relating  to  the  subject  are  contained  in  the 
volumes  of  the  "  Transactions  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute." 

It  is  not  so  well  known,  however,  that  certain  marine 
Reptilia  visit  the  coasts  of  the  northern  portion  of  New  Zealand, 
the  species  being  two  turtles  or  Chelonians,  and  two  water- 
snakes  of  the  family  Hydrophino?.  One  of  the  latter  occurs  so 
frequently  as  almost  to  justify  its  inclusion  as  a  regular  member 
of  the  fauna. 

As  hardly  anything  has  been  definitely  put  on  record 
respecting  the  occurrence  of  these  species,  it  appears  to  me 
that  it  is  desirable  to  mention  the  instances  that  have  come 
under  my  own  notice.  If  other  observers  will  do  the  same 
we  may  arrive  at  more  certain  conclusions  respecting  the 
frequency  of  the  visits  of  the  species,  and  the  circumstances 
attending  them. 

I.  Leathery  Turtle  (Dermochelys  coriacea). 

1.  In  vol.  xxv  of  the  "  Transactions  of  the  New  Zealand 
Institute,"  p.  108,  I  have  recorded  the  first  instance  of  the 
capture  of  this  species  (in  1892)  in  New  Zealand  waters. 
I  need  not  repeat  the  particulars  here,  beyond  saying  that 
the  specimen  was  obtained  in  the  vicinity  of  Cape  Brett  by 
Captain  Subritzky,  of  the  schooner  "  Medora,"  and  was  brought 
up  to  Auckland  for  exhibition.  Its  total  length  was  a  little 
over  6  ft. 


268  Transactions. 

2.  Two  years  later  (1894)  Captain  Subritzky  obtained  a 
second  specimen,  this  time  between  the  Bay  of  Islands  and 
Mongonui,  and  also  brought  it  to  Auckland,  where  I  had  an 
opportunity  of  examining  it  in  the  flesh.  It  was  considerably 
larger  than  the  first,  the  total  length  being  over  7  ft. 

II.  Green  Turtle  (Chelone  mydas). 

1.  Although  I  have  been  assured  that  the  well-known  green 
turtle  is  not  infrequently  seen  off  the  coast  of  the  North  Auck- 
land peninsula,  I  am  only  acquainted  with  two  undoubted 
instances  of  its  capture.  In  the  summer  of  1885  some  Maoris 
were  fishing  a  little  distance  inside  the  entrance  to  the  Manukau 
Harbour,  and,  noticing  an  object  floating  on  the  water,  pulled 
up  to  ascertain  what  it  was.  It  proved  to  be  a  young  turtle 
basking  in  the  sun,  fast  asleep.  Stealthily  approaching  it, 
one  of  them  succeeded  in  harpooning  it,  when  it  was  easily 
secured.  They  brought  their  prize  to  Auckland,  when  I 
succeeded  in  purchasing  it  from  them  for  a  few  shillings,  and 
the  specimen  is  now  in  the  Museum.  As  already  stated,  it  is 
a  young  individual,  its  total  length  being  2  ft.  9  in. 

2.  When  travelling  round  the  North  Cape  peninsula  in 
January,  1896,  I  was  shown  the  carapace  of  a  green  turtle  which 
had  come  ashore  a  few  months  previously  in  Great  Exhibition 
Bay,  to  the  south  of  Parengarenga  Harbour.  It  was  of  fair 
size,  the  carapace  alone  measuring  nearly  3  ft.  in  length. 

III.  Common  Sea-snake  {Hydras  platurus). 

1.  The  first  occurrence  of  this  species  known  to  me  dates 
from  1868  or  thereabouts,  when  a  living  specimen  came  ashore 
a  little  to  the  south  of  Port  Waikato.  It  was  discovered  by 
some  Maoris,  who  were  naturally  afraid  to  touch  it,  but  with 
some  little  trouble  managed  to  guide  it  into  a  discarded 
Wellington  boot.  They  then  took  it  to  Mr.  Dashwood,  the 
proprietor  of  the  store  at  Port  Waikato,  who  secured  the  speci- 
men, sacrificing  the  better  part  of  a  bottle  of  whisky  for  its 
preservation.  A  few  months  later  he  gave  it  to  the  late  Captain 
Hutton,  by  whom  it  was  presented  to  the  Auckland  Museum, 
where  it  still  exists.  Many  years  after  the  capture  of  the 
specimen  the  late  Mr.  Dashwood  gave  me  a  graphic  account 
of  the  consternation  which  its  arrival  created  among  the  Maoris, 
who  were  inclined  to  regard  it  as  a  juvenile  taniwha. 

2.  Another  specimen  in  the  Museum  was  stranded  at  Port 
Charles  in  1878,  and  was  presented  by  Mr.  J.  B.  Graham  ; 
I  nit  I  have  no  further  information  respecting  it. 

3.  In  1883  a  specimen  was  picked  up  on  the  beach  between 


Cheeseman. — Marine  Eeptilia  in  N.Z.   Waters.       269 

Raglan  and  Woody  Head,  and  was  forwarded  to  the  Museum 
for  identification.  It  was  in  much  too  advanced  a  stage  of 
decomposition  to  be  worth  preserving. 

4.  In  1895  a  living  specimen  was  stranded  just  inside  Cape 
Brett,  at  the  Bay  of  Islands.  It  came  into  the  possession  of 
Mr.  J.  H.  Greenway,  of  Russell,  who  presented  it  to  the  Museum. 

5.  In  the  summer  of  1898  another  specimen  came  ashore 
alive  at  Whangarei  Heads.  The  finder  gave  it  to  Mr.  C.  Cooper, 
of  Auckland,  who  kindly  forwarded  it  to  the  Museum. 

6.  In  1903  a  living  specimen  was  picked  up  at  Matata,  in 
the  Bay  of  Plenty,  and  was  promptly  forwarded  to  the  Museum 
by  Mr.  H.  L.  Burt. 

7.  In  1905  Mr.  E.  V.  Smith  presented  a  specimen  which 
was  found  stranded  on  the  west  coast,  opposite  to  Dargaville. 

8.  9.  In  addition  to  the  above,  the  British  Museum  possesses 
two  half-grown  specimens  from  New  Zealand,  apparently 
without  any  precise  locality  or  date  of  capture.  (See  "  British 
Museum  Catalogue  of  Snakes,"  vol.  3,  p.  268.) 

From  the  above  list  it  is  quite  evident  that  this  species  is 
of  comparatively  common  occurrence  on  the  coast  of  the 
northern  portion  of  the  North  Island  of  New  Zealand.  It 
would  be  interesting  to  ascertain  where  the  individuals  breed 
that  visit  New  Zealand — that  is,  if  the  species  is  not  really  a 
permanent  resident.  According  to  Semper  (quoted  in  the 
"  Cambridge  Natural  History,"  vol.  8,  p.  637),  the  gravid 
female  visits  the  shores  of  low  islands,  there  to  give  birth  to 
its  young  between  the  rocks,  and  she  remains  with  her  offspring 
for  some  time. 

IV.  Ringed  Sea-snake  (Platurus  colubrinus). 

1.  In  the  summer  of  1889  an  individual  of  this  species  came 
ashore  alive  near  the  East  Cape.  It  was  forwarded  to  the 
office  of  the  Evening  Star,  Auckland,  and  was  very  kindly 
presented  to  the  Museum  by  the  proprietor,  Mr.  H.  Brett. 

2.  The  above  is  the  only  specimen  that  has  come  under  my 
own  notice,  but  in  the  British  Museum  "  Catalogue  of  Snakes  " 
(vol.  iii,  p.  309)  there  is  a  reference  to  a  specimen  from  New 
Zealand,  presented  by  Sir  George  Grey. 


270  Transactions. 


Art.  XXI. — Contributions  to  a  Fuller  Knowledge  of  the  Floralpf 

New  Zealand  :  No.  2. 

By  T.  F.  Cheeseman,  F.L.S.,  F.Z.S.,  Curator  of  the  Auckland 

Museum. 

[Read  before  the  Auckland  Institute.  30th  October,  1907.] 

For  this  second  instalment  of  notes  under  the  above  title  (for 
the  first  see  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxxix,  p.  439)  I  am  again 
largely  indebted  to  the  kindness  of  numerous  friends  and  cor- 
respondents in  various  parts  of  the  Dominion.  I  particularly 
wish  to  acknowledge  my  obligations  to  Messrs.  D.  Petrie, 
H.  J.  Matthews,  F.  G.  Gibbs,  W.  Townson,  K.  H.  Matthews, 
H.  Carse,  Rev.  F.  H.  Spencer,  J.  H.  Harvey,  J.  H.  Macmahon, 
and  A.  Hansen. 

I  have  also  incorporated  with  the  notes  some  observations 
of  my  own  on  certain  plants  noticed  during  three  short  visits 
to  the  elevated  central  plateau  of  the  North  Island  in  the  years 
1902,  1905,  and  in  January,  1907.  During  this  last  visit  I 
was  accompanied  by  the  Rev.  F.  H.  Spencer  and  Mr.  A.  Allison, 
of  Wanganui.  We  had  hoped  to  spend  a  fortnight  or  three 
weeks  in  an  exploration  of  the  western  flanks  of  Tongariro, 
Ngauruhoe,  and  Ruapehu.  A  very  convenient  camp  was  pitched 
on  the  saddle  separating  Ngauruhoe  from  Ruapehu,  at  an  ele- 
vation of  3,800  ft.,  and  from  this  as  a  base  we  had  planned 
expeditions  in  all  directions.  But  after  three  or  four  days' 
successful  work  the  weather  broke,  and  veritable  torrents  of  rain 
fell,  with  snow  on  the  higher  levels.  All  communication  with  the 
various  parts  of  the  district  was  cut  off  by  floods  of  exceptional 
height ;  and  we  were  reluctantly  compelled  to  beat  a  retreat 
to  the  line  of  the  Central  Trunk  Railway. 

I  am  not  without  hopes  of  revisiting  the  district  under  more 
favourable  circumstances,  and  of  preparing  a  detailed  account 
of  the  vegetation,  together  with  a  full  list  of  the  species,  towards 
both  of  which  objects  I  have  made  some  considerable  prepara- 
tions.    But  for  the  present  this  must  be  deferred. 

I.    RANUNCULACEiE. 

Ranunculus  Matthewsii. 

Mr.  H.  J.  Matthews  informs  me  that  this  occurs  on  the 
mountains  above  Lake  Harris,  and  on  those  Hanking  the  left 
branch  of  the  Matukituki  River,  western  Otago. 


Cheeseman. — Flora  of  Neio  Zealand.  271 

Ranunculus  insignis. 

Moist  ravines  on  the  slopes  of  Tongariro  and  Kuapehu,  but 
not  common  ;    T.  F.  C. 

Ranunculus  nivicola. 

Tongariro,  Ngauruhoe,  and  Ruapehu ;  altitude,  3,500- 
6,000  ft.  ;  abundant,  usually  in  sheltered  hollows  or  in  localities 
where  it  is  more  or  less  shaded  by  scrub  or  rocks  ;  T.  F.  C. 

Although  plentiful,  it  does  not  form  such  a  prominent  feature 
of  the  vegetation  as  on  Mount  Egmont,  nor  does  it  attain  the 
same  size. 

Ranunculus  parviflorus,  var.  australis. 

I  have  received  specimens  of  this  collected  on  Tiritiri  Island 
by  Mr.  A.  Hansen.  So  far  as  I  am  aware,  this  is  the  only 
locality  in  which  it  has  been  found  in  New  Zealand  outside  the 
Auckland  Isthmus. 

III.  Cruciper^;. 
Cardamine. 

A  most  elaborate  and  painstaking  monograph  of  Cardamine, 
by  Dr.  0.  E.  Schulz,  is  printed  in  Engler's  "  Botanischen  Jahr- 
buchern"  for  1903  (vol.  32,  pp.  280-623).  With  respect  to 
the  New  Zealand  species,  the  author  excludes  from  the  genus 
more  than  half  those  included  in  it  by  Hooker,  as  C.  stylosa, 
C.  fastigiata,  C.  latesiliqua,  and  C.  Enysii.  In  this  he  is  pro- 
bably right ;  for,  as  I  have  pointed  out  in  the  Manual,  the 
fruit  of  these  species  does  not  at  all  agree  with  the  characters 
of  Cardamine  as  usually  accepted.  With  regard  to  those  re- 
tained in  the  genus,  he  revives  Forster's  name  of  heteropkylla 
for  the  plant  which  Hooker  referred  to  the  northern  C.  hirsuta ; 
a  species  which  Schulz  insists  does  not  occur  anywhere  in  the 
Southern  Hemisphere.  Hooker's  variety  corymbosa  of  C.  hirsuta 
he  restores  to  specific  rank  ;  the  variety  subcarnosa  he  transfers, 
as  a  variety,  to  the  South  American  C.  glacialis  ;  while  C.  de- 
pressa  of  the  Handbook  he  splits  up  into  the  two  species"  C. 
depressa  and  C.  stellata  of  the  "  Flora  Antarctica."  With  Kirk's 
C.  bilobata  he  does  not  seem  to  be  acquainted.  His  arrange- 
ment is  therefore  as  follows  : — 

1.  C.  heteropkylla,  O.  E.  Schulz. 

Var.  micrantha. 
Var.  macrantha. 
Var.  leiocarpa. 
Var.  hirtella. 
Var.  macrostylis. 

2.  C.  corymbosa,  Hook.  f. 

3.  C.  glacialis,  D.C.,  var.  subcarnosa. 


272  Transactions. 

4.  G.  depressa,  Hook.  f. 

Var.  acaulis. 

5.  C.  stellata,  Hook.  f. 

New  Zealand  botanists  will  probably  prefer  to  await  an  opinion 
from  other  European  authorities  on  the  genus  before  adopting 
or  rejecting  Schulz's  views.  From  the  point  of  view  of  geogra- 
phical distribution,  it  is  an  important  matter  to  be  sure  of  one's 
around  in  dealing  with  supposed  cosmopolitan  species  like  C. 
kirsuta.  If  the  southern  plants  referred  to  C.  hirsuta  by  Hooker 
are  really  separated  from  it  by  differences  of  specific  value,  the 
sooner  the  fact  is  recognised  the  better.  On  the  other  hand, 
an  important  fact  of  geographical  distribution  should  not  run 
any  risk  of  suppression  through  attaching  undue  weight  to 
minor  differences  of  possibly  not  more  than  varietal  rank. 

Lepidium. 

An  important  monograph  of  this  genus,  prepared  by  Dr. 
A.  Thellung,  of  Winterthur,  has  been  published  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Botanical  Museum  of  the  University  of  Zurich. 
The  author  divides  the  genus  into  five  sections,  distinguished 
mainly  by  modifications  of  the  fruit,  whether  winged  or  wingless, 
and  by  the  length  and  position  of  the  style  compared  with  the 
wing.  The  New  Zealand  species  all  fall  into  his  Section  V, 
Nasturthides,  and  are  arranged  as  follows  : — 

1.  L.  oleraceum,  Forst. 

Var.  a,  frondosum,  T.  Kirk. 

Var.  b,  acutidentatum,  T.  Kirk. 

Var.  g,  serrulatum,  n.  var.,  Thellung  :   "  Folia  ob- 

ovata,  a  medio  ad  apicem  regulariter  subtiliter 

et  acute  serrata." 

2.  L.  incisum,  Hook.  f.  {L.  flexicaule,  T.  Kirk). 

3.  L.  Banksii,  T.  Kirk. 

Var.  bT  ovatum,  T.  Kirk. 
\.  L.  obtusatum,  T.  Kirk. 
5.  L.  sisymhr hides,  Hook.  f. 

Subspecies  I.  Solandri,  Thellung. 
Var.  typicum,  Thellung. 
Var.  ovatum,  Thellung. 
Subspecies  II.  Matau,  Thellung  {L.  Matau,  Petrie). 

Var.  b,  lobulatum,  Thellung. 
Subspecies  III.  Kawarau,  Thellung  (L.  Kawarau, 
Petrie). 
Var.  b,  dubium,  T.  Kirk. 
(I.   L.  Kirhii,  Petrie. 
7.   L.  tenuicaule,  T.  Kirk. 

Var.  b,  australe,  T.  Kirk. 


Cheeseman. — Flora  of  New  Zealand.  273 

This  is  practically  the  same  arrangement  as  that  given  in 
Kirk's  "  Students'  Flora "  and  in  my  Manual,  with  the  ex- 
ception that  Petrie's  two  species  L.  Matau  and  L.  Kawarau  are 
treated  as  subspecies  of  L.  sisymbrioides.  I  feel  sure  that  no 
botanist  will  agree  with  this  view  who  is  acquainted  with  the 
three  plants  in  a  living  state,  or  who  has  studied  large  suites 
of  specimens  of  them.  Dr.  Thellung's  monograph  contains 
much  information  respecting  the  morphology  and  classification 
of  the  genus,  and  should  be  consulted  by  all  New  Zealand 
botanists. 

IV.  Violace^;. 

Hymenanthera  obovata. 

At  the  time  of  the  publication  of  the  Manual  the  flowers 
of  this  species  were  unknown.  I  am  now  indebted  to  Mr.  F.  G. 
Gibbs  for  specimens  of  both  sexes  obtained  at  the  Graham 
River,  Nelson — a  locality  where  I  collected  it  many  years  ago  ; 
and  to  Mr.  H.  J.  Matthews  for  female  flowers  from  a  cultivated 
plant. 

The  following  is  a  description  :  Flowers  axillary  or  on  the 
branches  below  the  leaves,  solitary  or  in  fascicles  of  2-4,  dioecious. 
Males  :  About  j^-g  in.  diameter  ;  pedicels  decurved,  equalling 
the  flowers  or  shorter,  bracteolate  below  the  middle.  Sepals 
ovate,  obtuse,  free  almost  to  the  base  ;  margins  minutely  fim- 
briate. Petals  free  to  the  base,  erect  for  the  lower  two-thirds, 
revolute  at  the  tips,  narrow- oblong,  obtuse.  Anthers  coherent ; 
connective  produced  above  the  anther  into  a  lanceolate  process 
as  long  as  the  anther  and  fimbriate  at  the  tip  ;  scale  at  the  back 
of  the  anther  exceeding  it,  narrow-cuneate.  Females  :  Smaller 
than  the  males  and  less  numerous,  and  on  rather  shorter  pedicels. 
Petals  shorter  and  broader  in  proportion.  Abortive  anthers 
present.     Ovary  ovoid  ;   style  short ;   stigmas  2. 

Hymenanthera  dentata,  var.  angustifolia. 

Saddle  between  Ngauruhoe  and  Ruapehu ;  a  few  specimens 
noticed  amongst  subalpine  scrub  near  Lake  Nga  Puna  a  Tama  ; 
altitude,  4,300  ft.  ;    T.  F.  C. 

The  most  northern  locality  yet  recorded. 

Hymenanthera  dentata,  var.  alpina. 

Mr.  H.  J.  Matthews  informs  me  that  this  has  a  wide  range  in 
Central  Otago,  being  found  in  dry  arid  places  in  most  parts 
of  the  district.  Flowering  specimens  forwarded  by  him  show 
that  the  flowers  may  be  either  solitary,  or  geminate,  or  arranged 
in  2-4-flowered  fascicles. 


274  Transactions. 

VII.    PORTULACACE.E. 

Claytonia  australasica. 

An  abundant  plant  on  the  shingly  slopes  of  Tongariro  and 
Ruapehu,  ascending  to  the  summit  of  the  former  mountain  ; 
altitude,  6,500  ft,  ;    T.  F.  CX_[ 

Hectorella  caespitosa. 

Dr.  A.  J.  Ewart,  of  Melbourne,  has  recently  contributed  to 
the  Journal  of  the  Linnean  Society  ("  Botany,"  vol.  38,  pp.  1-3) 
a  short  memoir  dealing  with  the  systematic  position  of  Hector- 
ella. He  considers  that  there  is  nothing  in  the  characters  of 
the  genus  to  connect  it  more  definitely  with  the  Portulacaceas 
than  with  the  subfamily  Polycarpeos  of  the  Caryophyllacece.  Its 
close  general  relationship  to  Lyallia,  of  Kerguelen's  Island,  has 
always  been  admitted  ;  but  in  Lyallia  the  pair  of  leaves  just 
below  the  perianth  are  considered  to  be  bracts,  and  in  Hectorella 
sepals.  The  latter  conclusion,  according  to  Dr.  Ewart,  is  an 
error,  both  the  unequal  point  of  origin  of  the  "  sepals  "  and  the 
starting-point  of  the  vascular  bundles  which  enter  them  being 
in  favour  of  treating  them  as  bracts.  Dr.  Ewart  comes  to  the 
conclusion  that  Hectorella  ccespitosa  and  Lyallia  Kerguelensis 
are  closely  related  plants  ;  and  that  Hectorella  should  conse- 
quently be  removed  to  the  family  Caryophyllacece,  and  placed 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  L^yallia  and  the  Andine  genus  Pycno- 
phyllum. 

XVII.    STACKHOUSIACEiE. 

Stackhousia  minima. 

Grassy  places  near  the  foot  of  the  saddle  between  Ngauruhoe 
and  Ruapehu  ;    altitude,  3,500  ft.  ;    T.  F.  C. 

XXII.  Leguminosje. 
Corallospartium  crassicaule. 

Kurow  Mountains,  Otago  ;   H.  J.  Matthews. 

Carmichaelia  flagelliformis. 

Abundant  in  the  elevated  open  country  surrounding  Tonga- 
riro and  Ruapehu,  ascending  to  4,000  ft,  ;  also  plentiful  around 
Lake  Taupo,  and  descending  the  valley  of  the  Waikato  almost 
as  far  as  Cambridge,  and  the  Thames  Valley  to  Matamata  ; 
T.  F.  C. 

XXVI.  Droserace^e. 
Drosera  stenopetala. 

Moist  places  on  the  slopes  of  Mount  Hector,  Tararua  Range  ; 
3,500-4,000  ft.  ;   D.  Petrief 


Cheeseman. — Flora  of  Neiv  Zealand.  275 

Drosera  Arcturi. 

Swampy  places  on  the  saddle  between  Ngauruhoe  and  Rua- 
pelm,  and  on  the  margin  of  Lake  Nga  Puna  a  Tama  ;  altitude, 
3,500-4,500  ft.  ;   T.  F.  C. 

Drosera  spathulata. 

With  the  preceding  species,  and  in  many  places  on  the^Wai- 
marino  Plains,  &c.  ;   altitude,  2,500-4,500  ft. ;   T.  F.  C. 

XXVII.  Haloragace^;. 

Haloragis  micrantha. 

Ascends  to  4,500  ft.  on  the  saddle  between  Ngauruhoe  and 
Ruapehu  ;    T.  F.  C. 

XXVIII.  Myrtace^e. 
Leptospermum  scoparium. 

I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  R.  J.  Gilberd  for  specimens  of  a  form 
of  this  with  remarkably  dark-red  flowers — much  darker,  in  fact, 
than  any  variety  I  have  previously  seen.  It  also  differs  from 
the  type  in  the  brownish-green  or  almost  bronze-green  colour 
of  the  leaves  and  young  branchlets.  Mr.  Gilberd  informs  me 
that  some  years  ago  he  noticed  a  single  plant  of  the  variety 
on  the  banks  of  the  Whau  Creek,  below  Henderson.  Observing 
several  young  plants  under  the  parent  tree  with  the  same 
peculiarly  tinted  foliage,  he  removed  two  or  three  into  his  garden, 
succeeding  in  establishing  them.  They  produced  flowers  of  the 
same  dark-red  colour,  and  ripened  seed  freely.  Mr.  Gilberd 
further  informed  me  that  he  has  raised  a  considerable  number 
of  plants  from  seed,  and  that  they  all  "  come  true  "  to  colour. 

Pale-red  or  pink  flowered  varieties  of  L.  scoparium  are  by 
no  means  uncommon,  especially  near  the  sea. 

Metrosideros  Colensoi. 

At  the  time  of  the  publication  of  the  Manual  the  only 
locality  recorded  for  this  species  in  the  North  Auckland  penin- 
sula was  the  Bay  of  Islands.  Mr.  H.  J.  Matthews  now  informs 
me  that  it  occurs  both  at  Ruatangata  and  Puhipuhi,  in  the 
Whangarei  district.  From  the  same  gentleman  I  learn  that 
it  is  found  in  the  Lower  Clarence  Valley,  Marlborough — pos- 
sibly its  southern  limit. 

Metrosideros  tomentosa. 

Some  unusually  fine  specimens  of  the  pohutukawa  exist 
on  Tiritiri  Island.  At  my  request  Mr.  A.  Hansen,  the  resi- 
dent lightkeeper,  has  measured  the  largest,  and  informs  me 
that  the  trunk  is  28  ft.  6  in.  in  circumference,  and  that  the 
spread  of  the  branches,  from  one  side  to  the  other,  is  118  ft. 


276  Transactions. 

Myrtus  pedunculata. 

Vicinity  of  Kaitaia,  Mongonui  County  ;    R.  H.  Matthews  ! 
The  most  northern  station  yet  recorded. 

XXIX.  Onagrace^e. 

Epilobium  glabellum,  var.  erubescens. 

Shingle-slopes  on  Tongariro,    and  at  the  lakes  Nga  Puna  a 
Tama  ;   altitude,  4,000-5,500  ft.  ;   T.  F.  C. 

XXXIII.  Umbellifer.e. 
Azorella  Hooked. 

Shaded  ravines  at  the  foot  of  Tongariro  and  Ruapehu ; 
altitude,  3,000-4,000  ft.  ;   T.  F.  C. 

Oreomyrrhis  andicola. 

Waimarino  Plains,  Rangipo  Desert,  &c,  and  slopes  of 
Tongariro  and  Ruapehu  ;   altitude,  2,500-5,000  ft.  ;   T.  F.  C. 

Ligusticum  dissectum. 

Mount  Hector,  Tararua  Range ;  altitude,  4,000  ft.  ;  D. 
Petrie  ! 

Ligusticum  diversifolium. 

I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  F.  G.  Gibbs  for  a  fruiting  specimen 
of  this  species.  It  looks  wonderfully  unlike  specimens  of  L. 
carnosulum  in  the  same  stage,  on  account  of  the  great  difference 
in  the  involucral  bracts,  which,  as  stated  in  the  original  descrip- 
tion, are  very  large  and  ternately  multifid  in  L.  carnosaltoit, 
and  small,  linear,  and  entire  in  L.  diversifolium.  The  fruit  is 
very  similar  in  both  species,  but  appears  to  be  more  spongy 
and  corky  in  L.  diversifolium. 

Ligusticum  aromaticum. 

Slopes  of  Tongariro,  Ngauruhoe,  and  Ruapehu,  abundant, 
ascending  to  the  summit  of  the  first-mentioned  mountain  ; 
altitude,  6,500  ft.  ;   T.  F.  C. 

Many  years  ago  Mr.  J.  H.  Kerry-Nicholls  gave  me  specimens 
collected  at  an  altitude  of  nearly  7,500  ft.  on  Ruapehu. 

XXXIV.  Araliace^e. 
Pseudopanax  ferox. 

Mr.  D.  L.  Poppdwell  informs  me  that  this  occurs  in  Croy- 
don Bush,  near  Gore,  Southland,  which  is  the  most  southern 
locality  yet  recorded. 


Cheeseman. — -B'loi'a  of  Neiv  Zealand.  ,\277 

XXXVII.    RUBIACE^E. 

Coprosma  cuneata. 

Often  forming  a  fair  proportion  of  the  subalpine  scrub  on 
the  slopes  of  Tongariro  and  Ruapehu  ;  altitude,  3,000-5,000  ft.  ; 
T.  F.  C. 

Coprosma  depressa. 

Waimarino  Plains,  Rangipo  Desert,  &c,  and  lower  portions 
of  Tongariro  and  Ruapehu  ;   altitude,  3,000-5,000  ft.  ;    T.  F.  C. 

Coprosma  repens. 

Slopes  of  Tongariro,  Ngauruhoe,  and  Ruapehu,  plentiful, 
especially  on  moist  banks,  &c.  Ascends  to  the  summit  of 
Tongariro,  altitude  6,500  ft.  ;  and  is  particularly  plentiful  by 
the  margin  of  the  lakes  Nga  Puna  a  Tama,  on  the  saddle  be- 
tween Ngauruhoe  and  Ruapehu  ;   T.  F.  C. 

XXXVIII.  Composite. 
Olearia  nitida. 

Subalpine  forest  on  the  Waimarino  Plains,  and  ravines  at 
the  base  of  Tongariro  and  Ruapehu  ;  altitude,  2,500-4,000  ft.  ; 
T.  F.  C. 

Olearia  alpina. 

Mr.  Petrie,  who  has  had  good  opportunities  of  studying 
this  during  his  recent  visit  to  Mount  Hector,  Tararua  Range, 
informs  me  that  it  is  nothing  more  than  a  narrow-leaved  variety 
of  O.  lacunosa. 

Olearia  oleifolia. 

Dart  Valley,  Otago  ;   H.  J.  Matthews. 

Olearia  nummularifolia. 

Slopes  of  Tongariro,  Ngauruhoe,  and  Ruapehu,  abundant ; 
altitude,  3,000-5,000  ft.  ;    T.  F.  C. 

Celmisia  hieracifolia. 

Mount  Hector,  Tararua  Range  ;  altitude,  4,000-5,000  ft.  ; 
D.  Petrie/ 

Not  previously  recorded  from  any  part  of  the  North  Island. 

Celmisia  incana. 

Slopes  of  Tongariro  and  Ruapehu,  and  low  hills  at  their 
base,  apparently  more  abundant  on  the  eastern  side  than  on 
the  western  ;  altitude,  3,200-5,000  ft.  ;  T.  F.  C.  Mount  Hau- 
hungatahi  (between  Ruapehu  and  Waimarino),  not  uncom- 
mon ;   Rev.  F.  H.  Spencer  ! 


278  Transactions. 

Celmisia  Macmahoni. 

Summit  of  Mount  Richmond,  Nelson  ;    J.  H.  Macmahon  ! 

Celmisia  glandulosa. 

Moist  places  all  round  the  base  of  Tongariro  and  Ruapehu, 
ascending  to  4,500  ft.  on  Mount  Kakaramea  ;    T.  F.  C. 

Gnaphalium  paludosum. 

Waimarino  Plains,  and  swampy  places  on  the  saddle  between 
Ngauruhoe  and  Ruapehu  ;    altitude,  2,500-4,000  ft.  ;    T.  F.  C. 

Raoulia  grandiflora. 

Slopes  of  Tongariro  and  Ruapehu,  ascending  to  the  summit 
of  the  first-named  mountain  ;   altitude,  6,500  ft.  ;    T.  F.  C. 

Raoulia  rubra. 

Mount  Hector,  Tararua  Range ;  altitude,  5,000  ft.  ;  D. 
Petrie  ! 

Raoulia  Buchanani. 

Mountains  above  Lake  Harris,  Otago  ;   H.  J.  Matthews  ! 

Helichrysum  bellidioides. 

Ascends  to  the  summit  of  Tongariro  ;  altitude,  6.500  ft.  ; 
T.  F.  C. 

Collected  by  J.  H.  Kerry -Nicholls  at  a  height  of  7,500  ft. 
on  Ruapehu. 

Helichrysum  leontopodium. 

Summit  of  Mount  Hauhungatahi  (between  Ruapehu  and 
Waimarino)  ;    altitude,  5,000  ft. ;    Rev.  F.  H.  Spencer. 

Cotula  pyrethrifolia. 

Mount  Hector,  Tararua  Range  ;   D.  Petrie  ! 

I  am  not  aware  of  a  previous  record  from  the  North  Island. 

Abrotanella  pusilla. 

Mount  Hector,  Tararua  Range  ;  altitude,  3,500-4,500  ft.  ; 
D.  Petrie/ 

This  is  an  interesting  rediscovery,  the  plant  having  been 
lost  sight  of  since  its  first  discovery  on  the  Ruahine  Range 
by  Mr.  Colenso  in  1845. 

Senecio  Bidwillii. 

Ascends  to  5,500  ft.  on  the  slopes  of  Tongariro  and  Ruapehu, 
and  to  the  summit  of  Mouut  Kakaramea;  altitude,  5,000ft.; 
T.  F.  C. 


Cheeseman. — Flora  of  Nciv  Zealand.  279 

One  of  the  chief  components,  with  DracophyUum  recurvum, 
Pimelea  buxifolia,  Dacrydium  Bidivillii,  and  Phyllocladus  alpinus, 
of  the  subalpine  scrub  on  the  above  -  mentioned  mountains  ; 
altitude,  3,500  ft.  and  upwards. 

XXXIX.  Stylidiace^e. 
Phyllachne  Colensoi. 

Ascends  to  the  summit  of  Tongariro  ;  altitude,  6,500  ft. ; 
T.  F.  C. 

Oreostylidium  subulatum. 

Not  uncommon  in  boggy  places  on  the  Waimarino  Plains  ; 
altitude,  2,500-3,500  ft. ;    T.  F.  C. 

The  most  northern  locality  yet  recorded. 

XLIIT.  Epacridace^. 
Epacris  alpina. 

Summit  of  Mount  Tauhara,  north  end   of  Lake  Taupo,  alti 
tude  4,500  ft.,  the  most  northern  locality  known   to    me  ;   also 
plentiful  all  round  the  base  of  Tongariro  and  Ruapehu,   and 
ascending  on  the  slopes  to  quite  5,000  ft.  ;    T.  F.  C. 

Archeria  racemosa. 

Base  of  Mount  Hikurangi,  East  Cape  district ;  altitude^ 
1,000  ft.  ;   G.  T.  Williams  ! 

DracophyUum  recurvum. 

Slopes  of  Tongariro,  Ngauruhoe,  and  Ruapehu,  ascending 
to  over  5,000  ft.,  and  everywhere  forming  a  large  proportion 
of  the  subalpine  scrub  ;  T.  F.  C.  Summit  of  Mount  Kakaramea  ; 
J.  Adams  and  T.  F.  C. 

This  and  Senecio  Bidwillii  are  the  two  characteristic  plants 
of  the  district,  and  in  many  localities  give  its  vegetation  a  very 
peculiar  facies. 

Dracophylhim  Urvilleanum,  var.  filifolium.  ] 

Subalpine  scrub  on  Tongariro  and  Ruapehu,  also  on  the 
open  country  surrounding  the  mountains ;  altitude,  3,000- 
5,000  ft.  ;   T.  F.  C.j 

XLV.'-  Myrsinace2e. 
Myrsine  nummularia. 

Ravines  on  the  western  base  of  Ruapehu  ;  altitude,  3,500  ft.  ; 
T.  F.  C. 


280  Transactions. 

L.  Gentianace^e. 

Liparophyllum  Gunnii. 

Water-holes  on  the  saddle  between  Ngauruhoe  and  Ruapehu. 
altitude  3,500-4.500  ft.,  associated  with  Carpha  alpina,  Scirpus 
aucJdandicus,  Carex  echinata,  Orwbolus,  Drosera  spathidata,  and 
D.  Arcturi ;  T.  F.  C.  Boggy  places  on  the  slopes  of  Mount 
Hector,  Tararua  Range  ;    D.  Petrie  I 

These  records  are  the  first  for  the  occurrence  of  the  plant 
in  the  North  Island.  It  usually  forms  flat  sheets  of  considerable 
extent,  and  when  spangled  over  with  the  star-like  white  flowers 
presents  a  by-no-means  unattractive  appearance. 

LII.  Convolvulace^;. 
Ipomaea  palmata. 

Two  or  three  large  patches  on  the  cliffs  of  Tiritiri  Island  ; 
A.  Hansen  I 

This  is  an  interesting  and  quite  unexpected  extension  of  the 
range  of  this  fine  plant,  the  southern  limit  of  which  had  been 
believed  to  be  at  Takou  Bay,  just  to  the  north  of  the  Bay  of 
Islands. 

Dichondra  repens. 

D.  evolvulacea,  Britton  in  Mem.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  v,  1894. 
should  be  quoted  as  a  synonym  of  this  species.  Dr.  Britton 
appears  to  have  proposed  the  name  on  the  assumption  that 
Sibthorpia  evolvulacea,  Linn,  f.,  Suppl.  Plant.  288  (1781)  was 
the  earliest  specific  epithet.  But,  as  has  been  pointed  out  by 
Mr.  Hiern,  this  is  not  the  case.  It  is  true  that  Forster,  who 
first  published  the  genus  in  his  "  Characteres  Generum  "  (1776). 
gives  no  specific  name  with  the  description  of  the  genus 
printed  on  page  39  ;  but  the  name  "  repens  "  is  quoted  with 
the  explanation  of  the  plate  on  page  40. 

LIV.    SCROPHULARIACE^:. 

Calceolaria  repens. 

Lake  Brunner,  Westland  ;   H.  J.  Matthews ! 

Veronica  macrocarpa,  var.  crassifolia. 

Mr.  Townson  has  kindly  forwarded  flowering  specimens  of 
this  plant.  These  look  so  different  from  all  the  forms  of  V. 
macrocarpa  that  I  can  entertain  little  doubt  as  to  its  consti- 
tuting a  separate  species.  I  postpone  describing  it,  however, 
until  I  have  time  to  make  a  full  comparison.  It  should  be 
mentioned  that  its  leaves  are  peculiar,  from  possessing  a  very 
distinct  row  of  fringed  pits,  or  "  domitia,"  on  the  under-surface 


Cheeseman. — Flora  of  New  Zealand.  281 

just  inside  the  margin.  These  pits  are  evident  even  in  dried 
specimens,  and  persist  in  plants  cultivated  under  altogether 
different  surroundings  to  those  of  the  original  habitat  of  the 
variety.  So  far  as  I  am  aware,  these  pits  are  not  at  all  common 
in  Veronica,  although  I  have  noticed  a  few  irregularly  placed 
ones  on  the  leaves  of  P.  macrocarpa  and  V.  salicifolia. 

Veronica  buxifolia. 

Waimarino  Plains,  Rangipo  Desert,  &c,  and  slopes  of 
Tongariro  and  Ruapehu,  stretching  all  round  the  mountains  ; 
altitude,  3,000-5,000  ft,  ;   T.  F.  C. 

Veronica  tetragona. 

Plentiful  all  round  the  base  of  Tongariro  and  Ruapehu, 
and  ascending  to  over  5,000  ft.  ;   T.  F.  C. 

A  form  is  frequently  seen  in  which  the  scale-like  leaves 
are  longer  and  proportionately  narrower,  and  not  so  closely 
appressed  to  the  branch.  Probably  it  is  an  intermediate  state 
between  the  juvenile  stage  and  the  fully  matured  one.  but  if 
so  it  must  persist  for  many  years. 

Veronica  propinqua. 

Rock  and  Pillar  Range,  Otago  ;   R.  H.  Matthews. 

Veronica  Petriei. 

Mountains  above  Lake  Harris,  Otago  ;  R.  H.  Matthews. 

Veronica  cataractae,  var.  diffusa. 

Ravines  at  the  base  of  Tongariro  and  Ruapehu  ;  altitude, 
2,500-4,000  ft.  ;    T.  F.  C. 

Veronica   Hookeriana. 

Shingly  or  rocky  slopes  on  Tongariro,  Ngauruhoe,  and  Rua- 
pehu ;   altitude,  4,000-6,000  ft.  ;   T.  F.  C. 

A  remarkably  handsome  plant,  nowhere  more  abundant 
than  on  the  shingle-slopes  overlooking  the  lakes  Nga  Puna  a 
Tama,  on  the  saddle  between  Ngauruhoe  and  Ruapehu.  The 
colour  of  the  flowers  has  been  usually  described  as  white,  or 
white  streaked  with  pink  ;  but  almost  all  the  specimens  seen 
by  me  had  bluish-purple  or  almost  violet-purple  flowers  of 
varying  hue,  some  lighter,  some  darker.  Only  two  or  three 
plants  were  noticed  the  flowers  of  which  could  be  called  white. 

Veronica  spathulata. 

Shingle- slopes  on  Tongariro,  Ngauruhoe,  and  Ruapehu,  not 
common,  ascending  to  the  summit  of  Tongariro ;  altitude, 
6,500  ft,;   T.F.C. 

This  is  a  true  shingle-plant,  with  long  often   tortuous   pro- 


282  Transactions. 

strate  stems,  putting  up  numerous  short  erect  flowering- branches, 
often  densely  compacted.  The  flowers  are  nearly  always  pure 
white,  but  in  one  or  two  instances  I  noticed  plants  bearing 
pale  lavender-blue  flowers. 

Euphrasia  cuneata. 

This  is  an  abundant  plant  on  the  volcanic  plateau  in  the 
centre  of  the  North  Island.  Its  most  northerly  station,  so  far 
as  I  am  aware,  is  on  Mount  Tauhara,  at  the  north  end  of  Lake 
Taupo,  from  whence  it  stretches  eastwards  to  the  Kangitaiki 
River  and  the  eastern  side  of  the  Taupo  Plains.  South  of 
Taupo  it  is  plentiful  on  the  Waimarino  Plains,  Rangipo  Desert, 
&c,  and  on  all  the  mountains — Pihanga,  Kakaramea,  Tonga - 
riro,  Ngauruhoe,  and  Ruapehu — ascending  to  considerably  over 
5,000  ft. 

Euphrasia  zealandica. 

Pukeonake    Hill,    to    the    west    of    Ngauruhoe  ;     altitude, 
4,000  ft.;    T.F.C. 

The  most  northern  station  yet  recorded. 

LV.  Lentibulariace^e. 

Utricularia  monanthos. 

Near  the  summit  of  Mount  Kakaramea,  altitude  4,800  ft.  ; 
by  the  margins  of  water-holes  on  the  saddle  between  Ngauru- 
hoe and  Ruapehu,  altitude  3,500-4,500  ft. ;  also  in  several 
localities  on  the  Waimarino  Plains,  altitude  2,500-3,500  ft.'; 
T.  F.  C. 

LX.  Plantaginace^e. 
Plantago  uniflora. 

Slopes  of  Mount  Hector,  Tararua  Range  ;    D.  Petrie ! 

Now  collected  for  the  first  time  since  its  original  discovery 
on  the  Ruahine  Range  by  Mr.  Colenso  more  than  sixty  years 
ago. 

LXVI.    PlPERACE^E. 

Piper  excelsum,  var.  major. 

Not  uncommon  on  Tiritiri  Island  ;   A.  Hansen  ! 

LXXI.    THYMEL.ffiACE.ffi. 

Pimelea  buxifolia. 

Very  abundant  on  the  slopes  of  Tongariro,  Ngauruhoe,  and 
Ruapehu  ;   altitude,  3,500-5,500  ft.  ;    T.  F.  C. 

One  of  the  characteristic  species  of  the  subalpine  scrub, 
and  one  of  th«'  commonest. 


Cheeseman. — Flora  of  Neiv  Zealand.  283 

LXXVII.    CUPULIFER^. 

Fagus  Blairii. 

Not  uncommon  in  western  Otago — Lake  Manapouri,  Lake 
Te  Anan,  Wakatipu  basin,  &c. ;  plentiful  at  a  bend  of  the 
river  between  Lake  Te  Anau  and  Lake  Manapouri,  together 
with  four  other  species  of  Fagus — F.  Menziesii,  F.  fusca,  F. 
Solandri,  and  F.  cliffortioides ;   H.  J.  Matthews  ! 

LXXIX.  Orchidace^;. 
Thelymitra  ixioides. 

Among  Leptospermum  scrub  at  Cowes,  Waiheke  Island ; 
J.  H.  Harvey  ! 

Thelymitra  intermedia. 

Vicinity    of    Kaitaia ;     R.    H.    Matthews !    Also    a    single 
specimen  gathered  near  Cowes,  "Waiheke  ;   J.  H.  Harvey  ! 

Thelymitra  decora. 

This  species  has  evidently  a  much  more  extended  range 
than  I  supposed  when  I  first  described  it.  Waimarino  Plains, 
and  south-western  base  of  Tongariro,  growing  sparingly  amongst 
T.  uniflora  and  T.  longifolia,  altitude  2,500-3,700  ft.  ;  T.  F.  C. 
Near  Taumarunui ;  T.  F.  C.  Among  Leptospermum  scrub  at 
Cowes,  Waiheke  ;   J.  H.  Harvey  ! 

Thelymitra  uniflora. 

The  most  abundant  species  on  the  Waimarino  Plains,  be- 
tween Central  Trunk  Railway  and  Ruapehu  ;  altitude,  2,000- 
3,500  ft. 

Most  plentiful  on  boggy  ground,  amongst  Schcenus  pau- 
ciflorus,  Carpha,  Oreobolus,  &c,  but  not  absent  from  the  drier 
portions  of  the  plains  as  well. 

Pterostylis  barbata. 

I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  B.  A.  M orison,  of  Wanganui,  for 
sending  me  a  sketch  of  what  is  undoubtedly  this  species,  pre- 
pared from  specimens  obtained  by  Mr.  E.  H.  Atkinson  at  Day's 
Bay,  near  Wellington.  This  is  a  marked  southern  extension 
of  the  range  of  the  species,  which  was  not  previously  known 
further  south  than  the  Upper  Thames  Valley.  Mr.  J.  H. 
Harvey  forwards  a  2-flowered  specimen  obtained  on  Waiheke 
Island. 

Lyperanthus  antarcticus. 

Moist  places  on  the  subalpine5  meadows  of  Mount^Hector, 
Tararua  Range  ;   altitude,  3,000-4,000  ft.  ;   D.  Petrie  I 

So  far  as  I  am  aware,  this  is  the  first  record  of  the  occurrence 
of  the  species  in  the  North  Island. 


284  Transactions. 

Caladenia  minor,  var.  exigua. 

Vicinity  of  Cowes,  Waiheke  Island  ;   J.  H.  Harvey  ! 

Caladenia  bifolia. 

Waimarino  Plains,  and  saddle  between  Ngauruhoe  and 
Ruapehu  ;    altitude,  2,500-4,500  ft.  ;    T.  F.  C. 

LXXXIII.  Juncace^;. 
Luzula  Colensoi. 

Ascends  to  the  summit  of  Tongariro  ;  altitude,  6,500  ft.; 
T    F   C 

LXXXVIII.    NAIADACEiE. 

Potamogeton  Cheesemanii. 

A  depauperated   state   of  this  species  is  found  in  water- 
holes  on  the  saddle  between  Ngauruhoe  and  Ruapehu,  ascend- 
ing to  a  height  of  4,250  ft.  ;    T.  F.  C. 

XCI.  Cyperace^;. 

Eleocharis  Cunninghamii. 

Abundant  by  water-holes  on  the  saddle  between  Ngauruhoe 
and  Ruapehu,  ascending  to  4,500  ft.  ;    T.  F.  C. 

Scirpus  aucklandicus. 

Boggy  places  on  the  Waimarino  Plains,  and  on  the  flanks 
of  Tongariro  and  Ruapehu  ;  altitude,  2,500-5,000  ft.  ;  T.  F.  C. 
Swamps  near  the  summit  of  Kakaramea  ;  altitude,  4,800  ft.; 
T.  F.  C. 

I  have  nowhere  seen  this  plant  more  abundant  than  it  is^in 
suitable  localities  in  the  above-mentioned  districts. 

Scirpus  americanus. 

Near  Marton  ;    W.  Townson  ! 

Schoenus  nitens,  var.  concinnus. 

Margin  of  water-holes  on  the  saddle  between^Ngauruhoe 
and  Ruapehu,  ascending  to  4,500  ft.  ;    T.  F.  C. 

Uncinia  rubra. 

Various  localities  on  the  Waimarino  Plains ;  near  Lake 
Rotoaira  ;  between  the  Rangitaiki  River  and  Tarawera,  on 
the  Taupo-Napier  Road  ;    T.  F.  C. 

XCII.  Gramine^. 
Hierochloe  Fraseri. 

Waimarino  Plains;  summit  of  Mount  Kakaramea:  slopes 
of  Tongariro  and  Ruapehu,   altitude  2,500-5,000  it.  ;    T.  F.   C. 


Cheeseman. — Flora  of  Neiv  Zealand.  285 

Subalpine    meadows    on   Mount   Hector,    Tararua    Range ;     D. 
Petrie  ! 

Agrostis  muscosa. 

Waimarino  Plains ;  Lake  Rotoaira ;  slopes  of  Tongariro 
and  Ruapehu,  altitude  2,000-4,500  ft.  ;    T.  F.  C. 

Agrostis  Dyeri. 

Flanks  of  Tongariro  and  Ruapehu,  abundant,  ascending  to 
5,500  ft,  ;    T.  F.  C. 

Trisetum  Youngii. 

Ravines  on  the  western  base  of  Ruapehu,  3,500-4,500  ft. ; 
T.  F.  C.     Mount  Hector,  Tararua  Range  ;   D.  Petrie  ! 

Amphibromus  fluitans. 

Vicinity  of  Marton  ;   W.  Townson  ! 

Triodia  australis. 

Alpine  meadows  on  Mount  Hector,  Tararua  Range  ;  alti- 
tude, 4,500  ft.  ;   D.  Petrie  ! 

Not  previously  recorded  from  any  part  of  the  North  Island. 

XCIII.    FlLICES. 

Hymenophyllum  Malingii. 

Subalpine  forest  on  the  Waimarino  Plains,  and  near  the 
western  base  of  Ruapehu,"  altitude  2,500-3,500  ft.  ;  not  un- 
common, and  attaining  a  large  size  ;   T.  F.  C. 

Gleichenia  Cunninghamii. 

Sheltered  places  among  scrub,  flanks  of  Tongariro  and 
Ruapehu,  ascending  to  over  4,000  ft.  ;    T.  F.  C. 

Polypodium  Billardieri. 

I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  R.  H.  Matthews  for  specimens  of  a 
peculiar  "  sport  "  with  the  tips  of  the  fronds  regularly  crested, 
obtained  near  Kaitaia,  north  Auckland. 

Naturalised  Plants. 
Galium  verum. 

I  have  received  specimens  of  this  species  collected  by  Mr. 
Donald  Ross  at  Mahurangi.  So  far  as  I  am  aware,  this  is  the 
first  record  of  its  appearance  in  New  Zealand. 

Hakea  saligna. 

This    species,    which    is    occasionally    planted    for    garden- 
hedges,  has  established  itself  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Waihi, 
and,  according  to  Mr.  E.  R.  Green,  is  spreading  fast. 


286  Transactions. 


Art.  XXII. — Preliminary  Note  on  some  Stages  in  the  Develop- 
ment of  a  Polychaete. 

By  H.  B.  Kirk,  M.A.,  Professor  of  Biology  in  Victoria  College, 

Wellington. 

Plate  XXIII. 

In  January,  1906,  I  obtained  at  Plimmerton  some  very  interest- 
ing egg-masses  of  a  Polychcete.  The  facilities  for  examination 
were  not  great ;  but  I  was  able  to  keep  the  developing  larvae 
under  observation  for  five  days,  although  not  without  inter- 
mission. This  year  I  failed  in  several  attempts  to  obtain  suit- 
able material  for  further  observation. 

The  masses  were  found  cast  up  by  the  tide.  In  texture  they 
are  gelatinous,  and  in  shape  they  somewhat  resemble  a  barrel 
open  at  both  ends.  The  length  of  the  masses  is  from  20  mm.  to 
25  mm.  The  shape  of  any  one  of  them  leaves  no  doubt  that  it 
was  produced  by  a  worm  provided  with  a  cingulum. 

In  the  gelatinous  matter  are  imbedded  eggs  and  larvae,  the 
latter  in  various  stages  of  development,  owing  probably  to 
fertilisation  having  been  effected  at  different  times.  Each 
ovum  has  a  thin  membranous  envelope,  and,  outside  this,  an 
envelope,  possibly  albuminous,  more  highly  refractile  than  the 
surrounding  gelatinous  matter. 

Embryos  in  the  earlier  stages  of  development  were  few. 
The  earliest  stage  of  which  I  could  be  certain  was  one  in  which 
eight  megameres  were  surrounded  by  micromeres,  apparently 
sixty-four  in  number,  but  of  that  number  I  could  not  be  quite 
sure. 

No  trochosphere  stage  was  observed  with  any  certainty. 

The  earliest  certain  indication  of  segmentation  of  the  body 
is  in  the  appearance  of  a  slight  transverse  constriction  in  its 
anterior  part,  the  body  being  now  broadly  oval  in  shape.  This 
constriction  marks  the  division  between  the  peristomium  and 
the  next  following  segment. 

The  appearance  of  the  first  pair  of  parapodia  was  not  noted. 
Stages  with  the  chaetigerous  sacs  of  three  segments  well  formed 
were  abundant,  and  in  many  of  the  specimens  none  of  the  chaetae 
had  yet  reached  the  surface.  In  this  stage  ccelomic  pouches 
are  observable  ;  but  these  correspond  with  the  segments  only 
on  the  left  side.     On  the  right  side  one  pouch  is  often  large  ; 


Kirk. — Development  of  a  Polychaete.  287 

and  sometimes  only  two  are  observable.  An  appearance  as 
of  a  dorsal  blood-vessel  with  lateral  branches  is,  in  prepared 
specimens,  very  constant  at  this  stage  ;  but  it  seems  unlikely 
that  such  a  vessel  would  yet  be  established  (fig.  2).  I  did  not 
observe  this  appearance  in  living  specimens.  Two  eyes,  reddish 
in  colour,  are  noticeable.  There  is  no  trace  of  tentacles  or  of 
anal  appendages.  A  lateral  view  of  a  prepared  specimen  at  this 
stage  shows  an  opening  behind  each  chsetigerous  sac  :  these 
openings  are  probably  nephridiopores. 

When  four  segments  follow  the  peristomium  a  pair  of  palps 
is  developed,  and  the  rudiments  of  a  pair  of  tentacles  and  of  a 
pair  of  anal  cerci  appear  (fig.  3).  There  is  no  indication  of  an 
unpaired  tentacle.  The  notopodium  and  neuropodium  of  the 
appendages  of  the  first  pair,  those  of  the  peristomium,  lose 
their  chsetse  and  develop  as  jointed  organs  with  a  few  rigid 
hairs.  These  are  to  be  the  peristomial  tentacles.  In  connec- 
tion with  the  appendages  of  each  pair  is  now  a  pair  of  flagella. 
In  the  case  of  the  peristomium  these  appear  to  represent  the 
notopodial  cirrus  ;  in  the  case  of  the  other  appendages,  the 
neuropodial  cirrus.  The  egg^membrane  has  by  this  time  dis- 
appeared, and  the  gelatinous  matter  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  larva  deliquesces.  In  this  liquid  area,  which  extends  con- 
stantly, the  larva  swims  by  means  of  its  flagella.  I  am  not 
certain  when  the  flagella  disappear  ;  but  I  could  not  detect 
them  in  any  larva  that  had  developed  eight  segments.  Two 
pairs  of  small  eyes  have  appeared  on  the  peristomium.  In  this 
stage  also,  that  in  which  four  complete  segments  follow  the 
peristomium,  stomodseum  and  proctodeum  appear  to  develop. 

A  little  later  the  jaws  are  observable,  and  still  later  they 
become  very  noticeable  and  may  be  seen  to  be  carried  forward 
with  the  pharynx,  snapping  vigorously.  The  eyes  on  the  pro- 
stomium,  the  first  pair  that  appeared,  usually  disappear  by  the 
time  six  segments  are  developed. 

Just  as  the  parts  of  the  parapodia  of  the  peristome  lose 
their  chsetse,  so  does  the  notopodium  of  the  next  segment  lose 
its  cheetee  and  develop  as  a  jointed,  tactile  organ.  I  saw  no 
change  in  the  neuropodium  of  this  segment  (figs.  5  and  6). 

I  observed  the  development  of  several  specimens  up  to 
thirteen  segments  ;  but  beyond  that  time  I  was  unable  to  keep 
them  alive. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE^XXIII. 

Fig.  1.  Egg-mass  ;  x  1|. 

Fig.  2.  Dorsal  view  of  larva  with  three   pairs  of  chsetigerous  appendages. 
Ccelomic  pouches  developing. 


288  Transactions. 

Fig.  3.  Another  larva  in  which  the  first  pair  of  appendages,  those  of  the 
peristome,  have  lost  their  chsetae,  and  are  developing  as  ten- 
tacles. Prostoniial  tentacles  and  anal  Oerci  appearing.  Flagella 
present.  Two  pairs  of  eyes  on  the  peristomal m  in  addition  to 
the  pair  on  the  prostomium.     Length.  098  mm. 

Fig.  4.  An  older  larva.     Length,  108  mm. 

Fig.  5.  Ventral  surface  of  head  of  specimen  figured  in  fig.  4,  but  drawn 
twenty-four  hours  later.  In  the  second  segment  the  noto- 
podium  it  tentacle  -  like,  while  the  neuropodium  still  bears 
chsetse. 

Fig.  6.  Dorsal  view  of  the  head  of  the  same  specimen  after  another  twenty- 
four  hours.     The  prostoniial  eyes  have  disappeared. 


Art.  XXIII. — Description  of  a  New  Species  of  Veronica  (Linn.). 

By  D.  Petrie,  M.A. 

[Read  before  the  Auckland  Institute,  28th  August,  1907.] 

Veronica  Astoni,  sp.  nov. 

V.  Veronicce  tetragonal  (Hook.)  simillima,  humilior  (2-3  dern. 
alta),  gracilior,  arctissime  ramosa. 

Rami  ultimi  gracillimi,  valde  conferti,  perobscure  aut  nequa- 
quam  tetragoni. 

Folia  arete  quadrifariam  imbricata,  paribus  oppositis  basi 
connatis,  \\  mm.  longa,  basi  seque  lata,  subtriangulata,  tumida, 
valde  obtusa  et  apice  rotundata,  dorso  baud  carinata,  superne 
late  concava  ;  juniora  margine  subciliata,  prove  ctiora  glaber- 
rima. 

Flores  pauci,  parvi,  in  apicibus  ramulorum  subsessiles,  circa 
3  mm.  lati,  floribus  V.  tetragonal  (Hook.)  simillimi,  sed  omni 
a  parte  minores. 

Fructus  adhuc  ignotus. 

Crescit  in  scopulosis  jugis  [Montis  Hector  apud  Tararua 
Montes  in  insula  boreali  Novse-Zelandife. 

Floret  in  mensibus  Januario  et  Februario. 

The  present  species  of  Veronica  is  closely  allied  to  V.  tetragona 
(Hook.),  but  differs  constantly  in  a  number  of  characters,  as 
set  forth  above.  Its  habit  of  growth  s  very  distinct,  as  it 
forms  low  dense  rounded  or  flattened  bushes,  with  branchlets 
so  closely  compacted  as  to  be  almost  touching.  The  older 
stems  are  round,  glabrous,  and  marked  by  very  numerous 
shallow  transverse  scars  formed  by  the  leaf-traces.  The  top 
_'  in.  give  off  great  numbers  of  short  branchlets,  many  of  which 
branch  again.  Nearly  all  the  slender  branchlets  fall  away  in 
ace.  so  that   the  main  branches  show  but  little  bifurcation. 


Petrie. — Account  of  a   Visit  to  Mount  Hector.        289 

I  consider  this  a  perfectly  distinct  species,  as  species  go  in 
this  protean  genns.  It  is  not  nearly  as  close  to  V.  tetragona  as 
V.  quadrifaria  (T.  Kirk)  is  to  V.  tetrasticha  (Hook.  f.). 

Specimens  were  first  sent  to  me  by  Mr.  Aston,  but  as  they 
showed  neither  flower  nor  fruit  they  could  not  be  referred  with 
certainty  to  the  genus.  In  January  of  this  year,  during  my  short 
visit  to  Mount  Hector,  specimens  were  obtained  in  flower,  and 
from  these  the  description  has  been  drawn  up. 

In  Cheeseman's  Flora  of  New  Zealand  V.  tetragona  is 
recorded  as  occurring  in  the  Tararuas,  but  he  does  not  appear 
to  have  examined  authentic  specimens  from  that  district.  It 
is  not  unlikely  that  the  present  species  has  been  confounded 
with  Hooker's  plant.  The  latter  is  abundant  on  Mount  Hiku- 
rangi,  at  an  altitude  of  4,000  ft.  and  upwards,  and  it  may  quite 
well  grow  on  the  Tararuas  also,  but  this  must  for  the  present 
remain  uncertain. 


Art.  XXIV. — Account  of  a  Visit  to  Mount  Hector,  a  High  Peak 
of  the  Tararuas,  with  List  of  Flowering -plants. 

By  D.  Petrie,  M.A. 

[Read  before  the  Auckland  Institute,  28th  August,  1907.] 

Though  the  Tararua  Mountains  lie  at  no  great  distance  from 
Wellington,  where  the  ablest  and  most  enthusiastic  botanical 
workers  of  the  last  generation  resided,  the  vegetation  of  the 
higher  parts  of  the  range  is  still  but  imperfectly  known.  What 
we  do  know  has  been  gleaned  from  fragmentary  collections  of 
plants  brought  down  by  surveyors,  and  by  climbers  allured 
to  the  tops  by  the  prospect  of  an  exhilarating  walk  and  of 
superb  and  far-reaching  views. 

To  throw  more  light  on  the  botanical  features  of  this 
interesting  region,  my  friends  Dr.  L.  Cockayne  and  Mr.  B.  C. 
Aston  lately  began  a  somewhat  systematic  exploration  that 
has  already  yielded  important  results,  and  has  made  it  possible 
to  prepare  a  pretty  full  list  of  the  alpine  and  subalpine  plants. 

The  higher  peaks  of  the  Tararuas  reach  an  elevation  of 
about  5,000  ft.  above  sea-level.  Most  of  them  lie  towards  th 
eastern  slopes  of  the  range,  and  have  been  repeatedly  ascended 
from  the  side  of  the  Wairarapa  Plain.  The  most  extensive 
area  of  high  alpine  meadow  or  grass  land  seems,  however,  to 
he  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  high  range,  in  the  region 
of  which  Mount  Hector,  5,106  ft.  in  height,  is  the  centre.  So 
far  as  I  am  aware,  no  one  interested  in  native  plants  visited 
10— Trans. 


290  Transactions. 

this  part  of  the  range  until  Mr.  A.ston  paid  it  a  flying  visit  in 
the  early  summer  of  last  year.  In  his  company  and  that  of  a 
small  party  of  friends  I  had  the  pleasure  of  visiting  the  Mount 
Hector  district  at  the  end  of  January  of  the  present  year.  The 
visit  was,  unfortunately,  too  short  and  hurried  to  allow  of  close 
or  extensive  observation,  but  a  brief  record  of  it  may  not  be 
devoid  of  interest,  and  may  haply  prove  an  aid  and  stimulus 
to  further  exploration. 

The  whole  of  the  main  Tararua  Range  appears  to  be  of 
comparatively  recent  elevation,  in  the  geological  sense  of  the 
term  "  recent."  The  river-valleys  issuing  from  its  heights  are 
deep,  narrow,  and  steep-sloped,  while  their  upper  parts  are 
gorge-like.  Alluvial  flats  bordering  the  river-bed  are  absent. 
or  very  scanty.  Such  as  exist  are  composed  of  shingle  overlaid 
by  sand  and  finer  sediment,  and  are  practically  destitute  of 
swamp.  The  very  gradual  elevation  of  the  range  is  attested 
by  the  existence  of  the  Manawatu  Grorge,  which  crosses  the 
range  at  its  northern  extremity,  and  carries  the  drainage  of  the 
eastern  slopes  of  a  large  part  of  the  Tararua  and  Ruahine 
Ranges,  as  well  as  that  of  the  lower  eastern  hilly  country,  to 
the  west  coast  of  the  Island.  Obviously  the  elevation  of  the 
mountain  axis  was  so  slow  as  to  allow  the  Manawatu  River  to 
deepen  its  valley  almost  as  rapidly  as  the  land  was  elevated. 
The  erosion  of  the  gorge  did  not,  indeed,  continuously  keep 
pace  with  the  upheaval  of  the  range,  for  at  one  stage  the  water 
coming  from  the  eastern  part  of  its  basin  was  ponded  back, 
and  formed  an  extensive  lake  in  the  district  of  which  Woodville 
is  now  the  centre.  But  its  waters  appear  never  to  have  risen 
high  enough  to  flow  eastward  by  any  of  the  depressions  lying 
on  that  side  of  the  basin.  The  main  Tararua  Range  thus  pre- 
sents a  striking  contrast  to  the  lower  ranges  that  run  southward 
from  it  as  far  as  Wellington  Harbour.  Here  the  Hutt  Valley, 
formerly  eroded  to  a  much  greater  depth  than  is  now  seen, 
has  been  rilled  up  to  a  comparatively  high  level  by  the  waste 
of  the  mountains,  owing  to  continuous  recent  depression.  The 
wide  valley-flats  of  the  Wainuioinala  and  other  streams  in  this 
region  equally  testify  to  former  deep  erosion  I  dlowed  by  a 
filling-up  of  the  valley  as  a  result  of  depression. 

The  whole  of  the  slopes  of  the  Tararua  Range  were  at  no 
distant  historical  date  completely  clothed  with  forest.  On  the 
lower  slopes  much  of  this  covering  has  been  cleared  and  the 
land  converted  into  pasture,  but  the  main  slopes  to  a  great 
width  are  still  forest-clad,  though  the  process  of  clearing  goes 
steadily  forward.  The  whole  tract  above  the  level  of  the  forest 
and  its  limiting  zone  of  subalpine  scrub  is  still  virgin  country — 
a    fine    specimen    of    primitive    montane    New    Zealand,    as    yet 


Petkie. — Account  of  a   Visit  to  Mount  Hector.        291 

wholly  undisturbed  by  man  and  the  sheep  and  cattle  that  he 
brings  in  his  train.  On  the  tops  I  saw  no  trace  of  the  presence 
of  any  animal  alien  to  primitive  Maoriland.  Traces  of  pigs 
were  observed  high  up  on  the  forest  ridge,  but  even  these  were 
scanty.  This  condition  is  likely  to  be  maintained  for  some 
years  more,  so  that  a  thorough  examination  of  the  region  can 
most  likely  be  carried  out  before  the  natural  balance  of  vegeta- 
tion, that  has  been  established  under  long-prevailing  conditions, 
is  seriously  modified.  Lying  as  the  high  range  does  almost 
at  the  doors  of  the  capital  of  the  colony,  this  task  should  not 
be  impossible  of  accomplishment. 

Mount  Hector  is  the  culminating-point  of  an  extensive 
elevated  plateau  that  forms  the  most  southerly  and  probably 
the  widest  part  of  the  Tararua  Range.  Around  it  are  to  be 
seen  some  thousands  of  acres  of  gently  sloping  ridges  of  alpine 
grass  or  meadow  land,  singularly  free  from  bog,  though  wet 
depressions  and  wide  shallow  valleys  are  not  uncommon.  It 
is  most  easily  approached  from  the  western  side,  by  way  of  the 
Otaki  Valley.  This  valley,  in  its  lower  part,  shows  that  a  quite 
recent  elevation  of  this  part  of  the  range  to  a  height  of  60  ft. 
to  80  ft.  has  taken  place,  for  the  river  now  flows  along  a  narrow 
precipitous  gorge  of  that  depth,  hollowed  cut  in  the  bottom 
of  an  older  and  much  wider  valley,  the  southern  border  of  which 
is  deeply  covered  by  fan-like  delta  deposits  of  debris  carried 
down  by  the  small  northward-flowing  tributary  streams  and 
brooks.  The  river  must  have  flowed  at  a  higher  level  for  a 
lengthened  period,  since  it  has,  by  meandering,  eaten  away 
the  high  and  steep  sides  of  the  valley  to  a  general  width  of 
nearly  half  a  mile.  At  present  the  bottom  of  the  river-gorge 
has  a  steep  slope,  and  the  whole  of  its  narrow  bed  is  occupied 
by  sand  and  shingle  banks,  to  the  complete  exclusion  of  vege- 
tation. Had  the  slope  been  as  great  during  the  erosion  of  the 
older  and  wider  valley  it  is  not  easy  to  see  how  it  could  have 
been  excavated  to  its  present  width.  The  facts  noted  show 
that  a  considerable  elevation  of  the  western  part  of  the  range 
must  have  taken  place  in  quite  recent  days. 

In  the  lower  part  of  the  Otaki  Valley,  as  far  as  our  party 
followed  it,  few  plants  of  special  interest  were  observed,  the 
vegetation  being  that  common  to  the  valleys  and  foothills 
of  this  part  of  the  Wellington  District.  On  the  rocky  banks, 
however,  were  seen  Carmichaelia  odorata,  in  full  flower  and 
deliriously  scented  ;  Carmichaelia  flagellijormis,  in  young  fruit  ; 
a  form  of  Olearia  nitida  with  narrow-oblong  leaves,  like  the 
peculiar  variety  of  that  species  occurring  at  the  Karangahake 
Gorge  (Ohinemuri  County),  differing  therefrom  chiefly  in  the 
colour  of  the  tomentum  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves,  which 


292  Transactions. 

was  that  normal  to  the  species  :  Gnaphaliion  keriense  ;  Veronica 
catarractw  ;   and  Azorella  trifoliolata. 

After  threading  the  lower  valley  or  gorge  of  the  Otaki  for 
some  eight  or  nine  miles,  our  way  lay  up  a  long,  wooded,  gently 
rising  ridge  that  led  straight  to  the  alpine  meadow.  The  forest 
on  the  lower  slopes  is  essentially  a  tawa  forest,  with  the  usual 
admixture  of  rata,  rimu,  kahikatea,  pukatea,  kohekohe,  horopito 
or  pepper-tree,  and  shade-loving  Coprosmas,  chiefly  C  grandi- 
jolia  in  the  gullies,  and  C.  lucida,  C.  robusta,  and  C.  Colensoi 
at  higher  levels.  The  supplejack  grew  abundantly  towards 
the  foot  of  the  slopes,  showing  how  wet  the  forest  land  always 
is  at  this  level.  On  the  higher  parts  of  the  ridge  beeches  became 
the  predominant  trees,  Fagus  fusca  and  Fagus  Menziesii  being 
both  abundant.  Fagus  apiculata,  though  not  observed  by  me. 
probably  also  grows  here  ;  at  any  rate,  it  is  found  in  similar 
stations  on  the  eastern  and  southern  flanks  of  the  range.  In 
the  beech  forest,  species  of  Panax  become  fairly  plentiful,  also 
Coprosma  lucida  and  Coprosma  Colensoi.  Small  bushes  of 
Griselinia  littoralis  are  not  unfrequent,  but  it  nowhere  attains 
the  dimensions  of  a  tree.  The  ground  vegetation  consisted 
largely  of  mosses  and  ferns,  with  patches  of  Astelia  nervosa 
(the  shade  form  of  the  species),  Uncinia  australis,  and  Micro- 
lo3na  avenacea.  Enargea  marginata  hung  in  considerable  abund- 
ance from  the  stems  of  trees  and  tree-ferns,  displaying  its  pretty 
white  flower-cups  and  partly  ripe  fruit,  while  the  beautiful 
star-like  blossoms  of  Libertia  pulchella  bespangled  the  carpet 
of  moss. 

I  was  greatly  interested  in  the  remarkable  leaf-variation 
shown  by  Drimys  axillaris  at  increasing  elevations  on  this  ridge. 
At  the  lower  levels  the  leaves  had  the  typical  somewhat  obtuse 
tip  and  subcuneate  outline,  and  the  typical  dark  glossy  green 
tint  on  the  upper  surface,  with  the  usual  pale  glaucous  green 
or  greyish  tint  on  the  under  surface.  At  increasing  heights 
the  leaves  became  progressively  longer,  narrower,  and  more 
acute,  while  the  colour  of  the  upper  surface  grew  more  and  more 
decidedly  red,  'and  that  of  the  under  surface  grew  more  and 
more  decidedly  a  creamy  yellow.  At  the  highest  levels  at  which 
it  was  observed  the  foliage  had  assumed  a  form  barely  dis- 
tinguishable as  regards  the  coloration  of  both  leaf  -  surfaces 
from  the  species  known  as  Drimys  colon/la,  so  common  on  the 
edges  of  bush  land  in  the  lower  parts  of  Otago  and  Southland. 
differing  only  in  the  longer,  narrower,  and  more  pointed  leaves 
and  the  flat,  even  margins.  Before  seeing  the  series  of  forms 
growing  on  this  ridge  I  was  a  firm  believer  in  the  specific  dis- 
tinctness of  Drimys  colorata,  but  the  instructive  series  of  leaf- 
variations  here  observed  has  considerably  shaken  my  confidence 


Petrie. — Account  of  a   Visit  to  Mount  Hector.        293 

in  this  opinion.  To  any  botanist  who  has  leisure,  a  study  of 
the  materials  to  be  readily  met  with  on  this  ridge  will  certainly 
yield  important  data  for  settling  the  relations  in  rank  of  D. 
axillaris  and  D.  colorata.  It  is  probable  that  the  leaf-variations 
under  notice  are  mainly  due  to  the  stronger  insolation  experi- 
enced at  the  higher  levels,  where  the  competing  vegetation  is 
lower  and  much  less  crowded. 

As  noted  above,  Coprosma  Colensoi  here  forms  quite  an  im- 
portant element  in  the  shrubby  forest  undergrowth.  It  varies 
but  little  with  elevation,  all  the  plants  showing  rather  large 
petiolate  leaves  of  uniform  size,  shape,  and  texture,  except  at 
and  near  the  tips  of  the  higher  branchlets,  where  they  become 
narrower  and  more  obtuse.  The  leaves  are  in  general  f  in. 
to  1  in.  long,  and  ^  in.  to  |  in.  wide,  and  are  very  similar  to  those 
of  C.  fcetidissima,  also  fairly  abundant  here.  Nowhere  in  this 
neighbourhood  did  I  see  any  plant  approaching  the  narrow 
obtuse-leaved  forms  of  the  species  that  abound  in  the  higher 
wooded  parts  of  the  Hutt  Valley  and  elsewhere  in  the  eastern 
wooded  uplands  of  the  North  Island.  At  the  time  of  my  visit 
the  plants  were  all  past  flower  ;  a  few  in  opener  situations  had 
ripe  drupes,  oblong  in  outline,  nearly  as  thick  as  a  pea,  and  of 
a  deep-red  colour  ;  but  in  general  the  drupes  were  only  half- 
grown.  The  pyrenes  were  large  for  the  size  of  the  drupes. 
Further  inquiry  must  settle  whether  the  narrow-leaved  form 
which  I  have  distinguished  as  C.  Banksii  is  really  conspecific 
with  the  plant  under  notice. 

The  shade  form  of  Astelia  nervosa  is  plentiful  on  the 
higher  parts  of  the  ridge,  while  the  mountain  form  abounds 
in  wonderful  profusion  for  600  ft.  or  800  ft.  above  the  al- 
pine scrub.  The  shade  form  had  long,  rather  thm,  glabrous 
leaves,  and  grew  in  small  compact  tufts.  The  pistillate 
plants  bore  abundance  of  half-ripe  fruit.  As  the  top  of 
the  ridge  became  more  exposed,  the  leaves  became  shorter, 
more  coriaceous,  more  or  less  silky,  and  more  strongly  tufted, 
while  on  the  higher  open  slopes  the  plants  grew  in  wide 
low  tufts  or  tussocks,  with  foliage  of  a  greyish-white  or  greyish- 
yellow  hue,  so  abundant  was  the-  coating  of  silky  hairs.  Though 
thousands  of  plants  were  seen  on  the  open  uplands,  and  they 
were  so  abundant  and  slippery  that  walking  over  them  was 
slow  and  fatiguing  work,  I  did  not  see  a  single  plant  in  flower 
or  fruit.  This  is  a  very  singular  fact,  and  is  probably  due  to 
flies  being  practically  absent  from  this  habitat  during  the  flower- 
ing season,  owing  to  the  boisterous  winds  that  almost  constantly 
prevail  here  at  that  time.  If  the  pollen  were  carried  by  the 
wind  from  the  staminate  to  the  pistillate  flowers,  a  fair  number 
of  plants  would  surely  have  set  fruit.     Vegetative  multiplication 


294  Transactions. 

is  very  vigorous,  and  this  no  doubt  compensates  for  the  ap- 
parent rarity  of  regular  propagation  by  seed.  In  sharp  con- 
trast with  this  was  the  abundance  of  seed  that  had  set  in  Astelia 
linearis,  which  is  plentiful  in  all  boggy  stations  on  the  open 
uplands.  Nowhere,  I  imagine,  could  we  see  a  finer  series  of  the 
various  forms  which  this  variable  species  may  assume  under 
different  conditions  of  shade  and  water-supply  than  this  locality 
furnishes.  The  gradations  observed  leave  no  shadow  of  doubt 
in  my  mind  that  Astelia  grandis  of  Hooker  f.  is  simply  a  shade- 
and  moisture-loving  form  of  the  smaller  silky-leaved  mountain 
plant  that  has  for  long  been  taken  to  represent  the  type  of  Banks 
and  Solander's  species.  Mr.  Cheeseman,  who  has  for  the  pre- 
sent united  the  two  species,  expresses  the  opinion  that  further 
research  may  disclose  characters  to  separate  the  silky  mountain 
form  as  a  distinct  species.  This  I  consider  most  unlikely,  as 
the  extreme  states  of  the  species  here  graduate  into  each  other 
by  such  insensible  steps,  and  in  such  evident  response  to  chang- 
ing conditions,  that  there  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  that 
all  belong  to  a  single  variable  specific  type.  The  lower  uplands 
of  Mount  Hector  are  well  worth  visiting  were  it  only  to  examine 
the  evidence  of  this  gradual  transition. 

For  some  distance  before  entering  the  subalpine  scrub,  a 
notable  change  in  the  prevailing  vegetation  is  observed.  Olearia 
Colensoi,  forming  stout,  low,  widely  branching  shrubs,  becomes 
the  predominant  plant,  with  Panax  Sinclairii,  Panax  anomalum, 
Senecio  elceagnifolius,  and  Pittosporum  rigidum  as  subordinate 
elements,  and  Uncinia  ccespitosa,  Uncinia  filiformis.  Libertia 
pulchella,  and  Phormium  Cookianum  as  undergrowth.. 

The  width  of  the  subalpine  scrub  is  nowhere  great  on  the 
western  slopes  of  Mount  Hector.  It  consists  of  the  usual  dense, 
stunted,  level-topped,  and  almost  impenetrable  tangle  of  xero- 
phytic  shrubs  common  to  this  mountain  -  belt  in  the  Xorth 
Island.  The  principal  plants  here  comprising  the  scrub  were 
Olearia  Colensoi  (much  stunted),  Dracopkyllum  longifolium, 
Panax  anomalum,  Panax  Sinclairii,  Senecio  elceagnifolius,  Gaul- 
theria  rupestris  (in  dense  bushes),  Pimelea  G'nidia  (also  in  dense 
bushes),  a  dwarf  form  of  Olearia  nitida,  Olearia  lacunosa,  Olearia 
excorticata  (rare),  Pittosporum  rigidum,  Coprosma  cuneata.  Veronica 
salicijolia  (a  short  broad-leaved  fomi).  Phormium  Coojcianum, 
and  Astelia  nervosa,  with  Uncinia  filiformis  and  Viola  filicaidis 
among  the  undergrowth.  Along  the  sheltered  edges  of  the 
subalpine  scrub  grew  abundance  of  the  Bhorl  mountain  form  of 
Euphrasia  cuneata  (in  full  bloom),  with  tufts  in  wet  spots  of 
Ourisia  macrophylla  and  IlierocMoe  redolens.  In  a  drier  station 
here  was  seen  what  is  probably  the  true  Ourisia  Colensoi. 

On    emerging   from    the    exasperating   scrub   you    suddenly 


Petkie.      Account  of  a    Visit   to   Mount   Hector.        295 

enter  the  alpine  grass  or  meadow  region,  and  have  done  with 
all  forest  and  shrubby   growth.      The  mountain  meadow  con- 
sists of  extensive  bare    slopes  and  undulating  ridges  covered 
by  a  varied  low  vegetation,  among  which  Astelia  nervosa  is,  at 
the  lower  levels,  by  far  the  most  abundant  plant.     Ligusticum 
dissectum  is  also  very  plentiful.     Mixed  with  these  are  Aciphylla 
Colensoi  (var.   conspicua),  Gentiana  patula,  Celmisia  spectabilis, 
and    rare    plants    of     Uncinia    purpurea    (var.    fusco-vaginata) 
Grasses  formed  an  important  element  in  this  assemblage.     Dan- 
thonia   Raoulii  and  its  variety  flavescens  were  abundant,   but 
neither  here  nor  at  any  higher  level  on  the  mountain  was  this 
species   found   in   flower,   though   the   plants   grew  with   great 
luxuriance.     Other  grasses  occurring  in  this  lower  tract  were 
a  distinct-looking,  tufted,  wiry  form  of  Danthonia  semiannularis, 
a   wiry,    strongly   tufted  form   of   Deyeuxia   setifolia,    Ehrharta 
Colensoi,  Agrostis  Dyeri,  Deyeuxia  Forsteri,  and  an  erect,  wiry, 
short-leaved  form  of  Deschampsia  tenella,  differing  strongly  in 
habit  from   the   flaccid  drooping  plant  that   one  finds  in  the 
open  woodlands  of    eastern  Otago,  where  I  first  observed  the 
species. 

In  the  more  level  spots  considerable  areas  of  shallow,  half- 
peaty,  half- swampy  soil  are  met  with,  and  here  the  vegetation 
is  very  different.  The  most  abundant  and  most  characteristic 
plant  is  Abrotanella  pusilla,  a  species  that  has  not  been  seen 
since  Colenso  discovered  it,  nearly  sixty  years  ago,  on  the  Rua- 
hine  Range.  It  is  a  very  slender,  low,  densely  matted,  moss- 
like plant,  with  an  inflorescence  that  barely  exceeds  the  leaves, 
carpeting  quite  a  large  proportion  of  all  wet  and  boggy  ground. 
With  it  occur  Astelia  linearis  (in  fine  fruit),  Carpha  alpina, 
Centrolepis  viridis,  Caltha  novce-zelandio3,  Oreobolus  pumilio, 
Liparophyllum  Gunnii,  J  uncus  antarcticus,  Drosera  stenopetala, 
Uncinia  compacta,  Lyperanthus  antarcticus,  and  a  few  other 
species  of  less  interest.  On  the  drier  edges  of  the  boggy  stations 
Gentiana  bellidifolia,  in  full  flower  and  very  variable  in  height 
and  branching,  was  common,  and  here  a  few  patches  of  Triodia 
australis  were  also  found.  The  small  Abrotanella  ascends  almost 
to  the  top  of  the  mountain,  and  in  drier  stations  forms  more 
compact  and  rather  taller  tufts. 

On  the  edge  of  a  shallow  sheltered  basin  at  no  great  height 
above  the  level  of  the  subalpine  scrub  grew  some  fine  plants 
of  Olearia  lacunosa,  still  in  full  bloom,  and  exhaling  a  strong 
and  agreeable  perfume.  This  is  without  doubt  the  plant  that 
Buchanan  has  distinguished  as  Olearia  alpina.  So  far  as  I  am 
aware,  this  botanist  ne\er  saw  it  growing  in  its  native  habitat, 
and  he  probably  had  very  imperfect  specimens  before  him 
when  he  concluded  that  it  was  a  new  species.     It  differs  from 


296  Transactions . 

the  ordinary  states  of  0.  lacunosa  only  in  having  slightly  nar- 
rower leaves,  and  in  my  judgment  does  not  even  rank  as  a 
distinct  variety.  The  narrower  foliage  seems  to  me  a  natural 
adaptation  to  the  very  exposed  situations  in  which  the  plant 
grows  here.  It  is  a  much-branched  shrub,  reaching  a  height 
of  6  ft.  to  9  ft.,  and  is  well  worthy  of  cultivation,  both  for  its 
elegant  habit  and  for  its  sweet  perfume. 

Several  hundred  feet  of  alpine  meadow  have  to  be  ascended 
before  Astdia  nervosa  ceases  to  be  the  predominant  plant.  On 
its  disappearance  the  grasses  and  other  plants  that  share  the 
lower  levels  with  it  continue  to  a  great  elevation,  and  new 
associates  are  gradually  introduced.  The  most  conspicuous 
of  these  are  Helichrysum  leontopodium  (the  North  Island 
edelweiss),  a  most  striking  plant,  growing  in  considerable  pro- 
fusion, and  Celmisia  hieracifolia,  fairly  plentiful  in  the  drier 
stations.  Dracophyllum  uniflorum  appears  sparingly  also  in 
dry  spots,  and  Helichrysum  Traversii  and  Veronica  buxifolia 
were  seen  in  a  few  places,  also  a  luxuriant  form  of  Bulbinella 
Hooheri.  Forstera  (two  forms,  probably  F.  Bidwillii  and  F. 
tenella)  and  Phyllachne  Colensoi  become  fairly  common  in  wet 
stations,  while  Raoulia  grandi flora  puts  in  its  appearance,  to 
become  more  and  more  plentiful  as  you  mount  towards  the 
tops. 

At  an  elevation  of  about  4.300  ft.  a  new  whipcord  Veronica 
is  noticed.  It  grows  on  well-drained  slopes  with  a  surface  of 
sand  and  finely  or  coarsely  broken  rock.  Allied  to  V.  tetragona, 
it  is  smaller  in  all  its  parts,  lower  in  growth,  and  more  densely 
and  compactly  branched.  Fortunately  it  was  in  full  flower, 
so  that  its  position  in  the  genus  could  be  determined  with 
certainty.  Here  Carex  acicularis  grows  in  the  crevices  and  nooks 
of  the  broken  rocky  western  slopes. 

The  grasses  now  receive  fresh  additions,  as  Poa  Colensoi.  Poa 
Kirkii  (var.  McKayi),  and  Poa  imbecilla  (a  short,  slender  alpine 
form)  make  their  appearance  in  fair  abundance.  On  the  rocky 
faces  on  the  western  slope  Raoulia  rubra  now  becomes  plentiful. 
It  grows  in  very  dense,  rounded,  low  cushions,  and  in  low 
flattened  patches  often  a  foot  or  two  in  diameter,  and  sends 
down  stout,  tough  roots  to  a  great  depth  in  the  crevices  and 
joints.  It  was  found  in  good  condition,  though  rather  past 
flower,  the  flowering  having  been  very  abundant  this  season. 
The  present  specie's,  like  several  of  its  congeners,  exhibits  a 
remarkable  capacity  tor  retaining  moisture,  the  cushions  all 
proving  as  wet  as  a  half-saturated  sponge,  and  this  though 
there  had  been  a  succession  of  bright,  windy  days.  At  this 
level  Myrsine  nummular ia  appears  sparingly. 

At    all    levels   of   the    alpine    meadow    Epildbium  nummular)- 


Petkie. — Account  of  a  Visit  to  Mount  Hector.        297 

folium  (var.  pedunculate)  was  a  common  occupant  of  bare  wet 
spots.  E.  alsinoides  and  E.  erectum  (mihi)  arc  also  present, 
but  in  sparing  quantity.  At  about  4,000  ft.  another  species, 
either  undescribed  or  a  form  of  E.  gracilipes,  becomes  abundant 
in  the  drier  situations,  while  in  wet  ones  E.  erubescens  is  not 
uncommon. 

The  main  plateau  is  now  reached.  Its  surface  is  not  much 
diversified,  as  it  consists  of  low,  wide,  rounded  ridges,  with  wide, 
shallow  hollows  and  valleys  between.  It  is  everywhere  covered 
by  grasses  and  a  varied  low  vegetation.  Danthonia  Raoulii 
and  its  variety  flavescens,  which  maintain  throughout  this  alpine 
district  their  obviously  distinct  appearance  and  habit,  are  the 
predominant  plants.  The  other  grasses  have  mostly  run  out, 
much  of  the  ground  being,  no  doubt,  too  wet  for  their  support, 
though  the  snowy  covering  that  obtains  during  the  colder 
months  helps  in  determining  their  absence.  Raoulia  grandiflora 
is  still  plentiful,  and  Euphrasia  revoluta,  Ranunculus  geraniifolius 
{varying  greatly  in  size,  but  mostly  very  dwarf),  Astelia  linearis, 
and  Caltha  nova-zealandiw  become  abundant.  Carpha  alpina 
reappears  in  plenty,  while  a  remarkably  dwarf  form  of  Fors- 
tera  tenella  still  struggles  for  existence.  A  very  slender  dwarf 
Scirpus  (no  doubt  S.  aucklandicus,  var.  subcucullata)  forms  a 
short  grass-like  sward  in  the  wetter  spots,  and  sorry  slender 
tufts  of  Schcenus  pauciflorus  occur  here  and  there.  The  fruits 
of  the  latter  were  all  found  to  be  ergotised.  Plantago  Brownii, 
varying  greatly  in  size  according  as  its  station  is  sodden  or  fairly 
dry,  is  not  uncommon  ;  while  P.  uniflora  is  plentiful  in  all  the 
wetter  hollows.  The  latter  was  an  interesting  find,  as  the 
typical  form  of  the  species  has  not  been  seen  since  Colenso  made 
his  famous  journey  over  the  Ruahine  Range. 

One  of  our  party  went  as  far  as  the  trig,  station  that  lies 
some  distance  back  on  the  plateau,  and  he  brought  back  speci- 
mens of  Ranunculus  insignis,  Cotula  pyrethrifolia,  Coprosma 
ramulosa  (which  was  observed  lower  down),  Claytonia  aus- 
tralasica,  Cardamine  hirsuta  (var.  subcarnosa),  Geum  parvi- 
florum,  Helichrysum  bellidioides,  Ourisia  ccespitosa,  and  Poa 
novce-zealandice. 

One  of  my  chief  objects  in  undertaking  this  journey  was  to 
gain  an  acquaintance  with  Helichrysum  fasciculatum  (Buch.) 
and  H.  Loganii  (T.  Kirk),  but  I  had  not  the  good  fortune  to 
come  across  either.  Time  did  not  allow  of  my  examining  the 
steep  rocky  slopes  on  the  western  edge  of  the  plateau,  and  a 
number  of  plants  are  likely  to  grow  there  which  our  party  over- 
looked, and  among  them  both  of  the  above  may  well  occur. 

A  conspicuous  feature  in  the  Mount  Hector  alpine  meadow 
is  the  scarcity  of  shrubby  plants  above  the  level  of  the  sub- 


298  Transactions. 

alpine  scrub.  The  alpine  forms  of  Dracophyllum,  Veronica, 
and  Olearia,  so  usual  in  similar  alpine  districts,  were  practically 
absent.  Celmisias,  too,  were  few,  only  two  species  being  noted ; 
C.  glandulosa  and  C.  incana  were  nowhere  observed. 

At  the  lower  levels  Astelia  nervosa  determined  the  general 
appearance  of  the  land,  and  at  all  higher  levels  Danthonia 
Raoulii  played  the  same  role.  On  the  high  plateau  no  shrubby 
growth  of  any  kind  was  present,  the  heavy  long-lying  snows  of 
winter  being  no  doubt  responsible  for  this. 

Introduced  plants  have  as  yet  hardly  obtained  any  footing 
on  the  alpine  meadow  of  the  Tararuas.  In  years  to  come, 
when  the  wide  belt  of  forest  land  on  the  slopes  of  the  range  has 
been  more  largely  cleared  off,  a  free  invasion  may  be  expected, 
and  the  changes  that  will  then  ensue  will  afford  the  cecologists 
of  the  future  an  instructive  field  for  research. 

It  is  not  easy  to  combine  a  watchful  regard  for  the  plants 
about  your  feet  with  that  free  range  of  the  eye  that  is  required 
to  note  and  dwell  on  scenic  beauties,  but  the  most  absorbed 
plant-lover  could  not  be  blind  or  indifferent  to  the  grand  and 
extensive  views  that  the  high  tops  command.  The  western 
plains  as  far  as  snow-capped  Egmont  and  Ruapehu,  the  distant 
ghostly  outlines  of  the  Kaikouras  and  the  high  ranges  of 
southern  and  western  Nelson,  the  whole  neighbourhood  of 
C)ok  Strait,  and  the  plains  and  hilly  country  away  to  the  eastern 
ocean,  all  lie  spread  out  as  it  were  at  your  feet.  The  most 
pleasing  feature  of  the  noble  prospect  was  the  view  of  the  many 
prosperous  towns  and  villages  that  dotted  the  wide  and  fertile 
plains  of  the  Lower  Rangitikei  and  Manawatu.  How  changed 
from  the  times  of  Ruaparaha,  some  two  generations  ago  ! 

I  append  a  list  of  the  flowering-plants  hitherto  observed  on 
the  higher  parts  of  the  Tararuas.  In  the  case  of  plants  observed 
by  Dr.  Cockayne  no  indication  of  the  height  of  the  habitat  is 
given  ;  the  remainder  were  noted  by  Mr.  Aston  or  myself.  A 
very  few  are  quoted  on  the  authority  of  Cheeseman's  "  Manual 
of  the  New  Zealand  Flora."  The  list  is  probably  fairly  com- 
plete, though  future  exploration  will  no  doubt  add  to  it.  The 
names  of  the  species  are  those  adopted  in  Cheeseman's  work 
mentioned  above.  Many  of  the  low-level  plants  enumerated 
by  Dr.  Cockayne  were  omitted  from  my  own  list  of  the  Mount 
Hector  plants,  which  purposely  included  little  beyond  alpine 
and  subalpiue  species.  Heights  are  given  only  with  species 
observed  by  myself,  and  are  merely  approximate.  A  few  of 
th"  plants  were  collected  only  by  Mr.  Aston. 


Petri  e. — Account  of  a  Visit  to  Mount  Hector.        299 

List   of    Flowering-plants   observed   on    the    Tararua 

Range. 

Clematis  indivisa,  Willd. 

,,         hexasepala,  D.C. 
Ranunculus  insignia,  Hk.  f.     5.000  ft. 

„  geraniifolius,  Hk.  /.     4,500  ft. 

„  tenuicaulis,  Cheesm. 

„  hirtus.  Banks  and  Sol.     200  ft. 

Caltha  novae-zealandise,  Hk.  /.     3,000-4,500  ft. 
Drimys  axillaris,  Forster.     500-2,500  ft, 

„       colorata,  Rioul. 
Cardamine  hirsuta,  L.,  var.  subcarnosa.     5,000  ft. 

„  (species  uncertain). 

Viola  filicaulis,  Hk.  f.     3,000  ft. 
Melicytus  ramiflorus,  Forst.     200  ft. 

„         lanceolatus,  Hk.  f. 
Pittosporum  tenuifolium,  Banks  and  Sol.     400  ft. 
rigidum,  Hk.  f.     2,000-3,000  ft, 
„  cornifolium,  A.  Cunn. 

Stellaria  parviflora,  Banks  and  Sol.     200  ft. 
Claytonia  australasica,  Hk.  f.     5,000  ft. 
Hoheria  populnea,  A.  Cunn..  var.  lanceolata. 
Aristotelia  racemosa.  Hk.  f. 
„  Colensoi,  Hk.  f. 

Elseocarpus  dentatus,  Vahl. 

„  Hookerianus,  Raoul.     500  ft. 

Geranium  microphvllum,  Hk.  f.     3,000  ft, 
Oxalis  magellanica,  Forst. 
Melicope  simplex,  A.  Cunn.     200  ft. 
Dysoxylum  spectabile,  Hk.  f.     600  ft. 
Pennantia  corymbosa,  Forst.     200  ft, 
Alectryon  excelsum,  Gaertn.     200  ft. 
Coriaria  ruscifolia,  L. 

„        thymifolia,  Humb.  and  Bonp.  # 

CarmicbaeUa  odorata,  Col.     200  ft. 

flagelliformis,  Col.     200  ft. 
„  „  var.  corymbosa. 

Sophora  tetraptera,  -/.  Mull.,  var.  micropbylla.     150  ft. 
Rubus  australis,  Forst.     500  ft. 

„       schmidelioides,  A.  Cunn.     2,500  ft. 
Geum  parviflorum,  Smith.     5,000  ft. 
Acaena  novae-zealandia3,  T.  Kirk. 

„       sanguisorba?,  Vahl.     200  ft. 
Carpodetus  serratus,  Forst.     200  ft. 
Weinmannia  racemosa,  Linn.  f.     1,000  ft. 


800  Transactions. 

Drosera  stenopetala,  Hk. /.     3,000  1,000  it. 

spathulata(?),  Labill. 
Gunnera  mohoioa,  Raoul,  var.  atrigosa.     3,000ft. 
Leptospermum  scoparium,  Foist. 
M el  rosideros  ftorida,    Smith. 

hypericifolia,  A.  Gunn.     I.<k>o  Ii. 
robust  i.  .1.  Cwnn.     To  1,000  It. 
acandens,  Sol.    200  ft. 
M\  rtus  pedunculata,  ///..  /.     2,500  ft. 

bullata,  Sol. 
Epilobium  junceum,  Sol.     3,200ft. 
pubens,  .1    Rich. 
tenuipes,  Ilk.  j. 
Heel  ori(  0.  Haussk. 
alsinoides,  A.  Cunn.     3,500  It. 
insulare,  Haussk.     200  ft . 
roi  undifolium,  AW.-;/. 
linnseoides,  //^.  /. 
nummularifolium,  R.  ('mm.  var. pedunculare.     8,000- 

t,500ft. 
macropus(?),  ///".      (Aston.) 
gracilipes(?),  7'.  A7/7.-  (or  allied  speoies).     I. (MX)  ft. 
glabellum,  Furs/. 
erubescens,  Haussk.     I. (KM)  ft. 
crcctum.  Pet rir.      3,500  It. 
Fuchsia  excorticata,  Linn.  j.     .'MM)  ft. 
Hydrocotyle  elongata,    I.  0/»>j.     200ft. 

diss. via.   Ilk.  j. 

aovee-zealandiee,  PC. 
A/.ordla  Bookeri,  Dnnlr.     200  ft. 
Oreomyrrhis  andicola,  A'^//.     3,500ft. 
A.iphvlla  Colensoi,  ///•/..  rar.  conspicua.     3,000-4,500  ft. 
aquarrosa,  Forst.  (flacoid  form). 

Muuroi.   Ilk.  /. 

Ligusticum  dissectum,  T.  Kirk.     3,000  t,500ft. 

*    ..  aromaticum,  Hk.  f.     3,800  ft. 

Pa  hi  \  simplex,  Forst.     1,500  ft . 

Edgerleyi,  Ilk.  /.     1,500  ft. 

anomalum,  Ilk.     :<.oi>o  it. 

Sinolairii,  Hk.  /.     :UKH>  ft. 
..      Colensoi,  ///>./. 

arboreum,  Forst.     2,000  ft. 
Si  hefflera  digitata,  AV.s/. 
Pseudopanax  crassifolium,  C.  Koch. 
(Jnsclmia  littoralis,  Raotd.     1,500  2,500 fl 
Alseuosmia  macrophylla,  .!.  ('mm.     500ft. 


Petrie. — Account  of  a  Visit  to  Mount  Hector.       301 

Coprosma  grandjfolia,  Ilk.  f.     To  300  ft. 
lucida,  Foist.     1,500-2.500  ft. 
robusta,  Raoul.     To  2,000  ft. 
rh.amnoid.es,  Hk.  f. 
ramulosa,  Petrie.     4,500  ft. 
foetidissima,  Forst,     To  3,000  ft. 
Colensoi,  Hk.  f.     1,500-2,800  ft. 
cuneata,  Hk.  /.     3,000  ft. 
repens,  Hk.  f.     3,500  ft. 
,.  Banksii,  Petrie. 

Nertera  depressa,  Banks  and  Sol. 

dichondraofolia,  Hook.  /.     2,000  ft. 
Lagenophora  petiolata,  Hk.  f. 
Olearia  Colensoi,  Hk.  f.     2,500-3,000  ft. 
nitida,  Hk.  f.     To  3,000  ft. 
„        Cunninghamii,  Hk.  f.     500  ft. 
„       excorticata,  Buch.     3,000  ft. 

lacunosa,  Hk.  f.     2,800-3,500  ft, 
alpina,  Buch.,  is  the  same  as  the  above. 
Celmisia  spectabilis,  Hk,  f.     3,000-4,500  ft. 
hieracifolia,  Hk.  f.     3,800-4,500  ft. 
Gnaphalium  Keriense,  A.  Cunn.     200  ft. 

Traversii,  Hk.  j.     4,000  ft, 
Raoulia  teimicaulis,  Hk.  /. 

grandiflora,  Hk.  f.     3,800-5,000  ft. 
rubra,  Buch.     4,500  ft, 
Helichrysum  bellidioides,  Willd,     5,000  ft. 
„  filicaule,  Hk.  j. 

„  Loganii,  T.  Kirk  (ex  Cheeseman's  Manual). 

leontopodium,  Hook.  f.     3,800-4,400  ft. 
„  fasciculatum,  Buch.  (ex  Cheeseman's  Manual). 

Cotula  pyrethrifolia,  Hk.  j.     5,000  ft. 
Abrotanella  pusilla,  Hk.  f.     3,000-4,500  ft. 
Brachyglottis  repanda,  Forst. 
Senecio  lagopus,  Raoul,     3,800-4,400  ft. 
„        latifolius,  Banks  and  Sol. 
Kirkii,  Hk,  f.     2,000  ft, 
elseagnifolius,  Hk.  f.     3,000  ft. 
,,  ,,  var.  Buchanani. 

Bidwillii,  Hk.  /.     3,800  ft, 
Taraxacum  officinale,  Wigg. 
Phyllachne  Colensoi,  Berggr.     3,800-5,000  ft. 
Forstera  Bidwillii  (?),  Hk.  f.     3,800  ft. 

tenella,  Hk.  f.     3,800-4,800  ft, 
Pratia  angulata.  Hook.  f. 
Graultheria  antipoda,  Forst. 


31 '-  Transactions. 

Gaultheria  rupestris,  R.  Br.     3,000  ft. 
Pentachondra  puraila,  R.  Br.     3,000-4,000  ft. 
Cyathodes  acerosa,  R.  Br. 

„  empetrifolia,  Hk.  f.     3.200  ft. 

L-;ucopogon  fasciculatus,  A.  Rich. 
Dracophyllum  longifolium,  R.  Br.     3,000  ft. 

„  Urvilleanum,  A.  Rich,  var.  filifoliura  (Aston). 

„  rosmarinifolium,  R.  Br. 

uniflorum,  Hk.  f.     3,800  ft. 
Myrsine  salicina,  Heward. 

Urvillei,  A.  D.C.     1,000  ft. 
„        divaricata,  A.  Cunn. 
„        nummularia,  Hk.  f.     3,800  ft. 
Olea  montana,  Hk.  f. 
Parsonsia  heterophylla,  A.  Cunn. 
„         capsularis,  R.  Br. 
•Gentiana  patula,  Cheesm.     3,000-4,200  ft. 

bellidifolia,  Hk.  f.     3,000-3,500  ft. 
Liparophyllum  Gunnii,  Hk.  f.     3,000  ft. 
Calceolaria  repens,  Hk.  f. 
Veronica  salicifolia,  Forst.     To  3,000  ft. 
„         lsevis,  Benth. 

buxifolia,  Benth.     3,800  ft. 
„         Astoni,  sp.  7iov.     4,000  ft. 
„         catarractae,  Forst.     200  ft. 
Ourisia  macrophylla,  Hook.     3,000  ft. 
Colensoi  (?),  Hk.  f.     3,300  ft. 
„       csespitosa,  Hk.  f.     5,000  ft. 
Euphrasia  cuneata,  Forst.     3,000  ft. 

revoluta,  Hk.  f.     4,000-5,000  ft, 
Plantago  Brownii,  Rapin.     4,800  ft. 

uniflora,  Hk.  f.     4,800  ft. 
Hedycarya  arborea,  Forst.     800  ft, 
Laurelia  n  )va3-zealandiae,  A.  Cunn.     400  ft, 
Bielschmiedia  tawa,  Benth.  and  Hk.  f.     To  1,000  ft, 
Pimelea  Gnidia,  Willd.     3,000  ft. 
Drapetes  DieSenbachii,  Hook.,  var.  laxa.     4,000  ft. 
Loranthus  Colensoi,  Hk.  }. 
Urtica  incisa,  Poir. 
Fagus  Menziesii,  Hk.  f.     To  2,000  ft . 
„      fusca,  Hk.  f.     2,000  ft. 
,,       apiculata,  Col. 
„      Solandri,  Hk.  f. 
Podocarpus  totara,  D.  I)<»t,.     400  ft, 

„  ferruginous,  D.  Don.     600  ft. 

„  dacrydioides,  A.  Rich.     300  ft. 


Petrib. — Account  of  a   Visit  to  Mount  Hector.        303 

Dacrydium  cupressinum,  Sol.     800  ft. 
Dendrobium  Cunningbamii,  Lindl.     2,000  ft. 
Earina  mucronata,  Lindl.     1,500  ft. 
Thelymitra  uniflora,  Hk,  f. 
Prasopbyllum  Colensoi,  Hk,  /.     3,500-4,500  ft. 
Lyperanthus  antarcticus,  Hk.  f.     3,200  ft. 
Caladenia  bifolia,  Hk,  f.     3,500  ft. 
Corysanthes  triloba,  Hk,  f. 
Gastrodia  Cunningliamii,  Hk.  /. 
Libertia  ixioides,  Sprengel. 

pulcbellja,  Sprengel.     2,500-3,000  ft. 
Rhipogonum  scandens,  Forst.     500  ft. 
Enargea  marginata,  Banks  and  Sol.     2,000-3, OOOjEt. 
Cordyline  indivisa,  Steud,     2,500  ft, 

,,  Banksii,  Hk.  f. 

Astelia  linearis,  Hk.  f.     3,000-4,800  ft. 
Cunninghamii,  Hk.  f.     2,000  ft. 
Solandri,  A.  Cunn.     300  ft. 
„       nervosa,  Banks  and  Sol.     2,000-3,800  ft. 
Dianella  intermedia,  Endl. 
Pbormium  Cookianum,  Le  Jolis.     3,000  ft. 
Bulbinella  Hookeri,  Benth  and  Hk.  f.     4,000  ft. 
Juncus  antarcticus,  Hk.  f.     3,000-4,500  ft. 

„       novse-zealandia3,  Hk.  f.     3,000  ft, 
Luzula  campestris,  D.C.     3,000  ft. 
Freycinetia  Banksii,  A.  Cunn. 
Centrolepis  viridis,  T.  Kirk.     3,000  ft. 
Scirpus  aucklandicus,  Hk.  f.     3,000  ft. 

t,  „  var.  subcucullata.     4,500  ft. 

Carpha  alpina,  R.  Br.  3,000-4,800  ft, 
Scbcenus  pauciflorus,  Hk.  f.  4,800  ft, 
Gabnia  setifolia,  Hk.  f. 

„       pauciflora,  T.  Kirk. 
Oreobolus  pumilio,  R.  Br.,  var  pectinatus.     3,000-4,000Jft. 
Uncinia  purpurata,  Petrie,  var.  fusco-vaginata,     3,500  ft.  ' 
„        compacta,  R.  Br.     3,000  ft. 

csespitosa,  Boott.     To  2,800  ft. 
„        australis,  Persoon.     To  2,800  ft. 
„        filiformis,  Boott.     3,000  ft, 
„        rupestris,  Raoui. 
Carex  acicularis,  Boott.     4,000  ft. 
,,      ternaria,  Forst. 
,,      dissita,  Sol.,  var.  monticola. 
Oplismenus  undulatifolius,  Beauv.     To  1,200  ft, 
Ebrbarta  Colensoi,  Hk.  f.     3,000-4,200  ft. 
Microlaena  avenacea,  Hk.  f.     To  2,500  ft. 


304  Transactions. 

Hierochloe  redolens,  R.  Br.     3,000  ft. 

Frasori,  Hook.  /.     3,500-4,000  ft. 
Alopecurus  genieulatus,  L.     200  ft. 
Agrostis  muscosa,  T.  Kirk  (Aston). 
Muelleri,  Benth.     4,000  ft. 
Dyeri,  Petrie.     3,000-4,000  ft. 
Dsyeuxia  Forsteri,  Kunth.     3,200  ft. 

setifolia,  Hk.  /.     3,000-4,500  ft. 
Deschampsia  tenella,  Petrie.     3,000-4,500  ft. 
Trisetum  antarcticum,  Trinius  (Aston). 

„         Youngii,  Hk.  f.  (Aston). 
Danthonia  Raoulii,  Steudel.     3,000-5,000  ft, 

„  „         var.  flavcscens.     3,000-5,000  ft. 

„  semiannularis,  R.  Br.,  var.     3,000-4,000  ft. 

Arundo  conspicua,  Forst. 
Triodia  australis,  Petrie. 
Poa  novse-zealandiae,  Hackel.     5,000  ft, 
„     anceps,  Forst. 

„     Colensoi,  Hk.  /.     3,800-4,500  ft. 
„     Kirkii,  Buch.,  var.  McKavi.     3,800-4,500  ft. 
„     imbecilla,  Forst.     4,000  ft. 


Art.  XXV. — Some  Hitherto-unrecorded  Plant-habitats  (III). 
By  L.  Cockayne,  Ph.D. 

\  !!■  ml  l>  i<ir<   t'n    Philosophical  Institvii   of  Canterbury,  llth  Dm  nib<  r,   IW7.] 

With  regard  to  some  of  the  species  noted  below,  it  is  possible 
they  may  be  mentioned  prior  to  the  publication  of  this  paper 
in  one  or  other  of  the  reports  I  am  preparing  for  the  Depart- 
ment of  Lands  and  Survey,  but  nevertheless  I  am  keeping  them 
here,  as  it  seems  convenient  to  have  such  unrecorded  species 
together  in  one  publication.  A  considerable  number  of  the 
species  recorded  are  from  Stewart  Island,  but  certain  critical 
plants  from  that  island  are  omitted  until  I  publish  a  general 
account  of  the  vegetation  of  that  district,  Of  the  remainder, 
the  only  one  worthy  of  special  mention  is  Pittosporum  paluhun. 
a  plant  hitherto  only  recorded  from  the  north-west  Nelson  dis- 
trict,  and  which  has  not  as  yet  been  found  in  the  intervening 
country,  much  of  which  is  certainly  well  suited  as  a.  habitat. 
Mr.  Bond,  who  collected  the  specimen,  noted  only  two  plants, 
which  were  growing  within  two  chains  of  one  another  just  inside 
the  edge  of  the  bush. 


Cockayne. — Some  Hitherto-unrecorded  Plant-habitats.     305 

Filices. 

Loxsoma  Cunninghamii,  R,  Br. 

Beneath  Leptospermum  scoparium,  near  River  Waipoua, 
Hokianga  County.     L.  C.  ! 

Dicksonia  lanata,  Col. 

Forest  on  Mount  Hauhungatahi,  forming  large  part  of  under- 
growth up  to  1,200  m.     L.  C.  ! 

Polystichum  cystotegia  (Hook.),  Armstg. 

Stony  ground  near  summit  of  Mount  Anglem,  Stewart  Island. 
Gibbs,  Laing,  Crosby-Smith,  and  L.  C.  ! 

Asplenium  Lyallii,  Moore. 

Shore  of  Paterson  Inlet,  on  rocks,  Stewart  Island.     L.  C.  ! 

Asplenium  Richardi,  Hook.  f. 

In  shade  of  rock,  south  of  Ruapehu.     W.  Townson  ! 

Blechnum  nigrum  (Col.),  Mett. 

(1.)  Moist  gullies  in  forest  near  Half-moon  Bay,  Stewart 
Island ;  Mrs.  Josling,  L.  C. !  (2.)  Moist  gullies,  Waipoua  Forest, 
chiefly  upland  portion,  Hokianga  County  ;   L.  C.  ! 

Hypolepis  millefolium,  Hook. 

Base  of  Table  Hill,  Stewart  Island.     L.  C.  ! 

Polypodium  Billardieri  (Willd.),  C.  Chr.  (=  P.  australe,  Mett,). 
Forest  on  Bluff  Hill.     L.  C. 

Polypodium  Billardieri  (Willd.),  C.  Chr.,  var.  rigidum  (Homb. 
and  Jacq.). 

Forest  at  base  of  Mount  Anglem,  Stewart  Island.     L.  C.  ! 

SPERMAPHYTA. 

TAXACE.E. 
Dacrydium  Colensoi,  Hook. 
Waipoua  Forest.     L.  C.  ! 

Dacrydium  Kirkii,  F.  Muell. 
Waipoua  Forest.     L.  C. 


306  Transactions. 

Dacrydium  Bidwillii,  Hook.  f. 
Longwood  Range.     L.  C.  ! 

Dacrydium  laxifolium,  Hook.  f. 
Longwood  Range.     L.  C.  ! 

Phyllocladus  alpinus,  Hook.  f. 
Longwood  Eange.     L.  C.  ! 

Gramine^e. 
Microlaena  stipoides,  E.  Br. 
Kapiti  Island.     L.  C.  ! 

Agrostis  Muelleri,  Benth. 

Ruapelm.  at  1,800  m.  ;   and  Tongariro.  at  1.500  m.  -  1.600  m. 
L.  C. ! 

Agrostis  Dyeri,  Petrie. 
Stewart  Island.     L.  C.  ! 

Calamagrostis  Billardieri  (R.  Br.),  Steud. 

Dunes.  Mason's  Bay,  Stewart  Island.     Lamg  and  L.  C.  ! 

Deschampsia  caespitosa,  Beauv. 

Swampy  ground,  Kapiti  Island.     L.  C.  ! 

Deschampsia  Chapmani,  Petrie. 

Mount  Anglem,  Stewart  Island.     Gibbs,  Crosby-Smith,  Laing, 
and  L.  C.  ! 

Danthonia  fiavescens,  Hook.  f. 

Mount    Anglem,    Stewart    Island.     Gibbs,    Laing,    Crosby- 
Smith,  and  L.  C.  ! 

Danthonia  pungens,  Cheesem. 

Extremely  common  on  Mount  Anglem  and  Table  Hill,  Ste- 
wart Island.     L.  C.  ! 

Arundo  conspicua,  Forst.  f. 
Bluff  Hill.     L.  C. ! 

Poa  novae-zealandiae,  Hack. 

Ruapelm,    where   water  oozes   on   scoria  s'ope   at   1,800  m. 
L.  C.  ! 


Cockayne. —  Some  Hitherto-unrecorded  Plant-habitats.     307 

Poa  Astoni,  Petrie. 

Coastal  rocks,  Paterson  Inlet,  Stewart  Island.     L.  C.  ! 

Agropyrum  scabrum  (R.  Br.),  Beativ. 
Stewart  Island.     L.  C. ! 

CYPERACE.E. 

Elaeocharis  acuta,    R.  Br. 

Swampy  ground,  Stewart  Island.     L.  C.  ! 

Elaeocharis  Cunninghamii,  Boeck. 

Swampy  ground,  Stewart  Island.     L.  C.  ! 

Scirpus  sulcatus,  Thouars,  var.  distigmatosa.     C.  B.  Clarke. 
Stewart  Island.     L.  C.  ! 

Scirpus  frondosus,  Banks  and  Sol. 

Dunes,  Mason's  Bay,  Stewart  Island.     Laing  and  L.  C.  • 

Gahnia  procera,  Forst. 

Forest  on  Bluff  Hill.     L.  C. ! 

Uncinia  purpurata,  Petri* , 
Bluff  Hill.     L.  C.  ! 

Uncinia  compacta,  R.  Br. 
Stewart  Island.     L.  C.  ! 

Uncinia  pedicillata,  Kiik. 

Forests,  Stewart  Island.     L.  C.  ! 

Uncinia  rubra,  Boott. 

Old  dunes,  Mason's  Bay,  Stewart  Island.     Laing  and  L.  C. ! 

Uncinia  rigida,  Petrie. 

Old  dunes,  Mason's  Bay,  Stewart  Island.     Laing  and  L.  C.  ! 

Car  ex  pyrenaica,  Wahl. 

Where  water  oozes  on  scoria  slope,  Ruapehu,  1,800  m. ;   and 
more  common  on  Tongariro,  at  1,500  m.     L.  C.  ! 

Carex  secta,  Boott. 

Stewart  Island.     L.  C. ! 


308  Transactions. 

Carex  Raoulii,  Boott. 
Bluff  Hill.     L.  C. ! 

Carex  pumila,  Thuub. 

Dunes,  Stewart  Island.     L.  C. 

Carex  CEderi,  Ehrh.,  var. 
Stewart  Island.     L.  C.  ! 

Liliace^:. 

Astelia  nervosa,  Banks  and  Sol.,  var.  montana,  Kirk. 
Longwood  Range.     L.  C.  ! 

Phormium  Cookianum,  Le  Jobs. 

1     Stewart  Island,   sea-'evel  t)  subalpine  ;    Gibbs,   Lai  rig, 
Crosby-Smith,  and  L.  C.  !     (2.)  Longwood  Range  ;    L.  C.  ! 

Urticace^;. 
Urtica  incisa,  Poir. 

Forests.  Stewart  Is'and.     L.  C.  ! 

PoLYGONACEjE. 

Muehlenbeckia  complexa,  Meissn. 
Stewart  Island.     L.  C.  ! 

LORANTHACE.E. 

Loranthus  micranthus,  Hook.  f. 

Stewart  Island  ;    not  common.     L.  C.  ! 

AlZOACEiE. 

Mesembryanthemum  australe,  Sol. 
Stewart  Island.     L.  C.  ! 

PoRTULACACE^E. 

Claytonia  australasica,  Hook.  f. 

Muddy  ground,  Longwood  Range.     L.  C.  ! 

Caryophyllace.e. 

Colobanthus  Billardieri,  Fenzl. 

Summit  of  Mount  Tama,  and  on  Ruapehu  to  1,800  m.     L.  C.  I 

Scleranthus  biflorus  (Forst.),  Hook.  f. 
Stewart  Island.     L.  C.  ! 


Cockayne. — Some  Hitherto-unrecorded  Plant-habitats.     309 

Ranunculace^e. 

Ranunculus  acaulis,  Banks  and  Sol. 
Bluff.  Hill.     L.  C.  ! 

Caltha  novae-zealandiae,  Hook.  f. 
Longwood  Range.     L.  C.  ! 

Crucifer^e. 

Cardamine  uniflora,  Hook.  f. 

Stewart  Island.  (This  is  usually  considered  a  variety  of 
C.  hirsuta,  L.,  but  in  my  garden  it  remains  constant,  and  re- 
produces itself  true  from  seed.) 

Saxifragace^e. 

Donatia  novae-zealandiae,  Hook.  f. 
Longwood  Range.     L.  C.  ! 

PlTTOSPORACE^I. 

Pittosporum  rigidum,  Hook.  f.     (South  Island  var.) 

Subalpine  scrub,  volcanic  plateau,  North  Island,  at  1,200  m. 
L.  C.  ! 

Pittosporum  patulum,  Hook.  f. 

Forest  on  Maitland  Creek,  at  head  of  Lake  Ohau.  J.  H.  C. 
Bond  ! 

Pittosporum  Kirkii. 

Waipoua  Forest.     L.  C.  ! 

Rosacea. 

Rubus  schmidelioides,  A.  Cunn. 
Bluff  Hill.     L.  C.  ! 

Rubus  schmidelioides,  var.  coloratus. 
Stewart  Island.     L.  C.  ! 

Acaena  novae-zealandiae,  Kirk. 
Bluff  Hill.      L.  C.  ! 

Potentilla  anserina,  L. 
Stewart  Island.     L.  C.  ! 


310  Transactions. 

Leguminos^. 

Carmichaelia  prona,  Kirk. 

Stonv  beach  near  mouth  of  River  Rakaia,  Canterbury. 
L.  C.  ! 

EUPHORBIACE^. 

Euphorbia  glauca,  Forst.  f. 

Dunes,  Mason's  Bay,  Stewart  Island.     Laing  and  L.  C. ! 

CORIARIACE^E. 

Coriaria  thymifolia,  -Humb.  and  Bonpl. 

Mason's  Bay,  Stewart  Island.     Laing  and  L.  C.  ! 

ELjEOCARPACE-E. 

Aristotelia  Colensoi,  Hook.  f. 

Amongst  other  shrubs  on  bank  of  Rakiahua  River,  Stewart 
Island.     L.  C.  ! 

Malvaceje. 

Plagianthus  divaricatus,  Forst. 

Half-moon  Bay,  Stewart  Island.  Gibbs,  Crosby-Smith, 
Laing,  and  L.  C.  ! 

Plagianthus  cymosus,  Kirk. 

Port  Hills,  in  remains  of  forest  just  above  Lyttelton.[_Petrie 
and  L.  C.  ! 

Guttifer^. 

Hypericum  japonicum,  Thunb. 
Stewart  Island.    L.  C.  ! 

VlOLACE-ffi. 

Hymenanthera,  sp. 

Mount  Anglcm,  .  Stewart  Island.  Gibbs,  Laing,  Crosby- 
Smith,  and  Cockayne  !  (Recorded  by  Kirk,  but  not  in  Cheese- 
man's  Manual.) 

Hymenanthera  obovata,  Kirk. 

Titahi  Bay,  Wellington.     Aston,  A.  H.  Cockayne,  L.  C.  ! 

Viola  filicaulis,  Hunk.  f. 

(1.)  Bed  of  River  Waipoua  ;  L.  C.  !  (2.)  Common  in  gullies 
of  beech  forests,  volcanic  plateau,  North  Island  ;   L.  C.  1 


Cockayne. — Some  Hitherto-unrecorded\Plant-habitats.     311 

Myrtace^. 

Metrosideros  albiflora,  Sol. 
Waipoua  Forest.     L.  C.  ! 

Metrosideros  diffusa,  Sm. 

Kaihu  Valley,  on  rocks.     L.  C.  ! 

Myrtus  pedunculata,  Hook.  f. 
Bluff  Hill.     L.  C.  ! 

OnAGRACEjE. 

Epilobium  pallidiflorum,  Sol. 
Stewart  Island.     L.  C.  ! 

Epilobium  junceum,  Sol. 
Stewart  Island.     L.  C.  ! 

Epilobium  pictum,  Petrie. 

Stewart  Island.     L.  C. !    (This  is  evidently  a  widely  dispersed 
species  in  New  Zealand.) 

Epilobium  macropus,  Hook.  f. 

Ruapehu,  where  water  oozes  from  beneath  scoria,  1,800  m. 
altitude.     L.  C.  ! 

Epilobium  insulare,  Hausskn. 
Stewart  Island.     L.  C.  ! 

Epilobium  nerterioides,  A.  Gunn. 
Stewart  Island.     L.  C.  ! 

Epilobium  novse-zealandiae,  Hausskn. 
Stewart  Island.     L.  C.  ! 

Epilobium  brevipes,  Hook.  f. 

Gorge  of  Broken  River,  Canterbury,  on  face  of  cliff.     L.  C.  ! 

Fuchsia  procumbens,  R.  Cunn. 

On  bank  of  stream,  Kawerua,  Hokianga  County.     L.  C.  ! 


312  Transactions. 

HaLORRHAGIDACEjE. 

Gunnera  prorepens,  Hook.  f. 

(1.)  Bluff  Hill;    L.  C. !     (2.)  On  Sphagnum,  gully  of  Oturere 
River,  volcanic  plateau,  North  Island.     L.  C.  ! 

Gunnera  strigosa,  Col. 

bank  of  Waipoua  River.     L.  C.  ! 

Araliaceje. 

Schefflera  digitata,  Forst. 

Forest  on  Bluff  Hill.     L.  C.  ! 

Umbellifer^e. 

Azorella  Hookeri,  Drude. 

Bed  of  River  Waipoua,  in  forest.     L.  C.  ! 

Oreomyrrhis  andicola,  End!. 

Rakiahua  Valley,  Stewart  Island.     L.  C.  ! 

Aciphylla  flabellata  (Kirk),  comb.  nov. 

Cliffs   at   southern   extremity   of   Mason's  Bay.     Laing  and 
L.  C.  ! 

Angelica  geniculata  (Foist,  f.).  Hook.  f. 

Base  of  Mount  Torlesse.  on  western  side.     L.  C.  ! 

CoRNACEjE. 

Corokia  Cotoneaster,  Raoul. 

Rare   in    Nothofagus   cliffortioides    forests,    east   of    volcanic 
plateau.     L.  C.  ! 

Ericaceae. 

Gaultheria  perplexa,  T.  Kirk. 
Longwood  Range.     L.  C.  ! 

Epacridaceje. 
Pentachondra  pumila  (Forst.  f.),  R.  Br. 
Fiongwood  Ranse.     L.  C.  ! 

Myrsinackje. 
Suttonia  divaricata  (A.  Cunn.),  Hook.  f. 
Forest,  Bluff  Hill.     L.  C.  ! 


Cockayne. — Some  Hitherto-unrecorded  Plant-habitats.     313 

Gentianace^e. 

Liparophyllum  Gunnii,  Hook.  f. 

Bogs,   volcanic   plateau   east   and   west   of  volcanic   ranges. 
L.  C.  ! 

Apocynace^e. 

Parsonsia  heterophylla,  A.  Cunn. 
Stewart  Island.     L.  C.  ! 

CONVOLVULACE^E. 

Calystegia  tuguriorum  (Forst.  f.),  R.  Br. 

BORAGINACEJE. 

Myosotis  Cheesemanii,  Petrie. 

Cliffs,  gorge  of  Broken  River.     L.C.  ! 

Myosotis  spathulata,  Forst.  f. 

Bed  of  Rakiahua  River,  Stewart  Island.     L.  C.  ' 

Labiate. 
Mentha  Cunninghamii,  Benth. 
Stewart  Island.     L.  C.  ! 

ScROPHULARIACEiE. 

Veronica  elliptica,  Forst.,  var. 

Titahi  Bay,  Cook  Strait,  Wellington.      B.  C.  Aston,  A.  H. 
Cockayne,  and  L.  C.  ! 

Ourisia  Colensoi,  Hook.  f. 

(I  do  not  think  this  is  identical  with  the  North  Island  plant.) 
(1.)  Longwood   Range,    in   subalpine   scrub  ;     Crosby-Smith 
and    L.   C.  !     (2.)    Bank    of   creek   in   forest,    Mount    Anglem, 
Stewart  Island  ;    Gibbs,  Laing,  Crosby-Smith,  and  L.  C.  ! 

Ourisia  caespitosa,  Hook.  f. 

(1.)  Tongariro,  1,500  m.  ;  L.  C.     (2.)  West  of  volcanic  plateau, 
1,200  m.  :   Phillips,  Turner  ! 

Ourisia  prorepens,  Petrie  ? 

Mount    Anglem.    Stewart    Island.     Gibbs,    Laing,    Crosby- 
Smith,  and  L.  C.  ! 

Euphrasia  Dyeri,  Wettst, 
Longwood  Range.     L.  C.  ! 


314  Tran$action$. 

RUBIACE.E. 

Coprosma  lucida,  Forst.  f. 
Bluff  Hill.     L.  G.  ! 

Coprosma  areolata,  Cheesm. 
Stewart  Island.     L.  C.  ! 

Coprosma  rhamnoides,  A.  Curui. 
Bluff  Hill.     L.  0.  ! 

Coprosma  parviflora,  Hook.  f. 
Bluff  Hill.     L.  C.  ! 

Coprosma  ramulosa,  Petrie. 
Stewart  Island.     L.  C.  ! 

Coprosma  Kirkii,  Cheesm. 

Sea-coast,  Kawerua,  Holrianga  County.     L.  C.  ! 

Coprosma  foetidissima,  Forst. 

Khandallah  Domain,  and  upper  portion  of  Day's  Bay  forest, 
Wellington.     A.  H.  Cockayne  and  L.  C.  ! 

El 

Coprosma  Colensoi,  Hook.  f. 

Upper  forest  of  Ruapehu,  on  west.     L.  C. 

Coprosma  cuneata,  Hook.  f. 
J     Longwood  Range.     L.  C.[! 

Coprosma  microcarpa,  Hook.  f. 

(1.)  Abundant  as  undergrowth  in  all  the  beech  forests  of  the 
volcanic  plateau  at  900  m.  to  1,200  m.  ;   L.  C.  !     (2.)  Upper  por- 
tion of  mixed  Nothofagus  forest,  Day's  Bay,  Wellington.     A.  H. 
Cockayne  and  L.  C.  ! 

Coprosma  Petriei,  Cheesm. 

Volcanic  plateau  not  far  from  Waiouru,  'at  900  m.  altitude. 
L.  C. 

Nertera  dichondraefolia  (A.  Cunn.),  Hook.  f. 
Bluff  Hill.     L.  ('.  ! 

Galium  umbrosum,  Sol. 
Stewiirt  Maud.      L.  C.  ! 


Cockayne. — Some  Hitherto-unrecorded  Plant- habitats.    315 


Candolleace^e. 


Forstera  sedifolia,  L.  fil.,  var.  oculata,  Cheesm. 
Longwood  Range.     L.  C. 

Composite. 

Olearia  virgata,  Hook.  f. 

(1.)  Rakiahua  Val'ey,  Stewart  Island,  amongst  shrubs  on 
river-bank  ;  L.  C.  J  (2.)  Wet  ground  near  Karioi,  south  of 
Ruapehu  ;  L.C.  ! 

Celmisia  incana,  Hook.  f. 

South  and  west  of  Ruapehu,  forming  large  mats  at  1,500  m. 
altitude.     L.  C.  ! 

Gnaphalium  trinerve,jForst.]f. 

Stewart  Island  ;  very  c  x  imon,  taking  possession  of  road- 
cuttings,  &c,  and  on  the  increase.  Gibbs,  Laing,  Crosby-Smith, 
and  L.  C.  !j 

Raoulia  glabra,  Hook.  f. 

^jjNear  Half- moon  Bay,  Stewart  Island.     Laing,  Gibbs,  Crosbv- 
Smith,  and  L.  C.  !  " ' 

Helichrysum  grandiceps,  Hook.  1. 

Table  Hill  Range,  Stewart  Island.     L.  C.  ! 

Cotula  Traillii,  Kirk.^f 

(1.)  Base  of  Bluff  Hill ;  L.  C.  !  (2.)  Dog  Island  and  Centre 
Island;    L.  C.  !]£ 

Cotula  squalida,  Hook.[f. 
|  Bluff  Hill.     L.  C.  ! 

j'm  f       .     :  ; 

Erechtites  arguta^D.C. 
Kapiti  Island.      L.  C.  ! 

Senecio  scorzonerioides,  Hook.  f. 

Table  Hill,  Stewart  Island;  very  plentiful.     L.  C.  ' 

Senecio  elaeagnifolius,  Hook.  f. 
Longwood  Range.     L.  C.  ! 

'  -i .;  ; 

Taraxacum  glabratum  (Forst.  1),  Cockayne. 
Stewart  Island.r^L.'C.  ! 


316  Transactions. 


Art.   XXVI. — Xotes  on  the  Spread  of  Phytophthora  infestans, 
with  Special  Reference  to  Hybernating  Mycelium. 

By  A.  H.  Cockayne. 

[Rend  before  the  Wellington  Philosophical  Society.  4th  S<  ptenther.   l!M»7.] 

The  behaviour  of  a  well-known  plant-disease  under  changed 
environment,  or  in  localities  where  the  disease  has  not  pre- 
viously existed,  is  a  matter  of  the  most  vital  importance  To 
the  student  of  plant-pathology.  Here  in  New  Zealand  we  have 
an  exceptionally  rich  field  for  the  study  of  the  biology  of  many 
plant-parasites,  for  in  this  country  the  great  majority  of  our 
most  dangerous  plant-diseases  are  aliens,  having  been  in  the  first 
place  imported  on  one  or  other  of  their  hosts. 

The  wide  expanse  of  ocean  which  separates  these  islands 
from  other  lands  forms  a  barrier  which  precludes  the  supposi- 
tion that  they  could  have  been  introduced  by  spores  or  other 
reproductive  bodies  blown  hither  by  the  wind.  Once  intro- 
duced, the  ecological  factors  for  many  of  these  diseases  being 
pre-eminently  suitable  for  their  requirements,  they  have  thriven 
here  as  well  as,  if  not  better  than,  in  their  original  home.  Others 
which  in  other  countries  are  justly  looked  upon  as  dangerous 
plant-parasites  have,  on  acclimatisation  here,  been  quite  unable 
to  cause  sufficient  damage  to  rank  them  as  markedly  injurious. 
Others,  again,  which  in  their  native  country  appear  to  live  more 
or  less  in  equilibrium  with  their  hosts,  have,  since  their  intro- 
duction here,  become  virulently  epidemic,  and  are  the  cause  of 
much  annual  loss  both  to  the  farmer  and  fruit-grower. 

In  these  notes  I  shall  confine  myself  to  some  observations 
on  the  ecology  of  the  Irish  potato-disease  (Phytophthora  in- 
festans). 

Introduction  into  New  Zealand. 

There  are  no  definite  records  of  when  and  how  Phytophthora 
infestans  was  first  introduced  into  this  country.  On  the  epi- 
demic outbreak  of  this  disease  in  November.  1904,  Professor 
Thomas  made  the  following  statement  :  "  The  same  disease 
( /'/u/iophthora  infestans)  appealed  some  twelve  years  ago,  but  it 
was  not  so  prevalent  as  on  the  present  occasion."  Further,  he 
says,  "Moreover,  it  is  no  new  thing  here,  having  been  in  the 
country,  to  my  certain  knowledge,  lor  the  past  twelve  years." 
Mr.  T.  W.  Kirk,  in  the  report  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
for  1905,  writes,  "Twelve  years  ago  there  was  a  mild  outbreak 


Cockayne. — Spread  of  Phytophthora  infestans.        317 

in  the  Auckland  Province,  but  it  has  not  been  heard  of  since 
till  last  year."  For  my  part,  I  consider  that  the  epidemic  out- 
break in  Auckland  in  1904  was  in  no  way  connected  with  the 
sporadic  ones  which  occurred  previously.  The  cause  can  be 
attributed  to  the  fresh  importation  of  Phytophthora  mycelium 
in  imported  potatoes.  There  are  only  two  ways  that  Phytoph- 
thora can  possibly  have  been  introduced  here — either  by  resting 
mycelium  in  diseased  tubers,  or  by  asexual  spores  or  oospores ; 
but  as  these  latter  have  never  been  definitely  discovered,  its  in- 
troduction by  means  of  them  is  most  unlikely.  The  asexual 
spores  of  P.  infestans  are  naturally  short-lived,  and  are  in  no 
way  provided  with  any  adaptations  to  withstand  the  desiccation 
that  they  would  undergo  in  passing  through  the  tropics.  There- 
fore it  is  almost  certain  that  the  introduction  of  this  disease  into 
New  Zealand  was  by  means  of  dormant  mycelium  hidden  away 
in  the  tissues  of  affected  tubers.  This  view  is  greatly  strengthened 
by  the  discovery,  on  numerous  occasions  during  the  past  two 
years,  of  varieties  of  imported  potatoes  in  which  the  presence 
of  Phytophthora  mycelium  was  clearly  demonstrated. 

All  potatoes  which  are  now  imported  into  New  Zealand  are 
carefully  examined  by  the  Agricultural  Department,  and  those 
lines  found  affected  with  Phytophthora  are  at  once  destroyed. 

Action  of  Phytophthora  on  Potato-tubers. 

There  are  still  many  gaps  in  our  knowledge  of  the  full  life- 
history  of  the  Irish  potato- disease,  and  the  exact  pathological 
processes  that  obtain  in  so-called  diseased  tubers  are  but  im- 
perfectly understood.  That  the  disease  is  transmitted  from 
season  to  season  by  means  of  mycelium  permeating  the  tissues 
of  the  tubers  themselves  has  been  now  abundantly  proved. 
Massee  has  given  the  name  "hybernating  mycelium"  to  that 
portion  of  the  vegetative  body  of  a  fungus  which  has  the  power 
of  remaining  quiescent  during  the  dormant  period  of  the  host's 
existence,  and  which  can  return  to  normal  development  as  soon 
as  the  host  commences  to  develop.  It  follows  naturally  that 
those  fungi  which  are  able  to  develop  hybernating  mycelium 
do  not  require  the  same  amount  of  varied  spore-formation  as 
those  which  are  not  so  equipped.  The  formation  of  winter 
spores  would  be  decidedly  superfluous,  and  such  fungi  can  be 
more  specialised  in  the  direction  of  producing  summer  and 
generally  short-lived  spores,  whose  object  is  to  rapidly  infect 
large  masses  of  their  hosts,  provided  the  environment  is 
suitable. 

The  finest  example  of  hybernating  mycelium  is  found,  as 
Freeman  has  shown,  in  the  fungus  affecting  the  various  species 
of  Lolium,  especially  L.  temulentum.     In  over   70   per  cent,  of 


318  Transactions. 

• 
the  seed  of  this  weed  that  I  have  examined  masses  of  resting 
mycelium  have  been  found  in  the  tissue  interior  to  the  aleurone 
layer.  This  mycelium  remains  inactive  until  the  Lolium  seed 
begins  to  germinate,  when  it  develops  and  keeps  pace  with  the 
growth  of  the  host,  and  finally  re-foims  resting  mycelium  in  the 
developing  seed.  No  mode  of  spore-formation,  either  sexual 
or  asexual,  has  ever  been  noted,  and  the  fungus  appears  to  live 
in  perfect  harmony  with  its  host.  This  almost  symbiotic  union 
between  the  fungus  and  host  is  of  the  utmost  biologic  importance 
in  the  economy  of  hybemating  mycelium,  for  it  is  at  once  ap- 
parent that  if  the  fungus  can  live  on  its  host  throughout  the 
dormant  season  without  causing  any  marked  injury,  there  is  all 
the  more  chance  of  the  host  developing  in  a  normal  and  more 
or  less  healthy  manner  during  the  next  season,  and  thus  allow 
the  perpetuation  of  the  fungus  ;  whereas  if  the  resting  mycelium 
caused  serious  pathological  changes  in  the  host,  the  latter  would 
probably  be  killed  outright,  and  the  resting  mycelium  would 
die  at  the  same  time. 

A  considerable  amount  of  material  has  been  examined  by 
me  during  the  past  three  years,  showing  both  the  ordinary  and 
the  hybemating  mycelium  of  Phytophlhora  infestans,  and  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  interesting  information  on  the  perpetuation  of 
this  fungus  has  thus  been  gathered  together. 

The  exact  manner  by  which  the  mycelium  of  P.  infestans 
reaches  the  tuber  has  not  been  as  yet  satisfactorily  ascertained, 
and  for  this  purpose  detailed  and  careful  examination  in  the 
field  would  be  necessary.  Two  methods  have  been  suggested — 
firstly,  that  the  mycelium  spreads  from  the  leaf  downwards 
through  the  stem  until  it  reaches  the  tuber  ;  and,  secondly, 
that  spores  developed  on  the  conidiophores  fall  to  the  ground, 
and  are  washed  by  rain  or  carried  by  other  agencies  directly 
on  to  the  surface  of  the  tubers.  I  am  inclined  to  think  that 
both  these  processes  occur  in  nature,  but  that  the  mycelium, 
which  descends  down  the  stem  and  then  enters  the  tubers, 
alone  forms  hybemating  mycelium,  and  that  the  spores  which 
reach  the  tubers  by  mechanical  and  other  means  do  not  develop 
into  resting  mycelium,  bul  are  more  or  less  directly  responsible 
for  the  rapid  rotting  that  so  often  occurs  with  Phi/tophthora 
attack.  This  view  gains  j>reat  weight  from  the  fact  that  healthy 
tubers  mi  the  surface  of  which  Phytophthora  spores  are  scattered, 
but  on  which  resting  mycelium  has  not  heeii  observed  by  me, 
rapidly  develop  a  rot.  Recently  Matruchol  and  Molliard  have 
declared  that  Phytophthora  docs  do1  of  itself  cause  a  rot  in  potato- 
tubers,  but  that  after  the  tubers  become  affected  the  rot  that 
sets  in  is  due  to  microbes  that  become  associated  with  the  P.  in- 
festans.     This  view,  notwithstanding  the  highr authorities! from 


Cockayne. — Spread  of  Phytophthora  infestans.        319 

whence  it  has  originated,  I  am  inclined  to  combat ;  although  I 
must  admit  that  in  the  majority  of  the  cases  I  have  examined 
secondary  infection  by  bacteria  and  other  fungi,  notably  Fusa- 
rium  oxysporum,  plays  an  extremely  important  part  in  the  rotting 
that  occurs  in  tubers  which  have  been  primarily  attacked  by 
P.  infestans.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  tubers  bearing  the 
characteristic  marks  associated  with  Phytophthora  attack  often 
remain  during  the  whole  winter  without  any  trace  of  rot  setting 
in.  When  these  are  examined  under  a  magnification  of  about 
100  diameters,  large  amounts  of  dormant  mycelium  will  be  seen 
in  those  portions  of  the  tissues  of  the  tubers  that  abut  on  the 
darkened  and  discoloured  areas,  which  are  said  to  be  caused 
by  Phytophthora ;  and  in  such  cases  no  other  fungi  or  bacteria 
will  be  found  associated  with  the  Phytophthora  mycelium.  This 
observation  gains  considerably  in  significance  when  it  is  stated 
that  in  those  tubers  on  which  an  active  rot  is  present  resting 
mycelium  can  hardly  ever  be  discovered,  although  there  will  be 
an  abundance  of  bacteria  and  other  fungi,  both  parasitic  and 
saprophytic. 

If  slices  of  potatoes  showing  resting  mycelium  of  Phytoph- 
thora infestans  are  placed  in  petri  dishes,  and  kept  moist  in  a 
temperature  of  about  60°  to  70°  Fahr.,  the  mycelium  will  rapidly 
become  active,  and  in  a  few  days  an  abundant  crop  of  spores 
will  be  developed.  This  shows  that  the  mycelium  is  not  in  a 
very  dormant  condition,  but  is  really  on  the  border-line  between 
active  and  hybernating  mycelium.  This  is  a  very  important 
point,  inasmuch  as  it  shows  the  liability,  under  ce  tain  condi- 
tions, of  the  mycelium  to  become  active  even  when  no  growth 
on  the  part  of  the  host  takes  place,  and  in  this  particular  dis- 
tinguishes it  sharply  from  the  more  specialised  resting  stages 
in  the  life-history  of  other  fungi,  such  as  many  of  the  Ustilayinece. 

When  tubers  with  the  resting  mycelium  of  P.  infestans  are 
p/anted,  the  fungus  develops  rapidly  through  the  tissues  of  the 
developing  plant,  and  if  the  weather  is  humid  and  warm  the 
mycelium  becomes  markedly  negatively  geotropic,  and  if  the 
conditions  remain  favourable  for  its  development  it  quickly 
makes  its  way  into  the  leaves,  on  the  under  surfaces  of  which 
it  soon  produces  an  abundant  supply  of  spores,  which,  blown 
by  the  wind,  can  soon  spread  infection  far  and  wide.  If,  how- 
ever, the  weather-conditions  remain  unfavourable  for  its  de- 
velopment, no  spores  at  all  may  be  produced,  and  to  all  outward 
appearance  the  potato-plants  remain  quite  healthy.  In  such  a 
case  it  is  not  known  whether  the  fungus  can  again  form  resting 
mycelium  without  the  intervention  of  a  spore- producing  stage, 
as  is  done  in  the  case  of  Lolium  temulentum,  but  I  am  inclined 
to  consider  that  such  can  and  often  does  occur. 


320  Transactions. 

The  Tropic  Movements  of  Phytophthora  Mycelium. 

A  peculiar  feature  of  the  biology  of  the  mycelium  of  Phy- 
tophthora infestans  is  that,  after  primary  infection  has  taken 
place  on  the  leaf  or  stem,  it  is  markedly  positively  geotropic.  On 
the  other  hand,  as  has  been  mentioned  previously,  the  mycelium 
developing  from  the  dormant  portion  becomes  negatively  geo- 
tropic. For  my  part,  I  attribute  this  not  to  the  action  of  gravity, 
but  to  the  result  of  chemotactic  stimulus,  and  that  the  mycelium 
in  all  cases  follows  the  direction  in  which  food  materials  are 
stored.  This  would  account  for  the  apparently  contradictory 
influence  which  gravity  has  up  to  the  present  been  considered 
to  produce. 

An  important  point,  and  one  which  appears  to  have  been 
lost  sight  of,  is  the  fact  that  in  tomatoes  attacked  by  Phytoph- 
thora the  direction  of  the  mycelium  is  in  general  negatively 
geotropic,  or,  as  I  take  it,  the  mycelium  is  chemotactically 
attracted  by  the  food  material  stored  in  the  fruit ;  whereas  in  the 
potato  the  mycelium  is  positively  geotropic,  being  attracted 
downwards  by  the  chemotaclic  stimulus  of  the  tubers. 


Art.   XXVII. — Note  on  the  Gabbro  of  the  Dun   Mountain. 

By  Dr.  P.  Marshall. 

Communicated  by  Mr.  R.  Speight. 

[Read  befon  the  Philosophical  Institutt  of  Canterbury,  Wh  December,  1907.] 

Captain  Hutton  first  called  attention  to  this  rock,*  and  cor- 
rectly described  some  of  its  peculiarities.  Its  coarse  structure 
and  its  simple  composition  (for  it  contains  only  two  minerals) 
were  both  noted.  The  specimen  was  given  to  him  by  Sir  J.  von 
Haast,  and  the  held  relations  of  the  rocks  were  unknown. 

The  two  minerals  were  called  by  Hutton  anthophvllite  and 
saussurite,  which  he  supposed  to  be  derived  from  anorthite  or 
labradorite.  In  a  later  paperf  he  again  classed  the  rock  as 
saussurite-gabbro,  but  classed  the  ferro-magnesian  mineral  as 
diallage,  enstatite,  and  hornblende  in  different  portions. 

A  geological  report  of  the  district  by  E.  H.  DavisJ  does  not 
refer  to    gabbro    rocks    specifically,    though    it    is    probably    in- 

•Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  six,  p.  412. 

f  Journ.  Roy.  Sue.  X.S.W..  vol.  xxiii.  p.  164. 

J  Geological  Reports,  1870-71,  p.  103. 


Marshall. — Gabbro  of  the  Dun  Mountain. 


321 


eluded  in  the  confused  mass  of  feldstone,  brouzite,  anthophyllite, 
&c,  referred  to  on  page  118  of  that  report. 

Hochstetter*  refers  to  dykes  of  diallage  rock  in  the  dunite 
of  this  region. 

A  visit  to  the  district  in  December,  1906,  enabled  me  to 
collect  specimens,  though  in  the  many  localities  in  which  the 
rock  was  found  I  was  una.ble  to  do  anything  in  the  way  of 
determining  its  field  relations,  for  I  found  it  nowhere  in  situ, 
though  blocks  were  abundant  on  the  north-east  slopes  of  the 
Dun  Mountain  and  in  the  valleys  of  the  Maitai  Stream  and 
Roding  River,  especially  where  they  issue  from  the  magnesian 
country.  Microscopic  examination  showed  that  the  so-called 
saussurite  was  entirely  isotropic,  as  previously  mentioned  by 
Hutton.  In  all  my  specimens  the  ferro-magnesian  mineral  was 
diallage. 

In  the  fresh  specimens  the  white  mineral  was  absolutely 
clear  and  colourless  in  section,  but  in  weathered  specimens  it 
was  somewhat  cloudy.  A  specimen  was  obtained  absolutely 
pure  for  analysis,  and  it  gave  the  following  result  : — 


1. 

2. 

Si02 

..    39-56 

38-60 

A120, 

..    23-73 

24-18 

CaO 

..    31-90 

35  03 

MgO 

..      315 

0-97 

Ign. 

. . 

110 

Total  . 


98-34 


99-96 


1.  Grossularite-gabbro,  Dun  Mountain,  Nelson,  New  Zea- 
land. 

2.  Grossularite,  River  Iset,  Peru. 

From  a  comparison  with  the  adjacent  analysis  of  typical 
grossularite  it  will  be  seen  that  the  chemical  composition  of 
the  mineral  shows  clearly  enough  that  it  should  be  referred  to 
grossularite.  The  percentage  of  magnesia  is  high,  though 
when  the  nature  of  the  adjoining  dunite  magma  is  considered 
such  a  percentage  is  to  be  expected. 

The  specific  gravity  of  the  mineral  confirms  this  result. 
From  a  specimen  of  absolute  purity  the  following  result  was 
obtained  :  G.  3-502.  The  average  specific  gravity  for  the 
examples  quoted  ("  Dana's  System  of  Mineralogy ")  is  rather 
over  3-5.  The  refractive  index  has  not  yet  been  measured, 
though  from  the  aspect  of  the  surface  in  section  the  value 
appears  below  that  usual  for  grossularite. 


New  Zealand,"  p.  475. 


11 — Traus. 


322  Transactions. 

The  saussurite-gabbro  therefore  becomes  a  grossularite- 
gabbro.  I  can  find  no  reference  to  a  similar  rock,  though  in 
Rosenbusch's  "  Physiographic  der  Mossigen  Gesteine,"  1906, 
3rd  edition,  p.  338,  it  is  stated  that  garnet  occurs  as  an  acces- 
sory constituent  of  gabbro,  though  it  is  not  said  whether  grossu- 
larite  is  the  type  referred  to. 

The  only  field  relation  that  was  determined  for  this  gabbro 
was  its  proximity  to  the  Maitai  limestone  which  fringes  the 
peridotite  intrusion  on  the  north-west.  This  fact  causes  the 
author  to  offer  the  suggestion  that  the  peculiar  rock  type  has 
resulted  from  the  digestion  of  some  of  the  limestone  at  the 
periphery  of  the  magma.  Captain  Hutton  has  already  described 
a  pyroxenite  from  the  district.  It  contains  a  large  amount 
of  bastite,  often  in  large  plates,  but  otherwise  consists  entirely 
of  diallage.  In  addition,  peculiar  white  rock  masses  pro- 
ject from  the  surface  of  the  hill  in  various  places.  These  have 
been  called  felsite  and  felstone  by  Davis,  but  they  are  pro- 
bably the  material  which  was  afterwards  found  by  Skey  to  be 
wollastonite — a  conclusion  with  which  the  author  agrees. 

The  presence  of  masses  of  wollastonite  appears  to  offer 
confirmation  of  the  suggestion  offered  that  digestion  of  masses 
of  the  Maitai  limestone  has  taken  place. 


Art.    XXVIII. — The   Analyses   of  certain     New   Zealand    Meat 

Products. 

By  A.  M.  Wright,  F.C.S.  (Berlin),  M.Am.C.S. 

[Read  be/ore  the  Philosophical  Institute  of  Canterbury.  6th  November,   L907.] 

Numerous  papers  have  been  published  on  the  frozen  meat  of 
New  Zealand,  but  up  to  the  present  no  work  appears  to  have 
been  recorded  upon  the  food-products  of  lesser  importance 
which  are  closely  associated  with  the  frozen-meat  trade. 

I.  Boned  Beef. 

The  following  analyses  show  that  this  class  of  meat  contains 
equal  nutritive  value  with  the  ordinary  flesh  of  healthy  cattle. 
For  comparison,  figures  given  by  Mitchell*  are  quoted. 

*  "  Flesh  P Is."  p.  47. 


Wright. — Analyses  of  N.Z.  Meat  Products.         323 


Boned  Beef. 

Average. 

Ox.         Cow.        Veal. 

Ox. 

Cow. 

Veal. 

Water 

7113 

63-14 

76-28 

72-03     70-96 

78-82 

Nitrogenous  substances 

21-76 

18-92 

21-93 

20-96     19-86 

19-86 

Fat 

6-25 

1714 

I  02 

5-41       7-70 

0-82 

Nitrogen-free  extractives 

0-46      0-41 

Ash 

0-86 

0-80  J    0-77 

1-14       1-07 

0-50 

Nitrogen 

3-48 

303 

3-51 

Calculated  to  Dry  Substance. 


Nitrogenous  substances 

75-37 

51-33 

92-48 

74-93 

68-38 

93-76 

Fat 

21-65 

46-50 

4-30 

19-34 

26-52 

3-87 

Ash 

2-98 

2- 17 

3-22 

Nitrogen 

12-06 

8-22 

14-79 

12-00 

11-13 

15-01 

II.  Meat-extracts. 

The  following  are  the  analyses  of  the  principal  meat-extracts 
manufactured  in  the  colony,  together  with  the  analyses  of 
Australian  and  South  American  extracts  : — 


New  Zealand. 

S  2 

a 
3 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

3   C 

oS 

to  c 

< 

3 

Moisture 

21-79 

17-16 

13-10 

24-21 

13-46 

17-28 

20-65 

16-42 

19-04 

19-48 

Organic  matter 

59-95 

65-58 

67-78 

59-44 

69-43 

62-82 

71-51 

69-91 

59-57 

62-59 

Sodic  chloride 

3-36 

3-14 

4-11 

2-89 

3-03 

3-68 

1-78 

3-43 

4-22 

3-71 

Other  mineral  salts 

14-90 

14-12 

15-01 

13-46 

14-08 

16-22 

6-06 

10-24 

17-17 

14-22 

Fat  .. 

0-33 

0-38 

0-41 

0-34 

0-46 

0-26 

14-10 

0-31 

0-28 

0-36 

Substance    insoluble     in 

1-02 

0-36 

0-21 

■  ■i 

water 

Substance    insoluble    in 

4-61 

5-38 

8-21 

7-45 

10-92 

3-38 

5-22 

6-92 

3-23 

50   per   cent,    alcohol, 

but  soluble  in  water 

Substance    insoluble    in 

15-16 

20-92 

16-82 

15-08 

22-48 

18-58 

13-36 

12-03 

11-24 

80   per   cent,    alcohol, 

but   soluble   in    water 

and  50  per  cent,  alcohol 

Substance  soluble  in  80 

57-42 

56-54 

61-87 

52-90 

53-14 

60-55 

65-00 

61-11 

66-05 

per  cent,  alcohol 

Nitrogen  insoluble  in  50 

0-32 

0-48 

0-62 

0-58 

0-71 

0-29 

0-42 

0-46 

0-28 

per  cent,  alcohol 

Nitrogen  insoluble  in  80 

1-25 

1-64 

1-39 

1-22 

1-96 

1-39 

1-06 

1-15 

0-97 

per  cent,  alcohol,  but 

soluble  in  50  per  cent. 

alcohol 

Nitrogen  soluble  in  80  per 

7-15 

7-69 

8-31 

6-85 

7-93 

7-83 

9-25 

7-29 

8-07 

cent,  alcohol 

Total  nitrogen 

8-72 

9-81 

10-32 

8-65 

10-60 

9-51 

8-26 

10-73 

8-90 

9-32 

Creatine 

4-82 

3-88 

6-19 

6-21 

5-03 

411 

The  meat-extracts  numbered  1  to  6  are  from  various  factories 
in  the  colony.  The  substance  insoluble  in  water  in  Nos.  1  and  4 
was  meat-fibre,  while  that  in  No.  6  was  phosphate  of  lime. 
No.  7  was  made  from  sheep-heads,  and  was  sold  as  "  stock." 


324  Transactions. 

The  high  fat-content  was  mainly  brain-fat,  and,  as  this  fat 
readily  emulsifies  with  water,  it  could  not  be  readily  removed 
from  the  liquor  ;  this  article  is  not  now  manufactured  in  this 
colony.  No.  8  was  taken  from  a  trial  lot  of  rabbit-extract, 
and,  while  this  article  is  not  manufactured  in  New  Zealand, 
its  analysis  indicates  the  possibility  of  utilising  this  material. 

For  permission  to  publish  these  results  I  have  to  express 
my  thanks  to  the  general  manager  of  the  Christchurch  Meat 
Company  (Limited),  in  whose  laboratory  most  of  the  work 
was  carried  out. 


Art.  XXIX. — The  Fixation  of  Atmospheric  Nitrogen  by  Nitrogen- 
fixing  Bacteria  in  Certain  Solutions. 

By  A.  M.  Wright,  F.C.S.  (Berlin),  M.Am.C.S. 

[Read  before  the  Philosophical  Institute  of  Canterbury,  llth  December.  1907.] 

This  paper  is  the  record  of  the  work  carried  out  preliminary 
to  soil  experiments  to  determine  under  what  conditions  of 
alkalinity  and  acidity  nitrogen- fixing  bacteria  will  fix  atmo- 
spheric nitrogen. 

A  solution  of  1  gram  each  of  cane-sugar,  ammonium-sulphate, 
magnesium-sulphate,  and  potassium-sulphate  in  1  litre  of  water 
was  prepared  ;  to  10  cubic  centimeters  of  this  solution  100 
milligrams  of  cotton-wool  containing  the  bacteria  were  added. 
This  was  then  rendered  acid  or  alkaline.  The  degrees  of  acidity 
or  alkalinity  are  expressed  as  parts  of  calcium-oxide  per  million, 
this  being  the  usual  method  of  expressing  these  results  in  soil- 
determinations. 

The  experiments  were  carried  out  in  Kjeldahl  digestion 
flasks.  At  the  end  of  the  experiment  it  was  merely  necessary 
to  add  mercury  and  sulphuric  acid,  and  proceed  with  the  nitrogen 
determination  as  in  other  Kjeldahl  estimations.* 

Neutral  Solution. 

Days. 

II 

:5      .. 

7 
10 
14 
•21 
28 

*  Bull.  No.  si.  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  U.S.A.  Dept.  of  A'gric,  p.  152. 


Nitrogen  found. 

Nitrogen  fixed 

M-. 

Mg. 

.  .     •-'•  1 

2-7 

0-6 

:{-4 

13 

4-2 

_>l 

51 

30 

(i-7 

4-6 

8-8 

6-7 

Wright. 

— Fixation  of  Atm 

ospheric 

Nitrogen. 

32£ 

Acid  Solutions. 

1. 

2. 

3. 

Nitrogen 

Nitrogen       Nitrogen 

Nitrogen 

Nitrogen 

Nitrogen 

found. 

fixed.              found. 

fixed. 

found. 

fixed. 

Days. 

Mg. 

Mg.                Mg. 

Mg. 

Mg. 

Mg. 

0 

.     21 

21 

21 

3 

.    2-4 

0-3                 2-2 

01 

2-1 

.    , 

7 

.    31 

1-0                2-6 

0-5 

2-2 

01 

10 

.    3-9 

1-8               2-9 

0-8 

2-2 

0-1 

14 

.    4-3 

2-3               3-0 

0-9 

2-4 

0-3 

21 

.    5-6 

3-5                3-2 

1-1 

2-6 

0-5 

28 

.    6-7 

4-6               3-6 

1-5 

2-8 

0-7 

Experiment  1.  Acidity  required,  254  parts  of  CaO  per  million 
to  neutralise  solution. 

Experiment  2.  Acidity  required,  646  parts  of  CaO  per  million 
to  neutralise  solution. 

Experiment  3.  Acidity  required,  1,050  parts  of  CaO  per 
million  to  neutralise  solution. 

Alkaline  Solutions. 


Days. 

0 

3 

7 

10 
14 
21 
28 


Days. 

0 

3 

7 

10 
14 
21 
o« 


Nitrogen 
found. 

Nitrogen 
fixed. 

Nitrogen 
found. 

Nitrogen 
fixed. 

Mg. 

,    Mg. 

Mg. 

Mg. 

.     2-1 

.   . 

2-1 

.    . 

.    2-8 

0-7 

2-6 

0-5 

.    3-7 

1-6 

3-2 

11 

.    4-8 

2-7 

41 

2-0 

.    5-5 

3-4 

4-9 

2-8 

.    7-1 

6-0 

6-5 

4-4 

.    9-3 

7-2 

8-5 

6-4 

3. 

4. 

Nitrogen 
found. 

Nitrogen 
fixed. 

Nitrogen 
found. 

Nitrogen 
fixed. 

Mg. 

Mg. 

Mg. 

Mg. 

.    21 

.    . 

2-1 

m    m 

.     2-4 

0-3 

2-3 

0-2 

.    2-9 

0-8 

2-5 

0-4 

.    3-8 

1-7 

2-9 

0-8 

.    4-5 

2-4 

31 

1-0 

.    6-1 

4-0 

3-7 

1-6 

.    7-8 

5-7 

4-2 

21 

Experiment  1.  Alkalinity  equals  254  parts  of  CaO  per  million. 

2.  „'  646 

3.  „  1,050 

4.  „  1,400 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  that  the  bacteria  fix  nitrogen 
in  the  greatest  quantity  when  the  media  are  neutral  or  slightly 
alkaline.     In  slightly  acid  media  the  nitrogen  is  fixed  in  less 


326  Transactions. 

quantities,  while  when  the  acidity  is  1,050  parts  per  million 
the  fixation  is  relatively  small.  The  fixation  also  decreases 
as  the  alkalinity  increases  over  254  parts  per  million. 

For  permission  to  publish  these  results  I  have  to  express 
my  thanks  to  the  general  manager  of  the  Christchurch  Meat 
Company  (Limited),  in  whose  laboratory  much  of  the  work 
in  connection  with  this  paper  was  carried  out. 


Art.    XXX. — The  Transformation  of  Barley  into  Malt. 
By  Percy  B.  Phipson,  F.C.S. 

[Read  before  the  Wellington  Philosophical  Society,  1st  November.  1905.] 

The  practice  of  malting  and  brewing  has  been  known  from 
very  ancient  times.  Herodotus  describes  (Herodotus,  Book  II, 
cap.  77)  beer  prepared  from  barley  as  the  ordinary  drink  of 
the  Egyptians  in  his  day  (430  B.C.),  and,  in  common  with  other 
writers  of  antiquity,  he  ascribes  the  art  of  brewing  to  Isis,  wife 
of  Osiris,  better  known  as  Rameses  II  (1960  B.C.).  It  is  there- 
fore a  matter  of  surprise  that,  although  the  process  of  malting 
has  been  carried  on  for  close  on  four  thousand  years,  so  little 
is  really  known  about  it  except  by  persons  connected  with  that 
industry. 

In  the  present  paper  I  intend  giving  a  short  description 
of  the  barley-corn,  an  explanation  of  the  chemical  changes 
that  take  place  within  the  barley-corn  during  germination, 
and  an  account  of  the  method  by  which  these  changes  are 
brought  about  in  practice. 

The  first  subject  to  receive  attention  is  the  structure  of  the 
barley-corn.  You  will  notice  that  the  grain  is  spindle-shaped, 
and  about  '  in.  in  length,  one  end  being  sharper  than  the  other  : 
this  whs  the  end  that  was  attached  to  the  ear  of  barley  previous 
to  threshing.  Again  you  will  notice  that  the  grain  is  enveloped 
by  a  very  strong  skin  or  husk — palese— consisting  of  the  inner 
and  outer  palea.  Beneath  the  palea1  are  two  coats  or  skins, 
the  first  known  as  the  "  pericarp,"  and  the  second,  which  is 
really  the  true  covering  of  the  seed,  is  known  as  the  "  testa." 
A  narrow  furrow  runs  down  the  more  convex  side  of  the  grain; 
tliis  side  is  known  as  the  '"  ventral  "  side,  while  the  other,  which 
is  comparatively  flat  and  smooth,  is  termed  the  "dorsal" 
side. 


Phipson. — Transformation  of  Barley  into  Malt.       327 


If  we  now  bisect  a  grain  of  barley  longitudinally — that  is, 
through  the  ventral  furrow — we  shall  find  that  the  grain  con- 

6 

d 


Diagram  of  a  Longitudinal  Section  of  a  Barley-corn. 

A,  endosperm  ;  B,  germ,  a,  starch-containing  cells  of  the  endosperm  ; 
b,  aleuroiie  layer ;  c,  absorptive  epithelium  of  the  scutellum  ;  d. 
plumule  ;   e,  rootlets  ;   /,  scutellum. 

sists  of  two  principal  parts — (1)  the  germ  or  embryo  (the  part 
endowed  with  actual  life)  ;  (2)  the  endosperm,  the  starchy  por- 
tion of  the  grain. 

The  germ,  which  in  the  dried  barley-corn  forms  only  about 
one-thirtieth  of  the  whole,  is  separated  from  the  endosperm  by 

a  barrier  known  as  the  "  scutel- 
lum." This  scutellum  consists 
of  layers  of  compressed  empty 
cells ;  and  on  the  side  which  is 
pressed  on  the  endosperm  is 
situated  a  layer  of  elongated 
cells,  known  as  the  "  absorptive 
epithelial  layer."  These  cells 
have  most  important  functions, 
and  play  an  important  part  in 
the  feeding  of  the  young  embryo 
when  it  commences  to  develop 
into  a  young  plant. 

The  germ  consists  of  two  dis- 
tinct parts  —  plumule  and  root- 
lets. During  germination  this 
plumule  becomes  the  acrospire 
of  the  malt,  and  if  the  seed 
were  sown  in  the  ground  and 
germination  pushed  on  to  com- 
pletion the  acrospire  would  develop  into  the  actual  stem  of 
the  plant,  and,  under  similar  conditions,  the  rootlets  would 
form  the  roots. 


Section  showing  Epithelium 
(greatly  magnified). 

a,  Empty  compressed  starch  cells  of 
the  endosperm ;  b,  absorptive 
epithelium ;  c,  starch-containing 
cells  of  the  endosperm  ;  d,  scu- 
tellum. 


328  Transactions. 

The  endosperm  consists  of  a  mass  of  starch-cells,  intermingled 
with  irregular  and  spherical  particles  of  nitrogenous  matter,  the 
whole  contained  in  compartments  of  cellulose,  and  forming  a 
store  of  foodstuff  to  supply  the  germ  until  it  has  grown  suffi- 
ciently to  enable  it  to  draw  nourishment  through  its  roots  and 
leaves. 

Immediately  under  the  skin  is  a  triple  layer  of  thick-walled 
square -shaped  cells,  known  as  the  "  aleurone  cells."  These 
cells  contain  finely  granulated  nitrogenous  matter,  and  also 
small  spherules  of  fat  or  oil.  It  is  not  clear  what  their 
immediate  function  is,  but,  seeing  they  are  in  contact  with 
the  starch-cells  of  the  endosperm  and  the  bulk  of  the  germ, 
they  may  take  some  active  part  in  the  transfer  of  food  from 
the  former  to  the  latter. 

Now,  although  the  substances  in  the  endosperm  are  intended 
as  a  food-supply  for  the  germ,  they  are  in  an  entirely  unavailable 
condition,  for,  in  the  first  place,  the  scutellum  will  prevent  the 
passage  to  the  germ  unless  these  substances  are  in  a  state  of 
solution,  and,  in  the  second  place,  such  a  solution  must  be  a 
diffusible  one.  Now,  starch,  which  constitutes  the  bulk  of  the 
endosperm,  is  practically  insoluble,  and  the  nitrogenous  matters 
are  almost  entirely  so,  while  such  portions  of  them  as  do 
dissolve  in  water  yield  non-diffusible  solutions. 

With  the  object  of  rendering  the  amount  of  foodstuff  avail- 
able for  the  young  germ,  the  epithelial  layer  of  the  scutellum, 
which  I  have  previously  described,  has  the  property,  when 
sufficient  water  is  present,  of  secreting  soluble  ferments,  or 
enzymes,  which  have  the  power  of  acting  on  the  starch  and 
nitrogenous  matter  and  rendering  them  both  soluble,  and  the 
solutions  of  which  are  diffusible.  The  enzyme  which  acts  upon 
starch  is  diastase,  while  that  which  acts  upon  nitrogenous  matter 
is  vegetable  pancreatin,  and  is  probably  similar  to  peptase. 

Now,  although  by  the  aid  of  the  two  ferments,  diastase  and 
peptase,  the  two  difficulties  of  solubility  and  diffusibility  are 
overcome,  the  foodstuffs  in  the  endosperm  are  not  even  yet 
available  for  the  nutrition  of  the  germ.  I  mentioned  previously, 
in  speaking  of  the  contents  of  the  endosperm,  that  both  the 
starch  and  gluten  cells  were  enclosed  within  compartments  of 
cellulose,  and,  as  this  cellulose  tissue  is  impervious  both  to 
diastase  and  peptiise,  it  is  necessary  that  another  enzyme  should 
be  secreted  to  dissolve  this  cellulose.  This  enzyme  is  called 
'"  cytase,"  and  its  action,  of  course,  precedes  the  action  of 
both  the  other  ferments.  Cytase  is  secreted  in  the  region  of 
the  scutellum,  and  slowly  passes  through  the  grain,  and  its 
passage  may  be  noted  by  the  progressive  softening  of  the  corn 
as  it  dissolves  the  cellulose,  the  original  hardness  of  the  grain 


Phipson.-  —Transformation  of  Barley  into  Malt.       329 

being  due  to  this  substance.  Cytase  converts  the  cellulose  into 
sugar  (dextrose),  and  this,  passing  through  the  scutellum,  is 
used  by  the  germ  as  food.*  The  diastase  acts  upon  the  now 
exposed  starch  and  converts  it  into  maltose,  no  dextrin  being 
formed.  The  maltose  passes  from  where  it  is  formed  in  the 
endosperm  to  the  germ,  but,  while  transfusing,  this  scutellum 
is  apparently  converted  into  cane-sugar  in  an  unascertained 
manner.  This  cane-sugar  now  formed  is  used  by  the  germ  as 
food.  A  portion  of  it  is  inverted  into  invert  sugar  by  an  enzyme 
called  "  invertase  "  that  is  secreted  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
rootlets. 

While  these  changes  are  taking  place  an  analogous  process 
is  also  going  on  with  the  nitrogenous  matter.  The  nitrogenous 
constituents  of  malt  consist  principally  of  glutens.  These  are 
acted  upon  by  the  peptase,  and  are  converted  into  peptones, 
amides,  amido-acids,  and  albuminoids  proper,  the  former  passing 
readily  through  the  scutellum  and  forming  the  nitrogenous 
portion  of  nutriment  of  the  germ. 

From  the  above  you  will  realise  what  an  enormous  amount 
of  energy  is  lying  dormant  within  the  germ  of  the  barley-corn, 
and  only  waiting  the  addition  of  water  at  a  suitable  temperature 
to  bring  these  numerous  and  complex  changes  about. 

On  a  commercial  scale  the  process  is  carried  out  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner  :  The  barley,  after  having  been  thoroughly 
cleaned  by  passing  through  screening  machinery,  and  graded  to 
take  out  the  light,  thin  corns,  is  then  immersed  in  water  in  a 
large  tank  known  as  the  cistern.  The  barley  is  allowed  to  soak 
for  about  fifty  hours ;  but,  of  course,  this  will  vary  very  much 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  barley  and  the  temperature  of 
the  steep-water,  which  should  be  from  50°  to  55°  Fahr.  If 
the  water  is  below  this  temperature  it  tends  to  delay  germina- 
tion. 

While  in  the  cistern  the  barley  absorbs  about  50  per  cent. 
of  water,  and  its  proportions  increase  considerably  in  bulk. 
The  lower  the  initial  moisture  of  the  barley  the  more  rapidly 
does  it  absorb  water.  This  is  a  matter  of  importance,  as  barley 
grown  on  undulating  land — as  much  of  the  New  Zealand  barley 
is — invariably  shows  great  irregularity  in  the  amount  of  initial 
moisture  ;  consequently  some  of  the  grain  absorbs  more  water 
than  the  other  while  in  the  cistern,  which,  in  turn,  means 
uneven  growth.  To  remedy  this,  many  maltsters  now  adopt 
the  system  of  sweating  prior  to  steeping.  By  the  term  "  sweat- 
ing "  is  meant  kiln-drying.  The  barley,  before  being  stored  in 
bins,  is  subjected  to  a  temperature  of  about  100°  Fahr.  on  the 


*  H.  Brown  and  Morris. 


330  Transactions. 

kiln  for  about  eight   hours.      By  this    means    the   amount  of 
moisture  is  reduced. 

During  the  steeping  stage  the  water  is  changed  several 
times,  partly  because  the  water  dissolves  a  certain  amount  of 
organic  matter  from  the  grain  which  would  afford  a  supply  of 
food  for  the  numerous  bacterial  organisms  that  adhere  to  the 
barley,  and  also  because  the  accompanying  aeration  due  to  the 
draining  of  the  barley  greatly  assists  to  bring  about  germina- 
tion. 

The  grain  having  been  steeped — that  is,  sufficiently  soaked 
— it  is  now  laid  out  upon  the  growing-floor.  It  is  usual  to  com- 
mence the  process  by  what  is  known  as  "  couching  the  malt ': 
for  twelve  or  eighteen  hours — that  is,  keeping  it  up  to  a  depth 
of  12  in.  or  18  in. ;  this  allows  the  heat  to  accumulate,  and  starts 
the  act  of  germination  more  rapidly  than  would  be  the  case 
if  the  grain  wore  laid  out  in  a  shallow  piece. 

After  couching,  the  next  process  is  flooring.  The  couch  is 
broken  down,  and  the  grain  is  laid  evenly  over  the  floor  to  the 
depth  of  3  in.  or  4  in.  The  depth  entirely  depending  upon  the 
temperature,  naturally  on  a  warm,  muggy  day  the  grain  will  be 
spread  thinner  than  on  a  cold  day,  and  vice  versa. 

In  about  twenty-four  hours  after  the  removal  of  the  grain 
from  the  cistern  the  rootlets  begin  to  make  an  appearance  in 
the  form  of  a  white  protrusion  at  one  end  of  the  barley-corn. 
On  the  following  day  many  of  the  corns  will  show  from  one  to 
three  distinct  rootlets,  and  on  the  third  day  nearly  the  whole 
of  the  grain  will  have  three  or  four  roots.  By  the  third  day 
the  acrospire — that  is,  the  stalk  part  of  the  germ — will  begin 
to  move  up  the  back  of  the  corn. 

During  all  this  time  a  respiratory  process  is  proceeding — 
that  is,  the  corn  is  actually  inhaling  atmospheric  oxygen  and 
exhaling  carbon-dioxide,  and  any  undue  accumulation  of  this 
latter  gas  either  stops  its  growth  or  seriously  impedes  it ;  pro- 
vision has  therefore  to  be  made  for  removing  the  carbon-dioxide  , 
and  supplying  fresh  oxygen.  This  necessary  aeration  is  secured 
by  turning  the  malt.  The  turning  is  effected  with  broad  flat 
wooden  shovels,  and  as  each  shovelful  is  thrown  forward  a 
dexterous  turn  of  the  wrist  scatters  it  thinly  and  evenly  on 
the  floor  in  front.  This  turning  usually  takes  place  both 
morning  and  evening. 

On  the  fifth  or  sixth  day  the  roots  will  begin  to  probably 
lose  their  fresh  appearance,  and  become  yellowish;  this  shows 
that  tin'  piece  is  becoming  deficient  in  moisture.  It  is  there- 
lore  sprinkled  with  water  from  a  long-spouted  watering-can 
made  for  this  purpose.  The  amount  of  sprinkling-water  used 
is  usually  about  half  a  gallon  to  the  bushel,  and  the  whole  ol 


Phipson. — Transformation  of  Barley  into  Malt.        331 

this  is  applied  during  the  fifth   and  sixth  days.     This  should 
supply  sufficient  moisture  to   carry  on  germination  until  the 
acrospire   has   reached   about   two-thirds   or   three-quarters   up 
the   back   of  the   corn,   when   germination  has  proceeded  far 
enough. 

Directly  the  cellulose  has  been  all  converted,  all  further 
change  in  the  barley-corn  represents  dead  loss,  so  that  when 
we  have  accumulated  sufficient  cytase  to  remove  the  rest  of  the 
cellulose  tissue,  the  piece  is  thickened  slightly  and  allowed 
to  remain  for  eighteen  or  twenty-four  hours  without  turning. 
By  this  means  the  growth  is  to  a  certain  extent  stopped,  the 
piece  collects  heat  and  loses  moisture,  and  the  rootlets  become 
shrivelled  in  appearance  ;  this  part  of  the  process  is  known  as 
"withering."  On  the  floors  working  at  the  above  temperatures 
it  will  take  about  twelve  days  to  arrive  at  the  withering  stage. 
Working  at  a  higher  temperature,  and  using  a  larger  quantity 
of  sprinkling-water,  it  would  be  possible  to  obtain  the  same 
amount  of  growth  in  eight  or  nine  days ;  but  in  this  case  a 
larger  amount  of  carbo-hydrate  and  soluble  nitrogenous  matter 
is  formed  in  the  germ  than  it  has  time  to  assimilate ;  conse- 
quently, these  bodies  would  remain  in  the  malt,,  and  pass  over 
into  the  brewer's  wort,  with  disastrous  results. 

During  the  later  stages  of  growth  upon  the  floors  mould 
will  unfortunately  begin  to  make  an  appearance,  the  damaged 
and  broken  corns  being  the  first  attacked.  For  this  reason 
as  many  as  possible  of  the  broken  corns  are  removed  prior  to 
steeping ;  but,  although  broken  corns  can  be  mechanically  re- 
moved, this  does  not  apply  to  corns  that  are  slightly  skinned. 
Hence,  however  careful  the  maltster  may  be,  a  certain  amount 
of  mould  is  inevitable.  For  this  the  grower  is  almost  entirely 
to  blame,  the  damage  to  the  grain  being  either  due  to  setting 
the  threshing-machine  too  close — and  this  is  frequently  done 
intentionally,  so  as  to  break  off  the  awn  as  short  as  possible, 
and  so  give  the  barley  a  plump  appearance — or  because  the 
grower  is  anxious  to  get  a  large  amount  of  grain  threshed  in 
a  given  time,  the  machine,  in  consequence,  being  driven  at  too- 
high  a  speed.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  much  of  the  New 
Zealand  barley  is  really  unfit  for  malting  for  this  one  reason- — 
the  grower  will  not  realise  that  barley  for  malting  should  have 
an  awn. 

The  withering  stage  having  been  completed,  the  grain  is 
now  loaded  on  to  the  kiln,  where  it  is  subjected  to  two  distinct 
though  continuous  processes — viz.,  drying  and  curing. 

The  object  of  drying  is  twofold — firstly,  we  want  to  effec- 
tually arrest  any  further  growth  in  the  malt ;  and,  secondly, 
we  want  to  reduce  the  percentage  of  moisture  existing  at  the 


332  Transactions. 

time  of  loading  the  kiln — generally  about  45  per  cent. — to  a 
point  at  which  we  can  commence  curing  in  safety. 

In  this  part  of  the  process  it  is  necessary  to  proceed  with 
great  care,  as  if  the  heat  is  applied  too  rapidly  the  starch  in 
the  external  layers  of  the  endosperm  becomes  gelatinised  and 
vitreous,  and  also  to  a  certain  extent  caramelised  ;  also,  the 
diastase  contained  in  the  malt  is  very  sensitive  to  heat  in  the 
presence  of  moisture,  but  when  dry  will  stand  exposure  to  fairly 
high  temperatures. 

In  order  to  expel  the  moisture  while  at  a  low  temperature 
the  malt  must  not  form  a  layer  of  more  than  8  in.  in  thickness  ; 
the  air-holes  in  the  kiln  are  kept  open  to  admit  of  large  volumes 
of  air  passing  through,  and  the  malt  is  frequently  forked  and 
loosened.  During  this  time  the  temperature  is  kept  at  about 
80°  or  90°  Fahr. 

As  the  moisture-percentage  decreases,  the  heat  is  allowed  to 
rise,  so  that  by  the  time  the  percentage  of  moisture  has  been 
reduced  to  12  per  cent,  or  15  per  cent.,  the  temperature  will 
have  increased  to  about  130°  Fahr.  By  this  time  the  malt  is 
what  is  termed  "hand  dry."  When  this  point  is  reached,  the 
drying  ceases  and  curing  commences.  The  air  is  nearly  all  shut 
out,  and  the  temperature  is  raised  to  about  180°  Fahr.  for  pale 
malt  or  about  200-230°  for  "  high  dried,"  and  the  malt  is  main- 
tained at  this  temperature  for  about  eight  hours.  By  keeping 
the  malt  at  this  high  temperature  we  restrict  the  diastatic 
character  of  the  malt  to  certain  limits  dependent  upon  the 
type  of  malt  which  we  wish  to  turn  out,  and  also  obtain  the 
products  upon  which  depend  the  character  and  aroma  of  the 
article  produced.  The  moisture-percentage  is  also  reduced  to 
1  per  cent,  or  under. 

During  the  whole  of  the  process  of  drying  and  curing  the 
heat  is  obtained  directly  from  the  fires — that  is  to  say,  the 
heat  and  combustion  products  pass  direct  through  the  layer 
of  malt,  the  malt  being  supported  on  a  floor  of  woven  wire  or 
perforated  tiles,  the  fires  being  placed  immediately  under  the 
floor,  but  at  such  a  distance  as  will  prevent  scorching  the  kiln ; 
in  fact,  in  construction  resembling  a  chimney.  The  fuel  used 
is  either  anthracite  coal  or  coke 

At  the  finish  of  the  curing  stage  the  malt  is  passed  through 
screening  machinery  to  remove  the  rootlets,  which,  although 
shrivelled  up,  still  adhere  to  the  grain,  and  finally  the  malt  is 
stored  away  in  airtight  bins  until  required. 


Hogg. — Isogonal  Transformations.  333 


Art.   XXXI.— On  Isogonal  Transformations  :  Part  II. 
By  Evelyn  G.  Hogg,  M.A.,  Christ's  College,  Christchurch. 

[Read  before  the  Philosophical   Institute   of   Canterbury,  4th  December, 

1907.} 

1.  If  from  a  point  P  perpendiculars  PD,  PE,  PF  be  drawn  to 
the  sides  BC,  CA,  AB  respectively  of  the  triangle  of  reference 
ABC,  it  is  easily  shown  that  the  perpendiculars  from  A,  B, 
and  C  on  EF,  FD,  and  DE  respectively  are  concurrent  in  a 
point  P',  and  that  the  points  P  and  P'  are  isogonal  conju- 
gates. 

If  now  the  point  P  be  supposed  to  move  on  to  the 
circle  ABC,  the  point  P'  will  move  to  infinity,  and  the  pedal 
triangle  DEF  will  become  the  Simson  line  of  the  point  P. 
Hence  we  derive  the  important  theorem — "  The  isogonal  con- 
jugate of  a  point  on  the  circumcircle  of  the  triangle  of 
reference  lies  at  infinity  in  a  direction  perpendicular  to  the 
Simson  line  of  the  given  point." 

2.  In  this  paper  use  will  also  be  made  of  the  following 
theorem  :  "  The  Simson  lines  of  the  extremities  of  a  chord  of 
a  circle  intersect  at  an  angle  equal  to  that  at  which  the  chord 
cuts  the  circle."  This  may  be  easily  proved  from  the  con- 
sideration that  if  the  perpendicular  drawn  from  any  point  P 
on  the  circle  ABC  to  BC  meets  that  circle  again  in  the 
point  A',  then  A  A'  is  parallel  to  the  Simson  line  of  P. 


3.  It  has  been  shown  in  section  4  of  Part  I  of  this  paper 
that  the  asymptotic  angle  of  the  circumconic  which  is  the 
isogonal  transformation  of  a  chord  of  the  circumcircle  of  the 
triangle  of  reference  is  equal  to  the  angle  at  which  that  chord 
cuts  the  circle.  Combining  this  with  sections  1  and  2  of  this 
paper,  we  see  that  the  asymptotes  of  the  conic  which  is  the 
isogonal  transformation  of  a  chord  PQ  of  the  circle  ABC  are 
perpendicular  to  the  Simson  lines  of  the  points  P  and  Q. 

In  general,  if  S'  be  the  isogonal  transformation  of  a  curve 

S,  and  if  S  cut  the  circle  ABC  in  the  points  P,  Q,  E , 

then  the  directions  of  the  asymptotes  of  S'  are  perpendicular 
to  the  Simson  lines  of  the  points  P,  Q,  B 

4.  If  the  position  of  a  point  P  be  determined  by  the  inter- 
section of  the  circle  ABC  and  the  conic  whose  equation  is 

Ifiy  +  niya  -f  Uaft  =  0, 


334  Transactions. 

then  the  Simson  line  of  the  point  P  is  perpendicular  to  the 
line  la  +  m(3  +  ny  =  o,  and  its  equation  may  be  written 

alb      c\  blc     a\  c/a     b' 

~L\m~n)  m\n     7/  „      n\l     nij 

-jura+  sir  P+  -^r~y  = 

dl  dm  dn 

where 

Q,  =  P-\-m1-\-n2  —  Qmn  cos  A  —  2nl  cos  B  —  2lm  cos  C. 

5.  The  isogonal  transformation  of  a  tangent  to  the  circle 
ABC  is  a  parabola  circumscribed  to  that  triangle.  If  the 
tangent  touch  at  the  point  P,  then  the  axis  of  the  parabola  is 
perpendicular  to  the  Simson  line  of  the  point  P.  The  isogonal 
transformations  of  two  tangents  TP,  TQ  are  two  parabolas 
having  their  axes  inclined  at  an  angle  equal  to  that  at  which 
PQ  cuts  the  circle  ABC.  Parallel  tangents  transform  isogon- 
ally  into  two  parabolas  passing  through  four  concyclic  points 
and  having  their  axes  mutually  perpendicular. 

6.  Let  four  points  A,  B,  C,  D  (no  three  of  which  are 
collinear)  be  taken,  and  let  the  triangles  formed  by  omitting  in 
turn  each  of  the  points  be  called  Aj,  A2,  As,  A4  :  let  also  the 
isogonal  conjugates  of  A,  B,  C,  D  with  regard  to  the  triangles 
A1;  A2,  A8,  A4  be  called  respectively  A',  B',  C,  D'.  If  the  tan- 
gents from  A',  B',  C\  D'  touch  the  circumcircles  of  Aj,  A2,  A8J 
A4  in  PjQi  :  PaQa  :  P3Q„  :  P4Q4,  then  the  two  parabolas  which 
can  be  drawn  through  the  four  given  points  may  be  regarded 
as  the  isogonal  transformation  of  any  pair  of  tangents  to  the 
corresponding  circumcircle.  Hence  we  see  that  the  eight 
points  of  contact  of  the  tangents  may  be  arranged  in  two 
groups  of  four  points  such  that  the  Simson  lines  of  the  points 
of  each  group  are  parallel  to  one  another.  This  result  may 
also  be  expressed  by  saying  that  each  of  the  chords  of  contact 
PQ  cuts  its  associated  circle  at  the  same  angle — viz.,  the  angle 
at  wiiich  the  axes  of  the  parabolas  are  inclined  to  each  other. 

7.  If  the  direction  of  the  axis  of  a  parabola  circumscribing 
the  triangle  ABC  be  given,  the  line  of  which  the  parabola  is 
the  isogonal  transformation  may  be  constructed  in  the  follow- 
ing manner:  Draw  through  A  a  chord  AA'  perpendicular  to 
the  given  direction  :  let  the  perpendicular  from  A'  on  BC  meet 
the  circle  ABC  in  the  point  P,  then  the  tangent  at  P  to  the 
circle  ABC  will  isogonally  transform  into  a  parabola  whose 
axis  is  perpendicular  to  the  Simson  line  of  P,  and  therefore 
parallel  to  the  given  direction. 

8.  Let  a  straight  line  ~L  =  la  +  ??t/3  +  ny  =  o  be  taken,  and 
let  p  be  its  distance  from  the  centre  of  the  circle  ABC  and  <f> 


Hogg. — Isogonal  Transformations.  335 

the  angle  at  which  it  cuts  that  circle.  Then  if  p  <  R,  the 
radius  of  the  circle  ABC,  L  will  isogonally  transform  into  the 
hyperbola  S  =  //3y  +  mya  +  nafi  =  o,  whose  eccentricity  (e)  is 

given  by  the  relation  e  =  sec  ^.     From  this  we  may  deduce  the 

following  expression  for  the  eccentricity  : — 

2R 


e2 


P  +  R 

We  now  proceed  to  the  case  where  p  >  R.  Suppose  the 
line  L'  =  l'a  +  ??i'/3  +  n'y  —  o  be  drawn  parallel  to  L  and 
passing  through  the  pole  of  that  line  with  respect  to  the  circle 
ABC.  Let  p'  be  the  distance  of  L'  from  the  centre  of  the 
circle  ABC,  and  let  L'  cut  that  circle  at  the  angle  <£'. 

The  line  L  transforms  into  an  ellipse,  and  the  angle  (i//) 
between  its  equi-conjugate  diameters,  expressed  in  terms  of 
the  invariants  ©,  ©',  is  given  by 

©'2  -  4  © 

COS-  \b  =  — 

©  2 

Taking  S  to  be  2//3y  +  2mya  +  2rca/3  =  o,  we  have 

©'  =  —  2  (/.  cos  A  +  m  cos  B  +  n  cos  C) 

©   =  -  P  sin2  A  -  ma  sin2  B  -  n%  sin2  C 

+  2  mn  sin  B  sin  C  +  2  nl  sin  C  sin  A 
4-  2  Im  sin  A  sin  B, 

n 

whence       cos2  \b  =  zz—    -——  — zr—  — — — 

(I  cos  A  +  m  cos  B  +  n  cos  C)2 

where 

Q  =  I2  -j-  m2  +  7i2  —  %nn  cos  A  —  2nl  cos  B  —  11m  cos  C. 

We  also  have 

2      R2  (I  cos  A  +  m  cos  B  +  n  cos  C)2 


therefore 


and  pp'  =  R2, 


COS  lb  =   —  =  L—  =  COS  lb 

p       R 


Hence  we  derive  the  result  that  the  angle  between  the  equi- 
conjugate  diameters  of  S  is  equal  to  the  angle  at  which  L'  cuts 
the  circle  ABC. 

Moreover,  since  L  and  L'  are  parallel,  their  isogonal  trans- 
formations, S  and  S',  will  intersect  in  four  concyclic  points  : 
the  chords  of  the  circle  joining  these  four  points  will  be  equally 
inclined  to  the  axes  of  each  of  the  conies  :  in  other  words,  the 
axes  of  the  two  conies  will  be  parallel,  and  therefore  the 
Simson  lines  of  the  two  points  in  which  L'  cuts  the  circle  ABC 


336  Transactions. 

will  be  perpendicular  to  the  equi-con jugate  diameters  of  the 
ellipse  S.  The  directions  of  the  axes  of  that  conic  may  there- 
fore be  determined. 

If  6  and  c'  are  the  eccentricities  of  S  and  S'  respectively, 
we  have 

2R  2R 

£2  _  £I1   _ 


p  +  R '  p'  +  R 

Eliminating  p  and  p'  by  means  of  the  relation  pp'  =  R2,  we 
have 

■2      I         '2  O 

9.  The  foci  of  any  conic  inscribed  in  the  triangle  of  refer- 
ence are  isogonal  conjugates.  If  the  trilinear  co-ordinates  of 
one  focus  be  (a'o/30yo),  then  the  co-ordinates  of  the  other  focus 

/k2    k2    k2\ 
will  be  (  — ,  "5->  —  ]  where  k  is  the  semi-minor  axis  of  the  come. 
\a0  Po  7o/ 

The  conic  may  be  regarded  as  the  envelope  of  a  variable 
line  la  -\-  mft  +  ray  =  o,  which  moves  so  that  the  product  of 
the  perpendiculars  on  it  from  the  foci  is  equal  to  k2.  The 
relation  between  I,  m,  n  is  easily  found  to  be 

mna0©!  +  nl($a®2  +  lniy0®3  =  o, 

where  ©2  =  pY2  +  y0'2  +  2^0y0  cos  A 

©2  =  y02  +  a02  +  2y0a0  COS  B 
©3  =  a02+/302+2a0/30COsC, 

and  the  equation  of  the  inscribed  conic  is 


Vaa0®1  +    Vp(30®2  +    v'yyo©,,  =  0 

If  D   be  the  focus   (a0/30y0),   then  ©^  ®2,   ©;  are  respectively 
(DA  sin  A)2,  (DB  sin  B)2,  (DC  sin  C)2. 

10.  If  we  take  D  to  be  the  incentre  of  the  triangle  ABC, 

then  ©j  =  4r2  cos2  -x ,  ®2  =  4r2  cos2  -  ,  ©8  =  4?'2  cos2  -^  ,  and  we 

obtain  the  equation  of  the  incircle,  viz., 
*  -p  n 

cos  -^  v'a  +  cos  -g  v7^  +  cos  -  v~  =  o 

In  a  similar  manner  the  equations  of  the  ex-circles  may  be 
at  once  determined. 

Let  D  be  the  centre  of  the  circle  ABC,  then 
©!  ©■.  ®,     _  R, 

sin'-A        sin2B        siirC 
and  we  find  the  equation  of  the  inscribed  conic  having  its  foe 


Hogg. — Isogonal  Transformations.  337 

at  the  circum-  and  ortho-centres  of  the  triangle  of  reference 
to  be 

sin  A  y'a  cos  A  +  sin  B  \J  ft  cos  B  +  sin  C  \/y  cos  C  =  o 
This  conic  has   the  nine-point  circle  of  the  triangle    as   its 
auxiliary  circle,  and  its  eccentricity  is 

Vl  —  8  cos  A  cos  B  cos  C 

If  three  conies  be  inscribed  in  the  triangle  of  reference 
(supposed  acute),  the  middle  points  of  the  perpendiculars  from 
the  vertices  on  the  opposite  sides  being  each  a  focus  of  one 
conic,  then  the  major  axes  of  the  conies  all  pass  through  the 
centroid  of  the  triangle. 

11.  The  polar  of  any  point  with  respect  to  a  rectangular 
hyperbola  self-conjugate  with  respect  to  the  triangle  of  refer- 
ence passes  through  its  isogonal  conjugate.  Taking  the 
equation  of  the  hyperbola  to  be  la?  +  w/32  +  n-f  =  o,  where 
I  -f-  m  +'w  =  o,     the    polar    of    atiy    point    P  (a'fi'y)    is    la' a 

+  mft'ft  +  ny'y  =  o,    which   passes    through    P'  (  — ,  — ,  — • ) . 

\a      ft      y  / 

Let    the    polars    of    P    and    P'    intersect    in    P",    then    the 

/U'   V    W'\ 
co-ordinates  of  P"  are   ( — ,  — ,  —   ,   where  U  =  a  (ft2  —  y'2), 

V  I     m     n  ) 

V  =  ft  (y2  -  a2),  W  =  y  (a2  -  ft2).     Hence  the  point  P"  lies  on 

U'       V    ,    W 
a  ft  y 

a  conic  which  passes  through  P  and  P'.  Since  its  equation 
is  independent  of  /,  m,  n,  we  derive  the  following  theorem  : 
Given  a  fixed  triangle  and  a  fixed  point,  the  locus  of  the 
intersection  of  the  polars  of  the  given  point  and  its  isogonal 
conjugate  with  regard  to  rectangular  hyperbolas  having  a 
given  self-conjugate  triangle  is  a  conic  passing  through  the 
vertices  of  that  triangle,  the  given  point,  and  its  isogonal 
conjugate. 

The  tangent  at  any  point  of  the  rectangular  hyperbola 
la?-\-mfti-\-ny1  =  o  passes  through  its  isogonal  conjugate.  If 
O  be  the  centre  of  the  hyperbola,  and  if  its  asymptotes  meet 
the  circle  ABC  again  in  the  points  X,  Y,  then  these  points  are 
the  isogonal  conjugates  of  the  points  in  which  the  hyperbola 
is  touched  by  its  asymptotes :  hence  the  diameter  XY  of 
the  circle  ABC  will  isogonally  transform  into  a  rectangular 
hyperbola  whose  asymptotes  are  parallel  to  those  of  la?  +  mft1 
+  ny2  =  o. 

The  equation  of  XY  is  easily  found  to  be 

I  m  n 

-    (Cft  +  by)   +  j   (ay  +  Ca)  +  -  {ba  +  aft)   =  0 


338  Transactions. 

The  tangents  to  the  above  hyperbola  at  the  in-  and  ex- 
centres  form  the  standard  quadrilateral 

la  +  mfi  +  lly  =  o 

The  equation  of  the  line  joining  the  middle  points  of  the 
diagonals  of  this  quadrilateral  is 

l-a      m2B      iry 

a         b  c 

Hence,  since  l-\-m-\-n  =  o,  the  envelope  of  this  line  is  the  circle 
ABC,  and  the  line  touches  its  envelope  at  the  centre  of  the 
corresponding  hyperbola. 

The  tangents  to  this  hyperbola  at  its  intersections  with 
the  conic  \(3y  +  ixya  +  va/3  =  o  meet  the  quartic  lfi'2y2  +  viy\r 
-fraa.2/3'2  =  o  in  four  points  lying  on  the  straight  line  \a -j-fj.fi 
+  vy  =  0. 

12.  Let  five  points  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  no  three  of  which  are 
collinear,  be  taken.  If  any  three — say,  A,  B,  C — be  taken  as 
the  vertices  of  the  triangle  of  reference,  and  the  isogonal  con- 
jugates D'  E'  of  the  two  remaining  points  be  constructed,  then 
the  conic  through  the  five  .given  points  may  be  regarded  as  the 
isogonal  transformation  of  D'  E'  with  respect  to  the  triangle 
ABC.  If,  therefore,  D'  E'  touch  the  circle  ABC,  then  will 
each  of  the  lines  A'  B',  A'  C formed  in  a  correspond- 
ing manner  touch  the  circles  CDE,  BDE respectively. 

If   the  line  D'  E'  cut   the   circle  ABC   at  an   angle  (f>,  then 

the  lines  A'  B',  A'  C will  cut  the  corresponding  circle 

CDE,  BDE at  the  same  angle  <£,  and  the  Simson  lines 

of  the  points  of  intersection  of  each  line  with  its  associated 
circle  will  form  two  sets  of  parallel  lines. 

13.  In  connection  with  the  theory  of  isogonal  transforma- 
tion are  certain  curves  which  remain  unaltered  when  the  co- 
ordinates of  any  point  (a,  f3,  y)  are  changed  into  (-,  -z,  -J 
Among  such  curves  we  have  the  conies  of  the  forms 

a2  +  (3y  =  o 

a2  +  f3y  ±  k-«  08  +  y)  =  o 

Other  curves  are  homogeneous  functions  of  U,  V,  W,  such  as 
U      V     W 

-+w+v =  0 w 

U  /  b      c\        V  /  c     a\        W  la     b_\ 
I   \m     n)       m\ii     I  n\l     m/  ^  ' 


*/a0U  +  VW  +  Vy«W  =  o  (hi) 


Rutland. — Bight- sidedness.  339 

If  P  be  any  point  (a/3y),  and  P'  its  isogonal  conjugate,  then 
(i)  expresses  that  PP'  passes  through  the  fixed  point  (a0/30y0), 
(ii)  expresses  that  PP'  is  parallel  to  the  line  la-\-m[34-ny  =  o, 

.     a0      j30      y0 

and  (iii)  expresses  that  PP'  touches  the  conic  —  +77 +—  =  0. 

Such  curves  as  the  above  possess  the  property  that  the 
tangent  at  any  point  transforms  isogonally  into  a  conic  touch- 
ing the  curve  at  the  isogonal  conjugate  of  the  point  of  contact 
of  the  tangent. 


Art.  XXXII. — Right- sidedness. 

By  Joshua  Rutland. 
Communicated  by  T.  W.  Kirk. 

[Bead  before  the   Wellington  Philosophical  Society,   1th  August.   1907.] 

Plate  XXIV. 

Soon  after  the  red  deer  became  sufficiently  numerous  in  the 
Pelorus  bush  to  justify  the  Marlborough  Acclimatisation  Society 
issuing  shooting  licenses  I  commenced  collecting  heads  of  all 
ages,  regardless  of  their  appearance,  my  object  being  to  studv 
the  growth  of  the  horns. 

Many  of  the  heads  that  came  into  my  possession  appeared 
deformed,  owing  to  the  right  and  the  left  horns  differing  much 
in  size  and  outline.  This  want  of  symmetry  I  soon  perceived 
was  common  to  animals  of  every  age,  from  fawns  with  simple 
horns  to  old  stags  with  many-branched  antlers. 

Looking  over  a  collection  of  these  unsymmetrical  heads 
to  ascertain  whether  there  were  any  marks  of  violence  which 
might  account  for  the  deformity,  I  noticed  that  in  all  the  right 
horn  was  larger  and  better  shaped. 

After  this  discovery  I  carefully  examined  every  deer's  head 
— shapely  or  unshapely — that  came  within  my  reach,  and  found 
that  wherever  there  was  a  perceptible  difference  in  the  size 
of  the  two  horns  the  right  horn,  without  exception,  was  larger 
than  the  left. 

The  accompanying  photograph  (Plate  XXIV)  by  Mr.  Paul 
Clifford  shows  two  fawns'  heads  and  the  head  of  an  old  stag, 
in  all  of  which  the  greater  size  of  the  right  horn  is  very  con- 
spicuous. The  fourth  head,  at  the  top  of  the  picture,  appears 
quite  symmetrical  from  a  short  way  off,  but  a  closer  examina- 
tion  shows  the   right  horn  is  stouter  than  the   left.     Several 


340  Transactions. 

heads  of  this  description  have  come  under  my  notice,  showing 
that  the  difference  in  the  size  of  the  horn  does  not  always  amount 
to  a  deformity. 

In  a  note  to  an  article  published  in  the  Zoologist  for  March, 
1904,  Mr.  A.  Heneage  Cocks  records  the  following  :  '  I  have 
never  seen  the  fact  noticed  that  the  right  eye  of  young  mammals 
opens  before  the  left.  I  do  not  remember  an  exception  among 
wild  animals,  nor  even  among  domestic  animals,  though  it  is 
very  likely  some  occur  in  the  latter  class.  From  the  time  the 
lids  of  the  right  eye  begin  to  part  to  the  time  the  left  eye  is  fully 
opened  takes  generally  from  thirty-six  to  forty  hours."  Com- 
menting on  this  the  editor  of  Knowledge  remarks.  "  The  fact 
is  as  new  to  us  as  it  is  to  Mr.  Cocks,  and  requires  an  explanation. 
The  suggestion  naturally  occurs  that  the  phenomenon  is  con- 
nected with  '  right-handedness  '  in  the  human  species." 

It  would  be  interesting  to  discover  whether  stags,  when 
fighting,  use  the  right  and  left  horns  indiscriminately,  or  whether 
thev  endeavour  to  strike  with  one  horn  more  than  the  other. 


Art.  XXXIII. — A  New  Placostylus  from  New  Zealand. 

By  Henry  Suter. 

[Rend  before  the  Wellington  Philosophical  Society,  2nd  October,  1907.] 

Plato  XXV. 

Many  years  back,  when  reading  Dr.  A.  Lesson  and  Martinet's 
"  Les  Polynesiens,"  I  came  across,  in  vol.  iv.  (1884),  p.  227,  the 
following  passage,  of  which  I  made  a  note  :  "  Le  Bulimus  hongi, 
Pupuharakeke,  se  trouve  surtout  pres  du  cap  Nord  ;  il  y  abonde 
parmi  les  Phormiums.  Cette  belle  coquille  est  de  couleur 
chocolat  fonce,  avec  l'interieur  blanc  ou  orange  brillant ;  elle 
a  pres  de  4  pouces  de  long.  On  dit  que  le  Bulimus  vibratus 
abonde  sur  les  Trois  Rois." 

When  Captain  J.  Bollons  told  me  last  autumn  that  he  had 
to  visit  and  stay  for  several  days  at  the  Great  King  Island,  1 
asked  him  to  be  good  enough  to  have  a  search  made  for  specimens 
of  Placostylus,  if  time  would  permit  it.  How  great  was  my 
joy  when  in  the  middle  of  April,  1907,  he  brought  me  a  number 
of  living  and  some  empty  specimens  of  a  large  and  distinct 
Placostylus  he  had  been  successful  in  finding  under  dead  leaves 
on  the  Great  King  Island.  I  was  prepared  for  a  form  similar 
to  that  found  at  Cape  Maria,  van  Diemen,  but  certainly  not 
for  such  a  distinct  new  species.      My  very  best  thanks  are  due 


Suteb.— A  Neiu  Placostylus  from,  Neiv  Zealand.       341 

to  Captain  J.  Pollons  for  his  courtesy  and  the  trouble  he  has 
taken  to  procure  the  specimens. 

The  following  is  a  description  of  the  very  remarkable  new 
species  : — 

Placostylus  bollonsi,  n.  sp.     Plate  XXV,  figs,  a,  b,  c. 

Shell  large,  oblong-conic,  with  a  very  obtuse  apex,  rimate, 
fairly  solid,  axially  closely  striate,  brown,  peristome  simple. 
Sculpture  :  The  first  3  whorls  are  finely  and  regularly  axially 
costate  and  mostly  not  punctate  ;  the  3rd  and  sometimes  the 
4th  and  part  of  the  5th  whorl  distinctly  broadly  plicate  at  the 
suture  above  ;  the  following  whorls  are  densely  wrinkle-striate, 
the  striae  of  unequal  strength,  slightly  oblique  and  crossed 
by  distant  spiral  strise,  which  are  mostly  obsolete  upon  the 
base.  Some  examples  show  a  secondary  axial  sculpture  on  the 
4th  and  5th  whorl,  consisting  of  strongly  oblique  costse,  which 
are  directed  forwards,  and  reticulate  the  primary  axial  sculp- 
ture, forming  a  more  or  less  distinct  network.  On  the  last  2 
whorls  a  distinct  narrow  groove  is  margining  the  suture  below. 
Colour  yellowish-brown,  ■with  numerous  narrow  blackish-brown 
streaks  on  the  lower  whorls,  the  apical  whorls  usually  denuded 
and  flesh-coloured ;  peristome  white,  aperture  purplish-red 
within  ;  a  whitish  narrow  subsutural  border  is  sometimes  pre- 
sent, but  it  is  much  less  conspicuous  than  in  P.  hongii  and  very 
often  wanting.  Epidermis  brown,  thin,  slightly  shining.  Spire 
elevated-conic,  with  a  very  blunt  apex,  1J  to  1|  times  the  height 
of  the  aperture  ;  outlines  very  slightly  convex.  Protoconch 
of  3  convex  whorls,  the  nucleus  with  a  raised  inner  carina. 
Whorls  6J,  the  first  few  but  little  descending,  lightly  convex  ; 
base  flatly  rounded.  Suture  not  deep,  somewhat  uneven, 
margined  below  on  the  lower  whorls.  Aperture  vertical,  pyri- 
form,  angled  above,  broadly  rounded  and  somewhat  angled 
towards  the  pillar  below.  Peristome  continuous ;  outer  lip 
not  expanded  and  not  much  thickened,  rounded  and  smooth, 
rarelv  with  very  slight  indications  of  denticles  within.  Basal 
lip  slightly  expanded,  smooth  or  with  a  few  indistinct  notches. 
Columella  oblique,  lightly  concave,  indistinctly  folded  above  ; 
inner  lip  not  broad,  with  a  well-marked  rim  forming  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  basal  lip  ;  very  rarely  a  few  small  tubercles 
may  be  found  on  the  lower  part  of  the  parietal  wall,  but  usually 
it  is  quite  smooth.     The  umbilical  fissure  is  always  small. 

Diameter,  40  mm.  ;   height,  91  mm.     Type. 

Diameter,  43  mm.  ;  height,  99  mm.  One  of  the  largest 
specimens. 

Animal  black,  irregularly  and  coarsely  granular,  the  granules 
arranged  in  longitudinal  rows  on  the  back,  sloping  on  the  sides, 
a  band  of  squarish  and  large  granules  along  the  pedal  margin. 


342 


Transactions. 


Anterior  tentacles  short,  ommatophores  distant,  long,  granular, 
with  very  broad  bases.  Foot  broad,  narrowly  rounded  behind. 
Mantle  margin  even,  with  a  fold  on  the  under  surface  in  front 
of  the  respiratory  orifice.  Genital  orifice  behind  the  right 
ommatophore. 


40 


Jaw  (fig.  1)  arcuate,  attenuated  at  the  ends,  irregularly 
striated  by  infoldings  of  the  membrane. 

Radula  (fig.  2)  tongue-shaped,  of  about  130  transverse  rows 
of  teeth,  which  are  nearly  straight,  forming  a  very  obtuse  angle, 
salient  posteriorly.  Formula  of  radula  :  20  .  30  .  1  .  30  .  20. 
The  central  tooth  elongated,  with  a  long  and  broad  mesodont 
and  a  low  and  broadly  rounded  mesocone  ;  usually  there  are 
two  minute  side-cusps  present.  Lateral  teeth,  numbering  about 
30,  with  a  very  broad  rounded  mesodont,  the  mesocone  short 
and  broad  ;  there  is  no  endodont,  but  the  ectodont  is  distinct, 
narrowly  rounded,  bearing  a  minute  cutting-point.  The  mar- 
ginals are  narrower  and  with  two  cutting-points  ;  towards  the 
margins  they  are  getting  very  narrow  and  indistinct,  and  it 
is  impossible  to  exactly  ascertain  their  number. 

Reproductive  Organs  (fig.  3). — The  male  organ  is  very  large, 
with  the  retractor  muscle  at  its  apex  and 
the  walls  very  thick.  The  vas  deferens 
enters  near  the  apex,  and  it  is  free  only  for 
a  very  short  distance  at  the  base.  The 
albumen-gland  is  large.  The  most  remark- 
able feature  is  the  absence  of  a  recepta- 
culum  seminis,  which  is  present  in  P. 
hongii. 

Remarks.  —  The  teeth  of  the  radula 
differ  somewhat  from  those  of  P.  hongii : 
in  the  latter  the  central  tooth  has  no  side 
cusps,  the  transition  teeth  between  laterals 
and  marginals  are  getting  tricuspidate, 
and  most  of  the  marginals  show  the  same 
character.  There  is  no  difference  in  the 
reproductive  organs  of  the  two  species 
except  the  absence  of  the  spermatheca  in 
P.  hollonsi,  and  I  found  it  to  be  absent  in  four  specimens  which  I 
dissected. 


Sutek. — A  New  Placostylus  from  Neto  Zealand.      343 

The  anatomy  of  P.  hongii  has  been  ably  described  and  figured 
by  Mr.  B.  Murdoch  in  Proc.  Mai.  Soc,  vol.  iii,  p.  324,  pi.  16, 

P.  bollonsi  is  distinguished  from  all  the  other  species  of  the 
genus  known  to  me  by  the  obtuse,  broadly  rounded  apex.  In- 
teresting features  are  the  costate,  very  rarely  punctate  proto- 
conch,  and  the  loss  of  the  spermatheca.  As  I  pointed  out  in 
my  paper  on  P.  hongii  ambagiosus  (Journ.  de  Conch.,  vol.  liv, 
p.  255),  it  is  very'  likely  that  during  the  Pliocene  a  form  closely 
allied  to  P.  bivaricosus  solidus,  Eth.,  spread  from  Lord  Howe 
Island  southward,  and  that  from  it  was  derived  P.  hongii  am- 
bagiosus, and  from  this  again  the  more  simple  form  of  P.  hongii. 
We  may  not  be  very  far  from  the  truth  if  we  assume  that  P. 
hongii  and  P.  bollonsi  are  the  offsprings  of  a  common  ancestor, 
and  we  may  look  upon  the  Great  King  species  as  a  splendid 
example  of  the  originating  of  a  new  species  by  isolation. 

It  gives  me  very  great  pleasure  to  unite  the  name  of  the 
discoverer  of  this  interesting  and  fine  shell  with  the  species. 

Since  writing  the  above  Captain  J.  Bollons  has  revisited 
the  Great  King  Island,  and  to  his  unremitting  kindness  I  am 
indebted  for  an  egg  and  embryonic  shell  of  P.  bollonsi.  As 
was  to  be  expected,  the  egg  is  very  large,  elongately  regularly 
oval,  rounded  at  both  ends,  calcareous,  thin,  white,  finely  granu- 
lar, with  a  few  larger  granules  irregularly  interspersed ;  its 
length  is  18  mm.  ;  diameter,  13  mm.  Compared  with  the 
egg  of  P.  hongii,  which  measures  7  mm.  by  5|  mm.,  it  is  a  real 
giant.  The  egg  of  Paryphanta  busbyi  is  13  mm.  by  11mm. 
The  embryonic  shell,  of  3J  whorls,  is  axially  finely  ribbed,  and 
on  the  upper  half  of  the  last  whorl  the  riblets  are  decussated 
by  fine  spiral  lirae.  There  is  a  distinct,  narrow,  and  open  um- 
bilicus. Height,  17  mm.  ;  diameter,  12  mm.  ;  height  of  aperture, 
13  mm. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  XXV. 

Figs,  a,  b.   Placostylus  bollonsi,  Suter.     Type  specimen. 
Fig.         c.  ,,  „         Specimen  showing  the  reticulated 

sculpture. 


/ 


344  Transactions. 


Art.    XXXIV. — Result   of   Dredging  for   Mollusca    near   Cuvier 
Island,  tvith  Descriptions  of  New  Species. 

By  Henry  Suter. 

[Read  before  the  Wellington  Philosophical  Society,  2nd  October,  1907.] 

Plates  XXVI,  XXVII,  and  XXX. 

The  species  enumerated  in  this  list  were  dredged  by  Captain 
J.  Bollons,  of  the  Government  steamer  "  Hinemoa,"  in  38 
fathoms,  five  miles  south  of  Cuvier  Island.  My  sincere  thanks 
are  due  to  Captain  Bollons  for  kindly  handing  me  over  the 
interesting  material  for  study. 

1.  Acanthochites  rubiginosus  (Hutton). 

Tonicia  rubiginosa,  Hutt.,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  iv,  1871  (1872), 
p.  180. 

A  few  valves. 

2.  Emarginula  striatula,  Quoy  and  Gaimard. 

Voy.    "Astrolabe,"    Zool.,    vol.    iii,    1834,    p.    332,    pi.    Ixviii, 
figs.  21-22. 

Two  specimens. 

3.  Minolia  plicatula,  Murdoch  and  Suter. 

Trans.   N.Z.   Inst.,   vol.  xxxviii,   1905  (1906),  p.  299,  pi.  xxvi, 
figs.  47-49. 

Several  specimens. 

1.  Cyclostrema  sub-tatei,  Suter. 
Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxxix,  1906  (1907),  p.  258,  pi.  ix,  figs.' 6-8. 
One  specimen. 

5.  Ethalia  zelandica  (Hombron  and  Jacquinot). 

Rotella  zelandica,  H.  and  J.,  Voy.  Pole  Sud.,  Zool.,  vol.  v,  1854, 
p.  53,  pi.  xiv,  figs.  5-6. 

A  broken  shell. 


Suter. — Result  of  Dredging  for  Mollusca.  345 

6.  Cocculina  tasmanica  (Pilsbry). 
Acmcea  parva  tasmanica,  Pils.,  Nautilus,  vol.  ix,  1895,  p.  128. 
One  specimen. 

7.  Cocculina  compressa,  Suter. 
Proc.  Mai.  Soc,  vol.  viii,  1908. 

One  specimen,  smaller  and  laterally  less  compressed  than 
the  type,  which  is  from  Flat  Point. 

8.  Rissoina  (Zebina)  parvilirata,  Suter. 
Trans.  X.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxxix.  1906  (1907),  p.  257,  pi.  ix,  fig.  5. 
Two  specimens. 

9.  Rissoina  (Eatoniella)  cuvieriana,  n.  sp.    Plate  XXVII,  fig.  3. 

Shell  small,  ovate,  imperforate,  thin  and  fragile,  pellucid, 
somewhat  shining.  Sculpture  consisting  of  very  fine  oblique 
growth-lines,  crossed  by  microscopic  fine  and  close  spiral  striae, 
very  faint  on  the  spire-whorls.  Colour  yellowish-brown,  with 
a  darker  band  below  the  suture  and  upon  the  umbilical  tract. 
Spire  conical,  slightly  higher  than  the  aperture  ;  outlines  al- 
most straight.  Protoconch  small ;  whorls  convex  and  smooth. 
Whorls  6,  convex,  the  last  of  considerable  size  ;  base  rounded. 
Suture  not  much  impressed.  Aperture  oblique,  oval,  angled 
above,  distinctly  effuse  below.  Peristome  discontinuous,  simple, 
sharp.  Columella  vertical,  somewhat  concave,  white ;  inner 
lip  not  reflexed,  with  a  sharp  edge,  spreading  as  a  thin  white 
callosity  over  the  parietal  wall.     Operculum  unknown. 

Diameter,  3-5  mm.  ;    height,  5*8  mm. 

Type  in  my  collection.     One  specimen. 

Remarks. — In  coloration  this  species  resembles  the  much 
smaller  R.  fuscozona,  Sut. 

10.  Seila  terebelloides  (Von  Martens). 
Cerithium  (Bittium)  terebelloides,  v.  Mart.,  Crit.  List,  1873,  p.  26. 
One  specimen,  with  perfect  apex. 

11.  Seila  bulbosa,  Suter. 
Proc.  Mai.  Soc,  vol.  viii,  1908. 
One  specimen  ;   the  apex  lost. 

12.  Triphora  infelix,  Webster. 
Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxxviii,  1905  (1906),  p.  307.  pi.  xxviii, 
fig.  6. 

Several  specimens. 


346 


Transactions. 


13.  Xenophora  neozelanica,  n.  sp.     Plate  XXVI,  figs.  1  and  2. 

Phorus  onustus,   Reeve,    Hutton,    Cat.   Mar.    Moll.,   p.    31   (not 
of    Reeve).     P.   conchyliophoms.    Born,    Hutton,   Jonrn.   de 
Conch.,     1878,     p.     30.     Xenophora    conchy!  iophora,     Born, 
Hutton,   Proc.   Linn.   Soc.   N.S.W.,   vol.  ix.   p.   943  (not  of 
Born).     X.  pallidula,  Reeve,  Index,  p.  79  (not  of  Reeve). 
Shell   large,   trocbiform,   imperforate,   upper  surface   almost 
concealed  by  agglutinated  shells.     Sculpture  :    Strong,  oblique, 
irregular   growth-lines    are    crossed   by   oblique,    flexuous,    and 
sometimes  strongly  curved  striae,  usually  more  prominent  near 
the  periphery,   which  is  in  places  produced  into  long,  hollow. 
and  deeply  grooved  spines,  situated  between  the  attached  shells  : 
base  with  numerous    inequidistant  and  sharp-ridged  revolving 
ribs,  the  interstices  with  fine  threads  of  growth  or  almost  smooth. 
Colour  white  or  light-yellowish  ;    the  ridges  upon  the  base  yel- 
lowish   to    reddish  -  brown.      Spire    conical ;     outlines     mostly 
slightly   convex.     Protoconch   small,    conic,    of   a    few    convex 
smooth  whorls,  polished  and  white,  with  marks  of  agglutination 
of  very  small  foreign  bodies.      Whorls  about  9  to  10,  first  slowly 
then  more  rapidly  increasing  ;    the  last  whorl  carinated  ;   base 
flat,  concave  towards  the  periphery.     Aperture  low  and  broad, 
inside   porcellaneous,    highly   polished.     Outer   lips   very   much 
produced  along  the  periphery,  the  upper  and  outer  wall  forming 
a  roof,  the  inside  of  which  is  porcellaneous.     Columella  short, 
subvertical,    arcuate,    continued    below    into    the    horizontal, 
arcuate,  sharp,  and  deflexed  basal  lip  ;  inner  lip  expanded  over 
the  umbilical  tract,  forming  a  thick  white  and  shining  callus, 
and  extending  in  a  thin  layer  over  the  parietal  wall.     Operculum 
subquadrangular,  with  a  long  and  narrow  muscular  impression. 
Diameter,  68  mm.  ;    height,  35  mm.     Type. 
Diameter.    70  mm.  ;     height,    58  mm.     Another    specimen ; 
dead  shell. 


The  fig.  shown  above  represents  a  row  of  teetli  of  the  radula. 
Type  in  my  collection. 

II ah. — Ten  miles  west  of  Cuvier  Island,  in  32  fathoms. 
Remarks. — A    specimen    obtained     by    trawling    near    Tiri- 
tiri   was  identified  by  the  late  Captain    Hutton  as  A',  pallidula. 


Suter. — Result  of  Dredging  for  Mollusca.  347 

Reeve.  This  Japanese  species,  of  which  I  used  a  good  specimen 
for  comparison,  is  no  doubt  nearly  allied  to  our  form,  but  the 
sculpture  and  colouring  of  the  base  is  quite  different.  The 
late  Dr.  E.  von  Martens  declared  the  New  Zealand  shell  to  be 
X  conchyliophora,  Born  ;  but  this  West  Indian  shell  has  the 
base  brown,  with  light  spiral  striae.  The  shells  attached  to  our 
species  are  mostly  valves  of  Chione  mesodesma  and  stutchburyi. 

14.  Calyptraea  scutum,  Lesson. 
Voy.  "  Coquille,"  Zool.,  vol.  ii,  1830,  p.  395. 
Several  specimens. 

15.  Natica  zelandica,  Quoy  and  Gaimard. 

Voy.   "  Astrolabe,"   Zool.,   vol.   ii,    1832,  p.  237,  pi.  lxvi,    figs. 
11-12. 

A  number  of  very  small  young  shells. 

»  16.  Cyclostoma  philippinarum  (Sowerby). 

Scalaria  philippinarum,  Sow.,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc,  1844,  p.  12. 
One  young  shell ;    perfect  apex. 

17.  Crossea  cancellata,  Tenison- Woods. 

Proc.  Roy.   Soc.  Tasm.,   1877  (1878),  p.   31,  and  1882  (1883), 
p.  169. 

One  adult  specimen. 

18.  Pyramidella  (Syrnola)  pulchra  (Brazier). 
Syrnola  pulchra,  Braz.,  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  N.S.W.,  vol.  i,   1877, 
p.  285  ;    Hedlev,  Rec.  Austr.  Mus.,  vol.  iv,  p.  25,  pi.  xvi, 
fig.  20. 

One  specimen  ;   apex  lost.     This  is  an  addition  to  our  fauna. 

19.  Pyramidella  (Syrnola)  lurida,  n.  sp.  Plate  XXVII,  fig.  4. 
Shell  small,  subulate,  imperforate,  smooth  and  polished. 
Sculpture  consisting  of  very  fine  and  close  microscopic  spiral 
striae  ;  the  fine  and  nearly  straight  growth-lines  distinct.  Colour 
white.  Spire  high,  subulate,  much  higher  than  the  aperture  ; 
outlines  but  faintly  convex.  Protoconch  heterostrophe,  globular, 
of  1  smooth  and  polished  whorl.  Whorls  7,  regularly  increas- 
ing, faintly  convex ;  base  rounded.  Suture  well  impressed, 
margined  below  by  a  distinct  narrow  smooth  band.  Aperture 
subvertical,  elongate-ovate,  angled  above  and  narrowly  rounded 
below.  Outer  lip  thin  and  sharp.  Columella  subvertical, 
arcuate,  with   a    distinct   plait  above,   which    is   continued   as 


348  Transactions. 

a  narrow  ridge  over  the  pillar  down  to  the  base,  and  uniting 
with  the  basal  lip  ;  there  is  no  callosity  upon  the  parietal  wall. 
Operculum  unknown. 

Diameter,  1*6  mm.  ;   height,  6  mm. 

Type  in  my  collection. 

Several  specimens  were  obtained. 

20.  Odostomia  (Evalea)  chordata,  n.  sp.     Plate  XXVII,  fig.  5. 

Shell  small,  elongate  -  ovate,  subperforate,  slightly  scalar, 
rather  thin,  polished.  Sculpture  consisting  of  very  fine  and 
close  microscopic  spiral  stria?,  and  in  addition  a  few  subequi- 
distant  flat  spiral  cords,  distinct  only  on  the  body- whorl  ;  their 
number  is  about  9  ;  those  on  the  middle  of  the  whorl  are  less 
conspicuous  ;  the  growth-lines  are  vertical,  close,  and  fine,  but 
some  are  more  prominent.  Colour  white.  Spire  elevated- 
conic,  about  1J  times  the  height  of  the  aperture ;  outlines 
straight.  Protoconch  small,  heterostrophe,  of  1  upright  whorl, 
smooth  and  shining.  Whorls  6,  regularly  increasing,  flatly 
convex,  somewhat  contracted  below  at  the  suture,  and  slightly 
projecting  above  out  from  the  suture  ;  base  flat.  Suture 
deep,  narrowly  margined  below.  Aperture  oblique,  pyriform. 
slightly  and  broadly  effuse  below.  Outer  lip  thin  and  sharp. 
Columella  vertical,  strongly  arcuate,  with  a  moderate  plait 
above,  situate  rather  deep  within  the  aperture  ;  inner  lip  very 
narrow,  spreading  as  a  very  thin  callous  layer  over  the  parietal 
wall.     Umbilical  fissure  narrow. 

Diameter,  1*9  mm.  ;   height,  3'8  mm. 

Type  in  my  collection. 

One  specimen  only. 

21.  Odostomia  (s.  str.)  incidata,  n.  sp.     Plate  XXVII,  fig.  6. 

Shell  small,  subulate,  narrowly  subperforate,  with  a  fine 
groove  on  the  periphery  of  the  body- whorl,  fairly  solid,  polished. 
Sculpture  consisting  of  excessively  fine  dense  microscopic  spiral 
lines  ;  on  the  third  whorl  a  very  fine  groove  appears  above 
and  close  to  the  suture,  a  little  more  distant  and  better  tiuirked 
on  the  next  volution,  and  continued  on  the  periphery  of  the  last 
whorl  ;  growth-lines  vertical,  fine,  but  distinct.  Colour  white. 
Spire  elevated-conical,  about  2i  times  the  height  of  the  aper- 
ture ;  outlines  almost  straight.  Protoconch  small,  heterostrophe, 
tilted  at  a  right  angle  to  the  axis,  of  1  convex  whorl,  smooth 
and  shining.  Whorls  G,  regularly  increasing,  slightly  shouldered 
and  convex  ;  base  rounded.  Suture  channelled,  lightly  margined 
below.  Aperture  oblique,  oval,  angled  above,  effuse  below. 
Outer    lip    moderately    convex,    thin,    and    sharp.      Columella 


Sutee. — Result  of  Dredging  for  Mollusca.  349 

short,  strongly  arcuate,  with  a  very  strong  plait  above  ;  inner 
lip  very  narrow.     Umbilical  chink  a  mere  fissure. 

Diameter,  1-8  mm.  ;   height,  4-5  mm. 

Type  in  my  collection. 

One  perfect  specimen. 

22.  Eulima  oxyacme,  n.  sp.      Plate  XXVII,  fig.  7. 

Shell  small,  subulate,  sharply  pointed,  pellucid,  polished, 
straight,  thin  and  fragile.  Sculpture  formed  by  very  fine  straight 
growth-lines  only.  Colour  white.  Spire  elevated-conic,  with  a 
sharp  apex,  not  quite  twice  the  height  of  the  aperture  ;  outlines 
perfectly  straight.  Protoconch  minute,  globose.  Whorls  8,  regu- 
larly increasing,  flat,  the  last  high ;  base  flattish.  Suture 
linear,  superficial,  false -margined  below.  Aperture  subvertical, 
lanceolar,  high  and  narrow,  narrowly  angled  above,  acuminate 
below.  Outer  lip  slightly  convex,  very  thin  and  sharp  ;  basal 
lip  very  narrowly  rounded,  and  a  little  produced.  Columella 
vertical,  straight,  narrowed  to  a  point  below.  Parietal  wall 
concave  below,  convex  above. 

Diameter,  1-8  mm.  ;  height,  5-1  mm. 

Type  in  my  collection. 

One  specimen. 

23.  Vulpecula  biconica,  Murdoch  and  Suter. 

Vulpecula  (Pusia)  biconica,  M.  and  S.,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol. 
xxxviii,  1905  (1906),  p.  289,  pi.  xxxiii,  fig.  22. 

A  number  of  specimens.  The  sculpture  is  very  variable  in 
its  development,  from  faint  to  very  bold. 

24.  Vulpecula  marginata  (Hutton).     Plate  XXVII,  fig.  8. 
Turricula  marginata,  Hutton,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xvii,  1884 
(1885),  p.  315,  pi.  xviii,  fig.  4  ;  Pliocene  Moll.,  p.  47. 

Shell  small,  fusiform,  rather  thin,  axially  costate  and  spirally 
Urate.  Sculpture  consisting  of  fine  spiral  lirge,  usually  2  ;  2 
below  the  suture  broader  and  much  more  prominent :  about 
7  on  the  penultimate  whorl ;  they  are  again  more  conspicuous 
on  the  base  ;  straight  angularly  rounded  axial  riblets  extend 
over  all  the  whorls,  the  protoconch  excepted,  14  to  15  on  a 
whorl,  and  they  vanish  only  on  approaching  the  base,  the  inter- 
stices of  about  the  same  width  as  the  riblets  ;  only  the  two 
stronger  spirals  below  the  suture  pass  over  the  axials.  Colour 
white.  Spire  elevated  -  conic,  about  the  same  height  as  the 
aperture  ;  outlines  slightly  convex.  Protoconch  small,  papil- 
late, of  11  smooth  and  convex  whorls,  the  nucleus  excentric. 
Whorls  5  to  6,  the  last  high,  moderately  convex,  the  base  dis- 


350  Transactions. 

tinctly  contracted.  Suture  impressed,  margined  below.  Aper- 
ture narrow,  rather  broadly  angled  above,  with  a  short  widely 
open  and  slightly  recurved  canal  below,  its  base  slightly  notched. 
Outer  lip  thin  and  sharp,  lightly  convex,  contracted  below.  Colu- 
mella subvertical,  with  4  equally  spaced  and  slightly  oblique 
plaits,  which  decrease  in  size  towards  the  base  ;  the  uppermost 
plait  continued  as  a  strong  riblet  over  the  neck  ;  inner  lip  thin 
and  narrow,  spreading  over  the  concave  parietal  wall. 

Diameter,  2-5  mm.  ;  height,  7  5  mm.  Pliocene  type  of 
6i  whorls. 

Diameter,  2-5  mm.  ;  height,  6-2  mm.  Recent  example  of 
5  whorls. 

Type  in  the  Canterbury  Museum,  Christchurch. 

A  number  of  specimens  were  obtained. 

V.  marginata,  n.  subsp.  angulata. 

Distinguished  from  the  species  by  the  following  characters  : 
The  shell  is  slightly  more  ventricose,  all  the  whorls  below  the 
protoconch  distinctly  shouldered,  the  axial  costae  somewhat 
nodulous  upon  the  carina  ;  the  spiral  lirse  are  much  more  nume- 
rous, and  consequently  finer  ;  the  suture  is  undulating,  more 
or  less  distinctly  margined  below,  but  the  two  more  prominent 
cinguli  are  wanting  ;  the  outer  lip  is  angled  above. 

Diameter,  2-5  mm.  ;   height,  5-5  mm.     Specimen  of  5  whorls. 

Type  in  my  collection. 

A  few  specimens  ;  apparently  more  rare  than  the  preceding 
species. 

25.  Siphonalia  nodosa  (Martyn). 

Buccinum  nodosum,  Mart.,  Univ.  Conch.,  vol.  i,  1784,  fig.  5. 

A  few  quite  young  specimens,  with  perfect  apex. 

26.   Nassa  suturalis  dunkeri,  n.  n. 

Nassa  intermedia,  Dunker,  Verh.  Zool.  Bot.  Ges.  Wien,  vol.  xvi, 
1866,  p.  909  (not  of  Forbes). 

Dunker's  species  being  generally  accepted  as  a  subspecies 
of  Nassa  suturalis,  Lamarck,  but  his  name  being  preoccupied 
in  the  genus,  I  propose  the  above  name. 

One  specimen  was  obtained. 

'-'7.    Trophon  ambiguus  (Philippi). 

Fusu8  ambiguus,  Phil.,  Abbild.  und  Beschi.  ueuei  Conch.,  Fusus, 
1844.  pi.'  i.  fig.  2. 

Two  young  specimens  of  •  >  whorls  and  perfect  apices. 


Suter. — Result  of  Dredging  for  Mollusca.  351 

28.  Trophon  pusillus,  Suter. 

Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxxix,  1906  (1907),  p.  253,  pi.  ix,  fig.  2. 

Five  specimens  of  6  whorls  each  ;  larger  than  the  type,  which 
has  5  whorls. 

29.  Mitrella  choava  (Reeve). 
Columbella  choava,  Reeve,  Conch.  Icon.,  1858,  fig.  239. 

A  few  specimens,  white,  smaller  than  littoral  shells. 

30.  Ancilla  mucronata  (Sowerby). 

Ancillaria  mucronata,  Sow.,  Thesaur.,  vol.  iii,  1859,  p.  63,  pi.  ccxi, 
figs.  11-12. 

One  broken  shell. 

31.  Ancilla  bicolor  (Gray). 

Ancillaria  bicolor,  Gray,  Jukes'  Voy.  "  Fly,"  vol.  ii,  1847,  p.  357, 
pi.  i,  fig.  4. 

A  number  of  small  shells. 

32.  Marginella  allporti,  Tenison-Woods. 
Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  Tasm.,  1875  (1876),  p.  28. 

A  number  of  specimens,  but  only  a  few  with  colour-markings. 

33.  Marginella  albescens,  Hutton. 
Cat.  Mar.  Moll.,  1873,  p.  19. 

Two  specimens,  a  little  higher  than  the  type. 

34.  Bathytoma  nodilirata  (Murdoch  and  Suter). 

Pleurotoma  tuberculata,  T.  W.  Kirk,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xiv., 
1881  (1882),  p.  409  (not  of  Gray).  P.  nodilirata,  M.  and  S., 
Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxxviii,  1905  (1906),  p.  284,  pi.  22,  xxii, 
figs.  10-11. 

One  specimen. 

35.  Drillia  laevis  (Hutton). 
Pleurotoma  la?vis,  Hutt.,  Cat.  Mar.  Moll.,  1873,  p.  12. 
One  imperfect  specimen. 

36.  Daphnella  chariessa,  n.  sp.     Plate  XXVII,  fig.  9. 

Shell  very  small,  fusiform,  thin  and  fragile,  spirally  lirate, 
white.  Sculpture  consisting  of  narrow  sharply  elevated  spiral 
lirse  below  the  protoconch,  4  on  the  third  and  fourth,  5  on  the 


352  Transactions. 

penultimate  whorl,  and  about  14  on  the  body- whorl ;  the  inter- 
stices slightly  broader  than  the  lirae,  and  ornamented  with  fine, 
dense,  straight  growth-lines.  Colour  white.  Spire  elevated- 
conic,  a  little  higher  than  the  aperture  :  outlines  almost  straight. 
Protoconch  papillate,  of  2  smooth  lightly  convex  whorls,  the 
second  high.  Whorls  5,  regularly  increasing,  moderately  con- 
vex, indistinctly  flattened  below  the  suture  ;  base  slightly  con- 
tracted. Suture  impressed,  but  not  deep.  Aperture  a  little 
oblique,  high  and  narrow,  sides  subparallel.  rounded  above, 
with  a  short  widely  open  and  truncated  canal  below.  Outer 
lip  thin  and  sharp,  slightly  angled  above,  straight  in  the  middle, 
and  oblique  below,  denticulated  on  the  outside  by  the  spiral 
riblets  ;  sinus  just  below  the  suture,  broadly  rounded,  not  deep. 
Columella  subvertical,  smooth,  almost  straight,  turned  to  the 
left  towards  the  canal  below  ;  inner  lip  thin  and  very  narrow, 
spreading  over  the  slightly  excavated  parietal  wall. 

Diameter,  17  mm.  ;   height,  4-5  mm. 

Type  in  my  collection. 

Two  specimens,  one  adult. 

Remarks. — This  species  is  allied  to  D.  conquisita,  Suter, 
which,  however,  is  broadly  shouldered,  has  less  and  further- 
apart  spiral  ribs,  and  the  growth-lines  much  more  raised  and 
more  distant. 

37.   Daphnella  psiia,  n.  sp.     Plate  XXVII,  fig.  10. 

Shell  very  small,  fusiform,  thin,  almost  smooth,  but  the 
base  distinctly  spirally  striate,  white.  Sculpture  :  Excessively 
line  microscopic  striae  are  present  on  all  whorls,  those  of  the 
protoconch  excepted,  crossed  by  fine  dense  straight  growth  - 
lines  ;  the  body- whorl  with  broad  flat  equidistant  spiral  ribs, 
numbering  about  20,  with  narrow  linear  interstices  ;  they  are 
distinct  at  the  base,  but  more  or  less  effaced  on  the  upper  part 
of  the  whorl.  Colour  light-yellowish-white.  Spire  elevated- 
conic,  with  a  blunt  apex,  a  little  higher  than  the  aperture  ; 
outlines  straight.  Protoconch  of  1|  smooth  and  polished 
whorls,  the  nucleus  broadly  rounded.  Whorls  5,  regularly  in- 
creasing, very  flatly  convex  ;  base  lightly  contracted.  Suture 
moderately  impressed.  Aperture  slightly  oblique,  high  and 
narrow,  sides  subparallel,  angled  above,  with  a  short  broad 
and  truncated  canal  below.  Outer  lip  thin  and  sharp,  gently 
curved  above,  broadly  rounded  below.  Columella  vertical, 
smooth,  straight,  but  bent  to  the  left  below  ;  inner  lip  very 
narrow,  extending  over  the  lightly  excavated  parietal  wall. 

Diameter,  2-6  mm.  ;   height,  6  mm. 

Type  in  my  collection. 

One  specimen. 


Suter. — Result  of  Dredging  for  Mollusca.  353 

38.  Actaeon  craticulatus,  Murdoch  and  Suter. 
Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxxviii,  1905  (1906),  p.  281,  pi.  xxi.  fig.  6. 
One  specimen. 

39.  Solidula  alba,  Hutton. 

Buccinulus  albus,  Hutt.,  Cat.  Mar.  Moll.,  1873,  p.  51.     Solidula 
alba,  Hutt.,  Index,  p.  69. 
Two  young  examples. 

40.  Mnesthia  thetidis  (Hedley). 
Cylichna   thetidis,    Hedley,    Mem.    Austr.    Mus.,    vol.    iv,    1903, 
p.  395,  fig.  111. 

A  number  of  specimens. 

41.  Cadulus  spretus,  Tate  and  May. 

Trans.  Eov.  Soc.  S.  Austr.,  vol.  xxiv.  1900,  p.  102  ;    Proc.  Linn. 
Soc.  KS.W.,  1901,  p.  420,  pi.  xxv ;   fig.  52. 

One  specimen. 

42.  Nucula  nitidula,  A.  Adams. 

Proc.  Zool.  Soc,  1856,  p.  51. 

One  live  specimen  and  a  number  of  valves.  When  the 
outer  layer  of  the  shell  is  broken  off,  beautiful  radiate  fine 
striation  appears. 

43.   Nucula  hartvigiana,  Pfeiffer. 
N.  sulcata,  A.    Adams,    Proc.    Zool.  Soc,   1856,  p.  53  (not  of 
Brown).     N.   hartvigiana,   Pfr.,   Malak.   Blatt.,    1864,  p.   57. 
N.   lacunosa,    Hutton,    Proc.    Linn.    Soc.    N.S.W.,    vol.    ix, 
1884,  p.  528. 

A  few  valves. 

44.  Leda  bellula,  A.  Adams. 
Proc.  Zool.  Soc,  1856,  p.  49;   Hedley,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol. 
xxxviii,  p.  70.     L.  concinna,  A.  Ad.,  Index,  p.   95  (not  of 
Adams). 

45.  Area  (Bathyarca)  cybaea  (Hedley). 

Bathyarca  cybcea,  Hedley,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxxviii,  1905 
(1906),  p.  71,  pi.  i,  figs.  3-4. 

Two  valves. 

46.  Glycymeris  laticostata  (Quoy  and  Gaimard). 

Pectunculus  laticostatus,   Q.   and   G.,   Voy.   "  Astrolabe,"   Zool., 
vol.  iii,  1835,  p.  466,  pi.  lxxvii,  figs.  4-6. 

A  few  small  valves. 
12— Trans. 


354  Transactions. 

47.  Glycymeris  velutina,  n.  sp.     Plate  XXX,  figs.  1  and  2. 

Pectunculus    striatidaris,    Lamarck,     Hutton,    Cat.    Mar.    Moll., 
p.  80  ;    Index,  p.  94  (not  of  Lamarck). 

Shell  small,  rounded  -  triangular,  solid,  moderately  convex, 
finely  radially  ribbed,  with  zigzag  or  radial  brown  streaks, 
equivalve  and  subequilateral.  Beaks  central,  slightly  curved 
forwards,  close  together,  small,  and  low.  Anterior  end  with 
the  dorsal  margin  descending,  nearly  straight,  slightly  angled 
on  meeting  the  basal  margin  ;  posterior  end  with  the  dorsal 
margin  sloping,  but  more  convex,  rounded  on  meeting  the 
basal  margin,  which  is  regularly  convex.  Lunular  area  slightly 
flattened.  Sculpture  consisting  of  numerous  close  and  fine 
radial  riblets,  about  9  per  mill.,  on  the  centre  of  the  valves, 
crossed  by  very  fine  dense  concentric  stripe.  Epidermis  brown, 
horny,  persistent  near  the  margins,  velvety,  beset  with  nume- 
rous fine  short  bristles.  Colour  whitish  or  yellowish-brown, 
with  reddish-brown  zigzag  or  radial  streaks,  which,  however, 
are  usually  very  faint  in  specimens  from  deep  water.  Interior 
white,  porcellaneous,  faintly  radially  striate,  sometimes  stained 
with  dark-brown  on  the  anterior  lower  end  ;  basal  margin 
very  prominently  crenate.  Hinge-plate  broad  and  rather  high, 
its  upper  margin  horizontally  straight,  the  lower  margin  regu- 
larly concave  ;  teeth  numerous,  uninterrupted  in  the  middle, 
more  or  less  hooked,  decreasing  in  size  distally,  finely  pectinated. 
Ligament  external,  thick,  amphidetic.  Anterior  adductor-scar 
slightly  smaller  than  the  posterior.  Pallial-line  simple,  well 
marked. 

Length,  24  mm. ;  height,  22  mm. ;  diameter,  12-5  mm.     Type. 

Length,  22  mm.;  height,  23  mm.;  diameter.  14  mm.  More 
triangular  example. 

Type  from  Nelson,  in  my  collection. 

A  number  of  valves. 

Remarks. — G.  striatularis,  Lam.,  occurring  in  Tasmania  and 
Australia,  is  a  much  larger  shell,  more  broadly  ovate  and  with 
much  broader  radial  ribs.  Our  species  is  very  nearly  related 
to  G.  holoserica,  Reeve,  of  the  same  habitat,  which,  however,  is 
more  elongate,  has  for  some  distance  straight  horizontal  dorsal 
margins,  and  the  hinge-plate  is  usually  lower  ;  the  sculpture  is 
the  same  in  the  two. 

48.  Philobrya  meleagrina  (Bernard). 

Hochstetteria  meleagrina,  Bern.,  Bull.  d.  Nat.  du  Mus.,  189(5. 
Philobrya  meleagrina,  Bern.,  Journ.  de  Conch.,  vol.  xlv, 
1897,  p.  12,  pi.  i,  fig.  3. 

One  valve. 


Sutek. — Result  of  Dredging  for  Mollusca.  355 

49.   Dacrydium  radians,  n.  sp.     Plate  XXVII,  fig.   11. 

Shell  small,  equivalve,  inequilateral,  inflated,  oblong  and 
very  high,  semitransparent,  thin  and  fragile,  radially  finely 
ribbed.  Beaks  very  small,  rounded,  directed  forwards  ;  pro- 
dissoconch  small,  broadly  ovate,  concentrically  very  finely 
striated.  Anterior  end  vertical,  straight,  dorsally  sharply 
rounded,  posterior  end  moderately  convex,  its  dorsal  part  slop- 
ing and  straightened,  basal  margin  acutely  convex.  Lunular 
area  broadly  flattened.  Sculpture  consisting  of  numerous  fine 
flatly  rounded  radial  riblets  of  equal  strength  and  equidistant, 
the  interstices  of  the  same  width  as  the  riblets  ;  these  are 
crossed  by  fairly  regularly  spaced  distant  concentric  sharp 
ridges.  Colour  white.  Interior  slightly  nacreous,  showing  the 
radial  sculpture  ;  margin  minutely  crenulate.  Posterior  hinge- 
plate  narrow,  straight,  sloping,  with  numerous  small  teeth, 
slightly  increasing  in  size  as  they  recede  from  the  resilifer,  the 
anterior  hinge-plate  beginning  suddenly  with  a  small  tubercle 
behind  the  beak,  narrower  than  the  posterior  plate,  curved, 
with  numerous  small  teeth.  Ligament  internal.  Anterior 
adductor-scar  beneath  the  dorsal  margin,  oval  and  high  ;  pos- 
terior scar  at  the  end  of  the  hinge-plate. 

Length,  3-5  mm.  ;  height,  5-5  mm.  ;  diameter,  1-6  mm. 
The  largest  valve. 

Type  in  my  collection.  • 

^    A.  number  of  valves. 

50.  Pecten  medius,  Lamarck. 
Anim.  s.  Vert.,  vol.  vi,  1819,  p.  163. 
A  few  small  valves. 

51.  Myochlamys  convexus,  Quoy  and  Gaimard. 

Peoten  convexus,  Q.  and  G-.,  Voy.  "Astrolabe,"   Zool.,  vol.  iii, 
1835,  p.  443,  pi.  lxxvi,  figs.  1-3. 

A  number  of  valves. 

52.  Myochlamys  radiatus,  Hutton. 
Pecten  radiatus,  Hutt.,  Cat.  Mar.  Moll.,  1873,  p.  82. 
Many  small  valves. 

53.  Cuna  delta  (Tate  and  May). 

Carditella  delta,  T.  and  M.,  Trans.  Roy.  Soc,  S.  Austr.,  vol.  xxiv. 
1900,  p.  102. 
A  perfect  specimen  and  a  few  valves. 


356  Transactiojis. 

54.  Cardita  calyculata  (Linnaeus). 
Chama  calyculata,  L.,  Syst.  Nat.,  10th  ed.,  1758,  p.  692. 

A  small  valve. 

55.  Venericardia  corbis  (Philippi). 

Cardita  corbis,  Phil.,  Enum.  Moll.  Sicilise,  vol.  i,  1836,  p.  55. 
A  number  of  valves. 

56.  Venericardia  difficilis  (Deshayes). 

Cardita  difficilis,  Desh.,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc,  1852  (1854),  p.  103, 
pi.  xvii,  figs.  16-17. 

Valves  of  different  size. 

57.  Venericardia  zelandica  (Deshayes). 

Cardita  zelandica,  Desh.,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc,  1852  (1854),  p.  103  ; 
pi.  xvii,  figs.  16-17.  C.  lutea,  Hutton,  Man.  N.Z.  Moll., 
1880,  p.  159.  C.  compressa.  Reeve,  Hutton,  Proc.  Linn. 
Soc.  N.S.W.,  vol.  ix,  p.  527  (not  of  Reeve). 

A  few  perfect  specimens  and  valves. 

58.  Loripes  concinna,  Hutton. 

Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xvii,  1884  (1885),  p.  323;  Plioc.  Moll., 
p.  83,  pi.  ix,  fig.  90. 

One  perfect  example  and  some  valves. 

59.  Divaricella  cumingii  (Adams  and  Angas). 

Lucina  {Cyclas)  cumingii,  Ad.  and  Aug.,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc,  1863, 
p.  426,  pi.  xxxvii,  fig.  20. 

A  few  very  small  valves. 

60.  Diplodonta  zelandica  (Gray). 
Lucina  zelandica,  Gray,  in  Yate's  N.  Zeal.,  1835,  p.  309. 
One  valve. 

61.  Neolepton  antipodum  (Filhol). 

Kellia  antipodum,  Filh..,  Compt.  Rend.,  vol.  \<i,  1880,  p.  1095. 
Neolepton  antipodum.  Filh.,  Hedley,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst., 
vol.  xxxviii,  1905  (1906),  p.  74,  pi.  i,  fig.  5. 

A  few  perfect  specimens  and  many  valves. 


Sutek. — Result  of  Dredging  for  Mollusca.  357 

62.  Rochefortia  reniformis,  u.  sp.     Plate  XXVII,  fig.  12. 

Shell  small,  elongately  oval,  fairly  solid,  equivalve,  inequi- 
lateral, compressed,  minutely  reticulated.  Beaks  small,  sharply 
pointed,  adjacent,  directed  backwards  ;  prodissoconch  minute, 
oval,  smooth  and  shining.  Anterior  end  longer,  its  dorsal 
margin  slowly  descending  and  faintly  convex,  anterior  margin 
regularly  convex ;  posterior  dorsal  margin  straight,  sloping ; 
posterior  margin  convex,  similar  to  the  anterior  margin  ;  basal 
margin  straight,  with  a  slight  sinus  in  the  middle.  Sculpture 
consisting  of  subequal  and  inequidistant  strong  concentric 
riblets,  sharply  rounded,  with  the  interstices  of  about  the  same 
width  ;  as  they  recede  from  the  beak  they  are  getting  much 
stronger  and  more  distant  ;  some  well-marked  periods  of  rest  are 
usually  visible  at  regular  intervals  ;  radial  fine  threads  are  re- 
ticulating the  concentric  sculpture.  Epidermis  thin,  light- 
brown.  Colour  light  -  brown,  Avhitish  when  the  epidermis  is 
lost.  Interior  white,  porcellaneous,  the  growth-periods  well 
marked,  the  margins  smooth.  Hinge  with  a  triangular  resilifer 
under  the  beaks ;  right  valve  with  2  divergent  strong  and 
elevated  cardinals,  the  anterior  with  a  pectinated  edge  ;  left 
valve  with  2  dorsal  narrow  laminae,  the  posterior  of  which  is 
triangularly  elevated.  Ligament  consisting  of  an  internal  re- 
silium  only-  Adductor-scars  fairly  large.  Pallial-line  simple, 
uninterrupted,  distant  from  the  margins. 

Length,  7-2  mm.  ;   height,  5  mm.  ;   diameter,  3  mm.  •-.<■■« 

Type  from  Hauraki  Gulf,  in  my  collection. 

Mostly  small  valves  were  obtained. 

63.  Mactra  scalpellum,  Reeve. 
Conch.  Icon.,  vol.  viii,  1854,  pi.  xix,  fig.  106. 

A  few  small  valves. 

64.  Chione  stutchburyi  (Gray). 

Venus  stutchburyi,  Gray,  in  Wood's  Index  Test.,  Suppl.,   1828, 
fig.  4. 

A  few  valves. 

65.  Chione  mesodesma  (Quoy  and  Gaimard). 

Venus  mesodesma,  Q.  and  G.,  Voy.  "  Astrolabe,"  Zool.,  vol.  iii, 
1835,  p.  532,  pi.  lxxxiv,  figs.  17-18. 
A  few  valves. 

66.  Dosinia  subrosea  (Gray). 
Arthemis  subrosea,  Gray,  in  Yate's  N.  Zeal.,  1835,  p.  309. 
One  small  valve. 


358  Transactions. 

67.  Macrocallista  multistriata  (Sowerby). 

Cytherea  (Callista)  multistriata,  Sow.,  Thes.  Conch.,  vol.  ii,  1851, 
p.  628,  pi.  cxxxvi,  fig.  177. 

A  few  small  valves. 

68.  Protocardia  pulchella  (Gray). 

Cardium  striatulum,  Sow.,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc,  1840,  p.  105  (not 
of  Brocchi.).  C.  pulchellum,  Grav,  in  Diefi.  N.  Zeal.,  vol.  ii, 
1843,  p.  252. 

Many  valves. 

69.  Sanguinolaria  (Soletellina)  siliqua  (Reeve). 
Soletellina  siliqua,  Reeve,  Conch.  Icon.,  vol.  x,  1857,  fig.  10. 
Two  small  valves. 

70.  Corbula  zelandica  (Quoy  and  Gaimard). 

Voy.    "Astrolabe,"    Zool,    vol.    iii.  [1835,    p.    511,    pi.    lxxxv. 
figs.  12-14. 
A.  few  valves. 

71.  Corbula  macilenta,  Hutton. 
Cat.  Tert.  Moll.,  1873,  p.  18. 

A  number  of  valves. 

72.  Saxicava  arctica  (Linnaeus). 
Mya  arctica,  L.,  Syst.  Nat.,  10th  ed.,  1767,  p.  1113. 

A  few  small  valves. 

73.  Thracia  vitrea  (Hutton). 
Lyonsia  vitrea,  Hutt.,  Cat.  Mar.  Moll.,  1873,  p.  61. 
Three  valves. 

74.  Myodora  striata  (Quoy  and  Gaimard). 
Pandora  striata,   Q.   and  G.,   Voy.   "  Astrolabe,"  Zool.,  vol.  iii, 
1835,  p.  537,  pi.  lxxxiii,  fig.  10. 
One  valve. 

75.  Myodora  subrostrata,   E.  A.  Smith. 

M.  ovata,  Reeve,   Hutton,  Cat,  Mar.  Moll.,  1873,  p.  62  (not  of 
Reeve).     M.  subrostrata,  Smith,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc,  1880,  p.  584, 
pi.  liii,  fig.  6. 
A  few  valves. 


Suter. — Result  of  Dredging  for  Mollusca.  359 

76.  Myodora  novae-zealandiae,  E.  A.  Smith. 
Proc.  Zool.  Soc,  1880,  p.  584,  pi.  liii,  fig.  5. 
A  number  of  right  valves. 

77.  Myodora  antipodum,  E.  A.  Smith. 
Proc.  Zool.  Soc,  1880,  p.  585,  pi.  liii,  fig.  7. 
One  right  valve. 

78.  Cuspidaria  trailli  (Hutton). 
Necera  trailli,  Hutt,,  Cat.  Mar.  Moll,  1873,  p.  62. 
A  few  valves. 

Brachiopoda. 
Terebratella  rubicunda,  Sowerby. 
Proc.  Zool.  Soc,  1846,  p.  92. 
One  small  specimen. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES  XXVI,  XXVII,  AND  XXX. 
Plate  XXVI. 
Figs.  1-2.   Xenophora  neozelanica,  Suter.     68  mm.  by  35  mm. 

Plate  XXVII. 

Fig.  3.  Bissoina  cuvieriana,  Suter.     3-5  mm.  by  5-8  mm. 

Fig.  4.  Pyramiddla  (Syrnola)  lurida,  Suter.     1-6  mm.  by  6  mm. 

Fig.  5.  Odostomia  (Evalea)  chordata,  Suter.     1-9  mm.  by  3-8  mm. 

Fig.  6.           ,,           (s.  str.)  incidata,  Suter.     1-8  mm.  by  4-5  mm. 

Fig.  7.  Eulima  oxyacme,  Suter.     1-8  mm.  by  5-1  mm. 

Fig.  8.  Vvlpecida  marginata,  Hutton.     2-5  mm.  by  6-2  mm. 

Fig.  9.  Daphndla  chariessa,  Suter.     1*7  mm.  by  4-5  mm. 

Fig.  10.          ,,          psila,  Suter.     2-6  mm.  by  6  mm. 

Fig.  11.  Dacrydium  radians,  Suter.     3-5  mm.  by  5-5  mm. 

Fig.  12.  Rochejortia  reniformis,  Suter.     7*2  mm.  by  5  mm. 

Plate  XXX. 
Figs.  1-2.  Glycymeris  velutina,  Suter.     24  mm.  by  22  mm. 


360  Transactions. 


Art.    XXXV. — Descriptions  of  New  Species  of    Neiv   Zealand 

Mollusca. 

By  Henry  Suter. 

[Read  before  the  Wellington  Philosophical  Society,  2nd  October,  1907.] 
Plates  XXVIII-XXX. 

1.  Tonicia  cuneata,  n.  sp.     Plate  XXVIII,  figs.  1-2. 

Shell  oblong-ovate,  rather  small,  valves  much  raised,  the 
intermediate  valves  beaked,  angled  above,  with  cuneiform 
sculpture.  Anterior  valve  with  4  low  and  smooth  ridges  with 
serrated  margins,  corresponding  with  the  slits,  anterior  margin 
with  the  same  number  of  slightly  projecting  lobes,  posterior 
margin  a  little  concave  ;  sculpture  between  the  riblets  con- 
sisting of  deeply  engraved  grooves  and  punctures,  leaving  nume- 
rous wedge-shaped  patches  of  various  size  ;  the  whole  surface 
dotted  with  minute  eyes.  Of  the  intermediate  valves,  the. 
first  is  notably  larger  than  the  following  5,  all  are  sinu- 
ated  on  the  latero-anterior  sides  and  narrowed,  convex  in 
front  and  prominently  beaked  behind  ;  dorsal  area  V-shaped, 
smooth,  microscopically  transversely  finely  striate ;  pleural 
tracts  with  a  few  narrow  longitudinal  and  divergent  serrated 
grooves  ;  lateral  areas  not  raised,  with  an  anterior  obtuse  dia- 
gonal ridge,  sculpture  similar  to  that  of  the  head-valve  ;  the 
small,  reddish  eyes  sc  vttered  over  the  whole  surface.  Posterior 
valve  with  a  V-shaped  dorsal  area,  its  sides  serrated,  mucro  at 
about  the  posterior  fourth,  posterior  slope  moderately  concave, 
posterior  margin  slightly  lobed,  the  lobes  corresponding  with 
the  slits  ;  sculpture  beautifully  wedge-shaped,  with  the  postero- 
lateral ridges  corresponding  with  the  anterior  slits  ;  the  whole 
surface  covered  with  minute  eyes.  Girdle  moderately  broad, 
leathery,  yellowish,  almost  naked,  with  very  few  silvery  fine 
hairs  near  the  margin.  Colour  a  dirty-while;  anterior  valve 
with  the  riblets  reddish-white,  the  grooves  and  punctures  rusty  ; 
intermediate  valves  with  the  central  area  light-olive,  bordered 
by  white,  ornamented  with  very  fine  longitudinal  reddish  lines  ; 
grooves  on  the  pleural  and  lateral  areas  rusty,  a  few  light-blue 
spots  scattered  over  the  areas ;  posterior  valve  having  the 
central  area  coloured  as  the  intermediate  valves,  the  grooves 
rusty,  the  cuneiform  nodules  light-blue  on  the  pleural  tracts, 
white,   with  a  few  blue  spots,   posteriorly.     Interior  greenish- 


Sutek. — Neiu  Species  of  New  Zealand  Mollusca.      361 

white,  without  any  strong  callosity.  Anterior  valve  with  4 
slits,  the  2  central  ones  broader  ;  intermediate  valves  with  1  slit 
on  each  side,  and  posterior  valve  with  7  inequidistant  slits  ;  all 
teeth  of  the  first  7  valves  finely  pectinated  and  sharp,  but  those 
of  the  tail- valve  are  stout,  deeply  grooved,  rather  blunt- edged ; 
all  insertion  plates  are  high.  Sinus  flat,  finely  denticulate ; 
sutural  laminae  angularly  produced,  rather  thin ;  valve-callus 
not  much  raised. 

Length,  22  mm.;  breadth,  11mm.;  dry  specimen.  Diver- 
gence, 78°. 

Animal  with  the  gills  extending  nearly  the  whole  length  of 
the  foot. 

Type  in  my  collection. 

Hab. — Bay  of  Islands  (J.  C.  Anderson). 

Remarks. — This  shell  is  distinguished  by  its  peculiar  cunei- 
form sculpture  from  all  the  species  of  the  genus  known  to  me  ; 
it  adds  another  genus  to  the  New  Zealand  fauna. 

2.  Seila  cochleata,  n.  sp.     Plate  XXVTIT,  fig.  3. 

Shell  small,  conical,  solid,  dark-brown.  Sculpture  consisting 
of  flat  cinguli,  3  on  the  two  whorls  suceeding  the  embryonic 
shell,  4  on  the  following  four  whorls,  and  5  on  the  body-whorl, 
to  which  are  added  2  narrow  spirals  on  the  base,  the  upper  of 
which  arises  from  the  suture  ;  all  are  of  about  the  same  strength, 
the  interstices  of  the  same  width  as  the  cinguli,  ornamented  with 
fine  axial  striae  ;  the  intercalation  of  an  additional  spiral  takes 
place  between  the  first  and  second  rib,  and  it  is  at  first  very  thin, 
but  gradually  attains  the  same  strength  as  the  others.  Colour 
chestnut-brown.  Spire  elevated-conic,  much  higher  than  the 
aperture  ;  outlines  faintly  convex.  Protoconch  broken  off  in 
the  only  specimen  I  have.  Whorls  about  10,  regularly  in- 
creasing, flat ;  base  somewhat  excavated.  Suture  deep,  canali- 
culated  by  the  spiral  sculpture.  Aperture  triangularly  oval, 
angled  above,  produced  below  into  a  very  short  and  open  canal. 
Outer  lip  rather  thick,  denticulated  on  the  outside  by  the  spirals, 
angularly  rounded  on  meeting  the  straight  basal  lip.  Columella 
vertical,  short,  arcuate,  thick  and  rounded,  subtruncate  below  ; 
inner  lip  narrowly  and  thinly  spread  over  the  columella  and 
parietal  wall. 

Diameter,  3-8  mm.  ;  height,  about  10-5  mm. 

Type  in  my  collection. 

Hab. — Bay  of  Islands  (J.  C.  Anderson;. 

Remarks.  —  In  sculpture  this  species  equals  the  Pliocene 
Bittium  cinctum,  Hutton  (which,  however,  is  a  Seila),  but  the 
fossil  species  has  more  whorls,  is  higher,  and  the  outlines  of 
the  spire  are  perfectly  straight. 


362  Transactions. 

3.  Aclis  succincta,  n.  sp.     Plate  XXVIII.  fig.  4. 

Shell  very  small,  turreted,  perforate,  hyaline  and  somewhat 
shining.  Sculpture  consisting  of  spiral  threads,  one  upon  the 
middle  of  the  shoulder,  the  second  (most  prominent  of  all)  on 
the  angle  of  the  shoulder,  the  third  (slightly  finer)  a  little  below 
the  periphery,  and  the  fourth  just  above  the  suture  ;  base  with 
a  few  additional  spiral  lirae  ;  the  whole  crossed  by  oblique  rather 
distant  axial  lines  reticulating  the  interstices  and  extending 
over  the  base  ;  the  axial  sculpture  by  far  not  so  conspicuous 
as  the  spiral.  Colour  light-horny.  Spire  turriculate,  much 
higher  than  the  aperture  ;  outlines  straight.  Protoconch 
small,  obtuse,  spirally  sharply  ridged.  Whorls  6.  regularly  in- 
creasing, distinctly  shouldered,  and  angularly  narrowed  again 
below  the  periphery  ;  base  convex.  Suture  distinct,  margined 
above  by  the  fourth  spiral.  Aperture  subvertical,  oval.  Peristome 
discontinuous,  sharp.  Columella  vertical,  somewhat  arcuate,  a 
little  broadened  and  subtruncate  below.  Perforation  narrow, 
open.     Operculum  unknown. 

Diameter,  1-1  mm.  ;  height,  2-6  mm. 

Type  in  my  collection. 

Hah. — Near  the  Snares  Islands,  in  50  fathoms  (Captain  Bol- 
lons).     One  specimen. 

4.  Pyramidella    (Eulimella)   limbata,    n.    sp.      Plate   XXVIII, 

fig.  5. 

Shell  small,  subulate,  imperforate,  polished,  with  channelled 
suture.  Sculpture  consisting  simply  of  straight  growth-lines, 
slightly  plicate  on  some  of  the  whorls.  Colour  white.  Spire 
subulate,  much  higher  than  the  aperture  ;  outlines  straight. 
Protoconch  heterostrophe,  of  2  smooth  whorls,  the  nucleus 
lateral.  Whorls  about  9,  regularly  increasing,  flatly  rounded  ; 
base  convex.  Suture  very  distinctly  channelled.  Aperture 
vertical,  suboval,  the  sides  subparallel,  the  base  angularly  effuse. 
Peristome  solid,  but  not  thickend,  rather  sharp  ;  basal  lip  ex- 
panded. Columella  straight,  subtruncate  below  ;  inner  Up  not 
reflexed. 

Diameter,  1-5  mm.  ;  height,  5  mm. 

Type  in  my  collection. 

Hob. — Bay  of  Islands,  type;    Takapuna  Reef  (H.  S.). 

5.  Odostomia  (s.  str.)  bembix,   n.   nov.     Plate  XXVIII,  fig.  6. 
Odostomia  lactea,  Angas,  Hutton,  Cat.  Mar.  Moll.,  1873,  p.  22,  &c. 

(not  of  Angas  nor  of  Dunker).     0.  angasi,  Tryon,  Index,  p.  74 
(not  of  Tryon). 

Shell    small,    ovato-conic,    subperforate,    slightly    polished, 
subdiaphanous,  fairly  solid.      Sculpture  consisting  of  irregularly 


Suter. — Nav  Species  of  Neio  Zealand  Mollusca.       363 

spaced  nearly  straight  growth-lines,  crossed  by  fine,  some- 
times very  indistinct,  spiral  striae.  Colour  white,  occasionally 
tinged  with  yellowish  or  pink.  Spire  conic,  about  1^  times 
the  height  of  the  aperture ;  outlines  straight.  Protoconch 
very  small,  heterostrophe,  of  1  smooth  whorl.  Whorls  8*in 
quite  adult  examples,  but  the  shells  usually  obtained  have  6 
whorls  ;  they  increase  regularly,  are  flatly  convex,  and  the  last 
whorl  is  usually  distinctly  angled  at  the  periphery,  but  some- 
times rounded.  Suture  impressed,  submargined  below.  Outer 
lip  sharp,  slightly  convex  ;  basal  lip  acutely  convex  and  ex- 
panded. Columella  oblique,  with  a  prominent  oblique  plait 
above,  concave  below  ;  inner  lip  broadly  reflected  below,  spread- 
ing as  a  very  thin  callus  over  the  parietal  wall.  Base  with  a 
distinct  umbilical  fissure. 

Diameter,  3-5  mm.  ;  height,  7-5  mm.     Specimen  of  8  whorls. 

Diameter,  3  mm.  ;  height,  5  mm.     Specimen  of  6  whorls. 

Type  in  the  Dominion  Museum,  Wellington. 

Hah. — Stewart  Island,  type ;  Lyttelton  Harbour,  in  2  fathoms 
(H.  S.)  ;  Akaroa  Harbour,  in  6  fathoms  (H.  S.)  ;  Blind  Bay  ; 
Narrow  Neck  Reef,  Devonport  (H.  S.) ;  near  Channel  Island, 
Hauraki  Gulf,  in  25  fathoms. 

Fossil  in  the  Pliocene. 

Remarks. — The  Australian  0.  angasi,  Tryon  (=  0.  lactea, 
Angas),  is  a  much  more  slender,  subulate  species,  which  has 
the  body-whorl  rounded,  never  angled. 

6.  Odostomia  (s.  str.)  taumakiensis,  n.  sp.     Plate  XXVIII,  fig.  7. 

Shell  very  small,  elongately  ovate,  imperforate,  smooth  and 
polished,  thin,  translucent.  Sculpture  consisting  occasionally 
of  a  few  microscopic  indistinct  spiral  striae  on  the  body-whorl, 
but  very  often  absent ;  growth-lines  fine,  oblique.  Colour 
white.  Spire  elevated  -  conic,  about  1|  times  the  height  of 
the  aperture  ;  outlines  somewhat  convex.  Protoconch  minute, 
heterostrophe,  but  slightly  tilted,  of  1  smooth  whorl,  globular. 
Whorls  5,  regularly  increasing,  lightly  convex ;  base  flatly 
rounded.  Suture  impressed,  margined  below  by  a  rather  broad 
band.  Aperture  sub  vertical,  oval,  angled  above,  rounded  and 
effuse  below.  Outer  lip  thin  and  sharp.  Columella  slightly 
oblique,  arcuate,  with  a  deeply  situated  and  not  very  prominent 
plait  above  ;  inner  lip  but  slightly  expanded,  forming  a  very 
thin  and  shining  layer  on  the  parietal  wall. 

Diameter,  1*5  mm.  ;   height,  3-2  mm. 

Type  in  my  collection. 

Rah. — Near  Taumaki  Island,  west  coast  of  the  South  Island, 
in  10  fathoms,  type  ;  near  the  Snares  and  Bounty  Islands,  in 
50  fathoms  (Captain  Bollons). 


364  Transactions. 

Remarks. — Prom  0.  proximo  this  species  is  distinguished 
by  being  imperforate,  having  very  faint  or  no  spiral  sculpture, 
the  suture  margined,  and  only  5  whorls  ;  from  0.  marginata 
by  the  same  characters,  except  the  margined  suture,  and  the 
body-whorl  not  being  angled. 

7.  Odostomia  (s.  str.)  inornata,  n.  sp.     Plate  XXVIII,  fig.  8. 
Shell    small,    subulate,    imperforate,     fairly     solid,    lightly 

polished,  smooth.  Sculpture  consisting  of  straight  and  fine 
growth-lines  only.  Colour  white.  Spire  broadly  subulate, 
twice  the  height  of  the  aperture ;  outlines  straight.  Proto- 
conch  heterostrophe,  oblique,  globular,  of  1  whorl,  smooth. 
Whorls  6,  regularly  increasing,  the  last  rather  high,  but  slightly 
convex,  body- whorl  sometimes  faintly  angled  at  the  periphery  ; 
base  flat.  Suture  impressed,  narrowly  and  rather  indistinctly 
margined  below.  Aperture  subvertical,  narrowly  pyriform, 
rounded  and  produced  below.  Outer  lip  slightly  convex, 
sharp.  Columella  somewhat  oblique,  arcuate,  with  a  distinct 
oblique  and  deeply  placed  plait  above  ;  inner  lip  narrow  above, 
but  broadening  toward  the  base,  spread  as  a  thin  callus  over 
the  parietal  wall.  Sometimes  there  is  a  narrow  umbilical  chink 
present. 

Diameter,  2*5  mm.  ;   height,  6-1  mm. 

Type  in  my  collection. 

Hab.  —  Near  the  Snares  (type)  and  Bounty  Islands,  in 
50  fathoms  (Captain  Bollons). 

Remarks. — This  species  is  apparently  nearly  allied  to  0. 
hyphala,  Wats.,  but  the  whorls  are  not  slightly  scalar,  the  suture 
is  less  deep,  the  columella!'  plait  stronger.  &c. 

8.  Odostomia  (s.  str.)  denselirata,  n.  sp.     Plate  XXVIII,  fig.  9. 

Shell  minute,  elongately  oval,  thin,  semitransparent,  slightly 
shining,  imperforate.  Sculpture  :  The  protoconch  and  the  suc- 
ceeding whorl  smooth,  the  others  microscopically,  densely, 
and  distinctly  spirally  striate  ;  growth-lines  fine,  vertical,  and 
somewhat  flexuous.  Colour  white.  Spire  conical,  very  little 
higher  than  the  aperture  ;  outlines  moderately  convex.  Proto- 
conch heterostrophe,  of  '1  whorls,  smooth,  polished,  convex, 
nucleus  lateral.  Whorls  5,  regularly  increasing,  flatly  convex; 
base  flat.  Suture  impressed.  Aperture  subvertical,  ovate,  high, 
angled  above,  narrowed  and  produced  below.  Outer  lip  regu- 
lar! y  convex,  thin  and  sharp.  Columella  vertical,  arcuate, 
with  a  small  plait  above  ;  inner  lip  extending  very  little  beyond 
the  pillar,  but  broadening  towards  the  base. 

Diameter,  L*25mm. ;   height,  2*5 mm. 

Type  in  my  collection. 


Suher. — Neiu  Species  of  Netv  Zealand  Mollusca.        365 

Hab. — Near  Little  Barrier  Island,  in  20  fathoms ;   type  (R.  H. 
Shakespear). 

9.  Odostomia  (s.  str.)  takapunaensis,  n.  sp.      Plate   XXVIII, 

fig.  10. 

Shell  small,  conical,  narrowly  umbilicate,  smooth,  fairly 
solid,  shining.  There  is  no  sculpture.  Colour  white.  Spire 
conic,  about  twice  the  height  of  the  aperture  ;  outlines  straight, 
Protoconch  heterostrophe,  of  2  oblique  whorls,  nucleus  lateral. 
Whorls  7,  regularly  increasing,  flatly  convex,  the  last  regularly 
rounded  at  the  periphery  ;  base  flat.  Suture  impressed.  Aper- 
ture sub  vertical,  oval,  broadly  angled  above,  effuse  below.  Outer 
lip  slightly  arcuate,  sharp.  Columella  subvertical,  arcuate, 
with  a  distinct  oblique  plait  above  ;  inner  lip  narrow,  broaden- 
ing a  little  below ;  thin  over  the  parietal  wall.  Umbilicus 
narrow,  but  very  distinct  and  quite  open. 

Diameter,  2-2  mm.  ;  height,  4  mm. 

Type  in  my  collection. 

Hab. — Takapuna  Reef,  in  sand  ;   type  (H.  S.). 

10.  Odostomia   (s.    str.)    dolichostoma,    n.  sp.      Plate   XXIX, 

fig.  11. 

Shell  small,  ovate,  imperforate,  faintly  shining,  opaque. 
Sculpture  consisting  of  a  few  indistinct  and  distant  spiral 
striae  on  the  body-whorl  ;  growth-lines  rather  strong,  oblique. 
Colour  yellowish- white.  Epidermis  horny,  very  thin,  easily 
wearing  off.  Spire  conic,  somewhat  scalar,  about  the  same 
height  as  the  aperture  ;  outlines  almost  straight.  Proto- 
conch of  1  smooth  and  polished  whorl,  heterostrophe,  oblique. 
Whorls  4,  the  last  very  high,  flatly  convex,  projecting  out  of 
the  suture  ;  base  faintly  rounded.  Suture  deep.  Aperture 
vertical,  pyriform,  high,  sharply  angled  above,  broadly  rounded 
and  effuse  below.  Outer  lip  regularly  arched,  a  little,  thickened 
inside,  sharp.  Columella  subvertical,  arcuate,  with  a  feeble 
plait  above,  placed  rather  deep  within  ;  inner  lip  spreading  a 
little  beyond  the  pillar,  having  a  sharp  outer  edge,  broadening 
towards  the  base,  and  extending  as  a  very  thin  glaze  over  the 
parietal  wall.  [Operculum  horny,  inner  margin  very  little  in- 
dented. 

Diameter,  2-1  mm.  ;   height,  4-2  mm. 

Type  in  my  collection. 

Hab. — Cheltenham  Beach,  near  Auckland  (H.  S.). 

11.  Odostomia  (s.  str.)  cryptodon,  n.  sp.     Plate  XXIX,  fig.  12. 

Shell  very  small,   ovate,   fairly  solid,   imperforate,   smooth, 

slightly   shining.     There   is   no   sculpture,    except   fine    oblique 


366  Transactions. 

growth-lines.  Colour  white,  slightly  yellowish.  Spire  conic,  a 
little  higher  than  the  aperture  ;  outlines  but  faintly  convex. 
Protoconch  heterostrophe,  oblique,  of  1  smooth  and  convex 
whorl.  Whorls  4,  regularly  increasing,  flatly  rounded ;  base 
moderately  convex.  Suture  impressed.  Aperture  a  little 
oblique,  oval,  angled  above,  narrowly  effuse  below.  Outer 
lip  thin  and  sharp.  Columella  vertical,  arcuate,  with  a  small 
plait  above,  which  is  deep  within  the  aperture ;  inner  Up 
extending  a  little  beyond  the  columella,  with  a  sharp  edge, 
slightly  broadening  below ;  not  spreading  over  the  parietal 
wall.     Operculum  normal. 

Diameter,  1*6  mm.  ;   height,  3  mm. 

Type  in  my  collection. 

Hab. — Te  Onepoto  Bay,  near  Lyttelton,  type  (T.  Iredale) ; 
Queen  Charlotte  Sound,  in  16  fathoms  (Captain  Bollons). 

12.  Odostomia  (s.  str.)  acutangula,  n.  sp.    Plate  XXIX,  fig.  13. 

Shell  minute,  elevated-conic,  rimate,  solid,  polished.  Sculp- 
ture consisting  of  a  few  microscopic  spiral  stria?,  crossed  by 
vertical  flexuous  fine  growth-lines.  Colour  white.  Spire  ele- 
vated-conic, about  twice  the  height  of  the  aperture  ;  outlines 
straight.  Protoconch  heterostrophe,  oblique,  small,  and  rounded, 
of  1  whorl.  Whorls  5,  regularly  increasing,  flatly  convex,  the 
last  acutely  angled  at  the  periphery ;  base  flat.  Suture  im- 
pressed between  the  upper  whorls,  channelled  further  down. 
Aperture  subvertical,  broadly  oval,  angled  above  and  effuse 
below.  Outer  lip  nearly  straight,  acutely  rounded  on  meeting 
the  basal  lip,  which  is  straight.  Columella  vertical,  very  little 
arcuate,  with  a  feeble  and  deep-seated  plait  above  ;  inner  lip 
narrow.     Umbilical  chink  very  small. 

Diameter,  1*4  mm.  ;   height,  2-7  mm. 

Type  in  my  collection. 

Hab. — Port  Pegasus,  Stewart  Island,  in  18  fathoms  (Captain 
Bollons). 

Remarks. — The  only  shell  at  my  disposal  is  hardly  adult. 

13.  Odostomia  (s.  str.)  pudica,  n.  sp.     Plate  XXIX,  fig.  14. 

Shell  small,  elongate,  imperforate,  smooth,  semitransparent, 
polished.  There  is  no  sculpture,  except  fine  straight  growth- 
lines.  Colour  white.  Spire  subulate,  twice  the  height  of  the 
aperture  ;  outlines  straight.  Protoconch  of  1  small  and 
Mnooth  whorl,  heterostrophe,  oblique.  Whorls  7.  regularly  in- 
c'reasihg,  flat,  the  lower  ones  angularly  contracted  above  the 
suture,  the  angle  continued  on  the  periphery  of  the  body-whorl  ; 
hase    flat.     Suture    canaliculate.     Aperture    oblique,    pyriform, 


Soter. — Nciu  Species  of  New  Zealand  Mollusca.       367 

angled  above  and  narrowly  produced  below.  Outer  lip  flatly 
rounded,  thin  and  sharp.  Columella  vertical,  slightly  concave, 
with  a  low  oblique  plait  above  ;  inner  lip  rather  broadly  ex- 
panded, spreading  thinly  over  the  parietal  wall. 

Diameter,  24  Mm.  ;    height,  5-6  mm. 

Type  in  my  collection. 

Hab. — Bay  of  Islands  (J.  C.  Anderson). 

Remarks. — This  species  is  evidently  also  near  0.  hyphala, 
Wats.,  but  it  is  shorter,  with  the  same  number  of  whorls,  and 
slightly  more  slender  ;  the  whorls  are  angled  above  the  suture, 
the  last  whorl  is  slightly  angled  at  the  periphery  ;  the  suture  is 
channelled  and  the  whorls  not  projecting  below  it. 

14.  Odostomia    (Menestho)    sabulosa,    n.    sp.       Plate    XXIX, 

fig.  15. 

Shell  small,  elevated,  spirally  striate,  thin,  faintly  shining, 
imperforate.  Sculpture  consisting  of  flattish  spiral  cords, 
7  on  the  penultimate  whorl,  and  extending  over  the  base  ; 
interstices  slightly  narrower  than  the  cords,  ornamented  with 
numerous  equidistant  axial  threads.  Colour  white.  Spire 
narrowly  conic,  twice  the  height  of  the  aperture  ;  outlines 
straight.  Protoconch  heterostrophe,  of  1  whorl,  smooth, 
globular.  Whorls  6,  regularly  increasing,  but  faintly  convex  ; 
base  flattish.  Suture  canaliculate,  but  not  very  deep.  Aperture 
subvertical,  oval,  angled  above,  narrowly  rounded  and  effuse 
below.  Outer  lip  slightly  convex.  Columella  vertical,  almost 
straight,  the  columella  plait  small  and  deep  within  the  aperture  ; 
inner  lip  narrow,  not  reflexed,  forming  a  very  thin  glaze  on  the 
parietal  wall. 

Diameter,  1*8  mm.  ;    height,  4*2  mm. 

Type  in  my  collection. 

Hab. — Near  the  Bounty  (type)  and  the  Snares  Islands,  in 
50  fathoms  (Captain  Bollons). 

Remarks. — The  axial  sculpture  is  in  the  majority  of  the 
dredged  and  more  or  less  worn  specimens  almost  completely 
lost.  The  species  is  more  slender  than  0.  impolita,  Hutt.,  the 
spiral  cords  more  distinct  and  mostly  with  wider  interspaces, 
and  the  latter  are  in  well-preserved  specimens  reticulated  by 
axial  threads. 

15.  Odostomia  (Evalea)  liricincta,  n.  sp.     Plate  XXIX,  fig.  16. 

Shell  very  small,  elongate-oval,  imperforate,  spirally  Urate, 
slightly  shining.  Sculpture  consisting  of  unequal  flat  spiral 
lirse,  absent  on  the  first  2  whorls,  the  interstices  linear,  the 
sculpture  extending  over  the  base  ;  growth-lines  dense,  oblique, 
distinct.     Colour  white.     Spire  elevated-conic,  about  twice  the* 


368  Transactions. 

height  of  the  aperture  ;  outlines  straight.  Protoconch  minute, 
heterostrophe,  globular.  Whorls  5,  regularly  increasing,  flatly 
convex,  the  last  not  angled  ;  base  flattish.  Suiure  impressed. 
Aperture  slightly  oblique,  angled  above  and  narrowly  produced 
below.  Outer  lip  regularly  rounded,  thin  s-nd  sharp.  Colu- 
mella subvertical,  almost  straight,  with  a  minute  plait  above  ; 
inner  lip  extending  a  short  distance  beyond  the  pillar,  and  as 
a  thin  layer  over  the  parietal  wall. 

Diameter,  1-5  mm.  ;    height,  3-3  mm. 

Type  in  my  collection. 

Hah. — Port  Pegasus,  Stewart  Island,  in  18  fathoms  (Captain 
Bollons). 

Remarks. — This  species  is  nearest  allied  to  0.  impolita,  Hutt., 
but  it  is  smaller,  more  slender,  and  the  spiral  sculpture  is  much 
more  distinct.  The  fossil  0.  fasciata,  Hutt.,  is  also  very  similar, 
but  has  a  differently  arranged  sculpture  and  an  open  umbilicus. 
Button's  name,  dating  of  1885,  being  preoccupied  by  Dunker, 
1860,  I  propose  the  name  0.  huttoniioi  it. 

16.  Eulima  truncata,  n.  sp.     Plate  XXIX,  fig.  17. 

Shell  very  small,  subcylindrical,  thin  and  polished,  semi- 
transparent,  straight.  There  is  no  sculpture  and  no  varices. 
Colour  white.  Spire  very  narrowly  conic,  a  little  more  than 
twice  the  height  of  the  aperture  ;  outlines  straight.  Protoconch 
high,  obtusely  rounded.  Whorls  5,  regularly  increasing,  flat ; 
base  flattish,  elongated.  Suture  linear,  superficial,  false- 
margined  below.  Aperture  subvertical,  lanceolar,  high  and 
narrow,  sharply  angled  above  and  acuminate  below.  Outer  lip 
straight  above,  rounded  towards  the  base,  thin  and  sharp. 
Columella  short,  truncated  at  the  base  ;  parietal  wall  slightly 
concave. 

Diameter,  1  mm.  ;   height,  3  mm. 

Type  in  my  collection. 

Tlab. — Cape  Maria  van  Diemen  (Captain  Bollons). 

Remarks. — No  doubt  the  specimen  is  not  full  grown. 

17.  Eulima  titahica,  n.  sp.     Plate  XXIX,  fig.  18. 

Shell  small,  subulate,  slightly  curved,  semitransparent, 
polished,  with  a  few  discontinuous  and  inconspicuous  varices. 
Sculpture  consisting  of  a  few  indistinct  varices  and  faint  growth - 
lines.  Colour  white.  Spire  somewhat  curved  to  the  right, 
narrowly  conic,  three  times  the  height  of  the  aperture.  Proto- 
conch globular,  obtuse.  Whorls  7,  regularly  increasing,  flatly 
convex ;  base  rounded.  Suture  linear,  not  much  impressed, 
false-margined  below.  Aperture  pyriform,  angled  above, 
.-slightly  effuse  below.     Outer  lip  but  slightly  curved,  thin  and 


Su^er. — Neiu  Species  of  New  Zealand  Mollusca.       369 

sharp  ;  basal  lip  broadly  convex.  Columella  vertical,  indistinctly 
arcuate  ;  parietal  wall  straight ;  inner  lip  very  little  expanded, 
with,  a  sharp  edge. 

Diameter,  14  mm.;    height,  4  mm. 

Type  in  my  collection. 

Hob.— Titahi  Bay,  Cook  Strait  (Miss  M.  Mestayer). 

18.  Latirus  huttoni,  n.  nov.     Plate  XXX,  fig.  3. 

Trophon  dubius,  Hutton,  Journ.  de  Conch.,  vol.  xxvi,  1878,  p.  13. 
Tar  on  dubius,  Hutton,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xvi,  p.  227. 

The  late  Captain  F.  W.  Hutton  proposed  the  genus  Taron 
for  his  Trophon  dubius  in  188o  (Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xv,  p.  119), 
because  the  dentition  proved  the  mollusc  to  belong  to  the 
Fusido3,  and,  in  his  opinion,  the  operculum  has  not  an  apical, 
but  subcentral,  nucleus.  This  latter  is  not  correct,  as  the  growth- 
lines  on  the  outer  side  of  the  operculum  distinctly  show  the 
nucleus  to  be  apical.  Looking  at  the  operculum  held  up  against 
the  light,  however,  one  gets  the  impression  that  the  nucleus  is 
subcentral,  and  this  has  no  doubt  misled  Captain  Hutton.  The 
dentition  is  that  of  Latirus,  as  already  pointed  out  by 
J.  C.  Melvill  in  1891  (Mem.  and  Proc.  Manchester  Lit.  and 
Philos.  Soc.  (4),  vol.  iv,  p.  12),  and  the  shell  has  all  the  characters 
of  that  genus.  Taron,  therefore,  must  be  reduced  to  a  synonym 
of  Latirus.  The  specific  name  of  Hutton  being  preoccupied 
in  the  genus  for  a  fossil  shell  by  Beyrich,  I  propose  the  name  as 
above. 

19.  Euthria  strebeli,  n.  nov.     Plate  XXX,  fig.  4. 

E.  antarctica,  Beeve,  Hutton,  Man.  N.Z.  Moll.,  52  ;  Index,  73. 
Pisania  antarctica,  Beeve,  Hutton,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xvi, 
p.  231  (not  of  Beeve). 

Shell  not  large,  fusiform,  very  solid,  usually  spirally  ridged. 
Sculpture  consisting  of  numerous  narrow  spiral  ridges,  much 
more  prominent  upon  the  base,  the  interstices  with  fine  spiral 
threads  ;  two  or  three  whorls  below  the  protoconch  are  axially 
costate  ;  growth-lines  oblique,  fine.  Colour  whitish  or  cinereous, 
very  often  with  light-brown  spiral  bands  ;  aperture  purplish - 
brown  within,  outer  lip  white  or  with  a  few  brown  patches. 
Sometimes  the  whole  shell  is  covered  by  a  blackish  coating. 
Spire  elevated-come,  height  almost  that  of  the  aperture  with 
canal  ;  outlines  but  little  convex.  Protoconch  minute,  of  2 
smooth  and  convex  whorls.  Whorls  8,  first  slowly  increasing, 
the  last  high  ;  they  are  very  lightly  convex,  depressed  below 
the  suture,  the  base  contracted.  Suture  not  much  impressed. 
Aperture  very  little  oblique,  narrowly  oval,  distinctly  channelled 


370  Transactions. 

above,  produced  below  into  a  moderately  long  recurved  and  open 
canal,  notched  at  the  base.  Outer  lip  flatly  convex,  sharp, 
much  thickened  inside,  and  distinctly  toothed.  Columella 
vertical,  arcuate,  with  a  number  of  tubercles  at  the  base  ;  inner 
lip  rather  narrow  upon  the  pillar,  extending  over  the  parietal 
wall,  which  has  a  well-marked  plait  below  the  suture  ;  the  lip 
is  narrowed  below,  forming  the  inner  edge  of  the  canal.  Fasciole 
prominent,  lamellate  ;  a  narrow  groove  between  it  and  the  edge 
of  the  canal.     Operculum  horny,  yellowish,  the  nucleus  apical. 

Diameter,  15  mm.  ;  height,  28  mm.    Angle  of  spire,  47°  to  50°. 

Type  in  my  collection. 

Hab. — Dunedin  Harbour,  type  frl.  S.)  ;    Lyttelton   Harbour 
(H.  S.)  ;   Preservation  Inlet ;   Auckland  Islands. 

Remarks. — This  species  is  much  more  solid  than  E.  littori- 
noides,  Reeve  ;  the  spiral  bands  are  inconspicuous,  and  the 
outer  lip  is  not  banded  with  brown  within.  When  studying 
the  exhaustive  descriptions  and  very  good  figures  of  E.  fuscata, 
Brug.  (  =  Bucc.  antarcticum,  Reeve),  published  by  Dr.  H.  Strebel 
(Zool.  Jahrb.,  Abt.  Systematik,  vol.  xxii,  1905,  p.  611)  I  was 
more  than  doubtful  about  the  identity  of  the  New  Zealand 
species,  and  I  asked  for  Dr.  Strebel's  opinion  on  the  subject. 
He  most  courteously  informed  me  that  our  species  was  not 
E.  antarctica,  Reeve,  at  all,  and  that  it  seemed  to  him  more 
nearly  allied  to  E.  dira,  Reeve,  from  the  west  coast  of  North 
America.  Our  shell,  however,  in  my  opinion,  is  also  quite 
distinct  from  this  as  weh\  but  nearly  allied  to  E.  vittata,  litto- 
rinoides,  and  striata.  The  four  species  so  closely  resemble  one 
another  that  it  is  not  always  easy  to  separate  them,  their  vari- 
ability being  so  great.  I  have  much  pleasure  in  uniting  the 
name  of  the  distinguished  conchologist,  Dr.  Hermann  Strebel, 
with  the  species. 

20.  Tritonidea  (Cantharus)  fuscozonatus,  n.  sp.     Plate  XXX, 

fig.  5. 
Shell  ovato-fusiform,  solid,  spirally  ridged  and  axially  broadly 
costate.  Sculpture  consisting  of  regular  spiral  lirao  of  sub- 
equal  strength,  the  interstices  with  1  or  several  fine  spiral  threads, 
the  lira?  more  prominent  and  further  apart  on  the  base  ;  axial 
ornamentation  formed  by  rather  distant,  elevated,  and  broadly 
rounded  axial  costa>,  about  15  on  a  whorl,  the  spirals  passing 
over  them  ;  they  are  getting  obsolete  on  the  base.  Colour 
fulvous,  the  spiral  riblets  purple,  sometimes  a  purple  band  above 
the  suture  and  a  second  below  the  periphery  of  the  body-whorl 
are  present,  also  longitudinal  streaks  of  light-brown;  aperture 
whitish  within.  Spire  conical,  turrcted,  of  the  same  height  as 
the  aperture  with  canal  ;   outlines  straight.     Protoconch  conical, 


Suter. — Neiv  Species  of  Netu  Zealand  Mollusca.       371 

axially  striate.  Whorls  6  to  7,  the  last  high,  concave  on  the 
shoulder,  convex  below  it ;  base  contracted.  Suture  not  deep, 
undulating.  Aperture  somewhat  oblique,  narrowly  channelled 
above,  with  an  oblique  narrowly  open  and  slightly  recurved 
canal  below,  its  base  notched.  Outer  lip  thick,  with  a  distinct 
varix  outside,  callous  and  denticulate  within.  Columella  ver- 
tical, concave,  with  transverse  ridges  over  the  whole  length  ; 
inner  lip  narrow,  spreading  over  the  concave  parietal  wall, 
which  bears  a  tubercle  above ;  narrowed  below  to  a  point. 
Some  specimens  have  a  distinct  depression  between  the  fasciole 
and  the  edge  of  the  canal.     Operculum  unknown. 

Diameter,  14  mm.  ;  height,  26  mm.     Type  specimen. 

Type  in  the  Dominion  Museum,  Wellington. 

Hah. — East  Cape  Lighthouse,  type  ;   Foveaux  Strait. 

Remarks. — This  species  is  very  variable  in  size;  my  largest 
specimen,  of  7  whorls,  measures  17  mm.  by  32  mm.,  the  smallest 
also   of   7   whorls,    10-5  mm.   by   21  mm.,   but  numerous  inter- 
mediate forms  occur. 

21.  Tritonidea  (s.  str.)  colensoi,  n.  sp.     Plate  XXX,  fig.  6. 

Shell  small,  ovate,  solid,  distinctly  broadly  spirally  Urate, 
and  more  or  less  distinctly  axially  costate  on  the  spire- whorls. 
Sculpture  consisting  of  broad  and  flattish  spiral  lira?,  3  on  the 
penultimate,  9  to  10  on  the  body  whorl,  the  interstices  narrow, 
linear  ;  they  are  crossed  on  the  spire- whorls  by  flatly  rounded 
axial  ribs,  about  12  on  a  whorl,  which  usually  cut  up  the  spirals 
into  squarish  nodules.  Colour  white,  the  spiral  grooves  pur- 
plish-brown, a  few  longitudinal  narrow  light-brown  bands 
passing  over  the  body-whorl  and  across  the  interstices  of  the 
axial  ribs ;  aperture  purple  within,  outer  lip  and  columella 
white.  Spire  short,  conic,  about  the  same  height  as  the  aper- 
ture ;  outlines  faintly  convex.  Protoconch  very  small,  convex, 
of  1|  smooth  whorls.  Whorls  5,  the  last  high,  flattish  ;  base 
lightly  contracted.  Suture  not  deep,  uneven.  Aperture  some- 
what oblique,  narrowly  channelled  above,  produced  below  into 
a  short  oblique  and  narrowly  open  canal,  its  base  notched. 
Outer  lip  very  thick,  with  a  blunt  edge  and  a  broad  varix  on 
the  outside ;  inside  callous,  denticulate-lirate.  Columella  ver- 
tical, lightly  concave,  with  several  ridges  at  its  base  ;  inner 
lip  narrow,  not  distinctly  bounded,  extending  over  the  concave 
parietal  wall,  which  has  one  or  two  tubercular  plaits  above  ;  at 
the  base  the  lip  is  narrowed  towards  the  canal.  Operculum 
unknown. 

Diameter,  10  mm.  ;   height,  18  mm. 

Type  in  the  Dominion  Museum,  Wellington. 

Hah. — East  Cape  Lighthouse. 


372  Transactions. 

Remarks. — This  shell  was  first  shown  to  me  by  Mr.  Howard 
Hill,  of  Napier,  who  told  me  that  the  examples  in  his  possession 
were  collected  by  the  late  Rev.  W.  Colenso,  the  exact  locality 
being  unknown.  It  may  well  be  that  the  species  ranges  from 
the  East  Cape  down  to  Hawke's  Bay. 

22.  Cuspidaria  fairchildi,  n.  sp.     Plate  XXIX,  fig.  19. 

Shell  small,  thin  and  fragile,  ovate,  with  a  long  and  straight 
posterior  rostrum,  concentrically  finely  striate,  almost  equi- 
valve,  inequilateral.  Beaks  small,  sharply  pointed,  directed  for- 
wards, situated  a  little  in  front  of  half  the  length  ;  prodisso- 
conch  small,  roundly  ovate,  smooth.  Anterior  end  narrowly 
rounded,  the  dorsal  margin  slowly  descending,  straight  ;  pos- 
terior end  produced  into  a  long  straight  rostrum,  gaping  at 
its  end  ;  basal  margin  broadly  rounded,  slightly  concave  on  ap- 
proaching the  rostrum.  Lunular  area  very  little  excavated. 
Sculpture  consisting  of  very  fine  and  dense  concentric  stria', 
with  but  little  stronger  inequidistant  marks  of  rest ;  the  ros- 
trum finely  concentrically  lamellate,  without  radial  sculpture. 
Colour  white,  lightly  iridescent  in  some  places.  Interior  white, 
shining,  finely  radially  striate  ;  margins  smooth.  Hinge-plate 
very  narrow,  slightly  buttressed  posteriorly,  with  a  small  re- 
silifer  below  the  beaks  ;  right  and  left  valve  with  a  very  small 
posterior  lateral  tooth.  Ligament  very  small,  linear.  Muscle- 
scars  rather  large  ;   pallial  sinus  not  deep,  broadly  rounded. 

Length,  13  mm.  ;   height,  6  mm.  ;   diameter,  44  mm. 

Type  in  the  Dominion  Museum,  Wellington. 

Hob. — Dredged  in  the  "  sixties  "  by  the  late  Captain  Fair- 
child  off  Flat  Point,  in  75  fathoms.  One  perfect  specimen  and 
one  left  valve. 

Remarks. — At  once  distinguished  from  C.  trailli,  Hutt.,  by 
the  absence  of  concentric  sharp  laminae  and  radial  ridges  on 
the  rostrum  ;  Hutton's  species  has  a  very  distinct  anterior 
and  posterior  lateral  tooth  in  the  right  valve. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES  XXVIII-XXX. 
Plate  XXVIII. 
Fig  .   1-2.   Tonicia  cunmta,  Suter.     22  mm.  by  11  nun. 


Fig 
Fig 
Fig, 
Fig 
Fig 
Fig 
Fig 
Fig 


:}.  S<ila  cochlcatu.  Suter.     3-8  nun.  by  KKr>  mm. 

4.  Adis  succincta.  Suter.      1-1  nun.  by  2*6  mm. 

5.  Pyramiddla  (Eulimdla)  limbata.  Sutor.      1-6  nun.  by  5  mm. 
ip.  Orfosimititi  himbix.  Snttv.     '.]  nun.  by  f>  nun. 

7.  ..  tmimakicnsis.  Suter.      1-6  nun.  by  3-2  mm. 

8.  ..  inornate,  Suter.     2-5  nun.  by  6-1  mm. 

«t.  ,,         densdirata,  Suter.     1-26  mm.  by  2*5  mm. 

lu.  .,         takwpunaensie,  Suter.    2-2 mm.  by  4 mm. 


Fig. 

LI. 

Kg. 

L2. 

Fig. 

13. 

Fig. 

14. 

Fig. 

15. 

Fig. 

16. 

Fig. 

17. 

•Pig. 

18. 

Fig. 

19. 

Fig. 

3. 

Fig. 

4. 

Fig. 

5. 

Fig. 

6. 

Iredale. — Neiv  Zealand  Marine  Molluscs.  373 

Plate  XXIX. 
Odostomia  dolichostoma,  Sutcr.     2-1  mm.  by  4-2  mm. 
cryptodon,  Suter.     1-6  mm.  by  3  mm. 
„  acutangida,  Suter.     1-4  mm.  by  2-7  mm. 

pudica,  Suter.     2-4  mm.  by  5-6  mm. 
(Mcnestho)  sabulosa,  Sutor.     1-8  mm.  by  4-2  mm. 
(Evalea)  liricincta,  Suter.     1-5  mm.  by  3-3  mm. 
Eidima  truncata,  Suter.     1  mm.  by  3  mm. 
,.        titahica,  Suter.     1-4  mm.  by  4  mm. 
Cuspidor  in  fairchildi,  Suter.     13  mm.  by  6  mm. 

Plate  XXX. 
Latirus  huttoni,  Suter.     10-5  mm.  by  18  mm. 
Euthria  strebeli,  Suter.     15  mm.  by  28  mm. 

Tritonidea  (Cantharus)  fuscozonatus,  Suter.      14  mm.  by  26  mm. 
Cantharus  colensoi,  Suter.     10  mm.  by  18  mm. 


Art.  XXXVI. — Notes  on  some  New  Zealand  Marine  Molluscs. 

By  Tom  Iredale. 

[Bead  before  the  Philosophical  Institute  of  Canterbury,  6th  November,  1907.] 

Plate  XXXI. 

These  unconnected  notes  are  presented  in  their  present  un- 
finished state  for  the  sole  reason  that  I  will  be,  myself,  unable 
to  further  my  studies  in  connection  with  them  in  the  near 
future.  They  relate  chiefly  to  Chitons,  limpets,  and  Acmceas, 
which  have  been  my  favourites  whilst  collecting.  Notes  refer- 
ring to  other  species  are  here  incorporated  on  account  of  interest 
attaching  to  them.  I  hope  by  publishing  these  fragmentary 
articles  to  draw  attention  to  the  molluscs  noticed,  and  thereby 
get  the  problems  propounded  solved. 

I  intend  further  investigating  some  of  the  South  Island 
queries,  but  would  like  to  see  those  which  also  relate  to  the 
North  Island  taken  up  by  the  conchologists  resident  in  the 
North  Island. 

Ischnochiton  fulvus,  Suter. 
Ischnochiton  fulvus,  Suter,  Journ.  Malac,  vol.  xii,  p.  66,  1905. 

That  the  Ischnochitons  of  the  South  Island  of  New  Zealand 
have  been  neglected  by  collectors  this  species  would  apparently 
prove  :  that  this  is  due  to  the  variation  in  colour  of  /.  longi- 
cymba,  Q.  and  Gr.,  is  certain.  I  first  met  with  this  species  as  a 
red-brown  shell  dredged  in  shallow  water  in  Purau  Bay,  Lyttel- 
ton  Harbour.  I  then  found  a  pure-white  shell  at  Sandfly  Bay. 
Otago  Peninsula. 


374  Transactions. 

The  small  size  and  constant  coloration  induced  me  to  sepa- 
rate these  shells  from  /.  longicymba,  Q.  and  G.  At  that  time 
I  did  not  know  of  the  existence  of  /.  fulvus,  Suter,  and  conse- 
quently these  specimens  remained  unnamed  in  my  collection. 

At  Shag  Point,  Otago,  and  all  round  the  Otago  Peninsula 
this  species  is  abundant.  It  usually  lives  on  clean  smooth 
stones,  unassociated  with  /.  longicymba,  Q.  and  G.  When  the 
two  occur  on  the  same  stone,  /.  fulvus,  Suter,  is  on  the  clean* 
edge,  whilst  /.  longicymba,  Q.  and  G.,  is  on  the  muddy  side 
underneath. 

I.  fulvus,  Suter,  is  as  variable  as  regards  colour  as  almost 
any  other  Chiton,  but  is  almost  always  unicoloured  ;  it  runs 
through  all  the  shades  from  pure-white  through  pale-yellow  to 
fulvous  and  red-brown.  The  most  striking  shell,  however,  is 
a  deep-green,  with  a  green-and-white  girdle. 

I  might  here  point  out  that  very  probably  two  or  three 
species  are  doing  duty  in  New  Zealand  collections  for  /.  longi- 
cymba, Q.  and  G. 

Whilst  closely  searching  for  Chiton  stangeri,  Peeve,  I  ob- 
tained a  small-keeled  Ischnochiton  which  I  have  not  again  found. 
I  have,  however,  found  another  species  of  Ischnochiton  which  I 
have  not  been  able  to  identify  with  any  Australian  species. 
This  is  a  low-keeled  species,  with  the  lateral  areas  sculptured 
like  I.  divergens,  Reeve,  and  a  peculiar  pattern  of  coloration. 

Callochiton  platessa  (Gould). 
Callochiton    platessa    (Gould),    Suter,    Proc.    Mai.    Soc,    vol.   ii, 

p.  184,  1897. 

This  quotation  gives  full  references,  and  is  the  only  record 
of  this  Australian  species  in  New  Zealand.  The  specimen  there 
referred  to  is  of  unknown  habitat,  and  was  obtained  prior  to 
1872. 

The  refinding  of  this  species  is,  therefore,  worthy  of  record. 
Collecting  at  Shag  Point,  Otago,  with  Mr.  W.  R.  Brook  Oliver, 
he  found  one  specimen,  and  afterwards  I  obtained  two  more. 
These  were  obtained  from  under  stones  at  the  bottom  of  a  deep 
rock-pool.  I  identified  these  from  specimens  from  Port  Jack- 
son, New  South  Wales. 

This  makes  the  third  species  of  Callochiton  I  have  obtained 
whilst  littoral  collecting — a  curious  circumstance  when  it  is 
remembered  that  all  the  previous  records  of  this  restricted 
genus  in  New  Zealand  refer  to  dredged  specimens. 

In  the  same  pool  that  contained  the  C.  platessa  was  found  a 
single  specimen  of  a  new  species  of  Acanthochites.  This  species 
is  too  well  characterized  to  be  the  second  species  of  Acantho- 
chites mentioned  by  Pilsbry  (Man.  Conch.,  ser.  i.  vol.  xv,  p.  16). 


Ieedale. — Neiv  Zealand  Marine  Molluscs.  375 

Plaxiphora  ovata  (Hutton). 

Plaxiphora  ovata  (Hutton),  Suter,  Proc.  Mai.  Soc,  vol.  ii,  p.  191, 
1897. 

References  are  given  in  this  paper,  where  Suter  writes,  "  This 
handsome  but  rare  mollusc  is  found  mostly  in  roots  of  D'JJr- 
vittea."  I  have  never  yet  found  it  on  any  other  station,  and, 
searching  for  specimens  at  Sandfly  Bay,  Otago  Peninsula,  my 
friend  Mr.  W.  R.  Brook  Oliver  obtained  a  lovely  specimen 
with  six  valves  only. 

In  the  succeeding  note,  written  previously  to  this  find,  the 
rarity  of  this  find  is  shown.  As  this  is  the  first  occurrence  in 
New  Zealand  of  such  an  abnormal  specimen,  I  am  giving  an 
illustration  of  it  (Plate  XXXI,  fig.  1).  In  this  specimen  it  will 
be  noticed  that  the  last  valve  is  of  unusual  size  for  this  species, 
the  shape  of  the  last  valve  in  normal  specimens  being  one 
of  the  chief  characters  of  the  subgenus  Fremblya,  which  in- 
cludes only  one  other  species,  P.  egregia,  H.  Adams,  of  New 
South  Wales. 

Chiton  pellis-serpentis,  Quoy  and  Gaimard. 

Chiton  pellis-serpentis,  Q.  and  G.,  Suter,  Proc.  Mai.  Soc,  vol.  ii, 
p.  195,  1897. 

In  the  paper  quoted,  Suter  gives  full  references.  I  have  to 
record  the  occurrence  of  a  specimen  of  this  species  having  five 
valves  only,  and  herewith  give  an  illustration  from  a  photograph 
(Plate  XXXI,  fig.  2).  This  specimen  is,  as  far  as  I  can  trace, 
unique. 

Pilsbry  wrote  (Man.  Conch.,  vol.  xiv,  p.  xiii,  1894),  "  The 
occurrence  of  6-  and  7-valved  Chitons  has  been  noted  as  early  as 
the  time  of  Linnaeus.  It  is  likely  that  the  6-valved  were  artificial 
fabrications,  although  a  certain  number  may  perhaps  be  traced 
to  incorrect  drawings."  Since  the  publication  of  Pilsbry's  mono- 
graph increased  interest  in  the  collecting  of  Chitons  has  caused 
undoubted  instances  to  be  put  on  record. 

In  the  Proc.  Mai.  Soc,  vol.  ii,  p.  154,  1897,  Bednall  records 
the  occurrence  of  a  6-valved  specimen  of  Plaxiphora  conspersa 
(Ad.  and  Ang.).  Sykes,  in  his  presidential  address  on  "Vari- 
ation in  Recent  Mollusca  "  (Proc.  Mai.  Soc,  vol.  vi,  p.  268, 
1905),  mentioned  that  6-valved  specimens  of  Trachydermon 
ruber,  Linne,  and  Ischnochiton  conspicuus,  Cpr.,  had  recently 
been  noted  elsewhere,  and  that  he  himself  had  met  with  a 
3-valved  specimen  of  Ischnochiton  contractus,  Reeve,  which  is 
preserved  in  the  British  Museum. 


376  Transactions. 

Chiton  aereus,  Reeve. 
Chiton  cereus,  Reeve,  Suter,  Proc.  Mai.  Soc,  vol.  ii,  p.  195,  1897. 

Suter's  references  refer  to  this  species,  though  his  letterpress 
does  not,  as  has  since  been  pointed  out  by  himself.  The  follow- 
ing year  Suter  queried  New  Zealand  as  the  habitat  of  this  species 
(Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxxi,  p.  63,  1898  [1899] ),  yet  on  the  east 
coast  of  the  South  Island  this  species  cannot  be  considered 
rare.  I  can  get  specimens  any  day  I  wish  in  Lyttelton  Harbour, 
and  have  obtained  specimens  at  every  other  locality  I  have 
visited  on  Banks  Peninsula.  It  is  common  at  Shag  Point, 
Otago,  and  all  round  the  Otago  Peninsula. 

.The  normal  colouring  of  this  Chiton  is  a  bluish-green,  some- 
times with  the  girdle  marked  with  white.  Yellow-green  occurs 
in  some  localities ;  pure-lemon-yellow,  yellowish-white,  pure- 
white,  puce- coloured,  and  bright-red-brown  specimens  are  also 
rarely  met  with.  In  Otago,  however,  shells  occur  which  I  call 
albinos.  So  far  I  have  obtained  five  distinct  types.  The 
general  appearance  of  the  shell  is  white  :  first,  in  which  the 
whole  is  splashed  with  greenish-black  ;  then,  the  valves  are 
pure-white,  with  the  girdle  blackish-brown;  next,  the  shell  is 
pure-white  with  a  greenish  tinge,  the  girdle  green-and-white  ; 
a  fourth  has  the  valves  speckled  with  green  and  suffused  with 
yellow,  the  girdle  green-and-white  ;  lastly,  the  valves  suffused 
with  greenish  and  the  girdle  pink. 

^Acmaea  rubiginosa  (Hutton). 

Acmcea  rubiginosa  (Hutton),   Suter,   Proc.   Mai.   Soc,   vol.   vii, 
p.  315,  1907. 

Upon  shells  of  Haliotis  iris,  Martyn,  at  Lyttelton  occur 
Acmceas.  I  separated  them  as  lacunosa  (=  rubiginosa)  and 
cingulata.  Upon  reading  Suter's  paper  I  re-examined  my 
specimens,  comparing  them  with  undoubted  specimens  of  A. 
rubiginosa,  Hutton,  from  the  Chathams,  with  the  result  that  I 
consider  my  shells  identical.  At  Shag  Point,  Otago,  I  first 
found  dead  shells  and  then  live  ones  on  Haliotis  iris  again. 
The  dead  shells  are  inseparable  from  the  dead  shells  from  the 
Chathams. 

Acmaea  cantharus  (Reeve). 

Acmcea  cantharus  (Reeve),  Suter,  Proc.  Mai.  Soc,  vol.  vii,  p.  320, 

1907. 

In  the  paper  quoted  Suter  restricts  A.  cantharus,  Reeve, 
to  New  Zealand.  As  in  that  paper  he  does  not  discuss  the 
relationships  of  the  shells  listed  in  Australia  under  that  name, 
I  here  do  so.     That  this  is  necessary  for  the  understanding  of 


Iredale. — New  Zealand  Marine  Molluscs.  377 

this  species  is  shown  by  the  following  :  Pritchard  and  GatlifE 
(Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  vol.  xv  (n.s.),  p.  195,  1903),  in  their  list  of 
Victorian  shells,  believed  A.  cantharus,'  Reeve,  was  a  Victorian 
shell,  but  could  not  give  it  specific  rank,  citing  it  as  a  synonym 
of  A.  septiformis,  Q.  and  G.  I  have  examined  shells  sent  by 
Mr.  GatlifE  in  support  of  this  classification,  and  I  quite  agree 
that  the  shell  so  classed  is  a  variant  of  A.  septiformis,  Q. 
and  G.,  but  it  is  certainly  not  the  New  Zealand  shell  called 
A.  caniharus,  Reeve. 

Tate  and  May,  in  the  "  Revised  Census  of  the  Marine  Mol- 
lusca  of  Tasmania  "  (Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  N.S.W.,  vol.  xxvi,  p.  412, 
1901),  consider  A.  caniharus,  Reeve,  as  a  distinct  Tasmanian 
species.  Mr.  May  sent  me  shells  identified  as  above,  but  they 
are  not  A.  cantharus,  Reeve.  They  may  be  an  extreme  form 
of  A.  septiformis,  Q.  and  G.,  but  that  point  must  be  settled  by 
a  study  of  the  shells  in  their  environment. 

In  the  Trans.  Roy.  Soc,  S.  Aust,  vol.  xxx,  p.  215,  1906 
(1907),  Dr.  Veiro  identifies  a  South  Australian  shell  as  A.  can- 
tharus, Reeve.  He  treats  fully  of  the  shell  so  named,  and  has 
since  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  South  Australian  shell 
is  identical  with  the  New  Zealand  shell.  -The  specimens  he 
sent  me,  though  very  similar,  I  do  not  consider  conspecific 
with  ours.  They  are  much  eroded,  whereas  the  New  Zealand 
shell  is  very  rarely  so  ;  the  general  coloration,  as  shown  by  the 
literature  and  these  specimens,  is  the  exception  among  New 
Zealand  shells.  I,  however,  think  the  South  Australian  shells 
worthy  of  a  name,  but  they  should  not  be  called  A.  cantharus, 
Reeve.  I  therefore  conclude,  as  Suter  already  has  done,  that 
A.  cantharus,  Reeve,  does  not  occur  in  Australia. 

Let  us  now  consider  the  specific  rank  of  A.  cantharus,  Reeve, 
in  New  Zealand.  Suter  gives  it  full  specific  rank,  but  the  study 
of  South  Island  shells  does  not  warrant  this.  The  characters 
Suter  uses  for  separating  the  two  I  have  found  to  be  of  very 
little  value. 

The  size  of  the  shells  depends  a  great  deal  upon  their  station. 
A  shell  living  in  a  secluded  cavity,  free  from  the  action  of  rain, 
may  attain  a  large  size,  and  does  not  suffer  from  erosion.  In 
the  same  locality  shells  living  on  boulders  exposed  to  rain  are 
small  and  much  eroded.  These  exposed  shells  never  attain  a 
large  size.  I  have  cantharus  much  larger  than  Suter's  measure- 
ments— viz.,  26  by  20  by  9  mm.,  25  by  19  bv  9  mm.,  and  24  by 
18  by  10  mm. 

The  prominence  of  the  radial  striation  is  an  inconstant 
character,  undoubted  pileopsis  having  radial  sculpture  almost 
microscopic.  As  eroded  shells  occur,  this  character  could  only 
be  used  in  conjunction  with  others. 


378  Transactions. 

No  stress  can  be  laid  upon  the  position  of  the  apex,  as  under 
A.  pileopsis,  Q.  and  G.,  Suter  writes,  "  The  situation  of  the 
apex  is  also  variable,  but  in  the  majority  of  shells  it  is  marginal." 

The  inside  coloration  varies  much  ;  it  may  be  brown, 
yellowish-brown,  yellowish-white,  pale-blue,  or  bluish-white. 
This  last  colour,  which  Suter  mentions  as  typical  of  A.  pileopsis, 
Q.  and  G.,  is  the  usual  colour  of  the  inside,  between  the  marginal 
band  and  the  spatula,  of  very  large  shells. 

Dark  shells,  sparsely  blotched  with  white,  and  very  dis- 
tinctly striated,  were  collected  at  Lyttelton.  Many  of  these 
shells  show  a  colour-pattern  of  a  very  peculiar  character — viz., 
from  the  apex  to  about  half-way  down  the  margin  of  each  side 
runs  a  series  of  white  blotches  ;  when  the  shell  is  held  up  to  the 
light  and  viewed  from  the  inside  these  blotches  are  clearly  seen, 
though  other  blotches  visible  on  the  outer  surface  are  not. 

Shells  tessellated  with  white,  apparently  smooth,  undoubtedly 
referable  to  cantharus  were  collected  at  Shag  Point,  Otago.  No 
signs  of  this  colour-pattern  were  apparent  on  the  outer  sur- 
face, yet  when  the  shells  were  held  up  to  the  light  these  blotches 
were  the  only  ones  visible  from  the  inside.  This  unexpected 
find  was,  to  me,  convincing  evidence  of  the  specific  identity 
of  the  two  shells. 

I  am  therefore  compelled  to  reduce  A.  cantharus,  Reeve,  to 
an  absolute  synonym  of  A.  pileopsis,  Q.  and  G. 

The  specimens  which  furnished  the  material  for  this  review 
were  collected  at  Waipara  Rocks,  North  Canterbury  ;  Taylor's 
Mistake  Bay,  near  Sumner  ;  Lyttelton  Harbour  ;  south  coast 
of  Banks  Peninsula  ;  Shag  Point ;  •  near  Cape  Saunders  ;  and  at 
Sandfly  Bay,  Otago  Peninsula. 

An  analysis  of  the  habitats  of  A.  pileopsis,  Q.  and  G.,  and 
A.  cantharus,  Reeve,  as  recorded  by  Suter,  gives  :  A.  pileopsis, 
Q.  and  G. — North  Island  ;  South  Island  as  far  south  as  Lyttel- 
ton ;  Snares  Islands ;  Auckland  Islands ;  Campbell  Island. 
A.  cantharus.  Reeve — West  coast  of  South  Island  ;  east  coast  of 
South  Island,  from  Oamaru  down  ;    Macquarie  Island. 

Therefore,  instead,  we  now  have — Acmcea  pileopsis,  Q.  and 
G.  (synonym,  Acmcea  cantharus,  Reeve,  Suter,  Proc.  Mai.  Soc, 
vol.  vii,  p.  320,  1907)  :  Both  islands  of  New  Zealand:  all  the 
Bubantarctic  islands. 

Acmaea  parviconoidea,  Suter. 

Acmcea   parviconoidea,  Suter,  Proc.  Mai.  Soc,  vol.  vii,   p.  321, 

1907. 

To  the  localities  mentioned  by  Suter  I  can  add,  near  Cape 
Saunders,  Otago  Peninsula.  This  is  the  furthest-south  locality 
yet  recorded. 


Iredale. — Neiv  Zealand  Marine  Moll-uses.  379 

Acmaea  parviconoidea  leucoma,  Suter. 

Acmcea    parviconoidea,    var.    leucoma,    Suter,    Proc.    Mai.    Soc, 
vol.  vii,  p.  322,  1907. 

Shells  answering  to  this  description  occur  under  stones  in 
Dunedin  Harbour  ;  they  agree  with  shells  collected  in  Heath- 
cote  Estuary.  I  should  consider  this  variety  better  placed 
under  A.  septiformis,  Q.  and  G. 

Acmaea  daedala,  Suter. 
Acmcea  daedala,  Suter,  Proc.  Mai.  Soc,  vol.  vii,  p.  323,  1907. 

The  commonest  form  of  this  species  is  a  pale-green  shell* 
tessellated  as  the  type.  It  is  common  at  Shag  Point,  Otago, 
and  near  Cape  Saunders,  Otago  Peninsula.  Associated  with  it 
at  these  two  localities  is  the  subspecies  subtilis,  Suter.  When 
alive  this  subspecies  is  very  pale  green,  the  colour  fading  to 
greenish-white  when  the  animal  is  dead.  With  these  two,  at 
Shag  Point,  Otago,  occurs  a  third  variety  :  this  is  dark-brown, 
unicoloured,  agreeing  with  the  type  in  everything  save  colora- 
tion. 

Shells  dredged  on  dead  shells  in  Lyttelton  Harbour  which 
may  be  referable  to  this  species  have  a  very  different  colora- 
tion. The  sculpture  is  very  similar,  and  they  are  transparent. 
They  are  whitish,  with  green  thick  radiating  rays,  about  7  to 
9  in  number.  Others  are  whitish  dotted  with  red,  the  border 
margined  with  red  lines. 

Acmaea  scapha,  Suter. 
Acmcea  scapha,  Suter,  Proc.  Mai.  Soc,  vol.  vii,  p.  324,  1907. 

I  have  this  shell  from  shell-sand  collected  at  Blind  Bay,. 
Nelson. 

Acmaea  pseudocorticata,  n.  sp. 

Shell  small,  conical,  elongate-oval,  sides  almost  parallel, 
closely  ribbed,  greenish,  with  brownish  markings  between  the 
ribs,  margin  almost  entire.  The  sculpture  consists  of  about 
17  ribs  in  the  young  shell  up  to  30  in  the  older  shell,  due  to 
divarication.  Apex  situated  at  about  the  anterior  third  to  sub- 
central  ;  almost  always  eroded,  so  that  the  sculpture  is  only 
distinct  on  the  lower  half  of  the  older  shells.  Margin  entire  or 
feebly  denticulate  ;  very  irregular  in  some  specimens,  due  to 
,  their  station.  The  coloration  of  the  outside  is  constantly  greenish, 
the  interstices  between  the  ribs  brownish.  The  spatula  is  dis- 
tinctly marked,  of  a  pinkish  colour  ;  below  is  a  darker  shade 
of  pink  ;  the  margin  is  white,  marked  with  bluish-black  lines 
corresponding  to  the  interstices  between  the  ribs.     This  colora- 


380  Transactions. 

tion  is  almost  constant ;  in  some  the  spatula  is  whitish  or 
yellowish-white  or  rarely  spotted  with  black  ;  below  is  rarely 
spotted  with  black. 

Measurements  of  a  fair  specimen  arc  :  Length,  13  mm.  ; 
breadth,  9  mm  ;  height,  6  mm. 

Hab. — On  rocks,  almost  at  high-tide  mark  :  Lyttelton  Har- 
bour (type)  ;  Taylor's  Mistake  Bay ;  Shag  Point,  Otago ;  Otago 
Peninsula. 

.Type  to  be  presented  to  the  Canterbury  Museum.   Christ- 
church. 

This  species  is  closely  allied  to  A.  stella,  Lesson,  and  A.  stella 
corticata,  Hutton,  with  which  species  it  would  appear  to  have 
been  previously  confounded.  It  differs  from  the  latter  in  shape, 
being  elongately  parallel-sided  ;  the  ribs  are  lower  and  more 
regular  ;  the  margin  is  almost  entire.  It  is  a  much  thinner 
shell,  the  inside  coloration  is  fairly  constant,  and  I  have  met 
with  no  specimens  covered  with  nullipores. 

I  have  specimens  of  some  more  AcmcBOS  which  I  cannot 
assign  to  any  known  species,  even  allowing  for  the  variability 
of  members  of  this  genus.     These  I  hope  to  work  out  later  on. 

Helcioniscus  stelliferus  (Gmelin). 

Helcioniscus  stelliferus  (Gmelin),  Suter,  Proc.  Mai.  Soc,  vol.  vi, 
p.  350,  1905. 

Having  found  live  young  specimens  of  this  species,  I  may 
add  that  the  live  shell  is,  as  would  be  naturally  supposed,  very 
different  in  coloration  from  the  dead  shell.  Living  on  the  rocks 
at  low  water,  constantly  exposed  to  heavy  swells,  these  speci- 
mens were  very  depressed,  and  difficult  to  detach. 

They  are  blackish  on  the  outside,  and  bluish-black,  irides- 
cent, inside.  Upon  holding  them  up  to  the  light  they  are 
seen  to  show  blood-red,  as  the  dead  shells  do. 

Helcioniscus  tramosericus  ( Marty n). 
Helcioniscus  tramosericus  (Martvn),  Suter,  Proc.  Mai.  Soc.  vol.  vi, 
p.  346,  1905. 

In  my  list  of  molluscs  collected  in  Otago  I  have  included 
this  species  with  a,  (?)  after  it.  The  specimens  referred  to  were 
collected  as  a  variety  of  radians  showing  the  coloration  of  tramo- 
sericus-     Owing  to  the  hot  weather,  no  animals  were  preserved. 

Upon  comparing  the  shells  with  New  South  Wales  speci- 
mens of  tramosericus  it  was  seen  that  these  shells  could  not  he 
differentiated  1'rom  conchological  characters  alone.  As  my  shell 
may  be  either  radians  or  tramosericus,  it  would  tend  to  show 
that  unless  the  animals  are  examined  New  Zealand  records^of 
tramosericus  must  still  remain  doubtful. 


s 


Iredale. — New  Zealand  Marine  Molluscs.  381 

Schismope  brevis  (Hedley). 

Schismope  brevis,  Hedley,    Rec.    Austr.   Museum,  vol.  v,  p.  90, 
fig.  16  in  text,  1904. 

This  species  was  described  from  dead  shells  from  Lyall  Bay, 
near  Wellington,  New  Zealand.  The  colour  was  given  as  white, 
and  the  figures  show  a  turbinate  strongly  sculptured  shell. 

Live  shells  from  Lyttelton  Harbour  are  cream-coloured, 
young  ones  very  commonly  brownish.  The  sculpture  is  weaker 
than  in  typical  examples,  the  spirals  being  almost  as  prominent 
as  the  longitudinal  ribs. 

Schismope  brevis  levigata,  n.  subsp. 

This  subspecies  differs  from  the  type  in  the  degree  of  sculp- 
ture. At  first  sight  this  would  appear  a  very  different  shell, 
but  when  closely  examined  the  sculpture  is  seen  to  be  the  same  : 
the  longitudinal  ribs  have  greatly  deteriorated  in  strength,  whilst 
the  spirals  have  gained  ;  the  last  whorl  descends  much  more 
rapidly  than  in  typical  brevis,  whilst  the  earlier  whorls  are 
smaller.  '  This  combination  gives  an  entirely  different  appearance 
to  the  shell,  which  is  further  strengthened  by  the  fact  that 
the  fasciole  is  very  little  longer  than  the  foramen.  Operculum 
thin,  horny,  multispiral.     Colour  cream  ;   dead  shells  pure-white. 

Measurement  of  a  large  specimen  the  same  as  the  type  of 
S.  brevis,  Hedley. 

Type  to  be  presented  to  the  Canterbury  Museum,  Christ- 
church. 

Hob. — Sandfly  Bay,  Otago  Peninsula  (type)  ;  Lyall  Bay, 
near  Wellington  (dead  shells). 

Incisura  lytteltonensis  (E.  A.  Smith). 
Scissurella  lytteltonensis,   Smith,   Proc.    Mai.    Soc,  vol.  i,  p.  57, 
pi.    vii,    figs.     1-2,     1894.     Incisura    lytteltonensis    (Smith), 
Hedley,  Rec.  Austr.  Museum,  vol.  v,  p.  91,  fig.  18  in  text, 
1904. 

These  two  papers  cover  all  that  is  on  record  about  this 
species,  and  as  these  are  at  variance,  though  both  accurate,  it 
is  best  to  at  once  reconcile  them.  Smith  noted  as  a  peculiarity 
the  presence  of  colour  in  the  shell.  Hedley  wrote,  "  None  of  a 
considerable  series  of  Incisura  lytteltonensis,  Smith,  before  me 
present  any  trace  of  colour.  The  character  "  (rosea  vel  albida) 
"  attributed  to  that  species  in  the  original  description  was,  per- 
haps, derived  from  examples  of  S.  rosea." 

Smith  was  correct  in  noting  the  coloration  of  the  shell, 
as  he  was  studying  live  shells  :  these  show  distinctly  rose- 
coloured.     Dead  shells,  which,  I  believe,  were  all  Hedley  had, 


382  Transactions. 

are  just  as  constantly  colourless.  Scissurella  rosea,  Hedley, 
which  Hedley  surmised  Smith  might  have  confused  with 
/.  lytteltonensis,  Smith,  does  not  occur  in  Lyttelton  Harbour, 
where  the  latter  is  common,  and  whence  it  was  described. 
Hedley  further  writes,  "  From  the  shell-characters  of  Incisura 

1  deduce  it  to  be,  if  not  sessile,  yet  of  sluggish  habits." 

This  species  lives  on  a  species  of  Cystophora,  and  is  certainlv 
neither  sessile  nor  sluggish.  Three  specimens  I  had  under 
observation  moved  about  very  rapidly,  being  as  active  as  any 
mollusc  I  have  noted. 

Photinula  decepta,  n.  sp. 

Shell  small,  globosely  conoidal,  imperforate,  thin,  fragile, 
whorls  5,  spire  very  short,  last  whorl  very  large,  rapidly 
descending,  apparently  smooth.  Sculpture  :  Very  finely  spirally 
striated,  30  striations  being  counted  on  the  penultimate  whorl, 
obscured  on  last  whorl  by  growth-lines.  Colour  variable ; 
typical  ;  the  two  apical '  whorls  white  or  pinkish -white  ;  on 
the  third  whorl  2  purplish  bands  equidistant  from  the  sutures 
arise ;  the  fourth  whorl  is  wholly  purplish-black,  as  is  the  last 
whorl.      In    some   shells    these    bands    persist    on   to   the   last 

2  whorls,  additional  bands  arising  so  that  on  the  last  whorl 
5  distinct  bands  can  be  counted ;  rarely  additional  minute 
bands  can  be  seen  between  these  principal  bands.  In  some 
cases  the  purple  on  the  last  whorl  breaks  up  into  irregular 
dashes. 

The  Shag  Point  shells  are  mostly  light-coloured  :  some 
have  almost  a  white  ground-colour,  with  5  separate  distant 
bands  ;  others  have  a  pinkish  ground-colour,  with  darker  mark- 
ings between  the  principal  bands ;  whilst  in  some  the  bands 
on  the  last  whorl  are  broken  up  into  dots.  Sutures  distinctly 
marked.  Columella  subvertical,  semicurved,  expanding  as  a 
callus  over  the  umbilicus.  Aperture  large,  round,  outer  lip 
thin,  edged  with  a  thin  band  of  white,  inside  iridescent. 

Altitude,  13  mm.  ;  diameter,  12  mm.  Altitude,  11  mm.  ; 
diameter,  11  mm. 

Type  to  be  presented  to  the  Canterbury  Museum,  Christ- 
church. 

Hob. — Sandfly  Bay,  Otago  Peninsula  (type)  ;  near  Cape 
Saunders,  Otago  Peninsula  (syntype);  Shag  Point,  Otago 
(syntype). 

Cyclostrema  corulum  (Hutton). 

Scalaria  corulum,  Hutton,   Trans.   N.Z.   Inst.,  vol.  xvii,  p.  322, 
1884  (1885) ;    Pliocene  Mollusc;)  of  N.Z.,  in  Macleay  Mem. 


Iredale. — Next)  Zealand  Marine  Molluscs.  [383 

Vol.,  p.  67,  pi.  viii,  fig.  72,  1893.     Scala  corulum,  Hutton, 
Suter,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxxix,  p.  267,  1906  (1907). 

I  have  found  this  species  not  uncommon  in  shell-sand  from 
Lyall  Bay,  near  Wellington  ;  Titahi  Bay  shell-sand  also  showed 
it ;  whilst  I  have  one  specimen  from  seaweed-washings  from 
Taylor's  Mistake  Bay,  near  Sumner.  It  is  a  very  fragile  shell, 
and  the  majority  of  the  specimens  noted  are  imperfect.  Having 
carefully  compared  specimens,  there  is  no  doubt  it  is  congeneric 
with  Cyclostrema  angeli,  Ten. -Woods,  and  for  the  present  the 
best  location  is  in  the  genus  Cyclostrema. 

Rissoa  emarginata,  Hutton. 
Rissoa  emarginata,  Hutton,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xvii,  p.  320, 

1884  (1885)  ;    Pliocene  Mollusca  of  N.Z.,  in  Macleay  Mem. 

Vol.,  1893,  p.  65,  pi.  viii,  fig.  68. 

This  peculiar  little  shell  is  an  addition  to  the  list  of  Pliocene 
fossils  found  recently.  I  have  found  it  in  shell-sand  from  Purau, 
Lyttelton  Harbour  ;  in  shell-sand  from  Lyall  Bay,  near  Wel- 
lington ;  and  Queen  Charlotte  Sound,  30  fathoms.  From  the 
description  and  figure,  the  shell  recently  described  as  Rissoina 
parvilirata,  Suter  (Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxxix,  p.  257,  pi.  ix, 
fig.  5,  1906  [1907J )  would  appear  to  be  its  nearest  ally,  if  not 
identical. 

Cominella  costata  (Quoy  and  Gaimard). 

Buccinum    costatum,    Quoy    and    Gaimard,    Voy.    "  Astrolabe," 
Zool,  vol.  ii,  p.  417,  pi.  xxx,  figs.  17-20  (1833). 

This  species  has  only  recently  been  re-recorded  from 
New  Zealand ;  locality  unknown :  Suter,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst., 
vol.  xxxviii,  p.  330,  1905  (1906).  Collecting  at  Shag  Point, 
Otago,  I  found  a  dead  specimen  of  this  shell. 

Siphonalia  valedicta  (Watson). 
Fusus   valedictus,    Watson,    Rep.  Scient.  Results  "  Challenger," 
Zool.,   vol.   xv,   p.    201,   pi.   xvii,   fig.    7,    1886.     Siphonalia 
mandarina,   Duclos,   var.   valedicta,    Watson,    Index    Fauna? 
N.Z.,  p.  72,  1904. 

The  type  specimen  was  dredged  in  275  fathoms,  200  miles 
west  of  Cape  Farewell,  New  Zealand.  I  do  not  know  whether 
it  has  been  since  found.  If  it  has  not,  the  finding  of  a  dead  shell 
on  the  south  coast  of  Otago  Peninsula  must  be  of  interest.  My 
specimen  has  the  apical  whorls  missing,  and  the  outer  lip  is 
broken.  Having  collected  numbers  of  S.  mandarina,  Duclos, 
in'all  stages  of  growth,  it  appears  to  me  that  this  shell  is  worthy 
of  full  specific  rank,  as  Watson  gave  it. 


384  Transactions. 

Caecum  digitulum,  Hedley. 

Ccecum  digitulum,  Hecllcv,  Rec.  Axistr.  Museum,  vol.  v,  p.  94, 
fig.  21  in  text,  1904.  " 

It  may  be  of  interest  to  record  the  station  of  this  species, 
especially  as  all  the  records  I  can  trace  of  this  genus  refer  either 
to  dredged  specimens  or  dead  shells  from  shell-sand. 

In  Lyttelton  Harbour,  under  stones  at  high-water  mark, 
this  species  is  common.  Associated  with  it  is  Leuconopsis  ob- 
soleta,  Hutton.  There  lives  also  a  small  bivalve  which  I  have 
not  yet  satisfactorily  identified.  The  apparent  reason  of  these 
shells  having  been  previously  overlooked  is  their  minute  size. 
These  shells  rarely  occur  in  shell-sand,  perhaps  on  account  of 
their  station  being  almost  beyond  the  limit  of  the  force  of  the 
tides.  If  this  conclusion  be  correct,  may  not  Ccecum  amputatum, 
Hedley,  and  Ccecum  lilianum,  Hedley.  perhaps  live  on  a  similar 
station  '\ 

Specimens  of  Ccecum  digitulum,  Hedley,  occur  almost  half 
as  long  again  as  typical  examples,  and  these  specimens  are 
much  more  curved.  Upon  microscopic  examination  the  length 
appears  to  be  due  to  a  new  growth  of  shell,  owing  to  a  fracture. 
The  majority  of  shells,  also,  do  not  taper  as  rapidly  as  Hedley's 
description  would  imply,  nor  as  his  figure  shows. 

Trophon  pusillus,  Suter. 
Trophon  pusillus,  Suter,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.   xxxix.  p.  253. 

190o  (1907). 

In  shell-sand  in  Lyttelton  Harbour  there  occurs  nut  un- 
commonly a  small  Trophon.  I  could  not  reconcile  it  with 
Trophon  curia,  Murdoch,  the  only  New  Zealand  Trophon  of 
similar  size.  It  was  therefore  with  pleasure  that  I  read  the 
description  of  the  shell  as  above.  The  majority  of  dead  shells 
have  the  apical  whorls  missing  and  the  sculpture  worn,  so  that 
the  axial  striation  is  almost  unrecognisable.  However,  I  had  also 
found  livi'  shells  under  stones,  and  these  answered  perfectly  to 
Suter's  figure  and  details.  As  the  outer  lip  of  his  specimens 
is  stated  to  have  been  broken,  I  may  add  that  in  the  adult  shell 
there  are  halt  a  dozen  well-developed  teeth  inside  the  outer  lip. 

Limacina  australis  (Eydoux  and  Souleyet). 

Spiralis  australis,  Eydoux  and  Souleyet.  'Description  som- 
tnaire  de  quelques  Pteropodes  nouveaux  on  imparfaitement 
connus,"  '  Revue  Zoologique,"  t.  hi,  p.  237,  1840.  Lima- 
cinu  australis  (Eydoux  and  Souleyet),  Pelseneer,  Rep.  Results 
"  Challenger,"  Zoo].,  vol.  xxiii.  p.  25,  pi.  i.  fig.  C>,  1888. 
From  shell-sand  from  Lyall  Bay,  near  Wellington,  I  sorted 

out    a    minute   mollusc,   which   Mr.   Hedley  has  identified  for  me 


Iredale. — Neir  Zealand  Marine  Molluscs.  385 

as  above,   with  the  remark,   "  This  is  a  most  important   dis- 
covery." 

This  record  adds  a  genus  as  well  as  a  species  to  the  New 
Zealand  molluscan  fauna. 

Pyrene  paxillus  (Murdoch). 
Columbella   paxillus,    Murdoch,   Trans.   N.Z.   Inst.,   vol.   xxxvii, 
p.  224,  1904  (1905). 

This  shell  is  not  uncommon  alive  under  dirty  stones  in 
Lyttelton  Harbour.  I  had  differentiated  it  from  the  dark  form 
of  Pyrene  choava.  Reeve,  by  means  of  its  operculum  before  I 
read  Murdoch's  description.  It  is  furnished  with  a  large  oper- 
culum, and  as  Pyrene  transitans,  Murdoch,  and  Pyrene  huttoni, 
Suter,  are  closely  allied  conchologically,  they  most  probably  alse> 
possess  such  an  appendage. 

Under  dirty  stones  in  Lyttelton  Harbour  there  occurs  another 
Pyrene.  This  I  had  intended  to  describe,  but  I  have  just  re- 
ceived Hedley's  "  Mollusca  of  Masthead  Reef,  Capricorn  Group, 
Queensland "  (Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  N.S.W.,  vol.  xxxii,  p.  510). 
In  it  he  describes  a  shell  as  Pyrene  lurida,  Hedley.  My  shell 
agrees  very  well  with  the  description  and  figure,  but  without 
comparison  of  specimens  it  would  be  unwise  to  attach  the  New 
Zealand  shell  to  that  species. 

Recently  I  have  found  specimens  of  Pyrene  choava,  Reeve, 
paired,  and  in  each  instance  a  dark  shell  was  mated  with  a 
light  one.  It  may  be  that  the  change  of  coloration  in  this  species 
is  a  sexual  characteristic. 

Since  writing  the  preceding  I  have  found  numbers  of  Pyrene 
huttoni,  Suter,  at  Shag  Point,  Otago,  and  on  the  Otago  Penin- 
sula, and  note  that  this  species  is  possessed  of  an  operculum 
similar  to  that  of  P.  paxillus,  Murdoch. 

Leuconopsis  obsoleta  (Hutton). 
Leuconia  obsoleta,  Hutton,  Journ.  de  Conch.,  vol.  xxvi,  p.  42, 

1878  ;    Man.  N.Z.  Moll.,  p.  34,   1880.     Leuconopsis  obsoleta, 

Hutton,   Trans.   N.Z.  Inst.,   vol.   xvi,  p.   213,   1883  (1884)  ; 

Hedley,  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  N.S.W.,  vol.  xxv,  pi.  xlviii,  fig.  16, 

1900. ' 

This  shell  would  appear  to  be  rare  ;  from  north  of  Auckland 
and  Auckland  are  the-  only  published  records  of  its  occurrence. 
The  finding  of  a  species  of  Leuconopsis  under  stones  at  high- 
water  mark  in  Lyttelton  Harbour  was  therefore  interesting, 
but  had  been  anticipated  by  the  occurrence  of  oeld  shells  in 
seaweed-washings.  These  shells  did  not  fully  agree  with  the 
diagnoses  and  drawings  of  L.  obsoleta,  Hutton,  nor  with  one 
Auckland  shell  of  that  species  I  examined.  As  Webster  (Trans. 
13— Tranp. 


386  Traiisactions. 

N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxxvii,  p.  280,  1904  [1905])  had  recorded  L. 
inermis,  Hedley,  from  Takapuna,  I  sent  one  of  my  shells  to  Mr. 
Hedley  for  his  determination.  His  answer  was,  "  Not  inermis, 
but  perhaps  a  variant  of  obsoleta." 

In  order  to  settle  the  specific  identity,  I  collected  a  good 
number  of  shells  from  different  parts  of  Lyttelton  Harbour. 
A  critical  examination  of  this  series  results  as  follows  :  The  shell 
is  very  variable  in  size  and  shape,  some  shells  being  almost 
globular,  with  the  spire-whorls  very  compressed  ;  others  are 
elongated  and  narrow,  with  the  spire-whorls  lengthened.  The 
spiral  striation  may  be  very  distinct,  indistinct,  or  almost  in- 
distinguishable on  account  of  the  abrasions  to  which  this  shell 
is  very  subject.  The  apex  of  the  shell  may  appear  either  on  the 
left  or  on  the  right,  or  almost  central.  The  teeth  on  the  inner 
lip  may  both  be  very  prominent,  or  the  anterior  one  may  be 
almost  suppressed. 

My  conclusion  is  that  only  one  species  of  Leuconopsis  should 
be  recognised,  and  that  that  should  be  L.  obsoleta,  Hutton.  I 
feel  certain  the  examination  of  a  larger  series  from  Takapuna 
will  induce  Webster  to  withdraw  his  record  of  L.  inermis,  Hedley. 
The  improbability  of  a  Sydney  species  of  a  genus  such  as  the 
one  iu  question  occurring  in  New  Zealand  certainly  demands 
a  reinvestigation  of  this  record.  In  view  of  my  experience  of 
the  extreme  variability  of  L.  obsoleta,  Hutton,  it  is  very  pos- 
sible that  the  two  species  described  by  Gatliff  (Vict.  Naturalist, 
vol.  xxii,  pp.  12-13,  1905)  would  be  united  were  a  longer  series 
studied.  I  have  found  the  position  of  the  apex,  which  Gat- 
liff  lays  stress  upon,  very  inconstant  in  the  New  Zealand  shell. 

Collecting  at  Shag  Point,  Otago,  I  made  a  special  search 
for  L.  obsoleta,  Hutton,  and  was  rewarded  by  finding  it  as 
abundantly  as  in  Lyttelton  Harbour,  and  as  variable.  That 
the  species  is  commonly  distributed  throughout  New  Zealand 
the  additional  localities  whence  I  have  dead  shells  from  shell- 
sand  would  show — Blind  Bay,  Nelson ;  Titahi  Bay,  near  Wel- 
lington ;  and  Lyall  Bay,  near  Wellington.  From  practical 
knowledge  I  can  assert  that  this  species  could  be  very  easily 
collected  alive  at  any  of  these  localities. 

Modiolarca  pusilla  (Gould). 
Modiolarca  pusilla  (Gould),  E.  A.  Smith,  Proc.  Mai.  Soc,  vol.  iii, 

p.  24,  1898. 

In  the  paper  quoted,  this  species  was  first  recorded  as  a 
New  Zealand  shell.  As.  however,  the  specimens  referred  to 
Macquarie  Island,  the  furthermost  limit  of  the  New  Zealand 
region,  the  occurrence  of  this  shell  on  the  New  Zealand  main- 
land is  notable. 


Iredale. — Marine  Mollusca  of  Banks  Peninsula.     387 

Last  Christmas  (1906),  collecting  on  the  south  side  of  Cape 
Saunders,  Otago  Peninsula,  I  obtained  numerous  specimens  of  a 
Modiolarca  on  a  species  of  Cystophora,  in  a  rock-pool.  These 
have  been  named  for  me  as  above  by  Mr.  Suter. 

This  is  the  first  record  of  any  species  of  this  genus  from 
the  mainland  of  New  Zealand. 

Modiolarca  minutissima,  n.  sp. 

Shell  very  small  for  the  genus,  thin,  fragile,  subtriangular,  al- 
most equilateral,  equivalve.  ventricose.  Colour  uniform  brownish- 
red.  Sculpture  :  None  save  growth-lines.  Anterior  margin 
rounded;  posterior  obtusely  angled;  ventral  margin  curved. 
Lunule  slightly  excavate.  Umbones  central,  very  prominent. 
There  appear  to  be  two  small  teeth  in  each  valve. 

Length,  2  mm.  ;  height,  2  mm.  ;  depth  of  conjoined  valves, 
1-5  mm. 

Hab. — Near  Cape  Saunders,  Otago  Peninsula., 

Type  to  be  presented  to  the  Canterbury  Museum,  Christ- 
church. 

This  first  occurred  as  odd  specimens  among  stones  between 
tide-marks.  It  was  later  on  found  in  thousands  on  seaweed- 
stalks,  almost  at  low  tide.  It  is  very  easily  separated  from  the 
other  species  of  this  genus  by  its  small  size  and  shape. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  XXXI. 

Fig.  1.  Six-valved  Plaxiphora  ovata,  Hutton. 

Fig.  2.  Five-valved  Chiton  pellis-serpentis,  Q.  and  G. 


Art.  XXXVII. — A    Preliminary   List   of   the   Marine   Mollusca 
of  Banks  Peninsula,  Neio  Zealand. 

By  Tom  Iredale. 

[Read  before  the  Philosophical  Institute  of  Canterbury,  6th  November,  1907.] 

At  present  the  "  Manual  of  the  New  Zealand  Mollusca"  by 
Captain  Hutton,  published  in  1880,  is  the  only  complete  cata- 
logue of  the  New  Zealand  Mollusca  in  existence.  In  the  intro- 
duction to  the  Manual  Captain  Hutton  wrote,  "  Much  still 
remains  to  be  done  towards  working  out  the  geographical  distri- 
bution of  the  species  ;  and  lists  would  be  particularly  valuable 
from  Napier,  Taranaki,  Wellington,  Nelson,  Hokitika,  and 
Banks  Peninsula."  Up  to  the  present  no  one  has  taken  that 
advice  to  heart  as  regards  the  locality  under  notice.     As  the 


388  Transactions. 

Government  has  now  authorised  the  preparation  of  a  new 
Manual,  I  feel  it  incumbent  upon  me  to  endeavour  to  fill  this 
lack,  even  in  an  imperfect  manner. 

Between  1880  and  1886  Captain  Hutton- wrote  a  good  deal 
upon  the  New  Zealand  Mollusca,  and,  living  in  Christchurch, 
some  of  his  work  relates  to  Banks  Peninsula  molluscs.  Since 
then  Mr.  Suter  has  recorded  some  species  from  this  locality.  I 
can  trace  no  other  recent  workers. 

Upon  looking  at  the  map.  Banks  Peninsula  can  be  seen 
as  a  compact  rocky  peninsula  bounded  both  on  the  north  and 
south  by  extensive  sandy  beaches.  It  is  cut  into  by  deep  bays, 
which  are  very  possibly  rich  in  marine  molluscs.  These  bays, 
however,  are  very  difficult  of  access  from  Christchurch. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  bulk  of  these  records  refer  to 
Lyttelton  Harbour  and  Taylor's  Mistake  Bay;  inasmuch,  how- 
ever, as  on  the  few  occasions  on  which  I  have  collected  at  other 
places  on  the  peninsula  molluscs  that  had  previously  occurred 
to  me  very  rarely  turned  up  commonly,  I  have  deemed  it  best 
to  cover  the  ground  by  using  the  more  comprehensive  title.  It 
may  be  as  well  to  note  that  I  have  included  records  from  the 
New  Brighton  Beach  :  though,  strictly  speaking,  this  may  not 
be  termed  a  part  of  Banks  Peninsula,  as  it  is  most  accessible 
from  Christchurch  it  has  been  most  thoroughly  searched.  It 
is  tolerably  certain,  however,  that  every  species  that  has  been 
found  on  the  New  Brighton  Beach  could  be  found  on  the  other 
beaches  of  the  peninsula,  were  they  as  carefully  searched. 

Some  few  molluscs  have  been  recorded  from  this  locality 
which,  at  the  time  of  writing,  I  had  not  been  fortunate  in  finding. 
In  order  to  make  this  contribution  as  useful  as  possible,  I  have 
incorporated  these  records,  in  each  instance  acknowledging  the 
authority.  I  have  also  included  molluscs  known  as  estuarine, 
and  which  some  malacologists  dissociate  from  marine  lists. 
As,  however,  these  are  found  whilst  searching  for  marine  forme, 
and  occur  under  the  same  stone  as  undoubted  marine  molluscs, 
I  consider  this  is  the  correct  place  to  record  them. 

Against  each  mollusc  I  have  noted  the  station  where  I  have 
commonly  found  it  living.  These  remarks,  of  course,  give  only 
a  general  idea  of  the  station  frequented  by  the  mollusc.  The 
majority  of  molluscs  being  active  creatures,  specimens  arc  often 
found  on  stations  foreign  to  their  general  habits. 

I  have  adopted  Pelsencer's  classification,  as  laid  down  in 
vol.  v  of  "  A  Treatise  on  ^Zoology,"  because  the  new  Manual 
now  in  preparation  by  Mr.  Suter  is  following  that  plan.  Having 
compiled  this  catalogue  with  a  view  to  economy  of  space,  con- 
sistent with  thoroughness,  I  have  noted  orders  and  their  families 
only,  except  in  the  case  of  the  order  Opisthobra?ichia,  where.  I 


Iredale.—  Marine   Mollusca  of  Banks  Peninsula.      389 

have  differentiated  between  the  suborders  Tectibranchia  and 
Nudibranchia — for  the  reason  that  of  the  latter  I  have  collected 
at  least  twenty  distinct  species,  but,  as  they  have  not  yet  been 
thoroughly  studied,  I  have  only  included  ten  identifications 
already  on  record,  and  noted  the  remaining  as  "  ten  other 
distinct  species." 

As  regards  specific  nomenclature,  I  have  followed  the  "  Index 
Faunae  Novae-Zealandiae,"  such  corrections  by  Hedley  and  Suter 
as  have  come  under  my  notice  having  been  included. 

As  author  of  this  paper,  I  have  used  throughout  the  singular 
pronoun.  I  wish  here  to  acknowledge,  however,  in  justice  to 
my  friend  Mr.  W.  R.  Brook  Oliver,  that  many  of  the  rarest 
finds  have  been  made  by  him.  As  he  usually  accompanied 
me  on  my  collecting  trips,  it  was  mere  chance  to  whose  lot 
happened  the  find. 

Class  AMPHINEURA. 

Order  POLYPLACOPHORA. 

Fam.  Lepidopleurice. 

Lepidopleurus  inquinatus,  Reeve. 

Rarely  met  with  in  the  littoral  zone  ;  dredged  in  numbers 
in  shallow  water  on  Turritella  rosea,  Q.  and  G. 

Fam.  Ischnochitonid^e. 

Ischnochiton  longicymba,  Q.  and  G. 

Abundant  under  stones  between  tide-marks. 

Ischnochiton  fulvus,  Suter. 

Dredged  with  L.  inquinatus,  Reeve. 

Fam.  Mopaliid^. 
Plaxiphora  biramosa,  Q.  and  G. 

Not  uncommon  on  kelp-covered  rocks  at  low-water  mark. 

Plaxiphora  coelata,  Reeve. 

Common  on  rocks  between  tide-marks,  also  in  roots  of  kelp. 

Plaxiphora  suteri,  Pilsbry. 

With  P.  biramosa,  Q.  and  G.,  but  much  more  plentiful. 
Plaxiphora  ovata,  Hutton. 

Have  only  met  with  this  Chiton  in  the  roots  of  Durvillt 
utilis,  where  it  is  not  uncommon. 

Fam.  Acanthochitice. 

Acanthochites  porosus,  Burrow. 

Not  uncommon  on  rocks  about  low- water  mark. 

Acanthochites  zelandicus,  Q.  and  G. 

Common  anywhere  between  tide-marks,  under  stones. 


390  Transactions. 

Fam.  Cbctonid^. 

Chiton  pellis-serpentis,  Q.  and  G. 

Abundant  anywhere  on  rocks  between  iide-marks. 

Chiton  sinclairi,  Gray. 

Under  stones  and  on  rocks  near  low  water. 

Chiton  quoyi,  Deshayes. 
.  Abundant  under  stones  between  tide-marks 

Chiton  cereus,  Reeve. 

Not  uncommon  under  stones  in  deep  rock-pools,  also  under 
stones  below  low  water. 

Chiton  stangeri,  Reeve. 

Mr.  Suter  found  one  specimen  ;    I  have  found  two  in  rock- 
pools.     A  very  rare  Chiton. 

Euloxochiton  nobilis,  Gray. 

Rare  ;   on  rocks  below  low- water  mark. 

Eudoxochiton  hutioni,  Pilsbry. 

Only  one  specimen  has  been  as  yet  found. 

Onithochiton  undulatu  t,  Q.  and  G. 

Not  uncommon  on  rocks  at  low  water  ;    common  in  kelp- 
roots. 

Class  GASTROPODA. 
Order  ASPLDOBRANCHIA. 

Fain.  Acm^id^;. 

Acmcea  frayilis,  Chemnitz. 

On  stones  between  tide-marks  ;   very  local. 

Acmcea  pileopsis,  Q.  and  G. 

Rare  ;   only  met  with  above  high-water  mark. 

Acmcea  cingulata,  Hutton. 
rubiginosa,  Hutton. 
Associated  together  on  shells  of  Haliotis  iris,  Martyn. 

Acmo3a  stella,  Lesson. 

stella  corticata,  Hutton. 
Commonly  met  with  <>n  rocks  between  tide-marks. 

Acmcea  pseudocorticata,  Iredale. 

Not  uncommon  on  rocks  about  high-water  mark. 

Acmcea  septiformis,  Q.  and  G. 

Under  stones  in  Heathcote  Estuary. 

Acmcea  dcedala,  Suter. 

Common  ;   the  green  tessellated  shell  most  frequent. 


Iredale. — Marine  Mollusca  of  Hanks  Peninsula.      391 

Acmaa  parviconoidea,  Suter. 

Common  on  rocks  near  high-water  mark. 

Acmcea  parviconoidea  leucoma,  Suter 

Under  stones  in  Heathcote  Estuary  :   rare. 

Acmcea  parviconoidea  nigrostella,  Suter. 

Dead  shells  in  shell-sand ;    rarely    met   with    alive  in  sea- 
weed-washings. 

Fam.  Patellid^e. 
Helcioniscus  radians,  Gmel. 

radians  argentea,  Q.  and  G. 
radians  decora,  Philippi. 
radians  earlii,  Reeve. 
radia.ts  affinis,  Reeve. 
radians  olivacea,  Hutton. 
These  all  occur,  the  various  subspecies  b^ing  of  local    dis- 
tribution. 

Helcioniscus  stelliferus,  Gmelin. 

stelliferus  phymatia,  Suter. 
Dead  shells  not  uncommon.     I  have  found  live  shells  of  the 
former  on  rocks  below  low-water  mark. 

Helcioniscus  ornatus,  Dillwyn. 

ornatus  inconspicuus,  Gray. 
Abundant  on  rocks. 

Helcioniscus  redimiculum,  Reeve. 
strigilis,  Hombr.  and  Jacq. 
Our  rarest  limpets,  in  my  experience. 

Fam.    PLEUROTOMARIIDyE. 

Scissurella  rosea,  Hedley. 

I  have  only  as  yet  met  with  three  dead  shells — two  in  shell- 
sand,  one  in  seaweed-washings. 

Schismope  brevis,  Hedley. 

Live  shells  not  uncommon  in  seaweed-washings. 

Fam.  Haliotid^e. 
Haliotis  iris,  Martyn. 

Common  about  low- water  mark. 

Ha'iotis  australis,  Gmelin. 

Lives  in  deeper  water  than   iris,   consequently  more  rarely 
met  with 

Haliotis  virginea,  Gmel  n. 

Have  as  yet  only  met  with  two  specimens,  in  a  deep  rock- 
pool. 


392  Transaction? . 

Fam.  FrssuRELLiD^:. 
Emarginvla  striatula,  Quoy  and  Gaimard. 

Suter  records  this  in  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xxx,  p.  326. 

Subemarginu7a  intermedia,  Reeve 
Dead  shells  in  shell-sand. 

Incisura  lytteltonensis,  E.  A.  Smith. 

Not  uncommon  in  seaweed-washings.    Lives  on  Cystophora,  sp. 

Scutum  ambiguum,  Chemnitz. 
Common  at  low-water  mark. 

Fam.  Tkochid^;. 
Trochus  viridis,  G-melin. 

tiaratus,  Quoy  and  Gaimard. 
Not    uncommon    on    rocks ;     more    plentiful    in    summer ; 
tiaratus  scarcer  than  viridis. 

Trochus  oppressus,  Hutton. 

Very  rare  ;   under  stones  in  deep  rock-pools. 

Monodonta  cethiops,  Gmelin. 

atrovirens,  Philippi. 

nigerrima,  Gmelin. 

morio,  Troschel. 

coracina,  Troschel. 

lugubris,  Gmelin. 
Abundant ;   some  species  local  ;   on  and  under  stones  between 
tide-marks. 

Monodonta  corrosa,  A.  Adams. 

corrosa  undulosa,  A.  Adams. 
corrosa  plumbea,  Hutton. 
Live  together  on  mud-flats. 

Cantharidus  purpuratus,  Martyn. 

purpuratus  texturatus,  Gould. 
Rarely  met  with  ;   stragglers  on  rocks  at  low  water. 

Cantharidus  tenebrosus,  A.  Adams. 

tenebrosus  huttoni,  E.  A.  Smith. 
Abundant  on  seaweeds  ;  the  latter  on  Zostera  beds. 

Cantharidus  pupillus,  Hutton. 
dilatatus,  Sowerby. 
On  seaweeds  in  rock-pools  ;    the  latter  scarcer  ;    tin-  former 
also  found  in  roots  of  DurviUea. 

Gibbula  .nitida,  Adams  and  Angas. 
suteri,  E.  A.  Smith. 
On  seaweeds  in  rock-pools  ;   the  latter  much  the  commoner  ; 
both  rarer  than  the  two  preceding. 


Ieedale. — Marine  Mollusca  of  Banks  Peninsula.      393 

Cattiostoma  punctulatum,  Martyn. 

In  crevices  of  rocks  j  ust  above  low- water  mark. 

Ethalia  zelandica,  Hornbron  and  Jacquinot. 
Dead  shells  on  sandy  beaches. 

Fam.  Liotiid^. 

Liotia  polypleura,  Hedley. 

Not  uncommon  in  seaweed-washings  ;   live  shells. 

Fam.  Cyclostrematida;. 

Cydostrema  corulum,  Hutton. 
lissa,  Suter. 

Fam.  Turbinid^;. 

Turbo  smaragdus,  Martyn. 

smaragdus  tricostatus,  Hutton. 
Common  on  rocky  shores,  between  tide-marks. 

Turbo  granosus,  Martyn. 

One  specimen  in  Canterbury  Museum,  from  Lyttelton. 

Astralium  sulcatum,  Martyn. 

Not  common  alive  on  rocks  ;  dead  shells  on  beaches  adjacent. 

Astralium  sulcatum  davisii,  Stowe. 

Have  only  met  with  two  dead  shells. 

Astralium  heliotr opium,  Martyn. 

One  very  young  specimen  from  shell-sand. 

Order  PECTINIBEANCHIA. 

Fam.  Litorinid^e. 

Litorina  mauritiana,  Lamarck. 

cincta,  Quoy  and  Gaimard. 
Common  on  rocks  above  low  tide  and  also  above  high  water. 

Risellopsis  varia,  Hutton. 

varia  carinata,  Kesteven. 
Common  ;    associated  with  Litorina,  spp. 

Fam.  Rissoid^e. 
Rissoa  hamiltoni,  Suter. 

incidata,  Frauenfeld. 
fumata,  Suter. 
zoster  ophila,  Webster. 
zosterophila  minor,  Suter. 
cheilostoma,  Ten. -Woods. 
cheilostoma  lyalliana,  Suter. 
microstriata,  Murdoch. 
All  these  were  found  alive  in  seaweed-washings. 


394  Transactions. 

Rissoa  inscvlpta,  Murdoch. 
foveauxiana,  Suter. 
subfusca,  Hutton. 
subfusca  micronema,  Suter. 
neozelanica,  Suter. 
emarginata,  Hutton. 
I  have  only  met  with  dead  shells  of  these  species. 

Rissoina  rugidosa,  Hutton. 
agrestis,  Webster. 

Eatoniella  olivacea,  Hutton. 

olivacea  annulata,  Hutton. 

limbata,  Hutton. 
I  have  obtained  live  shells  of  all  of  these  from   seaweed- 
washings. 

Fam.  Hydrobiid^:. 

Potamopyrgus  antipodum,  Gray. 
spelceus  pupoides,  Hutton. 
Living   under   stones   in   brackish   water ;     dead   specimens 
rarely  found  in  shell-sand. 

Fam.  CerithiiDjE. 

Cerithiopsis  sarissa,  Murdoch. 

Live  shells  under  dirty  stones  ;    also  met  with  in  seaweed- 
washings. 

Potamides  subcarinatus,  Sowerby. 

Common  in  shallow  pools  at  high- water  mark. 

Potamides  bicarinatus,  Gray. 

In  Canterbury  Museum,  from  Lyttelton. 

Fam.  Cmcivm. 

Ccecum  digitulum,  Hedley. 

Common  under  stones  at  high- water  mark. 

Fam.  Turritellidje. 

Turritella  rosea,  Quoy  ;iud  Gaimard. 
kanieriensis,  Harris. 
Dead    shells    common    on    sandy    bays ;     dredged    alive   in 
shallow  water. 

Fam.  Struthiolatuid.e. 

Struthiolaria  papulosa,  Martyu. 

Dead  shells  only,  on  sandy  beaches. 


Ikedale. — Murine  Mollusca  of  Batiks  Peninsula.      395 

Fam.  Calyptr^id^e. 

Calyptrcea  nova-zelandice,  Lesson. 
Common  under  diifcy  stones. 

Calyptrcea  scutum,  Lesson. 

Only  dredged  on  shells  in  shallow  water. 

Crcpidula  crepidula,  Linue. 

Have  only  met  with  a  few  [young  specimens,  on  shells 
washed  up. 

Fam.  Ianthinid^. 

Ianlhina  exigua,  Lamarck. 

One  shell,  from  shell-sand  oft  a  sandy  beach. 

Fam.  Pyramidellid^;. 

Odostomia  impolita,  Hutton. 
vestalis,  Murdoch. 
proxima,  Murdoch. 
marginata,  Murdoch  and  Suter. 
(Two  other  species.) 

Pyrgulina  rugata,  Hutton. 

Turbonilla  zealandica,  Hutton. 
,    sp.  nov. 

Eulimella  deplexa.  Hutton. 

coena,  Webster.  Q 

Occuriing  in  shf>U-sand  and  dTedgings.  Live  specimens  of 
Odostomia  impolita.  Hutton,  and  Turbonilla  zealandica,  Hutton, 
found  under  r,:rty  stones. 

Fam.  Mitrid-s;. 
Vulpecula  rubiginosa,  Hutton. 

Live  shells  not  uncomuion  under  dirty  stones,  dead  shells 
in  shell-sand. 

Fam.  Buccinid^;. 
Siphonalia  man  Carina,  Duclos. 

Not  uncommon  in  shallow  water  ;  live  shells  rarely  met 
with  above  low  water,  in  crevices  of  rocks. 

Siphonalia  nodosa,  Marfcyn. 

Have  only  met  with  dead  shells  so  far. 

Cominella  maculosa,  Maiiyn. 

Common  on  rocky  shores,  between  tide-marks. 

Cominella  lurida,  Philippi.  » 

Common  on  mud-fiats. 


396  Transactions. 

Euthria  lineata,  Martyn. 

lineata  pertinax,  Von  Martens. 

vittata,  Quoy  and  Gaimard. 

antarctica,  Reeve. 

littorinoides,  Reeve. 

striata,  Hut  ton. 
All  occur  under  stones   between  tide-marks  ;    some  of  local 
distribution. 

Fam.  Muricid^;. 

Trophon  ambiguus,  Philippi. 

Common  in  shallow  water  in  Purau  Bay;  very  rarely  found 
otherwise. 

Kalydon  duodecimus,  Gray. 

plebeius,  Hutton. 

paivce,  Crosse. 

inferus,  Hutton. 

pusillus,  Suter. 
Under  stones  in  rock-pools  ;    under  dirty  stones  oeiuw  low- 
tide  mark  :   all  of  local  distribution. 

Fam.  Purpurid^e. 

Thais  haustrum,  Martyn. 
Common  on  rocky  shores. 

Thais  striata,  Martyn. 

striata  squatnata,  Hutton. 
Common  under  stones  near  low-water  mark. 

Thais  scobina  albomarginata,  Deshayes. 
scobina  rutila,  Suter. 
Common  on  rooks  about  high-tide  mark;    rutila  very  Local. 

Fam.    COLUMBELLIDiE. 

Pyrene  choava,  Reeve. 

paxillus,  Murdoch. 
Live  shells  not  uncommon  under  dirty  stones. 

Fam.  VOLUTID.E. 

Scaphella  arabica,  Martyn. 

arabica  elongata,  Swainson. 
Live  shells  in  shallow  water  ;   dead  shells  on  sandy  beaches. 

Fam.  Olivid.*;. 

AnciUa  australis,  Sowerby. 

Specimens  in  Canterbury  Museum  from  Lyttelton. 


Iredale. — Marine  Mollusca  of  Banks  Peninsula.      397 

Ancilla  rubiginosa,  Swainson. 

Suter  records   this   from   near   Sumner   (Trans.    N.Z.   Inst., 
vol.  xxxviii,  p.  332). 

Ancilla  depressa,  Sowerby. 

One  dead  shell,  which  agrees  exactly  with  specimens  from 
the  North  Island. 

Fam.  Pleurotomatid^e. 

Mangilia  Sinclair i,  E.  A.  Smith. 

Live  shells  dredged  in  shallow  water. 
(Three  other  species.) 

Young  specimens  from  shell-sand. 

Fam.  Terebriid.e. 

Terebra  tristis,  Deshayes. 

Have  only  met  with  dead  shells  so  far. 

Order    OPISTHOBRANCHIA. 

Suborder  TECTIBRANCH1A. 

Fam.  Philinidje. 

Philine  aperta,  Linne. 

One  shell,  dredged  in  shallow  water  ;    muddy  bottom. 

Fam.  ApLYSiiDiE. 
Teihys  venosa,  Hutton. 

Specimen  in  Canterbury  Museum  from  Sumner. 

Suborder    NUDIBRANCHIA. 

Doris  longula,  Abraham. 
Canterbury  Museum. 

Archidoris  wellingtonensis,  Abraham. 
Canterbury  Museum. 

Alloiodoris  lanuginata,  Abraham. 
Canterbury  Museum. 

Cratena  corfei,  Hutton. 

Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xiii,  p.  203. 

StUiger  felinus,  Hutton. 

Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xv,  p.  133. 

Molis  leptosoma,  Hutton. 

Trans.  N.Z.  Inst,,  vol.  xvi,  p.  213. 

Goniodoris  punctata,  Bergh. 

Proc.  Mai.  Soc,  vol.  vii,  p.  349. 

Fiona  marina,  Forskal. 

Trans.  N.Z.  Inst,,  vol.  xxx,  p.  326. 


398  Tra  n  unctions. 

Molis  gracilis,  T.  W.  Kirk. 

Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xv,  p.  217. 

Chromodoris  aureomarginata,  Cheeseman. 

Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  xiii.  p.  203. 
(Ten  other  distinct  species.) 

Order  PULMONATA. 

Fam.  Auric ulid^;. 

Marinula  fUholi,  Hutton. 

One  dead  shell  from  shell-sand. 

Leuconopsis  obsolela,  Hutton. 

Common  under  stones  at  high  water. 

Fam.  Amphibolid;e. 
Amphibola  crenata,  Martyn. 
Abundant  on  mud-flats. 

Fam.    SlPHONARIIDiE. 

Siphonaria  obliquata,  Sowerby. 

On  rocks  about  high-water  mark  ;    abundant. 

Siphonaria  australis,  Quoy  and  Gaimard. 
zealandica,  Quoy  and  Gaimard. 
Both  species  common ;    on  rocks  between  tide-marks   and 
on  seaweeds  in  rock-pools. 

Fam.  Gadtniid^;. 
Gadinia  nivea,  Hutton. 

On  rocks  about  high- water  mark  ;   rare. 

Fam.  Onoibuo^. 

Onchidella  patelloides,  Quoy  and  Gaimard. 
nigricans,  Quoy  snd  Gaimard. 
Common  on  rocks  about  high-water  mark. 

Class  LAMELLIBRANCHIA. 

Order  PROTOBRANCUIA. 

Fam.  Solenomyid^;. 

Solenomya  parkinsoni,  E   A.  Smith. 
Have  only  met  with  dead  shells. 

Fam.  NuculidjB. 

Xiicn/a  nitidula,  A.  Adams. 
lacunosa,  Hutton. 
Have  dredged  live  shells  in  shallow  water. 


Ihrdale. — Marine  Mollusca  of  Banks  Peninsula.      399 

Order  FILIBRANCHIA. 
Fam.  ARCiDiE. 
Philobrya  costata,  Bernard. 

Commonly  occurring  in  seaweed  -  washings  ;  in  clusters  under 
dirty  stones  between  tide-marks. 

Philobrya  filholi,  Bernard. 

One  specimen  in  seaweed-washings. 

Philobrya  meleagrina,  Bernard. 
Valves  in  shell-sand. 

Hochstetteria  trapezina,  Bernard. 

Not  uncommon  in  seaweed-washings. 

Fam.  Mytilidje. 
Mytilus  edulis,  Linne. 

canaliculus,  Martyn. 
magellanicus,  Chemnitz. 
All  common  between  tide-marks  ;   the  last  named  scarce. 

Modiolus  australis.  Gray. 

Have  only  met  with  one  live  specimen,  washed  up  after  a 
storm. 

Modiolus  ater,  Frauenfeld. 

Abundant  between  tide-marks. 

Modiolaria  impacta,  Hermannsen. 

Not  uncommon  ;    in  crevices  of  rocks,  and  commensal  with 
Ascidians. 

Lithophaga  truncata,  Gray. 

Have  only  met  with  dead  shells. 

Fam.  Pectinice. 
Pecten  medius,  Lamarck. 

Dead  shells  on  beaches  only  as  yet. 

Chlamys  radiatus,  Hutton. 

One  valve  found  on  a  sandy  beach. 

Chlamys  zelandice,  Gray. 
gemmulatus,  Reeve. 
Valves  on  beaches  ;    young  live  specimens  attached  by  a 
byssus  to  stones  in  rock-pools. 

Order  EULAMELLTBRANCHIA. 

Fam.  OstreiDuE. 
Ostrcea  angasi,  Sowerby. 

Live  shells  sometimes  met  with  cast  up  after  storms. 


400  Transactions. 

Ostrcea  reniformis,  Sowerby. 

Common  on  rocks  about  low-tide  mark. 

Ostrcea  purpurea,  Hanley. 

Specimen  in  Canterbury  Museum  from  Lyttelton. 

Fam.  Pinnidjs. 
Pinna  zelandica,  Gray. 

Live    shells    dredged    in    shallow    water  ;     dead    shells   on 
beaches. 

Fam.  Carditid^. 

Cardita  calyculata,  Linne. 

Young  specimens  in  seaweed  -  washings  and  roots  of  Dur- 
villea, 

Verticipronus  mytilus,  Hedley. 
Valves  in  sea  weed- washings. 

Fam.    CONDYLOCARDIID^E. 

Condylocardia  crassicosta,  Bernard. 

One  live  specimen  from  seaweed-washings. 

Fam.  Lucinid^. 

Divaricella  cumingi,  Adams  and  Augas. 
cumingi  huttoni,  Vanatta. 
Dead  shells  very  rarely  met  with  on  beaches. 

Fam.  Ungulinid^. 

Diplodonta  globularis,  Lamarck. 
zelandica,  Gray. 
striata,  Hutton. 
Have  only  met  with  dead  shells  so  far. 

Fam.  LeptonidjE. 

Kellia  suborbicularis,  Montagu. 
Have  only  met  with  dead  shells. 

Lasea  miliaris,  Philippi. 

Common  in  seaweed-washing. 

Fam.  Cycladidte. 

Corneocyclas  aucklandica,  Suter. 

Common  under  stones  in  brackish  water. 

Fam.  TkllinidjE. 

Tellina  alba,  Quoy  and  Gaimard. 

Shells  not  uncommon  on  sandy  beaches. 


Iredalb. — Marina   Mollusca  of  Banks   Peninsula.      401 

Tellina  lactea,  Q.  and  G. 

Dead  shells  not  uncommon ;    lives  on  a   muddy  bottom  ; 
live  specimens  common. 

Tellina  glabrella,  Deshayes. 

Dredged  valves  ;  muddy  bottom. 

Tellina  disculus,  Deshayes. 
Dead  shells  washed  up. 

Tellina  spenceri,  Suter. 

Dead  shells  met  with  after  storms  ;  sandy  beaches. 

Tellina  huttoni,  E.  A.  Smith. 

Dredged  in  shallow  water  ;  muddy  bottom. 

Leftomya  lintea,  Hutton. 

Dead  shells  dredged  in  shallow  water  ;  muddy  bottom. 

Macoma  suter i,  E.  A.  Smith. 

Dredged  with  T.  huttoni,  E.  A.  Smith. 

Fam.  Mesodesmatid^e. 

Mesodesma  australis,  Gmelin. 
Atactodea  subtriangulata,  Gray 

Abundant ;    the  former  on  mud,  the  latter  sand  ;    our  com- 
monest bivalves. 

Fam.  Mactrid^e. 
Mactra  discors,  Gray. 

cequilatera,  Deshayes. 
Common  ;  lives  below  low- water  mark  on  sandy  beaches. 

Mactra  or  dinar  ia,  E.  A.  Smith. 

Dredged  with  Tellina  huttoni,  E.  A.  Smith. 

Standella  ovata,  Gray. 

Dead  shells  abundant  on  muddy  bottom  ;    have  not  found 
live  shells. 

Resania  lanceolata,  Gray. 

Zenatia  acinaces,  Quoy  and  Gaimard. 

Lives  below  low-water  mark  on  sandy  beaches  ;    dead  shells 
common. 

Fam.  Venertd^:. 
Dosinia  subrosea,  Gray. 
australis,  Gray. 
Lives  with  the  two  preceding. 

Dosinia  grayi,  Zittel. 

Have  only  met  with  single  valves  ;  very  rare. 

Chione  ob'onga,  Hanley. 

Dead  shells  rarely  met  with  ;    one  live  specimen  in  a  rock- 
pool. 


402  Transactions. 

Ckione  stutchburyi,  Gray. 

Abundant  on  muddy  bottom. 

Chione  costata,  Quoy  and  Gaimard. 

Common  ;    lives  in  sand  among  stones  between  tide-marks. 

Chione  crassa,  Quoy  and  Gaimard. 
Have  only  met  with  dead  shells. 

Anaitis  yatei,  Gray 

Live  shells  washed  up  on  sandy  beaches  after  storms. 

Tapes  intermedia,  Quoy  and  Gaimard. 

Associated  with  Chione  costata,  Q.  and  G.,  but  much  rarer. 

Venerupis  siliqua,  Deshayes. 
reflexa.  Gray. 
Sp. 
Have  only  met  with  dead  shells. 

Fam.  Carotids. 
Protocardia  pulchella,  Gray. 

Specimens  in   Canterbury  Museum   marked  "  Banks   Penin- 
sula.*' 

Fam.  PsAMMOBncE. 
Psammobia  lineolata,  Gray. 
stangeri,  Gray. 

Solenotellina  siliqua,  Reeve. 
nitida,  Gray. 
incerta,  Reeve. 
May  be  met  with  on  sandy  beaches  after  heavy  seas. 

Fam.  Corbulid^:. 

Cotbula  haastiana,  Hutton. 

The  type-locality  is  Lyttelton. 

Corbula  zealandica,  Quoy  aud  Gaimard. 
Two  valves  from  shell-sand. 

Fam.  Saxicavid.*;. 
Saxicava  arctica,  Linne. 

Common  ;   boring  in  sponges  and  under  roots  of  DvrvUlea,  sp. 

Panopcea  zelandica,  Quoy  and  Gaimard. 

Very  rare  ;   dead  shells  washed  up  on  sandy  beaches. 

Fam.  Pholadtd^:. 
Barnea  similis,  Gray. 

Have  only  met  with  valves  so  far. 


Irgdale. — Marine  Mollusca  of  Banks  Peninsula.      403 

Fam.  PertplomiDjE. 

Cochlodesma  angasi,  Crosse  and  Fischer. 

Rare  ;  live  shells  sometimes  washed  up  after  storms. 

Fam.  Myochanid^e. 

My  odor  a  striata,  Quoy  and  Gaimard. 

Valves  dredged  in  shallow  water  ;   rarely  met  with  on  sandy 
beaches. 

Myodora  pandoriformis,  Stutchbury. 
Two  valves  on  sandy  beaches. 

Myodora  novo3-zelandio3,  E.  A.  Smith. 

One  specimen  dredged  in  shallow  water. 

Class  CEPHALOPODA. 

Order  DIBRANCHIA. 

Fam.  Spirulice. 
Spirula  spirula,  Linne. 

Shells  found  on  sandy  beaches. 

Fam.  Ommatostrephid.e. 

Todarodes  sloanii,  Gray. 

Specimen  from  Lyttelton  in  Canterbury  Museum. 

Fam.  SEPUDiE. 
Sepia  apama,  Gray. 

In  Canterbury  Museum. 

Fam.  Octopodid-e. 

Polypus  maorum,  Hutton. 

Specimen  from  Lyttelton  in  Canterbury  Museum;  not  very 
rare. 


404  Transactions. 


Art.   XXXVIII. — List  of   Marine   Molluscs   collected  in  Otago. 

By  Tom  Iredale. 

[Read  before  the  Philosophical  Institute  of  Canterbury,  l\th  December,  1907.] 

When  I  was  preparing  my  list  of  marine  Mollusca  of  Banks 
Peninsula  I  thought  it  would  be  interesting  to  compare  that 
fauna  with  the  recorded  marine  Mollusca  of  Otago.  The  only 
compilation  I  could  trace  was  one  prepared  by  the  late  Captain 
Hutton,  and  included  in  the  "  Geology  of  Otago  "  by  Hutton 
and  Ulrich,  published  as  long  ago  as  1875.  As,  owing  to  nomen- 
clatorial  changes,  as  well  as  different  ideas  of  specific  values, 
that  list  is  now  of  little  value,  I,  with  my  friend  Mr.  W.  R.  Brook 
Oliver,  determined  to  investigate  the  marine  molluscan  fauna  of 
Otago  Peninsula.  The  chief  reason  that  prompted  us  to  choose 
that  locality  was  ease  of  access.  At  that  time  there  was  no 
intention  of  making  up  a  list,  but  we  found  the  fauna  so  different, 
and  unexpected  molluscs  kept  turning  up  to  such  an  extent 
that  I  have  felt  it  imperative  to  record  them.  We  worked  up 
the  harbour  from  Dunedin  to  Port  Chalmers  ;  then  at  two 
localities  near  Cape  Saunders — one  north  of  the  cape,  the  other 
south  ;  thence  at  Sandfly  Bay  and  the  coast  between  that  bay 
and  Ocean  Beach.  Later  on  we  collected  at  Shag  Point,  Otago, 
with  the  result  that  we  found  the  fauna  almost  identical  with 
that  observed  on  the  south  coast  of  Otago  Peninsula. 

Our  collecting  was  entirely  in  the  littoral  zone,  and  was 
done  very  hurriedly  ;  consequently  this  list  can  only  be  regarded 
a3  a  contribution  towards  a  complete  list  of  this  very  interest- 
ing fauna.  One  feature  especially  noticeable  is  the  lack  of 
many  certainly  common  species.  To  remedy  this  in  some 
degree  I  have  noted  in  an  addenda  to  this  list  such  species  from 
Dunedin  as  are  represented  in  the  Otago  Museum,  together  with 
recent  records  of  rare  species  I  did  not  meet  with.  Two  species 
in  the  Otago  Museum  I  have  not  included — viz..  Subemarginula 
rugosa,  Q.  and  G.,  and  Monodonta  subrostrata.  Gray.  I  was 
unable  to  examine  these,  but  they  appear  to  be  doubtful  identi- 
fications. 

The  outstanding  features  of  our  collecting  were  the  finding  of 
two  species  of  Modiolarca  and  a  species  of  Photinula ;  the  abund- 
ance of  Chiton  cereus,  Reeve  ;  the  occurrence  of  Callochiton  pla- 
tessa,  Gould  ;  and  the  refinding  of  Cominella  costata,  Q.  and  G., 
and  Si/phonalia  valedicta,  Watson. 


Iredale. — Marine  Molluscs  collected  in  Otago.        405 

As  in  my  Banks  Peninsula  list,  I  have  followed  Pelseneer's 
classification,  for  the  purposes  laid  down  in  the  preface  to  that 
list. 

As  the  collecting  was  done  on  the  Otago  Peninsula  and  at 
Shag  Point,  Otago,  I  have  after  each  species  put  "  1  "  or  "  2," 
the  "  1  "  meaning  collected  on  the  Otago  Peninsula,  and  the 
"  2 "  standing  for  Shag  Point.  By  this  means  this  list  will 
prove  more  useful  to  students  of  the  geographical  distribution  of 
the  marine  Mollusca  of  New  Zealand. 

In  my  Banks  Peninsula  list  I  have  noted  the  stations  whence 
I  obtained  living  specimens  of  the  molluscs  there  enumerated. 
In  Otago  I  collected  some  molluscs  which  I  had  not  met  with 
alive  on  Banks  Peninsula. 

Some  very  interesting  finds  I  have  elsewhere  recorded  in 
detail.  Herewith  are  given  details  of  the  stations  of  some 
molluscs  which  appear  to  be  rare  alive  in  the  littoral  zone  : — 

Acanthochites  violaceus,  Q.  and  G. 

Under  clean  stones  in  very  deep  rock-pools  only. 

Emarginula  striatula,  Q.  and  G. 
Under  dirty  stones,  with  above. 

Trochus  oppressus,  Hutton. 

Not  uncommon  under  stones  in  rock-pools. 

Oantharidus  opalus,  Martyn. 

One  specimen  alive  on  seaweed  in  rock-pool. 

Turbo  granosus,  Martyn. 

Among  seaweed  on  reef  uncovered  at  very  low  tide. 

Trichotropis  inornata,  Hutton. 

Under  dirty  stones  between  tide-marks. 

(jfyrineum  argus,  Gmelin. 

Eight  live  specimens  in  a  deep  rock-pool. 

Barbatia  decussata,  Sowerby. 

One  specimen  under  a  dirty  stone  with  preceding. 

All  the  other  species  I  found  frequenting  the  same  station 
as  at  Banks  Peninsula. 

Lepidopleurus  inquinatus,  Reeve.     1,  2. 
Ischnochiton  longicymba,  Q.  and  G.     1,  2. 
fidvus,  Suter.     1,  2. 

Callochiton  platessa,  Gould.     2. 
Plaxiphora  biramosa,  Q.  and  G.     1. 

ccelata,  Reeve.     1,  2. 

suteri,  Pilsbry.     1. 

ovata,  Hutton.     1,  2. 


406  Transactions. 

Acanthochites  porosus,  Burrow.     1,  2. 

violaceus,  Q.  and  G.     1,  2. 

zelandicus,  Q.  and  G.     1,  2. 
Chiton  pellis-serpenlis,  Q.  and  G.     1,  2. 

sinclairi,  Gray.     1,  2. 

quoyi,  Desliayes.     1.  2. 

cereus,  Reeve.     1.  2. 
Oiiithochiton  undidatus,  Q.  and  G.     1,  2. 
.<4cmem  fragilis,  Chemnitz.     1,  2. 

pileopsis,  Q.  and  G.     1,  2. 

septiformis,  Q.  and  G.     1.  2. 

cingidota,  Hufcton.     1,  2. 

rubiginosa,  Hutton.     2. 

slella,  Lesson.     ],  2. 

steKa  corticata,  Hutton.     1,  2. 

dcedala,  Suter.     1,  2. 

dcedala  sublilis,  Sutcx.'.     1,  2. 

dcedala,  Suter,  var.     2. 

parviconoidea,  Sntei.     1. 

parviconoidea  leuconm,  Suter.     1. 

pseudocorlicaia,  Tredale.     1,  2. 
Helcioniscus  radians,  Ciine.lin.     1,  2. 

radians  affinis,  Jloevf.     1,  2. 

radians  decora,  Philippi.     1,  2. 

radians  oHvacea,  Hutton.     1,  2. 

radians  argentea,  Q.  and  G.     1,  2. 

tramosericus,  Marfcyn  ('^).     1,  2. 

redim.utiluni.  Rneve.     1,  2. 

slrigif/'S.  H.  and  J.     1. 

ornalus,  Dlltovyo.     1,  2. 

ornatus  iw-ovsplcua,  Gieay.     J.  2. 
Schismope  brevis  lev- gala,  1  '*edale.     I . 
Ilaliotis  iris,  Manvn.     1,  2. 

auslral'vs,  Gmelin.     1,  2. 

virginea,  Goielin.     1    2. 
Ernargimda  sirialula,  Q.  and  G.     1.  2. 
I  ncisura  lyUeUonensls,  Smith.     2. 
Soidum  ambigvam,  Chemnitz.     ',  2. 
Trochus  viridis,  Ginelin.     1,  2. 

tiaratus,  Q.  and  G.     12. 

oppressus,  Hutton.     2. 
Uonodonta  ceihiops,  Gmelin.     1,  2. 

ulrovirens,   Philippi.     2. 

nigerrima.  < Jinclin.      1.  2. 

coracina,  Troschel.     1,  2 

morio,  Troschel.     1,  2. 


IbedaIjE.- — Marine  Molluscs  collected  in   Otago.         407 

Monodonta  lugubris,  Gmelin.     1,  2. 

corrosa,  A.  Adams.     1. 

corrosa  undulosa,  A.  Adams.     1. 
Cantharidus  purpuratus,  Martyn.     1. 

opalus,  Martyn.     2. 

pupillus,  Hutton.     1,  2. 

rufozonus,  A.  Adams.     2. 

sanguineus,  Gray.     2. 

tenebrosus,  A.  Adams.     1,  2. 

tenebrosus  huttoni,  Smith.     1. 
Photinula  decepta,  Iredale.     1,  2. 
Gibbula  nitida,  Adams  and  Angas.     1.  2. 

scamnata,  Fischer.     1. 
Calliostoma  punctulatum,  Martyn.     1. 
Ethalia  zelandica,  H.  and  J.     1. 
Liotia  polijpleura,  Hedley.     2. 
Turbo  smaragdus,  Martyn.     1,  2. 

smaragdus  tricostatus,  Hutton.     I.  2. 

granosus,  Martyn.     2. 
Astralium  sulcatum,  Martyn.     2. 
Litorina  mauritiana,  Lamarck.     1,  2. 

cincta,  Q.  and  G.     1,  2. 
Risellopsis  varia,  Hutton.     1,  2. 

varia  carinata,  Kesteven.     1,  2. 
Rissoa  zoster ophila,  Webster.     2. 

cheilostoma,  Ten. -Woods.     2. 

foveauxiana,  Suter.     1,  2. 

insculpta,  Murdoch.     2. 

rubriglobosa,  Iredale.     1. 

sinulabrum,  Iredale.     1.  2. 

inopinata,  Iredale.     1,  2. 

zoster  ophila,  Webster,  var.     2. 
Rissoina  rugulosa,  Hutton.     2. 
Eatoniella  olivacea,  Hutton.     1,  2. 

olivacea  annulala,  Hutton.     1. 
Turritella  rosea,  Q.  and  G.     1. 

kanieriensis,  Harris.     1. 
Crepidula  crepidula,  Linne.     2. 
Calyptrcea  novce-zealandice,  Lesson.     1,  2. 

scutum,  Lesson.     1. 
Natica  zelandica,  Q.  and  G.     1. 
Trichotropis  inornata,  Hutton.     1. 
Gyrineum  argus,  Gmelin.     1. 
Odostomia  vestalis,  Murdoch.     2. 
Turbonilla  zealandica,  Hutton.     1. 
Vulpecula  rubiginosa,  Hutton.     2. 


408  Transactions. 

Siphonalia  valedicta,  Watson.     1. 
Comindla  maculosa,  Martyn.     2. 

lurida,  Philippi.     1. 

costata,  Q.  and  G.     2. 
Euthria  lineata,  Martyn.     1,  2. 

vittata,  Q.  and  G.     1,  2. 

antarctica,  Reeve.     1. 

littorinoides,  Reeve.     1. 

flavescens,  Hutton.     1. 
Trophon  ambiguus,  Philippi.     2. 

patens,  H.  and  J.     1. 

sp.  indet.     1. 
Kalydon  duodecimus,  Hntton.     1,  2. 

paivce,  Crosse.     1,  2. 

plebeius,  Hntton.     1. 

pusillus,  Snter.     1. 
Thais  striata,  Martyn.     1,  2. 

striata  squamata,  Hutton.     1,  2. 

scobina  albomarginata.  Deshayes.     1,  2. 
Pyrene  choava,  Reeve.     1. 

transitans,  Murdoch.     1. 

huttoni,  Suter.     1,  2. 
Mangilia  sinclairi,  E.  A.  Smith.     1,  2. 
Marimda  filholi,  Hutton.     1. 
Leuconopsis  obsoleta,  Hutton.     2. 
Amphibola  crenata,  Martyn.     1. 
SipJionaria  obliquata,  Sowerby.     1,  2. 

australis,  Q.  and  G.     1,  2. 

zelandica,  Q.  and  G.     1,  2. 
Gadinea  nivea,  Hutton.     1,  2. 
Onchidella  nigricans,  Q.  and  G.     1,  2. 

patelloides,  Q.  and  G.     1,  2. 
Sucxda  lacunosa,  Hutton.     1. 
Pectuncidus  striatidaris,  Lamarck.     1. 
Barbatia  decussata,  Sowerby.     1,  2. 
PhUobrya  costata,  Bernard.     1. 
Hochstetteria  trapezina,  Bernard.     1,  2. 
Mytilus  edulis,  Linne.     1. 

canalicidus,  Martyn.     1. 

magellanicus,  Chemnitz.     1. 
Modiolus  australis.  Gray.     1. 

ater,  Frauenfeld.     1. 
Modiolaria  impacta,  Hermannsen.     1. 
Chlamys  zelandios,  Gray.     1. 
Ostrcsa  angasi,  Sowerby.     1. 

reniformis,  Sowerby.     1. 


Ihedale. —  Marine  Molluscs  collected  in  Otago.         409 

Modiolarca  pusilla,  Gould.     1. 

minutissima,  Iredale.     1. 
Oardita  calyculata,  Linne.     1. 
Verticipronus  mytilus,  Hedley.     1. 
Lasea  miliaris,  Philippi.     1. 
Corneocyclas  aucklandica,  Suter.     1. 
Tellina  lactea,  Q.  and  G.     1. 

alba,  Q.  and  G.     1. 

disculus,  Deshayes.     1. 
Mesodesma  australis,  Gmclin.     1. 
Atactodea  subtriangulata,  Gray.     1. 
Mactra  discors,  Gray.     1. 

cequilatera,  Deshayes.     1. 

scalpellum,  Reeve.     1. 
Standella  ovata.  Gray.     1. 
Chione  stutchburyi.  Gray.     1. 

costata,  Q.  and  G.     1,  2. 

crassa,  Q.  and  G.     1. 
Tapes  intermedia,  Q.  and  G.     1,  2. 
Venerupis  reflexa,  Gray.     1,  2. 

siliqua,  Deshayes.     2. 

elegans,  Deshayes.     2. 

insignis,  Deshayes.     2. 
Saxicarva  arctica,  Linne.     1,  2. 
Panopea  zelandica,  Q.  and  G.     1. 
Pholadidea  tridens.  Gray.     2. 
Barnea  similis,  Gray.     2. 
Polypus  maorum,  Hutton.     1,  2. 

In  addition,  we  collected  six  distinct  species  of  Nudibranchs 
which  have  not  yet  been  studied. 

Addenda. 
Chiton  huttoni.  Suter. 

canaliculars,  Q.  and  G. 
Eudoxochiton  huttoni,  Pilsbry. 
Acmosa  scapha,  Suter. 
Trochus  oppressus  dunedinensis,  Suter. 
Monodonta  corrosa  plumbea,  Hutton. 
Monilea  egena,  Gould. 
Calliostoma  selectum,  Chemnitz. 
Astralium  heliotropium,  Martyu. 
Rissoina  parvilirata,  Suter. 
Turritella  pagoda,  Reeve. 
Struthiolaria  papulosa,  Marty n. 
Seila  terebelloides,  v.  Martens. 
Potamides  subcarinatus,  SowerbA-. 


410  Transactions. 

Pyrene  inconstans,  Suter. 
Scaphella  arabica,  Martyn. 
Thais  haustrum,  Martyn. 
Trophon  stangeri,  Gray. 
Terebra  tristis,  Deslxayes. 
Melanopsis  trifasciata,  Gray. 
Marsenia  cerebroides,  Hutton. 
Tethys  brunnea,  Hutton. 
Solenomya  parhinsoni,  E.  A.  Smith 
Modiolus  fluviatilis,  Hutton. 
Venericardia  bollonsi,  Suter. 
Resania  lanceolata,  Gray. 
Solenotellina  nitida,  Gray. 
Neolepton  antipodum,  Filhol. 


Art.  XXXIX. — List  of  Marine  Mollusea  from  Lyall  Bay,  near 

Wellington,  New  Zealand. 

By  Tom  Iredale  and  M.  K.  Mestayer. 

[Bead  before  the  Philosophical  Institute  of  Canterbury  llth  December,  190".] 

The  authorship  of  this  list  requires  explanation.  All  the  larger 
shells  were  collected  by  Miss  Mestayer,  whilst  the  minute  forms 
were  sorted  and  identified  by  Tom  Iredale  from  shell-sand  and 
seaweed-washings  collected  by  Miss  Mestayer.  Therefore,  whilst 
all  the  credit  for  this  list  is  due  to  Miss  Mestayer,  all  the  blame 
must  be  undertaken  by  Tom  Iredale,  who  holds  himself  respon- 
sible for  all  identifications  and  errors  of  nomenclature. 

This  paper  has  been  prepared  with  a  view  to  furthering 
our  knowledge  of  the  geographical  distribution  of  the  marine 
Mollusea  of  New  Zealand,  which  at  the  present  time  is  very  im- 
perfect. This  is  chiefly  due  to  the  extent  of  coast-line  and  the 
scarcity  of  workers. 

We  have  no  new  records  of  large  shells,  as  the  locality  under 
notice  has  probably  been  collected  more  thoroughly  than  any 
other  in  New  Zealand,  save,  perhaps,  some  Auckland  collecting- 
ground.  The  shell-sand,  however,  is  very  rich,  and  has  pro- 
vided a  number  of  new  species,  though  the  most  interesting  find 
is  not  a  new  shell :  we  refer  to  the  occurrence  of  Limacina 
australis,  Eydoux  and  Souleyet,  details  of  which  are  given  in 
another  place.  Further  diligent  search  in  shell-sand  will  doubt- 
less add  many  species  to  this  record. 


Iredale-Mestayer — Marine  Mollusca,  Lyall  Bay.     411 

This  list  is  imperfect,  inasmuch  as  we  have  no  Cephalopods  nor 
Nudibranchs  to  enumerate.  It  only  records  species  which  have 
occurred  in  the  littoral  zone.  Nevertheless,  we  feel  it  will  be  a 
useful  contribution,  and  will  act  as  a  basis  upon  which  to  work. 

The  most  recent  list  in  existence  dealing  with  the  marine 
Mollusca  of' the  Wellington  district  dates  back  to  1880. 

In  order  to  add  to  the  value  of  this  list,  we  have  noted  in  an 
addenda  some  species  on  record  which  we  have  not  yet  been 
fortunate  enough  to  find.  As  regards  classification,  we  have 
followed  Pelseneer,  and  as  to  specific  nomenclature  we  have 
used  the  "  Index  Faunae  Novae-Zealandiae,"  with  such  later 
alterations  as  have  come  under  our  notice. 

Lepidopleurus  inquinatus,  Reeve. 
fschnockiton  longicymba,  Q.  and  G. 
Plaxiphora  biramosa,  Q.  and  G. 

coelata,  Reeve. 

suter  i,  PiJsbry. 

ovata,  Hutton. 
Acanthochites  porosus,  Burrow. 

zelandicus,  Q.  and  G. 

violaceus,  Q.  and  G. 
Chiton  pellis-serpentis,  Q.  and  G. 

sinclairi,  Gray. 

qubyi,  Deshayes 

quoyi  limosa,  Suter. 

cereus,  Reeve. 

huttoni,  Suter. 
Eudoxochiton  nobilis,  Gray. 

huttoni,  Pilsbry. 
Onithochiton  undulatus,  Q.  and  G. 
Acmcea  cingulata,  Hutton. 

fragilis,  Chemnitz. 

daedala,  Suter. 

stella,  Lesson. 

stdla  corticata,  Hutton. 

parviconoidea,  Suter. 

parviconoidea  nigrostella.  Suter. 
Helcioniscus  radians,  Gmclin. 

radians  argentea,  Q.  and  G. 

radians  earlii,  Reeve. 

radians  flava,  Hutton 

radians  affinis,  Reeve. 

denticulatus,  Martvn. 

stelliferus,  Gmelin. 

ornatus,  Dillwyn. 

ornatus  inconspicua,  Gray. 


412  Transactions. 

Scissurella  rosea,  Heclley. 
Schismope  brevis,  Hedley. 

beddomei,  Petterd. 
Haliotis  iris,  Martyn. 

australis,  G-melin. 

virginea,  Gmelin. 
Emarginula  striatula,  Q.  and  G. 
Subemarginula  intermedia,  Reeve. 

parmophoidea,  Q.  and  G. 
Incisura  lytteltonensis,  E.  A.  Smith. 
Trochus  viridis,  Gmelin. 

tiaratus,  Q.  and  G. 
Monodonta  cethiops,  Gmelin. 

nigerrima,  Gmelin. 

coracina,  Troschel. 

lugubris,  Gmelin. 
Cantharidus  purpuratus, ^-Martyn. 

opalus,  Martyn. 

dilatatus,  Sowerby. 
Gibbula  nitida,  Adams  and  Angas. 

suteri,  E.  A.  Smith. 
Calliostoma  tigris,  Martyn. 

punctidatum,  Martyn. 

selectum,  Chemnitz. 
Monilea  egena,  Gould. 
luchelus  bellus,  Hutton. 

bellus  iricolor,  T.  W.  Kirk. 
Ethalia  zelandica,  H.  and  J. 
Liotia  polypleura,  Hedley. 
Cyclostrema  corulum,  Hutton. 
Orbitestella  exquisita,  Iredale. 
Turbo  smaragdus,  Martyn. 

smaragdus  tricostatus,  Hutton. 

granosus,  Martyn. 
Astralium  sulcatum,  Martyn. 

heliotr opium,  Martyn. 
Litorina  mauritiana,  Lamarck. 

cincta,  Q.  and  G. 
Couthouyia  corrugata,  Hedley. 
Rissoia  hamiltoni,  Suter. 

subjusca,  Hutton. 

subfusca  micro nema,  Suter. 

foveauxiana,  Suter. 

fumata,  Suter. 

insculpta,  Murdoch. 

cheilostoma,  Ten .  -  Wot  ids. 


Ikedalk  Mestayer  —  Marine  Mollusca,  Lyall  Bay.     413 

Rissoia  cheilostoma  lyalliana,  Suter. 

microstriata,  Murdoch. 

zoster  opJiila,  "Webster. 

zosterophila  minor,  Suter. 

incidata,  Frauonfeld. 

emarginata,  Hutton. 

neozelanica,  Suter. 
Rissoina  agrestis,  Webster. 

rugulosa,  Hutton. 
Eatoniella  olivacea,  Hutton. 

olivacea  annulata,  Hutton. 

limbata,  Hutton. 

rosea,  Hutton. 
Ceritkiopsis  sarissa,  Murdoch. 
Potamides  subcarinatus,  Sowerby. 
C&cum  digitulum,  Hedley. 
Turritella  rosea.  Q.  and  G. 
Struthiolaria  papulosa,  Martyn. 
Calyptrcea  novai-zealandia;,  Lesson. 

scutum,  Lesson. 
Crepidula  crepidula,  Linne. 
Natica  zelandica,  Q.  and  G. 
Gyrineum  argus,  Gmelin. 
Epitonium  philippinarum,  Forbes. 
Pyrgulina  rugata,  Hutton. 
Turbonilla  zealandica,  Hutton. 
Leiostraca  murdochi,  Hedley. 
Siphonalia  nodosa,  Martyn. 

mandarina,  Duclos. 
Cominella  maculata,  Martyn. 

maculosa,  Martyn. 
Euthria  lineata,  Martyn. 

lineata  traversi,  Hutton. 

antarctica,  Reeve. 
Trophon  ambiguus,  Phillipi. 
Kalydon  duodecimus,  Hutton. 
(Purpura)  Thais  succinta,  Martyn. 

striata,  Martyn. 

scobina,  Q.  and  G. 

scobina  albomarginata,  Deshayes. 

haustrum,  Martyn. 
Pyrene  choava,  Reeve. 

huttoni,  Suter. 
Marginella  turbinata,  Sowerby. 
Ancilla  australis,  Sowerby. 

mucronata,  Sowerby. 


414  Transactions. 

Ancilla  pyramidalis,  Reeve. 

rubiginosa,  Swainson. 

depressa,  Sowerby. 
Mangilia  sindairi,  E.  A.  Smith. 

epentroma,  Murdoch. 
Terebra  tristis,  Deshayes. 
Limacina  australis,  Eydoux  and  Souleyet. 
Pleurobranchus  ornatus,  Cheeseman. 
Marinula  filholi,  Hutton. 
Leuconopsis  obsoleta,  Hutton. 
Siphonaria  obliquata,  Sowerby. 

zelandica,  Q.  and  G. 
Gadinia  nivea,  Hutton. 
Solenoniya  parkinsoni,  E.  A.  Smith. 
Nucula  lacunosa,  Hutton. 
Pectunculus  laticostata,  Q.  and  G. 

striatularis,  Lamarck. 
Barbatia  decussata,  Sowerby. 
Philobrya  meleagrina,  Bernard 

costata,  Bernard. 

filholi,  Bernard. 
Hochstetteria  trapezina,  Bernard. 
Mytilus  edulis,  Linne. 

canaliculus,  Martyn. 

magellanicus,  Chemnitz. 
Modiolus  ater,  Frauenfeld. 
Modiolaria  impacta,  Hermannsen. 

barbata,  Reeve. 
(Pecten)  Chlamys  zelandio?,  Gray. 

gemmulatus,  Reeve. 
Lima  bullata,  Born. 
Ostrosa  glomerata,  Gould. 
Pinna  zelandica,  Gray. 
Cardita  calyculata,  Linne. 
Verticipronus  mytilus,  Hedley. 
Kellya  suborbicularis,  Montagu. 
Lasea  miliaris,  Philippi. 
Mylitta  stowei,  Hutton. 
Erycina  parva,  Deshayes. 
Tellina  alba,  Q.  and  G. 

lactea,  Q.  and  G. 

disculus,  Deshayes. 
Mesodesma  australis,  Gmelin. 
Atactodea  subtriangulata,  Gray. 
Mactra  discors,  Gray. 

o3quilatera,  Deshayes. 


Iredale-Mestayer. — Marine  Mollusca,  Lyall  Bay.     415 

Dosinia  subrosea,  Gray. 

australis,  Gray. 
Chione  oblonga,  Hanley. 

stutchburyi.  Gray. 

costata,  Q.  and  G. 

crassa,  Q.  and  G. 
Tapes  intermedia,  Q.  and  G. 

fabagella,  Deshayes. 
Venerupis  reflexa,  Gray. 
Psammobia  stangeri,  Gray. 

lineolata,  Gray. 
Solenotellina  nitida,  Gray. 
Corbvla  macilenta,  Hntton. 
Saxicava  arctica,  Linne. 
Myodora  striata,  Q.  and  G. 

nov&-zealandia?,  E.  A.  Smith. 

Addenda. 

Trochus  oppressus,  Hutton. 
Monodonta  atrovirens,  Phillipi. 
Cantharidus  sanguineus  elongata,  Suter. 
Gibbula  tasmanica,  Petterd. 
Cyclostrema  subtatei,  Suter. 
DriUia  lyallensis,  Murdoch. 
Mitromorpha  subabnormis,  Suter. 
Mangilia  dictyota,  Hutton. 

nodicincta,  Suter. 
Dosinia  cosrulea.  Reeve. 


416  Transactions. 


Art.  XL. — Captain  Dumont  D'Urville' s  Exploration  of  Tasrnan 

Bay  in  1827. 

Translated  from  the  French*  by  S.  Percy  Smith,  F.R.G.S. 

[Bead  before  the  Auckland  Institute,  28th  August,  1907.] 

So  far  as  I  am  aware,  no  translation  of  the  voyage  of  the  "  Astro- 
labe," under  the  command  of  the  celebrated  French  explorer, 
Dumont  D'Urville,  has  ever  appeared  in  English,  though  it  has 
been  briefly  summarised  more  than  once.  Hence  it  will  prove 
of  interest  to  New-Zealanders  to  see  what  was  accomplished 
in  the  way  of  geographical  exploration  in  Tasman  Bay,  the 
"  Astrolabe  "  being  the  first  ship,  so  far  as  is  known,  to  actually 
enter  that  bay  since  the  time  of  Tasman  in  1642. 

It  is  proposed  to  follow  this  by  a  translation  of  the  proceedings 
during  the  visit  of  the  corvette  to  Tologa  Bay,  and  to  the  Wai- 
te-mata,  where  Auckland  now  stands. 

Captain  D'Urville  made  a  subsequent  visit  to  New  Zealand 
in  1840,  during  his  long  voyage  in  the  same  ship,  the  "  Astro- 
labe," an  account  of  which  is  published  in  his  "  Voyage  au  Pole 
Sud  et  dans  l'Oceanie,"  Paris,  1841.  But  he  did  not  live  to  see 
the  completion  of  the  publication,  for  he,  his  wife,  and  son  were 
killed  in  a  railway  accident  in  Paris  on  the  8th  May,  1842, 
whilst  the  later  volumes  were  passing  through  the  press.  He 
had  been  appointed  a  Rear-Admiral  not  long  previous  to  his 
death. 

I  have  added  a  few  notes  to  the  translation  ;  they  are  enclosed 
in  brackets,  thus  :   [  ]. 

The  "  Astrolabe  "  left  Port  Jackson  on  the  19th  December, 
1826,  bound  for  New  Zealand.  Captain  Dumont  D'Urville, 
in  the  second  volume  of  his  history  of  the  voyage,  expresses 
the  feelings  of  pleasure  with  which  he  anticipates  renewing 
his  acquaintance  with  a  country  which  he  had  previously  visited 
in  the  same  frigate,  but  then  called  "La  Coquille,"  in  1824. 
On  this  occasion  the  corvette's  course  was  directed  towards 
the  south-west  coast  of  the  Middle  Island,  with  the  intention 
of  visiting  Chalky  Inlet,  near  the  south-west  cape  ;  but  the 
passage  across  the  Tasman  Sea  was  so  tempestuous,  and  the 
wind  so   contrary,   that  the   commander   had  to   ahandon  his 


*  Voyage  de  la  corvette  L'Astrolube,  execute  | >;ir  ordre  du  Roi, 
pendant  les  annfes  1826,  1827,  1828,  1829,  sons  le  oommandement  de 
\T.  T.  Dumont  D'Urville.  Paris,  I8S3. 


Smith. — Exploration  of  Tasman  Bay.  417 

design  for  lack  of  time  to  accomplish  it,  and  consequently 
directed  his  course  to  the  northwards,  with  a  view  of  entering 
and  exploring  those  parts  of  Cook  Strait  which  had  not  been 
closely  inspected  by  the  great  navigator  after  whom  the  strait 
is  named. 

The  history  of  the  voyage  (vol.  ii,  p.  9)  may  now  be  given  in 
detail : — 

These  tempestuous  times  finally  determined  me,  on  the 
8th  January,  1827,  at  8  a.m.,  to  steer  to  the  E.N.E.  in  order 
to  approach  more  nearly  the  coast.  We  were  already  in  about 
lat.  43°  south,  and,  no  doubt,  with  a  little  more  perseverance, 
it  had  been  possible  to  have  attained  the  southern  region  of 
New  Zealand  ;  but  I  could  not  neglect  the  other  objects  of  my 
mission,  and  time  was  already  pressing. 

10th  January,  1827. — The  weather  was  still  very  bad,  and 
we  experienced  frequent  squalls  of  rain,  with  a  heavy  sea  from 
the  S.W.  ;  whilst  the  presence  of  clouds  of  black-and-white 
petrels,  and,  still  more,  of  some  terns,  announced  to  us  the 
proximity  of  the  land.  In  fact,  at  7  o'clock  I  clearly  distin- 
guished it  to  the  E.S.E.  and  S.E.  As  we  were  at  that  time 
from  thirty  to  forty  miles  distant  at  least,  that  to  the  S.E. 
showed  like  a  high  island  notched  on  the  top.  As  we  approached, 
it  extended  more  and  more ;  but  the  summit  was  still  toothed 
like  a  saw,  with  sharp  teeth  inclined  towards  the  north,  in  a 
uniform  and  singular  manner,  whilst  it  seemed  to  be  separated 
from  the  land  on  the  left,  so  much  so  as  to  cause  suspicion  that 
the  intermediate  space  was  occupied  by  the  entrance  to  a  port. 
[The  range  referred  to  was  no  doubt  the  Paparoa  Range  of 
mountains,  and  the  apparent  entrance  to  a  port  was  the  valley 
of  the  Grey  River.] 

We  now  steered  right  for  that  part  of  the  coast,  and  at  noon 
were  not  more  than  four  leagues  distant.  It  was  then  easy  for 
us  to  convince  ourselves  that  the  coast  was  continuous,  and 
that  our  illusion  had  been  caused  by  its  sensible  decrease  in 
height  in  the  space  where  we  supposed  a  bay  to  exist.  The 
geographical  work  was  at  once  put  in  hand,  and  M.  Gressian 
was  charged  with  the  survey  of  all  the  extent  of  New  Zealand 
comprised  from  the  most  southerly  land  in  view,  situated  in 
lat.  42°  28'  S.,  up  to  Cape  Farewell.  The  soundings  indicated 
100  fathoms,  sand  and  fine  mud,  whilst  the  temperature,  16-2° 
in  the  air,  17-2°  at  the  surface,  and  not  more  than  13-2°  at  that 
depth. 

Each  of  us,  at  the  view  of  this  wild  coast,  those  lofty  moun- 
tains battered  by  the  furious  winds  of  the  Antarctic,  rejoiced 
to  be  at  last,  after  so  much  fatigue,  at  the  end  of  his  wishes, 
on  a  theatre  worthy  of  his  researches.  Proud  to  follow  the  tracks 
14—  Trans. 


418  Transactions. 

of  Tasman,  Cook,  and  Marion,  we  hoped  to  add  to  science  new 
documents  on  these  countries  still  so  little  known,  and  to  study 
as  closely  as  possible  the  various  kingdoms  of  nature  ;  but,  above 
all,  to  scrupulously  observe  the  bizarre  customs  and  extra- 
ordinary institutions  which  tend  here  to  give  the 'human  species 
a  character  so  particular. 

As  soon  as  the  midday  station  was  complete  we  bore  away 
to  the  N.E.  and  N.N.E.,  with  an  uncertain  wind  and  cloudy 
sky,  in  order  to  follow  the  coast  at  five  or  six  miles  distant. 
The  dense  fog  which  enveloped  the  summits  of  the  mountains 
generally  prevented  our  distinguishing  the  details.  We  were 
only  able  to  ascertain  that  the  shore  is  very  uniform,  and  ele- 
vated in  steep,  inaccessible,  wooded  ridges,  and  dominated 
in  the  interior  by  mountains  of  a  considerable  height,  of  which 
many  summits  were  divided  into  sharp  peaks.  One  of  them, 
remarkable  for  its  five  points,  imitated  the  fingers  of  an  open  hand, 
and  received  the  name  of  the  Central  Five  Fingers,  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  Five  Fingers  of  Cook,  near  Dusky  Bay. 

At  half-past  3  and  at  5  p.m.  we  found  50  and  40  fathoms, 
fine  sand  and  mud,  at  least  four  miles  from  the  coast.  At  ten 
minutes  after  5  the  wind  fell,  and  left  us  at  the  mercy  of  a  heavy 
swell  from  the  S.W.,  and  facing  a  fearful  coast,  where  the  sea 
broke  with  unexampled  fury.  Already  I  had  serious  reflections 
on  our  situation,  when  at  7  a  fresh  breeze  up  from  the  N.W. 
permitted  us  to  draw  off  from  the  coast. 

At  the  moment  when  we  made  our  tack  outwards,  the 
mountains  of  the  coast  were  seen  to  be  interrupted  by  a  wide 
and  profound  ravine,  probably  occupied  by  a  river,  or  at  least 
by  some  remarkable  torrent  [probably  the  Fox  River,  on  which 
is  the  township  of  Brighton].  At  three  or  four  miles  from  that 
ravine,  and  more  than  three  miles  from  the  sea,  the  peak  Five 
Fingers  rises,  whilst  at  fifteen  miles  N.N.E.  we  perceived  a  low 
point  which  projected  some  distance  into  the  sea  [Cape  Foulwind]. 

All  night  the  wind  blew  from  the  N.W.  in  heavy  squalls, 
with  rain,  and  an  obscured  sky  of  the  most  sinister  appearance. 
Beyond  that,  the  swell  from  the  S.W.,  which  we  met  right  ahead, 
caused  us  much  heavy  pitching.  Our  position,  already  suffi- 
ciently critical  on  this  iron  coast,  became  more  disquieting 
towards  4  a.m.  At  that  lime  the  sky  was  charged  with  clouds 
in  all  parts,  and  the  rain  fell  in  veritable  torrents,  whilst  the 
wind  blew  very  fresh,  witli  heavy  squalls,  from  the  N.W.  to  the 
W.N.W.  It  became  necessary  to  reef  the  mizzen  and  the  smaller 
topsails,  whilst  we  lay  as  near  the  wind  as  possible,  but  it  was 
impossible  to  save  them.  During  some  hours  I  felt  extreme 
anxiety,  for  if  the  wind  had  changed  to  the  W.S.W.  and  S.W., 
and  blew  with  the  same  force  ami  as  long  as  we  hail  had  it  a  few 


Smith. — Exploration  of  Tasman  Bay.  419 

days  previously,  it  would  have  made  an  end  of  the  corvette. 
Forced  by  the  tempest  to  become  embayed  by  degrees  on  the 
coast,  she  would  have  finished  by  being  cast  ashore  and  broken 
into  a  thousand  bits. 

11th  January. — But,  to  my  great  satisfaction,  at  7.30  a.m. 
the  fury  of  the  tempest  decreased,  and  at  10  a.m.  the  wind 
became  manageable,  and  varied  to  the  W.,  which  enabled  us 
to  steer  N.N.E.  At  12.30  p.m.  we  saw  the  land  with  the  saw- 
tooth peaks  about  forty  miles  distant,  which  proved  that,  not- 
withstanding the  wind  and  sea,  we  had  gained  to  windward 
of  the  land  during  the  night.  At  4.30  p.m.  we  were  on  the 
parallel,  and  about  twelve  miles  distant  from  the  ravine  or 
depression  remarked  the  preceding  evening  ;  and  at  7  p.m. 
Cape  Foidwind  bore  N.E.  i  N.  at  twelve  or  thirteen  miles  distant, 
appearing  as  a  low  point  which  projected  far  to  the  west,  and 
terminating  in  a  flat  hillock  ;  beyond  that  point  the  coast  de- 
creases much  in  height,  although  the  interior  chain  of  mountains 
remained  quite  imposing. 

We  continued  to  run  six  or  eight  miles  until  11.15  p.m., 
when  we  tacked  to  port,  having  there  found  65  fathoms,  sand 
and  mud,  and  being  at  the  time  five  or  six  miles  off  Cape  Foul- 
wind.  The  sky,  fine  up  to  that  moment,  became  again  obscured, 
and  rain  fell  almost  continuously  until  daylight,  with  a  slight 
N.N.W.  breeze. 

12th  January. — At  4  a.m.  Cape  Foulwind  showed  itself  bear- 
ing E.N.E.,  and  our  course  was  laid  so  as  to  pass  it  within 
three  or  four  miles.  When  we  got  near  we  recognised  that  the 
point  which  distinguishes  it  was  low  land  covered  with  beau- 
tiful forest,  and  projecting  two  or  three  leagues  seaward.  At 
a  mile  and  a  half  off  its  northern  extremity  are  situated  three 
bare  rocks,  isolated,  and  about  from  60  ft.  to  80  ft.  high.  We 
gave  these  the  name  of  "  Trois-Clochers  "  (the  Three  Steeples) 
[so  called  still],  from  the  appearance  they  present  from  a  certain 
distance.  As  soon  as  we  found  ourselves  opposite  to  them, 
at  9.22  a.m.,  and  at  least  a  league  off,  the  corvette  sailed  through 
muddy  water,  with  scattered  trunks  of  trees,  leaves,  and  debris 
of  vegetation.  This  continued  until  4  p.m.,  over  the  space  of 
about  nineteen  miles,  without  our  being  able  to  perceive  the 
limits  of  this  discoloured  water.  As  to  the  cause,  there  is  reason 
to  believe  that  it  was  due  to  the  presence  of  a  river  or  strong 
torrent  which  falls  into  the  sea  to  the  north  of  the  valley  which 
forms  Cape  Foulwind.  We  saw  a  depression  in  lat.  41°  16'  S. 
which  might  well  be  the  mouth  of  that  river,  and  from  whence 
came  the  numerous  debris  of  vegetation  and  the  muddy  waters 
carried  out  by  the  current  in  consequence  of  the  late  rains. 
[This  was,  of  course,  the  Buller  Eiver.] 


420  Transactions. 

During  this  time  the  soundings  were  successively  80,  53, 
35,  and  even  30  fathoms,  sand  and  mud.  Without  doubt,  on 
all  that  part  of  the  coast  vessels  might  anchor  in  shelter  as 
long  as  the  winds  were  easterly.  But  to  do  this  with  certainty 
it  would  be  necessary  to  acquire  local  knowledge  of  the  direction 
of  the  winds  and  the  indications  which  would  announce  their 
duration  and  changes.  Until  then  it  would  be  very  imprudent 
to  hazard  such  an  anchorage,  for  all  the  experience  I  have 
acquired  during  three  months'  stay  on  these  tempestuous  coasts 
has  taught  me  never  to  count  on  the  finest  weather  and  the 
most  favourable  wind  from  appearances. 

Moreover,  it  is  probable  that  if  the  human  species  has  found 
means  to  penetrate  to  this  inhospitable  coast,  it  is  sure  to 
have  established  itself  near  Cape  Foulwind  ;  and  the  telescope 
allowed  us  to  perceive  agreeable  and  beautiful  sites  suscep- 
tible of  cultivation.  Nevertheless,  our  close  attention  failed 
to  discover  either  house  or  trace  of  inhabitants,  nor  even  any 
fires.  [There  must,  however,  have  been  inhabitants  there- 
abouts at  that  time,  for  D'Urville's  visit  was  prior  to  Niho's 
raid,  in  1828,  which  drove  most  of  the  West  Coast,  or  Poutini 
Ngai-Tahu,  to  the  mountains  and  secret  fastnesses  inland.] 

Beyond  the  promontory  the  coast  rises  suddenly  in  escarped 
ridges  from  the  seaside,  and  offers  not  the  least  appearance  of 
low  coast  (lisiere)  practicable  to  the  foot  of  man.  [No  doubt, 
the  very  low  stretch  of  land  bordering  the  sea  north  of  the 
Buller,  and  along  which  the  Ngakawau  Railway  now  runs, 
would  not  be  visible  a  few  miles  at  sea  in  the  thick  weather 
D'Urville  refers  to.]  A  little  before  night  we  passed  before  a. 
place  where  the  coast,  on  the  contrary,  seemed  lower,  and 
covered  with  fine  trees  ;  but  the  thick  mists  which  covered  that 
part  very  shortly  after  hid  the  place  from  our  eyes.  .  .  . 
At  night  the  wind  fell,  and  this  was  followed  by  showers. 
During  a  sudden  and  fresh  squall  at  12.15  the  wind  shifted  to 
the  N.E.,  shortly  after  returning  to  the  N.W.,  where  it  remain  sd, 
uncertain  and  irregular.  We  passed  the  night  in  making  short 
tacks. 

13th  January. — This  morning  was  again  little  favourable 
to  our  operations  ;  tin1  sky  was  charged  in  all  parts,  and  with 
sudden  squalls,  sufficiently  violent,  from  the  W.N.W.  and 
X.W.,  which  succeeded  one  another  without  interruption  from 
4  a.m.  to  11  a.m.,  with  much  rain  and  a  heavy  sea. 

Nevertheless,  we  made  all  sail  to  double  the  Point  of  Rocks, 
which  is  a  high  steep  cape  with  some  rocks  at  its  base  near  the 
coast.  For  some  miles  to  the  smith  of  the  cape  the  coast  is 
very  steep,  high,  and  covered  with  trees,  without  any  appear- 
ance of  a  port  or  inhabitants.     At  the  point  itself  [Rocks  Point. 


Smith. — Exploration  of  Tasman  Bay.  421 

twenty-eight  miles  south  of  West  Whanganui,  six  miles  south 
of  Kahurangi  Point]  is  a  white  streak,  which  contrasts  with 
the  sombre  hue  of  the  land,  and  indicates  the  presence  of  a 
cascade,  the  waters  of  which  precipitate  themselves  vertically 
into  those  of  the  ocean. 

We  had  passed  beyond  it  some  miles,  when  at  the  "  station," 
at  3.30  p.m.,  the  soundings  were  60  fathoms,  heavy  sand,  at  a 
league  and  a  half  from  the  shore.  Subsequently,  driven  by 
a  fine  breeze  from  the  west,  we  sailed  rapidly  along  the  coast, 
of  which  the  aspect  became  more  and  more  agreeable  as  we 
approached  th«  straits.  The  mountains  retired  towards  the 
interior,  and  the  parts  near  the  sea  showed  up  in  more  easy 
slopes  ;  here  and  there  we  distinguished  beautiful  spots,  with 
pretty  clumps  of  wood,  but  no  trace  of  inhabitants.     .     .     . 

Towards  6  p.m.  we  believed  we  could  see  on  the  coast  a  vast 
basin  capable  of  offering  a  good  anchorage,  and  I  had  great 
hope  of  being  able  to  enter  it  next  morning  to  examine  that 
part  of  New  Zealand.  In  consequence,  I  approached  the  coast 
closely,  to  reconnoitre  the  place.  We  passed  at  less  than  two 
miles  ;  and  at  that  moment  M.  Gressian  mounted  on  the  cross- 
trees  to  obtain  a  more  exact  view.  He  assured  me  that  the 
basin  was  very  extensive,  but,  unfortunately,  communicated 
with  the  sea  only  by  a  narrow  channel,  completely  barred  by 
breakers.  I  was  consequently  obliged  to  renounce  my  hopes 
of  entering.  We  gave  it  the  name  of  "  Harbour-barred." 
[This  is  West  Whanganui  Harbour,  only  available  occasionally 
for  small  craft.] 

At  7  p.m.  we  were  on  the  parallel  of  Cape  Farewell,  and 
three  or  four  miles  off  it.  The  land  is  of  moderate  elevation, 
and  falls  rapidly  to  the  coast,  and  here  our  watches  gave  us 
an  enormous  difference  with  the  position  of  Cook.     .     .     . 

The  weather  had  decidedly  improved  ;  the  night  was  tran- 
quil, and  we  passed  it  in  making  short  tacks,  with  a  nice 
westerly  wind. 

14th  January. — At  3  a.m.  I  steered  in  the  direction  where 
I  presumed  Cape  Farewell  lay  ;  but  at  daylight  I  perceived 
that  the  current  during  the  night  had  carried  us  far  to  the 
E.N.E.,  and  we  were  already  considerably  within  the  straits. 
I  hastened  to  pick  up  the  coast,  and  very  soon,  favoured  by 
charming  weather  and  a  nice  breeze  from  the  west,  our  corvette 
glided  lightly  over  a  most  tranquil  sea  at  less  than  a  mile  from 
the  coast.  The  soundings  were  8,  10,  and  12  fathoms.  It 
was  easily  seen  from  the  tops  that  the  land  which  we  were 
following  was  nothing  but  a  narrow  tongue,  with  small  round 
sand-dunes  and  a  few  tufts  of  shrubs  here  and  there  [Cape 
Farewell  Spit].     Beyond  that  (to  the  south)  was  a  vast  basin 


422  Transactions. 

bordered  by  high  mountains,  of  which  the  most  distant  were 
snow-clad.  [Massacre  or  Golden  Bay.]  That  coast  extends 
between  twelve  and  fifteen  miles  east  and  west,  and  terminates 
in  a  low  narrow  point.  Just  as  I  had  decided  to  steer  south, 
to  pass  close  to  the  point  into  Tasman  Bay.  we  perceived 
breakers  extending  ofE  the  point  for  more  than  five  miles. 
Nearly  at  the  same  moment  the  breeze  changed  to  the  south 
and  ended  in  a  dead  calm.  Without  doubt  the  turn  of  the 
tide  changes  daily  the  direction  of  the  current,  and  in  two 
hours'  time  we  lost  three  or  four  miles  to  the  west.  Our  proxi- 
mity to  the  coast,  and  the  impossibility  of  steering  the  ship, 
commenced  to  cause  some  anxiety;  and  I  had  decided  to 
anchor  off  the  coast,  when  at  11  a.m.,  the  breeze  having  re- 
turned to  the  north,  allowed  us  to  resume  our  route  with  full 
sail.  Having  rounded  the  breakers  at  a  mile  distant,  we 
directed  our  course  south  into  the  bay  which  Cook  in  his  second 
voyage  had  named  "  Tasman  Bay." 

The  visit  of  that  celebrated  navigator  having  procured  an 
extensive  knowledge  of  Admiralty  Bay  and  Queen  Charlotte's 
Sound,  I  judged  that  we  might  render  greater  service  to  geo- 
graphy by  guiding  the  corvette  to  an  anchorage  in  Tasman 
Bay,  which  hitherto  no  expedition  had  made  known  to  us. 

Since  the  morning  M.  Guilbert  had  succeeded  M.  Gressian 
in  the  hydrographic  work,  and  was  charged  with  the  survey  of 
all  these  parts  of  Cook's  Straits.  We  may  remark  here  that  the 
task  of  the  geographical  officer  is  an  extremely  arduous  one. 
From  daylight  until  night  closes  in  he  remains  close  to  the  com- 
pass, in  order  that  no  useful  detail  may  escape  his  notice,  and  to 
increase  his  observations  and  render  them  of  the  greatest  utility 
possible.  Rarely  does  he  quit  his  post  except  to  take  a  hasty 
meal,  whilst  violent  squalls  alone  cause  him  to  temporarily  leave 
his  post.  Then,  when  he  has  completed  the  portion  of  the 
coast  which  has  been  assigned  to  him,  up  to  the  time  when  his 
turn  comes  again,  every  instant  which  the  service  allows  him 
is  devoted  to  charting  his  observations,  a  species  of  work  which, 
though  less  fatiguing,  is  not  less  delicate  or  less  engrossing. 

As  we  advanced  towards  the  south,  we  saw  that  the  vast 
bay  com  prised  between  the  land  of  Cape  Farewell  on  the  one 
part  and  that  of  Cape  Stephen  on  the  other,  and  which  Cook 
in  his  first  voyage  named  "  Blind  Bay."  is  divided  into  two 
basins  very  distinct  by  a  remarkable  point  which  T  named 
"  Separation  Point."  [This  point  separates  Tasman  from 
Golden  Bay.]  The  western  basin,  which  Cook  named  "  Mas- 
sacre  Bay,"  is  somewhat  vaguely  traced  on  our  chart,  because 
at  the  distance  at  which  we  passed  it  we  could  but  ascertain 
the  outline. 


Smith. — Exploration  of  Tan-man   Bay.  423 

On  the  contrary,  the  southern  basin,  to  which  I  have  con- 
served the  name  of  "  Tasman's  Bay,"  following  Cook  in  his 
second  voyage,  became  more  particularly  the  object  of  our 
attention,  and  it  is  this  bay  we  now  have  to  do  with. 

We  continued  our  route  to  the  south  until  4  p.m.,  when  the 
wind  suddenly  changed  to  the  S.S.E.,  with  the  appearance  of 
bad  weather.  Not  wishing  to  beat  against  a  contrary  wind,  I 
profited  by  a  good  bottom  of  soft  mud  to  anchor  in  26  fathoms 
to  pass  the  night. 

15th  January. — The  night  was  fine,  and  to  the  calm,  which 
lasted  till  1  a.m.,  succeeded  a  slight  breeze  from  the  south, 
which  gradually  augmented,  and  was  blowing  quite  strong 
enough  at  daylight. 

From  our  anchorage  an  imposing  view  extended  round  us. 
Two  elevated  coasts  bordered  the  bay  right  to  its  head ;  and 
that  to  the  west,  which  was  much  nearer,  offered  to  us  agree- 
able forests  and  a  pleasing  verdure.  The  head  of  the  bay  seemed 
to  be  occupied  by  low  land,  barely  visible,  dominated  in  the  dis- 
tance by  mountains,  whitened  by  perpetual  snow. 

As  the  wind  did  not  permit  me  to  advance  further  towards 
the  head  of  the  bay,  and  because  I  was  desirous  of  procuring 
for  M.  Guilbert  the  means  of  making  a  station  on  Point  Separa- 
tion (from  which  we  were  only  distant  two  leagues),  at  6  a.m. 
I  sent  that  officer  away  in  the  whaleboat  with  MM.  Quoy, 
Gaimard,  and  Dudemaine.  The  breeze  off  the  land  ceased  at 
10  a.m.  ;  an  interval  of  calm  ensued,  and  at  11.30  the  wind  off 
shore  set  it.  Impatient  to  profit  by  it,  I  fired  a  gun  to  recall 
the  boat.  Shortly  after  we  saw  it  leave  the  point  we  got  under 
sail,  and  the  "  Astrolabe  ' '  sailed  slowly  along  the  coast  to 
give  them  time  to  join  us,  which  they  did  at  3  p.m. 

M.  Guilbert  had  much  trouble  to  climb  the  ridge  to  make 
his  station,  and  lost  not  a  single  moment  of  the  time  he  had  at 
his  disposal.  The  sailors,  in  rambling  about  the  vicinity,  dis- 
covered some  abandoned  huts,  from  which  they  had  taken 
many  objects  used  by  the  Natives.  I  addressed  strong  reproofs 
to  them  on  that  subject,  and  menaced  them  with  severe  punish- 
ment, as  well  as  those  who  permitted  suchlike  license.  One 
cannot  at  all  doubt  that  the  greater  number  of  serious  quarrels 
which  arise  between  savages  and  Europeans  have  their  origin 
in  causes  of  that  nature.  As  it  was  impossible  for  me  to  send 
these  objects  ashore,  I  ordered  them  to  be  placed  with  others 
which  will   form  part  of  the  King's  collection. 

We  proceeded  along  a  good  part  of  the  west  side  of  the  bay 
at  two  miles  distant,  and  with  regularly  decreasing  soundings 
from  25  to  10  fathoms,  always  with  muddy  bottom.  After 
having  passed  two  islands  situated  under  the  land,  the  coast 


424  Transactions. 

decreases  in  height,  and  leaves  a  large  margin  of  much  lower 
land,  on  which  we  noticed  some  cabins,  a  fire,  and  a  group  of 
Natives  moving  about.  At  half  a  league  to  the  south  of  the 
village  rose  a  massive  group  of  enormous  trees,  with  long  straight 
stems  and  foliage  of  sombre  hue  [probably  kahikatea  trees,  of 
which  there  used  to  be  several  in  that  locality],  and  which  I 
suspect  belong  to  the  genus  Podocarpus.  Already  the  valley 
appeared  of  very  large  extent,  and  M.  Dudemaine,  on  the  look- 
out on  the  crosstrees,  distinguished  clearly,  at  a  mile  or  more 
from  the  forest,  a  narrow  channel  which  penetrated  the  land 
[probably  the  Motueka  River].  I  would  have  been  delighted 
to  find  a  safe  anchorage  for  the  corvette,  but  the  soundings 
gave  only  7  fathoms.  In  consequence,  I  laid  to,  and  sent 
M.  IiOttin  to  sound  in  that  direction.  At  less  than  a  mile  from 
the  corvette  he  found  only  4|  fathoms.  I  then  made  signal  to 
him  to  return  on  board,  and  continued  to  follow  the  coast  to- 
wards the  S.E.  in  the  direction  of  a  perpendicular  white  cape, 
of  not  much  elevation. 

I  have  no  doubt  that  the  channel  seen  from  the  tops,  enter- 
ing for  some  distance  into  the  land,  was  the  course  of  a  river  of 
considerable  size,  fed  by  the  snows  of  the  interior  summits. 
The  night  approaching,  I  was  desirous  of  finding  a  depth  of  water 
convenient  for  anchorage,  the  more  so  as  the  soundings  were 
now  from  6  to  7  fathoms,  rocky  instead  of  a  muddy  bottom, 
which  offered  to  us  little  safety  for  the  night.  In  consequence, 
I  put  about,  and  at  7.10  p.m.,  having  27  it.  of  water  (mud  and 
gravel),  I  anchored  with  the  starboard  anchor  with  20  fathoms 
of  cable.  Shortly  after  the  wind  fell,  and  the  night  was  fine. 
The  obscurity  prevented  us  from  ascertaining  the  depth  of  this 
gulf  ;  nevertheless,  we  had  come  27  miles  since  our  last  station. 
Tims,  that  bay,  shown  on  Cook's  chart  as  a  slight  embayment 
of  a  'few  miles  of  depth  and  width,  seemed  to  take  on  a  great 
development.  This  unexpected  discovery  caused  us  the  greatest 
satisfaction,  and  we  congratulated  ourselves  in  being  the  first 
to  give  more  exact  notions  on  these  coasts  until  now  unknown. 
[The  position  of  DTrville's  anchorage  was  about  three  miles 
N.E.  of  Moutere  Bluff.] 

L6th  January. — In  looking  around  the  corvette  as  soon  ;is 
the  lighl  allowed  me  to  distinguish  objects,  1  was  surprised  to 
see  that  we  had  in  reality  attained  the  head  of  the  bay,  which 
terminated  to  the  south  in  Low-lying  lamb,  often  bare,  anil  in 
appearance  marshy.  The  depth  was  wanting  at  a  considerable 
distance  from  th"  shore,  and  no  pail  announced  a  sine  anchor- 
a»c  for  the"  Astrolabe."  Inconsequence,  directly  the  "  station" 
had  been  made,  the  anchor  was  lifted,  and  we  ran  across  to 
the  opposite  [i.e.,  east  ]  coast    to   within    three    miles  and  a  half 


Smith. — Exploration  of  Tasman  Bay.  425 

of  the  shore.  The  land  near  here  arose  in  elevated  escarped 
bluffs,  fairly  well  wooded.  [This  was  Mackay's  Bluff,  seven 
miles  north  of  Nelson.]  Two  canoes,  from  the  head  of  the 
bay,  were  approaching  us,  and  as  the  wind  was  very  light  they 
were  not  long  in  arriving  near  us.  I  laid  to,  and  hailed  them 
in  their  language  to  come  on  board  ;  but  these  Natives  rested 
a  long  time  on  their  paddles,  with  an  air  of  distrust.  From  time 
to  time  one  of  them  addressed  us  in  a  short  harangue,  to  which 
my  sole  response  was  each  time,  "  Aire  mai  ki  te  pahi,  e  oa  ana 
matouP  (Come  to  the  vessel ;  we  are  friends.)*  Tired  at  last 
to  see  my  efforts  inutile,  I  bore  away,  when  they  came  alongside, 
and  soon  after  climbed  on  board  without  distrust.  One  of  the 
canoes  carried  ten  Natives  and  the  other  nine.  Half  of  these 
people  seemed  of  a  superior  rank,  to  judge  by  their  tattoo- 
ing, their  fine  forms,  and  distinguished  expression  of  their 
faces  ;  the  others,  without  tattoo,  and  features  common  and 
insignificant,  were  slaves,  or  belonging  to  the  lower  classes, 
and  might  easily  have  been  taken  for  men  of  another  race, 
so  much  thev  seemed  to  differ  from  the  chiefs  at  the  first 
glance. 

These  savages  appeared  to  know  of  the  effect  of  firearms, 
but  very  little  of  iron,  or  instruments  made  of  that  metal,  for 
they  attached  no  value  to  anything  but  cloth.  They  brought 
with  them  no  lands  of  arms,  and  their  mats  were  all  made  of 
rushes  or  the  thick  mouka  [muka]  (Phormium  tenax)  [pi.  xli], 
one  only  excepted,  of  a  fine  and  silky  texture,  which  its  pos- 
sessor gave  up  in  exchange  for  an  indifferent  shirt  of  blue  cloth, 
after  having  refused  to  exchange  it  for  a  fine  axe,  or  even  a 
sword. 

After  some  trials  I  soon  recognised  that  the  language  of 
these  islanders  was,  radically,  the  same  as  that  of  the  Bay 
of  Islands,  with  some  little  differences,  which  were  more  in 
pronunpiation  than  the  nature  of  the  words.  Thus  I  was  able 
to  understand  fairly  well  what  they  said  by  means  of  the  words 
I  had  learnt  from  the  vocabulary  of  the  missionaries.  During 
four  hours  the  calm  permitted  them  to  pass  with  us  they  ceased 
not  to  comport  themselves  with  the  greatest  probity,  and  an 
admirable  reserve  for  a  people  as  warlike  and  as  advantageously 
treated  by  nature  in  the  way  of  physique. 

At  11  a.m.  the  breeze  increased  a  little  from  the  N.N.E., 
and  the  Natives,  finding  themselves  already  two  leagues  from 
their  village,  which  they  showed  to  us  on  the  borders  of  the 


*  I  have  before  remarked  the  facility  with  which  D'Urville  seemed 
to  pick  up  the  Maori  language.  The  above  sentence  is  good  Maori,  except 
that  Aire  should  be  haere  ;  e  should  be  he  ;  and  oa,  hoa.  — (Translator.) 


426  Transactions. 

sea  in  an  agreeable  site,  and  which  they  named  "  Skoi-Tehai,"* 
they  gave  us  to  understand  that  they  were  about  to  leave  us, 
but  that  they  would  return  the  following  day  to  the  anchorage 
with  their  women.  So  they  departed  in  their  canoes,  but  four 
chiefs  demanded  of  me  to  remain  on  board,  to  which  I  consented 
with  much  pleasure,  astonished  at  this  proof  of  their  hardihood 
and  the  entire  confidence  with  which  we  had  inspired  them. 

I  did  not  dream  otherwise  than  to  direct  our  course  towards 
the  anchorage,  which  I  hoped  to  find  on  the  west  coast,  between 
the  shore  and  the  two  islets  near  which  we  had  passed  the  pre- 
vious evening.  The  wind  having  freshened  from  the  N.N.E., 
it  was  necessary  to  make  some  tacks,  with  a  constant  depth  of 
10  to  15  fathoms.  At  5.30  p.m.  arrived  within  a  mile  of  Adele 
Island.  I  sent  M.  Lottin  on  ahead  to  clear  up  our  route.  At 
6  p.m.  I  doubled,  at  less  than  half  a  cable's  length,  the  N.E. 
point  of  the  island,  and  a  few  minutes  after  let  go  the  anchor 
in  a  bay  [pi.  xxxvii],  which  received  the  name  of  our  ship,  in 
5  fathoms  of  water.  This  time  our  two  chains  served  to  moor 
us  in  that  port,  and  we  found  them  hold  well.     .     .     . 

With  what  pleasure  we  enjoyed  again  the  calm  and  repose 
after  the  torments  which  we  had  suffered  in  the  channel  of 
New  Zealand  [Tasman  Sea],  and  the  inquietude  inseparable  from 
the  difficult  navigation  we  had  had  for  eight  days  along  those 
dangerous  and  mostly  unknown  coasts  !  The  basin  where  our 
corvette  reposed,  sheltered  in  all  parts,  offered  to  the  eye  a 
coup  (Tail  the  most  picturesque,  and  promised  to  our  eager 
regards  all  sorts  of  discoveries.  A  land  agreeably  broken, 
although  generally  mountainous  ;  of  fresh  and  sombre  forests  ; 
of  spaces  more  open,  covered  only  with  high  fern  ;  of  beautiful 
beaches  of  sand,  occupied  all  our  attention,  and  we  lamented 
that  we  had  to  await  to-morrow  to  satisfy  our  ardent  curiosity. 

On  their  side,  our  guests  continued  to  be  well  satisfied  with 
us,  nor  manifested  any  regrets  or  fear  of  our  intentions  towards 
them.  Notwithstanding,  everything  about  them  caused  us  to 
believe  that  they  had  never  had  any  relations  with  Europeans 
before,  but  only  had  confused  notions  conveyed  to  them  by 
their  neighbours,  or  perhaps  by  the  warriors  of  their  tribe,  who 
had  encountered  some  dining  their  voyages.  They  frequently 
repeated  that  their  canoes  would  return  in  the  morning  with 
women,  as  if  that  were  a  powerful  interesl  to  us.  They  ex- 
plained to  us  that  some  neighbours  armed  with  guns  came  often 
from  the  N.W.  to  pillage  and  exterminate  them,  and  they  feared 


*  .Imlire  .M.H'kav.  who  knows  tins  pari  well,  cannot  recognise  this 
name,  nor  does  lie  know  of  an  old  settlement  in  that  part.  It  may  have 
been  a  temporary  camp.     (Teanslatob.) 


Smith. — Exploration  of  Tasman  Bay.  427 

them  singularly.  Often  they  asked  if  we  would  not  go  and 
kill  and  eat  them,  openly  testifying  the  pleasure  they  would 
•experience.  They  cultivated  the  potato,  but  had  no  pigs,  which 
they  only  knew  of  by  name — pouaka  [poaka].  For  bed  I  gave 
them  a  sail,  in  which  they  enveloped  themselves,  and  slept  well 
in  one  of  the  boats. 

17th  January. — At  an  early  hour  in  the  morning  all  the  work 
commenced  at  the  same  time.  MM.  Jacquinot  and  Lottin 
went  to  establish  their  observatory  on  a  little  sandy  beach 
near  where  were  found  abandoned  houses  ;  MM.  Guilbert  and 
Dudemaine  commenced  the  plan  of  Astrolabe  Bay  ;  and  a  party 
was  sent  to  the  woods.  About  8  a.m.  three  canoes  came  along- 
side, containing  about  forty  persons.  Two  of  these  canoes 
were  those  we  had  seen  the  previous  evening  ;  the  third  con- 
tained new  faces.  The  savages  brought  this  time  only  three 
women,  who  remained  hidden  under  some  mats  whilst  the 
canoes  remained  alongside,  and  who,  on  shore,  fled  into  the 
fern  if  one  wished  to  approach  them.  These  islanders  remained 
some  time  near  the  corvette,  occupied  in  exchanging  mats, 
hemp  of  their  country,  and  divers  other  objects  for  European 
bagatelles.  In  general  they  manifested  much  gentleness  and 
good  faith  in  their  bargains,  and  one  could  only  praise  their 
conduct.  When  they  had  finished  they  went  to  the  beach 
where  was  the  observatory,  hauling  up  their  canoes,  and  esta- 
blishing themselves  in  the  adjacent  huts  [pi.  xxxviii].  It  was 
very  agreeable  to  me  to  see  them  fix  themselves  near  us  :  nothing 
could  better  demonstrate  to  us  their  confidence,  and  the  sincerity 
of  their  intentions  ;  but,  thus  placed  under  the  range  of  our 
cannon,  the  least  outrage  on  their  part  could  be  followed  by 
a  punishment  prompt  and  severe. 

After  I  had  assured  myself  of  the  pacific  disposition  of  the 
Natives,  and  having  also  otherwise  prepared  if  they  testified 
differently,  I  went  ashore  at  9.30  a.m.,  followed  by  M.  Lesson 
and  the  sailor  Simonet.  I  landed  at  the  beach  named  in  our 
chart  "  the  watering-place "  [pi.  xxxix].  The  first  thing  I 
remarked  with  joy  was  a  pretty  stream  of  water,  very  limpid, 
that  twisted  and  turned  down  through  the  sand  to  the  sea,  and 
where  our  long-boat  could,  at  high  water,  obtain  all  our  water 
with  the  greatest  facility. 

The  land  around  was  very  broken,  mountainous,  and  difficult 
to  climb.  At  first  I  was  struck  with  the  role  played  in  the  vege- 
tation of  a  climate  so  far  distant  from  the  line,  by  the  ferns  of  all 
descriptions,  identical  with  those  of  the  tropics,  or,  at  least, 
perfectly  analogous.  The  ligneous  and  also  the  arborescent 
species  inhabit  in  crowds  the  humid  ravines,  whilst  the  slopes 
are  entirely  occupied  by  that  kind  of  which  the  root  furnishes 


428  Transactions. 

an  alimentary  substance  to  the  inhabitants  of  these  regions. 
The  Phanerogams  are  little  varied  compared  to  the  ferns  ;  the 
season  was  too  advanced,  few  of  them  offering  either  flowers 
or  fruit.  It  is  the  same  with  the  trees,  many  of  which  are  re- 
markable for  the  elegance  of  their  forms  and  the  beauty  and 
solidity  of  the  wood.  Amongst  the  parasites  I  observed  the 
beautiful  Epidendrum,  or  Dendrobium  ;  but  no  root  of  Phormium 
was  seen.  No  species  of  coleopterous  insects,  except  tne  Cicin- 
dele  sabulicole ;  no  butterflies  animated  the  scene.  There  are, 
nevertheless,  a  number  of  birds  ;  I  shot  seven  or  eight  species, 
and  saw  many  others  I  could  not  get.  It  is  worthy  of  remark 
that  they  are  all  wild,  with  the  exception  of  a  moucherolle  [?  black 
robin],  which  is  excessively  familiar.  Directly  one  stops  in  any 
part  of  the  forest,  one  is  sure  to  see  appear  at  least  one  or  two 
of  these  birds  around  one.  They  look  at  you  in  silence  and  with 
curiosity  ;  if  you  remain  quiet  they  push  their  confidence  so 
far  as  to  alight  on  the  barrel  of  your  gun.  The  beautiful  merle 
d  cravate  (Ceathia  circinata  of  Forster)  [tui]  is  common  in  the 
woods.     A  rat  was  the  only  species  of  quadruped  I  saw. 

The  sky  became  overcast  at  4  p.m.,  and  soon  the  rain  fell, 
and  continued  until  midnight. 

18th  January. — The  weather  continued  overcast,  and  rain  re- 
commenced at  daylight,  and  continued  until  noon. 

Another  canoe  arrived,  and  those  on  board  united  with 
the  others.  They  came  on  board  from  time  to  time  to  continue 
their  barter,  as  peacefully  as  usual,  and  returned  to  their  huts 
as  the  rain  came  on. 

Although  it  still  continued  to  rain  heavily,  at  7.30  a.m.  I 
landed  on  the  beach  that  is  beyond  the  observatory  to  the  south, 
and,  accompanied  only  by  Simonet,  I  walked  towards  the  interior. 
After  having  followed  a  stream  for  some  distance,  which  runs 
in  the  bottom  of  a  ravine  occupied  by  fine  ferns  and  beautiful 
trees,  I  climbed,  with  much  trouble,  the  bluff  which  dominates 
the  coast.  As  soon  as  one  arrives  at  50  or  60  fathoms  above 
the  level  of  the  sea  the  soil  is  very  dry,  and  almost  completely 
covered  with  the  edible  fern,  of  which  the  interlaced  branches 
Eormed  thickets  often  5  ft.  or  6  ft.  high,  and  almost  impene- 
trable. Some  Lepstospermiim  and  two  or  three  other  species 
of  shrubs  are  seen  here  and  there  in  these  parts.  No  birds,  no 
insects,  or  reptiles:  that  absence  of  all  animated  species,  that 
profound  silence  has  something  of  solemnity  and  sadness.  In 
walking  over  these  solitary  bluffs  one  believes  one's-self  trans- 
ported to  that  age  of  the  world  where  nature,  after  having  pro- 
duced the  vegetable  kingdom,  waited  the  Eternal  command 
to  bring  forth  the  animated  races.  To  complete  the  illusion, 
one  does  not  encounter  any  human  traces   on    these    heights. 


Smith. — Exploration  of  Tasman  Bay.  429 

Without  doubt,  the  Natives  are  not  anxious  to  quit  the  food- 
producing  coasts  to  wander  in  these  sad  and  sterile  deserts. 

In  spite  of  the  bad  weather,  and  the  fatigue  I  experienced 
in  traversing  a  country  so  broken,  after  having  attained  the 
summit  of  a  hillock  that  faces  towards  the  S.W.  of  the 
anchorage  I  was  well  recompensed  for  my  trouble  by  a  com- 
plete view  of  Tasman  Bay,  and  by  the  discovery  of  a  second 
basin  situated  beneath  my  feet,  and  which  appeared  to  offer 
an  anchorage  not  less  secure  than  Astrolabe  Bay,  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  an  isthmus  of  500  or  600  fathoms  in  width 
only  [Torrent  Bay].  Three  fine  torrents  discharge  themselves 
there,  and  a  pretty  margin  to  some  level  land  occupied  part 
of  its  extent,  and  in  the  south  a  corner  completely  closed  to  the 
swell  from  outside  announced  a  harbour  most  commodious  for 
small  vessels.  Besides,  an  immense  forest  of  fine  trees,  of 
which  many  would  be  useful  in  construction,  occupied  the 
depths  of  the  ravines  down  which  the  streams  came.  I  at 
once  promised  myself  to  explore  and  make  a  plan  of  this  fine 
basin,  to  ascertain  if  it  really  possessed  the  advantages  that  it 
promised. 

My  eyes,  running  successively  over  all  the  details  of  Tasman 
Bay,  could,  from  the  prominent  station  where  I  was  placed, 
assure  me  that  in  all  the  southern  part  it  offered  no  chance 
of  any  bay  suitable  as  shelter  to  vessels.  I  recognised  the 
clump  of  Podocarpus  near  the  village  to  the  west,  named  by 
the  Natives  "  Mai-Tehai."  [This  seems  very  like  "  Maitai," 
the  name  of  the  river  falling  into  Nelson  Haven,  near  the  town 
of  that  name  ;  but  it  is  shown  on  the  chart  as  lying  to  the 
west  of  Astrolabe  Bay,  about  the  Motueka  Valley.]  Beyond, 
the  opening  discovered  by  M.  Dudemaine,  clearly  seen  in  the 
form  of  a  river-bed  well  inland  ;  at  the  same  time,  its  brown 
waters  communicated  their  colour  to  that  of  the  bay  as  far 
as  four  or  five  miles  from  the  coast.  [This,  no  doubt,  was 
Motueka  River.]  To  the  S.E.  an  island  (Isle  Pepin),  situated 
on  the  coast,  announced  a  channel,  and  perhaps  shelter,  between 
the  island  and  the  main.  More  to  the  north,  and  on  the  coast 
directly  opposite  to  that  on  which  I  found  myself,  a  deep 
opening  made  me  already  suspect  a  communication  between 
Tasman  Bay  and  that  of  Admiralty.  [The  French  Pass.] 
Lastly,  to  the  N.E.  the  land  is  composed  of  abrupt  mountains, 
which  terminate  in  the  cape  called  "  Stephens  "  by  Cook. 

After  having  wandered  nearly  eight  hours  across  these  wild 
slopes,  and  having  entirely  gone  round  the  crest  of  the  mountain, 
I  descended  to  the  coast  through  the  wood  above  the  watering- 
place,  and  returned  on  board  about  4  p.m.,  enriched  with  many 
new  specimens  of  plants   and  birds.     Among  the  latter  were 


430  Transactions. 

two  of  the  brown  parrakeet  of  New  Zealand  (Psittacus  nestor), 
a  curious  and  rare  bird,  even  in  its  own  country. 

The  long-boat  had  made  during  the  morning  three  con- 
secutive trips  to  the  watering-place,  which  work  was  executed 
with  such  ease  and  celerity  that  the  water  we  were  in  want 
of  had  been  completed.  The  weather  was  still  rainy  in  the 
evening  ;  at  night  it  cleared  up,  and  the  following  morning 
it  was  more  passable. 

19th  January. — At  8  a.m.  I  started  in  the  whaleboat  to 
visit  the  bay  of  which  I  have  already  spoken,  and  which  hence- 
forth I  will  refer  to  under  the  name  of  '  Bay  of  Torrents." 
I  followed  the  coast  northwards  from  our  anchorage  ;  it  offers 
from  5  to  8  fathoms  of  water  at  a  ship's  length  from  the  shore. 
But  it  is  necessary  to  avoid  an  isolated  reef  distant  two  cables 
or  more  from  the  point  N.E.  of  the  entrance,  and  on  which 
M.  Guilbert  found  only  10  ft.  of  water  at  high  tide.  .  .  . 
After  having  followed  the  coast  for  a  mile  we  found  ourselves 
off  the  south  point  of  Torrents  Bay,  which  is  formed  by  a 
narrow  ridge  of  rocks  that  extend  about  200  fathoms  from 
the  land.  A  similar  extension  seems  to  take  place  at  the  N.E. 
point ;  it  follows  that  the  entrance  to  the  basin  is  thereby  re- 
duced to  at  least  half  a  mile  in  width,  and  the  interior  is  thus 
the  better  sheltered.  Also,  the  sea  is  perfectly  calm  inside. 
I  found,  and  M.  G-uilbert  after  me,  a  good  bottom  of  mud, 
diminishing  from  45  ft.  to  25  ft.  from  the  entrance  up  to  the 
little  bluff  above  the  interior  peninsula.  Close  to  the  shore, 
nearly  everywhere,  not  less  than  from  20  ft.  to  25  ft.  of  water 
is  found.  I  recommend  above  all  the  southern  bay,  where 
ships  of  our  dimension  or  less  will  find  one  of  the  best  anchorages 
in  the  world,  with  18  ft.  to  20  ft.  of  water,  and  in  front  of  a 
fine  beach,  from  which  rises  a  gentle  slope. 

Beyond  the  interior  peninsula  there  is  a  kind  of  interior 
bay,  which  at  high  water  forms  a  large  basin  of  200  or 
300  fathoms  in  diameter,  but  which  dries  mostly  at  low  water, 
90  that  only  a  channel  of  4ft.  or  5ft.  of  water  is  left,  formed 
by  the  union  of  the  three  torrents  which  there  discharge.  I 
went  up  the  course  of  two  of  these  streams  for  a  distance  of 
one  or  two  miles,  and,  although  neither  was  deep,  the  water 
there  was  as  abundant  as  at  their  mouths.  But,  like  all  the 
streams  of  the  Oceanic  isles,  the  courses  of  the  streams  become 
confined,  the  slope  rapid,  and  with  enormous  rocks  which  at 
each  instant  encumber  their  beds,  preventing  the  progress  of 
the  most  determined  traveller. 

On  the  shore  are  found  trees  of  an  admirable  height  and 
dimensions,  which  would  be  easy  to  work.  The  little  margin  of 
tlat   land  which  runs  along  the  beach,  and  which  has  evidently 


Smith. — Exploration  of  Tasman  Bay.  431 

been  formed  by  the  streams,  seems  of  a  prodigious  fertility, 
and  probably  the  adjacent  slope  would  be  susceptible  of  culture. 
It  is  not  to  be  doubted  that  this  place  would  be  convenient  for 
a  small  establishment.  Plantations  of  a  larger  size  could  only 
be  placed  on  the  banks  of  the  Eiver  Mai-Tehai  (Motueka)  and 
the  surrounding  plains. 

MM.  Quoy  and  Lottin,  who  came  to  Torrents  Bay  overland 
by  crossing  the  isthmus  which  separates  that  harbour  from 
Astrolabe  Bay,  joined  us  about  11  a.m.  We  visited  together 
the  little  valley  of  which  I  have  spoken,  and  we  found  some 
houses  where  the  Natives  had  left  some  of  their  utensils,  and 
near  them  some  potato  plantations.  No  doubt  these  are  places 
where  the  inhabitants  of  Mai-Tehai  or  Skoi-Tehai  establish 
themselves  for  a  time  when  occupied  in  fishing,  or  to  pass  the 
time  at  the  harvesting  of  their  crops  of  potatoes.  We  all 
returned  on  board  at  4.30  p.m. 

MM.  Guilbert  and  Dudemaine  finished  this  morning  the 
detailed  plan  of  Astrolabe  Bay,  and  the  numerous  soundings 
on  it  leave  nothing  to  be  desired. 

20th  January. — The  weather  remained  cloudy,  with  feeble 
breezes.  From  5  to  10  a.m.  it  rained,  and  then  became  fine. 
I  had  not  many  days  to  devote  to  this  anchorage,  and  did  not 
wish  to  lose  an  instant.  At  9  a.m.  I  was  ashore  with  M.  Lesson 
and  Simonet  on  the  large  beach  to  the  south  of  the  anchorage. 
This  is  the  most  agreeable  place,  and  more  rich  in  birds  than 
any  part  of  the  coast.  A  narrow  and  sandy  flat,  covered  only 
with  herbaceous  plants,  occupies  the  edge  of  the  sea  ;  it  is 
surrounded  by  an  immense  and  profound  forest  of  easy  access  ; 
a  fine  stream  traverses  it,  running  over  a  bed  of  granite  ;  in 
many  parts  of  its  course  it  has  pretty  waterfalls.  The  fresh 
and  delicious  shade  echoes  with  the  songs  of  various  birds,  and 
that  scene  so  full  of  life  contrasts  with  the  funereal  silence  which 
I  had  observed  on  the  ridge  near,  barely  two  or  three  miles 
distant.  The  nature  of  these  places,  the  aspect  of  the  streams 
and  forests,  perfectly  recalled  to  me  many  similar  sights  in  New 
Guinea,  near  Dorei,  and  the  surprising  resemblance  of  the  ferns 
struck  me  more  and  more.  The  almost  complete  absence  of 
insects  recalled  to  me  the  coasts  of  Tavai-Pounamou  [Te  Wai- 
pounamu  =  South  Island,  New  Zealand]  ;  indeed,  in  all  my 
visit  I  did  not  remark  more  than  one,  coloured  red,  which  I 
could  not  catch,  but  which  I  took  to  be  a  Hymenoptere.  I  do 
not  count  some  small  and  insignificant  species  of  locusts,  crickets, 
and  cicadas  inhabiting  the  plants  of  the  shore.  Simonet  and  I 
made  a  successful  chase  after  birds,  of  which  we  brought  back 
more  than  forty  individuals,  of  many  sorts,  amongst  others  a 
large  pigeon  with  brilliant  reflections,  two  Glaucopis  with 
pendant  drops,  and  many  fine  philedon  d  cravate  [?  tui]. 


132  Transactions. 

I  had  sent  back  the  boat,  thinking  I  could  easily  proceed  by 
land  to  a  point  opposite  the  corvette  in  following  the  coast ;  but 
when  we  came  to  return  we  found  only  too  well  why  the  Natives 
so  seldom  visit  these  rough  shores.  The  sea,  in  rising,  had 
nearly  covered  the  narrow  and  rocky  space  which  was  dry  in 
the  morning  ;  so  we  had  to  cross,  with  great  trouble,  the  ravines 
and  steep  hills,  covered  with  scrub,  which  alternately  succeeded 
one  another.  Halfway  we  crossed  an  advanced  point  by  passing 
under  a  natural  vault  more  than  100  paces  long,  which  passes 
right  through  the  point ;  but  the  slopes  beyond  caused  us  fresh 
difficulties,  for  we  had  to  climb  a  nearly  perpendicular  face  ; 
we  crawled,  holding  by  feeble  shrubs  or  fragile  stalks  of  fern, 
and  ran  each  moment  the  risk  of  being  precipitated  on  to  the 
sharp  points  of  the  rocks  below  if  these  frail  supports  had  given 
way.  Lastly,  after  excessive  fatigue  and  veritable  dangers, 
we  arrived  at  the  beach  of  the  observatory,  where  we  found  a 
boat,  which  carried  us  on  board  the  corvette. 

21st  January. — Soon  after  midnight  the  rain  commenced  to 
f  ill  in  torrents,  and  continued  up  to  2  a.m.  At  the  anchorage 
we  had  only  slight  breezes  from  the  S.E.,  and  more  often  calm  ; 
but  the  sea  had  risen,  and  even  in  our  bay,  so  well  sheltered, 
we  had  some  swell  and  surf  on  the  shore.  I  concluded  that  a 
gale  prevailed  at  that  moment  in  the  straits,  and  I  esteemed 
myself  happy  to  have  escaped  it.  This  decided  me  to  postpone 
our  departure  to  the  morrow,  the  more  so  as  M.  Lottin  had 
still  an  observation  to  make  to  complete  the  comparison  of  oui 
watches. 

No  doubt  our  stay  here  will  seem  short ;  it  appeared  so  to 
myself.  If  I  had  only  to  consult  the  wishes  of  the  naturalists, 
whose  collections  were  enriched  each  day  by  most  interesting 
material — if  I  could  have  listened  to  my  own  desires.  I  would 
have  traversed  those  plains  at  the  head  of  the  bay  [Waimea 
Plains],  to  which  my  thoughts  returned  involuntarily,  and 
visited  the  Natives  in  their  own  village  ;  but  I  could  not  forget 
my  instructions.  The  hydrographic  work  was  finished,  our 
water,  our  wood  had  been  completed,  and  other  parts  of  New 
Zealand  equally  claimed  our  attention.  A  longer  stay  could 
not  be  justified,  and  would  have  nullified  our  future  operations. 

At  ".!  p.m.,  the  sky  having  somewhat  cleared.  I  went,  with 
several  officers,  to  take  a  last  walk  on  the  larger  beach;  but. 
the  rain  having  driven  the  birds  to  their  retreats,  we  were  only 
able  to  secure  a  few;  and  also,  the  underserub,  still  charged 
with  the  rain  it  had  received,  completely  wetted  those  who 
wished  to  penetrate  into  the  woods.  Hence  we  returned  early 
ou  board  to  make  our  preparations  for  departure. 

The  Natives  had  continued  to  visit  us  from  time  to  time, 
and  their  conduct  had  always  been  without  reproach.     Their 


Smith. — Exploration  of  Tasmau  Bay.  433 

chiefs  often  offered  me  their  women,  and  they  appeared  surprised 
at  my  refusal.  It  is  true  that,  more  gallant  or  more  courageous, 
three  of  our  young  officers  braved  the  vermin,  the  stench,  and 
the  dirt,  and  retired  each  evening  to  their  homes  to  pass  the 
night  with  la  belle  Zelandaises,  who  conceded  to  the  wishes, 
or  rather  the  presents,  of  their  adorers. 

These  Natives  are  incontestably  very  inferior  in  industry, 
as  in  intellect,  to  those  of  the  North  Island,  of  whom  they  are 
probably  only  colonies.  A  soil  more  ungracious,  a  climate 
more  rigorous,  and  greater  privations  have  prevented  the  human 
species  from  taking  on  here  the  same  development,  and  to  form 
themselves  into  powerful  tribes  as  are  found  in  Te  Ika-na-Maui 
[North  Island].  They  appeared  to  me  to  be  ignorant  of  the 
national  chant  called  pike,  and  other  songs  given  in  Mr.  Kendal's 
grammar.  Their  pronunciation  is  also  more  defective,  for  they 
rarely  articulate  the  "  r  "  in  their  words  ;  *  thus  they  say  hoeo 
for  korero,  to  speak  ;  tainga  for  taringa,  the  ear,  &c.  ;  often  it 
is  the  same  with  the  "  d,"  which  brings  them  nearer  to  the 
language  of  the  Tahitians.  [In  the  early  missionary  writings 
the  "  d  "  is  often  found  instead  of  the  "  r."] 

The  anchorage  of  Astrolabe  Bay,  in  Tasman  Bay,  is,  without 
contradiction,  one  of  the  best  in  these  parts,  owing  to  the  security 
that  a  vessel  may  enjoy,  its  ease  of  access  and  departure,  the 
resources  that  it  offers  for  wood  and  water,  and,  lastly,  for  the 
excellent  fish  which  it  can  furnish  each  day.  We  quitted  the 
place  well  satisfied,  completely  revictualled  and  enriched  with 
an  unbelievable  quantity  of  new  objects. 

I  have  already  observed  that  Torrents  Bay  is  not  inferior 
to  it  in  any  respect,  and  also  offers  space  on  the  shore  more 
open  and  better  suited  to  the  works  that  have  to  be  executed 
during  a  long  stay,  or  in  consequence  of  accidents  that  have 
to  be  repaired. 

We  know  that  it  was  the  Dutch  navigator  Abel  Tasman  that 
discovered  New  Zealand,  and  that  on  the  18th  December,  1642, 
he  anchored  in  the  great  bay  bearing  his  name.  The  morning 
after  his  arrival  the  savages  killed  four  men  of  the  crew  in  one 
of  his  boats,  which  induced  him  to  quit  the  place,  leaving  the 
name  of  Bay  of  Murderers.  In  casting  the  eye  over  our  chart 
it  is  difficult  to  assign  exactly  the  place  where  Tasman  anchored. 
If  his  latitude  40°  50'  S.  was  exact,  it  would  be,  as  I  have  in- 
dicated, opposite  a  little  stream  four  miles  south  of  Separation 
Point.  It  may  be  that  the  vessels  of  Tasman  had  doubled  that 
point,  and  were,  in  fact,  brought  up  in  the  bay  that  we  have 

*  This  dropping  of  the  letter  "  r  "  is  characteristic  of  the  old  Ngati- 
Tu-mata-kokiri  Tribe  of  Tasman  Bay,  and  also  of  the  Ngati-Rakai  of 
South  Canterbury.     In  this  they  are  like  the  Marquesans. — (Translator.) 


434  Transactions. 

continued  to  call,  after  Cook,  Massacre  Bay.  That  basin  de- 
mands a  further  exploration,  and  one  might  think  that  it  offers 
better  anchorage,  because  the  seas  from  outside  cannot  enter 
from  any  side. 

It  results  from  the  observations  of  M.  Jacquinot  that  our 
observatory  in  Astrolabe  Bay  was  situated — 40°  58'  22"  lat.  S., 
170°  35'  25"  long.  E.  (of  Paris),  14°  25'  variation  N.E. 

(End  of  Chapter  XII.)" 

[With  regard  to  the  Natives  met  with  by  Captain  D'Urville 
in  Tasman  Bay,  they  belonged  to  the  Ngati-Apa-ki-te-ra-to 
Tribe  (or  Western  Ngati-Apa),  a  branch  of  the  tribe  of  that  name 
which  have  occupied  Rangi-tikei,  Turakina,  &c,  on  the  North 
Island,  for  many  centuries.  These  people,  about  the  end  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  migrated  from  the  North  Island,  and 
conquered  the  original  inhabitants  of  Tasman  Bay,  known  as 
Ngati-Tu-mata-kokiri.  Most  of  the  men  were  killed  and  the 
women  taken  as  slaves.  Those  people  who,  D'Urville  remarks, 
appeared  to  be  slaves  were  in  all  probability  some  of  the  de- 
scendants of  the  conquered  tribe,  still  in  a  state  of  vassalage. 
When  these  people  mentioned  the  fact  of  their  having  suffered 
through  the  tribes  from  the  N.W.,  who  were  armed  with  muskets, 
they  refer  to  Ngati-Toa,  of  Kawhia,  and  Ngati-Awa,  of  Taranaki, 
who  occupied  Kapiti  Island  and  the  adjacent  shores  in  1822. 
But  it  was  not  until  1828,  the  year  after  D'Urville's  visit,  that 
Tasman's  Bay  was  conquered  by  Niho,  Takerei,  Te  Puohu,  and 
others  of  Ngati-Toa  and  Ngati-Awa.  Therefore,  the  collisions 
these  people  referred  to  must  have  been  when  they,  together 
with  all  the  other  tribes  of  Cook's  Straits,  attacked  Te  Rau- 
paraha  at  Kapiti  Island,  and  at  the  battle  of  Wakapaetai  suffered 
a  very  severe  defeat  at  the  hands  of  the  Ngati-Toa  chief.  This 
was  in  1824.  For  full  particulars  of  these  times  see  "  History 
and  Traditions  of  the  Taranaki  Coast,"  by  the  translator  hereof.] 

Chapter  XIII. — Traverse  from  Astrolabe  Bay  to  Houa- 

houa*  Bay. 

22nd  January,  1827. — A  good  part  of  the  night  the  wind  blew 
with  force,  with  squalls  and  rain.  At  2  a.m.  the  wind  suddenly 
ceased,  but  rain  continued  until  5  a.m.,  when  the  wind  set  in 
from  the  south.  Immediately  the  stern  anchor  was  raised, 
and  the  corvette  got  under  way.  Seeing  our  preparations  for 
departure,  all  the  Natives  embarked  in  one  of  their  canoes  with 
their  women  and  children,  to  the  number  of  thirty,  to  pay  us  a 
last  visit  and  obtain   a   few  more  trifles  from  us.      Their  per- 


*  Houahoua  is  the  nearesl    D'Urville  could  ^et   to  I'awa  (or  Tologa)  Bay. 


Smith  — Exploration  of  Tasman  Bay.  435 

petual  cries  deafened  us,  and  their  presence  was  much  in  the  way 
of  the  sailors,  and  interfered  with  working  the  ship.  I  endured 
their  presence,  however,  importunate  as  they  were,  up  till  the 
last,  in  order  to  leave  a  good  impression  of  the  character  of  their 
guests.  Happily,  as  the  rain  ceased  we  were  deprived  of  their 
presence,  as  we  lay  becalmed  at  two  miles  from  the  shore.  The 
Natives  profited  by  that  circumstance  to  make  a  short  de- 
monstration alongside  about  noon.  Lastly,  by  aid  of  a  light  breeze 
from  the  N.  and  N.N.W.  I  made  the  best  of  my  way  towards 
the  opening  that  I  had  observed  on  the  east  coast  of  the  bay. 
At  3.45  p.m.,  and  at  the  distance  of  fifteen  miles  about,  that 
opening  presented  the  appearance  of  a  deep  bay,  so  I  steered 
N.E.  \  E.  towards  another  opening  much  more  prominent. 
Nevertheless,  an  hour  afterwards  the  first  embayment  took  on 
another  aspect,  and  M.  Guilbert  believing  he  could  see  a  channel, 
I  steered  right  for  it,  in  order  to  approach  and  spare  myself  any 
after-regrets.  At  7.40  p.m.  we  were  opposite  that  bay,  and  at 
less  than  a  league's  distance  from  the  two  points.  From  there 
we  convinced  ourselves  that  it  did  not  offer  any  channel  practi- 
cable by  our  ship.  At  the  same  time  that  bay,  which  I  named 
"  Croiselles  Bay,"  should  offer  a  large  and  good  anchorage 
in  all  winds  from  south,  the  east,  and  even  north-west,  because 
of  some  islets  situated  near  the  north  point,  and  which  perfectly 
shelter  that  side.  Near  to  us  the  coast  was  very  steep  every- 
where, and  the  depth  was  constantly  25  fathoms.  It  was  too 
late  to  look  for  a  suitable  anchorage  ;  in  consequence,  I  steered 
off  the  land  to  pass  the  night ;  but  hardly  had  we  shifted  the 
sheets  when  it  fell  dead  calm,  leaving  us  at  the  mercy  of  the 
current  and  a  somewhat  heavy  swell. ,  So  we  passed  the  entire 
night  less  than  three  miles  from  the  land,  a  prey  to  the  most 
lively  inquietude,  and  dreading  to  be  carried,  in  spite  of  our- 
selves, on  to  the  coast.  The  lead  cast  everv  half-hour  showed 
25  fathoms  constantly,  with  a  muddy  bottom ;  but  I  refrained 
from  anchoring  lest  obliged  to  do  so,  for  I  feared  to  be  surprised 
at  anchor  by  a  strong  N.W.  wind,  which  would  have  left  us 
without  any  resource. 

23rd  January. — Towards  4  a.m.  we  recognised  that  we  had, 
in  spite  or  our  care,  much  approached  the  land,  and  were  not 
more  than  half  a  league  off  it.  Vainly  I  had  out  the  oars  of  the 
gallery  [?  galley,  boat],  and  manoeuvred  to  profit  by  the  least 
puff  of  wind  ;  the  swell  continued  to  carry  us  nearer  and  nearer 
to  the  shore,  and  at  8.10  a.m.,  in  spite  of  my  repugnance  and  all 
our  efforts,  there  remained  nothing  for  it  but  to  anchor  in  20 
fathoms.  We  were  at  that  time  not  more  than  500  fathoms 
from  the  rocks  on  the  shore,  on  which  the  sea  was  breaking 
heavily.     [According  to  the  chart,  the  anchorage  was  about  a 


436  Transactions. 

couple  of  miles  south  of  Cape  Soucis,  the  south  head  of  Croi- 
selles  Harbour.] 

There  exists  an  astonishing  difference  between  the  west 
coast  of  Tasman  Bay  and  that  of  the  east.  The  latter,  battered 
by  the  gales  from  the  west,  only  offers  an  escarped  land,  often 
bare,  and  nearly  everywhere  without  landing.  It  recalled  to  us, 
by  its  sad  and  monotonous  aspect,  that  which  we  had  followed 
from  Cape  Five  Fingers  up  to  Rocks  Point ;  also,  the  swell 
from  the  west  appeared  almost  permanent,  and  thus  renders 
the  navigation  as  dangerous  as  the  coast  opposite  is  safe. 

Between  8  and  9  a.m.  a  canoe  manned  by  two  Natives  ap- 
peared at  the  mouth  of  Croiselles  Harbour,  but  disappeared 
again.  We  were  so  anxious  about  our  position  that  we  gave 
but  slight  attention  to  them. 

At  9.45  a.m.  I  profited  by  a  fresh  breeze  from  the  N.W. 
to  get  under  way  in  haste,  and  to  conduct  the  ship  towards  the 
channel  I  had  observed  the  previous  evening  in  the  N.N.E., 
and  which  seemed  to  me  to  establish  a  communication  between 
Tasman  and  Admiralty  Bay.  We  followed  the  coast  at  less  than 
two  miles  distance,  although  the  breeze  was  uncertain,  and 
frequently  threatened  to  leave  us  at  the  mercy  of  the  swell. 
At  4.15  p.m.  we  had  arrived  opposite  to  the  channel,  and  I  stood 
tor  it  with  all  sail,  when  the  look-out  on  the  crosstrees  announced 
that  the  pass  was  barred  by  breakers,  from  which  we  were 
distant  not  more  than  three  or  four  cable-lengths.  In  an  in- 
stant M.  Guilbert  flew  up  to  the  crosstrees  and  confirmed  the 
report.  There  was  not  a  moment  to  lose  ;  instantly  all  the  sails 
were  lowered,  and  the  starboard  anchor  let  go  in  26  fathoms 
in  mid-channel,  and  at  about  a  mile  or  more  from  each  of  the 
two  points.  The  wind  threatened  to  freshen  from  the  N.W.. 
and  the  swell  had  much  increased,  so  I  at  once  paid  out  50 
fathoms  of  cable. 

MM.  Lottin  and  Gressian  were  sent  away  in  two  boats  to 
follow  each  of  the  two  sides  of  the  channel,  to  search  for  dangers 
and  to  find^mt  if  the  pass  would,  in  effect,  conduct  us  to  Ad- 
miralty Bay.  They  were  nearly  four  hours  absent,  and  on  their 
return  informed  me  that,  with  th  exception  of  the  breakers 
that  extended  for  a  considerable  distance  from  the  N.W.  point, 
the  channel  appeared  to  them  quite  safe  right  through.  They 
could  not,  nevertheless,  make  sure  that  the  channel  was  prac- 
ticable in  its  narrowest  part,  where  it  debouched  into  Admi- 
ralty Bay.  M.  Lottin,  who  approached  that  part  nearest,  found 
it  almost  barred  by  rocks  barely  above  the  surface,  and  there 
prevailed  there  a  very  violent  current,  accompanied  by  eddies 
and  whirlpools,  which  had  nearly  carried  his  boat  into  the 
breakers,  and  it   was  only  with  extreme  difficulty  he  had  been 


Smith. — Exploration  of  Tasmau  Bay.  437 

able  to  withdraw  from  this  perilous  position.  That  pass  was 
distant  a  league  and  a  half  from  our  anchorage.  In  returning, 
the  current  had  caused  great  trouble  to  these  two  officers,  whilst 
the  crews  were  extremely  fatigued. 

I  expected  to  see  the  wind  fall  at  night  as  usual.  It  did  not 
do  so  ;  on  the  contrary,  it  freshened  rapidly  from  the  N.W. 
At  9  p.m.,  when  the  boats  returned,  it  was  already  so  strong, 
and  had  raised  such  a  sea,  that  they  had  great  trouble  in  hoisting 
in  the  boats  without  breaking  them.  From  10  to  11  p.m.  the 
wind  blew  very  hard,  and  the  sea  had  become  very  heavy.  The 
corvette  pitched  with  great  violence,  causing  a  great  strain  on 
the  cable,  and  in  the  strongest  gusts  the  waves  came  right  over 
the  ship,  covering  entirely  the  forecastle.  We  ran  the  risk  of 
foundering.  At  11  p.m.  I  paid  out  70  fathoms  of  cable,  and 
some  minutes  after,  having  drifted  sensibly,  we  let  go  the  port 
anchor  with  the  heavy  chain,  purchased  at  Port  Jackson,  giving 
20  fathoms  more  on  the  other  cable.  Our  position  was  extremely 
critical,  for  if  the  chain  and  the  cable  did  not  hold  the  corvette 
would  have  smashed  up  on  an  iron  coast,  from  which  we  were 
only  distant  three  or  four  cable-lengths.  The  sea  was  breaking 
with  such  fury  that  to  reduce  the  "  Astrolabe  "  into  fragments 
would  have  been  an  affair  of  some  minutes  only.  It  was  very 
certain  not  one  of  the  crew  would  have  escaped  from  such  a 
catastrophe  ;  it  is  even  doubtful  if  any  vestige  would  have  been 
preserved  on  the  coast,  so  complete  would  have  been  the  de- 
struction of  the  ship. 

Great  as  our  anxiety  already  was,  it  became  much  more  so 
when,  at  2.45  a.m.,  we  found  ourselves  again  dragging,  and  ascer- 
tained that  the  starboard  cable  had  parted.  We  immediately  paid 
out  60  fathoms  of  chain,  which  had  now  become  our  only  re- 
source, and  made  fast  another  cable  to  an  old  anchor  on  the 
port  side  ready  for  use  in  case  of  want.  But  the  single  chain 
held  us,  and  at  the  same  time  the  wind  decreased  suddenly, 
the  sea  went  down,  and  the  sky  cleared  as  by  enchantment. 
Whoever  has  found  themselves  in  a  similar  situation  will 
understand  what  a  burden  had  been  removed. 

Hardly  had  the  day  broken  when  we  commenced  to  haul  in 
the  end  of  the  broken  cable  ;  it  had  been  cut  at  12  fathoms  from 
the  hawse-hole,  and  was  much  frayed  in  other  parts.  This 
proved  that  the  bottom  was  covered  with  sharp  rocks,  and  we 
felicitated  ourselves  that  the  accident  had  not  taken  place  at 
the  worst  of  the  weather. 

The  large  boat  carried  out  small  cables,  and  attached  them 
to  the  buoy-rope  of  the  anchor,  in  order  to  save  the  latter.  At 
8  a.m.  we  hauled  on  the  chain,  and  when  the  anchor  came  to  the 
surface  of  the  water  we  recognised,  with  as  much  surprise  as 


438  Transactions. 

regret,  that  one  of  its  flukes  was  broken,  which,  no  doubt  was 
occasioned  by  the  nature  of  the  bottom.  Thus,  during  many 
hours  the  safety  of  the  "  Astrolabe  "  had  depended  upon  nothing 
but  a  thread,  as  it  were. 

We  then  hauled  on  the  broken  cable,  having  care  to 
strengthen  the  buoy-rope  with  a  solid  mailon.  That  precaution 
was  useful,  for  hardly  had  the  anchor  approached  the  surface 
when  the  buoy-rope  broke,  and  without  the  mailon  the  anchor 
had  been  lost. 

At  9.10  a.m.  we  got  under  way  with  a  little  sail  to  enter  the 
channel  of  communication  between  the  two  bays  ;  we  passed 
to  starboard  two  rocks  under  water,  very  dangerous,  and 
shortly  found  ourselves  in  a  basin  of  calm  water,  and  which 
presented  no  appearance  of  currents.  As  the  breeze  still  held 
in  the  west,  I  followed  the  east  side  at  about  200  fathoms  dis- 
tance to  hold  the  wind.  Our  navigation  in  that  narrow  channel, 
between  two  chains  of  elevated  mountains,  had  something 
imposing  in  it :  on  one  side  thick  forests,  on  the  other  copses, 
or  nothing  but  tall  fern  ;  behind  us  Tasman  Bay,  losing  itself 
in  the  horizon  ;  before  us  the  islands  and  islets  of  Admiralty 
Bay,  appearing  through  the  pass  as  in  a  telescope,  and  gradually 
increasing  in  size  to  the  eye.  Such  was  the  extraordinary 
spectacle,  which  we  could  have  enjoyed  if  care  of  the  vessel  had 
not  prevented  us. 

Arrived  about  400  fathoms  within  the  pass,  I  saw  that  it 
was  almost  completely  barred  by  rocks  just  showing  above 
water,  and  I  was  obliged  to  send  M.  Gressian  to  take  a  nearer 
view,  while  I  advanced  slowly  under  very  little  sail.  After 
having  taken  some  soundings,  and  examined  the  pass,  that 
officer  returned  and  reported  that  it  was  practicable,  though 
very  confined,  and  that  the  greatest  depth  was  on  the  cast 
side  ;  but  that  the  current  had  commenced  to  enter,  and  that 
without  a  strong  breeze  it  would  be  difficult  to  contend  with. 
Nevertheless,  I  decided  to  try  it,  and  made  more  sail.  When 
the  corvette  was  not  more  than  a  cable's  length  from  the  pass 
the  bar  all  at  once  became  covered  with  boiling  foam,  and  the 
water  came  rushing  through  in  whirlpools  of  an  unbelievable 
violence.  On  the  instant  the  corvette  obeyed  the  action  of  the 
currents,  which  carried  her  back  rapidly  into  the  bay  of  cur- 
rents [Current  Basin],  making  her  turn  round  several  times. 

I  was  better  pleased  to  see  her  resting  in  the  basin  than 
carried  on  to  the  breakers  in  the  pass,  but  I  was  disappointed 
as  much  as  surprised  to  bud  the  current,  instead  of  following 
the  middle  of  the  channel,  directing  itself  straight  to  the  coast 
on  to  a  point  [Point  Tourbillons — Whirlpool  Point]  which  was 
immediately  to  the  south  of  us.     Thus,  in  two  or  three  minutes, 


Smith.— Exploration  of  Tasman  Bay.  439 

before  the  anchors  could  be  let  go,  the  bow  of  the  vessel  was 
not  more  than  a  few  fathoms  off  the  rocks  of  the  coast.  She 
was  rushing  on  to  the  point  with  all  the  swiftness  of  the  cur- 
rent. To  deaden  the  violence  of  the  blow,  I  sent  the  long- 
boat with  a  tow-line,  and  at  the  same  instant  the  anchor  was 
let  go.  Although  the  anchor  was  apeak,  it  held  us  afloat ;  but 
it  could  not  protect  the  ship  from  grazing  if  the  whirlpool  in 
which  she  was  had  again  made  her  turn  right  round  twice  or 
thrice,  with  the  depth  of  7  or  8  fathoms,  at  not  many  feet  from 
the  rocks.  It  was  now  noon  ;  M.  Jacquinot  had  gone  ashore 
in  the  long-boat  to  observe  the  sun,  and  all  these  movements 
had  been  so  rapidly  made  that  that  officer  had  not  observed 
them  till  all  were  terminated.  The  lesser  anchor  was  imme- 
diately placed  in  the  long-boat,  and  carried  outside  to  the  dis- 
tance of  a  short  cable  ;  but,  although  strongly  manned,  and 
towed  by  the  yawl,  the  boat,  carried  by  the  current,  could 
only  with  difficulty  carry  it  out  some  30  or  40  fathoms.  How- 
ever, as  soon  as  we  had  the  end  of  the  cable  we  hauled  on  it, 
dragging  after  us  the  large  anchor,  which  by  good  luck  had  not 
held.  Towards  an  hour  after  noon  we  found  ourselves  nearly 
apeak  over  the  small  anchor  and  at  20  fathoms  from  the  coast. 

Anxious  to  give  to  each  of  our  collaborators  the  means  of 
utilising  his  time,  I  at  once  sent  to  the  neighbouring  shore  the 
naturalists  and  the  artist  of  the  expedition,  also  MM.  Guilbert  and 
Paris.  These  two  latter  each  climbed  the  summit  of  a  hill  which 
overlooked  both  Tasman  and  Admiralty  Bays,  in  order  to  obtain 
an  exact  view  of  their  details,  and  make  observations  useful  for 
the  geography  of  the  strait.  In  thus  acting  I  had  a  double 
end  in  view — that  of  utilising  the  zeal  of  persons  whose  pre- 
sence aboard  was  of  no  use  in  the  manoeuvres  we  had  to  make, 
and,  above  all,  to  impress  the  crew  with  the  fact  that,  notwith- 
standing the  dangers  we  were  incurring,  the  work  was  carried 
on  as  if  we  were  under  the  happiest  circumstances  in  our  naviga- 
tion. It  was  the  course  I  constantly  followed,  and  I  believe  it 
to  be  indispensable,  especially  with  individixals  so  pusillanimous 
as  were  most  of  our  crew. 

Whilst  our  companions  were  usefully  occupied  ashore,  on 
board  we  redoubled  our  efforts  to  place  the  corvette  in  safety. 
The  long-boat,  having  taken  on  board  two  short  cables  and  a 
stream-anchor,  departed  to  place  it  as  far  out  as  possible,  but, 
always  mastered  by  the  current,  which  carried  them  towards 
Tasman  Bay,  they  could  not  take  it  further  than  a  cable's  length 
from  the  shore.  We  hauled  on  it,  at  the  same  time  slacking  out 
on  the  other,  but  the  current  caused  it  to  become  entangled 
with  the  large  anchor,  which  was  dragging.  The  cables,  the 
short  cables,   and  the  buoy-ropes  were  so  thoroughly  twisted 


440  Transactions. 

that  it  took  some  time  to  clear  them.  Lastly,  at  4  p.m.  all 
was  ready,  and  we  let  go  the  smaller  anchor  with  the  little 
chain  in  21  fathoms,  gravel  and  shells,  at  a  good  cable's  length 
from  the  shore  ;   afterwards  the  stream-anchor  was  lifted. 

It  was  not  until  then  that  the  crew,  which  had  worked  hard 
ever  since  4  a.m.,  and  had  only  had  a  quarter  of  an  hour's 
respite  for  breakfast,  could  take  their  dinner.  On  that  occasion 
I  remarked  that  the  sailors,  naturally  idle  and  grumblers  in 
ordinary  bad  times,  showed  themselves  active,  submissive,  and 
even  resigned  in  the  dangers  we  had  seen.  That  observation 
gave  me  great  pleasure,  as  showing  what  they  were  capable  of 
in  decisive  moments. 

In  the  evening  we  occupied  ourselves  in  clearing  up  the 
poop,  which  was  more  encumbered  with  chains  and  warps 
than  it  had  ever  been  before,  and  in  preparing  for  the  manoeuvres 
which  remained  to  be  executed  to  take  us  into  Current  Basin. 

During  that  time,  accompanied  by  M.  Guilbert,  who  had 
returned  from  his  excursion,  I  embarked  in  the  whaleboat  to 
visit  the  pass.  What  I  ascertained  this  time  convinced  me 
that  it  would  be  very  imprudent  to  risk  the  passage  before 
being  well  acquainted  with  it,  as  well  as  the  part  of  the  sea 
beyond,  in  Admiralty  Bay,  and  it  was  at  that  moment  impos- 
sible to  sound  either  one  or  the  other.  The  current  had  turned, 
and  now  ran  toward  Admiralty  Bay,  but  its  action  was  too 
irregular,  and  the  sea  boiled  in  whirlpools  in  a  frightful  manner. 
The  N.W.  point  was  continued  in  a  chain  of  rocks  just  showing, 
and  which,  by  closing  three-fourths  of  the  pass,  stopped  the 
waters  in  their  course,  and  formed  a  bar  almost  continuous 
in  the  only  open  part.  The  effect  of  this  contraction  of  the 
mass  of  water  was  felt  in  our  basin,  and  its  surface  was  more 
elevated  than  that  of  the  water  of  Admiralty  Bay.  With  the 
whaleboat  it  required  all  the  force  of  six  men  to  pull  against 
the  current  outside  the  main  stream,  so  one  may  judge  of  its 
impetuosity  in  its  true  sphere  of  action.  There  was  reason  to 
believe  that  low  water  would  be  the  most  favourable  time  t" 
attempt  the  passage  ;  but  at  that  time  the  current  was  con- 
trary, and  the  kelp  of  a  favourable  and  constant  breeze  would 
be  indispensable.  Almosl  touching  the  bar,  and  opposite  the 
east  point,  I  found  20,  25.  up  to  40  fathoms  depth.  A  crowd 
of  cormorants,  perched  on  the  hushes  on  the  opposite  shore, 
were  the  sole  guardians  of  this  basin.* 

*  In  reference  i"  these  cormorants  or  shags,  i1  is  interesting  to  read 
the  Maori  account  of  the  (mythical)  formation  of  the  I'Yench  Pass  by  a 
cormorant  named  Te  Kawau-a-Toru.  Sec  "Journal,  Polynesian  Society," 
vol.  ii,  p.  53  <t  seq.  The  Maori  name  of  the  pass  is  "  Te  Aumiti."  — 
(Teahblatob.) 


Smith. — Exploration  of  Tasman  Bay.  441 

We  passed  the  night  with  the  smaller  anchor  down,  with 
42  fathoms  of  chain.  It  was  calm  up  to  midnight,  after  which 
time  the  sky  became  overcast,  and  squalls  came  on  from  the 
N.W.  with  rain,  which  lasted  some  hours. 

25th  January. — M.  Guilbert  employed  the  whole  morning 
in  making  a  plan  of  the  basin  in  which  we  were,  and  it  resulted 
from  his  explorations  that  the  soundings  are  regular  from  20 
to  25  fathoms,  gravel  and  shells,  right  up  to  the  shore. 

I  left  at  10  a.m.,  with  M.  Gressian,  to  again  examine  the 
pass,  or  at  least  its  sides.  The  tide  was  nearly  low,  and  I  found 
with  pleasure  that  the  sea  only  broke  feebly  on  the  rocks,  in 
spite  of  the  whirlpools  which  were  there.  I  sounded  in  the 
very  middle  of  the  channel  and  found  a  great  depth,  whilst, 
without  our  perceiving  it,  the  current  carried  us  rapidly  to- 
wards Admiralty  Bay.  For  the  moment  I  was  somewhat 
anxious  as  to  the  manner  by  which  we  should  return  to  Cur- 
rent Basin,  because  of  the  redoubtable  bar  which  the  back 
current  always  established.  Lastly  I  decided,  certain  that  we 
could  always  return  by  land  over  the  peninsula,  and,  after 
all,  it  would  only  mean  the  sacrifice  of  the  boat. 

Hence  I  advanced  with  confidence  for  half  a  mile  into 
Admiralty  Bay,  the  basin  of  which  appeared  quite  safe,  and 
the  entrance  much  less  obstructed  by  islands  and  islets  than 
Cook  had  shown.  On  the  shore  we  observed  some  Native 
villages,  and  a  canoe  at  sea,  which  I  would  willingly  have 
waited  for,  but  it  was  essential  not  to  lose  precious  time  for 
the  object  which  I  proposed.  I  therefore  hastened  back  to  the 
pass,  where  I  found  the  sea  perfectly  calm.  It  was  the  very 
moment  when  the  current  was  absent,  and  during  our  stay 
there  we  observed  that  this  calm  rarely  lasted  more  than  a 
quarter  of  an  hour.  It  was  to  us  altogether  an  extraordinary 
event  to  be  able  to  move  in  that  space  which  we  had  seen 
occupied  by  impetuous  whirlpools  and  a  menacing  bar.  I 
profited  by  it  to  sound  it  with  care.  I  recognised  that  all  the 
N.W.  part  of  the  pass  was  effectively  barred  by  rocks  just  at 
the  surface,  at  that  time  quite  uncovered,  and  also  that  some 
isolated  rocks  8  ft.  or  10  ft.  under  water  prolonged  the  chain. 
Thus  the  only  part  of  the  pass  practicable  is  reduced  to  30  or 
40  fathoms  in  width  near  the  S.E.  point ;  that  point  is  as  acces- 
sible as  a  quay,  and  might  be  closely  approached  without  any 
danger. 

From  that  moment  I  decided  to  take  the"  "  Astrolabe " 
through  the  pass  with  the  first  favourable  wind,  from  the  double 
consideration  that  this  would  save  us  a  long  and  disagreeable 
round,  and  at  the  same  time  procure  us  the  means  of  deline- 
ating properly  the  coasts  of  Admiralty  Bay.     I  called  to  M. 


442  Transactions. 

Guilbert,  whom  I  saw  at  some  distance  going  on  board,  and 
asked  him  to  hasten  to  the  pass,  and  profit  by  the  calm  to 
make  some  soundings.  But  already  the  current  commenced 
to  turn  into  our  basin,  and  it  became  impossible  for  him  to 
approach  the  pass,  in  spite  of  all  his  and  his  crew's  efforts. 

From  there  I  went  to  a  beach  on  the  isle,  not  far  from  the 
pass,  where  I  remained  an  hour  walking  over  it  and  collecting 
plants.  Again  I  was  struck  with  the  resemblance  that  exists 
in  general  terms  between  the  vegetation  of  this  part  of  the 
world  and  that  of  Polynesia.  On  the  other  hand,  one  discovers 
that  New  Zealand  possesses  plenty  of  Australian  species,  not- 
withstanding the  differences  that  at  first  present  themselves 
between  the  floras  of  the  two  countries.  That  double  observa- 
tion conducts  naturally  to  the  thought  that  New  Zealand,  in 
spite  of  its  high  latitude,  presents  a  system  of  vegetation  inter- 
mediate between  that  of  Polynesia  and  that  of  New  Holland — 
a  sort  of  transition  from  one  to  the  other. 

That  spot  offered  me  many  bunches  of  Phormium,  and, 
although  its  favourite  station  is  on  the  banks  of  streams,  I 
have  seen  it  grow  with  vigour  on  the  almost  bare  maritime 
rocks  [pi.  xliii].  Near  the  shore  a  pretty  cascade  rolls  its  waters 
over  the  rocks  and  debris  which  have  succumbed  to  the  action 
of  the  winds,  or  of  centuries  of  storms,  and  would  furnish  easily 
the  wants  of  a  fleet. 

On  returning  on  board  about  1  p.m.  I  sent  the  long-boat  to 
place  a  stream- anchor  two  cable-lengths  outside,  towards  the 
middle  of  the  channel ;  we  afterwards  hauled  up  to  it.  after 
having  heaved  up  the  lesser  anchor,  with  which  we  proceeded 
to  replace  the  other,  when  the  wind  began  to  rise  from  the 
N.W.,  with  squalls  charged  with  rain,  which  caused  us  to  drift. 
Fifty  fathoms  of  chain  were  paid  out,  and  the  corvette  held  at 
about  a  cable-length  from  the  shore.  Thus  our  whole  day's 
work  was  wasted,  and  we  found  ourselves  not  more  advanced 
than  before.  During  the  night  the  wind  increased,  and  blew 
very  fresh,  with,  squalls,  rain,  thunder,  and  lightning.  To 
spare  the  small  chain,  which  worked  a  good  deal,  and  to  pre- 
vent our  dragging  on  to  the  shore,  it  became  necessary  to  let 
go  another  anchor,  with  the  great  chain  of  which  we  paid  out 
30  fathoms. 

26th  January. — The  wind  decreased  at  midnight,  and  at  day- 
light work  was  again  commenced.  The  large  and  the  small 
anchors  were  both  lifted,  and  then  we  hauled  on  t-  a  stream- 
anchor  placed  at  three  cables'  length  to  windward  in  21  fathoms 
of  water.  We  remained  with  SI  fathoms  of  the  small  cable, 
awaiting  a  favourable  moment  to  get  under  way.  At  9  a.m.  a 
nice  breeze  from  the  W.S.W.  arose,  and  seemed  to  hold.     The 


Smith. — Exploration  of  Tasman  Bay.  443 

anchor  was  quickly  hauled  in,  the  mizzen  and  the  top  sails  set 
at  the  same  moment ;  but  hardly  had  we  fallen  off  on  our  course 
when  the  wind  fell,  and  came  round  to  the  north.  Just  then 
the  current  took  us  broadside  on,  and  carried  us  again  within 
half  a  cable's  length  of  the  unfortunate  Whirlpool  Point.  A 
stream-anchor  could  not  hold  us,  and  it  became  necessary  to 
add  the  smaller  anchor  and  chain. 

We  then  towed  off  shore  with  three  hawsers,  which,  with 
difficulty,  took  us  a  cable-length  off  the  land.  This  movement 
was  repeated,  but  we  were  so  contraried  by  difficulties  that  at 
5  p.m.  we  had  to  content  ourselves  with  anchoring  about  a  cable- 
length  and  a  half  from  the  shore.  We  had  been  engaged  thirteen 
hours  in  this  continued  and  hard  labour,  removing,  mooring, 
and  lifting  a  number  of  anchors  and  cables,  and  were  still  less 
far  advanced  than  in  the  morning.  Hardly  had  the  boats, 
laden  with  anchors  and  cables,  reached  a  short  distance  from  the 
ship  when  the  current  would  sweep  them  away  to  the  south- 
ward with  irresistible  violence,  and  the  longest  tow-line  was 
thus  reduced  to  a  half-cable  or  more.  In  this  fatal  basin  the 
punishment  of  the  Danaids  was  renewed  for  us,  and  it  seemed 
as  if  some  evil  genius  wished  each  day  to  destroy  in  an  instant 
the  fruit  of  our  greatest  efforts. 

For  several  days  I  had  suffered  from  pains  in  my  side,  and 
the  successive  fatigue  of  the  day  had  not  contributed  to  lessen 
them.  All  night  long  a  strong  wind  from  the  N.W.  and  W.N.W. 
prevailed  with  squalls,  but  a  clear  sky.  Our  chain,  now  well 
tried,  assured  o.ur  position,  otherwise  it  would  not  have  been 
without  inquietude. 

27th  January. — At  7.30  a.m.  I  went  in  the  yawl  to  look  for 
a  spot  to  place  a  stream-anchor  at  four  cables'  length  to  wind- 
ward of  the  ship,  in  order  that  we  might  haul  towards  the  other 
side  of  the  bay,  where  we  should  be  in  a  position  to  get  under 
way  with  the  prevailing  wind.  To  my  great  surprise,  in  sound- 
ing at  200  or  300  fathoms  from  the  pass  I  found  all  that  space 
occupied  by  a  sand-bank  covered  with  only  15  ft.,  12  ft.,  and 
even  11  ft.  of  water  at  low  tide.  Beyond  that  the  depth  suddenly 
returned  to  22  and  24  fathoms,  and  formed  a  narrow  channel 
along  the  island.  The  presence  of  that  sand-bank  proved  to 
me  that  the  pass  was  even  more  dangerous  than  I  had  thought 
for  a  ship  drawing  so  much  water  as  ours  ;  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  I  was  pleased  with  the  discovery,  because  it  offered  a 
point  of  safe  support  for  the  stream-anchors  which  I  wished  to 
place  there. 

Directly  I  returned  on  board  I  sent  the  long-boat  to  place  a 
stream-anchor  towards  the  sand-bank,  and  it  returned  with  the 
end  of  the  three  hawsers  with  which  it  was  furnished.     At  the 


444  Transactions. 

same  time  I  sent  the  whaleboat  with  two  other  hawsers  to  join 
on  to  those  of  the  other  boat  whilst  we  hauled  on  our  anchor  : 
but  by  a  new  fatality,  at  the  moment  when  the  two  boats  ap- 
proached one  another,  the  current,  which  up  to  that  time  had 
been  quite  moderate,  returned  with  violence  towards  Tasman 
Bay,  and  rapidly  carried  the  boats  away,  each  on  its  own  side. 
All  attempts  for  the  moment  became  useless.  Thus  we  remained 
with  the  anchor  apeak  ;  the  whaleboat  was  hauled  to  the  ship 
with  its  hawser  ;  and  I  gave  the  order  to  the  long-boat  to 
remain  at  anchor. 

At  11.30  a.m.  the  current  still  ran  with  the  same  force,  and, 
fearing  that  the  time  of  high  water  would  be  too  short  to  execute 
our  movements,  I  sent  M.  Lottin  towards  the  long-boat  with 
orders  to  haul  up  the  stream-anchor,  and  to  let  it  go  near  the 
corvette,  so  that  the  end  of  the  three  hawsers  could  be  brought 
on  board.  This  was  carried  out  with  success.  At  1.30  p.m.  we 
had  hold  of  the  end  of  the  hawsers  ;  the  great  anchor  was  lifted, 
and  we  hauled  on  the  stream-anchor. 

At  3  p.m.  we  let  go  another  anchor  in  5J  fathoms  of  water, 
on  the  edge  of  the  sand-bank,  and  at  500  fathoms  from  either 
side  of  the  channel.  We  now  found  ourselves  in  position  to  get 
under  way  at  the  first  favourable  wind. 

In  the  evening,  accompanied  by  several  of  the  officers,  I  again 
visited  the  shores  of  the  island  [D'Urville  Island].  I  wished  to 
penetrate  into  the  interior,  but  the  thickets  and  the  steep  slopes 
of  the  hills  soon  stopped  me.  From  Reef  Point  I  again  atten- 
tively examined  the  pass,  and  promised  myself  to  accomplish 
the  passage  the  day  following,  if  the  weather  permitted.  In 
returning  on  board,  our  boat  was  surrounded  by  the  foaming 
whirlpools  of  the  pass,  and  we  had  some  trouble  to  disengage 
ourselves.  Nevertheless,  on  that  occasion  we  ascertained  that 
their  aspect  was  very  much  more  fearful  than  dangerous — at 
least,  in  manoeuvring  carefully. 

In  the  morning  some  Natives  came  from  Admiralty  Bay  as 
far  as  the  reefs  of  the  pass,  and  communicated  with  our  people, 
but  they  would  not  venture  on  board.  When  we  entered  Cur- 
rent Basin  we  noticed  near  Lebrun  Peninsula  a  small  village. 
and  when  M.  Guilbert  was  on  the  top  of  the  hills  which  overlook 
the  two  bays  he  saw  another  village  underneath  him,  on  the 
side  towards  Admiralty  Bay.  None  of  the  Natives  of  these 
villages  showed  themselves,  although  they  could  not  have  been 
ignorant  of  our  presence.  The  tribes  of  these  parts  probably 
only  knew  of  Europeans  by  tradition,  and  not  one  of  them  dared 
to  make  a  closer  acquaintance  with  us. 

During  the  evening  and  the  night  the  eternal  west  wind 
blew  with  violence  in  heavy  squalls.     At  this  time  our  position 


Smith. — Exploration  of  Tasman  Bay.  445 

was  more  precarious  than  the  preceding  *  night,  for  if  we  had 
drifted  the  wind  would  have  carried  us  directly  on  to  the  reefs 
of  the  pass,  and  there  our  end  would  not  have  been  doubtful. 

28th  January. — At  last  I  saw  arrive  a  day  which  announced 
itself  under  happier  auspices,  and  presaged  to  me  a  favourable 
wind.  So  as  not  to  neglect  any  precautions  in  my  power,  at 
4.30  a.m.  I  went  to  the  S.E.  point  of  the  pass,  and  climbed  to 
the  top  of  the  ridge  overlooking  it.  It  was  not  an  easy  thing 
to  do,  on  account  of  the  steepness  and  the  thickets  of  impene- 
trable fern  which  covered  the  slopes  for  some  distance  ;  but  I 
succeeded,  and  from  a  hillock  my  view  plunged  down  on  the 
pass,  demonstrating  that  it  was  practicable  with  extreme  precau- 
tion. Nevertheless,  I  did  not  dissimulate  from  myself  that  the 
enterprise  might  have  a  fatal  ending.  In  looking  towards  the 
corvette  I  could  not  prevent  myself  fancying  involuntarily  that 
that  machine,  so  well  organized,  so  imposing,  and  destined  for 
such  a  long  career,  would  be  for  some  instants,  by  the  sole  effect 
of  my  will,  exposed  to  be  lost  on  the  rocks  situated  at  my  feet. 
Ten  officers,  an  entire  crew,  inhabitants  of  that  floating  city 
now  become  their  veritable  country,  might  in  a  few  hours  find 
themselves  reduced  to  seek  their  safety  on  a  sterile  and  inhos- 
pitable shore,  to  lead  a  miserable  existence,  and  perhaps  perish 
without  ever  seeing  again  their  relatives  and  friends.  Such  re- 
flections for  a  moment  shook  my  resolution  ;  but  it  strengthened 
itself  shortly,  and  I  returned  aboard  decided  to  try  my  for- 
tune. 

At  7  a.m.  the  stream-anchor  was  got  up  and  dropped  near  the 
ship,  in  6  fathoms.  A  short  time  afterwards  the  breeze  appeared 
established  and  moderate  in  the  W.S.W.,  the  tide  was  also  slack, 
and  I  decided  to  get  under  way  at  once,  so  as  to  be  master  of 
my  movements.  We  had  taken  the  short  cable  to  the  stern, 
which  presented  the  bows  towards  our  route,  and  put  us  in  posi- 
tion to  catch  the  wind  in  the  sails  when  unfurled.  This  was 
executed  with  great  celerity.  At  the  same  instant  the  foresail, 
jib,  the  mizzen  and  lower  topsail  were  set,  and  for  some  minutes 
we  steered  very  well ;  but  at  the  moment  when  we  entered  the 
pass  the  wind  failed,  and  the  current,  coming  against  us  with 
impetuosity,  caused  us  to  swerve  to  port.  In  vain  I  instantly 
put  the  helm  up,  and  furled  all  after-sail,  to  try  and  approach  the 
coast  to  the  right — to  touch  it,  as  one  might  say,  if  it  were  neces- 
sary. The  corvette  would  not  obey  at  all,  and,  mastered  by  the 
current,  she  could  not  avoid  being  carried  on  to  the  rocks  at  the 
end  of  the  reef,  on  which  I  knew  there  was  but  10  ft.  or  12  ft. 
of  water  [pi.  xl].  Shortly  after  the  "  Astrolabe  "  touched  twice. 
The  first  shock  was  slight ;  but  the  second  time  a  lugubrious 
cracking,  accompanied  by  a  prolonged  shaking,  by  a  sensible 


446  Transactions. 

pause  in  the  movement  of  the  corvette,  and  by  a  strong  inclina- 
tion to  starboard,  caused  ns  a  serious  doubt  that  she  rested  on 
a  rock,  and  would  not  come  off.  The  crew  at  that  moment 
involuntarily  raised  a  cry  of  alarm.  "  It  is  nothing  ;  we  are 
over  it !  "  I  cried,  with  a  loud  voice,  to  reassure  them.  In  fact, 
the  current,  continuing  to  drag  the  corvette,  prevented  her  from 
remaining  on  the  rock  ;  beyond  that  the  breeze  freshened,  and 
we  got  steering-way  on  her,  and  shortly,  free  of  all  fears,  we 
sailed  along  under  full  sail  in  the  peaceful  waters  of  Admiralty 
Bay.  We  got  off  with  the  loss  of  several  fragments  of  the  false 
keel  which  the  shock  detached,  and  which  floated  in  the  wake  of 
the  ship. 

Entirely  occupied  in  the  manoeuvres  of  the  moment,  it  was 
not  possible  for  me  to  occupy  myself  with  what  passed  around 
me.  But  those  of  my  companions  who  could  give  more  atten- 
tion assured  me  that  it  was  at  that  time  an  imposing  spectacle 
to  see  the  "  Astrolabe,"  first  heeling  over  as  if  ready  to  sink  in 
the  whirlpools  that  surrounded  her,  and  then  rising  again  grace- 
fully and  nobly,  advancing  through  waters  now  become  peaceful. 

To  preserve  the  recollection  of  the  passage  of  the  "  Astro- 
labe," I  named  that  dangerous  strait  the  "  Passe  des  Francais  " 
[French  Pass] ;  but  unless  in  case  of  urgency  I  would  not  recom- 
mend any  one  to  try  it,  and  then  only  with  a  strong  breeze  well 
established  and  nearly  aft.  For  the  rest,  the  charts  that  M.  Guil- 
bert  has  made  from  his  surveys  of  all  parts  of  the  strait  will 
considerably  facilitate  the  navigation  by  those  who  follow  us  in 
the  same  place. 

At  9  a.m.  we  laid  to  to  make  a,  "  station,"  in  31  fathoms  of 
water,  and  hauled  up  and  secured  all  the  boats.  At  that  time 
we  could  contemplate  at  our  ease  the  fine  basin  where  we  were. 
It  merits  certainly  all  the  eulogiums  of  Captain  Cook.  I  recom- 
mend, above  all,  a  fine  little  harbour  a  few  miles  to  the  south  of 
the  place  where  that  captain  anchored.  Protected  by  an  ad- 
vanced point  (Point  Bonne)  against  the  swell  and  winds  from 
the  north,  it  offers  an  excellent  shelter  from  all  winds.  [Pro- 
bably Forsyth  Bay,  north-east  entrance  of  Pelorus  Sound.]  I 
regretted  sincerely  that  time  did  not  permit  me  to  spare  some 
days  to  explore  this  bay,  the  more  so  that  a  Native  village, 
situated  just  opposite  \is,  promised  fresh  observations  of  interest. 
[The  Natives  that  the  expedition  saw  along  this  part  of  the 
coast  were  some  of  the  Ngati-kuia  Tribe  of  Pelorus,  whose  settle- 
ments extended  in  those  days  round  Admiralty  Bay,  DTrville 
Island,  &c. — (Tfanslator).J 

Our  navigation  of  the  French  Pass  had  positively  proved  the 
land  which  ends  in  Cape  Stephens,  of  Cook,  to  be  an  island. 
It  is  divided  from  the  mainland    of    Tavai-Pounamou  [Te  Wai 


Cheeseman. — Botanical  Nomenclature.  447 

Pounamu]  by  Current  Basin.  High  and  mountainous  in  all  its 
extent,  the  coasts  are  sombre,  escarped,  and  savage  on  the  west, 
which  looks  out  on  Tasman  Bay  ;  but  its  aspect  is  much  softer 
on  the  side  of  Admiralty  Bay ;  there  are  even  some  very  pleasant 
sites  there.  The  island  is  twenty  miles  from  north  to  south, 
and  something  under  eight  from  east  to  west.  The  officers  of 
the  "  Astrolabe,"  impressed  with  the  desire  to  perpetuate  the 
memory  of  their  captain,  wished  his  name  to  be  attached  to  that 
part  of  the  discoveries  of  the  voyage,  and  he  did  not  think  it 
well  to  refuse  that  mark  of  esteem  on  the  part  of  his  brave  com- 
panions. The  name  of  D'Urville  Island  therefore  will  remain 
until  the  epoch  when  we  shall  learn  the  name  it  has  already  re- 
ceived from  its  inhabitants.  [D'Urville  Island  is  known  to  the 
Maoris  as  Rangi-toto ;  but  even  now,  eighty  years  after  the 
French  captain's  visit,  it  is  better  known  by  the  name  given 
it  by  his  officers.  The  observation  made  by  the  celebrated 
French  explorer  in  the  last  sentence  quoted  shows  how  fully  he 
recognised  the  propriety  of  retaining  the  Native  name  of  places, 
and  is  in  keeping  with  the  broad-minded  views  expressed  all 
through  his  narrative.] 

We  may  leave  the  "  Astrolabe  "  here,  to  follow  at  a  later 
period  the  interesting  account  of  her  stay  at  Tologa  Bay  and 
Auckland. 


Art.  XLI. — Notes  on  Botanical  Nomenclature ;  ivith  Remarks 
on  the  Ru/,es  adopted  by  the  International  Botanical  Congress 
of  Vienna. 

By  T.  F.  Cheeseman,  F.L.S.,  F.Z.S.,  Curator  of  the  Auckland 

Museum. 

[Read  before  the  Auckland  Institute,  28th  August,  1907.] 

At  the  present  time  all  competent  authorities  recognise  that 
natural  science  can  make  no  satisfactory  progress  without  a 
definite  system  of  nomenclature,  applicable  to  all  countries,  and 
available  for  the  use  of  all  workers.  Names  in  the  vernacular 
of  any  country,  though  convenient  enough  for  local  purposes, 
have  the  fatal  defect  of  being,  as  a  rule,  mtelligible  in  that 
country  alone,  and,  in  addition,  are  often  ambiguous  and  uncer- 
tain in  their  application.  It  can  be  taken  as  an  established 
fact,  therefore,  that  in  examining  the  species  of  any  flora  or 
fauna,  for  any  purpose  whatever,  technical  names  must  be 
employed  if  it  is  desired  to  fix  the  species  under  observation 


448  Transactions. 

and  to  make  their  recognition  by  subsequent  workers  a  matter 
of  certainty. 

The  binomial,  or  binary,  system  of  botanical  nomenclature, 
which  is  the  method  now  universally  employed,  was  devised 
by  the  celebrated  Linnaeus,  the  bicentenary  of  whose  birth  has 
this  year  been  fittingly  commemorated.  Under  it  all  those 
species  which  agree  in  the  possession  of  certain  characters  are 
collected  into  a  group  called  a  genus,  to  which  a  substantive 
name  {Clematis,  for  instance)  is  applied.  This  name,  which  is 
common  to  the  whole  of  the  species  of  the  group,  is  called  the 
generic  name.  In  addition  to  this,  each  one  of  the  species  is 
distinguished  by  a  separate  adjectival  name,  called  the  specific 
name  ;  for  instance,  Clematis  indivisa.  Thus  every  species  has 
two  names — the  first,  or  generic  name,  indicating  the  genus 
to  which  the  species  belongs  ;  the  second,  or  specific  name, 
pointing  out  the  particular  species.  It  is  this  combination  of 
the  generic  name  with  the  specific  epithet  that  constitutes 
the  great  merit  of  the  system  invented  by  Linnaeus.  Under  it, 
a  means  is  provided  by  which  every  known  species  of  plant 
may  have  a  technical  name  of  its  own,  by  which  it  can  be  known 
to  all  botanists,  and  which  at  the  same  time  is  readily  dis- 
tinguishable from  the  name  of  any  other  plant.  Its  simplicity 
and  ease  of  application  secured  its  immediate  acceptance  ;  and 
now,  after  the  lapse  of  more  than  a  hundred  and  fifty  years 
from  its  inception,  it  can  be  said  that  no  serious  attempt  has 
ever  been  made  to  depart  from  its  leading  principles. 

But,  although  no  one  proposes  to  dispense  with  the  binomial 
system,  its  practical  working  has,  through  a  variety  of  causes, 
become  exceedingly  difficult  and  troublesome.  Instead  of 
stability  of  nomenclature,  which  is  clearly  the  point  to  be  aimed 
at,  we  have  arrived  at  a  chaotic  state  of  uncertainty,  which  has 
a  seriously  deterrent  effect  on  the  study  of  systematic  botany, 
even  if  it  is  not  fast  bringing  it  into  contempt.  The  reasons 
for  this  regrettable  state  of  affairs  may  be  briefly  particularised 
as  follows  : — 

The  botanical  nomenclature  of  Linnaeus  is  now  usually 
considered  to  date  from  the  publication  of  the  first  edition  of 
his  "  Species  Plantarum  "  in  1753.  For  many  years  after  this 
date  no  difficulties  of  importance  arose,  although  the  absence  of 
any  code  of  rules,  or  even  of  any  well-defined  understanding 
as  to  modes  of  procedure,  encouraged  a  laxity  of  practice  sure 
to  create  trouble  in  the  future. 

Unfortunately,  the  idea  of  the  inviolability  of  the  specific 
name,  when  once  conferred,  now  considered  to  be  a  point  of  the 
first  importance,  was  of  slow  growth,  so  that  eminent  botanists, 
on   the   most    flimsy  pretexts,   did  not  hesitate   to   alter  or  even 


Cheeseman. — Botanical  Nomenclature.  449 

reject  names  given  by  their  own  contemporaries.  Then,  as 
time  went  on  it  became  apparent  that  many  of  the  genera 
established  by  Linnaeus  or  others  of  the  early  systematists 
required  alterations  in  their  characters.  Some  were  much  too 
extensive  in  their  scope,  and  had  to  be  divided  into  two  or 
more  ;  others  were  seen  to  be  too  closely  allied,  and  had  to  be 
merged.  All  these  changes  involved  alterations  in  nomencla- 
ture. And  as  the  opinions  of  different  authors  working  upon 
the  same  genera  or  groups  of  genera  were  naturally  and  probably 
unavoidably  diverse,  and  as  these  opinions  were  often  based 
upon  totally  different  ideas  as  to  the  limitations  of  both  genera 
and  species,  it  followed,  as  a  matter  of  course,  that  the  resultant 
nomenclature  was  different.  In  the  early  days  of  botanical 
research,  too,  botanists  were  often  imperfectly  acquainted 
with  each  other's  work.  It  often  happened  that  two  authors, 
working  unknown  to  one  another  upon  similar  material, 
would  independently  propose  new  generic  or  specific  names 
for  the  same  plants.  And  although  there  was  a  vague  under- 
standing that  the  name  first  published  was  the  valid  one,  it 
often  occurred  that  the  oldest  name  was  not  at  first  recognised, 
either  from  being  described  in  some  obscure  publication  with  a 
small  or  purely  local  circulation,  which  consequently  escaped 
the  attention  of  botanists,  or  on  account  of  the  superior  influence 
or  position  of  one  of  the  workers.  It  would  be  easy  to  enu- 
merate other  causes  leading  to  disputed  or  uncertain  nomen- 
clature ;  but  enough  has  been  said  to  show  that,  with  the  pro- 
gress of  systematic  botany,  the  nomenclature  of  the  science 
yearly  became  more  involved  and  difficult  of  application. 

About  1865  the  eminent  botanist  Alphonse  de  Candolle  was 
induced  to  take  up  the  question.  After  much  careful  study, 
and  after  an  extensive  correspondence  with  the  leading  botanists 
of  the  time,  he  prepared  a  code  of  rules  or  laws  of  nomenclature 
for  the  guidance  of  authors  in  the  future.  This  code  was  sub- 
mitted to  an  International  Congress  of  Botanists  held  at  Paris 
in  1867.  It  was  then  fully  discussed,  and,  with  a  few  unim- 
portant alterations,  accepted  and  issued  to  the  world  under  the 
title  of  "  Lois  de  la  Nomenclature  Botanique  adoptees  par  le 
Congres  International  tenu  a  Paris  en  Aout  1867."  These 
laws  embodied  many  essential  principles,  were  well  arranged 
and  carefully  drafted,  and  must  be  considered  as  constituting 
a  decided  step  in  advance.  It  was  clearly  laid  down  that  in  all 
cases  of  synonymy  the  earliest-published  name,  if  accompanied 
by  a  sufficient  description,  should  take  precedence  over  names 
of  later  date;  and  this  law  was  made  retrospective,  no  doubt 
with  the  intention  of  providing  that  disputed  questions  of  old 
date  should  be  settled  by  the  application  of  a  fixed  rule  rather 
15— Trans 


450  Transactions. 

than  by  the  preference  of  individual  botanists  or  groups  of 
botanists.  But,  notwithstanding  the  many  excellencies  of  De 
Candolle's  laws,  and  the  fact  that  they  received  the  nominal 
acceptance  of  botanists,  it  cannot  be  said  that  they  were  alto- 
gether successful.  I  have  no  intention  of  taking  up  space  by 
inquiring  into  the  reasons  for  this  ;  but  it  may  be  profitable  to 
discuss  one  or  two  points  upon  which  the  opinions  of  botanists 
differed,  and  which,  in  the  absence  of  any  definite  rule,  became 
the  subject  of  much  discussion,  ultimately  leading  to  still  greater 
confusion  of  nomenclature. 

As  already  mentioned,  De  Candolle  provided  that  the  first- 
published  name  should  take  precedence  of  all  those  issued  at 
later  dates.  Now,  this  rule  can  be  interpreted  in  two  ways. 
By  one  school  of  botanists  it  is  taken  to  mean  that  the  specific 
name,  when  once  applied,  is  absolutely  unchangeable.  The 
original  author  may  have  failed  to  place  it  under  its  proper 
genus,  either  through  ignorance  or  neglect,  or  through  a  desire 
to  avoid  the  multiplication  of  genera.  But  this  matters  nothing  ; 
under  the  rule  the  specific  name  first  given  to  a  plant  belongs 
to  it,  and  when  changes  of  classification  take  place,  and  the 
plant  is  transferred  from  one  genus  to  another,  the  name  must 
be  transferred  with  it ;  or,  to  put  the  matter  in  the  forcible 
words  of  a  well-known  writer,  the  "  specific  epithet  once  given 
is  indelible,  and,  whatever  the  taxonomic  wanderings  of  the 
organism  to  which  it  was  once  assigned,  it  must  always  accom- 
pany it."  But  by  another  section  of  botanists  it  is  held  that 
the  name  entitled  to  priority  is  that  under  which  a  given  plant 
was  first  placed  in  its  true  genus,  even  if  the  author  had 
deliberately  passed  over  pre-existing  specific  names  under  other 
but  incorrect  genera.  At  first  sight  this  rule  appears  harsh, 
as  it  clearly  refuses  to  recognise  the  work  of  the  first  describer 
of  a  plant,  if  he  fails  to  place  it  in  the  proper  genus  ;  but,  after 
all,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  object  of  botanical  nomen- 
clature is,  as  Mr.  Bentham  long  ago  pointed  out,  "  the  ready 
identification  of  species,  genera,  or  other  groups  for  Btudy  or 
reference,  not  the  glorification  of  botanists."  In  the  intro- 
duction to  the  "  Flora  of  British  India,"  Sir  J.  D.  Hooker 
pertinently  remarks  "  that  a  right  comprehension  of  genera 
is  of  higher  importance  than  the  power  of  describing  species. 
The  number  of  species  described  by  authors  who  cannot 
determine  their  affinities  increases  annually,  and  I  regard  the 
naturalist  who  puts  a  described  plant  into  its  proper  position 
in  regard  to  its  allies  as  rendering  a  greater  service  to  science 
than  its  describer,  when  he  either  puts  it  into  a  wrong  place, 
or  throws  it  into  any  of  those  chaotic  heaps  miscalled  '  genera,' 
with  which  systematic  works  still  abound."     But  the  strongest 


Cheeseman. — Botanical  Nomenclature.  451 

argument  in  favour  of  adopting  the  earliest  combination  in  the 
accepted  genus  as  the  rightful  name  of  any  plant  is  its  simplicity 
and  ease  of  application.  It  is  comparatively  easy  to  determine 
the  first  name  applied  to  a  plant  in  its  correct  genus  ;  but  it 
is  often  exceedingly  difficult  to  ascertain  the  oldest  name  under 
any  genus  whatever.  To  settle  such  a  point  frequently  demands 
a  vast  amount  of  bibliographic  work,  sometimes  involving 
references  to  obscure  publications  often  quite  forgotten  in  their 
own  country,  and  not  always  to  be  found  in  the  largest  public 
libraries.  Such  labour  cannot  be  well  described  by  any  other 
terms  than  tedious,  wearisome,  and  even  repulsive. 

Although  published  many  years  ago,  it  may  not  be  without 
interest  to  quote  the  opinions  of  the  renowned  American 
botanist  Asa  Gray  on  this  subject :  "  To  keep  up  the  name 
under  which  any  plant  is  first  placed  in  its  true  genus  is  simple, 
thoroughly  practicable,  and,  in  my  opinion,  most  conformable 
to  accepted  rules,  as  well  as  most  conducive  to  fixity  of  names. 
It  is  reasonable  enough,  under  the  stringent  rule  of  priority, 
to  resuscitate  neglected  older  specific  names  pertaining  to  their 
proper  genus  ;  but  surely  it  is  unreasonable  and  inconsiderate 
to  conclude  any  such  right  to  specific  names  out  of  the  genus 
to  which  they  are  subordinate  "  ("  Journal  of  Botany,"  1887, 
p.  355). 

The  following  example  will  illustrate  the  working  of  the  two 
interpretations  of  the  Candollean  law  of  priority.  The  genus 
Haloragis  was  founded  by  Forster  in  the  year  1776,  the  type 
being  a  New  Caledonian  plant,  to  which  he  applied  the  name 
of  Haloragis  prostrata.  In  1780  Murray  proposed  a  genus  called 
Cercodia,  his  type  being  Cercodia  erecta,  from  New  Zealand ; 
but  this  genus  has  long  ago  been  abandoned,  all  botanists  con- 
sidering it  to  be  identical  with  Haloragis.  In  1781  the  Austrian 
botanist  Jacquin  described  the  species  Haloragis  alata,  from 
New  Zealand.  It  was  soon  ascertained  that  this  was  identical 
with  Murray's  Cercodia  erecta,  and  the  question  at  once  arose 
as  to  which  of  the  two  names  should  be  retained.  Now,  those 
botanists  who  believe  that  the  earliest  appellation  under  any 
genus  is  the  only  valid  name  will,  of  course,  take  the  specific 
name  of  erecta,  combining  it  with  the  generic  term  Haloragis. 
This  course  has  recently  been  followed  by  Anton  Schindler  in 
his  monograph  of  the  family  ("  Das  Pflanzenreich,"  Heft  23, 
p.  49).  But  those  who  hold  the  view  that  the  earliest  name  in 
the  correct  genus  is  the  one  to  be  adopted  will  use  the  term 
Haloragis  alata  ;  and  under  this  appellation  the  plant  will  be 
found  described  in  Bentham's  "  Flora  Australiensis,"  Hooker's 
'  Handbook  of  the  New  Zealand  Flora,"  and  my  own  "  Manual." 
Of  course,  the  above  is  a  simple  case,  and,  were  all  questions  of 


452  Transactions. 

nomenclature  capable  of  such,  easy  determination,  little "  more 
would  be  wanted  than  an  agreement  amongst  botanists  them- 
selves as  to  the  mode  of  procedure.  But  in  cases  where 
the  species  has  been  repeatedly  shifted  from  genus  to  genus, 
and  where  botanists  with  very  diverse  views  have  worked  more 
or  less  independently  of  each  other,  and  perhaps  without  taking 
much  trouble  to  ascertain  what  was  already  published,  it  is  a 
matter  of  the  very  greatest  difficulty  to  ascertain  the  earliest 
name.  For  instance,  the  late  Mr.  C.  B.  Clarke  informed  me 
that  over  eighty  different  names  have  been  applied  to  the  plant 
now  usually  known  as  Scirpus  cernuus. 

Another  point  which  has  led  to  much  difference  of  opinion, 
and  has  produced  many  changes  of  names,  is  that  several 
botanists  working  shortly  after  the  times  of  Linnaeus  were  not 
sufficiently  careful  in  characterizing  their  new  genera.  In  some 
instances  it  has  been  absolutely  impossible  to  identify  them  ; 
in  others  the  identification  is  uncertain,  and  cannot  be  relied 
upon  ;  while  in  not  a  few  cases  the  genera  were  not  recognised 
until  other  names  had  been  proposed  and  passed  into  general 
use.  In  the  latter  case  there  has  been  much  doubt  as  to  the 
propriety  of  restoring  such  names,  seeing  that  their  adoption 
must  cause  great  disturbance  of  nomenclature  and  great  incon- 
venience to  working  botanists.  The  following  example  will 
make  this  clear  : — 

Most  New  Zealand  botanists  are  acquainted  with  Spergu- 
laria  media,  a  common  plant  in  coastal  districts  throughout 
the  Dominion,  and  equally  abundant  in  many  other  parts  of 
the  world.  The  genus  Spergularia,  in  which  it  is  usuallv  placed, 
was  founded  by  J.  and  G.  Presl  in  1819.  In  1820  the'  Swedish 
botanist  Fries  objected  to  its  retention,  on  the  ground  that  the 
genus  had  not  been  fully  characterized  ;  and,  at  his  suggestion, 
Wahlenberg  proposed  the  name  of  Lepigonum  to  take  its  place, 
our  plant  thus  becoming  Lepigonum  medium.  Shortly  after- 
wards it  was  discovered  that  in  Adanson's  "  Families  des  Plantes  " 
(vol.  2,  p.  507),  published  in  1763,  two  genera  respectively  called 
Buda  and  Tissa  were  shortly  characterized,  which  were  evi- 
dently synonymous  with  Spergidaria.  As  the  descriptions  of 
both  genera  occur  on  the  same  page,  neither  can  claim  priority 
over  the  other.  According  to  the  Candollean  laws  (article  55), 
in  such  cases  an  author  can  choose  the  name  which  he  prefers. 
Dumortier,  writing  in  1827,  selected  Buda,  which  would  make 
the  name  of  our  plant  Buda  media.  But  the  change  did  not 
meet  with  the  approval  of  the  botanists  of  that  time,  andProsl's 
name  of  Spergularia  passed  into  general  use.  Sixty  years  later, 
when  the  trend  of  opinion  amongst  systematists  had  become 
more  favourable  to  the  strict  enforcement  of  the  rule  of  priority. 


Chbeseman. — Botanical  Nomenclature.  453 

the  American  botanists  Greene  and  Britton  revived  the  name 
of  Tissa,  arguing  that  as  its  description,  although  on  the  same 
page,  stands  before  that  of  Buda,  it  was  entitled  to  priority. 
Under  this  view,  which  was  adopted  in  Engler  and  Prantl's 
"  Pflanzenfamilien,"  Spergularia  media  became  Tissa  media, 
and  this  name  has  been  taken  up  by  Dr.  Cockayne  in  his  "  Report 
on  the  Island  of  Kapiti."  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  species 
has  been  placed,  in  turns,  in  four  genera  at  least ;  and,  as  the 
question  of  "  sufficient  description  "  has  been  raised  with  re- 
spect to  most  of  them,  it  is  not  at  all  clear  which  name  is  really 
entitled  to  take  precedence.  No  wonder  that  those  botanists 
who  consider  that  nomenclature  is,  after  all,  nothing  more  than 
a  means  to  an  end  should  object  to  the  useless  confusion  thus 
occasioned.  No  wonder,  too,  that  it  should  be  argued  that  names 
which  have  passed  into  general  use,  and  which  for  a  long  suc- 
cession of  years  have  been  employed  in  important  systematic 
publications  by  different  authors,  should  not  be  disturbed  in 
favour  of  long-forgotten  names  disinterred  from  obscure  pub- 
lications by  a  zealous  innovator.  It  is  satisfactory  to  know 
that  the  Vienna  Congress  has  adopted  this  view,  and  that 
Spergularia,  together  with  numerous  other  genera,  are  included 
in  the  "  Nomina  Conservanda,"  or  list  of  names  which  must 
in  any  case  be  retained. 

Many  altogether  useless  changes  of  names  are  due  to  the  fact 
that  botanists  have  never  been  in  satisfactory  agreement  re- 
specting a  starting-point  for  the  binomial  system  of  nomen- 
clature. No  doubt  there  has  been  a  growing  feeling  in  favour 
of  taking  the  appearance  of  the  first  edition  of  the  "  Species 
Plantarum  "  of  Linnaeus  in  1753  as  the  date  of  the  first  autho- 
ritative publication  in  systematic  nomenclature.  But  there 
was  no  decided  rule  on  the  subject,  and  there  are  always  people 
who  scorn  to  follow  the  opinion  of  the  majority,  even  where  it 
is  clearly  conducive  to  the  general  convenience..  Thus,  some 
botanists  have  adopted  the  date  of  publication  of  the  first 
edition  of  the  "  Genera  Plantarum  "  in  1737  ;  others  that  of  the 
appearance  of  the  "  Systema  Naturae  "  in  1735  ;  while  there  are 
still  others  who  go  back  to  pre-Linnean  times,  and  accept  names 
proposed  by  Tournefort,  Ray,  Dodoens,  and  others  of  the  early 
botanists.  Under  such  conflicting  views  confusion  and  disorder 
are  unavoidable.  Without  dwelling  upon  this  portion  of  the 
subject,  it  may  be  briefly  stated  that  Linnaeus  did  not  perfect 
his  system  of  botanical  nomenclature  until  the  publication  of 
the  "  Species  Plantarum,"  which  contains  his  matured  views. 
It  is  clearly  unwise,  as  well  as  unfair,  to  base  a  system  of  no- 
menclature on  his  early  works,  all  of  which  are  more  or  less 
incomplete,  or  wanting  in  detail.     As  for  taking  up  pre-Linnean 


454  Transactions. 

names,  it  is  hard  to  imagine  what  arguments  can  be  advanced 
in  favour  of  the  proposal,  while  it  is  easy  to  see  the  many  in- 
conveniences which  would  result.  And,  if  it  be  allowable  to  go 
back  to  the  times  of  Ray  and  Gerard,  there  is  no  logical  reason 
to  prevent  authors  from  making  still  more  extensive  excursions 
into  the  realms  of  antiquity,  and  quoting  as  authorities  Virgil, 
Pliny,  or  Aristotle . 

The  foregoing  remarks  will  give  a  general  idea  of  the  many 
difficulties  which  surround  the  question  of  botanical  nomen- 
clature. Before  proceeding  further,  it  is  perhaps  advisable 
to  say  a  few  words  about  the  work  of  the  late  Otto  Kuntze  as 
a  "  reformer  "  in  nomenclature,  more  especially  as  his  publi- 
cations, and  the  extraordinary  number  of  changes  proposed 
therein,  constituted  one  of  the  chief  reasons  for  summoning 
the  Vienna  Congress.  His  principal  work  is  the  "  Revisio 
Genera  Plantarum,"  the  three  volumes  of  which  were  published 
at  intervals  between  the  years  1891  and  1898.  Although  fully 
aware  that  botanical  nomenclature,  as  devised  by  Linnaeus, 
was  not  matured  until  the  appearance  of  the  "  Species  Plan- 
tarum "  in  1753,  he  nevertheless  takes  as  his  starting-point 
the  date  of  the  publication  of  the  first  edition  of  the 
"  Systema  Naturae "  in  1735.  This  being  settled,  he  next 
proceeds  to  give  every  publication  that  appeared  after  1735 
an  equal  value  for  the  purposes  of  botanical  nomenclature, 
and  to  rigidly  enforce  the  application  of  the  law  of  priority. 
Previous  workers,  as  a  rule,  only  concerned  themselves  with 
nomenclature  when  monographing  a  particular  genus  or  family ; 
with  them,  at  any  rate,  it  occupied  a  secondary  position.  But 
Dr.  Kuntze  boldly  placed  it  in  the  forefront ;  and,  at  a  vast 
expenditure  of  time  and  labour,  instituted  a  systematic  search 
through  the  whole  of  the  botanical  literature  of  the  latter  half 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  apparently  for  the  express  purpose 
of  hunting  out  generic  names  of  prior  date  to  those  commonly 
accepted.  It  is  best  to  take  his  own  statement  as  to  the  results 
of  that  portion  of  his  work  included  in  the  first  two  volumes 
of  the  "  Revisio."  He  says  that  he  has  monographed  109 
genera  ;  sunk  151  genera  ;  renamed  122  genera,  because  they 
bore  names  identical  with  or  similar  to  those  of  older  genera  ; 
changed  the  names  of  952  genera  to  older  names,  under  the 
operation  of  the  law  of  priority;  and,  finally,  as  the  result  of  the 
above  changes  in  generic  names,  has  renamed  more  than  30,000 
species.  Sweeping  changes  of  this  character  sap  the  very  founda- 
tions of  botanical  nomenclature,  and  threaten  to  plunge  it  into  a 
confusion  tenfold  greater  than  that  from  which  it  was  rescued  by 
Linnaeus.  Let  us  briefly  examine  some  of  the  alterations  in  well- 
known  and  long-established  names  which  we  are  asked  to  accept. 


Cheeseman. — Botanical  Nomenclature.  455 

Taking  the  New  Zealand  genera  first,  as  coming  more 
■directly  under  our  notice,  we  find  that  the  well-known  name 
Astelia,  published  by  R.  Brown  in  1810  from  Banks's  and 
Solan der's  MSS.,  gives  place  to  the  forgotten  Funckia,  pub- 
lished by  Willdenow  two  years  earlier  ;  the  equally  familiar 
Cordyline  (1789)  is  replaced  by  Terminalis  (1744)  ;  Luzula 
(1805)  is  changed  to  Juncodes  (1763)  ;  Knightia  (1810)  be- 
comes Rymandra  (1809)  ;  Pimelea  (1788)  gives  place  to  Banhsia 
(1776)  ;  Calystegia  (1810)  is  changed  to  Volvulus  (1791)  ; 
Wahlenbergia  (1814)  is  sunk  in  favour  of  Cervicina  (1813)  ;  and 
so  on.  Altogether,  between  thirty  and  forty  genera  of  New 
Zealand  plants,  if  not  more,  receive  new  names,  involving 
corresponding  changes  in  the  specific  names  of  not  far  from 
100  species. 

Among  plants  cultivated  in  gardens  we  find  such  altera- 
tions as  the  following :  Pelargonium  becomes  Geranios- 
permum ;  Tropoeolum  is  changed  to  Troph&um ;  Oxalis  is 
replaced  by  Acetosella  ;  Bambusa  gives  place  to  the  uncouth 
Arundarbor  ;  Protea  is  dropped  in  favour  of  the  sesquipedalian 
Scolymocephalus ;  the  familiar  Zamia  becomes  Palmi folia ; 
and  so  on  for  scores  of  others. 

Dr.  Kuntze's  appetite  for  change  was  by  no  means  sur- 
feited by  many  hundreds  of  alterations  of  a  similar  character 
to  those  just  quoted.  During  his  examination  of  certain  ob- 
scure publications  of  old  date  he  unearthed  quite  a  number  of 
generic  terms  which,  though  of  prior  date  to  others,  had  been 
ruled  out  of  court  by  previous  botanists  because  they  violated 
the  well-known  law  that  botanical  names  should  not  be  taken 
from  barbarous  tongues,  or  be  unnecessarily  long  or  difficult 
to  pronounce.  Thus,  for  instance,  he  takes  the  name  of  Mokuf 
from  Adanson's  ;'  Families,"  latinizes  it  by  changing  it  to 
Mokufua,  and  then  uses  it  to  supersede  the  long-established 
Temstrodmia.  The  still  more  hideous  name  of  Katoutsjeroe  he 
alters  to  Catutsjeron,  and  substitutes  it  for  Holigarna.  Finally, 
as  a  crowning  instance  of  misdirected  ingenuity,  he  brings  for- 
ward the  name  Jryaghedi,  which  I  fail  to  pronounce  at  all,  and 
uses  it  for  both  the  generic  and  specific  name  of  a  species  of 
Myristica,  which  accordingly  becomes  Jryaghedi  Jryaghedi  ! 

One  result  of  the  wholesale  shifting  of  names  brought  about 
by  Dr.  Kuntze  is  that  well-known  genera  are  sometimes  left 
without  a  name  at  all.  He  then  renames  them,  often  dedicating 
them,  in  an  original  and  amusing  manner,  to  some  of  the  lead  ng 
botanists  of  his  time.  For  instance,  having  decided,  as  pre- 
viously mentioned,  that  the  oldest  name  of  the  Australian  and 
New  Zealand  genus  Pimelea  is  Banhsia,  and  finding  that  this 
change   leaves   the  genus   we    have    been   accustomed  to   call 


456  Transactions. 

Banksia  without  a  name,  he  resolves  to  provide  it  with  one 
which  will  commemorate  the  late  Baron  Mueller's  services  to 
Australian  botany.  He  cannot  do  this  in  the  usual  manner, 
as  there  is  already  a  genus  Muellera  ;  but  he  gets  over  the  diffi- 
culty by  coining  the  new  generic  term  Sirmudlera !  In  a 
similar  way,  Sir  J.  D.  Hooker's  connection  with  Indian  botany 
is  to  be  recognised  by  applying  the  name  Sirhookera  to  a  genus 
of  orchids.  Perhaps  a  more  remarkable  degree  of  ingenuity 
is  shown  by  the  invention  of  a  whole  series  of  names  such  as 
Watsonamra,  Kinginda,  Ernstafra,  Itoasia,  &c,  all  coined  in 
honour  of  workers  in  botanical  science.  The  addition  "  amra  " 
implies  that  the  prefixed  author  was  mostly  concerned  with 
American  botany  ;  "  inda  "  that  his  chief  work  was  connected 
with  India  ;  "  afra  "  with  Africa  ;  "  asia  "  with  the  Continent 
of  Asia  ;   and  so  on. 

It  is  difficult  in  a  short  sketch  like  the  above  to  give  a  proper 
idea  of  the  revolutionary  changes  proposed  by  Dr.  Kuntze, 
and  of  the  disturbing  effect  which  their  publication  produced 
in  the  botanical  world.  It  is  true  that,  with  the  exception  of 
a  number  of  American  botanists,  some  of  whom  have  shown 
a  disposition  to  go  to  greater  lengths  than  Kuntze  himself, 
hardly  any  workers  in  botanical  science  have  accepted  the 
conclusions  arrived  at  in  the  "  Revis'o,"  and  that  very  few  of 
the  generic  or  specific  names  proposed  therein  have  passed 
into  general  use.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  an  undeniable  fact 
that  if  the  law  of  priority  is  to  be  rigidly  enforced,  then  many 
of  Kuntze's  changes  must  be  accepted,  to  the  great  detriment 
of  botanical  science.  Under  such  circumstances,  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  a  widespread  feeling  arose  in  favour  of  an  agreement 
amongst  botanists  generally  under  which  stability  of  nomen- 
clature could  be  secured  without  revolutionary  changes  of 
such  a  sweeping  character  as  to  make  the  botanical  literature 
of  the  past  almost  unintelligible  to  the  workers  of  the  future. 
The  first  practical  step  in  this  direction  was  taken  in  1892, 
when  a  number  of  German  botanists,  under  the  Leadership  of 
Professor  Engler,  issued  an  important  memorandum,  recom- 
mending that  the  date  of  the  publication  of  the  "  Species 
Plantarum "  (1753)  should  be  taken  as  the  starting-point  of 
botanical  nomenclature,  and  suggesting  a  list  of  generic  names 
to  be  retained  which  under  the  strict  application  of  the  law 
of  priority,  must  otherwise  be  changed.  Later  in  the  same  year, 
at  a  congress  held  at  Genoa,  a  commission  of  thirty  members 
was  appointed  to  consider  the  question  in  all  its  hearings.  The 
report  of  this  commission,  framed  by  Drs.  Aschcison  and 
Engler,  did  not  appear  until  the  commencement  of  1895.  It 
suggested  the  date  of  1753  as  a  starting-point  for  both  genera 


Cheeseman. — Botanical  Nomenclature.  457 

and  species,  provided  that  when  transferring  a  species  from 
its  original  genus  to  another  the  original  specific  name  should 
be  retained ;  and  finally  recommended  that  a  name  which 
had  been  lost  sight  of  or  neglected  for  fifty  years  should  not 
be  allowed  to  displace  the  corresponding  one  which  had  remained 
in  common  use.  Following  up  this  report,  the  Berlin  botanists 
issued  a  series  of  rules  embodying  its  principles,  and  suggesting 
a  number  of  minor  points  for  adoption.  In  the  meantime 
recommendations  or  suggestions  were  freely  made  by  individual 
botanists  or  groups  of  botanists  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  and 
in  1900  a  preliminary  Congress  met  at  Paris.  At  the  outset, 
it  was  decided  that  its  work,  so  far  as  botanical  nomenclature 
was  concerned,  should  be  confined  to  providing  the  machinery 
under  which  the  subject  should  be  prepared  for  discussion  at  a 
fully  representative  Congress  to  be  held  at  Vienna  in  1905.  A 
commission  on  nomenclature  was  therefore  set  up,  of  which 
Dr.  Briquet,  of  Geneva,  was  appointed  Rapporteur  General. 
It  was  understood  that  the  duty  of  the  commission  was  to  pro- 
vide recommendations  for  the  amendment  or  modification  of 
the  laws  of  nomenclature  drawn  up  in  1867  by  Alphonse  de 
Candolle.  Mainly  through  the  great  activity  and  praise- 
worthy industry  of  Dr.  Briquet  the  commission  succeeded  in 
preparing  a  "  Texte  Synoptique,"  in  which  were  collated  and 
compared  the  numerous  suggestions  made  by  botanists  during 
recent  years  for  the  amendment  of  the  Candollean  laws.  The 
suggestions  were  referred  seriatim  to  the  members  of  the  com- 
mission, and  were  voted  upon  by  the  members,  after  which 
recommendations  were  tabulated  according  to  the  results  of 
the  voting. 

The  International  Botanical  Congress  of  Vienna,  as  it  is 
officially  styled,  sat  from  the  11th  to  the  18th  June,  1905,  and 
was  in  every  way  a  most  successful  and  impressive  gathering. 
Nearly  five  hundred  botanists,  representing  most  of  the  countries 
and  nearly  all  the  important  botanical  institutions  in  the  world, 
attended  the  meeting.  Among  those  present  were  several  of 
those  who  may  be  styled  the  leaders  of  botanical  science,  and 
a  majority  of  the  names  would  be  familiar  to  any  one  acquainted 
with  recent  botanical  literature.  The  Congress  can  therefore 
be  regarded  as  a  thoroughly  representative  body,  possessing  a 
full  claim  to  have  its  decision^  respected  by  the  great  mass  of 
working  botanists.  Passing  over  that  portion  of  the  work  of 
the  Congress  not  directly  concerned  with  the  subject  of  this 
paper,  it  is  perhaps  advisable  to  say  that  the  plan  adopted 
ior  the  consideration  of  botanical  nomenclature  was  as  follows  : 
Every  afternoon  the  nomenclature  conference,  consisting  of 
about    a    hundred    and    fifty    representatives,    with     Professor 


458  Transactions. 

Flahault,  of  Montpellier,  as  president,  Drs.  Rendle  and  Mez  as 
vice-presidents,  and  Dr.  Briquet  as  rapporteur,  met  and 
worked  steadily  through  the  "  Texte  Synoptique,"  already 
alluded  to.  Much  discussion  arose  on  several  debatable  points, 
especially  on  the  question  as  to  the  specific  name  to  be  adopted 
when  a  species  is  transferred  from  one  genus  to  another,  the 
result,  as  will  be  shown  further  on,  being  in  favour  of  those 
who  adopt  the  earliest  epithet  bestowed  upon  the  species.  But 
both  in  this  and  in  other  instances,  although  the  points  at  issue 
were  very  fully  and  freely  discussed,  there  was  a  total  absence 
of  all  feeling,  and  an  evident  wish  to  arrive  at  a  practical  solution 
which  would  be  acceptable  to  the  majority  of  botanists.  Quite 
four  hours'  work  each  afternoon  for  a  whole  week  were  found 
not  at  all  too  much  for  the  proper  consideration  of  the  many 
intricate  questions  involved,  and  for  the  codification  of  the 
recommendations  as  finally  agreed  upon. 

The  main  decisions  of  the  Congress  were  promptly  reported 
in  botanical  and  other  scientific  journals,  but  the  official  report 
did  not  appear  for  considerably  more  than  a  year.  It  consists 
of  a  quarto  publication  of  100  pages,  bearing  the  title  (in  French, 
English,  and  German)  of  "  International  Rules  of  Botanical 
Nomenclature,  adopted  by  the  International  Botanical  Congress 
of  Vienna,  1905."  The  first  sixteen  pages  are  occupied  by  the 
preface,  and  a  valuable  "  concordance "  of  the  Candollean 
laws  of  1867  with  those  now  adopted.  Pages  17  to  71  contain 
the  text  of  the  rules,  or  "  articles  "  as  they  are  called,  given 
separately  in  French,  English,  and  German.  Pages  72  to  93 
are  taken  up  with  a  list  of  408  "  Nomina  Conservanda  "  or 
generic  names  which  are  in  any  case  to  be  retained,  chiefly  on 
account  of  long-established  usage,  although  on  the  strict  appli- 
cation of  the  law  of  priority  they  should  be  rejected.  Finally, 
there  is  a  useful  "  Index  Analytique."  But  this  report  is  only 
an  extract  from  a  larger  publication  entitled  "  Actes  de  Congres 
International  de  Botanique  tenu  a  Vienne  (Autriche)  en  1905." 
which  contains  a  full  report  of  the  debates  and  proceedings 
of  the  Congress,  showing  clearly  the  steps  which  led  to  the 
adoption  of  the  rules. 

It  is  not  my  intention  to  give  the  rules  in  full  —  every 
botanist  should  possess  a  copy  of  his  own;  and  as  they  have 
been  reprinted  in  pamphlet  form  by  the  proprietors  of  the 
"  Journal  of  Botany,"  and  can  be  obtained  for  the  low  price  of 
Is.,  no  one  need  be  without  them.  I  propose,  however,  to  make 
a  few  comments  upon  those  which  are  of  special  interest  to 
Xew  Zealand  botanists. 

At  the  outset,  it  should  he  mentioned  that  the  word  "  laws" 
originally  adopted  by  Alphonse  de  Candolle  in  1867  is  changed 


Cheeseman. — Botanical  Nomenclature.  459 

in  favour  of  "  rules  "  and  "  recommendations."  The  difference 
between  a  rule  and  a  recommendation  is  explained  by  Article  2, 
which  states  that  the  rules  are  "  destined  to  put  in  order  the 
nomenclature  which  the  past  has  bequeathed  to  us,  and  to 
form  the  basis  for  the  future."  Eecommendations  "  bear  on 
secondary  points,  their  object  being  to  insure  for  the  future 
a  greater  uniformity  and  clearness  in  nomenclature."  Taken 
collectively  the  rules  are  divided  into  three  chapters,  con- 
taining 58  rules,  or  articles,  as  they  are  headed,  and  37  recom- 
mendations. "  The  rules  are  retroactive ;  names  or  forms 
of  nomenclature  which  are  contrary  to  a  rule  cannot  be  main- 
tained." "  Names  or  forms  of  nomenclature  contrary  to  a 
recommendation  are  not  a  model  to  copy,  but  cannot  be 
rejected." 

Article  9. — Under  this  rule  it  is  provided  that  the  nomen- 
clature of  cellular  cryptogams  and  fossil  plants  shall  be  con- 
sidered at  the  next  International  Congress,  to  be  held  at  Brussels 
in  1910.  To  this  Congress  is  also  to  be  presented  a  proposed 
list  of  "  Nomina  Conservanda  "  for  all  divisions  of  plants  other 
than  phanerogams. 

Articles  10-14. — These  define  the  nature  and  subordination 
of  the  groups  constituting  the  vegetable  kingdom.  It  will  be 
noticed  that  the  word  "  order,"  which  in  the  past  has  been 
commonly  applied  to  groups  such  as  Ranunculacece,  is  now  used 
to  designate  those  divisions  of  higher  rank  previously  known 
as  "  cohorts,"  the  word  "  family  "  taking  its  place.  In  future 
it  will  be  necessary  to  speak  of  "  the  family  Banunculacece," 
"  the  family  Cruciferce"  &c. 

Article  15  provides  that  each  group  of  plants,  of  what- 
soever rank,  can  bear  only  one  valid  name,  which  must  be  the 
oldest,  provided  that  it  is  in  conformity  with  other  rules. 

Article  17. — "  No  one  should  change  a  name  or  a  combina- 
tion of  names  without  serious  motives,  based  on  a  more  pro- 
found knowledge  of  facts,  or  on  the  necessity  of  giving  up  a 
nomenclature  that  is  contrary  to  rules."  It  is  to  be  hoped  that 
the  spirit  of  this  rule  will  be  acted  upon  in  the  future. 

Article  19. — Under  this  rule  it  is  definitely  arranged  that 
botanical  nomenclature  shall  commence  with  the  publication 
of  the  first  edition  of  the  "  Species  Plantarum  "  of  Linnaeus 
in  1753.  The  advantages  of  a  fixed  starting-point  are  undeni- 
able, and  the  adoption  of  this  rule  alone  marks  a  considerable 
advance  in  the  direction  of  stability  of  nomenclature. 

Article  20. — This  important  rule  had  better  be  quoted  in 
extenso  :  "  However,  to  avoid  disadvantageous  changes  in  the 
nomenclature  of  genera  by  the  strict  application  of  the  rules  of 
nomenclature,    and    especially   of  the   principle   of   priority   in 


460  Transactions. 

starting  from  1753,  the  rules  provide  a  list  of  names  which  must 
be  retained  in  all  cases.  These  names  are  by  preference  those 
which  have  come  into  general  use  in  the  fifty  years  following 
their  publication,  or  which  have  been  used  in  monographs  and 
important  floristic  (floristiques)  works  up  to  the  year  1890. 
The  list  of  these  names  forms  an  appendix  to  the  rules  of  nomen- 
clature." 

I  regard  Rules  19  and  20  as  the  most  important  passed  by 
the  Congress,  inasmuch  as  they  will  sweep  out  of  existence  many 
of  the  forgotten  and  useless  names  revived  by  Kuntze  and 
similar  writers.  The  list  contains  the  names  of  408  genera, 
containing  many  thousands  of  species.  It  is  no  light  service 
to  botanical  nomenclature  to  preserve  these  names  unaltered, 
and  to  obviate  the  worse  than  useless  confusion  which  would 
have  been  caused  by  their  change.  I  only  regret  that  the  list 
has  not  been  made  more  extensive.  For  instance,  Nasturtium 
might  well  have  been  included,  seeing '  that  some  botanists 
propose  to  supplant  it  by  the  older  but  almost  unknown  name 
of  Radicula.  However,  taking  the  list  as  it  stands,  New  Zea- 
land botanists  will  be  glad  to  know  that  it  preserves  from  altera- 
tion the  names  of  thirty-one  genera  of  New  Zealand  plants 
and  of  seventy-five  species.  We  shall  not  be  compelled  to  call 
Astelia  by  the  name  of  Funckia,  or  to  change  Cordyline  to  Termi- 
nalis,  or  Luzula  to  Juncodes,  &c.  No  doubt  the  setting-up 
of  a  list  of  plants  not  subject  to  the  law  of  priority  is  an 
arbitrary  measure  ;  but  then  desperate  diseases  require  vigorous 
remedies,  and  there  is  practically  no  other  plan  of  preventing 
an  entirely  disproportionate  or  even  overwhelming  amount  of 
change  in  botanical  nomenclature. 

Articles  24  and  25,  dealing  with  the  names  of  genera,  are 
well  worth  attention.  Clause  (d)  of  Recommendation  4,  sub- 
joined to  the  rule,  provides  that  generic  names  may  be  accom- 
panied by  a  prefix  or  suffix,  or  may  be  modified  by  anagram  or 
abbreviation,  and  in  such  cases  count  as  different  words.  I 
mention  this  because  the  late  Dr.  Kuntze  contended  that  all 
such  names  should  be  treated  as  synonyms,  and  only  the  oldest 
retained.  Under  the  above  recommendation  both  Durvillea 
and  Urvillea,  Chloris  and  CMorcea,  Glaux  and  Glaucium,  are 
valid,  and  will  be  allowed  to  stand. 

Article  26. — Recommendation  10  :  This  is  to  the  effect 
that  specific  names  begin  with  a  small  letter,  except  in  the  case 
of  those  taken  from  the  names  of  persons,  or  from  generic  names, 
as  Phyteuma  Halleri,  Lythrum  Hyssopifolia.  My  reason  for 
drawing  attention  to  this  is  that  all  previous  editors  of  the 
"  Transactions  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute "  have  insisted 
on  treating  botanical  names  in  the  same  manner  as  zoological. 


Cheeseman. — Botanical  Nomenclature.  461 

where  the  practice  is  to  use  a  small  letter  for  all  specific  names. 
But  the  custom  of  botanists  has  always  been  different  (see 
No.  34  of  the  Candollean  laws).  Now  that  the  Congress  of 
1905  has  reaffirmed  the  principle,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that 
botanists  may  be  allowed  to  have  their  specific  names  printed 
in  their  own  fashion. 

The  clauses  of  Kecommendation  14.  dealing  with  the  for- 
mation of  specific  names,  should  have  the  attentive  study  of 
all  botanists  who  have  anything  to  do  with  the  naming  of 
plants. 

Article  35,  treating  of  the  publication  of  new  names,  states, 
"  Publication  is  effected  by  the  sale  or  pubUc  distribution  of 
printed  matter  or  indelible  autographs.  Communication  of 
new  names  at  a  public  meeting,  or  the  placing  of  names  in  col- 
lections or  gardens  open  to  the  public,  do  not  constitute  publi- 
cation." The  words  "  public  distribution  of  printed  matter  or 
indelible  autographs  "  are  a  little  vague.  If  it  is  meant  that 
any  person  whatever  may  share,  if  he  wishes,  in  the  "  public 
distribution,"  then  no  objection  can  be  taken  ;  but  great  objec- 
tions exist  to  the  publication  of  new  species  by  the  distribu- 
tion of  printed  or  autographic  matter  among  a  few  friends. 
Nowadays  there  are  so  many  regular  publications  in  which 
descriptions  of  new  species  can  appear  that  it  would  have  been 
better  to  have  limited  publication  to  the  sale  of  printed  matter 
alone. 

Article  36.—"  On  and  after  January  1st,  1908,  the  publica- 
tion of  names  of  new  groups  will  be  valid  only  when  they  are 
accompanied  by  a  Latin  diagnosis."  This  I  regard  as  a  great 
mistake.  It  is  understood  that  the  proposition  originally  sub- 
mitted to  the  Congress  was  to  the  effect  that  the  publication 
of  names  of  new  species,  &c,  must  be  accompanied  by  a  descrip- 
tion either  in  Latin,  English,  French,  German,  or  Italian.  This 
was  strongly  opposed  by  the  Russian  and  Scandinavian 
members,  and  the  limitation  of  the  diagnosis  to  the  Latin 
language  was  apparently  taken  as  the  only  practicable  solution 
of  the  difficulty.  The  voting  on  the  question  was  very  close — 
105  for  the  proposal,  and  88  against.  The  most  serious  objec- 
tion to  the  rule  is  that  it  tends  to  confine  the  publication  of  new 
species  to  a  few  professional  botanists,  and  will  thus  narrow 
the  interest  taken  in  systematic  botany  as  a  whole. 

Article  49. — Under  this  rule  it  is  agreed  that  when  a  species 
is  transferred  from  one  genus  to  another  the  first  specific  epithet 
must  be  retained  or  re-established.  This  must  be  taken  as  one 
of  the  most  important  and  far-reaching  decisions  of  the  Con- 
gress, asserting,  as  it  does,  the  inviolable  nature  of  the  first 
specific  name,  no  matter  in  what  genus  it  may  have  been  placed. 


462  Transactions. 

In  another  part  of  this  paper  I  have  mentioned  the  chief  reasons 
which  have  induced  almost  all  English  botanists,  up  to  the  pre- 
sent time,  to  support  the  view  that  not  the  earliest  specific 
epithet  but  the  earliest  name  in  the  correct  genus  should  receive 
the  acceptance  of  botanists.  While  regretting  the  decision  of 
the  Congress,  I  am  prepared  to  admit  that,  in  the  interests 
of  botanical  science,  it  is  necessary  that  the  rules  should  be 
generally  accepted  and  implicitly  followed.  I  therefore  trust 
that  fina'ity  has  been  reached  on  this  question,  and  that  all 
working  botanists  will  adopt  the  new  rule. 

Article  50. — "  No  one  is  authorised  to  reject,  change,  or 
modify  a  name  (or  combination  of  names)  because  it  is  badly 
chosen,  or  disagreeable,  or  another  is  preferable  or  better  known, 
or  because  of  the  existence  of  an  earlier  homonym  which  is 
universally  regarded  as  non-valid,  or  for  any  other  motive 
either  contestable  or  of  little  import."  This  is  a  valuable  rule, 
inasmuch  as  it  prevents  any  alteration  or  tampering  with  valid 
names.  A  name  once  given  must  be  preserved  in  its  original 
shape.  The  only  change  which  can  be  made  is  that  provided 
for  by  Article  57,  which  permits  the  correction  of  a  typographic 
or  orthographic  error.  Even  this,  as  stated  in  Recommendation 
30,  "  must  be  used  with  reserve,  especially  if  the  change  affects 
the  first  syllable,  and,  above  all,  the  first  letter  of  a  name." 
The  rule  also  disposes  of  the  contention  that  a  name  once  lapsed 
into  synonymy  is  always  a  synonym,  and  cannot  again  be  em- 
ployed. 

Articles  51-54. — These  rules,  which  should  be  carefully 
studied,  specify  the  circumstances  under  which  it  is  necessary 
or  allowable  to  reject,  change,  or  modify  names,  whether  ordinal, 
generic,  or  specific.  They  have  been  carefully  framed,  and 
appear  to  be  fair  and  equitable.  The  chief  reasons  are  speci- 
fied in  Article  51,  which  I  quote  herewith  :  "  Every  one  should 
refuse  to  admit  a  name  in  the  following  cases  :  (1)  When  the 
name  is  applied  in  the  plant  kingdom  to  a  group  which  has  an 
earlier  valid  name  ;  (2)  when  it  duplicates  the  name  of  a  class, 
order,  family,  or  genus,  Ol  a  subdivision  or  species  of  the  same 
genus,  or  a  subdivision  of  the  same  species;  (3)  when  it  is 
based  on  a  monstrosity  ;  (4)  when  the  group  which  it  designates 
embraces  elements  altogether  incoherent,  oi  when  it  becomes  a 
permanent  source  of  confusion  or  error." 

Article  55. — The  important  part  of  this  rule  is  the  second 
clause,  providing  that  specific  names  must  be  rejected  when 
they  simply  repeat  the  generic  name.  This  rule  will  effectually 
put  an  etui  to  such  combinations  as  Linaria  Li  nana,  Abutilon 
Abutilon,  Petroselinum  Petroselinum,  &c,  which  have,  through 
the  craze  for  priority  at  any  cost,  come  into  partial  use  during 


Cheeseman. — Botanical  Nomenclature.  463 

the  last  ten  years,  particularly  among  a  section  of  American 
botanists. 

Recommendations  34  and  35,  placed  with  some  others  in  the 
appendix,  suggest  that  the  metric  system  only  should  be  used 
in  botany  for  reckoning  weights  and  measures,  &c.  I  am 
certainly  of  opinion  that  all  measurements  given  in  the  Latin 
diagnosis,  which  is  now  imperative  when  a  new  species  is 
described,  should  conform  to  this  rule  ;  and  it  might  also  be 
reasonably  adopted  in  memoirs  or  communications  prepared 
mainly  for  the  use  of  professional  botanists.  But  it  is  open  to 
discussion  whether  the  metric  system  should  displace  the  system 
of  measurement  adopted  in  any  country  in  the  case  of  floras  or 
other  works  written  in  the  vernacular  of  that  country,  and 
intended  for  general  use.  After  all,  the  convenience  of  the 
majority  is  the  point  to  be  considered. 

In  the  above  remarks  on  the  results  of  tbe  Vienna  Congress 
I  have,  for  the  sake  of  brevity,  passed  over  several  rules  which 
are  of  considerable  interest  and  value  to  the  working  botanist. 
My  principal  object  has  been  to  draw  attention  to  those  rules 
which,  if  they  are  adopted  and  acted  upon  by  botanists  gene- 
rally, may  be  expected  to  relieve  the  intolerable  state  of  un- 
certainty into  which  botanical  nomenclature  has  drifted  during 
the  last  twenty-five  years.  The  work  of  the  Congress,  as  a 
whole,  gives  evidence  of  steady  progress  towards  a  stable  nomen- 
clature, and  it  is  in  every  way  desirable  that  the  rules  should 
have  a  fair  trial.  They  have  been  fully  and  carefully  discussed 
by  a  body  specially  summoned  for  the  purpose,  and  are  framed 
in  moderate  and  reasonable  terms.  I  think  it  can  be  said 
that  they  constitute  a  sincere  and  honest  attempt  to  settle 
the  many  differences  of  opinion  which  of  late  years  have 
wasted  and  divided  th'e  energies  of  systematic  botanists,  so 
far  as  matters  of  nomenclature  are  concerned.  No  doubt,  to 
arrive  at  a  permanent  settlement  will  demand  much  forbear- 
ance, and  necessitate  the  subordination  of  individual  inclina- 
tions to  the  decision  of  the  majority  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  advantages  to  be  gained  from  the  establishment  of  a  stable 
system  of  nomenclature  are  incalculable. 

It  may  be  asked  what  changes  in  the  nomenclature  of  New 
Zealand  plants  will  be  caused  by  the  new  rules.  To  this  I 
would  reply  that  they  are  comparatively  few.  So  far  as  the 
genera  are  concerned,  the  list  of  "  Nomina  Conservanda  " 
appended  to  the  rules  shuts  out  most  of  the  alterations  pro- 
posed by  Dr.  Kuntze  and  his  followers.  With  respect  to  the 
species,  the  majority  of  the  changes  will  be  due  to  the  adoption 
of  the  rule  that  in  all  cases  the  earliest  specific  epithet  must  be 
maintained.     Names  like   Haloragis   alata   and   Ipomcea   biloba, 


464  Transactions. 

although  the  oldest  in  the  correct  genus,  must  give  place  to 
Haloragis  erecta  and  Ipomosa  pes-caprece,  as  the  oldest  in  any 
genus.  In  a  similar  manner,  the  affirmation  of  the  principle 
that  no  one  can  reject  a  name  because  of  the  existence  of  an 
earlier  homonym  which  is  universally  regarded  as  non-valid 
will  cause  a  few  alterations.  For  instance,  Mr.  Kirk's  name  of 
Lepidium  flexicaule,  given  under  the  supposition  that  Hooker's 
Lepidium  incisum  was  invalidated  by  the  earlier  Lepidium 
incisum  of  Roth,  must  be  abandoned,  and  Hooker's  name 
restored,  Roth's  name  being  now  generally  admitted  to  be 
non-valid.  I  propose  to  draw  up  a  complete  list  of  the  altera- 
tions rendered  necessary,  but  the  work  is  not  one  to  be  hurriedly 
prepared  or  hastily  published.  Those  who  are  so  eager  to  pro- 
mulgate new  names  that  they  do  not  take  the  trouble  to  con- 
sider them  in  all  their  bearings  will  probably  find  that  later  on 
they  will  have  to  supersede  the  very  names  they  have  themselves 
proposed.  One  source  of  trouble  and  delay  is  the  necessity  of 
referring  to  European  libraries  for  the  verification  of  the  dates 
of  publication  of  those  species  described  in  works  not  available 
in  the  Dominion.  Experience  has  proved  that  it  is  not  always 
safe  to  trust  to  the  quotations  of  dates,  &c,  given  in  floras  or 
even  in  general  works  on  botany.  With  the  view  of  showing 
the  character  of  the  changes  that  will  have  to  be  made,  I  give  as 
an  addendum  to  this  paper  a  list  of  those  necessary  in  the  ferns 
— a  family  in  which  the  proportion  of  new  names  will  be  larger 
than  in  most  others.  It  will,  of  course,  be  understood  that  I 
am  dealing  only  with  the  changes  rendered  necessary  b\  the 
adoption  of  the  international  rules. 

Addendum. 

Changes  in  the  Nomenclature  of  the  New  Zealand  Ferns  caused 
by  the  International  Rules  of  Botanical  Nomenclature  adopted 
at  the  Botanical  Congress  of  Vienna. 

1 .  Hymenophyllum,  subtilissimum,   Kuntze,   Anal.   Pteridog.,  49 

(1837).  Oldest  name,  and  the  one  to  be  adopted, 
Hymenophyllum  ferrugineum,  Colla,  Mem.  Acad.  Torino, 
39  (1836). 

2.  Hymenophyllum  unilaterale,  Willd.,  Sp.  Plant.,  v,  521  (1810). 

Oldest  name,  Trichomanes  peltatum,  Poir.,  Encvcl., 
viii,  76  (1808)  ;  name  to  be  adopted,  Hymenophyllum 
peltatum,  Desv.,  Prodr.,  333  (1827). 

3.  Lindsaya  trichomanioides,  Dryand.  in  Trans.  Linn.  Soc,  iii, 

43  (1797).  Oldest  name,  Adiantum  cuneatum,  Forst., 
Prodr.,  n.  461  (1786)  ;  name  to  be  adopted,  Lindsaya 
cuneata,  C.  Chr.,  Index  Fil.,  392  (1906). 


Cheeseman. — Botanical  Nomenclature.  465 

4.  Lomaria  alpina,  Spreng.,  Syst.  Veg.,  iv,   62    (1827).     Oldest 

name,  Polypodium  penna-marina,  Poir.,  Encycl.,  v,  535 
(1804)  ;  name  to  be  adopted,  Lomaria  penna- marina, 
Trev.,  Atti.  Inst.  Veneto,  14,  570  (1869). 

5.  Asplenium  falcatum.   Lam.,   Encycl.,  ii,   306  (1786).     Oldest 

name.  Trichomanes  adiantoides,  Linn.,  Sp.  Plant.,  ii, 
1098  (1753)  ;  name  to  be  adopted,  Asplenium  adiantoides, 
C.  Chr.,  Index  Fil.,  99  (1905). 

6.  Aspidium  capense,  Willd.,  Sp.  Plant.,  v,  267  (1810).     Oldest 

name,  Poly  podium  adiantiforme,  Forst.,  Prodr.,  n.  449 
(1786)  ;   name  to  be  adopted,  Aspidium  adiantiforme. 

7.  Nephrodium    unitum,    R.    Br.,    Prodr.,    148    (1810).     Oldest 

name,  Aspidium  gongylodes,  Schk.,  Krypt.  Gew.,  1809  ; 
name  to  be  adopted,  Nephrodium  gongylodes,  Schott, 
Gen.  Fil.  ad  t.  10  (1834). 

8.  Nephrodium  molle,  R.  Br.,  Prodr.,  149  (1810).     Oldest  name, 

Poly  podium  parasiticum,  Linn.,  Sp.  Plant.,  ii,  1090 
(1753)  ;  name  to  be  adopted,  Nephrodium  parasiticum, 
Desv.,  Prodr.,  260  (1827). 

9.  Poly  podium    Cunninghamii,    Hook.,    Gard.    Ferns    ad    t.    30 

(1862)  ;  Sp.  Fil,  v,  58  (1864).  Oldest  name  and  name 
to  be  adopted,  Poly  podium  dictyopteris,  Mett.,  Ann.  Sci. 
Nat.,  15,  72  (1861). 

10.  Gleichenia  dichotoma,  Hook.,  Sp.  Fil.,  i,   12  (1844).     Oldest 

name,  Polypodium  lineare,  Burm.,  Fl.  Ind.,  235  (1768)  ; 
name  to  be  adopted,  Gleichenia  linearis,  C.  B.  Clarke  in 
Trans.  Linn.  Soc,  ii,  Bot.,  i,  428  (1880). 

In  addition  to  the  above,  alterations  affecting  the  names  of 
Polypodium  australe  and  P.  Billardieri  are  held  over  for  fuller 
inquiry. 


466  Transactions. 


Art.  XLII. — Metre. 
By  Johannes  C.  Andersen. 

[Read  before  the  Philosophical  Institute  of  Canterbury,  6th  November,  1907.] 

CHAPTER  I. 

1.  Rhythm  in  music  or  poetry  is  an  uninterrupted  succession 
of  equal  divisions  of  time,  each  more  or  less  filled  with  sound. 
Speech,  as  it  becomes  exalted  or  emotional,  tends  to  become 
rhythmical.  Rhythmic  speech  is  intended  to  please  rather 
than  to  instruct ;  to  convince  through  the  emotions  rather 
than  through  the  intellect.  Therefore,  the  praises  of  their 
patrons  were  sung  by  the  sagamen  of  old  ;  prose  would  have 
insured  ridicule  rather  than  reward  :  so,  too,  a  lover  is  allowed 
greater  latitude  when  he  sings  his  rhapsodies  than  when  they 
fall  from  his  lips  in  prose. 

2.  Apart  from  its  audible  nature,  rhythm  has  a  distinct 
form  when  written  or  printed  as  poetry.  As  distinguished 
from  prose,  its  chief  characteristic  to  the  eye  is  that  it  is  written 
in  lines  of  definite  lengths,  each,  as  has  been  usually  asserted 
by  prosodists,  containing  a  definite  number  of  syllables.  That 
the  number  of  syllables  is  not  everything,  however,  is  implied 
when  it  is  said  above  that  the  equal  divisions  of  poetry  are 
more  or  less  filled  with  sound.  This  theory  has  of  late  years 
been  amply  set  out  by  T.  S.  Omond,  and  need  not  now  be  further 
spoken  of,  as  it  must  recur  in  the  course  of  this  essay.  The 
external  form  of  verse  has  not  been  so  exhaustively  treated  as 
the  internal,  but  forms  almost  as  interesting  a  study,  seeing 
that  it  is  the  external  and  visible  expression  of  the  internal  and 
invisible  spirit.  Scansion  studies  the  regularity  of  "  feet,'' 
the  component  parts  of  verses,  or,  as  they  are  more  commonly 
called,  lines  ;  but  little  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  regu- 
larity of  the  lines  themselves. 

3.  The  length  of  the  lines  is  supposed  to  have  been  given 
by  their  users,  the  poets,  and  to  have  been  fixed  by  their  usage. 
This  study  will  be  confined  to  the  absolutely  rhythmical  lines 
that  followed  the  alliterative  and  comparatively  rhythmical 
staves  of  the  old  Scandinavian  or  early  Saxon  bards.  Is  it 
possible  that  the  length  of  the  lines  could  have  been  fixed 
arbitrarily  ?  If  one  poet  were  great  enough  to  fix  them,  another 
could  arise  great  enough  to  alter  them.  In  "  Chambers's  En- 
cyclopaedia,"  under   the   beading   "Metre,"   it   is    stated    that 


Andebsen. — Metre.  467 

the  ten-syllabled  line  was  adopted  because  the  eight-syllabled 
was  too  short  and  the  twelve-syllabled  too  long ;  but  no  reason 
is  given.  In  the  last  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  "  it  is  suggested 
that,  whilst  usage  may  have  made  the  line  what  it  is,  there  may 
be  some  deep  underlying  law  which  has  unconsciously  guided 
the  poet.  Without  doubt  there  is  an  underlying  law  :  nor  is 
it  of  great  intricacy,  for  it  is  clearly  manifested  every  time  a 
stanza  of  verse  is  read  aloud.  Yet  of  the  many  writers  on  English 
prosody,  though  all  speak  of  the  regularity  of  lengths,  not  one 
gives  the  reason  nor  suggests  the  law  for  this  regularity. 

4.  It  is  this  law  that  is  to  be  traced  ;  and,  as  any  law  is  best 
seen  in  operation  where  simplicity  offers  no  distraction,  the 
simplest  and  commonest  forms  of  verse  will  serve  as  the  best 
illustrations.  We  will  therefore  turn  to  ballad-metres,  taking 
as  simplest  and  most  convenient  Bitson's  collection  of  the 
Robin  Hood  ballads.  The  discovery  of  this  law  is  as  important 
as  the  discovery  of  a  primary  law  determining  the  form  assumed 
by  any  particular  predominant  type  of  animal — say,  man. 

CHAPTER  II. 

Ballad-metre. 

1.  The  commonest  form  in  which  ballad-metre  is  now  printed 
is  in  quatrains,  or  stanzas  of  four  lines,  the  first  and  third  usually 
eight-syllabled,  the  second  and  fourth  six- syllabled. 

The  true  and  original  form,  however,  is  different,  each  pair 
as  printed  being  really  one  line  of  fourteen  syllables.  In  Bitson's 
prefatory  note  to  the  "  Ballad  of  Bobin  Hood  and  the  Beggar  " 
he  says,  "  It  may  be  proper  to  mention  that  each  line  of  the 
printed  copy  is  here  thrown  into  two,  a  step  which,  though 
absolutely  necessary  from  the  narrowness  of  the  page,  is  suf- 
ficiently justified  by  the  frequent  recurrence  of  the  double 
rime.  The  division  of  stanzas  was  conceived  to  be  a  still  fur- 
ther improvement."  This  "  narrowness  of  the  page  "  has  been 
given  as  one  reason  for  the  adoption  of  lines  of  certain  uniform 
length,  and  it  has  also  been  stated  that  thus  printed  the  eye 
more  readily  catches  the  substance  of  the  words.  Both  state- 
ments can  at  once  be  dismissed  when  it  is  remembered  that  the 
length  of  line  was  fixed  at  a  time  when  the  ballads  were  trans- 
mitted orally,  before  books  were  printed  at  all.  The  lines  are 
printed  as  fourteen-syllabled  in  Warner's  "  Albion's  England." 

2.  From  Bitson's  remark  that  "  the  division  of  stanzas  was 
conceived  to  be  a  still  further  improvement,"  it  is  evident  (as 
from  their  oral  transmission,  too,  it  must  be)  that  the  long  lines 
were  run  on  without  division  into  stanzas  ;  but  the  fact  that 
it  was  at  all  possible  to  divide  them  in  this  way  is  a  significant 
one.     It  means  that  in  most  cases  two  fourteen-syllabled  lines 


468  Transactions. 

formed  a  complete  sentence.  There  are,  naturally,  many 
instances  where  stanzas  are  divided  by  colons  only,  but  in  the 
majority  of  instances  each  stanza  is  syntactically  and  synthe- 
tically complete. 

Each  line  is,  moreover,  a  complete  clause,  the  comma  after 
the  eighth  syllable  being  often  no  more  than  the  mark  of  the 
printer's  inordinate  fondness  for  that  symbol  where  verse  is 
concerned. 

3.  Kimes,  originally  marking  stanzas  and  aiding  memory, 
came  to  be  regarded  as  end  words  ;  and  in  printing,  wherever 
rimes  occurred,  lines  were  cut  off.  This  will  be  referred  to 
more  fully  when  rime  is  considered,  and  is  only  referred  to  now 
to  indicate  how  rime  has  had  an  influence  in  splitting  up  and 
disguising  the  true  metre.     (See  Chapter  V.) 

4.  (a.)  Other  things  helped  to  disguise  the  metre,  such  as 
variations  from  the  true  type.  These  variations  consist  of  feet 
containing  less  or  more  than  two  syllables,  dropped  feet,  and 
displacement  or  duplication  of  the  accent.  The  following 
quotations  will  serve  as  illustration  of  these  variations  ;  the 
first-quoted,  normal  in  metre,  serving  as  type  of  the  usual : — 

(2.) 
He  met  a  beggar  by  the  way,  who  sturdily  could  gang  ; 
He  had  a  pike-staff  in  his  hand  that  was  both  stark  and  Strang : 
A  clouted  cloak  about  him  was,  that  held  him  frae  the  cold,'_f 
The  thinnest  bit  of  it,  I  guess,  was  more  than  twenty  fold. 

The  accent  occurs  regularly  on  the  second  syllable,  and  each 
line  runs  smoothly  and  with  spirit. 

(3.) 

R6|byn  stode  I  in  Ber]nysdale,  |  and  leaned  |  him  to  |  a  tree,| 
And  bv  |  him  stode  |  Lytell  |  Johann,  j  a  good  |  yeman  |  was  he.| 

(Page  115,  line  9.) 

(4.) 

Much  |  was  rejdy  with  |  a  bolte,  j  re|dly  and  |  a  none,| 

He  set  |  the  monke  |  to  fore  |  the  brest,  [  to  the  ground  |  that  he  |  can  gone.| 

(Page  154,  line  73.) 

(5.) 

A  ryght  |  good  ajrowe  he  |  shall  have,  I  the  shaft  j  of  syliver  whvte,| 
The  head  |  and  the  fedjers  of  rvche  j  rede  golde,  [  in  Eng  lond  is  |  none  lyke.| 

(Page  164,  line  17.) 
(6.) 

For  ye  \  have  scar|let  and  grcne,  |  maysttr,  I  and  majny  a  rvche  |  aray,| 
There  is  |no  marchaunt  in  me|ry  Fnglonde  |  so  rvche,  1 1  dare  |  well  saye.| 

(Page  127,  line  280.) 

(7-) 
( iod  |  the  save,  |  good  R6|byn  Hood,  |  and  al   this  com|pany.| 
Wei  come  be  j  thou  gen|tyll  knvght,  |  and  rvght  |  welcome  |  to  me.| 

(Page  160,  line  237.) 


Andeksen. — Metre.  469 

(8.) 

Have  here  j  foure  h6n|dred  pounde,  then  j  sayd  the  knyght,  |  the  which  |  ye 

lent  |  to  me ;  | 
And  here  |  is  al|so  twenty  marke  |  for  |  your  our|teysv.| 

(Page  161,  line  261.) 
(9.) 

When  they  |  had  shote  |  about,  I  these  ar  chours  fayre  j  and  good,! 
Ev|ermore  |  was  the  best  |  for  |  soth,  R6[byn  Hood. 

(Page  165,  line  53.) 
(10.) 

R6|byn,  sayd  |  our  kynge  |  now  |  pray  1 1  the,| 

To  sell  j  me  some  |  of  that  |  cloth  |  to  me  |  and  mv  |  meyne.  | 

(Page  188,  line  5.) 
(11.) 
And  yf  1 1  toke  |  it  twyse,  |  a  shame  j  it  were  |  to  me  ;| 
And  trewjlv,  gen|tyll  knvght,  |  welcome  |  arte  thou  |  to  me.| 

(Page  162,  line  269.) 
(12.) 

Sty  11 1  stode  |  the  proud  j  shervf,  |  a  so|ry  man  j  was  he  :| 

Wo  worthe  j  the,  Rayjnolde  Grenjelefe  1 1  thou  hast  now  |  betray |ed  me.| 

(Page  147,  line  181.) 
(13.) 

Theyr  bowjes  bent  |  and  forth  |  they  went  |  shojtynge  all  [  in  fere,| 
Toward  |  the  towne  |  of  Notjyngham,  |  outjlawes  as  |  they  were.| 

(Page  189,  line  21.) 
(14.) 

When  |  he  came  |  to  grene  |  wode,  |  in  |  a  mer|y  morn|ynge, 
There  |  he  herde  |  the  notes  |  small  |  of  byrdes  |  mer|y  syngjynge. 

(Page  193,  Hne  109.     The  only  feminine  rimes  in  the  whole 
geste  of  8  fytte.) 

(15.) 

Alas  1 1  then  sayd  |  good  R6|byn,  alas  |  and  well  |  a  woo  1! 

Yf  1 1  dwele  len|ger  with  |  the  kynge,  |  sorjowe  wt  11 1  me  sloo.| 

(Page  191,  line  81.) 

Later  Ballads. 
(16.) 

Altho'  |  good  R6|bin  would  j  full  fain  |  of  his  wrath  |  aven|ged  be,| 
He  smil'd  j  to  see  |  his  mer|ry  young  men  |  had  got|ten  a  taste  |  of  the  tree.  | 

(Page  226,  line  249.) 
(17.) 

Good  mor|rowe,  good  feljlowe,  said  R6|byn  so  fayre,  |  good  morjrowe,  good 

f  el  Howe  quo'  he;| 
Methinks  j  by  this  bowe  |  thou  bears  |  in  thy  hand,  |  a  gOod  |  archere  th6u  | 

shouldst  be. |  (Page  231,  line  97.) 

(18.) 

And  somejtimes,  when  j  the  high|way  fail'd,  |  then  he  |  his  cou|rage  rou|ses, 
He  |  and  his  men  |  have  6ft  |  assailed  |  such  rich  j  men  in  |  their  hous|es. 

(Page  246,  line  209.) 


470  Transactions. 

The  so-called  'Varieties  of  metre  (such  as  trochaic,  dactylic, 
anapestie,  amphibrachic)  arising  from  these  variations  will  be 
spoken  of  more  particularly  in  the  chapter  on  metre  ;  all  that 
is  required  in  this  place  is  to  show  that  the  normal  fourteen 
syllables  are  maintained  in  all  these  lines,  divergent  as  many 
may  appear  from  the  normal  type.     (See  Chapter  VI.) 

(b.)  As  suggested  in  Chapter  I,  section  2,  the  equal  divisions 
of  poetry,  called  "  feet,"  may  be  more  or  less  filled  with  sound. 
The  rhythm  is  the  integral  movement  of  which  a  foot  is  part  ; 
the  foot  is  one  of  the  equal  divisions  of  the  rhythm,  and  each  foot 
normally  consists  of  two  beats — one  light,  one  heavy.  Words 
float  on  the  beat  of  the  rhythm,  and  the  rhythm  is  constant, 
though  a  word  may  here  and  there  be  dropped  or  doubled.  The 
place  of  the  word  in  the  former  case  is  taken  by  a  pause  ;  in  the 
latter  a  triplet  is  produced.  Take  the  second  line  of  the  8th 
quotation  : — 

And  here  |  is  aljso  twen|ty  marke  |  for  |  your  curjteysy.| 

Nine  out  of  ten  would  read  "  marke  "  as  one  syllable,  making 
the  line  the  same  as  the  second  of  quotation  13  : — 

Toward  j  the  towne  |  of  Notjyngham,  |  out  |  lawes  as  |  they  were.| 

The  tenth  might  give  the  "  e  "  of  "  marke  "  its  full  old-time  value, 
when  the  line  would  have  its  fourteen  syllables  ;  so  also  to  the 
gross  ear  would  the  line  last  quoted  by  the  insertion  of  "  bold  " 
before  "  outlawes."  In  the  same  manner  a  pause  takes  the 
place  of  the  first  syllable  in  the  first  line  of  quotation  3  :  for 
"  Robyn  stode "  read  "  Good  Robyn  stode."  The  second 
line  of  quotation  i  runs, — 

He  set  |  the  monke  |  to-fore  j  the  brest,  I  to  the  ground  |  that  he  I  can  gone.| 
Here  there  are  three  syllables  to  the  fifth  foot,  but  it  is  evident 
they  only  occupy  the  time  of  two  ;  they  are,  in  fact,  what 
triplets  are  in  music — they  alter  the  time  only  of  the  foot  in 
which  they  occur.  So  again  in  quotation  6  :  here  there  are 
no  less  than  four  trisyllabic  feet  in  the  two  lines  ;  and,  the 
time  remaining  constant  throughout,  an  agreeable  tripping  effect 
is  produced.  In  quotation  15,  "  Alas !  then  sayd  |  good 
Ilnbyn,"  the  accented  syllable  is  dropped:  the  line  reads 
normally  by  inserting  'Hood"  after  "Robyn."  Taking 
quotation  11, — 

And  yf  ]  I  toke  |  it  twyse,  |  a  shame  |  it  were  |  to  me ;  | 
And  trew|ly,  gen|tyll  knvght,  |  welcome  |  art  thou  |  to  me.  | 

In  reading,  a  distinct  pause  is  made  after  "  twyse "  and 
"  knyght  "  —a  pause  equal  to  the  two  syllables  dropped.  In 
the  second  line  of  quotation  5, — 

The  head  |  and  the  fed  era  of  ryohe  rede  gold,  j  in  Engjlande  is  j  none  lybe  | 


Andersen. — Metre.  471 

we  have  two  trisyllabic  feet  followed  by  a  foot  in  which  both 
syllables  are  accented,  forming  a  fine  contrast. 

(c.)  These  are  the  usual  variations.  Such  a  fine  as  the  first 
of  quotation  8  is  too  rugged  to  be  correct ;  it  has  too  many 
syllables  :  the  second  of  quotation  9  has  too  few  :  both  may 
be  instances  of  faulty  transmission.  It  is  possible  to  read  them 
with  their  proper  metre,  but  the  effect  is  unpleasing,  whereas  the 
effect  of  the  other  variations  quoted  is  the  reverse. 

All  the  variations  arose,  possibly,  by  accident ;  it  is  more  than 
possible  they  were  faulty  slips  of  amateur  ballad-singers  seized 
upon  by  good  craftsmen  as  means  of  embellishing  and  varying 
the  sing-song  of  the  measure. 

5.  (a.)  Referring  again  to  quotation  15, — 

'Alas  1 1  then  sayd  |  good  R6|byn,  |  alas  |  and  well  |  a  woo  1 1 

As  already  suggested  in  (b)  of  the  previous  section,  this  line  has 
the  eighth  syllable  dropped,  and  reads  normally  by  the  insertion 
of  "  Hood  "  after  "  Robyn."  It  will  be  noted  that  the  syllable 
dropped  is  one  which  when  present  bears  an  accent  ;  and  though 
lines  such  as  this,  containing  thirteen  syllables,  do  not  often 
occur  in  English  ballads,  it  is  the  normal  line  of  the  Danish 
and  German  ballad.  The  great  German  epic,  the  "  Nibelungen 
Noth,"  is  written  entirely  in  this  thirteen-syllabled  line,  varied 
in  the  same  way  that  the  English  line  is  varied.  In  old  pieces 
it  is  written  as  one  line  ;  in  later  compositions  it  is  split  in  two 
just  as  the  English  line  is,  and  a  mid- rime  further  disguises  it ; 
as  in  (Ehlenschlaeger's  "  Thor  in  Helheim  "  : — 

His  mood  and  trust  enduring. 

He  hasted  through  the  night  ; 
The  darkness,  less  obscuring, 

Was  slowly  lost  in  light. 
One  saw  where  torches  glimmered 

Within  the  chasm,  as  if 
The  moon  had  iall'n,  and  shimmered, 

Caught  in  a  cloven  cliff. 

In  this  metre  the  stanzas  are,  as  a  rule,  made  up  of  either  four 
lines  of  thirteen  syllables,  or  eight  of  seven  and  six  alternately. 
The  latter  is  the  case  when  mid-rime  occurs,  as  in  example 
quoted  ;  the  former  is  the  case  where  there  is  no  mid-rime,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  German  epic,  and  in  the  Danish  poet  Winther's 
series  of  tales  entitled  "  Woodcuts."  A  stanza  of  similar  con- 
struction is  that  employed  by  Allan  Ramsay  in  "  Christ's  Kirk 
on  the  Green." 

(b.)  Quotation  11,  again,  has,  as  noted,  a  foot    dropped  in 
each  line  : — 

And  yf  I  toke  it  twyse.  a  shame  it  were  to  me; 

And  trewly,  gentyll  knyghte,  welcome  arte  thou  to  me. 


472  Transaction*. 

Such  lines,  again,  are  not  very  frequently  met  with  except  in 
solitary  instances,  but  they  also  have  their  counterpart  in  the 
Alexandrine,  forming  the  measure  which,  first  used  in  France 
in  the  twelfth  century,  in  a  poem  on  Alexander  the  Great, 
became  the  heroic  or  epic  line  of  French  poetry.  The  line  is 
not  easily  worked  into  long  poems  in  English,  Drayton's  "  Poly- 
olbion  "  being  the  only  one  of  any  considerable  length  in  which 
it  is  employed.  It  is,  however,  used  with  fine  effect  as  a  con- 
cluding line  in  heroic  stanzas  such  as  Spenser's  "  Faerie 
Queene "  :  the  stanzas  seem  to  gather  body  like  a  wave,  and 
break  majestically  in  the  long  sweep  of  the  Alexandrine.  Part 
of  "  Polyolbion  "  may  be  quoted  to  show  the  effect  in  reading 
this  line  continuously  : — 

From  wealthy  abbots'  chests  and  churls'  abundant  store, 
What  oftentimes  he  took,  he  shar'd  amongst  the  poor  ; 
No  lordly  bishop  came  in  lusty  Robin's  way, 
To  him,  before  he  went,  but  for  his  pass  must  pay. 

It  will  be  found  that  a  pause,  equal  to  a  foot,  is  instinctively 
made  after  the  sixth  syllable,  so  that  the  metre  is  practically 
read  as  ballad- metre.  The  same  is  true  of  the  German  metre  ; 
so  that  it  is  evident  all  these  metres  have  a  common  basis,  each 
assuming  the  form  most  compatible  to  the  nature  of  the  people 
adopting  it. 

6.  Whilst  it  has  been  noted  that  each  ballad-line  contains 
fourteen  syllables,  a  pause  at  the  end  of  each  line  must  be  ac- 
counted for  ;  so  that  each  line  contains  in  reality  eight  feet, 
seven  of  which  are  filled  with  sound.  Proof  of  this  may  be 
adduced  from  a  source  rather  unexpected — that  is,  ixom.  Church 
hymns. 

As  may  be  seen  from  the  Robin  Hood  ballads,  the  Church 
and  its  ministers  were  held  in  very  scant  respect  by  the  ruder 
classes  ;  indeed,  Bishop  Latimer  complained  to  King  Edward  VI 
that,  passing  through  a  certain  town,  he  let  it  be  known 
that  he  would  be  there  on  a  certain  day,  and  coming  to  the 
church  he  found  it  locked,  it  being  Robin  Hood's  Day,  and  the 
people  to  a  man  preferred  celebrating  his  day  to  hearing  the 
Bishop.  It  would  therefore  appear  strange  that  the  Church 
should  ever  countenance  the  perpetuation  of  a  poetic  measure 
which  formed  the  medium  in  which  were  preserved  the  popular 
tales  of  the  people — tales  many  of  which  would  nowadays  be 
considered  tapu,  and  many  of  which  were  directed  against  the 
Church  itself.  But  it  was  the  Church  in  the  first  instance  that 
practically  gave  this  metre  to  the  people,  in  the  early  metrical 
romances.  This  metre  of  eight-syllabled  half-lines  was  taken 
from  the  French,  and  seemed  to  be  the  final  outcome  of  a  long 
evolutionary  process  in  metre  in  the  "European  tongues,  gradu- 


Andeksen. — Metre.  473 

ally  breaking  up  and  changing,  in  England,  the  rugged  lines 
marked  only  by  alliterative  divisions,  such  as  are  seen  in  "  Piers 
Plowman."  In  this  sixteen-syllabled  metre  were  told  the  lives 
of  the  saints,  and  other  religious  subjects,  which  formed  the 
literary  staple  of  the  people.  It  was  no  wonder,  therefore, 
that  when  the  people  took  to  creating  their  own  tales  they 
took  the  metre  which  was  most  familiar  to  them  ;  the  more 
readily,  too,  that  it  was — though  unknown  to  them — the  natural 
metre.  But  its  evolution  was  not  complete,  as  was  indicated 
by  the  fact  that  the  second  half  of  the  sixteen-syllabled  line 
showed  a  constant  tendency  to  shorten  itself  when  spoken ; 
and,  as  the  metre  became  more  and  more  used  by  the  people, 
it  slowly  but  surely  assumed  the  fourteen-syllabled  form,  which 
has  remained  unchanged  to  this  day,  and  is  the  most  attractive 
of  all  metres.     Metre  had,  in  fact,  evolved  to  the  natural  type. 

In  the  Index  to  the  Church  of  England  Hymns,  A.  and  M., 
of  the  first  hundred  hymns,  eighty-one  are  in  ballad-measure. 
The  strict  measure,  fourteen-syllabled,  is  in  the  index  called 
"  common  measure  "  ;  sixteen-syllabled  is  "  long  measure  "  ; 
and  twelve-syllabled,  "  short  measure."  The  confirmation  of 
the  measure  comes  in  this  :  Minims  are  used  as  the  basic  note, 
and  in  every  measure  (common,  short,  or  long)  each  line  is  sung 
to  sixteen  syllables  ;  in  long  measure  each  line  ends  with  a  minim  ; 
in  common  and  short  the  six-syllabled  lines  are  eked  out  to  eight 
syllables  with  a  dotted  semibreve.  What  is  yet  more  sug- 
gestive is  that  in  still  shorter  measures  the  sixteen  syllables  are 
obtained  :  for  instance,  in  Hymn  306,  whose  lines  contain  six 
and  five  syllables  alternately,  the  six-syllabled  lines  end  with  two 
semibreves,  the  five-syllabled  with  a  breve,  making  the  sixteen 
syllables  in  all.  The  last  remark  premises  the  statement  that 
of  the  nineteen  hymns  in  the  hundred  which  are  not  ballad- 
metre  to  the  eye — that  is,  they  contain  less  than  six-syllabled 
lines — the  music  makes  them  pure  ballad  ;  so  that  it  is  not 
too  much  to  say  that  at  least  90  per  cent,  of  the  Church  hymns 
are  in  ballad- measure.  The  exceptions  are  mostly  hymns  of 
late  composition,  such  as  "Lead  Kindly  Light";  though  even 
some  of  these  later  hymns,  such  as  "  Hark,  hark,  my  Soul," 
though  of  eleven-  and  ten-syllabled  fines  alternately,  are  by  the 
music  made  sixteen-syllabled.  This  is,  metrically,  an  extra- 
ordinary fact,  and  shows  how  deeply  the  measure  is  imbedded 
in  man's  rhythmic  nature.  Here  the  conservative  nature  of 
the  Church  is  of  unexpected  assistance  in  showing  the  primal 
and  constant  nature  of  the  ballad-measure — the  measure  whose 
magic  Sir  Philip  Sidney  declared  stirred  his  heart  like  a  trumpet. 
In  these  later  days,  though  the  ear  is  attracted  by  the  artificial 
forms  of  poetry  that  have  been  brought  to  perfection  by  men 


474  Transactions. 

like   Swinburne,    the   heart   is   at   once    touched    and   responds 
toJ,a  lilt  in  the  old  ballad-measure. 

7.  This  long  measure,  the  sixteen-syllabled  line,  has  been 
especially  used  by  two  poets  in  English — John  Gower  and  Sir 
Walter  Scott.  Grower's  lines  were  meant  for  the  eye  rather 
than  for  the  ear — that  is,  his  tales  were  not  to  be  sung  ;  he 
was,  too,  in  close  touch  with  the  metrical  romances,  whose 
teaching  he  continued.  Scott's  lines  were  certainly  meant  for 
the. eye;  and  though  in  the  first  poem  written  by  him  in  this 
measure,  the  "  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel,"  they  are  supposed 
to  be  sung  by  an  old  minstrel,  it  never  passes  the  supposition  : 
the  minstrel  did  not  sing  them  ;  the  printer  gave  them  to  the 
eye,  not  the  minstrel  to  the  ear.  The  point  to  be  noted  is  this  : 
the  eye  needs  no  pause  in  reading,  such  as  the  voice  needs  in  re- 
citing. Scott  deliberately  discarded  the  natural  ballad- metre, 
as  in  his  day  it  had  become  the  medium  of  an  enormous  amount 
of  jingling  nonsense  ;  he  admittedly  harked  back  to  the  metrical 
romance  metre,    j  r"^  "' 

8.  On  these  remarks  a  certain  statement  is  to  be  based. 
Ballads  were  originally  sung  or  recited  ;  the  common  measures 
are  in  twelve,  thirteen,  or  fourteen  syllables  ;  a  complete  phrase 
is  almost  invariably  expressed  in  that  number.  The  inference 
is  that  fourteen  syllables  proved  to  be  the  average  that  could 
be  uttered  in  one  breath  ;  a  breath  was  taken  during  the  silent 
foot,  and  the  second  line  then  spoken  or  sung.  The  conclusion 
then  is,  the  breath  determined  the  length  of  the  ballad-line  ; 
and  it  will  be  found  that  almost  invariably  a  breath  is  taken  at 
the  end  of  each  line  of  fourteen  syllables.  This  is  the  law  :  so 
simple  that  it  seems  absurd  ;  so  natural  that  it  is  inevitable. 
In  singing  the  metrical  romances — or  their  latter-day  equivalents, 
Church  hymns — a  gasp  is  taken  after  the  sixteenth  syllable  : 
it  was  the  awkwardness  of  this  gasp  that  began  the  shortening 
of  the  second  half  of  the  line,  and  produced  the  line  of  fourteen 
syllables,  the  true  ballad. 

CHAPTER   III. 

1.  An  objection  to  the  conclusion  arrived  at  in  the  last  chapter 
appears  to  arise  at  the  very  outset.  Though  ballad-metre  was 
formerly  employed  as  the  common  medium,  that  metre  is  no 
longer  predominant,  but  has  given  place  to  one  considerably 
shorter — that  is,  the  ten-syllabled  metre  of  blank  verse.  This 
metre  was  first  introduced  into  English  by  Surrey,  but  was 
not  in  that  form  the  popular  measure  that  the  rimed  heroic 
of  Chaucer  proved  itself :  it  was  too  indefinite  ;  lines  were 
fused,  and  the  old  definite  pause  was  missed.  It  was  therefore 
as  the  rimed   heroic  that  the  line  took   firmest   root,   and  was 


Andersen. — Metre.  475 

best  used  by  Chaucer.  With  him  it  runs  freely  ;  the  lines, 
though  stopped  by  means  of  the  rime,  are  yet  not  stopped 
abruptly  ;  the  mid-pause  of  the  line,  or  caesura,  is  varied,  and 
it  has  some  of  the  charm  of  blank  verse  with  the  primitive  charm 
of  rime  added.  With  Pope  the  place  of  the  csesura  became 
more  definite,  and  the  lines,  too,  were  more  definitely  stopped  ; 
in  fact,  the  rime  broke  his  verses  up  into  couplets  ;  they  became 
a  string  of  epigrams  :  so  that  it  has  been  said  of  Pope  that  under 
the  curb  of  pause  and  rime  his  Pegasus  became  a  rocking-horse. 
Such  monotony  must  cause  a  revulsion.  That  revulsion  took 
shape,  not  in  discarding  the  metre,  but  in  discarding  the  rime 
and  in  varying  the  place  of  the  mid-pause.  Dryden,  among 
others,  wrote  against  this  innovation,  maintaining  that  the 
rimed  heroic  was  the  suitable  measure  for  tragedy,  as  it  gave 
such  opportunity  for  epigram — a  state  of  things  quite  out  of 
harmony  in  tragedy,  where,  of  course,  epigram  has  no  place. 

2.  (a.)  In  Pope's  couplets  the  two  lines  generally  serve  to 
convey  a  complete  sentence,  in  the  same  way  that  the  two  fines 
of  ballad-metre  did.  On  reading  Pope  aloud,  too,  it  will  be 
found  that  a  breath  is  taken  invariably  after  the  tenth  or  twen- 
tieth syllable — much  more  often  after  the  tenth.  Here,  then, 
it  would  seem  that  the  average  length  of  a  sentence  is  ten 
syllables  :  Pope  by  his  artificiality  has  made  the  average  the 
actual.  Why  should  ten  syllables  be  adopted  here  in  the  place 
of  fourteen  %  Reading  aloud  gives  one  reply  :  it  will  be  noticed 
that  Pope's  lines  are  read  more  slowly,  more  deliberately,  than 
lines  in  ballad-metre.  The  reason  will  be  at  once  seen  on  ex- 
amining the  nature  of  the  subject  conveyed  by  the  words.  The 
ballads  are  active,  Pope  is  reflective  :  one  relates  an  incident, 
intense  and  almost  without  detail ;  the  other  contemplates 
the  incident,  and  elaborates  the  detail :  one  is  active,  one  is 
sedentary.  The  very  deliberate  nature  of  his  subject  enabled 
Pope  to  measure  his  lines  as  if  by  scale. 

(b.)  In  this  light  it  will  be  interesting  to  compare  two  trans* 
lations  of  Homer — one  by  Chapman,  the  other  by  Pope.  Chap- 
man employed  the  only  metre  really  suitable — the  equivalent, 
in  English,  of  Homer's  metre — when  he  employed  the  ballad- 
metre.  One  cannot  but  indorse  Keats' s  sonnet  in  the  main, 
but,  whilst  admiring  the  skill,  the  fault  is  also  evident.  Chapman 
made  this  mistake  :  he  did  not  sufficiently  stop  the  lines  ;  he 
used  the  ballad-metre,  the  metre  of  action,  but  tried  also  to  give 
it  the  flexibility  belonging  to  blank  verse  in  allowing  his  lines 
constantly  to  overflow  ;  and  it  is  these  overflowing  parts  prin- 
cipally that  cause  his  metre  to  halt.  Rimes,  when  used,  should 
generally  coincide  with  pauses,  not  make  them  ;  with  Chapman, 
they  do  not  point  his  metre,  but  break  it.     Pope  failed  more 


476  Transactions. 

signally  in  rendering  Homer,  since  he  adopted  the  reflective 
metre,  heroic  verse — too  much  stopped,  and  too  evenly  paused. 
Chapman  enables  us  actually  to  see  the  action  ;  Pope  compels 
us  to  imagine  it.  Scott  had  an  instinctive  feeling  as  to  the 
reason  for  Pope's  failure.  He  pointed  out  that  Pope's  opening 
lines  of  the  Iliad  could  all  drop  one  foot,  reducing  the  ten  syl- 
lables to  eight :    thus,  instead  of — 

The  wrath  of  Peleus'  son,  the  (direful)  spring 
Of  (all  the)  Grecian  woes,  0  goddess,  sing  ; 
That  wrath  which  hurled  to  Pluto's  (gloomy)  reign 
The  souls  of  (mighty)  chiefs  untimely  slain  : 
Whose  limbs,  unburied  on  the  (naked)  shore, 
Devouring  dogs  and  (hungry)  vultures  tore  : 
he  read 

The  wrath  of  Peleus'  son,  the  spring 

Of  Grecian  woes,  0  goddess,  sing  ; 

That  wrath  which  hurl'd  to  Pluto's  reign 

The  souls  of  chiefs  untimely  slain  : 

Whose  limbs,  unburied  on  the  shore, 

Devouring  dogs  and  vultures  tore. 

Note  that  every  pair  of  lines  is  in  reality  one  long  line.  The 
dropping  of  this  foot  brings  the  metre  into  line  with  Scott's 
favourite,  which  is  no  other  than  the  long  ballad-metre  referred 
to  in  section  7  of  Chapter  II — a  metre  in  which  many  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott's  ballads,  collected  and  otherwise,  as  well  as  his 
own  minstrelsy,  run. 

It  would  almost  seem  that  the  Iliad  is  best  translated  in 
ballad-metre,  not  heroics  or  blank  verse  ;  in  the  verse  of  energy 
and  action,  not  of  rest  and  reflection.  As  suggested,  the  ballad 
recites  an  event ;  Pope's  heroics  contemplate  it ;  blank  verse 
acts  it.  This  summarises  the  essential  difference  in  nature  : 
the  two  former  are  in  a  measure  artificial ;  the  last  is  natural ; 
and  in  that  fact  will  be  found  the  reason  for  the  overflowing 
lines. 

3.  Even  when  rime  was  discarded  from  the  heroic  line, 
the  tendency  to  stop  the  lines  was  for  a  long  time  powerful. 
Whilst  writers  felt  that  the  rime  was  a  hindrance  in  emotional 
passages,  they  did  not,  as  a  class,  see  why.  Soon,  however, 
the  lines  overflowed,  the  sense  incomplete  in  one  being  carried 
to  the  next. 

CHAPTEE  IV. 

Blank  Verse. 

At  the  outset  the  secret  of  blank  verse  becomes  visible  : 
its  lines  as  printed  are  still  those  of  the  heroic,  the  average  length 
of  a  sentence  ;  but  the  variations  of  actual  speech  can  be  fully 
displayed  with  no  disruption  in  metre,  no  violation  of  emotion. 
As  the  emotions  vary,  so  the  breath  varies  in  depth  and  duration  ; 


Andersen. — Metre.  477 

so,  too,  the  length  of  the  sentences  uttered  by  that  breath. 
Macduff  (Macbeth,  ii,  3)  cries  in  horror, — 

Awake,  awake  ! 

Ring  the  alarum-bell. 

Murder  and  treason  ! 

Ban  quo  and  Donalbain  ! 

Malcolm  !  awake  ! 

Shake  off  this  drowsy  sleep,  death's  counterfeit,  and  look 

on  death  itself  ! 
Up,  up,  and  see  the  great  doom's  image  ! 
Malcolm  ! 
Banquo  ! 

Here  all  the  feeling  is  in  the  short,  abrupt  exclamations  :  they 
are  cries  of  horror  at  the  deed  :  only  when  that  horror  is  for 
a  time  forgotten  in  metaphor  does  the  quickly  drawn  breath 
permit  of  longer  sentences. 

As  a  contrast,  compare  the  length  of  the  following  sentences, 
where  the  emotion  is  so  calm  as  to  permit  the  breath  to  utter 
long  imaginative  phrases  : — 

Proserpina,   for  the   flowers   now,   that,   frighted,   thou 

lett'st  fall  from  Dis's  waggon  ! 
Daffocfils,  that  come  before  the  swallow  dares,  and  take 

the  winds  of  March  with  beauty, 
Violets,  dim,  but  sweeter  than  the  lids  of  Juno's  eyes  or 

Cytherea's  breath. 

How  shall  these  two  extracts  be  laid  in  the  Procrustean  bed  of 
decasyllabic  verse  \ 

Take  another  quotation,  from  the  murder  scene  in  "  Othello," 
where  the  contrast  in  the  varying  emotion  is  more  percept- 
ible :— 

(10)  It  is  the  cause,  it  is  the  cause,  my  soul, — 

(14)  Let  me  not  name  it  to  you,  you  chaste  stars  ! — It 

is  the  cause. 
(6)  Yet  I'll  not  shed  her  blood  ; 
(21)  Nor  scar  that  whiter  skin  of  hers  than  snow,  and 

smooth  as  monumental  alabaster. 
(10)  Yet  she  must  die,  else  she'll  betray  more  men. 
(10)  Put  out  the  light,  and  then — put  out  the  light  ! 
(25)  If  I  quench  thee,  thou  flaming  minister,  I  can  again 

thy  former  light  restore,  should  I  repent  me  : 
(17)  But  once  put  out  thy  light,  thou  cunning'st  pattern 

of  excelling  nature, 
(16)  I  know  not  where  is  that  Promethean  heat  that  can 

thy  light  relume. 
(16)  When  I  have  plucked  thy  rose,  I  cannot  give  it 

vital  growth  again, 

(5)  It  needs  must  wither. 

(6)  I'll  smell  it  on  the  tree. 

(16)  0    balmy    breath,    that    dost    almost    persuade 
justice  to  break  her  sword  ! 
(4.)  One  more,  one  more.1 


479  Transactions. 

(16)  Be  thus  when  thou  art  dead,  and  I  will  kill  thee, 
and  love  thee  after  '• 

(6)  One  more,  and  this  the  last : 

(7)  So  sweet  was  ne'er  so  fatal. 

(9)  I  must  weep,  but  they  are  cruel  tears  : 
(12)  This  sorrow's  heavenly  ;    it  strikes  where  it  doth 
love. 
(2)  She  wakes. 

Here  there  are  twenty  sentences,  with  218  syllables,  an  average 
of  not  quite  eleven  syllables  to  a  sentence.  Again  it  will  be  noted 
that  the  longest  are  those  containing  imagery.  Alter  the  deed, 
all  but  the  last  sentences  are  pure  emotion  : — 

Yes  : — 'tis  Emilia  : — by-and-by. — 

She's  dead  ! 

'Tis  like  she  comes  to  speak  of  Cassio's  death  ; 

The  noise  was  high. — 

Ha  !  no  more  moving  ? 

Still  as  the  grave. — 

Shall  she  come  in  ?     Were't  good  ? 

I  think  she  stirs  again. — 

No.— What's  best  to  do  ? 

If  she  comes  in,  she'll  sure  speak  to  my  wife. 

My  wife  !   my  wife  !   what  wife  ? 

I  have  no  wife! 

O,  insupportable  ! 

O,  heavy  hour  ! 

Methinks  it  should  be  now  a  huge  eclipse  of  sun  and 

moon  ; 
And  that  the  affrighted  globe  should  yawn  at  alteration. 

This  passage  from  "  Othello  "  has  been  taken-  at  random  as  an 
emotional  passage  :  many  others  may  be  found  where  the  average 
is  about  ten. syllables  to  a  sentence,  such  as  Lear  ii,  4,  beginning 
"  The  king  would  speak  with  Cornwall,"  and  v,  3,  "  0,  you  are 
men  of  stones !  "  which  both  average  slightly  under  nine  ; 
Hamlet,  i,  4,  beginning  "  Angels  and  ministers  of  grace,  de- 
fend us  !  "  which  averages  eleven  ;  Hamlet,  iii,  4,  "  Look  here, 
upon  this  picture  and  on  this,"  and  iii,  4,  "  Ecstasy  !  .  .  ." 
both  of  which  average  slightly  over  eleven. 

Though  the  natural  way  would  be  to  write  or  print  the 
sentences  as  above,  such  a  disjointed  manner,  whilst  perfectly 
correct  for  acting,  would  break  the  consecutiveness  of  rhythm 
in  reading ;  and  the  ten-syllable d  line,  the  general  average 
of  a  sentence,  has  been  adopted  for  readers.  One  advantage 
of  printing  them  as  breathing  sentences  would  be  that  they 
would  serve  as  a  visible  index  to  the  fluctuating  emotions. 

CHAPTER,  V. 

Rime. 

1.  As  suggested  in  Chapter  II,  section  3,  rime  has  been 
largely  instrumental  in  disguising  the  metre,  and  at  the  same 


Andeksen. — Metre.  479 

time  giving  the  variety  of  form  to  printed  poetry.  At  first 
the  two  rimes,  as  in  ballad-metre,  marked  the  stanza,  and  the 
rimes  came  gradually  to  be  looked  upon  as  the  end-words. 
When,  therefore,  mid-rimes  were  introduced  into  ballad-metre, 
the  fourteen-syllabled  line  was  cut  into  two — one  of  eight  and 
one  of  six  syllables — as  in  quotation  18  :— 

And  sometimes,  when  the  highway  fail'd. 

Then  he  his  courage  rouses, 
He  and  his  men  have  oft  assailed 

Such  rich  men  in  their  houses. 

The  leonine  or  internal  rime  in  the  eight-syllabled  line,  as  in 
quotation  13,  introduced  a  new  change,  such  a  line  being  some- 
times printed 

Their  bow|es  bent  | 

And  forth  |  they  went  | 
Sho|tynge  all  |  in  fere.  | 

Sometimes  the  four  syllables  of  each  leonine  will  be  expanded 
to  eight  (the  "  light-horse  gallop  of  verse  "),  as — 

When  Ruth  was  left  half  desolate 
Her  father  took  another  mate  ; 

And  Ruth,  not  seven  years  old, 
A  slighted  child,  at  her  own  will 
Went  wandering  over  dale  and  hill, 

In  thoughtless  freedom  bold. 

And  again,  both  halves  of  such  a  stanza  may  further  be  resolved 
into  four-syllabled  leonines,  as — 

With  ravished  ears 
The  monarch  hears  ; 
Assumes  the  god, 
Affects  to  nod, 
And  seems  to  shake  the  spheres. 

Such  variations  become  yet  more  complicated  when  the  rimes 
are  feminine  or  double.  A  first  reading  would  entirely  fail  to 
make  Shelley's  "  The  Cloud  "  the  same  metre  as  "  Jack  and 
Jill  " — both  ballad.  But  that  the  metre  is  the  same  is  evident 
in  taking  a  more  regular  stanza  : — 

I  sift  j  the  snow  | 

On  the  mountains  below,  | 
And  their  great  |  pines  groan  I  aghast ;  | 

And  all  |  the  night  | 

'Tis  my  piljlow  white,  | 
While  I  sleep  |  in  the  arms  |  of  the  Blast.  | 

Jack  |  and  Jill  | 

Went  up  |  the  hill  | 
To  fetch  |  a  pail  |  of  wa|ter ; 

Jack  1  fell  down  | 

And  broke  |  his  crown,  | 
And  Jill  j  came  tumbling  after. 


480  Transactions. 

In  both.  each,  leonine  has  two  accents,  the  odd  line  three — the 
common  measure  of  ballad-metre.  The  simple  metre  of  "  The 
Cloud  "  is,  of  course,  further  disguised  by  its  triple  feet. 

As  has  been  said,  double  rimes  occur  only  once  in  "  A  Lyttel 
G-este  of  Robyn-Hood,"  eight  fytte  of  461  stanzas,  but  they 
become  more  and  more  frequent  as  time  goes  on. 

Once  printing  became  common,  this  variation  of  the  ballad 
stanza  became  more  and  more  frequent  and  complicated,  until 
now  many  stanzas  that  read  well  enough  to  the  eye  read  roughly 
aloud  ;  but  still  the  most  popular  poems  are  those  written  in 
metre  more  nearly  approximating  to  the  old  ballad. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Metre. 

1.  Coming  now  to  the  last  chapter,  a  few  words  will  be  said 
concerning  metre  itself.  All  blank  verse,  all  ballad  verse — which 
two  include  by  far  the  greatest  bulk  of  English  poetry — is  essen- 
tially iambic — that  is,  each  foot  contains  two  syllables,  the 
stress  falling  on  the  second.  Is  there  any  reason  why  two 
syllables  should  be  the  natural  number  to  a  foot  ?  for  the  pre- 
ponderance of  two-syllabled  feet,  and  of  iambic,  show  the  iambic 
to  be  the  natural  foot. 

Speech  in  poetry  being  an  expression  of  the  emotions,  it  is 
natural  that  speech  should  be  regulated  by  those  emotions  ; 
and  so  it  is,  as  was  shown  by  the  quotations  in  Chapter  IV  : 
as  the  emotion  deepens  or  strengthens,  the  speech  becomes  more 
rapidly  and  forcibly  uttered,  the  sentences  being  proportionately 
shorter.  Directly,  the  voice  is  produced  by  the  lungs  ;  in- 
directly, it  is  affected  by  the  heart :  more  rapid  breathing, 
if  involuntary,  implies  more  rapid  heart-action  ;  and  increased 
heart-action,  besides  being  caused  by  increased  physical  ex- 
ertion, is  also  caused  by  emotional  excitement.  Hamlet,  accused 
by  his  mother  of  madness,  says, — 

My  pulse,  as  yours,  doth  temperately  keepjtime, 
And  makes  as  healthful  music  ; 

and  between  calm  contemplation  and  emotional  terror  there 
is  a  whole  gamut  finding  expression  not  only  in  the  voice,  but 
in  the  beating  and  throbbing  of  the  heart. 

Reading  aloud,  or  reciting,  say,  the  speech  of  Antony  over 
the  body  of  Caesar,  it  will  be  found  that  an  average  of  from 
140  to  160  syllables  are  uttered  in  one  minute.  In  ordinary 
speech,  120  words  is  the  average  number  spoken  in  a  minute 
— say,  190  syllables.  But  no  man  recites  so  fast  as  he  speaks, 
more  especially  verse,  for  every  beat  must  be  regarded  or  the 
rhythm  will  be  lost.     The  heart   makes,  normally,  an  average 


Andersen. — Metre.  481 

of  slightly  over  seventy  pulsations  a  minute,  each  pulsation 
being  composed  of  two  periods — that  of  rest,  and  the  almost 
synchronous  beat  of  the  auricles  and  ventricles  (one-tenth  of 
a  second  only  intervenes)  ;  it  beats,  in  fact,  almost  in  iambic 
measure. 

This  is,  of  course,  no  more  than  an  approximation  ;  but 
that  such  an  approximation  is  at  all  possible  is  not  without 
significance,  and  is  of  intense  interest  in  determining  the  origin 
of  the  basic  metre  of  poetry,  the  iambic.  It  may  seem  doubtful 
which  is  the  effect,  which  the  cause ;  but,  the  heart  being  the 
organ  of  the  emotions,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  it  should 
affect  the  emotional  expressions  of  the  voice  ;  and,  similarly, 
the  action  of  the  lungs  being  affected  directly  by  that  of  the 
heart,  the  duration  of  an  utterance  should  naturally  be  affected 
by  those  organs. 

That  iambic  is  in  reality  the  basic  metre  may  also  be  de- 
monstrated by  tracing  the  growth  of  all  the  other  metres  from 
it. 

2.  There  does  not  seem  much  doubt  that  the  trochee  is  no 
more  than  the  iamb  with  the  first  and  unaccented  syllable 
dropped.  In  -Milton's  "  L' Allegro  "  and  "  II  Penseroso,"  what 
are  called  trochaic  lines  freely  mingle  with  iambic  lines  without 
break  in  the  rhythm,  though  with  some  difference  in  audible 
effect. 

That  the  attack  in  music  is  made  on  the  first  note  of  a  bar 
may  be  adduced  as  argument  that  the  trochaic  effect  is  a  natural 
one  ;  but  it  will  be  remembered  that  in  a  great  many  cases 
one  or  two  accented  notes  occur  isolated  before  the  first  bar  ; 
and  more,  the  finale  is  always  an  attack.  It  is  therefore  more 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  bar  has  been  put  before  the 
note  attacked  rather  as  a  visible  guide  to  the  performer  than  as 
the  natural  division-line  of  the  rhythm. 

It  cannot  be  gainsaid  that  the  "  Lyttel  Geste  "  is  in  iambic 
metre,  yet  what  are  called  trochaic  lines  constantly  occur  (see 
quotations  3,  4,  7,  10,  12,  14).  There  is  absolutely  no  warrant 
for  calling  them  trochaic  lines,  for  it  is  evident  that  a  syllable 
has  been  dropped  at  the  beginning  of  the  line,  and  the  line  is 
iambic  immediately  after  the  first  syllable  and  onwards.  This 
erroneous  nomenclature  has  arisen  because  syllables  have  been 
taken  as  the  only  constituents  of  a  foot,  instead  of  both  syllables 
and  pauses. 

3.  Take  the  second  line  of  quotation  4  : — 

He  set  |  the  monke  |  to-fore  |  the  brest,  |  to  the  ground  |  that  he  |  can  gone.  | 

Here  the  fifth  foot  contains  three  syllables,  but  the  three  are 
uttered  in  the  time  of  two  ;    they  are,  in  fact,  equivalent  to  a 
16— Trans. 


482  Transactions. 

triplet  in  music :  that  is,  the  foot  is  iambic,  with  a  triple  efect. 

So  in  the  second  line  of  quotation  5  : — 

The  head  |  and  the  fejders  of  ryche  ]  rede  golde,  |  in  Lng|londe  is  |  none  lyke.  | 

Here  the  second  and  third  feet  have  three  syllables  each  ;  but 
the  effect  is  only  to  make  the  line  appear  more  rapid  in  move- 
ment :  the  normal  tempo  is  unaltered.  Again,  the  fourth 
foot,  whilst  still  containing  two  syllables,  has  both  accented. 
In  quotation  6  the  effect  is  still  more  marked  : — 

For  ye  |  have  scar|let  and  grene,  |  mayster,    and  many  a  ryche  |  aray,  | 
There  is  |  no  marjchaunt  in  meiry  Englonde  |  so  ryche,  1 1  dare  |  well  saye.  | 

Here  each  line  has  two  feet  containing  three  syllables  ;  and 
whilst  the  whole  reads  faster,  the  beat  is  still  iambic. 

As  has  been  said,  the  later  ballads  become  more  and  more 
trisyllabic.  The  following  lines  (date  1751)  are  alternately  purely 
trisyllabic  and  purely  iambic  : — 

As  blithe  |  as  the  linjnet  sings  in  |  the  green  wood,  | 

So  blithe  |  we'll  wake  |  the  morn  ;  | 
And  thro'  |  the  wide  f 6 [rest  of  mer|ry  Sherwood  | 

We'll  wind  |  the  bug|le  horn.  | 

but  the  trisyllabic  line  gives  a  decided  trisyllabic  effect  even 
to  the  iambic.  In  quotation  16  the  effect  becomes  still  more 
pronounced  : — 

Altho'  |  g  od  R6|bin  would  |  full  fain  |  of  his  wrath  ]  aven|ged  be,  | 

Ho  smil'd  |  to  see  |  his  mer|ry  young  men  |  had  got|ten  a  taste  |  of  the  tree.  | 

and  in  quotation  17,  trisyllables  are  altogether  predominant : — 

Good  mor|rowe,  good  fel^owe,  said  R6|byn  so  fayr«-,  |  good  mor|rowe,  good 

fel|lowe,  quo'  he;  j 
Methinks  |  by  this  bowe  |  thou  bears  |  in  thy  hand,  |  a  good  |  arohere  thou  | 

shouldst  be.  | 

Were  the  lines  of  the  two  last  quotations  given  to  a  syllabic 
prosodist,  he  could  not  with  certainty  say  if  they  were  in  duple 
or  triple  measure.  Another  example  will  illustrate  his  diffi- 
culty :—         • 

Know  ye  the  |  land  where  the  |  cypress  and  |  myrjtle 

Are  emblems  |  of  de<  ds  that  |  are  done  in  j  their  clime  ?  | 
Wliere  the  rage  |  of  the  vuljture,  the  love  |  of  the  tur  tie 

These  have  been  quoted  by  prosodists  as  an  example  where 
the  trisyllabic  metre  is  used  in  its  three  forms,  the  first  line 
being  composed  of  dactyls,  the  second  of  amphibrachs,  and  third 
of  anapests.  Poe  was  the  first  to  point  out  that  the  measure 
is  unchanged  when  the  lines  are  run  on  without  linear  division  ; 
all  three  are  in  so-called  dactyls  if  judged  from  the  opening 
lect,  anapests  by  the  closing.  What,  then,  is  to  be  said  of  the 
lines  just  previously  quoted  ?  They  begin  like  the  second 
of  the  three  above  ;    the  first  line  sustains  the  amphibrachic 


Andersen. — Metre.  483 

effect,  but  it  breaks  down  in  the  second  in  three  feet,  or  in  one 
if  the  final  "  e  "  be  sounded  in  "  bowe  "  and  "  archere."  This 
the  prosodists  say  is  the  poetic  license  allowed  in  trisyllabic 
metre.  The  license  is  the  other  way  :  it  is  the  iambic  metre 
that  has  been  overlaid  with  trisyllabic  feet,  and  asserts  itself 
time  and  again  :  there  is  an  outcrop  of  the  basic  metre — or, 
as  poetry  is  a  living  thing,  a  reversion  to  type.  This  reversion 
to  type  will  be  found  in  all  the  metres — trochee,  anapest,  dactyl, 
amphibrach  ;  the  reversion  is  always  to  the  iambic — sufficient 
proof  of  the  basic  nature  of  that  metre,  of  which  the  others  are 
"  sports,"  some  cultivated  to  a  perfect  degree,  but  all  never- 
theless "  reverting "  under  stress  of  circumstance.  The  re- 
version is  sometimes  so  frequent  that  it  is  almost  impossible 
for  the  prosodists  to  say  which  is  the  true  metre  and  which 
are  the  exceptions — e.g.,  Shelley's  "  The  Cloud,"  and  Cowper's 
"Poplars." 

The  reducing  of  all  metres  to  one  elementary  metre,  allowing 
the  terms  "  trochee,"  "  dactyl,"  &c,  to  be  applied  to  varieties 
of  individual  feet  only,  is  a  reassertion  of  the  simplicity  of  metre  : 
there  is  but  one  metre,  but  its  variations  are  legion.  If  we  admit 
three-syllabled  feet  as  native,  what  is  to  prevent  an  extension 
to  four-  or  five-syllabled  feet,  as  allowed  by  the  Germans  ? 
The  more  loaded  the  foot  is  with  syllables,  the  less  is  it  able  to 
mount  to  the  heights,  as  could  be  shown  with  a  four-syllabled 
foot  much  used  by  the  Australian  versifiers. 

By  this  reduction,  too,  we  abolish  a  host  of  perplexing 
licenses,  exceptions,  and  a  dictionary  of  technical  phraseology. 
The  whole  of  the  former  may  be  included  in  a  sentence  :  a  foot 
may  (1)  be  an  entire  suspension  of  sound  ;  or  (2)  may  contain 
one  syllable,  either  (a)  accented,  or  (b)  unaccented  ;  or  (3)  two 
syllables,  (a)  one  or  (b)  both  accented  ;  or  (4)  three  syllables, 
always,  it  appears  imperative,  accented  on  the  third  syllable  : 
i.e.  : — 

(1)  Fourth  foot,  and  normally  at  end  of  every  line  : — 

And  yf  1 1  take  |  it  twyse  | |  a  shame  [  it  were  |  to  me  I | 

(2)  (a)  In  the  first  foot  :— 

God  |  the  save  |  good  R6b|yn  Hood,  j 
In  first  and  second  feet : — 

Sty  11  |  stode  j  the  proud  |  sheryf.  | 

111  last  foot  : — 

To  sell  |  me  some  |  of  that  |  cloth.  | 

(b)  In  the  last  foot  : — 

Alas  1 1  then  sayd  |  good  R6b|yu  —  | 


484  Transactions. 

(3)  (a)  In  all  feet  :— 

(1.)  A  ryght  |  good  a  |  rowe  he  |  shall  have  | 
(2.)  He  and  |  his  men  j  have  6ft  |  assailed.  I 

(b)  In  last  foot  : — ■ 

The  head  |  and  the  fedjers  of  r.voh  '  rede  guide.  | 

(4)  Good  morjrowe,  good  feljlowe,  sayd  Rob  yn  so  fayre.  | 

In  the  fourth  license,  it  seems  the  accent  must  fall  on  the  third 
syllable  ;  if  it  appear  to  fall  on  the  second,  it  will  be  found  that 
the  phrase  contains  its  basic  iamb  followed  by  an  anapestic 
foot ;  if  on  the  first,  the  first  syllable  of  the  iamb  has  been 
dropped  and  again  an  anapestic  foot  follows.  It  will  be  seen 
that  these  licenses  are  the  variations  upon  which  all  the  varieties 
of  metre  have  been  built. 

It  may,  then,  be  ruled  that  the  natural  metre  of  English 
verse  is  iambic,  with  its  trisyllabic  equivalent,  anapestic  ;  and 
that  the  length  of  lines  may  vary  from  five  to  eight  feet,  depend- 
ing upon  the  nature  of  the  subject — those  of  five,  blank  verse, 
admitting  of  very  frequent  overflow,  and  those  of  eight,  includ- 
ing generally  the  silent  foot  for  breath,  admitting  of  no  overflow. 
It  will  be  seen  that  this  includes  all  the  metres  in  which  the 
world's  best  poetry  has  been  written  ;  and  a  question  here 
suggests  itself  :  did  not  the  hexameter  arise  in  a  similar  manner 
to  the  ballad-metre  ?  for  in  English  the  ballad  is  its  equivalent. 
I  cannot  speak  with  authority  on  classical  metres,  which  are 
modelled  on  length  of  syllables  rather  than  on  stressed  syllables 
— on  quantity  rather  than  accent ;  biit  it  would  appear  from 
analogy  that  both  have  sprung  from  and  both  were  regulated 
by  a  common  source  and  principle,  the  breath  ;  and  whilst 
quantity  may  therefore  have  ruled  the  classic  metres,  their 
effect  on  the  ear  need  not  necessarily  differ  materially  from 
our  accented  verse.  Our  own  verse  is  sometimes  quantitative, 
but  rhythmical  accent  is  always  superior  to  the  accent  of  in- 
dividual words,  and  I  believe  the  same  to  be  true  of  classical 
metres. 

To  conclude,  it  is  suggested  that  the  norma]  measure,  the 
iambic,  has  sprung  from  the  heart-beat,  as  being  the  rhythmic 
source  nearest  to  man,  and  most  constant  in  its  actions  upon 
him.  (It  has  been  shown  how  the  iambic  measure  varies  in  time 
in  proportion  as  the  heart-beat  varies,  influenced  by  changing 
motions.)  The  suggestion  may  at  first  seem  fantastic;  but  I 
am  convinced  that,  whilst  proof  may  be  difficult,  proof  will 
come.  Next — and  this  is  more  than  a  suggestion — the  length 
of  line  that  the  two  primary  metres,  ballad  and  blank  verse, 
'nave  adopted  has  been  fixed  by  the  breath.  (Here,  again,  it 
has  been  shown  how  the  ballad,  a  bare  recital  of  an  event,  is 


Fulton. — Disappearance  of  New  Zealand  Birds.      485 

able  to  accomplish  such,  recital  in  stanzas  composed  of  lines 
of  even  length,  this  length  being  the  average  of  a  sentence 
spoken  in  a  breath,  whilst  blank  verse,  the  language  of  action 
itself,  is  in  overflowing  lines,  an  average  length  being  still  gene- 
rally kept,  and  that  length  again  the  average  of  a  breath  ;  it 
has  also  been  shown  how  the  emotions  affect  such  lengths  of 
line,  in  that  they  affect  the  depth  and  duration  of  the  breath  ; 
and  that  a  breath  is  almost  invariably  taken  at  the  ends  of 
what  are  considered  "  artificial "  lines.)  This  formulates  a 
new  law  ;  not  only  so  far  as  New  Zealand  is  concerned,  but  new 
to  the  English-speaking  world.  The  relation  between  the  ballad 
and  the  hexameter  is  a  suggestion  more  than  probable  ;  the 
origin  of  all  metres  from  the  iambic,  and  the  predominance  of 
that  type,  is  comparatively  certain,  as  is  the  fact  that  a  pause 
may  form  an  integral  portion  of  a  foot.  Should  these  laws 
and  suggestions  become  established,  we  have  come  absolutely 
to  the  bed-rock  of  verse  forms  ;  and,  personally,  I  have  no 
doubt  whatever  but  that,  including  the  most  important,  the 
heart-beat  and  breath,  they  will  be  established. 


Art.   XLIII.  —  The  Disappearance  of  the  New  Zealand  Birds. 

By  Dr.  Fulton. 

[Read  before  the  Otago  Institute,  11th  May,  1907.] 

The  birds  of  our  islands,  largely  through  the  efforts  of  Sir  Walter 
Buller,  Captain  Hutton,  Mr.  Potts,  and  Mr.  Colenso,  are  well 
known  to  the  scientific  world  as  interesting,  if  not  in  many 
ways  unique  ;  but,  owing  to  change  in  environment,  alterations 
in  food-supply,  disturbance  of  the  balance  of  nature  by  ridiculous 
importations  of  birds  and  animals,  our  beautiful  feathered 
friends  are  fast  going  to  the  wall ;  and  it  is  to  review  the  posi- 
tion fairly  and  squarely  that  I  am  here  to-night. 

It  is  not  my  intention  to  speak  here  of  our  sea-birds.  The 
advance  of  civilisation,  the  spread  of  cultivation,  the  increase 
of  population,  does  not  touch  them ;  their  destruction  by 
millions  on  the  outlying  islands,  cruel  and  wasteful  as  it  may 
be,  hardly  affects  them  at  all.  Their  migratory  habits,  their 
extremely  prolific  powers,  their  almost  inaccessible  nesting- 
places,  seem  to  protect  them,  and  there  is  little  fear  of  their 
disappearance. 


486  Transactions. 

My  purpose  is  to  show  what  has  become,  and  what  is 
becoming,  of  our  perching-birds,  our  climbers,  our  waders,  our 
rails,  our  fresh-water  swimmers. 

Now,  with  regard  to  the  scarcity  of  our  birds  at  the  present 
day,  we  must  remember  that,  although  where  we  are  the  birds 
are  undoubtedly  scarce,  there  are  millions  of  acres  of  virgin 
bush  where  still  our  birds  exist  in  great  numbers.  It  is  now 
hardly  possible  for  us  city  men  to  make  original  observations 
on  the  birds.  We  must  therefore  avail  ourselves  of  information 
at  second-hand,  endeavouring  to  find  out  what  is  correct  and 
reliable.  Such  careful  observers  as  Dr.  Cockayne,  Mr.  Elsdon 
Best,  Mr.  W.  W.  Smith,  and  Mr.  Guthrie  Smith,  have  given 
me  much  assistance,  and  I  have  had  the  advantage,  through 
the  courtesy  of  the  Government  Biologist,  Mr.  Kirk,  of  examin- 
ing all  the  circulars  from  the  Department  of  Agriculture  on 
the  subject  of  our  feathered  immigrants  and  their  effect  on  the 
native  birds.  I  have  also  been  fortunate  in  obtaining  from 
Mr.  J.  Drummond,  F.L.S.,  copies  of  his  Bulletin,  which  have 
been  most  valuable.  To  all  of  these  gentlemen  my  thanks  are 
due,  and  are  hereby  gratefully  rendered.  Dr.  Cockayne  says 
that,  generally  speaking,  "  all  the  country  along  the  rail- 
way-lines (the  west  coast  of  the  South  Island  excepted)  is 
quite  denuded  of  forest,  except  small  patches  here  and  there. 
Proceeding  from  the  north  coast  of  the  North  Island  to  the 
latitude  of  Auckland  is  still  much  forest,  the  greater  part  partly 
cut  out,  but  still  fairly  dense,  while  along  the  flanks  of  the 
higher  mountains  and  near  Hokianga  Estuary,  and  both  north 
and  south,  and  Whangape  is  virgin  kauri  forest.  Along  the 
shores  of  the  northern  Wairoa  and  its  affluents  is  much  white- 
pine  forest.  Forest  extends  from  the  Little  Barrier  Island. 
by  way  of  the  Big  Barrier,  to  the  Thames  mountains,  and  thence 
to  Rotorua,  almost  meeting  the  great  forest  which  covers  with 
a  dense  mantle  the  whole  East  Cape  region,  and  follows  the 
main  chain  of  the  North  Island  to  Cook  Strait  ;  though,  so  far 
as  the  Tararua  and  Ruahine  Mountains  arc  concerned,  the 
forest  is  only  to  be  found  now  upon  their  Hanks.  North  of 
Lake  Taupo  is  a  fine  forest,  and  this  extends  in  a  more  or  less 
broken  manner  westwards,  where  to  the  west  of  the  volcanic 
plateau  comes  the  great  Waimarino  Forest.  North  and  easl 
Taranaki  and  Egmont  is  still  forest-clad,  and  so  is  much  of 
northern  Wellington  along  the  head-waters  of  the  Rangitikei,  &c. 
As  lor  the  South  Island,  the  western  spurs  of  the  dividing-range 
and  the  coastal  plain,  where  such  exists,  is  virtually  primeval 
forest.  Patches  of  forest  occur  on  the  mountains  of  north-east 
Nelson  ;  and  there  are  patches  here  and  there  still  in  the  Marl- 
borough Sounds,  as  well  as  more  extensive  areas  in  D'Urville 


Fulton. — Disappearance  of  Neiu  Zealand  Birds.      487 

Island.  The  eastern  Southern  Alps  contain  many  smaller  and 
larger  forest  areas,  the  Seaward  Kaikouras  are  bush-clad,  and 
the  coast  ranges  to  the  south  have  usually  the  gullies  full  of 
forest.  Then  comes  the  great  break  of  the  treeless  Canterbury 
Plains,  the  upper  river-valleys,  and  eastern  and  central  Otago. 
Finally,  southern  Otago  still  contains  some  large  forest  areas, 
as,  e.g.,  west  and  south  of  Catlin's  and  the  Longwood  Forest. 
Stewart  Island  is  all  forest,  and  perhaps  one-fifth  of  Chatham 
Island,  while  most  of  the  lower  country  of  the  Auckland  Islands 
is  forest-covered." 

Our  birds  of  prey,  consisting  of  three  hawks  and  two  owls, 
are  now  rarely  seen.  The  sparrow-hawk,  relentlessly  gunned  : 
the  bush  hawk,  deprived  of  much  of  his  shelter,  his  main  bird- 
food  (qua^s)  gone  ;  lizards  all  but  absent  through  cultivation, 
ploughing,  and  draining  ;  ground-larks  well  out  in  the  open 
fields,  where  he  dare  not  follow — a  price  upon  his  head  ;  in  all 
directions,  save  in  the  densest  West  Coast  bush  or  hidden 
mountain-bound  swamps,  he  is  not ;  he  is  reported  at  Bright- 
water,  near  Nelson,  Hororata,  Ihuraua,  and  Little  Barrier. 

The  harrier,  a  leisurely,  wary  bird,  still  hangs  on,  though 
slowly  and  surely  he  is  going.  He  can  be  occasionally  seen  on 
the  Taieri,  and  he  is  reported  as  increasing  at  Temuka,  Ash- 
burton,  Waihemo,  Waitaki,  Waverley,  Rongomai,  and  the 
Bay  of  Islands  ;  he  is  extinct  at  Tauranga  and  other  places  ; 
but  he  is  mentioned  from  many  localities  as  just  holding  his  own. 

The  owl,  timid  at  all  times,  practically  blind  in  the  daytime, 
is  turned  out  of  its  forest  haunts  by  the  onward  march  of  saw- 
mills— the  hollow  tree  brought  down  or  fired  ;  his  flight,  heavy 
and  noiseless,  is  not  quick  enough  to  save  him  from  the  worrying 
sparrow  and  blackbird  ;  at  all  times  stupid  in  the  daylight, 
he  is  driven  back  to  the  depths  of  the  West  Coast.  His  some- 
time rocky  homes  are  trodden  round  and  destroyed  by  sheep 
and  cattle,  and  his  animal  food  is  getting  less  and  less  as  agri- 
culture advances.  He  is  shot  on  sight  by  every  gun-bearing 
fool,  and  the  New  Zealand  morepork's  cry  will  soon  be  heard 
no  more.  His  principal  food,  the  native  rat,  is  removed,  ousted 
by  the  introduced,  more  wary,  rodent  from  Europe  ;  everything 
is  gone  ;  nothing  remains  but  oblivion.  Moreporks  and  owls 
are  reported  as  "  existing "  to-day  at  Brightwater ;  as 
"  present  "  at  Mataura,  North  Wairoa,  Rodney  County,  Omata, 
Ngatimaru,  Ormond,  Paradise,  Patutahi,  and  Manganui ;  as 
"  not  decreasing "  at  Pohonui,  Raglan,  and  Ramarama ;  as 
"  disappearing "  from  Waimea,  Rongomai,  Waverley  (Patea), 
Hokianga,  Waiheke  Island,  Wangaehu,  and  Helensville.  Owls 
are  mentioned  at  Waikaka,  Wainuiomata,  Temuka  Road, 
Ihuraua,  Kaukapakapa,  near  Dunedin,  and  Wyndham. 


488  Transactions. 

Of  our  perching-birds,  none  was  better  known  to  our  early 
settlers  than  the  kingfisher.  The  spread  of  the  brown-trout  ; 
the  reign  of  the  angler  ;  the  nest  in  hollow  rotten  trees  or  clay- 
bank,  easily  traced  and  robbed  by  stoats  and  weasels  ;  food 
reduced  by  every  imported  songster  ;  shot  at  by  all  and  sundry  : 
he  has  not  a  chance.  Sir  Walter  Buller,  as  late  as  1882,  thought 
the  bird  was  holding  his  own  ;  but  it  is  evident  that  in  the 
last  twenty  years  he  has  practically  disappeared  from  our  midst. 
He  is  "  holding  his  own  "  at  Kaipara,  Kaitaia,  Bay  of  Islands. 
Carnarvon,  and  Havelock  ;  "  present  "  at  a  number  of  places 
in  both  islands  ;  :'  extinct  "  at  Castlepoint  since  stoats  were 
introduced  there.  I  saw  one  at  Otakou  kainga  on  Good  Friday 
of  this  year. 

The  stitch-bird,  according  to  the  Maoris  once  common 
throughout  the  islands,  was  rare  on  the  arrival  of  the  pakeha. 
no  doubt  owing  to  its  striking  appearance  and  pretty  feathers  ; 
it  was  taken  both  for  food  and  ornament.  Rare  in  the  North 
Island,  it  has  never  been  seen  by  a  white  man  in  the  South 
Island.  This  bird  is  now  confined  absolutely  to  the  islands  of 
Kapiti  and  Little  Barrier,  where,  although  he  is  protected  by 
the  Government,  one  fears  he  will  soon  die  out.  There  is  no 
doubt  in  my  mind  that  collectors,  in  the  last  thirty  years,  have 
done  much  towards  exterminating  the  stitch-bird. 

I  now  come  to  the  tui,  our  king  of  birds,  who  is  fast  disappear- 
ing from  our  midst — his  nesting-place  appropriated  by  the  alien  : 
his  nest  built  higher  and  higher  in  the  creeping  vines  ;  harried 
by  weasel  and  ferret  (he  has  been  seen  fighting  and  struggling 
with  the  red-eyed  monster,  falling  from  the  dizzy  height  and 
giving  his  life  for  his  young).  Snared  in  thousands  by  the 
Maoris,  he  held  his  own,  for  his  forest  fortresses  were  intact  : 
but  at  last  the  advance  of  the  vulgar  alien  has  scared  him,  and 
back  he  goes  into  forest  primeval.  Honey  is  taken  from  the 
flax  and  fuchsia  by  many  imported  birds— notably  the  stalling 
— and  thus  his  chief  food  is  lessened,  if  not  absent.  It  may  be 
interesting  to  record  here  a  point  I  have'  not  seen  mentioned, 
about  our  tui.  He  has  a  habit  of  flying  at  a  great  height  from 
one  place  to  another:  rising,  say,  from  a  deep  wooded  glen  ai 
a  gradual  angle,  flying  leisurely,  he  arrives  at  a  point  directly 
over  his  destination,  and  then  he  absolutely  drops,  with  a  terrific 
rush,  to  the  bush  below.  When  two  oi  three  of  them  do  this, 
as  frequently  happens — and  I  believe  they  do  it  as  a  sort  of 
play— the  noise  as  they  rush  through  the  air  can  be  heard  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  away.  I  believe  this  is  the  explanation  of  the 
curious  fact  mentioned  by  Dr.  Ifocken  in  "The  Early  History 
of  NTew  Zealand."  Mr.  Tuckett's  diary  says,  "All  the  people 
1'requenting  this  coast  believe    in    the    existence   of  an  extra- 


1'Ylton. — Disappearance  of  Neiv  Zealand  Birds.       489 

ordinary  bird  or  phantom  which  they  can  never  see  but  only  hear 
rushing  past  them  through  the  air  with  the  rapidity  of  a  falling 
rock,  and  making  a  terrible  rushing  sound.  The  Maoris  declare 
that  it  is  a  bird  possessing  many  joints  in  its  wings.  The  whalers 
call  them  break-sea  devils,  after  the  name  of  an  island  where 
this  phenomenon  is  of  most  frequent  occurrence."  I  should  be 
glad  of  further  information  of  this  curious  habit,  which  is  gene- 
rally seen  and  heard  at  about  dusk  or  sunset,  the  tuis  returning 
home  for  the  day  ending  their  journey  with  this  wild  rush. 
The  tui  is  reported  as  "  more  plentiful "  at  Rissington  than 
formerly  ;  "  holding  his  own  "  at  Raglan,  Rongotea,  Waiheke, 
Wainui ;  "  said  to  be  increasing  "  at  Waitotara,  Waitohi ;  "  rare 
and  uncommon  "  at  most  other  places. 

With  the  tui  is  the  mocker,  or  bell-bird,  another  honey- 
eater  whose  food  in  flax-bush  and  Pittosporum  is  lessened  by  the 
honey-bee,  thrush,  and  starling.  Lovely  in  its  song,  as  it  is 
modest  in  its  plumage  ;  nesting  in  the  creepers,  where  it  is 
hunted  by  weasels  and  ferrets  and  by  that  curse  of  bird  life, 
the  rat ;  fruit  which  it  soon  became  fond  of  actually  removed 
from  its  very  beak  by  the  blackbird  and  sparrow  ;  the  under- 
growth of  native  Jsush  cleared  away ;  every  tree-crown  or 
festooned  totara  dotted  with  a  dozen  alien  nests,  and  the  kori- 
mako,  in  its  turn,  displaced.  A  weasel  has  been  seen  to  attack 
a  bell-bird  on  its  nest,  and,  the  two  falling  to  the  ground  to- 
gether, the  weasel  was  despatched  by  the  observer;  but  the 
bird  was  fatally  injured.  In  some  seasons  the  bell-bird  makes 
a  fresh  spurt.  In  1905  I  heard  the  notes  every  day  through 
the  winter  months,  and  I  took  particular  notice  of  it ;  then 
the  birds  seemed  to  disappear,  and  I  have  not  heard  the  notes 
of  one  for  the  last  eighteen  months.  It  was  snared  in  millions 
by  the  Natives — their  title  to  land  was  often  proved  as  an  act 
of  ownership  by  the  "  snaring  of  the  korimako  " — and  yet 
this  did  not  suffice  to  greatly  diminish  their  numbers.  It  was 
left  to  the  pakeha  and  his  pestilential  friends  to  exterminate 
them.  It  is  pleasant  to  note  that  the  bell-bird  is  still  "  plentiful  " 
at  Pipiriki,  Raetihi,  Pavanui  Pa,  Stewart  Island,  all  up  the 
West  Coast  bush,  at  Banks  Peninsula,  on  Kapiti  Island,  and  on 
the  Barriers  ;  but  where  the  imported  birds  are  he  is  almost 
gone.  He  is  reported  as  "  still  existing,  though  scarce,"  in 
many  localities  throughout  both  islands. 

Coming  to  our  little  white-eye,  or  tahou,  "  the  stranger,"  who 
came  from  Australia  in  -1856,  and  has  been  with  us  ever  since, 
once  so  common  in  our  manuka  and  on  our  plum  and  apple 
trees,  where  he  took  his  full  share  of  good  things,  he  is  now  as 
rare  as  he  was  common.  The  bird  is  still  fairly  common  in  some 
parts  of  the  North  Island.     He  is  said  to   "  swarm "   at  the 


490  Transactions. 

Wairarapa,  to  be  "  increasing  in  numbers  "  at  Ellston,  Waerenga. 
the  Bay  of  Islands,  and  the  south-east  coast  of  the  North  Island  ; 
but,  save  very  rarely,  he  is  not  now  seen  with  us.  Easily  sup- 
plied with  necessary  food,  prolific,  laying  four  or  five  eggs 
twice  in  the  season,  its  nest  well  protected  from  rats  and  weasels, 
it  is  astonishing  that  it  is  not  more  numerous  ;  but  it  is  probable 
that  it  will  survive  the  storm,  and,  though  not  strictly  an  in- 
digenous bird,  be  one  of  the  last  of  our  feathered  inhabitants. 

Among  our  creepers,  the  three  wrens — bush,  rock,  and  rifle- 
man— timid,  but  active  and  quiet ;  attending  strictly  to  their 
own  business ;  running  up  tree  -  boles ;  catching  small  insects 
in  the  bark  of  the  pine  or  birch  ;  placing  their  eggs  in  the  deepest 
recesses  of  the  broadleaf  or  pine  tree  ;  careful  to  choose  the 
tiniest  hole  that  they  can  safely  emerge  from  ;  always  certain 
that  they  are  protected  from  animal  or  bird — there  is  little  or  no 
fear  that  our  wrens  will  become  extinct.  The  advance  of  civili- 
sation has  little  effect  on  them,  save  by  destroying  their  forest 
homes.  Where  sound  bush  remains,  there  the  wrens  will  per- 
petuate their  species.  They  seldom  or  never  build  in  rotten 
trees,  like  the  kingfisher  or  parakeet ;  their  nests  are  generally 
very  high  up,  and  the  trees  sound  and  growing.  Feeling  in- 
stinctively their  tiny  size  and  helplessness,  they  choose  the  most 
impenetrable  fortresses  they  can  find.  All  up  the  West  Coast 
the  rock  wren  flourishes,  deep  in  tiny  recesses  of  the  rocks  ;  and 
the  rifleman  and  bush  wrens  abound  wherever  are  our  native 
trees.  It  is  pleasant  to  learn  from  Mr.  Drummond's  Bulletin 
that  the  wren  is  reported  as  existing  in  all  parts  of  the  country  ; 
it  is  said  even  to  swarm  in  the  Maruia  Forest  and  on  Kapiti 
Island  ;  and  in  December  of  this  year  I  saw  over  a  dozen  rifle- 
men in  the  ribbonwood-trees  near  Waimate. 

The  native  canary,  once  common  at  the  Taieri  and  round 
Duncdin,  has  now  absolutely  disappeared  from  these  parts.  It 
is  quite  scarce  at  Catlin's,  where  the  bush  is  almost  untouched; 
and  at  Milford  Sound  it  can  occasionally  be  seen,  but  not  in  great 
flocks,  as  of  yore.  It  is  still  common  at  Stewart  Island  :  and 
in  the  Urewera  Country  its  near  relative,  the  white-head,  can  be 
often  seen.  Its  nesting  habits  and  its  bright-yellow  colour  and 
attractive  appearance  have  had.  I  am  afraid,  much  to  do  with 
its  extinction.  It  lavs  its  beautiful  red  eggs  in  hollow  broad- 
leaf  branches  or  stumps,  in  places  easy  of  access  to  weasel,  rat, 
hi-  mouse.  Its  home  is  becoming  scarcer  and  scarcer,  as  the 
broadleaf-tree  is  one  of  the  first  to  disappear.  In  addition  to 
this,  it  has  the  misfortune  to  be  one,  if  not  the  chief,  host 
of  the  long-tailed  cuckoo  in  this  island,  as  is  the  white-head  in 
the  North.  This  means  that  every  cuckoo  that  lavs,  say,  five 
eggs  in  one  season  may  be  the  means  of  destroying  from  three 


Fulton. — Disappearance  of  Neiv  Zealand  Birds.        491 

to  five  broods  of  four  each  of  the  unfortunate  canary.  Where 
thick  native  bush  remains  untouched  our  canaries — the  yellow- 
head  and  the  white-head — will  be  with  us.  They  are  still  found 
in  considerable  numbers  in  the  great  pine  and  birch  forests 
of  Hawke's  Bay,  Waikato,  Kapiti,  and  the  Barriers  ;  and  in 
the  Maruia  Forest,  at  Hokitika,  and  throughout  the  Nelson 
District.  They  are  not  so  common  at  Catlin's  or  Milford 
as  they  were  ten  years  ago,  but  they  are  found  sparingly  at 
Wyndham. 

Our  utick,  or  fern-bird,  heard  everywhere  in  swampy  ground, 
and  fairly  common  twenty  years  ago,  now  that  draining  and 
ploughing  has  so  much  enhanced  the  value  of  our  low-lying 
swampy  grounds  has  become  very  rare.  Near  Fortification 
Creek  he  can  still  be  heard,  and  wherever  fairly  large  swamps 
remain  there  he  is  ;  but  the  firing  of  swamps  has  almost  done 
for  the  fermbird.  The  utick  can  last  only  so  long  as  the  great 
swamps  of  Canterbury,  Lower  Taieri,  Manawatu,  and  Piako 
remain  undrained  and  uncultivated.  He  is  still  very  common  at 
Stewart  Island  and  Kapiti,  where,  so  far,  no  weasels  have  been 
introduced  ;  and  he  is  reported  from  many  other  places,  in- 
cluding Hangaroa,  Kaitaia,  and  Mangonui. 

Our  grey  warbler  will  hold  his  own  through  all  time.  His 
merry  cry  can  be  heard  in  garden  or  bush  to-day.  His  curious 
nest  is  always  well  concealed.  Though  the  victim  of  the  shining 
cuckoo,  and  losing  numbers  of  chicks  every  year,  the  two,  or 
possibly  three,  clutches  of  eggs,  each  five  or  six  in  number,  give 
it  an  enormous  "  lift  "  over  the  other  birds.  The  nest — pen- 
sile, and  absolutely  weasel-  and  rat-proof — still  further  protects 
it.  It  is  restless,  active,  and  vigorous  on  the  wing,  and  was 
known  from  time  immemorial  to  Maori  and  pakeha.  Let  us 
hope  that  centuries  hence  the  "  cry  of  the  riroriro  "  will  be  heard 
in  the  land. 

The  little  brown  creeper,  quiet  and  shy,  never  a  very  common 
bird,  and  one  difficult  to  see,  always  keeping  in  dense  bush 
and  thicket,  is  hardly  ever  heard,  save  wben  calling  to  or  feeding 
its  young  ones.  Nesting  in  high  trees,  its  little  cup-shaped 
domicile  is  always  hard  to  get  at ;  but  where  the  bird  once 
flourished  it  cannot  now  be  easily  found.  No  doubt  they  still 
exist  far  back  on  Maungatua,  but  in  the  bush  near  Dunedin 
I  had  not  observed  one  for  quite  ten  years  until  I  saw  six  all 
together  in  some  manuka  in  the  Newington  Bush  on  the  4th 
June,  1907.  They  are  seen  at  Wyndham  in  little  flocks,  and 
are  often  called  the  "  grey  creeper  "  and  "  the  other  canary  "  ; 
but  that  the  bird  is  hardly  known  to  many  is  evidenced  by  the 
name  not  being  even  mentioned  by  one  of  Mr.  Drummond's 
correspondents . 


492  Transactions. 

The  tomtit  and  the  robin,  two  well-known  birds,  the  latter 
almost  the  tamest  in  our  islands,  have  no  doubt  almost  "  gone 
under  "  for  this  very  reason.  An  additional  factor  is  the  method 
of  nesting,  which  is  generally  in  a  broadleaf  stump,  under  an 
overhanging  rock,  or  beneath  a  fern-bush — all  situations  easily 
got  at  by  weasel,  mouse,  or  rat.  It  is  eminently  satisfactory 
to  find  from  Mr.  Drummond's  Bulletin  that  the  North  Island 
robin  is  reported  as  present  in  nearly  a  dozen  places  on  the  main 
land  to-day,  to  say  nothing  of  being  common  on  Kapiti  and 
the  Barriers  ;  in  the  South  he  is  very  common  in  the  Maruia 
Forest,  where,  however,  weasels  have  obtained  a  fair  footing  ; 
he  is  reported  at  Hokitika,  Wyndham,  Tautuku,  Tuapeka, 
Waihemo,  Riccarton,  Ashburton,  and  as  being  fairly  common 
on  Banks  Peninsula.  Tomtits  are  reported  as  uncommon,  but 
present,  in  numerous  places  in  both  islands.  Robins  are  also 
reported  at  Wainuiomata,  Waipa,  Greytown,  Raglan,  Rama- 
rama,  Wairoa,  Wanganui,  Waitotara,  Tararuas,  Te  Peke,  and 
other  places  in  the  North  Island  to-day,  although  Sir  Walter 
Buller's  last  volumes  assert  that  the  bird  is  extinct. 

The  ground-lark,  once  swarming  on  all  downs  and  tussock- 
clad  hills,  is  still  fairly  common,  especially  on  the  Canterbury 
Plains.  He  is  blamed  by  the  farmer  for  the  destruction  of  his 
tender  shoots  of  grain,  and  consequently  shares  the  penalty  of 
the  feathered  members  of  the  community  known  as  the  "  bird 
nuisance."  In  spite  of  cultivation,  he  holds  his  own.  His 
nest  is  carefully  concealed,  and  is  very  hard  to  find.  His  insect- 
food  abundant,  supplemented  by  grain  and  grass  ;  his  natural 
enemy,  the  hawk,  largely  diminished  ;  his  two  or  three  broods 
of  four  or  five  chicks  reared  well  out  in  the  field  or  tussock  land, 
far  from  danger,  and  allowing  of  a  wide  sweep  of  vision  and 
time  for  concealment  before  the  enemy  can  come  near — our 
ground-lark  holds  his  own  with  the  best  of  them,  and  can  be 
seen  on  the  Town  Belt  or  golf-links  almost  any  day  of  the  week. 
Reports  sav  that  he  is  holding  his  own  in  many  localities  ;  he  is 
increasing  notably  in  trie  Wairarapa,  at  Dannevirke,  Wimbledon, 
Waikaka  Valley,  and  elsewhere. 

The  thrush,  one  of  our  finest  whistlers  and  singers — a  hand- 
some bird — is  now  very  rare  throughout  the  Islands.  Formerly 
common  at  the  Taieri,  by  the  seventies  he  had  gone  from  that 
locality  entirely,  and  no  one  I  can  find  remembers  him  near 
Ljunedin.  He  still  exists  at  Milford  Sound  and  among  the 
fastnesses  of  the  West  Coast.  In  1895  I  saw  over  a  dozen  at 
Milford  Sound,  and  in  the  bush  around  we  heard  the  whistling 
of  many  more.  Later  on  Mr.  George  Fenwick  reported  that 
thrushes  were  common,  though  he  did  not  see  them  himself. 

The  black  and  pied   fantails  (t  iwakauaka   and  piwakawaka) 


Fulton. — Disappearance  of  Neic  Zealand  Birds.        493 

famed  in  Maori  lore,  once  very  common  near  every  house,  have 
almost  entirely  gone  from  our  midst.  I  saw  a  solitary  pied 
fantail  in  Jubilee  Park  last  spring,  and  a  black  fantail  in  Leith 
Valley  Road  in  November  of  last  year.  At  the  Taieri  an  occa- 
sional specimen  still  lingers,  but  their  extreme  gentleness,  their 
fearlessness,  and  curiosity,  allow  of  their  easy  destruction. 
I  am  pleased  to  report  that  they  are  considered  common  at 
Raglan,  Piako  County,  Rangi-iwi,  Port  Albert,  Tauranga, 
Stratford,  Manganui,  Castlepoint,  and  numbers  of  other  places 
throughout  the  islands.  One  came  into  my  garden  at  Pitt 
Street  on  the  21st  April,  1907. 

Our  crows,  once  common  in  many  localities,  but  always 
restricted  in  their  range,  far  from  common  near  Dunedin  in  the 
fifties,  and  never  seen  by  white  man  between  Mount  Cargill 
and  Catlin's  River,  have  long  disappeared  from  our  locality, 
though  they  are  still  sparingly  distributed  through  the  pine 
forests  of  Owaka,  at  Milford  Sound,  and  in  the  Urewera  country. 
The  North  Island  crow  is  reported  as  being  extinct  in  a  large 
number  of  places,  but  is  still  mentioned  as  existing  in  four  or 
five  ;  and,  as  the  birds  in  the  Tararua  Range  are  said  to  be  as 
common  as  ever,  it  is  probably  found  there  in  numbers  ;  he  is 
also  found  at  Komako,  Maungatawhiri,  Ngatimaru,  Raglan, 
and  Mount  Egmont.  The  South  Island  crow  is  reported  as 
being  pretty  common  at  Stewart  Island  :  this  bird,  which  is 
quiet  and  shy  in  its  habits,  largely  a  ground  feeder,  its  nest  an 
easy  object  for  weasels  and  rats  to  rob  (being  built  not  many 
feet  from  the  ground),  is  now  found  only  on  rare  occasions.  The 
collecting  fiend  has  had  a  great  deal  to  do  with  the  destruction 
of  these  birds  ;  and  the  small  clutch  of  eggs — not  more  than 
two  or  three — has  also  been  a  factor  of  no  mean  importance. 

The  saddleback  was  never  to  my  knowledge  known  at  the 
Taieri  or  near  Dunedin.  At  all  times  curiously  local  in  its 
habits,  rarely  found  on  the  east  coast  of  our  Island,  fairly 
common  in  the  Waikato  district,  the  Barriers,  and  the  depths 
of  the  West  Coast,  it  was  to  be  met  with  sparingly  at  Milford 
ten  years  ago,  but  latterly  I  hear  it  is  almost  gone.  It  is  still 
found  at  Wairoa  Gorge,  near  Nelson.  For  some  reason  which 
is  not  quite  clear,  the  saddleback  had  the  habit  of  accompanying 
the  flocks  of  yellow-heads  on  their  expeditions  ;  possibly  some 
food  found  by  the  chattering  crew  was  made  more  easily  attain- 
able by  the  saddleback  than  when  he  hunted  alone.  Much 
of  the  scarcity  of  the  saddleback  is  due  to  the  insatiable  greed 
of  collectors,  who  invariably  bagged  every  one  that  appeared. 
Sir  Walter  Buller  himself  makes  that  clear  in  his  supplementary 
volumes.  The  saddleback  is  practically  extinct  in  inhabited 
parts  of  New  Zealand. 


494  Transactions. 

The  huia,  a  bird  we  have  all  read  about,  but  few  have  ever 
seen  alive,  is  now  very  nearly  extinct.  Almost  confined  to  the 
mountain  fastnesses  of  the  Ruahine  and  dark  glens  of  the  Tara- 
rua  and  Rimutaka  Mountains,  the  huia  was  never  common, 
but  it  is  reported  as  still  existing  in  several  places  in  the  North 
Island — Mangahao,  Ngatimaru  survey,  Raglan,  Komako,  Kiin- 
bolton,  Ihuraua,  Castlepoint,  and  Rongomai.  Several  observers 
are  emphatic  in  the  statement  that  the  birds  were  decimated 
by  the  high  price  offered  for  them  by  collectors. 

Of  our  climbing-birds,  the  most  notable  is  the  kakapo — 
that  weird  night-bird,  half-owl  half-parrot.  Before  the  coming 
of  the  pakeha  he  had  been  trapped  by  the  Maori,  and  so  deci- 
mated were  his  ranks  that  he  was  to  be  found  only  in  limited 
localities,  and  those  almost  untrodden  by  the  foot  of  man.  He 
could  be  found  fairly  frequently  near  the  West  Coast  sounds 
about  ten  years  ago  ;  but  the  tourist  traffic,  with  its  accom- 
panying dogs,  cats,  rats,  and,  later,  ferrets  and  weasels,  has 
brought  this  unique  flightless  bird  to  the  verge  of  extinction. 
His  great  white  eggs  placed  in  hollow  logs,  and  his  stupidity 
and  sleepiness  in  the  daytime,  make  him  and  his  progeny  an  easy 
prey  to  the  four-legged  enemy.  In  the  great  wooded  forests 
of  Tuhoe  Land  the  bird  is  absolutely  extinct.  The  experiment 
of  breeding  them  at  Resolution  Island  will  not,  I  fear,  prove  a 
permanent  success,  as  I  hear  on  good  authority  that  a  weasel 
has  been  seen  there. 

The  "  passing  "  of  the  parrakeet  has  always  seemed  to  me  a 
strange  business.  The  different  species  are  all  active,  vigorous, 
powerful  of  flight,  pugnacious,  and  are  able  to  subsist  on  grain, 
fruit,  seeds,  insects,  and  native  berries  such  as  fuchsia,  &c. ;  they 
nest  in  hollow  trees,  and  lay  a  large  number  of  eggs — eight  to  ten 
in  one  nest ;  and  it  seems  curious  that  the  bird  should  have 
practically  gone.  He  came  in  flocks  in  the  seventies ;  he  was 
a  scourge  in  the  eighties  ;  he  was  shot  in  thousands  for  his 
destruction  of  grain  and  fruit ;  then  gradually  he  seemed  to  dis- 
appear ;  and  now  he  is  rarely  heard  near  civilised  parts.  Pos- 
sibly the  destruction  of  timber,  the  felling  of  the  broadleaf-tree, 
his  favourite  home  ;  the  attacks  of  weasels  and  rats,  which  can 
get  into  his  nesting-holes  ;  the  increase  of  bees  in  hollow  trees  ; 
shooting  by  farmers  ;  trapping  by  fruit-growers,  are  all  reasons 
why  this  pretty  little  parrot  has  gone.  The  non-success  of  the 
large  clutches  of  eggs  in  preserving  the  species,  in  strange 
contradistinction  to  those  of  the  kaka  with  three  or  four  eggs, 
points  perhaps  to  the  presence  of  some  unknown  natural  enemy 
against  which  this  bird  has  had  to  struggle.  It  can  be  seen  and 
heard  rarely  in  the  dense  bush  at  Catlin's,  Milford  Sound, 
Hawke's  Bay,  and  Waikato  ;    but  reports  from  all  parts  of  the 


Fulton. — Disappearance  of  New  Zealand  Birds.        495 

Islands  say  that  the  bird  is  becoming  very  scarce  everywhere. 
He  is  very  common  on  the  outlying  islands,  where  there  are  no 
cats,  weasels,  or  bees ;    but  on  the  mainland  he  is  rare. 

The  kaka  is  a  splendid  bird,  with  a  harsh  cry  but  a  melodious 
whistle.  His  sociable  habits,  his  fine  plump  berry-fed  body, 
and  his  comparative  fearlessness,  have  made  him  an  easy  prey 
to  sportsman  and  settler  alike.  The  kaka  hatches  out  two  or 
three  chicks,  but,  according  to  Mr.  Richard  Henry,  is  credited 
with  deliberately  sacrificing  whichever  of  her  offsprings  she 
judges  to  be  the  weaker.  This  practice  has  not  been  confirmed 
by  independent  observation,  and  I  cannot  yet  accept  such  an 
instance  of  parental  wickedness.  The  kaka  was  snared  by  the 
thousands  before,  the  white  man  came,  and  the  early  settlers 
in  the  sixties  failed  to  make  much  impression  on  them,  when 
they  lined  stable-roof  and  grain-stacks,  eating  the  grain,  and 
doing  immense  damage.  They  were  shot  in  hundreds,  often  a 
dozen  at  one  shot,  but  even  that  did  not  exterminate  this  deter- 
mined creature.  At  Catlin's  he  is  now  becoming  scarce  ;  and 
can  you  wonder  at  it,  when  Dunedin  "  sports "  come  back 
from  their  expeditions  with  three,  four,  or  six  sacks  full  of 
kakas  and  pigeons  ?  The  kaka  still  swarms  in  the  dense  bush 
in  Nelson,  Marlborough,  and  Stewart  Island,  but  must  eventually 
go.  In  Maruia  he  is  found  in  thousands.  Last  year  three  men 
shot  four  hundred  in  three  days  in  that  district,  and  the  state- 
ment was  made  to  me  that  they  were  required  for  food !  The 
bird  is  also  plentiful  on  the  coast  range  of  the  Bay  of  Plenty. 

The  kea  will  remain  stationary  unless  a  determined  crusade 
of  flockowners  is  made  against  him.  Powerful  of  flight,  savage 
and  strong  with  bill  and  claw,  he  can  effectively  deal  with 
ferret  and  rat — probably  turn  the  tables  upon  them,  and  make 
them  food  for  his  young.  Nesting  deep  in  the  rocks,  where 
seldom  the  eggs  or  young  can  be  found  ;  inhabiting  wild  and 
mountainous  country,  seldom  visited  save  by  the  shepherd  ; 
wary  and  alert ;  tame  in  the  early  days — he  has  no  doubt 
become  more  fearful  on  the  approach  of  man.  He  has  acquired 
a  taste  for  mutton,  which  may  prove  his  undoing  ;  still,  the  kea 
has  a  chance  of  surviving  most  of  our  feathered  friends  of  New 
Zealand. 

Of  our  two  cuckoos — the  bronze  and  the  long-tail — we  need 
have  no  apprehension.  Both  migrants,  and  both  parasitic, 
they  are  finding  homes  for  their  young  in  the  nests  of  the 
imported  birds.  When  our  warbler,  our  robin,  our  tomtit, 
and  our  canary  go,  there  will  still  be  the  nests  of  the  sparrow, 
linnet,  blackbird,  and  thrush  for  his  workhouse  brats.  The 
canary  and  robin  and  others  may  all  go  under,  but  the  koekoea 
will  never  fail  to  find  homes  for  his  young  and  nests  to  rob  from 


496  Transactions. 

among  the  imported  birds.     Both  birds  are  predatory,  and  have 
been  repeatedly  seen  eating  eggs  of  other  species. 

Our  wood-pigeon,  the  most  beautiful  and  harmless  bird  we 
have,  one  of  nature's  noblemen,  is,  like  the  kaka,  deliberately 
being  gunned  to  death.  At  Catlin's,  where  it  breeds,  it  is  actu- 
ally shot  in  the  breeding  season.  It  lays  but  two  eggs,  in  a 
flimsy  and  unprotected  mass  of  sticks,  which  does  duty  for  a 
nest,  and  numbers  of  young  perish  on  this  account  alone. 
If,  as  now  happens,  we  permit  of  indiscriminate  shooting  at 
this  time,  the  eggs  and  callow  young  will  rot,  and  this  noble 
bird  will  soon  be  wiped  out  of  existence  altogether.  The  pigeon 
is  still  plentiful  throughout  New  Zealand,  but  with  this  sort 
of  thing  going  on  he  must  go.  A  weasel  has  been  seen  to  run 
up  a  tree  to  a  pigeon  on  the  nest,  and,  with  its  active  twisting 
and  turning,  running  round  and  round,  so  fascinate  the  bird 
that  it  has  fluttered  helplessly  to  the  ground,  where 'it  was  soon 
"  polished  off."  You  will  thus  see  that  unless  some  strong  steps 
are  taken  to  protect  this  bird  from  man  and  beast,  neither  bush 
resident  nor  nature-lover  elsewhere  will  have  any  opportunity 
of  seeing  it  outside  of  our  museums.  The  birds  are  found  in 
immense  numbers  in  the  Urewera  country,  the  Upper  Wanganui 
and  Rangitikei  districts,  Whangape,  northern  Auckland,  and 
on  the  Bay  of  Plenty  coast  ranges. 

On  the  Taieri  Plain  in  the  fifties  our  native  quail  abounded 
through  tussock  and  flax-bush.  Now,  search  New  Zealand 
through  length  and  breadth  and  you  will  find  them  not.  They 
are  absolutely  extinct.  Tussock-burning  destroyed  nests  and 
eggs  innumerable.  These  birds  were  the  natural  quarry  of  the 
sparrow-hawk  and  harrier.  Their  eggs — from  ten  to  twelve — 
were  carefully  hidden  in  tussock,  and  their  numerous  progeny 
were  ready  to  hide  almost  the  moment  they  were  hatched  ;  but 
what  chance  had  they  when  the  settler  came  among  them  ? 
The  quail  was  an  active  little  bird,  with  keen  sight,  but  poor  of 
flight,  beautifully  coloured  (for  protection),  a  born  mimic,  and 
clever  hider,  and  the  sparrow-hawk  and  harrier  and  Maori 
would  never  have  exterminated  it,  but  the  white  man,  with 
his  gun,  dog,  and,  worst  of  all,  his  agricultural  implements — 
his  plough,  his  harrow,  his  poisoned  grain,  his  scythe,  and,  later, 
his  reaping-machines — has  gradually  done  the  deed,  and  the 
quail  has  gone. 

Our  kiwis,  with  our  kakapos,  are  being  wiped  out  of 
existence.  Conspicuous,  easily  captured  by  dog  or  weasel, 
hatctting  but  one  egg  at  a  time,  and  the  egg  or  young  com- 
paratively easily  got  at,  no  wonder  the  kiwi  finds  the  tourist 
traffic  too  much  for  it,  and  that  the  day  of  the  wingless  bird 
is  over.     Semi-nocturnal  as  it  is,   man  is  not  its  hunter,  but 


Fulton. — Disappearance  of  Neto  Zealand  Birds.       497 

man's  satellites,  the  dog  and  the  weasel.  Save  only  on  our 
sanctuary  islands  are  the  birds  common,  on  Stewart  Island, 
Resolution  Island,  Kapiti,  and  the  Barriers ;  but  they  are 
practically  extinct  on  the  south-east  coast  of  the  North  Island 
and  the  great  forests  of  Tuhoe-land. 

Of  our  waders,  the  plovers,  dotterels,  oyster-catchers,  and 
stilts,  moving  from  district  to  district,  breeding  in  shingle- 
beds,  eggs  protectively  coloured,  -inhabiting  marshes  and  sea- 
coast,  are  brought  less  into  contact  with  civilisation,  and  in 
many  localities — especially  the  great  river-beds  of  Canterbury — 
are  still  fairly  numerous.  On  the  great  inland  lakes  of  Wanaka 
and  Te  Anau,  and  even  as  near  as  Waikari  and  Cargill's  Links, 
the  dotterels  and  plovers  are  to  be  found  to-day.  They  are 
reported  as  increasing  at  Sheffield  and  Waihemo. 

Our  herons  are  very  rare.  The  kotuku,  that  magnificent 
bird,  so  scarce  even  on  the  advent  of  the  pakeha  that  for  the 
Maori  to  have  seen  one  was  evidence  of  a  lifetime,  too  often 
mercilessly  shot  by  every  observer,  his  limits  are  narrowed  down 
to  a  few  spots  in  Westland.  A  pair  were  known  at  Stewart 
Island  last  year ;  now  only  one  remains  there.  Perhaps  one 
or  two  specimens  are  still  to  be  seen  at  Te  Anau  ;  the  rest  are  in 
museums  or  private  houses.  Two  years  ago  one  appeared  in 
Pelichet  Bay  for  a  few  days,  and  then  disappeared.  Herons 
(species  not  mentioned)  are  reported  from  Raglan  and  Waianiwa. 

The  bine  heron  is  almost  as  rare,  and  the  little  bittern  is 
extinct.  The  bittern  is  seen  now  and  again  where  swamps 
remain,  but  as  these  are  drained  he  is  bound  to  disappear.  It 
is  pleasing  to  note  that  he  is  still  seen  at  Mongonui,  Raglan, 
Kaikoura,  Ramarama,  Waiau,  Ashburton,  Patea,  Tautuku,  on 
the  Islands  of  Kapiti,  Stewart,  and  the  Barriers,  and  in  the 
Urewera  swamps.     He  is  also  recorded  at  the  Bay  of  Islands. 

Our  godwits,  migratory,  and  breeding  elsewhere,  will  always 
remain  with  us,  but  our  snipe  has  gone,  save  on  our  outlying 
islands. 

Our  weka,  breeding  in  hollow  logs  and  under  fern-trees,  or 
in  clumps  of  Astelia,  suffers  to  a  great  extent  with  our  kiwi 
and  kakapo.  He  seems  to  be  weathering  the  storm  in  many 
places,  for  he  is  on  the  increase  at  Romakoriki,  Havelock, 
Hawke's  Bay,  Rongotea,  Waverley,  Albert  Land,  Carnarvon, 
Streamlands,  and  the  Maruia  Forest.  He  is  reported  from 
many  other  places  to  be  present,  if  not  on  the  increase.  He  is 
probably  too  powerful  for  weasel  and  stoat,  and  is  getting  the 
best  of  them.  He  has  found  some  suitable  food,  and  some  better 
nesting-places.  Government  protection  is  undoubtedly  assisting 
him,  and  so  this  flightless  bird  has  a  better  chance  than  his 
confreres  ;   but,  as  far  as  can  be  seen,  near  us  and  on  the  hills 


498  Transactions. 

and  valleys  of  Otago  he  is  very  scarce.  He  is  disappearing 
from  Ashburton,  West  Oxford,  and  Tauranga,  and  is  considered 
extinct  at  Wairio  and  other  places. 

Our  striped  rail,  water-crake,  and  swamp-crake,  with  the 
bittern  and  the  pukeko,  remain  only  in  such  portions  of  our 
islands  as  are  undrained  so  far  as  swamp  exists.  Mr.  Hamilton 
reported  them  common  at  Petane  in  1885,  and  I  quote  from 
the  Trans.  New  Zealand  Inst.  :  "  A  cat  belonging  to  a  neigh- 
bour has  brought  me  in  during  the  years  1881-1883  seventeen 
specimens  of  this  crake  and  twelve  specimens  of  the  next  species 
(Tabuensis).  Both  of  these  birds  abound  in  the  raupo  swamps 
of  the  district,  but  are  extremely  difficult  to  obtain  unless  a 
friendly  mouser  takes  the  matter  in  hand."  If  one  cat  could 
do  this  damage  twenty-three  years  ago  there  is  little  wonder 
that  these  birds  are  now  seldom  seen. 

Whether  our  takahe  still  remains  deep  in  the  fastnesses  of 
the  West  Coast  time  alone  will  show.  Probably  in  some  of  the 
yet  untrodden  millions  of  acres  of  south-west  Otago  we  shall 
light  upon  him.  He  is  much  too  big  and  powerful  for  the 
weasel,  so  that  if  he  is  in  the  forests  at  this  day  he  will  remain 
till  such  time  as  man  and  dog  rout  him  out. 

The  pukeko,  a  conspicuous  bird,  with  slow  laborious  flight, 
is  fast  going — his  swamps  extensively  drained,  his  nests  easily 
found.  To  a  great  extent  gregarious  and  easily  potted  in 
numbers,  slow  and  stupid  in  getting  out  of  range,  exchanging 
his  original  diet  of  lizards,  worms,  and  small  birds'  eggs  for 
the  product  of  the  farmyard  and  paddock,  he  falls  a  prev  to 
poisoned  grain  and  gunshot.  He  is  still  found  fairly  common 
in  the  great  swamps  of  the  north,  but  near  habitations  he  is 
very  rare.  I  see  he  is  plentiful  near  Wanaka,  and  is  blamed  for 
a  lot  of  egg-stealing  ;  and  at  Parua  Bay  he  is  credited  with 
destroying  crops  of  maize.  He  is  on  the  increase  at  Waimate, 
Streamlands,  and  Waikaka  Valley,  and  is  held  as  common  at 
Ramarama,  but  elsewhere  throughout  the  Islands  he  is  very 
scarce.  Grain- poisoning  caused  his  downfall ;  where  such  has 
been  abandoned  he  shows  signs  of  increase. 

There  remain  our  ducks — those  beautiful  birds  which  we 
allow  to  be  slaughtered  year  after  year.  Our  blue-duck  still 
exists  in  North  Canterbury  in  great  numbers,  and  on  some  of 
the  inaccessible  inland  lakes  and  in  the  Maruia  Forest  may  be 
found  nesting  in  trees  20  ft.  or  30  ft.  from  the  nearest  creek.  It 
seems  a  pity  that  numbers  of  our  inland  lakes  are  not  made 
sanctuaries,  and  stiff  fines  imposed  on  Law-breakers.  I  think 
the  "  sport,"  who  represents  a  very  small  proportion  of  our 
people,  should  have  his  daily  bag  curtailed — say,  three  to  six 
pairs   of  grey-duck,    teal,   or    paradise ;   or,   if  popular  feeling 


Fulton. — Disappearance  of  Neiv  Zealand  Birds.       499 

could  be  aroused,  put  a  stop  to  native-bird  shooting  altogether, 
and  preserve  for  all  time  our  splendid  creatures. 

The  paradise  duck  can  be  seen  in  many  places  in  immense 
numbers ;  and  in  the  Maruia  Forest  he  abounds,  but  as  this  is 
settled  he  will  go.  This  is  one  of  the  loveliest  birds  we  have,  and 
might  well  have  protection.  A  friend  described  to  me  how  he 
surprised  a  pair,  with  ten  small  ones,  on  a  branch  of  the  Buller 
River.  The  old  birds  instantly  took  to  the  water  of  the  swollen 
rushing  torrent,  and,  beak  to  tail,  sailed  diagonally  across,  with 
all  the  tiny  ones  resting  safely  above  and  against  them  as  they 
bravely  breasted  the  turbulent  stream.  A  more  beautiful 
device  or  a  more  marvellous  display  of  instinct  could  hardly  be 
imagined. 

Our  grebe  and  dabehick,  expert  divers,  remain  in  fair 
numbers  on  some  of  the  lakes  in  Nelson  and  Otago.  Alert 
enough  to  escape  gunshot,  diving  at  the  flash,  breeding  in  hidden 
places,  living  more  in  lagoons  and  lakes  than  swamps,  escaping 
in  this  way  the  fate  of  the  swamp  birds,  useless  as  food,  too 
clever  for  the  sportsman,  and  protected  by  the  Government, 
they  survive,  and  let  us  hope  will  long  survive,  their  less  for- 
tunate brethren. 

Our  sea-birds  I  have  touched  on.  Our  shags,  though  shot 
at  and  destroyed  in  great  numbers,  remain  with  us  :  breeding 
in  rookeries  in  almost  inaccessible  positions,  feeding  on  fresh- 
and  salt-water  fish,  they  have  a  better  chance.  Our  penguins, 
though  slaughtered  in  millions  for  oil  on  the  outlying  islands, 
remain  and  will  remain  when  our  present  generation  has  been 
forgotten. 

Dr.  Cockayne  urges  the  setting- apart  of  Stewart  Island  as  a 
sanctuary  for  our  flora  and  fauna.  Let  us  of  the  New  Zealand 
Institute  give  the  utmost  assistance  in  urging  this  matter  on  our 
local  Members  of  Parliament.  What  a  magnificent  scheme ; 
what  pleasure  it  will  give  the  tourist  of  the  future  and  our  child- 
ren's children  to  be  able  to  go  in  two  days  to  an  island  teeming 
with  the  kiwi,  kakapo,  weka,  tui,  mocker,  pigeon,  kaka,  robin, 
fantail,  tomtit,  and  canary — all  these  and  more  abounding,  and 
making  the  forest  welkin  ring  ! 

In  addition  to  this,  I  should  urge  the  preservation  of  such 
areas  as  Maruia  :  1,000  acres  of  virgin  bush  (totara  and  pine), 
teeming  with  bird-life,  is  plotted,  and  being  felled  for  settle- 
ment. Here  the  kiwi  and  weka  are  common ;  weasels  are 
plentiful ;  kakapos  are  very  rare  ;  tuis,  mockers,  wrens,  and 
robins  are  very  common ;  tomtits  not  so  common ;  fantails 
plentiful ;  canaries  very  common,  in  flocks ;  pigeons  very 
common  ;  kakas  shot  in  hundreds  ;  and  paradise  and  other 
ducks   very   common   indeed.     Surely   as   good,   if   not   better, 


500  Transactions. 

agricultural  land  can  be  obtained  elsewhere,  at  less  cost.  Why- 
hack  down,  burn,  and  destroy  splendid  timber  land  in  one  part 
of  the  country  and  feebly  attempt  to  sow  and  replant  with  trees 
other  parts  ?  Why  make  an  attempt  to  preserve  our  native 
birds  by  providing  sanctuaries  in  parts  where  birds  are  scarce, 
when  in  other  parts,  where  the  birds  exist  in  myriads,  we  wan- 
tonly and  by  law  exterminate  and  destroy  them  1 

Thus  have  we  taken  a  hurried  survey  of  our  avifauna,  birds 
many  of  them  unique  in  the  scientific  world.  The  least  valuable 
for  game,  the  poorest  songsters,  the  least  interesting  still  survive 
in  considerable  numbers  ;  the  battered  ranks  of  the  rest  tell 
the  sad  tale.  It  is  indeed  pitiful  reading,  this  passing  of  the 
New  Zealand  ornis. 


Art.   XLIV. — The  Little  Barrier  Bird-sanctuary. 
By  James  Drummond,  F.L.S.,  F.Z.S. 

[Read  before  the  Philosophical  Institute  of  Canterbury,  2nd  October,  1907.] 

By  the  courtesy  of  Mr.  T.  E.  Donne,  General  Manager  of  the 
Department  of  Tourist  and  Health  Resorts,  and  of  Mr.  R.  H. 
Shakespear,  Conservator  of  the  Little  Barrier  Bird-sanctuary, 
I  was  able,  at  the  beginning  of  1907,  to  spend  a  fortnight  on 
the  island  sanctuary,  and  to  observe  some  of  the  birds  there. 

The  numbers  of  our  birds  have  been  greatly  decreased  in 
recent  years.  Species  have  been  driven  out  of  districts  with 
the  advance  of  civilisation,  and  many  birds  which  were  once 
plentiful  in  nearly  all  parts  are  now  found  only  in  secluded  spots. 
But  I  do  not  think  that  the  position  is  as  bad  as  it  has  been 
freely  reported  to  be.  Extensive  inquiries  have  convinced  me 
that  we  are  justified  in  striking  a  much  brighter  note  than  has 
been  struck  by  writers  on  ornithology  in  this  country  for  a  long 
time.  It  is  quite  probable  that  no  native  bird  has  been  com- 
pletely exterminated  since  Europeans  came  to  New  Zealand  ; 
there  is,  at  any  rate,  no  absolute  evidence  to  show  that  any 
New  Zealand  bird  has  boon  exterminated  during  the  past  sixty 
years.  The  great  destruction  which  has  been  wrought,  how- 
ever, has  placed  our  birds  in  a  distressing  position,  and  a  visit 
to  one  of  their  sanctuaries  has  a  deep  interest  for  all  New - 
Zealanders. 

The  Little  Barrier  Island  is  four  miles  and  a  half  long  and 
three   miles  and   three-quarters  wide.     It   lies   forty-three  miles 


Deummond. — Little  Barrier  Bird-sanctuary .  501 

north-east  of  Auckland,  in  the  mouth  of  the  Hauraki  Gulf. 
Cape  Rodney,  the  nearest  mainland,  is  fifteen  miles  to  the  west, 
and  the  Great  Barrier  is  twelve  miles  to  the  south-east.  Al- 
though the  island  is  only  10,000  acres  in  area,  no  human  being 
has  crossed  it.  This  is  accounted  for  by  its  extremely  rough 
and  rugged  character,  which  adds  to  its  suitableness  for  a  bird- 
sanctuary. 

I  took  an  early  opportunity  of  seeing  the  birds.  There  was 
no  difficulty  in  this  respect  whatever.  Large  numbers  of  them 
came  close  to  Mr.  Shakespear's  house,  flying  in  his  garden,  and 
making  themselves  quite  at  home.  I  had  only  to  go  outside 
my  tent  to  see  scores  of  bell-birds,  whiteheads,  tuis,  tomtits, 
fantails,  and  other  small  species.  They  are  not  interfered 
with  in  any  way,  and,  as  they  have  confidence  in  the  members 
of  Mr.  Shakespear's  family,  who  are  the  only  residents  on  the 
island,  they  show  no  signs  of  fear.  Guided  by  my  observations, 
I  should  say  that  the  bell-bird  (Anthornis  melanura,  the  kori- 
mako  and  makomako  of  the  Maoris)  is  the  most  plentiful.  It 
is  found  in  all  parts  of  the  island,  and  seems  to  be  present  in 
countless  numbers.  The  best  feature  of  its  presence  is  the 
fact  that  it  is  increasing  at  a  fairly  rapid  rate.  Its  nest  is  often 
found  in  thick  manuka  and  bush  within  fifty  yards  of  Mr.  Shake- 
spear's house.  Mr.  Shakespear  told  me  that  in  the  previous 
season  a  pair  safely  hatched  out  their  brood  in  a  clump  of  manuka 
overshadowing  the  meat-safe,  ten  yards  from  the  back  door. 
Twenty  years  ago  Sir  Walter  Buller  said  that  "  it  is  only  a  ques- 
tion of  a  few  years  and  the  sweet  notes  of  this  native  songster 
will  cease  to  be  heard  in  the  grove,  and  naturalists,  when  com- 
pelled to  admit  the  fact,  will  be  left  to  speculate  and  argue 
as  to  the  causes  of  its  extinction."  A  visit  to  the  Little  Barrier 
sanctuary  shows  that  there  are  no  grounds  for  adopting  such 
a  pessimistic  tone.  If  the  bell-bird  was  chased  entirely  off 
the  -mainland — which  is  a  remote  probability  according  to  re- 
ports received  lately — there  is  every  likelihood  that  it  will  live 
on  the  Little  Barrier  as  long  as  the  forest  there  is  preserved 
and  the  sacred  character  of  the  island  is  maintained. 

I  saw  the  North  Island  robin  (Miro  australis)  several  times. 
I  was  delighted  with  the  little  whitehead  (Certhiparus  albi- 
capill  is),  another  bird  which  the  North  Island  claims  as  its 
exclusive  property.  On  the  Little  Barrier  the  whiteheads  exist 
in  very  large  numbers.  Scores  of  them  came  hopping  and 
flitting  down  to  watch  me  make  my  way  through  the  thick 
manuka,  and  followed  me  as  long  as  I  remained  in  the  manuka- 
clad  parts  of  the  island.  The  whiteheads  and  the  fantails 
seem  to  be  very  friendly,  and  a  flock  of  whiteheads  may  often 
be  seen  accompanied  by  two  or  more  fantails. 


502  Transactions. 

The  time  at  my  disposal  on  the  island  was  drawing  to  a  close 
before  I  saw  a  stitch-bird  (Pogonornis  cincta,  Maori  hihi).  Two 
days  previous  to  my  departure  I  was  given  the  privilege  of  an 
interview.  I  was  one  of  a  party  of  five  or  six.  We  were  on  our 
way  to  the  Heri-Kohu  Peak,  and  at  noon,  when  we  were  walk- 
ing along  a  bushy  track,  a  stitch-bird,  which  had  come  down 
from  the  heights,  flitted  about  in  an  excited  manner  on  the 
boughs  above  our  heads.  When  its  cry  was  imitated  it  came 
closer,  and  flew  among  some  saplings,  uttering  a  cry  which  might 
be  written  "  steech,  steech,"  repeated  quickly  several  times. 
The  bird  was  a  female.  She  ran  along  the  boughs,  carrying 
her  tail  erect,  at  almost  a  right  angle  with  her  body,  and  her 
wings  drooping.  She  turned  round  several  times,  and  was  the 
very  embodiment  of  motion.  Her  cry  hardly  ceased,  and  there 
were  very  few  moments  when  she  took  her  black  eyes  off  us. 
We  saw  seven  stitch-birds  on  that  occasion.  They  were  all 
females.  This  is  rather  strange,  as  the  female  is  described  by 
several  naturalists  as  being  specially  shy  and  retiring.  The  :,t  tch- 
birds  I  saw  on  the  Little  Barrier  were  very  tame.  They  had 
no  fear,  and  even  when  a  stone  was  thrown  into  the  trees  on 
which  they  alighted,  they  only  flitted  off  to  another  bough. 
The  locality  which  they  favour  with  their  presence  most  is  in 
the  north  of  the  island.  The  haunt  can  be  visited  only  with 
great  difficulty  and  inconvenience.  There  these  birds  are 
numerous,  and  as  many  as  fifteen  have  been  counted  at  one 
time. 

I  saw  a  good  deal  of  the  white-breasted  tits,  which  came 
near  my  tent  every  morning  and  gave  me  many  opportunities 
for  watching  them  as  they  flitted  about  in  the  low  scrub.  They 
have  a  peculiar  method  of  alighting  on  a  tree.  The  tits  seem 
to  be  utterly  devoid  of  fear,  and  they  make  close  friends  with 
all  visitors  to  the  island. 

I  saw  many  other  native  birds.  Tuis  are  present  in  large 
numbers.  The  two  migratory  cuckoos — the  long-tailed  cuckoo 
(Urodynamis  taitiensis)  and  the  shining  cuckoo  (Cha/cococcyx 
lucidus) — come  regularly  in  their  seasons,  and  depart  again 
for  their  other  homes  across  the  sea.  In  the  summer  the  long- 
tailed  cuckoo's  note  may  be  heard  at  almost  any  time  of  the 
day,  and  also  at  night.  I  have  heard  the  loud,  shrill,  and  pierc- 
ing "  whirrt,  whirrt,"  continued  for  nearly  a  quarter  of  an 
hour,  ringing  out  over  the  gorges  at  intervals  of  from  six  to 
twenty  seconds. 

I  did  not  hear  the  "  song  of  dawn  "  on  the  Little  Barrier 
in  its  perfection.  It  can  be  heard  at  its  best  only  in  the  spring, 
and  the  time  of  my  visit  was  too  late  in  the  season.  In  the 
spring  months,  as  soon  as  the  dawn  appears,  all  the  birds  burst 


Drummond. — Little  Barrier  Bird-sanctuary,  503 

into  a  joyous  chorus.  The  bell-birds  and  the  tuis  lead,  and 
are  followed  by  the  robins,  the  whiteheads,  and  others,  until 
an  almost  incredible  volume  of  sound  is  created.  There  is  a 
surprising  variety  of  notes,  and,  as  they  are  all  poured  forth 
at  the  same  time,  they  make  a  din  of  bewildering  music. 

Pied  shags  (Phalacrocorax  varius)  are  plentiful,  and  are 
increasing  rapidly.  There  are  several  shaggeries  near  the  cliffs  ; 
the  largest  is  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile  from  Mr.  Shake- 
spear's  house.  The  black  shag  (P.  carbo)  is  occasionally  seen 
on  the  island.  I  became  personally  acquainted  with  the  black 
petrel  (Majaqueus  parkinsoni)  and  Cook's  petrel  (CEs'relata 
cooki).  both  of  which  nest  in  the  burrows  upon  the  heights. 
The  cry  of  the  black  petrel,  which  is  often  heard  at  night,  is 
unlike  that  of  any  other  bird.  It  sounds  like  the  combination 
of  a  soft  whistle  and  a  deep  "  whirr,"  coming  from  a  husky 
throat.  I  examined  the  nest  of  one  of  these  birds,  in  the  soft 
soil  at  the  top  of  Mount  Heri-Kohu.  The  nest  was  at  the  end  of 
a  burrow,  about  2  ft.  long.  A  female  bird  was  sitting  on  a  single 
egg,  and  a  chick  had  just  thrust  its  head  through  the  shell. 
The  bird  and  the  egg,  after  being  examined,  were  placed  back 
in  the  nest,  and,  in  accordance  with  the  rules  of  the  island, 
neither  was  interfered  with. 

There  are  no  huias  (Heteralocha  acutirostris),  saddlebacks 
(Creadion  carunculatus),  North  Island  crows  (Glaucopis  wilsoni), 
wekas  (Ocijdromus),  pukekos  (Porphyrio  melanonotus),  bitterns, 
or  North  Island  thrushes  (Turnagra  tanagra)  on  the  island. 
The  godwit  (Limosa  novce-zealandice),  the  turnstone  (Arenaria 
interpres),  and  the  knot  (Tringa  canutus),  the  famous  migrants 
that  breed  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere  and  spend  the  summer 
in  New  Zealand,  do  not  visit  the  island  in  their  regular  flights, 
and  shore  birds  are  seldom  found  on  the  sanctuary,  as  there 
are  no  mud  flats  or  beaches  and  no  food-supplies  for  them. 
Ducks  are  entirely  absent. 

In  1868  Captain  F.  W.  Hutton  reported  that  saddlebacks 
were  present,  but  were  not  common,  and  Mr.  Reisehek  recorded 
their  presence  in  1886  ;  but  Mr.  Shakespear  has  seen  none 
during  the  ten  years  he  has  resided  on  the  island.  Mr.  Rei- 
schek states  that  he  saw  the  North  Island  kiwi  (Apteryx  man- 
telli),  but  it  must  always  have  been  very  rare  on  the  island. 
In  1862  Captain  Wood,  of  the  "  Porpoise,"  spent  several  days 
on  the  island  with  the  express  object  of  obtaining  kiwis,  but 
found  none  ;  and  Sir  George  Grey,  who  spent  two  days  on  the 
south-west  portion  of  the  island,  met  with  the  same  disappoint- 
ment. Mr.  Shakespear  has  not  seen  any  kiwis  on  the  island. 
Four  years  ago  Captain  Bollons,  of  the  "  Hinemoa,"  liberated 
a  southern  kiwi  (Apteryx  australis)  and  two  North  Island  kiwis 


504  Trcnisactiojis. 

(A.  mantelli)  from  New  Plymouth,  and  also  kakapos  (Stringops 
habroptilus),  but  nothing  has  been  seen  of  them,  although  they 
may  be  getting  on  very  well. 

Large  numbers  of  kiwis  could  be  liberated  on  the  island 
with  advantage.  Some  of  these  birds  might  be  sent  from  the 
south  in  the  "  Hinemoa,"  which  could  make  a  special  trip  for 
the  purpose ;  and  wekas  and  other  native  birds  might  also  be 
placed  on  the  sanctuary. 

Several  introduced  English  birds  are  on  the  island.  Amongst 
these  are  the  house-sparrow,  the  thrush,  the  blackbird,  and 
the  starling.  They  do  no  harm  to  the  native  birds,  and  the 
English  birds  and  the  native  birds  do  not  associate. 

Of  other  animal  life,  insects  are  exceedingly  plentiful  ; 
among  them  are  four  species  of  wetas,  notably  the  large  black 
one.  A  tuatara  lizard  (Sphenodon  punctatus),  nearly  2  ft.  long, 
was  caught  near  the  landing-place,  but  was  liberated  again. 
It  is  supposed  that  other  tuataras  exist  on  the  island,  but  this 
is  the  only  one  that  has  been  seen  by  the  present  residents. 
There  is  at  least  one  large  colony  of  bats.  It  is  thought  that 
they  belong  to  the  short-tailed  species  (Mystacops  tuberculatus), 
which  was  supposed  to  be  on  the  verge  of  extinction.  I  was 
taken  to  the  tree  in  Kauri  Gully  where  the  bat-colony  exists, 
but  no  bats  were  seen.  The  Maori  rat  (Mus  exidans)  is  very 
plentiful.  There  is  a  rare  black  lizard,  which  lives  amongst  the 
boulders  near  the  shore.  A  gigantic  earthworm  (Diporochceta 
gigantea)  is  found  on  the  hills  in  the  bush.  One  specimen  mea- 
sured 4  ft.  6  in.  long.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  earthworms  in  the 
world.     The  waters  teem  with  fish  of  different  species. 

The  birds,  on  the  whole,  thrive  exceedingly  well  on  the 
sanctuary.  Many  of  them  are  increasing  fairly  rapidly  in 
numbers,  and  there  is  no  evidence  to  show  that  any  of  the 
species  represented  will  become  extinct.  The  Norway  rat,  the 
pig,  and  the  English  bee  are  entirely  absent,  and  cats  are  very 
rare.  A  theory  has  been  put  forth  that  the  English  honey-bee 
takes  possession  of  the  forests  and  drives  honey-eating  birds, 
like  the  bell-bird  and  the  tui,  away  from  the  flowers  and  starves 
them  out.  Bees  will  take  their  share  of  the  honey  from  the 
forest  flowers,  but  it  is  hardly  likely  that  they  do  so  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  affect  the  numbers  of  the  birds.  As  far  as  any 
evidence  brought  forward  goes,  I  think  the  bees  should  be 
acquitted,  and  all  the  blame  for  the  birds'  banishment  from 
large  tracts  of  country  should  be  placed  upon  cats  and  rats, 
and  bush  fires,  and  on  the  advance  of  civilisation  generally. 

The  climate  of  the  island  is  very  mild  ;  there  has  been  only 
one  frost  in  the  past  ten  years.  In  all  respects  it  is  an  ideal 
place    for   a    bird-sanctuary.     It  is   well   wooded;     there  is  no 


Dkummond. — Little  Barrier  Bird- sanctuary.  505 

regular  communication  with  the  outside  world  ;  absolutely  no 
natural  enemies  of  the  birds  are  present,  except  a  few  cats ;  and 
unauthorised  people  cannot  land  without  experiencing  incon- 
venience, hardship,  and  danger.  The  members  of  Mr.  Shake- 
spear's  family,  the  only  residents,  are  devoted  to  the  birds, 
which  are  given  all  the  protection  that  can  be  accorded  to  them, 
and  it  is  gratifying  to  know  that  on  this  sanctuary  they  are 
secure  from  enemies. 

Only  two  visits  from  unauthorised  persons  have  been  dis- 
covered since  Mr.  Shakespear  has  resided  on  the  island.  Owing 
to  the  island's  rugged  character,  it  is  impossible  to  traverse  it 
from  coast  to  coast,  but  Mr.  Shakespear  frequently  goes  round 
in  his  yacht. 

I  append  a  list  of  birds  on  the  sanctuary,  supplied  by  Mr. 

Shakespear : — 

Grey  warbler  ;   riro-riro  (Pseudogerygone  igata).     Very  plentiful. 

White-breasted  tit ;    miromiro  (Petrceca  toi-toi).     Plentiful. 

North  Island  wood-robin ;  toutouwai  (Miro  australis).  In- 
creasing. 

Pied  fantail ;    tiwakawaka  (Rhipidura  flabellifera).     Plentiful. 

Whitehead  ;  popokatea  (Certhiparus  albicapillus).  Very  plenti- 
ful, increasing  rapidly. 

Ground-lark  ;   pihoihoi  (Anthus  novce-zealandice).     Pare. 

White-eye  ;   tauhou  (Zoster ops  ccerulescens).     Very  plentiful. 

Tui  (Prosthemadera  novce-zealandice).     Plentiful. 

Stitch-bird ;  hihi  (Pogonornis  cincta).  Keeps  to  the  rugged 
parts,  but  is  increasing. 

Bell-bird  (Anthornis  melanura).     Present  in  very  large  numbers. 

Bush-wren,  or  rifleman  ;  ti-titi-pounamu  (Acanthidositta  chloris). 
Rare. 

Kingfisher  ;  kotare  (Halcyon  vagans).  Not  so  plentiful  as  on 
the  mainland,  but  fairly  plentiful. 

Shining  cuckoo ;  pipiwharauroa  (Chalcococcyx  lucidus).  Plen- 
tiful in  the  summer  ;  its  egg  has  been  found  in  the  grey 
warbler's  nest  on  the  Great  Barrier,  but  the  egg  has  not 
been  found  on  the  Little  Barrier. 

Long-tailed  cuckoo  ;    koekoea  (Urodynamis  taitiensis).    Plentiful. 

Kaka  (Nestor  meridionalis) .     Plentiful. 

Red-fronted  parrakeet ;  kakariki  (Cyanoramphus  novce-zea- 
landice).    Plentiful  at  certain  tiroes  of  the  year. 

Yellow-fronted  parrakeet ;  kakariki  (Cyanoramphus  auriceps). 
Rather  rare. 

Kakapo  (Stringops  habroptilus).  Three  liberated  four  years 
ago,  but  not  seen  since. 

Bush-hawk  ;    karewarewa  (Nesierax  australis).     Plentiful. 

Harrier  ;   kahu  (Circus  gouldi).     Plentiful. 


506  Transactions. 

Morepork  ;   ruru  (Ninox  novce-zealandice).     Plentiful. 
Wood-pigeon  ;   kuku  (Hemiphaga  novce-zealandice).     Plentiful. 
Marsh-rail ;   koitareke  (Porzana  afjinis).     Very  rare. 
White-fronted  tern  (Sterna  frontalis). 
Caspian  tern  (Hydroprogne  caspia).     Has  been  seen. 
Black-backed  gull  ;    karoro  (Larus  dominicanus) .      Nests  on  the 

north-west  corner  of  the  island. 
Red-billed  or  mackerel  gull  (Larus  scopulimis).     Does  not  nest 

on  the  island. 
Nelly,  or  giant  petrel  (Ossifraga  gigantea). 
Diving  petrel  (Pelecanoides  urinatrix). 
Rain-bird  (CEstrelata  inexpectata). 
Mutton-bird  (Puffinus  griseus). 
Shearwater  (Puffinus  gavia). 
Allied  shearwater  (Puffinus  assimilis). 

Cook's  petrel  (CEstrelata  cooki).     Nests  on  the  top  of  the  hills. 
Black  petrel  (Majaqueus  parkinsoni).     Nests  on  top  of  the  hills. 
Grey-faced  petrel  (CEstrelata  macroptera). 
Dove  petrel,  or  whalebird  (Prion  vittatus).     Nests  on  the  Hen 

and  Chickens. 
Blue  penguin  (Eudyptula  minor).     Nests  on  the  island. 
Gannet ;    takapu  (Sula  senator).     Nests  on  the  Great  Barrier. 
Black  shag  ;    kawau  (Phalacrocorax  carbo).     Seen  sometimes. 
Pied   shag ;     kawan    (P.    varius).     Present   in   large    numbers ; 

nests  on  the  south-western  side  of  the  island  ;    and,  as  it  is 

never  interfered  with,  it  is  increasing  in  numbers  rapidly. 
Kiwi  (Apteryx  australis  and  A.  mantelli). 


Art.  XLV. — The  Grasses  of  Tutira. 
By  H.  Guthrie-Smith. 

[Read  before  the  Hawke's  Bay  Philosophical  Sorirty,  IW  Siptonber.   1007.] 

Tutira  lies  in  the  northern  part  of  Hawke's  Bay.  about  mid- 
way between  Napier  and  Mohaka,  and  contains  limestone  of  the 
varieties  known  to  geologists  as  'Hawke's  Bay  limestone" 
and  "  Maungahararu  limestone,"  the  former  bounding  the 
eastern  edge  of  the  run,  and  containing  many  distinct  and  un- 
broken shells  ;  the  latter  the  western,  and  exposing  only  crushed 
fragments.  Between  these  ranges  are  conglomerate  and  sand- 
stone formations;  papa  crops  out  in  a  few  places.  Slips  are 
very  numerous  on  the  steep  country,  and  the  whole  surface  has 
been  heavily  sprinkled  with  wind-borne  pumice-grit. 


Guthrie-Smith. — Grasses  of  Tutira.  507 

For  the  purposes  of  this  paper,  I  should  say  that  the  Tutira 
Run  includes  part  of  the  Maungahararu  Education  Reserve, 
part  of  the  Heru-o-turea  Block,  part  of  Waitara,  &c.  About 
300  ft.  above  sea-level  on  its  eastern  edge,  it  rises  to  over  3,200  ft. 
on  the  west. 

There  are  soils  of  every  quality,  from  small  alluvial  flats 
and  papa  outcrops  to  wretched  low  valleys  stretching  north 
and  south  between  barren  ridges  of  sandstone,  and  areas  of  black 
humus  superposed  on  pumice-grit.  Grasses,  therefore,  have  the 
choice  of  many  varieties  of  soil  in  this  block  of  land. 

The  run  came  into  my  possession  in  1882,  but  before  that 
date  a  certain  amount  of  work  had  been  done — fires  had  been 
run  through  large  tracts  of  fern,  some  fencing  had  been  erected, 
and  a  very  small  proportion  of  the  country  grassed.  The  re- 
mainder was  almost  wholly  in  fern,  tutu,  or  koromiko.  Where 
there  was  bush  it  was  unfelled,  and  where  there  was  swamp  it 
was  undrained.  I  may  say,  therefore,  that  I  have  seen  the  run 
being  grassed,  or  grassing  itself,  for  the  last  twenty-five  years, 
and  have  noted  practically  its  whole  development  from  the 
old  indigenous  herbage.  For  over  a  quarter  of  a  century  op- 
portunities have  been  afforded  of  watching  the  arrival  of  each 
grass,  its  subsequent  spread,  or  in  some  cases  its  decline.  The 
long  struggle  between  the  native  and  alien  species  still  continues, 
but  is  inclining  slowly  though  surely  to  the  former.  Sufficient 
time  has  now  elapsed  to  prove  which  are  the  best  of  these  native 
grasses,  and  which,  also,  are  the  aliens  most  likely  to  survive — 
survive,  that  is,  in  fair  competition,  and  where  the  soil  cannot 
be  turned  over  by  the  plough. 

For  such  reasons  my  paper  may  be  of  interest  to  those  who 
have  perhaps  in  other  districts  watched  similar  processes.  It 
must,  however,  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  notes  and  observations 
here  recorded  are  purely  local,  and  probably  would  not  apply, 
or,  at  any  rate,  would  not  apply  with  equal  force,  to  the  better 
soils  and  drier  climate  of  southern  Hawke's  Bay. 

Looking  back  over  this  quarter  of  a  century,  the  feature 
that  stands  out  first  and  foremost,  and  most  prominently,  is 
the  enormously  lessened  fertility  of  to-day's  surface  soil  as 
compared  with  that  of  the  early  eighties.  The  proofs  of  this 
are  the  visibly  thinner  proportion  of  rye-grass  and  the  almost 
complete  disappearance  of  white-clover,  the  decrease  in  carry- 
ing-capacity, the  lessened  germinating-power  of  grass-seed  (sur- 
face-sown), the  later  "  spring  "  in  the  grass,  the  later  lambings, 
and  possibly  too  the  pretty  general  change  throughout  Hawke's 
Bay  from  Lincoln  to  Romney  Marsh,  Corriedales,  and  other 
hardier  breeds. 

Watching  a  paddock  year  by  year  and  month  by  month  is 


508  Transactions. 

like  watching  the  face  of  a  constant  companion — the  daily 
difference  is  imperceptible,  yet  revert  to  any  day  ten  or  twenty 
vears  back  and  the  alteration  is  at  once  marked  and  striking. 
So  it  is  with  all  processes  of  nature ;  and  the  condition  of  one 
particular  paddock  at  Tutira  is  marked  to  me  specially  by 
two  events — the  one  in  1882,  the  other  in  1884.  On  the  former 
date  Vermont  merino  rams  were  bought  from  an  Otago  stud 
flock.  A  paddock  was  "  spelled,"  or  shut  up  for  them,  and 
into  it  they  were  turned  on  arrival.  They  throve  very  badly, 
although  we  had  confidently  reckoned  on  their  improvement 
owing  to  the  fine  sward  of  rye- grass.  The  year  1884  was  one  of 
those  dry  seasons  during  which  less  than  20  in.  of  rain  fell  during 
the  year  in  parts  of  Hawke's  Bay,  and  when  even  the  Tutira 
hillsides  began  to  dry  up.  We  were  trying  everywhere  to  take 
advantage  of  this  dry  weather,  yet  no  attempt  even  was  made 
to  burn  this  part  of  the  run,  owing  to  the  mat  of  white-clover. 
To-day  in  this  same  paddock  rye-grass  is  almost  altogether 
absent  and  white-clover  is  almost  gone  ;  they  make  a  very 
miserable  show  when  compared  with  the  exuberant  growth  of 
over  twenty  years  ago.  Now  the  turf  consists  of  Danthonia 
pilosa,  D.  semiannidaris,  Microlcena  stipoides,  ratstail,  Poa  pra- 
tensis,  Bromus  arvensis,  Festuca  myuros,  Aira  caryophylla,  a  pro- 
portion of  fog  and  cocksfoot,  a  patch  or  two  of  florin,  stunted 
trefoil  and  Trifolium  arvense,  sorrel  and  the  smaller  plants  that 
now  form  a  considerable  proportion  of  to-day's  sward,  members 
of  the  geranium  family,  Cotvla  asiatica,  oxalis,  &c. 

These  are  particular  instances  of  one  paddock  ;  other  evi- 
dence will  cover  the  whole  run — the  evidence  of  the  bees.  In 
the  eighties  and  early  nineties  every  hollow  tree  and  every 
crannied  rock  on  Tutira  contained  a  colony  of  bees,  and  in  the 
eighties  more  especially  there  were  scores  of  swarms  hang- 
ing in  low  manuka  and  tutu  bushes.  The  country  was  then 
actually  grey  with  the  heads  of  white-clover,  and  the  bees  pro- 
spered accordingly.  At  this  present  date  all  the  rocks  are  empty 
of  bees,  and  though  clover  is  not  rye-grass,  yet  its  disappear- 
ance (comparatively  speaking)  will  show  the  great  alteration  in 
the  constituents  of  the  surface  soil,  and  make  it  easy  to  under- 
stand how  rye-grass  too  should  have  so  largely  disappeared. 

Evidence  even  more  convincing  is  the  smaller  amount  of  stock 
carried.  Referring  to  the  old  station  diaries,  I  find  that  when 
only  about  1,500  acres  of  ground  had  been  sown  seven  thousand 
sheep  passed  through  the  shed.  Of  these,  between  two  and 
three  thousand  survived,  rather  than  lived,  on  the  con- 
glomerate or  sandstone  ranges.  There  they  just  managed  to 
exist  on  tutu,  fern-root  exposed  in  wild-pig  roofings,  and 
patches  of   native  grass — grass  that  has  since  been  smothered 


Guthrie- Smith. — Grasses  of  Tutira.  509 

in  fern  and  manuka,  but  which  twenty-five  years  ago  was 
probably  the  last  vestige  of  the  herbage,  that  succeeded  the 
ancient  totara  forest  which  at  one  time  covered  this  region. 
The  1,500  acres  of  artificially  sown  grass  would  seem,  therefore, 
to  have  carried  the  balance  of  four  thousand  five  hundred  or 
more.  That  it  did  so  I  am  convinced,  for  not  only  were  the 
sheep  a  smaller  breed,  but,  as  there  was  almost  no  fencing, 
only  the  most  fertile,  most  sweet,  and  most  warm  portions  of 
the  run  were  worked  by  stock.  These  few  spots  of  really  good 
land  were  the  old  Native  clearings  and  gardens,  the  long  narrow 
strips  immediately  beneath  the  limestone  outcrop  (the  ancient 
ocean-floor),  sheep-camps,  papa  slips,  and  the  northern  and 
western  faces  of  the  best  hills. 

During  the  succeeding  years  up  to  the  present  date  two  syn- 
chronous processes  have  been  going  on,  the  one  the  "  breaking 
in  "  and  surface-sowing  of  new  blocks,  the  other  the  deteriora- 
tion of  the  blocks  already  sown.  For  many  seasons  the  run  has 
passed  successively  through  the  phases  of  rapid  increase,  slight 
increase,  balance,  slight  decrease,  and,  lastly,  rapid  decrease. 

The  lessened  germinating  -  power  of  surface  -  sown  English 
grasses  has  been  mentioned  ;  and  experience  leads  me  to  be- 
lieve that  the  second  sowing  of  inferior  lands  that  have  got 
rough  with  fern  and  been  again  burnt  is  a  partial  failure,  while 
a  third  sowing  is  almost  pure  waste  of  seed.  Even  those  that 
germinate  make  a  miserable  appearance,  and  are  mostly  destroyed 
by  winter  frosts  and  rain.  The  ground  is,  in  fact,  "  sick  "  of 
these  alien  species,  just  as  during  the  later  years  it  has  become 
"  sick  "  of  thistles,  the  seeds  of  which  do  not  germinate,  though 
they  must  be  thick  on  the  ground,  for  immediately  the  soil  is 
stirred  they  appear  in  thousands.  (This  past  season — 1907 — I 
notice  crops  of  thistles  again  appearing  to  some  extent,  but  only 
on  sheep-camps,  and  not,  as  used  to  be  the  case,  over  entire 
hillsides  and  over  hundreds  of  acres.) 

Lastly,  the  later  "  spring  "  in  the  grass  and  the  later  lamb- 
ings  may,  I  think,  in  large  measure  be  attributed  to  this  deterio- 
ration of  the  turf.  In  the  eighties  and  early  nineties  a  change 
about  mid- August  could  be  quite  easily  detected  in  the  colour 
of  the  warm  hillsides,  and  about  that  date  there  was  a  slight 
but  quite  perceptible  new  growth.  Nowadays  it  is  the  first 
week  in  October  before  much  "  spring  "  can  be  observed  in  the 
turf.  For  many  years,  too,  our  lambings  have  been  getting 
later,  owing  to  the  elimination,  I  believe,  of  the  more  nutritious 
grasses  and  the  consequently  later  date  of  the  ewes  coming  in 
season.  Sheep-farmers  will  understand  that  in  the  case  of  later 
"  springs  "  and  later,  lambings  I  have  not  forgotten  to  take  into 
account    the    results    of    heavier    and    lighter    stocking.     With 


510  Transactions. 

average  stocking,  however,  I  believe  I  am  making  no  mistake 
in  attributing  our  later  springs  and  later  lambings  to  the  dying- 
out  of  rye-grass  and  clover,  and  the  lessened  vigour  of  cocksfoot, 
Poa  pratensis,  and  fog. 

My  conclusion  is,  then,  that  land  is  worth  less  than  it  was  a 
quarter  of  a  century  ago.  Larger  prices  are  now  paid  for  it 
because  there  is  a  greater  demand,  and  partly  because  we  now 
know  better  how  it  should  be  treated. 

The  alien  grasses  at  present  on  the  run,  or  which  have  been 
on  the  run,  are — Paspalum  dilatatum,  Panicum  crus-gaUi,  Se- 
taria  viridis,  Phalaris  canariensis,  Anthoxanthum  odoratum,  PMeum 
pratense,  Alopecurus  pratensis,  Polypogon  monspeliensis,  Agrostis 
alba,  Holcus  lanatus,  Aira  caryophylla,  Cynodon  dactylon,  Briza 
minor,  Dactylis  glomerata,  Cynosurus  cristatus,  Poa  annua,  Poa 
pratensis,  Festuca  elatior,  Festuca  ovina,  Festuca  rubra,  Festuca 
myuros,  Festuca  bromoides,  Bromus  mollis,  Bromus  racemosus, 
Bromus  unioloides,  Lolium  perenne,  Lolium  italicum,  Agropyrum 
repens,  Hordeum  murinum,  Sporobolus  indicus,  "  Johnson's 
grass." 

Of  these  thirty-one  species,  only  nine  have  been  purposely 
sown,  or  eleven  if  Cynosurus  cristatus  and  Agrostis  alba  are 
counted.  These  two,  however,  were  only  sown  long  after  the 
species  had  found  their  own  way  on  to  the  land.  Twenty-two, 
therefore,  out  of  the  thirty-one  enumerated  have  reached  Tu- 
tira  unseen  and  unnoticed. 

The  vast  proportion  of  the  run  does  not  carry  anything  that 
can  be  dignified  by  the  name  of  turf.  On  the  pumiceous  lands, 
although  to  some  extent  the  hill-tops  have  become  grassed,  the 
valleys  still  support  only  fern  and  manuka. 

Over  this  country  at  intervals  of  five  or  six  years  fires  can  be 
run.  After  such  a  fire,  until  the  first  rain  falls,  a  delicate  grey 
veil  of  brittle  ash,  still  retaining  the  mould  of  the  fern-fronds, 
lies  light  on  the  surface,  and  a  pleasant  scent  of  sea-salt  pervades 
the  air — an  odour  similar  to  that  of  new-cut  bracken.  Here 
and  there  a  totara  log,  relic  of  the  old  forest,  sends  up  a  blue 
smoke,  and  over  the  desolate  scene  sail  harriers  looking  for 
roast  lizards  and  small  birds. 

The  fust  shower  lays  the  light  ash  flat  on  the  ground,  chang- 
ing the  surface  to  jet-black,  and  almost  at  once  new  growths 
appear.  Most  prominent  at  first  are  the  bright  circles  of  verdure 
from  the  red-clover  roots  ;  green  needles  shoot  up  from  the  old 
roots  of  Danthonia  semiannularis ;  multitudes  of  small  convex 
Microlcena  stipoides  leaves  appear  singly ;  some  of  the  old 
cocksfoot-stools  show  life  — indeed,  as  the  ground  around  hardens, 
this  »rass  survives  to  a  greater  degree.  Then  thistle-seeds 
germinate — few   in   comparison  to   the  sward  of  prickly  stars 


Guthrie-Smith. — Grasses  of  Tutira.  511 

of  the  eighties  ;  and  hardly  later  appear  the  cotyledon  leaves 
of  clover,  trefoil,  pelargonium,  geranium,  silene,  capeweed,  &c. 
Poa  pratensis  perhaps  shows  up  last,  though  not  least  satis- 
factorily, as  this  grass  is  better  suited  than  any  other  alien  grass 
to  stand  alternate  smothering  and  fire.  Seedling  fog,  cocksfoot, 
Danthonia,  Dichelachne  crinita,  break  through  the  soil,  and 
finally  appear  millions  of  circinate  fern-fronds. 

During  the  years  succeeding  such  a  fire,  and  on  such  quality 
of  soil,  the  fern  gradually  succeeds  in  covering  the  worst,  or  at 
any  rate  the  softest,  part  of  the  land,  and  everywhere  the  seed- 
ling manuka  has  come  up  thick — it  is  impossible  to  eat  the  fern 
out  thoroughly,  as  then  there  would  be  only  manuka  left,  com- 
pletely putting  a  stop  to  future  burning.  Then,  as  time  passes, 
and  the  surface  becomes  less  open,  stock  "  work  "  it  less. 

Lastly,  after  four  or  five  years,  the  red-clover  has  been  well- 
nigh  eaten  out ;  the  white-clover  and  trefoil  has  been  smothered  ; 
the  grasses  have  disappeared  from  the  valleys  ;  only  the  long 
soft  plumes  of  Dichelachne  crinita  pierce  the  sea  of  fern-fronds  ; 
and  the  sheep-camps  are  deep  in  tall  seeding  cocksfoot  and  fog. 
Last  stage  of  all  in  this  eventful  history,  the  country  again 
becomes  "  rough  "  enough  to  "  carry  a  fire." 

On  this  type  of  soft  spongy  pumiceous  soil  at  each  successive 
fire  the  net  result  is  a  slight  increase  of  native  grass  on  the  hill- 
tops, an  increase  of  manuka,  and  a  lessened  growth  of  fern 
throughout  the  whole  block.  Twenty-five  years  ago  there  was 
scarcely  any  manuka  on  Tutira,  or  the  small  patches  that  did 
exist  were  confined  to  the  most  sterile  flats.  The  limestone 
or  conglomerate  lands,  however,  take  grass  well,  and  real  turf 
exists  on  the  steeper  Tutira  hills,  and  on  the  Maungahararu 
tops.  • 

By  examination  of  the  turf  on — A,  hill-tops  (other  than  sheep- 
camps)  and  upper  slopes  (Tutira)  ;  B,  the  lower  more  fertile 
foot-hills  or  flats  (Tutira)  ;  C,  hill-tops  (Maungahararu),  sown 
in  the  sixties,  we  shall  get  a  fair  idea  of  the  proportion  and 
varieties  of  grass  carried,  and  the  admixture  of  clover,  trefoil, 
Carex,  rush,  and  weed. 

On  acre  A  we  shall  discover  traces  of  rye  and  white-clover, 
and  cocksfoot  and  fog,  this  last  thickest  on  the  damper  slopes  ; 
Poa  pratensis,  well  established  ;  goose-grass,  often  much  stunted 
and  depauperated  ;  Festuca  myuros  ;  Aira  caryophylla  ;  perhaps 
a  little  crested  dogstail  and  a  little  florin  ;  Danthonia  semi- 
annularis,  an  important  constituent,  and  Microloena  stipoides, 
another  important  constituent ;  Danthonia  pilosa,  on  the 
hardest,  driest  spots ;  Trijolium  minus,  a  valuable  plant ; 
T.  arvense,  worthless.  There  will  be  several  members  of  the 
Carex  family,  notably  C.  Colensoi,  which  is  spreading  fast,  and 


512  Transactions. 

which  stock  will  not  touch,  leaving  the  spreading  tufts  of  this 
wiry  and  worthless  plant  to  crowd  out  better  herbs  and  grasses. 
There  will  be  a  little  yarrow  ;  cranesbill ;  four  sorts  of  Geranium 
— G.  sessiliflorum,  mierophylhnn,  molle,  and  dissectmm — all  of 
them  eaten  by  sheep  ;  sorrel  ;  and,  finally,  a  dozen  or  so  of 
weeds. 

On  acre  B  we  shall  find  a  much  larger  proportion  of  rye. 
white-clover,  cocksfoot,  and  fog  ;  rather  more  Poa  pratensis ; 
better  -  grown  goose-grass;  a  sprinkling  of  crested  dogstail 
and  ratstail ;  and  decidedly  less  of  such  natives  as  Danthonia 
pilosa,  D.  semiannularis,  and  Microlama  stipoides.  The  weeds 
will  be  thistles,  sow-thistles,  Plantago  lanceolata,  and  P.  major. 
Generally  speaking,  in  fact,  we  shall  find  that  the  better  soils 
hold  the  better  grasses  for  the  longer  period. 

On  acre  C  almost  no  rye,  no  cocksfoot,  no  fog,  no  white- 
clover,  and  but  little  trefoil  is  noticeable.  The  alien  grasses  are 
sheep's  fescue,  fiorin,  crested  dogstail,  Poa  pratensis  ;  but  the 
bulk  of  the  pasture  is  Danthonia  semiannularis,  with  a  consider- 
able proportion  of  Poa  anceps,  and  Poa  Colensoi,  while  the  weeds 
in  this  half  are  almost  all  subalpine  varieties. 

This  ground  was  sown  in  the  late  sixties,  and  here  too.  I 
am  told  by  former  managers,  white-clover  was  at  one  time 
abundant.  To  recapitulate  :  Acre  C,  probably  the  oldest  turf 
of  the  run,  has  deteriorated  to  its  normal  sheep  -  carrying 
capacity  ;  acre  B  has  still  got  to  reach  its  minimum  value  as 
pasture,  for  in  it  the  native  grasses  and  the  less-good  aliens 
are  still  ousting  the  better  varieties  ;  acre  A  is  undergoing  a 
similar  process,  its  already  less-valuable  sward  being  yearly 
depauperised  and  adulterated  more  and  more  largely  with 
varieties  of  worthless  Trifolium  or  Carex. 

Before  proceeding  to  consider  the  native  grasses  of  the  run 
it  will  be  interesting  to  note  the  manner  of  arrival  and  spread 
of  the  alien  species.  Lolium  perenne,  Dactylis  alomerata.  and 
Poa  pratensis  were  the  grasses  almost  exclusive! \  sown  on  Tutiia 
in  the  eighties,  and  among  such  seed,  no  doubt,  appeared  llol- 
cus  I  attains,  Bromus  mollis,  B.  racemosus,  Poa  annua.  Festuca 
myuros,  F.  bromoidcs.  Aira  varyophyll-a,  and  Briza  minor.  On 
the  Maungahararu  Range,  then  a  separate  ran,  probably  Agrostis 
alba,  Cynosurus  eristatus,  Festuca  rubra,  and  F.  ovina  were  pur- 
posely sown.  At  Tutiia  the  last  two  have  never  been  sown. 
and  only  in  1906  were  the  two  first  named  sprinkled  as  an 
experiment  in  one  part  of  the  run. 

Of  all  these  grasses,  Lo/iion  perenne  is  the  most  valuable, 
and  the  deterioration  of  the  pasture  is  owing  to  its  gradual 
disappearance;  cocksfool  is  another  almost  equally  useful 
grass;    and  Poa  pratensis  ranks  third,  I  believe,  on  Tutira,  for 


Guthrie-Smith. — Grasses  of  Tutira.  513 

it  is  not  only  a  good  turf  grass,  but  also  the  least  injured  by 
fire.  Fog  is  also  a  species  we  could  ill  spare  :  it  seeds  profusely, 
and  appears  everywhere  after  a  fern  or  bush  fire,  and,  if  not 
allowed  to  get  too  rank,  sheep  will  thrive  admirably  on  it. 
Hundreds  of  bags  of  this  seed  have  been  scattered  over  Tutira, 
and,  though  temporarily  dying  out  in  many  places,  it  always 
reappears. 

Bromus  mollis,  B.  racemosus,  and  Poa  anna  all  throw  a  certain 
amount  of  feed,  but  latterly  have  become  much  less  evident  in 
the  turf,  and  only  nourish  nowadays  in  gardens  and  worked 
soils. 

Festuca  myuros,  F.  bromoides,  Aira  caryophylla,  and  Briza 
minor  are  almost  useless.  The  last,  however,  is  a  handsome 
little  stranger  ;  it  has  always  kept  to  the  warmer  part  of  the 
run,  and,  although  not  now  so  common  as  formerly,  still  appears 
after  fern  or  manuka  fires. 

Agrostis  alba  and  Cynosurus  cristatus  are  grasses  that  have 
appeared  during  the  last  few  seasons  in  many  parts  of  the  run. 
I  do  not  doubt  that  shortly  they  will  be  very  important  factors 
in  the  pasture. 

Festuca  ovina  and  F.  rubra  are  species  of  which  stock  are 
fond,  judging  from  their  cropped  conditions  ;  if  they  spread 
at  all,  it  is  very  slowly. 

The  other  alien  grasses  on  the  run  have  appeared  in  the 
following  order :  Cynodon  dactylon,  Anihoxanthum  odoratum, 
Sporobolus  indicus,  Festuca  elatior,  Lolium  italicum,  Phleum 
pratense,  Alopecurus  pratensis,  Bromus  unioloides,  "  Johnson's 
grass,"  Setaria  viridis,  Panicum  crus-galli,  Phalaris  canariensis, 
Hordeum  murinum,  Polypogon  monspeliensis,  Paspalum  dila- 
tatum,  Agropyrum  repens. 

Cynodon  dactylon  appeared  in  1884  on  the  edge  of  the  old 
pack-track,  where  it  strikes  the  southern  end  of  the  lake.  In 
the  twenty-three  years  that  have  passed  it  has  never  become 
accustomed  to  the  hills,  but  still  is  to  be  found  on  the  road- 
sides. It  makes  some  attempt  to  take  possession  of  gardens 
and  dry  soils,  and  has  also  established  itself  on  the  sandy  edges 
of  the  lake. 

Anthoxanthum  odoratum  appeared  in  1885  on  a  low  clay 
hillock  in  the  home  paddock,  near  the  lake.  Since  then  this 
grass  has  slowly  been  spreading  up-hill ;  but  after  all  these  years, 
and  although  now  fully  50  acres  are  overrun,  there  is  compara- 
tively little  in  other  parts  of  the  run.  It  seems  to  have  stuck 
to  one  spur  of  fairish  clay,  taking  no  hold  of  the  pumiceous 
ground  in  the  north  and  west,  and  but  little  of  the  better  limp- 
stone  soil  to  the  south  and  east. 

A  handful  of  the  seed  of  Sporobolus  indicus  was  gathered 
by  my  overseer  whilst  on  a  holiday  in  Auckland,  and  dropped 
17 — Trans 


514  Transactions. 

about  the  place  on  his  return.  This  is  one  of  these  inferior 
aliens  that  is  destined  to  take  possession  of  large  tracts  of  the 
run.  It  is,  however,  better  than  most  of  the  native  grasses, 
and  will  be  welcome  on  certain  soils.  It  originally  reached 
New  Zealand  in  hay  used  for  feeding  a  cargo  of  horses  from 
Valparaiso. 

Festuca  elatior  probably  arrived  in  grass-seed.  As  far  as  I 
know,  there  is  but  a  single  plant  on  the  run. 

Lolium  italicum,  Bromus  unioloides,  and  Phleum  pratense 
have  been  purposely  sown  on  Tutira.  The  first  and  second 
have  done  fairly  well  on  good  worked  soils ;  the  third  has  been 
twice  sown  and  twice  been  given  a  good  chance,  and  altogether 
failed  on  each  occasion — at  rare  intervals  I  see  an  occasional 
plant.  jjj 

i  Alopecurus  pratensis  has  found  its  own  way  to  the  run,  where 
it  is  a  very  rare  plant. 

For  several  years  I  had  a  plant  of  "  Johnson's  grass  "  in  my 
garden,  and  although  the  plant  thoroughly  established  itself, 
and  even  to  some  extent  spread,  the  seed  never  matured.  Cattle 
and  horses,  I  remember,  used  to  eat  the  great  succulent  leaves 
with  eagerness. 

Setaria  viridis  has  been  a  garden-weed  for  several  years. 

Panicum  crus-galli  appeared  in  a  lawn-mixture,  and  Phalaris 
canariensis  in  bird-seed. 

Hordeum  murinum  has  quite  lately  arrived  on  the  road- 
sides, almost  certainly  carried  in  mud  adhering  to  wheels. 

Polypogon  monspeliensis  appeared  also  on  the  roadside.  At 
first  a  single  plant,  it  has  spread  into  several  damp  spots,  and 
was  also  probably  carried  up  in  mud  during  wet  weather,  for  it 
is  a  common  species  in  flooded  land  near  estuaries. 

Paspalum  dilatatum  I  surface-sowed  during  1903  on  the 
pumiceous  lands.  It  has  completely  failed,  though  seeds  that 
were  roughly  scratched  in  with  a  knife  appeared  in  a  few  cases. 
The  species,  however,  must  have  great  vitality,  for  in  the  dense 
sward  of  the  homestead  paddock  a  chance-dropped  seed  has 
forced  its  way  through  the  other  grasses  and  reached  the 
state  of  seeding.  The  seeds  sown  in  a  well-manured  garden  of 
pumiceous  soil,  after  a  good  start,  were  overrun  by  fog  that 
germinated  weeks  later.  It  was  also  badly  burnt  by  winter 
frosts. 

Lastly,  Aqropyrum  repens  arrived  in  the  roots  of  plants 
bought  from  a  Hawke's  Bay  nurseryman. 

Of  the  native  grasses  enumerated  by  Mr.  Cheeseman  in  his 
"Manual  of  the  New  Zealand  Flora,"  one-fifth  have  been 
noticed  on  Tutira,  or  twenty-one  out  of  113.  This  proportion 
is  not   small,   I   think,   considering  that  there  was  almost  no 


Guthrie- Smith. — Grasses  of  Tutira.  515 

open  land,  and  that  the  whole  countryside  was  forest,  fern, 
flax,  and  raupo.  Probably,  however,  several  of  the  varieties 
that  have  now  spread,  or  become  noticeable,  may  have  pre- 
cariously survived  on  cliffs,  shingle  -  beds,  sandspits,  and  rocks 
— any  spot,  in  fact,  where  they  had  not  been  smothered  by  the 
enormous  growth  of  fern. 

The  most  efficient  plan  in  observing  these  natives  is  to 
mark  a  particular  plant  in,  say,  a  cutting  well  above  reach  of 
sheep,  or  in  some  barren  gully  in  a  lightly  stocked  portion  of 
the  run — anywhere,  in  fact,  where  the  grass  is  likely  to  be 
undisturbed  for  several  seasons.  There,  in  its  self-chosen  spot, 
the  natural  habits  of  the  plant  can  be  correctly  determined, 
and  this  is  the  method  I  have  followed  for  many  years. 

Last  year,  however,  I  thought  a  native-grass  garden  would 
give  even  more  accurate  results.  What  with  weeds,  however, 
and  abnormal  growth,  the  outcome  was  a  total  failure,  and  I 
found  that  in  fertile  land  and  a  soil  constantly  stirred  to  keep 
down  weeds  the  plant's  true  characteristics  were  lost.  With 
the  utmost  care,  and  dealing  even  with  minute  fragments  of 
sod,  it  was  impossible  to  eliminate  the  seeds  of  other  grasses — 
even  their  roots  in  some  cases — and  there  was  a  constant  insur- 
rection of  these  unwanted  grasses,  besides  the  growth  from  seed 
of  sorrel,  sow-thistle,  thistle,  and  other  weeds,  all  of  which 
must  have  been  lying  dormant  among  the  roots  of  the  particular 
species  selected  for  observation.  Then,  the  growth  was  very 
misleading  for  practical  purposes,  Agropyrum  scabrum  reaching 
7  ft.  6  in.  when  held  up  straight,  and  Dichelachne  crinita  standing 
erect  5  ft.  6  in.,  and  with  seed-stems  like  fine-grown  straw. 

The  twenty-one  native  grasses  on  Tutira  are :  Isachne 
australis,  Microlcena  stipoides,  Microlcena  avenacea,  Hierochloe 
redolens,  Echinopogon  ovatus,  Deyeuxia  Forsteri,  Deyeuxia  quad- 
riseta,  Dichelachne  crinita  and  var.  intermedia,  Deschampsia 
ccsspitosa,  Trisetum  antarcticum  and  slender  form,  Danthonia 
semiannularis,  Danthonia  pilosa,  Arundo  conspicua,  Arundo 
fulvida,  Poa  anceps,  Poa  ccespitosa,  Poa  Colensoi,  Poa  imbecilla, 
Agropyrum  multiflorum,  Agropyrum  scabrum,  Asperella  gracilis. 

Isachne  australis  grows  only  on  the  marshy  edges  of  the  lake, 
is  of  no  particular  value,  and  does  not  seem  to  spread. 

Microlcena  stipoides,  in  1882,  was  the  most  widely  spread  of 
my  native  grasses,  and  since  then  it  has  fully  held  its  ground. 
Its  value  is  dependent  on  its  treatment,  and  when  newly  burnt 
it  is  a  nutritive  grass,  and  is  kept  closely  cropped.  As  it  becomes 
rank,  however,  it  becomes  less  and  less  palatable,  until  at  length 
sheep  will  sooner  starve  than  touch  it.  When  growing  amongst 
manuka  the  stems  add  season  by  season  to  their  growth,  until 
the    grass   has    almost   developed   a    climbing   habit.     I     have 


."i  L6  Transactions. 

measured  such  stems,  and  found  them  fully  5  ft.  long,  and  often, 
1  dare  say,  longer  specimens  oould  be  obtained.  Those  High 
stems  never  seed,  and  when  burnt  their  crackling  is  noticeable 
and  peculiar.  The  normal  plant,  growing  in  the  open,  seeds 
very  freely,  not  only  in  spring,  but  after  early  summer  or  early 
autumn  rains  a  second  heavy  crop  is  quickly  produced.  This 
Worolana  goes  by  the  local  name  of  "  coast  grass.'*  but  it  grows 

Ereely  sixteen  miles  inland  at   least,  and  at  an  elevation  of  over 

3,000ft.  The  Bishop  of  Waiapu  informs  me  that  Mioroloma 
stipoxhs  was  the  grass  in  full  possession  of  the  alluvial  Povert] 
Bay  Hats,  and  that  in  a  verv  short  time  it  was  completely 
dominated  and  subjugated — indeed,  killed  out— by  English  i\ 

grass. 

Mnrohvva  avenocea  prefers  hill  or  ridge  tops  m  fairly  open 

bush,  and  though  to  some  extent    browsed    upon  by  wild  cattle 

it  does  not  seem  a  very  favourite  grass.  On  newly  fallen  forest 
country,  especially  during  the  first  season,  when  thistles  are  too 
t  luck  and  high  for  stock,  this  grass  thrives  enoriuouslv.  showing 
that    it    can    and    does    do    well    in    the    Open.      T    have  measured 

seed-stalks  ovei  I  it.  long,  and  the  whole  plant  presents  then  a 
very  handsome  and  statelv  appearance. 

Hieroohloe  redolens  is  worthy  of  a  place  among  garden-plants 
on  account  of  its  handsome  appearance  and  long  drooping 
silver-grey  seed-heads,  and  has.  moreover,  when  touched,  the 
pleasant  scent  of  sweet-vernal  grass.  It  grows  but  sparingly 
in  the  Tutira  Block,  but  immediately  beyond  my  west  cm 
boundary,  and  on  country  over  3,000ft.  high,  this  Bpecies  and 

Poa  anoeps  form  over  large  areas  by  far  the  bulk  of  the  heritage. 
Ii  seems  to  enjoy  a  certain  amount  of  damp. 

A  dry  situation  and  some  shade  are  necessarv  to  Echinopogon 

ovatus.    It  will  thrive  beneath  open  dumps  of  kowhai  <>n  dry 

ridges,  on  edges  of  barren  cliffs  and  slips  among  the  logs  and 
houghs  of  newly  cleared  bush  land,   but    never  in  a  sward.      My 

local  experience  would  lead  me  to  put  a  verv  low  value  on  this 
grass,  both  from  its  infrequenoy  and  straggling  and  habit, 

Deyeuxia  Forsteri  occurs  verv  rarely  in  Tutira.  and  from 
its  appearance  1   should   think  was  a    poor,    useless  species.      Mr. 

Buchanan,  however,  in  his  "  Manual  of  Indigenous  Grasses,"  de- 
clares it  is  greedily  eaten  by  horses  and  oattle.     It  grows  locally 

in  the  so.ikmg  edges  of  waterfalls  flowing  over  papa,  or.  rarely, 

on  the  edges  of  the  lake 

Deyeuxia  quadriseta  will  grow  where  no  other  grass  can  live, 

and  appears  on  the  most  arid  and  sterile  pumicoous   land      lands 

where  even  the  manuka  hardly  survives  and  the  fern  is  depauper- 
ated. Its  young  leaves  in  such  situations  become  quite  brown 
and  ven    remarkably  scabrous.     On  better  lands  the  leaves  be- 


Guthbie  Smith.     Grasses  of  Tutira.  517 

come  much  less  rough;  but  in  a  sward  the  plant  is  insignificant, 
and  must  be  only  a  very  Worthless  species  from  the  pastoralist's 
point  of  view,  for  lands  that  will  only  grow  Deycaxia  i/iiadriscla 
are  better  out  of  cultivation  altogether.  When  transplanted 
into  good  soil  this  plant  showed  little  improvement,  and  is 
apparently  unable  to  assimilate  the  more  nutritious  elements. 

Dichelachne  crinita  is  one  of  the  better-known  native  grasses, 
and  at  once  claims  attention  by  its  handsome  erect  plume  of 
feathery  looking  seed.  This  species  is  especially  noticeable  in 
rough  pasturage,  and  is  well  able  to  survive  owing  to  the  height 
of  the  flowering  stems,  that  pierce  through  the  fern,  and  seed 
above  it.  On  steep  banks  Dichelachne  crinita  is  always  plentiful, 
and  grows  equally  well  on  hard  clay  or  soft  pumiceous  soils. 
On  second-class  lands  it  is  certainly  a  useful  grass.  It 
will  survive,  besides,  on  well-manured  sheep-camps,  and  was 
one  of  the  three  native  species  growing  among  Mr.  J.  N. 
Williams's  sample  strips  of  turf  at  Frimley,  on  the  alluvial 
Hastings  plains.  To  thus  survive  amidst  English  grasses  on 
rich  soils  proves  an  abundant  vitality,  and  corroborates  what 
I  have  already  mentioned  as  to  the  great  growth  made  by  this 
species  when  transplanted  into  a  good  soil.  There  is  a  more 
slender  form  (I),  intermedia)  also  on  the  run  ;  this  variety, 
although  much   less  common,  seems  also  to   lie   a   good  g7'ass. 

Deschampsia  ccespitosa  is  locally  a  very  rare  glass,  and  my 
specimens  were  gathered  from  a  single  plant.  It  covers  con- 
siderable areas  at  the  mouths  of  several  of  the  rivers  that  feed 
Lake  Waikareinoana. 

Trisetum  antarcticutn,  is  one  of  the  natives  very  much  in 
evidence  on  edges  of  cuttings  and  such  spots  as  sheep  cannot 
reach.  On  the  higher  country  and  the  foothills  of  the  Maungaha- 
raru  Range  it  is  pretty  common.  It  is  an  early  grass,  and,  as  the 
seed-stems  are  rare  in  the  turf  and  rough  open  lands,  presumably 
the  plant  is  palatable  to  sheep,  and  therefore  closely  cropped. 

The  slender  form  of  this  species  has  also  been  got  on  Tutira. 

Danthonia  semiannularis  is  a  species  of  first-rate  importance 
that  was  firmly  established  m  1.882.  Even  in  those  early  days 
it   was  widely  spread,  and   has  increased  every  year.     On  the 

whole,  it   is  the  best    native  grass  we  have,  as  it    never  gets  very 

rank.     It  prefers  good  country  and  hard  surfaces  to  pumiceous 

and  Sandy  soils,  although   it    leaves  the   hardest    anil   driest    clays 

to  its  cousin  Danthonia  pilosa.     Even  on  Eair  hill  country  it  is 

worth  sowing  purposely,  and  there  must  be  now  in  my  own 
district  hundred-,  of  acres  very  largely,  and  In  some  areas  almost, 
exclusively,  grassed  with  Danthonia  semiannufaris.  In  good  soils, 
and   where  the  sward   is  well    worked   by  cattle,    this  grass   would 

carry  one  and  a  quarter  sheep  per  acre. 


518  Transactions. 

Danthonia  pilosa  is  a  species  about  which  I  have  some  hesi- 
tation in  writing,  as  I  am  not  sure  of  the  type.  The  commoner 
form  at  Tutira  is  locally  a  bad  grass,  both  on  account  of  the 
dislike  to  it — except  when  fresh  from  a  burn — of  stock,  and 
furthermore  that  in  the  wet  Tutira  climate  fires  can  only  be 
run  over  this  grass  every  second,  or  third,  or  even  fourth  season. 
On  the  other  hand,  this  form  might  be  a  valuable  plant  on 
hard  clay  soils  in  a  dry  district.  This,  the  less-good  form,  has 
narrow  involute  leaves  on  erect  culms.  In  the  better  variety 
the  leaves  are  broader,  flatter,  very  pilose,  and  of  a  noticeably 
deeper  green  colour,  and  the  culms  have  at  first  a  decumbent 
habit,  the  seed-stalks  rising  only  from  the  first  joint  and  some 
continuing  to  he  flat.  This  habit  of  the  culms  may  arise,  how- 
ever, from  the  centre  of  the  plant  having  been  eaten  out  by 
sheep,  for  I  have  noticed  in  heavily  stocked  country  Microlcena 
stipoides  and  some  other  grasses  to  a  lesser  degree  adopt  the 
same  device,  as  if  for  self-preservation,  and  with  an  apparently 
instinctive  knowledge  that  culms  lying  flat  on  the  ground  would 
be  more  likely  to  reach  maturity  and  perpetuate  the  species. 
These  two  forms  of  D.  pilosa  were  unknown  at  Tutira  in  1882, 
and  the  first  clump  ever  seen  by  me  in  the  district  was  on  the 
old  Tongaio-Tutira  pack-track,  at  a  spot  several  miles  from 
my  southern  boundary.  In  1885,  however,  I  discovered  it 
covering  scores  and  even  hundreds  of  acres  twenty  miles  to  the 
north-east ;  but  it  was  not  until  the  early  nineties  that  it  began 
to  make  its  appearance  on  Tutira.  Then,  within  a  couple  of 
seasons,  it  seemed  to  establish  itself  all  over  the  run  on  spots 
specially  adapted  to  its  requirements,  and  since  then  each  suc- 
ceeding year  sees  the  hard  dry  clay  soils  more  and  more  over- 
run. On  pumiceous  soils  it  seems  less  happy,  and  so  far  it  has 
not  encroached  on  the  turf  of  the  high  ranges  to  the  west. 

Arundo  conspicua  adorns  many  parts  of  the  run  with  its 
long  nodding  plumes. 

Arundo  julvida  grows  thickly  on  several  of  the  almost  pre- 
cipitous papa  slopes  that  face  towards  the  south. 

In  the  eighties  there  was  a  patch  of  land  on  Tutira  known  as 
the  "  Burnt  Bush  "  ;  this  had  been  forest  through  which  in  an 
extra  dry  season  a  fire  had  run,  probably  about  twenty  years 
previously,  and  long  before  the  run  had  been  "  taken  up  "  or 
stocked.  Fern  had  in  the  eighties  not  quite  taken  possession  of 
every  foot  of  this  land,  where  still  the  great  gaunt  boles  stood  in 
thousands,  and  here  the  commonest  of  the  surviving  grasses  was 
Poa  anceps.  There  are  several  very  slightly  differing  varieties 
on  the  run,  and  it  is  one  of  the  native  species  that  will  probably 
compose  eventually  the  turf  of  the  poorer  or  higher  lands. 


Guthkie-Smith. — Grasses  of  Tutira.  519 

Poa  ccespitosa  grows  naturally  though  sparsely  on  my  higher 
country  towards  the  west,  though  it  is  not  found  on  the  main 
ridges  of  Maungahararu.  On  the  Tutira  hills  it  has  been  sown 
by  chance,  probably  with  rye  or  cocksfoot  seed  harvested  in 
Canterbury,  where  the  species  is  common.  I  remember  in  the 
early  eighties  but  one  single  tussock,  and  after  twenty-five 
years  there  are  but  two  or  three  patches,  the  largest,  perhaps, 
60  ft.  by  20  ft.  Though  so  exceedingly  slow  to  spread,  it  takes 
possession  very  surely,  allowing  no  other  grass  to  survive.  The 
increase  seems  to  be  by  root. 

Poa  Colensoi  is  a  rare  grass,  on  the  highest  country  I  possess, 
and  I  have  not  noticed  it  under  3,000  ft. 

Poa  imbecilla  seems  to  be  another  high-country  grass,  and 
grows  locally  at  about  3,000  ft.,  and  in  the  edges  of  bush  lands. 

Agropyrum  mvltiflorum  and  Agropyrum  scabrum  are  common 
grasses  on  the  dry  edges  of  road-cuttings  and  steep  banks.  They 
also  manage  to  find  plant-food  on  the  most  barren  pumiceous 
lands — flats  so  dry  and  poor  that  even  in  our  rainy  climate  they 
dry  up  after  a  few  days'  drought.  But  it  is  not  only  on  such 
barren  spots  that  these  species  survive  ;  in  all  good  free  soils, 
wherever  the  herbage  gets  rough  for  stock,  and  the  plants  con- 
sequently are  allowed  a  chance,  these  species  appear  and  seed 
freely,  and  in  my  native-grass  garden,  on  good  well-worked 
soil,  long  healthy  bronze-green  shoots  appeared  immediately 
from  the  transplanted  sods,  and  I  have  mentioned  the  height 
of  the  seed-stalks.  These  species,  therefore,  like  many  other 
natives,  would  do  well  on  good  soils  if  not  choked  by  rye, 
cocksfoot,  &c.  ;  as,  however,  it  is  practically  impossible  to 
prevent  this  on  such  soils,  these  natives  are  only  worth  cultiva- 
tion on  lands  where  the  strong  alien  species  will  not  thrive. 

Asperella  gracilis  is  the  last  of  my  native  grasses,  and  I 
have  only  one  plant  of  it  on  the  run.  It  makes  up  the  twenty- 
first  species,  and  with  it  my  list  ends. 

Any  interest  attaching  to  these  notes  seems  to  me  to  lie  in 
the  fact  that  with  the  deterioration  of  the  surface  soils  the 
hardier  natives  tend  to  resume  possession,  and  that  the  balance 
of  nature  is  again  tending  to  right  itself. 

The  exuberance  of  growth  during  the  eighties  was  abnormal, 
and  the  alien  grasses  are  no  more  going  to  permanently  destroy 
and  oust  the  native  grasses  than  the  British  weeds  are  going 
to  destroy  the  indigenous  wild  flowers,  but  one  of  which  has 
vanished  from  Tutira  during  the  past  quarter- century. 

The  alien  weeds,  however,  will  form  a  future  paper,  and 
with  these  concluding  remarks  my  notes  on  the  grasses  of 
Tutira  must  end. 


520  Transactions. 


Art.  XL VI. — The  Struggle  for  Foreign   Trade. 
By  H.  W.  Segar,  M.A. 
[Bead  before  the  Auckland  Institute,  2\st  October,  1!»07.] 

Part  I. 

[This  part  is  considerably  condensed.] 

Though  in  the  same  community  the  operation  of  supply  and 
demand  brings  it  about  that  at  any  given  time  price  is  for  most 
goods  more  or  less  proportional  to  real  cost  of  production.,  it 
is  necessary  to  distinguish  carefully  between  the  two,  and  neither 
should  be  taken  as  necessarily  the  measure  of  the  other.  The 
price  of  an  article  is  its  exchange  value  expressed  in  terms  of 
money  ;  the  real  cost  of  production  is  measured  by  the  amount 
of  labour  and  capital  required  in  its  production.  In  different 
communities  prices  are  less  intimately  related  to  the  real  costs 
of  production.  As  one  person  may  produce  certain  goods  only 
with  much  greater  labour  or  effort  than  is  required  by  another, 
so  one  nation's  productions  may  cost  it  far  more  in  labour  and 
capital  than  is  required  for  similar  productions  by  some  other 
nation.  Yet  any  particular  product  may  sell  at  about  the  same 
price  all  the  world  over.  The  distinction  here  indicated  is  of 
the  greatest  importance  in  considering  the  essential  character 
of  foreign  trade. 

The  utility  of  foreign  trade,  like  that  of  domestic  trade, 
is  generally  acknowledged.  No  one  claims  that  trade  should 
cease  at  the  national  frontier.  The  advantage  consists  in  the 
increase  of  utility  arising  from  exchange.  In  the  case  of  every 
nation  there  are  goods  which  could  only  be  produced  within 
its  borders  at  a  real  cost  of  production  greatly  in  excess  of  what 
is  required  to  produce  the  goods  which  are  exchanged  for  them. 
Rather  than  insist  on  being  self-sufficing,  it  is  better  for  a  nation 
to  produce  an  excess  of  those  goods  in  the  production  of  which 
she  has  an  advantage,  and  to  exchange  a  portion  for  those  in 
the  production  of  which  she  is  at  a  disadvantage. 

It  must  not  be  thought,  however,  that  when  goods  are  im- 
ported they  are  necessarily  produced  with  less  expenditure 
of  labour  and  capital  in  the  country  of  their  origin  than  that 
with  which  they  could  be  produced  in  the  importing  country. 
A  nation  may  obtain  goods  by  exchange  at  a  smaller^cost  even 


Segak. —  The  Struggle  for  Foreign  Trade.  521 

than  that  at  which  she  could  herself  produce  them,  although 
to  the  exporting  nation  they  may  have  cost  more.  Though 
it  may  appear  paradoxical,  it  is  nevertheless  true  that  it  may 
he  to  a  country's  interest  to  import  goods  which  she  could  her- 
self actually  produce  with  less  cost  than  the  exporting  country, 
for  she  obtains  them  at  still  smaller  cost  by  exchanging  for  them 
goods  for  the  production  of  which  she  has  a  still  greater  ad- 
vantage. The  cost  to  her  is  not  the  amount  of  labour  and 
capital  actually  spent  in  the  foreign  country  on  producing  the 
goods,  nor  even  what  would  be  required  for  herself  to  produce 
the  same  goods,  but  the  still  smaller  amount  spent  on 
producing  the  goods  which  are  exchanged  for  them.  The 
reason  that  one  country  gains  by  trading  with  others  is  not 
that  other  nations  produce  at  less  cost  than  itself,  but  lies  in 
the  differences  in  the  characters  of  the  capabilities  of  the 
various  nations. 

A  nation  may  be  very  wealthy  and  still  exchange  little  com- 
paratively by  way  of  foreign  trade.  The  United  States,  e.g., 
is  amongst  the  wealthiest  nations  in  the  world,  whether  its 
wealth  be  measured  absolutely  or  relatively  to  population ;  but 
relatively  to  population  its  foreign  trade  is  amongst  the  smallest, 
being-  only  about  £7  per  head,  while  that  of  New  Zealand  is 
about  £33.  From  what  we  have  briefly  considered  above,  it 
would  appear  that  foreign  trade  will  tend  to  be  large  if  a  nation 
has  some  great  special  advantages,  or  even  special  disadvantages, 
in  the  production  of  some  goods,  or  in  the  supply  of  some  ser- 
vices. A  special  advantage  will  lead  the  nation  to  export  the 
goods  produced  with  this  special  advantage  and  purchase  others 
for  the  production  of  which  she  is  not  so  well  fitted  ;  a  special 
disadvantage  will  lead  her  to  purchase  the  goods  she  can  only 
herself  produce  at  such  disadvantage  and  pay  for  them  by  ex- 
porting those  for  the  production  of  which  she  is  better  fitted. 
We  may  say  that  causes  producing  a  great  differentiation  in 
national  productive  powers  tend  largely  to  promote  foreign 
trade.  Now,  the  most  general  and  at  the  same  time  most  con- 
siderable causes  affecting  the  relative  powers  of  production 
in  various  branches  of  industry  are  the  relation  of  population 
to  land  and  the  magnitude  of  the  community  or  of  the  national 
estate. 

The  first  of  these  is  the  relation  of  labour  to  land.  If  the 
population  is  small  compared  with  the  area  of  good  land,  even 
though  there  may  be  abundance  of  coal  and  water-power,  the 
nation  will  have  a  great  relative  advantage,  not  in  manufacture, 
but  in  the  production  of  food  and  raw  materials.  Australasia, 
Canada,  and  Argentine  export  foodstuffs,  minerals,  and  other 
raw    materials,    and    import    manufactured   goods.     Even   the 


522  Transactions. 

United  States,  with  its  much  greater  relative  population  and 
stringent  tarifEs,  though  exceptional  resources  in  the  way  of 
coal  and  iron  has  given  it  a  great  advantage  in  the  production 
and  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel,  remains  to  this  day  pre- 
dominantly a  producer  of  food  and  raw  materials.  If  the  popu- 
lation of  a  country,  on  the  other  hand,  is  large  compared  with 
the  area  of  good  land,  the  nation  is  at  a  great  disadvantage 
in  the  producing  of  food  and  many  raw  materials  in  sufficient 
quantity  for  the  needs  of  its  large  population.  Unless  it  is 
equally  handicapped  in  other  directions,  it  will  take  up  other 
pursuits,  and  import  food  and  raw  materials  in  return  for  manu- 
factured goods,  or  for  services  rendered  such  as  England  renders 
by  and  in  connection  with  her  great  carrying  trade.  The  great 
and  numerous  advantages  for  manufacture  and  commerce  pos- 
sessed by  Britain  brought  it  about  that  as  population  increased 
it  was  much  easier  for  her  than  for  her  rivals  to  turn  for  the 
support  of  her  growing  population  from  the  pursuit  of  more 
and  more  intensive  culture  of  the  land  to  manufactures  and 
commercial  pursuits.  Consequently  she  started  earlier  on  her 
great  manufacturing  and  commercial  career  than  other  nations  ; 
but  some  of  these  are  now  at  last,  by  reason  of  the  continued 
growth  of  their  populations,  being  forced  in  the  same  direction. 
If,  however,  there  be  in  any  country  little  source  of  power, 
or  such  can  be  obtained  only  at  great  cost,  the  nation  may  be 
forced  by  increasing  population  rather  to  a  more  intensive 
cultivation  of  the  soil  than  to  manufactures ;  and  a  very  intensive 
system  of  cultivation  may  have  to  be  reached,  calling  stronglv 
into  action  the  law  of  diminishing  returns,  and  leading  to  a 
greatly  diminished  prosperity  of  the  people,  before  the  point 
is  reached  at  which  its  labour  and  capital  can  be  more  econo- 
mically utilised  in  the  development  of  manufactures. 

Smallness  of  population  or  of  territory  is  the  second  of  the 
two  general  causes  we  are  considering  which  promotes  great 
specialisation  of  national  industry  by  a  great  differentiation 
in  the  national  productive  powers.  The  smaller  the  resources 
the  more  restricted  generally  will  be  the  variety  of  occupations 
in  which  the  population  can  engage  with  advantage,  partly 
through  diminished  variety  in  the  resources  themselves,  and 
partly  by  the  smaller  field  for  the  division  of  labour.  The 
variety  of  resources  of  the  United  States  we  cannot  expect 
and  do  not  get  in  the  much  smaller  area  of,  say,  Holland.  But 
a  nation  may  not  be  exceptionally  small  in  respect  to  its  terri- 
tory or  resources,  and  yet  may  be  unable,  by  reason  of  the  small- 
ness of  its  population,  to  engage  with  advantage  largely  in  a 
variety  of  industries.  A  small  community  is  not  suited  to  a 
high   development   of   the   division   of   labour.     Our   own   Do- 


Segar. — The  Struggle  for  Foreign  Trade. 


523 


minion  comes  within  this  class.  We  have  resources  in  great 
variety,  but  the  absolute  smallness  of  its  population  aids  the 
influence  of  its  smallness  relatively  to  the  extent  of  the  land 
of  the  Dominion,  in  constraining  a  one-sided  development  of 
industry  in  the  direction  of  mining,  agriculture,  and  pastoral 
pursuits. 

According  to  this  argument  it  is  in  the  case  of  nations  that 
have  either  sparse  or  very  dense  populations  that  we  should 
find  generally  the  greatest  foreign  trades  relatively  to  popula- 
tion ;  and  of  these  generally  the  most  conspicuous  should  be 
the  smallest  populations  in  the  former  class  and  the  smallest 
countries  in  the  latter.  Table  I  refers  to  countries  of  sparse 
populations  producing  an  excess  of  food  and  raw  materials.  The 
statistics  are  mostly  quoted  for  the  year  1904,  and  the  countries 
are  arranged  in  the  order  of  magnitude  of  the  foreign  trade  per 
head  of  population. 


Table  I. 

Country. 

Population. 

Trade 
per  Head. 

Western  Australia 

South  Australia 

New  South  Wales 

Victoria 

New  Zealand  . . 

Queensland 

Tasmania 

• 

236,516 

369,697 

1,446,440 

1.207,537 

845,022 
519,178 
178,826 

£      s.     d. 
71   12   10 
43     1   11 
41   16     2 
36  17     0 
33     3     8 
33     2     9 
31     0    0 

Australia 

4,013,722 

29  12     0 

Argentine         . . 

5,410,205 

19     4     0 

Canada 

5,604,328 

17     7     0 

United  States 

82,859,211 

7     0     0 

Russia 

143,000,000 

1     1     0 

It  will  be  noticed  here  that  the  trade  per  head  is  less  for 
Australia  as  a  whole  than  for  any  of  the  separate  States.  Thin 
is  because  much  of  the  trade  of  each  State  is  with  the  other 
States  ;  this  counts  as  foreign  trade  for  each  separate  State, 
but  is  omitted  as  internal  trade  from  the  foreign  trade  of  the 
whole.  This  further  illustrates  why  the  trade  per  head  is  largely 
influenced  by  the  size  of  the  community.  The  larger  the  com- 
munity the  greater  tends  to  be  the  proportion  of  its  total  trade 
which  is  merely  internal  trade. 

Table  II  refers  similarly  to  a  number  of  countries  of  dense 
population  in  which  the  import  of  food  and  raw  materials  exceeds 
the  exports. 


524 


Transactions. 


Table  II. 


Country. 


Netherlands     . . 

Belgium 

Switzerland 

United  Kingdom 

Germany 

France 

Italy 


Population. 


5,430,981 
7,074.910 
3,463,609 

44,0()(i.iH  it  i 

60,605,183 

38,901.045 
33,340.514 


Trade 
per  Head. 


£ 

65 

31 

28 

20 

9 

9 

4 


s. 

0 
19 

5 
15 
19 
11 

4 


d. 
0 

o 

0 
0 
0 
0 
0 


In  the  trade  per  head  is  included  only  the  special  commerce. 
The  position  of  the  three  smallest  countries  at  the  head  of  the 
list  is  noteworthy. 

Part  II. 

Present  Tendencies  in  Foreign  Trade. 

We  may  now  proceed  to  consider  some  of  the  tendencies 
characterizing  the  course  of  the  industry  and  commerce  of  the 
world  at  the  present  time.  We  may  notice  that  the  growing 
complexity  of  manufacturing  processes,  combined  with  improve- 
ments in  the  means  and  methods  of  transport,  have  a  conserva- 
tive tendency,  and  assist  the  manufacturing  nations  to  retain 
and  increase  their  manufactures ;  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  operation  of  the  law  of  diminishing  return,  acting  on  their 
supply  of  raw  materials,  especially  on  that  of  coal,  is  likely 
in  the  future  to  tend  to  place  such  nations  at  a  disadvantage. 
The  existence,  too,  of  local  supplies  of  raw  material,  and 
especially  of  coal,  combined  with  growth  of  population,  is 
tending  to  start  manufactures  in  many  new  districts.  The  use 
of  water-power  through  electricity  is  giving  to  some  nations 
an  impulse  towards  manufacturing  that  was  formerly  lacking 
through  want  of  supplies  of  coal,  formerly  the  only  extensive 
supply  of  mechanical  power.  The  improvement  and  opening 
of  waterways  are  important  agencies  influencing  commerce. 
The  improvement  of  the  navigation  of  the  Rhine  has  proved  of 
great  assistance  in  the  development  of  the  iron  industry  of 
Germany.  But  it  can  hardly  be  said  that  there  has  been  any 
epoch-making  development  of  this  character  since  the  opening 
of  the  Suez  ('anal.  Of  schemes  for  new  waterways,  no  other 
appeals  to  the  popular  imagination  as  strongly  as  does  that 
of  the  Panama  Canal.  The  coming  canal  is  already  called 
"the  Gate  of  the  Pacific."  On  this  perhaps  we  may  dwell  a 
little  with  advantage,  because  of  the  exaggerated  notions  that 
seem  to  prevail. 


Segak. — The  Struggle  for  Foreign  Trade.  525 

That  the  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal  will  result  in  the 
diversion  of  the  routes  of  a  considerable  portion  of  the  world's 
trade,  and  will  bring  some  portions  of  the  earth  into  much  closer 
commercial  relations,  goes  without  saying.  But  it  will  not 
have  the  same  proportional  effect  on  the  world's  trade  as  a 
whole  as  did  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal,  which  greatly- 
shortened  all  the  voyages  between  the  East,  including  Australia, 
and  the  West,  including  the  east  coast  of  North  America.  The 
Panama  Canal  will  not  shorten  the  distance  between  Europe 
and  Australia  or  the  East  generally.  It  will  not  even  make  the 
voyage  from  New  York  to  China  shorter  than  is  that  from 
England  bv  the  Suez  Canal,  and  it  will  make  it  only  slightly 
shorter  than  the  voyage  from  New  York  itself  via  Suez.  The 
Suez  Canal  must  continue  almost  to  monopolize  the  trade  of 
Europe  with  Asia.  Australasia  will  not  be  benefited  to  any 
extent  beyond  the  shortening  of  the  distance  to  the  eastern  ports 
of  the  United  States.  This,  no  doubt,  will  tend  to  encourage 
trade  with  the  United  States  ;  but  as  regards  trade  with  Europe, 
Australia  will  not  be  appreciably  better  off  than  she  is  now 
with  the  Suez  Canal.  The  Panama  route  will  only  shorten  the 
distance  from  Auckland  in  New  Zealand  to  Plymouth  or  London 
bv  something  less  than  thirteen  hundred  miles  as  compared 
with  the  route  round  Cape  Horn — i.e.,  by  about  10  per  cent. 
This  is  only  about  three  or  four  days'  sail  for  the  modern  ship. 
As  against  this  advantage,  there  will  be  the  slow  and  expensive 
progress  through  the  canal  and  its  locks,  and  the  disadvantage 
of  there  being  no  great  ports  of  call  on  the  new  route.  The 
present  route  round  Cape  Horn  enables  boats  to  call  at  the  great 
and  rapidly  growing  ports  of  the  eastern  coast  of  South  America, 
including  Buenos  Ayres,  with  its  population  of  over  a  million. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  United  States  will  get  a  much  shorter 
way  of  water-communication  between  its  east  and  west  coasts. 
There  will  also  be  shorter  communication  between  Europe  and 
the  west  coasts  of  the  Americas.  But  the  commercial  import- 
ance of  the  west  coast  will  never  be  comparable  with  that  of  the 
east  coast :  its  mountainous  formation,  and  the  arid  character 
of  so  much  of  the  country  beyond,  is  very  different  from  the 
rich  plains  and  great  river  systems  of  the  east  coast.  As  regards, 
then,  the  commerce  of  Europe  in  general,  or  of  England  in  par- 
ticular, it  is  a  mistake  to  think  that  the  opening  of  the  Panama 
Canal  mil  be  in  any  way  of  the  nature  of  a  revolutionary  event. 

Looking  now  at  phenomena  rather  than  at  causes  or 
influences,  we  may  remark  that  in  the  struggle  for  foreign  trade 
no  feature  has  attracted  more  attention  than  the  rapidly 
increasing  foreign  trade  of  Germany.  It  has  been  made  a 
persistent   argument   for   a   revolution   in   British   fiscal   policy. 


526  Transactions. 

We  shall  now  be  able  to  appreciate  the  real  force  mainly  respon- 
sible for  producing  this  rapid  expansion,  and  to  see  how  helpless 
is  Germany's  own  fiscal  policy,  or  those  of  other  nations,  to 
arrest,  though  they  may  impede,  its  progress.  The  soil  of 
Germany  is  cultivated  to  the  utmost  degree,  and  is  devoted 
mostly  to  the  growing  of  food,  and  only  to  a  comparatively 
small  extent  to  the  growing  of  raw  material  for  manufacture. 
With  an  area  only  some  70  per  cent,  greater  than  the  United 
Kingdom,  she  has  four  times  the  number  of  persons  engaged  in 
agriculture.  In  spite  of  this,  she  now  fails  even  to  feed  by 
any  means  the  whole  of  her  population.  For  a  large  portion  of 
her  food-supply  and  for  a  much  greater  portion  of  her  raw 
materials  she  is  dependent  on  other  and  younger  nations.  The 
change  which  has  been  taking  place  is  illustrated  by  the  great 
diminution  in  the  flocks  of  sheep.  In  the  twenty-one  years 
from  1873  to  1904  the  sheep  of  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia  declined 
from  19,670,000  to  5,650,000,  and  those  of  the  whole  of  Germany 
from  25,000,000  to  9,690,000.  Pasture  has  been  giving  place 
to  intensive  culture  of  the  land;  but,  notwithstanding  this, 
Germany  fails  now  to  supply  the  whole  of  the  food  of  her  people. 
In  1905  the  value  of  her  import  of  wheat  was  no  less  than 
£16,470,000.  The  magnitude  of  her  imports  of  raw  materials 
is  sufficiently  indicated  by  the  values  of  her  imports  of  wool 
and  cotton  in  the  same  year.  Raw  wool  she  imported  to  the 
value  of  £16,360,000 ;  woollen  yarn,  to  the  extent  of  another 
£4,670,000  ;  and  cotton  cost  her  £19,910,000.  The  census  of 
the  same  year  showed  an  increase  in  population  during  the 
quinquennial  period  of  4,087,277.  This  represents  an  annual 
increase  of  population  almost  equal  to  the  total  population  of 
New  Zealand,  and  the  area  of  Germany  is  only  double  that  of 
New  Zealand.  This  increase  in  population  is  considerably  more 
than  double  that  of  the  United  Kingdom.  If  the  same  rate  of 
increase  were  continued,  the  population  of  Germany  would 
double  in  some  forty-five  years. 

Now,  this  growing  population  has  to  be  supplied  with  food 
and  raw  materials,  and  it  can  only  be  done  by  the  export  of 
manufactures  or  the  rendering  of  other  services.  For  progress 
in  manufacture  she  has  many  advantages.  List  perceived  it 
long  ago.  In  the  year  1844  he  was  able  to  write,  "  If  any  nation 
whatever  is  qualified  for  the  establishment  of  a  national  manu- 
facturing power  it  is  Germany ;  by  the  high  rank  which  she 
maintains  in  science  and  art,  in  literature  and  education,  in 
public  administration,  and  in  institutions  of  public  utility ;  by 
her  morality  and  religious  character,  her  industry  and  domestic 
economy  ;  by  her  perseverance  and  steadfastness  in  business 
occupations,  as  also  by  her  spirit  of  invention  ;    by  the  number 


Segak. — The  Struggle  for  Foreign  Trade.  527 

and  vigour  of  her  population  ;  by  the  extent  and  nature  of 
her  territory,  and  especially  by  her  highly  advanced  agriculture 
and  her  physical,  social,  and  mental  resources."  Germany  has 
large  supplies  of  both  coal  and  iron,  and  certainly  the  quality 
of  her  people  is  second  to  none.  She  is  surrounded  by  some 
of  the  wealthiest  nations  of  Europe,  and  can  exchange  products 
with  them  by  rail  without  breaking  of  bulk  and  frequent  hand- 
ling. The  progress  in  European  railway-communication  and 
the  tunnelling  of  the  mountains  have  given  Germany  an 
advantage  in  markets  in  which  she  was  formerly  handicapped. 
It  was,  then,  inevitable  that  Germany  should  have  utilised 
these  advantages  to  obtain  food  for  her  people,  and  become  a 
predominantly  manufacturing  nation  earlier  than  she  would 
nave  done  had  her  advantages  for  such  a  career  been  less  pro- 
nounced. Her  foreign  trade  has  to  struggle  against  her  own 
restrictive  policy.  She  taxes  imported  food,  and  imports 
cannot  be  restricted  without  restricting  exports.  But  the 
influence  of  the  German  tariff  pales  before  that  of  the  growth 
of  population.  German  foreign  trade  flourishes  in  spite  of  the 
policy  of  German  statesmen,  and  the  author  of  the  victory  is 
the  German  mother.  The  declining  birth-rate  has  affected 
Germany  less  than  most  countries,  while  she  feels  with  most 
others  the  operation  of  the  diminished  death-rate,  due  to 
improved  sanitation,  the  progress  of  medical  science,  and  the 
improvement  in  the  general  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  health. 

As  the  great  increase  in  population  has  produced  in  the 
past  such  a  rapid  increase  in  German  foreign  trade,  so  it  is  sure 
to  produce  the  same  effect  in  the  future.  Even  an  exceptional 
fall  in  the  German  birth-rate  would  not  materially  affect  the 
progress  of  German  commerce  for  many  years  to  come.  The 
high  birth-rate  of  the  last  fifteen  years  is  only  now  about  to  in- 
crease the  effective  labour  force  of  the  country.  Even  if  there 
were  to  be  no  increase  in  the  annual  number  of  births,  though 
this  would  involve  a  rapidly  falling  birth-rate,  the  population 
would  continue  to  increase  rapidly,  for  the  present  annual  num- 
ber of  births  is  sufficient  to  raise  the  population  to  some 
110,000,000.  The  increase  in  the  labour  force  of  Germany  dur- 
ing the  next  twenty  years  will  be  enormous.  It  will  be  largely 
directed  to  manufacture,  and  it  will  want  food  and  raw  material 
— very  much  food  and  still  more  raw  material ;  for  it  should 
be  noted  that  in  the  case  of  an  increasing  population  that  already 
requires  more  of  these  commodities  than  its  land  produces, 
not  only  is  food  and  raw  material  required  for  the  consumption 
of  the  accessions  to  its  population,  but  still  more  raw  material 
on  which  to  bestow  the  labour  of  manufacturing,  which  is  to 
purchase  the  former.     An  excess  of  raw  materials  must  be  im- 


528  Transactions. 

ported  over  and  above  what  is  required  for  consumption,  to  be 
re-exported  in  a  manufactured  form,  and  "with  an  increased 
value  making  it  sufficient  to  pay  for  the  whole.  Unless  Ger- 
many is  to  obtain  much  of  her  supply  of  food  and  raw  materials 
in  return  for  services  of  shipping,  or  as  interest  on  increasing 
capital  invested  abroad,  as  in  the  case  of  England,  the  amount 
of  manufacturing  in  Germany  will  increase  far  more  rapidly 
than  her  population,  and  the  export  of  manufactures  more 
rapidly  than  the  total  amount  of  manufactures.  It  cannot  be 
many  years  before  the  volume  of  German  trade  will  pass  that 
of  England.  Germany  is  rapidly  assuming  a  position  of  equal 
dependence  with  England  on  imported  food  and  raw  material. 
Probably  the  addition  of  twenty  millions  to  her  population  would 
produce  an  equal  proportional  dependence,  and  at  the  present 
Tate  of  increase  she  will  acquire  this  additional  population  in 
a  little  over  twenty  years.  When  Germany  has  reached  that 
stage  of  like  economic  condition,  if  not  before,  her  total  trade 
will  greatly  exceed  that  of  England,  by  reason  of  her  much 
greater  population,  which  will  be  sufficient  to  outweigh  any 
advantages  which  may  tend  to  produce  a  greater  British  trade. 
And  with  German  trade  will  grow  naturally  and  inevitably 
the  German  navy. 

When  we  reflect  now  that,  although  the  most  conspicuous 
instance,  still  Germany  is  only  an  example  of  what  is  taking 
place  over  a  great  part  of  Europe,  one  is  inclined  to  question 
from  this  point  of  view  the  wisdom  on  our  part  of  a  policy  that 
would  tend  to  throw  away  these  rapidly  growing  markets  in 
favour  of  one.  In  the  period  1901-3  we  have  the  following 
excess  of  births  over  deaths  per  hundred  of  population  in  various 
countries  of  Europe :  Germany,  1-49 ;  Austria,  1-25 ;  Hun- 
gary, 1-16;  Belgium,  1-13;  Holland,  1-55;  Italy,  104;  Nor- 
way, 1-50  ;  Sweden,  1-08.  The  smallest  of  these  rates  of  increase 
would  lead,  apart  from  emigration,  to  a  doubling  of  the  popu- 
lation in  sixty-seven  years;  and  these  countries  as  a  whole  are 
already  dependent  on  an  excess  of  imports  of  food  and  raw 
materials. 

People  generally  in  this  country  do  not  realise  the  importance 
of  the  growing  general  European  market,  because  the  figures 
in  the  Official  Year-book  are  so  illusive.  We  read  there,  for 
instance,  that  in  1905  we  imported  from  Germany  goods  to  the 
amount  of  £277,467,  and  exported  to  Germany  to  the  amount 
only  of  £38,958.  This,  no  doubt,  is  true ;  but  the  great  volume 
of  goods  that  pass  from  here  to  Germany  through  the  English 
market  is  ignored.  It  will  be  a  revelation  to  many  to  realise 
how  great  this  volume  is.  The  estimate  of  Mr.  W.  de  Haas, 
Commercial  Attache  to  the  Imperial  German  Consulate-General 


Segak. — The  Struggle  for  Foreign  Trade.  529 

in  Sydney,  is  that  Germany  really  takes  from  New  Zealand 
goods  to  the  value  of  £750,000  yearly,  the  wool  alone  amounting 
to  £500,000.  So  great  is  this  trade  between  Germany  and  these 
colonies  becoming  that  it  is  unlikely  to  continue  much  longer 
to  pass  so  largely  through  the  English  market ;  the  goods  will 
be  carried  more  and  more  direct  to  Germany,  and  much  of  it 
in  German  vessels.  Again,  the  import  of  butter  into  Germany 
in  1904  reached  34,340  metric  tons,  and  was  of  the  value  of 
£3,000,000.  It  had  considerably  more  than  doubled  in  two 
years.  Russia  and  the  Netherlands  each  sent  butter  to  the 
value  of  about  £1,000,000.  It  is  a  good  thing  to  have  a  choice 
of  markets,  and  it  is  worthy  of  consideration  whether  New  Zea- 
land would  not  be  doing  better  to  cultivate  the  rapidly  growing 
continental  European  markets  instead  of  pursuing  a  policy 
tending  in  the  direction  of  confining  her  trade  to  the  Home 
market. 

As  Germany  is  the  leading  example  of  a  striking  tendency  in 
Europe,  so  in  the  East  we  find  Japan  the  leader  of  an  important 
movement  in  Asia.  The  country  has  attracted  the  attention  of 
the  world  by  reason  of  its  rapid  development  in  many  ways. 
She  does  not  yet  cut  a  great  figure  commercially  in  the  world, 
for  in  1905,  even  after  some  years  of  rapid  increase,  her  trade 
was  less  than  £83,000,000.  But  even  this  represents  a  striking 
change  and  a  great  advance  upon  small  beginnings.  It  is  the 
rapidity  of  this  advance  and  the  great  possibilities  of  future 
progress  that  arrest  one's  attention.  In  Japan,  China,  and 
India  there  has  long  been  present  one  important  condition 
favourable  to  an  extensive  commerce  in  the  density  of  the  popu- 
lations of  those  countries.  But  it  is  only  recently  that  Japan's 
pursuit  of  western  knowledge,  adoption  of  western  methods,  and 
willingness  to  trade  with  other  nations  has  given  play  to  this 
influence,  and  the  world  to-day  stands  expectant  of  a  further 
remarkable  industrial  development  in  Japan.  In  China  we  have 
a  great  population,  of  great  density,  with  resources  of  the  richest, 
including  one  of  the  largest  coalfields  of  the  world.  The  Press 
has  informed  us  at  intervals  recently  of  the  many  ways  in  which 
she  is  freeing  herself  of  the  shackles  of  her  traditions.  Amongst 
social  reforms  in  progress  are  the  suppression  of  opium-smok- 
ing, the  removing  of  racial  distinctions  between  the  Chinese  and 
Manchus,  the  permission  to  daughters  of  upper-class  Chinese 
to  marry  into  the  Imperial  family,  and  the  abolition  of  the 
binding  of  the  feet  of  females.  We  have,  further,  such  political 
and  economic  forms  as  the  forming  of  a  Government  Council, 
intended  to  be  the  nucleus  of  a  regular  Parliament,  the  adoption 
of  uniform  weights  and  measures  throughout  the  country,  and 
the  adoption  of  the  gold  standard.     Chinese  students  are  going 


530  Transactions. 

abroad  in  large  number  to  acquire  the  most  modern  education. 
The  awakening  of  China  has  been  long  foretold.  China  has 
been  going  to  awaken  for  fifty  years  past,  but  it  would  appear 
that  at  last  we  are  now  in  the  presence  of  the  realisation.  If, 
as  appears  now  almost  inevitable,  the  Chinese  evolve  in  the  same 
way  as  the  Japanese  have  done,  the  industrial  development  of 
China  is  likely  to  be  of  the  stupendous  order.  Labour  and 
capital  will  find  a  greater  reward  in  utilising  the  mineral  and  other 
resources  for  manufacture  than  in  intensifying  the  culture  of 
the  land.  It  has  been  so  in  Japan,  where  with  the  growth  of 
manufacture  has  also  come  a  great  improvement  in  the  condi- 
tion of  the  workers.  The  rise  in  wages  that  has  characterized 
recent  years  has  of  course  been  no  local  phenomenon,  but  a 
general  feature  associated  with  widespread  prosperity  and  a 
universal  rise  in  average  prices.  In  Japan,  however,  the  rise  in 
wages  is  remarkable,  though  they  still  remain  small  compared 
with  those  paid  in  many  other  countries.  As  in  Europe  the 
average  welfare  of  the  people  is  being  maintained,  and  even  ad- 
vanced, in  spite  of  growing  numbers,  by  the  increasing  adop- 
tion of  manufactures,  so  in  the  East,  as  the  stagnation  of  Eastern 
civilisation  is  gradually  lifted,  will  the  industry  of  the  teeming 
millions  of  Asia  seek  the  same  welfare  by  the  same  means. 

The  Future. 

The  full  effect  of  these  tendencies  in  the  future  it  is  given 
to  no  man  to  foresee.  We  have  seen  how  many  nations  are 
already  dependent  on  others  for  supplies  of  food  and  raw 
material,  and  how  rapidly  this  dependence  is  growing.  To 
the  greater  part  of  Europe  must  be  added  Japan,  and  in  the 
near  future  probably  China  and  possibly  India.  Later  on 
the  United  States  will  reach  the  same  economic  stage.  The 
United  States  is  rapidly  fulfilling  the  destiny  clearly  foreseen 
for  her  by  List  when  he  wrote,  in  1844,  "  For  the  same  causes 
which  have  raised  Great  Britain  to  her  present  exalted  position 
will  (probably  in  the  course  of  the  next  century)  raise  the 
United  States  of  America  to  a  degree  of  industry,  wealth,  and 
power  which  will  surpass  the  position  in  which  England  stands 
as  far  as  at  present  England  excels  little  Holland.  In  the 
natural  course  of  things  the  United  States  will  increase  their 
population  within  that  period  to  hundreds  of  millions  of  souls. 
.  .  .  The  naval  power  of  the  western  world  will  surpass 
that  of  Great  Britain  as  greatly  as  its  coasts  and  rivers  exceed 
those  of  Britain  in  extent  and  magnitude."  Development  has 
not  been  quite  as  rapid  as  List  expected,  but  the  vision  of 
List  must  be  realised  in  the  near  future.  What  then  will  be 
the  position  of  the  younger  nations  that  have  started  later  in 


Segar. — The  Struggle  for  Foreign  Trade.  531 

the  race  for  wealth  and  population  1     They  will  be  supplying 
food  and  raw  material  for  manufacture  to  these  others.     The 
welfare  of  the  people  need  not  necessarily  suffer  on  that  account, 
as  it  certainly  does  not  at  the   present   time.      Only  if  it  be 
thought  essential  for  the  nation  to  grow  out  of  an  agricultural 
state  and  achieve  eminence  in  manufactures,   thus  increasing 
in  population  and  aggregate  wealth  to  an  extent  that  would 
not  be  otherwise  possible,  need  the  prospects  of  this  time  be 
contemplated  with  any  anxiety.     It  is  true  we  have  previously 
spoken  of  the  growth  that  has  been  achieved  in  some  cases, 
and  is  likely  soon  to  be  achieved   in  others,  as  the  result  of 
developing  manufactures  for  export,  as  of  a  phenomenon  by 
no  means  remarkable,  but  the  natural  result  of  present  con- 
ditions.    But  in  the  days  to  which  we  refer,  when  so  vast  a 
proportion  of  the   world's   population  will  be  living  on  land 
totally  inadequate  to  providing  them  with  the  necessary  food 
and  raw  material,  and  will  be  exporting  manufactures  for  the 
food  and  raw  materials  of  the  remainder,  the  world  will  move 
more  slowly.     England,  the  first  nation  to  attain  to  great  manu- 
facturing pre-eminence,  was  able  to  feed  her  people  from  the 
new  world  and  pay  with  her  manufactures.     Germany,  coming 
next,  found  the  world  wanting  more  manufactures  than  Eng- 
land could  supply,  and  found  it  easy  to  follow  in  her  footsteps. 
But  no  such  easy  path  can  lie  before  Canada,  Australia,  Argen- 
tina, or  New  Zealand.     Even  when  these  countries  reach  the 
stage  when  their  further  development  will  require  the  exporting 
of  manufactures  for  food  and  raw  material,  there  will  no  doubt 
be  then,  as  probably  always,  parts  of  the  earth  whose  want 
of  power,  climate,  and  other  circumstances  will  prevent  their 
ever    assuming    the    manufacturing    state.     Such    parts    must 
export  food  and  raw   materials ;    but   these    exports   will   be 
required  by  the  nations  that  will  then  have  become  the  great 
manufacturing  nations.     New  Zealand  and  the  other  countries 
at  about  the  same  stage  of  development  will  have  to  compete 
with  these  in  the  effort  to   change  themselves   from  agricul- 
tural to  manufacturing  nations.     If  it  be  still  possible  for  any 
of  these  younger  nations  to  urge  forward  and  attain  the  manu- 
facturing state,  Canada,  Australia,  and  Argentina,  with  their 
greater  populations  and  greater  resources,  will  grasp  what  oppor- 
tunities there  are.     States  of  the  magnitude  of  New  Zealand 
will  have  small  chance.     International  competition  will  be  very 
different  from  what  it  is  to-day.     The  more  backward  nations 
will  only  be  able  to  come  to  the  front  at  the  expense  of  the 
more  highly  developed.     Every  nation  cannot  export  manufac- 
tures in  return  for  food  and  raw  materials  to  maintain  a  popula- 
tion greatly  in  excess  of  what  could  live  on  her  own  produce. 


532  Transactions. 

Any  fresh  accession  to  the  manufacturing  ranks  would  involve 
the  defeat  of  the  existing  predominantly  manufacturing  nations, 
and  possibly  the  reduction  of  their  populations.  Certainly, 
too,  the  process  will  not  be  facilitated  by  tariffs  if  they  continue 
to  that  time,  for  in  economic  war,  as  in  any  other  war,  victory 
is  apt  to  lie  with  the  biggest  battalions.  If  New  Zealand  has  to 
depend  for  her  economic  transformation  on  struggles  with  the  great 
industrial  States  of  the  future  the  issue  can  scarcely  be  in  doubt. 
The  question  we  have  been  considering  is  an  important 
one,  for  on  the  answer  depends  some  other  points  of  interest. 
If  New  Zealand  can  never  escape  from  the  position  of  a  pre- 
dominantly pastoral  and  agricultural  nation,  the  rosy  estimates 
we  sometimes  hear  of  her  great  future  population  are  foredoomed 
to  non-fulfilment,  and  her  rapid  development  will  cease  at  a 
much  earlier  period  than  is  commonly  anticipated.  It  is  quite 
certain  that  New  Zealand  cannot  maintain  in  anything  like 
the  present  standard  of  comfort  five  million  people  exporting 
the  same  proportional  amount  of  food  and  raw  materials  as  at 
present.  It  seems  quite  certain  that  her  transformation,  if  it 
ever  eventuates,  will  be  slow  and  painful.  The  rapid  develop- 
ment from  the  agricultural  to  the  manufacturing  state  that  we 
have  witnessed  in  Germany  cannot  be  emulated  by  this  country. 
What  small  chance  there  may  be  would  consist  in  leading  in  the 
race  for  a  rapid  increase  of  population.  This  is  not  encouraged 
by  the  present  policy.  The  industry  best  suited  to  the  present 
time  and  conditions  in  this  country  is  the  development  of  the 
land.  Growth  of  population  would  be  more  encouraged  by  the 
removal  of  the  artificial  expenses  inflicted  on  the  farmer.  This 
would  make  farming  more  profitable,  and  this  would  tend 
both  to  widen  the  area  of  cultivation  and  to  promote  a  more 
intensive  culture,  and  so  lead  more  rapidly  to  the  state  in 
winch  the  country  would  be  economically  ripe  for  manufactures. 
Again,  from  another  point  of  view,  the  answer  to  our  question 
must  influence  our  judgment  of  the  wisdom  of  a  restrictive 
policy  designed  to  encourage  manufactures.  Not  only  is  the 
population  of  the  country  too  small,  both  absolutely  and 
relatively  to  its  land,  to  be  ripe  for  such  as  a  general  policy, 
but  if  New  Zealand  is  never  to  attain  the  position  of  a  manu- 
facturing nation,  one  great  incentive  to  protective  measures 
does  not  exist.  Many  admit,  that  are  not  generally  adverse 
to  such  a  policy,  that  while  an  industry  lives  only  on  protection, 
however  profitable  it  may  he  to  the  capitalists  who  engage  in 
it.  the  result  is  a  present  loss  to  the  country  as  a  whole.  By 
such  persons  the  policy  is  recommended  by  arguments  such  as 
commend  a  policy  of  education  in  the  case  of  an  individual.  A 
present  loss  or  sacrifice  is  submitted  to  for  the  sake  of  a  future 


Howes. — Further  Notes  on  Lepidoptcra. 


533 


gain.  The  gain  is  to  come  when  the  industries  can  and  do 
stand  alone.  It  was  by  such  arguments  that  a  protective 
policy  was  successfully  advocated  in  Germany  and  the  United 
States.  Now,  if  in  the  case  of  New  Zealand  this  time  of  national 
profit  resulting  from  protection  is  never  to  come,  or  can  come 
only  in  a  dim  and  distant  future,  this  form  of  argument  ceases 
to  be  effective  in  support  of  the  adoption  of  a  general  policy 
of  protection  in  this  country. 

This  is  as  far  as  we  have  time  to  indulge  in  these  specula- 
tions as  to  the  future.  Summarising,  in  conclusion,  the  drift 
of  some  of  the  remarks  that  have  been  made  as  to  this  country, 
we  may  say  that  it  cannot  anticipate  a  rapid  and  uninterrupted 
development  to  the  manufacturing  state.  Once  the  output  of 
food  and  raw  materials  has  nearly  reached  a  maximum,  develop- 
ment will  receive  a  check.  The  population  may  still  advance, 
but  any  considerable  advance  in  population  will  be  accompanied 
by  a  lowering  of  the  standard  of  living,  and  the  rate  of  increase 
of  the  total  wealth  of  the  community  will  be  on  a  greatly  in- 
ferior scale  to  that  of  the  present  time.  So  long  as  New  Zea- 
land can  continue  to  increase  her  output  of  food  and  raw  ma- 
terials without  pressing  too  hardly  on  the  law  of  diminishing 
returns,  the  prosperity  of  her  people  is  assured ;  but  once  that 
point  is  passed,  anything  like  what  we  now  consider  a  normal 
rate  of  increase  of  population  must  lead  to  a  rapid  approxima- 
tion in  the  condition  of  her  workers  to  that  of  those  of  the  old 
countries. 


Art.  XL VII. — Further  Notes  on  Lepidoptera. 

By  George  Howes,  F.E.S. 
[Read  before  Hie  Otago  Institute,  Vith  November,  190*5.] 
Melanchra  molis,  n.  sp. 

Five  specimens,  varying  from  30  mm.  to  36  mm.     Antennae 
ochreous,    filiform.     Legs    and^palpi    light-ochreous.      Thorax 

strongly  crested,  crest  outlined  in 
light-brown.  Abdomen  ochreous  ; 
in  one  specimen  reddish-ochreous. 
Forewings  light  -  ochreous ;  all 
markings  delicately  shaded  in 
reddish -brown.  Reniform  hardly 
shown,  but  shaded,  especially  to- 
wards base,  with  reddish-brown.  Seven  short  distinct  marks 
from  base  to  f  along  costa.     A  jagged  transverse  line  near  ter- 


>JT  - 


534  Transactions. 

men,  inclining  towards  centre  of  wing  as  it  nears  dorsum. 
Edge  of  termen  deeply  scalloped.  Cilia  light-brown.  Hind- 
wings  ochreous,  with  strong  darker  terminal  suffusion.  Cilia 
ochreous. 

■  Apparently  close  to  M.  rubescens,  which  it  resembles  in  the 
markings,  but  it  is  easily  distinguished.  Has  occurred  in  Dun- 
edin  in  December,  and  on  blossom  here  in  October.  Mr. 
Philpott  has  three  specimens  taken  at  Wallacetown. 

In  the  1905  volume  of  the  Transactions  I  described  a  new 
Leucania  as  "  Leucania  obsoleta."  As  this  name  proves  to  be 
preoccupied,  I  alter  the  name  to  "  L.  innotatar 

Leucania  innotata,  n.  sp. 

^ About  37  mm.  Antennae  ochreous,  filiform.  Legs  and  palpi 
greyish-ochreous.  Legs  fuscous  beneath.  Face  and  thorax 
dark-ochre.  Thorax  moderately  crested.  Abdomen  dull-grey ; 
anal  segment  paler.  Forewings  uniform  light-ochre.  Veins 
plainly  outlined  in  grey.  Orbicular  and  reniform  obsolete. 
Very  slight  dark  shading  from  base  to  half-way  along  wing- 
centre.  Termen  very  slightly  sinuate  near  apex.  Hindwings 
uniform  fuscous,  with  cilia  light-ochreous  as  in  forewings. 

This  moth  appears  to  be  close  to  L.  arotis,  but  differs  in 
coloration,  in  the  absence  of  dots  on  the  forewings,  and  in  its 
pale-ochre  cilia. 

The  jfirst  specimen  was  taken  in  Dunedin  in  December,  but 
since  then,  when  collecting  with  Messrs.  Lee  and  Oliver,  we 
have  taken  several  more  in  October  at  Anderson's  Bay,  Dunedin. 


Art.  XLVIII. — Additional  Notes  on  the  Kea. 

By  George  R.  Marriner.  F.R.M.S..  Curator.  Public  Museum, 

Wartganui. 

[Read  before  the  Philosophical  Institute  of  Canterbury,  11th  December,  1907.] 

Plates  XXXII-XXXTV. 

In  order  to  verify  some  of  the  accounts  that  I  had  heard  of  the 
damage  done  to  the  sheep-farmers  through  the  depredations 
of  the  kea,  and,  if  possible,  to  obtain  some  photographs  of  the 
murdered  sheep,  in  July,  1907,  I  made  a  week's  excursion  to 
Mount  Algidus  Station.  This  run  is  situated  near  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Rakaia,  Mathias,  and  Wilberforce  Rivers,  a  few 
miles  above  the  Rakaia  Forks,  where  the  birds  have  been  very 
troublesome  for  some  time.     Though   midwinter  is  the  worst 


Marrinee. — Additional  Notes  on  the  Kea.  535 

time  of  the  year  to  visit  this  kind  of  country,  owing  to  frequent 
heavy  storms  of  snow  and  rain,  yet  in  order  to  catch  the  kea 
at  work  one  must  travel  at  this  time  of  the  year. 

I  was  not  fortunate  enough  to  actually  catch  the  bird  in  the 
act  of  killing  sheep,  yet  I  was  able  to  follow  closely  in  his  tracks 
and  obtain  several  photographs  of  dead  sheep  which  had  evi- 
dently been  killed  by  him.  Also,  through  the  kindness  of  Mi-. 
R.  Urquhart,  manager  of  the  station,  who  did  all  in  his  power 
to  aid  me  in  my  investigations,  I  was  able  to  get  some  photo- 
graphs of  keas'  nests.  As  I  believe  that  these  are  the  first 
photographs  that  have  been  taken  of  these  interesting  phases 
in  the  natural  history  of  the  kea,  I  thought  that  some  of  the 
pictures,  accompanied  by  a  detailed  description,  would  be  of 
sufficient  interest  to  place  on  record. 

Sheep  killed  by  Keas. 

The  first  dead  sheep  was  found  at  the  foot  of  the  Rolleston 
Range,  about  ten  miles  above  the  Rakaia  Forks,  on  a  broad 
expanse  of  river-flat,  known  at  the  homestead  as  the  "  Top 
Flat."  The  animal  was  a  merino  ram,  in  splendid  condition, 
and,  from  the  place  in  which  it  was  found,  it  had  apparently 
been  chased  by  the  bird  or  birds  until  it  was  cornered  where 
two  wire  fences  met,  and  there  injured.  The  sheep  was  quite 
dead,  and  lying  on  its  wounded  side.  On  turning  the  beast 
over  we  found  an  ugly  black-looking  wound  on  the  right  loin 
at  11  in.  from  the  tail.  The  hole  was  5  in.  long  by  4  in.  wide. 
The  wool  was  all  torn  off,  and  the  flesh  was  removed  so  that  the 
transverse  processes  of  lumbar  vertebrae  were  visible.  Though 
a  deep  hole  had  been  made  in  the  flesh,  the  birds  had  not  reached 
the  body-cavity,  nor  had  they  injured  the  kidneys,  and  from 
the  appearance  of  the  animal  it  seemed  as  if  it  had  died  from 
blood-poisoning.  Further  up  the  back  there  were  several 
other  places  where  the  wool  had  been  picked.  We  propped  the 
sheep  up  in  order  to  photograph  it,  and  on  returning  next  day 
we  found  that  the  keas  had  evidently  been  at  it,  as  was  shown 
by  the  wool  which  was  scattered  around  the  carcase. 

On  the  same  flat  we  noticed  another  merino  ram  which  had 
apparently  been  picked,  and  on  rounding  up  the  mob  and  captur- 
ing the  animal  we  found  a  V-shaped  scar  6  in.  by  4  in.  on  the 
right  loin.  The  sheep  was  still  running  with  the  mob,  but,  as 
the  wound  was  dirty  and  very  much  festered,  there  was  all 
probability  of  the  animal  succumbing  to  its  injuries. 

On  my  return  to  the  Lake  Coleridge  Station  I  found  that 
during  my  short  absence  the  keas  had  been  at  work,  and  a 
wounded  sheep  was  found  dead  near  the  homestead.  Through 
the  kindness  of  Mr.  J.  Murchison,  who  kept  it  for  me,  I  was 


536  Transactions. 

able  to  photograph  it,  and  take  notes.  The  animal  was  a  four- 
tnothed  merino  ewe,  and  apparently  in  good  condition.  Over 
the  left  loin  was  a  round  wound  4  in.  by  3  in.  in  size,  and,  like 
those  seen  at  the  Mount  Algidus  Station,  the  flesh  was  black- 
looking  and  much  lacerated.  The  birds  had  just  made  a  small 
hole  into  the  body-cavity,  but  on  opening  the  sheep  we  found 
the  kidneys  and  kidney-fat  intact.  On  skinning  the  back  we 
found  the  flesh  for  some  distance  blackish  in  appearance,  as 
though  blood-poisoning  had  been  the  cause  of  death.  Though 
the  wounds  in  the  sheep  seen  in  this  excursion  were  horrible 
enough,  often  the  whole  side  of  the  sheep  is  eaten  out,  and 
various  internal  organs  pulled  out. 

However,  from  what  I  saw,  it  appears  that  the  death  of 
kea-picked  sheep  is  not  always  due  to  the  injuries  to  the  in- 
ternal organs,  but  that  foreign  matter  getting  into  a  small  flesh- 
wound  made  by  a  kea  causes  blood-poisoning  and  death.  It 
may  be  that  the  kea's  beak  itself  is  not  quite  clean,  or  perhaps 
that  the  cruel  laceration  of  the  flesh  due  to  the  kea's  attacks 
is  sufficient  to  poison  the  blood. 

Keas'  Nests. 

The  position  of  the  kea's  nest  depends  a  good  deal  on  the 
surrounding  country.  If  the  mountains  have  numerous  long 
narrow  tunnels  running  for  some  yards  into  solid  rock  the  kea 
will  make  use  of  them  ;  but  otherwise  a  rabbit-burrow  or  a 
cairn  of  stones  will  suffice.  When  the  birds  build,  as  they 
usually  do,  in  the  face  of  almost  inaccessible  cliffs,  their  nests 
are  invulnerable,  for  even  if  a  mountaineer  can  manage,  at  the 
risk  of  his  life,  to  reach  the  exit  of  the  "run"  he  will  have 
to  use  a  crowbar  to  force  an  opening,  and  in  many  cases  nothing 
but  a  charge  of  blasting-powder  would  make  a  hole  large  enough 
to  effect  an  entrance.  The  nest  that  we  visited  was  situated 
in  a  narrow  tunnel  at  the  top  of  a  900  ft.  cliff,  caused  by  the 
Chimera  Creek  cutting  a  deep  narrow  gorge  through  Jack's  Hill. 
We  had  to  leave  our  horses  in  the  gorge,  and  climb  along  the 
top  of  the  cliff  for  some  distance,  which,  owing  to  the  slippery 
nature  of  the  ground,  made  our  progress  very  slow.  The  nest 
was  fairly  easy  of  access,  owing  to  it  being  situated  near  the 
bottom  of  a  small  ravine,  about  10  ft.  deep,  which  poured  its 
waters  over  the  top  of  the  cliff. 

In  the  spring  of  1906  Mr.  Urquhart,  having  discovered  the 
nest,  determined  to  plunder  it,  and  so  one  night  he,  with  several 
of  his  men,  climbed  along  the  top  of  the  cliff,  but  owing  to 
the  darkness  they  were  unable  exactly  to  locate  the  nest.  The 
difficulty  was  overcome,  however,  by  one  of  the  men  imitating 
the  call  of  a  kea,  to  which  the  young  birds  responded.     A  large 


Marriner. — Additional  Notes  on  the  Kea.  537 

stone  was  forced  away  from  the  opening  with,  the  aid  of  a  crow- 
bar, thns  enabling  a  man  to  crawl  in  and  reach  the  nest.  The 
female  bird  was  killed,  but  the  male  escaped,  and  the  four  young 
birds  were  carried  back  to  the  station.  Mr.  Urquhart  brought 
two  of  the  young  birds  to  Christchurch  for  me,  thus  enabling 
me  to  photograph  them. 

The  nest  of  a  kea  is  almost  a  misnomer,  for  the  bird  chooses 
some  natural  hole  in  the  rocks  which  has  a  narrow  opening 
just  wide  enough  to  allow  the  adult  birds  to  pass  in  and  out, 
and  then,  placing  a  few  pieces  of  tussock-grass  at  the  far  end, 
she  lays  her  eggs. 

The  first  nest  that  I  saw  was  situated  at  the  end  of  a  long 
narrow  tunnel  running  some  6  ft.  into  solid  rock.  The  opening, 
after  the  removal  of  a  large  stone,  was  in  the  shape  of  a  triangle ; 
the  distance  from  the  apex  to  the  base  was  14  in.,  and  the  length 
of  the  base  19  in.  The  tunnel,  or  "run,"  narrowed  as  it  sp- 
proached  the  end,  and  here,  in  the  narrowest  part,  was  the 
nest  placed,  which,  when  it  was  robbed  some  months  before, 
contained  four  keas. 

On  the  opposite  side  of  the  ravine  the  remains  of  another 
nest  were  found,  which  could  not  have  been  reached  without 
blasting  the  rock.     The  opening  was  30  in.  deep  and  some  13  in. 
wide,  and  the  tunnel  ran  back  some  10  ft.  into  solid  rock,  and  a  • 
more  secure  place  for  a  nest  could  hardly  be  imagined. 

With  such  inaccessible  nesting-places  there  seems  very 
little  chance  at  present  of  these  interesting  but  cruel  birds  being 
exterminated. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES  XXXII-XXXIV. 

Plate  XXXII. 

Fig.  1.  A  sheep  killed  by  keas  on  Top  Flat,  Mount  Algidus  Station. 
Fig.  2.  Close  view  of  the  wound  seen  in  fig.  1,  Plate  XXXII. 

Plate  XXXIII. 

Fig.  1.  A  sheep  killed  by  keas  on  Lake  Coleridge  Station. 
Fig.  2.  Close  view  of  wound  in  fig.  1,  Plate  XXXTII. 

Plate  XXXIV. 

Fig.  1.  Opening  into  the  "  run  "  leading  to  the  nest  where  four  young 
keas  were  captufed.  A  large  stone  has  been  removed  from  the 
entrance. 

Fig.  2.    Opening  into  the  "  run  "  of  another  nest. 


-     °1 

■ 


538  Transactions. 


Art.  XLIX. — A  Preliminary  Note  of  a  Metaphysical  Hypothesis. 

By  Maurice  W.  Richmond,  B.Sc.  (Lond.),  LL.B.  (N.Z.),  Pro- 
fessor of  English  and[  New  Zealand  Law,  Victoria  College, 
Wellington. 

[Read  before  the  Wellington  Philosophical  Society,  2nd  October,  1907.] 

The  hypothesis  of  which  this  is  a  preliminary  note  is  a  par- 
ticular form  of  monism. 

It  rejects  the  dualistic  view  that  there  are  two  kinds  of  being, 
the  spiritual  and  the  material,  and  adopts  the  monistic  view 
that  there  is  only  one  kind  of  being — namely,  the  spiritual. 
It  accepts  the  latest  view  of  physical  science  in  regard  to  the 
constitution  of  the  universe,  according  to  which  (using  for 
the  moment  the  language  of  physical  science)  the  whole  of  the 
(so-called)  material  world  (including  both  ponderable  matter 
and  the  imponderable  ether),  and  the  whole  of  the  phenomena 
of  the  (so-called)  material  world,  is  resolved  into  the  elements 
of  the  ether  and  the  transmission  of  states  through  the  elements 
(or  from  element  to  element)  of  the  ether  ;  and  it  gives  to  this 
view  a  particular  monistic/  and  therefore  spiritualistic,  inter- 
pretation. 

It  supposes^'every'|  single  one  of  the  elements  of  the  ether 
to  be  in  itself  a  conscious  being  or  spirit.  It  supposes  each  of 
these  elements  to  have  a  sense  of  the  existence  of  its  neighbour 
elements,  to  have  feelings  and  to  be  affected  towards  them, 
and  to  produce  by  an  effort  of  will  the  effects  which  it  produces 
upon  them.  It  supposes  every  single  element  of  the  ether, 
therefore,  to  be  conscious  in  all  the  three  ways  of  knowing, 
feeling,  and  willing. 

It  supposes  the  principal  seat  of  consciousness  in  man  to  be 
in  certain  of  the  elements  of  the  ether  permeating  or  surrounded 
by  the  brain  of  the  man,  and  occupying  a  certain  position  rela- 
tively to  the  brain  as  a  whole,  varying  probably,  more  or  less, 
with  the  particular  state  of  consciousness.  And  similarly  in 
regard  to  the  principal  seats  of  consciousness  in  the  case  of  ani- 
mals and  in  other  cases. 

The  hypothesis  is,  in  fact,  one  not  only  that  every  single 
one  of  the  elements  of  the  ether  is  a  conscious  being,  a  seat 
of  consciousness,  but,  further,  that  they  are  the  seats  of  all 
consciousness,  or,  at  the  least,  of  all  finite  consciousness,  in 
(In-  universe,  whether  human,  or  animal,  or  other-    that  they 


Eichmond. — A  Metaphysical  Hypothesis.  539 

are  the  only  beings,  or  at  least  the  only  finite  beings,  in  the 
universe. 

It  is  a  necessary  part  of  the  hypothesis  that  what  are  ordi- 
narily spoken  of  as  the  successive  states  of  consciousness  of  a 
man  are  not  experienced  by  a  single  permanent  being,  or  spirit, 
or  soul,  but  by  a  succession  of  beings,  or  spirits,  or  souls — namely, 
the  elements  of  the  ether  which  from  time  to  time  occupy  the 
central  position  in  the  brain  of  the  man.  The  sense  of  continued 
personal  identity  is,  according  to  the  hypothesis,  created  and 
maintained,  notwithstanding  this,  by  the  continued  corporate 
identity  of  the  brain  and  nervous  system  and  body,  notwith- 
standing continual  changes  of  the  elements  which  constitute 
them,  and  by  the  functions  of  the  brain  as  the  organ  of  memory 
and  anticipation. 

Though  every  single  element  of  the  ether  has,  in  the  hypo- 
thesis, at  least  an  elementary  consciousness,  the  simplicity  or 
complexity  of  the  consciousness  of  any  element  must,  of  course, 
be  supposed  to  vary  immensely,  from  a  very  great  simplicity 
when  little  in  the  way  of  change  is  going  on  around  it  and  in 
it  (as,  for  instance,  in  inter-stellar  or  ultra-stellar  space),  to  a 
very  great  complexity  when  it  is,  for  instance,  surrounded 
by  the  brain  of  a  man  and  subject  to  the  influences  of  the  im- 
mensely complex  processes  going  on  in  the  brain  of  a  man. 

In  the  view  of  physical  science  the  elements  of  the  ether 
are  spatially  related,  in  the  sense  that  each  one  of  them  has  a 
certain  number  of  others  immediately  next  or  contiguous  to 
it,  and  acts  directly  or  immediately  upon,  and  is  acted  upon 
directly  or  immediately  by,  those  only  which  are  immediately 
next  or  contiguous  to  it.  Action  between  elements  which  are 
not  immediately  next  or  contiguous  to  one  another  is  indirect 
or  mediate  only — namely,  through  the  medium  of  the  inter- 
vening elements.  In  the  hypothesis  here  suggested  this  view 
takes  the  following  form  :  The  multitude  of  the  elements  of  the 
ether  is  a  multitude  of  conscious  beings  or  spirits.  They  are 
spatially  related  to  one  another  in  the  sense  that  each  of  them 
is  directly  and  immediately  related  to  a  certain  number  of  others, 
which  it  directly  and  immediately  knows,  and  by  which  it  is 
directly  and  immediately  known,  or  between  which  and  it  there 
is  direct  and  immediate  communication ;  but  communication 
between  it  and  all  others  than  that  certain  number  is  indirect 
or  mediate  only — namely,  through  the  medium  of  those  with 
which  it  is  in  direct  communication,  and  of  others  again  with 
which  those  are  in  direct  communication,  and  so  on. 

The  transmission  of  states  through  the  elements  (or  from 
element  to  element)  of  the  ether,  into  which,  in  the  view  of 
physical  science,  the  whole  of  the  phenomena^of  the  (so-called) 


540  Transactions. 

material  world  is  resolved,  is  interpreted,  in  the  hypothesis,  as 
the  communication  of  states  of  consciousness  from  being  to 
being,  or  spirit  to  spirit. 

It  is  impossible  within  the  limits  of  a  short  note  to  attempt 
to  work  out  the  application  of  the  hypothesis  in  further  detail, 
but  enough  has  perhaps  been  stated  to  indicate  the  kind  of 
interpretation  which  it  would  give  in  each  case  to  the  detailed 
results  of  physical  science. 

The  hypothesis  is,  it  is  believed,  equally  consistent  with  all 
the  results  of  mental  science  or  psychology.  The  manner  in 
which  it  deals  with  the  subject  of  personal  identity  has  been 
already  very  briefly  indicated,  and  cannot  be  further  gone  into 
in  this  note.  The  hypothesis,  as  a  monistic  one,  in  which  all 
the  constituent  elements  of  the  brain  are  themselves  seats  of 
consciousness  and  are  in  themselves  beings  of  precisely  the  same 
nature  as  that  which  is  for  the  moment  the  principal  seat  of 
consciousness,  has,  of  course,  an  immense  advantage  over  any 
form  of  dualism,  in  which  the  substance  of  the  brain  is  supposed 
to  be  of  a  wholly  different  order  of  being  from,  and  wholly  in- 
commensurable with,  the  substance  or  being  of  the  soul.  In 
the  monistic  hypothesis  here  suggested  the  different  elements 
of  consciousness  may  be  supposed  to  be  separately  experienced 
by  elements  of  the  ether  within  the  different  regions  of  the 
cortex,  and  to  be  communicated  through  the  intervening  ele- 
ments to  the  seat  for  the  time  being  of  the  principal  conscious- 
ness, where  they  are  together  experienced  as  a  whole.  The 
unity  and  co-ordination  of  the  different  elements  of  conscious- 
ness, and  the  possibility  of  their  being  experienced  in  the  princi- 
pal seat  of  consciousness  as  a  coherent  whole,  would  be  secured 
by  the  communications  taking  place  between  the  different  regions 
of  the  cortex  through  the  nervous  arcs  of  the  higher  levels. 

Speaking  generally,  the  hypothesis  is  a  monadology  in  which 
the  elements  of  the  ether  are  the  monads.  They  are  not.  how- 
ever, cut  off  from  one  another  as  in  the  monadology  of  Leibniz. 
On  the  contrary,  every  one  of  them  is  in  immediate  or  mediate 
communication  with  every  other.  The  hypothesis  may  also  be 
said  to  be,  in  some  sort,  a  unification  of  idealism  and  realism: 
it  is  idealistic  in  that  it  supposes  the  existence  of  only  one  kind 
of  being — namely,  conscious  being  or  spirit;  it  is  realistic  in 
that  it  supposes  every  single  element  of  the  (so-called)  material 
world  to  lie  self-subsisting,  to  the  same  extent  and  in  the  same 
si  use,  at  all  events,  as  the  soul  of  man  is  self-subsisting  — 
the  soul  of  man  being,  indeed,  itself  an  element  or  elements  of 
the  (so-called)  material  world.  To  what  extent  and  in  what 
sense  i  iiv  finite  being  can  be  said  to  be  self-subsisting  is  a  ques- 
tion which  the  hypothesis  leaves  untouched. 


NEW  ZEALAND  INSTITUTE 


NEW    ZEALAND    INSTITUTE 


THIRTY-NINTH  ANNUAL  REPORT. 

The  fourth  annual  meeting  ot  the  Board  of  Governors  under 
the  New  Zealand  Institute  Act  of  1903  was  held  in  the  Dominion 
Museum,  WellingtoD,  on  the  31st  January,  1907,  and  was  at- 
tended by  ten  members,  under  the  presidency  of  Sir  James 
Hector.  The  representatives  of  the  Governor  in  Council  were 
Messrs.  A.  Hamilton,  J.  W.  Joynt,  E.  Tregear,  and  J.  Young. 
The  representatives  of  the  various  incorporated  societies  who 
were  elected  in  accordance  with  the  Act  were  :  Auckland  In- 
stitute— Professor  Thomas  and  Mr.  J.  Stewart ;  Wellington 
Philosophical  Society — Professor  Easterneld  and  Mr.  M.  Chap- 
man ;  Philosophical  Institute  of  Canterbury — Professor  Chilton 
and  Dr.  Farr ;  Otago  Institute — Professor  Benham  and  Mr. 
G.  M.  Thomson ;  Hawke's  Bay  Philosophical  Institute — Mr. 
H.  Hill ;  Nelson  Institute — Dr.  Cockayne  ;  Westland  Institute 
—Mr.  T.  H.  Gill ;  Manawatu  Philosophical  Society— Mr.  W.  J. 
O'Donnell. 

The  following  officers  were  elected  for  the  year  :  President 
—Mr.  G.  M.  Thomson,  E.L.S.,  F.C.S.  ;  Treasurer— Mr.  Martin 
Chapman,  K.C.  ;  Editor  of  the  Transactions,  and  Librarian — 
Mr.  A.  Hamilton ;   Secretary— Mr.  T.  H.  Gill,  M.A.,  LL.B. 

The  honorary  members  elected  were  Messrs.  F.  E.  Beddard, 
F.R.S. ;  J.  Milne,  F.R.S.  ;  G.  R.  Brady,  F.R.S.  ;  and  Dr.  A. 
Dendy,  F.R.S.  During  the  year  three  honorary  members  have 
died— viz.,  Mr.  Alfred  Newton,  F.R.S.  ;  Mr.  Robert  J.  Ellery, 
F.R.S.  ;  and  Lord  Kelvin,  F.R.S. — leaving  twenty-six  on  the 
roll.     It  will,  therefore,  be  necessary  to  elect  four  new  members. 

The  world  of  science  in  general  and  the  New  Zealand  In- 
stitute in  particular  have  sustained  a  great  loss  by  the  death 
of  Sir  James  Hector,  F.R.S.,  a  former  President  of  this  Insti- 
tute. His  additions  to  the  knowledge  of  the  botany  and  zoology 
of  the  Dominion,  especially  in  the  earlier  years  of  his  work 
here,  were  extensive  and  valuable  ;  but  it  was  chiefly  in  his 
position  as  first  Director  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  these  Is- 
lands that  he  made  his  mark  as  a  scientific  man.  He  acted  as 
chief  scientific  adviser  of  successive  Governments  during  a 
period  of  over  thirty  years  ;  while  the  Senate  of  the  New  Zealand 
University  showed  their  appreciation  of  his  work  in  education 
by  electing  him  Chancellor,  a  position  he  held  for  many  years. 
The  question  of  considering  what  steps  should  be  taken  to  per- 


544  New  Zealand  Institute. 

petuate  his  memory  in  a  suitable  maimer  will  be  brought  up 
at  the  annual  meeting. 

Two  years  ago  the  Philosophical  Institute  of  Canterbury 
took  the  initiative  in  the  matter  of  instituting  the  Hutton  Me- 
morial Research  Fund.  The  New  Zealand  Institute  set  up  a 
committee,  consisting  of  Drs.  Chilton  (convener)  and  Cockayi  e. 
Messrs.  R.  M.  Laing  and  Speight,  to  deal  with  the  question  and 
to  report.  That  committee  was  reappointed  at  the  last  annual 
meeting,  when  general  and  also  detailed  regulations  were  sub- 
mitted and  agreed  to.  It  will  be  necessary  for  this  coming 
meeting  to  determine  when  the  fund  shall  become  operative. 

The  members  now  on  the  roll  of  the  various  incorporated 
societies  are  as  follows:  Auckland  Institute,  164;  "Wellington 
Philosophical  Society,  101  ;  Philosophical  Institute  of  Canter- 
bury, 147  ;  Otago  Institute,  116  ;  Hawke's  Bay  Philosophical 
Institute,  46  ;  Nelson  Institute,  30  ;  Westland  Institute,  46  ; 
Manawatu  Philosophical  Institute,  63  :    total,  713. 

Transactions. — The  volumes  of  Transactions  at  present  on 
hand  are— Vol.  I  (second  edition),  315  ;  Vol.  V,  31  ;  Vol.  VI. 
22  ;  Vol.  VII,  144  ;  Vol.  IX,  215  ;  Vol.  X,  139  ;  Vol.  XI,  392  ; 
Vol.  XII,  305  ;  Vol.  XIII,  142  ;  Vol.  XIV,  107  ;  Vol.  XV,  280  ; 
Vol.  XVI,  270  ;  Vol.  XVII,  530  ;  Vol.  XVIII,  308  ;  Vol.  XIX, 
555  ;  Vol.  XX,  452  ;  Vol.  XXI,  454  ;  Vol.  XXII,  560  ;  Vol. 
XXIII,  570;  Vol.  XXIV,  670;  Vol.  XXV.  626;  Vol.  XXVI. 
613;  Vol.  XXVII,  605;  Vol.  XXVIII,  688;  Vol.  XXIX. 
591;  Vol.  XXX,  685;  Vol.  XXXI,  695;  Vol.  XXXII,  518; 
Vol.  XXXIII,  611;  Vol.  XXXIV,  564;  Vol.  XXXV,  526; 
Vol.  XXXVI,  686  ;    Vol.  XXXVII,  604  ;    Vol.  XXXVIII,  750. 

The  volume  just  published,  Vol.  XXXIX.  contains  576 
pages  and  26  plates,  in  addition  to  a  photograph  and  an  "  In 
memoriam  "  notice  of  the  late  Sir  Walter  Bull  or.  The  contents 
of  the  last  two  volumes  are  compared  as  follows  : — 

Vol.  .W.Will     Vol.  \\\l\ 


(11105). 
Pages. 

(1906) 
Pages. 

Miscellaneous 

.     , 

.     130 

76 

Zoology 
Botany 
Geology 
Chemistry  and 

1>1 

•    • 

vsii  s 

.     173 

86 

135 

.       50 

210 

189 
47 

Nil. 

Records  of  Mil 
Proceedings  . . 

le 

Beismogr 

aphs 

6 

.       33 

Nil. 
31 

Appendix 

.       21 

23 

634  576 

Tin-  whole  of  the  work  was  done,  as  formerly,  at  the  Govern- 
ment   Printing   Office.     It  is  matter  for  regret  that,   owing  to 


New  Zealand  Institute. 


545 


the  pressure  at  the  office,  the  publication  of  the  Ust  volume 
was  delayed  so  late  in  the  year. 

Three  years  ago  the  New  Zealand  Institute  obtained  per- 
mission from  the  Colonial  Secretary  to  store  back  numbers  of 
the  Transactions  in  the  cellar  of  the  Library  in  the  Parliamentary 
Buildings.  There  are  now  about  fifteen  thousand  volumes 
stored  there.  Fortunately,  in  the  great  conflagration  which 
recently  destroyed  the  greater  part  of  those  buildings  the  Library 
was  saved,  and  the  volumes  are  not  damaged. 

Carter  Bequest. — The  amount  standing  to  the  credit  of  the 
fund  on  the  31st  December,  1907,  was  £2,617  lis.  lOd.  In  ad- 
dition, there  is  a  quantity  of  scrip  in  the  New  Zealand  Loan 
and  Mercantile  Agency  Company  at  face  value.  The  money  is 
invested  by  the  Public  Trustee,  and  is  earning  interest  at  the 
rate  of  4  per  cent,  per  annum.  This  fund  represents  a  bequest 
by  the  late  C.  R.  Carter  to  the  New  Zealand  Institute  for  the 
piirpose  of  establishing  an  astronomical  observatory.  The  fund 
has  been  accumulating  for  some  years,  and  on  the  31st  De- 
cember last  was  as  stated  above. 

Financial. — Herewith  is  presented  the  balance-sheet  for  the 
year  just  ended.  From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  credit  balance 
amounts  to  £361  5s.  lid. 

Receipts. 
Jan.  1. — Balance  forward 
Sale  of  Transactions 
Sale  of  "  Maori  Art  "    . . 

Contribution,  Wellington  Philosophical  Society 
Government  grant 


Expenditure. 
Printing  Transactions   . . 
Expenses  of  members  (three) 
Services — 

W.  McKay 

C.  Freyberg 

Editor 

Secretary . .  . .  ■ 

Library 
General  expenses — 

Express  Company . . 

Andrews 

Whitcombe  and  Tombs 

Small  accounts,  postage,  &c. 

Bank  charge 

IS- -Trans. 


£ 

s. 

d. 

. .  344 

14 

8 

6 

11 

1 

.:      8 

8 

0 

..   16 

5 

6 

..  500 

0 

0 

£875 

19 

3 

£ 

s. 

d- 

..  359 

18 

6 

8 

14 

4 

6 

1 

0 

..   10 

0 

0 

..   50 

0 

0 

..   25 

0 

0 

..   30 

12 

9 

6 

11 

11 

1 

10 

0 

2 

7 

6 

..   13 

7 

4 

0 

10 

0 

514  13     4 


546  New  Zealand  Institute. 

£  s.  d. 

Balance  in  bank.  28th  January,  1908. .     415  8  11 

Petty  cash  in  hand                . .              . .         2  7  0 


417  15  11 
Less  unpresented  cheques        . .       56  10    0 


361     5  11 


£875  19     3 


MINUTES  OF  FIFTH  ANNUAL  MEETING. 

30th  January,  1908. 

The  fifth  annual  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Governors  of  the  New- 
Zealand  Institute  was  held  in  the  Dominion  Museum  on  Thurs- 
day, the  30th  January,  1908,  at  10.30  a.m. 

Present :  Mr.  G.  M.  Thomson,  President  (in  the  chair)  ; 
Professors  Charles  Chilton,  T.  H.  Easterfield,  and  W.  B.  Bon- 
ham  ;  Dr.  C.  C.  Farr  ;  Messrs.  D.  Petrie,  E.  Tregear,  J.  Young. 
K.  Wilson,  Martin  Chapman,  J.  Stewart,  H.  Hill,  A.  Hamilton, 
and  T.  H.  Gill  (Secretary). 

The  Secretary  read  the  letters  received  from  the  several 
societies  affiliated  to  the  Institute,  nominating  members  of  the 
Board  of  Governors,  the  nominations  being  as  follows  :  Auckland 
Institute — Messrs.  D.  Petrie  and  J.  Stewart ;  Wellington  Philo- 
sophical Society — Professor  T.  H.  Easterfield  and  Mr.  Martin 
Chapman ;  Philosophical  Institute  of  Canterbury — Professor 
Charles  Chilton  and  Dr.  C.  C.  Farr  ;  Otago  Institute — Professor 
W.  B.  Benham  and  Mr.  G.  M.  Thomson  ;  Hawke's  Bay  Philo- 
sophical Institute — Mr.  H.  Hill  ;  Nelson  Philosophical  Institute 
—Dr.  L.  Cockayne  ;  Westland  Institute— Mr.  T.  H.  Gill ;  Mana- 
watu  Philosophical  Society — Mr.  K.  Wilson. 

The  minutes  of  the  previous  annual  meeting  and  of  the 
three  meetings  of  the  Standing  Committee  were  read,  and  the 
minutes  of  the  previous  annual  meeting  were  confirmed. 

A  letter,  dated  the  29th  January,  1908,  from  Messrs.  T.  E. 
Fleming  and  H.  D.  Bell,  members  of  the  Victoria  College  Council. 
Wellington,  was  read,  in  reference  to  the  establishment  of  an 
astronomical  observatory  in  Wellington.  Moved  by  Mr.  Hill. 
seconded  by  Mr.  Chapman,  "  That  the  Board  of  Governors  meet 
a  deputation  from  the  College  Council  at  noon  this  day."' 
Carried. 


New  Zealand  Institute.  547 

ThefiPresidcnt  referred  to  the  death  of  SirJ^James  Hector, 
and  moved  the  following  resolution,  which  was  seconded  hy  Mr. 
Stewart,  and  carried  unanimously,  the  members  standing  : 
"  That  the  Board  of  Governors  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute 
desires  to  express  its  profound  regret  at  the  great  loss  sustained 
by  the  scientific  world  through  the  death  of  the  late  President. 
Sir  James  Hector.  By  his  own  researches  in  geology,  zoology, 
and  botany  in  the  Dominion  of  New  Zealand  he  added  greatly 
to  the  knowledge  of  those  branches  of  science  ;  as  head  of  the 
Geological  Survey,  of  the  Meteorological  Department,  and  of 
the  Colonial  Laboratory,  and  as  Director  of  the  Colonial  Museum, 
he  was  the  scientific  adviser  of  successive  Governments  for  a 
long  period  of  years  ;  while  as  Chancellor  of  the  New  Zealand 
University  he  was  closely  associated  with  the  highest  education 
of  the  Dominion.  The  Board  wishes  to  express  its  high  appre- 
ciation of  these  eminent  services  to  science,  especially  in  New 
Zealand.     That  a  copy  of  this  resolution  be  sent  to  Lady  Hector." 

The  annual  report  and  annual  statement  of  receipts  and 
expenditure  were  read  and  adopted. 

Mr.  Hamilton  moved,  and  Dr.  Farr  seconded,  "  That  the 
matter  of  obtaining  4J  per  cent,  instead  of  4  per  cent,  for  money 
deposited  with  the  Public  Trustee  in  the  Carter  bequest  be 
remitted  to  the  Treasurer."     Carried. 

Librarian's  Report. — The  Librarian's  report,  as  follows,  was 
read  and  adopted  : — 

The  Honorary  Librarian  reports  that  the  number  of  pieces  received 
during  the  year  as  exchanges  and  presentations  number  737.  Large 
numbers  of  duplicates  which  remained  after  Mr.  Ross  had  picked  out 
the  most  complete  set  for  binding  have  been  sorted  and  arranged  under 
their  respective  countries. 

There  is  still  a  very  large  number  of  publications  in  languages  other 
than  English  not  sorted  or  arranged. 

A  great  deal  of  binding  is  still  necessary,  and  modern  book-cases 
arranged  in  bays  would  be  much  more  useful  than  the  present  system 
of  shelving. 

Very  little  use  has  been  made  of  the  library,  the  number  of  entries 
by  those  taking  books  being  only  seventy-eight. 

No  progress  has  been  made  with  the  card  catalogue. 

Carter  Library. — None  of  the  books  reported  last  year  as  missing 
have  been  recovered. 

The  storage  of  the  stock  of  the  Transactions  must  be  seen  to,  as  there 
are  now  in  the  Museum  building  three  years'  accumulations  to  be  trans- 
ferred to  the  cellar  of  the  Parliamentary  Buildings.  A  steel  embossed 
stamp  has  been  provided,  and  will  be  used  in  future  for  the  books,  as  being 
much  superior  to  the  old  rubber  stamp,  and  it  is  suggested  that  when  the 
ownership  question  is  determined  a  book-plate  shall  be  pasted  in  each 
volume. 

One  of  the  Museum  rooms  has  been  set  aside  temporarily  for  the 
papers,  &c,  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute,  and  the  parcels  of  the  original 
papers  for  the  whole  of  the  thirty-nine  vears  have  been  collected  and 
freshly  tied  up. 


548  New  Zealand  Institute. 

I  suggest  that  some  members  of  the  Council  be  appointed  to  act  on 
its  behalf  in  an  examination  of  the  books  in  the  library,  as  it  is  found 
that  the  stamps  have  been  applied  erratically  in  the  past,  and  that  all 
three  stamps — Institute,  Museum,  and  Philosophical  Society — may  be 
found  in  one  set  of  books.  The  Philosophical  Institute  have  already 
appointed  a  representative  to  act  in  this  matter. 

It  is  very  desirable  that  the  present  exchange  list  should  be  carefully 
revised,  with  a  view  to  giving  a  more  definite  character  to  the  collection 
in  the  New  Zealand  Institute  library. 

I  also  recommend  that  in  future  two  books  instead  of  one  be  used  for 
recording  books  taken  out  of  the  library  of  the  Institute  and  the  library 
of  the  Wellington  Philosophical  Society  by  members. 

A.  Hamilton, 

Librarian. 

The  Board  ^of  Governors  received  a  deputation,  consisting 
of  Messrs.  T.  R.  Fleming  and  H.  D.  Bell,  members  of  Victoria 
College  Council,  and  Mr.  C.  P.  Powles,  Secretary  of  the  Council, 
which  urged  upon  the  Board  the  necessity  of  establishing  an 
astronomical  observatory  on  a  site  on  the  Victoria  College  grounds, 
and  of  handing  over  the  Carter  Bequest  funds  to  the  College  for 
this  purpose.  The  President  expressed  pleasure  to  the  deputa- 
tion at  its  attendance.  Mr.  Fleming  suitably  replied.  The  de- 
putation then  withdrew.  |?d  ^ 

Mr.  Hamilton  moved,  and  Mr.  Chapman  seconded,  "  That 
a  committee  be  appointed  to  act  on  behalf  of  the  Institute 
in  an  examination  of  the  books  in  the  library,  with  a  view  to 
determining  their  ownership."     Carried. 

Mr.  Hamilton  moved,  and  Mr.  Hill  seconded,  "  That  Pro- 
fessors Benham,  Chilton,  and  Easterfield,  and  Mr.  Chapman, 
with  the  mover,  be  a  committee  to  examine  the  books  in  the 
library,  in  conjunction  with  representatives  appointed  by  the 
other  bodies  interested,  to  determine  the  ownership  question." 
Carried. 

Mr.  Chapman  moved,  and  Mr.  Young  seconded,  "  That  the 
Board  will  agree  to  the  expenditure  of  the  Carter  bequest  in 
the  purchase,  erection,  &c,  of  an  astronomical  telescope  and 
accessories,  as  proposed  by  the  deputation  from  the  Victoria 
College,  and  allow  the  same  to  be  under  the  control  of  the  go- 
verning body  of  the  College,  on  the  following  conditions  :  (1)  That 
the  observatory  and  other  necessary  buildings  be  erected  out  of 
other  funds  ;  (2)  that  a  professor  of  astronomy  and  staff  be 
appointed  and  maintained  by  the  Victoria  College  out  of  funds 
other  than  the  Carter  bequest;  (3)  that  the  Board  be  advised 
that  the  expenditure  is  legal."     Carried. 

Mr.  Hamilton  moved,  and  Mr.  Young  seconded,  "  That  a 
committee  be  appointed  carefully  to  revise  the  exchange  list, 
and  to  report  to  the  next  annual  meeting  on  the  library  and 
the  present  state  of  the  collections."     Carried. 


New  Zealand  Institute.  549 

Mr.  Hamilton  moved,  and  Mr.  Young  seconded,  "  That  the 
same  committee  as  in  the  previous  case  be  appointed  to  revise 
the  exchange  list."     Carried. 

Mr.  Petrie  moved,  and  Mr.  Tregear  seconded,  "  That  Mr. 
T.  F.  Cheeseman's  name  be  added  to  the  previous  committee." 
Carried. 

Mr.  Hamilton  moved,  and  Professor  Chilton  seconded,  "  That 
the  volumes  of  the  Transactions  not  required  at  present  be  stored 
with  the  earlier  volumes  in  the  Parliamentary  Library." 
Carried . 

Mr.  Chapman  moved,  and  Professor  Easterfield  seconded, 
"  That  the  stored  numbers  of  the  Transactions  be  insured." 
Carried. 

Mr.  Chapman  moved,  and  Mr.  Hamilton  seconded,  "  That 
the  amount  of  such  insurance  be  £500."     Carried. 

Mr.  Hill  moved,  and  Mr.  Young  seconded,  "  That  the  books 
belonging  to  the  New  Zealand  Institute  now  stored  in  the 
Museum  buildings  be  insured  for  a  sum  not  exceeding  £2,000, 
at  a  rate  to  be  approved  by  the  Library  Committee."     Carried. 

Report  of  Publication  Committee  and  of  Editor. — The  Publica- 
tion Committee's  report  was  read  and  adopted.  The  Editor's 
report  was  also  read  and  received.  The  Publication  Committee's 
report  was  as  follows  : — 

The  Publication  Committee  report  that  they  held  three  meetings  for 
the  consideration  of  various  matters  connected  with  the  Transactions. 
Two  papers  were  referred  back  to  their  authors  for  revision  and  alteration 
of  plates,  and  the  committee  suggest  that  authors  be  requested  to  make 
their  papers  as  concise  as  possible. 

At  the  annual  meeting  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute  the  Publication 
Committee  were  requested  to  draw  up  a  series  of  "  hints  for  authors  "  for 
the  information  of  members  of  the  Institute.  A  copy  of  this  circular 
has  been  placed  at  the  beginning  of  each  volume  of  the  Transactions. 

The  question  of  printing  the  Proceedings  in  pamphlet  form  during 
the  course  of  the  session,  together  with  abstracts  of  scientific  papers 
relating  to  various  branches  of  science  in  the  colony,  was  referred  to  the 
committee.  The  committee  have  considered  the  matter,  and  they  ar« 
of  the  opinion  that  it  would  be  highly  desirable  to  have  summaries  of 
scientific  papers  appearing  in  various  publications  prepared  for  circula- 
tion, provided  that  experts  in  each  branch  of  science  would  undertake  to 
provide  the  proposed  abstracts,  and  if  they  were  done  on  the  same  lines 
as  the  "  International  Rides  of  Botanical  Nomenclature  "  prepared  by 
Mr.  Maiden,  in  the  last  volume  of  the  "  Journal  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
New  South  Wales." 

With  regard  to  the  publication  during  the  course  of  the  session  of  the 
Proceedings  of  the  vafious  societies,  the  committee  is  of  opinion  that  the 
local  Press  usually  publish  all  the  information  which  it  would  be  desirable 
to  print  for  distribution. 

Taking  into  consideration  the  cost  of  printing  the  plates  and  tables, 
the  committee  decided  not  to  publish  in  the  volume  the  seismological 
returns,  and,  in  accordance  with  the  views  of  the  Council  expressed  at  the 
last  annual  meeting,  it  suggested  to  the  Government  that  the  seismological 
returns  be  published  in  the  Gazette. 


550  New  Zealand  Institute. 

Mr.  Hamilton  moved,  and  Mr.  Petrie  seconded,  "  That  a 
committee  be  set  up  to  go  into  the  matter  of  the  delay  in  the 
issue  of  the  39th  volume  of  the  Transactions  ;  to  interview 
the  Government  Printer  and  the  Minister,  if  necessary,  and 
to  report  to  the  Standing  Committee."     Carried. 

Mr.   Hamilton  moved,   and  Professor  Easterfield  seconded. 
'  That  the  committee  consist  of  the  President,  Dr.  Farr,  Pro- 
fessor Chilton,  Professor  Benham,  and  Mr.  Stewart."     Carried. 

Mr.  Hamilton  moved,  and  Mr.  Young  seconded.  "  That  the 
Board  of  Governors  appoint  a  committee  to  make  arrangements 
for  the  preparation  of  an  index  to  the  forty  volumes  of  the 
'  Transactions  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute,'  the  index  to  cover 
author's  index,  subject  index,  index  of  plates  and  figures, 
and  to  include  the  Proceedings  as  well  as  the  Transactions  ; 
and  that  the  Government  be  asked  to  make  a  grant  for  the 
printing  of  the  index."     Carried. 

Mr.  Hamilton  moved,  and  Mr.  Gill  seconded,  "  That  the 
President  and  Professors  Benham,  Easterfield,  and  Chilton  be 
the  committee  to  make  arrangements  for  the  preparation  of  an 
index  to  the  forty  volumes  of  the  Transactions."     Carried. 

Proposed  by  Mr.  Hamilton,  seconded  by  Dr.  Chilton.  "  That 
the  41st  volume  be  the  first  of  a  new  series.  That  the  41st 
volume  consist  of  two  separately  published  parts  :  Part  I  to 
contain  the  scientific  papers,  plates,  and  index  :  Part  II  to  con- 
tain— (a)   Annual   address   of   the   President   of   the   Institute  ; 

(b)  the  Proceedings  of  the  societies  and  presidential  addresses  ; 

(c)  short  abstracts  of  papers  not  printed  in  full  ;  (d)  summaries 
of  scientific  papers  appearing  in  other  publications  on  matters 
of  interest  to  New  Zealand  science,  prepared  by  specialists, 
and  lists  of  the  scientific  publications  issued  by  the  Depart- 
ments of  Agriculture,  Chemistry.  &c,  during  the  year  ;  (e)  in- 
structions to  writers  of  papers;  (/)  report  of  the  annual  meet- 
ing of  the  Institute,  with  balance-sheets;  (g)  the  New  Zealand 
Institute  Act  ;  (//)  regulations  of  the  Hutton  Memorial  Fund, 
annual  report  of  the  same,  report  on  the  Hector  Memorial  Fund. 
report  on  Carter  bequest;  (i)  obituary  notices  of  honorary 
members  and  members  of  local  societies  ;  (j)  meteorological 
returns  and  diagrams;  (/,)  seismological  returns  and  diagrams." 
Carried. 

Mr.  Hamilton  moved,  and  Mr.  Petrie  seconded,  'That  it 
be  an  instruction  to  the  Editor  of  the  Transactions  to  follow 
the  rules  of  botanical  nomenclature  agreed  upon  at  the  Vienna 
Congress  of  1905  in  the  printing  of  the  '  Transactions  of  the 
New  Zealand  Institute.'  "  Carri<  d.  A  letter,  dated  Auckland. 
the  13th  January,  1908,  from  Mr.  T.  F.  Cheeseman,  bearingjjon 
this  subject,  was  received. 


New  Zealand  Institute.  551 

Mr.  Hamilton  moved,  and  Mr.  Chapman  seconded,  "  That 
the  Board  take  into  consideration  the  question  of  the  advisable- 
ness  of  reprinting  papers  which  have  appeared  in  the  Trans- 
actions."    Carried. 

Hutton  Memorial  Fund. — Professor  Chilton  read  the  report 
and  statement  of  receipts  and  expenditure  of  the  Hutton  Me- 
morial Research  Fund  Committee,  as  follows.  The  report  and 
statement  were  adopted  : — ■ 

The  committee  begs  to  submit  a  statement  of  the  receipts  and 
expenditure  in  connection  with  the  fund,  which  shows  that  since  the  last 
report  was  made  further  subscriptions  to  the  amount  of  £12  9s.  have 
been  received,  and  the  sum  of  £18  Is.  od.  earned  as  interest,  and  that  the 
amount  now  standing  to  the  credit  of  the  fund  is  £663  2s.  3d.  The  bulk 
of  this  is  at  present  deposited  in  the  Post-Office  Savings-Bank,  but  the 
committee  recommends  that  arrangements  for  more  profitable  investment 
be  made  without  delay. 

No  application  for  grants  from  the  fund  have  been  received  by  the 
committee,  probably  because  the  regulations  dealing  with  the  matter 
were  not  published  in  the  "  Transactions  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute  " : 
the  committee  therefore  recommends  that  the  interest  at  present  accrued 
be  added  to  the  principal. 

The  committee  also  suggests  that  until  the  fund  reaches  the  sum  of 
£1,000  a  small  proportion  of  the  interest- — say,  1  per  cent,  of  the  amount 
invested — be  added  to  the  capital  every  year. 

Full  instructions  have  been  sent  to  London  for  the  striking  of  the 
Hutton  Memorial  Medal,  and  Professor  Arthur  Dendy,  of  King's  College, 
London,  has  kindly  undertaken  to  attend  to  the  matter  on  behalf  of  the 
committee,  and  it  is  hoped  that  copies  of  the  medal  will  be  received  before 
long. 

The  committee  is  of  opinion  that  it  is  now  necessary  to  make  some 
arrangements  for  awarding  the  medal,  and  begs  to  suggest  that  a  small 
committee  be  formed  of  persons  living  outside  New  Zealand  who  are  con- 
versant with  the  science  of  geology,  zoology,  and  botany,  and  that  they 
be  asked  to  make  suggestions  to  the  Board  of  Governors  from  time  to 
time  as  to  the  person  who  in  their  opinion  is  best  entitled  to  receive  the 
medal. 

On  behalf  of  the  committee, 

C.  Chilton,  Hon.  Treasurer. 

Statement   of   Receipts   and   Expenditure   from    1st    February,   1907, 

to  31st  .December,   1907. 

Receipts. 

Balance  on  1st  February,   1907 —  £       <  d  £       s.    d. 

In  Savings-Bank               ..               ..  ..  319   10  4 

In  Bank  of  New  Zealand,  Christchurch  ..  311     9  6 

Cash  in  hand    . .              . .              .  .  . .  3     3  0 

634     2  10 

Subscriptions  received            . .              . .  .  .  . .  12     9     0 

Interest  for  1907      .  .              . .              . .  . .  . .  18     1     5 


£664  13     3 


£       s. 

617  11 

45  10 

d. 
6 

£     s. 

1    1 

0  10 
663     2 

■  t. 
0 
0 

3 

£664  13 

3 

552  New  Zealand  Institute 

Expenditure. 
Design  for  Hutton  Medal 
Bank  charges 
Balance,  31st  December,  1907 — 

In  Savings- Bank 

In  Bank  of  New  Zealand,  Christchurch 


Audited  and  found  correct. — G.  E.  Way,  F.I.A.N.Z.,  Auditor. 
Christchurch,  29th  January,  1908. 

A  letter,  dated  Christchurch,  29th  August,  1907,  from  Mr. 
T.  Iredale,  was  read,  askiug  for  a  grant  from  the  Hutton 
Memorial  Eesearch  Fund.  Moved  by  Mr.  Petrie,  seconded  b}r 
Mr.  Hill,  "  That  the  letter  be  received."     Carried. 

Mr.  Chapman  moved,  and  Mr.  Young  seconded,  "  That  the 
Hutton  Memorial  Eesearch  Fund,  now  in  the  hands  of  the 
committee,  be  transferred  to  the  New  Zealand  Institute,  and 
the  Hutton  Memorial  Committee  be  discharged."     Carried. 

The  Board  went  into  committee  to  consider  the  regulations 
of  the  Hutton  Memorial  Medal  and  Eesearch  Fund. 

The  Board  resumed,  and  the  amendments  made  in  com- 
mittee were  reported  and  adopted,  the  regulations,  as  amended, 
being  as  follows  : — 

The  Hutton  Memorial  Medal  and  Research  Fund. 

Resolved  by  the  Board  of  Governors  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute 
that — 

1.  The  funds  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  Board  by  the  committee 
of  subscribers  to  the  Hutton  Memorial  Fund  be  called  "  The  Hutton 
Memorial  Research  Fund,"  in  memory  of  the  late  Captain  Frederick  Wol- 
laston  Hutton,  F.R.S.  Such  fund  shall  consist  of  the  moneys  subscribed 
and  granted  for  the  purpose  of  the  Hutton  Memorial,  and  all  other  funds 
which  may  be  given  or  granted  for  the  same  purpose. 

2.  The  funds  shall  be  vested  in  the  Institute.  The  Board  of  Governors 
of  the  Institute  shall  have  the  control  of  the  said  moneys,  and  may  invest 
the  same  upon  any  securities  proper  for  trust  moneys. 

3.  A  sum  not  exceeding  £100  shall  be  expended  in  procuring  a  bronze 
medal  to  be  known  as  "  The  Hutton  Memorial  .Medal." 

4.  Tli«'  fund,  or  such  part  thereof  as  shall  not  be  used  as  aforesaid) 
shall  be  invested  in  such  securities  as  aforesaid  as  may  be  approved  of  by 
the  Board  of  Governors,  and  the  interest  arising  from  such  investment 
shall  be  used  for  the  furtherance  of  the  objects  of  the  fund. 

5.  The  Hutton  Memorial  .Medal  shall  be  awarded  from  time  to  time 
by  the  Board  of  Governors,  in  accordance  with  these  regulations,  to  persons 
who  have  made  some  noticeable  eon  I  ri  but  ion  in  001  meet  ion  with  the  zoology, 
botany,  or  geology  of  New  Zealand. 

6.  The  Board  shall  make  regulations  setting  out  the  manner  in  which 
the  funds  shall  be  administered.  Such  regulations  shall  conform  to  the 
terms  of  the  trust. 

7.  The  Hoard  of  Governors  may,  in  the  manner  prescribed  in  the 
regulations,   make  grants  from  time  to  time  from   the  accrued  interest  to 


New  Zealand  Institute.  553 

persons  or  committees  who  require   assistance  in  prosecuting  researches 
in  the  zoology,  botany,  or  geology  of  New  Zealand. 

8.  Therp  shall  be  published  annually  in  the  "  Transactions  of  the  New 
Zealand  Institute  "  the  regulations  adopted  by  the  Board  as  aforesaid, 
a  list  of  the  recipients  of  the  Hutton  Memorial  Medal,  a  list  of  the  persons 
to  whom  grants  have  been  made  dining  the  previous  year,  and  also,  where 
possible,  an  abstract  of  researches  made  by  them. 

Regulations  under  which,  the  Hutton  Memorial  Medal  shall 
be  awarded  and  the  Research  Fund  administered  : — 

1.  Unless  in  exceptional  circumstances,  the  Hutton  Memorial  Medal 
shall  be  awarded  not  oftener  than  once  in  every  three  years  ;  and  in  no 
case  shall  any  medal  be  awarded  unless,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Board,  some 
contribution  really  deserving  of  the  honour  has  been  made. 

2.  The  medal  shall  not  be  awarded  for  any  research  published  previous 
to  the  31st  December,  1906. 

3.  The  research  for  which  the  medal  is  awarded  must  have  a  distinct 
bearing  on  New  Zealand  zoology,  botany,  or  geology. 

4.  The  medal  shall  be  awarded  only  to  those  who  have  received  the 
greater  part  of  their  education  in  New  Zealand  or  who  have  resided  in 
New  Zealand  for  not  less  than  ten  years. 

5.  Whenever  possible,  the  medal  shall  be  presented  in  some  public 
manner. 

6.  The  Board  of  Governors  may,  at  any  annual  meeting,  make  grants 
from  the  accrued  interest  of  the  fund  to  any  person,  society,  or  committee 
for  the  encouragement  of  research  in  New  Zealand  zoology,  botany,  or 
geology. 

7.  Applications  for  such  grants  shall  be  made  to  the  Board  before  the 
30th  September. 

8.  In  making  such  grants  the  Board  of  Governors  shall  give  preference 
to  such  persons  as  are  denned  in  regulation  4. 

9.  The  recipients  of  such  grants  shall  report  to  the  Board  before  the 
31st  December  in  the  year  following,  showing  in  a  general  way  how  the 
grant  has  been  expended  and  what  progress  has  been  made  with  the 
research. 

10.  The  results  of  reseat  ches  aided  by  grants  from  the  fund  shall, 
where  possible,  be  published  in  New  Zealand. 

11.  The  Board  of  Governors  may  from  time  to  time  amend  or  alter 
the  regulations,  such  amendments  or  alterations  being  in  all  cases  in 
conformity  with  resolutions  1  to  4. 

Professor  Chilton  moved,  and  Professor  Benham  seconded, 
"  That  until  the  Hutton  Memorial  Fund  reaches  the  sum  of 
£1,000  not  less  than  1  per  cent,  on  the  capital  invested  be  added 
each  year  to  the  principal."     Carried. 

Professor  Chilton  moved,  and  Mr.  Hill  seconded,  "  That  the 
Board  of  Governors  from  time  to  time  request  a  committee, 
consisting  of  a  zoologist,  a  botanist,  and  a  geologist,  resident 
outside  New  Zealand,  to  suggest  the  name  of  some  person  as 
a  suitable  recipient  of  the  Hutton  Memorial  Medal."     Carried. 

Professor  Chilton  moved,  and  Professor  Benham  seconded, 
"That  Professor  T.  W.  E.  David,  Professor  W.  A.  Haswell, 
and  Mr.  J.  H.  Maiden,  of  Sydney,  be  asked  to  act  as  the  com- 
mittee defined  in  the  preceding  resolution."     Carried. 


554:  j\'ew  Zealand  Institute. 

Professor  Easterfield  moved,  and  Mr.  Hamilton  seconded, 
"  That  a  committee  of  the  Institute  he  appointed  to  co-operate 
with  the  committees  already  moving  in  the  direction  of  collecting 
fluids  for  a  memorial  to  the  late  Sir  James  Hector,  in  order 
that  a  suitable  memorial  may  be  established."     Carried. 

The  Secretary  read  the  following  letter  received  from  Dr. 
Otto  Klotz,  of  Ottawa,  Canada,  an  honorarv  member  of  the 
New  Zealand  Institute  : — 

Dear  Sir, —  Ottawa,  Canada,  7th  November,  1907. 

I  have  just  seen  in  the  telegraphic  despatches  that  Sir  James 
Hector  has  passed  away,  and  I  hasten  to  pay  my  tribute  of  respect  and 
admiration  for  him  who  has  "  crossed  the  bar."  To  me  it  was  a  great 
privilege  to  have  made  the  personal  acquaintance  of  Sir  James  in  Fiji  in 
1903.  and  later  to  have  been  welcomed  at  his  home  in  New  Zealand. 

For  us  in  Canada  Sir  James  has  left  an  indelible  mark  by  his  services 
in  connection  with  the  Palliser  expedition  of  1857-60 ;  and  though  his 
work  is  more  enduring  than  granite,  yet  some  of  his  friends  here  have 
erected  a  shaft  to  his  memory  near  the  summit  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
which  he  knew  so  well. 

To  the  world,  however,  his  subsequent  labours  for  fully  twoscore 
years  in  his  adopted  home — New  Zealand — are  best  known.  Fortunate 
indeed  it  was  for  New  Zealand  tbat  Dr.  Hector  turned  his  face  from  the 
Northern  to  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  and  devoted  his  life  to  the  develop- 
ment of  that  land,  so  richly  endowed  by  nature.  One  can  truthfully  say 
that  Dr.  Hector  was  your  Nestor  of  science.  In  those  early  days,  when 
science  was  not  so  differentiated  as  it  is  to-day,  there  was  scarcely  a  branch, 
be  it  in  geology,  astronomy,  natural  hi.'tory,  ethnology.  ("'  meteorology, 
in  which  he  did  not  take  an  active  and  enthusiastic  part.  Men  of  such 
many-sided  parts  are  now  difficult  to  find.  To  me  the  name  "'  Hector " 
seemf  graven  over  the  country  from  the  North  Cape  to  the  Bluff. 

Valuable  as  have  been  the  services  of  many  other  distinguished  men 
in  connection  with  the  New  Zealand  Institute,  yet  the  name  of  him  for 
whom  we  to-day  momn  must  ever  be  the  prominent  one  for  many  years 
after  its  foundation.  As  His  Excellency  the  Governor,  Sir  George  F. 
Bowen,  said  in  his  inaugural  address  in  August,  18G8,  "  The  Government 
has  been  very  fortunate  in  securing  for  this  important  office  the  proved 
ability  and  judgment,  the  wide  experience,  and  the  untiring  energy  of 
Dr.  Hector,  F.R.S  It  is  to  him  we  are  mainly  indebted  for  the  valuable 
collections  of  art  and  soienoe  already  accumulated  in  these  halls." 

New  Zealand  has  lost  one  of  her  great  men.  and  the  scientific  world 
one  of  her  most  conspicuous  and  earnest  workers. 

In  spirit  I  lay  a  laurel  wreath  on  his  grave. 

Fours,  &c, 

Otto  Klotz. 

Seoretary,  New  Zealand  Institute.  Wellington,  New  Zealand. 

Professor  Easterfield  moved,  and  Mr.  Hamilton  seconded, 
"  That  the  committee  referred  to  in  the  previous  minute  consist 
of  Professor  Benham,  Dr.  I.  Cockayne,  Messrs.  Chapman, 
Petrie,  Speight,  Gill,  and  the  mover."     Carried. 

Correspondence— A  letter,  dated  Wellington,  the  29th  Janu- 
ary. I!)<>7.  from  Mr.  Henry  H.  Travers,  was  read,  asking  the 
Institute  to  arrange  for  the  publication  of  a  "Manual  of  New 


New  Zealand  Institute.  555 

Zealand    Birds,"   to   be   prepared   by   him.     The   letter  was  re- 
reived. 

Election  of  Officers. — The  following  officers  were  elected  : 
President— Mr.  G.  M.  Thomson,  F.L.S.,  F.C.S.  ;  Treasurer- 
Mr.  Martin  Chapman,  K.C. 

At  this  stage  Dr.  Farr  moved,  and  Professor  Chilton  seconded. 
*'  That  it  is  not  competent  for  members  of  the  Board  of  Go- 
vernors to  hold  any  paid  office  under  the  Board."  The  motion 
was  carried  on  division,  two  members  refraining  from  voting. 

The  election  of  officers  was  then  again  proceeded  with. 

Professor  Easterfield  moved,  and  Mr.  Chapman  seconded, 
'  That  Mr.  Thomas  King  be  appointed  Secretary,  at  a  remunera- 
tion of  £25  per  annum."     Carried. 

The  following  officers  were  elected  :  Editor  of  Transactions 
— Mr.  G.  M.  Thomson  ;  Librarian — Mr.  A.  Hamilton  ;  Publish- 
ing Committee — Professor  Chilton,  Professor  Benham,  Dr.  Farr, 
and  the  Editor. 

Honorary  Members. — The  following  gentlemen  were  elected 
honorary  members  of  the  Institute  :  Dr.  L.  Diels,  of  Berlin  ; 
Rev.  T.  R.  R.  Stebbing,  F.R.S.,  of  Ephraim  Lodge,  The  Common, 
Tunbridge  Wells  ;  Mr.  E.  Meyrick,  B.A.,  F.R.S.,  F.Z.S.,  F.E.S., 
of  Thornhanger,  Marlborough,  Wilts  (Marlborough  College, 
Wilts). 

Mr.  Hamilton  moved,  and  Professor  Benham  seconded, 
"  That  the  40th  volume  of  the  Transactions  include  a  list  of  past 
Presidents  and  honorary  members."     Carried. 

Mr.  Wilson  moved,  and  Mr.  Hamilton  seconded,  "  That  the 
Secretary  be  directed  to  send  to  each  of  the  affiliated  societies 
a  copy  of  the  minutes  of  this  meeting."     Carried. 

Professor  Benham  moved,  and  Dr.  Farr  seconded,  "  That 
the  minutes  of  the  present  meeting  be  printed  in  the  forthcoming 
volume  of  the  Transactions  (Vol.  XL)."     Carried. 

Dr.  Farr  moved,  and  Mr.  Hamilton  seconded,  "  That  the 
Institute  learns  with  surprise  that  there  are  no  proper  arrange- 
ments for  the  distribution  of  accurate  time  at  the  important 
port  of  Auckland,  and  strongly  urges  the  Government  to  con- 
sider and  carry  out  whatever  is  necessary  for  the  regular  dropping 
of  a  time-ball  there."     Carried. 

The  Board  went  into  committee  to  consider  the  financial 
position  of  the  Institute. 

The  Board  resumed. 

Professor  Chilton  moved,  and  Dr.  Farr  seconded,  "  That 
the  hearty  thanks  of  the  Institute  be  accorded  to  Mr.  Hamilton 
for  his  valuable  services  as  Editor  during  the  last  fcur  years." 
Carried. 


556  Neiv  Zealand  Institute. 

Professor  Benham  moved,  and  Mr.  Thomson  seconded, 
"  That  a  hearty  vote  of  thanks  be  accorded  to  Mr.  Gill  for  his 
valuable  work  as  Secretary  during  the  past  four  years."     Carried. 

Mr.  Hamilton  moved,  and  Professor  Chilton  seconded,  "  That 
the  next  annual  meeting  be  held  in  Wellington  on  the  28th 
January,  1909,  and  that  a  special  general  meeting  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Institute  be  held  on  Friday,  the  29th  January,  1909." 
Carried. 

Mr.  Hamilton  moved,  and  Mr.  Chapman  seconded,  "  That 
the  actual  travelling-expenses  of  the  members  of  the  Board  be 
paid  out  of  the  general  fund."     Carried. 


PROCEEDINGS 


WELLINGTON  PHILOSOPHICAL  SOCIETY. 


First  Meeting  :    1st  May,  1907. 
Professor  H.   B.  Kirk,  President,  in  the  chair. 
New  Member. — Mr.  Esmond  Atkinson. 

Sir  Walter  Butter,  K.C.M.G. — The  President  announced  that 
a  letter  had  been  received  from  Mr.  A.  P.  Buller,  expressing 
thanks,  on  behalf  of  himself  and  relatives,  for  the  resolution 
of  sympathy  passed  at  the  meeting  of  the  Society  on  the  1st 
August,  1906,  in  regard  to  the  death  of  the  late  Sir  Walter 
Buller. 

Papers. — 1.  "  Seiches  on  Lakes,"  by  Martin  Chapman 

2.  "  A  Surveying-camera,"  by  C.  E.  Adams,  B.Sc. 

Mr.  Adams  exhibited  a  specimen  camera  of  the  sort  described,  and 
explained  the  mode  in  which  the  apparatus  was  used  by  the  land-surveyor 
and  the  map-maker. 

3.  "  Recent  Observations  on  New  Zealand  Macro  -  lepi- 
doptera,  including  Descriptions  of  New  Species,"  by  G.  V. 
Hudson,  F.E.S.  (p.  104). 

4.  "  Additional  List  of  Mottusca  :  Minute  Species  found  in 
Sand  from  Titahi  Bay,  New  Zealand,"  by  T.  Iredale,  Christ- 
church  ;  communicated  by  R.  L.  Mestayer,  for  Miss  Mes- 
tayer. 

The  accompanying  list  contains  a  number  of  minute  species  of  Mol- 
lusca  which  were  found  by  T.  Iredale  in  some  Titahi  Bay  sand  which  I  sent 
him.     These  were  not  included  in  the  list  published  in  the  Transactions  last 
year :     Purpura    scobina,    var.    albomarginata,    Desh.  ;     Trophou    plebeius, 
Hutt.  (?),  Jg.  ;   Lutonna  mauritiana,  Lam.  ;   Cominella  lucida,  Phil.  (?),  Jg. 
Risellopsis  varia,  Hutt.  ;    Trochus  traratus,  Q.  and  G.,  Jg.  ;    Mytilus  canali 
cuius.  Martyn  ;    Modiolaria  barbata,  Reeve  ;    Leiostraca  murdochi,  Hedley 
Caecum,  digitulum,  Hedley:  Rissoa  incidata,  Trauerfeld;  Rissoa  foueauxiana 
Suter  ;     Rissoa    microstriata,   Murdoch  ;     Rissoina   agrestis,    Webster  ;     In 
visum  lyttdtonensis,  E.  A.  Smith  ;    Scissunlla  rosea,  Hedley  ;    Liotia  poly- 
pleura,  Hedley  ;    Schismope  brevis,  Hedley  ;    some  minute  bivalves  not  yet 
satisfactorily  placed,   perhaps   Cura  delta,  Tate   and  May,   and   Thilobrya 
costata.  Bernard. 


560 


Proceedings. 


Second  Meeting  :    Uh  June,  1907. 
Professor  H.  B.  Kirk,  President,  in  the  chair. 
New  Members. — Mr.  H.  Vickerman  and  Mr.  A.  G.  Stuckey. 

Papers. — 1.  "  A   Description   of    Two    New   and   Improved 
Forms  of  the  Almucantar,"  by  C.  W.  Adams. 

The  following  remarks  apply  chiefly  to  the  method  of  flotation  :  This 
almucantar  floats  on  mercury,  which  is  in  a  circular  cast-iron  trough 
resting  on  a  circular  concrete  wall  4  ft.  high  and  6  in.  thick.  The  mean 
diameter  of  the  circular  trough,  and  of  the  wall  which  supports  it,  is  6  ft. 
The  cross-section  of  the  trough  is  a  semicircle,  diameter  6  in.,  and  is  capable 
of  floating  a  weight  of  14  cwt.,  or,  say,  12  cwt.  without  any  fear  of  the 
mercury  spilling  over.  (By  increasing  the  diameter  of  the  circular  trough 
to  9  ft.,  and  making  it  of  a  similar  cross-section  and  1  ft.  wide,  it  would 
float  a  weight  of  over  4  tons.)  The  telescope  is  suspended  from  a  dome- 
shaped  framework,  the  observer  being  free  to  move  about  inside  the  cir- 
cular wall.  The  azimuth  circle  may  be  engraved  on  the  inner  or  outer 
upper  edge  of  the  circular  trough  containing  the  mercury,  the  zero  being 
placed  wherever  the  observer^  prefers.     The  divisions   are  read   by  four 


■ScaU/g'o 


PLflM 


LLLVflTlOH 


micrometers,  as  verniers  are  inadmissible  on  account  of  friction.  These 
micrometers  could  be  read  by  one  or  more  assistants  outside  the  concrete 
wall,  if  necessary.  With  four  assistants  a  great  many  more  observations 
could  be  made  than  when  the  observer  had  to  read  all  the  microscopes 
himself.  The  clamping  should  be  done  by  electricity,  so  as  to  avoid  dis- 
turbance of  the  floating  instrument ;  also,  the  instrument  should  not  be 
turned  round  by  hand  directly,  but  by  means  of  apparatus  attached  to 
a  vertical  pillar  under  the  centre  of  the  instrument.  Only  a  few  pounds 
of  mercury  is  required,  as,  if  the  inside  of  the  trough  and  the  bottom  of 
the  framework  are  turned  in  a  lathe,  so  as  to  accurately  fit  each  other, 
there  will  merely  be  a  thin  film  of  mercury  between  the  two. 

The  pedestal  of  this  almucantar  is  an  ordinary  cast-iron  gaspipe,  about 
'.)  in.  in  diameter  externally,  and  6  ft.  long,  sunk  3  ft.  in  the  ground.  A 
cast-iron  cylindrical  cap  fits  on  this,  12  in.  in  height  and  12  in.  in  ex- 
ternal diameter,  with  a  hemispherical  cup  10  in.  diameter,  turned  out  of 
the  top,  as  a  reservoir  for  the  mercury.  This  cap  is  furnished  with  four 
adjusting-screws,  pressing  against  the  internal  gaspipe,  by  which  the  top 
of  the  cap  can  be  fixed  in  a  horizontal   plane.     The  platform  on   top  is 


Wellington  Philosophical  Society. 


561 


attached  to  a  hemisphere,  which  fits  into  the  hemispherical  cup  containing 

the  mercury,  a  thin  film  of  which  supports  the  platform.     The  mercury 

can  support  a  weight  of  128  lb.,  or 
we  may  say  1001b.  without  any 
fear  of  the  mercury  spilling  over. 
The  platform  has  a  heavy  cylindrical 
attachment  which  brings  the  centre 
of  gravity  below  the  bowl  contain- 
ing the  mercury.  The  azimuth  circle 
should  be  engraved  on  the  upper 
edge  of  the  hemispherical  bowl,  and 
the  divisions  read  by  a  micrometer 
attached  to  the  frame  or  platform 
on  top.  A  portable  almucantar 
should  not  be  used  for  general 
azimuth  -  work,  but  the  azimuth 
circle  is  required  as  a  setting- circle 
when  observing  for  time  or  latitude. 
An  ordinary  theodolite  can  be  set 
up  on  the  platform,  or  a  special 
instrument  constructed.  In  a  small 
model  that  I  constructed,  in  which 
the  hemisphere  and  the  bowl  for  it 
to  float  in  were  turned  out  of  wood, 
the  motion  was  beautifully  smooth ; 
the  least  touch  with  the  little  finger 
would  suffice  to  turn  the  instrument 

round,  and,  if  set  spinning,  it  would  make  a  good  many  revolutions  before 

it  came  to  rest. 

2.  "  A  New  Method  for  the  Preparation  of  Ketones,"  by 
Professor  T.  H.  Easterfield. 

Exhibits. — 1.  Mr.  G.  V.  Hudson  exhibited  the  following  : — 

(a.)  Three  parts  of  a  work  entitled  "  Australian  Lepidoptera 
and  their  Transformation,"  by  A.  W.  Scott,  with  hand-coloured 
plates  ;   published  in  1864. 

(b.)  A  series  of  Dodonidia  helmsii,  a  rare  New  Zealand 
butterfly,  taken  at  Silverstream  in  February,  1907. 

(c.)  Two  female  specimens  of  Titanornis  sisyrota,  a  gigantic 
tineid  moth  not  seen  alive  since  1886,  and  perhaps  now  extinct — 
one  taken  by  Mr.  Clement  W.  Lee,  at  Otaki,  in  March,  1886  ;  the 
other  taken  in  Nelson  many  years  ago.     The  male  is  unknown. 

(d.)  Male  and  female  specimens  of  Macropathus  maximus,  a 
gigantic  tree-weta,  captured  at  Kaitoke  under  the  bark  of  dead 
birches  on  the  31st  December,  1906  ;  originally  described  by 
Sir  Walter  Buller  from  a  single  specimen. 


SEPTIOWL  VIEyC_.^5cale^ 


Third  Meeting  :    3rd  July,  1907. 

Professor  H.  B.  Kirk,  President,  in  the  chair. 

Exhibits. — Dr.   A.   K.   Newman  exhibited   and   described  a 
Maori  flute  and  a  Maori  conch-shell  trumpet. 


562  Proceedings. 

Messrs.  C.  Hill  and  W.  H.  Warren  gave  demonstrations  of  the  musical 
possibilities  of  these  instruments. 

Paper. — "  A  Comparison  of  the  Decimal  and  Sextal  Scales 
of  Notation,"  by  C.  W.  Adams. 


Fourth  Meeting  :    1th  August,  1907. 
Professor  H.  B.  Kirk.  President,  in  the  chair. 
New  Members. — Dr.  M.  Pomare  and  Mr.  W.  G-.  Collington  Swan. 
Exhibits. — Mr.  A.  Hamilton,  Director  of  the  Colonial  Museum, 
exhibited  a  number  of  recent  additions  to  the  Museum  collec- 
tions. 

Papers. — 1.  "  A  Case  of  Coloured  Hearing,"  by  Mrs.  H.  M. 
Christie. 

In  vol.  xxxii  of  the  "Contemporary  Science  Series,"  entitled  "Hal- 
lucinations and  Illusions,"  may  be  found  a  short  account  of  the  some- 
what obscure  phenomenon  of  coloured  hearing.  For  the  benefit  of  those 
to  whom  the  subject  may  be  unfamibar,  I  may  explain  that  coloured 
hearing  consists  of  the  involuntary  mental  association  of  colours  with 
sounds,  or,  to  quote  the  scientific  definition  in  Dr.  Forel's  work  on  hypnot- 
ism, "There  is  still  one  other  sight,  a  mental  vision — viz..  the  repercus- 
sion of  these  optical  stimuli  of  the  visual  sphere  in  other  associated  areas 
of  the  cortex  of  the  cerebrum.  There  are  people  who  are  able  to  see  sounds 
coloured,  inasmuch  as  they  always  associate  certain  colours  with  certain 
sounds  or  vowels."  The  special  colour-sensations  associated  with  par- 
ticular sounds  always  remain  constant  in  the  same  individual,  but  the 
relation  is  purely  individual,  and  not  referable  to  any  known  general  law. 

Letters  of  the  alphabet  (more  particularly  the  vowel-sounds),  notes  of 
musical  instruments,  and  numerals  call  up  colour-sensations  in  the  minds 
of  persons  possessed  of  this  faculty,  whether  the  sound  of  the  letters.  &c., 
be  actually  heard  or  only  mentally  presented. 

It  is  found  that  a  certain  percentage  of  persons  is  possessed  of  this 
peculiarity,  and  that  it  is  sometimes  hereditary. 

This  sensation  is  designated  a  phot  ism  or  chromatism  by  PrGfessor 
Gruber,  who  has  conducted  some  experiments  with  several  subjects  of  the 
"  hallucination,"  as  it  is  described  in  the  tirst -mentioned  work.  He  tells 
us  that  few  people  can  remember  when  their  chromat  isms  began  :  and  that 
deep  tones  or  vowel-sounds  seem  generally  to  be  associated  with  dark 
colours,  and  sharp  tones  or  high-sounding  vowels  with  lighter-colour  sensa- 
tions.     The  coloured   alphabet    which    I    have    prepared    in    accordance   with 

my  own  observations  will  show    corroboration    of  the  latter  statement, 

the  letter  0  being  associated  with  deep-blue,  while  1  and  E  arc  white  and 
yellow  respectively.  Letters  of  the  alphabet  and  numerals  arc.  in  my 
experience,  productive  of  colour-impressions,  but  there  arc  no  distinct 
sensations  with  regard  to  music.  Of  the  letters,  the  colours  of  the  vowels 
are  most  prominent,  a  single  vowel  in  a  word  often  producing  a  colour- 
impression  which  will  subordinate  all  the  colours  of  Burroundine  con- 
sonants to  itself.  Thus,  in  considering  the  word  "stop,"  the  dark-blue 
of    the    vowel    <)    predominates   over   all    the   other   colours.      The   colour   of 

a  consonant  is  frequently  modified  by  the  colour  of  an  adjoining  vowel; 
iii  fact,  the  various  colours  represented  by  the  different  letters  composing 

a  word  lend  to  modify  each  other  in  a  greater  or  less  degree.  For  example, 
in  the  word  "  book  "  the  dark-blue  associated  with  the  Idler  0  is  the  pre- 


Wellington  Philosophical  Society.  563 

dominating  colour  in  the  word.  The  letter  B  is  in  my  mind  connected  with 
varying  shades  of  green.  As  the  adjoining  vowels  are  dark  in  hue,  the 
green  of  the  B  will  be  dark- bluish-green.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  word 
"  been  "  the  two  E's,  which  are  yellow,  cause  the  B  to  appear  of  vivid 
leaf-green.  In  another  word,  "  bite,"  the  juxtaposition  of  the  I  (white) 
renders  the  B  dull-green  in  colour. 

I  may  add  that,  while  some  persons  experience  coloured  hearing  as 
a  fully  developed  objective  sensation,  I  have  it  merely  as  a  spontaneous 
mental  association  of  colour  with  sound. 

The  account  from  which  I  obtained  some  information  on  this  subject 
concludes  with  the  statement  that  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  occurrence 
is  pathological  or  physiological.  While  I  have  made  some  conjectures, 
I  will  not  trouble  you  with  these,  merely  mentioning  the  fact  that,  while 
my  own  sense  of  colour  is  not,  so  far  as  I  know,  defective,  I  come  of  a 
family  in  which  several  cases  of  colour-blindness  exist. 

2.  "  On  Family  Marks,"  by  Joshua  Rutland ;  communi- 
cated by  T.  W:  Kirk. 

The  following  curious  case  of  heredity  has  recently  come  under  my 
notice.  One  of  my  neighbours,  Mrs.  R.  S.,  has  on  the  left  side  of  her 
head,  close  to  the  ear,  a  small  opening.  Into  this  opening  a  pin  can  be 
inserted  head  foremost  about  \  in.  without  causing  pain.  From  the 
opening  a  small  quantity  of  wax-like  matter  is  at  times  discharged.  Mrs.  S. 
inherited  the  opening  referred  to  from  her  mother.  Mrs.  M.,  now  residing 
at  Nebraska,  U.S.A.  In  addition  to  the  opening  described,  Mrs.  M.  has 
in  the  white  of  the  left  eye  a  round  dark  spot  resembling  a  second  pupil, 
but  smaller  than  the  true  pupil.  The  second  pupil  and  the  opening  near 
the  ear  Mrs.  M.  inherited  from  her  mother,  who  died  in  Denmark.  Of 
Mrs.  S.'s  large  family,  only  one  son,  N.,  inherited  the  ear-opening  :  but  he 
has  two  openings — one  close  to  the  left  eai,  like  his  mother,  and  the  other 
close  to  the  right  ear.  His  infant  son,  three  months  old,  has  the  opening 
near  the  left  ear.  Another  of  Mrs.  S.'s  sons,  G.,  is  the  father  of  twin  boys, 
one  of  whom  has  inherited  the  opening  near  the  left  ear.  Mrs.  S.'s  daughter. 
Mrs.  R.,  has  two  pupils  in  the  left  eye,  like  her  grandmother,  but  she  has 
not  got  the  ear-opening.  These  are  all  the  members  of  the  family  about 
whrin  I  can  get  trustworthy  information,  though  probably  others  have 
the  family  marks.  It  can  be  seen  that  for  five  generations,  commencing 
with  Mrs.  M.'s  mother,  these  marks  have  come  down,  missing  the  children 
and  reappearing  in  the  grandchildren.  Mrs.  M.  and  her  granddaughter 
have  both  good  sight  in  the  left  as  well  as  in  the  right  eye.  The  marks 
referred  to  do  not  affect  them. 

Dr.  C.  Monro  Hector  said  that  a  case  similar  to  the  one  described  had 
recently  come  under  his  own  notice. 

3.  "  On    Right-sidedness,"    by  Joshua  Rutland  ;    communi- 
cated by  T.  W.  Kirk  (p.  339). 


Fifth  Meeting  :    Uh  September,  1907. 
Professor  H.  B.  Kirk,  President,  in  the  chair. 

Papers. — 1.  "  Notes  on  the  Development  of  a  Polvchaete," 
by  the  President  (p.  286). 

2.  "  Notes  on  the  Spread  of  Phytophthora  infestans  [the 
Irish  potato-disease],  with  Special  Reference  to  Hybernating 
Mycelium,"  by  A.  H.  Cockayne  (p.  316). 


564  Proceedings. 

3.  "  On  the  Occurrence  of  Ceratitis  capitata  [the  Mediter- 
ranean fruit-fly]  in  New  Zealand,"  by  A.  H.  Cockayne. 

Until  this  year  there  has  been  no  record  of  the  presence  of  larvae  of 
Ceratitis  capitata  in  New-Zealand-grown  fruit.  During  the  past  summer, 
however,  this  destructive  dipteron  has  been  found  breeding  in  two  widely 
separated  localities  in  New  Zealand — namely,  in  the  vicinities  of  Napier 
and  Blenheim.  This  fact  has  been  widely  circulated  in  the  Press  of  the 
Dominion,  but  it  seems  desirable  that  it  should  be  recorded  in  the  Pro- 
ceedings of  a  scientific  society,  for  the  benefit  of  entomologists  in  other 
lands.  Ceratitis  capitata  appears  to  be  on  the  increase  in  many  parts 
of  the  world,  and  is  gradually  extending  its  geographical  range  in  tem- 
perate climates.  Entomologists  are  agreed  that  this  Trypetidon  has  its 
native  home  in  Brazil,  and  for  this  reason  several  well-known  entomolo- 
gists have  visited  that  country  in  search  of  natural  parasites,  but  up  to  the 
present  but  little  in  this  line  has  been  accomplished.  Professor  Hempel, 
of  Sao  Paulo,  in  Brazil,  who  has  given  this  matter  some  considerable  atten- 
tion, has  said  that  in  his  district  the  action  of  natural  enemies  has  had 
no  effect  whatever  on  the  control  of  Ceratitis. 

Exhibits. — 1.  Mr.  C.  E.  Adams  exhibited  three  recent  forms 
of  calculating-machine,  and  gave  illustrations  of  the  modes  in 
which  various  numerical  operations  were  performed  by  each. 

2.  Mr.  A.  Hamilton,  Director  of  the  Colonial  Museum,  ex- 
hibited a  collection  of  Maori  implements  recentlv  received  by 
the  Museum  from  Southland. 


Annual  Meeting  :   2nd  October,  1907. 
Professor  H.  B.  Kirk,  President,  in  the  chair. 

New  Member. — Professor  Maurice  W.  Richmond. 

The  Chairman  announced  that  Mr.  Martin  Chapman,  K.C., 
and  Professor  T.  H.  Easterfteld  had  been  re-elected  by  the  Council 
to  represent  the  Society  for  two  years  on  the  Board  of  Governors 
of  the  New  Zealand  Institute. 

The  Council's  annual  report  and  annual  statement  of  receipts 
and  expenditure  were  read  and  adopted. 

The  report  stated  {inter  alia)  that  at  the  five  ordinary  meetings  held 
during  the  1907  session  sixteen  papers  in  all  had  been  read. 

Exhibits  had  been  shown  by  Dr.  A.  K.  Newman,  and  by  Messrs. 
U.  V.  Hudson,  A.  Hamilton,  C.  W.  Adams,  and  C.  E.  Adams. 

It  had  been  found  impracticable  to  have  any  popular  lectures  during 
the  session,  but  the  Council  expected  to  arrange  for  one  or  two  good 
lectures  to  bo  delivered  next  year. 

Regret  was  expressed  at  the  death  of  two  members  of  the  Society 
— Mr.  Thomas  Tuinbull,  of  Wellington,  and  the  Rev.  J.  McWilliam,  of 
Epsom,  Auckland. 

Six  members  had  resigned,  and  five  new  members  had  been  elected. 
The  total  number  of  members  on  the  roll  was  now  103. 

The  Council  recorded  its  satisfaction  that  the  Government  had  de- 
cided to  institute  botanical  surveys  in  certain  parts  of  the  colony,  and  to 
afford  facilities  for  a  scientific  expedition  to  the  outlying  islands  in  the 
south. 


Wellington  Philosophical  Society.  565 

The  statement  of  receipts  and  expenditure  showed  that,  inclusive 
of  a  balance  of  £43  14s.  lOd.  brought  forward  from  the  previous  financial 
year,  the  receipts  amounted  to  £141  7s.  lOd.  The  expenditure  came  to 
£94  6s.  8d.,  leaving  a  credit  balance  of  £47  Is.  2d.  The  Research  Fund 
now  stood  at  £43  12s.  9d.  ;  so  that  the  total  sum  in  hand  was  £90  13s.  lid. 

Election  of  Officers  for  1908. — President  —  Professor 
H.  B.  Kirk  ;  Vice-Presidents — Mr.  G.  V.  Hudson  and  Mr.  A. 
Hamilton  ;  Council— -Mr.  C.  E.  Adams,  B.Sc,  Mr.  J.  W.  Poynton, 
Mr.  T.  W.  Kirk,  F.L.S.,  Dr.  A.  K.  Newman,  Dr.  J.  M.  Bell, 
Professor  T.  H.  Easterfield,  and  Mr.  Martin  Chapman,  K.C.  ; 
Secretary  and  Treasurer — Mr.  Thomas  King  ;  Auditor — Mr. 
E.  R.  Dymock,  A.I.A.N.Z. 

Papers. — 1.  "  On  Phagocytes  "  (illustrated  by  microscopic 
preparations),  by  Dr.  C.  Monro  Hector. 

2.  "  Preliminary  Note  on  a  Metaphysical  Hypothesis,"  by 
Professor  Maurice  W.  Richmond  (p.  538). 

3.  "  The  Bipolar  Theory,"  by  H.  Farquhar  ;  communicated 
by  Professor  H.  B.  Kirk  (p.  259)/ 

4.  "  Description  of  a  New  Ophiurian,"  by  H.  Farquhar  ; 
communicated  by  Professor  H.  B.  Kirk  (p.  108). 

Exhibit. — Mr.  R.  Coupland  Harding  showed  a  very  early 
account  (illustrated  with  excellent  woodcuts),  by  the  late  Jona- 
than Pereira,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  of  the  vegetable  caterpillar  of  New 
Zealand  (Sphagna  robertsii). 

The  account  was  contained  in  an  article  in  the  first  volume  of  "  The 
Pharmaceutical  Journal  "  (1842),  page  591.  The  article  was  chiefly 
concerned  with  a  species  (unnamed)  found  in  China  and  Thibet,  closely 
resembling  S.  entomorrhiza.  This  species  (also  illustrated)  is  much  smaller 
than  the  New  Zealand  Sphceria,  averaging  only  3  in.  in  length.  It  was 
very  rare,  and  was  described  by  the  author  for  the  reason  that  it  was  one 
of  the  most  valued  articles  in  the  Chinese  pharmacopoeia.  Its  Chinese 
name  was  "  Hia  tsao  tong  tchong,"  or  "  Summer  plant,  winter  worm." 
In  Japan  it  was  called  "  Totsu-kaso." 


AUCKLAND  INSTITUTE. 

First  Meeting  :   10th  June,  1907. 

Mr.  E.  V.  Miller,  President,  in  the  chair. 

New  Members. — L.  Birks,  C.  E.  Clarke,  H.  B.  Devereux, 
E.  B.  Moss,  J.  M.  Somerville. 

The  President  delivered  the  anniversary  address,  taking  as 
his  subject  the  molecular  theory  of  matter. 

During  the  course  of  his  address  he  showed  how  by  the  aid  of  this 
theory  certain  properties  of  matter,  some  of  them  widely  known,  others 
not  so  widely,  may  be  explained,  and  how  certain  facts  which  seem  at 
first  sight  to  be  opposed  to  the  theory  appear  on  closer  study  to  support 
it.  He  explained  the  reason  why  the  molecular  theory  has  obtained  such 
a  strong  hold  on  the  imagination  of  scientific  workers,  and  in  what  sense 
and  subject  to  what  reservations  it  may  be  regarded  as  substantially 
true. 

The  address  was  fully  illustrated  with  experiments. 


Second  Meeting  :   8th  July,  1907. 

Mr.  E.  V.  Miller,  President,  in  the  chair. 

Paper. — "The  Passing  of  the  Maori,"  by  the  Rev.  Arch- 
deacon Walsh  (p.  154). 

A  lengthy  discussion  arose. 

Dr.  Pomare,  Chief  Native  Health  Officer,  admitted  that  Archdeacon 
Walsh's  contention  was.  in  the  main,  correct.  He  considered  that  the 
.Maori  is  doomed  not  to  extinction,  hut  to  absorption.  It  was  inevitable 
that  where  a  more  numerous  and  more  vigorous  race  came  into  contact 
with  a  weaker  one  1  hat  the  weaker  one  must  he  absorbed.  Already  a  very 
large  percentage  of  the  Maoris  in  the  South  Island  had  European  blood 
in  them,  and  t lie  North  Island  Natives  were  rapidly  becoming  tinctured 
with  pakeha  blood.  He  did  not  believe  thai  the  Maoris  would  entirely 
die  out,  but  in  the  future  they  should  tind  a  new  race  in  whose  veins  would 
he  eommin'ded  the  blood  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  and  the  .Maori.  It  had  taken 
the  European  races  hundreds  nay.  thousands  of  years  to  reach  their 
present     standard     of    civilisation.      The    Maori     race     had     been     suddenly 

brought   into  the  dazzling  light  of  this  civilisation,  and  required  time  to 

adapt  themselves  to  their  new  surround ingS.  It  was  a  matter  for  great 
regret  that  when  the  Gospel  was  first  preached  to  the  Maoris  the  laws  of 
health  and  cleanliness  had  not   also  been  preached  to  them. 

Dr.  Buck.  Assistant  Native  Health  Officer,  supported  the  views  ex- 
pressed by  Dr.  Pomare.  As  for  the  education  of  tin-  Maoris,  it  must  he 
borne  in  mind  that  until  lately  the  class  of  teachers  employed  had  not 
been  good,  and,  in  any  case,  there  had  not  been  time  to  produce  a  marked 
effect.  He  considered  that  the  mental  qualities  of  the  Maori  were  quite 
equal  to  those  of  average    Europeans.     The    Polynesian  race,   of   which 


Auckland  Institute.  567 

the  Maoris  were  a  branch,  had  lived  for  ages  in  a  climate  and  under  con- 
ditions where  the  means  of  subsistence  were  easily  obtained.  There  was, 
therefore,  no  incentive  to  progress.  The  European  races  had  for  the 
most  part  to  contend  with  an  inhospitable  climate,  and  had  to  fight  for 
their  existence  with  neighbouring  races — their  efforts  were  thus  quickened 
and  intensified  ;  and  the  discovery  of  metals  led  to  an  enormous  advance. 
Granted  time  and  opportunity,  the  Maori  race  was  capable  of  similar 
improvement. 


Third  Meeting  :  5th  August,  1907. 

Mr.  E.  V.  Miller,  President,  in  the  chair. 

New  Members.— H.  H.  Metcalfe,  C.E.,  H.  Roche,  Dr.  Buck. 
Dr.  R.  Brifiault  delivered  a  lecture  on  "  Science  and   Meta 
physics." 

After  illustrating  the  growth  and  characteristics  of  scientific  method, 
and  the  standards  of  scientific  demonstration,  the  lecturer  proceeded 
to  compare  the  conceptions  held  by  the  physicist  on  certain  physical 
questions — as  the  nature  of  matter,  the  transmission  of  energy,  ideas  of 
motion,  force,  space,  &c. — with  the  arguments  of  metaphysicians  and 
others. 


Fourth  Meeting  :   28th  August,  1907. 

Mr.  E.  V.  Miller,  President,  in  the  chair. 

Papers. — 1.  "  Notes   on   the   Vegetation   of   Mount   Hector, 
Tararua  Range,"  by  D.  Petrie  (p.  289). 

2.  "  Description  of  a  New  Veronica,'''  by  D.  Petrie  (p.  288). 

3.  "  Botanical  Nomenclature,"  by  T.  F.  Cheeseman  (p.  447). 

4.  "  Translation    of    Dumont    D'Urville's    Account    of    the 
Voyage  of  the  *  Astrolabe,'  Part  I,"  bv  S.  Percy  Smith  (p.  416). 


Fifth  Meeting  :  2nd  September,  1907. 

Mr.  E.  V.  Miller,  President,  in  the  chair. 

Mr.  F.  P.  Worley,  M.A.,  delivered  a  popular  lecture,  with 
experimental  illustrations,  on  "  The  Composition  of  the  Sun." 


Sixth  Meeting  :  30th  September,  1907. 

Mr.  E.  V.  Miller,  President,  in  the  chair. 

Mr.  W.  E.  Bush,  C.E.,  City  Engineer,  delivered  a  popular 
lecture  on  "  The  Disposal  of  City  Sewage." 

The  lecture  was  profusely  illustrated  with  limelight  views  and  dia- 
grams. 


568  Proceedings. 

Seventh  Meeting  :  21st  October,  1907. 
Mr.  E.  V.  Miller,  President,  in  the  chair. 

New  Members. — W.  Burnside,  Miss  E.  M.  Griffin,  Dr.  Purdv, 
T.  W.  Wells. 

Professor  H.  A.  Segar  delivered  a  popular  lecture  on  "  The 
Struggle  for  Foreign  Trade."     (Abstract,  p.  520). 

After  the  close  of  the  lecture  a  lengthy  discussion  arose,  in  which  many 
members  took  part. 


Eighth  Meeting  :  30th  October,  1907. 

Mr.  E.  V.  Miller,  President,  in  the  chair. 

Papers.— 1.  "  Maori  Porest  Lore,"  by  Elsdon  Best  (p.  185). 
2.  "  Contributions  to  a  Fuller  Knowledge  of  the  New  Zealand 
Flora  :   No.  2,"  by  T.  F.  Cheeseman  (p.  270). 


Ninth  Meeting  :  Uh  November,  1907. 

Mr.  E.  V.  Miller,  President,  in  the  chair. 

Mr.  K.  Watkins  delivered  a  popular  lecture,  entitled  "  The 
Canoe  that  brought  the  Maoris  to  New  Zealand ;  or,  a  Glimpse  of 
Polynesia  in  the  Past." 

An  armada  of  at  least  six  canoes,  called  by  the  ancient  Maoris  the 
"'  Great  Heke,"  left  Tahiti  about  the  year  1350,  and,  after  a  rendezvous 
at  Rarotonga,  left  Ngatangiia  Harbour  for  New  Zealand  direct.  From 
various  traditions  and  legends  it  could  be  gathered  that  the  canoes  were 
double  canoes,  thai  they  had  masts,  a  deck-house,  and  a  stage  above  it. 
Mr.  Watkins  exhibited  a  model  of  a  canoe  of  this  kind  which  had  been 
lent  to  him  by  Mr.  J.  L.  Young,  and  which  he  considered  was  a  close  ap- 
proximation to  the  canoe  used  by  the  Polynesians  for  their  longer  voyages. 
There  was  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  Maori  war-canoe  as  seen  by 
Europeans  when  New  Zealand  was  first  discovered  was  a  comparatively 
recent  invention,  and  was  adopted  by  the  Maori  colonists  to  meet  the 
new  conditions  they  were  placed  in  when  they  finally  settled  down  in 
New  Zealand,  and  when  communication  with  Polynesia  ceased.  Mr, 
Watkins  considered  that  voyages  to  and  from  Polynesia  and  New  Zealand 
must  not  be  considered  extraordinary,  seeing  that  there  was  ample  proof 
that  at  one  time  voyages  were  regularly  made  between  localities  in  the 
north,  west,  and  east  of  Polynesia  thousands  of  miles  apart,  and  that 
there  were  traditions  of  voyages  having  heen  made  as  far  south  as  the 
antarctic  regions. 


Tenth  Meeting  :   12/7*  December,  1907. 

Mr.  E.  V.  Miller,  President,  in  the  chair. 

Neiv  Member. — J.  Clement  Cuff. 

Papers. — 1.  "Additions    to    the     New     Zealand    Molluscan 
Fauna,"  by  Rev.  W.  Webster  (p.  254). 


Auckland  Institute.  56(J 

2.  "  Notes  on  the  Destruction  of  Kumaras  by  Beetles,"  bv 
Major  T.  Broun  (p.  262). 

3.  "  Remarks  on  a  Parasitic  Fungus  allied  to  Cordyceps 
clavatnla,"  by  Major  T.  Broun. 

In  a  report  for  the  Agricultural  Department,  dated  the  30th  June, 
1897,  when  dealing  with  a  fungus  found  destructive  to  the  codlin-moth, 
I  also  mentioned  the  discovery,  in  1895,  of  another  fungus  which  still  con- 
tinues doing  valuable  service  in  destroying  some  pernicious  scale  insects. 
As  that  report  was  a  mere  record  of  its  discovery,  it  may  prove  interesting 
to  gardeners  and  fruit-growers  if  I  now  add  something  more  about  it.  It 
may  be  stated  that  this  fungus  is  better  known  by  the  name  applied  to 
it  by  local  nurserymen — i.e.,  "  Broun's  fungus." 

If  the  black  scale  (Lecanium  olece)  on  an  affected  lemon  or  orange 
tree  be  carefully  examined  it  will  be  seen  that  a  few  slender  grey  filaments 
stretch  across  it ;  these  in  time  form  a  film  over  the  surface,  and  ulti- 
mately a  complete  ring  which  wholly  embraces  the  base  of  the  scale  as 
adhering  to  the  leaf  or  branch.  This  greyish  deadly  circle  forms  a  sort 
of  cement  around  the  waxy  covering  of  the  female  insect  and  scale  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  eggs  and  young  larvae  must  remain  under  the  scale 
itself.  There  is  no  possibility  of  escape,  so  they  die,  sealed  up  under 
their  natural  protective  waxy  shield  or  scale,  and  are  thus  prevented  from 
spreading  and  injuring  the  tree  or  its  fruit. 

Some  lemon-trees  at  Whangarei  that  were  badly  infested  with  this 
scale,  accompanied  by  this  natural  enemy,  were  again  examined  within 
a  year  after  my  first  visit  to  them,  when  I  failed  to  detect  a  single  Lecanium 
olece  :  all  had  been  destroyed  by  this  fungus.  There  had  been  no  spraying 
and  no  artificial  removal. 

Lecanium  hesperidu?7i,  often  called  the  holly  and  ivy  scale,  besides 
heing  perforated  by  minute  parasitic  flies  (Encyrtus  flavus,  for  example)  is 
also  destroyed  by  this  or  a  nearly  related  fungus. 

4.  "  Notice  of  the  Occurrence  of  the  Lesser  Frigate-bird  in 
New  Zealand,"  by  T.  F.  Cheeseman  (p.  265). 

5.  "On  the  Occurrence  of  certain  Marine  Reptilia  in  New- 
Zealand,"  by  T.  F.  Cheeseman  (p.  267). 


Annual   Meeting  :    2ith  February,   1908. 

Mr.  E.  V.  Miller,  President,  in  the  chair. 

The  annual  report  and  audited  financial  statement  was 
read  and  adopted. 

Abstract  of  A3tnitai1IRepo:rt. 

During  the  year  seventeen  new  members  have  been  elected,  and 
fourteen  names  withdrawn  from  the  roll,  leaving  a  net  gain  of  six.  The 
total  number  on  the  roll  is  now  176.  Among  the  members  removed  by 
death  were  Mr.  T.  H.  Smith,  who  served  for  some  years  on  the  Council,  and 
who  was  well  known  as  a  leading  authority  on  the  language,  manners,  and 
customs  of  the  Maori  race  ;  and  Mr.  W.  Will,  late  editor  of  the  Weekly  News. 

Eulogistic  reference  was  made  in  the  report  to  the  great  services 
rendered  to  science,  and  especially  to  the  New  Zealand  Institute,  by  the 
late  Sir  James  Hector. 

The  balance-sheet  showed  a  total  revenue  of  £1,805  18s.  3d.,  exclusive 
of  a  balance  in  hand  at  the  commencement  of  the  year  of  £84  4s.  3d.  This 
includes  a  Government  subsidy  of  £660  on  the  amount  raised  by  subscrip- 
tion for  the  erection  of  the  Maori  house  and  the  purchase  of  Mr.  Fenton's 


570  Proceedings. 

pataka,  and  also  an  item  of  £112  10s.,  balance  of  the  Mackechnie  bequest 
for  the  purchase  of  groups  of  animals.  Deducting  these  sums,  the  ordinary 
revenue  was  £1,033  8s.  3d.,  and  of  this  the  receipts  from  the  Museum 
endowment  amounted  to  £419  13s.  2d.  The  invested  funds  of  the  Costley 
bequest  yielded  £355  12s. ;  interest  on  the  Mackechnie  library  bequest, 
£96  10s.  ;  and  the  annual  subscriptions,  £147.  The  total  expenditure 
has  been  £1.236  2s.  4d.,  including  £158  Is.  3d.,  balance  of  cost  of  the  erec- 
tion of  the  Maori  house,  and  £139  18s.  3d.  on  account  of  the  groups  of 
animals  for  the  Museum.  The  credit  balance  in  the  Bank  of  New  Zealand 
is,  therefore,  £654  0s.  2d.  The  total  amount  of  the  invested  funds  of  the 
Institute  is  £16,308  4s.  3d. 

Ten  meetings  were  held  during  the  year,  at  which  the  following  papers 
were  read  : — ■ 

1.  Introductory  address  by  the  President,  Mr.  E.  V.  Miller. 

2.  "  The  Passing  of  the  Maori,"  by  the  Rev.  Archdeacon  Walsh. 

3.  "  Science  and  Metaphysics,"  by  Dr.  R.  Briffault. 

L  "  On  the  Vegetation  of  Mount  Hector,  Tararua  Range,"  by  D.  Petrie. 

5.  "  Description  of  a  New  Species  of  Veronica,"  by  D.  Petrie. 

6.  "  Botanical  Nomenclature,"  by  T.  F.  Cheeseman,  F.L.S. 

7.  "  Translation  of  Dumont  D'Urville's  Account  of  his  "Visit  to  Tasman 
Bay,"  by  S.  Percy  Smith. 

8.  "  The  Composition  of  the  Sun,"  by  F.  P.  Worley,  M.A. 

9.  "  The  Disposal  of  City  Sewage,"  by  W.  E.  Bush,  C.E. 

10.  "  The  Struggle  for  Foreign  Trade,"  by  Professor  H.  A.  Segar. 

11.  "  Maori  Forest  Lore,"  by  Elsdon  Best. 

12.  "  Contributions  to  a  Fuller  Knowledge  of  the  New  Zealand  Flora," 
by  T.  F.  Cheeseman. 

13.  "  The   Canoe   that   brought   the  Maoris  to  New   Zealand ;    or.   a 
Glimpse  of  Polynesia  in  the  Past,"  by  K.  Watkins. 

14.  "  Additions  to  the   New  Zealand   Fauna,"    by  the  Rev.    W.    H. 
Webster. 

15.  "Notes  on  the  Destruction  of  Kumaras  by  Beetles,"  by  Major 
T.  Broun. 

16.  "  On  a  Fungus  {Cordyceps  sp.)  destructive  to  Scale  Insects,"  by 
Major  T.  Broun. 

17.  "Notice   of   the    Occurrence   of  certain    Marine    Reptilia    in    New 
Zealand,"  by  T.  F.  Cheeseman. 

18.  "Notice  of  the  Occurrence  of  the  Lesser  Frigate-bird  in  New 
Zealand,"  by  T.  F.  Cheeseman. 

The  attendance  of  the  public  at  the  Museum  for  the  past  year  is  esti- 
mated at  68,055,  as  against  62,551  for  the  previous  year.  After  defraying 
the  balance  due  for  the  erection  of  the  .Maori  house,  a  sum  of  £500  re- 
mained for  expenditure  in  the  Museum,  and  of  this  amount  about  £400 
is  being  spent  in  providing  a  properly  equipped  workroom.  Provision 
is  also  being  made  for  the  exhibition  of  the  collection  of  foreign  (mainly 
Polynesian)  ethnographical  specimens.  The  Hon.  E.  Mitchelson  lias  de- 
posited his  valuable  collection  of  kauri-gum,  probably  the  most  com- 
plete ever  formed,  and  likely  to  possess  still  greater  interest  when  the 
trade  in  kauri-gum  has  become  a  memory  of  the  past. 

Election  of  Officers  for  1908. — President — E.  V.  Miller  ; 
Vice- Presidents— Professor  F.  D.  Brown,  M.A.,  and  Professor 
A.  P.  W.  Thomas.  M.A.  ;  Council— L.  J.  Bagnall,  H.  Haines, 
IT.  T).  M.  Haszard,  J.  Kirker,  T.  Peacock,  D.  Petrie.  J.  A.  Pond, 
.1.  livid,  Professor  H.  W.  Segar,  M.A.,  J.  Stewart,  C.E.,  J.  H. 
Upton;  Trustees— Professor  F.  D.  Brown,  M.A.,  T.  Peacock, 
.1.  Reid,  J.  Stewart,  C.E.,  J.  H.  Upton  ;  Secretary  and  Curator— 
T.  F.  Cheese,,,;, u,  F.L.K.,  F.Z.S.  ;   Auditor— W.  Gorrie. 


PHILOSOPHICAL  INSTITUTE  OF 
CANTERBURY. 


First  Meeting  :   1st  May.  1907. 

The  President,  Dr.  Hilgendorf,  in  the  chair,  and  forty-six 
others  present. 

New  Member. — T.  H.  Jackson. 

On  the  motion  of  the  President,  resolutions  of  sympathy 
were  carried  with  the  families  of  the  late  Mr.  R.  Brown  and 
Mr.  T.  W.  Naylor-Beckett. 

Dr.  Chilton  gave  a  resume  of  the  proceedings  at  the  meeting 
of  the  New  Zealand  Institute  in  January. 

Mr.  R.  Speight,  the  retiring  President,  gave  an  address  on 
"  Some  Aspects  of  the  Terrace-development  in  the  Valleys  of 
the  Canterbury  Rivers  "  (p.  16). 


Second  Meeting  :  5th  June,  1907. 

The  President,  Dr.  Hilgendorf,  in  the  chair,  and  thirty  others 
present. 

New  Members. — W.  J.  O'Donnell,  G.  A.  Sommers,  A.  Taylor, 
J.  Ingram,  and  Rev.  H.  Adamson. 

On  the  motion  of  the  President,  a  resolution  of  congratu- 
lation was  carried  with  Professor  Benham  on  his  election  as  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 

A  discussion  then  ensued  on  Mr.  Speight's  ex-presidential 
address,  in  which  Dr.  Cockayne,  the  President,  Messrs.  Hogg, 
Mulgan,  Laing,  and  Page  took  part. 


Third  Meeting  :  3rd  Julij,  1907. 

The  President,  Dr.  Hilgendorf,  in  the  chair,  and  forty  others 
present. 

The  President,  referring  to  the  death  of  Sir  John  Hall,  moved 
'  That  the  Philosophical  Institute  of  Canterbury  desires  to  place 
on  record  its  sorrow  at  the  death  of  Sir  J.  Hall,  one  of  its  oldest 
members,  and  its  appreciation  of  his  many  public  services." 
This  was  carried,  those  present  standing. 

New  Members.— Mrs.  Waymouth,  Miss  Wilson,  and  Mr.  J.  C. 
Andersen. 


o72  Proceedings. 

A  resolution  of  congratulation  was  carried  with  Sir  Joseph 
Hooker,  F.R.S.,  on  the  occasion  of  his  ninetieth  birthday. 

Dr.  Cockavne  gave  an  address  on  "  The  Vegetation  of  Stewart 
Island." 

Papers. — 1.  "  On  Simson's  Line,"  by  E.  Hogg,  M.A. 

2.  "On  a  Case  of  Variation  in  Cotula  Haastii"  by  Dr. 
Cockayne. 

Dr.  Chilton  shortly  explained  Mr.  Kirkaldy's  paper  on  a 
"  Heteropterous  Hemipteron  "  (p.  109). 

Exhibits. — Dr.  Symes  exhibited  the  blue-gum  scale,  and  the 
ladybird  its  natural  enemy. 


Fourth  Meeting:  1th  August,  1907. 
Mr.  R.  Speight  in  the  chair,  and  forty  others  present. 
New  Members. — Messrs.  J.  0.  Jameson  and  N.  L.  McBeth. 

Mr.  Speight  called  attention  to  the  letting  of  the  contract 
for  the  Arthur's  Pass  Tunnel,  and  to  the  scientific  questions 
which  might  be  elucidated  in  the  progress  of  this  great  work. 

The  matter  was  referred  to  the  Council. 

Mr.  T.  W.  Adams  read  an  address  on  the  genus  Pin  us.  which 
was  illustrated  by  numerous  exhibits. 

A  paper  on  "  The  Prevalent  Wind  of  Kaikoura,"  by  the  late 
Dr.  Gunn,  was  read  by  Mr.  A.  H.  Cockayne,  as  follows  : — 

Upper  clouds,  and  directions,  for  years  1902-4  (inclusive),  as  made  at  Kai- 
koura, Marlborough,  New  Zealand;  situated  ten  miles  south  of 
Kaikoura  Ranges,  the  altitude  of  which  is  8,000  ft.  Latitude.  42° 
26'  30"  S.  ;  longitude,  173°  4.V  E.  :  height  above  sea-level.  50ft.  ; 
distance  from  sea,  quarter  of  a  mile. 

Records  of  upper-cloud  (cirrus,  cirro- 
stratus,  and  cirro-cumulus)  movement,  which 
I  have  kept  for  ten  years,  although  the  three 
years  L902  4  have  only  so  far  been  collated. 
During  these  three  years,  out  of  224  obser- 
vations the  drift  of  cloud  was  from  south- west 
on  eighty-seven  occasions,  from  north-west  on 
sixty-two  occasions,  from  west  on  sixty  occa- 
sions, from  south  on  nine  occasions,  from  south- 
east on  three  occasions,  from  northeast  on 
two  occasions,  from  north  on  one  occasion,  and 
from  east  on  no  occasions.  This  almost  in- 
variable drift  from  the  westward  shows  that 
to  be  the  general  motion  of  the  higher  atmos- 
pheric currents.  They  arc.  1  consider,  the  anti- 
trades. 

Mr.  E.  Hitchinus  showed  some  diagrams  relating  to  sun- 
spot  statistic-. 


Philosophical  Institute  of  Canterbury.  573 

Fifth  Meeting  :  Uh  September,  1907. 

The  President,  Dr.  Hilgendorf,  in  the  chair,  and  forty  others 
present. 

New  Member. — Mr.  J.  Dawes. 

The  business  of  the  meeting  was  the  discussion  on  theories 
of  evolution,  in  which  Dr.  Hilgendorf,  and  Messrs.  Laing,  Mayne, 
Speight,  and  Waite,  took  part. 


Sixth  Meeting  :  2nd  October,  1907. 

The  President,  Dr.  Hilgendorf,  in  the  chair,  and  forty  others 
present. 

Mr.  J.  Drummond  gave  an  address  on  "  The  Little  Barrier 
Island,"  illustrating  it  with  lantern-slides  (p.  500). 

Mr.  Waite  showed  some  specimens  of  brown  coal  brought 
up  in  the  "  Nora  Niven's  "  dredges  off  the  coast  of  Canterbury 
at  depths  of  from  25  to  30  fathoms. 

Mr.  Speight  called  attention  to  the  interest  of  the  specimens,  as  evidence 
of  the  continuation  of  the  coal-measures  under  the  Canterbury  Plains. 


Seventh  Meeting  :  23rd  October,  1907. 

The  President,  Dr.  Hilgendorf,  in  the  chair,  and  fifty  others 
present. 

Professor  A.  W.  Bickerton  gave  an  address  on  "  The  Evo- 
lution of  the  Universe,"  which  he  illustrated  with  lantern-slides 
and  diagrams. 

A  short  discussion  ensued,  which  was  interrupted  by  the  time  of 
closing.  m 

Dr.  Coleridge  Farr  stated  that,  whilst  going  a  certain  distance  with 
Professor  Bickerton,  he  thought  that  gentleman  was  wrong  in  appealing 
to  laymen  to  take  up  his  theories,  which  should  be  put  before  the  scientific 
world  through  the  regular  channels. 

Mr.  Hogg  found  difficulty  in  discussing  the  theory  on  account  of  the 
nebulous  condition  of  the  statements. 


Eighth  Meeting  :  6th  November,  1907. 

The  President,  Dr.  Hilgendorf,  in  the  chair,  and  thirty  others 
present. 

New  Members. — Messrs.  Farrow  and  Tripp. 

Papers  were  read  by  Messrs.  S.  Speight,  A.  M.  Wright,  T. 
Iredale,  and  J.  C.  Anders  n. 

Mr.  Hogg  referred  to  the  approaching  departure  of  the  sub- 
antarctic  expedition,  saying  that  the  organization  of  such  an 
expedition  marked  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  the  Institute. 


574  Proceedings. 

Annual  Meeting  :   \\th  December,  1907. 

Dr.  Cockayne  in  the  chair,  and  thirty  others  present. 

The  Chairman  referred  to  the  death  of  Sir  James  Hector, 
and  moved  a  resolution  of  sympathy  with  his  family.  This  was 
seconded  by  D '.  Chilton,  and  carried,  those  present  standing. 

Mr.  Hogg  referred  to  the  return  of  the  subantarctic  expedi- 
tion, and,  on  behalf  of  the  Institute,  welcomed  the  Canterbury 
members  of  it. 

The  following  annual  report  and  balance  -  sheet  were 
adopted  : — 

The  number  of  Council  meetings  held  during  the  year  was  eighteen, 
and  the  average  attendance  seven.  Early  in  the  year  Mr.  Hogg,  who 
had  been  appointed  Secretary  at  the  last  annual  meeting,  resigned,  and 
Dr.  C.  Coleridge  Parr  took  his  place. 

Apart  from  the  regular  work  which  the  Council  has  to  perform  every 
year,  the  principal  business  this  year  has  been  the  organization  of  the 
expedition  to  the  Auckland  and  Campbell  Islands,  which  has  now  been 
successfully  carried  through.  In  the  early  part  of  the  year,  owing  to  the 
contemplated  marine  survey  of  the  coast  of  New  Zealand,  it  appeared 
likely  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  make  arrangements  with  the  Govern- 
ment for  the  conveyance  of  the  expedition,  but  on  the  abandonment  of 
the  survey  the  .Minister  of  .Marine  very  readily  fell  in  with  your  Council's 
proposals,  mid  tinally  agreed  to  take  a  party  of  twenty-five,  landing  them 
in  two  sections,  one  at  the  Auckland  Islands  and  the  other  at  Campbell 
Island.  The  selection  of  gentlemen  to  form  these  parties  fell  to  your 
Council,  and  they  fully  realised  the  responsibility  thus  east  upon  them. 
The  considerations  which  guided  them  in  their  choice  were  the  efficiency 
of  bot  li  parties  in  every  branch  of  science  likely  to  be  advanced  by  a  visit 
to  these  interesting  islands,  and  the  avoidance  of  overlapping.  The  Council 
issued  invitations  to  gentlemen  of  recognised  standing  throughout  New 
Zealand.  It  was  inevitable  that  some  of  those  whose  names  first  occurred 
to  the  Council  should  be  unable,  from  one  reason  or  another,  to  go.  and  the 
Council  much  regretted*hat  as  the  expedition  left  the  RlufT  it  contained 
no  representatives  from  the  Auckland  District,  although  five  distinguished 
scientific  men  from  the  northern  capital  had  been  invited.  This  was 
in  i inly  owing  to  circumstances  over  which  neither  the  Council  nor  those 
gentlemen  themselves  had  control. 

Being  acquainted  with  the  work  done  by  the  members  of  the  expedi- 
tion in  their  several  scientific  capacities,  the  Council  has  no  hesitation  in 
saying  that  the  results  are  of  such  a  character  as  to  had  to  a  considerable 
extension  of  our  knowledge  not  only  of  these  little-known  islands  in  par 
ticular,  but  also  of  the  Bubantarctic  area  in  general.  During  the  forth- 
coming year  it  is  probable  that  papers  dealing  with  the  expedition  will 
h<-  brought  before  you,  and  il  will  !»■  a  matter  for  the  Council  to  be  elected 
this  evening  to  decide  as  to  most  satisfactory  means  of  publication  of  the 
results  as  a  u  bole. 

For  the   purposes  of  the  expedition  the  Council   voted   i'L'">  of  the   In 
st  it  ntc's  funds,   and   it    has  learnt    since-   its  return   that   the  Parliament   has. 

at  the  suggestion  of  the  Government,  voted  £160  towards  the  expenses. 

The  Council  notes  with  pleasure  that  an  expedition  has  been  organized 
by  members  of  the  Institute  and  others  to  \  isit  the  Kermadccs  and  to 
spend  a  year  there  for  the  purpose  of  making  scientific  collections.  To 
aid  this    work   the   Council    has    made   ;i    grant    of  £10  from  the   Institute's 


Philosophical  Institute  of  Canterbury.  575 

funds,  and  has  used  its  influence  to  endeavour  to  secure  free  passages 
for  the  members  of  the  party,  but  unfortunately  in  this  respect  it  was 
unsuccessful. 

The  Council  in  last  year's  report  drew  attention  to  the  advisability  of 
the  appointment  of  a  Government  Botanist,  and  it  is  pleased  now  to  state 
that,  while  such  a  post  has  not  yet  been  created,  arrangements  have  been 
made  between  the  Government  and  Dr.  Cockayne  which  are  very  satis- 
factory from  a  scientific  point  of  view,  and  which  enable  that  gentleman 
to  continue  and  extend  the  work  which  he  has  so  long  and  so  successfully 
carried  on  at  his  own  expense. 

The  signing  of  a  contract  for  the  construction  of  a  tunnel  at  Arthur's 
Pass  brought  before  the  Council  the  problems  of  interest  which  might 
be  elucidated  in  the  progress  of  a  work  of  so  great  a  magnitude.  A  sub- 
committee has  been  appointed  and  the  initial  steps  have  been  taken,  and 
arrangements  in  connection  with  experiments  proposed  will  form  part 
of  the  business  of  the  next  Council. 

The  number  of  ordinary  meetings  of  the  Institute  held  during  the 
year  has  been  nine,  and  the  average  attendance  at  these  has  been  forty. 
Addresses  have  been  given  as  follows :  Mr.  R.  Speight,  ''  Some  Aspects  of 
the  Terrace-development  in  the  Valleys  of  the  Canterbury  Rivers  "  ;  Dr. 
L.  Cockayne,  "  The  Vegetation  of  Stewart  Island  "  ;  Mr.  T.  W.  Adams, 
"The  Genus  Pinus"  ;  Mr.  Jas.  Drummond,  "Little  Barrier  Island"; 
Professor  Bickerton,  "  The  Evolution  of  the  Universe  ;  and  one  evening 
was  devoted  to  a  discussion  on  "  Theories  of  Evolution."  Besides  these, 
seventeen  papers  have  been  read  before  the  Institute,  which  may  be  classified 
as  follows  :  Mathematics  and  physics,  4  ;  geology,  2  ;  chemistry.  1  ; 
botany,  2  ;   zoology,  7  ;   literature,  1. 

The  number  of  members  of  the  Institute  is  now  147. 

The  Hon.  Treasurer's  balance-sheet  shows  that  during  the  year  £122 
Is.  6d.  was  received  for  members'  subscriptions,  that  £54  2s.  lOd.  has  been 
expended  in  the  purchase  of  books  and  periodicals  for  the  library,  £25 
has  been  contributed  to  the  subantarctic  expedition,  and  £10  to  the  Ker- 
madecs  expedition,  leaving  a  credit  balance,  including  the  £50  placed  on 
fixed  deposit  two  years  ago,  of  £83  4s.  Of  this  amount,  the  sum  of 
£10  has  been  allocated  for  expenses  connected  with  the  investigations 
made  desirable  by  the  cutting  of  the  Arthur's  Pass  Tunnel. 

Election  of  Officers  for  1908. — President — Mr.  E.  G. 
Hogg ;  Vice-Presidents — Dr.  Hilgendorf,  Mr.  K.  M.  Laing ; 
Hon.  Secretary — Mr.  R.  Speight ;  Hon.  Treasurer — Dr.  Chilton  ; 
Council — Dr.  Cockayne,  Mr.  J.  Drummond,  Dr.  C.  C.  Farr, 
Mr.  J.  B.  Maine,  Mr.  Edgar  R.  Waite,  Mr.  A.  M.  Wright ;  Hon. 
Auditor— Mr.  G.  Way,  F.I.A.N.Z. 

Mr.  Hogg,  on  taking  the  chair,  referred  to  the  advent  of  the 
antarctic  ship  "  Nimrod,"  and  to  the  approaching  arrival  of 
the  Carnegie  Institute's  magnetic- survey  yacht  "  Galilee." 


OTAGO  INSTITUTE 


First  Meeting:    11///  May,   1907. 
The  President,  Dr.  R.  Fulton,  in  the  chair. 

New  Members. — Professor  Richard,  Mrs.  Stilling,  Messrs. 
W.  J.  Morrell,  M.A.,  Harold  Hamilton,  Robert  Lee. 

The  President  referred  to  the  honour  recently  conferred  on 
Dr.  Benham  by  his  election  as  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 

Exhibit. — The  Curator  of  the  Museum  exhibited  a  new 
variety  of  the  common  gecko,  Navltinus  elegans,  and  its  two 
young  ones  born  in  captivity. 

The  mother  was  bright-green,  with  a  pair  of  sulphur-yellow  lines 
along  its  side  ;  the  young  ones  entirely  different,  being  dark  grass-green, 
with  a  series  of  white  black-bordered  spots  in  place  of  the  yellow  line. 

Address. — The  President  delivered  his  address,  entitled  "  The 
Disappearance  of  our  Native  Birds  "  (p.  485). 


Second  Meeting  :    Wth  June,  1907. 

The  President,  Dr.  R.  Fulton,  in  the  chair. 

New  Member. — Mr.  James  Jeffrey. 

Exhibits. — Dr.  Benham  exhibited  and  made  some  remarks 
upon  instances  of  variation  in  colour-marks  present  in  two  species 
of  Chiton — Onithochiton  undulatvs  and  Ischnochiton  longicymba. 

Paper. — "  Some  Littoral  Hydrocorallin<  s  from  New  Zealand 
Waters,"  by  Dr.  Benha  m. 

The  author  exhibited  specimens  of  Labiopora,  Errina,  Distichopora, 
and  Stylaster,  some  of  which  had  been  loaned  by  the  Colonial  .Museum 
and  by  the  Canterbury  -Museum. 

Address. — Dr.  Marshall  gave  an  address  on  "  The  Volcano 

Ngauruhoe." 

The  speaker  briefly  outlined  by  means  of  diagrams  the  various  ohangeB 
that  had  taken  place  in  the  volcano  since  Mr.  Bidwcll's  ascent,  and  also 
gave  sonic  remarkably  interesting  experiences  of  his  own  in  the  crater  of 
the  volcano.  Ngauruhoe  was  more  active  now  than  it  had  been  for  fifteen 
years,  but  was  nothing  like  what  it  used  to  be. 

As  an  outcome  of  the  presidential  address  the  following  reso- 
lution was  read  by  the  Chairman  : — 

That  this  Institute  is  of  opinion  that,  in  order  to  preserve  our  native 
birds  from  extinction,  the  adoption  of  the  following  measures  is  urgently 


Otago  Institute.  577 

required  :  Absolute  protection  of  all  our  land-birds  and  most  of  our  swim- 
ming-birds, with  the  following  exceptions  :  Shags,  when  found  near  trout- 
streams  ;  harriers,  when  found  in  or  near  our  sanctuaries  ;  grey  ducks, 
during  the  season  (close  season  every  seventh  year) ;  pukeko  and  paradise 
ducks,  when  doing  injury,  for  a  limited  season — say,  one  month — under 
supervision  of  a  ranger  :  issue  of  bird-shooting  license  to  any  person  over 
twenty-one  years  of  age  :  limitation  of  total  bag  for  the  season  :  set  apart 
sanctuaries  of  swamps,  river-beds,  lagoons,  in  every  county  and  in  the 
islands.  In  order  to  impress  upon  the  public  generally  that  we  are  actu- 
ated by  a  love  for  our  native  birds  as  well  as  a  desire  to  encourage  honest, 
clean  sport,  this  Institute  wishes  to  arrange  a  conference  with  the  other 
bodies  interested,  the  conference  to  consist  of  four  members  from  the 
Institute,  and  four  each  from  the  Otago  Agricultural  and  Pastoral  Society, 
the  Otago  Gun  Sportsman's  Association,  the  Otago  Branch  of  the  New 
Zealand  Farmers'  Union,  the  Otago  Acclimatisation  Society,  and,  if  pos- 
sible, four  bona  fide  Catlin's  or  Owaka  residents.  That  our  views  be  laid 
before  the  conference,  a  discussion  to  follow,  and  an  earnest  endeavour 
be  made  to  get  some  workable  laws  which  will  protect  equally  the  rights 
of  the  farmer,  the  sportsman,  the  bush- resident,  and  the  bird-lover.  That 
the  results  of  the  conference  be  made  use  of  in  either  a  memorial  to  Go- 
vernment or  a  deputation  to  the  Minister  of  Lands,  consisting  of  members 
of  the  various  bodies  concerned. 

In  speaking  to  this,  the  chairman  wished  his  hearers  to  support  him 
in  the  preservation  of  pukeko  and  paradise  ducks.  Sanctuaries — say, 
swamps,  a  mile  or  so  of  a  river-bed  here  and  there — ought  to  be  instituted, 
and  any  one  found  carrying  a  gun  within  these  precincts  should  be  pro- 
secuted. Small  lakes  should  certainly  be  made  into  sanctuaries,  as  the 
"  game-bags  "  frequented  them  with  swivel  guns  until  all  bird-life  was 
destroyed.  Large  lakes,  on  account  of  their  size,  might  be  left  to  look 
after  themselves.     Pigeon-shooting  ought  to  be  completely  put  a  stop  to. 

In  seconding  the  foregoing,  Dr.  Benham  said  he  believed  that  the 
protection  of  birds  was  provided  for  by  an  Order  in  Council  last  May, 
but  he  could  not  say  whether  an  Order  in  Council  had  the  same  value  as 
a  statutory  law. 

Mr.  Bathgate  said  he  believed  the  Act  embraced  all  birds,  whether 
named  in  the  schedule  or  not,  but  if  a  statute  was  not  enforced  it  was 
no  good  its  being  a  statute.  Then  came  scenery,  for  which  heavy  penalties 
'were  supposed  to  be  inflicted  for  fire-lighting,  &c,  yet  fires  were  repeatedly 
lit,  often  to  the  danger  of  timber,  and  no  one  was  prosecuted.  Native 
birds  were  rapidly  disappearing. 

The  resolution  was  carried  unanimously. 

Mr.  Chisholm,  as  a  member  of  the  Acclimatisation  Society,  said  they 
had  signally  failed  to  get  the  Government  to  take  adequate  steps  for  the 
protection  of  native  birds,  and  the  society  was  obliged  to  Dr.  Fulton  for 
having  brought  up  the  subject. 

It  was  decided  that  matters  of  detail  be  referred  to  a  council,  to  be 
put  in  form  prior  to  their  presentation  to  the  conference. 


Third  Meeting  :    9th  July,  1907. 

The  President,  Dr.  E.  Fulton,  in  the  chair. 

The   President   reported   the   results    of   the   conference    on 
bird-protection. 

19— Trans. 


578  Proceedings. 

He  expressed  himself  gratified  at  the  manner  in  which  the  various 
suggestions  were  received  by  the  bodies  concerned.  The  resolutions 
would  be  forwarded  to  the  Colonial  Secretary,  and  it  was  hoped  that 
action  would  be  taken  to  embody  them  in  a  Bill. 

Mr.  A.  Bathgate  gave  some  historical  notes,  prompted  by 
Mr.  E.  McNab's  "  Murihiku,"  and  by  Professor  Macmillan 
Brown's  "  Maori  and  Polynesian." 

In  the  discussion  which  followed,  Dr.  Hocken  joined. 


Fourth  Meeting  :    13^  August,  1907. 
The  President,  Dr.  R.  Fulton,  in  the  chair. 
New  Member. — Dr.  Russell  Ritchie. 

Exhibits. — Professor  Malcolm  gave  an  account  of  certain 
optical  illusions  produced  by  lines  drawn  at  various  angles  to 
one  another,  and  by  parallel  lines  crossed  obliquely  by  lines 
at  different  angles,  &c. 

Professor  Benham  exhibited,  on  behalf  of  Mr.  Gr.  M.  Thomson, 
cases  made  by  the  larva  of  the  moth  (Eceticus  omnivorus,  in 
which  black  thread  was  woven  with  the  usual  materials. 

Professor  Benham  also  exhibited  a  method  of  mounting 
models  of  aquatic  animals  in  glass  cases  in  such  a  way  as  to 
represent  water. 

Dr.  Hocken  showed  a  Boyle's  tube,  for  illustrating  the  method 
of  formation  of  dew  and  rain. 

Dr.  Marshall    gave    an    address  on  "  The  Volcanoes    of   the 

Taupo  Region." 

He  prefaced  his  remarks  by  mentioning  that  he  had  spent  some  por- 
tion of  last  summer  in  this  volcanic  district,  but  he  did  not  intend  to  enter 
into  a  full  description  of  it.  There  were  certain  features  connected  with 
the  district  from  which  certain  inferences  could  be  drawn,  and  a  compari- 
son could  be  made  with  other  areas,  and  to  some  extent  a  relationship 
traced  between  New  Zealand  and  other  parts  of  the  world.  There  were 
many  theories  about  the  isolated  position  New  Zealand  occupied,  but 
it  was  not  so  isolated  as  it  was  supposed  to  be.  By  the  aid  of  the  lantern 
he  showed  a  large  number  of  pictures  of  the  volcanoes  of  the  North  Island, 
upon  which  he  made  a  running  commentary. 

Dr.   Fulton,   by   means  of  the  lantern,  showed  a  cock-pit, 

said  to  be  several  hundreds  of  years  old. 

In  1849  the  sport  was  finally  abolished,  but  in  1860  it  was  carried 
on  in  Dunedin  by  educated  gentlemen. 

Professor  Park  gave  a  description  of  visits  he  had  made 
to  the  volcanic  region  of  the  North  Island,  and  thought  Dr. 
Marshall  deserved  a  hearty  vote  of  thanks  for  his  address. 


Otago  Institute.  579 

Fifth  Meeting  :    10th  September,  1907. 

The  Vice-President,  Dr.  Marshall,  in  the  chair. 

Exhibits. — Dr.  Marshall  showed,  and  remarked  upon,  a  large 

species  of  Orthoceras  from  the  Hokonui  Hills,  Southland. 

He  expressed  his  opinion  that  the  so-called  phragmacone  of  Belenmites 
otapirensis  of  Hector  was  an  Orthoceras. 

Dr.  Marshall  exhibited  fossils  picked  up  on  the  beach  at 
Napier,  Halysites  and  Favorites,  which,  if  native  to  New  Zealand, 
are  the  first  representatives  of  these  genera  to  be  recorded  for 
this  country. 

Dr.  Benham  made  remarks  upon  a  cyclopean  lamb's  head. 

Papers. — 1.  "  The  Early  Visits  of  the  French  to  New  Zea- 
land," by  Dr.  Hocken  (p.  137). 

2.  "  The  Occurrence  of  Comatula  in  the  Coastal  Waters  of 
New  Zealand,"  by  Dr.  Benham. 

The  species  was  obtained  in  Preservation  Inlet. 


Sixth  Meeting  :    8th  October,  1907. 

The  Vice-President,  Dr.  Hocken,  in  the  chair. 

New  Members. — Messrs.  J.  Loudon,  H.  Massey,  and  W. 
Livingston. 

Exhibits. — Mr.  Gr.  M.  Thomson  remarked  upon  the  phe- 
nomenon of  certain  beech-trees  producing  leaves  earlier  than 
others,  and  indicated  the  relation  to  time  of  flowering. 

Mr.  G.  M.  Thomson  read  a  note  in  reference  to  the  orchid 
Gastrodia,  as  follows  : — 

The  genus  Gastrodia  belongs  to  a  tribe  of  Orchidece  (Arethusce)  which 
contains  several  leafless  species,  some  of  which  have  rather  fleshy  rhizomes 
or  tubers,  and  are  evidently  saprophytic  in  growth,  while  the  species  of 
Gastrodia  itself  are  said  to  be  parasitic  on  roots.  Three  species  occur  in 
New  Zealand — viz.,  G.  sesamoides,  R.  Br.,  which  is  found  in  the  North 
Island  and  in  the  botanically  allied  west-coast  region  of  the  South  Island, 
and  is  also  found  along  the  eastern  side  of  Australia  from  Queensland  to 
Tasmania  (it  is  the  only  Australian  species) ;  G.  Cunninghamii,  Hook,  f., 
which  is  common  in  the  bush  throughout  New  Zealand,  and  is  endemic  ; 
and  the  closely  allied  G.  minor,  Petrie,  which  has  been  found  in  only  one 
locality,  near  Dunedin.  G.  Cunninghamii  was  formerly  abundant  in  all 
bush-covered  parts  of  Otago,  and  some  twenty  years  ago  was  still  to  be 
met  with  in  the  Town  Belt  of  Dunedin,  but  it  has  disappeared  from  many 
localities  with  the  spread  of  cultivation,  the  inroads  of  cattle,  and  the 
competition  of  cocksfoot-grass  and  other  aggressive  introduced  species 
of  plants.  It  is  now  some  years  since  any  specimens  have  been  found  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  this  city. 

In  September  last,  Mr.  F.  Challis,  of  North-east  Harbour,  brought  me 
a  quantity  of  the  rhizomes,  which  he  had  dug  up  in  the  bush  at  Catlin's, 


580  Proceedings. 

where  the  species  is  common.  The  starchy  nature  of  the  rhizome  has 
long  been  known,  and,  according  to  Cheeseman,  these  thick  rhizomes 
were  formerly  collected  and  eaten  by  the  Maoris,  especially  in  the  Ure- 
wera  country.  I  was  curious  to  examine  the  starchy  substance,  and 
accordingly  squeezed  the  cut  end  of  a  rhizome  in  a  minute  drop  of  water 
on  the  microscope-slide.  I  found  the  liquid  was  full  of  minute  white 
granules,  which  were  only  about  O0025  mm.  in  diameter.  These  were  so 
abundant  as  to  make  the  juice,  when  squeezed  out,  quite  milky.  Among 
them  were  a  few  larger  rounded  and  usually  oblong  masses.  On  adding 
solution  of  iodine  the  larger  masses  stained  a  brown  colour,  showing  the 
presence  of  proteids,  but  they  very  quickly  disintegrated  into  amorphous 
brownish  rlocculent  masses.  The  small  granules  remained  uncoloured. 
On  heating  the  semi-fluid  material  on  the  slide  these  small  granules  dis- 
solved completely,  but  on  addition  of  iodine -solution  they  were  repre- 
cipitated  in  a  loosely  flocculent  form,  and  were  stained  a  reddish-violet 
or  port-wine  colour.  These  reactions  appear  to  show  that  the  granules 
are  probably  erythro-dextrin,  one  of  the  cellulose-starch  isomers  (C6H10O5). 
On  heating  a  small  quantity  of  the  clear  solution  with  Fehling's  solution 
considerable  reduction  and  deposition  of  cuprous  oxide  took  place,  shew- 
ing the  presence  of  dextrose.  I  estimated  the  amount  of  this  dextrose 
in  a  portion  of  a  rhizome  which  was  shred  down  and  completely  extracted 
with  hot  water,  and  found  it  amounted  to  1-38  per  cent,  of  the  whole. 
Unfortunately,  the  whole  amount  of  erythro-dextrin  and  dextrose  together 
was  not  estimated.  I  am  inclined  to  think  it  will  be  found  that  the 
material  stored  up  in  these  rhizomes  in  autumn  is  erythro-dextrin,  but 
that  as  the  spring  growth  starts  this  is  converted  into  the  soluble  dextrose, 
and  thus  is  immediately  utilisable  in  the  formation  of  stem-tissue.  These 
rhizomes  also  contain  a  considerable  amount  of  raphides.  especially  in  the 
cells  near  the  surface,  and  the  amount  of  calcium-oxalate  found  amounted 
to  0"26  per  cent,  of  the  whole  weight. 

It  is  desirable  that  the  parasitic  habit  of  these  orchids  should  be  more 
closely  investigated.  I  have  no  record  of  the  roots  on  which  they  grow. 
nor  can  I  find  that  any  careful  examination  of  these  has  been  made.  The 
casual  collector  has  usually  little  time  and  few  means  to  undertake  such 
an  investigation,  but  any  one  dwelling  in  a  bush  district  where  these  plants 
are  common  could  readily  find  out.  This  note  is  a  preliminary  one.  as  T 
hope  to  be  able  to  look  into  the  matter  again. 

P.S. — I  placed  a  few  portions  of  the  rhizomes  in  damp  moss  in  Sep- 
tember last,  covering  them  with  leaves  and  humus,  and  keeping  the  whole 
mass  moist.  Now  (Kith  December)  they  are  throwing  up  stems  with 
scale  leaves  and  rudimentary  flower-buds.  But  the  growth  is  thin  ami 
stunted,  ami  is  evidently  the  product  of  the  conversion  of  the  material 
stored  up,  not  the  assimilation  of  new  food-material.  No  roots  are  being 
developed,  and  presumably  the  specimens  will  die  without  coming  to  any 
full  development. 

Lecture. — Mr.  G.  M.  Thomson  gave  ;i  popular  account, 
illustrated  by  diagram  and  lantern-slides,  of  the  "  Life-history 
of  the  American  Lobster." 

Papers.  —  1.  "Fossils  from  Kakamii,"  by  J.  Allan  Thom- 
son, B.Sc.  ;    communicated  by  G.  M.  Thomson  (p.  98). 

2.  "The  Scheelite  of  Otago,"  by  A.  M.  Finlayson.  M  Sc.  : 
communicated  by  Dr.  Marshall  (p.  110). 

3.  "Some    Observations   on   the    Schists   of   Central    Otago," 
by  A.  M.  Fralayson,  M.Sc.  ;  communicated  by  Dr.  Marshall  (p.  72). 


Otago  Institute.  581 

Seventh  Meeting  :    12th  November,  1907. 
The  President,  Dr.  R.  Fulton,  in  the  chair. 

Dr.  Hocken  referred  in  feeling  and  appreciative  terms  to  the 
recent  death  of  Mr.  A.  Beverley,  the  inventor  of  the  planimeter. 

Mr.  G.  M.  Thomson  moved  a  resolution  of  regret  at  the 
death  of  Sir  James  Hector,  and  of  condolence  with  the  family. 
Dr.  Hocken.  in  seconding,  gave  some  interesting  details  of  Sir 
James's  early  expeditions  in  the  colony. 

Paper. — "  Some  Alkaline  and  Nepheline  Rocks  from  West- 
land,"  by  Mr.  J.  P.  Smith  (p.  122). 

Lecture. — Mr.  W.  G.  Grave  gave  an  illustrated  lecture  on 
**  Explorations  at  the  West  Coast." 


Annual  Meeting. 

The  annual  meeting  was  then  held,  the  President,  Dr.  R. 
Pulton,  being  in  the  chair. 

The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  annual  report  for  1907  : — 

Three  matters  of  importance  have  engaged  the  attention  of  the  Coun- 
cil, each  having  for  its  aim  the  furtherance  of  science  in  the  Dominion  : 
(1)  The  repeated  efforts  of  this  and  the  other  Institutes  to  have  a  botanical 
survey  made  by  the  Dominion  have  resulted  in  the  appointment  of  Dr. 
L.  Cockayne  to  survey  and  report  upon  the  State  forest  of  Wairoua. 
(2.)  The  successful  outcome  of  the  efforts  of  the  Philosophical  Institute  of 
Canterbury,  backed  by  this  Institute,  in  the  despatch  of  a  scientific 
expedition  to  the  southern  islands,  which  leaves  the  Bluff  on  the  13th 
November.  (3.)  Representations  have  been  made  to  the  Colonial  Secre- 
tary and  to  the  Attorney- General  as  to  the  necessity  of  providing  by  law 
for  further  protection  of  birds  :  this  was  the  outcome  of  a  conference 
between  bodies  interested,  held  at  the  suggestion  of  Dr.  Fulton. 

The  death  of  Sir  James  Hector,  K.C.M.G.,  received  fitting  reference, 
expressive  of  the  appreciation  of  the  varied  work  performed  by  him  in 
geology  and  zoology,  and  as  manager  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute. 

A  list  of  books  added  to  the  library  and  of  the  papers  read  before  the 
Institute  during  this  session  were  appended  to  the  report. 

The  total  number  of  members  now  stands  at  116. 

Strong  dissatisfaction  was  expressed  at  the  unreasonable 
delay  in  the  issue  of  the  Transactions  for  1906. 

The  Hon.  Treasurer,  Mr.  J.  C.  Thomson,  submitted  a  balance- 
sheet,  duly  audited  by  Mr.  D.  Brent,  from  which  it  appeared 
that  the  income  was  £374  lis.,  and  the  expenditure  £118  15s., 
showing  a  credit  balance  of  £256  9s.  7d. 

Election  of  Officers  for  1908. — President — Dr.  Hocken  ; 
Vice-Presidents — Dr.  Fulton,  Professor  Park  ;  Hon.  Treasurer — 
Mr.  J.  C.  Thomson  ;  Hon.  Secretary  and  Librarian — Dr.  Benham  ; 
Council — Messrs.  A.  Bathgate,  G.  M.  Thomson,  D.  B.  Waters, 
Dr.  Marshall,  Professor  Malcolm,  Dr.  Riley,  and  Mr.  G.  A. 
Rawson  ;    Hon.  Auditor — Mr.  D.  Brent,  M.A. 


HAWKE'S  BAY  PHILOSOPHICAL  INSTITUTE. 


Annual  Report. 

During  the  past  year  there  have  been  seven  meetings  of  the  Institute — 
namely,  the  annual  general  meeting  and  six  ordinary  meetings.  At  the 
ordinary  meetings  thirteen  papers  were  read,  several  of  them  being  illus- 
trated by  lantern-slides.  The  Council  held  five  meetings  and  transacted 
a  large  amount  of  general  business. 

Nine  new  members  were  elected  during  the  year,  making  a  total 
membership  of  sixty-seven. 

The  Council  of  the  Institute  has  been  approached  by  the  Borough 
Council  with  regard  to  the  transfer  of  the  Museum  to  the  latter  body, 
and  the  opening  of  the  Institute's  library  as  a  reference  library.  Nothing 
definite,  however,  has  yet  been  done  with  regard  to  either  of  these  matters. 

Mr.  Hill  has  again  been  elected  the  Institute's  representative  on  the 
Board  of  Governors  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute. 

The  Treasurer's  balance-sheet  shows  a  credit  balance  of  £20  3s.  8d. 

Papers  read  during  the  Session  1907. 

7th  May. — Inaugural  address  by  the  President,  E.  A.  W. 
Henley,  M.B.  ;    subject,  "  Esperanto." 

11th  June. — Papers  by  Dr.  Kennedy — (a)  "  The  Climate  of 
Napier  compared  with  those  of  Other  Places  in  New  Zealand 
and  Europe  "  ;  (b)  "  The  Nine-inch  Refractor  of  the  Meeanee 
Observatory."     Both  papers  illustrated  by  lantern-slides. 

16th  July.— Paper  by  J.  L.  Kayll,  ""The  Criminal :  His 
Evolution  and  Reform." 

13th  August.— Papers  by  H.  Hill— (a)  "  Strange  Stones," 
illustrated  by  a  large  number  of  specimens  ;  (b)  "  An  Experi- 
ment in  Nature-study  "  :  (c)  "  The  Root-parasite  Dactylavtlnts 
Taylori,"  illustrated  by  lantern-slides. 

3rd  September. — Papers  by  W.  Kerr,  M.A. — (a)  "  Experi- 
mental Education  "  ;  (6)  "  Some  Optical  Phenomena  explained." 
Papers  bv  H.  Guthrie- Smith — (a)  "Alien  and  Native  Grasses 
of  Tutira"  (p.  506);   (6)  "  Ferns  of  Tutira." 

29th  November.'— Paper  bv  Tavlor  White.  "On  Hvbrid 
Ducks."  Paper  by  H.  Hill.  B.A..  F.G.S.,  "  Evolution,"  illus- 
trated by  a  large  number  of  lantern-slides. 

Election  of  Officers  for  1908. — President — T.  Tanner  ; 
Vice-President— J.  P.  Leahy,  M.B.,  D.P.H.  ;  Council— G.  Clark, 
W.  Dinwiddie,  E.  A.  W.  Henley,  M.B.,  H.  Hill,  B.A.,  F.G.S., 
T.  Hyde,  T.  C.  Moore,  M.D.  ;  Hon.  Secretary— James  Hislop. 
District  School  ;  Hon.  Treasurer — J.  W.  Craig;  Hon.  Auditor — 
J.  S.  Large  ;   Lanternist — C.  F.  Point  on. 


NELSON   INSTITUTE. 


Annual  Eeport. 

The  reoeipts  from  members'  subscriptions  amounted  to  £170  6s.  6d.. 
as  against  £175  5s.  for  the  year  1906,  and  £186  for  the  year  1905 ;  the 
rents  of  reserve,  £58  3s.;  Government  subsidy,  £17  Is.  2d.;  and  miscel- 
laneous receipts,  £1  :  making  a  total  income  for  the  year  1907  of  £246 
10s.  8d.,  as  against  £249  8s.  for  1906,  and  £285  lis.  3d.  for  the  year  1905, 
thus  showing  a  considerable  falling-off  in  revenue  during  the  past  two 
years.  The  number  of  subscribers  to  the  library  for  the  year  1907  has 
been  198,  134  of  whom  were  annual  members,  27  half-yearly,  and  37 
quarterly  ;  total,  198,  as  against  212  in  1906,  and  210  in  1905. 

New  books  to  the  number  of  319  volumes  have  been  added  to  the 
library  during  the  past  year,  a  very  much  larger  number  than  in  previous 
years.  The  sum  of  £75  10s.  has  been  expended  on  new  books,  periodicals, 
and  newspapers  during  the  year.  The  total  number  of  books  now  in  the 
library  is  8,540. 

Twelve  ladies  and  gentlemen  were  elected  at  the  last  annual  meeting 
as  an  Advisory  Building  Committee  to  co-operate  with  the  Institute  Com- 
mittee in  the  matter  of  erection  of  a  new  library  building. 

A  number  of  meetings  have  been  held  during  the  past  year  and  plans 
and  proposals  discussed,  but  no  definite  result  has  so  far  ensued. 

Your  committee  have  to  record  with  very  great  regret  the  resignation 
of  Mr.  Eedgrave  as  Hon.  Secretary  and  Treasurer,  a  position  he  held 
for  over  thirteen  years,  and  during  which  period  he  rendered  very  valuable 
services  to  the  Institute.  Mr.  G.  C.  Gilbert  has  been  appointed  to  act  as 
his  successor. 

Under  the  auspices  of  the  scientific  branch,  a  most  interesting  lecture 
was  recently  given  by  Dr.  Marshall  on  the  subject  of  "  The  Mountains  of 
New  Zealand,"  but  no  other  meetings  have  been  held.  The  Museum 
still  remains  closed,  and  is  not  likely  to  be  opened  until  a  new  Institute 
is  built.  The  Atkinson  Observatory  has  been  opened  periodically,  and 
has  been  well  patronised  by  the  public.  Dr.  Cockayne  has  been  re- 
elected as  our  representative  on  the  governing  body  of  the  New  Zealand 
Institute. 


MANAWATU  PHILOSOPHICAL  SOCIETY. 


Abstract  of  Annual  Report. 

Fifty-nine  members  have  paid  their  subscriptions  this  year,  as  com- 
pared with  thirty-six  last  year. 

Kine  meetings  of  the  Council  have  been  held,  and  eight  general  meet- 
ings, at  which  the  following  papers  were  read  :  "  Solidity  of  the  Earth," 
by  Mr.  Eliott  Warburton  ;  "  Astronomy,"  by  Dr.  Kennedy  ;  "  Magnetism." 
1a  Mr  Merritt;  "Explanation  of  the  Telescope,"  by  Captain  Hewitt;  "Some 
Impressions  of  the  East,"  by  Mr.  Cohen  ;  "  Explanation  of  Meteorological 
Instruments,"  by  Mr.  Vernon  ;  "  Alcohol  in  Health  and  Disease,"  Dr. 
Martin  ;  "  Early  Stages  of  New  Zealand  Tree-ferns,"  by  the  Rev.  G.  B. 
Stephenson  (p.  1). 

At  the  request  of  the  Society.  Palmerston  North  has  been  made  a 
second-class  meteorological  station,  and  a  complete  set  of  instruments  has 
been  supplied  by  the  Government  and  placed  in  charge  of  Dr.  Martin. 

The  Museum  now  includes  nearly  a  thousand  exhibits,  over  two  hundred 
and  fifty  having  been  received  during  the  past  year,  including  valuable 
collections  illustrating  the  mineralogy  of  New  South  Wales  and  the  west 
coast  of  the  South  Island,  and  presented  to  the  Society  by  the  Commis- 
sioners for  those  districts  at  the  Christchurch  Exhibition.  The  attendance 
during  the  ten  months  that  the  Museum  has  been  open  has  been  over 
two  thousand  five  hundred. 

During  the  year  a  6  in.  reflector  telescope,  with  all  the  necessary 
fittings,  has  been  bought  from  the  Rev.  Dr.  Kennedy,  of  Meeanee,  and  put 
up  in  a  small  Observatory  in  the  Square.  The  telescope  has  been  placed 
in  the  care  of  Captain  Hewitt,  R.N.,  who  is  assisted  by  Messrs.  Vernon, 
Foote,  Durward,  and  Elliott  :  and  the  Observatory  is  open  on  all  Wed- 
nesday evenings,  when  the  weather  is  fine. 

The  Council  expresses  its  gratitude  to  the  Mayor  and  Borough  Council 
for  the  generous  manner  in  which  they  have  met  the  wishes  of  the  Society  ; 
to  the  numerous  donors  of  gifts  and  loans  to  the  .Museum;  to  Captain 
Hewitt  and  his  colleagues  for  the  time  and  trouble  which  they  have  de- 
voted to  the  Observatory  ;  to  Mr.  Gerand  for  assistance  in  the  adjustment 
of  the  machinery  ;  and  to  the  caretaker  of  the  Museum  for  the  zeal  and 
attention  which  he  has  devoted  to  his  work. 

The  balance-sheet  shows  that  the  total  receipts  wore 
£80  Is.  9d.,  and  the  expenditure  £159  2s.  4d.,  leaving  a  debit 
balance  of  £79   0s.  7d. 

Election  of  Officers  for  1908. — President — Mr.  M.  Cohen  ; 
Vice-Presidents— Messrs.  A.  A.  Martin,  M.D..  and  M.  A.  Eliott ; 
Council — Messrs.  J.  L.  Barnicoat,  E.  H.  Cooke,  W.  E.  Durward, 
P.  Foote,  B.A.,  E.  Larcomb,  C.E.,  and  J.  E.  Vernon,  M.A.  ; 
Secretary  and  Treasurer — K.  Wilson,  M.A.  ;  Auditor — R.  N. 
Keeling. 


APPENDIX 


NEW  ZEALAND  INSTITUTE. 


HONOEAEY  MEMBEES. 


1870. 


Pinsch,   Otto,  Ph.D.,  of  Bremen, 
Leiden,  Holland. 


Hooker,  Sir  J.  D.,  G.C.S.I.,  C.B., 
M.D.,  F.R.S.,  Royal  Gardens, 
Kew. 


1873. 

Gunther,  A.,  M.D.,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S.,  Litchfield  Road,  Kew  Gardens, 

Surrey. 

1875. 

Sclater,   Philip   Lutley,    M.A.,    Ph.D.,    P.R.S.,    Zoological    Society, 

London. 

1876. 
Berggren,  Dr.  S.,  Lund,  Sweden. 

1877. 

Sharp,  Dr.  D.,  University  Museum,  Cambridge. 

1885. 


Sharp,  Richard  Bowdler,  M.A., 
F.L.S.,  British  Museum  (Natural 
History),  London. 


Wallace,    A.    R.,    F.L.S.,   Broad- 
stone,  Wimborne,  England. 


1890. 


Nordstedt,  Professor  Otto,  Ph.D., 
University  of  Lund,  Sweden. 


Liversidge,    Professor  A.,    M.A., 
P.R.S.,  Sydney. 


1891. 

Goodale,  Professor  G.  L.,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  Harvard  University,  Massachu- 
setts, U.S.A. 


1894. 


Dyer,  Sir  W.  T.  Thiselton-, 
K.C.M.G.,  CLE.,  LL.D.,  M.A., 
P.R.S.,  Royal  Gardens,  Kew. 


Codrington,  Rev.  R.  H.,  D.D., 
Wadhurst  Rectory,  Sussex,  Eng- 
land. 


1896. 
Lydekker,  Richard,  B.A.,  F.R.S.,  British  Museum,  South  Kensington. 

1900. 


Avebury,  Lord,  P.C.,  F.R.S.,  High 


Elms,  Farnborough,  Kent.  Royal  Botanic  Gardens,  Kew. 


Massee,  George,  F.L.S.,  F.R.M.S., 


•3SS 


Appendix . 


1901. 


Eve,    H.    W.,     M.A.,     37    Gordon 
Square,  London. 


Goebel,    Dr.    Carl,   University    of 
Munich. 


1902. 

Sars,  Professor  G.  0.,  University  of  Christiania,  Norway. 

1903. 
Klotz,  Professor  Otto  J.,  437  Albert  Street,  Ottawa,  Canada. 

1904. 


Rutherford,  Professor  E.,  F.R.S., 
McGill  University,  Canada. 


David,    Professor   T.    Edgeworth, 
F.R.S.,  Sydney  University,  N.S.W. 


1906. 


Beddard,  P.  E.,  F.R.S.,  Zoological 

Society,  London. 
Milne,  J.,  F.R.S.,  Isle  of    Wight, 

England. 

1907. 


Brady,  G.  S.,  F.R.S.,  University  of 
Durham,  England. 


Dendy,    Dr.,     F.R.S.,     University 

College,  London. 
Diels,  L.,  Ph.D.,  Berlin. 


Meyrick,  E.,  B.A.,  F.R.S.,  Marl- 
borough College,  England. 

Stebbing,  Rev.  T.  R.  R.,  F.R.S.,. 
Tunbridge  Wells,  England. 


Roll  of  Members. 


5»9 


ORDINARY  MEMBERS. 


WELLINGTON  PHILOSOPHICAL  SOCIETY. 
[*  Honorary  and  life  members.] 


Adams,  C.  E.,  B.Sc. 

Adams,  C.  W. 

Allen,  Frank 

Atkinson,  Edmond  H. 

Barraud,  W.  F. 

Beetham,  W.  H.,  Masterton 

Bell,  E.  D. 

Bell,  H.  D.,  K.C. 

Bell,  Dr.  J.  M. 

Blair,  J.  R. 

Brandon,  A.  de  B. 

Campbell,  J.  P. 

Chapman,  Martin,  K.C. 

Christie,  Mrs.  Henry  M. 

Chudleigh,   E.    R.,    Chatham 
Islands 

Cockayne,  A.  H. 

Denton,  George 

Downes,     Thomas     William, 
Wanganui 

Dymock.  E.  R. 

Easterfield,   Professor   T.   H., 
M.A.,  Ph.D. 

Ewen,  Charles  A. 

Ferguson,  W.,  M.Inst.C.E. 

Field,  H.   O,   Aramoho,   Wa- 
nganui 

FitzGerald,  Gerald,  A.M.Inst 
C.E. 

Fleming,  T.  R. 

Fletcher,  Rev.  H.  J.,  Taupo 

Fraser,  Hon.  F.  H.,  M.L.C. 

Freeman,  H.  J. 

Frevberg,  Cuthbert 

Gifford,  A.  C. 

Hadfield,  E.  F. 

Hamilton,  Augustus* 

Hanify,  H.  P. 

Harding,  R.  Coupland 

Hastie,  Miss  J.  A.,  London* 

Hector,  Charles  Monro,  M.D. 


Hogben,  G.,  M.A. 

Holmes,  R.  L.,  F.R.Met.Soc, 
Bua,  Fiji* 

Hudson,  G.  V.,  F.E.S. 

Hunter,  Thomas  A. 

Hurley,  G.  A. 

Hustwick,  T.  H. 

Ilott,  J.  M.  A. 

Izard,  Dr.  Arnold  W. 

Johnson,  Hon.  G.  Randall* 

Joseph,  Joseph 

Joynt,  J.  W.,  M.A. 

King,  Thomas 

Kingsley,  R.  I.,  Nelson 

Kirk,  Professor  H.  B.,  M.A. 

Kirk,  Thomas  W.,  F.L.S. 

Krull,  F.  A.,  Wangaaui 

Lambert,  T.  S. 

Lewis,  John  H.,  Broken  River, 
Christchurch 

Liffiton,  E.  N. 

Litchfield,  A.  J.,  Blenheim 

Lomax,    Major   H.    A.,    Ara- 
moho, Wanganui 

MacDougall,  Alexander 

Maclaurin,  Dr.  J.  S.,  F.C.S. 

Maclaurin,  Prof.  R.  C,  M.A. 

McKay,  Alexander,  F.G.S. 

McLeod,  H.  N. 

Mason,  George  Morris 

Mason,  Mrs.  Kate 

Maxwell,  J.  P.,  M.Inst.C.E. 

Mestayer,  R.  L.,  M.Inst.C.E. 

Moore,     George,     Eparaima, 
Masterton 

Moorhouse,  W.  H.  Sefton 

Morison,  C.  B. 

Murdoch,  R.,  Wanganui 

Newman,    Alfred    K.,    M.B 
M.R.C.P. 

Orr,  Robert 


590 


Appendix. 


Park,    Robert    George,    Blen- 
heim1 
Paterson,  Dr.  Alexander 
Pearce,  Arthur  E. 
Petherick,  E.  W. 
Phillips,  Coleman,  Carterton 
Phipson,  Percy  B. 
Pollen,  Hugh 
Pomare,  Dr.  M. 
Povvles,  Charles  P. 
Poynton,  J.  W. 
Reid,  W.  S. 
Richardson,  C.  T. 
Richmond,  Professor  M.  W. 
Rix-Trott,  Henry 
Roy,  R.  B.,  Taita* 
Rudman,  R.  Edgar 


Smith,     Charles,      Makirikiri, 

Wanganui 
Stewart,    J.    T.,     Aramoho, 

Wanganui 
Stuckey,  A.  G. 
Swan,  W.  G.,  Codington 
Tennant,  J.  S. 
Tripe,  Joseph  A. 
Tripe,  Mrs.  Joseph  A. 
Turnbull,  Alexander  H. 
Turnbull,  Robert  T. 
Wallis,  Rt.  Rev.  Dr.  Frederic, 

Bishop  of  Wellington 
Wilton,  G.  W. 
Woodhouse,      Alfred      James, 

London 


AUCKLAND   INSTITUTE. 


Aickin,  G.,  Auckland 
Arnold,  C,         „ 
Aubin,  E.  D.,  M.B.,  Thames 
Bagnall,  L.  J.,  Auckland 
Ball,  W.  T., 
Bankart,  A.  S..         „ 
Bartley,  E.,  Devon  port 
Bates,     T.      Ij..     Newcastle, 

N.S.W.* 
Batger,  J.,  Auckland 
Beere,  D.  M.,  C.E.,  Auckland 
Benjamin,  E.  R.,  „ 

Best,  Elsdon,  Te  Whaiti 
Birks,  L.,  Rotorua 
Brett,  H.,  Auckland 
Briffault,  R.,  M.D.,  Auckland 
Broun,     Major     T.,     F.E.S., 

Drin  \ 
Brown,  E.  C,  Taumarunui 
Brown,  Prof.  F.  D.,  Auckland 
Buchanan,  J.,  Auckland 
Buck,  Dr., 
Buddie,  T., 

Burgess,  E.  W.,  Devonport 
Burnside,  W.,  Auckland 


[*  Honorary  and  life  members. J 

Burton,  Colonel,  Lake  Taka 
puna* 


Bush,  W.  E.,  C.E.,  Auckland 

Buttle,  J,  Auckland 

Cameron,  R.,   „ 

Campbell,    Sir   J.    L.,    M.D., 
Auckland* 

Carr,  R.  A.,  Auckland 

Casey,  M., 

Cheal,  P.  E., 

Cheeseman,    T.     P.,    F.L.S., 
Auckland 

Ching,  T.,  Remuera 

Clark,  A.,  Auckland 

Clark.  H.  G,      „ 

Clark,  M.  A.,     „ 

Clarke,  C.  E.,  Parnell 

Clarke,  E.,  Auckland 

Coates,  T.,  Orakei 

Cochrane,  W.  S..  Auckland 

Combes,  F.  H., 

Cooper,  C,  „ 

Cooper,  Mr.  Justice,   Welling- 
ton 

Cousins,  H.  G.,  Auckland 


Boll  of  Members 


591 


Cozens,  G.,  Auckland 

Craig,  J.  J., 

Crosher,  W.,       „ 

Cuff,  J.  C, 

Darby,  P., 

Devereux,  H.  B.,  Waihi 

Devore,  A.  E.  T.,  Auckland 

Douglas,  W.  S.,  „ 

Dutbie,  D.  W., 

Edson,  J.,  Devonport 

Egerton,     Professor      C.     W., 
Auckland 

Ewington,  F.  G.,  Auckland 

Florance,  R.  S.,  Russell 

Fowlds,      G.,      M.P.,     Auck- 
land* 

Fox,  Rev.  E.  E.,  Ponsonby 

George,  G.,  Auckland 

Gilbert,  T.,  Parnell 

Girdler,  Dr.,  Auckland 

Given,  W.  A.,  Thames 

Goldie,  D.,  Auckland 

Gordon,  H.  A.,  „ 

Gorrie,  W.,         „ 

Grant,  Miss  J.,  Devonport 

Gray,  S.,  Auckland 

Griffin,  Miss  E.  M.,  Auckland 

Haines,   H.,   F.R.C.S.,    Auck- 
land 

Hamer,  J.  H.,  C  E.,  Auckland 

Hansen,  P.  M.,  Auckland 

Hardie,  J.,  Auckland 

Haszard,  H.  D.  M.,  Thames 

Hazard,  W.  H.,  Auckland 

Heaton,  F.,  Auckland 

Henry,  W., 

Herbert,  T.,  Parnell 

Hodgson,  J.,  Auckland 

Hoiton,  H.,  Auckland 

Houghton,  C.  V.,  Auckland 

Howden,  J.,  Auckland 

Hutchinson,  G.,  Auckland 

Jarman,  Professor   A.,  Auck- 
land 

Johnson,  H.  D.,  Te  Aroha 

Jones,  H.  W.,  Papakura 

Kenderdine,  J.,  Auckland 

Kidd,  A.,  M.P., 


Kirker,  J.,  Auckland 

Kronfeld,  G.,  Auckland 

Langguth,  E., 

Larner,  V.  J.,  „ 

Lennox,  J.  M.,       „ 

Lennox,  W.  G.,  Sydney* 

Leys,  T.  W.,  Auckland 

Lundon,  J.  R.,        „ 

Lyell,  W.  S.,  Parnell 

McDowell,  W.  C,  M.D.,  Auck- 
land 

McLachlan,  J.  M.,  Auckland 

McLean,  M.,  Auckland 

McMillan,  CO.,    „ 

Mahoney,  T.,         „ 

Mair,  Captain  G.,  Thames 

Mair,  Major  W.  G.,  Auck- 
land 

Mair,  S.  A.  R.,  Rangitikei 

Martin,  J.,  F.G.S.,  Auckland 

Masefield,  T.  T., 

Metcalfe,  H.  H. 

Miller,  E.  V.,  Chelsea 

Milnes,  H.  A.  E.,  Auckland 

Mitchelson,  Hon.  E.,     „ 

Moody,  T.  P.,  Hikurangi 

Morton,  H.  B.,  Auckland 

Moss,  E.  B. 

Munro,  G.  C,  Sandwich 
Islands 

Murdoch,  D.  L.,  Auckland 

Myers,  A.  M., 

Nathan,  N.  A. 

Newton,  G.  M., 

Nicholson,  0.  R., 

Pabst,  Dr., 

Paris,  Rev.  P    R.,  Otaki 

Parker,  W.  F.,  Auckland 

Partridge,  H.  E.,      „ 

Patterson,  G.  W.  S.,  Auck- 
land 

Peacock,  T.,  Auckland 

Petrie,  D.,  F.L.S.,  Auckland 

Philcox,  W.,  Devonport 

Philson,  W.  W.,  Auckland 

Pond,  J.  A.,  „ 

Powell,  F.  E., 

Purdie,  E.  C, 


592 


Appendix. 


Purdy,  J.  S.,  M.D.,  Auckland 

Pycroft,  A.  T., 

Reid,  J.,  „ 

Renshaw,  F. 

Roberton.E.,  M.D., 

Robertson,  W.  A. 

Roche,  H.,  Waihi 

Rolfe,  W.,  Auckland 

Seegner,  C,       „ 

Segar,  Professor  H.  W.,  Auck- 
land 

Shakespear,     R.     H.,     Little 
Barrier 

Shaw,  H.,  Auckland 

Sinclair,  A.,      „ 

Smeeton,  H.  M.,  Auckland 

Smith,  H.  G.  S., 

Smith,  S.  P.,  F.R.G.S.,  Tara- 
naki 

Smith,  W.  H.,  Auckland 

Somerville,  J.  M.,  Chelsea 

Speight,  W.  J.,"  Auckland 

Spencer,  W.  C.  C,  Auckland 
.    Stewart,  J.,  C.E., 

Stopford,  R.,  M.D., 

Streeter,  S.  C, 


Talbot-Tubbs,  Professor  H.  A., 
Auckland 

Thomas,   Professor  A.   P.  W., 
F.L.S.,  Auckland 

Thompson,  F.  K.,  Auckland 

Tibbs,  J.  W., 

Tinne,  H.,  London* 

Upton,  J.  H.,  Auckland 
i  Urquhart,  A.  T.,  Karaka 
1  Vaile,  E.  E.,  Auckland 

Walsh,   x\rchdeacon   P.,    Wai- 
mate 

Ward,  P.,  Auckland 

Waterworth,  A.,  Auckland 

Webster,  J.,  Hokianga 

Webster,  Rev.  W.,  Waiuku 

Weetman,  S.,  F.R.G.S.,  Lon- 
don* 

Wells,  T.  W.,  Auckland 

Williams,  Right  Rev.  W.  L., 
Bishop  of  Waiapu,  Napier 

Wilson,  A.  P.,  Auckland 

Wilson,  W.  R., 

Withy,  E.,  Opotiki* 

Yates,  E.,  Auckland 

Young,  J.  L.,     „ 


PHILOSOPHICAL  INSTITUTE  OF  CANTERBURY. 
r*  Life  members.] 


Acland,  Dr.  H.  D. 

Adams,  T.  W. 

Adamson,  Rev.  H. 

Andersen,  Johannes  C. 

Anderson,  G. 

Allen,  F.  E. 

Allison,  H. 

Aschmann,  C.  T. 

Bealey,  S. 

Bevan-Brown,  C.  E.,  M.A. 

Bishop,  F.  C.  B. 

Bisbop,  R.  C. 

Blunt,    Professor    T.    G.    R. 

M.A. 
Booth,  G.  T. 
Bowen,    Hon.    C.    C.,    M.A 

F.R.G.S. 
Bridges  G   r;. 


Mac- 


Brown,     Professor    J. 

millan,  M.A.* 
Burley,  W.  E.,  B.A. 
Carlisle,  W.  J. 

Carrington,  Rev.  C.  W.,  M.A. 
Chappell,  Rev.  A.  B.,  M.A 
Charlton,  J.  R..  M.R.C.V.S. 
Chevassus,  P.  J.  L. 
Chilton,  Prof.  C,  D.Sc,  M.A., 

M.B.,  F.L.S.* 
Clark,  F. 
Cockayne,  Dr. 
Coles,  W.  R. 
Collins,  J.  J. 
Craddock,  A.  R.,  B.Sc. 
Cull,  J.  E.  L. 
Cuthbert,  E. 
Dawes,  J. 


Roll  of  Members. 


593 


Denham,  H.  G.,  M.A.,  M.Sc. 
Denniston,  Mr.  Justice 
Diamond,  Dr. 
Dohrmann,  Mrs.,  M.A. 
Drummond,  J.,  F.L.S. 
English,  E.,  F.C.S.,  M.I.M.E. 
Enys,  J.  D. 
Evans,    Prof.    W.    P.,    M.A., 

Ph.D. 
Farr,  Dr.  C.  C,  A.M.Inst.CE. 
Farrow,  F.  D. 
Finch,  Dr. 

Flower,  A.  E,,  M.A.,  M.Sc. 
Foster,  E.  G. 
Freeman,  Miss,  B.A. 
Gibson,  Dr.  F. 
Grant,  Miss 
Gray,  A.,  B.A. 
Gray,  G. 
Grigg,  J.  C.  N. 
Grimes,  Eight  Eev.  Bishop 
Hallenstein,  P.  L. 
Hardie,  C.  D .,  B.A. 
Hight,  J.,  M.A.,  LL.D. 
Hilgendorf,  F.  W.,  M.A.,  D.Se 
Hill,  Mrs.  Carey 
Hitchings,  F. 
Hodgson,  T.  V. 
Hogg,  E.  G.,  M.A. 
Hoggins,  Eev.  A.  C. 
Howell,  J.  H.,  B.Sc. 
Hulme,  G.  W. 
Hiilsen,  K. 
Hutton,  Mrs. 
Inghs,  Dr.  H.  W. 
Ingram,  John 
Iredale,  T. 
Jackson,  T.  H. 
Jameson,  J.  S. 
Jamieson,  J.  0. 
Kaye,  A. 
Keir,  T. 

Kidson,  E.,  M.Sc,  M.A.  . 
Kirkaldy,  G.  W. 
Kitchingham,  Miss,  M.A. 
Laing,  E.  M.,  M.A.,  B.Sc. 
Lee,  H.  M. 
Lewis,  C,  M.P. 


Lowrie,  W.,  M. A.,  B.Sc. 
Macbeth,  N.  L. 
McCallum,  P.,  B.Sc. 
Marriner,  G.  E.,  F.E.M.S. 
Mayne,  J.  B.,  B.A. 
Meredith- Kaye,  C.  K. 
Mitchell,  J.  Allen 
Molineaux,  M. 
Mollett,  T.  A.* 
Moorhouse,  Dr.  Alice 
Moorhouse,  Dr.  B.  M. 
Moreland,  Eev.  C.  H.,  M.A. 
Moyes,  W.  H.,  M.A.,  B.Sc. 
Mulgan,  E.  K. 
Murray- Ay nsley,  H.  P. 
Nairn,  E. 
O'Donnell,  W.  J. 
Oliver,  W.  E.  B. 
Olliver,    Miss    F.    M.,    M.A., 

B.Sc. 
Opie,  C.  H.  A.  T. 
Page,  S.,  B.A. 
Palmer,  J. 

Powell,  P.  H.,  M.Sc. 
Purnell,  C.  W. 
Eeece,  W. 
Eevell,  P. 

Ehodes,  E.  Heaton,  M.A. 
Eowe,  T.  W.,  M.A.,  LL.B. 
Sandstein,  E.  M. 
Scott,  EL 
Scott,  J.  L. 
Scott,  Professor  E.  J.,  M.Inst. 

C.E. 
Seager,  C.  A. 
Sheard,  Miss  F.,  M.A. 
Shrimpton,  — 
Simmers,  G   A. 
Sims,  A.,  M.A. 
Skey,  H.  F..  B.Sc. 
Sloman,  C.  J. 
Smith,  J.  Hartley,  M.A. 
Smith,  E.  Herdman 
Smith,  W.  W.,  F.E.S. 
Snow,  Colonel 
Sparkes,  W. 

Speight,  E.,  M.A.,  B.Sc. 
Spiller,  J. 


594 


Appendix. 


Stead,  E.  F. 
Stevenson,  Dr.  J. 
Stone,  T. 

Symes,  Dr.  W.  H.* 
Talbot,  Dr.  A.  G.,  M.A. 
Taylor,  A. 
Terry,  F.  W. 
Thomas,  Dr.  W.* 
Tripp,  C.  H.- 
Turner, E.  Phillips 


Waite,  Edgar  R. 
Wallich,  M.  G. 
Waymouth,  F. 
Waymouth,  Mrs 
Whitaker,  C.  G. 

!  Wigley,  W. 
Williams,  C.  J., 
Wilson,  Miss 
Wright,  A.  M 

:  Wright,  W.  S 


F.L.S. 


F. 


M.Inst.C.E. 
F.GS. 


OTAGO     INSTITUTE. 


[*  Life 
Alexander,  Dr.  Edward 
Allan,  Dr.  W.,  Mosgiel 
Allen,  James,  M.P. 
Armstrong,  F. 

Barnett,  L.  E..M.B.,  F.R.C.S 
Barningham,  S. 
Batchelor,    F.     E.,    M.D., 

M.R.C.S. 
Bathgate,  Alexander- 
Bell,  A.  D.,  Shag  Valley 
Ben  ham,   Professor  W.    B., 

M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.R.S. 
Black,  Alexander* 
Black,  Professor  J.  G.,  M.A., 

D.Sc. 
Blair,  John 
Bowman,  John 

Brent,  Daniel,  M.A.* 
Brown,  Thomas 

Brown,  William 

Browne,  Robert 

Buchanan,    N.    L.,     Colling- 
wood* 

Burnside,  J.  A. 

Chamberlain,  C.  W. 

Chapman,  C.  R. 

Chapman,  Mr.  Justice 

Chisholm,  Robert 

Clarke,  E.  S. 

Collier,  E.  E. 

Colquhoun,D.,  M.D.,  F.R.C.S. 

De  Beer,  I.  S. 

Don,  J.  R.,  M.A.,  D.Sc. 

Duncan,  Peter 


members.] 

Fels,  Willi 

Fenwick,  George 

Fergus,  Hon.  Thomas 

Ferguson,    H.    Lindo,    M.D. 
F.R.C.S.I. 

Fitchetc,  Frank,  M.B. 

Fulton,  Robert,  M.D.,  CM. 

Fulton,  S.  W.,  Melbourne* 

Gilkison,  Robert 

Goyen,  P. 

Grave,  W.  G.,  Oamaru 

Hamilton,  A.,  Wellington* 

Hamilton,  Harold 

Hay,  C.  W. 

Henton,  J.  W. 

Herbert,  E. 

Hocken,     T.     M.,     M.R.C.S., 
F.L.S. 

Hosking,  J.  H.,  K.C. 

Howes,  G.  W.,  F.E.S. 

Jackson,  Howard 

Jeffery,  James 

Joachim,  George^ 

Kempthorne,  T.  W. 

King,    F.  Truby,  M.B.,  CM., 

B.Sc. 
Lamb,  Tompson 
Lee,  A.  G. 
Lee,  Robert 
Livingston,  W. 
Loudon,  James 
Lusk,  T.  W. 
McKellar,  Dr. 
McKerrow,  James,  F.R.A.S. 


Boll  of  Members. 


595 


McKnight,     Miss     S.,     M.A., 

M.Sc. 
McPhee,  J.  H. 

Malcolm,  Professor  John,  M.D. 
Marchant,  Miss  M.  E.  A.,  M.A. 
Marshall,  P.,  D.Sc,  M.A. 
Mason,  John  Blair 
Massey,  Horatio,  Invercargill 
Matthews,  J.  H. 
Melland,  E.,  England* 
Morrell,  W.  J.,  M.A. 
Neville,  The  Most  Rev.  S.  T., 

Primate  of  New  Zealand 
Nisbet,  Eev.  Dr. 
Ogston,  Frank,  M.D. 
Oliver,  F.  S. 
Park,  Professor  James 
Parr,  E.  J.,  M.A.,  B.Se. 
Payne,  Francis  William 
Petrie,  Donald,  M.A.,  F.L.S.H 
Rankin,  R.  S. 
Rawson,  G.  A. 
Reid,  Donald,  jun.,  M.P, 
Richards,  Professor  D.  J., M.A. 
Richardson,  C.  R.  D.,  M.A. 
Riley,  Frederick,  M.B. 
Ritchie,  J.  M. 
Ritchie,  Russell,  M.B. 
Roberts,  John,  C.M.G. 
Roberts,  W.  S.,  M.R.C.S. 


Russell,  George  Gray 

Sale,  Professor  G.  S.,  M.A. 

Sargood,  Percy 

Scott,  Professor  J.  H.,  M.D. 

Shacklock,  John  B. 

Shand,  Professor  John,  M.A., 

LL.D. 
Shennan,  Watson 
Sidey,  John 
Sim,  Mr.  Justice 
Sims,  F.  W.,  F.  Met.  Soc. 
Sise,  G.  L. 
Skey,  Henry 

Statham,  F.  H.,  A.O.S.M. 
Stevens,  Dr.  W.  E. 
Stewart,  W.  Downie 
Stilling,  Mrs. 
Stout,  Sir  Robert,  K.C.M.G., 

Chief  Justice 
Theomin,  D. 
Thomson,    G.    M.,    F.L.S., 

F.C.S.* 
Thomson,  J.  C. 
Waters,  Daniel  B.,  A.O.S.M. 
White,  David,  M.A. 
Williams,  H.  B. 
Williams,  Mr.  Justice* 
Wilson,  Alex.,  M.A. 
Woodhouse,  J.  F. 
Young,  Dr.  James,  Invercargill 


WESTLAND  INSTITUTE. 


Acheson,  Mrs. 
Addison,  Miss 
Beare,  T.  W. 
Benjamin,  A.  E. 
Bignell,  Captain  G. 
Boyes,  F.  A. 
Clarke,  J.  J. 
Cook,  Miss 
Duncan,  W. 
Dunne,  P.  J. 
Ecclesfield,  R. 
Evans,  D.  J. 
Fair,  C.  P. 
Folley,  W. 
Forsyth,  J. 


Fowler,  Mrs. 
Heinz,  W. 
Holmes,  Hon.  J. 
Keller,  A. 
Kerr,  W. 
Kirk,  C.  R. 
Lewis,  J.  B. 
Little,  A. 
Mabin,  E.  B. 
Macandrew,  H.,  M.D. 
Macfarlane,  J.  C. 
Mcintosh,  J.  J. 
MacNaughton,  J.  R. 
Malfroy,  J.  C. 
Mandl,  J. 


596 


Appendix . 


Michel,  H.  L. 
Morgan,  P.  C. 
Morton,  A.  J.,  B.A. 
Olliver,  Miss,  M.A.,  M.Sc. 
Perry,  G.  A. 
Pollock,  M. 
Potts,  Miss 
Ralfe,  T.  L. 


Roberts,  G.  J. 
Teichelman,  E.,  M.D. 
Wake,  H.  G.,  E.A. 
Weston,  H. 
White,  J.  F. 
Wild,  R. 
Williams,  W.  E. 
Wilson,  W. 


HAWKE'S  BAY  PHILOSOPHICAL  INSTITUTE. 
[*  Life  members.] 


Andrews,  E.  W. 
Antill,  H.  W.,  Kumeroa 
Asher,  Rev.  J.  A. 
Bernau,  Dr.  H.  F. 
Burnett,  H.,  Woodville 
Campbell,  H.,  Poukawa* 
Chambers,  J.,  Mokopeka 
Chambers,  J.  B.,  Te  Mata 
Chambers,  W.  K.,  Waerenga- 

ahika,  Poverty  Bay 
Clark,  F.  C,  Eskdale 
Clark,  Gilbert 
Craig,  J.  W. 
Crawshaw,  George 
Darton,  G.,  Gisborne 
De  Lisle,  Dr.,  Hastings 
Dinwiddie,  P. 
Dinwiddie,  W. 
Donnelly,  G.  P.,  Crissoge 
Duncan,  Russell 
Edgar,  Dr.  J.  J. 
Gutbrie-Smith,  H.,  Tutira 
Hall,  T. 

Hamilton,  A.,  Wellington^ 
Harding,  J.  W.,  Mount  Vernon 
Henley,  Dr.  E.  A.  W. 
Henley,  F.  L.,  B.A. 
Hill,  H.,  B.A.,  F.G.S. 
Hislop,  J. 

Holder,  H.  R.,  Woodville 
Holdsworth,  J.,  Havelock  N. 
Hutchinson,  F.,  jun.,  Rissin^- 

ton 
Hyde,  Thomas 


Kennedy,  Dr.,  Meeanee 

Kerr,  W. 

Kinder,  J.,  M.A.,  Gisborne 

Large,  J.  S.* 

Large,  Miss 

Lawry,  Rev.  A.  C. 

Leahy,  Dr.  J.  P. 

Locking,  Dr.  B. 

Lowry,  T.  H.,  Okawa 

Luff,  A.,  Wellington 

McLean,  R.  D.  D. 

Mavne,  Rev.  Canon 

Moore,  Dr.  T.  C. 

Olsen,  H.,  Norsewood  S. 

Ormond,  G.,  Mahia 

Ormond,  Hon.  J.  D.,  M.L.C. 

O'Ryan,  W.,  Waipiro 

Pointon,  C.  F. 

Rowley,  F.,  B.A.,  Gisborne 

Smith,'  J.  A.,  B.A. 

Smith,  J.  H.,  Olrig* 

Spencer,  Miss 

Tanner,  T. 

Tiffen,  G.  W.,  Wheturau,  Gis- 
borne 

Townley,  J.,  Gisborne 

White,  T.,  Wimbledon 

Williams,  F.  W. 

Williams,    G.     T.,    Matahiia, 
Tuparoa 

Williams,      J.     N.,     Frimley, 
Hastings 

Williams,  Rev.  H.,  Gisborne 

Willis,  H.,  Hopelands 


Boll  of  Members. 


59T 


NELSON  PHILOSOPHICAL  INSTITUTE. 


Bett,  Dr. 
Bo  wen,  C.  Webb 
Catley,  J.  T. 
Catley,  E. 
Clark,  G. 
Clifford,  W. 
Cock,  Miss 
Cooke,  J.  P. 
Cresswell,  E.  S. 
Curtis,  W.  S. 
De  Castro,  W. 
Devenish,  W. 
Dodson,  Mrs. 
Duncan,  H. 
Edmonds,  Mrs. 
Everett,  A. 
Eyre-Kenny,  Judge 
Fell,  C.  Y. 
Field,  T.  A. 
Fowler,  H. 
Fox,  Canon 
Gibbs,  Dr. 
Gibbs,  F.  G. 
Giblin,  A.  P. 
Gilbert,  G.  C. 
Glasgow,  J. 
Grace,  A. 
Graham,  C.  P. 
Grant,  D. 
Greenfield,  Mrs. 
Greenwood,  W. 


Hamilton,  Dr. 
Hampson,  W.  S. 
Hanby,  H.  O. 
Harris,  J.  K. 
Heaps,  W. 
Hornsby,  G.  P. 
Hudson,  Dr. 
Kempthorne,  Bev.  J.  P. 
Knapp,  F.  V. 
Ledger,  F.  I. 
Lemmer,  J. 
Lucas,  A.  P. 
Lucas,  Dr. 
McCabe,  B. 
Moffatt,  W.J. 
Morrison,  J. 
Mules,  Bishop 
Pollock,  J. 
Bedgrave,  A.  J. 
Bogers,  W. 
Bose,  H. 
Bout,  W. 
Smith,  W. 
St.  John,  F. 
Topliss,  P. 
Tourettes,  T.  de 
Vickerman,  Captain 
Wastney,  W. 
White,  S.  B. 
Wood,  J. 
Worley,  W.  F. 


59ft 


Append  isr. 


MANAWATU  PHILOSOPHICAL  SOCIETY. 


Armstrong,  E.  J.,  C.E. 

Baldwin,  P.  E. 

Batchelar,  J.  O. 

Bond,  F.  W. 

Cohen,  M. 

Cooke,  F.  H. 

Durward,  W.  F. 

Eliott,  M.  A. 

Foote,  F.,  B.A. 

Frankland,  F.  W. 

Frazer,  D. 

Gardner,  R. 

Glendinning,  A.  A. 

Graham,  A.  J. 

Hankins,  J.  H. 

Harden,  C.  E.,  M.A. 

Harman,  V. 

Harper,  Rev.  C.  C,  M.A. 

Hewitt,  Capt.  J.  D.  R.,  R.N. 

Hirsch,  G. 

Hurlev,  E.  0. 

Jickell,  S.,  C.E. 

Jolly,  Rev.  I.,  M.A. 

Keeling,  R.  N. 

Kerslake,  H. 

Lane,  J.  C. 

Larcombe,  C.  E. 

Levien,  C. 

Low,  D.  W. 

McKenzie,  D.  H. 

Maclean,  W.  H. 

Manson,  Thomas 


Martin,  A.  A.,  M.D.,  M.S. 

Martin,  D. 

Mellsopp,  Mrs.,  M.A. 

Merritt,  J.  A.,  A.M.I.M.E. 

Miller,  T.  T. 

Mowlem,  H. 

Nash,  J.  A. 

O'Donnell,  W.  J. 

Peach,  C.  W.,  M.B.,  M.S. 

Poole,  W.  H.  J. 

Preece,  Captain  G.  A. 

Richardson,  T.  H. 

Rosenberg,  A. 

Russell,  A.  E. 

Rutherfurd,  W. 

Seifert,  A. 

Sim,  P.  L. 

Simmons,  L. 

Sinclair,  D. 

Stowe,     W.     R.,     M.R.C.S. 

L.R.C.P. 
Tatton,  A. 

Vernon,  J.  E.,  M.A.,  B.Sc. 
Waldegrave,  C.  E. 
Warburton,  E. 
Warden,  C.  H. 
Watson,  F.  E. 
Welch,  W. 

Wilson,  G.,  M.B.,  B.S. 
Wilson,  K.,  M.A. 
Willshire,  T. 
Wollarman,  H. 


List  of  Free  Copies. 


599 


LIST   OF   INSTITUTIONS 

TO  WHICH 

THIS  VOLUME  IS  PRESENTED  BY  THE  GOVERNORS  OF  THE 
NEW  ZEALAND  INSTITUTE. 


Honorary  Members  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute,  30, 


'<a 


v 


Neiv  Zealand. 

Cabinet,  The  Members  of,  Wellington. 
Executive  Library,  Wellington. 
Free  Public  Library,  Auckland. 

„  Christchurch . 

„  Wellington. 

Government  Printer  and  publishing  staff  (6  copies) 
Library,  Auckland  Institute,  Auckland. 
Auckland  Museum,  Auckland. 
Biological  Laboratory,  Canterbury  College,  Christ- 
church. 
Biological  Laboratory,   University  College,  Auck- 
land. 
Biological  Laboratory,  University  of  Otago,  Dun- 

edin. 
Biological  Laboratory,  Victoria  College,  Welling- 
ton. 
Canterbury  Museum,  Christchurch. 
Dunedin  Athenaeum. 
General  Assembly,  Wellington. 
Hawke's  Bay  Philosophical  Institute,  Napier. 
Manawatu     Philosophical     Society,     Palmerston 

North. 
Nelson  Institute,  Nelson. 
New  Zealand  Institute  of  Surveyors. 
New  Zealand  Institute,  Wellington. 
Otago  Institute,  Dunedin. 
Otago  Museum,  Dunedin. 
Otago  School  of  Mines,  Dunedin. 
Philosophical    Institute    of    Canterbury,    Christ- 
church. 
Polynesian  Society,  New  Plymouth. 
Portobello  Fish-hatchery,  Dunedin. 
Beefton  School  of  Mines. 


0ftA( 


09    ^ 


rf- 


•600  Appendix. 

Library,  Thames  School  of  Mines. 

University  College,  Auckland. 
University  College,  Christchurch. 
University  of  Otago,  Dunedin. 
Victoria  College,  Wellington. 
Wanganui  Museum. 
Wellington  Philosophical  Society. 
„         Westland  Institute,  Hokitika. 

Great  Britain. 

Anthropological  Institute  of   Great   Britain    and   Ireland, 
London. 

British    Association    for    the    Advancement    of    Science, 
London. 

British  Museum  Library,  London. 

Natural  History  Department,  South  Ken- 
sington, London,  S.W. 

Colonial  Office,  London. 

Clifton  College,  Bristol,  England. 

Entomological  Society,  London. 

Geological  Magazine,  London. 

Geological  Society,  Edinburgh. 
„  London. 

Geological  Survey  of  the  United  Kingdom,  London. 

High  Commissioner  for  New  Zealand,  London. 

Imperial  Institute,  London. 

Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  London. 

International  Catalogue  of  Scientific  Literature,  London. 

Kegan,  Paul,  Trench,  Trubner,  and  Co.,  London  (Agents). 

Leeds  Geological  Association,  Meanwood.  Leeds. 

Linnaean  Society,  London. 

Literary  and  Philosophical  Society,  Liverpool. 

Liverpool  Biological  Society. 

Marine  Biological  Association  of  the  United  Kingdom,  Ply- 
mouth. 

Natural  History  Society,  Glasgow. 

Marlborough  College,  England. 

Nature,  The  Editor  of,  London. 

Norfolk  and  Norwich  Naturalist  Society,  Norwich. 

North   of  England  Institute   of    Mining  and   Mechanical 
Engineers,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Patent  Office  Library,  London. 

Philosophical  Society  of  Glasgow. 

Philosophical  Society  of  Leeds,  England. 

Royal  Asiatic  Society,  London. 

Royal  Botanic  Garden  Library,  Edinburgh. 

Royal  College  of  Physicians,  Edinburgh. 


List  of  Free  Copies.  601 

Royal  Colonial  Institute,  London. 
Royal  Geographical  Society,  London. 
Royal  Irish  Academy,  Dublin. 
Royal  Physical  Society,  Edinburgh. 
Royal  Society,  Dublin. 

Edinburgh. 
„  London. 

Royal    Society   of    Literature   of    the     United    Kingdom, 

London. 
Royal  Statistical  Society,  London. 
School  Library  Committee,  Eton,  England. 

„  Rugby,  England. 

University  Library,  Cambridge,  England. 

Edinburgh. 
„  Oxford,  England. 

Victoria  College,  Manchester. 
Victoria  Institute,  London. 
Zoological  Record,  London. 
Zoological  Society,  London. 


British  North  America. 

Canadian  Institute   Toronto. 

Geological  and  Natural  History  Survey  of  Canada,  Ottawa. 

Hamilton  Scientific  Association,  Hamilton,  Canada. 

Institute  of  Jamaica,  Kingston. 

Literary  and  Historical  Society  of  Quebec,  Canada  East. 

Natural  History  Society  of  New  Brunswick,  St.  John's. 

Nova-Scotian  Institute  of  Natural  Science,  Halifax. 

Ottawa  Literary  and  Scientific  Society,  Ottawa. 


South  Africa. 

Free  Public  Library,  Cape  Town. 

South  African  Philosophical  Society,  Cape  Town. 

South  African  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science, 

Cape  Town. 
South  African  Museum,  Cape  Town. 
Rhodesia  Museum,  Bulawayo,  South  Africa. 

India. 

Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal,  Calcutta. 
Colombo  Museum,  Ceylon. 
Geological  Survey  of  India,  Calcutta. 
Natural  History  Society,  Bombay. 
Raffles  Museum,  Singapore. 


€02  Appendix. 

Queensland. 
Geological    Society   of    Australasia,    Queensland    Branch, 

Brisbane. 
Geological  Survey  Office,  Brisbane. 
Library,  Botanic  Gardens,  Brisbane. 
Queensland  Museum,  Brisbane. 
Royal  Society  of  Queensland,  Brisbane. 

Neiv  South  Wines. 
Agricultural  Department,  Sydney. 
Australasian  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science, 

Sydney. 
Australian  Museum  Library,  Sydney. 
Department  of  Mines,  Sydney. 

Engineering  Association  of  New  South  Wales,  Sydney. 
Library,  Botanic  Gardens,  Sydney. 
Linnaean  Society  of  New  South  Wales,  Sydney. 
Public  Library,  Sydney. 
Royal  Geographical  Society  of  Australasia,  N.S.W.  Branch, 

Sydney. 
Royal  Society  of  New  South  Wales,  Sydney. 
University  Library,  Sydney. 

• 

Victoria. 

Australian  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,  Melbourne. 

Field  Naturalists'  Club,  Melbourne. 

Geological  Survey  of  Victoria,  Melbourne. 

Gordon  Technical  College,  Geelong. 

Legislative  Library,  Melbourne. 

Public  Library,  Melbourne. 

Royal  Society  of  Victoria,  Melbourne. 

University  Library,  Melbourne. 

Victorian  Institute  of  Surveyors. 

Tasmania. 
Public  Library  of  Tasmania,  Hobart. 
Royal  Society  of  Tasmania,  Hobart. 

South  Austrai in. 
Royal  Society  of  South  Australia,  Adelaide. 
University  Library,  Adelaide. 

Russia. 

Finskoie  Uchonoie  Obshchestvo,  Finnish  Scientific  Society, 
Helsingfors. 

Imper.  Moskofskoie  Obshchestvo  lestestvo-Ispytatelei,  Im- 
perial Moscow  Society  of  Naturalists. 

Kiefskoie  Obshchestvo  lestestvo-Ispytatelei,  Kief  Society 
of  Naturalists. 


List  of  Free  Copies.  603 

Norway. 

Bergens  Museum,  Bergen. 
University  of  Christiania. 

Sioeden. 

Geological  Survey  of  Sweden,  Stockholm. 
Royal  Academy  of  Science.  Stockholm. 

Denmark. 

Natural  History  Society  of  Copenhagen. 
Royal    Danish   Academy    of    Sciences    and  Literature    of 
Copenhagen. 

Germany. 

Botanischer  Verein  der  Provinz  Brandenburg,  Berlin. 

Konigliche  Bibliothek,  Berlin. 

Konigliche      Physikalisch  -   Oekonomische     Gesellschaft, 
Konigsberg,  E.  Prussia. 

Konigliches    Zoologisches    und    Anthropologisch  -  Ethno- 
graphisches  Museum,  Dresden. 

Naturhistorischer  Verein,  Bonn. 

Naturhistorisches  Museum,  Hamburg. 

Naturwissenschaftlicher  Verein,  Bremen. 

Naturwissenschaftiicher  Verein,  Frankfort-an-der-Oder. 

Rautenstrauch-Joest-Museum      (Stadtisches    Museum    fiir 
Volkerkunde),  Cologne. 

Redaktion  des  Biologischen  Central-Blatts,  Erlangen. 

Senckenbergische  Naturforschende  Gesellschaft,  Frankfurt- 
am- Main. 

Verein  fiir  Vaterlaudische   Naturkunde  in   Wiirttemburg, 
,  Stuttgart. 

Austria. 

K.K.  Central-Anstalt     fiir     Meteorologie     und     Erdmag- 

netismus,  Vienna. 
K.K.  Geologische  Reichsanstalt,  Vienna. 

Belgium  and   the   Netherlands. 

Musee  Teyler,  Haarlem. 

Academie    Royal  des  Sciences,  des  Lettres,  et  des  Beaux- 
Arts  de  Belgique,  Brussels. 
La  Societe  Roy  ale  de  Botanique  de  Belgique,  Brussels. 

Switzerland. 

Musee  d'Histoire  Naturelle  de  Geneve. 
Naturforschende  Gesellschaft  (Societe  des  Sciences  Natu- 
relles),  Bern. 


604  Appendix. 

France. 

Bibliotheque  Nationale,  Paris. 

Musee  d'Histoire  Naturelle  de  Bordeaux. 

Musee  d'Histoire  Naturelle,  Paris. 

Societe  Entomologique  de  France,  Paris. 

Societe  de  Geographie,  Paris. 

Societe  Zoologique  de  France,  Paris. 

Italy. 

Biblioteca  ed  Archivio  Tecnico,  Eome. 

Museo  di  Geologia  e  Paleontologia  del  E.  Instituto  di  Studi 

Superiori,  Florence. 
Museo   di   Zoologia  e    di   Anatomia    Comparata  della     E. 

Universita,  Turin. 
Orto  e  Museo  Botanico  (E.  Instituto  di  Studi  Superiori), 

Florence. 
E.  Accademia  di  Scienze,  Lettre,  ed  Arti,  Modena. 
E.  Accademia  dei  Lincei,  Eome. 
Stazione  Zoologica  di  Napoli,  Naples. 
Societa  Africana  d'ltalia,  Naples. 
Societa  Geografica  Italiana,  Eome. 
Societa  Toscana  di  Scienze  Naturali,  Pisa. 

United  States  of  America. 

Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Buffalo,  State  of  New  York. 

Davenport,  Iowa. 

Library,  Philadelphia. 

San  Francisco. 
American  Geographical  Society.  New  York. 
American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,  Philadelphia. 
American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  New  York. 
American  Philosophical  Society,  Philadelphia. 
Boston  Society  of  Natural  History. 
Connecticut  Academy,  New  Haven. 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.C. 
Field  Museum  of  Natural  History,  Chicago. 
Franklin  Institute,  Philadelphia. 
Johns  Hopkins  University,  Baltimore. 
Missouri  Botanical  Gardens,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology,  Cambridge,  Mass. 
Natural  History  Museum,  Central  Park,  New  York. 
New  York  Academy  of  Sciences. 
Philippine  Museum,  Manila. 
Eochester  Academy  of  Sciences. 
Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington,  D.C. 
Stanford  [Iniversitv,  California. 


List  of  Free  Copies.  ti05 

Tufts  College,  Massachusetts. 

United  States  Geological  Survey,  Washington,  D.C. 

University  of  Montana,  Missoula. 

Wagner  Free  Institute  of  Science  of  Philadelphia. 

Washington  Academy  of  Sciences. 

Brazil. 

Museu  Paulista,  Sao  Paulo. 
Escola  de  Minas,  Eio  de  Janeiro. 

Argentine  Republic. 

m 

Sociedad  Cientifica  Argentina,  Buenos  Ayres. 

Uruguay. 
Museo  Nacional,  Monte  Video. 

Japan. 

College  of  Literature,  Imperial  University  of  Japan,  Tokyo. 
College  of  Science,  Imperial  University  of  Japan,  Tokyo. 

Haioaii. 

Bernice  Pauahi  Bishop  Museum,  Honolulu. 
National  Library,  Honolulu. 

Java. 
Society  of  Natural  Science,  Batavia. 


INDE  X. 


AUTHORS    OF   PAPERS 

Adams,  C.  W.     "  New  Forms  of  the  Almucantar  " 
Andersen,  J.  C.     "  Metre  " 
Best,  Elsdon.     "  Maori  Forest  Lore'"     . . 
Broun,  T.   *'  Destruction  of  Kumaras  " 

„  "  Parasitic  Fungus  allied  to  Gordyceps  clavatulu 

Cheeseman,  T.      "  Lesser  Frigate-bird  " . . 
""  Marine  Reptilia  " 
„  •"  Flora  of  New  Zealand  " 

„  ""  Botanical  Nomenclature  " 

Christie,  Mrs.  H.  M.     "  Coloured  Hearing  " 
Cockayne,  A.  H.     "  Phytophthora  injestans  " 

„  "  Ceratitis  capitata  "  . . 

Cockayne,  L.     "  Plant-habitats  " 
Drummond,  J.     "  Little  Barrier  Bird-sanctuary  : 
Farquhar,  H.     "  New  Ophiuroid  " 

"  The  Bipolar  Theory  "  . . 
Finlayson,  A.  M.     "  Otago  Schists  " 

„  "  Scheelite  of  Otago  " 

Fulton,  R.     "  Disappearance  of  Native  Birds  " 
Griffin,  Miss  E.  M.     "  New'Zealand  Conifers  " 
Guthrie-Smith.     "  Grasses  of  Tutira  "    . . 
Gunn,  Dr.     "  Winds  of  Kaikoura  " 
Hocken,  T.  M.     "  Early  Visits  of  the  Frencli  " 
Hogg,  E.  G.     "  Isogonal  Transformations  " 
Howes,  G.     "  Lepidoptera  " 

Hudson,  G.  V.     "  New  Zealand  Macro-lepidoptera 
Iredale,  T.     "  New  Zealand  Marine  Mollusca  " 
"'  Mollusca,  Banks  Peninsula  " 
'*  Mollusca  of  Otago  " 
'*  Mollusca  from  Lyall  Bay  " 
"  Minute  Mollusca  from  Titahi  Bay 
Kirk,  H.  B.     "  Development  of  a  Polychaile  " 
Kirkaldy,  G.  W.     "  Heteropterous  Hemipteron  ' 
Marriner,  G.     "  Notes  on  Kea  " 
Marshall,  P.     "  Geology  of  North  Island  " 

,,  "  Gabbro  of  the  Dun  Mountain  " 

Petrie,  D.  g,,"  New  Species  of  Veronica  " 
"  Visit  to  Mount  Hector  "    .  . 


PAGE 

560 
466 
185 
262 
569 
265 
267 
270 
447 
562 
316 
r>(54 
;;u4 

500 
108 
259 

72 
110 
485 

43 
506 
572 
137 
333 
533 
104 
373 
387 
404 
410 
559 
286 
109 
534 

79 
320 
288 
289 


BOS 


Index. 


Phipson,  P.  B.     "  Transformation  of  Barley  '* 
Richmond,  M.  W.     "  Metaphysical  Research  "     . . 
Rutland,  J.     "  Right-sidedness  " 

"On  Family  Marks  " 
Segar,  H.  W.     "  Foreign  Trade  " 
Smith,  J.  P.     "  Rocks  from  Westland  " 
Smith,  S.  P.     "  Dumont  D'Urville's  Exploration  " 
Speight,  R.     "  Terrace-development  "    . . 

„  "  A  Soda  Amphibole  Trachyte  " 

Stephenson,  G.  B.     "  Dicksonia  and  Cyathea  "     . . 
Suter,  H.     "  A  New  Placostylus  " 

„  "  Mollusca  from  Ouvier  Island  " 

„  "  New  Species  of  New  Zealand  Mollusca  " 

Thomson,  G.  M.     "  Gastrodia  cunninghamii  " 
Thomson,  J.  A.     "  Fossils  from  Kakanui  '* 
Walsh,  Archdeacon.     "  Passing  of  the  Maori  "     . . 
Webster,  W.  H.     "  New  Zealand  Mollusca  " 
Wright,  A.  M.     "  New  Zealand  Meat  Products  ". . 

,.  "  Fixation  of  Nitrogen  by  Bacteria  " 


PAGE 

326 
538 
339 
563 
520 
122 
416 

16 
176 
1 
340 
344 
360 
579 

98 
154 
254 
322 
324 


John  Mackay,  Government  Printer,  Wellington.— 19o8. 


Tkans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  XL. 


PL.    I. 


J3X-. 


cZ.l. 

DICKSONIA   AND    CYATHEA.— Stephenson. 


Trans.   N.Z.   Inst.,  Vol.   XL 
12. 


Pl    II 

13-  /f^tM*- 


DICKSONIA   AND    CYATHEA.— Stephenson. 


Trans.   N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  XL. 


Pl.   III. 


DICKSONIA    AND    CYATHEA.— Stephenson. 


Trans.   N.Z.   Inst.,  Vol    XL. 


PL.    IV. 


fef 


DICKSONIA   AND    CYATHEA.— Stephenson. 


Trans    N.Z.   Inst.,  Vol.   XL. 


Pl.  V. 


SI. 


30 


82 


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as 


DICKSONIA    AND    CYATHEA.— Stephenson. 


Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  XL. 


Pl.  VI. 


TERRACE    DEVELOPMENT.— Speight. 


Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  XL 


Pl.  VII. 


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TERRACE    DEVELOPMENT.— Speight. 


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Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  XL. 


Pl.  VIII. 


:ONIFER    LEAVES.— Griffen. 


Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  XL. 


CONIFER    LEAVES.— Griffen. 


Trans    N.Z.   Inst.,  Vol.  XL. 
25. 


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Pl.  XII. 


SCHISTS    OF    CENTRAL    OTAGO.— Finlayson. 


Trans.  N.Z.   Inst.,  Vol    XL. 


Pl    XIII 


rorth  Cape 


GEOLOGY    OF    PART    OF    THE    NORTH    ISLAND.— Marshall. 


Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  XL. 


Pi..  XIV. 


KAKANUI    FOSSILS.— Thomson. 


XL. 


XV 


N.Z.    MACRO-LEPIDOPTERA.-Hudson. 


Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  XL. 


Pl.  XVI. 


SCHEELITES    OF    OTAGO.  — Finlayson. 


Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  XL. 


Pl.  XVII. 


V  i 


3§  ifeA> 


ALKALINE    AND    NEPHELINE    ROCKS.  — Smith. 


Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  XL. 


Pl.  XVIII. 


>* 


/ 


ALKALINE    AND    NEPHELINE    ROCKS.     Smith. 


Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  XL. 


Pi..  XIX. 


ALKALINE    AND    NEPHELINE    ROCKS. -Smith. 


Trans.   N.Z.   Inst.,  Vol    XL. 


PL.   XX. 


N.Z.    MOLLUSCA    AND    FAUNA.— Webster. 


Trans    N.Z    Inst.,  Vol.  XL 


Pl.  XXI. 


N.Z     MOLLUSCA    AND    FAUNA.— Webster. 


Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  XL. 


Pr..  XXII. 


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Trans    N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  XL 


Pl    XXIII 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    POLYCH^TA.- Kirk. 


Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  XL. 


Pl.  XXIV 


.____«__«_____«__„ , ____ 


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CUVIER    ISLAND    MOLLUSCA.— Suter. 


Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  XL 


Pi..  XXVIII 


NEW    MOLLUSCA.— Suter. 


Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  XL. 


Pl.  XXIX. 


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NEW    MOLLUSCA.— Suter. 


Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  XL. 


IV  XXX. 


NEW    MOLLUSCA.-Suter. 


Trans.  N.Z.  Inst..  Vol.  XL 


Pl.  XXXI. 


NEW    ZEALAND    MOLLUSCS.  — Iredale. 


Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.bXL 


Pl.  XXXII. 


*>. 


V' 


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NOTES    ON    THE    KEA.— Marriner. 


Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  XI 


Pi..  XXXIII. 


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NOTES    ON    THE    KEA.  —  Marriner. 


Trans.  N.Z    Inst.,  Vol.  XL. 


Pi..  XXXIV 


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TEAN8ACTI0NS 


AND 


PBOCEEDINGS 


OF    THE 


NEW  ZEALAND  INSTITUTE 

1907 


VOL.    XL 

(TWENTY-SECOND    OP    NEW    SERIES) 


EDITED  AND  PUBLISHED  UNDER  THE  AUTHORITY  OF  THE 
BOARD  OF  GOVERNORS  OF  THE  INSTITUTE 


Issued  June,  1908 


WELLINGTON,   N.Z. 
JOHN   MACKAY,   GOVERNMENT   PRINTING   OFFICE 

KEGAN,    PAUL,     TRENCH,     TRUBNER,    AND    CO.,    PATERNOSTER    HOUSE, 
CHARING   CROSS   ROAD,    LONDON. 


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