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? RE FACTE. 



Mabco Polo has been long regarded as at once 
the earliest and most distinguished of European 
travellers. He surpassed erery other in the extent 
of the unknown regions which he visited^ as well as 
in the amount of new and important information 
collected, having traversed Asia from one extrem- 
ity to the other, including the elevated central re- 
gions, and those interior provinces of China from 
which foreigners have since been rigidly excluded. 
** He has," says Ritter, '* been frequently called the 
Herodotus of the Middle Ages, and he has a just 
claim to that title. If the name of a discoverer of 
Asia were to be assigned to any person, nobody 
would better deserve it." The description of the 
Chinese court and empire, and of the adjacent coun* 
thes, under the most powerful of the Asiatic dy- 
nasties, forms a grand historical picture not exhib- 
ited in any other record. His return along the 
southern coasts t/: the»Cdntin6nt jatipi^i\jd6w^80 in 
curious and novel ed)&£rvtfti%ins. « Doubts'}* iris well 
known, were at first i^ised^i^eqpiectjngJLhe aecurac 
of his statements; bi^ the^^jaie'np'V^fully proved to 
have arisen solely from theXa^t that his discoveries 
far transcended the^kn^^Iedg^e^oi^ his Bfe. In pro- 
portion as those distant regions became known, bi« 



IV PBSFAOS. * 

reports received confirmation ; and eminent trarel- 
lers of recent date hare added strong testimonies to 
his veracity. 

Tiie value of his narrative being thus acknowl- 
edged, it may seem surprising that no edition of it, 
in a form generally accessible to the British public, 
has ever appeared. It exists only in voluminous 
collections, and in the ponderous though interesting 
work of Mr. Marsden. With a view to supply this 
defect, the present publication was undertaken. 

In the prosecution of this task, it soon appeared 
that there was room for much more than a mere re- 
print ; and access has been obtained to important 
materials unknown to Mr. Marsden» or any former 
British editor. The two versions recently edited 
by the French Society of Geography, and the early 
Italian ones by Count Baldelli Boni, are undoubted- 
ly at once more copious and genuine than any be- 
fore published. They prove that various difficul- 
ties, which embarrassed Mr. Marsden and shook the 
traveller's authority, arose only from the corrupted 
state of later copies. They contain also a consid- 
erable number of additional chapters and passages. 
By carefully collating them with early editions and 
accredited manuscripts in the British Museum, it is 
hoped tl&t»^|^uvetiLn<t.i|U)fe cOQ^ete text has now 
been prcMlueed*|Chaai airf tfaaffi^ )iitherto appeared 
m our languagte^ -..- .:.: 

To enable* tlid i::ehdelrUar follow satisfactorily the 
route of the^a^ftthofV sgAdJEtfeTscbpe of his narrative, 
notes and ^usOrtttiAaft ^(T.feOasiderable extent have 



PBEFACS; T 

been introduced. Time has effected vueh mightjr 
changes on the nahies and aspect of those regions, 
at best imperfectly known, that much research was 
requisite to ascertain the countries actually visited, 
and prove the accuracy with which they are descri- 
bed. The editor readily acknowledges his obliga- 
tion to the ample materials collected for this pur- 
pose by Marsden and Boni. He has, however, in 
many cases deemed it necessary to refer to original 
sources in order to correct or illustrate both these 
learned writers. Since the date of their publica- 
tions, too, narratives by erain^t travellers, Hum* 
boldt, Bumes, Wood, Wellsted, and others, have af- 
forded new means of elucidating the text and con- 
firming its authenticity. The series of chapters re- 
cently printed by the French Society, being un- 
known to Mr. Marsden, could not receive his anno- 
tations ; but the editor hopes that, by a collation 
with Haithon, De Guighes, Malcolm, Price, and oth- 
er historians, he has proved their agreement with 
the best Oriental authorities. 

Previous to Polo's travels, successive embassies 
had been sent to the several princes of the Mongol 
race then reigning in Central Asia. As their nar- 
ratives Ulustrate those of our traveller, a copious 
abstract of them is prefixed, in which aid has been 
derived from the versions lately edited by the French 
Society, and the learned commentary of M. D'Ave- 
zac. This introduction, taken in connexion with 
the text and notes of Marco, will be found to include 
a complete historical view of the djrnasty of Gengis 



Khan, the moot powetfol that ever nded in the 
East. 

A prelimmarjr account is given of the serend 
manuscripts and eaily editions, from the examina- 
tion of which the present text has been composed, 
comprehending an estimate of their respective meiv 
its ; a task which their great number and wide va- 
riations have rendered by no means easy. Another 
is prefixed, eidiibiting the grounds upon which tiie 
authenticity of our adventuier^s narrative is estab- 
lished ; and it is hoped that some additional proofs 
have been thereby supplied, and not a few difficul- 
liee lemoved. 

A nu^ of Central Asia has been construeted on 
a scide suited to the work, with a view to illustrate 
the nNites both of the early embassies and of Mar- 
co PoUv and great care has been taken to render 
It aa accurate as the somewhat uncertain materials 
would admits. One of China has also been inserted, 
to enable the reader to follow the traveller through 
that extensive empire. 

- aMwimW| jK]fn§f low* 



I 



CONTENTS. 



PRELIMINARY NOTICE. . 

^VTKSNTXCITT OF THB WORK— MANUSCBXPTff AWD MKTt9lf$ 

C0NST7LTS1). 

Oonbts fts to Authenticity — Causes— Their temporary PreTalence— 
How ^^radoally removed— Grounds of Confidence in the Narrative— 
No pnor Source of Information ; yet accurate Survey of the Eastern 
Regions — Recent additional Proofii— Charges against Marco— Mii-aru- 
loos Events — Exaggeration of Numbers— Extraordinary Objects— 
Omissions— ^The Great Wall— Tea— His Work not written in a de» 
sultory Manner — Fresh Confirmations afforded in this Edition — Man« 
nscripts employed— That published by the French Geographicsd So* 
ciety— Its great Value— The Narrative written in French — Rusticien 
de rise— Berne MS. — Paris Iiatin— Ramusio*s Edition — Its general 
Estimation — Followed by Mr. Marsden — Shown to be grossly corrupt- 
ed — Interpolated Passages — Their Errors and Contradictions— By 
whom probably inserted — Are of some Value — ^Edition by Pipino— 
Manoscripts in the British Museum — Grynssus — Miiller— First Eng- 
lish and French Translations — ^These include all the most important 
—Arrangement of the Work ...«••• »ng9 11 



INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. . 

I 

XMBA8SIE8 TO THB EAST PRIOB TO KABCO POLO. 

Great Plain of Scythia or Tartary— Its Inhabitants, Turks, Mongols— 
Former Conquests — Temuginor Gengis— His first exploits — Ouax^or 
Prester John — His defeat and Death — Extensive Conquests of Gen- 
gisVTartar Invasion of Eurc^ — Ravages— EmlMissy and Letter from 
the i*ope — Carpini's Journey through Poland — Reception by the Tar- 
tar Chief Corrensa — ^Journey to the V<rfga — Court of Baatu — Journey 
through Tartary — Arrival at the imperial Court — Great Splendour — 
ifameroQs Ambassadors — Treatment of the Mission— Letter from the 
Emperor to the Pope— Return to Earope — Embassy by Ascelin— 
Reaches the Army of Baiothnoy — Rash Conduct and rough Reception 
— Final Dismissal— Changes in the Mongol Dynasty — Embassy to the 
French King— He sends a Mission under Rubruquis^ Landing at Sou- 
dak — Journey through the Crimea — Visit to a Tartar Chief, Scacatai 
—Description of ComanJa and Russia— Court of Sartach— Of Baatu— 
Joomey through Tartary— Arrival at the imperial Court— Receptioii 
— Audience of the Great Khan— Various Superstition*— City of Kara- 
korom- Religious Controversy- Dismissal of the Ambassador— Hit 
Journey hmue ward— The Tartars— Their Government— Manners- 
Physical Condition— Religion— Military System— Breaking up tif the 
Dynasty <»f Gengis ,.Page39 

B 



8 CONTENTS. 

TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 

PSBLIMXRABT NOTICB PttgB 79 

INTBODVCTORT RARRATITE 07' THE JOUSNET. 

ProIflfQe— JoQxnej of Nicolo and Maffio Polo into the East — ^Their Arri> 
val at the court of Eublai the Tartar Emperor of China— Sent bode 
on a Mission to the Pope — Heturn, carrying Marco with them — Final 
Departure^ and Voyage through the Indian Ocean to Persia — ^Arriviil 
at Venice Page 84 

PART I. 

AESCBXPTIOM OF GHIKA,AMS 07 TEX C0X7BT 9F TSK-XXPSSOK 

XUBLAI. 

Kublai, Great Khan of thie Tartars, and Emperor of China— His War 
with Nayan— Favoor for »he Ouistians- Bescnption of Kambalu 
(Pe-king)— An Insurrection there— Great Festivals celebrated by the 
Emperor— their Order and Pomp— His extensive Hunting £xpedt> 
tions— Leopards, Falcons, and other animals en^ployed— Mode ofpop. 
tQing and tf^ng^the Game— Hunting Palace at Shandu in Tartuy— 
At Cianganor— Taper Money— Large Revenue— Arrangement of his 
Government and Officers— Bounty towards the People— Manners and 
Superstitious of th'e Chinese— Marco Polo^s Journey through the 
Western Provinces — Thibet, Bengal, and the neighbouring Countries 
—Return to the Vicinity of Pe-king- Journey through ^e Eastern 
Provinces— The Yellow Riyer— Manji or Sootheim China— Its Con- 

fuest b^ Kublai— Character of the deposed King^Nan-king and other 
reat Cities — The Kiang-^Its immense Trade imd Shipping- Kin-sai, 
the Capital— Its eztmordinaty Extent and Magnificence— Splendour 
of its Palace— Jottmey through Tche-kiangand Fo-l^«n— The Povc^ 
lain Mann&cture-— Arrival at Zai-ton or AiBoy . . * Page 05 

PART U. % 

OXNTBAL ASIA. 

Pasffiription of Annoaift and ToroamaBia— Geoiigia; tbs Iran Gate'— > 
The Caspiaa— Kingdom of Mosul— Bagdad ; its Siege and Caotan-. 
Tauria— Report of Mitacolous Events— Description vF Peraia— Yezd 
and Kerman— Joumey to Ormn»— Daring Robben— Description and 
Trade of Ormu»~JoqrBey to Khoraaan— Alaodin, the Old Man of the 
Mountain— His feignad Paradise— Asaas^inations- Subdued by tho 
Tartars^Jouraey to Balkh— To Badakahan- Mines of Ruby and La- 
pis Lazuli— Peahttwer— Cashmere — Source of the Oxus in Lake Sir- 
i-kol— Plain «f Pamir, called the Roof of the World- Extreme Gold— 
Kiighizea and other rude Tribes— Caahgar-Sanuticand—YarcaBd-* 
Kboteor-Pein— OrnMnental Stones— Lop— Frightful Passage of th* 
Great Desert— Kingdom of Tangut ; Manners and Supentitioos— 

Great Caravan Station at Kamul ; strange Customs— Sou-tdxeon 

Xan-tcheou or Campion— Joum^ to Ezina and Karakorum— Rise of 
th« Empire of Gengis— Manners, Custom?, and Superstitions of t|M 



CONTENTS, 9 



Turtw»-^Th0ir Gowmment — Condaet of their Wart— Route tbroafh 
Siberia to the Northern Ocean — ^Varions Placea on the Frontier of 
ChiiMr— The Yak, the Mask Animal, and beaatiAU Pheaeanta — Coun- 
try of Prester Johat— Imperial Hunting Palaces Page 181 

PART ra. 

TOTAGK THBOVOH TBI IVDIAM 8BAS, AND HMTOSICAL ACCOHlfTS Of 

WS8TSRIC A8U. 

Chhkeee Narigation to India— Deacription of Japan— Expedition sent 
thither by Kublai — the Oriental Archipelago ; its Prodnce of Gold and 
Spioea — Visit to Tsiompa — ^War between the Kinir and Kublai — ^Ac- 
eonnt of Jara — Malacca — Arrival at Sumatra — Voyage round the 
Island — ^The diflbrent Kiiwdmna — Sarages of the Interior— Prodnce 
of Palm-toddy, Camphoi, Sago— The Andaman and Nioofaar islands 
— <}eylon ; its Pearls and Rubies — Superstitious Legends of the Peo- 
ple — Coast of Maabar or Coromandel— Various Customs and Super- 
stitions— Masulipatam : its fine Cloths— the Diamond Mines — Ma- 
dras and the Legend of St. Thomas— The Bramins and their Tarious 
Orders and Obserranoes- Cail, Coilon ; Comari (Cape Comorin)— 
Eli or Dely— Malabar Coast— Dreadful Piracies— Tana and Cambaia 
— Sumnaut (Guzerat)— Mention of Mekran— Polo ffiTes Reports col- 
lected respecting Africa— Socotra; Whale-fishery— Madagascar : fab- 
vlous Rumours— Confounded with Southern Africa— Zanguebar ; why 
considered an Island — Abyasiaia ; its Description— Wars with Adel — 
Arabia, Aden, Sbaher, Dofar, Kalhat — Return to Ormus— Undertakes 
to relate the Revolutions of Western Asia— Kaidu, Prince of Samar- 
esnd — His Wars with Kublai — Exi)loits of his heroic Daughter— His 
Contest with Aigon, Prince of Persia — ^Various AdTsntures of Aivon, 
who is defeated and made Prisoner, but afterwards raised to the Per- 
sian Throne— His Death— Reigns of Quiacatu and Baidu— The latter 
Tanqniahed by Ghazan, Son to Argon— Tarter Kingdom in Siberia ; 
Dor-sledges ; fine Furs— Region of Obecurity in the North— Russia 
—Black Sea and neighbooring Countries — Succession of Tartar Prin- 
ees on the VoI|pir-6reat War between Barka and Hoolaku>-Aaother 
brt wa en Toctai and Nogai— Conclusion Page 318 



ENGRAVINGS. 

Map of Central Aain TV/ose Oe rVMOs. 

TteirxTTB— Festi^ of the Great Khan. 

M^ of China 3V/«m^j«M 



TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 



PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. 

Auihentkity of ihe Work — Manutcripts ann BdUUttu Com' 

ntlud. 

Doubts u to Authenticity — Cause* — Their tempoxair Preyalenc*— 
How gradually removerl— Grounds of Confidence in the Narrative- 
No prior Source of Information ; yet aoeurate Survey df the Eaateni 
Re^on»>-Recenl^ditional Proofii — Cha^grM against Marco— •Miracu- 
louB Events — Exaggeration of Numbers— Extraordinary Objects- 
Omissions — The Great Wall — Tea — ^His Work not written in a de- 
sultory Manner— Fresh Confirmations aflbrded in this Editions-Man- 
nscripts employed— Thatpublished by the French Geographical So- 
ciety— Its great Value— The Narrative written in French — Rnsticien 
de Pise— Berne MS. — ^Paris l4itin— Ramnsio*s Edition — Its general 
Estimation— Followed by Mr. Marsden — Shown to be grossly oorrupt- 
•d— Interpolated Passaged — Their Errors aiid Contradictions— By 
whom probably inserted— Are of some Value — Edition by Pipino— 
Manuscripts in the British Museum — Grynsus — MSUer — Fir«t Eng- 
lish and French Translations— These include oH the most important 
—Arrangement of the WoriL 

Bepoke entering on the work of our dtstingnished tra- 
Tcller, there are certain preliminaries which mast be 
adjusted, in order that the reader may derive due satis* 
faction from the perusal. These arise chiefly irom the 
period at which the expedition was performed, and the 
circumstances under which the narrative was published. 
When Marco returned from the East, Europe was sunk 
in profound ignorance, and most of the regions which he 
had traversed were whoUy unknown : hence doubts of 
the authenticity of his statements arose, and had long an 
extensive prevalence. It must therefore be desirable, in 
the first instance, to state the grounds upon which these 
have been refuted, and the fidelity of his report fully es- 
tablished. 

Another circumstance requiring attention is, that the 
editions, multiplied in an illiterate age when printing was 
Qidmown, vary remarkably from one another, and are in 



12 AUTBENTICiTT OF THB WORK. 

many cases extremely corrupted. It will therefore be 
expedient to submit to the reader the authorities upon 
which the present text has been established, the dilfer- 
ent versions consulted, together with an estimate of the 
value wludi has been assigned to each. 

In every narrative of travds, authenticity is an essen- 
tial quality, without which it must be altogether worth- 
less. However striking or amusing, it can otherwise be 
only a romance, and as such tamisbed by th^ attempt to 
present it under an historical character. He who tra- 
verses regions totally unknown to the men for whom he 
writes, has the power of imposing upon them the belief 
of wonders, without the danger of detection : and the 
pleasure of thus exciting surpnse has doubtless tempted 
some to abuse what has even been termed a traveller's 
privilege; On the other hand, he is placed in a very 
painful situation, when his countrymen or readers choose 
to disbelieve his most veracious statements. He has no 
evidence to produce in their support ; he can only leiter- 
ate assurances, exposed to the mortification of perceiv- 
ing that they are slightly regarded. There is a species 
ef pride in the supposed detection of fraud, which biases 
many in favour of scepticism. Of the two errors, we be- 
lieve this the more frequent, so that an unjust stain still 
rests on the name of many eminent explorers. 

There is no traveller, with regard to whom this con- 
troversy has been more largely agitated, than be whose 
work is now edited. The vastness and distance of the 
regions described, and the ignorance of Europe during so 
many ages respecting them, would have enabled him to 
hazard the boldest assertions ; while, if doubts should 
have arisea. there were no means by which they could be 
removed. The sceptical party appears for some time to 
have predominated, both among the learned and the mul- 
titude. For the entertainment of the latter, it is said to 
have been common to introduce on the stage a person- 
age under the name of Polo, who amused the audience 
by relating the most ridiculous and extravagant fictions. 
By the former, according to Miiiler, the narrative was 
classed with the Dialogues of Lueian and the Voyages of 
Pytheas, of which Strabo says, that if they bad been writ- 
ten by Mereuiy himself he woold not have believed 



AUTHENTICITY OF THE WORK. 13 

them. Even in regard to the navigator now mentioned, 
we are convinced that he was treated with similar injus- 
tice, aftd that his survey of the British coasts, even to 
their northern extremity, included discoveries equally 
real and important. 

We are inclined to think that this disbelief was much 
less prevalent during the life and age of Polo himself. 
Pipino, who then published his Latin edition, merely ex- 
presses an apprehension lest the many uncommon par- 
ticulars related by him should appear incredible to the in- 
experienced reader. He refers to the high character 
borne by Marco and his father, both then alive, adding 
that bis uncle, also a worthy and pious man, had on his 
deathbed solemnly declared to his confesser the truth of 
every thing related by his nephew. Indeed, as we shall 
have opportunities of more fully observing, the steps of 
the traveller were, during the early part of the fourteenth 
century, followed by a considerable number both of mer- 
chants and churchmen ; an archbishopric was even found- 
ed at Kambalu or Pe-king. The princes of the great 
conquering dynasty founded by Gengis, by no means 
cherished the exclusive spirit usual in Asiatic monar- 
chies, and above all in China. They were, on the con- 
trary, fond of inviting to their court foreigners of all de- 
scriptions ; and their religious views, li&ral almost in 
extreme, led them to favour alike the professors of every 
creed. A complete change in these several respects en- 
sued before the close of the century. The Tartars were 
driven out of China by a native race, who re-established 
the wonted barriers by which that empire has been so 
jealously guarded. The Mongol princes in Western Asia 
became converts to Mohammedanism, and concurred with 
the Turkish sovereigns in hostile exclusion of every thing 
that bore the Christian name. Europe was thus in a 
great measure denied intercourse with the East; her 
merchants, able only with some danger to carry on trade 
in the ports of the Levant and Black Sea, were excluded 
from all the interior regions of Asia. Even the narra- 
tives of the missionaries, having never been translated 
from the original Latin nor become objects of popular 
reading, were no longer in view. All the knowledge o£ 
those distant regions came to be considered as resting 



14 AUTHENTICITY OF THE WORK. 

exclusively on the testimony of Polo, an assertion made 
even by well-informed writers of that age. As his work 
contained many particulars very dissimilar to any wit- 
nessed by the European nations, whose minds had not 
been enlarged by commercial and maritime intercourse, 
it cannot be surprising that an extensive scepticism as to 
the truth of his statements should at that period have 
prevailed. 

A new scene opened as soon as the Portuguese, with 
daring enterprise, had rounded the Cape, and speedily 
made their way to the remotest boundaries of Eastern 
Asia ; for it could no longer be doubted, that kingdoms, 
great, powerful, and wealthy, existed in the very position 
which Marco had assigned. Difficulties were felt as to 
the details, particularly arising from the fact that the trav- 
eller, resident in a Tartar court, had given the names 
used in that country to all Chinese cities, while the na- 
tive ones had since been restored. Hence only a quali- 
fied praise is given even by eminent geographers : yet 
the rising esteem of the public is marked by the insertion 
of the narrative in the collections of Grynaeus, Ramusio^ 
Purchas, and others formed in the course of the sixteenth 
century. Martini, who spent many years in China, and 
first published a detailed description of that empire, de- 
clared himself openly in Marco's favour; and since that 
time, his character has continually risen with the pro- 
gress of oriental knowledge. Very recent traveUers, who 
have ascended into the least accessible heights of the 
Asiatic continent, express surprise at the striking coin- 
cidence of their observations with those made five hun- 
dred years before by this renowned explorer. 

With the information which we now possess, it is no 
longer possible to doubt the actual performance of the 
journey, and the general correctness of the narrative and 
descriptions. We may remark that there was no prior 
source whence Marco could have copied, or derived even 
the smallest assistance ; for, besides that he probably was 
not a classical scholar, the mention of the Seres and the 
Sinae in Ptolemy, Pliny, and other ancient writers, was 
much too slight and vague to have afforded a basis on 
which to erect a fiction. We are persuaded he never heard 
those names, or assuredly did not recognise their identity 



AOTHBNTICITT 07 THS WORJIC. 15 

with the conntries throQgh which he travelled. The Vene- 
tians and Genoese had factories on the eastern coasts of 
the Mediterranean, and even on the Black Sea ; but 
there is not the slightest tradition that they had advanced 
into the more interior countries of Asia. The monkish 
ambassadors, Garpinl and Rubniquis, had, we shall see, 
penetrated to a great. extent eastwards ; but as they pro- 
ceeded in a more northerly line than that which he fol- 
lowed, they could not have afforded any material help ; 
and indeed we are persuaded that, in an age of such im- 
perfect communication, they never came under his view. 
Not only does be never make the slightest allusion to 
them, but on those occasions where his subject coincides 
with theirs, he handles it indeed with the correspondence 
natural iii true accounts of the same thing, yet with vari- 
ations proving his observations to be distinct and inde- 
pendent. 

Having thus ascertained that our traveller had no prior 
source of information, we have only to consider the ex- 
treme accuracy of the outline he has drawn of those vast 
regions over which he journeyed. All the leading fea- 
tures of the Chinese empire, then altogether unknown, 
are faithfully exhibited. Its two main streams, the Ho- 
ang-ho and Tang-tse-kiang, are shown both in the upper 
and lower part of their course, and in the latter as crossed 
by the line of the Great Canal. The principal eastern, 
and the whole of the western provinces, with the adjacent 
countries of Thibet and Bengal, are exhibited in their 
proper order and position, llie large cities of Pe-king, 
Nan-kingt Hahg-tcheou-fou, Ning-po, Ainoy, with many 
others, are delineated, some of them under Tartar names, 
but clearly marked out by site and description. The very 
peculiar condition of the empire at this era, newly over- 
run by a successful Tartar invasion, its native dynasty 
being nearly extinguished, accords well with oriental his- 
tory. In regard to the journey out, without noticing Per- 
sia, which could not be whoUy unknown in Europe, we 
find the mountainous and pastoral region and the rich 
gems of Badakshan, the immensely elevated tahle-land of 
Pamier, the cities of Cashgar, Yarkund, and Khoten, the 
wide and dreary expanse of the great desert, all faithfully 
described, which could in that age have been done only 



16 AtJTllENTtCITV Of THK WORK. 

by one who had personally visited them. In his retttm 
through the eastern seas, he makes the first mention of 
Japan, and of the expedition undertaken against it by Ka- 
blai, the actual occurrence of which is confirmed by Chi- 
nese authorities. In his passage through the archipel- 
ago, indeed, some difficulties occur, which we shall find 
reason for imputing to the errors of transcribers. Yet 
the great number and variety of these islands, the period- 
ical voyages performed thither during the monsoon, their 
peculiar products of gold, rich spices, and odoriferous 
woods, are entirely accordant with modern experience. 
In Sumatra, though the order and names of the kingdoms 
be changed, we recognise its peculiar productions and ob- 
jects ; the camphor, sago, and palm-toddy, as well as the 
ferocity and cannibal propensities of the people of the inte- 
rior. India need not be dwelt upon, being probably even 
then somewhat known, though there is no likelihood that 
he could have found materials fbr his accurate delineation 
of its coasts. In Eastern Africa he obtained information 
farther to the south than any of the ancient Alexandrine 
geographers, and has for the first time mentioned Mada- 
gascar. This part of his work, however, being given up- 
on the information of Arab pilots, is in some respects con- 
fused and exaggerated. 

On these grounds it has for some time been scarcely 
disputed, that Marco did travel over the East, and has 
given a correct outline of its various regions. It has still, 
however, been alleged that in the details he has used to 
excess the privilege of a traveller, and yielded to a spirit 
of romance and exaggeration. His narrative, it is true, 
shows him not insensible ^o pride in the wonders which 
he was unfolding to the nations of the west ; nor can it 
be denied that he has introduced some statements Irom 
which our belief must be withheld. A candid examina- 
tion, however, will, we imagine, prove that he made them 
with perfectly good faith, and only shared that spirit of 
credulity which was then general over the world, and 
particularly throughout the East. 

The reader cannot fail to be struck by the miraculoas 
legends which are related with the most unhesitating be- 
lief These were, however, completely accredited in that 
age, and Marco, as a faithfiil son of the church, which ha 



AUTHENTICITY OP THE WORK. 17 

felly professed to be, could not refuse his assent to them. 
Mr. Marsden remarks, that this was nearly the period of 
the miraculous transportation of the holy house from Je- 
msalem to Lofetto, where it became the most frequented 
of the popular shrines. The fancy of the eastern Chris- 
tians appears to have been at least as warm and as un- 
scrupulous. Yet, however implicit the credence of our 
traveller in these legends, he proves his good faith by 
never pretending to have been ah eye-witness, or even to 
have come near to the time and place of their occurrence. 
In this respect he agrees with Oderie of Portenau, while 
our countryman Sir John Mandeville professes to have 
witnessed with his own eyes every marvellous object 
which he reports. The moving of the mountain near 
Bagdad by the prayer of a pious shoemaker, is referred to 
a date nearly fifty years previous to his wanderings ; nor 
does it clearly appear that he ever visited that capital. 
The journey of the three magi, and the perpetual fire kin- 
dled by the sacred box thrown into a well, belong evidently 
to a still more distant era. He niay be thought indeed to 
intimate that he saw not only their tombs but their per- 
sons in a state of partial preservation *, yet this merely 
implies that three figures, probably chiefs of ancient note, 
were exhibited in this half-embahned state. Again, the 
miraculous elevation of the pillar in the church of Sam- 
arcand is a mere hearsay statement ; for we think it evi- 
dent that he never was in that city, but collected his in- 
formation at Cashgar, three hundred miles distant. It 
was, moreover, a perplexing article in the creed of the 
middle ages, that besides the miracles of which the church 
required the belief, others of a most awful kind might be 
performed by the agency of magicians, evil spirits, and 
demons. Nay, this apprehension continued to prevail 
among the Romish missionaries even in the seventeenth 
centnry ; and when encountered by the fraudulent won- 
ders of a pagan priesthood, they durst not disown their 
existence, but merely hoped to overpower them by a great- 
er agency. Hence the skilful impostures, practised by 
the professors of the Boodhist superstition, were viewed 
by Marco as real acts of diabolical power. The most cu- 
rious is ihat of the cups represented as rising spontane- 
ously from the floor, and placing themselves before the 



18 AUTHBNTICITY OF TH£ WORE. 

emperor. This being stated as occarring at crowded les- 

tivals, seems to imply that the traveller either witnessed 
the event personally, or learned it from respectable au- 
thority. Mechanical skill, in fact, was adequate t^ such 
a contrivance, and was probably tasked in order to over- 
awe the monarch, and secure his favour. Fortunately, 
on other occasions, the author, attaching an idea of guilt 
to the very mention of such unhallowed displays, passes 
them over with a very hasty notice. ^ 

The statement, perhaps, which excited most amaze- 
ment and doubt at the era of publication, was that which 
respected the numbers of the people and dimensions of 
their cities. The extent, magnificence, and population 
of Quin-sai, the armies and revenues of the great khan, 
were supposed to pass all the limits of credibility. China 
having already reached nearly the same height of great- 
ness and civilization as now, while Europe was still io 
its infancy, every object in comparison was on an aston- 
ishingly grander scale. The greatest monarch in the 
West, it is probable, had then scarcely a revenue of a 
million sterling. The estimate of Du Halde, formed seem- 
ingly on solid grounds, makes that of China £66,000,000. 
The simplest statement of facts would thus have appear- 
ed to European readers amazing and incredible. Nor is 
it denied that there was also some considerable exagge- 
ration. Numbers, when spread before the eye, and pass- 
ing the means of computation, act strongly on the fancy, 
and excite an impassioned wonder, which leads to ex- 
tremes. It would not be difficult to prove that in all the 
histories of the middle ages, especially of the East, the 
armies and other assemblages are greatly overrated. 
Those engaged at the battle of Bovines are commonly 
stated at 150,000, yet Sismondi, by the application of a 
rigorous criticism, has reduced them to 15,000 ; and we 
are persuaded he might have applied a similar scale to 
other statements equally accredited. Who can believe 
that in the first crusade 700,000 men could even attempt, 
without stores or magazines, to march through Eastern 
Europe, — a region then imperfectly cultivated 1 The es- 
timates of Sir Alexander Burnes respecting Bokhara and 
the adjacent regions, show that Timur could never have 
drawn from them those immense hosts with which he ia 



AUTHBMTlCiTY OP THB WORK. 19 

represented as invading the Turkish dominion. We might 
probably criticise on a similar ground the boasted arma- 
ments of Darius and Xerxes. It is only in very modem 
times ^hat the arrangements for census and muster have 
been carried to such perfection, that we can place any 
precise dependence on their results. Now, Marco did not 
and could not pretend to have himself counted over those 
imihense numbers. He stated them as derived from of- 
ficial documents, where there were motives of interest 
and vanity to swell the amount. The principal, 4n the 
case of Quin-sai, is a letter from the fallen queen to the 
conqueror, written to induce him to spare that migHty 
capital. The traveller indeed expresses his own opinion 
of its correctness, but evidently founded on a vague sur- 
vey, while dazzled by its vast magnitude. We shaU, 
moreover, find occasion to observe, that, in the various 
copies of the manuscript, numbers have been strangely 
corrupted ; the amount has even, by the addition of a sin- 
gle figure, been multiplied ten times. Thus, a particular 
distance in Arabia is made in difl^erent editions, four, for- 
ty, and even four hundred miles. 

There are other marvels from which our traveller has 
incurred reproach. His reputation has been particularly 
damaged by the rukh of Madagascar, a bird to which gi- 
gantic proportions are certainly assigned. Here, howev- 
er, he was describing an object 2000 miles out of his 
course, and on the information of Arab pilots, whom he 
must have taken on board at Sumatra. Their warm east- 
em fancy had been excited by the mention of such a 
marvellous bird in their favourite work of the Arabian 
Nights, with which the albatross, or the African condor, 
might be identified. There is a great variation respect- 
ing the number of paces into which the wings expand, 
and the most marvellous particular of the feather ninety 
•pans long, is found only in the later versions, where we 
have no doubt it has been interpolated by another hand. 
lie is reproached also with the account he gives of the 
mode of procuring diamonds, by eagles picking them up 
when attached to pieces of meat. This too will appear 
to be a hearsay account, referable to the same sage au- 
thorities, whose imagination was fed from the like roman- 
tie somnee. Indeed, Count Baldelli Boni has lately found 



M AUTHENTIi^iTY OF Tll£ WORK.' 

the fftvtoment in a scientific Turkish work, thus folly 
proving its prevalence in the East, and clearing Marco of 
any concern in its fabrication. 

He stauads charged, moreover, with sins of oinission, 
as not mentioning remarkable objects which ought to 
have presented themselves to his observation. Mr. Mara- 
den considers the most serious of these to be his silence 
respecting' the Great Wall, and inclines to tbink that a 
passage &scriptive of it must have dropt out in the pro- 
cess of copying. We cannot think this pspbable, espe- 
cially after the early and numerous editions that have 
tetely appeared. We expect to prove that the emperor's 
spring-huntings did not, as the English annotator sup- 
poses, extend into Tartary ; but his summer palace of 
Shang-ttt certainly lay beyond the wail ; and Marco prob- 
ably at some time accompanied him thither. This great 
barrier bad doubtless been erected centuries before, but 
by no means in the same substantial shape as at present. 
For several ages after the entrance of the Tartars, being 
of n<> political value, it was probably allowed to go to de- 
cay, and perhaps even demolished where a thoroughfare 
was desirable. It was by the Yuen dynasty, after the 
expulsion of those conquerors, that it was restored, and 
l^rought to its present perfection. 

Mr. Marsden notices the absence of any mention of tea, 
the use of which had been fully established. We shall 
find, however, that the traveller had little social inter- 
course with the Chinese, but almost exclusively with the 
Tartars, whose habits and ideas were wholly different. 
I am convinced, too, that the '* wine of spices,*' repeat- 
edly mentioned, at least included tea. The term spioe 
will be found to have had a much more comprehensive 
meaning than at present, extending even to sugar ; and 
we are not aware that the Chinese spirits are flavour- 
ed with any aromatic ingredient. The *' country wine^ 
constantly made fresh," is manifestly tea. 

EveiTthose, however, who admit the prevailing honesty 
and correctness of the author's observations, still charge 
his itinerary statements as rambling, incoherent, and oftea 
erroneous. >|Iartini, though he generally defends the 
narrative, says ; — **He follows no regular order, but de- 
scribes objects in an interrupted manner, and as it were 



AUTHENTICITY OF TH£ WOR|L. 21 

^y leaps." Forster makes a similar charge, in whieb 
Mr. Marsden concurs.* T^e present editor, after a care- 
fiil examination of the purer editions, and companison 
with what is known of the countries surveyed, is con- 
Tinced* that these errors are chiefly those of the com- 
mentators themselves, misled in many cases by the im- 
perfect and corrupt versions to which alone they had 
access. Mr. Marsden, from this latter cause, thinking 
himself obliged to admit some important mistakes, gave 
up, unfortunately, all expectation of finding an accurate 
and consistent itinerary. Hence, wherever there appear- 
ed any correspondence of name or description, he thought 
himself entitled to suppose any errors, however enor- 
mous, as to distance and direction. Even when a little 
attention would have shown a site altogether accordant 
with the description, he preferred one very remote and 
improbable. When, however, on a careful examination 
of the former edition, we found that the grosser errors 
disappeared, the idea was conceived, that a correct and 
consistent itinerary of the whole expedition might be 
formed. Allowing for some errors of transcription, which 
probably still remain, for a somewhat loose mode of stating 
the directions, and for our own ignorance of many of tl^ 
regions described, this seems to have been realized by 
us, as far as could reasonably be expected. The route 
through China, and through Central Asia, has, it is ap- 
prehended, been very distinctly made out, commencing 
at Balkh. Before reaching that city, it is scajcely pre- 
sented in a regular shape, though the general direction 
may be traced. In the voyage homeward, much is stated 
from hearsay, and the errors of transcription appear par- 
ticularly numerous ; but attempts have been made to clear 
up the difficulties. The voyage round Sumatra will per- 
haps, by an easy suppositfon, appear to have been laade 
in a natural and probable course, instead of those irregular 
starts and movements which Mr. Marsden supposes ; and 
his consequent censure upon Marco for the ooioide of treat- 
ing that island will prove unfounded. 

A collation with the purer editions has also shown, 
that several marvellous statements, which have most 

* MdUer, p. 10. Marsdesn, p. 336. 



S2 ADTHEWTlCiry OF THE WORK. 

shaken the traveller's credit, were superadded by &ithleas 
editors, seeking thus falsely to enhance the interest of 
their publication. The ninety-spati feather of the rukh, 
as already observed, is only found in very modem edi- 
tions. To the terrific appearances described in the pas- 
sage of the great desert, similar extravagant additions 
have been made, which, when pilined away, leave only 
such impressions as migtit naturally haunt the minds of 
those obliged to traverse so formidable a region. The 
editor may add, as mentioned in the preface, that recent 
narratives, especially of expeditions made by our adven- 
turous countrymen into Central Asia, have confirmed 
some of Marco's most important statetnents. He may 
thus flatter himself, that the authenticity of this illastrious 
traveller will now be established more firmly than ever, 
and on a solid basis. 

We now proceed to make some observations on the 
manuscripts and editions out of which the text has been 
derived. In all works composed before the invention of 
printing, and circulated in manuscript, not even except- 
ing the sacred scriptures, a great number of various read- 
ings occur. These, however, usually form mere objects 
of critical curiosity, without affecting the body or sub- 
stance of the composition. They consist frequently in the 
omission or insertion of a particle, or the substitution of 
one synonyme for another. But in the work now edited, 
the variations are so great as to convert the several edi- 
tions almost into distinct tracts. Long passages and 
chapters, omitted in one, are inserted in another, and the 
most important facts are reported in contradictory shapes. 
An elaborate critical examination is therefore necessary, 
before we can hope to give the text in any degree of 
purity. 

These wide variations appear to have ariseu from the 
very great popularity of the work in an age when not 
only printing was unknown, but the art of writing very 
little difiUsed. In multiplying copies, the general tend- 
ency was to curtailment, which was prompted evea by 
the great care and splendour with which many of the 
manuscripts were prepared. Their production was ac- 
oordiagly both laborious and expenaiv^, and it was even 



■^AWtTSCRIPTS AWD EDITIONS CONSULTBTJ. 2S 

80 object to economize. the rich material of vellum, on 
which many -were written. This appears clearly in an 
elegant MS. in the British Museum, where at the conclu- 
sion of Polo*8 travels, a new work is begun on the same 
page and even the same column. The reduction is 
usually effected by merely omitting such passages as, 
often with very little reason, were deemed of inferior in- 
terest. Thus, indeed, what remained was preserved 
pure ; but it was exhibited in a very disjointed form ; and 
injudicious attempts were afterwards made by others 
to supply the obvious deficiencies. These unseemly 
gaps usually increase towards the close ; either because 
the writer became tired of his task, or that the allotted 
space was nearly exhausted. Th6 most celebrated of 
the early editions, being the translation into Latin by 
Pipino, is Ifttle better than an epitome. It is curious, 
too, that all the copies printed in the Italian language 
which Mr. Marsden could trace were mere popular abridg- 
ments.* 

In 1659 appeared the second volume of Ramusio's col- 
lection, in which is inserted an edition much more full 
than any then in circulation. It immediately became the 
standard one, being used by Purchas for his Pilgrims, and 
thence copied into most of the similar publications. Mr. 
Marsden has employed it almost exclusively, quoting in 
its favour the opinions of Robertson and Vincent. t It 
was probably the best within his reach ; but important 
materials have since been published, which prove, in our 
apprehension, that it and all the others were both defect- 
ive and corrupted. 

In 1824, the Geographical Society of Paris published 
editions of two manuscripts preserved in the Royal Li- 
brary. The first is in very old and rude French, — nearly 
unintelligible but for the aid of an excellent glossary, — 
and the roles of grammar and ortllbgraphy far from being 
duly bbserved. It has been copied so carelessly, that 
proper names are seldom spelt twice in the same man- 

* Apostolo Zeno cpeakt ia hiffh terms of the cme tint punished in 
1490, (Fo&tanini, Biblioteca d' EloqnenzA Italtana, Ven.^ 1753, p. 270* 
S7S| ; bat Mr. Sbrtden, n^o aMa» lo hiKre ezkmined ittore earefally, 
deelnrM it munif "cmlcuktsd to ■orpKiM mA wmvm n ignonuit reai* 
er." (Introductioa, p. Iziiirlsv.) 

t IntTOdVCtMMI, p. ZMX. 

C 



24 MANUSCRIPTS AND EDITIONS CONSULTS]). * 

ner, but sometipes in three different modes in the course 
of one chapter. The editor will own that he began his 
examination rather from curiosity than with any hope of 
deriving much new light from it. He had not long con- 
tinued the collation, however, when he became sensible 
of its decided superiority to the previous editions, Ramu- 
sio's included. This appeared evident, when itinerary 
statements, which in the latter were wholly inconsist- 
ent with the features of the region, and had thrown Mr. 
Marsden into extreme perplexity, were here given in a 
shape which rendered them perfectly correct and consis- 
tent. In particular, the connexion between the western 
and sou|;h-eastern routes through China, which that gen- 
tleman considered it utterly impossible to trace, is shown 
in the clearest possible manner. Other serious perplexi- 
ties are elucidated in a manner equally satisfactory ; and 
the editor hopes by these means to have established 
the whole itinerary through China as uniformly correct. 
Even the blemishes of this edition appeared on consider- 
ation as affording inferences in favour of its genuineness. 
The colloquial style used to a great extent, the verbose 
language, the repetition of the same sentences in nearly 
the same words ; — such redundances were little likely to 
have been superadded, especially at a time when abridg- 
ment was so much studied. They bore rather the marks 
of being the first rough state in which the narrative had 
been produced. 

On procuring from the Continent additional materials, 
the editor had the satisfaction to find that the same fa- 
vourable opinion had there been generally formed. Nay, 
it has become the prevailing impression, that French is 
the language in which the narrative was originally writ- 
ten. He will own that this idea, when first presented, 
was repelled by him as devoid of all probability. M. Par- 
its, however, the lear^d editor of the French Chroni- 
cles, observes, that what appears most probable is not 
always best supported by evidence. It is indeed remark- 
able, that this conclusion was first maintained by a learn- 
ed Italian. Count Baldelli Boni, in editing the Crusca, 
the earliest and best of the Italian MSS., and collating it 
with tl^e Pucci, sjipposed to rank next in antiquity, found 
in both the clearest marks of their being translated from 



MANUSCRIPTS AND EDITIONS CON SULTEO. 25 

a French original. This transpired in consequence of 
blanders evidently caused by a very imperfect knowledge 
of that langaage. Thus cheveaux (hairs) is translated 
horseSf tres (very) three, houe (mud) oxen. Mention being 
made of one who v/asjadis roi (formerly king), the trans- 
lator makes it King^ Jaddis, a prince whose name is no- 
where else recorded. Sel, le roi, and other French terms, 
are given unaltered. In eicplaining Oriental terms, it Is 
repeatedly said: "Vale dir in Francese.'** All this 
would scarcely have satisfied us, but for a very curious 
discovery made by M. Parris. He has found that Rusti- 
cians, the prison-companion of Polo, and who at least 
aided in writing his narrative, was a native of France, 
and author of a French book of considerable magnitude. 
It is an abridgment of all the histories connected with 
the Round Table, and has prefixed to it a preface or pro- 
logue, which, allowing for the difference of subject, is 
almost identical with that which precedes the narrative 
of Polo.f M. Parris mentions it only as existing in MS. ; 
but there is a printed edition, which, as well as another 
work equally voluminous by the same author, the editor 
has had an opportunity of inspecting, t This Rusticians, 
indeed, called there Rusticien, appears to have been a 
person of no small eminence in bis day, and particular- 
ly distinguished by the patronage of English monarchs. 
From Mr. Disraeli's researches we learn, that Henry III. 
presented him with two handsome chateaux ;^ and his 
second work is stated in the preface to have been com- 

* n Millione, Introdaction, czxzi, Recueil de Yoyai^es, &c., par la 
Sodbib de G^ographie, toI. iv. p. 408. 

t Joamal Asiatiqne, September 1833, pp. 250, 251. 

t Gyron de Courtois, aveoques la devise dee armee de tous les Che- 
valfbrs de la Table Ronde. Gothic letter, folio, 339 pages, (openings, 
4 columns each), no date nor publisher's name. 

The following is the prologue : — 

Seigneurs, Empereurs, Roys, Princes, Dues, Contes, Barons, Cheval- 
iers, Vicontes, Bourgeois, et tous les g^nd liommes de cestui monde, 
qui talent avez et desir de vous delecter en romans, prenez cestuy-ci et 
le factes lire de chief en chief, so aurez parties de toutes les grands 
advantures du temps du Roy Merpendragon, &c. 

Meliadus de Leonnoys. Ensemble plusieurs, autre nobles proesses de 
chevalerie factes par le Roy Artus, Palamedes, Galan, Stc, folio, 199 
pages, 4 coluinHs each. Gassiot du Pre. Paris, 1521. 

ii Amenities of Literature, vol. i. p. 103. The leRrned author, how- 
pF*'r, is quit* a* a loss who Rnsticien was. :J 



26 M4MC8CRIPT8 AND iSDlTlONS CONSULTED. 

posed at the urgent request of Edward I. From these 
circumstances, it appears no longer doubtful that this 
celebrated narrative was originally' written in French. 

This manuscript was mentioned by M. Langles to Mr.. 
Marsden, as bearing date about 1300, with an offer of 
every facility for consulting it ; of which the latter, with 
reason, regrets that he was not able to avail himself.* 
M. Parris describes it as evidently belonging to the first 
years of the fourteenth century ; while the character of 
the writing, the style of the coloured initials, the rude- 
ness of the parchment, indicate to a practised eye that it 
must have been copied In Italy, f There is a curious no- 
tice on a MS. in the public library at Berne, stating the 
Lord de Cepoy to have received it, in 1307, from Marco 
Polo himself, to be presented to Charles of Valois, second 
son of the King of France, who, in right of his wife, 
claimed the throne of Constantinople, and therefore took 
a deep interest in Orieutal affairs. The expressions 
would seem to attach this incident to the Berne MS., 
which Mr. Marsden justly rejects ; but there may be truth 
in the story, though thus wrongly applied. The language 
jised, " see here the book," seems to refer, as to a known 
fact, that there was a book thus transmitted. In that 
case, there can belittle doubt of its being the one in 
question. M. D^Avezac mentions in corroboration, that 
there is another MS. in the Royal Library (10,270), in 
which the same narrative is contained, and that the pres- 
ent one came from the old library of the kings of France 
at Blois.t 

The society have also published, in the same voloroe, 
a Latin MS., found in the Royal collection. From the 
description, we were led to suppose it the one mentioned 
by Apostolo Zeno, as being in the possession of the wri- 
ters styled the Order of Preachers; and this opinion is 
confirmed by Count Boni.^ We agree with him that the 
publieation of this also has been a valuable boon to liter- 
ature. It is much more copious than Pipino, or than any 

* Introduietion, p. Ixiz. 

t Journal (m above), p. 949. 

t S^unden, Introd. p. Ixvii. Recaeil de Voyaffe^, ^c, vol. iv. pp. 400, 
410. Boni, n Millione, Introd. p. czzx. 

« Fontanmt, Biblipteca ItaUana, p. 27S. Mari4«m Intxod. p. Ivi. Boni* 
ItttMd. p. canmii. 



MANUSCRIPTS AND KDITlOiNS CO^OULTCH. 27 

Other known Latin 'version ; and it displays a considera- 
ble agreement with the French, though evidently not so 
ancient. It has several of the additional chapters found 
in this last ; also the prologue, which decidedly marks an 
early copy ; and it explains With equal clearness the con- 
nexion between the two Chinese journeys. At the same 
time, it is better arranged in books and chapters, while it 
is pruned of repetitions and redundances. This being the 
case, and as our present object is to produce, not a mere 
antiquarian curiosity, but a book fitted for general peru- 
sal, we have taken it as the basis of our text, carefully 
incorporating, however, all the additional information con- 
tained in the French version ; and where a difference ex- 
ists, usually preferring its authority. A good deal even 
of its colloquial tone has been retained, as giving to the 
narrative an original and even lively character. 

It remains to estimate the edition of Ramusio, publish- 
ed as already stated, in 1559, as part of his Collection of 
Voyages and Travels^ and which has been almost exclu- 
sively followed by Mr. Marsden. The most remarkable 
circumstance in this version is, that, while it wants a 
number of chapters found in the French and other early 
ones recently edited, it contains many long passages and 
even chapters not found in them or any other edition, 
either MS. or printed. This did not appear very wonder- 
ful to Mr. Marsden, who had seen only abridged and mu- 
tilated versions ; but now that we are supplied with oth- 
ers as copious as they are early and pure, it appears veiy 
mysterious how he obtained possession of so much addi- 
tional matter. Yet Count Boni, after editing the two 
oldest Italian versions, considers his as still the best, and 
has reprinted it in the same work. He is obliged indeed 
to admit, that these passages could not exist in the origi- 
nal MS. written by Rusticians ; but he has formed a the- 
ory, that Polo, after returning to Venice, revised and 
new-modelled the whole, making the additions in ques- 
tion ; and that a copy, in this more perfect state, reached 
the Venetian editor.* M. Klaproth expresses bis con- 
<surrence in this opinion,! which, it appears^ from a com- 
munication with which M. Jomard has favoured us, he al- 

* n Millione, Introd. p. Tiii-zvi. 
/t Jonraal Aaiatique, September 1833, p. 399-SM. 




28 MANUSCRIPTS AND EDITIONS CONSULTED. 

ways retained. It is not without great diffidence that the 
editor dissents fcom soch high authorities ; yet a very 
careful coUation has led him to the conclusion, that cer- 
tainly a great part, and probably the whole, of this addi- 
tionai matter is interpolated by a foreign hand. The 
grounds of this judgment shall be fully stated, to enaUe 
the reader to judge for himself. 

1. We r^fer to the gross itinerary errors already men- 
tioned, and in regard to which this edition is even some- 
what more faulty than any other. A similarly unfavour- 
able change has taken place in regard to important mat- 
ters of fact. But can we suppose that Marco would de- 
liberately vitiate his own narrative ; and that he substi- 
tuted erroneous statements instead of the correct ones 
which he had originally written or communicated to Rus- 
ticians 1 Is it not certain rather that these errors were 
introduced by the ignorance of subsequent copyists or 
editors 1 

2. In the passages peculiar to Ramusio, opinions and 
sentiments are expressed diametrically opposite to those 
which pervade all the rest of the narrative. Nothing is 
there more conspicuous than the profound and admiring 
veneration with which the Emperor Kublai is every where 
mentioned. On the contrary, in the chapter on the con- 
spiracy of Achmac,^found only in that writer, a very hos- 
tile disposition prevails. It is there stated that ** his reign 
was universally detested by the people of Cataya," p. 122. 
Yet in a few chapters after, it is said (in every edition), 
that '* he is adored by them as a god.'' Can we suppose 
that Marco, in revising his work, would give his sanction 
to opinions thus contradictory, allowing the former and 
opposite ones to remain 1 In the two characters of the 
King of Manji, the contrast between the genered one and 
that found only in Ramusio is almost equally striking. 

S. We may remark the singular ignorance of this edi- 
tor respecting the manner in which the narrative was 
produced. His supposition, that it was originally written 
in Latin, need not be refuted, since it is given up by his 
warmest supporters. He boasts of having seen many 
early MSS., but dwells chiefly upon one in that language 
**of marvellous antiquity," which he flattered himself 
had been copied irom another in the hand-vmting of 



Manuscripts and editions consulted. 29 

Marco.* When he attached to this MS. such a high and 
illnsory value, it could not appear of much importance to 
examine others supposed later, and mere translations. 
There are, in fact, few traces of such research or colla- 
tion. He gives a professed copy of the original prologue ; 
but it differs essentially from that found in all the earlier 
editions. No mention is made of the agency of Rusti- 
cians, which yet is stated in the two Paris,+ the Soranzo, 
the Berne, three French and one Italian, in the Biblioth- 
eque Royale, and the first English printed edition by 
Frampton. There is now no doubt that such agency was 
employed ; but Ramosio remained wholly ignorant of it, 
and has circulated throughout Europe the story of Marco , 
being aided by a Genoese visiter, for which there appears ' 
no sort of foundation. 

4. We shall finally notice various sentences and ex- 
pressions scattered through the work, which appear clear- 
ly to come from another pen. The following, though not 
of great consequence, proves unequivocally the exist- 
ence of a system of adulteration. Mention is made of a 
vegetable (the turmeric), as highly valued by the inhabi- 
tants, "from being an ingredient in all their dishes." 
Mr. Marsden is obliged to own, that it seldom if ever is 
so employed in China, but solely and largely as a dye- 
stuff. Now the two Paris editions expressly state its 
chief use is for manufacture (por owe, in the one, ad oper- 
andunif in the other). This reason is omitted in the 
abridged Latin editions ; and a writer working upon one 
of them, has evidently thought he could improve it by in- 
serting that erroneous explanation. Again, when Kublai 
is represented receiving favourable predictions from his 
astrologers, all the early editions treat them as real ; but 
in Ramusio,'an intimation is made that it was a mere 
stratagem to encourage his men. Such a flight appears 
to us decidedly beyond the age of Polo, who shows else- 
where that he shared all its credulity. Generally speak- 
ing, indeed, the reflections which pervade this edition are 
out of keeping with the rest, and wholly absent in the 

* Navagationi e Viag^, vol. ii. (1565), pref. p. 7. It is somewliat cu- 
fioos, that in the edition of 1583, published by Giunti, after Ramasio** 
death, this paaaaffe is expunged. Hence it probably never came nndex 
tiM view ofMr. Manden, ^ho used the latter edition. 

t The Cmsca and the Pucci both want several of the first chapters. 



30 MANUSCaXFTS AMD EDITIONS COHSULTfiD* 

earlier yersions. I am indeed oonyinced, that literaiy 
attainments, very rare in that age among the laity, were 
possessed in only a slender degree by this great travel- 
ler. It seems difficult otherwise to account for his adopt- 
ing such a strange and defective mode of making public 
his narrative, as that which Rusticians afforded. Kamu- 
sio, it is true, in his erroneous prologue, and in other pas- 
sages, alludes to notes taken daring his journey ; but no 
mention of them is found in any other edition, and I great- 
ly doubt if they ever existed. 

There is, however, an argument used by Mr. Marsden, 
which deserves great consideration. The facts stated 
in the most doubtful of these passages are confirmed by 
good Chinese and other oriental authorities ; and it is 
asked, whence, in that age, could they have been derived 
but from Polo himself 1 Count Boni states that, after a 
good deal of hesitation, this argument had determined 
him to consider them as genuine. M. Klaproth was 
doubtless swayed by the same motive. These learned 
writers, however, have altogether overlooked the cireuin- 
stance, that during the fourteenth century a very active 
communication was carried on between Europe and 
China. The emperors of the Mongol dynasty did not en- 
force the exclusive system now practised ; on the contra- 
ry, we shall see them filling their courts with men of eveiy 
nation and every creed. About the time when the Poli de- 
parted, Juan de Monte Corvino, a Minorite friar, reached 
Kambalu, where he was allowed to build two charchesi 
and could boast of some converts. In 1314, he was cre- 
ated archbishop of that city, and other priests were sent 
out to act as bishops and suffragans. In 1930, he died, 
and a new primate was named.* The same year, the 
khan sent Andrew, a monk, with fifteen companions, on 
an embassy to the Pope.f It is not exactly known when 
or how this establishment was broken up ; it may prob- 
ably have been effected upon the expulsion of the Tar> 
tars by a native Chinese dynasty. In 1335, Pegoletti, an 
Italian, published an itinerary from Tana, on the Black 
Sea, to Pe-king. It is a mere list of places, with the dis- 
tances and expenses, such as he would scarcely have 

* Mftritime and Inland diacoranr, vol. i. p. 311-411. 
t Klaproth, in Jonrn- Asiat. ml. vii. p. 8S. 



MAMU0CR1PT8 AND KI>iTI0N8 CONSULTED. 31 

thought of msiking known, had it not been a route in sodm 
degree frequented. There would thus be ample mate- 
rials for interpolating genuine information even into early 
editions. Many of these passages bear marks of being 
written by a churchman, and this would accord with the 
facts above stated. If one might hazard a conjecture, he 
was perhaps some priest returning from Pe-king (suppose 
at the breaking up of the establishment) who being era- 
ployed to make a translation or copy, might be allowed to 
enrich it with his own observations, and even those of 
his friends. 

Under these circumstances, it became a serious ques- 
tion, whether, in the text of this volume, the passages 
found only in Ramosio sj^oidd be retained or expunged. 
The latter course appeared too strong for the editor to 
take upon his own judgment, yet unconfirmed by that of 
the public. The reader might be unwilling to have with- 
held from him descriptions which have so long formed 
part of the standard edition of these trayels ; and besides, 
as there is reason to believe that they are in a great mea- 
sure derived from authentic sources, they may still be 
held deserving of perusal. It has, however, appeared 
advisable to point them out in the notes ; and when the 
statements contained in them contradict those in the 
early editions, or are palpably erroneous, they are with- 
drawn from the text. 

Besides the three authorities now mentioned, the text 
has been earefuUy collated with the following important 
maauscripts and printed editions. 

That fbimerly belonging to the Aecademici della Crtw- 
ea ; which is now, it appears, in the Magliabecchi Libra- 
ry. That body always boasted of it as the most ancient 
and most eoBiplete,— pretensions which Zeno and Mars- 
den are inclined to dispute,* though not on any precise 
ffrounds, and without having seen it. Count Baldelli 
Bonir however, who has favoured the learned world with 
a printed edition of it, gives reasons for considering the 
claim to be well founded, so far at least as Italian MSS. 
are concerned, t There is a note prefixed by a writer, 

* MaxBden, Introduction, pp. Ixi, Izii. 

t Thi^ inportant work is in four volumes 4lo. Florsnoe, 1827. Th« 
two first, entitled ** U Millione de Marco Polo," c^tain the Cmsca MS. 



32 MANUSCRIPTS AND EDITIONS CONSULTED. 

Stating it to have been copied by Michael Ormafini, his 
maternal great-grandfather, who died in 1309, only about 
twelve years after the narrative was written. This can- 
not perhaps be implicitly relied on ; but the count consid- 
ers the appearance and style of the MS. as quite confiim- 
ing the statement, and leaving at all events no doubt of 
its being the earliest Italian manuscript now known. Its 
peculiar importance is derived from the confirmation it 
affords of the genuineness of the French edition, from 
which the count seems justly to describe it as a transla- 
tion '* abridged and purged of useless words and repeti- 
tions." This origin, proved clearly by mistakes arising 
from imperfect skill in that language, led him, even with- 
out the additional information of M. Parris, to the re- 
markable conclusion, that the narrative was originally 
written in French.* 

The Pucci MS. is considered by the count as next in 
antiquity, and as written in the course of the fourteenth 
century. M. Zurla informed him that the Soranzo, so 
highly estimated by Mr. Marsden, was later, and only an 
abridgment. The first veiy closely follows Ihe Crusca, 
yet the writer must have had a French copy before him,t 
the use of which is proved by fresh errors in the mean- 
ing of its terms. We have thus additional proof of the 
French being then regarded as the original. Count Boni 
has given a valuable collation of this MS. with the Crusca. 

A Latin translation was made by Pipino, a monk of the 
Order of Preachers, who undertook the task at the desire 
of his superior. After some years* labour it was com- 
pleted in 1320, while the traveller was still alive ; and it 
may therefore be considered the earliest of which the 
date is fully ascertained. But, though professing to be a 
translation, it is greatly abridged ; and in the hands of the 
friar errors were committed which have run through 
other editions. What is left may be held as tolerably 
pure; and the editor has had the opportunity of consult^ 
ing it in two shapes. 

eollated with several other early Italian ones ; also a reprint of Ramu- 
■io's edition. The coant haa added a nomber of valuable notes and 
illustrations. The last two volumes, entiUed " Storia delle Rehudoni 
Vicendevole," &c., contain abrigded narratives of otlier early traveHexa 
in Asia. * D MiUione, Introduction, p. vi-czxiii ; tomo i. p. 131. 
t Ibid. Introduction^ p. vii-cxxv. 



•MANUSCRIPTS AND EDITIONS CONSULTED. 33 

6116. Harieian MS., British Museum. — ^This codex, to 
which Sir Henry Ellis assigns the date of about 1400, is 
written with care and elegance. It wants some passages 
that are in the printed edition, bufwhat remains is on 
the whole more to be depended upon. 
^ Marci Pauli de Consuetadinibus et Condicionibus Ori- 
entalium Regionum, 4to. — This is the printed edition 
without place or date, which last is supposed to be about 
1484. It is very rare, and is more complete than the 
MS. just mentioned ; but, compared with it, there are 
several errors, especially in the numbers. 

261. Sloane MS., British Museum. — This is aii Italian 
manuscript, dated 1463. M. Zurla wrote to Count Boni, 
that he considered it on a level with the Soranzo, but I 
incline to believe it somewhat later. The prologue is 
different, and wants the mention of Rusticians. It is 
modestly called an epitome, but it is really more copious 
than any other, except Ramusio and those recently edit- 
ed. It contains, though in an abridged form the historical 
chapters at the end, which the former wants ; nay, it has 
the war between Tbctai and Nogai, which is found in no 
other except the French. The abridgment, being made 
as usual by simple omission, leaves the remaining text 
pure. The handwriting is exceedingly indistinct ; which, 
added to the antiquity of the language, renders the deci- 
phering of it a very laborious task. Mr. Marsden, though 
assisted by a gentleman versant in ancient characters, 
has made some serious mistakes. 

A Latin edition was prepared with great care by Gry- 
naeus, who published it both separately and in his Novus 
Orhis. It does not vary extensively from Pipino, yet 
seems drawn from another source, and is translated in a 
much more elegant style. It is curious that the names 
are difierent and more barbarous. This edition became, 
for some time, the standard one ; and reprints continued 
to be made even after Ramusio's appeared. There is an 
early impression bearing the name of Helmstadt, 4to, 
1586, with some notes, but of little value. 

This edition was republished by Andrew Miiller, 4to, 
Berlin 1671. He illustrated it by learned though ill-ar- 
ranged notes, and by a collation with a manuscript in the 
electoral library, which, however, is only one of Pipino's 



34 MANUSCRIPTS AND BOITiONS CONSULTED. 

version. The whole of this edition is rendered into 
French by Bergeron, — ^Voyages en Asie. 

The most noble and famous Travels of Marcus Paulus, 
&c., translated into English, published at Jjondon, by 
Ralph Newberry, 1579, and containing a Dedication by 
John Frampton, the translator. — ^This, from Mr. Mars- 
den's observations, appears to be taken from the Seville 
edition of 1520, always considered very rare and valua- 
ble, and not we imagine without reason. It has the pro- 
logue and the name of Rusticians (called Ustacheo), 
pretty sure marks of genuineness. Though on the whole 
rather full, there are some serious omissions. The book 
is said to be extremely scarce. 

La Description geographique des Provinees ei YiUes 
les plus fameuses de I'lnde Orientale, <Scc. Par Marc 
Paole, gentilhomme Venetien, Paris, 4U)> 1556. — This is 
the first French printed edition, and is stated to be trans- 
lated from the Latin, which appears to be that of Gry- 
Qsus in the Novus Orbis. 

This list, derived from the publications of the Geogra- 
phical Society and Count BaldelU Boni, includes the ear- 
liest manuscripts and editions known to exist in tfate 
French, the Italian, the Latin, and tbe English languages. 
The only others of any consequence accessible to Mr. 
Marsden, were the first printed Italian, 1490, and Ger- 
man, 1477. They appear to be only bibliographical curi- 
osities, and have not served him either in forming or 
illustrating his text. The first, according to his state- 
ment, is a mere popular abridgment. The editor has 
seen one, 12mo, Trevigi, 1267 (for 1627), which be im- 
agines to be an exact reprint, for it agrees with Mr. Mars- 
den's account of the other, in beginning with the ridicu- 
lous story of a man at Trebisond who had tamed 90,000 
partridges, and then taking up the Poli at the court of 
Kambalu. Of the German edition, Mr. Marsden has 
given the prologue, which, containing no mention of Rus- 
ticians, must have been from a MS. of secondary value. 

It will be observed that no pretension is here made to 
a verbal collation of these different editions ; a curious 
but .herculean task, foreign to the object of this woik. 
The editor, however, has endeavoured to bring into view 
the discrepancies on points of important information, and 



Manuscripts and editions consvltbd. 35 

if possible to distinguish the truth. When it is mention- 
ed that a passage is either found or wanting in the early 
editions, this of course can include only those now quo- 
ted, as the editor can say nothing of any which he has 
not had the opportunity of inspecting. 

It will be proper here to mention a single particular, 
in which the usual arrangement of the work has been 
departed from. After the brief narrative of the journey 
with which it opens, the remainder consists of a descrip- 
tion of the various countries and cities visited by the 
traveller. They may therefore be introduced in any 
order which seems most convenient. As China is the 
most important of the regions described, and was then 
distinguished by peculiar splendour, it is not without pro- 
priety that it occupies the first place. It is followed by a 
description of Central Asia, and then of the countries on 
the Indian Ocean. The text has been given entire in- 
cluding all the additional matter, and also passages which, 
though perhaps doubtful, have long been comprehended 
in the work. This edition therefore will, it is believed, 
be more complete than any hitherto given to the world. 



INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. 

Embassies to the East prior to Marco Polo. 

Great Plain of Scytlxia or Tartarf— Its InkahitantB, Turks, Moago]»-> 
Fonner Conqaesta-^Temugin or Gengis— His fiistezploita— Onangor 
Prestor John — His defeat and Death — Extensive Conquests of Cian- 
gis — Tartar InTasion of Earope — Ravages — Embassy and Letter from 
the Pope — Carpini's Journey through Poland— Reception by the Tai*- 
tar Chief Corrensa — Journey to the Volga — Court <« Baatn — ^Journey 
through Tartary— Arrival at the imperial Court — Great Splendour — 
Numerous Ambassadors — ^Treatment of the Mission— ^Letter trom the 
Emperor to the Pope— Return to Earope— Embassy by Asoelin— 
Reaches the Army of Baiothnoy — Rash Conduct and rough Reception 
— ^nal Dismissal — Changes in the Mongol Dynasty — Embassy to the 
French King — ^He sends a Mission under Rubraquis— Landing at Sou- 
dak— Journey through the Crimea— Visit to a Tartar Chief, ScaiCatat 
— Description of Comania and Russia— Court oi Sartach — Of Baatn-^ 
Journey through Tartary— Arrival at the imperial Court — ^Reception 
— Audience of the Great Khan— Various SuperMitions — City of Kara- 
korum — Religious Controversy — Dismissal of the Ambassador — ^His 
Journey homeward— The Tartars— Their Government— Manners- 
Physical Condition— Religicm — ^Military System— Breaking up of the 
Djrnasty of Gengis. 

Fbom the remote shores of Eastern Asia, westward as 
far as the Rhine, extends a vast plain, which during the 
whole period of ancient history, presented an aspect of 
the deepest barbarism. The population had nowhere ad- 
vanced beyond the pastoral state, whose occupations they 
combined with the more favorite ones of war and plunder. 
8uch enterprises were greatly facilitated by the movea- 
ble nature of their property, which rendered it easy to as- 
semble in large bodies, aud march to the remotest regions 
They were tempted, moreover, by the view of rich and 
civilized kingdoms, extending in a continuous belt along 
the whole southern border of both continents. Hence, in 
the earliest times, arose a mighty and incessant impulse ; 
so, that, from the heart of the north, there issued, in sue* 
ces&ive swarms, not armies, but whole nations, with 
wives, children, herds, and flocks, cutting their way with 
the sword into fairer and niore fruitful lands. The shep- 



EMBASSIK^j lo l\m KAST, EI C. S7 

herds of Scy thia seated tbemselveis oii the greatest thrones 
of the east. 

The Roman empire, in the utmost height of her power, 
miable to make the slightest impression on this vast mass 
of barbarism, sought merely, by strong chains of fortress- 
es on the Danube and the Rhine, to secure themselves 
against its irruption. It was not till the eighth century, 
that Charlemagne, by means of his arms and policy, stamp- 
ed upon Germany some rude elements of civilisation, which 
were gradually developed. Thence a portion spread east- 
ward, till it included Russia, which was not then, howev- 
er, the vast sovereignty we now behold, but a large duke- 
dom, extending on both sides of the Dnieper, and of which 
Kiev was the capital.^ The remainder of Europe in that di- 
rection, and the whole north of Asia, continued unchanged. 
To this region, marked by a wild and rude uniformity, the 
ancients had given the name of Scythia ; yet, at the sev- 
eral points of contact with it they recognised distinct na- 
tions, as the Goths, the Alani, the Massagetes. During 
the early part of the middle ages, the conquests made by 
a people called Tartars spread their name so extensively, 
that it was studiously adopted, and has become general 
over all that portion of the world. Still the inquirer into 
oriental history discovers a variety of tribes, bearing dift- 
tinct appellations, and exhibiting separate characters. 

The most prominent division is into Turks and Mon- 
gols ; for the Mantchoos lie somewhat beyond our range. 
The former are spread widely over the central part of 
Asia, where vast naked plains are interspersed with well- 
watered spots, which are brought under tolerable cultiva- 
tion. Bordering at some points on the great southern 
kingdoms, they have imbibed a portion of their fixed and 
civilized habits. Enjoying a plentiful subsistence, and 
leading a free and natural life, their bodily stmcture has 
been happily developed ; they are plump, with fair com- 
plexions, a good deal resembling Europeans, and are cel- 
ebrated for their beauty throughout the east. The Mon- 
gols have their domain to the north and east of the Turk- 
ish ; it lies along the border of the Altai, and in the rude 
valleys formed by its branches. Their external form, 
which has made them be classed as a distinct race, ex- 
hibits a complete contrast to that of their neighbours. 



38 BMBAS8IES TO THE EAST 

Their figure is short and broad, the face flat, with high 
cheek-bones, eyes small and curved, with a nose scarcely 
rising above the other features. Their country, though 
containing good pastures, is barely capable of culture, to 
which the people are almost strangers. Thus, compared 
with the Turks, they present this type of barbarous life in 
a purer and more complete state ; they are fiercer, can 
assemble in larger numbers, and move with greater ra- 
pidity. Hence they have generally domineered over the 
surrounding nations; though, except China, they harr 
rarely penetrated into any of the civilized kingdoms. They 
have merely impelled against them other tribes situated 
nearer their borders. From Europe they seemed placed 
at an almost immeasurable distance ; yet history records 
two occasions when they spread wide desolation over that 
continent. The first occurred in the fifth century, when, 
under the name of Huns, they were led by Attiia, sur- 
named the Scourge of God, and esteemed their supreme 
monarch. But though ^e compelled several of the Gothic 
nations to seek refuge in the Roman empire, he himself 
never formed any permanent settlement within the boun- 
daries of the Danube and the Rhine. 

Seven hundred years after, another name arose, which, 
in point of grandeur and terror surpassed even that of At- 
tiia. The Yeka or great Mongols inhabited an extensive 
region along the foot of the Altai, which appears to be 
rude and uncivilized beyond even the other territories 
claimed by that race.* About 1176, Jessagi Bayadur, 
khan of this people, died, leaving the succession to hia 
son Temugin, then only thirteen years of age ; and hands 
80 youthfid being ill-fitted for such a sway, a number oi 
the clans assumed independence, or united under another 
chief t Only about a third remained true to him ; yet 
with these, even at his immature age, he took the field, 
but was unable to accomplish any decisive success. Con- 
tinued efiforts for nearly twenty years were necessary, be- 
fore he could establish dominion over his own hereditary 
lands. He then turned his arms against the neighbouring 

« lUcueil da Voyagm et de MftmoireB, public pw la Soei6t« de Q^ 
•graphie (4(o, Paris, 1839), tome iv. p. 580. 

1 Genealogical Hiatory of the Tartan, hy Abalghazi (Londoa, 1730), 
p. OS'dS. 



FEIO& To MAltCO POLO. 89 

tribes of whom he could compkiio th^t they ba(i fatv^ed 
his refractory subjects ; and in less tban tea vears, he 
Qonipelled, though with difficulty, these hardy shepherds 
to join his standard.* In the course of this long stru^ 
gle, be had become inured to all the arts of policy and 
war ; he had formed a veteran army devoted to bis per* 
son ; and had organized it more regularly than was usual 
among the troops of that wild country. He now found 
no rival except in Ouang, khan, of the Keraite Mongols^f 
who bad long ranked as the most powerful prince in that 
part of Asia. 

Ouang appears to be the monarch so celebrated in the 
middle ages under the appellation of Prester John ; and 
in point of fact, the idea of a Christian prince in that re- 
mote interior of Asia is not so chimerical as may at first 
sight be supposed. We shall find in the following narra- 
tive that the professors of the Nestorian sect were nume- 
rous there, especially at Karakorum, the capital of the 
sovereign just named. Having penetrated from Syria, 
and become the ruling sect among the Eighurs, a Turk" 
isb tribe immediately south of his dominion, they thence 
made their way among the Mongols, to whom they taught 
the art of writing and some other primary elements of 
civilisation.t It appears by no means impossible that 
Ihey might make a convert of Ouang. It is also, howev- 
er, very probable that he followed the course usually ta- 
ken by all the Tartar princes towards powerful sects ; in- 
viting them to his court, showing kindness to their lead- 
ers, seeking from them favourable omens, even express- 
ing in private attachment to their creed, and holding out 
hopes that be would embrace it. These attentions, ex- 
aggerated by those to whom they were paid, might easily 
create in Europe the idea of a great Asiatic ruler combi- 
ning the character of king and of priest ; for the latter of- 
fice in that age was by nomeans considered a derogation 
from the former. We shall find similar rumours spread 
on the same grounds respecting the fiercest of the poster- 
ity of Gengis. Ouang, amid the versatility of oriental 
names, might readily be converted into John ; indeed Abul- 
fhraj, an eminent eastern writer, calls him King John. Ha 

* Alndgliazi, p. M-09. lUcueil, Ac. n. 937. 

f JUoMii, p. m. t tbS. pp. ni, sat. 

D 



40 E1IBA88IB8 TO THE EAST 

is said to have extended his dominion very wide, and in 
a work of that age is called the Terror of Asia.* 

Friendship had hitherto reigned between him and the 
Prince of the Yeka Mongols ; but they were now too 
mighty to move in one sphere. The annals of the latter, 
which alone survive, accuse the other of jealousy, and 
of seeking to entrap him by base stratagems. Certain 
it is that war arose ; — ^they fought ; — Ouang was totally 
routed, and in his flight killed by two personal enemies, — 
an event which the conqueror is said to have generously 
regretted.f Temugin, now undoubtedly the most pow- 
erful ruler in Asia, opened his mind to more extended 
schemes of conquest ; and an entertainment given to his 
chiefs, in celebration of the victory, was marked by a 
striking, though preconcerted event. Cokza, an aged 
chief, whose daughter he had married, and who pos- 
sessed a high fame for sanctity, presented himself, and 
delivered a letter, said to have been received from the 
celestial regions. It was found to contain an injunction, 
that the prince should change his name to Gengi8,t '* the 
Most Great,*' and a promise that he and his posterity 
would forever hold the place of grand khan over all the 
Tartars. It added, that Heaven had bestowed on them 
an entire dominion over mankind ; so that all nations 
were bound to pay them implicit obedience!^ Gengis 
joyfully accepted the commission, which he was alresuly 
prepared to execute. 

He began now to turn the tide of conquest in every di- 
rection over Asia. We cannot here enter into the detail 
of his proceedings, which, indeed, are somewhat obscure ; 
but it appears certain that, on the side of China, he hum- 
bled the djmasty of the Kin, and became possessed of 
nearly the whole country north of the Hoang-ho. In the 

* Recveil, t>. 550-553. t Abi%hazi, p. 70-78. 

t Amid the perplexing variations of oriental orthography, the editor 
has determined generally to follow Mr. Marsden, who has bestowed 
pai ts, and possessed the requisite qualities for deciding on this subject. 
As some gaide to the reader through this lal^rintb, he will give, as the 
narratiTe proceeds, the principal ^apes assnmed by the name of this 
and several other great chiefs. He i|t also called Hingis, Chingis, 
Tchingis, Tchenkis, Tchinkis. 

^ Abul^hazi, pp. 76, 79. He does not mentimi the letter ; bat its ex- 
iitenoe will appear evident in the course of the nairative ; and this was 
appanntly the oocanon on which it was forged. 



' JPIltOa TO MARCO POLO. 4i 

battle of E^alka, he defeated Dake Mieizzlaw of Russia ; 
but did not advance into Europe. He completely over- 
ran the north of Persia, and extorted homage from the 
Syrian and Armenian kingdoms. On the frontier of In- 
dia, he became master of Cabul, and reached the western 
banks of the Indus, though he did not cross that river. 
Her had thus vanquished the barbarous portion of Asia, 
without penetrating very deeply into its civilized regions. 
This task was left to bis successors. 

In 1226, Gengis died,* having designated as successor 
Okkoday,t his third son, who had been much distinguished 
by bis warlike exploits. Five years afterwards, a gene- 
ral assembly^ of the chiefs was held at the imperial tent 
on the Orchon, when it was determined to send a grand 
expedition against Europe. The command was given to 
Baatut, the offspring of Jugi,^ eldest son to Gengis, and 
•he had with him many princes of the blood-royal, partic- 
iarly Kuyukil and Mangou,ir also grandsons to the founder, 
and who afterwards rose in succession to the dignity of 
grand khan. A force was placed at their disposal, which 
has been estimated, probably with great exaggeration, at 
600,000 men.** Never, perhaps, was the earth swept with 
a mightier tem pest of desolation. Marchi ng across nearly 
the whole of the northern parts of Asia and of Europe, 
they encountered every where nations too warlike to 
yield, yet too weak to resist. These tribes were devoted 
to almost indiscriminate slaughter ; and certain travellers, 
who soon after passed over this immense plain, saw only 
a desert strewed with the bones of the vanquished. En- 
tering Europe, they overran Russia and Poland, after 
which they advanced into Silesia. The duke, with all 
the force he could muster, met them at Waldshut, near 
Liegnitz ; but he was completely routed, and his whole 
army cut to pieces. They then poured dotrn upon Hun* 
gary, and finding no troops to oppose them, wasted it 
throughout with fire and slaughter, ft 

This dreadful inroad struck Europe with extreme ter- 
ror, for there seemed nothing to prevent the whole con- 

* Abulfhazi, p. I4«. t Called alao Oukodoy, TJgadai, Oktiki. 

I Called alao Batoo, Batkyn, Baty. ^ CaUed alao Tehoat^r» Zui. 

i Called alM> Oayuk, Cayn*, Chin. 

IT CaUed alao Maxigru Moni^OQ, Mankoa, Menrko. 

«*Rec««il,i9.4M(401. ttllMd. p|». 401, 4M. 



42 EilBASSIBS TO TBS EABT 

thicint fVom being overwhelmed by the arms of the barba 
rians. Chimerical fears were added ; it being reported 
that the bodies of the vanquished after being slain were 
greedily devoured. A letter is ^found from Pope Innocent 
IV. expressing a dread of the entire destruction of the 
Christian name. That pontiff endeavoured to induce all 
the European nations to rise in mass against the inva- 
ders ; an object which might certainly te considered le» 
gitimate, though the prevailing divisions rendered the 
accomplishment diflScnlt.* 

While the panic was still at its height, this terrible foe 
suddenly disappeared. It was supposed that the intelli- 
gence of the king of Bohemia, the Dukes of Austria and 
Carinthia, having assembled foroest and being in faU 
march, had alarmed them into this step. The real cause, 
however, was the death of Okkoday, which took place in 
1241 ; when the leading chiefs in the army being candi- 
dates for the throne, hastened back into tb«ir own coun- 
try to be present at that important election. They seem* 
however, to have felt the military character of Europe to 
be such, that their conquests there could not be covered 
by a mere detachment ; hence, evacuating Hungaiy, Po- 
land, and even Kiev, they retired behind the Dnieper. 
The want of any fixed rule in oriental succession, made 
it difficult to settle so mighty an inheritance. The late 
emperor had designated to the throne his grandson Schy- 
ramoun ; but, on account of his youth, had named as re- 
gent the Empress Taurakinah. This princess, however, 
was mother to Kuyuk, and determined to exert her influ- 
ence among the tribes in favour of her own son. Baatu, 
who might have advanced strong pretensions, did not 
choose to excite any division, but remained sullenly on 
the banks of the Volga, neither opposing nor sanctioning 
the rival claims, t The lady, as we shal see, ultimately 
succeeded in raising Kuyuk to the supreme dignity. 

Europe was for the present delivered ; but as the Tar- 
tars bad uttered loud threats of speedily returning with a 
greatly augmented force, the utmost alarm prevailed lest 
this menace should be executed. There jiccordingly 
seemed an urgent call for some measure which might mit- 
igate their rage, or altogether avert the pressure of such 

*Hakla]rt. IUe«»il, p. MS. t RMliei], p, 4118. 



PRiOR TO HAi(€0 POLO. 48 

a ealamity. The power of the pope being then at its ut* 
most height, and fonning the sole tie by which the differ- 
ent states of Europe were connected, was the only source 
whence such a proposal for the common defence could 
emanate. He was naturally disposed to employ church- 
men, who alone perhaps possessed the requisite educa- 
tion. The mendicant orders, particularly the Francis- 
can and Dominican, enjoying then a paramount influence, 
were readily selected for a mission to the formidable po- 
tentate. Their religious character would have command- 
ed respect ; but the studied meanness of their exterior, 
added to an utter ignorance of mankind, iil fitted them to 
exert an influence over a proud prince, whose court was 
filled with ambassadors from all the countries in the East. 
At that moment two Tartar armies maintaned a men- 
acing position. One was that which had first invaded 
Europe, and was still posted on its frontier ; the other, 
stationed in the north of Persia, threatened at once the 
caliphate and the eastern empire. On determining to 
send envoys to each, the pope divided the duty between 
his two favourite orders. John de Piano Carpini, a Fran- 
ciscan, advanced in age, and who had been employed 
in various confidential transactions, was named for the 
northern host. He was to be accompanied by Stephen of 
Bohemia, and Benedict of Poland ; but the former was un- 
able to complete the journey. The Persian mission was 
intrusted to Dominican friars, named Ascelin or Anselm, 
Alexander, Simon de St. Quentin, and Albert.* Carpini, 
who prooeeded first on his destination, was furnished by 
the pope with the following letter, which indeed, is not 
inserted in his relation, but has been extracted by M. 
D'Avesac from the Minorite annals.t 

" IvNOGBiTF, Bishop, Skkvant op tsa SsavANTi of Gon, 

TO THB ]^XHO AMD PbOPLB OF TBE TAaTABS. 

** SiNCB not only men, bat also irrational animals, and 
even the mechanical mundane elements, are united by 
some kind of alliance, oiter the example of superior 
spirits, whose hosts the Author of the universe has es- 
ia a perpetual and peaceful order, we af a com- 

* WtmM, p. 404. t Ibid. p. 478. 



44 £MBA8BIB8 TO THE BASf 

pelled to wonder not without reason, how yon, as we 
have beard, having entered many lands of Christians and 
others, have wasted them with horrible desolation, and 
still, with continued fury, not ceasing to extend further 
your destroying hands, dissolving every natural tie, nei- 
ther sparing sex nor age, direct indifferently against all 
the fury of the sword. We therefore, after the example 
of the Prince of Peace, desiring to unite all mankind in 
unity and the fear of God, warn, beseech, and e^ort you, 
henceforth to desist wholly from such outrages, and es- 
pecially from the persecution of Christians ; and since, 
by so many and so great offences, you have doubtless 
grievously provoked the wrath of the Divine majesty, 
that you make satisfaction to him by suitable penitence : 
and that you do not be so daring as to cariy your rage 
further, because the omnipotent God has hitherto permits 
ted the nations to be laid prostrate before your face. He 
sometimes thus passes by the proud men of the age ; but 
if they do not hupible themselves, he will not faU to in- 
flict the severest temporal punishment on their guilt. 
And now, behold, we send our beloved brother John, and 
his companions, bearers of these presents, men conspicu- 
ous for religion and honesty, and endued with a know- 
ledge of sacred Scripture, whom we hope you will kindly 
receive and honourably treat as if they were ourselves, 
placing confidence in what they may say from us, and 
specially treat with them on what relates to peace, and 
fully intimate what has moved you to this extermination 
of other nations, and what you further intend, providing 
them in going and returning with a safe conductor, and 
other things needful for returning to our presence. We 
have chosen to send to you the said friars, on account of - 
their exemplary conduct, and knowledge of the sacred 
Scriptures, and because they would be more useful to you 
as imitating the humility d our Saviour ; and if we had 
thought they would be more grateful and useful to you, 
we would have sent other prelates or powerful men." 

Carpini* and his companions, being destined to take 
the route of Poland and Russia, departed from Lyons on 

* The narrative of Carpini, with a previoaa deacriptive acoonnt of th» 
Tartara, was published by HaUnyt, vol. i. p. 53, Aa. The Paris 0«o» 
graphical Society have edited it anew (Recneil de VofjagM, Ac.) fzom 



FRIOR TO MARCO t*OLO. 46 

tiie 16th April 1846, and proceeded first to Bohemia. The 
king shewed a deep interest in their success ; gave them 
recommendations to all the Christian sovereigns through 
whose territory they were to pass ; supplied a safe con- 
dnct; and defj^yed their expenses to the court of his 
nephew Boleslaus, duke of Silesia. That prince forward- 
ed them with similar attentions to Conrad, dnke of Lan> 
tiscia, (Masovia), where they had the good fortune to find 
Wasilico, duke of Russia. He earnestly favoured their de- 
sign, and gave them much information respecting the peo- 
ple whom they were about to visit, and the mode in which 
they most be dealt with. Presents, he warned them, 
were indispensable, and for that pntpose he supplied bea- 
ver and other valuable furs, to which more were added 
by Conrad and the Duchess of Cracow. Carpini took 
the opportunity of urging WasUico to renounce his Greek 
heresy, and return to the unity of the church : but this 
was courteously evaded by saying, that such a step could 
not be decided in the absence of his brother Daniel. Con- 
veyance was afforded to Kiev, then the capital of Russia, 
to which the enemy's outposts had closely approached. 
Great dread was inspired into the minds of the traveller 
by the character of the Lithuanians, a barbarous rao/ 
who made frequent incursions into the territory ; how 
ever, the party were dragged in their wagon through ice 
and snow without sustaining any loss. At Kiev, the Rns« 
sian nobles told them it was vain at such a season to use 
their own horses in a country where there was neither 
hay nor grass ; and native ponies were substituted, which 
could find food even under the snow. 

On the 4th February 1846, the friars set forth, and a 
few dajrs after arrived at Canow, the first post of that 
warlike and terrible race to whom they were sent. Their 
appearance catted the utmost surprise : and an armed 
party rushed upon them in a threatening manner, demand- 
ing what sort of persons they were. They replied, that 
they were the messengers of their lord the pope ', upon 

an ancient MS. in the Leyden Libniy, collated with others in the Rojal 
Library at Paris, and the British Museum. The variations are curious ; 
but do not materially aflect the tenor of th^ recital. M. D'ATesao has 
prefixed a my learned dissertation, yriHh Jlhistrati've docttmenU, froan 
vkieh I have dariTed important advaatagos. 



46 SMBA881B9 TO THE BAIT 

which the mtnidere departed. Next wffmadt mme ef 
the leading officers inquired whence they caine, and oa 
what business 1 They then delivered the message of his 
holiness, expressing bis desire that the Tartars should be 
the friends of Christians, and attain their own salvatioa 
by embracing the true faith ; adding his surprise at their 
committing such dreadlbl massacres, and especially upoa 
believers, who had never injured them. He warned them 
that as they had grievously offended God,, they ought to 
beware of such deeds in future, and repent of what they 
bad already done. Finally, they were requested to write 
to the pontiff, stating what their present intentions were. 
This was not very cautious language ; however, being 
probably ill understood, and delivered in a quiet manner, 
it kindled no apparent resentment. They were told they 
must go forwanl to the station of the great leader Cor- 
lensa, who held command along the whole frontier. Ori» 
•ntal princes are Ibnd of receiving embassies, which they 
oeaaider not only as a matter of state, but always repre- 
aem «a the instruments whereby homage and tribute are 
laid at tlbeir feet 

On reaching this court they were assigned a remote 
staitioQ, and messengers came to ask, '* with what they 
wottkl incline to him ;" meaning, it seems, what presents 
tliey intended to give. They made many apologies on ac* 
oouBt of the length and difficulty of the journey, but ten- 
itfed ^vtet they could* which was accepted. Being led to 
ihe fsiaerel's tent, they were required to kneel three times 
before Um entrance ; and upon being admitted, they pre- 
sented in the same bumble attitude the letter of his holi- 
geiB to the bafbarian chief, whom they found seated in 
Ihe midst of bia officers. An interpreter, whom they 
brought from Kier, eould not convey the import of the 
epistle ; however, the usual course was taken of sending 
them forward to fiaatiH the commander in the late inva- 
sion of Europe. 

In this journey the frlurs passed over the vast plain of 
Southern Russia, then called Comania,* watered by the 

* The Comuiiaas amw' to have baea once a rerj nomexotis tribe ot 
Tutan, called in fhe Seat Kapchak, and called alao by the SlaToaic na- 
tUnm Polinraki, but ao ttaM at them aeenu aow to noiaia. lecwaiL 



PRIOR TO MARCO FOLO. 47 

great rivers Dnieper, Don, Volga, and Yaik, or Ural. On 
the third of these mighty streams were ranged the troops 
of Corrensa. They were obliged to perform the march 
with harassing rapidity, changing horses three or four 
times a-day, and posting from morning to night. Having 
arrived, they were lodged as before at a distance, and 
obliged to go through the same ceremonies, with the ad- 
dition of passing between two fires. To this they at first 
strongly objected ; but, being informed that it was con- 
sidered quite necessary to secure against evil design or 
poison, they at length yielded. They delivered the letter 
kneeling to the khan, who was seated in great pomp on 
a lofty throne beside one of his wives. The members of 
his family and the more distinguished chiefs sat on a 
bench beneath him, all others on the ground, the men on 
the right and the women on the left. Only his own kin- 
dred could enter without an express order. He is de- 
scribed as kind to his followers ; skilful, and experienced, 
but dreadfully cruel in the prosecution of war. 

The friars were furnished at this court with interpret- 
ers, who, aided by themselves, made a translation of the 
pope's letter. Baatu is said to have read it attentively, 
but without any observation. On coming out, however, 
it was announced, accor^ling to the usual system, that 
they must proceed onward to be presented to Cuyn6 
(Kuyuk) Khan, the great emperor of all the Tartars, 
whose residence lay far to the eastward. This was a 
most painful arrangement, rendered more so by the inti- 
mation, that only two were to go on, and the two others 
to be detained, and sent back with a message to the pope. 
They durst not, however, object, but went with many 
tears, " not knowing whether it was to life or to death.*' 
They were very unfit for so hard a journey, having for 
many days received no food but millet, and no drink ex- 
cept snow melted over the fire. Yet they were obliged 
to ride at the same furious speed, changing horses, where 
they could be got, several times a-day. Their route lay 
still through Comania, described as a very great and long 
country, whose inhabitants had been recently vanquished 
and nearly exterminated by the Tartars ; and the dismal 
spectacle was every where presented of their skulls and 
bones lying neglected on the ground. A similar scene 

E 



48 EMBASSIES TO THE EAST 

was exhibited daring their progress through the territory 
of the Kangittae* and the Bisermini.t They then trav- 
elled several days along the banks of a small inland sea, 
apparently the Balkash. It was described to them as 
subject in winter to most violent gusts of wind, issuing, 
as was imagined, from a small aperture in a mountain 
situated on the shore. Here they found a Tartar court 
occupied by Ordu, a prince of great age, with one of his 
wives. They halted a day and obtained some refresh- 
ment, but were not admitted into his presence. Their 
advance was continued with greatly increased hardship, 
leading into a rugged and mountainous region, where 
much snow fell, and they were called upon to increase 
even their rapid rate of travelling, in order to be present 
at the approaching election of the emperor. 

At length their weary journey terminated, and they 
arrived at the great imperial court ; where a tent was 
allotted to them, and their expenses handsomely defrayed. 
The papal letter, as interpreted at the court of Baatu, was 
delivered, and read by Cuyn^ ; but they were not called 
into his presence, because he was not yet elected, and did 
not therefore exercise any functions of sovereignty. A 
few days after, however, they were invited to the tent of 
his mother, where all the imperial state was at that time 
e^ibited« It was formed of the finest white cloth, and 
of such vast dimensions, that in their opinion it cookx 
have contained 2000 persons. There were two gates, 
one of which, appropriated to the monarch, stood contin- 
ually open and unguarded, yet no one but he dared to en- 
ter by it ; the other was the gate of audience, but admis- 
sion was graiited only by the prince's express order. In 
front was a barrier, which, if any one passed without 
license, he was severely beaten, and, if he attempted to 
flee, was shot. On the outside were ranged princes and 
ambassadors from all the courts of Asia, — the caliph, the 
Turkish dynasties, Georgia, India, China, also Duke leros- 
laus of Russia. The whole number was stated to Carpi- 

* A Tartar horde, eaUed properly Kaoldis, a name aaid to be still 
■vtained amongf some of the Nogay tribes. Recueil, p. 500. 

t This is the Rass ian name for Mttssulman, and has been applied heva 
to Turkestaiu vhgee inhabitants had fkctually embraced that faith, and 
ttooagh whose territory the mission now proceeded. Recueil, pp. 501, 50&. 



PRIOK TO MARCO FOLO. 49 

iii to exceed 4060. The scene, which was dazzling, ex- 
hibited in profose display all the pomp of the eastern 
world. The ambassadors were mounted on spirited hor- 
ses superbly caparisoned, richly ornamented with trap^ 
pings of pure gold. Each day they appeared in a differ^ 
ent dress ; in white, in scarlet, in blue, lastly, in very rich 
Baldakin (Bagdad) robes, considered then the finest of 
any. Koumiss, or fermented mare's milk, which was 
most copiously supplied, was drunk till the evening in 
immense quantities. The friars, on intimating a strong 
dislike to it, were supplied with ale, but were with diffi- 
culty allowed to keep within the bounds of moderation. 

Meantime, the chiefs, admitted into the great tent, were 
d^berating on the choice of an emperor. From the aug- 
mented pomp with which Cuyne appeared, the opinion 
beeame daily stronger that the election would fall upon 
him ; and, after a month, though not publicly announced, 
it beeame generally understood that this decision had been 
formed. The whole multitude of princes and ambassa- 
dors then thronged to a spot three or four leagues distant, 
beautifoUy situated on a river between mountains, where 
the golden tent had be^n pitched. It much exceeded the 
other in splendour, being supported on pillars richly gild- 
ed, and covered in a great measure with the finest Bag- 
dad cloth. The grand ceremony was delayed a few days 
by a tempest of hail ; but at length, on the 24th August, 
the whole multitude assembled, and turning their faces to 
the south, performed Tarious genuflexions. They then 
turned to the tent, and a gilded chair being brought out, 
opon whieh Cuyne was seated, the Tartar ehiefs said " we 
wish, we pray and command, that you haye power and 
dominion over us all.'' Cuyn6 replied, " if you wish that 
I be your king, are you resolved and disposed each of you 
to do all that I shall command, to come when I call, to 
go whither I send, and to kill all whom I shall order to be 
killcdl" The chiefs replied, "yes." "Then," said he, 
" henceforth my word alone shnU be my sword." Imme- 
diately after, he was seated on a chair of felt, and ad- 
dressed as follows : — " Look on high, and see God ; and 
look down on the felt whereon thou sittest. If thou dost 
govern well, thou shalt reign in power and magnificence, 
and the whole earth shall be subject to thee ; but if ill, 



50 SMBA9SIE8 TO THff EAST 

thou shalt be poor, miserable, vile, and contemptible, and 
sbalt not bave power even over the felt whereon thou sit- 
test.'' His principal wife was then placed in the same 
aeat, and both were lifted op into the air, and proclaimed 
with loud shouts Emperor and Empress of all the Tartars. 
The ceremony was closed with profound genuflexions by 
the chiefs of the whole people, though the friars boast that 
they formed an exception, *' because they were not subject 
to him." Considering, however, that they had, without 
hesitation, performed this homage to inferior chiefs, the 
withholding it from the supreme ruiei on so high an occa- 
sion seems neither reasonable nor prudent.* 

This emperor is described as being about forty or forty- 
five years of age, of middle stature, extremely consider- 
«te, serious, and grave in his demeanour. It was even 
asserted that he had scarcely on any occasion been seen 
to laugh ; and from the moment of his elevation, no stran- 
ger, however illustrious, was allowed to speak to him. 
The communication was entirely through the officials ; 
nevertheless, during the whole time that the petitioner 
stated bis request and received the answer, he remained 
on his bended knees. His majesty had resigned none of 
the pretensions of his family to universal dominion. On 
bis seal was engraved, " God in heaven, and Cuyn6 Khan 
upon earth, the power of God : the seal of the emperor of 
all men." 

A few days after the ceremony, the friars, with all the 
other ambassadors, were admitted to an audience. Pres- 
ents on such occasions are always expected in the East ; 
and at so solemn a time they were displayed with almost 
unrivalled magnificence. They appeared to be very nu- 
merous ; robes of satin, purple, silk interwoven with gold, 
and precious furs. A small tent (umbrella), to be placed 
over the emperor's head, was entirely studded with gems ; 
and at a little distance were ranged more than five hun- 
dred wagons laden with gold, silver, and the richest silks. 
After this exhibition, the friars were asked what they in- 

* Bergreron (Voyafes en Arie, Haye, 1735, p. 14) haa giTen tarn* of 
these details from the Specolam Historiale of Vincent, who atataa that 
he had obtained it veitftlly from Sionmi de St. Qnentin. That fxiar in- 
deed waa with the Peraian, not the Tartarian miaaion ; but he ia iuBdei>> 
atood to have maaeaaed extaaaiTe kaowled^ rafp«ctin( the East. 8a« 
B«eMQ# pp. 404, 40ft 



JPJIIOR TO MARCO POLO. 51 

tended to present ; but having exhausted their slender 
stock of skins they were obliged to declare that tbey had 
nothing whatever ; nor is it said that any resentment was 
expressed. 

They seem even as yet to have had the impression that 
they were regarded with favour and treated with respect. 
Nay, hopes were held out by some of the household, though 
seemingly without any foundation^ that the great monarch 
might embrace the Christiaa faith. They were now po- 
litely desired to return and spend a few days at the court 
of the queen-dowager. But what was their dismay ta 
learn that, during their absence, the khan had ^ set up bis 
standard against the church of God, and the Roman em- 
pire, and all the kingdoms and nations of the West, unless, 
according to injunctions in the letter to the Lord the Pope, 
they should become subject to him." From this disas- 
trous intelligence, the traveller endeavours to justify a 
feeling of pricte, arguing that there being no other land on 
earth which they feared except the Christian, they had de- 
termined to make war against it. The pretension to uni- 
versal dominion had always been maintained by this race ; 
yet we may suspect that the lofty tone of the pope's de- 
spatches, and the imprudence of his envoys, were instru- 
mental in prompting to this hostile assertion of it. 

The friars then returned to court, and remained there 
a month, during which time victuals were most scantily 
supplied ; the provision allowed for four days scarcely 
su^cing for one. They were then sent for by the empe- 
ror, who asked, through his prothonotary, whether the pope 
had any one about him that could explain the Russian, 
the Tartar, or Saracenic language. It was^answered that 
none of them were understood in Europe. An arrange- 
ment was therefore made, tha^ the letter should be writ- 
ten in Tartar, and carefully explained to them, after which 
they were to translate it into Latin, read it twice over, 
and see that it was fully comprehended. They are charge- 
able with the great omission of not giving the slightest 
hint of its contents ; but this has just been supplied by M. 
D'Avezac from a MS. in the royal library at Paris. It ia 
as follows :— ' 



52 EMBASSIES TO THB KAST 



(( 



LrrrxK op the kino of the tabtabs to the lobs pors. 



The strength of God, Kayuk Khan, the ruler of all 
men, to the great Fcfpe. Yon and all the Christian peo- 
ple who dwell in the West have sent by your messengers 
sore and certain letters for the purpose of making peace 
with 08. This we have heard ^m them, and it is con- 
tained in your letter. Therefore, if you desire to have 
peace with us, yoo pope, emperors, all kings, all men pow- 
erful in cities, by no means delay to come to us for the 
purpose of concluding peace, and yon will hear our an- 
swer and our will. The series of your letters contained 
that we oaght to be baptized and to become Christians ; 
we briefly reply, that we do not understand why we ought 
to do so. As to what is mentioned in your letters^ that 
you wonder at the slaughter of men, and chiefly of Chris- 
tians, especially Hungarians, Poles, and Moravians, we 
shortly answer, that this too we do not understand. Nev- 
ertheless, lest we should seem to pass it over in silence, 
we think proper to. reply as follows. It is because they 
have not obeyed the precept of God and of Gengis Khan, 
and, holding bad counsel, have slain our messengers ;* 
wh^nefore God has ordered them to be destroyed, and de- 
livered them into our hands. But if God had not done it, 
what could man have done to man 1 But you, inhabitants 
of the West,i)elieve that you only are Christians, and de- 
spise others ; but how do yoa know on whom he may 
choose to bestow his favour. We adore God, and, in his 
strength, will overwhelm the whole earth from the east 
to the west. But if we men were not strengthened by 
God, what could we dol" 

It was intimated to the friars, that the emperor was 
disposed to send ambassadors along with them, but wish- 
ed the proposal to come from themselves ; and a Tartar 
chief strongly urged them to make it. They considered 
however that, as these envoys were without doubt intend- 
ed to act merely as spies, their hostile designs would be 
encouraged by the view of the dissensions prevailing in 
Europe J and that in the present state of public feeling in 
the West, they would probably be killed, a violence wbichy 

* Allution M here made to Tartar ambwaadom, wluna the RBMntaw 
■iiizderad beliare the battle of Kalka. 



PRIOR TO MARCO POLO. 53 

in the c^se of a royal representative, the Tartars were 
anderstood never to forgive. They declined therefore 
leaking any overture ; and the emperor did not choose to 
send an embassy unasked. 

On the 13th November, having obtained permission to 
depart, and the imperial seal as a passport, they took their 
leave. They travelled all winter through a wide open 
country, being commonly obliged to sleep on the ground, 
after clearing away the snow, with which, in the morning, 
they often found themselves covered. They passed rapid- 
ly through the stations of the different chiefs, and on the 
8th June, to their inexpressible satisfaction, arrived at 
Kiev. The people came to meet them with joyful congtat- 
nlations^ as men risen from the dead ; and they received 
the same cordial welcome throughout the whole of Rus- 
sia, Poland, and Bohemia. Carpini afterwards spent three 
months at Lyons with the pope, by whom he was soon 
after created Archbishop of Antivari, in Dalmatia.* 

It was not till 1247 that Ascelin.t with the three Dom- 
inican friars, travelled through Syria to the Tartar host, 
then encamped in Persia. They appear to have been 
much inferior, both in prudence and intelligence, to the 
former party. Drawn from the depth of conventual life, 
strangers to the world and the mode of dealing with man- 
kind, they imagined that the pope's mandate, when an- 
nounced, would command obedience among the most sav- 
age tribes. Accordingly, they approached the army in 
the most confident manner, and apparently without any 
apprehension. Being met by several chiefs demanding 
who they were and whence they came, they described 
themselves as the ambassadors of the pope, the head of the 
Christian world, throughout which he was every where 
regarded as a father. The Tartars then said, in an iron- 
ical tone, ** since your pope is so great a man, he doubt- 
less knows that the khan is the son of God, by whom he 
has been invested with the dominion of earth, and that by 
his Instructions ^aatu in the north, and Baiothnoy here, 

* RecaeiJ, p. 5fffi. 

t Simon de St. Qaentm, one of tlie nnmber, wrote a very copions re- 
lation, from whftb- oniy a feyr extracts were inserted by Vincent in his 
Specalnm Historiale j and they have been ccpied by Brageron (Vqyaffea 
#R Am.4), M. D'Areiao made a ae«eb, bat withMt 4lMo«es, for a MS. 
if tiM original (SMoail, *a. p. 40ft.) 



54 SMBAS8IS8 TO TBE BAST 

recevre the same hosours." Ascelin had^o little jndg 
ment as to reply, that the sovereign pontiff knew nothing 
of any such persons, hut only that there was a harbarous 
people called Tartars, who invaded and destroyed many 
nations, particularly the Christian ; he earnestly exhorted 
them to repent of their past wickedness, and e^ase to an- 
noy the people of God. Whatever the chiefs might think 
of this speech, they simply conveyed it to the commander : 
but, after changing their clothes, they came forth with 
the usual inquiry as to what presents he had brought. It 
was answered, that the pope received gifts from aU men, 
but never gave them to any, far less to strangers and in- 
fidels. The Tartars, still without any remark, went back 
to their chief, and returning in fresh clothes, expressed 
astonishment bow foreigners dared to approach their great 
master without offering a present. They added, however^ 
that the friars might still have an audience of Baiothnoy,* 
provided, according to his strict regulation, they would 
perform three genuflexions before him. Having consult- 
ed together, they decided, that it would be a shame and 
scandal to perform such an act of idolatry to a pagan. 
Yet they intimated, that if the khan and his people would 
become Christians, the ambassadors for the honour of 
the church, would perform this homage. Upon hearing 
this proposal, the chiefs, who hitherto had studiously pre- 
served outward decorum, burst into the most furious 
rage. They declared that they would be ^orry indeed ta 
become Christian dogs like their visiters; adding, to their 
utter horror, that the pope was a dog. The others at- 
tempted to reply ; but, luckily perhaps for themselves^ 
their voice was drowned in shouts and clamour ; stnd a 
council was called, to determine the manner in which they 
should be treated. 

The only consideration at first was concerning the mode 
in which they should be put to death. Some recommend- 
ed that they should be flayed alive, and their skins, stuffed 
with hay, sent to Rome. Others proposed, that in the 
first battle with the Christians, they should be placed in 
front, and be made to fall by the weapons of their own 

t Not or No^ii amesn to expren a commander-in-chief, but not ol 
the blood imperial, and therefore not entitled to the rank of khan. Th* 
proper name of thii chief is eaid to be Batchou (Becueil, p. 464). 



PEIOR TO MABCO POLO. 56 

eonntrymen. In this crisis, however, female humanity 
interposed, and saved them from so dreadful a destiny. 
The principal wife of Baiotbnoy ran to him, and without 
hoping to move his pity, represented the disgrace that 
would be certainly incurred by thus violating the law of 
nations,, as well as the sure effect of deterring many 
other embassies which now came with grateful homage 
and presents. She urged also the likelihood of his incur- 
ring the displeasure of the khan, which had been strongly 
expressed on a former occasion of similar barbarity. 
Several chiefs embraced the same views, and it was 
finally determined not to procee(| to extremity. The 
friars were even, according to the usual custom, invited 
to proceed into the interior of Tartary, and appear at the 
court of the great sovereign. They considered them- 
selves, however, as having seen quite enough of Tartar 
courts, and declared that having fulfilled their appointed 
mission, nothing but force should induce them to proceed 
farther; and this the commanders did not choose to 
employ. 

Their only object now was to quit this dreadful spot, 
and return to Europe. Baiotbnoy having suffered the 
letters to be presented to him, and ordered them to be 
interpreted, they hoped that their deliverance was not 
far distant. On soliciting however,^passports and guides, 
it was intimated, that since they had come so far to see 
a Tartar army, they should wait till a large reinforcement 
arrived, which would exhibit its qualitled on a much 
grander scale. They solemnly protested against having 
the slightest wish to see any thing more of their troops ; 
but it^ soon appeared, that, besides overawing them by 
this spectacle, the design was to keep them some time as 
objects of insult and derision. They were nearly starved 
on minute rations of black bread and sour milk, while 
invention was daily tasked to find new modes of annoy- 
ing them. Particular delight was taken in taunting 
them respecting the pope, and requiring them to say how 
many armies that prince maintained ; what battles he had 
gained ; and what kingdoms he had conquered. When 
it transpired that he had neither soldiers nor dominions, 
it was triumphantly asked how such a personage could 
be compared to their great khan, who had subduei! nations 



56 BMBA03I£S TO TH£ EA01 

innumerable, and was obeyed in the reniotest extremities 
of the East and the West. The treatment tbey received 
was on the whole, exceedingly barbarous ; which the 
commander, on being appealed to, excused on the ground 
of their rude speeches, — a charge which they treat as al- 
together unfounded, though the reader, may, perhaps, 
form a different judgment. Even after they seemed on 
the point of escape, they were detained some weeks long- 
er till a certain messenger named Auguta should arrive 
from the great ruler. The object seems to have been, 
that they might witness, without sharing, the drinking, 
dancing, and howling, with which, during a whole week, 
his visit was celebrated. 

At length the friars obtained their long-desired dismis- 
sal, and had two letters put into their hands. The first, 
impiously termed a ** Letter of God," had been sent by 
the khan to Baiothnoy, with the view of its being circu- 
lated over the whole world, and among all nations. It 
intimated that while the deity was high over all and im- 
mortal he had appointed Gengis the only lord of earth ; and 
it gave warning of the dreacUul consequences that would 
overtake all who should disobey this universal empire. 
The latter chief had been dead twenty years ; but his 
commission was considered as descending to his poster- 
ity. It was probably a copy of the same forgery, which 
we have seen presented to that great conqueror on a high 
festive occasion. The other, from Baiothnoy himself to 
his holiness, contained the following expressions ; — 
'* Know, pope, that your messengers have come to us, 
and have delivered your letter, and have held the strangest 
speeches that ever were heard. We know not if you au- 
thorized them ; but we announce the firm, command and 
ordinance of God, that if you desire to remain seated in 
your land and inheritance, you, pope, come to us in 
your proper person, and do homage to him who justly 
rules the whole earth. If you do not obey, God only 
knows what may happen." However unsatisfactory 
these despatches might be, the friars thought themselves 
too happy in being allowed to depart with them. 

The threat announced during Carpini*8 residence in a 
manner so solemn and terrible, of again invading the west- 
ern kingdoms, was not immediately carried into execu- 



PRIOR TO MARCO POLO. 57 

tion. Kayak died a year after, not without suspicion of 
poison ; and as only grandsons of the great conqueror 
survived, their claims, according to the loose ideas of suc- 
cession in the East, were nearly balanced. The uncer- 
tainty continued several years, though without leading to 
any serious conflict. Baatu, as the offspring of Jugi, the 
eldest son, stood nearest, and the European invasion 
threw lustre over his name ; yet Taulai and his family, 
by their conquests in China, as well as by their actual 
possession of the seat of Mongol power, had acquired a 
peculiar consideration. The difficulty was removed by 
the former waiving his claims, and declaring in favoui of 
his cousin Mangou, the son of Taulai. He invited the 
principal chiefs to come to his court along with that prince, 
who, in 1251, was there chosen great khan, or general 
emperor of all the Tartars. 

That people, meantime, continaed to maintain a power- 
ful army on the eastern frontier of Persia. After subdo- 
ing all the Arab kingdoms in Central Asia, their object 
was to subvert the imperial throne of Bagdad, the might- 
iest sovereignty of the West. The mission of Ascelin 
and his companions, however ungraciously received, had 
probably excited their curiosity, which was always alive 
to every thing that could lead to the extension of their 
dominion. They might then easily learn the gallant 
achievements of the Europeans in Syria, and the zeal 
against the Mohammedan name by which these had been 
inspired. When St. Louis, king of France, was at Ni- 
cosia in Cyprus, he received a letter from the chief then 
commanding this army, whose name is given as Erkaltay. 
The contents are somewhat variously reported, being 
even said to intimate, that he himself, as well as the 
great khan and idl his chiefs, having embraced the gospel, 
were engaged in war for its propagation. More probable 
accounts represent him as merely professing goodwill to- 
wards Christians, and zeal to aid their views against the 
Moslem states. An intention was expressed of next 
year laying siege to Bagdad, when his majesty was soli- 
cited at least to keep employed the arms of the Soldan 
of Egypt. That zealous monarch was delighted with the 
proposal, and immediately sent an embassy, of which, 
however, no record appears to have been preserved. 



58 EMBASSIES TO TUE EAST 

At the same time, a report was received, that Sartacb, 
the son of Baatu, now commanding on the western 
frontier of Tartary, had become a Christian.* To him 
also the king then determined to send a mission, of which 
a full and interesting narrative has come down to ourtime.f 

It was conducted by William de Rabniquis, a Minorite 
friar, with three brethren and a servant. He went by 
way of Constantinople, whence he sailed on the 7th May 
1253, and on the 21st arrived at Soldaia, now Soudak, in 
the Crimea. To this place, which was the theatre of a 
very active trade, caravans from remote parts of the 
continent brou^^ht not only ermine and other precious 
furs from Siberia, but also cotton and silk fabrics and 
spices from India. He met a very friendly reception 
from the merchants, who enjoyed the free profession of 
Christianity, having a bishop and cathedral church. He 
immediately began his inquiries about Sartach, particu- 
larly whether, according to the report prevailing in the 
Holy Land, he were really a believer. The bishop, with- 
out seemingly committing himself to this extent, told him 
many good things respecting the said Sartach, which 
afterwards proved to be wholly unfounded. 

On the 1st June, our traveller set out with a provision 
of wines, fruits, and biscuits, having received intimation 
that no one was welcomed t^ere who came with an 
empty hand. He placed these coipmodities, together with 
vestments and books, on wagons drawn by oxen, which 
he had been advised at Constantinople to prefer to pack- 
horses ; but by following this " evil counsel," he found 
the length of his journey doubled. The country was a 
wide plain covered with numerous traces of the calamities 
which had overwhehned the Comanians. Fleeing in 
crowds into this narrow peninsula, where there were no 
adequate supplies of food, they had, afler enduring the 
utmost extremities of famine, been driven to the direful 

* Astley's Vojages, vol. iv. p. 552. 

t Hakluyt inserted in his Collection the original Latin, bnt only in 

Crt. Parchaa having procured a complete copy, made au English trans- 
cum, which he introduced at the beginning uf his third part. Th« 
Geographical Society of Pahs have just published a full edition of the 
origins 1, from a manuscript in the British Maseum, collated with othen 
at Cambridge and Leyden. The variations are curious, bot not of graat 
■agnitoJe. 



PRIOft TO MAECO P0I.O. 69 

resource of deTouring each other. In three days he met 
the Tartars, among whom he thought himself quite in a 
new world. They rode up in their usual unceremonious 
manner, and on seeing him provided with wine and bis- 
cuit, solicited a portion. Being presented with one flagon, 
they pressed for another, arguing that a man could not 
enter a house on one foot ; but the friars would extend 
their bounty no farther. The next question was, whence 
they came, and whither they were going. They stated 
their desire to visit Sartach, and, in the first instance, 
Scacatai, who, they had learned, commanded the out- 
posts on the frontier. After considerable delay, horses 
and guides were promised ; but, in the mean time, intense 
curiosity was manifested respecting the contents of the 
carts and the nature of the presents designed for the 
monarch, whether they were gold, silver, or precious 
cloths ; but care was taken to afford no information on 
such subjects. During a tedious delay, however they 
continued, he says, incessantly *' begging onr bread for 
their young brats, wondering at aU things which they saw, 
and desiring to have them.'* He admits that they took 
nothing by force, but were most shameless and importu- 
nate beggars. As their demands were steadily resisted, 
the intercourse became so discourteous, that on leaving 
them, he felt as if <* escaped out of the hands of devils." 
Next day, he met the carts of Scacatai " laden with 
houses, and methought that a mighty city came to meet 
me." These moving abodes, composed of a frame of 
wicker, covered with white or black felt, and thirty feet 
in diameter, are placed on huge wagons, drawn each by 
twenty-two oxen. About three o'clock they *< unladed 
their houses," when there appeared huge droves of cattle 
and sheep, but very few men *, indeed the friars learned 
that the general had not under him above five hundred 
soldiers. An interpreter who waited on them was pre^ 
sented with some victuals, but he expressed much dis- 
content at not receiving also a rich garment. When they 
showed him the biscuit, wine, and apples, destined for 
the chief, he declared these wholly inadequate, without 
the addition of valuable robes. It appeared, in fact, that 
cloth, with which they had come wholly unprovided, was 
the onlv article here esteennMl Ev< u monev was neither 



40 EMBASSIES TO THE EAST 

known nor cared for, so that when presented with a gold 
coin they simply wished to know whether it were copper. 
However, it was necessary to admit them into the pres- 
ence of Scacataii whom they approached with a good 
deal of timidity. He sat on a couch, having beside him 
his wife, whose nose formed a considerable sifiject of 
wonder to the friars, not yet accustomed to the peculiari- 
ty of Mongol features. They verily thought she had cut 
and pared it tfll she had left herself no nose at all. She 
had besmeared it and the eyebrows with a black pow- 
der, rendering herself, in their apprehension, a most ugly 
creature. However, the chief received them very gra- 
ciously, accepting their wine and fruits with the plea of 
poverty for not giving more. 

The worthy monks afterwards made great efforts to 
convert some of them to the true faith, but soon found an 
irresistible obstacle in the opinion which the Russians 
had instilled, that no true Christian could taste a drop 
of koumiss, their favourite liquor, and without which, 
they asserted, that it was impossible to subsist in the 
desert. Rubruquis sought to persuade them that pure 
religion did not prohibit the temperate use of a whole- 
some beverage ; but the idea had taken such deep root, 
that nothing could remove it, and all his efforts proved 
abortive. 

On Whitsunday he received letters and guides for Sar- 
tach ; but in proceeding, he encountered so many annoy- 
ances, that he felt as if** he passed through one of bell's 
gates.'* His attendants proved bold thieves ; but, taught 
wisdom by repeated losses, he kept very strict watch 
over them. He soon came to the narrow isthmus which 
connects the Crimea with the continent. Here were a 
ditch dng from sea to sea, and a customhouse for levying 
duties, principally on salt. On leaving the peninsula, he 
entered the vast plain of Comania, or Kapchak. On one 
side was the gulf of Azof, on the other an immense level 
surface, extending in some places upwards of twenty 
days' journey, and covered with the richest pasture, yet 
in the greater part of it not an inhabitant had been left. 
On this dreary route nothing appeared but water, sky, and 
the sepulchres of the Comanians. 

Russia is described as a vast country stretching to- 



PRIOR TO MARCO POLO. 61 

wards the north, but which had been, and still was dread- 
iiiUy wasted by the Tartars. He endeavoured to employ 
his interpreter as a vehicle for conveying to the other at- 
tendants some knowledge of the Christian faith. The 
linguist, though objecting much to being made a preach- 
er, put on an appearance of complying ; but the acquisition 
of a slight smattering of the language enabled the friar to 
perceive that, instead of conveying pious instructions, he 
was talking on the most indifferent subjects. The at- 
tempt was therefore renounced. Ailer some days the 
travellers arrived at the Tanais (Bon), which is noticed 
as the boundary of Russia, and compared to the Seine for 
magnitude. Here, they remained three days, being well 
regaled on turbot and other delicate fish. The country 
beyond was finely wooded and watered, abounding in 
fars, honey, and wax. From a difficulty in procuring 
horses, Rubruquis was obliged to walk a good part of tl^e 
way ; but, in a few days, came in view of the Etilia or 
Volga, which struck him as the mightiest river he had 
eTer seen. He was correctly informed as to its course 
into the Gaspiap, a lake or sea four months^ journey in 
circuit. On the 2d of August, three days after leaving it, 
he arrived at the camp of Sartach^ 

Here Tartar life was for the first time presented on a 
great scale ; for this chief had six wives, and his eldest 
son three ; while each female owned a large house and 
two hundred carts. It was necessary to appear before 
Cojat, a Nestorian in high authority ; but the guide was 
not a little dismayed at finding no present, either for him- 
self 'or that great personage. To the chief, who w^s 
seated in state, with music and dancing before him, the 
friar introduced himself as a man who had renounced 
gold, silver, and every precious article, and possessed 
only the vestments proper to his ofiice ; having therefore 
nothing of his own, he could not give to others. This 
explanation was received graciously ; and after some 
questions respecting European princes, he was allowed 
to depart. But next morning an order came from the 
minister to bring all his books and vestments ; and, the 
stranger not daring to object, they were spread forth in 
the presence of numerous chiefs assembled on horseback. 
Struck with their beauty, Cojat asked if he would bestow 




EMBA88I£B TO THB EAST 

all those things apon Sartach. Grief and trembling seized 
Rubruquis at this suggestion ; but with all the composure 
in his power, he stated that these were holy things, which 
it was unlawful for any except priests to wear. He was 
then desired to invest himself in them, and appear before 
the great lord. He took a rich cushion, a bible presented 
to him by the king, and a psalter, containing beautiful pic- 
tures, received from the queen. A curtain of felt being 
then raised, exhibited the chief seated in the midst of all 
his wives, and with great store of koumiss and drinking- 
cups on a bench before him. The monks entered sing- 
ing Salve Regina, when the clerk and interpreter, but not 
the friar, were required to bend the knee. The Mongol 
leaders, at the same time, were rushing in and rudely 
jostling them. Sartach examined the bible, and the cross 
with the image on it, putting some questions respecting 
both ; but our traveller was dismayed to hear nothing 
that favoured the report, upon which this painful journey 
had been undertaken, of his being a believer in the gos- 
pel. He never even seemed to refer to the subject, ex- 
cept in a tone of scoffing and derision. On inquiry, the 
sole ground of the rumour was found to be, that when 
Christian merchants, many of whom passed this way, 
brought liberal presents, they were graciously accepted ; 
but when Mohammedans offered larger gills, they met a 
welcome still more cordial. 

To this severe disappointment was soon added another 
grievous affliction, ^ext morning after the interview, 
the Nestorian sent for him, and, according to the usual 
system, announced that he must proceed onward to the 
court of Baatu. The mandate was so peremptorjl that 
he did not attempt to object, but was dismayed at being 
desired to leave behind his books and vestments. He 
argued strongly against this demand, and thought he had 
succeeded ; but next day a priest and a brother of Cojat 
laid forcible hands upon them. On its being represented 
that they were necessary for a decent appearance before 
Baatu, the answer was, that the same articles could with 
no propriety be exhibited before both princes. Rubruquis 
opened his mouth to make as he thought a triumphant 
reply, but was desired to be silent and depart. He con- 
trived, however, to secrete the bible, but durst not ven- 



PftlOR TO MAACO POLO. 69 

tare oii the psalter, which, from its golden pictures, had 
attracted peculiar attentioQ. 

In pit>ceediQg eastward, the friar was kept in great 
fear, being assured that a number of runaway captives, 
forming themselves into bands, often during the night 
attacked travellers, whom they murdered and robbed. 
He was extremely struck by the majestic appearance of 
the Volga, and wondered from what regions of the earth 
such huge and mighty waters should descend. Being in- 
formed of the great sea into which it fell, he had suffi- 
cient knowledge of geography to recognise it as the Cas- 
pian, and by his route detected the error, then prevailing 
it seems in Europe, of considering the latter a gulf of the 
Northern Ocean. 

On reaching the station of Baatu, he was astonished 
at the scene which presented itself. The teat-like houses 
covered a vast space of ground, which had the appear- 
ance of a mighty city. Yet, like those of the children of 
Israel, they were arranged in regular order, and each 
man. when he unloaded his house from the cart, knew 
where to place it. The centre one, according to which 
all were placed, was the great orda or tent of Baatu. On 
their arrival a Saracen received them, though without 
supplying victuals; and next day he led them to the 
prince, warning them not to speak till ordered, and thes 
briefly. Vast crowds flocked to see the friars, who. 
standing in the habit of their order, bareheaded and bare 
footed, were, it is said ** a great and strange spectacle is 
their eyes." So acconmiodating was the khan, that he 
caused a large tent to be pitched, that the people might 
indulge their curiosity. The party being introduced, found 
him on a high gilded seat, beside one of his wives, with 
the others on one side, while the rest of the space was 
filled by the chiefs. On a bench before him was koumiss 
in stately cups of silver and gold set with precious stones. 
Rubruquis being then called upon to kneel, bent upon one 
knee ; but finding this unsatisfactory, did not choose to 
contend, and dropped upon both. Misled by this position, 
instead of answering questions, he began a prayer for 
the conversion of the khan, with warning of the dreadful 
consequences of unbelief. The i^ince merely smiled; 
but the derision which was loudly expressed by the sur* 

■ ■ F • 



64 EMBASSIES TO THS EABT 

rounding chiefs, threw him into a good deal of confhsioti. 
He then delivered the king's letters, an willing, it shooM 
seem, to describe himself as a royal messenger, but rather 
as sent by Sartach, and having come under the impres- 
sion that both he and Baatu were Christians ; a remark 
of which no notice was taken. The chief then began to 
inquire respecting the King of France, and the war which 
he was waging against the Saracens. He asked the friar 
to sit and take a draught of koumiss, and seeing his eyes . 
cast down, desired him to look up. 

The reception was thus considered satisfactory; bat 
no sooner had they gone out, than the usual dread an- 
nouncement was made, that they must proceed onward 
through Tartary, and appear before Mangou, the supreme 
khan. They were struck with consternation, the inter- 
preter declaring he esteemed himself a dead man. Ra- 
bruquis was alM> much discomposed by being told that he 
CO old take with him only this personage, who^e conduct 
had much displeased him; but by earnest entreaty he 
was allowed the associate, while the clerk was obliged to 
return. 

Being warned that be must travel four months through 
regions of extreme cold, he was made to leave most of 
his common clothes, and invest himself in garments of 
ram-skin, with the wool inside. He departed on the 16th 
September, and proceeded through the country of Cangle 
(Kankli Tartars), having on the right the Caspian, and on 
the left the region named Bulgaria the Greater. They 
were hurried rapidly forward, being obliged, he says, to 
travel every day as far as from Paris to Orleans ; a space 
which his troubles have evidently led him to overrate. 
As the Mongols chose always the best horses for them- 
selves, and our friar was corpulent and unwieldy, he found 
it a most laborious task to keep pace with them. His al- 
lowance in the morning was only a little millet and water, 
but in the evening mutton and a dish of broth, which 
marvellously refreshed him. On the whole, however, he 
complains that " of hunger and thirst, cold and weariness, 
there was no end.*' In twelve days he reached the great 
river Yakok (Yaik or Ural) coming from the country of 
Pascatir (the Bashkir Tartars). At this stage, ceasing to 
behold either city or town, they entered ** a huge and vast 



Pftlom TO MAEGO »OX.O. 05 

desert, which was in dimensions like unto the ocean sea.** 
The guide at first treated them with great contempt, and 
considered his lot bard in being obliged to accompany 
" such base fellows ;" however he gradually conceiyed a 
more favourable opinion of their characters, and introdu- 
ced them to the residence of Mongol chiefs, by whom they 
were courteously entertained. Oilers were even made to 
them of gold, silver, and fine cloths, and much surprise 
ipvas expressed when these gifts were rejected. Inquiries 
were renewed as to the western countries, the number 
of cattle and sheep in them, and particularly wheti^er the 
great pope was, as had been reported, 500 years old. After 
a long progress they turned southward, and found ranges 
of mountains interspersed with fertile vaJleys and large 
rivers. On the banks of one was a city named Coilac, 
represented as the seat of a great trade, but which, with 
other places mentioned, our imperfect knowledge of the 
region renders it difficult to identify. Here the traveller 
met votaries of the Shaman or Buddhist religion, so widely 
diffused through Eastern Asia. He saw their idols of 
large dimensions placed behind a chest or table covered 
with candles and rich oblations : a report was even made 
of one in Cathay, which could be seen at the distance of 
two days' journey. Yet, on being strictly interrogated, 
they professed belief in the unity and spirituality of the 
Deity, and represented themselves as venerating such 
images as representations only of deceased friends. Theii 
priests reside in convents, containing one or two hundred 
inmates. On meeting in the temples, they remain in long 
rows, when, though profoundly silent, they are understood 
to be mentally repeating certain mysterious words. Out 
friar made frequent but vaiti efforts to provoke them to 
speech. The Mongols adopt their system, not generally, 
but to the extent of framing in felt likenesses of dead re- 
lations, and placing them in a separate tent, into which 
none but themselves are permitted to enter* Rubruquis 
mside the attempt, but got himself heartily scolded in con- 
sequence. They have also diviners, who precede theii 
marches, and fix the spot where the tents are to be pitched. 
Qn leamg Coilac and the lake, they proceeded north- 
ward through a mountainous region covered with deep 
&now. No human abodes appeared, except the post-sta- 



66 B1IBA0BIS0 TO TPS BAVT 

tioDB mamtained by the sorereign, and eyen these at no 
Teiy eoDTenient diatances. VioleDt gnsta of wind, which 
are said to be sometimes so strong as to blow travellers 
into the rivers or lakes, rusbed through the valleys. Thej 
came to a pass of the most frightful aspect, which super* 
ttition bad peopled with demons, who were believed occa- 
ston^y to dart forth and cany off unfortunate strangers. 
Rubruqois was requested to guard against these dangers 
by some good words ; and he cpmplied so far as to read 
the creed, when the whde party paaised without the slight- 
est molestation from Satan or his emissaries. This raised 
his reputation so high, that he was importuned from all 
quarters for bits of writing ; and hence he conceived that, 
with an expert interpreter, he might have made a number 
of conrerts. At length they came to the plain where Ken 
(Cuyn^ or Kuyuk) Khan had been visited by Carpini. 
Mangou, however, had chosen a different residence, which 
they could reach only by going northward, over another 
range of high country. In Uieir progress they came to a 
plain like the sea, where there was not even a molehill ; 
and another day brought them to t3b» palace of that great 
lord. 

They experienced no very cordial welcome ; for while 
the guide had a spacious house assigned to him, the three 
Europeans were thrust into a little cottage, with scarcely 
room to lay their clothes. Being, as usual, interrogated 
as to his purpose, Rubruquis replied, that he had visited 
Sartach on the supposition of his being a Christian, and 
had been sent forward by him and by Baatu. They next 
demanded whether he came to make peace 1 He replied 
that his master, the French king, having never done them 
wrong, he knew not why they should make war upon him. 
It soon transpired, however, that by peace they really 
meant submission ; and they continued repeating, in a 
tone of lofty wonderment, << why came you, seeing yoo 
came not to make peace V* He seems to have been hereby 
transported beyond the bounds of Christian feeling, inti- 
mating a disposition to preach war against them to the 
ends of the earth. 

Next day, the friar having appeared m public bare- 
footed aeeording to the costume of his order, drew round 
a crowd erf men. who ga^ on him as a monster, 



PKloa TO MARCO POLO. 67 

asking if he wished to lose his feet. In fact, daring the 
day, his toes became frozen, and it was necessary to cover 
this part of his person. Seeing a house with a cross upon 
it, he entered and found a weli-ordered altar with images, 
and an Armenian, somewhat lean, and clad in rough hair- 
cloth, who received him cordially. This person had come 
from the territory of Jerusalem, in the hope of converting 
MangoulChan, and earnestly exhorted Rubruquis to stren- 
uous exertions for that purpose. He even advised him, 
in case of compliance, to tender the submission of the 
French king ; an expedient which the other refused to 
adopt. Towards evening, they obtained a small meal ; 
but the guide and his companions, having got drunk, never 
thought of them ; indeed they seemed not to attract at- 
tention in any quarter. 

A few days after, however, they were brought to the 
oourr, and being examined by some Nestorian priests as 
to the degree of homage they were willing to pay the great 
khan, they gave satisfactory answers, and were led to the 
gate of his house. When they had sung a hynin, and been 
carefnlly searched for concealed weapons, Uie felt curtain 
was raised, showing the interior of the tent covered all 
over with cloth of gold. The khan, seated on a bed or 
rather sofa, appeared about forty-five, of the middle size, 
with a flat nose, and wrapt in rich and brilliant fur. Be- 
side him sat his wife, a pretty little young woman ; also, 
Cirina, a grown-up daughter, vi^ith hard features, under- 
stood to be mistress of the household. Four diflferent 
liquors were o^red, hut he left the choice to themselves, 
and was presented with one made from rice, of which, 
moved by respect, he drank a little. It happened that 
Mangou had in the apartment some fiilcons and other 
birds, wbich he made to light on his hand, and whpse 
movements interested him so much more than the mes- 
sage of the friars, that for a long time he took no notice 
of them whatever. At length, they were desired to speak, 
being at the same time ordered to drop npon their knees. 
Rubruquis gave the same account as before of the circum- 
stances which bad led him to visit the imperial court, 
cdnclading with a request ta remain in the country, and 
teaeh his religion. He added an apology for not having 
brought gold, silver, or other precious articles. The 



68 BM14¥**'«» TO TBB KA8T 

khan replied in lofty terms :— " Even as the son spreads 
bis beams every where, so our power and Baatu's spreads 
itself eveiy where, so that we have no need of your silvex 
and gold." Here, however, a serious obstacle arose to 
farther intercourse. The interpreter had taken such ad- 
vantage of the abundant supply of liquor, that he could no 
longer distinctly convey the sentiments intrusted to him. 
The extreme awkwardness of this situation w^ allevi- 
ated by the appearance of strong symptoms that Mangou 
had also indulged too freely ; and under these circum- 
stances, the earliest opportunity was embraced of taking 
their leave. They were followed by the secretary, who 
proceeded to examine them respecting the kingdom of 
France, especially the number of rams, oxen, and horses 
contained in it.. These inquiries, to our traveller's deep 
indignation, were found to be made on the understanding 
that the Tartars were presently to proceed thither and 
take possession of the whole. It was also announced 
that Mangou charitably allowed him to remain two months, 
when the extreme cold would be mitigated. He solicited 
permission to reside permanently, but received no answer. 
He had now the satisfaction of meeting a lady from 
Mentz, whose husband was employed as an architect, and 
began to find himself generally viewed with a more fisi- 
vourable eye. Having complained, that in his present 
mansion he had not even room to pray for the khan, he 
was provided with an abode somewhat more spacious. 
The supply of victuals even would have been tolerable, 
were it not that whenever the party sat down to their 
meals, half-starved natives rushed in for a share. The 
monk indeed asserted that the khan was at least partial 
to Christians ; but this soon appeared to be a complete 
deception. He mere^ maintained a friendly intercourse 
with all the sects, and obtained from each prayers and 
favourable predictions; while they readily followed his 
court, " as flies do honey." He bestowed on them gifts, 
and they prophesied to him prosperity. This mortifying 
impartiality became very evident on a great holiday, when 
the Nestorian priests went in first and performed their 
ceremonies ; but they were followed by the Saracens, and 
these by the idolaters. The friar, having one day entered 
a Nestorian chapel, was much surprised to find Mangon 



PftlOR TO MAIK'O I*Ol.U. 09. 

seated. He was made to sing a pealm, add to show his 
iMble, breviaiT, and images, which the prince carefully 
exaoiined. The latter then departed, but his lady re* 
mained, and having filled a large cup with liquor, desired 
a blessing on it, fell on her knees, and drank it off. Similar 
observances continued, till her majesty, being completely 
drunk, was carried home in her chariot. Rubroquis gen- 
erally remarks, that the persons here calling themselves 
Christians, did the utmost dishonour to their holy profes- 
sion. Courting the grandees by the most abject flattery, 
they allowed their magical and idolatrous rites to pass 
without censure, and instead of reproving their intoxica- 
tion, shared it in the most scandalous manner. He was 
much dissatisfied even with his Armenian friend, w^om 
he accompanied to a great lady called Cota, then ex- 
tremely unwell, and on whom all the arts of magic and 
divination had been vainly exhausted. The priest pre- 
sented what he termed holy water, but it proved to be an 
infusion of rhubarb, the effects of which were represented 
as supernatural, and being probably adapted to the full 
habit of body which her n^de of living had produced, af- 
forded speedy relief Our friar was at first struck with 
awe at the sight of this object, which he conceived as 
bearing a sacred and mysterious character ; but on learn- 
ing that it was a mere cathartic root, expressed mucb 
displeasure at such deception. He observed too, that 
though, in drinking, the lady did homage to the eross, 
there were four swords half-drawn disposed at each side 
and both ends of the bed ; while a silver chalice, sus- 
pected to have been carried off from a church in Hungary, 
was filled with ashes and a black stone, evidently for pur* 
poses of conjuration ; yet to these profane objects no ex- 
ception was taken by the monk. 

Towards the end of Lent, the khan removed to his royal 
seat of Karakorum, when the friars, with other official at- 
tendants, were expected to accompany him. The route 
lay northward, among hills covered with deep snow ; and 
the cold becoming most intense, their prayers were soli- 
cited in order that the animals composing the train might 
not perish. After two days it abated, and on Palm Sun- 
day, at nine in the morning, they entered the city, bearing 
the cross aU^, and met a Nestorian proeessioo* which 



70 EMBASSIES TO THE EAST 

tbey aoeompanied to church. This capital of an ea^axe 
which embraced nearly half the world, is described as un- 
fit to bear any conoparison with the town of St Denis, 
near Paris. There were two principal streets, one occu- 
pied by the Saracens, adjacent to the court where the 
fairs were held, and merchants chiefly resorted ; the other 
by the Chinese, where trades and manufactures were 
practised. The palace, situated near the gate, occupied 
an extensive space, enclosed by a brick wall like a monas- 
tery. The great hall for festivals » compared to a church, 
having two rows of pillars, and three gates on the south ; 
while on the north side was the raised seat for the mon- 
arch . William Bouchier, husband to the lady from Mentz, 
had constructed here a most admired ornament. It was 
a silver tree, having at its foot four lions, while throng 
the trunk ascended an equal number of pipes, conveying 
respectively wine, koumiss, mead, and rice liquor. From 
the top, these conduits branched downwards, and became 
connected with serpents, which twined round the body of 
the tree. On the summit stood an angel, who, on a sig- 
nal given by the butler, blew a trumpet, at which sound 
the servants, from copious stores provided in a concealed 
apartment, filled, the pipes with their appropriate bever- 
ages. These, after making the circuit of the trunk and 
branches, descended into vessels prepared beneath for 
their reception. The khan held two great annual festi- 
vals, one at Easter, and the other at Midsummer, which 
last, as the more important, was attended by all the chiefii 
within twenty days' journey. On these occasions he had 
a very elevated place, where he " sat above like a god." 
One lady was seated by him ; while other places, consid- 
^ably beneath, but stifl higher than those for the rest of 
the company, were occupied by the members of his fam- 
ily. All the men were on one side, the women on the 
other ; while in the midst, between the throne and the 
silver tree, was an empty space for servants or ambassa^ 
dors. 

The authorities at Karakorum were found in consider* 
able agitation, in consequence of a report that 400 assas- 
sins, disguised in various habits, were on the watch to 
kill the emperor. The IHars underwent a strict examina^ 
tion by the magistracy, and afterwards at court by seve- 



ntlOK TO ITABCO POLO. 71 

nl of the chief seoretaries. To the latter the aKimate 
statement.of Rubruquis was, that he came to speak to the 
khan words of God. They then demanded what words 
these were, expecting, he believes, that according to the 
OBQal practice, they would consist in announcing some 
prosperous event. On the contrary, he gave an honest 
and faithfol exposition of Christian duty. The examiners 
being mostly Saracens, were ranch displeased, and took 
a most unfair advantage of him, by demanding whether 
his remarks did not imply that Mangou Khan did not keep 
the commandments of God. This cruel thrust he attempt- 
ed to parry by saying that he w^as i;^ady to expound his 
Tiews to the monarch, leaving him to determine that point 
for himself The other party, however, choosing, not 
without some reason, to consider him as thus admitting 
their allegation, proceeded directly to inform his majesty 
that he was denounced by this stranger not only as an 
idolater, but a violater of the divine statutes. Mangou 
appears to have been a good deal discomposed ; yet he did 
not take any violent step. He merely sent his secretaries 
to the friars, observing that the Christians, Saracens, and 
Tuines (idolaters), had separate laws and books, and each 
insisted that his own ^as the best. He desired , therefore, 
^at they should meet, explain, and compare their respect- 
ive tenets, so that he might judge which was purest. 
Yet his displeasure was shown by the arrival next day of 
the messengers to announce, that having now resided long 
in the country, they must take their departure. They had 
indeed much exceeded the two months allowed in the be- 
ginning of Janaary, having nearly reached Whitsun-eve ; 
yet they had hoped to be silently permitted to remain. 
The same wish was intimated, as in the case of Carpini, 
that ambassadors should accompany them to France ; but 
Rubruquis declared his inability to guarantee their safety 
in the warlike countries through which he was to pass. 

The preparations for the conference continued, and seem 
to have excited a considerable ferment, since the khan 
thought it necessary to proclaim, *' that none speak con- 
tentious or injurious words to other, nor make any tumult, 
on pain of death." The idolaters murmured somewhat 
loodly at this unprecedented attempt to dive into their se- 
crets ; hot they were not allowed to escape. By the final 



7f ISMBAflSUS TO TBK £A9T 

amBgemeiit, the iriar was pitched against them, aeoood- 
ed by the Nestorians, aad even the Saracens, who con- 
curred in his undertaking to prove the existence of one 
supreme deity, whilst the opposite party maintained the 
false doctrine :-^*' foola say thero is one Grod, but wise 
men say there are many.*' From his report, he appears 
really to have maintained the argument in a very respect- 
able manner, and boasts that his opponents; though with- 
out manifesting any signs of conviction, were reduced to 
silence. The two other parties celebrated this issue with 
a song of triumph, and then, according to their usual cus- 
tom, by copious libations. 

Next day, Rubruquis was again caUed to court, but 
warned to say nothing relative to his departure, as that 
was a point irrevocably decided. On coming into the 
presence, he was sharply asked, whether he had really 
termed the monarch an idolBier. He denied it, and hav- 
ing repeated what he really said, was told it was- well, as 
the alleged speech would have been highly improper. 
Mangou then began a sort of confession of faiths intima- 
ting, that he believed and served one Grod, who, he sup- 
posed, might reveal himself in different modes, to differ- 
ent nations. He taunted the friar, by remarking that the 
Christians, who had received the Scriptures, did not ob- 
serve them ; but afterwards said, he meant no personal 
application. He even offered gold, silver, and fine cloths ; 
but the holy man said, he wanted only aid for his jonrney, 
with a pass that would carry him to the King of Armenia. 
He was told that he should have both, .Having then ob- 
tained leave to speak, he somewhat earnestly solicited 
permission to return ; but after some musing, the answer 
was given :-— " You have a long way to go ; make your- 
self strong with food." In this not uncourteous refusal 
he was obliged to acquiesce. 

Rubruquis, though he declined receiving a political en- 
voy, had readily agreed to take a letter, the composition 
of which occupied a considerable time. The court, in- 
deed, was entirely engrossed by the arrival of ambassa* 
dors from Bagdad, from India^ and from Turkey, and by 
a festival, at which much drinking took place. At length 
the epistle was delivered, the terms of which are some- 
what intricate ; but the general tenor was to annonnce, as 



YRIOll TO MARCO POX.O. 19 

Qsinil, tlie empire of the world conferred by heaveii npon 
Oengis and his posterity, the obligation of the King of 
France, as of a^ other monarchs, to obey it, and the se- 
rious consequences that woald result if he failed to com- 
ply. It was the 9th of Jaly before the mission were ready 
to depart, when, notwithstanding their resolution against 
receiYing presents, they found it necessary, out of respect 
to the monarch, to accept each a single garment. This 
disinterestedness was extolled by the Nestorians to the 
idolaters ; but they replied, it was because the travellers 
were fools, while they themselves, like wise men, if the 
khan should offer all he possessed, would gladly accept it. 
Rubruquis, in his return, was enabled by the milder sea- 
son to take a more direct course, by which, in two months 
and ten days, he reached the court of Baatu. The tract 
of country, however, through which he passed, was most 
desolate ; and on one occasion only did he see the appear- 
ance of a house. Sartaoh was met on his way to pay 
homage to Mangou ; he treated the pilgrims courteously, 
and gave an order on Cojat's father to deliver up all the 
articles that had been detained. Having determined to 
proceed by land, on account of the approach of winter, the 
travellers were furnished by Baatu with a guide to con- 
duct them to the Soldan of Turkey. In passing through 
the Caneasian territory, they found the mountain-regions 
occupied by independent tribes, who made frequent inroads 
into the {dain, so < hat even with a good escort they did 
not feel altogether secure. Proceeding through Derbend, 
or the Iron Gate, they came to the junction of the Kur 
and Araxes ; then ascended the course of the latter river, 
having Mount Ararat on their right. On reaching Erze- 
Toum they found themselves within the Turkish domin- 
ion, an'i proceeded direct to Iconium, its capital, for that 
empire then scarcely extended beyond Asia Minor. It 
was found much weakened by war with the Tartars and 
other vicissitudes ; so that it was said.s '* a child ruleth in 
Turkey, having no treasure, few warriors, and many en- 
emies." That power, however, was destined soon after- 
wards to break forth with increased energy, and become 
the terror of Europe. Rubruquis embarked at Aias for 
Cyprus, and thence proceeded to Antioch and Tripoli, 
Where he rejoined his chapter. 



74 E1IBAB8IE0 TO THE BAST 

These two expeditions conveyed to Earope a pmtty dis- 
tinct view of the economy of that mighty empire, whieh 
held sway over nearly one-half of the world, and struck 
terror into the rest. The spectacle is the more interest- 
ing, too, as it is now passed for ever. A people stink in 
the depth of barbarism, ruling or overawing the entire cir- 
cle of eivUized nations, is a phenomenon whith the lapee 
of ages can never reproduce. Intelligence, wealth, ma- 
chinery, now give to the latter, an undisputed superiority 
over brute courage ; and ten British regiments would have 
speedily subverted the empires of Gengis and of Timur in 
their greatest glory. The aspect, therefore, which the 
first and greatest of these presented, must be very deserv- 
ing of attention. One of the circumstances which mosi 
struck the friars was the complete and absolute subjec- 
tion in which the khans held a people, who might least 
have been expected to submit to such rule. They had 
seen in Europe, not indeed any regular despotism, yet the 
high domination of lords over their serfs, and of the heads 
of the church over the inferior orders ; hut no subordina- 
tion, civil or ecclesiastical, could be compared with that 
which they here witnessed. The monarch appointed to 
each chief his place of residence, ordered him wherever he 
pleased, to war, to life, or to death, and was obeyed with- 
out the slightest hesitation. No man, in relation to him, 
could call any possession his own, but held everything at 
the command of the ruler. His. messengers were ftimish- 
ed with horses, and whatever they wanted, in the conn- 
tries through which they passed. If he desired to add to 
his wives the daughter or sister of any of his subjects, 
she was yielded up without hesitation ; nay, a selection 
of the most beautiful maidens was periodically made, of 
whom he retained part for himself, and distributed the 
others among his officers. To account for a sway so des- 
potic, we may remark, that all Tartary was then one vast 
camp, engaged in habitual war ; and to carry on military 
operations with success, complete discipline and subordi- 
nation were necessary. Gengis had also succeeded in 
overawing an ignorant people, hy a pretended commis- 
sion, and even it was said, a forged letter from the deity, 
placing in his hands the dominion of the whole world. 
His splendid victories and extensive conquests, might 



fBIOE TO MASCO FOLO. 75 

to eonfina this donation ; and even their pride might 
lead them to submit to aa authority which had raised their 
nation to such a height of greatness. 

Another circumstance, equally opposite to preconceived 
ideas, was the polish, courtesy, and respectful familiarity, 
which distinguished their social intercourse. Quarrels, 
blows, combats, and bloodshed, then so frequent in Eu- 
rope, were not witnessed, even amid their deepest po- 
tations. Honesty was eyery where conspicuous ; their 
wagons and other property were secure without locks or 
gosutis ; and if any of their cattle strayed, arrangements 
were inade by which they were speedily recovered. Not- 
withstanding the frequent scarcity of victuals, they were 
generous in relieving those in greater want than them- 
selves. But towards all other nations they displayed the 
most inordinate pride. Great kings from different parts 
of Asia oocasioiiaUy visited the khan ; yet the meanest 
Tartars, appointed to attend on those princes, treated 
them as their inferiors, took precedence of them in walk- 
ing, and occupied the principal seats in the apartments. 
Tbeir reckless massacres in war, too, were generally 
kBOWB. It is even asserted, that to promote their views 
ofcKW^ttest, there was no deceit or stratagem to which 
they would not stoop ; nay, that they had gained more by 
these arts than by their valour in the field. It must, how- 
eyer^ be observed, that the law of nations, in regard to 
lunbassadors, appears to have been vexy well observed, 
even where their conduct did not give satisfaction. While 
within the territory, they were guarded, and their wants 
supplied ; and if in this last respect they often suffered 
much misery, it seems to have been rather the fault of 
snbordinate fimctionaries, than the intention of the rulers. 

In the domestic condition of this people we observe re- 
markable contrasts. Within their rude tents glittered all 
the pomp of the £ast ; gems, gold, the richest fabrics of 
Bagdad, India, and China. These were brought profusely 
in name of presents, but in reality under the influence of 
fear as tribute. Tet this splendour was accompanied 
with a scanty supply even of the humblest necessaries of 
life. The subsistence of the great body of the people de- 
pended almost entirely on the milk of their cattle, during 
the season when it could be procuref . That of mares 



76 BMBAaSIBS TO TH£ EABT 

was preferred to all others, especially after being ftrmeiit- 
ed into their favoarite liquor. In its abeense, that of 
cows, sheep, and goats, was gladly consomed. In win- 
ter, when animals no longer yielded this heverage, re- 
course was had to millet, not made into bread, bat dis- 
solved in a large proportion of melted snow, and drunk 
as if it had been milk. Those who could aflbrd to kill a 
sheep from time to time had in the evening a small dish 
of mutton made into broth. Even this scanty diet often 
failed, and these hardy warriors were obliged to spend 
whole days without food, — a privation which they bore 
patiently and even gaily. Yet this fortitude in submitting 
to necessity can scarcely be called temperance, since at 
their feasts, and on every occasion when koumiss could 
be procured, they indulged in the wildest excesses of in- 
toxication. It may haye been observed, that even at the 
imperial banquets, the entertainment did not go beyond a 
sufficiency of mutton ; the real luxury consisting in an 
immoderate consumption of intoxicating fluids.^-The 
general conduct of the sexes was correct ; their diseooFSe 
was free from inunodesty ; and the breach of thd mar- 
riage-vow was severely punished. But the extreme 
length to which polygamy was carried among the chiefe 
was at once inunoral, and unjust towards the body of the 
people. 

The religious condition df this singular society may be 
sufficiently collected from the narrative ahready given. 
The family of Gengis and aU the great leaders pro^ssed 
a species of deism, which might even have been consid- 
ered pure, had it not been solely employed as an engine 
of state policy. Its main tenet was the commission given 
from on high to hold the whole earth in subjection, and 
the consequent right to carry war and desolation among 
every people who should refuse to obey the mandate. In 
other respects a complete toleration was extended to the 
different creeds which prevailed in the country ; inclu- 
ding that of the Nestorian Christians, of the Mohamme- 
dans, who, as long as the caliphate survived, were called 
Saracens ; and lastly, of the votaries of the Shaman su- 
perstition, nearly identical with that of Boodh or Fo, — 
a system widely |diffused through Eastern Asia. The 
nriests of all these se^ts were not only favoured but court« 



PRIOR TO MARCO POLO. 77 

ed, admitted to the palace, and loaded with gifts ; while 
to each separately was held out the hope of his tenet's 
being adopted by the monarch. No such intention, it 
may be presumed, was ever entertained ; yet besides the 
policy of conciliating the respective votaries, there does 
not seem to have been wanting a certain vague belief in 
them all, to the extent at least of expecting benefit from 
their prayers, and the fulfilment of auspicious predictions. 
The imperial creed too, amid its boasted purity, included 
for purposes of divination and the cure of diseases, the 
meanest and most childish practices. 

Carpini has given an account of the military system of 
the Tartars, — ^a subject which then excited in Europe the 
most intense interest. It seems to have included syste- 
matic arrangements, then unknown in Europe, where the 
troops rushing to battle under their feudal lords, displayed 
little more than a gallant onset. Here they were arranged 
in bodies of 10, 100, 1000, 10,000, commanded byoflScers 
rising always higher in station ; while a few, of still more 
elevated rank, exercised the general direction of the war. 
They did not mingle with the combatants, but remained 
in the rear issuing orders. If any members of a corps 
fled while the others maintained their ground, or stood 
aloof while the rest advanced, they were killed on the 
spot. Notwithstanding their daring valour, they resorted 
to every species of stratagem. They sometimes placed 
their captives on horseback in the rear, or formed even 
clothes into the shape of men, in order to magnify their 
apparent numbers. Before an engagement, detachments 
were placed in ambush, which, during the conflict, appear- 
ed suddenly on the enemy's flanks, spreading confusion 
and dismay. When they were to cross a broad river, they 
spread over it large hides, fastened by the corners with 
ropes, placing themselves and their baggage upon them. 
Horses were then attached in front, the foremost line of 
which was guided by men swimming. On capturing a 
city, inquiry was made for the best artificers, who, with 
a few others to serve as slaves, were carried along with 
them ; all the rest were massacred without mercy. 
Noble or distinguished persons were never spared^r if 
by any chance they were, it was only to be kept in per* 
petual captivity. 



76 EMBASSIES TO THE EAST, ETC. 

The panic which still reigned in Earope of a second 
Tartar invasion proved happily unfounded; the khans 
being diverted in the first instance by more tempting ob- 
jects. Hulagu, a nephew of Mangoii, in 1258, subverted 
the caliphate, and Kublai, in the course of the next twelve 
years, made the complete conquest of China. The most 
violent dissensions then broke out among the members 
of this powerful dynasty, and the vast mass was soon 
broken into separate and hostile fragments. Kublai was 
the last who was owned as Grand Khan of all the Tar- 
tars ; and even his real power did not extend far beyond 
the limits of China. There we shall find him« in the 
narrative of Marco Polo, combining the rude magnificence 
of the desert with the pomp and somewhat of the ele- 
gance of the most civilised empire then in the world. 



TRAVELS OF MAECO POLO. 



Preliminary Notice, 

At tbe time when the events now related U«M place, 
ties of a more salatary natore connected Europe wrth the 
Eastern world. The Italian towns had become conspiC' 
ttotts as the scenes where arts and commerce, after be* 
ing nearly crushed by the inroad of the barbarous nations, 
first began to reviye. Their manufacturing industry, in* 
deed, thongh very considerable, was surpassed by that 
of tbe Low Countries ; stiU they formed almost the sole 
channel by which intercourse was maintained with Asia, 
whence at that time were imported all artictes of luxury^ 
— precious stones, pearls, spices, and cloths of unriTsUed 
fineness. Venice, Genoa, and Pisa contended with each 
other in this career ; but the first, owing to her situation 
and superior power, held the principal place. Her posi« 
tion was mnch advanced by a very extraordinary event, 
which occurred in the beginning of the thirteenth oentu* 
ly. A crusade had been organized in France among a 
number of the nobles who, proceeding to Venice, procured 
the necessary shipping by inducing Dandolo, the doge, a 
gallant chief, with other distinguished persons, to share 
in the enterprise. On reaching the shores of the Le« 
vant, their views took a very singular direction ; for in* 
stead of advancing to the Holy Land, they turned their 
arms against Constantinople, carried that capital by storm, 
and placed Baldwin, count of Flanders, on the imperial 
throne of the East. The Venetians shared, not only the 
booty, but also the power acquired by this wicked achievo- 
ment. They were allowed to occupy an extensive quar* 
ter of the city, and to maintain there a podesta or bailo, 
invested with very ample jurisdiction. 

There had never been wanting native merchants, ready 
to bring the desired commodities from tbe remoter pro» 
▼incea of Asia to tbe eonMgaotts parts of Enn^e. Bui 

Q 



80 rEBUMINABT HOTICB. 

tlie Yenetiaii traders, eooonnged l^ tbeir iocreasmg ioob- 
perily, and the adTaotageous position now attained, began 
to aim at penetrating into the interior, and obtaining the 
goods on better terras in the country where they were 

Srodneed. The dominions of the caliph, the head of the 
[ohammedan faith, opposed, it is true, a powerful obsta- 
cle to their taking the most direct route. But the succes- 
sors of Gengis, though so terrible and merciless in the field, 
welcomed in their tented cities, without the least distinc- 
tion of country or religion, all who brought articles that 
were either ornament^ or useful. We have seen from 
Rubmquis, how Christian merchants, on paring their way 
with presents, passed unmolested through the camps of 
Sartach and Baiatu. There were soon found distingoisb* 
ed citizens of Venice ready to follow in the same track. 

Nicolo and Maiiio Polo, two indiTiduals who united the 
character, then common, of nobles and traffickers, in the 
middle of the thirteenth century^ set out for Constantino- 
ple, whence they proceeded to the shores of the Crimea. 
There they were encouraged to visit a great Tartar chief 
on the Volga, where a series of events, for which we shall 
r^er to the following narrative, led them on eastwards as 
far as China. After a sbort stay, they returned to Ven- 
ice ; and two years later, went back, according to engage- 
ment, carrying with them Marco, son to Niook>, a promis- 
ing youth. They spent twenty-four yeare in the East, 
chiefly at the court of the great kban, the Tartar mon- 
arch who r^ed over China. At the end of that time they 
finally returned ; but, on reaching, Venice were so com- 
pletely altered,---4heir dress, appearance, and even lan- 
guage had become so foreign, — ^that their nearest friends 
were unable to recognise them. After obtaining with dif- 
ficulty access to their paternal mansion, they determined 
by a public display to satisfy their countrymen as to the 
happy results of their journey. All their relations and ac- 
quaintances were invited to a magnificent feast. They 
then presented themselves in splendid dresses, first of 
crimson satin, next of damask, and lastly of velvet bearing 
the same colour, which they successively threw ofif and 
distributed among the company. Returning in their ordi- 
nary attire, Marco produced the rags in which they had 
been dingiiised, ripped them open, aad exhibited such a 



PftKLmiNAKY NOTICE. SI 

proftSflfion of diaTnofids, rubies, sapphires, and precious 
jewels, as completely dazzled the spectators. Mr. Mars- 
den questions this anecdote, as unsuitable to the dignity 
of their characters ; yet there is no reason to suppose in 
them any indifierence to display ; and Ramusio assures 
US) that about 200 years after, when he was a boy, he had 
been told it by Malipiero, an aged and respectable sena- 
tor, who had heard the story from his own grandfather; 
It appears certain, that on the news of their wealth and 
adventures, persons of all ranks, ages, and professions, 
flocked to the house with congratulations and inquiries. 
Marco, whose society was courted by all the distinguish- 
ed youthsf stood forth as principal orator. Having often 
occasion in his enumerations of people and treasure, to 
repeat the term million, then not very common in Europe, 
the surname of Millione was applied to him, first in jest, 
but Ramusio says he has seen him thus named in the re- 
cords of the republic ; and the house in which he lived, 
down to that day, bore the title of the Corte del MiUione. 
Ck)ant Boni has even adopted this as the title of his learn- 
ed work on the subject. 

Meafttime, he appears not to have thought of commit- 
ting his observations to writing ; and the fruits of his trav* 
els would probably never have reached posterity, but for 
a severe misfortune by which he was overtaken. Venice 
and Genoa, those two mighty rivals, were then at open 
war ; and news arrived that a fleet belonging to the lat- 
ter had appeared on the coast of Dalmatia. Andrea Ban- 
dolo was immediately sent against them, when Marco, 
with characteristic spirit, oflfered his services and was ap- 
pointed to the command of a galley. The squadrons en- 
countered near the island of Curzola ; and it was a disas- 
trous day for Venice. Her fleet was completely defeated ; 
and Dandolo hhnself, who was made prisoner, escaped 
only by a voluntary death the ignominy of being carried 
in triumph to Genoa. Marco, also, was wounded and 
taken ; but, too wise to imitate the rash example of his 
commander, he was conveyed to that city, and lodged in 
prison. Here, according to Ramusio, his character and 
adventures excited an extraordinary interest ; and being 
visited by the principal inhabitants, his captivity was ren- 
dered as mild as possible. A more important circum- 



89 p«KiiUUNAftY Noncn. 

sUoee was, that be had a feUow priaoner, RiistieiaB8» a 
citizen of Pisa, though of French origin, who was imbued 
with an enthusiastic love of legendary and romantic lore. 
One of such a temper could not hut iisten with rapture 
to the wondrous tale of his companion ; and it was soon 
agreed between them, that it would be most unjust to the 
world to withhold from it the knowledge of so many mar- 
vellous scenes as those which he had witnessed. Marco, 
we suspect, was no great penman;* but his companion 
was fond of composition, though without having attained 
very high proficiency. We quite agree with Count Boni» 
from the tenor of the narrative, that the traveller wroto 
no part of it, but merely dictated ; nay, we doubt much if 
there was any such regular or author-like process as this 
term would imply. We should rather say that he talked 
it to his companion, who wrote it down as he best could. 
The frequent change from the first to the third persoa 
seems to prove^ that while some parts were thus com- 
mitted to paper, others were written from memory ailer 
the conversation. Thus, by a curious combination of 
circumstances, was produced, in a foreign language and 
an irregular form, this extra(»dinary history. It was still 
a sealed book to the traveller's countrymen ; but there 
seems every reason to believe that it soon received an 
Italian dress, under which it was rapidly circulated. 

On the 12th May 1299, peace was concluded between 
the two rival cities ^ and Marco in consequence regained 
his liberty. t On his arrival, he ^nd a considerable 
change in the family. His father, dreading) it is said, 
that' through the son's captivity there should be no heiie 
to his great wealth, had taken a young wifis ; not being, 
perhaps, unwilling to excuse, on this ground, a step which 
might seem unsuitable to his age. Hence Marco found 
on bis return three young brothers who had been bora 
during his absence. He had too mueh discretion to take 
umbrage at this circumstance, or the consequent diminu* 

* Accorcling to Ramusio, he sent to Venice for his notes, which are 
indeed repeatedly referred to in that editor's text ; but, as not the slight- 
est mention is nmdn of them in any of the earlier editions, we gxeat^ 
doubt if they ever existed. 

t Boni, II Millione, i. introd. xiz. Mr. Marsden supposes him libera* 
ted by the kindness of the Genmse ; but the Count seems to have had 
more precise infnr^iation. 



PRELIMINARY NOTICB. 80 

tion of riches, which, indeed, were still sufficiently ample 
for all parties. Following soon after the example of his 
parent, he became the father of two daughters, named 
Moretta and Fantrna. The rest of his life was spent in 
Venice ; but modern inquirers have in vain sought to-trace 
in it a single incident. It has only been discovered, that 
his will was made in 19S3, proving him to have at least 
exceeded the age of sixty-six. 



TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 



Introductory NarreUvoe of the Journey. 

Prologae— Jonmey of Nicolo and Maffio Polo into fhe East~Their Arri- 
▼al at tliA Conn of KnUai the Tartar Emperor of China^Sent badk 
on a Mittion to the Pope — Retom, canying Marco with them — Final 
I)epartcirey and Voyage through the Indian Ooean to Persia — Ajnival 
at Venice. ^ 

Prologae. 

Empkeoks, kings, dukes, marquises, counts, knights, 
and all perscms wishing to know the various generations 
of men in the world, also the kingdoms, provinces* and 
all the regions of the East, read this book ; in it you will 
find very great and wonderful things of the nations, chiefly 
of Armenia, Persia, and Tartary, India, and various other 
provinces. In the present work Messer Marco Polo, a 
prudent and learned citizen of Venice,* relates in order 
the various things which he himself saw, or heard from 
men of honour and truth. And those who read this 
book may be assured that all things in it are true. For I 
would have you to know that, from the creation of Adam 
to the present day, no Pagan, or Saracen, or Christian, 
of any other person of whatever race or generation, ex- 
plored so many parts of the world, or saw such great 
wonders as this Messer Marco Polo. He being in the year 
of our Lord 1295 shut up as a captive in the prisons of 
Genoa, thought with tiimself what a great evil it would 
be, if the wonders seen and heard by him should not be 
known to those who could not view them with their own 
eyes. He therefore caused the accounts here contained 
to be written by Messer S. Rusticians of Pisa, who was 
confined with him in the same prison, in the year of our 
Lord 1298. 



tNTEODlTCTORY NAKRATlVlU ETC. 86 

I.— Nicolo and Maffio Polo travel into tha Eaat. 

In the year of our Lord 1250, the Emperor Baldwin 
reigning at Constantinople, Nicolo Polo, father of the said 
Marco, and Maffio, brother of Nicolo, entered a ship, laden 
with divers costly goods ; and, spreading their sails, 
committed themselves to the deep. They arrived in 
safety at Constantinople, where they disposed of their 
cargo with advantage. They then determined to proceed 
together, in search of-ftirther profit, to the Greater Sea ;♦ 
and, having purchased many precious jewels, departed 
from Constantinople, and, entering a ship, sailed to Sol- 
daia.t After remaining there some days, they resolved 
to proceed farther, and, mounting on horseback, came by 
continued journeys to Sara, the residence of Barka Khan, 
king and lord of the Tartars, who then inhabited Bul- 
garia.t That prince, who was much rejoiced at their ar- 
rival, received them very honourably and kindly. They 
gave him all the jewels brought from Constantinople, 
which be gladly accepted, and l^stowed in return double 
their value. AAer they had dwelt in this city a year, a 
most furious war arase between Barka and Aiau, the 
ruler of Eastern Tartary. Their forces were led against 
each other; and, after a very sharp contest and much 
slaughter on both sides, Alau was victorious.^ Thjs war 
rendered it impossible for the Venetians to return with 
safety by the same road, and they thought it advisable to 
proceed eastward, and endeavour by another route to find 



* The naaie givan at Conataatinople to tha Black Saa, aa diatingmdi- 
•d from the amaller one of Marmora, oa which that capital ia aitaated. 

t Called now Soodak. This part of the Crimea, forming then tha 
•ntrance into the northern regions of Enrope and Asia, is described bjr 
Rabmqnis, page 66. 

t This is nut to be confounded with the oonntrj of the same name on 
the Dannbe, bnt is applied to the great plaina on the Volga, and by 
aarlv traveUers is often called Bulgaria the Greater. Barka was the 
brother of Baatn, and succeeded to his dominion. Sara, by Ramusio 
called Asaara, is Sarai, a town on th^ Volga, founded by that prince, 
and not far from tJie modem Astracan. 

^ Alau, in the histories of Asia named Hoolaku, was a grandson of 
Gengis, and brother of Mangou. He had received the command of that 
fome which we have repeatedly seen stationed on the eastern frontier 
of Persia, and now occupied the greater part of that empire. In 1358, 
he rendered himself famous by the capture of Bagdad, and the subversiun 
of the caliphate. The term Eastern applies only to liis relative pqyition 
in regard to the Volga. The details of this war will be given from the 
French edition at the close of the work. 



M WTmODVatOKV NAftftATtVJI 

their way back to Veaice. Departing trom Barka they 
happily reached a certain city named Oukaka, subject to 
the dominioD of a western chief. Thence they passed a 
river named Tigris,* and wandered through a desert 
during seventeen successive days, finding no inhabitants, 
except Tartars dwelling in tents and subsisting by theit 
cattle. They then came to a city in the province of 
Persia, named Bokhara, f the noblest in that country, gov- 
erned by a king called Barak. Hexe, being unable to oro- 
ceed, they remained three full years. 

II.— Th«7 arrive at the Coart of the Tartar Emperor of China. 

While they brothers sojourned in Bokhara, It happenea 
that Alau, lord of the East, despatched ambassadors to 
the sovereign of all the Tartars, who in their language 
is called the great khan, meaning the king of kings, and 
whose name was Kublai. They, on meeting the brothers^ 
felt not a little wonder, having never seen any men from 
the Latin countries. t Addressing them courteously, they 
besought that they would accompany the embassy to the 
khan, promising much honour and wealth, since, though 
wonderfully desirous, he had never seen one of their na- 
tion. The Venetians made a suitable answer, and frank- 
ly agreed to comply with the request. They set out and 
continued a whole year travelling in a north-eastern di- 
rection ; and though much delayed by heavy snows and 
the swelling of rivers, at length reached the residence of 
that mighty monarch, having beheld on their way many 
wonderful objects, which will be described hereafter in 
this book. 

tn.— Their Reception. 

Kublai, illustrious for his benignity, received the bro- 
thers kindly and joyflilly, being very desirous to see 

*The trafellers wetdd douhtlesabe not a little bewildered in this 
dtnutrona journey through an unknown country. This certainly ap- 
pears in their mistaking for the Tigris a river which undoubtedly was 
the Sirr or Sihon, the ancient Jazartes. 

t A well known city of Central Asia. The making it part of Persia 
may be ascribed to the same confusion of ideas which is adverted to in 
the last note. 

t The term Latin daring the middle ages was used to express the 
nations of Western Europe subject to the spiritual dominion of the pops. 
They were thus distinguished from the subjects and depvadaatt of tts* 
^MtaatiaBpeUtaa empire, whose language was ifoaek. 



t)F THE JOUBNBf . 87 

liatins. He urgently inquired what sort of emperor they 
bed, how he lived and administered justice ; asking 
questions also respecting the supreme pontiff, and all the 
acts and manners t)f the Christians — ^to which they made 
judicious replies in the Tartar language* which they had 
learned. 

rv. — Sent back on an Embassy to tne Pope. 

This gteat king and master of all the Tartars in the 
world, and of all those regions, being informed respecting 
the actions of the Latins, was greatly pleased. Calling 
a council of his harons, he informed them, that he wished 
to send messengers to the pope, the lord of the Chris- 
tians ; which titey unanimously approved. He then 
asked the brothers in friendly terms to be the bearers 
of his message ; and this they prudently declared them- 
selves ready >and willing to undertake. He next ordered 
letters to be written, to be conveyed by them in com- 
pany with a certain baron named Kogotal, whom he 
assigned as a companion. He instructed them, after the 
necessary salutations, to request of his holiness to send 
a hundred wise men, learned in all the seven arts, who 
might show to the idolaters, and others subject to his do- 
minion, the diabolical nature of their law, and how that 
of the Christians was superior. Farther, he piously en- 
joined them to bring a portion of the oil of the lamp burn- 
ing in Jerusaiem before the sepulchre of our Saviour.* 
Moreover, he gave to them a golden tablet marked with 
his seal, containing an express order, that wherever 
they went they should have their necessities supplied. 
Having received this, and taken leave of the king, barons^ 
and the whole court, they mounted their horses and com- 
menced their journey. After some days Kogotal, the 
baron, at a city named Alau, fell sick and could not pro- 
ceed ; but the brothers went on till they came safely to 
Laias,t in Armenia. In this journey however, owing to 
the bad roads, and the large rivers which they could not 
croBs on horseback, three years were consumed. Where- 

* These sentiments are doubtless coloured, yet we have repeatedly 
■een that the princes of Uiis race were desirous to be on friendly terms 
with the professors of every religion. 

t The Ouu^ of Baansao. It is Aias, on the Onlf of akiMdereaa. 

H 



86 INTBODUCTORY KA&EATIVB 

rer they went, on showing the golden tablet, they were 
received with the greatest honoars, and supplied with 
whatever they wanted. 

Y,^Fiiid him dead aad, imait anew £lc»tioa. <. 

Departing from Laias in April 1269, the brothers ar- 
rived at Acre, where they learned with much grief that 
his holiness Clement lY. was dead.* They therefore 
went to Theobald, viscount of Piacenza, who resided 
there as legate of the apostolical see, and was a man of 
high authority and virtue. They related to him the cause 
why they wished to visit the supreme pontiff. He was 
struck with admiration, and revolving in his mind, that 
the holy Roman church and the Christian faith might 
hence derive tbe greatest benefit, advised them to wait 
till another pope should be named, to whom they might 
deliver their embassy. They therefore determined to 
spend the interval in visiting their families at Venice. 
Departing from Acre, they proceeded to Negropont, and 
thence to their native city. Here Messer Nicolo found 
that his wife, whom he left pregnant, had died, leaving a 
son named Marco, the same who wrote this book.f 

* This event had taken place in November 1S68. 

t The chronology of the narrative dovni to this period is very per- 
riexiog, and there are manifestly errors even in the purest versions. 
The first depavtnre was in 1250, according to the two Pans editions., 
the printed ripino, the Basle and Ramusio. (The Crasca and Puoet 
are here wanting.) Two MSS. of Pipino indeed make it 1253 ; bat thia 
does not help us much ; for by a subsequent statement it appears that 
the war which obliged Uiem to leav« the court of Barka, uSter remaining' 
a year, broke out in 1361. None of the editions intimate any stay at 
Constantinonle or Soudak, except the Strozziana MS. quoted by Count 
Boni (n Millione, i. 73), which represents them as stopping some ttmtt 
at both places ; bnt this being comparatively modem, is little likely to 
correct the errors of earlier and better versions. Besides, there is 
another element to adjust. Marco being bom soon after his father's de- 
parture, his age would fix the date ; but here tbe variations are moat 
perplexing. The French makes it at Nicole's arrival to be 18; the 
raris Latin, the Basle, and Pipino, 15 ; the Berlin MS. 17 ; Ramusio 
19 ; which last Mr. Marsden admits as probably adopted in order to ac- 
cord with the 1250. It would have made him a grown man on his ar- 
rival in China, which would scarcely agree with the language there held. 
Mr. Marsden inclines to make the age 15, and the departure 1256. I 
ahall only observe, that if we suppose an error of 10 years (the simplest 
that could be made), and the real departure 1260, this would agree with 
all the particulars of the journey, and very nearly with the age of 12, 
as given in the French edition. Without venturing a very positive opi- 
mxm, it nuty ba noticed that there is historital evidence for the main 



or THE 70URNET. 89 

Waiting the appointment of another pope, the travel- 
lers spent two full years at Venice. 

VI.— Their Return to Knblai. 

At last seeing that no pontiff was elected, and unwil- 
ling to delay their return to the great khan, they departed, 
taking with them Marco, son of Nicolo. They repaire(* 
to Acre and told the legate, that having tarried too long 
and there being no apftearance of an election, they mus 
beg permission, in conformity with that monarches if 
junctions, to take the portion of oil from the lamp burr 
ing before the sepulchre. Having obtained his conseh 
they went to Jerusalem, took wt^t they desired, and i; • 
turned, when he gave them letters, with permission to 
dep|art. They proceeded from Acre to Laias ; but durib^ 
their stay there, were informed that the legate himself 
had been appointed pope, under the name of Gregory X. 
of Piacenasa, being the same who afterwards held a coun- 
cil at Lyons on the Rhone*. The new pontiff sent a 
messenger after them, desiring their iounediate return ; 
and they joyfully obeyed, making the voyage in a galley 
prepared for them by the King of Armenia. They paid 
their homage to his holiness, who received them gracious- 
ly, loaded them with many honours, and gave them two 
very learned iriars, of the order of preachers, the wisest 
that could be found in those parts, named Nicolo of Yi- 
cenza, and William of Tripoli, to accompany them to the 
great khan. He bestowed on them letters and privileges, 
instructed them in the message which he wished to be 
conveyed to that monarch, and gave his benediction to 
Kicolo, Maffio, Marco, and the two friars. They then 
proceeded together to Laias : but while there, the Sdldan 
of Babylonia named Bonduchdaree, came with a mighty 
army to attack the city.f In these circumstances, the 
preachers struck with the fear of war, and with the dan- 
dates of die arriTal at Baika's court in 1360, at Acre ia 1360, and the 
departure thence in 1371 or 1373. 

* The election of Gregory X. actually took place in 1371-1373, and 
Mr. Mareden (pp. 17, 31) has collected evidence that he then resided 
at Acre as lesate. 

t This is Bibars, the Mameluke soldan of Egypt, who, for several 
rears before and after this period, ravaged many paru of Syria and Asia 
Minor. Cairo in that age was frequently namM JSabylcwia, ef which 
we shall see repealed instances.— Marsdnn, p. 755 



00 INTROnrcTORT NABftATITB 

gen already encoantered, gave to Nicolcrand Maffio cer- 
tain letters, and resolved to proceed no farther. Then 
the brothers commenced their journey, and by constant 
marches arrived safely at a very rich and powerfnl city 
named Clemenfu,* where the great khan resided. The 
observations made by them on this expedition will be 
narrated afterwards in the proper place ; but on account 
of the severe weather, as well as the difficulty and danger 
of passing the rivers, they consumed in it three years 
and a half. When their return became known to the 
khan, he rejoiced exceedingly, and ordered forty of bis 
messengers to go to meet them, by whom they were sup- 
plied with every necessary, aad loaded with honours. 

VII.— They an hoiMitnibij i»oeiv«d. 

Having reached this great city, where the monarch 
bad his abode, they went to his palace, presenting them- 
selves most humbly on bended knees. He desired them 
to rise, and asked how they did ; they reified, that, by 
the grace of God, they were well, especially since they 
had found him healthy and cheerful. He then inquired 
about their transactions with the supreme pontiff, when 
they exphiined to him all that they had done, delivering 
the letters confided to them by Pope Gregory. He receiv-~ 
ed them graciously, commending them for their fidelity 
and attention. They next presented the oil from the sep- 
ulchre, which he reverently accepted. He inquired, who 
was that young man with them, to which Nicolo replied : 
" my lord, he is your servant, my son.'* " Then,** said 
the great khan, ** he is welcome, I am much pleased with 
him.** He celebrated their return by a joyful feast; and 
while they remained in his court, they were honoured 
before all his barons. 

Vin. — Employments and Missions of Marco. 

During this stay, Messer Marco acquired the Tartar 
and four other languages, so as to speak and write them 
well ; he learned also their manners, and became in all 

* Elsewhere, Clemenisn, Clenensu. It is Tery dHBcnlt to identify 
this place, there being nothing to fix i to poeition, and no name of a Chi- 
nese town resembling it. Mr. Marsden (p. 33), considers it as moat 
probably Tai-ynen-fou, capital of Shan-see, where Da Hald« xnantions 
that Kablai naided some tine, while a new city was building at Kan 
baltt. 



OF T0E JOUHKET. 91 

thmgB exceedingly sensible and sagacions.* When the 
great kban saw him display so much worth and prudence, 
he sent him as his messenger to a very distant land, which 
it required six months to reach. He returned and report- 
ed his embassy very sensibly, relating many new things 
respecting the countries through which he had travelled ; 
while other ambassadors, being able to say nothing, ex- 
cept about the ^lecial message intrusted to them, were 
accounted foolish and ignorant by the khan, who was 
greatly delighted toJ[)ecome acquainted with the varieties 
of nations. Messer Marco, aware of this, studied all 
these strange objects, and thus pleased beyond measure 
his majesty and the barons, who predicted that, if he lived, 
he would become an eminent man. In short, he remain- 
ed in the court of the khan seventeen years, and never 
ceased to be employed as an ambassador. The other 
chiefs then began to envy the honours paid to him, and 
his knowledge of the country, which exceeded that of any 
other person who ever visited it.f 

IX.— They aeek to retnrn Home. 

Alter Nicolo, Maffio, and Marco had remained long at 
the court of the great khan, and accumulated very con- 
siderable wealth in gold and jewels, they felt a strong de- 
sire to revisit their native country. Nicolo therefore took 
an opportunity one day, when the monarch seemed in 
particularly good humour^ to throw himself at his feet, 
and solicit for them all permission to depart ; but the sov- 
ereign was now so much attached to his visiters that he 
would by no means listen to this proposal. t It happened, 
however, that the Queen Bolgana, the spouse of Argon,^ 

• We an to reooHeet this is written \ff Rasticiaos, not by Marco, 
thoQirh doabtleas with his cognizance. 

t Bamasio says that he regalarly committed them to writing. Tbia 
is in no other edition, and the fact I think very doubtful. 

X A sentence is here taken Irmn Ramnsio : but we have hesitated to 
add, on his sole authority, the ofibr to double all their possessions, and 
grant whaterer they desired. 

^ Argon or Arghnn, the grandson of Hoolaku, is well known as hav- 
ing succeeded in 1384 to the sovereignty of Persia and the adiacent 
countries. Ramusio calls him ** sovereign of hidia,'* for which Mr. 
Marsden (p. 30) finds much apolop^^ necessary ; but the expression in 
the text, taken from the Paris editions, clears all diflBculty; n>r we hava 
seen that Eastern was the name giTen in Europe to the Tartan rulinff 
over thia region.^'^e Note, pp. 85, 80. 



M tNTBODirCTOEY NAftBATIYX 

lord of the East, died, and in her last will enjoined tliat 
he shoald receive no wife unless of her family. He there- 
lore sent as ambassadors to the khan three barons, Aula- 
tam, Alpusca, and Goza, with a great train, requesting a 
lady of the same lineage with the deceased queen. The 
monareh receired the embassy with joy, and seleeted a 
young princess of that bouse. Every thing being ar* 
ranged, atid a nnmerous train of attendants appointed, 
they were graciously dismissed, and began their return ; 
but after travelling eight months, their advance was ren- 
dered impossible by fresh wars that had arisen among 
the Tartar princes. They were therefore very reluct- 
antly obliged to retrace their steps, and state the cause 
that bad arrested their progress. It happened that at 
that time Mareo arrived from a voyage to India, and, by 
relating the novelties he had observed, pleased those en- 
TQys veiy much, proving himself well fitted to guide them 
by this route, which he recommended as shorter and 
easier than that by land. They therefore besought as a 
favour of the khan, that the Latins nsight accompany 
them and the queen. The sovereign granted this favour, 
yet unwillingly, on account of his love for them. 

X.— Voyage, and ArriTal at Vemca. 

When that great monarch saw that they were about to 
depart, he called them before him, and delivering golden 
tablets signed with the royal seal, ordered that they should 
have free passage through his land, and that their char- 
ges, with those of all their family, should be every where 
defrayed. He caused to be prepared fourteen ships, each 
with four masts, and many with twelve sails ; upon which 
the barons, the lady, and the three brothers took leave, 
and, with numerous attendants, went on board. The 
prince gave them their expenses for two years ; and after 
sailing three months, they came to a certain island named 
Java, where are many wonderful things, which I shall re- 
late in this book. They then departed from it; and I 
must tell you that they saiied through the seas of India 
full eighteen months, and saw many strange objects, 
which will also be hereafter described. At length they 
came to the court of King Argon, but found that he was 
already dead, when it was determined to give the prin- 



O]^ Tim jnOLTftNfiY. 98 

cess m maTriagfe to Casan.* his eon. I must tell 3^00* 
that though in that vessel there embarked fall 600 per- 
sons, exclusive^ of mariners, all died except eighteen ;t 
and they found the dominion of the land of Argon held by 
Achaiu^ to whom they very tenderly recommended the 
lady OQ the part of the great khan. Casan was then at 
a place on the herders of Persia, whieh has its name 
from the Arbffr wxo, where an army of 60,000 men was 
asseibbled to gaard certain positions against hostile irrup- 
tion. They accordingly went thither, fulfilled their mis- 
Bion, and then returned to the residence of Achatu,^ 
where they reposed during the space of nine months. 
They then took leave and went on their way, when the 
monarch presented four golden tablets, with instructions 
that they should be honoured, and all the expenses of 
themselves and their family defrayed. This was fully 
executed, so that they frequently went accompanied by 
200 liorsemen.il I have also to tell you to the honour 
of those three Latins, in ^om the great khan had placed 
such confidence, appointing them to conduct the Queen 

* More properly Ghazau, who did not, however, ascend the throne 
till 1295.— Marsden, p. 36. 

t This is the statement in the two Paris, the Crasca, and the Pacci 
editions. The printed one of Pipino has oidy eighty-two oat of the 600 ; 
bat the Latin masenm MS. has 583, thas substantialljr agreeing with 
the others, and making it probable that the 500 was oibitted only by an 
error of the press. On the other hand, Ramusio, after having said that 
four of the vessels had crews of fully 250 men (mariners, we presume, 
included), states, that of the whole, about 600 died, among whom were 
two of the ambassadors ; but that all the females, except one, survived. 

X Kaikhatu, uncle to Gbazan, who was unable to prevent his holding 
the sovereignty for several years. Being murdered, however, by a 
fMurper, the latter marched to avenge his death, triumphed, and became 
sovereign of Persia. Though of pnny stature, he was considered a wise 
and able prince.— Marsden, p. 36. 

$ This statement is in Ramusio only : yet its correctness is rendered 
highly probable by orientid histoiy,which shows that Ghazan resided at 
this period in Khorassan. Mr. Marsden (p. 110) seems to prove that 
the arbor $ecc9 meant the plane-tree, which flourishes particularly in 
that part of Persia, and is called dry fn>m not yielding any fruit. 

II Ramusio has, " This could not have been dispensed with, as Acha- 
tu's government was unpopular, and the people were ready to commit 
eatrages, on which they would not have ventured under their lawful 
sovereign." This rather accords with the tenor of history, which rep- 
resents Arhatu as dissolute and tyrannical, and proves him to have fsi- 
len a sacrifice to an insurrection among his chiefs. The sentence, how- 
ever, is so much out of harmony with me rest of the chapter, that I eaa- 
not believe it to have emanated from Manso. 



M INTEODUCTO&T NABRATfVE!, ETC. 

Cocaein, with a daughter of the King of Manji,* to Ai^oi 
the lord of the East ; — that those two young and heautifuj 
ladies were guarded by them as if they bad been theii 
daughters, and bestowed upon them the Teneration <lu< 
to fathers. Indeed, Ciicacin and her husband Casanj 
now reigning, treated {he messengers with such kind- 
De88» that there was nothing they would not have doneJ 
for them ; and when they were about to depart, the queen j 
grieved very much, and even shed tears. t Thus, al^eri 
much time and many labours, by the grace of God they I 
came to Trebisond, then to Constantinople, Negropont,.i 
and finally to Veniee. They arrived in the year 1295, 
bring! ug with them great riches, and giving thanks to 
God, who had delivered them from many labours and 
dangers. 

* This princeis of Manji appears only m the French and Cmaca edi- 
tions ; bat, on such authorities, I do not hesitate to intnxlnoe her to xaj 
readers. The writer here evidently goes back to state particnlan for-- 
merly omitted. 

t Ramusio has, '' In the course of the journey, our travellers received 
intpUigence of the grand khan having departed tb«B life, whieh i$tit a» 
end to all hopes uf their being able to return into those regions." Ka« 
blai died early in 1294 ; it wms therefore quite possible the news mig^ht 
reach them. But what shall we say to the expressed hope (softened by 
Mr. Marsden into prospect) ^ after the extreme anxiety they had felt to 
return to Venice ? Besides, we find the traveller, in 1296, s}>eakiu^ of 
tiiat monarch as alive, and calculatiof what age he would then be, in a 
manner quite inconsistent with Mr. Marsden's tputuitous assumption of 
his having copied from former notes, overlooking so great an event 
My impreMion it, that this cnapter in Ramusio has been gone over bf 
■QflM osw acquainted with Asiatic history, bat not bj Maiso himielf 






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/ v 



PART I. 

Peseription of Chinas and (4 the Court of the Emperor 

Kvilai. 

Kublai, Great Khan of the Tartars, and EnuMror of China— His War 
with Nayan — Favonr for the Christians— Description of Kambalu— 
(Pa -King)— An Insarrection there — Great Festivals celebrated by the 
Emperor— their Order and Pomp— His extensive Hunting Expedi* 
tions — Leopards, Falcons, and other animals employed— Mode of par- 
•ninv and taking the Game — Hunting Palace at Shandu in Tartary — 
At Qanganor — Paper Money — Large Revenue — ^Arrangement of his 
Government and OflBcers — Bounty towards the People — ^Manners and 
Soperstitifms of the Chinese— Maroo Polo's Journey through the 
Western Provinces — Thibet. Bengal, and the neighbouring Countries 
— ^Return to the Vicinity of Pe-king— Journey through the Easteni 
Provinces -The Yellow River — Manji or Southern China— >Ittf Con> 
quest by Kublai:— Character of the deposed King — Nan-king and other 
great Cfities — TheKiang — Its immense Trade and Shipping — Kin-sai, 
the Capital— Its extraordinary Extent and Magnificence — Splendour 
af its Palar.e-«Journf»y through Tche-kiangand Fo-kten— The Force* 
laiii Manofacture— Arrival at Zai-ton or Amoy. 

L— Power and Magnificence of Kablai. 

Now T am to give you a wonderful account of the great- 
est king of the Tartars, still reigning, named Kublai, or 
lord of lords. That name is assuredly well merited, since 
be is the most powerful in people, in lands, and in trea> 
sure, that is, or ever was, from the creation of Adam to 
the present day ; and by the statements to be made in this 
book, every man shall be satisfied that he really is so. 
Whosoever descends in the direct Une from Gengis is en- 
titled to be master of all the Tartars, and Kublai is the 
sixth great khan. He began to reign in tbe year of our 
Lord 1256,* and maintained the dominion by his valour, ad- 
dress, and wisdom. His brothers sought to oppose his sue- 

* Ramosio makes him only twenty-seven years old at his aecession, 
which Mr. Maxaden (p. S6&) admits to be very improbalde. The state- 
ment here given from the Paris editions makes him forty-three, which 
wrees with the best aathorities. He vras not the tixtk but only the 
JAA of this line of sowreigna. We shall aftemvanls see how Marea 
iul into this eirov 



06 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, AN0 OF TBB 

cession, but by bravery and right he triumphed over them.* 
From the beginning of his reign, forty-two years have 
elapsed to the present day, in the year 1 298. He is now^ 
full eighty-five years old, and before his accession com- 
manded many armies, when he approved himself good at 
weapons, and a brave captain. But since that time he 
has joined the army only once, which was in the year 
1286, and I will tell you on what occasion. 

n. — Incnrreetioa raised by NajEii. 

You must understand that a certain cousinf of his, 
named Nayan, who, like bis ancestors, was his vassal, 
yet had many lands and provinces of his own, and could 
raise 400,000 horsemen, being thirty years old, refused to 
remain longer in subjection, and assumed the whole soy- 
ereignty to himself. He sent to a certain great lord, 
named Kaidu, a nephew of that monarch, but in rebellion 
against him, and desirous of doing him the greatest inju* 
ry. To him Na3raii proposed to attack the monarch on 
one side, while he himself advanced on another, so that 
they might acquire the dominion over his whole territory. 
Kaidu declared himself well pleased, and promised to be 
ready at the time appointed. He could bring into the 
field 100,000 cavalry : and those two assembled a mighty 
army on horseback and foot, and marched against the 
great khan. 

in.— Kablai prepares to neet him. 

When Kublai learned these things, he was not at aU 
alarmed, but declared, that he wished he might never 
wear a crown, nor hold sway over a kingdom, if he did 
not bring the traitors to an evil death. He therefore made 
his whole army be prepared in twenty-two days, and so 
secretly, that nothing was known beyond his own council. 
He raised full 360,000 mounted soldiers, and 100,000 in- 
fantry ; and the reason of their number not being greater, 
was, that they consisted only of his huntsmen, and those 

* His brother, Artigbnfra, after Maii^ti*s death, was proclaimed at 
Knrakornm : nor was it till after a severe straggle, that Kublai pre- 
vailf-d.— Marsden, p. 2C5. 

t In all the editioos he is eaUed ttnole, which does not at all agre* 
with their respective ages. Mr. Marsdeft (p, 900) shows that he mvM 
have bean a more distant reUtire. 



OO0RT or THS £MI>fiKOK KUELAU &7 

immedtatefy round his person, the rest bein; emplo^^d in 
carrying on distant wars ; for if he could have assembled 
his whole host, the multitude would have been such as no 
man could have numbered. He then called his astrolo- 
gers, and asked of them if he would b6 victorious ; they 
answered, that he would do to his enemies according to 
his pleasure.* 

IV.— Description of the Battle. 

The great khan having assembled these forces, took his 
departure, and in twenty days can^ to a vast plain, where 
Nayan had assembled all his troops, amounting to 400,000 
warriors. The khan took much care to scour the paths, 
and intercept all who could have carried the intelligence ; 
so that when he approached at dawn of day, the rebel was 
lying asleep in bed with a favourite wife, not having the 
least dread of his arrival, and, consequently, no guard on 
any side of the camp. Kublai then advanced, having a 
tower fixed upon four elephants, whereon were placed his 
ensigns, so that he could be seen by the whole army. 
His men, divided into bands of twenty thousand, sur- 
roonded in a moment the adverse force, each soldier 
having a footman on the crupper behind him, with a bow 
in his hand. When Nayan and his men saw their camp 
thus encircled by the khan and his host, they were seized 
with amaze ; yet they ran to arms, formed themselves in 
order of battle, and were soon prepared to strike. Then 
began the beating on many instruments, and singing with 
loud voices ; for it is the custom of the Tartars, that until 
the horn termed nacear is winded the troops do not en- 
gage. But when that grand trumpet of the great khan 
was sounded, all the other performers began playing, and 
raising their voices very loud, making a noise that was 
truly most wonderful. Then the two armies rushed 
against each other with sword, spear, and lance, while 
the footmen were prepared with bow and quiver. The 
battle was fierce and cruel ; the arrows filled the air like 
rain ; horses and horsemen were seen falling to the 

* In Ramnsio only, there is a sentence intimating that this was a naert 
manceuvre to eDCouraere his men. This reflection was, we are convinced, 
interpolated in a more enlighted a?e than that of the traveller. The two 
Paris, the Crosca, Pipino, and all fhe early editions, mention it aa rad 
information obtained from those personages. 



98 DB8GRIFTION OF CHINA* AND OP TBB 

ground ; and the tumult was sach, that if Jove bad thno- 
dered, he could not have been heard. Nayan was a bap- 
tized Christian, and therefore bad the cross upon hjs 
standard.* Never, in our day, was there so hard and ter- 
rible a combat, nor so many assembled on one field, espe- 
cially of horsemen ; and the number who fell on both 
sides was fearful to behold. The battle continued from 
nine in the morning till mid-day; but the great khan at 
last remained master of the field. When Nayan and his 
men saw that they could hold out no longer, they betook 
themselves to flight ; but it availed them nothing ; he was 
taken, and all his troops surrendered, t 

v.— The Death of Nayan. 

When that great monarch heard that Nayan was taken, 
he ordered him to be put to death in the manner I am now 
to tell you. He was wrapped in a carpet, and violently 
tossed to and fro till he died. This mode was adopted, 
that, being of imperial lineage, his blood might . not be 
shed on the ground, nor his cries ascend into the air. 
When that battle was gained, four of his provinces paid 
tribute and homage to the great khan. These were Ci- 
corcia, Caull, Bastol, and Suchintin. 

VI. — ^Ettblai silences the Mockery of the Jews and Saracens. 

When the monarch had achieved this triumph, the Sar- 
acens, Pagans, Jews, and other generations of men, who 
believe not in God, expressed wonder at the cross which 
the vanquished leader had carried on his standard, and 
said in derision of the Christians, — ** see how the cross 
of your God has aided Nayan and his people." They 
made such a noise on this subject, that it came to the 
ears of the prince, who was much displeased, and send- 
ing for the Christians, said to them, — " if your God did 
not assist Nayan, he acted with great justice, because he 
is a good and righteous God. Nayan was a traitor and 

* We have had ample occasion to observe, that a certain form of Chris- 
tianity havinji^, during that age, made considerable progress in Central 
Asia, was embraced by several monarchs. Others who did not go so far, 
yet courted the good opinion of its professors, and sought from them 
omens and imaginary means of success. 

t This war of Kublai with Nayan and Kaida is related by De Gaignes,- 
from oriental authorities, with a few variations, usoal in different narra- 
tives of such ereuts. 



CO0KT OF THB BMPESOE KUBLAI. 99 

i«bel against his lord, and therefore God did weti in not 
a<«isting him/* Then the Christians replied, — '* O, great 
aire ! then hast spoken the truth, for the cross wiJl aid 
nothing unjust, and he met only what he well deserved." 
Having gained this victory, the great khan returned to 
his capital, Kambalu, with much festival and rejoicing. 
When the other king, named Kaidu, heard how his ally 
had been worsted, he wa& struck with fear, and did not 
attempt to lead his army against the monarch.* Now 
you have seen how that prince went to battle, and for 
what cause, while on all other occasions he sent his son 
and his barons ; but this war was of such magnitude that 
it seemed to deserve his own immediate presence. 

Vn. — His Opinionn as to the Christian Religion 

The grand khan, having obtained this splendid victory, 
returned with great pomp and triumph to his capital of 
Kambalu. He arrived there in November, and remained 
till aAer March, in which month our festival of £aster oc- 
curred. Aware that this was one of our most solemn 
periods, he conmianded all the Christians to attend him, 
bringing with them their book containing the four gospels. 
He caused it, in a very respectful manner, to be repeat- 
edly perfumed with incense, ordering all his nobles pres- 
ent to do the same. Such was the custom upon each of 
the two great festivals of Easter and Christmas ; and he 
followed the same course as that pursued by the Saracens, 
Jews, and idolaters. Being asked the reason of this con- 
duct, he replied, — *' there are four great prophets revered 
and worshipped by different classes of mankind. The 
Christians bold Christ as their divinity; the Saracens, 
Mohammed ; the Jews, Moses ; and the idolaters, Sogo- 
mombar Khan, their most distinguished idol. I honour 
and respect all the four, and seek aid from them, as any 
one of them may really be supreme in heaven." Yet, 
from the behaviour of his majesty towards the Christians, 
he evidently believed their faith the best and truest ; ob- 
serving, that it enjoined nothing on its professors that was 
not fuU of virtue and holiness. He would not indeed 

* Kaidu, however, contitiued to maintain his independent mle over a 
great part of Tarkest au . We shall hear mors of this prince towards the 
and of the oarnitiTA. 



100 DSScBimoir or china, and or the 

allow the cross to be borne before them in processions, 
becanse, as he said, on it so exalted a person had been 
nailed and pot to death. Some may ask, why if thus par- 
tial to the true fiith, he did not openly embrace itt He 
stated his reason to Nicolo and Maffio Polo, when, on his 
sending them ambassadors to the Pope, they ventured to 
address to him a few words on the subject. ** Why,'* 
said he, " should I become a Christian 1 Ton must youi^ 
selves see that the professors of that faith now in this 
countiy are ignorant and weak, unable to do any thing 
extraordinary, wlnle the idolaters haye power io do what- 
ever they ^ease. While I am seated at table, the cups, 
filled with wine or other beverage, come to me from the 
middle of the hall spontaneously, without being touched 
by any human hand. They are also able to control bad 
weather, and force it to retire, to any quarter of the heav- 
ens ; they can perform other wonderful things of the same 
nature. You have witnessed their idols exercising the 
faculty of speech, and predicting whatever events are in- 
quired into. Should I become a convert and profess Chris- 
tianity, the nobles of my court, and others disinclined to 
the faith, will ask what adequate motives have induced 
roe to be baptized. What wonders, what miracles, they 
will say, have its ministers performed 1 But the idolaters 
declare, that their exhibitions are made through their own 
holiness and the might of their idols. To this I shall be 
unable to make any answer, and be considered as labour- 
ing under a grievous mistake, while the heathen teachers, 
by the profound art which they display, may easily accom- 
plish my death. Return, however, to your pontiff, and 
present to him my request, that he would send a hundred^ 
persons learned in your law, who, when confronted witn 
the others, will be able to control them, and while proving 
themselves endowed' with similar skill, shall render their^.^ 
antagonists unable in their presence to carry on these 
practices. On witnessing this, I will interdict the exer- 
cise of their religion, and suffer myself to be baptized. 
This example will be followed by all my nobility, and by 
my subjects in general -, so that the Christians in these 
regions will become more numerous than those inhabiting 
your own country." From this language it evidently ap- 
pears that had the pope sent out persons duly qualified to 



OOURT OF THE EMPEROB KUBLAI. IQl 

pTMoh the gospel, the great khan would have embnused 
that faith, for which he certainly entertained a strong 
INredilection.^ 

Tm.— Bewafds bMtowed on his So1di«»b 

Now let us tell of the officers and barons of the great 
Khan, and how he rewarded those who fought with him in 
the battle against Nayan. To those who commanded 100 
men, he gave the command of 1000, and to those of 1000 
that of 10,000 ; and he bestowed, according to their rank, 
tablets of gold or of silver, on all of which was written, — 
*• By the might of the great God, and by the favour which 
he gave to our emperor : may that prince be blessed, and 
may all those who do not obey him die and be destroyed.*' 
Those who hold these documents enjoy certain privileges, 
with written instructions bow they are to exercise their mx- 
thority. He who commands 100,000 men receives a golden 
one, weighing 300 saggi, under which is sculptured a lion 
on one side, and on the other the sun and moon. Those 
who bear these noble tablets have instructions, that when- 
ever they ride they should bear above their head an um- 
brella of gold, and as often as they are seated, it should be 
upon silver. There are also tablets whereon is sculptured 
a gerfalcon, which he gives to three great barons, who 
have then equal authority with himself They can take, 
whenever they please, and lead from place to place, the 
troops and horses of any prince or king ; and whoever 
dares to disobey in any thing their will and mandate, must 
die as a rebel to the sovereign.! Now let us speak of the 
outward form and manners of this mighty prince. 

* Thia corioas obapter it on« of those foand only in Bamnsio. Thero 
is no docided internal proof agninst its beisf genuine, and the conduct 
of Kublai sufficiently accords with that usually held by Tartar moaarchs. 
Tet there is, I think, clear evidence of interpolation. The following 
dtapter, in all the early editions, states the amount of the rewards which 
the sorereign gare to the oflEicert who had distinguished themselves in 
the battle against Nayan. In Ramasio, dropping all allusion to that event, 
it states those which he unuUly /fives on each occasions. The change 
is obviously made, because the insertion of the present chapter broke the 
connexion, a blemish that would have become evident had the subject 
been treated in the first manner, which yet is doubtless the natural and 
anginal one. 

fit is still the practice of the Chinese government to indicate rank 
by Tidily onumented tablets, which, in the vulgar language of Canton| 
w eaXioA ehapt. They are now of doth ; but Um Taitsn, a peopl4> of 



102 DBSCftimON OF CHINA. AND OF THB 

IX.— The Penoo of Knblai— His Witm, ConcxitaiBas, sad Saatu 

The great khan, lord of lords, named Knhiai, is of a 
fine middle size, neither too tall nor too short ; he has a 
beautiful fresh complezioD, and well-proportioned limbs. 
His colour is fair and vermeil like the roset bis eyes dark 
and fine, his nose well formed and placed. He has four 
ladies, who always rank as his wives ; and the eldest son, 
bom to him by one of them, succeeds as the rightful heir 
of the empire. They are named empresses ; each bears 
his name, and holds a court of her own ; there is not one 
who has not 300 beautiful maidens, with ennuchs, and 
many other male and female attendants< so that some of 
the courts of these ladies contain 10,000 persons ; and 
when he wishes to visit any one, he makes her come to 
his apartment, or sometimes goes to hers. He maintains 
also a number of concubines. There is a race of Tartars 
who are called Migrat or Ungrat,* and are a very hand- 
some people. From them are selected 100 girlsf the most 
beautiful in all their country, who are conducted to court. 
He makes them be guarded by the ladies of the palace ; 
and they are examined if they have a sweet breath, and 
be sound in all their limbs. Those that are approved in 
every respect wait upon their great lord in the following 
order : six of them attend every three days, then other six 
come in their place, and so on throughout the year. It 
may be asked, if Uie people of this province do not feel 
aggrieved by having their children thus forcibly taken 
away. Assuredly not ; on the contrary, they regard it as 
a favour and an honour ; and the fathers feel highly grat- 

a di^rent genius, might very possibly prefer the precious metals. The 
Yenetian saggio is the sixth part of an ounce, maiking thus the largest 
tablet fifty ounces. The term Mandarin, being modem and Portugaese, 
could not be expected here. 

* Ungut, RamM»i9. This appears to be the country of the Eighury 
or TJighors, inhabiting Tnrfiui ajui Hami, to the west of China. They 
•re of the Turkish race, and noted for the beauty of their persons.— 
Marsden, p. 284. 

t Ramusio says that they are valued at from sixteen to twenty or 
twenty-one earatSj the higMst number being required in the case of his 
majesty. Mr. Marsden (p. 385), considering the term as meaning four 
grains of gold, laments that the most brilliant of these beauties should 
be reckoned worth only ISs. 4d. The carat, however, is used also in 
estimating the diamond, when it bears surely a higher Talue. Consid- 
ering, however, that the term is entirely European, and tlie statement 
found ia no early editioii, I ineline to reject it altogether. 



eOUBT OP THS BMPeROft KTTBLAf. 108 

ffied when their daughters are thus selected. If, saye 
one, toy daughter is born under an auspicious planet, his 
majesty can best fulfil her destiny by marrying her more 
nobly than I can do. Oh the contrary, if the young lady, by 
bad conduct or any misfortune, be found disqualified, he 
attributes the disappointment to her malignant stars.* 
Know, too, that the great khan has by his wives twenty- 
two sons ; the elder was named Gyngym Khan, and was 
to be lord of all the empire after his father ; but he died, 
leaving a son named Temur, who in time will succeed ; he 
is a wise and good man, tried in many battles.f The mon- 
arch has also twenty-five sons by his concubines ; and each 
is a great baron ; and of the twenty-two sons by^his four 
wives, seven reign over large kingdoms, like wise and 
good men, because they resemble their father,^ — ^and he is 
the best ruler of nations and conductor of wars in the 
world. Now I have told you ahout himself, his wives, sons, 
and concubines ; next I will relate how he holds his court. 

X.— His magnificent Palace in Eambala. 

He resides in the vast city of Kambaiu, three months 
in the year, December, January, and February, and has 
here his great palace, which I will now describe. It is a 
complete square, a mile long on every side,t so that the 
whole is four miles in circuit ; and in each angle is a very 
fine edifice, containing bows, arrows, cords, saddles, bri- 
dles, and all other implements of war. In the middle of 
the wall between these four edifices are others, making 
altogether eight, filled with stores, and each containing 
only a single article. Towards the south are five gates, 

* The reader has already seen this tyrannical cnstom eren in the rode 
eoort of Mangou Khan. It is proper to notice that this satisfaction of 
thepeople in having their daughters thus taken from them is found only 
in Mmusio, not in any of the early editions. 

t Temur actually succeeded his grandfather in 1394, and is celebrated 
in the Chinese annals as a mild, upright, intelligent, and liberal prince. 
Booi, Tol. ii. p. 167. 

t Ramosio has eight miles on each side. This immense extent is not 
•uppcnted bv the Paris editions, the Crusca, and Pipino, which are ac- 
cording to the text. The Freuch edition of 1556 has two leagues in cir- 
cuit. Astley fvol. iv. p. 11 ) has collated the modem descriptions, which 
agree cloeely with that of Polo, and make the whole circuit only fifteen 
li, or four miles and three quarters. Count Boni points out that 
fMade, in about ISO, states only fimr miles. These seems no doabti 
tihsimrwa of the corruptias oC Ranraaio'e tmxL 

I 



IM DascuprioH ow cniii At aud or rmm 

the middle one Tery large, never opened nor that oplw 
when the great kban is to paw thioo^; while on the 
other side is one by which all enter in common.* Witli- 
in that wall is another, containing eight edifices similarly 
constructed ; in which is lodged the wardrobe of the sove- 
reign. 

These walls enclose the palace of that mighty lord, which 
is the greatest thatever was seen. The floor rises ten palms 
above the ground, and the roof is exceedingly lofty. The 
walls of the chambers and stairs are all covered with gold 
and silver, and adorned with pictures of dragons, horses, 
and other races of animals. The hall is so spacious that 
6000 can sit down to banquet ; and the number of apart- 
ments is incredible. The roof is externally painted with 
red, blue, green, and other colours, and is so varnished 
that it shines Uke crystal and is seen to a great distance 
anHind. It is also very strongly and durably built. Be- 
tween the walls are pleasant meadows filled with various 
living creatures, as white stags, the musk animal, deer, 
wild goats, ermines, and other fa«autifal creatures. The 
whole oidoeure is full of animals, except the path by 
which men pass. On the other side, towards the south, 
is a magnificent take, whither many kinds of fish are 
broni^ and nonrished. A river enters and flows ^lut ; 
but the fish are retained by iron gratings. Towards the 
north, about a bowshot from the palace, Kublai has eon- 
stnicted a mound, fuU a hundred paces high and a mile in 
circuit, all covered with evergreen trees v^ich never shed 
their leaves . When he he^rs of a beautiful tree, he canaoB 
it to be dug up, with all the roots and the earth roand it, 
and to be conveyed to him on the backs of elephants, 
whence the eminence has been made verdant all over, 
and is called the green mountain. On the top is a pal- 
ace, also covered with verdure ; it and the trees are so 
lovely that all who look upon them feel delight and joy. > 
In the vicinity is another pisilace, where resides the grand- 
son of the great khan, Temur, who is to reign after him, 
and who follows the same life and customs as his grand- 
sire. He has already a golden bull and the imperial seal ; 
but he has no authority while his grandfather lives. 

* TlMnad«r«iUn«oIleetth«nia« «]Tug«m«ttdMcsibad bf Cbr ' 
pini is ih« gntt orda or tent q£ CajmA Kttnn. 



^nwr Of Tnii sMfv&oK ximz«u* ^IM 

XI.— Dewriptum «f the City of Kantwlu. 

HaTiog described to you the palaces, I will tell you of 
the great city of Cathay, which contains them. Near it 
is another large and spdendid one, also named Kambalu, 
which means in our language city of the lord ; bat the 
monarch, finding by astr^ogy that this town would rebel, 
built another near it, divided only by a river, and bearing 
the same name, to which its inhabitants were compelled 
to remove.* It forms a regular square, six miles on each 
side, and thus twenty-four miles in circumference. It is 
surrounded by walls of earth, ten paces thick and twenty 
in height ; yet the upper part becomes gradually thinner, 
so that at top the breadth is only three paces. There are 
twelve gates, each containing an edifice, making one in 
each square of that wall, and fiUed with men, who guard 
the place. The streets are so broad and so straight that 
from one gate another is viable. It contains many beau- 
tiful houses and palaces, and a very large one in the midst, 
containing a steeple with a large beU, 'which at night 
sounds' three times ; after which no man must leave the 
eity without some urgent necessity, as of sickness, or a 
woman about to bear a child. At each gate a thousand 
men keep guard, not from dread of any enemy, but in rev- 
erence of the monarch who dwells within it, and to pre- 
vent injury by robbers. t 

XIL— The Saborba— Merchants. 

When the monarch comes to his chief city, he remains 
in his noble palace three days and no more, when he holds 

* This is th« stctement in the two Paris editions, snd in^he Crnsem, 
which calls it Caa^hlan ; but in Ramnsio the new city is named lU-dn, 
more properly Tarton or the great coort ; and there are oriental accomts 
of its bearing this name. Here, therefore, as on other occasions, though 
we may doubt that the statement came from Marco, it appears to be 
from some well-informed quarter. — ^Marsden, p. 300. 

t Kambalu is not a Chinese term, but is a corruption of that of Khan- 
baligh, ** the City of the Khan," used by the Arabians and Persians. 
There is no doubt of its being that now called Pe-kin^. The square 
fonn, the Inreadth of the stveets, and their stretching m a direct line 
have been observed by all bvveUers, and indeed geneipUy characterise 
Chinese cities. The lofty structures rising above the gates, and filled 
with armed troops, are noticed by Le Comte and Staunttm. The shut- 
ting of these is still announced by the sound of a bell, and that of Pe- 
king is said to be the largest in the world, weighing 190,000 lta«. Tbefe 
i» oD iMmtiA«f it in JEUamm^ Mamlan, pp/SM, 806, 3M. A«tlC[f, 
voL iv. p 6-10. •■■■'■ » ''• 



\ 



im DMCBIPTION or CBflVAy AND 09 THE 

a mat court, making high festiyal and rejoicing with his 
ladies. There is a vast ahandance of people through all 
the suburbs of Kambalu, which iire twelve in number, 
one corresponding to each gate ; no one can count the 
number of residents ; and they contain as stately edifices 
as any in the city, except the king's palace. No one is 
allowed to be buried within the city ; and no females of 
bad /Character can reside there, but must have their dwell- 
ings in the suburbs, where there are said to be no fewer 
than 20,000. There are brought also to Kambal u the moat 
costly articles in the world, the finest productions of In- 
dia, as precious stones and pearls, with all the produce of 
Cathay and the surrounding countries, in order to supp^ 
the lords and the barons and ladies who reside th^re. Nor^. 
merous merchants, likewise, bring more than a thousand 
wagons laden with grain ; and all who ar^ Within a hun- 
dred miles of the city come thither to purchase what they 
want.* 

Xn.— wicked Admimstrmtioa of Achmac — Insurrection. 

J will hereafter particularly mention a council of twelve 
persons, having power to dispose at will of the lands, gov- 
ernments, and all things belonging to the state. One of 
these, a Saracen, named Achmac, had acquired an extra- 
ordinary influence with the great khan ; indeed his mas- 
ter was so infatuated with him that he allowed him the 
most uncontroUed license. It was even discovered after 
his death that he had employed spells to fascinate the 
klian, and compel him to give full credi,t to what was 
told him by his favourite, who was thus enabled to eon- 
duct public afifairs according to his pleasure. He disposed 
of all the commands and public offices ; passed sentence 
upon offenders ; and when desirous to inflict an injury on 
any one whom he hated, needed only to go to the empe- 
ror and say, ** such a man has been guilty of an offence 
against your majesty, and deserves death." The mon- 
arch usually replied, do as you judge best, and Achmac 
then ordered him to be immediately executed. So man- 

* Marsden, pp. 307, 308, qnotes p)od aathorities for the suburbs being 
tweiTo in number, and very extensive. Pruni Staunton's account, how- 
•var, they appear to be now leas oonaiderabie. The influx of foreisnert. 
waloomed niular tb« BCongol djnaaty, aMut ba arach ^in«i.rf.k^ xcu^ 



COURT OF TlfE.BMPEBOft KUBL4I. 107 

ifest were the proofs of his influence, and of the sove- 
reign's implicit reliance on his statements, that no one 
dared to contradict bim on any occasion ; evea those high- 
est in office stood in awe of him. Any one charged by 
him with a capital offence, whatever means he might em- 
ploy to justify himself and refute the accusation, ciiuld not 
find an advocate ; for none dared to oppose the purpose of 
Achmac. Thus he caused unjustly the death of many, 
and was also enabled to indulge his unlawful propensities. 
Whenever he saw a woman who pleased him, be contrived 
either^o add h^r to the number of his wives, or to lead 
her into a criminal intimacy. On receiving information 
of any man having a beautiful daughter, he despatched 
emissaries with instructions to say to him, " what are 
your yiew^s with regard to this handsome girl ! the best 
thing you can do is to give her to the lord- vicegerent ;** 
for so they termed Achmac, implying that he was his ma- 
jesty's representative ; " we will induce him to appoint you 
to a certain government or office for three years." The 
father was thus tempted to give away his child ; and aa 
soon as the affair was arranged, the other went and in- 
formed the emperor that a government was vacant, or 
would become so on a particular day, and recommended the 
parent as well qualified to discharge its duties. His ma- 
jesty consented ; and the appoiotment was immediately 
made. Thus, either through ambition to hold high office, 
or dread of his power, be obtained possession of the fair- 
est females, under the denomination of wives or of con- 
cubines. Besides, he had twenty-five sons, who held the 
highest offices in the state, and, availing themselves of 
his anthority, were guilty of similar violent and licentious 
proceedings. He h ad likewise accumulated great wealth, 
since every one who obtained an appointment found it re- 
qaisite to make him a liberal present. 

During a period of twenty-two years, he exercised this 
absolute authority. At length the Kataians, natives of 
the country, unable to endure longer his multiplied acts of 
injustice and violation of dumestie rights, began to devise 
means of hringing about his death and the overthrow of 
the government. Among the leading persons in this plot 
was Chenku, a commander of 6000 men, in whose family 
his dissoliite conduct had spread dishonour. He proposed 



108 DsacKxmoN of china, aicd of tbc 

the measore to one of hU nation, naroed Vanku, who ccn^ 
manded 10,000 men, and suggested for its execution the 
period when the great khan, having completed his three 
months* residence in Kambalu, should have departed for 
his palace at Shandu, while his son Gengis had also re- 
tired to the place usually visited hy him at that season. 
The charge of the city was then intrusted to Achmac, who 
communicated all aflTairs that occurred during his master's 
absence, and received the necessary instructions. Yanku 
and Chenkn, having thus consulted together, imparted the 
design to some leading persons among the Kataians, and 
also to their friends in various other cities. They formed 
an agreement, that op a certain day, immediately no per- 
ceiving a signal made by fire, they should rise and put to 
death all persons wearing beards. This distinction was 
made because they themselves natnrally wanted this ap- 
pendage, which characterized the Tartars, the Saracens, 
and the Christians. The grand khan, having acquired tin 
sovereignty of Kataia, not by any legitimate right, but 
solely by force of arms, placed no coi^dence in the na- 
tives, and therefore intrusted all the proviDcial govern* 
ments to Tartars, Saracens, Christians, and other foreign- 
ers belonging to his household. From this cause his reign 
was universally detested by the people, who found them- 
selves treated as slaves by the Tartars, and stiU worse 
by the Saracens. 

Vanku and Cbenka, having thus arranged their plans, 
succeeded at night in entering the palace ; when the for- 
mer placed himself on one of the royal seats, made the 
apartment be lighted up, and sent a messenger to Ach- 
mac, then residing in the old city. He professed to eome 
from Gengis, the emperor's son, who, he said, had unex- 
pectedly arrived, and required his immediate attendance. 
The viceroy ^as much surprised by this inielligence ; 
but, as he stood in awe of the prince, he presently 
obeyed. On passing the gate of the new city, he met the 
Tartar oflScer named Kugatai, who commanded the guard 
of 12,000 men, and who asked him whither be was going at 
that late hour. He stated his intention of waiting upon 
Gengis, whose arrival had just been announced to him. 

" It is very surprising,'* said the officer, *' how he shooU 
have come so secretly that I was not a|i^rized of it^ so a« 



ootrtT of^hb bmfe&ok hvblai. 109 

lx» send a paxtf of guards to attend bim." The two Ka- 
taians, meantime, felt confident, that if they could suc- 
ceed in despatching Achmac, they had nothing farther to 
fear. On entering the palace, and seeing so many lights 
blazing, he prostrated himself before Yanku, whom he 
supposed to be the prince, when Chenku, who heJd a sword 
ready in his hand, severed his bead from his body. Ko- 
gatai had stopped at the door ; but, seeing this catastrophe, 
be exclaimed that treason was at work, and presently dis- 
charged an arrow, which slew Vanka as he sat upon the 
throne. He then caused his men to seize the other, and 
despatched an order to the city to kill every one who should 
be found abroad. The Kataians, however, seeing the con- 
spiracy discovered, one of their chiefs killed, and the sur- 
vivor a prisoner, remained in their houses, and could not 
make the concerted signals to the other towns. Kogatai 
lost no time in sending messengers with a particular re- 
latibn of these events to the khan, who, in reply, ordered 
him diligently to investigate tjie conspiracy, and to pun* 
ish according to the degree of their gaih those found im- 
plicated in it. Next day after receivings this command, 
be examined aU the Kataians, and inflicted the pnnish- 
ment of death on the ringleaders. Other cities known to ^ 
have participated in tbe guilt suffered sfiiiilar inflictions. 
When his majesty returned to Kamba!u, he inquired 
eagerly into the caose of this disturbance, and learned 
tbM the infamooa Acbtnao and seven of his sons (the 
others being less- culpable) had committed sieveral enor- 
mities. He gave orders that the treasure, which he had 
accumulated to an incredible amount, should he removed 
from his place of residence to tbe new city, where it was 
lodged in his own treasury. He directed even that his 
corpae should be disinterred, and thrown into the street, 
where the dogs might tear it in pieces. The sons, who 
had pursued the same criminal course with their father, 
were ordered to be flayed alive. Considering also the 
principles of the accursed sect of the Saracens, which al- 
low them to indulge in the commission of every crime, 
and even to murder those who differ from them on points 
of belief, whence even the detestable Achmac and his 
soiia might have imagined themselves guiltless, he regard- 
ed Hie whole body with contempt and abomination. Sum- 



110 DB9a^rrIOlf or gbiha, ahb of ths 

moDiog them to his preaenoe, he foifoade theoontinaaaoe 
of many practices eojoioed in their law, ordering that in 
foiure their marriages should be arranged according to 
the Tartar custom ; and that, in killing animals for food. 
Instead of cutting their throats, they should rip open the 
stomach. - Marco Polo was on the spot when these events 
took place.* 

XIV.—Gmnh of the Great Khan. 

When the great khan holds a court, he is guarded, on 
account of his excellency and honour, by 12,000 horse- 
men, who are called quiesitany that is, faithful servants of 
their lord ; and this he does not from fear but regard to 
his high dignity. Over these 12,000 are four captains, so 
that each commands 9000 ; and they keep guaitt in turn 
three days and three nights, eating and drinking at the 
expense of the prince. Then they go away, and another 
party comes ; and so they proceed throughout the whole 
year. 

XV.— The Megnififeiifle of hie FeetiTale. 

When the khan wishes to celebrate a splendid festival, 
the tables are so arranged that his is mach higher thaii 
the others, and he sits on the north, with his face toward 
the south. His first wife is seated beside him on the left, 
while, on the right, are his sons and nephews, and all those 
of imperial lineage, who are so stationed that their head 
is on a level with the feet of the monarch. The barons 

* This is the most important of the chapters foand excltisiTely ia Ra- 
mi sio. Mr. Marsden^pcores the correctness of the main facts hy a quo- 
tation from De Goipies, who relates them with such TariatioDs as prov^ 
him to haye drawn from an independent Oriental aoorce. Count Boni 
has also foand a similar account in the Chinese history translated bj 
llailla. The miniater is there called Achma ; but the real name is the 
common Turkish one of Achmed or Achmet. Although this chapter ia 
evidently written by one possessing information on Chinese aflftdrs, yet 
the complete contrast between the tone in which the khan is mentioned 
here and in every other place, makes it impossible to believe that it could 
have come from the same quarter. The peculiar bitterness with which 
the Saracens are mentioned seems to confirm the suggestion formerly 
made that the writer was a churchman. It may easily be supposed that 
the event might give Kublai a prejudice against the sect, yet we can 
scarcely believe that he showed it by such childish enacteients as thoae 
here stated. De Guignes represents him as having ordered the gtiods 
of the g:uilty minister to be given up to plunder. Mr. Marsden urges, 
with some reason^ that the statement in the text, of his having t^aa 
them to himself is the mn^ probable 



eOUST OF THS BMPKBOB KVBLAI. Ill 

sit Btill lower ; while the ladies, daughters, and female re- 
lations of the khan are placed beneath the queen on the 
letX side, and under them all the wives of the barons ; ev- 
ery class knows the spot where they ought to sit. The 
tables are so arranged that the monarch can see all the 
company, who are very numerous ; and outside of that hall 
there eat more than 40,000 persons, who have come with 
presents or remarkable objects from foreign parts, and at- 
tend on the days when he holds a court or celebrates a 
marriage. lo the midst of this hall is a very large vessel 
of fine gold, containing wine, and on each side two small- 
er ones, whence the liquor is poured out Into flagons, each 
containing fully enough for eight men ; and one of these 
is placed between every two guests, who have besides 
separate cups of gold to drink out of* This supply of 
plate is of very great value, and indeed the khan has so 
many vessels of gold and silver that none without seeing 
oould possibly believe it. 

At each door of the great hall, or of any part of the palace, 
occupied by his majesty, stand two officers of gigantic 
height, holding in their hands staves, to prevent .persons 
who enter from touching the threshold. If any one chan- 
ces to commit this offence, they take from him his gar- 
ment, which he mast redeem by a payment, or if they 
spare his dress, inflict at least a number of blows fixed by 
authority. As strangers may not be aware of this prohi- 
bition, officers are appointed to warn them of it at the 
time of introduction. Since, however, some of the com- 
pany, on leaving the hall, may be so affected with liquor 
as to be onable to guard against the accident, it is not 
then severely punished. Those who serve the khan at 
table are great barons, who hold their mouths carefully 
wrapped in rich towels of silk and gold, that their breath 
may not blow upon the dishes. When he begins to 
drink, all the instruments, which are very numerous, are 
sounded, and while the cup is in his hand, the barons and 
others present fall on their knees, and make signs of great 
humility ; this is done every time he drinks, or when new 
viands are brought in. These I shall not attempt to re- 



* In Rarousio it is nid that tlM large veMel with wine is equal to a 
tOB, an4 that, beside it, there are two equal to hogsheads filled with 
mflk. This last article is oot mentionad in aajr early edition. 



112 DxsouPTioir or ceina, ahd of tbe 

count, tmee any one may belieye that he will hare the 
greatest variety of beasts and birds, wild and domestic, 
and of fishes in their season, and in the greatest abun- 
dance, prepared most delicately in various modes Miita> 
bte to his magnificence and dignity. Every baron or knight 
brings his wife, and she sits at table along with the other 
ladies. When the great sire has eaten, and the tables 
are removed, a namber of jesters, players, and other w^it- 
ty persons perfonn various pieces, ezeiting much mirth 
and pleasure among the company, who then all depart and 
go to their homes.* 

XVI.— Gnat Festival act ^he King's Birthday. 

The Tartars celebrate a festival on the day of their na- 
tivity. The birthday of the khan is on the 28th Septem- 
ber, and is the greatest of all, except that at the beginning 
of the year. On this occasion he clothes himself in robes 
of beaten gold, and his twelve barons and 12,000 soldiers 
wear like him, dresses of a uniform colour and shape ; 
not that they are so costlj, but similarly made of silk, 
gilded, and bound by a cincture of gold. Many have these 
robes adorned with precious stones and pearls, so as to 
be worth 10,000 golden bezants. The great khan, twelve 
times in the year, presents to those barons and knights 
robes of the same colour with his own ; and this is wbat> 
no lord in the world can do. On the day of his nativity, 
all the Tartars from every province of the world, who 
hold lands under him, celebrate a festival, and bring pres- 
ents suited to their station. The same is done by every 
individual who asks from him any favour or office. He 
has twelve barons who bestow commands on such persons 
as they think proper. On that day, the Christians, Sara- 
cens, and an the races of men wha are subject to him, 
make prayers to their gods that they will preserve, and 
grant him a long, healthy, and happy life. I will tell you 

* The raader may compare this fetti'val with thoM celebrated by the 
Xhaui in tbe wilds of Tartary. See pages 63, 63, 70. The mode of 
arrasffing the company continues the saaae. The number and rariety 
of disnes formed a natural improvement in this more plentiful region. 
The nerfonnanc« of the jesters and actors is a Chinese amnseneut, of 
which no mention js made in that rude country. It is only in one sen* 
tence from Ramnsio that alhuion is made to that tendency to intox- 
ication which wM there so recUenly ittdnlfed, and «ms not psobafalv 
here altogetlMr vniuiuL 



OOeST ^nt THK BVPSftO» WOVLMn 110 

ao more of tins feathrBl, bat of another which they eele- 
hrate at the beginning of the year, called the White Feast. 

XVn.— Festival of the New Year. 

The Tartars begin their year in February,* when the 
khan and his people celebrate a feast, where all, both men 
and women, are clothed in white robes. They consider 
these as signifying joy and good fortune, and that hence 
all prosperity will happen to them thronghout the year. 
Oa that day, all who hold land or any dominion under 
him, make the most magnificent presents in their power, 
eonsisting of gold, silver, pearls, precious stones, and rich 
white cloths ; so that, during the whole year, he may haTe 
abandance of treasures, and of the means of enjoying him- 
self. They present also more than 5000 camels, with about 
100,000 beautiful w^hite horses. On that day, too, he is 
gratified with at least 5000 elephants covered with cloths 
of aiUt and gold, finely wrought with figures of beasts and 
binte, and each having on his back a box filled with ves- 
sels of gold and silver, and other things necessary for the 
feast. They all pass before the great khan, and form the 
most brilliant spectacle ever seen in this world. In the 
morning of that festal day, before the, tables are spread, 
the kings, generals, counts, astrologers, physicians, fal- 
oooers, and many other officers and rulers, repair to the 
hall of the sovereign, and those who are not admitted 
remain without the palace in a place where the monarch 
can fully see them. They are in the following^ order : — 
Foremost, his sons, nephews, and others of his lineage, 
then kings, generals, and others according to their rank. 
As soon as each has taken his place, a great prelate rises 
and says, with a loud voice, ** incline and adore ;-* and 
presently all bend down, strike their foreheads on the 
earth, and make prayers to their master, adoring him as 
a god. f This they do four times, and then go to an altar, 
on which is written the name of the great khan. Then, 
out of a beautiful box, they pour incense on that table in 

* It appean by the Tables of TJlogh Beig that the Chinese really 
begin their year in February, on the day when the snn reaches the mid- 
dle point of Aqaarios. Mr. Marsden, p. 331, eonfinns this by other an> 
thorities. 

t We find htfVB deeeribed thai tMrrile homage, called katau, the exiet- 
of iriuidk is too «eU kn«*wn to reavire anv eon&rmatioa. 



1 14 DBScftimoH .or chih a, awd of tbs 

rererence of him, and return to their place ; they next 
make those rich and valuable presents which I have de- 
scribed. When all these things have been done, and the 
prince has seen them all, the tables are placed, and they 
sit down, when the feast is ordered and celebrated in the 
manner already explained. Now that I have described 
to you the joy of the White Feast, I will tell you of a 
most noble thing done by this monarch ; for he has or- 
dered vestments to be bestowed upon tlie barons there 
present. 

XVin.^Robes bestowod iiy th« Grbmt Klum. 

He has twelve barons, who are called fuiesilan, or the 
faithful men of the supreme lord. He gives to each thir- 
teen vestments, ditfering in colour, and adorned with 
precious stones, pearls, and other great and most valu- 
able articles ; also a golden girdle, and sandals worked 
with threads of silver, so that each, in these several 
dresses, appears like a king; and there is a regulation 
what dress ought to be worn at each of the feasts. The 
monarch has thirteen robes of the same colour with those 
of his barons, but more costly.* And now I will relate a 
most wonderful thing, namely, that a large hon is led 
into his presence, which as soon as it sees him, drops 
down, and makes a sign of deep humility, owning him 
for its lord, and moving about without any chain. Now 
you shall hear of the great huntings made by this power- 
ful ruler. 

XIX.-— Profunou of Chune sapplied to hii Court. 

He resides in the city of Cathay, that is Kambaliiy 
three months, December, January, and February, and has 
commanded that, for forty days' journey round, all the 
people should engage in hunting and falconry. The va- 
rious lords of nations and lands are ordered to bring to 
him large beasts, stags, bOars, wild-goats, and other aoi- . 
mals. Those at the distance of thirty days' journey send 
the bodies preserved with the entrails taken out, while 
those at forty send only the skins, which are employed 
as furniture for his army. 

* The b«Mow«l of robes upon comtiexB, howermr foreign to oor cue* 
tmns, is shown by Mr. Manden to be ■ nenel beauty at onental ooaita. 



CX>tntT Oy THE JBBf^SKOA KITBX.AI. IIB 

.<— L^opwrds and otlMr wild AnirnAt lupt for Hoatinf. 

Now let us tell of the beasits which his majesty keeps 
for hunting. Among these ar^sleopards and lynxes, or 
stag-wolves, well fitted for that purpose. He has also 
many lions larger than those of Babylon, of a beautiful 
hair and colour, striped lengthways, black, red, and white, 
and trained to catch stags, wild-oxen, hogs, wihi-goats, 
and asses : and it is delightful to see one of these chases, 
where the hunters go out, carrying the lion in a cage, and 
with him a small dog.* They have likewise abundance 
of eagles, with which they capture hares, foxes, and even 
w^olves ; those which are trained to catch these last are 
▼ery large, and of great weight, so that no wolf can es- 
cape them. 

XXI. — ^His numerous Dogs and splendid Hunting Expeditions. 

. Now let us speak of the dogs kept by this monarch. 
He has two barons v(iio are brothers, named Bayam 
and Migam : they are called cinucU that is, the keepers 
of ^mastiff dogs, and each commands a party of 10,000^ 
men, one clothed in vermilion, and the other in blue ; 
"whenever they go out with the monarch they are dressed 
in these vestments. In each party there are 2000, of 
the men, who guide respectively one, two, or more large 
mastiffs, making altogether a vast multitude. When 
his majesty goes to hunt, these two brothers attend him 
on opposite sides, each with 10,000 men and 5000 dogs ; 
and they hunt thus a day's journey distant from each 
other, and never pursue any animal which is not captur- 
ed. It is indeed beautiful to see the speed of these dogs 
and the hunters, for when the prince goes out with his 

* The lion here and elsewhere described by our author is manifestly 
the tiger. See Mr. Wilson's remarks in account of China, Edinburgh 
Cabinet Library, vol. iii. p. 393. Mr. Marsden (p. 339) observes, that 
the Asiatics generally make little distinction between the two species. 
The tiger, I imagine, was unknown in Europe when Marco left it, and 
••eiag it the only wild animal similar in size and strength, he might 
readily view it as merely a variety of the lion. Mr. Marsden (p. 338) 
mentions, that the Moguls of Hindostan employ small leopards for hunt- 
ing. There is no doubt, especially after what we have seen done by 
Mr. y. Amburgh, thst if no pains are spared, as would be the case here, 
the strongest and fiercest animals may be brought under complete con- 
trol. The lion itself, in Bornou, is4amed into a domestic favourite ; for 
which pur{K)ae the sultan sent a present of one t> Major DeahMB, wbo, 
wisely I thiiik, declined the oompUment. 



f^ 



116 OMCBIPTIIMI or CaUVA, AMD QW ruM 

barons, bows and other animals «re nmniiif on evMy side. 
Mid the dogs pursuiag. 

SXII.— Falconry and the Chase after Birds. 

When the monarch has xemaiiied in Kamhala these 
three months, he departs and goes southward* to the 
ocean two days' journey distant. He leads with him 
10,000 falconers, conveying full 5000 gerfalccms, pere- 
grine falcons in abundance, and also many vultures ; but 
do not imagine that these are all kept in one place ; there 
are 200 here, 300 there, and so on. The birds caught 
are mostly presented to the great sire, and when he goes 
to hunt with his gerfalcons, vultures, and falcons, 10,000 
men are ranged, two together, so as to enclose much 
ground ; these are called toaeaor, meaning in our language 
men who remain on the watch, and each has a call and a 
hood to invite the iHrds. And when any falconer by or- 
der of his majesty, sends forth a falcon, he has no need 
to follow it, because wherever it may go, it is watched 
by the men ranged in double order, who can either catch 
it again, or if necessary afford it succour Each of the 
birds belonging to the sovereign and barons has a tablet of 
silver on its feet, with its name and that of the owner in- 

* As the directkm here assigned^bears ispon what Mr. Manden oonidiii 
the most serious objection to our traveller's authentidt/, a few obasr* 
TatioDs may be proper. The two Paris editions, the Crasca, and the 
earliest Enf lish one (by FnuDptoD), aU make it nmik. The Latin ones 
by PipiBo and Gxynevs give no direotien. Raonnsio done has Qrais. 
which Mr. M. translates north-east ; but the tern, meaainfr a wind 
blowing from Greece into Italy, could imply only a small dedinatioa 
northwards. Besides, the station is said to oe only two days' journey 
from Pe-hing, whieh Mr. Manden insists must be a grass enor ; **$n 
the whole context shows that he is speaking of one of the emperor's dis- 
tant progresses through the Mantchoo conxiiry.'' I cannot discover any 
expression that involfes such a meaning. It seems to hate become fixed 
in the mind of the learned author, that beoanae the present emperors 
have their summer residence in that quarter, KuUai must have had his 
also. He forgets that the former circumstance is owing to th^ir being 
of Mantchoo origin, and consequently attached to that region, while the 
Mongol dynasty had not the slightest tie to it. There appears, then, 
no ground to suppose that the station here described was beyond the 
limits of China, or that Marco, in visiting it, must have crossed or seen 
the great wall. Since writing the above, I iiave had the satisfaction to 
find my opinion ooinoide with the eonclusioa of Count Boni (II Millione, 
vol. ii p. 103), who moreover judiciously observes, how very unsuitable 
tha begbainc of Mardi woidd hav» been fiMr an excursion into tii6 frana 
SBuontains of Tsrtary. 



009»T OF TiiE BMlPKBOft KCTLAl. 117 

scribed, 90 that wherever caught, it can be returned to hin. 
If he ia nnknowfi, the animal mast be carried to a chief 
named hdangazi, or guardian of things that are lost, who 
stands with his flag on an elevated spot, and all who have 
missed any thing go to him and recover it. Whoerer 
finds a horse, a bird, a sword, or any thing else, and does 
fiot earry it to the owner or to this officer, is treated as^ 
robber ; thus scarcely any thing is ever lost. When the 
monarch goes upon these excursions, he has with him 
four elepluints, and a chamber prepared, covered within 
with doth of beaten gold, and outwardly with lions* skins, 
where he keeps twelve of his very best gerfalcons, with 
twelve barons to amuse him by their society. As the 
falconers ride by, they call, <* Sire, the birds are passing," 
when he ^rows open the chamber, and seeing the object, 
selaets the gerfalcons that please him, and sends them 
lorth against the birds, few oif which ever escape. Lying 
cm his couch, he can view and 6n|oy the chase. Thns 
I think, there is not, and never will be, any lord in the 
world, who has or can have so much diversion as the 
great khan. 

XXIII.— Magnificent Tfliito of the Great K1hu». 

When this mighty monardi comes to otte«f bis plaees 
named Ohaccia, he causes his tents to be pitched, with 
those of his sons and barons. These exeeed 10,900 in 
ftumber, and are very beautiful and rich. That in which 
he keeps his court is so large tiist 1000 knights can dwell 
in it ; this is for his nobles and other attendants. He 
himself resides in another, looking westward, where those 
to whom he wishes to speak are introduced ; while there 
is an interior chamber in which he sleeps. The two 
balls have each three fine columns of aromatic wood, and 
are covered outwardly with beautiful lions' hides, all 
striped with black, white, and vermilion, so that water 
cannot enter. The inside is lined with skins of ermine 
and zibelline, of the highest value, especially the latter, 
of which a robe suitable for a man would be worth 2000 
golden bezants, while a common one would be worth 
1000. The Tartars call them royal skins, and they are 
as large as those of a iawn ; the whole hall is covered 
with them, worked most delicately in ints^io. These 



118 DSBcmiPTioif or china, Airn or the 

apartments contain fumitare of such valoe that a little 
king could not purchase them. Around are large tenta 
for his ladies, and for his gerfalcons and other beasts and 
birds : for he brings all his train, doctors, astronoaiers, 
hunters, and other officials, so that the whole appears a 
large and crowded city. He remains there till the feast 
of the Resurrection, during which time be does nothing 
but chase cranes, swans, and other birds, when those 
who catch any bring them to him, and thus the sport is 
beyond what any one can describe. No baron, nor lord, 
nor husbandman, can keep a dog, or falcon for twenty 
days* journey round his residence ; beyond that diatance 
they may do what they please. No person, too, of what> 
ever condition, must, from March to October, take any 
game, but leave them to multiply their kind ; bo that 
hares and stags become so fearless as frequently to come 
up to men, yet are not taken. The great khan then re- 
turns to the city of Kambalu by the same road, hawking 
and sporting. 

XXIV.— Hunting Palace at Shanda in Tartary.* 

At Shandu in Tartary, near the western frontier of 
China, he has built a very large palace of marble and 
other valuable stones. The haUs are gilded all over and 
wonderfully beautiful, and a space sixteen miles in cir- 
cuit is surrounded by a wall, within which are fountains, 
rivers and meadows. Here he finds stags, deer, and 
wild-goats to give for food to the falcons and gerfalcons, 
which he keeps in cages, and goes out once a- week to 
sport with them. Frequently he rides through that en- 
closure, having a leopard on the crupper of his horse, 
which, whenever he is inclined, he lets go, and it catches 
a stag, deer or wild-goat, which is given to the gerfal- 
cons in the cage. In this park, too, the monarch has a 
large palace framed of cane, the interior gilded all over, 
having pictures of beasts And birds most skilfully worked 
on it. The roof is of the same material, and so richly 

* This and the foUowingr chapter are usually inserted in a diflferent 
place, at the close of the journey thrunn^h Central Asia. It appeared to 
us that it would be interesting to introduce them here, and thus com- 
plete the account of Ktthlai'f huntings, and his mode of spending tbe 
year. The places will be afterwards noticed in the itiMTwr ardn, tad 
•ft atleiapc aa4t to fix ttieir petition. 



OOUftT or THB fiMffiBQS KVSLAi. 119 

vami^ed that no water can penetrate. I assure 70a 
these canes are more than three palms thick, and from 
ten to fifteen paces long. They are cut lengthways, 
from one knot to the other, and then arranged so as to 
form the roof. The whole stracture is so disposed that 
the khan, when he pleases, can order it to be taken down, 
for it is supported by more than two hundred cords of 
Bilk. His majesty remains there three months of the 
ye^r, June, July, and August, the situation being cool 
and agreeable ; and during this period his palace of cane 
is set up, while all the rest of the year it is down. On 
the 28th of August, he departs thence, and for the follow- 
ing purpose ; — ^Tbere are a race of mares white as snow, 
with no mixture of any other colour, and in number 
10,000, whose milk must not be drunk by any one who is 
not of imperial lineage. Only one other race of men can 
drink it called fiorisU, because they gained a victory for 
Gengis Khan. When one of these white animals is pass- 
ing, the Tartars pay respect to it as to a great lord, stand- 
ing by to make way for it. The astrologers and idolaters* 
too, have told the khan, that on the S8th August this 
milk must be sprinkled through the air, and over the 
earth, that the spirits may drink plentifully, and may pre- 
serve all that beloiw to him, men, women, beasts, birds, 
and other things. But there is a wonderful circumstance 
that I bad forgotten. When the monarch remained in 
that place, and there came on rain, fog, or any bad 
weather, he had skilful astronomers and enchanters, who 
made these mischiefs fly away from his palace, so that 
none of them could approach it. These wise men are 
called Tebet and Quesmur;* they are idolaters, and 
more skilful in diabolical arts and enchantments than any 
other generation ; and though they do it by the art of the 
devil, they make other men believe that it is through 
their great sanctity and by the power of God.f I must 

* Meaning thnt they come from the countriee of l^bet nnd Cash- 
mero. This clearly nutrka the disciples of fioodh, who have their chief 
•eat in the former region. 

t Ram-isto has the following passage : — " They exhibit themselves in 
a filthy and indecoroos manner, regardless of their character and the 
respect due to others. Thejr suffer their faces to remain gnwwhed, 
and their hair nacombed, living in a state altogether squalid." Mr. 
iCarsdstt adaita that this passage apjdies to the laddoa y«ffia> aad in ne 

K 



120 DttCftimoW OF CHIIIA, AHB oV THB 

ten yoQ, too, another of tbeir customs, that when any 
man is judged and condemned to death by his lord, they 
eook and eat him, bat not when he dies a natural death. ^ 
I will tell yon, too a great wonder which these baksi do 
by their enchantments. When the monarch sits at table 
in his hall of state, and the cops are ten paces distant* 
full of wine, milk, and other beverages, they cause them 
by their magical spells, to rise from the paTement and 
place themselves before the prince, without any one 
touching them; this is done in the presence of 10,000 
meu ; and the fact is real and true, without any lie.^ 
These baksi, when the festivals of their idols come round 
go to his majesty and say, " Great sire, you know the 
feast of such an idol approaches, and are aware that he 
can cause bad weather and much mischief to your cattle 
and grain. We pray, therefore, that you will give as all 
the sheep with black heads, also incense, aloe-wood, and 
aueh and such other things.*' This they tell to the barons, 
who repeat it to the khan, and he gives what they de- 
mand. Then they go to the image and raise in his pres- 
ence a deUcioos fragrance, with incense and spices, cook 
the flesh, and place it with bread before him. Thus eveTy 
god has his day of commemoration in the same manner 
as our saints. They have also extensive abbeys and 
monasteries, one of which here resembles a little city, 
containing upwards of 2000 monks, who are clothed in a 
particular dress, which is handsomer than that of other 
men. They worship their idols by the grandest feasts, 
songs, and lights that ever were seen. And I may tell 
you that many of these baksi, according to their order, 
may take wives, do so, and have a number of children, 
Yet there is another kind of religious men called tensi, 

degree to the priests of Boodh. It seems a blunderini;- interpolation bj 
one who had sonw knowledge, bat confused and indistinct of Eastern 
aflBsirs. 

t It is difficalt to imagine what can have indnced the author to make 
this extranrdinary statement. Probably the enmity of a hostile sect may 
bave led them to impute this enormity to their adversaries. 

$ The advanced state which the mechanical arts have long attained 
in China might easily enable the priests to produce this deceptioa. A 
connexion with some court grandees might permit them to introduce the 
requisite machinery ; for one can scarcely think with Mr. Manden that 
the khan was prirv to it. If there be any truth at all in the converaa* 
tioa h« It mtda t* hold, pp. 99, 190^ he oeitainly w» not. 



COURT OP Ta>E BMf BBOft KUBLAl. 121 

who observe strict abstinence ; they eat nothing but the 
husks Of corn l^oiled in warm water, fast often in the 
course of the year, have many large idols, and sometimes 
adore fire. Their observances differ from those of every 
other sect,; they would not take a wife for any thing in 
the world. They shave the head and beard, wear black 
and blue dresses of coarse canvass, sleep upon mats, and 
lead the hardest life of any men on earth. Their mon* 
asteries and their idols all bear the names of women.*' 

XXY. — Palace at Ciangftnor. 

At Cianganor, too, three days' journey distant, the khan 
has a large palace, where he is fond of residing, because 
there are many lakes and rivers, as well as fine plains, 
abounding in cranes, pheasants, partridges, and other 
birds. Here, therefore, he has delightful hawking, and 
abundant exercise for his falcons and gerfalcons. There 
are five kinds of cranes which I must describe. The first 
are black like crows, and very large. The second are 
white, and very beautiful, for all the feathers are full of 
round eyes, like those of the peacock, and glitter like gold. 
The head is white, black, and red all round, and they are 
larger than any of the others. The third species resem- 
ble ours. The fourth are small, and have in their ears 
very magnificent red and black feathers. The fifth are 
all gray, with handsome red and black heads, and are very 
large. Near this city is a valley where the khan has or- 
dered the erection of. various small houses, in which are 
kept flocks of partridges, and he employs a number of men 
to guard these birds, so that they are in abundance ; and 
whenever he comes into this palace, he finds as many as 
he desires. 

XXYI. — ^Paper Moaejr— ImmenM Wealth of the Great Khan. 

With regard to the money of Kambalu, the great khan 
may be called a perfect alchymist, for he makes it him- 
self. He orders people to collect the bark of a certain 
tree, whose leaves are eaten by the worms that spin silk. 
The thin rind between the bark and the interior wood is 

* The extensive monasteries here desoribed are common in Tangut, 
upon which this residence bordered. Mr. Marsden, pp. 900, 36 1, lias 
■Down that the obsemmces here described are xunally practiced by the 
votariM of Fo. 



122 DESCEIPTIOlf &r CHINA, AND OF THB 

taken, and from it cards are formed like those of paper, 
all black. He then causes them to be cut into pieces, and 
each is declared worth respectively half a Ihrre, a whole 
one, a silver grosso of Venice, and so on to the value of 
ten bezants. All these cards are stamped with his seal, 
and so many are imbricated, that they woald buy all the 
treasuries in the world. He makes all his pajrments in 
them, and circulates them through the kingdoms andpror^ 
inees over which he holds dominion ; and none dares to 
refuse them under pain of death. All the nations under 
his sway receive and pay this money for their merchant 
dise, gold, silver, precious stones, and whatever they trans- 
port, buy, or sell. The merchants often bring to him 
goods worth 400,000 bezants, and he pays them all in 
these cards, which they willingly accept, because they can 
make purchases with them throughout the whole empire. 
He frequently commands those who have gold, silver, 
cloths of silk and gold, or other precious commodities, to 
bring them to him. Then he calls twelve men skilful in 
these matters, and commands them to look at the articles, 
and fix their price. Whatever they name is paid in these 
cards, which the merchant cordially receives. In this 
manner the great sire possesses all the gold, silver, pearls, 
and precious stones in his dominions. When any of the 
cards are torn or spoiled, the owner carries them to the 
place whence they were issued, and receives fresh ones, 
with a deduction of 3 per cent. If a man wishes gold or 
silver to make plate, girdles, or other ornaments, he goes 
to the office, carrying a sufficient number of cards, and 
gives them in payment for the quantity which he requires.* 
This is the reason why the khan has more treasure than 
any other lord in the world ; nay, all tho princes in the 
world together have not an equal amount. 

* The UM of paper mooey at this period is fully confinned by Chinaai 
history (Marsden, pp. 356, 357). It is stad to have been first introduoed 
by Hongf-vou, of tho djrn&sty which preceded the Mongol conquest, and 
to have been adopted by Okkoday, the immediate successor of Ges£:iif. 
Kublai seems to have carried it to a greater extent than any of his pre- 
decessors ; and the Yuen dynasty, who expelled the Tartars, attempted 
to eontinae the praotice ; but it has been long since disoswi, and only 
dat>iched remnants are preserved as cnrieeities, or as amulets. — Account 
af China, Edinburgh Cabinet Library, vol. ii. p. S47. Count Boni men- 
tiona, that the manu papyriffra (paper-baaring mulberry) is a paeuliar 



COUJIT QV TOB BMrSBOS KUBLAI. 123 

^UCVIl.— 'The Tw«lye Gorenapn of Provinces and their Duty. 

He has appointed twelve very great barons, who hold 
command ~over all things in the thirty-four provinces. 
They reside in a palace within the oity of Kambalu, large 
and beautiful, containing many halls andapartnxents ; and 
for every province there is an agent and a number of wri- 
tars or notaries, having each a house to himself. They 
manage all the provincial aifairs according to the will and 
pleasure of the twelve barons. The latter have power to 
appoint the lords of the provinces above mentioned ; and 
having chosen the one whom they judge best qualified, 
they naiue him to the great khan, who confirms him, and 
bestows a golden tablet corresponding to his command. 
These twelve barons are called in the Tartar language 
scieng^ that i8> ^be greater officers of state. They order 
the army to go where and In what numbers they please, 
but all according to the commands of the great sire ; and 
they do every other thing necessary for the provinces. 
The palace in which they dwell is called seieny and is the 
largest in alt the court ; they have the power of doing 
much good to any one whom they favour. 

XXVni.— The Comere of the Great Khan and their Stations. 

I must DOW inform you, that from the city of Kambalu, 
many messengers are sent to divers provinces, and on all 
the roads they find, at every twenty-five miles, a post 
called jamb, where the imperial envoys are received. At 
each is a large edifice, containing a bed covered with silk, 
and every thing useful and convenient for a traveller ; so 
that if a king were to come, he wonld be well accommo- 
dated. Here, too, they find full 400 horses whom the 
prince has ordered to be always in waiting to convey them 
when sent into any quarter, along the principal roads. 
When they have to go through any district where there 
is no habitation, the monarch has caused such edifices to 
be reared at the distance of thirty-five or at most forty 
miles ; thus they go through all the provinces, finding 
every where ians and horses for their reception. Tliis 
is the greatest estabUshment that ever was kept by any 

apeciet lately introduced into Italy, though naed only for common |>ar> 
poees, and no triaL he nfff^^ !>*■ 7^^ heen made of produeiof fttan it 
that article.— n IClHone, i. 90. 



124 UE.^^CRIPTtOH OF CHINA, AND OF THS 

king or emperor in the world ; for at those places there 
are maintained more than 200,000 horses.* Also the edi 
fices, furnished and prepared in the manner now described, 
amount to more than 10,000.t Moreover, in the intervals 
between these stations, at every three miles, are erected 
Tillages of aboQt forty houses, inhabited by foot-runners, 
also employed on these despatches. They wear a large 
girdle, set round with beUs, which are heard at a great 
distance. When one of them receives a letter or packet, 
he runs full speed to the next village, where his approach 
being announced by the bells, another is ready to start 
and proceed to the next, and so on. By these pedestrian 
messengers the khan receives news in one day and night 
from places distant ten days' journey ; in two, from those 
distant twenty ; and in ten, from those distant a hundred.^ 
From them he exacts no tribute, but gives them horses 
and many other things. When his messengers go cyi 
horseback to cartr inteUigence into the provinces or bring 
tidings from distant parts, and, more especially, respect- 
ing any district that has rebelled, they ride in one day and 
night 200, 250, or even 300 miles ; and when there are 
two, they receive two good horses, bind themselves round 

* Here follows a long paisage (exclnsiTely in Ranraiio) accounting for 
tile great population m tlie country ; but it bears so apnerypbal a cha- 
racter, asserting that everT man hiw from six to ten wives, and owns six 
or ei^ht horses, that, in the absence of any early authority, I hare de- 
termined to reject it. It mentions, howerer, correctly, the great care 
with which the land is cultivated. 

t Government post* for the conveyance of intelligence and messengen 
have been long and generally employed by Asiatic monarchs. Count 
Boni even finds them mentioned in the Cyropedia of Xenophon. We 
have seen Carpini and Rubruqais thus conveyed across the whole breadth 
of Tsrtsry. I cannot but thmk, however, that the numbers here, as in 
other inst«uices, are much exaggerated. If we suppose 30,000 miles at 
road thus provided, the stages would still be short of 1000. ! doubt, 
however, if we can adopt Mr. Marsden's conjecture of a cipher too much ; 
for in early MSS. the nnmerals are always Roman. It is also absurd to 
suppose such a number of hones kept in wailing at every stage ; but the 
author might be misled by the circumstance, that any larjge mission pass- 
ing to or from court is supplied with the number wanted by impressment 
among the fanners. The word jamb seems to be the Persian yam or utm. 

t It seems diflicult to understand why these footprunners should have 
been employed on the same roads with the horse-couriers, who would 
surely travel more quickly. I cannot but suspect that the former were 
confined to those barren tracts which did not sJSbrd the requisite forage. 
Mr. Marsden quotes Bell of Antermony for the modem practice : h^ 
journey lay through the great desert. 



COURT OF THE EMPERO& KyBLAI. 125 

the head and body, and gallop full speed from one station 
to the next at twenty-Uve miles' distance, where they find 
two others fresh and ready harnessed, on which they pro- 
ceed with the same rapidity. They stop not for an in- 
stant day nor night, and are thus enabled to bring news in 
so short a period. Now, I will tell yoa the great bounty 
which the monarch bestows twice in the year. 

XXIX.— The Care and Bounty of the Monarch towards his Sabjecta. 

He sends his messengers throagh all iiis kingdoms and 
provinces, to know if any of his subjects have had their 
crops injured through bad weather or any other disaster ; 
and if such injury has happened, he does not exact from 
them any tribute for that season or year ; nay, he gives 
them corn out of his own stores to subsist upon, and to 
sow their fields. This he does in summer ; in winter he 
inquires if there has been a mortality among the cattle, 
and in that case grants similar exemption and aid. Wh*n 
there is a great abundance of grain, he causes magazines 
to be formed, to contain wheat, rice, millet, or barley, and 
care to be taken that it be not lost or spoiled ; then when 
a scarcity occurs, this grain is drawn forth, and sold for 
a third or fourth of the current price.* Thus there can- 
not be any severe famine ; for he does it through all his 
dominions ; he bestows also great charity on many poor 
families in Kambalu ; and when he bears of individuals 
who have not food to eat, he causes grain to be given to 
them. Bread is not refused at the court throughout the 
whole year to any who come to beg for it ; and on this 
account he is adored as a god by his people. His majesty 
provides them alsawith raiment out of his tithes of wool, 
silk, and hemp. These materials he causes to be woven 
into different sorts orcloth, in a house erected for that 
purpose, where every artizah is obliged to work one day 
in the week for his service. Garments made of the stufiTs 
thus manufactured are given to destitute families for their 
winter and summer dresses. A dress is also prepared 
for his armies ; and in every city a quantity of woollen 

* The formation of public granaries to be opened in times of scarcity 
is common. The same may be said of the remission of taxes in un£i- 
roorable seasons. Besides motives of humanity, these measures are 
prompted by ihs dread of insurrection, which is often excited in this 
empire by intervals of severe dearth.— Marsden, p 371. 



IS6 DMCftlMlOW or CHINA, AND 6F THE 

cloth is woven, being defrayed from the tithes there levied. 
It must be observed, that the Tartars, according to their 
original customs, when they had not yet adopted the re- 
ligion of the idolaters, never bestowed alms ; but when 
applied to by any necessitous person, repelled him with 
reproachfnl expressions, saying, — ^begone with your com- 
plaints of a baa season, God has sent it to you, and had 
he loved you, as he evidently loves me, you would have 
similarly prospered. But since some of the wise men 
among the idolaters, especially the baksi, have represented 
to his majesty, that to provide for the poor is a good work 
and highly grateful to their deities, he has bestowed cbari- 
ity in the manner now described, so that, at his court, 
none are denied food who come to ask for it.* He has 
also 80 arranged that in all the highways by which mes- 
sengers, merchants, and other persons travel, trees are 
planted at short distances on both sides of the road, and 
hre so tall that they can be seen from a great distance. 
They serve thus both to show the way and afford a grate- 
ful shade. This is done whenever the nature of the soil 
admits of plantation ; but when the route lies through 
sdndy deserts or over rocky mountains, he has ordered 
stones to be set up, or columns erected, to guide the trav- 
eller. Officers of rank are appointed, whose duty it is to 
take care that these matters be properly arranged, and 
the roads kept constantly in good order. Besides other 
iikiotives, the great khan is influenced by the declaration 
6f hi^ soothsayers and astrologersi that those who plant 
tiiees receive long life as their reward. 

tXX.-^lA^piar oied for Wine in Catluty. 

You tnust know that the greater part of the people of 
Cathay drink ia wine made of rice and many good spices,f 
and prepare it in such a way that it is more agreeable to 
drink than any other liquid. It is clear and beautiful, 

' * The last three sentenced ate in Ramnno alone, and firom their ten<t- 
•acy to depreciate the khan, I cannot help nnspecting them to be the 
proanction of the same pen which narrated the rebellion of Achmac. 

t It is well known that the Chinese distil a spirit from rice, of which 
they driok plentifully. Yet, from the mention of spices, which the^ do 
not mix with it, I incline strongly to believe that tea entered partly intp 
vox aathtnr's idea, and that, being- little familiar with Chineat castonf 
kt coBfottaded this two together. 



toxmr or mi manton, kxtblai. Id7 

and it makes a man drunk adoner than any other wine, 
for it is extremely hot. 

XXXI.~ Stones which are burnt ioAtead of Wood. 

It may be observed, also, that throughout the whole 
province of Cathay, there are a kind of black stones cut 
from the mountains in veins, which bum like logs. They 
maintain the fire better than wood. If you put them on 
in the evening, they will preserve it the whole nig^t, and 
will be found burning in the morning. Throughout the 
whole of Cathay this fuel is used.* They have atso wood 
indeed ; but the stones are much less expensive. 

XXXII. — The Astrologexs of Eambalu— The Tartar Computation o4 

Time. 

The city of Kambalu contains, inclusive of Christians, 
Saracens, and Kataians, about 5000 astrologers and sooth- 
sayers, whom the emperor provides with food and cloth- 
ing, as he does the poor families ; and they are constantly 
practising their art. They have astrolabes, on which are 
delineated the planetary signs, the hours of passing the 
meridian, and their successive aspects during the whole 
year. The astrologers of each separate sect annually ex* 
amine their respective tables, to ascertain thence the 
course of the heavenly bodies, and their relative positions 
for every lanation. From the paths and configurations 
of the planets in the several signs, they foretell the state 
of the weather and the peculiar phenomena which are to 
occur in each month. In one, for instance, there will be 
thunder and storms ; in another earthquakes ; in a third 
violent lightaing and rain ; in a fourth pestilence, mortal- 
ity, war, discord, conspiracy. What they find in their 
astrolabes they predict, adding however, that God may 
at his pleasure do either more or less than they have an« 
nounced. 

Their annual prophecies are written on small squares 
called takuini, which are sold at a moderate price to all 
persons anxious to search into futurity. Those whose an* 

* This is oTidently coal, which abounds in China, but was then un- 
known in the port of Europe from which the traveller came. If I remem- 
ber right, ^neas Sylvius, when relating his ionmey in Scotland, uses 
Um -vfry same ezpressiun, describing the woeUy 4ittribatieii.ainoBg thf ' 
yaer of stooM for the purpose «f AmL 



128 DEBCBIPTIOK OF CBIKA, AND OF TBB 

nouncements prove more generally correct are accounted 
the most perfect masters of their art, and consequently 
held in the highest honour. When any one projects a 
great work, a long journey for commercial purposes, or 
any other undertaking, the probable success of which he 
is desirous to learn^ he goes to one of these astrologers^ 
informs him g( the time at which he intends to set out, 
and inquires what aspect the heavens then exhibit. The 
astrologer replies, that before he can answer, he must be 
informed of the year,- month, and hour of his nativity, on 
learning which be examines how the constellation that 
was then in the ascendai^ corresponds with the aspect 
of the celestial bodies at the time of ttie inquiry. Upon 
this comparison he founds his prediction as to the favour- 
able or unfavourable issue of the enterprise. 

The Tartars compute time by a cycle of twelve years, 
the first of which tl>3y name the lion ; the second, the 
ox ; the third, the dragon ; the fourth, the dog ; and so 
on till all the twelve have elapsed. When any one» 
therefore, is asked the year in which he was born, he an- 
swers, it was in that of the lion, on such a day, and at 
such an hour and minute ; all of which had been carefully 
noted in a book. When the years of the cycle are com- 
pleted, they begin again with the first and constantly go 
over the same round.* 

XXXIII.r— Rabgion and Cnatoms of the Tftrtan (ChineM). 

These people are idolaters, and each person has, for 
the object of worship, a tablet fixed against an elevated 
part of the wall of his apartment, having a name written 
on it whieh denotes the high, heavenly, and mighty Grod, 
and this they daily worship, burning incense before it. 
Raismg their hands, and beating their faces^three times 
against the fioor, they entreat from him the blessings 
of sound understanding and bodily health, addressing 
no other petition. Below, on the floor, they have a sta- 
tue named Natigai, considered as the god of terrestrial 
objects, or ol whatever is produced on the earth. They 
suppose him to have a wife and children, and worship 

' * The Tartars really have a cycle of twelve year8,~marked by naniM 
of animalt ; bat there seems to be a mistake ia tbose here given. Tlia 
Boat correct list is said to be the rat, ca, tiger, hare, dra^, serpant* 
horsa, sheep, monkey, oock, dog. and hog-^Sbasden, p. 8i0. 



OOUKT OF TBS BMPEBOB KUBLAI.- 1S9 

him in the same manner with incense, lifting their hands, 
and bending to the ground. They pray to him for good 
weather, plentiful crops, increase of family, and other 
such objects. They belieye the soul to be so far immor- 
tal, that immediately after death it enters another body. 
and according as a man's actions in this life have been 
▼irtnans or wicked, his future state will be progressively 
more or less fortunate. If he has been poor, yet acted 
worthily and respectably, he will be born anew, first of a 
lady, becoming himself a gentleman ; then of a woman 
of rank, becoming a nobleman, and he will continually 
ascend in the scale of existence till he becomes united 
with the divinity. On th§ contrary, if a gentleman's son 
have acted unworthily, he will, at his next birth, become 
a clown, and at length a dog ; descending always to a 
condition more vile than the former. 

They converse courteously, accosting each other with 
politeness and with countenances expressive of plea- 
sure ; they have a well-bred air, and a manner of eating 
particularly cleanly. The utmost reverence is 8liov%*n to 
parents ; and should any child treat his with disrespect, 
or neglect to assist 4jiem, there is a public tribunal hav- 
ing for its especial object to punish the crime of filial in- 
gratitude. Malefactors, when found guilty, after being ap- 
prehended and thrown into prison, are strangled; but 
such as remain till the expiry of three years, a time ap- 
pointed by his majesty for a general release, are set at 
hberty^, having however a brand fixed on one of the cheeks, 
by which they may be recognised. 

The great khan has prohibited all gambling and other 
species of fraud, to which this people are addicted beyond 
any other upon earth ; and as a reason for this prohibition, 
he tells them in his edict, " I subdued you by the pow- 
er of my sword, and consequently whatever you possess 
belongs of right to me ; in gambling, therefore, you sport 
with my property." Yet he does not, by the right thus 
claimed, take any thing on an arbitrary principle. The 
orderly and regular manner in which all ranks present 
themselves before him deserves notice. On approaching 
within hadf a mile of his residence, they testify their rev- 
erence for his exalted rank by an humble, subdued, and 
Quiet demeanour, so that not the least noise is beard, nor 



£30 DBiCXIFTIOH OF CHINA, A1V» Or TBB 

does may one call, or even speak aloud, firery man ai 
rank carries with Kim, while he continoes in the hall of 
aodience, a vessel into which he spits, that he may not 
soil the floor ; and having done so, he replaces the cover, 
and makes a bow. Thej usually take with them hand- 
some buskins of white leather, and on reaching the court, 
before entering the hall, where they wait to be summoned 
by his majesty, put them on, giving those worn in walk- 
ing to the care of the servants. This precaution is talcea 
that they may not sully the beautiful carpets, cnnooidy 
wrought with silk and gold, and exhibiting a variety of 
colours.* 

XXXIV.— Marco PoIo*8 Joarney— The River Palisangan and its 

beautiful Bridgpe. 

I have now to inform you that the great khan having 
sent Messer Marco as his ambassador into the western 
provinces, he departed from Kanibalu, and travelled in 
that direction full four months. You shall now hear all 
that he saw on that journey going and returning. When 
a man leaves Kambalu and has gone ten miles, he finds 
a river called Pulisangan, which flows on to the ocean, 
and is crossed by many merchants with their goods. 
Over it is a grand stone bridge, which has not its equal 
in the world ; it is 300 paces long and eight broad, and ten 
horsemen can ride abreast over it. It has twenty-four 
arches, supported by piers in the water, and is wholly of 
marble, finely wrought into columns in the manner that I 
will teU you. At the head of the bridge is a column of 
marble, above and beneath which are beautifully carved 
tions of the same material, and about a pace distant is 
another column, with its lions, and between the two are 
slabs of gray marble, to secure passengers from falling 

* These two chapters are found in Ramusio only. They are eTidently 
written by one who had considerable knowledge of China. The preva< 
lence of astrology, and the sanction of it by g^ovemment, the pcdite and 
eeremonions behaviour, the tenets of Fo, and the mge for gambling, an 
all correctly stated. There is, however, a waiit of distinctuess, particu- 
larly in the Tartars and Chinese being confounded together. The title 
of the second chapter refers to the former, while its contents relate eB" 
tlrely to the latter. On the whole there is nothing in them absc^utely 
to negative their being composed by Marco ; yet thev appear written in 
a different tone, and considering their absence in all the early editions, 
t am strongly inclined to believe, that like others they have been insert* 
ad by a wmnt pea. 



€6UBT OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAl. 1 81 

into the water ; and the whole bridge thus formed is the 
roost magnificent object in the world.* 

, XXXV.— The grei^t City of Geo-gui. 

After leaving that bridge a man traveJs thirty miles 
westward, finding every where fine trees, villages, and 
InDS, and then comes to a city which is niimed Geo-gui.f 
The country is rich in grain, the people are all idolaters ; 
they live foy merchandise and the arts, making cloth of 
goi4, as well as srlk, and beautiful lineo. There are also 
numerous houses for the reception of strangers. A mile 
beyofid that city are two roads, one leading westward 
through Oskthay, the other southward io the great prov- 
ince of Manjt. In riding westward through Cathay fuU 
ten dajSyt you fipd always handsome cities and castles, 
abundance of arts and luerchandise, fine inns, trees, vineOt 
and a civilized people. 

XXXVI.— The Cities of T»-i»-fu and Pi-aa-fq. 

At the end of this journey is a kiogdom named Ta-ia- 
fu,^ with a capital of the same name. It contains many 
arts and much merchandise, with a large supply of stores 
necessary for the imperial army. The district presents 
numerous vineyards, and being the only part of Cathay 
where wine is made, supplies it to the surrounding provin- 

* Magalhaens dflscribes a aimilar bridgv, and agree* in thinking it 
perhape the finest in the world, though he insists that it is not exacthr 
OB the site indicated by Marco. It was destroyed by a flood in 1608, 
ant} not rejdaced by one of equal b»iuty. The Crasca and Paris Latia 
make thirty-four arches ; but the French and Ranraaio (in acondanca 
with Magalhaens) only twenty-four. 

t This place, called by Ranrasio, Gronza, seems correctly fixed by 
Marsden (p. 892) at Tso^leheou, not a city of the first magnitude, bm 
0zhibite4 in D'Anville's map of Pe-che-Iee, as the point at which the 
two great roads here mentioned diverge. 

t The distances are all given in journeys. Each of these, according 
to the best ettimaie the editor can form, may be reckoned at alraut four- 
taen miles in a direct line ; but this is not quite uuifiirm. The direo> 
tiou is always given towards a cardinal point, without noticing pretty 
extensive dnviatione from it. With these allowances, the itinerary wil!^ 
it is believed, be found extremely correct. 

^ Tai-yueu-fou, capital tsf the province of , Shan-see. Being the resi- 
dence of the Taj^-niiug dynasty, it contains splendid palaces, now in 
ruin ; and it is stiJI very populous. Arms in this less warlike age are 
no longer fabricated ; but the neighbouring mountains abound with 
iron, sud worka an carried on in that metal.— Aatley's Voyages, vol. ir. 
p. 53. 



189 DS8CBIPTION OP CHINA, ANB OP THB 

ces. It yields also moch silk, aboanding in the trees on 
which the wonns are fed. A degree ofcivilization prevails 
among all the people of this country, in consequence of 
their ft^uent intercourse with the numerous towns 'wrhich 
lie very near each other. The merchants are constantly 
carrying their goods from one to another, as foirs are suc- 
cessively held at each. Five days' journey beyond the 
ten already mentioned, there is said to be another city 
still larger and handsomer, named Achhaluch, where are 
the limits of his majesty's hunting-ground, within which 
no person must sport except princes of his family, and 
others whose names are inscrilMed on the grand falconer's 
list ; beyond all persons qualified by their rank have that 
liberty. The khan scarcely ever follows the chase in this 
quarter ; hence the wild animals, especially hares, multi- 
ply to such a degree, as to cause the destruction of all 
the growing com. This having come to his knowledge, 
he was indu<^ to repair thither with his whole court, and 
prodigious quantities of game were then taken.* Leav- 
ing Ta-io-fu, and riding westward full seven days through 
very fine districts, amid numerous merchants, you find a 
large town named Pi-an-fu,t supported by commerce 
and the silk manufacture. 

ZZXVIL— The Castle of Caya-fa—Stocy of its King and Prester John. 

Two miles west of Pi-an-fu is a famous castle, named 
Caya-fu,t built anciently by a king named Dor. In this 
castle is a very beautiful palace, with a great hall, con* 
taining portraits beautifully painted, of all the kings who 
formerly reigned in these provinces. Having mentioned 
this King Dor, I will tell you a curious story of what 
passed l^t^en him and Prester John. The two sov- 
ereigns being at war, Dor was in so strong a situation 
that the x>ther could not reach him, and was therefore 
much chagrined ; upon which seven of his servants said 
that they would bring before him his adversary, and if he 

* This aocoQDt of Achbalack and the hunting is ezdnsirelj in Ra- 
uusio. 

t Pin-yaag-fon, the second city of Shan-see, not inferior to the cap- 
ital. — Astley, ToL it. p. 52. 

t This place is called Tsrioosly Chin-cui, Cay-cai, and in Ramasio 
Chai-cui. Mr. Marsdensapposes, probably enough, Kiai-teheou. Covnt 
Boni suggests Tai-ping-hie& ; but we cannot iiad Oua plaoc co the Jes- 
uits' or any other map. 



COUftT or THE SaiPJEBOJl KUBX^I. 189 

wished even alive. He said he should be very roach ob- 
liged to them. Having obtained this permission, they 
ivent to the king and presented themselves as strangers 
desiirous to serve him. He gave them an honourable 
welcome, and they began their duties with the utmost 
Keal, rendering themselves extremely acceptable. Atler 
tbey had remained two years, he became greatly attached 
to them, and confided in their love as if they had been 
his sons. Now hear what these wicked fellows did, and 
liow difficult it is to find defence against a traitor. The 
king happened to go out on an excursion with a small 
number of persons, among whom were these seven. 
When they had passed a river distant fVom the palace, 
seeing that the king had not attendants enough to defend 
him; they laid hands on him, drew their swords, and 
threatened to kill him, unless he instantly went along 
With them. He was greatly surprised, and said to 
them, — ** What mean you by this, my sons t — what are 
you saying — whither do you wish me to go 1" They re- 
plied ; — " We wish you to come with us to Prester John, 
who is our roaster." When Dor heard this, he almost 
died with grief and said, — ^^ Ha ! my good friends, have I 
not honoured and treated you as children ; why will you 
betray me into the bands of my enemy 1 This would be 
a most wicked and disloyal action.'' They replied that 
it must be so. They led him to their sovereign who re- 
joiced greatly, and addressed the king in very rough lan- 
guage. He made no reply, not knowing what to answer ; 
upon which, the other set him to keep his cattle, as a 
mark of disgrace and contempt, and during two years he 
performed this menial office. After that time Prester 
John was appeased, and resolved to spare his captive. 
He bestowed on him splendid regal vestments, paying 
him great honour, and saying, — "Now own you were 
not a man capable of making war against me." The 
king then replied, — " Sire, I always knew that I was un- 
able to contend with you ; I repent much of my former 
bad conduct, and promise faithfully that I will always be 
your friend." Then said the Christian prince, — " I will 
impose upon you no more hardship and grief; you shall 
Teceive favour and honour." Having then supplied him 
with many horset handsomely equipped, and a numerooa 



IM DaicaamoH or owir a, ah d op trb 

alteadaoce, he pennitted him to go. Dor then retnmed 
to his kingdom* and from that time was a faithful friend 
and servant of Prester Juhn.* 

^XXVlIl. — The great River Kara-moraiii aad the City Ca-cian-fu. 

Twenty miles westward frum that ca^Ue is a river 
called Kara-moran,t so large and broad that it cannot be 
crossed by a bridge, and flows on even to the ocean. Oo 
its banks are many cities and castles, likewise many 
merchants and manufactured goods ; ao[d in the country 
around ginger grows ia great abundance. The number 
of birds is wonderful, so that for a Venetian grosso on^ 
can buy three pheasants ; and after travelling three days, 
you find a noble city named Ca-cian-fu.t The people 
are idolaters, as likewise those of Cathay. It is a eitj 
of great merchandise and many arts. They have abun- 
dance of silk, with cloth of gi^d of all fashions. I wiU 
go on to tell you of the capitsd of the kingdom. 

XXXIX.~-The City <^ Quen-sian-fa. 

When a man has left the city of Ca-cian-fu, and travel- 
led eight days westward, he finds always cities and cas- 
tles, merchandise and arts, pleasure grounds and houses : 
and the whole country is full of mulberries, producing 
abundance of silk. The men are idolaters and live by 
labouring the ground, hunting, and hawkiug. At the end 
of the eight days he comes to the noble clly of Quen-gian- 

* This story is of coarse giyea by the traveller on heavsay : yet then 
■eeiDs nothing in it very improbable. With regard to the name Dot 
(absurdly converted in :.the Latin versions into Darias), Mr. Marsden 
makes an ingenious and very p^able oonjecttu'e, that it is applied t» 
Ihe dynasty uf Kin, a word in Chinese signifying gold. These priuoee 
of Tartar origin had, previous to the Mongol lavaston, occupied all this 
part of Asia. See Account of China, Eciinborgh Cabinet Library, vd. 
I. p. 100. Prester John, an odd and celebrated name, is understood to 
apply to Ouang Khan, who at the same period reigned at Karakorum 
aud the 'adjacent part of Eastern Tartary. — See Introduction to the 
Missions ; the Travels of Carpini and Rubruquis. 

t This term signifying ia China the Black River, is applied here to 
the great stream uf the U«iang-ho, or Yellow River, the second in mag- 
nitude of the inland currents which water the empire. 

X Mr. Marsden is unable to find any large city on thia line. Count 
Buni suggests Hoa-tcheou, which indeed had occurred to me ; but it 
will not accord wiih the eight days to Si-ngau-fou. I wuuJd saggeitt 

2'ong-tqheou ; for there is nu reason tQ auppuse thut the river may net 
ave been crossed before its bend to the ieastw^^ *piigt jidXs would 
Aearly eoneqrand to all the dsta^ 



fOintT OF TBM MWMKOm MXJ^ULh 186 

fo,* capital of akiagdom anoieatlymafnificetit and power- 
ful, anti wbicli had many noble and valiant kings. At 
present the crowu is held by Mangulu, a son of the great 
khan. TUat city is rich in merchandibe and uianufac- 
lure^^ particularty of implements ibr the supply of an 
army ; likewise every thing necessary fur the subsist- 
ence of man. The people are all idolaters. Westward 
is a beautiful palace of King Mangalu, which I will describe 
to yott. It lies in a great plain watered by a river, as also 
by many lakes and fountains. A wall five miles in cir- 
cuity surrounded with battlements, and well built, encloses 
this splendid edifice, having halls and chambers adorned 
with beaten gold. Mangalu exercises his dominion with 
^reat justice, and is much beloved by his people ; the 
residents in the district enjoy great amusement in hawk* 
ing and hunting, f 

XL.^Tbe PioyiaM of Caarehio. 

A man departing from this palace travels three days 
eastward through a Tery fine plain, always finding vil- 
lages and castles, with men living by merchandise, and 
rearing silk in great abundance. He then comes to great 
mountains and valleys belonging to the province of Cun- 
chin ;t the people are all idolaters, and subsist by agri- 
culture and hunting, having many forests full of various 
wild animals. Thus a man rides for twenty days through 
mountains, valleys, and woods, at^i^ays finding cities, cas- 
tles, and good inns. 

* Ken-san-fa, Ramnui^ Thi« is Si-nfan-fMi, capital of Shan-wo, 
the laaiUiMice of the Uuree imperial dynastiet, Chen, Siu, and Han. A 
laiV* palace, and walla foar leagues in compass, still attest its fonnep 
grandeor. — (Astley, ynl. iv. pp. 53, 54.) Coant Boni thinks it Han- 
tchung fuu ; bat the eight dars from Hoa-tcheoa would be qaite inade- 
quate to reach that city. He furgets, too, that he would then have 
forty days to spend between it and Tching-tou-fuu> a period much too 
large. 

1 1 his agrees with De Ouignea' statement, quoted by Marsden, that 
Mamgkola^ a s 'O of Kablai, was gc«veraor of Sheu'See, Se-tchnen, anil 
Thibet, and rweided at Si>ngan-foo.— Marsden, p. 406. 

X This province, called in other editions Kun-kin, Chin-chin, Chym, 
is considered by Mr. Marsden (p. 406) to be Se-tchuen ; but the distan- 
ces compared with the map will show evidently that it is still only the 
southern part of Shen-see, which bears in fact the rode and mooutain- 
ous character here ascribed to it (Astley, vol. iv. p. 54). This part of 
China seems then to hare beea dMmnt^ aad aore minataly euhdin 
dad than at preaent 



186 DB8GEIPT10N OF OBIRA, AH1> OP THS 

XLI.— TIm P yot iu ee of AidialMih-BlMijL 

After this journey, be enters a province named Acha- 
lech-Manji, entirely level, and full of cities and castles. 
The people are all idolaters, and live by merchandise and 
art, and the province yields such a quantity of ginger, 
that it is distributed throughout Cathay, to the great profit 
of the inhabitants. The land also yields rice, wheat, and 
other grain, and is rich in all productions. The princi- 
pal country is called Achalech-Manji, which means in our 
language, one of the borders of Manji. This plain lasts 
for two days, and we then travel twenty through moun- 
tains, valleys, and woods, seeing many cities and castles. 
These people are idolaters, and live on the fruits of the 
earth and the flesh of birds and beasts ; for there are abun- 
dance of Hons, bears, wolves, stags, deer, and particu- 
larly of those animals which yield the musk.* 

XLIL— The Profrinee and City of Sin-din^a. 

When a man has left this country and travelled twenty 
days westward, he approaches a province on the borders 
of Manji named Sin-din-fu. Tlie capital bearing the 
same name, was anciently very great and noble, governed 
by a mighty and wealthy sovereign. He died leaving 
three sons, who divided the city into three parts, and each 
enclosed his portion with a wall, which was within the 
great wall of twenty miles in circuit. They ranked still 
as kings, and had ample possessions ; but the great khan 
overcame them, and took full possession of their terri- 
tory. Through the city a large river of fresh water 
abounding with fish, passes and flows on to the ocean, 
distant eighty or a hundred days* journey ; it is called 
Quian-su. On that current is a very great number of 
cities and castles, and such a multitude of ships, as no 
one who has not seen could possibly believe. Equally 
wonderful is the quantity of merchandise conveyed ; in- 
deed it is so broad as to appear a sea and not a river. 
Within the city it is crossed by a bridge, wholly of mar- 
ble, half a mile long and eight paces broad ; the upper 

* Mr. Marsden m anable to identify this diitrict. It appears to tu 
that of Han-tchong-fou, which lay exactly in the route of the traveller, 
whose dBteription yety dueely conwpoads wifch that givea by good 
aathorities.'-Aatlay, vol. vr. p. 54. 



COUBT OP THE EMPEROR KUSLAI. 187 

part is supported by marble columns, and richly painted ; 
and upon it are many houses where merchants expose 
goods for sale ; but these are set up in the morning and 
taken down in the evening. At one of them, larger than 
the others, stands the chamberlain of the khan, who re- 
ceives the duty on the merchandise sold, which is worth 
annually a thousand golden bezants.* The inhabitants 
are all idolaters ; and from that city a man goes five days' 
journey through castles, villages, and scattered houses. 
The people subsist by agriculture, and the tract abounds 
with wild beasts. There are also large manufactures of 
gauzes and cloth of gold. After travelling these five 
days, he comes to Thibet. 

XLIU.— The Prorince of Thibet. 

This is a very large province ; the men have a laniraaga 
of their own« and are idolaters. They border upon Manji 
and many other countries, and are very great robbers ; 
the extent is such, that it contains eight kingdoms and 
many cities and castles. There are also extensive rivers, 
lakes, and mountains, where is f<^und a vast quantity of 
gold. Cinnamon and coral occur, which last is very dear, 
because they place it round the neck of their women and 
their idols, and hold it as a precious jewel. Here are 
made camlets, and other cloths of silk and gold. There 
are very skilful enchanters and astrologers, but extremely 
wicked men, who perform works of the devil, which it 
were unlawful to relate, they would strike with such 
amazement. They have mastiff dogs as large as asses, 
and excellent in taking wild animals. This province was 
entirely destroyed by Mangou, the fifth great khan, in his 
wars ; and its many villages and castles are all demol- 
ished.i- Here grow large canes, fifteen paces long and 

• Sin-din-fu is eridently Tching-ton-fou, anciently one of the greatest 
cities of the empire, though nearly destroyed daring the civil war in 
the Btxteenth century. Mr. Morsden, pp. 411, 413, is embarrassed by 
the river, flowing near and even through it, being identified with the 
grand stream of the Yang-tse-kiaiig. Yet this is supported by the best 
editions, and even the w<ml term is commonly used in this jonmal as 
synnnymons with city. The case we take to be, that the inhabitants 
mistottkthis important tributary for the main stream, whose early course 
Uvongh the wilds of Tartary was probably unknown to them. 

t liiia aoooids with De Gaignes, who says : *' Mangou Khan named 
the general HoUtai to go and subject Thibet. All the country was deto- 
latM, its eities and its castles rased.** — ^Maraden, p. 416. 




' 



188 DB8CBIPTION or CHINA. AND OF THB 

foor palms thick, while from one knot to the other is fiill 
three palms. The merchants and travellers, who pass 
through that country in the night, take these canes and 
set them on lire, when they make such a loud crackling 
noise that lions, bears, and other destructive animals ar? 
terrified, and dare not approach. They also split them in 
the middle, and produce thus so mighty a sound, that it 
would be heard in the night at the distance of five miles ; 
and the explosion is so alarming, that horses unaccus- 
tomed to it often break their reins and harness, and take 
to flight. For this reason, travellers, riding such horses, 
bind them by the feet, and stop their eyes and ears.* A 
man travels twenty days through these countries without 
finding either inns or victuals ; he must therefore carry 
with him food for himself and his cattle during the whole 
of that space, meeting always, too, feropious wild beasts, 
which are very dangerous. 

XLIV.-^AnothAr Fart of Thibet. 

The trareller then comes to a part of Thibet where 
there are houses and castles ; but the people have a bad 
custom. None of them iar the whole world will marry a 
virtuous maiden, saying that she is worth nothing with- 
out baring had many lovers. When strangers, therefore, 
pass through, and have pitched their teUts, or taken their 
lodging in inns, the old women bring their daughters, often 
to the number of thirty or forty, and oflTer them as wives 
during their stay ; but they must not carry them thence, 
either back or forward. When the merchant is about to 
depart, he gives to the lady some toy or jewel as a testi- 
mony that she has lived with him. These jewels she 
hangs to her neck, and is anxious to have at least twenty ; 
for the more she can show, the higher is she valued, and 
the more readily obtains a husband. AAer being married, 
she is strictly watched, and any infidelity is deeply resent- 
ed. These people are idolatrous and wicked, not hold- 
ing it sinful to commit wrong and robbery ; in short, they 
are the greatest thieves in the world. They live on the 
fruits of the earth, but mostly by hunting and falconry ; 

« Mr. Manden, p. 416 mentions, as well known m India, the great 
noise made by hoasps of cano, when set on fire, and which reaeinblea 
the discharge o(n>a»ket37. 



COOET QV THS EMPSEOE EUBLAI. iSt 

and Hie eountry contains many of those animals wbieh 
produce musk, and are called in the Tartar language ^im2- 
deri. That sinful- people have many good dogs,* which 
they employ in the pursuit of wild animals. They have 
neither the cards nor money circulated by the great khan, 
but make money of salt. They are poorly clad with the 
•kins of beasts, canvass, and buckram ; they have a lan- 
guage of their own, which they call Tebet.t Now I will 
tell you of Kain-du. 

XLV.— The ^ovino6 of Kiiin-db. 

This is a province lying to the west, having only one 
king, the inhabitants idolaters, and subject to the great 
khan. It contains a number of cities and castles, with a 
lake, in which are found many pearls ; hut the monarch 
forbids them, under a severe penalty, to be removed ex- 
cept for his own use ; because, if any one were allowed 
to take them, they would become worth almost nothing. 
There is also a mountain, whence are quarried turquoise 
stones in great abundance, very large and beautiful : but 
he does not allow them to be removed unless by his man- 
date. In this province they have a strange and base cus- 
tom, that a man thinks there is no disgrace in an improper 
intimacy between his wife or sister and a stranger or 
-other person. On the contrary, when such a one comes 
to reside in his house, the master prese;itly goes out, and 
leaves him with his wife. The visiter remains often 
three days, and places a hat or something else at the win- 
dow as a signal ; and the husband never returns till he 
sees this taken away. This is said to be done in honour 
of theii^ idols, who on that account bestow (ki them many 
Ueasings. Their gold is in small rods, — the value being 
determined according to the weight, and not marked l^ 
any stamp. The small money is thus made : they take 
salt, form it into a shape, so that it weighs about half a 

* Hamiltoa particularly obMrres that the dogs of Thibet are veij itoat 
fend ferocioua. — ^Description of Hindostan, 2 vols. 4to, vol. ii.p. 570. 

t The eopntry here described is the north-eastern part of Thibet, in- 
habited by the people called Si-fan. It is extremely little known, bnt 
there is ^yrety reason to believe it to correspond with oar author's de- 
scription. 'Hiere is understood to be considerable laxity in regard to 
the Tirtue of females before marriage ; but the extreme ill-condtict here 
•teted is probably confined to the great routes, where the resort of cara-^ 
nchants MfoTds temptation to such irreirulariiiea 



140 DBSCKimON OP CHINA, AND OP THE 

pound) and eighty of these are worth a rod of gold. They 
have a very great number of the animals which yield the 
musk; hkewise fishes from the same lake whence the 
pearls are drawn ; also the usual kinds of wild birds and 
beasts. No wine is obtained from vines, but it is made 
from grain or rice with many spices, which makes a good 
liquor. In that province also grows a tree called garofoL ; 
it is small, with leaves like a laure*, but longer and nar- 
rower ; it bears a small white flower* It yields ginger, 
cinnamon, and other spices, which come into our country ; 
but I have now said to you enough of Kain-du. Alter 
travelling ten days you come to a river which bounos it, 
named Brius. In it is found a great quantity of gold-dust ; 
and on its banks abundance of cinnamon ; it flows on to 
the ocean. Now let us tell you of Caraian.f 

* The clove is here evidentlj deaeribed,'-*^ KUteroent which Mr. 
Marsden considers u reflecting beyond any other on the traveller's ac- 
curacy. We cannot, however, help obeerring, that the ficra of thil 
country is wholly unknown ; and there is every reason to suppose it rich 
and peculiar. From Turner's account it appears that varieties d &tt 
namon and of other aromatic jxlants abound in Thibet ; and there seemti 
no reason why the clove or some plant resemblinR it should not occur. 
Count Boni <)uotes Bissachere for its existence in Tonquin. — II Millions, 
vol. ii. p. S60. 

1 1 reluctlantly feel obliged to diflfer from my predecessors as to tht 
course followed in the subsequent chapter. Mr. Afarsden, with GaubQ 
and De Guignes, considers Kain-du as Yung-ning-tou, and the route 
thence to be through Yun-nan to Yoog-tchang, on the borders of Ava^ 
Count Boni states, that after much hesitation he yielded to this opinion. 
I am persuaded, on the conlraiT, that it lay through Thibet, and then 
down the highest steeps of the Himalaya. The route from Tchiug-tou 
to Yung-ning through Thibet would form a great circuit, with the sole 
^parent view of passing through that wild country, while there was a 
direct and shorter route through the interior of China. Between the 
latter place and Yong-tchang, thirty days are spent, corresponding to 
above 400 miles, and in which the traveller passes through three coun- 
tries, one of them containing seven kingdoms ; yet the actual distance 
is onl^ 200 miles. The deflection westward is very small ; yet the gen- 
eral hue of route is nearly north-wast. The mg^fed character of the 
country, the stupendous mountains, the abundance of gold and salt,* 
the superstitious priesthood, all agree with Thibet. There is, doubtlesa, 
reason to think that Yun-nan may in these respects resemble it ; yet by 
no means en so vast a scale. I shall not be able to identify the namea 
of places ; but as little has Mr. Marsden on his route been able to do so. 
Generally, they are uncouth and dissimilar to Chinese terms. We shall 
soijn come to a stupendous descent, occupying two days and a half, ex- 
actly agreeing with that from Thibet to the plain of India , while Yun- 
nan, though mountainous, is never described as a table-land. Lastly, 
* H a w fl t O B , DMcriptioa of Hiodastni. voL ii. p. 068 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAl. 141 

XLVI^— The Province of Caraian. 

When a man has departed and crossed the river, he 
enters this province, which is large, and contains seven 
kingdoms extending westward. The people are all idol- 
aters, and under the dominion of the great khan. The 
king is a son of his, named Essetemur, and is great, rich, 
and powerful. He is also brave and upright, ruling his 
eoantry with much justice.* When the traveller has 
crossed the river, he passes, during a journey of live 
days, through a country where there is abundance of 
cities and castles, with many very good horses ; and the 
people are supported by cattle and the produce of laud. 
Their language is extremely difficult to understand. At 
the end of these five days, he comes to the capital of the 
country, named Yaci,t which is particularly great and 
Doble, with many merchants and numerous arts. There 
are here various sects, Saracens, idolaters, and Nestorian 
Christians/ There is a good deal of grain and rice, yet 
the country is not very fertile. They make a drink of the 
latter which intoxicates like wine. Money is formed of 
porcelain, such as is found in the sea,t and eighty pieces 
are worth one bar of gold, or eight of silver. They have 
pits whence they draw vast quantities of salt, from which 
the king derives a great revenue.^ Adultery is not con- 
sidered as a crime, unless when accompanied with vio- 
lence. There is a lake here extending a hundred miles, 
and containing many large fishes, the best in the world. 
They use the raw flesh of all fo^ls and beasts ; for the 
poor people go to the roai^et and get it newly taken from 
the animal, put it in garlic sauce, t^en eat it ; the rich like- 

w« shall see the traveller passing- throug^h the Tery part of Yun-nan here 
•apposed, yet not reoognisng it as ever seen before, but describing it as 
altogether a new country. 

* There are no means of identifying this sovereign, whom we cannot 
amppooe to be the so^ and successor of Kablai ; but De Goignes men- 
tions Yeson-timonr, a nephew of that prince, who may possibly have 
mled in this district. 

t This place is considered by Mr. Marsden and Count Boni as Tali' 
fon in Yon-nan, but without ^ny correspondence of name or description. 
One of the appellations given to it in the French edition is Chiaci. I 
would point out Chiaki in Thibet, which would be reached soon lUtei 
passing the San-pou, and has near it the great lake of Palt^. 
<. . t These are cowries, found chiefly in the Maldives, but also abuad* 
' vitly in Silhet, a district of Bengal. Marsden, p. 4J!7. 

^ Th* abondaiioe of rock-salt in Thibet is wtll known. 



lift DBBCKIPTION OV CBIVA, AHB OP ^HB 

wise eat it raw, bat previously cat into small pieces, and 
the sauce mixed with good spices.* 

XLVII.^The ProTince of Karazaa and itt freat S«rpeate. 

When a man leaves Yaci, or Cbiaci, and goes ten days 
westward, he finds the province of Karazan, with a capi- 
tal of the same name. The people are ail idolaters, and 
subject to the great khan ; the king is a son of that mon- 
arch, named Kogatin. Gold dost is found in the river, and 
on the mountains in large pieces so abundantly that a bar 
is given for six of silver. The porcelain, too, formerly 
described circulates for money, but is procured from India. 
Here are snakes and serpents so huge as to strike all men 
with astonishmetit ; they are ten paces long, ten palms 
broad, and have no feet, but only a hoof like that of the 
lion ; the nose is like a loaf of bread, the mouth so huge 
that it would swallow at once a man whole ; the teeth are 
immense, nor is there any wild beast whom they do not 
strike with terror. There are smaller ones eight paces 
long and six palms broad. The mode of catching them is 
this :-^They remain during the day in great caverns un- 
der the earth, to avoid the heat, but at night go out to 
feed, and seize all the animals whom they can reach; 
they also seek drink at the rivers, fountains, and lakes, 
and then make a deep track hi the sand, as if a barrel 
had been dragged through it. In it the people fix a stake, 
fasten to it a steel instrument sharpened like a razor, 
and cover it over with sand. When the serpent comes 
through the track, and strikes against the steel, he is 
pierced with such violence, that his body is divided from 
one side to the other, as high as the umbilical cord, and 
he presently dies. They then take the body and extract 
the gall-bladder, which they sell very dear, being an ex- 
cellent medicine for the bite of a mad dog, when admin- 
istered in small doses. It is also valuable in childbirth, 
and when given to the woman, a safe delivery immediate- 
ly follows. The flesh also is sold at a high price, being 
considered delicate food.f The serpent also enters the 

* Mr. Marsden, p. 4S0, has collected fall evidence of the costom of 
•atinff raw flesh in Thibet. 

t This accpant of th^ aUsgator ia t>7 no naana sthQtly aocnraM ; )mt 
M tha aaimal was probablj not aaaa bat describad upon tlia Yumxmy of 



CSDlrmT OF. THB KMFXECn KUBl«AI« 143 

dens of liemSf bears, asd other fierce animals, and devours 
their whelps, when he can get at them. Here, too, are 
very large horses, which are carried into India to he sold. 
They cut two or three nerves from the tail, so that they 
may not strike with it the man who rides, which is con- 
sidered disgraceful. These people ride like the French, 
with long staffs, have arms covered with buffalo hide, and 
carry lances, spears^ and poisoned arrows. Before tlie 
great khan conquered them they had a wicked custom, 
that when any stranger came to lodge with them who 
was agreeable, wise, and opulent, they killed him during 
the night by poison or some other mode. This was not 
oat of enmity or with the view of taking his money, but 
because they imagined that his wisdom and other good 
qualities would thus remain with them. However, about 
thirty-five years ago, after that monarch eonquered the 
country, he prohibited this crime, which, from fear of him, 
they no longer commit. Now let us tell of another prov- 
ince called Kjirdandan. 

XLVIIL— The Frovinoe of Kardaadan. 

When a man departs from Karazan, and travels to the 
westward he enters a province named Kardandan, inhab« 
ited by idolaters, and subject to the great khan. The chief 
city is called Vociam. All the people have their teeth, 
both upper and lowen covered with gold, which thus ap- 
pear to be made of that metal.* The men are soldiers, 
and regard nothing but war ; the women, with the slaves, 
perform ail the work. When any lady has been delivered 
of a boy, the husband goes to bed, taking the child with 
him, and remains there forty days. He thus allows rest 
to the mother, who is only obliged, to suckle the infant. 
AU his friends then come and make a festival, when the 
wife rises, manages the domestic affairs, and serves her 
husband, still lying in bed. They eat all kinds of flesh, 

vot rery intelUgMit informuiti, this cumot be ctmsidered wonderful. 
The eating of the flesh of the serpent tribe, even as a delicacj^, is by no 
■leans nncommon among rade Asiatics. Nor is the superstitions value 
attached to the gall-bladder without example among, ignomnt tribes. 
MarMlea, pp. 43$, 433. ^ , 

* Count Boni quotes from Martini the account of a country north of 

M 



144 DESCftlPnON OF CBIKA, AND Of TBS 

both raw and cooked, and nee dressed along with it, and 
make a very good wine or rice and spices. They have 
money of gold and porcelain, and give a bar of gold for 
five of silver, kiaving no mines of the latter metal within 
five days' distance ; by this exchange the merchants make 
great profit. This people have neither idols nor churches, 
but adore the master of the house, and say of him, "we 
are his ; and he is our god." They have neither letters 
nor writing, which is not wonderful, because they live in 
an unfrequented place, that cannot be visited in the sum- 
mer on account of the air, which is then so corrupted and 
pestilent that no foreigner can live there. Whenever 
they have dealings together, they select a piece of timber, 
square or round, cleave it in the middle, and each takes a 
half; this must be done before two, three, or four wit- 
nesses. When the payment comes to be made, the one 
receives the money, and gives his half of the wood.* la 
all those provinces there is no physician, but when any 
one is sick, doctors and exorcists of evil spirits are sent 
for, who, on coming to the patient, begin their incanta- 
tions, beating instruments, singing and dancing. In a 
short time one of them falls to the ground, foams at the 
mouth, and becomes half dead, when the devil enters into 
his body. The other magicians then ask the half-dead 
man what is the cause of the patient's illness. The de- 
mon answers from his mouth that the sufi^erer has given 
displeasure to such or such a spirit, who is therefore t(M> 
menting him. They then say, <* we beseech you to par- 
don him, and take in compensation for his blood the pre»> 
ents which we now exhibit." Then if the sick man is to 
die, the fiend in the body of the magician says, — ^ the 
spirit has been wronged and displeased to such a degree, 
that he will not spare him for any thing in the world." 
If on the contrary a cure is to take place, the devil from 
the body says, " take so many sheep and so many dishes 
of rich pottage, and make a sacrifice of them to the angry 
spirit." The relations of the patient do every thing thus 
ordered, killing the sheep, sprinkling the blood, and pre- 
paring the dishes of pottage. A great assemblage is made 
of men and women, who hold a joyous feast, dancing aiid 

* Mr. Mandea, ]>.44d, gives other •xamplM of tliit rode node of ter- 



OOtJKT OF THB £M>£ROR KUBLAI. 145 

singing songs in praise of the spirit. They burn incense 
and myrrh, with which they futaigate and iUuminate the 
whole house. When they have acted thus for about an 
hour, the first magician again falls down, and they inquire 
if the sick man is now pardoned and will be cured. It is 
then answered that he is not yet pardoned, but something 
more must be done, after which forgiveness will be grant- 
ed. This order is obeyed, when he says, " he is pardon- 
ed, and will be immediately cured." The company then 
exclaim, "the spirit is on our side," and having eaten the 
sheep and drunk the pottage with great joy and festivity, 
they return to their homes.* 

XLIX.*-Of th* gnat Battle fought between the Twtan and the Kiiiff 

of Mien. 

Now I must mention a very great battle which was 
fought in the kingdom of Voctam, and you shall hear all 
how it happened. In the year of our Lord 127^ the great 
khan sent a mighty captain, named Nescardin with 1!2,000 
men, to defend the province of Caraian. He was a pru- 
dent man, very strong in arms, and skilful in war ; and 
the soldiers with him were good and very brave warriors. 
Now the King of Mien and of Bangalal were afraid lest he 
shduld invade their territory ; yet they thought they were 
able to overcome and destroy the whole army in such a 
manner that the great khan might never feel inclined to 
send another into the same quarter. They assembled, 
therefore, 60,000 horse and foot, with 2000 elephants, each 
of which had on its back a castle well fortified and defend- 

* The preeiee poritioii of this ooontir canaot be identified ; bnt it b 
evidently situated on the moet ragged heights of the great monntain- 
ehain, inhabited by a demt-savage people. The fantastic conduct as- 
cribed to the husband on his wife's accouchement is very positiTely stated 
in regard to certain South American tribes ; and it is not altogether im- 
possible that it may exist in some comers of Asia : bnt it seems mon 
probable that the traveller was misled bjr false reports. The enchant- 
ments described are those usually practised by the priests of Fo, who 
have their central seat in Thibet. 

t The versions present a curious difficulty, whether one or two kings 
are here meant. The Paris Latin is clear : '* Rex Mien et Rex BangiUa 
mmduiUeg.** The Basle edition is similar. Ramusio seems to make only 
<me, and Mr. Marsden considers this confirmed by the context. Nothing 
ean be made of the French edition : '* Le roi de Mien et de Bangala ks 
molt astoit poisant rMS,— oeste rttt,— quant U soit,*' Ac. My impraa* 
fieo ia that the two baga onitad theit ibrees, bnt. only that «f 
la forwafdia th* eevbat. . ,, .. ^. .'. ...:.,« ... 



146 DE0€KIPTIO!V OF CHINA, AND OP TBK 

ad by twelve, fourteen, or sixteen men. The King of 
Mien came with the. above army to the city uf Vociam, 
where was the array of the Tartars, and tuok post in a 
plain at the distance of three days* journey. Nescardin 
was somewhat alarmed, considering how small a force he 
had in comparison with the t)ost of the King of Mien ; hut 
he took courage, reflecting that his troops were brave and 
most valiant warriors. He therefore marched to meet 
them in the plain of Vociam, and pitehed his camp near 
a great forest, filled with lofty trees, into which be was 
aware that elephants could not enter. The King of Mien, 
seeing the army of Nescardin, advanced to attack it. The 
Tartars went with great boldness to meet them, but when 
their horses saw the elephants with the wooden castles 
upon them stationed and arranged in the first line, they 
were struck with such terror that the riders could not, 
either by force or any contrivance make them approach. 
They, therefore, immediately alighted, and tied them to 
the trees, when the infantry returned to the line of ele- 
phants, and began to discharge their arrows with the 
utmost yiolence. Those who were on the backs of the 
animals fought bravely ; but the Tartars were stronger, 
and more accustomed to battle. They wounded very se- 
verely with these missiles a multitude of the elephants, 
which, being terrified, took to flight and rushed with vio- 
lence Into the adjacent wood. As they could not be re- 
strained from entering, and rushing backward and for- 
ward through the thick trees in concision, they broke the 
wooden castles on their backs, and destroyed all their 
e^Qipments. When the Tartars saw these animals dis- 
posed of, they ran to their horses, which were bonhd to 
the trees, mounted them, and rushecl upon the warriors 
of the King of Mien. They began the attack with a 
shower of arrows, but as the king and his troops still de- 
fended themselves valiantly, they drew their swords, and 
rushed into close combat: Now mighty blows werfe 
•truck ; swords and spears were fiercely thrust on both 
sides ; heads, arms, and hands were struck off; and many 
warriors fell to the earth dead and dying. The noise and 
Qries would have drowned the loudest thunder. At length, 
after mid-day, the host of Mien gave way ; and the 4wing, 
Witb itt Wiio aiurvivad tha battla, toolt to flight, pursnad by 



OOUST OF TRS fiMPSftOR K0BLAI. 149 

tlie Tartars, who killed many of the fugitives.* When 
satisfied with pursuit, they returned to the wood tocatdi 
the elephants. They endeavoured to stop the flight of 
these animals by cutting down the trees and laying them 
across ; yet they are so intelligent, that the soldiers would 
not have succeeded but for the aid of some of the captives 
taken in battle, through whose means they were able to 
recover two hundred. From this time the great khan be- 
gan to employ elephants in his army-, whi^ he had not 
hitherto done. Afterwards that monarch conquered the 
lands of Mien, and added them^to his dominion. 

L.— Of tiM gieat DeBcent. 

When you have departed from the said province of Ca- 
raian, there begins a great descent, which oontinoes for 
two days and a half ;t smd in all this jonmey nothing oc* 
eon worthy of notice except that there is a great space 
in which a market ia held on certain days of the year. 
Thither oome many merehants from divers countries and 
dititricts, some of whom bring gold and silver to exchange ; 
and they give an ounce of the former for five of the latter. 
None but those who bring the gold can penetrate into 
the countries where it is produced, so difficult and intri- 
cate are the roads. When a man has travelled these two 
days and a half, he comes to a district which is called 
Anniz, on the borders of India, towards the sooth, and 
then he goes fo)r fifteen days through a region covered 
with woods filled with elephants, unicorns, and other sav* 
age beasts, biit not containing any human habitation. 

I«I.-*Of tb* City of HioB, ftnd U»e most bMO^ifvl Tomb of &e KiQf . 

At the termination of these wild and pathless tracts is 
a large and noble city called Mien, the capital of the prov- 
inoe. The people are alL idolaters, with a language pe- 

* Ratetisio lias here several Mntenees ^ criticiam yvpask. the military 
conduct of the King of Mien ; bat they are not supported bv any early 
edition, and such discussion is quite unusual with our traveller. They 
conclude als<i with the erroneous statement that the great khan sub- 
dued, in consequence, the whole territories of the King of Bengal and 
Mien. I have not, therefore, inserted them. 

t This immense descent wiihout any previam rise is quite what might 
iMr expected from the table-land of Thibet. There is no reason to sup- 
|K)M any Aipg similar in Tun-nan, whidi, thonfh motmtainooa, is no- 
where diMorUMd as » table-laad- 



IM mnoMMmon or ohiwa, amd op tbb 

coliftf to thetmf Ives, and are subject to the great kban.* 
About this city T will tell you a thing very remarkable. 
There was anciently in it a rich and powerful king, who, 
being about to die, commanded that on his tomb should 
be erected two towers, one of gold, and the other of sil- 
ver. They are full ten paces high, and of a suitable thick- 
ness ; the first, being composed of stone, is covered all 
over with gold to the thickness of a finger, so that to the 
spectator it appears wholly of that metal. The summit is 
jDund, and filled with little golden bells, which the wind, 
whenever it strikes them, causes to ring. The other 
tower is similarly formed, but is coated with silver, and 
has silver bells. By these baildings the king intended to 
display his greatness and dignity, and they are the most 
beautiful and valuable to be seen in the world. Between 
them he caused the sepulchre to be constructed, where 
he is now buried. When the great khan conquered that 
city, he desired all the players and buflbons, of whom 
there were a great number in his court, to go and achieve 
the conquest, offering them a captain and some warlike 
aid. The jesters wiUingly undertook the affair, and set- 

* Pe Gaigne* and Gsabil think thftt Mien is Pegu, which, bj d*An- 
ville's map of Yun-nan, really appears to bear that name in China, and 
to this Count Boni assents. Marsden (p. 445), sensible that this would 
derange the whole itinerary, fixes it in the capital of Ava. I cannot, 
however, see that such a position is consisteut with 4he data in the trav- 
els. In the following chapter, Bengal, in reference to Mien, is said to 
be, in Ramusio, ** posta he' confiui dell' India tferso mew di^*^ which Mr. 
Marsden translates " on the southern confines of India," an expression 
to which it seems here impossible to attach anj distinct idea, fint the 
two Paris editions state its position to the south quite distinct, and in a 
different place from its relation to India. The Italian M S. in the Ma- 
■eum says, " una provincia posta verso metodit" Pipino : " ad meridiem 
in confinio Indict'' There seems thus a complete agreement that Ben- 

Eil lay sooth of Mien, which must then lie between it and the Hiroma- 
hs. A probable place seems to be Beyhar, alwajrs a separate kingdom, 
and in the 16th century Tery powerful, till it was taken and its templrs 
demolished b^ the Mohammedans in 1661. (Hamilton, vol. i. p. 916.) 
Turner descnl)es the country north of it as singularly desolate. The 
position of Silhet might perhaps agree still better as to distance from 
the Himroalehs. These gilded structures, as a new object, struck the 
Tartars with astonishment. ; but Mr. Marsden (p. 450) shows thftm to be 
commoa even in small cities of the north of India. Those here deKcnl)ed 
are on a very small scale, compared with similar ones in the cauiuls of 
Pe^ and Ava. No one, I think, who reads Major Symes* description 
of the vanety and maguficence of the gilded edifices in tha Boznaw 
BMtropolis, can suppose the present account ap^cable to it. 



COURT OP THB BMPBROft KVBLAI. 149 

ting out with the proffered ussistanee, sahdoed this prov- 
ince of Mien.* When they came to that noble city, and 
saw these splendid edifices, they admired exceedingly, 
and sent to the great khan an account of their beauty, 
and of the manner in which they were constructed, ask- 
ing if he wished them to be demolished, and the gold and 
silver sent to him. The monarch, on hearing this, com- 
manded that they should not be destroyed, since the king 
had erected them to commemorate his greatness, and no 
Tartar touches any thing belonging to a dead man. They 
were therefore to continue in the same condition as they 
DOW stood. This province contains elephants, wild oxen 
large and beautiful, stags, deer, and other animals. Now, 
let me tell you of another which is called Bangala. 

LII.— Of the Prorince of Bangala. 

This IS a province towards the south, which, in the 
year 1290, while I, Marco, was at the court of the great 
khan, was not yet conquered, but the army was there, 
ready to march for that purpose. It has a king and lan- 
guages of its own, and the people are most wicked idola- 
ters. They are on the confines of India, t The barons 
and lords of that country have oxen as tall as elephants, 
but not so weighty ; and live on flesh and rice. They 
have great abundance of silk, with which they carry on 
extensive manufactures; also ginger, sugar, and many 
other costly s[Hces. This place is visited by numerous 
merchants, who purchase slaves, make them eunuchs, 
and then either sell or convey them to other places. t 

Lni.— Of the Prorinoe of Kangigu. 

Kangigu is a province towards the east, subject to a 

* Mr. Manden (p. 450) is mueb scandalized at this idea of an army of 
Jesters, and endeaToan to believe that sorcersTS and jogglers were rather 
intended. The jesters, however, have all the manuscripts in their favoar ; 
and the whole appears to have been a frolic, inclading a display of the 
fiunlitj with which the cenqnest conld be achieved. Care would of 
oouTse be taken, and is indeed intimated, to support them by more expe- 
rienced warriors. 

t We may again observe that Bengal is not considered here as part of 
India. 

t It seems from this imperfect aeoount of Bengal, and no itinenmr be- 
ing given to it, that Marco did not actually visit the country, which in^ 
deed, in its ezietiag viktian to his master, he could scarcely have done 
^itbsnlety. 



IM DSscEirrioiv or china* A110 or t«b 

king ;* the people are all idcrfaters ; have a language of 
tbeir own ; and owning the supremacy of the great khan, 
they pay him an annual tribute. The king is so luxuri- 
ous as to have 300 wives, for as soon as he hears of a 
beautiful woman in the country he takes her to himself. 
The people have much gold and many precious spices ; 
but being far from the sea, their commodities do not brkig 
the full value. They have many elephants and beasts of 
various other kinds. All the men and women paint their 
bodies, the colours being worked in with the claws oi 
lions, dragons, and eagles, and thus never efiaced. In this 
manner they stain their neck, breast, hands, limbs, and 
indeed their whole person. This is considered extremely 
genteel, and the more any one is painted, the higher is 
his rank considered. Now let us tell you of another 
province named Amu. 

LIV. — Of the Pxmnoe of Amu. 

Amut is also a province towards the east, subject to 
the great khan. The people are idolaters, live by pastu- 
rage and agriculture, and nave a language of their own. 
The ladies wear on their arms and legs valuable bracelets 
of gold and silver, and the men have these still finer and 
rarer. They have good horses in considerable numbers, 
many of which the Indians purchase and sell again to 
much advantage. They have also abundance of oxen 
and bufialoes, because they have extensive and good pas- 
tures ; in short, they have plenty of the means of sub- 
sistence. From Amu to Kangigu, are fifteen days, and 
thence to Bangala, which is the third province behind, 
are thirty days. Now let us come to another province, 
which is called Tholoman, and lies eight journeys from 
this to the east. 

LV.-'Of the ProTJBoe of Tholoiiisa. 
Tholoman is a third province towards the east. AH 
the people hu^ idolaters, have a language of tbeir own, 

* The route here evidently lies across Assam, Cashgar, and Caasay, 
rade territories to the Dorth of the Barman empire, which has exercised 
over them a precarious role ; but part has been recently annexed to 
British dominion. The pnetioe of tatteoinc ia luaown to sra-vail in aomo 
of these districts. 

t Bamoo, or Bhamo, a proviuoe known to lie asvth-Mat of A»s ; 1b«t 
we have very little uforiaatian respeoting it. 



COUBT OF Tilil BMPBBQB KUBLAU IM 

and are ander the great khan* They are handsome, of 
rather a brown complexion, good men at arms, and hare 
a number of cities/castles, and forts, on the top of very 
high mountains. When they die, the bodies are burned, 
and the bones which cannot be consumed are placed in 
chesU and carried to the caverns of high mountains, 
where tb<^ are kept suspended, so that neither man nor 
beast can touch them. Gold is found here; but the 
small money is of porcelain, which circulates in all these 
provinces. The merchants, though few, are rich; the 
people live on flesh and rice, and have many good spices. 

LVI. — Of the Province of Cyn-goi and its Lions. 

Cyn-gui is a province likewise situated towards the 
east, and when a man leaves Tholoman, he goes twelve 
days along a river, where there are towns and castles, 
but nothing else worth mentioning. At the end of these 
twelve days, he finds the city Sinugul, very large and no- 
ble. Tfie inhabitants are all idolaters, and subject to the 
great khan. They live by merchandise and arts, and 
weave cloths of the bark of trees, which make fine sum- 
mer dresses. They are good men at arms ; but they have 
no money except paper. There are in this country so 
many lions, that if a man were to sleep ont of doors, he 
would presently be killed and eaten by thepn ; and at 
night, when a bark sails along the river, if it were not 
kept at a good distance from the bank, they would rush 
in and carry off the crew. However, though these ani-* 
mals be so large and dangerous, the natives have a won- 
derful manner of defending themselves ; for the dogs of 
that country are so daring, that they will assault a large 
one, and, seconded by a man, will kill him. I will tell 
you how : when a man is on horseback with two of these 
dogs, aa soon as they see a lion, they throw themselvea 
behind him, and bite his thighs and body. The lion turns 
furiously round, but they wheel about with him so swiflly, 

* Mr. itanden is at a low respeetingr the name Tholoman, and hia »ng^ 
gMtioB of its application to the Binnan empiie generally is quite untena- 
ble. There seems no reason for not acquiescing', in the idea thrown out 
ia Aatley's Voyages (vol. iv. p. 506) of its being the part of Yun-nan io* 
lta^*ttH by the I«okis, governed by hrave feudal chiefs, nearly md^pead- 
sBrt, tlMHigh ownisf the tnpnnmay of the court of China. — Me Aooooi^ 
tff CWba* Ediabnxfh Cafauist lammrf^ mi. iii. p. M. 



158 wuomiFTiojt or china, and of tbs 

tbftt he cannot reach them. He then retreats till he 
cornea to a tree, against which he places his back, and 
toms his face to the dogs ; bnt they continue always 
biting him from behind, and making him tvm round and 
round. Meantime the man discharges arrows wiU^ut 
ceasing, till the animal falls down dead, and thus one 
man and two spirited dogs ate sufficient to kill a large- 
lion. The inhabitants of this province have a good deal 
of silk, and a great trade is carried on to all quarters 
along the river. 

LVn. — ArriTal at Sia-dia-fn, Knd Joamej back to Gin-gui. 

Continuing to journey on its banks for twelve days 
more we discover a number of cities and castles. The 
people are idolaters, subject to the great khan, and use 
paper money. Some are good at arms, others are mer- 
chants and artificers. At the end of the twelve days, the 
traveller, comes to Sin-din-fu,* of which mention has 
been made above. He then rides seventy days through 
provinces and lands which we formerly went over, and 
^have already described. At'lhe end of that period, he 
comes to Oin-gui, where we formerly were.f 

* Mr. Maiaden complain* here of a perplexitj for which there does dok 
appear the sli^ifatest ground. He is, iodeed, partly .eonfosed bj a hivof 
der of Raniusio, who speaks ef the twelve days as if they were the same 
as the twehe days in the last chapter ; bat the French edition distinctly 
•tates it as a second jonmey. Now we have the ascertained points ef 
Bauioo on one side, and on the other Sin-din-fa, which the resider otay 
recollect as identified with Tchinf -toa-fou ; and we have thirty-two 
days' jonmey, which agrees ^th the distance : while intervening 
branches and tributaries of the Tang-tse-kiang amply famish the rivers. 
ETery thing a^rrees most distinctly ; and how the learned writer ooolci 
fly on to Koei tcheoa I cannot conceive. The only difficulty respects 
the precise position of Sinugal, called by Ramusio Cintigai. I have 
little hesitation in agreeing with Count Boni, who considers it Sou- 
tcheou, at the junction of the Kiang with the river from Tching-tou- 
fou ; for the last syllaUe pronounced hard and guttural, is always made 
gu by our traveller. Here, too, on examining the map, we shall see 
dearly that, in going from Bamoo to Tching-tou-fou, he must have 
passed throug^li Yun-nan, and even near Yoog-tchnng. Tet he in no 
degree recognis««s it, and describes it in terms wholly diATent fh>m what 
he did in his former (suppoMed) passage. Is not this a strong proof that 
his route then was wholly through a diffirent country ? 

t Mr. Marsden (p. 462) yields here to complete despair, and conooivea 
that any attempt to connect this with the remainder of the route as con- 
rtituting one journey woald be quite fruitless. It appeals to him that 
there must be two itineraries, one bvokaa off and the other begoa is s 



■ 

fSOfTET OV THB JCMPEBOE KITBLAI* 15S 

I 

LTHL— Citiaa of Ca-cian-fa, Ciaa-gla, and Cian-gli. 

From Gin-giii or Geo-gui a man travels four days, find- 
ing a variety of cities and castles. The people are great 
artificers and merchants, sobject to the mighty khan, and 
use^aper money. At the end of the four days yon come 
to Ca-cian-fa,* a large and noble city, lying to the sooth, 
in the province of Cathay. The inhabitants are subject 
to the same monarch, are all idolaters, and burn the bo- 
dies of their dead. They have a good supply of silk, which 
they make into different kinds of cloth. A large river 
flows past it, along which great abundance of merchan- 
dise is conveyed to Kambalu, with which it is made to 
communicate by the digging of many canals. Now let 
us pass to another city csUled Cian-glu. The natives are 
idolaters, subject to the khan, use paper money, and bum 
the bodies of their dead. In that city, salt is made very 
extensively, and I will tell you how. There is a species 
of earth full of it, and they pile it up in heaps, upon which 
they throw a great quantity of water, to saturate it with 
the mineral. They next boil it in large cauldrons of iron, 
till it evaporates, and leaves a white and minute 8alt,t 

manner equally abrnpt. The confusion haa arisen altogether from the 
gross eorrnption of Ramnaio's and all the other texts to which the learn- 
ed writer haui access. In the French edition, every thing is connected 
in the most distinct manner. He arriyes at Tching-tou-fou, which he 
notices as having been formerly visited. He then travels $eventff days' 
Journey back along the route he had come, and notices having already 

S'ven a descriptian of it, which he hae of course no oocasiim tu repeat, 
e then arrives at Giu-gni, the same as Geo-gui or Gouza, already men- 
tioned as the point where the two routes divide, one leading south-west, 
the other soath-east. Having completed the fanner, he now enters upon 
the latter. Ramusio gives only twenty dsyd from Sin-din-fu, a period 
quite inadequite. The FtalianraS. does the same, though Mr. Marsden 
has not underrtood its almost illegible characters. Pipino and the Basle 
editor have made a strange blunder indeed. They have imagined the Cyn<* 
gui mentionisd in the last chapter to be the same as Gin-gui though the 
places are a thousand miles distant, and all the intermediate itinerary is 
therefore expunged as an excrescence. 

* Pa-zaii-ru, Ramn»io. This appears to be Ho-kien-fou, a large city 
of Pe-che<lee, with walls four miles in circuit. It has a river on each 
side, but at a little distance ; these may probably he connected with it 
by canals. — Marsden, p. 463. 

t Cian-glu or Chan-glu, is Tsan-tcheou, a considerable town, still in 
Pa-che-lee. Mr. Maraden (pp. 464, 465) seems to prove that the salt 
here mentioned is nitre or saltpetre. Count Boni (vol. ii. vp. 5KM, 805} 
identifies the two last places with Poo-ling-fon and Moantt^iin ; but we 
hiaJam ta prsfitr Mr. liatadas^ aitefe. 



154 DMOftlPTlOH OF OHIITA, AMD OF THE 

which is exported to all the coantries ronnd. Five days' 
journey from Cian-giu is Cian-gli,* where are many eities 
and castles. It is a town of Cathay, and the whole people 
are idolaters, subject to the khan, and use paper money. 
Through the middle of that territory flows a great river, 
on which is conveyed much merchandise of various kinds. 

L!X. — Condi-fu — Rebellion against the Great Khan. 

In departing from Cian-gli, we come in six days to 
Condi-fu, a great city, which the khan conqaered by force 
of arms, but still it is the noblest in the province, t There 
is a wonderful abundance of silk, as weU as orchards with 
many^ delicate fruits, and the situation is delightful ; it has 
idso under it fifteen other cities of great importance and 
commerce, whence it derives high honour and dignity. 
In the year 1273, the khan gave to Litan, one of his bar- 
ons, 70,000 horse to defend and secure that city ; but 
when the said baron had remained some time in the coun- 
try, he arranged with certain men to betray it, and rebel 
against his lord. When the khan knew this, he sent two 
of his commanders, Aguil and Monjatai, with many troops, 
against the traitor. On their approach* the rebel went 
forth to meet them with his forces, consisting of a hun- 
dred thousand cavalry and many infantry, both of the 
country and of those he had brought with him ; and there 
was a very great battle between him and those two chiefs 
Litan was killed, with many others ; and the khan caused 
all those who had been guilty to be put to death, and 
spared the lives of the rest.t Now let us teQ of another 
country named Sin-gui. 

LX. — CitieB of Sin-gai, Lhk-ffvi, Piu-rni, and Ctn'gui. . 

When a man has gone south from Condi-fu, he finds 
cities and castles, many animals of the chase and birds, 

* Thongili there is no resemblance of name, this appears to be Ttt« 
tcheoa, on the river £u-ho, and at the entrance of the province of Shmn- 
tnng. — MarsJen, p. 466. 

t Tudinfu, Ramusio ; Tsi-nan>fuq, capital of Shan-tung, and of a 
kingd'im long independent. It contains very fine baildings, and modem 
travellers asree with our author in describing the environs as particu- 
larly fertile and beautiful. 

% This revolt is recorded with nearly the same ciroamstancf^s in the 
Chinese annaU. "Rie name there given to the leader is Litan, wifli 
which the French version urree«, wfiiJe iji Bamnsio it is corrnpted into 
Lucansor.— Marsden, p. 468. 



COllftT 09 TAB SMPSBOB KUBLAi. 156 

witti a vtst abimdaiice of all prodactions, and then oomes 
toStn-^ui^* which is noble, great, and beautiful, with much 
merchandise and manj arts ; the whole people are idola- 
ters, subject to the khan, and use paper money. They 
have a river which is of great utility, because the people 
of the country have divided the stream which comes from 
the south into two parts; one goes eastward towards 
Manji, the other westward towards Cathay ; and the land 
has thus a wonderful number of ships, though not of large 
size, with which they convey goods to other provinces, 
and bring thence an almost incredible quantity of mer- 
chandise. When a man departs from Sin-gui and goes 
eight days to the south, he finds many rich cities and qfUB- 
ties. The people are id<rieUers, subject to the khan ; they 
burn the bodies of their dead, and use paper money. At 
the end of eight days be arrives at a town named Lin-gui,t 
great and noble, with men*at-anns, and also arts and mer- 
chandise. Here are wild animals and every kind of pro- 
vision in abundance. When he departs from Lin-gui, he 
goes three days to the south, finding cities and castles 
under the powerful khan ; the people idolatrous, and burn- 
ing the bodies of their dead. There is much excellent 
hunting of birds and beasts. At the end of these three 
days hie discovers a very good city named Pin-gui.t The 
people have ail things necessary for subsistence, rais$ 
much silkf and pay a large revenue to the sovereign. A 
great quantity of merchandise is laden here for the prov- 
ince of Manji. When a man has departed from Pin-gui 
and travelled two^ays with his face to the south, through 
beautiful and rich countries, he finds the city of Cin-gui,^ 
very large, and full of merchandise and arts. The people 

* I cannot but much wonder that Mr. Bforsden (p. 470, and Count 
Boni, vol. ii. p. 299) shoald fiace Sin-^ni at Lin-tsin-tcheou, which, lies 
north ofTsi-nan, instead ofsouthy and woald tie going completely back- 
wards. It appears quite clearly to be Tai-ning-tctteoa, a town agreeing 
in name and kttnation, and placed on a centnd part of the great canal. 
Though holding only the second rank, the traffic derived from this situ- 
ation raises it to a level with great citiet^ 

t J. Arrowsmith has here Lin-tching-hien, fof placing which he had 
doubtless good authority, though I cannot find it on any other map. 

t Evidently Pi-tcheou, a considerable city of the second rank 

$ Sot-zi-hien, in the Jesuits' map, agree* as to situation, and has 
tome resemblance of name. If is curioos that thes* three last places 
iM Mt m Ra^nikH Bor itt4M4a»y other •ditioft, Moapt thm t«o Paris 
•adtbtCmsea. 



156 DSSCmiFTIOII OF CHINA* AND OF TUB 

are wholly idolatroas, burn the bodies of their dead, tbeir 
money is paper, and they are under the khan. They 
have moch grain and grass. When a man leaves Cin- 
gai, he finds cities, Tillages, and castles, with handsome 
dogs and good pasturage ; the people being snch as are 
above described. 

LXI.^Of the preat Rirer Kan-moraa 

At the end of two days a roan finds the great river 
called Kara-moran, coming from the lands of Prester 
John. It is full, broad, and so deep thLt a large ship can 
pass through its channel ; and there are on it full 15,000 
vessels, all belonging to the khan, meant for conveying 
his goods when he goes to the islands of the sea, which 
is distant about a day's journey. And each of these ships 
requires fifteen mariners, and carries fifteen horses with 
their riders, provisions, and every thing else necessary 
for them.* When a man passes that river, he enters the 
province of Mai^i, and I wil] tell you how it was conquered 
by the khan. 

LXn.— Of the Province of Alanji, and how it wu nade mbleet to the 

Great Euhan. 

In tbe-extensive province of Manji, there was a lord 
and king named Facfur, who, excepting the great khan, 
was the mightiest sovereign in the world, the most pow- 
erful in money and people ; but the men are not good at 
arms, nor have horses trained to war, nor experience in 
battle and military operations, otherwise they w;ould never 
have lost so strong a country. All the lands are sur- 
rounded by waters so deep that they cannot be passed un- 
less by bridges, and the chief cities are encompassed by 
broad ditches filled with water. The khan, however, in 
the year of our Lord 1273, sent one of his barons, Bajram 
Cinqsan, which means Bayam with the Hundred Eyes : 
for the King of Manji had found out by. astrology, that be 
could lose bis kingdom only by a man having a hundred 
eyes. This Bayam marched with a very great force, 

* This is evidentlj the great stream of the Hoany-ho, or Yellow 
River, the second m China^ The vessels are doubtless ezagireiated, as 
indeed numbers generally are in this and other works of that age. B(r. 
Mandan osmeotiirw that in traaaanUiiff a ei^r has been added, and 
that it should have been IdOO. ^ f-iH-r «» uww •«««, aM 



COUBT OF THE EMPEBOE KUBLAI. 157 

many ships, horse and foot, and came to the firstcity of 
Manji, called Koi-gan-zu, which we will presently de- 
scrihe. He called upon it to surrender ; but the people 
refused. He then went to another city, which also refu- 
sed, and so be passed five, leaving them behind, because 
be knew that the khan was sending a large additional 
force. He took, however, the sixth by storm, and then 
successively reduced other twelve ; after which he march- 
ed direct to the capital of the kingdom, called Kin-sai, 
where the king and queen resided. When the monarch 
saw this great army, be was struck with such terror that 
he ficd from the continent with many of his people, hav- 
ing 1000 ships, and sought refuge among the islands. Th6 
queen, however, remained and defended herself as well 
as she could against Bayam. But having at length asked 
what was the name of that commander, and being told 
it was Bayam with the Hundred Eyes, she remembered 
the prophecy mentioned above, and immediately surren- 
dered the city to him.* Presently all the cities of Manji 
S elded, and the whole world does not contain such a 
ngdom, and I will now describe its magnificence. 

LXIII -Of tlM Piety and Joaticft of the King towuds his Subjeoto. 

This Ring Facfur maintained 16,000 poor children, be- 
cause in that province many are exposed as soon as they 
are bom by parents who cannot support them ; so, when 
a rich man had no issue, he went to the king and got as 
many as he pleased. And when the boys and girls came 
of age, the king married them together, and gave them 
the means of living ; and thus were educated 20,000 males 
or females annually. He did another thing: when he 
went through any place and saw two fine houses, and by 
the side of them a small one, he inquired why the first 
were greater than the other ; and being told that it be- 
longed to a poor man, who could not afibrd to build one 
larger, presently he gave him money enough to enable 

* The Chinese annals generally agree with this namtire, thoug:h with 
some diflference of circumstances. Considerinr the firmness displayed 
by the unfortunate qneen, we may infer that she had more cogent mo- 
tives for surrender than the above ridiculous superstition. She does 
appear to have made little or no resistance. Her honourable captivity, 
and the attentions paid to her by Kublai's qneen, are recorded by other 
anthevitieflA-Man^a, p. 479-481. 



158 DMcmimoN op china, and op thb 

him to do so. He made himself be senred by more than 
1000 domestic servants of both sexes. He maintained 
his kingdom in such justice, that no evil was done, and 
all commodities could be left unguarded except by the 
royal equity. Now I have given you an account of the 
king ; I will tell you of the queen. She was led to the 
great khan, who made her be honoured and served as a 
powerful sovereign; but the king, her husband, never 
came out of the islands of the ocean, and died there, and 
thus the whole kingdom remained with the khan.* Nov? 
let ns tell of the province of Manji, and the manners and 
customs of the people ; beginning with the city of Koi- 
gan-zu. 

LXIV.^Of tlie Cities of Koi-gan-zu, Paa-diToi, and CkaTin. 

Koi-gan-zu is a great, rich and noble city, at the en- 
trance of the province of Manji, lying to the south. The 
whole people are subject to the khan ; they are idolaters, 
and burn the bodies of their dead. It lies on the river 
Kara-moran, and hence is full of ships ; for many mer- 
chants bring their commodities thither to be distributed 
throughout other cities. It is the capital of the province. 
Here is made a very great quantity of salt, whici /• sup- 

gied thence to forty different towns ; the khan nas a 
rge revenue from this and other trades here carried 
on.t And now let me tell you of another city called Pan- 
chym. 

When a man departs from Koi-gan-zu, he goes a whole 
day along a causeway finely built of stone, and on each 

* It seenis somewhat odd, that Marco ehoald adopt eo panegyrical a 
tone towards a prince whom he might have been suppoeea to Tiew from 
a hostile position, espeoialljr as the Chinese annals re{H«sent him volnp- 
tnoos and dissolate. He may have had amiable qualities, and the tone 
in Kablai's coart seems to have been that of kindaess towanls the fallen 
dynasty. During the long voyage, too, which the Poli made with the 
Princess of Manji, and the consequent intimacy, she may have inspired 
them with favourable impressions respecting her father. Ramueio only 
has one or two sentences of a diflferent tendency, but they ill accord 
with the rest, and the facts are more fully bruui^ht forward afterwards. 
The collecting of exposed children, and educating those that survive, is 
■fill a practice of the Chinese government. 

t This is Hoai-ngan-fou, which quite answers the description hers 

S'ven. The salt is drawn from saline mar»bee in iU vicinity. It is not 
e capital of Siang-nan, but, as already observed, the provioces were 
thea differently ana more minutely subdivided.'— Marid«B» p. 48S. 



aide is a large. water> so that it is itppossible to enter the 
province unlees by this cause way « He then finds a city 
called Paa-cbym ;* all the people are idolaters, burn the 
bodies of their dead, and are under the great khan. They 
are artificers and merchants, have abuudanoe of silk, 
and make much cloth of it mixed with gold, and thus earn 
a sufficient livelihood. Through all ^li^t country the pa- 
per money of the khan is circulated. 

When a man sets out from Pau«chym, he travels a day 
and discovers a very large city named Cbaym.t There 
is great abundance of the necessaries of life ; fish beyond 
measure, beasts and birds for spert in great numbers, so 
tint for a Venetian silver grosao you may purchase three 
pheasants. 

LXV.— Of the City of Tin-gui, uul its great Saltworiu. 

Tin-guit is a pretty agreeable city, a full day'^ journey 
fi-om Chaym. The people are idolaters, subject to the 
khan, and use paper money ; they have merchandise and 
arts, and numerous ships belonging to them. It lies 
to the south-east, and on the leil, nearly three days* 
journey to the eastward, is the ocean> where salt is made 
in great quantities. Here is a city named Cyn-gui, large, 
rich, and noble, to which all the salt is brought, and the 
khan draws from it a revenue so wonderful that it could 
not be believed.^ 

I«Xn.— Of the great City of Tan-goi. 

When a man leaves Tin-gui he proceeds a day towards 
the south-east, il through a very fine country, finding towns 

* Called Pac^yag^hien by Sir Oeocgv Stamstoa, who obi«FVf4 i| 
acarcely rising above the level of the waters. 

t Kain, Ramufio ; Kao*yeou, a caosiderable town on the banka «f 
the lake of the same name, and reaching also to the canal. 

X Mr. Marsden (p. 485), imagines this to be Tai-tchsoa, a j4aoe «on- 
aiderably to the eastward ; bat there appeara no ground for going so far 
ont of the route ; besides that the number of vessels seems dearfyto fix 
it at atiU on the banks of the lake. 

^ Ramaaio causes a strange oonfasion by xaaking Cyn-gaa or Chin*- 
gnt part of the route, thus b*«aking up all the distances and directions 
in the itinerary. The French version here followed quite clears up tha 
difficulty. The saltworks un the ocean, and Cyn-^i, the shipping port, 
form no part of the mute, but are mentioned as important panicuLurs 
heard of at Tin-gui. 

|] The poinU of the compass, says Mr. Maraden, p. 466, most hero be 
■trangely perverted. It is onlj, however, hj his own unauthoriaed ex- 

\ 



160 DBSCRfPTION OF CHINA, AND OF TBS 

and castles, and then comes to Tan-gdi,* a large and 
beaatii^I city, which has under it twenty-four, aS good 
and of great trade. Its affairs are administered by one 
of the twelve barons of the khan ; Messer Marco Polo, 
of whom this book treats,. governed it three years. Here 
are made many arms and other equipments for knights 
and men of war ; for in this place and around it numer- 
ous troops are quartered. I will now tell you of two 
great provinces lying to the west, and as I shall have 
much to say, I will begin with Nan-ghin. 

LXVIL^-Of the great City of Nia-gbiii. 

Nan-^hin,t is a province towards the west, belonging 
to Manji, and is very noble and rich. The people are 
idolaters, use paper money, and are subject to the great 
khan. They live by merchandise and arts, have silk in 
abundance, and make cloths of it interwoven with gold, 
in all fashions. They have an ample supply of every 
kind of grain and provisions ; for the land is very fruitful. 
There are also lions and animals for hunting. There 
are many rich merchants who carry on much trade, and 
pay a large revenue to the great sire. But I will now go to 
the noble city of Sa-yan-fu, respecting which I shall have 
much to say. 

LXVm.— Of the City of Sa-yan-fa, and how it was taken. 

Sa-yan-fu is a large and magnificent city, having under 
it twelve others, also great and noble ; it is the seat of 
many valuable arts and of much merchandise, t The in- 
habitants are idolaters ; they use paper money, are sub- 
ject to the khan, and bum the bodies oi their dead. This 

emaion to Tai-tcheon, and the errors of Ramusio's version. The roate 
as we hare shown, lay thnraghont along the eastern shore of the Kao- 
yeon lake, which especially in this last part, rans exactly in the direc- 
tion stated in the text. — (See Du Haiders Map of Kiang-nan.) 

* Yang-tcheoa-fon, an ancient city still described as large and floar" 
ishing, though it has only ten others under it. Le Comte was told it 
contained two millions of people ; doubtless a vast exaggeration. 

t Nan-king, a vast city, considered as a rival capital to Pe-king, and 
even as containing a larger population. It does not seem in our author's 
time to have been quite so great, Hang-tcheou-fou being then the chief 
city of the south. 

i This is Siang-yang-Jou, a large city in Hou-quang, having others 
iioder itslunsdlction. The author evidently goes a good deal off bis 
way IB order to iqtrodnoa the aehievenwnk of himself and his rehttives. 



COUKT or THE £MF£JIOR KVHLAU 161 

oity held out three yeara after all the rest of the province 
bad yielded to the conqueror, who besieged it with a 
mighty army ; but he could approach it only on the side 
which lies to the north, because it was elsewhere surround- 
ed by a large and deep l&ke, by which the besieged ob- 
tained abundance of provisions.. The army was therefore 
about to abandon the siege in .much grief and wrath, and 
this news was just brought to the khan, when Messeri 
Nicolo, Maffio, and Marco Polo said, — " we shall find a 
way by which the city shall be made to surrender." The 
monarch who was most eagerly j>ent on its capture, read- 
ily listened. Then said the two brothers, and their son 
Marco, — " Great sire, we have with us in our train men 
who will make such an engine as will discharge large 
stones, which the citizens will not be able to endure, and 
will be obliged to yield.'* The khan was much rejoiced, 
add desired that they should execute their plan as soon 
as possible. Now they had in their company a German 
and a Nestorian Christian who were skilful in such works, 
and made two or three machines sufficient to throw 
stones of 300 pounds weight. When these were convey- 
ed to the army and set up, they appeared to the Tartars 
the greatest wonder of the world. They then began dis- 
charging stones into the city, which struck the houses, 
broke and destroyed every thing, and caused the utmost 
noise and alarm. When the inhabitants saw a calamity 
such as they had never witnessed before, they knew not 
what to think or say. They met in council, and concluded 
that they must be all killed, unless they submitted.* They 
therefore intimated to the lord of the host that they would 
surrender on the same terms that others had done. This 
was agreed to, and Sa-yan-fu came under the power of 
the great khan, through the interposition of Messeri Ni- 
colo, Maffio, and Marco ; and it was not a small service, 
(5r this town and province are among the best in his 

* The Chinese histories mention this mode in which the city w«s 
taken, and that the engineers were persons from Western Asia, but say 
tothingof the Poli. If, however, as in the French text here followed, 
(hey merely pointed oat the persons by whom these machines could be 
■sonstructeu, this was a private transaction, which might easily escape 
^e notice of these writers. It were more difficult if, as represented in 
Rsmusio's text, they invented and superintended the whole traasaotion; 
kat this we have no doubt is a corruption. 



162 DE8CBIPTION OF CHINA, AND OF THB 

possession, and he draws from them a great revenue. 
Now, we shall leave this subject and treat of a city called 
Sin-gui. 

LXIX.— Of the City of Sin-^i and the River Kiang, and the Moltitiida 

of Citiea on that River. 

When a man leaves Yan-gui and goes fifteen milest 
south-east, he perceives a certain city named Sin-goi, 
which is not very extensive, but has great merchandise 
and much shipping. The people are idolaters, use paper 
money, and are subject to the khan. That city stands 
upon a river, named Kiang, which is the largest in the 
world ; being in some places ten miles broad, and upwards 
of a hundred days' journey in length. Through it the in- 
habitants have a lucrative trade, which yields a large 
revenue to the khan. And on account of the many cities 
on it, the ships navigating and the goods conveyed by 
means of it are more numerous and valuable than in aH 
the rivers of Christendom and the adjacent seas beside. 
I teU you I have seen at that city no fewer than 5000 
ships sailing at once on its stream.^ For that river flows 
through sixteen provinces, and has more than two hun- 
dred great towns on its banks. The ships are covered, 
and have only one mast ; yet they are of heavy burden, 
and carry each from 4000 to 12,000 cantars. They have 
ropes composed of cane for drawing them through the 
water ; those belonging to the larger vessels are thick, 
and fifteen paces in length, being cloven at the end, and 
bound together in such a way as to make a cord 300 
paces long. 

t All the editions, Mcept the Pant, make tbia joatnajr from Sft-yiuk- 
fu. Mr. Maraden (p. 405) joatly obaerves that this place ia far m<npa 
distant from the Kiang, and insists that the true reading must be dofM. 
He even asserts that this is supported by Ramnsio and the Mnseam 
Italian MS. ; bat it is odd that he is mistaken in both points, being mis- 
led in the last by the very obscure handwriting. The French edition, 
I apprehend, again lets us into the real state of the case, by makinar the 
departure from An-gni (Yang-tcheou-fou). The descriptions of Nan- 
king and Siang-yang form no part of the itinerary, but are extraneous 
objects introduced on account of their great importance. The traveller 
is supposed to have been all the while at Yang-tcheod, and thence to 
contiane his route. 

t Strang as these expressions are, they scarcely exceed those used 
by the most sober modern travellers, on viewing the immense multitude 
of vessels upon this mighty river which is evidently the Slang or Yang- 
tae-kiang, the greatest in the empire. 



€OUKT OF THE E^MPKROR KUliLAI. 163 

LXX.~Of tU City of Cai-fni. 

Cai-gai is a small city towards the south-east,* sita* 
ated upon the bank of the above-mentioned river ; all the 
people are idolaters, subjeot to the khan, and use paper 
money. Here are collected large quantities of corn and 
rice : and there is a passage by water to the city of Kam- 
bala and the court of the khan ; grain from this place 
forms a considerable part of the provision required by his 
court. The monarch made this communication by dig- 
ging long and deep canals froln one river to another, ami 
ft-om lake to lake, so that a large ship may pa^s through. 
And by the side of this water-channel goe6 a road, so that 
you may take either the one or tiie other, as is most con- 
venient. In the middle of that river, opposite the city, 
is an isle of rocks, on which is a monastery of idolaters, 
where there arc 200 monks, who serve a very great 
number of gods. Now, let us cross the river, and tell of 
a city named Cin-ghianfu.t 

LXXI.~Of the City of Cm-ghiaa-Ai. 

Cin-ghian-fn is a city of Manji, and the pe<^le are such 
as we have already described, idolaters, aud subjects of 
the great khan. They are artificers, merchants, aud hunt- 
ers, raise much grain, and make cloths of silk and gold. 
Here are two chu/ohes of Nestorian Christians, formed in 
the year 1378 ; which happened because at that time the 

* Then is Mnne intricacy hen. Mr. Manden (p. 498) places Cai- 
gui on the southern bank ; but to support this, he has altered the text 
even of R&mQsio, which merely states that it lay to the south-east (we 
apprehend of Yan§r-tcheoQ). Both the Paris editions, after describing 
it, say, " Now, let as cross the river.'* This plainly implies that it was 
on the northern bank, which is corroborated by its being the key of the 
communication along the canal with Pe-king. I have no doubt it is Qua- 
tcheoa or Kooa-tcheou, a lai^ and flourishing place, though not of the 
first magnitade, and in the precise situation indicated. There remains 
some diffienhr as to Sin-gui. My impression is, that it is the place 
mistaken by Mr. Marsden for Cai-gni, viz. a suburb of Tchiug-kiang-fon, 
lying on the riv«r, yet described as at some disunee from the main body 
<K the plane (see I^ Cumte in Astley, vol. iii. p. dSS). In this case, the 
route of fifteen miles must have crossed the nver to Sin-gui, and then 
retamed to take a view of Cai-gui. In fact, the French edition, after 
describing Sin-gai, says, " Now let as rHmm to Cai-gui.*' 

* This seems to be the main body of the city Tching-kiang-foa, and 
therefore treated as an inland city. The proximity of all the three 
pteees ktt iiMlMd seems pioved by no difttance being atated beci*eea 



164 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA,^ND OF THB 

governur under the khan was a Nestorian, named Marsar- 
chis, and be caused these two edifices to be built. Now, 
let us go to the great city of Cin-ghin-gui. 

LXXU. — Of the City of Cin-ghin-gui, and of a dreadful Slaog-hter. 

When a man leaves Cin-gbian-fu, and travels three or 
four days south-east, he always discovers cities and cas- 
tles, with much merchandise ; the people are all idola- 
ters, subject to the khan, and use paper money. Then 
he comes to the city of Cin-ghin-gui* great and noble, the 
people idolaters, and subject to the khan ; they have abun- 
dance of provisions, produce and manufacture a vast quan- 
tity of silk. And here I will tell you a wicked thing which 
the people of this city did, but it cost them dear. When 
Bayam, called the chief of the Hundred Eyes, conquered 
all the province, and took the capital itself, he sent a body 
of troops to reduce this place. It surrendered, and the 
soldiers entered and found such good wine, that they 
drank till they were intoxicated, and became quite insen- 
sible. When the men of the city saw them in this condi- 
tion, that very night they slew them all, so that not one 
escaped^ When Bayam the commander heard of this 
disloyal conduct, he sent an army who took the town, and 
put all the inhabitants to the sword. Now, let us go on, 
and I will tell you of another named Sin-gui. 

LXXIIL— Of the City of Sin-frui, of Un-g^i, and of Ughim. 

Sin-gui is a very great and noble city. The people are 
idolaters, subject to the great khan, and use paper money. 
Most of them live by merchandise and arts, raise much 
silk, make cloths of it interwoven with gold very costly 
and fine. The town is forty miles in circuit, and the 
number of inhabitants is so great, that no person can 
count them, and if they were men-at-arms, those of the 
province of Manji would conquer the whole world ; they 
are not so, however, but prudent merchants, and, as alrea- 
dy observed, skilful in all the arts. They have ilso many 
persons learned in natural science, good physicians, and 
able philosophers. The city has 1600 stone bridges under 
which a galley might pass ; and in the mountains adjacent 

* Tchang^teheott-foa, near the line of the canal, a large and flonnah 
ing city. 



COUBT OF THE KMPEROR KUBLAI. 165 

grow rhubarb and ginger in such abundance, that for a Ve- 
netian grosso you may buy forty pounds of the latter, fresh 
and good. Siu-gui has under it sixteen large cities of 
arts and trade. Its name signifies the earth, and another 
large town near it is called heaven, and these appellations 
they derive from their great nobleness.* Now, let us de- 
part from this place, and I will tell you of another city 
called Un-gui.t It is a day's journey from Sin-gui, and is 
large and good, with merchandise and arts ; but there is 
nothing so remarkable about it as to be worth describing ; 
therefore we shall go on to delineate another called Ughim. 
It is great and rich ; the men are idolaters, subject to 
the great khan, use paper money, and have abundance 
of all things. There is nothing else worth mentioning ; 
therefore I will go on to tell you of the noble city of Kin- 
sai, which is the capital of the kingdom of Manji. 

LXXIV.— 'Of the most noble and wonderful City of Kin-sai ; and of itt 
Popidatiott, Trades, Lake, Villas, and splendid Palace. 

When a man leaves Ughim, and goes three days, be 
observes many noble and rich cities and castles, with 
great merchandise. The people are all idolaters, subject 
to the khan, use paper money, and have abundant meane 
of subsistence. At the end of these three days, he finds 
a very noble city named Kin-sai,:t which means in our 
language the city of heaven. And now I will tell you all 
its nobleness ; for without doubt it is the largest city in 
the world. And I will give you the account which was 
written by the Queen of Manji to Bayam, who conquered 
that kingdom, to be transmitted to his master, who there- 
by might be persuaded not to destroy it. And this letter 
contained the truth, as I Marco saw with my own eyes. 
It related, that the city of Kin-sai is 100 miles in circum- 
ference, and has 12,000 stone bridgeb ; and beneath the 
greater part of these a large ship might pass, and beneath 

* This is SoQ-tcheou-fou, which all trayeUers anite with our author 
in deecribing as one of the largest and most beaatifal cities of the em- 
pire It seems, indeed, to have improved in modem times, and now in 
gajetj and splendour to eclipse Bang-tcheoa-fou, since the latter ceases 
be a seat of empire. 

t Mr. Aiarsden (p. 508) thinks this Kia-hins a town on the canal be- 
tween the two great cities. Ramusio calls it Va-giu. 

t This is nadoubtedljr Eang-tcheou-fou. The term here need meaas 
capital city 



166 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, AND Of 'THIS 

the others a snialier one.* And you need not wonder there 
are so many bridges ; because the city is wholly on the 
water, and surrounded by it like Venice. It contains 
twelve arts or trades, and each trade has 12,000 stations or 
housed ; and in each station there are of masters and la« 
bourers at least ten, in some fifteen, thirty and even forty, 
because this town supplies many others round it. The 
merchants are so numerous and so rich, that their wealth 
oan neither be told nor believed. They, their ladies, and 
the heads of the trades do nothing with their own hands, 
but live as cleanly and delicately as if they were kings. 
These females also are of angelic beauty, and live in the 
most elegant manner. But it is established that no one 
can practice any other art than that which his father fol- 
lowed, even though he were worth 100,000 bezants. To 
the south of that city is a lake, full thirty miles in circuit ; 
and all around it are beautiful palaces and houses, so 
wonderfully built that nothing can possibly surpass them ; 
they belong to the great and noble men of the city. There 
are also abbeys and monasteries of idolaters in great 
numbers. In the middle of the lake are two islands, on 
one of which stands a palace, so wonderfully adorned 
that it seems worthy of belonging to the emperor. Who- 
ever wishes to celebrate a marriage or other festival, 
goes thither, where be finds dishes, plates, and all imple- 
ments necessary for the occasion. The city of Kin-sai 
contains many beautiful houses, and one great stone tow- 
er, to which the people convey all their property when 
the bouses take fire, as often happens, because many of 
them are of wood. They are idolaters, subject to the 
great khan* ^nd use paper money. They eat the flesli of 
dogs and other bumjists, such as no Christian would touch 
for the woiid. On each of the said 12,000 bridges, ten 

* This letter of the q«e#a is found only in the French edition. The 
Paris Latin and the Crusca make it the king ; but, besides their infehoi 
authority, that prince had fled before Bayam came up. i^erhaps it was 
» mistake in translating the French roine. There is nothing of the kind 
in any other edition except Ramnsio*s, where it is said that Marco made 
notes of every particular ; but we have already intimated strong scepti- 
oism as to the existence of any such documents'. The description, there- 
for its 
mean 

they irnUy 
were. 




COURT OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 167 

men keep gaard day and night, so that no one may dare 
to raise a disturbance, or commit theft or homicide. I 
^ill tell you another thing, that in the middle of the city 
is a mound, on which stands a tower, wherein is placed 
a wooden table, against which a man strikes with a ham- 
mer, so that it is heard to a great distance ; this he does 
when there is an alarm of Are, or any kind of danger or 
disturbance. The great khan causes that city to be most 
strongly guarded, because it is the capital of all the prov- 
ince of Manji, and he derives from it vast treasure and 
revenue ; he is likewise afraid of any revolt. All the 
streets are paved with stones and bricks ; and so are the 
high roads of Manji, on which account men may travel 
Yery pleasantly either on horseback or on foot. In this 
city, too, are 4000 baths, in which the citizens, both men 
and women take great delight, and frequently resort 
thither, because they keep their persons very cleanly. 
They are the largest and most beautiful baths in the 
world, insomuch that 100 of either sex may bathe in them 
at 6nce. Twenty -five miles from thence is the ocean, be- 
tween south and east ; and there is a city named Gan- 
fo,* which has a ver^. fine port, with large ships, and 
much merchandise of immense value from India and other 
quarters. Past this city to the port flows a stately river, 
by which the ships can come up to it, and which runs 
thither from a great distance. The khan has divided the 
whole province of Manji into nine large kingdoms, all of 
which pay him annual tribute. In Gan-fu resides one of 
the kings, who has under him 140 cities. I will tell you 
a thing you will much wonder at, that in this province 
there are 1200 towns, and in each a garrison amounting 
to 1000, 10,000, 20,000, and in some instances to 30,000 
men. But do not suppose these are all Tartar cavalry ; 
for part are infantry and sent from Cathay. But the 
riches and profit which the khan derives from the prov- 
ince of Manji is so great that no man could dare to men- 
tion it, nor would any one believe him ; and therefore I 
shall be silent. I will teU you, however, some of the 

* 1 nis is undoabtedly Ning^po, near the month of the river <m which 
HAng-tcheoQ-fou stands, and opposite to tlie Tchu-san islands. It and 
Amqy an tha twoohitf sMtt of foreign trad* on tha •aatarn ooaai tfi 
Chins- 





168 DBacEiPTioN OP CHnrA, and of the 

eostoms of Manji. One is, that whenever a boy or girl 
iB bom, the day, hoar, and minute are written down, also 
the sign and planet under which the birth takes place, so 
that all may know their nativity. And when any one 
wishes to undertake a journey, or do anything else of im- 
portance, he repairs to the astrologer, states these par- 
ticulars, and asks if he should go or act otherwise. And 
they are often thus diverted from their journeys and other 
designs ; for these astrologers are skilAil in their arts and 
diabolical euchantments, and tell them many things which 
they implicitly believe. Another custom is, that when a 
body is to be burned, all the relations dress themselves 
in canvass to express grief, and go with the corpse, beat- 
ing instruments, and making songs and prayers to their 
idols. When they come to the place where the ceremo- 
ny is to be performed, they frame images of men, women, 
camels, horses, clothes, money, and various other things, 
all of cards. When the fire is fully lighted, they throw 
in all these things, saying that the dead will enjoy them 
in the other world, and that the honour now done to him 
will be done there also by idols. In this city of Kin sai 
is a palace of the king who fled, which is the noblest and 
most beautiful in the world. It is a square, ten miles in 
circuit, surrounded by a lofty wall, within whidh are gar- 
dens abounding in all the most delicate fruits, fountains, 
and lakes supplied with many kinds of fish. In the mid- 
dle is the edifice itself, large and beautiful, with a «hall so 
extensive that a vast number of persons can sit down at 
table. That hall is painted all over with gold and azure, 
representing many stories, in which are beasts, birds, 
knights, ladies, and various wonders. Nothing can be 
seen upon the walls and roof but these ornaments. There 
are twenty others of similar dimensions, such that 10,000 
men can conveniently sit at table ; and they are covered 
and worked in gold very nobly. This palace contains 
also 1000 chambers. In the city are 160 toman of fires, 
that is, of houses; and the toman is 10,000, making 
1,600,000 houses,* among which are many great and rich 

♦ Thi« statement, allowing five inhabitants to a house, wmtld make 
8,000,000, which most, no doubt, be a great exaggeration. We are to 
consider, however, that Hang tcheou-fou is represented ».*«n now as 
litae iBfenor to re-lung, which it much surpasses in industry and com- 
BtrMt-aad that it was then, in addition, the seat of the most splendid 



OOVRT OF THE EMPEROF. KUBLAI. - 169 

palaces. There is only one church of Nestorian Chris- 
tians. Each man of that city, as also of the others, has 
'Written on his door the name of his wife, his children, of 
his sons' wives, his slaves, and of all his household ; and 
-when any one is born, he adds the name, and when he dies, 
takes it away. Thus the governor of each city knows 
the names of every person in it ; and this practice is fol- 
lowed in all the towns of Manji and Cathay. The same 
account is given of the strangers who reside for a time 
in their houses, both when they come and when they go ; 
and by that means the great khan knows whoever arrives 
and departs, which is of great advantage.* 

LXXY.— Farther PuticDlars of that City. 

There are within the city ten principal squares or mar- 
ket-places,t besides which, numberless shops run along 
the streets. These squares are each half a mile in length, 
and have in front the main street, forty paces wide, and 
reaching in a straight line from one end of the city to the 
other. Thus they are, altogether, two miles in circuit, and 
four miles distant Irom each other. The street is crossed 
by many low and convenit;nt bridges. Parallel to it, but 
on the opposite side to the squares, is a very large canal, 
and on its bank capacious warehouses, built of stone, to 
accommodate the merchants from India and other coun- 
tries, and receive their goods ; this situation being chosen 
as convenient with regard to the market-squares. Each 
of these, on three days in every week, contains an assem- 
blage of from 40,000 to 60,000 persons, who bring for sale 
every desirable article of provision. There appears abun- 

ooart ia the East. Probably, therefore, it was the neatest city that 
ever existed, and contained not much fewer than half the number now 
stated. The printed edition of Pipino has only 1,060,000 houses ; but, 
as it gives the same number of tomans with the others, this appears an 
error of the press ; and it is otherwise in the MS. The Basle edition 
has only 600,000 ; but it cannot be received against all the others. 

* Mr. Marsden mentions having been informed by Mr. Reeves of Canton 
that this arrangement is still practised. 

t The additional matter in Ramusio relating to Kin-sai being particu* 
larlv copious, it has been thought advisable to collect it into one chapter, 
so that the reider may see it distinct from that included in the early 
editions, and which forms the preceding chapter. At the end, some 
inquiry will be made whether it really was written by the traveller him- 
Mlf. Meantime, it may be observed, that there is no reason to doubt 
the iafomatitMi Ming generally authentic. 



170 DESCRIPTION or CHINA, AND OF THE 

dance of all kinds of game, roebucks, stags, fallow-deer, 
hares, and rabbits, with partridges, pheasants, francolins, 
quails, common fowls, capons, ducks and geese almost in- 
numerable ; these last being so easily bred on the lake, 
that for a Venetian silver grosso you may buy a couple of 
geese and two pairs of ducks. In the same place are 
also the shambles, where cattle, as oxen, calves, kids, 
and lambs, are killed for the tables of the rich and of 
magistrates. These markets afford at all seasons a great 
variety of herbs and fruits; in particular, uncommonly 
large pears, weighing each ten pounds,* white in the in- 
side like paste, and very fragrant. The peaches also, 
both yellow and white, are in their season of delicious 
flavour. Grapes are not cultivated, but very good ones 
are brought dried from other districts. Wine is not es- 
teemed by the natives, who are accustomed to their own 
liquor, prepared from rice and various spices. From the 
sea, twenty-five miles distant, a vast supply of fish is con- 
veyed on the river ; and the lake also contains abundance, 
the taking of which afibrds constant employment to nu- 
merous fishermen. The species vary according to the 
season, and the dfal carried thither from the city renders 
them large and rich. In short, the quantity in the mar- 
ket is so immense, that you would think it impossible it 
could find purchasers ; yet in a few hours it is all dis- 
posed of, so many inhabitants are there who can afford 
to indulge in such luxuries. They eat fish and flesh at 
one meal. Each of the ten squares is surrounded with 
lofty dweUing-houses ; the lower part being made into 
shops, where manufactures of every kind are carried on, 
and imported articles are sold, as spices, drugs, toys, and 
pearls. In some shops is kept only the country wine, 
which is constantly made fresh, and served out at a mod- 
erate price. In the several streets connected with the 
squares are numerous baths, attended by servants of both 
sexes, to perform the functions of ablution for the male 
and female visiters, who from their childhood are accus- 
tomed to bathe in cold water, as being hi^Iy conducive 
to health. Here, too, are apartments provided with 

* Mr. Mawden (p. 157) quotes authoritiet in favour of thi« enonnott. 
•ize, particularly Van Braam, who was aerred with ont 1ft inchM loo* 
and 14 thick. ^^ 



COURT OF THB EMPEROR KUJSLAl. 171 

warm water for the use of strangers, who, from want of 
use, cannot endure the shock of the cold. All are in the 
daily habit of washing their persons, especially before 
meals. 

In other streets reside ^he females of bad character* 
who are extremely numerous ; and not only in the streets 
Dear the squares, which are specially appropriated to* 
them, but in every other quarter they appear, highly 
dressed out and perfumed, in well furnished houses, and 
with a train of domestics. They are perfectly skilled in 
all the arts of seduction, which they can adapt to persons 
of every description : so that strangers who have once 
yielded to their fascination are said to be like men be- 
witched, and can never get rid of the impression. In- 
toxicated with these unlawful pleasures, even after re- 
turning home, they always long to revisit the place where 
they were thus seduced. In other streets reside the 
physicians and the astrologers, who also teach reading 
and writing, with many other arts. On opposite sides of 
the squares are two large edifices, where officers appointed 
by bis majesty prt)mptly decide any differences that arise 
between the foreign merchants and the inhabitants. 
They are bound also to take care that the guards be duly 
stationed on the neighbouring bridges, and in case of 
neglect, to inflict a discretionary punishment on the de- 
linquent. 

On each side of the, principal street, mentioned as 
reaching across the whole city, are large houses and 
mansions with gardens ; near to which are the abodes 
and shops of the working artizans. At all hour? you 
observe such multitudes of people passing backwards and 
forwards on their various avocations, that it might seem 
impossible to supply them with food. A different judg- 
ment will, however, be formed, when every market-day 
the squares are seen crowded with people, and covered 
with provisions brought in for sale by carts and boats. 
To give some idea of the quantity of meat, wine, spices, 
and other articles brought for the consumption of the 
people of Kin-sai, I shall instance the single article of 
pepper. Marco Polo was informed by an officer employ- 
ed in the customs, that the daily amount was forty-three 
loads, each weighing 243 pounds. 



172 DEBCBIPTION OF CHINA, AND OF THE 

The houses of the citizens are well huilt, and richly 
adorned with carving, in which, as well as in painting 
and ornamental buildings, they take great delight, and 
lavish enormous sums. Their natural disposition is pa- 
cific, and the example of thei»former unwarlike kings has 
accustomed them to liye in tranquiDity. They keep no 
arms in their houses, and are unacquainted with their 
use. Their mercantile transactions are conducted in a 
manner perfectly upright and honourable. They also 
behave in a friendly manner to each other, so that the 
inhabitants of the same neighbourhood appear like one 
family. In their domestic relations, they show no jealousy 
or suspicion of their wives, but treat them with great re- 
spect. Any one would be held as infamous that should 
address indecent expressions to married women. They 
behave with cordiality to strangers who visit the city for 
commercial purposes, hospitably entertain them, and af- 
ford their best assistance in their business. On the other 
hand, they hate the very sight of soldiers, even the guards 
of the great khan ; recollecting, that by their means they 
have been deprived of the government of their native 
sovereigns. 

On the lake above mentioned are a number of pleasure- 
barges, capable of holding from ten to twenty persons, 
being from fifteen to twenty paces long, with a broad 
level floor, and moving steadily through the water. 
Those who delight in this amusement, and propose to 
enjoy it, either with their ladies or companions, engage 
one of these barges, which they find always in the very 
best order, with seats, tables, and every thing necessary 
for an entertainment. The boatmen sit on a fiat upper 
deck, and with long poles reaching to the bottom of the 
lake, not more than two fathoms deep, push along the 
vessels to any desired spot. These cabins are painted in 
various colours, and with many figures ; the exterior is 
similarly adorned. On each side are windows, which 
can at pleasure be kept open or shut, when the company 
seated at table may delight their eyes with the varied 
beauty of the passing scenes. Indeed the gratification 
derived from these water-excursions exceeds any that 
can be enjoyed on land ; for as the lake extends all along 
the city, you discover, while standing in the boat, at a 



COURT OF THE EMPEKOR KVBLAI. 173 

certain distance from the shore, all its grandear and 
Iteauty, palaces, temples, convents, and gardens, while 
lofty trees reach down to the water^s edge. At the same 
time are seen other hoats continually passing, similarly 
filled with parties of pleasure. Generally, indeed, the 
inhabitants, when they have finished the labours of the 
day, or closed their mercantile transactions, think only 
of seeking amusement with their wives or mistresses, 
either in these barges or driving about the city in car- 
riages. The main street already mentioned is paved 
with stone and brick to the width of ten paces on each 
side, the interval being filled up with small gravel, and 
having arched drains to carry off the water into the canals, 
so that it is always kept dry. On this road the carriages 
are constantly driving. They are lotig, covered at top, 
bavo curtains and cushions of silk, and can hold six per- 
sons. Citizens of both sexes, desirous of this amusement, 
liire them for that purpose, and yon see them at eveiy. 
hour moving about in vast numbers. In many cases the 
people Tisit gardens, where they are introduced by the 
managers of the place into shady arbours, and remain till 
the time of returning home. 

The palace already mentioned had a wall with a pas- 
sage dividing the exterior court from an inner one, which 
formed a kind of cloister, supporting a portico that sur- 
rounded it, and led to various royal apartments. Hence 
you entered a covered passage or corridor, six paces 
wide, and so long as to reach to the margin of the lake. 
On each side were corresponding^entrances to ten courts, 
also resembling cloisters with porticos, and each having 
fifty private rooms, with gardens attached, — the residence 
of a thousand young females, whom the king maintained 
in his service. In the company either of his queen or of 
a party of those ladies he used to seek amusement on the 
lake, visiting the idol-temples on its banks. The other 
two portions of this seraglio were laid out in groves, pieces 
of water, beautiful orchanls, and enclosures for animals 
suited for the chase, as antelopes, deer„ stags, hares, and 
rabbits. Here tO(», the king amused himself, — his damsels 
accompanying him in carriages or on horseback. No 
man was allowed to bo of the party, but the fomales were 
skilled in the art of ooursinir and punoiog the —•"^'-i'' 



174 DE8CEIPTION OF CHINA, AND QT THE 

When fatigued they retired into the groves on the margin 
of the lake, and, quitting their dresses, rushed into the 
water, when they swam sportively in different directions, 
— the king remaining a spectator of the exhibition. 
Sometimes he had his repast provided beneath the dense 
foliage of one of these groves, and was there waited upon 
by the damsels. Thus he spent his time in this enerva- 
ting society, profoundly ignorant of martial afiairs ; hence 
the grand khan, as already mentioned, was enabled to 
deprive him of bis splended possessions,, and drive him 
with ignominy from his throne. All these particulars 
were related to me by a rich merchant of Kin-sai, who 
was then very old ; and having been a confidential ser- 
vant of King Facfur, was acquainted with every circum- 
stance of his life. He knew the palace in its former 
splendour, and desired me to come and take a view of it. 
Being then the residence of the khan's viceroy,, the colon- 
nades were preserved entire, but the chambers had been 
allowed to go to ruin, — only their foundations remaining 
visible. The walls, too, including the parks and gardens, 
had been left to decay, and no longer contained any trees 
or animals.* 

* At the doM of this laige mass of infitnnaitioD, the carioas questitm 
■rises, whether we are really indebted for it to the tnveller himself. 
I have already noticed the complete contrast between the character of 
the kinr here given, and that found in Chapter LXIL, which is sanctioned 
by all the editions. We may observe also, that the pretent tense, ased 
in the early versions- to describe the palaae, evidently as in f^l spiea- 
doar, is here changed to the pasi^ and only pait is represented in repair, 
the rest being allowed to go to ruin. Yet Marco*B visit there ctiuld b« 
only a few yean after the conquest, when so great a change would have 
been very improbable. This half-stealthy mode of visiting it with an 
old merchant of Kin-sai seems to accord very ill with his official situa- 
tion, which would have opened to him regular access. He would 
doubtless, indeed, visit the governor, and probably be accommodated 
within the edifice. The hatred of the Chinese towards the Tartar 
guards, though probably true, would not we think have been mentioned 
By him. On the whole, we feel persuaded ihat he had no coiicern with 
any of these passages, and that they were inserted by some private 
traveller, who visited the city at a considerably later period. There is 
no doubt it was one who had good opportunities of obeervation ; iw 
deed, his character of the king accords better with. Chinese history than 
that of Marco's, who as formerly observed, had been somehow biu&scd 
on this Kubjeet. Former insertious seemed to I.ear the marks of a church- 
man ; but this we th uk, oumes from a mereha-.t. — a pe'-Uiiarly copious 
detail being given both of the trunsactionsaudsocisJ habits of that class. 
We know not even if there be elsewhere so full an account of the mode 
■f apending life among the moat opulent dass of the Chinese. 



COI7ET OF THB ^MPEROB KUBLAI. 175 

LXXVI.— Revenues of the Great Khan from Kinsai and Manji. 
I will now tell you of the large revenue which the khan 
draws from this city» and the territory undei its jurisdic- 
tion, which is the ninth part of the province of Manji. 
The salt of that country yields to him in the year eigiity 
tomans of gold, and each toman is 70,000 saiks, which 
amount to 5,600,000, and each saik is worth more than a 
gold florin ; and is not this most great and wonderful f 
In that country, too, there grows more sugar than in the 
whole worid besides, and it yields a very large revenue, 
I will not state it particularly,, but remark that, taking all 
spices together, they pay 3^ per cent., which is levied too 
on all other merchandise. Large taxes are also derived 
from wine, rice, coal, and frbm the twelve arts, which, 
as already mentioned, have each twelve thousand stations. 
On every thing a duty is imposed : and on silk especially 
and on other articles is paid ten per cent. But I, Mareo 
Polo, tell you, because I have often heard the account of 
it, that the revenue on all these commodities amounts 
every year to 210 tomans, or 14,700,000 saiks, and that is 
the most enormous amount of money that ever was heard 
of, and yet is paid by only the ninth part of the province 
of Manji.* Now let us depart from this city of Kin-sai, 
and go to another called Tam-pin-gui. 

LXXVII.~Tam-pin-gtii and other Cities. 

When a man departs from Kinf8ai,'and goes a day to 
the south-east, he finds always most pleasant houses and 
gardens, and all the means of living in great abundance. 
At the end of the day he discovers the city already 
named,t which is very large and beautiful, and is depen- 

* rhe florin being estimated by Mr. Marsden at ten sl^llings sterling, 
this makes £7,350,000. Both Da Halde and Macartney reckon the 
present amount at about £66,000,000 (Account of China, Edinburgh Cab- 
met Library, vol. ii. p. 183) ; and as the southern larovinces are much the 
moPt productive, and Kin-sai doubtless superior to any other, th^re ap> 
pears no very great exaggeration. The amazement tvitb which the 
traveller is struck, and which was equally felt in Europe, may be un- 
derstood, when we consider that the revenuen of its greatest princes 
were in that age very slender, perhaps in few cases amounting to a 
million sterling. 

t Mr. Marsaen is unable to find a city on this site, and I cannot con- 
cur With Coant Boni in thinkink it Fu-yang, which is much more than 
ft day's jonmey from the capital. The Jesuits' map ha* iU« mark of a 
to«m ftt tluB pxpper place, bat without any naoa. 



176 DBSCRIPTION OP CHINA, AND OP THE 

deot on Kin-sai. The people are subject to the khan, 
use paper money, are idolaters, and bum the bodies of 
their dead in the manner already described. They live 
by merchandise and arts, and have an ample supply of 
provisions. And when a man goes three days to the 
south-east, seeing very large cities and castles, and 
much trade, he comes to the city of Un-gui,* under the 
government of Kin-sai, and otherwise like the former. 
When he departs from Un-gui and goes two days south- 
east, he every where perceives towns and castles, so 
that he seems to be going through a city. Every thing 
is in abundance ; and here are the largest and longest 
canes in all the country, for know that some are four 
palms in circuit and fifteen paces long.t At the end of 
the two days he comes to Chen-gui,t which is large and 
beautiful. The people who are idolaters, are under the 
great khan and the jurisdiction of Kin-sai, and have abun- 
dance of silk and provisions. In going four days south- 
east he finds cities and castles, and all things in the ut- 
most plenty. There are birds and beasts for the chase, 
with lions very large and fierce. Throughout all the 
province of Manji there are neither sheep nor lambs, but 
oxen, goats, and hogs in great variety. At the end of the 
four days he finds Cian-cian,^ a town situated on a moun- 
tain, which divides the river into two parts, each flowing 
in a difierent direction. The people are like the former ; 
and at the end of three days more we reach the cityii 

* U-guiu, Ramusic. Mr. Maraden, again at a loss, suggests Hou- 
tcheou, at which the Count justly wonders, it bein«[ in the complete!/ 
opposite direction : but I am convinced that this is Fu-yang. 

t Martini and Du Halde agree as to the luxuriance of the canes 
which grow iiWTche-kiaQg. Mnrsden, p. 548. Boni, vol. ii. p. 344. 

t Gen-gnif Ramutio. Mr. Marsden thinks it Tchu-ki ; but it ap- 
pears lo me clearly Yen-tcheou-£»u. Both the name and position (dose- 
ly agree. Further remarks will be made in the nej^t note. 

(^ Zen-giaa, Ramuaio. Mr. Marsdea considers it clear that this is 
Yen-tcheon-fou. We would observe, however, that ten days have been 
spent in coming from the capital, — a distance on this supposition of only 
•eventy miles. On the other hand, the journey hence to Kien-ning-fou 
is about 220 miles, yet occupies only nine days. If we axe to attach 
any credit 'then to our traveller's statements, this place must be Kin 
tchnou, which the French name resembles, and Z in the Venet.an dia 
lect is identical with O or K. 

II Gie-za, Ramutio. This, I apprehend, must be one of the frontier 
places between Kiu-tcheon and Fo-ldea ; perhaps Kiang-cluui«fU, 
which much resemUes the French name. Mr. Mandea ««t«»»»«^tt tfiat 



t'OJ-'K'r uV Tin: BMPKKOR KflBLAl. 177 

of Can-gui large and heantiful; and this is the last 
under the jurisdiction of Kin-sai ; for now commences 
another kingdom, which is one of the nine parts of Manji, 
and is called Fu-gui. 

LXXVni.— The Kingdom of Fu-gui. 

When a man goes from the last mentioned city of Kin- 
sai be enters the kingdom of Fu-gui -* and, after travel- 
ling seven days, he finds houses and villages, the inhabi- 
tants of which are all idolaters, and under the jurisdiction 
of Fu-gui. They have provisions in great abundance, 
with numerous wild beasts for hunting ; also large and 
fierce lions. They have ample supplies of ginger and ga- 
langa, so that for a Venetian grosso you can buy eighty 
pounds. And there is a fruit or flower having the ap- 
pearance of saffron, and thongh not really so, yet of equal 
value, being much employed in manufacture. They eat 
the flesh of the filthiest animals, and even that of a man, 
provided he has not died a natural death ; but if he has 
been killed they account his flesh extremely delicate. 
When they go to war they cut their hair very close, and 
paint their faces an azure colour like the iron of a lance. 
They fight an on foot except their chief; and are the 
most cruel race in the world, because they go about the 
whole day killing men, drinking their blood, and eating 
their flesh, t 

LXXIX.— Of the Cities of Que-lin-fu and Un-quem. 

In the middle of these seven days you come to a city 

It nratt be Kiu-tcheou itself, as being a firontier-city : but he forgets 
that it borders on Kiang-see ; wMle Fo-kien is the province now to be 
enterad. ^., „ 

* This is the French name and the most correct, -while Ramusio has 
Concha : and it is curious that the former Tersion gives it that name in 
a sabeequent chapter. 

t Mr. Marden is appalled at the mention of such a people in the most 
civilized part of China, and has recourse to his favourite hypothesis of a 
transposition of notes, causing to be applied to them what was true only 
of certain tribes of Sumatra. He does not seem aware that some parts 
4^ Fo-kien rank with th< rudest portions of the empire, in whose weak- 
ened state it was not unlikely that such races might still find harbour 
there. We shall soon see how difficult even Kublai found it to keep 
them in subjection. They still bear a rude, bold, independent charac- 
ter, qaii-e unlike that of the other Chinese (Account of China, Edinburj|fa 
Cabinet Library, voK ii. pp. 368, WW). The asserted eaniubalism was 
pnilMbly an exaggeration, suggested by the fears oC the people. 



178 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, AND OF THE 

called Que-lin-fu,* which is very large and heautifal, sub- 
ject to the great khan. It has three bridges, the largest 
and most magnificent in the world ; for each is a mile 
long and ten paces broad, and all supported by columns of 
marble. The people live by merchandise and arts, and 
have abundance of silk and ginger. The ladies here are 
very beautiful. They have another strange thing, hens 
that have no feathers, hut skins like a cat.f They lay 
eggs like those of oar hens, and are very good eating. 
And in the remainder of the seven days' journey we dis- 
cover many cities and castles, merchants and merchan- 
dise, and men of art. There are lions, great and fierce, 
doing much injury to the passengers, who on this acconnt 
cannot travel without imminent danger.. At the end of 
the journey is found a city called Un-quem,t where there 
is made such a quantity of sugar, that the whole court of 
the khan is thence supplied, which is worth a vast trea- 
sure. Beyond it is the large city of Fu-gui, capital of 
this kingdom. 

LXXX.— Of the City of Fu-gui. 

Fu-gui,^ as just stated, is the capital of the kingdom of 
Concha, which is one of the nine parts of Manji. In that 
city is much merchandise and art ; the people are idola- 
trous, and subject to the great khan. He keeps there a 
strong army, because the towns and castles often revolt, 

* Kien-ning-foQ, a«i the riyer Min, which Maztini deacvibes as equal 
in magnitude to the capital, though much injured daring the recent 
wan. He notices, too, its nu^nificent bridges. 

t It has been impossible to find any confirmation of this account ; 
though Du Halde mentions a smail species in Se-tchuen (probably the 
same) with a woolly covering similar to that of sheep. 

X Commentators have not been able to find this city. MiQig>-tsing 
agrees very exactly as to site, and we imagine must be the place, though 
there is no resemblance of name. 

^ Instead of this Ramusio has Kan-giu, i^ich, as our traveller's #i'ii 
corresponds with tc&eou, is just the Chinese name fa<f Canton, thus 
strangely confounded with Fou-tcheou-fou. I have no doubt it is a groas 
modern interpolation, after the Portuguese had brought the former place 
strongly to the view of Europeans. Some one then thought it would 
improve the work to insert it, not aware that he was placing it 500 miles 
fi im Its real position. I cannot but wonder that Mr. Marsdea should 
attempt any defence (^sach a reading. He urges that Cantmn was un- 
known for 200 years after the narrative was written ; but it waa well 
known at least 50 years hefwe Ramusio^ edition, which alone contains 
this reading. The description here given of Fou-tcheou*foQ, the emi* 
tal of Fo-kten, appears perfectly correct. 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 179 

and whenerer they do so the troops hasten thither, take 
and destroy them. Through the middle of that city flows 
a river a mile broad ; here much sugar is made, and an 
extensive trade is carried on in precious stones and pearls, 
which are brought by merchants from India and its isles. 
It is also near the port of Zai-tiin on the ocean, whither 
come many ships from Hindostan with much merchan- 
dise ; and they ascend by the great river to Fu-gui. The 
people have abundance of all things necessary for subsist- 
ence ; fine gardens, with good fruit ; and the city is won- 
derfully well ordered in all respects. But we will now 
go on to other matters. 

LXXXI. — Of the most noble Port of Zai-tun, and of Ti-min-gui. 

When one departs from Fu-gui, passes the river, and 
goes five days sooth-east, he finds cities and castles, 
where there is abundance of all things, woods, birds, and 
beasts, with the tree which bears camphor. The ^ople 
are all idolaters, under the great khan and the jurisdiction 
of Fu-gui. At the end of the five days he finds a city called 
Zaitun,* which is a noble port, where all the ships of In- 
dia arrive, and for one laden with pepper which comes 
from Alexandria to be sold throughout Christendom, there 
go to that city a hundred. It is one of the two best ports 
in the world, and the most frequented by merchants and 
merchandise. Know, too, that the khan draws thence a 
large revenue, because all tiie ships from India pay upon 
their several kinds of goods, stoned, and pearls, ten per 
cent,, that is one in ten. The ships take for their freight, 
on small merchandise, thirty per cent. ; on pepper, forty- 
four ; on lignum, aloes, sandalwood, and other bulky arti- 
cles, forty ; so that merchants, between the freight and 
the duty, pay a full half of all commodities brought into 
that port. Those of this country are all idolaters, and 
have great abundance of every thing necessary for the 
human body. In that province is a city, named Ti-min- 
gui,t where they make the most beautiful cups in the 

* We Bffree with Mr. Maraden in thinking Zai-tnn to he *he celebra- 
ted port of Amoy, still one of the moat considerable in the empire. 

t Mr. Maraden and Count Boui consider this to be Ting-tuheon. a 
large city in the npper part of Fn-kien, though it is known that the 
manufactare, in a fine shape, is now wholly confined to King-te-tching. 
in Kiang-iM. The farmer imagines that it may have been transferred 



1 80 DB8CKIFTION OF CHINA, ETC. 

world ; they are of porcelain, and are manufactured in no 
other part uf the earth besides that city ; for a Venetian 
grosso you may ^^irchase three cups of this most elegant 
ware. The people of ^u-gui have a language of their own. 
Now, I have told you of this kingdom, which is one of the 
nine, and the great khan draw^ from it as much duty and 
revenue as from that of Kin-sai. We have not told you 
of the nine kingdoms of Manji, but only of three, Manji, 
Kin-sai, and Fu-gui, and of these you have heard fully ; 
but the others I cannot now describe, because it would 
be too tedious, and our book has not yet treated of other 
things, which I wish to write about ; for I have to tell 
you of the Indians, who are well worthy of being known. 
Their country contains many wonderful .^^ngrp found in 
none of the other parts of the world, which it will be good 
and profitable to write. And, I assure you, Marco re- 
mained so long in India, and saw so much of its produce, 
customs, and merchandise, that no man could better tell 
the truth. Therefore I will put them in writing, precisely 
as Messer Marco truly said them to me.* 

Arom the one place to the other, through the exhaaation of materiala. 
To mvaelf there appears no doubt that the place alladed to is uo other 
than King<-te-tching itself. The names greatly resemble : and though 
not in Fo-kien, it is on the immediate border. The traveller, writing 
from hearsay, could not be expected to be rigidly accurate as to audi a 
point ; nor is it even certain if the limits of the provinces were then 
exactly what they now are. 

* This second introduction of himself by Ruaticiaas exists only in thf> 
French edition. Even the Crusca condenses the whole into one sen- 
tence, beginning, *' I, Marco Polo,'* &c. Ramusio somewhat expands 
it, bnt still showing only the traveller himself in the third person. 1 
have insetted it, however, being Inclined to consider it gennine, Ka- 
musio speaks of a sea-chpot of the coasts of India, of which no mention 
occurs in any other edition. This account of India will form the thiid 
put cf the present volume. 



PART II. 

Central Asia. 

Deaeription of Armenia uid Turcomiuiiar— Geoi^Bfia ; the Iron Gate-' 
The Caspian— Kingdom of Mosul— Bagdad ; its Siege and Capture— 
Tauris— Report of Miraculous Events— Peacription uf Persia— Yezd 
and Kerman — Journey to Ormuz — Daring Robbers — Description and 
Trade of Orma2— Journey to Khorasau — Alaodin, the Old Man of the 
Mountain — His fe.igned Paradise — Assassinations— S a bdued by the 
Tartars— Journey to Balkh — To Badakshan— Mines of Ruby and La- 
pis Lazuli— Peshawer— Cashmere — Source of the Oxos in Lake Sir- 
i-kol— Plain of Pamir, called the JLoof of the World— Extreme Cold- 
Kirghizes and other rude Tribes — Cashgar— Samarcand— Yarcund— 
Khoten—Pein— Ornamental Stones— Lop— Frightful Passage of the 
Great Desert — Kingdom of Taugot; Manners and Superstitions — 
Great Caravan Station at Kamul ; strange Customs — Sou-tcheon — 
Kan>tcheou or Campion — Journey to Ezina and Karakorura— Rise of 
the Empire o( Gengis — Mann6FS« Customs, and Superstitions of the 
Tartars — Their Government — Conduct of their Wars— Route through 
Siberia to the Northern Ocean— Various Places on the Frontier of 
Chimi — The Yak, the Musk Animal, and beautiful Pheasants — Coun* 
try of Prester John— Imperial Hunting Palaces. 

L— On Armenia the Lesser. 

You must know there are two Armenias, a great and a 
lesser one, which last has a king who rules with pure 
justice, and is subject to the Tartars. This region* con- 
tains many cities and castles, and abundance of all things, 
with beasts and birds for hunting and hawking; but I 
must tell you the air is not very healthy. The gentry 
used formerly to be valiant and good at arms ; but now 
they are mean and vile, and remarkable only for being 
bard drinkers. On the sea-coast is a city named Laias,t 
which carries on a very great trade ; for thither aU the spi- 
ces, rich cloths, and other precious articles, are brought 
from India across the Euphrates, which the merchants of 

* This little kingdom, nearly coinciding with the pashalic of Adan« 
was formed in the 12th century, under the reign of Alexis Comnenus, 
by aa Armenian loid named K!aghic, whose posterity reigned two cen- 
turies.— Marsden, p. 42. 

t Aias, already mentioned, lies near Scanderoou, to which its great 
tnde has since been transferred. 



182 (JENTEAL ASIA. 

Venice, of Pisa, and of Genoa, come to purchase. By 
this town we enter the province of Turcomania. 

II. — On Turcomania. 

In Turcomania* are thre^ distinct races of men : — ^The 
Turcomans adore Mohammed, and are simple people, 
speaking a very rude language. They live amid moun- 
tains and valleys where there is good pasturage for cattle, 
by which they subsist ; and I assure you that they rear 
excellent horses and mules of great value. The two 
others are Armenians and Greeks, who dwell mingled in 
cities, and subsist by merchandise and manufactures; 
they work carpets and crimson silk, the richest and most 
beautiful in the whole world. They have many towns, 
of which the principal are Como, Casserie, and Sevasto.f 
They are subject to the Eastern Tartars. — ^Now, let us 
leave them, and speak of Armenia the Greater. 

III.— On Armenia the Greater. 

Armenia the greater^ is a large country, and, at the 
entrance of it is a city called Arzinga, in which is made 
the best buckram in the world. There are several baths 
of warm spring water, the best and most beautiful any 
where to be found. There are many cables, and cities, 
among which the noblest is Arzinga, the seat of an areh- 
bishop, and the metropolis of the whole district ; there 
are also Argiron and Darzizi.^ I assure you the province 
is very large, and during the summer all the Tartars of the 
Levant reside here with their flocks and herds, on account 
of its rich pastures ; but in winter they cannot remain 
because of the severe cold and snow, amid which the 
animals could not live. Now, in this Armenia is the ark 
of Noah on a great mountain.!] The circuit of its base 

* This name is applied to all that part of Asia Minor then snhjert to 
the Turks, consistinff chiefly of the modem pnmtfcea of Caramsnia and 
Roomyah. 

t Cogni or Iconium, the oapitnl ; Kaieartah ; Sebaste or Sivas. 

i This celebrated and ancient kingdom was then still governed by a 
separate monarch. It retains at present the name, bat is divided be- 
tween the Persians and Turks. 

} Erzeroum and Argish, both still towns of importance. 

II Ramusio has " an exceedingly great mountain, on which it te said 
the ark of Noah rested ;** more correct, but we imagine the text is the 
•"'^'^^LJ^^Vf l! -^""^t* 17,849 feet high, exceeduur Mont Blano by 
about tOOO. M. Pamt rwseatiy aaemided it, w« belitr* for tk« int tiaw. 



OBKTBAL Mil A. 188 

eanaot be traversed in lees than two days ; and the as- 
cent is rendered impracticable by the snow on its summit, 
which never dissolves, bat is increased by each successive 
fall On the lower declivities, the mejted snows cause 
an abundant vegetation, and afford rich pastures for the 
cattle which in summer resort thither from all the sur- 
rounding countries. To the south-east it borders on a 
kingdom called Mosul, inhabited by Jacobite and Nesto- 
rian Christians, of whom we wiU mention more herean.er 
On the north it extends to the Georgians, and on that 
frontier is a fountain whence rises oil in such abundance 
thata hundred ships might be at once loaded with it. It 
is not good for eating, but veiy fit ^r fuel, for anointing 
the camels in maladies of the skin, and for other purpo- 
ses ; for which reason people come from a great distance 
for it, and nothing else is burned in all this con^try.* 
Now let us quit Armenia, and tell of Georgia. 

IV. — On Georgia and its Prodactions. 

In Georgiaf is a king always called called David Melik, 
which means David the King ; he is subject to the Tar- 
tars ; and anciently all themonarchs of this province were 
born with the mark of an eagle on their left shoulder. 
They are a handsome people, good archers, and valiant 
in battle. They are Christians of the Greek church, and 
weac their hair close shaven in the manner of clergy. 
This is the province which Alexander could not pass 
through on account of the narrowness of the path ; be- 
cause on one side is the sea, and on the other very high 
mountains, over which it is impossible to ride ; and, as 
this strait continues above four leagues, a few men might 
hold out against the whole world. This was the reason 
why he could not pass ; but he built a very strong tower, 
that no one might come upon him from the other side, 
and it is csdled the Iron Gate.:( This is the place men- 

* This is the well known petroleum, or rock-oil, found copiously near 
Baku, in the province of Shirran. — Marsden, p. 51. 

t In RMUUsio and all the editions known to Mr. Marsden, the term is 
Zorzania, — the Z for G being peculiar to the old Venetian dialect. The 
Paris, Crusca, an^ Pucci use correctly the G. 

t This is the name given to it by the Turks. The report of its being 
haih by Alexander is prevalent among the natives, though perhaps apoc- 
ryphal*— Marsden, p. 56. 

P 



184 OSNTEAIi ASIA. 

tioned in the book of Alexander^ where he eoidooed the 
Tartars within their mountains ; tiiou^ the Tartars did 
not exist at that time, bat a certain peo|^ called Comani, 
and other Taces besides. There sure many cities and cas- 
tles, with silk in abundance, with which, added to gold, 
they make cloths the most beautifnl that ever man saw. 
Here are the finest eagles in the workt ; also Yictaals of 
every kind in abundance. The province is full of great 
mountains, and of narrow passe§, so that I can tell yon 
the Tartars could never obtain the entire sovereignty of 
it. There is a monastery called St. Leonard, containing 
a great wonder which I will now relate. A large lal^e of 
water issues from a neighbouring mountain, in which, 
during the whole year, there is not found a fish great or 
small, except from the day before Lent down to the even- 
ing of Easter Sunday ; and during the whole of that time 
fishes are taken in great abundance, but none at any other. 
And know that this sea of which I have spoken is seven 
hundred miles in circuit, and receives the Euphrates, one 
of the delights of paradise, and many other great rivers. 
It is all surrounded by mountain and land ; and lately the 
merchants of Genoa, who have built ships, navigate it, 
bringixig silk, which is called gelle.* Into this sea the 
great rivers Herdil,t Geihon, Kur, and Araa enter. In that 
province there is a grand city named Teflis, with suburbs 
and fortified posts around it. The inhabitants are Arme- 
nian and Georgian Christians, with some few Mohamme- 
dans and Jews. There are manufactures of silk and other 
articles. Now, having told you of the boundaries of Ar- 
menia to the north, I will describe those to the south and 
east. 

V. — Oa tke KiBgdom of MoeoL 

Mosul is a great kingdom on the eastern border ojf Ar- 
menia, and inhabited by various denominatiOBS of men, 
whom I will now describe. There is a race called Arabic, 

* Mr. Manden conjectares very probftbly that this name ia 6om Gtai- 
lan, — a ptorince where raw siUt is prodncod in great abundance. The 
author is mistaken as to the Euphrates ; but it oomes near to th« Cas- 
pian, and he is writing from hearsay. 

t This is the same name with EUl of Btilia, whidi w« hBV« repMt- 
•dly teen applied to the Volga. The Geihon appears to be tha (ham, 
which was then supposed to fall into the Caspian, instead of the Anl. 



CSNTBAC ASIA. 185 

K^o adore Mohammed ; dso another who h61d the Chris» 
ttan law, bat not as the ofaurdi oi Rome commands ; they 
err in many things. They are denominated Nestoriaa 
|nd Jacobite, and have a patriarch named Jatolior, who 
makes archbishops, bishops, abbots, and other cteify, and 
sends them to all parts of Bagdad, India, and Catliay, as 
the pope does from Rome. All the Christians who are in 
those parts are of this sect ; and all the cloths of silk and 
gold, which are called mosnlin, are made there. I tell 
yoQ, too, that the great merchants who are called mosn- 
lin, and bring the largest quantity of all costly spices, are 
of this kingdom. * Among its mountains are people called 
Knrds, who are Nestorian and Jacointe Christians, but 
some are Saracens, and rererence Mohammed. They 
are an overbearing and wicked people, ever ready to roto 
the merehants.t Now let us leave Moaol, and speak of 
the great city of Baldaek-t 

TL— On Baldach. 

At this place dwelt the cali}^, chief prelate of all the 
Saracens in the world, as the pope is at Rome. Through 
the middle of it flows a very large river, by whioh yon 
ean proceed to the sea of India, whence merchants go 
and come with their goods. From Baldach to the ocean 
by the stream is a voyage of eighteen days. The mer- 
chants going to India sail down that river to a place na- 
med Chisi,^ and then enter the Indian sea. Between 
Baldach and Chisi is a great city named Bascra ;il and 
the woods around that city yield the finest dates in the 

* Moral seenM to have been then a main entrepot for the commeroe 
of Central Asia. We cannot aeeming^lj doubt, that the muslin* hen 
procuTed were those of India, especiaUy when we find the name Muslin 
applied to merchants bringing other goods from that region. There 
were some oottou manufactures in the place itself, which night aid the 
mistake of supposing the whole produced there. 

t Tliis character continues notorious and unmitigated to the present 
day. 

I Bagdad, which, though it had lately ceased to be the capital of the 
caliphs, was still probably the greatest and most flourishing city of 
Western Asia. 

$ Ktsbm, a oMisiderable island near the opposite extremity of the Pti^ 
sian Gulf, not far from Ormuz. 

It The great commercial city which we call Bnssora, more properly 
prononnced Basra. The abundance of dates in its neighbotrrhood n 
psrtienlarly mentioned by Kiebuhr. — Marsden, f . 95. 



186 CSRTXAI. ASIA. 

wnM. Id Baiditfth are mmy rich dalhsof sflk and gold, 
on which birds and beasts are represented ; and it is the 
greatest and noblest city in att these regions. And know, 
assuredly, that the caliph was found to possess the moft 
abondant treasure in gold, silver, and precious stones that 
ever was in the possession of man ; and I will tell yon 
how it happened. In the year of our Lord, 1255,* the 
great sire of the Tartars, ^o is named Alau,t brother 
to the great sire that now reigns, assembled a very large 
army, and marched upon Biddach and took it by force, 
which was a gknioiis exploit ; for it contained more than 
100,000 horsemen besides foot soldiers ;t and when it 
was taken, he found the caliph in possession of a tower 
fall of gold, silver, and other treasure, such as never was 
seen at once in one place. When he discovered it he 
sent for the monarch and said: ** Caliph, why have you 
amassed such a treasure, and what do you mean to do 
with it t Did you not know that I was your enemy, and 
coming to attack yon with this mighty host 1 Knowing 
this, why did you not take your treasure, and give it to 
knights and soldiers to defend you and your city V* The 
caliph replied nothing, because he knew not what to say. 
Then, said Alan : " Caliph, since I see you love so much 
your treasure, I will give it you to eat." He then com- 
manded that be should be shut up in the tower with the 
treasure, and that nothing should be given to him to eat 
or drink. Then he said to him : '< Caliph, eat your trea- 
sure as heartily as you please, for you will never eat any 
thing else." He was then immured in the tower, where 
he died at the end of four days.^ And after him there 
never was any other caliph. 

vn.— On Torifc or Tauris. 

Tonsil is a great city, in the province called Yrac, con- 
taining many towns and castles ; but as this is the chief, 

* This it the date in the early editiona; in Ramnaio it ia 1350 , but 
the real one in 15t56. 

f H'lolafcn, son to Taulai, and brother to Man^on Khan. 

X This is the statement in the early editions r in Ramusio the 100,000 
men are mentioned as composinf^ the Tartar army. 

« This stonr is gim also in the history of Haitton, king of Armenia, 
"*? ;5?* 4<»*^H«« ^« g«tteral belief of Weatera Asia. 

n Tauna, or Tabrsaze, a celebrated city of Peraia, and « fsTourite 



CSNTRAL ASIA. 167 

I will tdl yoa about it. The men live by merchandise, 
and by fabrica.'ing fine dothsof silk and gold. The place, 
is so well situated that merchants proceed hither from 
India, Baldach, Mosnl, Cremosor, and many other places. 
The Latin traffickers come to meet those from strange 
countries, from whom they purchase precious pearls and 
other valuable articles. The men are of indifferent char- 
acter and very mixed origin, Armenians, Nestorians, Ja- 
cobites, Georgians, and Persians, and some who adore 
Mohammed. The inhabitants of the city are called Tau- 
risians. Around it are very fine gardens, full of fruits 
and vegetables. 

The Saracens here are most wicked and disloyal. They 
maintain that whatever is robbed or plundered from men 
of a different creed is justly acquired ; while they regard 
as martyrs those of their own sect who die by the hands 
of Christians. If, therefore, they were not checked by 
their present rulers, they would break out into many out- 
rages. These principles are common to them all. At 
the point of death, the priest comes and demands whether 
they believe that Mohammed was the prophet of God. If 
they profess this belief, they are assured of salvation ; 
and through this easy absolution, which leaves scope for 
the perpetration of every crime, they have succeeded in 
converting many of the Tartars, who feel thus at liberty 
to indulge their worst propensities. 

Near Toris is a monastery named after St. Barsamo, 
and famous for sanctity. It contains an abbot and many 
monks, who dress like the Carmelites. Unwilling to lead 
an idle life, they are constantly weaving woollen girdles, 
which they place on the altar of their saint during divine 
service ; and while going round the province to ask alms 
(as do their brethren of the Holy Ghost), they present 
these to their friends and persons of distinction, who value 
them as beneficial in the cure of rheunoatism.* 

residence of Haronn al Raschid, and afterwards of Hoolakn the Tartar. 
Cbardin describes it as containing half a million of people, and as rival- 
ling Ispahan. It is now greatly decayed. 

* The two preceding paragraphs being only in Ramnsio, I incline to 
think we may recognise in toem the same ecclesiastical hand to whicli 
there has appeared reason to stippose that his edition has been moeh 
indebtad. 



|{^S OEITTRAL A8IA« 



TQL— Or a ontaw BfineU of tb« MeraiMiit at a MmatiHa ia ttel 

R«gioii. 

Now I am to tell you of a great miraclet which happen- 
ed between Baldacb and Mosul in the year 1225. There 
was a caliph in the former who held the Christians in 
great hatred, as it is natural for all the Saracens in the 
world to do. He thtnight day and night how he might 
compel all those in his country to b^ome converts, or 
else mil them. Many others concurred in that wicked 
purpose, and they agreed upon this plan : They found in 
the gospel a text saying that if a Christian had as much 
£aith as a grain of mustard-seed and made his prayer to 
God, he would be able to join two mountains together. 
On finding this text, tiiey felt great )Ofj thinking they had 
thus either a means of converting them* or a pretext for 
killing them outright. He therefore sent for all the Jaco- 
bite and Nestorian believers in his country, who were very 
numerous ; and when they came before him, he showed 
them this gospel, made them read it, and asked if it were 
true. They replied that it was so. Then, continued the 
ealiph, since so many Christians are here, there surely 
must be among you this small measure of faith ; therefore, 
said he, pointing to a large hill in view, you must remove 
that mountain or I will put you all to death, because other- 
wise you must be wholly destitute of faith, and on that 
account deserve to die. If, however, you will turn to our 
good law of Mohammed, you shall be forgiven ; and, in the 
mean time, I allow you ten days to do what is required. 
He then dismissed them. On hearing what the caliph had 
said, they were in great fear, and knew not what to resolve. 
Then they all assembled, small and great, men and women, 
the bishop, archbishop, and priests of whom there were a 
considerable number, and they remained eight days and 
eight nights in prayer, that God, in his mercy, and for the 
diffusion of his faith, would come to their aid, and enable 
them to escape this cruel death with which they were 
threatened. But what have I now to tell you 1 WhUe 
they were thus deeply engaged in prayer, an angel, by the 

• This chapter is strongly stamped with the credulity of the age, from 
iMrhich It would be unreasonable to expect our traveller to be exempt. 
On his part it is mere hearsay, aod reported as having happened fifty 
years before he passed through Persia. It may be considered a curiou* 
•xample of the sort of legendjs then circulated m that part of tha world. 



CSNTRAL ASIA. 1S9 

message of God, appeared to a bisUbp who was a man of 
▼eiy holy life. He said, '* Oh, bishop ! do yoa now go to 
a certain shoemaker with one eye* and tell him that at his 
prayer the moantain will be moved.'' Now this shoema- 
ker was a very honest and chaste man ; he lasted and 
went regularly to mass, and gave every day bread to the 
poor. I will teU yon a thing that he did, to prove his good 
faith and life. It happened one day that a very beautiful 
woman came to his shop to purchase a pair of shoes, and 
in order to make them fit, he was obliged to look at her 
foot and ancle, and they were so finely shaped that he felt 
his eye take an undue pleasure in viewing them. As soon 
as she was gone, he began bitterly to reproach himself, 
and remembered the text, '< if thine eye offend thee, pluck 
il out, and cast it from thee." He then took a sharp wea- 
pon, and stuck it into his eye, so that it burst in his head, 
and he never saw with it again. Thus you see he was a 
most holy and good man. When, therefore, the bishop 
had this vision, he told it to all his people, and they agreed 
that this shoemaker should be called before them, and 
when he came, they requested him to pray to God that he 
would make the mountain move. But when the shoema^ 
ker heard what the bishop and the others said, he answer- 
ed that he was not so good a man as that God or our lady 
should for his sake do so great a miracle. But the Chris- 
tians pressed him so earnestly, that he at last agreed, and 
made the prayer. When the final day was come they all 
rose early in the morning, great and small, male and fe- 
male ; and entering the church, they sung the holy mass, 
and then proceeded out to the plain in front of the moun- 
tain. They were fiilly a hundred thousand, and they all 
placed themselves in front of the cross. The caliph then 
came with a vast number of Saracens, eager to slay the 
unbelievers, for they thought it impossible the hill could be 
moved, and they themselves were in great fear and doubt ; 
nevertheless they had good hope in their Creator. Then 
the shoemaker fell on his knees before the cross, lifted his 
tiands to heaven, and prayed fervently that the mountain 
might be moved, and the Christians there assembled es- 
cape a dreadful death. When he had made his prayer, it 
was not long before the vast eminence began to stir, and 
move from its place. The Saracens, on seeing this, won- 



100 CSNTRAL A8IA« 

dered greatly, and many of them were ooBTerted ; rnqr, 

the caliph himself became a believer in the gospel, but se- 
cretly, and when he died, a cross was found round his 
neck ; for which reason he was not buried in the same 
place with the other sovereigns, but in a tomb by himself. 
Now let us leave Baldach and go to Persia. 

IX.— On the Prorince of Persia, and the Journej of the Magi. 

Persia is a very extensive province, anciently very rich 
and flourishing, hut now in a great degree wasted and de- 
stroyed by the Tartars. It contains a city called Sava, 
whence the three magi came to adore Jesus Christ when 
born at Bethlehem.* In that city are buried the three, in 
separate tombs, above which is a square house carefully 
preserved. Their hearts are still entire, with their hair 
and beards, t One was named Balthazar, the other Gas- 
par, the third Melchior. Messer Marco inquired often *n 
that city about these three magi, but no one could tell him 
any thing, except that they were ancient kings, who were 
there buried. They informed him, however, that three 
days journey farther was a tower called the Castle of the 
Fire-worshippers, because the men there venerate fire, 
and for the following reason. They say that anciently 
three kings of that country went to adore a certain pro- 
phet, newly bom, and carried three offerings, gold, incense 
and myrrh, to know if he were a king, a god, or a sage ; 
for they said that, if he took gold, he was a king ; if in- 
cense, he was a god ; if myrrh, he was a sage. They 
went in one after another, and though they were of differ- 
ent ages and fashions, he appeared to each of them exact- 
ly like himself. When they came out and compared what 
they had seen, they wondered much, and then went in all 

* The same observations may apply to this as to the preceding, chap- 
ter. It is wanting in Pipino, the Basle rersion, and in Ramnsio, so that 
Mr. Marsden, finding it only in the Italian epitome, has not given it a 
place. Yet he seems to admit its genuineBess, of which there can be no 
donbt, since it is found in the two Paris, the Crusca, and Paoci versions. 
AjL, therefore, we are giving an edition, not a selection, of the traveller's 
ennsinns, there seems no ground for its non-insertion. 

t There is some appearance of the author's here speaking as an eyv- 
witness of this extraordinary scene. He only stands committed, how- 
ever, to the extent of having seen three bodies partially embalmed ; and 
there is no room to doubt that this art may have been in some degree 
practised m Pema. " 



GBNTBAL ASIA. 191 

together, and the child then appealed to them what he 
really was, a boy of thirteen days old. They presented to 
hiin the three offerings, and he took them all, whence they 
concluded that he was at once god, king, and sage. He 
presented to them a closed box, desiring them not to open 
it till their return home. After having travelled a number 
of days, howeyer, they were curious to see what was in 
the box, and opened it, when they found only a stone, 
which was meant to express that they should remain firm 
in the faith which they had received. They did not un- 
derstand this meaning, and despising the gift, threw it into 
a well, wben immediately a great fire came down from 
heaven, and began to burn brightly. When they saw this 
wonder, they were quite astonished, and repented that 
they bad thrown away the stone. They however took 
a portion of the fire, carried it to their country, and placed 
it in their church, where they kept it continually burn- 
ing. They revere it as a god, and use it for burning all 
their sacrifices ; and when at any time it goes out, they 
repair to that well, where the fire is never extinguished,* 
and from it bring a fresh supply. T^hia is what ail the 
people of that cojuntry tell, and Messer Marco was assured 
of it by those of the castle, and therefore it is truth.f 
One of these kings was of Saba, the other of Ava, the 
other of the castle. Now let me tell you of Persia, ita 
cities, and the actions and customs of the people. 

X. — On th0 Kingdoms of Penia. 

Know, then, that in Persia there are eight kingdoms, 
because it is a very great country, and I will tell you 
their names. The first is called Casum ;t the second, 
to the south, Cardistan ; the third Lor ; the fourth Ciel- 
Stan ;^ the fifth Istanit ;|| the sixth Cerazi ;ir the seventh 
Soucara;** the eighth Tonocain, which is on the re-. 

* Thia ■torv is evidently raggested by the bmning wells or csTenis 
that oecnr st Baku and other jdaoes in Persia, where naphtha and similar 
inflammable substances are in a state of constant combustion ; acircnn^ 
stance which had probably an effect in prodacing- the adoration of iire m 
this regicm. 

t HowoTer peremptory this assertion is, we may observe that it is 
foonded wholly upon the testimony of others. 

t Casbin. $ Seemingly Segistan. || Ispahan. IT Shiraz. 

** Mr. BCarsden svppoees this to be a corruption of Korkan or Gurkan, 
the ancient HyreaBia : bot Count Boni seems justly to object that this 



102 CfiNTAAi. ASIA. 

motest frontier.* In this last are many &ie horses of 
high value, which are taken in large norabers to be sold 
in India ; and the greater part of them are worth two 
hundred livres toumois each. They haye also the finest 
asses in the world, one of which is worth fult thirty marcs 
of siiTer.t The men of that country lead these horses 
to two cities on the banks of the sea of India, called Chisi 
and Curmosa, and find there merchants, who buy them 
and carry them into their distant country. In these king- 
doms there are many cruel men, who are constaniJy 
killing one another, and but for the fear of the Easteni 
Tartars, who now rule in this hmd, they would ruin the 
merchants. As it is, unless the latter are well provided 
with arms and bows, they often kill or hurt them severe- 
ly, t These men all hold the law of Mohammed. In the 
city are industrious merchants, they make robes of silk 
and gold of various fashions, and raise also plenty of cot- 
ton. I'he country abounds in wheat, barley, millet, as 
well as in vines and other fruits.^ Some may imagine 
that the Saracens do not drink wine, as being forbidden 
by their law; but they quiet their consciences by think- 
ing that if boiled over the fire, which renders it milder 
and sweet, it may be drunk without breaking the com- 
mandment. Changing its taste they change its name, 
and no longer call it wine, though it really is so.H Let us 
now leave them, and tell you of Yasdi. 

XL—On the City of Yaadi. 

Yasdi is a beautiful and noble city, with rich manufao- 

tcnitoiy lies north of the following, which yet is described the meet 
northerly of all. He suggests the district of Sinjar, traversed by the 
Hermas, which falls into the Upper -Euphrates ; in fact themedempror- 
ince of Algezira. — n Millione, vol. ii. p. 42. 

* Called elsewhere Timochain, seems to be the name of the city of 
Danmghaun, generally applied to the province of Khorasah. 

t The excellence of the Persian horses is too well known to require 
comment ; the asses axe eqaallyfiuned in the coantry, and called by 
Chardin the iirst in the world. He mentions 400 nancs as the price of 
a good one.— Marsden. p. 79. 

I The elevated tracts of Persia have always been infested fay preda- 
tonr tribes, unless when ke^t in awe by a Vigorous government. 

V. The fertility of the plains of Persia, and its fine uianufactnres, es- 
peciiUly in silk, have been always noted.—Marsden, p. 80. 

I I think in these two sentences, so abruptly introduced into Ram«- 
sio's edition only, we may discern the foreign hand which has repeat* 
•dly displayed such fervent zeal against the followers of Mohamnid. 



CS9VTRAL ASIA. 1 9S 

tures.* The people make silk cloths called by its name, 
which the merchants cany into varioas countries. They 
all adore Mohammed. When a man departs from that 
city, he rides seven days over a plain, where in tliree 
places only there are habitations and inns for the travel- 
ler. There are many forests Med with partridges and 
other birds, which afford excellent sport ; also t^autiful 
wild asses. At the end of these seven days a country 
called Creman presents itself, t 

XIL—On the Kingdom of Creman. 

Creman is a Kingdom anciently belonging to Persia, 
and which used to be governed by a hereditary prince ; 
but since the Tartar conquered it, he appoints what depu- 
ty he pleases. In that region the stones called turquoi- 
ses are in great abundance, they are found in the moun- 
tains, and excavated from the rocks. The inhabitants 
make all things necessary for troops, such as reins, sad- 
dles, bows, arrows, quivers, and all kinds of arms, ac- 
cording to the custom of the country. The ladies work 
very neatly cloths of gold and silk, representing vnth the 
needle, beasts, birds, and many other objects. In the 

* This city, commonly called Yezd, lies oat of the general route of 
trayellers ; bat all who nave visited it describe its greatness, flourishing 
commerce, and extensive silk mana&cture, which is even mentioned l^ 
Urn Haakul. It has been said to c<mtain 20,000 houses. — Marsden, p. 
61 ; Booi, ToL ii. p. 46. 

t Here we find the first commencement of an itineraxy ; for not a 
■ingle station has been indicated in passing across Persia. Yet I fear 
we shall not be able to trace the same precision which was so remark- 
able in tiie jouxney through China. The traveller was then very young, 
and had not probably the same accurate recollection. Many of the 
stages are much longer, which may have been in consequence of travel- 
ling jpost ; the means of which would be furnished to them on going to 
the imperial court. Yet they begin with a singular deviation in the 
journey to Ormuz. Count Boni supposes the one here related to b« that 
afterwards made in conveying the two princesses to Ghazan, on the 
Borthem firontier. We cannot but imagine, however, that they would 
go on to Bagdad, and would not be led along this desert and perilous 
route. Besides a journey both to and /rom Ormuz is here narrated. 
Amid their own total silence as to the motive, we need not spend much 
time in conjecture. Perhaps they might have commercial transactions 
there, or, as enterprising merchants, might wish to view this celebrated 
emporium. They might even have an idea of proceeding by sea to 
China. Such deviations, however, give some ezplanation of die ex- 
traoidiiuuy period of three years and a half employed m their journey 

«Mlt. 



104 OBNTBAL ASIA. 

immntams are reared the finest falcons in the world, for 
tlioagh smaller than the peregrine species, they iiy so 
swiftly that no bird can escape them. When a man 
leaves the city of Creman,* he travels seven days through 
towns and fortified places, finding much amusement, be- 
cause there are great numbers of wild beasts and birds. 
At the end of these seven days, he comes to the declivity 
of a mountain, and continues two days always descend- 
ing. There are abundance of fruits, but no habitation, 
only shepherds pasturing their flocks. The cold on this 
road during winter is so great that a man cannot safely 
travel unless with a very ample provision of clothes. 

XUI.— On Camaadu, Reobarle, and tlu Karanna Robben. 

At the bottom of this descent is a very extensive plain, 
at the commencement of which is a city named Caman- 
du,t once wonderfully great and noble, but now much de- 
clined, because the Tartar invaders have repeatedly 
plundered it. The heat here is extreme, and the prov- 
ince is called Reobarle.t Its fruits are dates, pistachio 
nuts, apples of |paradise, and others which do not grow 
in our country. Here are a species of birds called fran- 
colin, which are difiTerent from those of other lands, their 
colour being a mixture of white and black, while the beak 
and feet are red. The oxen are very large, White as 

* Kerman, capital of the province of that name, the ancient Carmania 
(quite different from Oaramania in Asia Minor). It is stiU a considerable 
city, though much declined since the time when, as Pottinger states, ** its 
manufactures of shawls and arms were celebrated all over Asia.*' It 
was also enriched by the transit of the Indian goods landed at Ormaz. 
Since the passage by the Cape, and the transference even of the Gulf- 
trade to Bushire, it has greatly suffered. Turquoise mines are found in 
different parts of Persia ; but Mr. Marsden has not succeeded in supplying 
proof of their existence in this neighbourhood.->-Pp. 83, 64. 

t It has been impossible to tind any account of this city, though 
D'AnviUe's map shows on this site one named Memaun. It is likely that 
there was a flourishing place on the great caravan-route above alluded 
to, the discontinuance of which, however, rendered it impossible that 
it should revive after the catastrophe here mentioned. This tract is 
now as little known as any in Asia ; yet Marco's description seems to 
intimate that it woold reward the curiosity of some one of our enter- 
prising travellers. 

t Mr. Marsden observes, that this is probably identical with Rudbar, 
a name common in Persia, and siniifying ** a river in a valley." Count 
Boni saggests Robat, passed by Pottinger on his way from K«nnan to 
Shiraz ; but this appeaxs quite out of the <lirection. 



CEKTBAL ASIA. 196 

^Aow, and the hair Tery smooth, in eonsequence of the 
neat. Between the shoulders is a hump, two palms high, 
ind their appearance is the most beautiful of any in the 
world. When the owner wishes to load them, they bend 
dow;n as the camels do, and after receiving their burden, 
/ise and bear it well, being extremely strong. There are 
aheep as large as asses, and with tails so thick and so 
broad as to weigh fuU thirty pounds. They are also fat, 
and make excellent food.* The people have castles and 
cities surrounded by walls of earth, in order to defend 
themselves against the Caraunas, a mixed race between 
the Indians and the Tartars. When these people wish 
to overrun the country and rob it, they, by their enchant* 
ment and diabolical agency, cause the day to become 
dark, so that you can see to little or no distance, and this 
darkness they mdke to last seven days.t They know the 
places so well, that they can ride daring the thickest of 
it ; and they are sometimes ten thousand in number, so 
that nothing found on the plain, man, beast, or any thing 
can escape. They kill the old persons, and carry off the 
young to sell them for slaves. Their king is called No- 
godar, and he went to the court of Ciagatat, who was the 
brother of the great khan, with 10,000 men, and remained 
with him, because his uncle was very powerful. During 
this stay, Nogodar committed a very great wickedness, 
and I will teU you what it was. He departed from his 
uncle Ciagatai, who was in Great Armenia, and took with 
him 10,0C^ of his people, who were very cruel, and march- 
ed by Badasian, and through a province called Pasciai, 
and another called Chesciemur,t losing many of his people 

* This ipecies of sheep is well known in different parts of Asia. 
Both RusseUand Chardin reckon the weight of the tail to be from fifteen 
to thirty poands. — Marsden, p. 80. 

t This is a startling statement, but we know nothing of the district ; 
its moist and even mu^y character, indicated by the laxariant pasture, 
might naturally in this hot climate cause the ascent of heavy vapours 
and fogs. The plunderers taking advantage of these occasions, might 
readily, by a superstitious people, be supposed to prodace them. 

t Peshawer and Cashmere. Mr. Marsden has not been able to trace 
any history of this prince, who indeed does not appear among De Guig- 
nes* elaborate list of the posterity of Gengis. The following notices 
may throw some light upon the sabject. In the oriental history of Hai- 
than, kinff of Armenia, it is mentioned that Gogodothai (Bergeron, Cha- 
godai in rnrchas, part iii. p. 114), second son of Okkoday, the successor 
df 0«ngi8 (and thns a nepnew of Zagatai). was supplied by his father 



196 CBNTRAIi AMA. 

and beasts, because the roads were narrow and Tvry bad; 
and when they had passed all these prorinoes, they en- 
tered into India, on the borders of one called I^iTar. 
They came to the city of the same name, and took it 
from a king named Asidtu Sultan, who was very great 
and rich. There Nogodar with his people, continoes to 
rule, and makes war with all the other Tartars who dweU 
in the surrounding country.* Having told you of this 
plain, and of the people who produced darkness in order 
to rob, I must also mention that Messer Marco himself 
was neariy taken by them amid this gloom, but though a 
number of his companions were captured, and either 
killed or sold as slaves, he himself e8ci4)ed to a castle 
named Canosaimit 

XrV.—On the City of Cormos. 

That plain extends five days* journey southward, and 



with nn «rmT, and marched soQthwsrd into In£a ; hat hsving' to 
otter mountains and throngli deaezts, he kat nway men .and hm«M,~and 
was nnaUe to make any conquest. He then oame and complained ^ 
his hard fortane to his brother Jochi,the ruler of Tnrkestan and Persia« 
who generously sfave him a share of his own possessions. I think bow- 
ereridtered the drcumstanoea, this is evidoitly the same stoiy. Let 
us now turn to Dow's translation of Ferishta^s Indian history. It is there 
stated, that in 1S42 (about the time that might be supposed) the Moguls 
invaded the western provinces, plundered Lahore, and then retreated to 
Ghizni ; that they afterwards attempted to enter l>y way of Thibet, bat 
were totally defeated ; and that they also tailed by way of Koondoes 
and Talikan. It is added, that in 1245, they made themselves masters 
of Cabul, Candahar, Ghizni, Balkh, and Heret. Putting all this to- 
gether, we may with probability infer, that the prince, aiwr his failuve 
in India, obtained reinforcements ficom his relations^ and estabhdied a 
kingdom in A^hanistaa, of which our oriental histories seem to contain 
no record. The unfavourable representations made in the text w^ere 
naturally dictated by the people who were smarting under the ravages 
of his predatory bands. 

* It is curious that this narrative occurs only in the French edition 
and in Ramusio, a circumstance creditable to both. In the latter how* 
ever, there are some gross corruptions, particularly in introducing Mala- 
bar as the chief object and seat of invasion. This, which causes Mr. 
Marsden much perplexity, is, we apprehend, a modem interpolation, 
after the exploits of Gama and Faria had made that territory an object 
of intense interest in Europe. Dilivar (Lahore or Lahawar) is also 
changed to Dely, a town on that coast. 

tThis, Mr. Marsden observes, is probably the Persian word Khanah- 
al-salam, " a ph&ce of safety .» Captain Grant, in describing an a4}acent 
district through which he travelled, observes, that every vilfiwe had near 
it a fort, to which the inhabitants could flee in case of invasion.— Journal 
of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. v. p. 837. 



CBNT&AL A01A. (^ 

yoa then eome to a descent wbicH continues twenty miles 
by a Tery bad and difficult road, full of wicked robbers. 
Tea then approach the very beautiful plain of Formosa, 
watered by fine rivers, with plantations of the date-palm, 
and having the air filled with francolins, parrots, and 
other birds unknown to our climate.* You ride two days 
through it, and then arrive at the ocean, on which there 
is a city and fort named Cormosf The ships of India 
bring thither all kinds o( spiceries, precious stones, and 
pearls, cloths of silk and gold, elephants' teeth, and many 
other articles. It is the capital of a kingdom, having 
many cities and castles under it, and the sovereign is 
called Rnemedan Achomac. The climate, however* is 
intensely hot, and extremely unhealthy, and when any 
foreign merchant dies, the king inherits all his property. 
Wine is here made of dates and other spices, and is ex- 
tremely good ; but when drunk by men unaccustomed to 
it, has a strong purgative quality, though, after some use 
it agrees weU, and promotes corpulence. The people 
live chiefly on dates and salte^ fish, particularly the 
tunny ; considering these victuals to be the most whole- 
some, and that if they used wheaten bread and flesh the; 
would fall sick. The ships are very bad, and many are 
lost from not being seOured by nails like ours, but sewed 
together by a thread made of the bark of the Indian nut* 
^rees, which being softened in water becomes like horse- 
hair, and is durable enough. They use ii for want of 
iron, but it is by no means strong or secure. They have 
a mast, sail, and rudder, all single, and a coverlet of 
leather, which is spread over the goods, and on that they 
jdaoe the horses, many of which are transported into 
India. These ships, too, are not tarred, but covered with 
the oil offish. The people are black, and adore Moham- 
med. They do not remain in the city during summer, 

* This appear* evidently to be the plain of Mixiab, which Captain 
Grant describes as forty-five miles in circamference, abounding in palms, 
and fertile in grain. — Journal as above. 

t Ormuz, in some editions Honnos, the orientals prefixing a soft aspi- 
rate, here expressed by C. Its fame during the middle ages, as an em- 
porium oi Indian vrealth, need not be dwelt upon. In 15v7, it was cap- 
tured by Albuqaeique,^and in KKI2, the English and Shah Abbas united 
in reducing it, when the principal edifices were razed to the ground, and 
it nas now no longer any existence as a dty. 



tor then they would all die, but retire to the country, 
where they have verdant gardens, finely watered by 
streams. Even there they would not escape, because 
there often blows from the sandy tracts that surround 
the city a wind so excessively hot that it would kill them 
all, if they would not plunge into the water and thus es- 
cape it.* They sow wheat, barley, and other kinds of 
grain in the month of November, and reap them in March, 
when they become ripe and perfect ; but none except the 
date will endure till May, being dried up by the eztrem«^ 
beat. I have also to tell you, when men or women die, 
great grief is shown, and the ladies, during full four.years 
after the death of their husbands, make lamentations at 
least once a-day. On these occasions, they assemble 
their relations and neighbours, who join them m loud 
meanings and cries. In proof of the extreme riolence of 
the heat, Marco Polo mentions the following circumstance 
which occurred during his residence. The ruler of Cor- 
mos neglected to pay bis tribute to the King of Creman, 
who took the resolution of enforcing it at the season when 
the principal inhabitants go into the country. He there> 
fore despatched 1600 horse and 6000 foot through the dis- 
trict of Reobarle, to take them by surprise. Being mis- 
led, however, by the guides, they did not reach the place 
till night, when they halted to rest in a grove near the 
town. On renewing their march next morning, they 
were attacked by the hot wind, and all suffocated ; not 
one surviving to carry back the fatal intelligence. When 
the people of Oormos learned this event, and went to bury 
the dead bodies lest they should infect the air, they found 
them so softened by the intense heat,'that the limbs, when 
bandied, separated from the trunks ; and it was necessary 
to dig graves close to where the corpses lay.t 

* This is the sirocco or simoom, the distressing and even fatal effects 
of which need not be described. Strange as this remedy may seem, Mr. 
Marsden qnotes two good trarellers, Pietro della Vale and Schillinger, 
for the fact of recoarse being had to it in this very place, represented 
as the hottent on the face of the earth. Connt Boni, vol. ii. p. 54, quotes 
also Tavemier and Chardin for the unhealthiness, and extreme intensity 
of the heat. 

t Mr. Marsden, p. 100, quotes from Chardin an rastance of this con- 
dition of the bodily firsme being actually produced by the action of the 
gunoao 



OfiNTfiAL ASIA, 1§^ 

XV.— Return to Cieman. 

We will HOW leave this citj, and not go on to India) 
for I will deacribe it farther on in my book, in the proper 
time and place. We will return, therefore, by another 
road to Creman, because the countries now to be delioe- 
ate<l can be reached only by way of that city, and I must 
tell you that Ruemedan Achomac, of whom we have just 
spoken, is subject to its king. The route in returning 
thither from Cormos is through a very fine plain. There 
are many springs whence the water issues in a hot state, 
forming baths very salutary in cutaneous and other dis- 
eases. Here is abundance of fruits and dates, also of 
partridges and other birds ; but the wheaten bread, owing 
to the quality of the water, is so bitter that no one unac- 
castomed to its use can eat it. I now wish to tell you of 
a country lying to the north. When a man has left Cre> 
man, he travels seven days in that direction, through a 
very dreary region. During three days he finds no river, 
and the little water met with is salt, green like grass, and 
so bitter that it is impossible to drink it, and if a man 
taste's even a drop, it prodaces violent purging. Travd- 
lers, therefore, carry water with them ; but the beasts 
being obliged to drink such as they find, snflTer severely. 
The whole tract is an arid desert, destitute of animals, 
which could not find food. On the fourth day, you reach 
a river of fresh water, but with its channel mostly under 
ground. In some spots, however, the force of the cur- 
rent makes abrupt openings, when the stream appears 
for a short space, and drink is abundantly supplied. Then 
follows another tract that lasts four days, and is also a 
dry desert with bitter water, and no animals exoept wild 
asses. At the end of the four days, we leave the king- 
dom of Creman and proceed towards Gobinam. 

XVL— On the City of GobiiiaBi. 

Cobinam is a great city inhabited by Mohammedans. 
There is abundance of iron, brass, and andanico, of the 
second of which they construct large and beautiful mir- 
rors ; they make here also the tutty, which is extremely 
good for the eyes, and likewise sponge, in the following 
manner. They take a vein of earth fitted for this pur- 
pose, and throw it into a burning furnace, above which is 

Q 



200 CENT&AL ASIA. 

a grating of iron ; then the smoke and moisture ascend- 
ing adhere to the iron and form tatty, while the earth 
which remains in the furnace becomes sponge.* 

XVII. — On the Province of Tonocain. 

When a man departs from Cobinam, he goes through 
a desert of eight days, and the country is veiy arid ; there 
is neither fruit nor trees, and the water is bitter and bad, 
so that he must carry both it and food for himself, but the 
beasts drink that on the road, though very unwillingly. 
He then comes to a province called Tonocain,! with cities 
and many castles, bordering upon Persia, towards the 
north ; and there is a very great plain on which grows 
what the Christians call the dry tree, which I will de- 
scribe to you. It is very large, and its leaves are green 
on one side and white on the other. It yields a nut like 
the chestnut; but there is nothing within it. It is a 
strong wood, and yellow like box ; and there is no other 
tree in those parts for a hundred miles round, except on 
one side, at ten miles' distance.t It is said by the people 
of the country to be the place where Alexander fought 
with Darius. There are many towns and castles, and 
the inhabitants have abundance of all good things, the 
climate being neither too cold nor too hot. Now I must 
tell you of a country called Mulecte, where the Old Man 
of the Mountain used to dwell. 

XVIII.— On the Castle of the Old Man of the Mountain, and how he 
trained and employed his Assassins. 

You shall learn all about the Old Man of the Mountain, 
as I Marco heard related by many persons. He waa 
called in their language Alaodin, and had caused to be 

* Cobinam is Khubees, a place once considemble, bat now much decay- 
ed. Mr. Marsden considers andanico to be antimony, and represents it as 
the substance thrown into the furnace ; but the early editions make it au 
earth. In the French one, the mirrors are of brass ; in Ramusio^s, of steel. 

t Timochain, Ramusio. There seems no doubt that this is the same 
word with Daumghaun ; but we see ud Necessity for supposing with 
Mr. Marsden, that they went back to that city, which would be a very 
retrofcrade course. The name is here evidently applied to a large prov- 
ince, including probably the best cultivated part of Khorasau. Their 
direction from Kerman through Khubees would lead to one of its eastern 
distncts. which would also agree better with the subsequent itinerary. 
11 * ™*"<*®"' P- 110> proves this to be the plane-tree, which apiiears 
really to abound in this pnrt of Persia, bat. was then unknown in Enrope. 



CENTRAL ASIA. 201 

fonned, in a vaUey between two mountains, the largest 
and most beautiful garden that ever wa? seen. There 
grew all the finest fruits in the world, and it was adorned 
by the most beautiful houses and palaces, the interior 
being richly gildedrand furnished with finely coloured 
pictures of birds and beasts, and the most striking objects. 
It contained several conduits through which flowed res- 
pectively water, wine, honey, and milk. Here were 
ladies and damsels unequalled in beauty and in the skill 
with which they sung and played on instruments of every 
description. Now the. Old Man made his people believe 
that this garden was paradise, and he formed it thus be- 
cause Mohammed had given the Saracens to believe that 
those who went into that place would meet great numbers 
of beautithl women, and find rivers of water, wine, milk 
and honey : hence the visiters were led to think that this 
really was paradise. Into this garden he admitted no 
man except those whom he wished to make assassins. 
The entry to the spot was commanded by a castle so 
strong that he did not fear any power in the world. He 
kept in his court all the youths of the country between 
twelve and twenty years of age, and when he thought 
proper selected a number who had been well instructed 
in the description of paradise. He gave them a beverage 
which threw them into a deep sleep, then carried them 
into the garden and made them be awakened. When any 
one of them opened his eyes, saw this delightful spot, and 
heard the delicious music and songs, he really believed 
himself in the state of blessedness. When again, how- 
ever, he fell asleep, he was brought out into the castle, 
where he awoke in great wonder, and felt deep regret at 
having left that delightful abode. He then went humbly 
to the Old Man, worshipping him as a prophet. Being 
asked whence he came, he told that he had been in the 
paradise described by Mohammed, relating all he had 
seen, and saying that he desired much to die and return 
thither. The chief then named to him a great lord whom 
he wished him to kill. The youth cheerfully obeyed, and 
if in the act he was taken and put to death, he suffered 
with exultation, believing that he was to go into the 
happy place. If, after performing the deed, he escaped, 
the Old Man received him with the greatest honour, and 



202 CENTEAI. ASIA. 

when he wished to ilestroy another chiefs employed him 
afresh, saying tbat he was sent into paradise. Thoa 
scarcely any person could escape being slain, when the 
Old Man of the Mountain desired it ; and many barons 
became Taasals to him through the dread of thus losing 
their lives.* 

XOL—Hofw Alan took and lulled the Old Man of tbe Moantain. 

Haying now told you of the Old Man of the Mountain 
and his assassins, you shall hear how he was killed. I 
had foigot to mention, that he bad other old men placed 
under lum, one of whom he sent into the country of Da- 
mascus, and the other into Kurdistan. But now let us 
ccHne to his destruction. It was in 1262 that Alau, the 
Lord of the East, haying beard of his wicked deeds, de- 
termined to destroy him. He sent his generals with a 
great body of men, who besieged the castle full three 
years, and then could only reduce it by famine. AJaodin • 
being taken, was killed, with all his people, and since 
that time there has been no assassin; and thus ended 
his dominion and bis wickedness. t 

XX.— Of a certain Citj named Sapuyaa. 

When a man departs from that castle, he rides through 
beautiful hills covered with rich herbage, with fruits and 
an things in great abundance. The country extends to a 

* The dynasty of the lamailies or Assasaina ia fiuoona in the hiatovy 
of Asia. Among the great men who fell its victims are mentioned Bfoa> 
tarached, caliph of Bagdad ; a son of the Caliph Moetali ; Nizam, til 
Mnlk, a famous Turkiah vizier ; a rets of Iqiahan and one of Taoria ; 
a mufti of Casbin. Count Boni considers the castle t» have been sooae- 
where between Casbin and Amol. Mr. Marsden while he admits the 
particnlars here giren to coincide with the general belief of Asia, con- 
siders them extravagant and incredible. We really see nothing verr 
improbable in auch a scheme being adopted by a daring and crafty chief, 
having to do with a simple and crednWs race. That writer and Do 
Guignes suppose that Alaodin merely introduced these youths into his 
palace, and by indulging them in every luxury made them, zealoua in 
hi« service. We cannot but observe, that such treatment would rather 
tend to enervate and attach them to life, than impel them thus wikUy 
to renounce it. The term assassin does not occur in Ramusio, but is 
found in the earlier editions. 

t Alan, as formerly noticed, is Hoolakn, brother to Mangoo the su- 
preme khan, who sent orders to him to proceed against this atrocious p<^ 
tentate. The latter was for some time protectea by Baatn, » n^ him sue- 
oesRor Barka ; bnt in 1255 (for the date of the text, as in other inatna?ea, 
is incorrect), Hoolaku invested the castle, and, after a siege of tweaty<- 



CSNTBAL ASIA. 203 

journey of six dasFs, and contains eities the inhabitants of 
whidh adore Mohammed. Yet sometimes you find a des- 
ert of fifty or sixty miles, without water, which men must 
cany with theoL When the traveller has rode six days 
tbrcKigh the country now described, he finds a city called 
Sapurgan.* It has great abundancie of all things, among 
which are the finest melons in the world in great ijdetity, 
and they are preseryed in this manner : The people cut 
them all round like cucumbers, and dry them in the sun, 
when they become sweeter than honey, and are sold 
tinrongfa aU the country. Here is fine hunting of beasts 
and birds. Now I will go on to another city named Balkh. 

XXI.— Of the City of BaMtb. 

Balk is a great and noble town, and was anciently still 
more so ; but the TarU^rs have spoiled and wasted it, so 
that many beautiful houses and palaces of marble are now 
destroyed. t It was here, as I was told by the people, that 
Alexander took to wife the daughter of Darius. The peo- 
ple revere Mohammed ; and at this point ends the domin- 
ion of the Eastern Tartars, this city being the boundary of 
Persia, between north-east and east. Now let us tell of 
another country named Bogana. On leaving Balkh, you 
ride two days between north-east and east and find no 
habitation, because the people have all fled to the for- 
tresses in the mountains for the fear of wicked men, who 
lay wasle the land. There is no want of water or game, 
and lions are also seen. No food is to be procured, but 
travellers must carry it both for themselves and their 
horses. 

seven months, reduced it by famine. Rokneddin, who hud snoceeded to 
Alaodin, was carried with his family to Karakorum, where thay were 
all put to death. It may be observed, tiiat the term " old man,*' is an 
improper translation of sheik, chief, or ruler. — Marsden, pp. 119, 120. 

* likis is evidently Shibbergaau, a town near Balkh. The period of 
twelve days seems too small ; though, as already observed, the journey 
was probably from the eastern instead of the western part of Khorasan. 
It may be suspected, too, that the interval of desert has been omitted. 

t Balkh, one of the most ancient and celebrated cities of iisia, but 
which has suffered severely in modem times by its exposure to Tartar 
invasion. After beiw restored to some degree of prosperity by a late 
ruler, Killich Ali, it has been nearly ruined by the inoience of Murad 
Beg, the chief of Xoondooz. Moorcroft reckoned it to contain only a 
ihoasand families, and, what is singular, could discover no monuments 
of ancient gnndeur.— Vol. ii. p. 494. 



204 CBNTRAI« ASIA. 

XXII.— Of tke Cutis of f^ikaa. 

When a man has rode these two days, he finds a cas- 
tle called Taikan,* where there is a great com-maricet, 
and the country round is fine. The mountains towards 
the south are very high, and formed entirely of 8alt,t 
which is the best in the world, and people come for it 
fronPa distance of thirty days' journey round. It is so 
hard, that it can be broken only by great iron hammers ; 
and there is enough to supply the whole human race till 
the end of time. Departing from that city, you go three 
days north-east, through a fine country, weU planted 
with grain and fruits. The people who are followers of 
Mohammed, are wicked and murderous. They spend 
much time in the tavern, for they have abundance of 
good wine, well prepared. They wear nothing on their 
heads but a cord ten palms long wrapt round it. They 
are good hunters, and thus supply themselves with veni- 
son ; but have no clothing except the skins of animals. 

XXin.~Of the City of Sc«Mem. 

When a man travels three days, he finds a city named 
8ca8sem,1: which is on the plain, while the others are on 

* Se« in a note on the following chapter a disousaion as to the (dace 
here named. ^ 

t There appears no doubt that the immense salt formation which 
begins at Kalabagh, on the western bank of the Upper Indus, extends 
northward to this quarter. South of Koondooz, Mr. Wood found the 
valley of Shor-Ab, or the Salt Water, which draining the moontaina 
of Eshk Meshk, becomes thus impregnated with the mineral contained 
in them.— Pp. 131, 409. 

t There seems here a serious dimcolty, inwhich Marsden and Boni 
could not give us any assistance, as they were destitute of the precise 
local information recently furnished by Mooreroft and Wood. If -we as- 
sume Taikan to be Khoolloom, and Scassem to be Koondooz, and then 
reckon the three days from the last to Badakshan, the itinerary will 
exactly correspond with the geography of the countrjr. But the names 
have no resemblance, while they are found almost identical in two other 
points of the territory ; Tai-kan in Talikan, and Scassem in Ish-kashm. 
Yet this space would occupy about twenty journeys^ while the first 

ftlace would be on the border of Badakshan, the latter on its eastern, 
Dstead of three days short of its western frontier. The perplexity is 
increased by variation of texts ; for the French, the Crusca, and the 
Pucci, have twelve days from Balkh to Tai-kan, which would carry the 
traveller to Talikan ; but the three days thence to Ish-kashm woald be 
verv inadequate, while the relation with Badakshan would be quite 
broken up. Pipino, the Basle, the Paris Latin, and the Riccardino. all 
agree with Ramusio in the two davs. The French fails often in nnm 



CENTRAL ASIA. 205 

the moantains, and through it flows a eotisiderable river. 
There are here many porcupines, and when the hunters 
set their dogs upon them, the hogs collect together and 
push their spines against their assailants, and often hurt 
them severely.* This Scassetn is a large province, and 
the sliepherds dwell in caverns on the mountains, which 
are easily formed, being wholly of earth, and make large 
handsome habitations, f When a man leaves this city, 
he travels three days without finding a house, or any 
thing to eat or drink, being obTiged to carry provisions 
with faim» and he then enters the district of Badascian. 

XXIV. — Of the Prorince of Badaacian. 

Badascian ys a large province, whose people adore Mo- 
bammed, and have a language of their own. It is gov- 
erned by kings descended from Alexander and the daugh- 
ter of Darius lord of Persia, and all these kings are called 
in Saracen Zulcarnem, which means in their language AI- 
exander.1: In this country occur thie precious stones called 

bexB ; and the old vrords doze, twelve, and dou, two, might in bad MS., 
be easily mistaken. The description of Scassem, as situated in a large 
plain, with a river running through it, corresponds ezactlj to Eoon- 
dooz. Ish-kashm, indeed, has also these features, but not so remarkably ; 
and the ruby mines in its vicinity would surely have been mentioned. 
On the whole, I cannot doubt that EhooUoom and Koondooz are the two 
stations : though how these names have been applied to them, must 
he submitted to the decision of oriental scholars. Places in Asia, at the 
distance of five centuries, are subject to grreat variation of nomenclature. 

* Mr. Wood (p. 249) mentions the great facility afforded by the hog- 
tracks in travelling over the snow, those animals being so numerous, 
tliat they had trodden it down like a flock of sheep. He does not ex- 
pressly say that they were hedgehogs. 

t Mr. Wood does not fully confirm this, but describes them as always 
built on the slope of a hill and sank two feet under ground. They are 
spfwsious, containing under one roof compartments for different related 
families. To farm such houses on this site, much excavation must have 
been employed. — ^pp. 269-271. 

t This descent is still confidently claimed by several mountain-chiefs, 
in this and the adjacent territories. It is even admitted by the pepple. 
among whom it procures great respect. Reports have also been received 
that these tribes remained Pagan amid surrounding Moslems, and had a 
peculiarity of language and manners, which might, it was supposed, 
uicrk a Greek origin. Of this, Mr. Wood (p. 241-271), on attentive ex- 
amination, could discover no trace. They appeared to him merely the 
Tajiks, or natives, who had been driven by Moslem conquest into these 
mountain recesses. The claim appeared to him to rest merely on the 
vague reverence there entertained for the name of Sekander Zool Kur- 
nein. It probably, however, arose under the Greek kingdom established 
in Bactria (Balkh) soon after Alexander's death, which continued scve- 



206 CENTRAL ASIA. 

hmlasiu, which are very beautifal and valuable. They 
are foand in the rocks of a moantain called LighiDan, 
and are cat oai of very deep caverns, as is done by those 
who work silver mines. Know, too, that the king makes 
them be worked out for himself, and no other man may 
cat oat balasia on that mountain, on pain of death. His 
majesty sends them as presents to other princes and great 
lords, either as homage, or in token of friendship, and he 
likewise sells them for gold and silver. The prohibition 
is enforced that they may continue valuable ; for if all 
persons were allowed to dig for them, they would be quite 
depreciated.* You must likewise know, that in other 
mountains of the same country are found the stones of 
which ultramarine is made, and it is the finest and best in 
the world, t There are also lofty hills containing veins 
yielding silver in abundance. The country is extremely 
cold, but it breeds very good horses,^: which run with great 

Tal ages powerful and floorishing-. The anvereigra would probably- pass 
in the country for descendants of the Macedonian conqueror ; nor is it 
unlikely that branches of their families might intermarry with great 
monntain-cfaiefs. Genealogical records in such situations are long* and 
carefully preserved. 

* The Balass rubies hare always been celebrated in the East. (Mar»> 
den, p. 133.) Mr. Wood was disappointed in his attempt to reach them ; 
but Ire learned that they were on the northern bank m the Ozus, oppo- 
site to bh-kashm, and at the western extremity of Badakshan. They 
were said to be 1900 feet above the river, either in red sandstone or lime> 
stone, largely imprecated with magnesia, forming a material easily 
worked. The gulenes were described as numerous. They have al- 
ways, it should seem, continued to be a royal monopoly ; but Murad 
Heg, the tyrannical chief of Koondooz, on conquering the country, be> 
ing irritated at the small profit which the gems afforded, seized all those 
employed and sold them as slaves, so that the mines are not at present 
worked. — P. 3H6. 

t The lapis lazuli mines are also well known, and were found by Mir. 
Wood to the north of Badakshan, on the Kokch^ its principal river. 
They arc about 1500 feet above the water, in an unstratified limestone, 
veined black and white. The rock is fh^t softened by fire, and then 
beaten with hammers, tin the stone is extracted. For the last four 

Siars, this working also has been suspended by the caprice of Murad 
eg.— P. 863-266. 

t Mr. Wood describes the horses of this country as not possessing the 
body and power of thowe of Turkestan, but as a small and haidy breed, 
well suited to the territonr. Endurance, he says, is more valued than 
speed ; yet the latter is called into requisition, since the gallop is the usual 

Bice, and distances are measured by the time they can be thus traversed, 
e says, they are shod on the fore though not on the hind feet, thua 
only half confirming the statement of our triveller ; but there may harm 
been a change since his time.— P. M2. 



CENTRAL ASIA. 207 

speed over these wild tracts without being shod with iron. 
There are found also the falcons called saeri, which fly 
well and swiftly ; also those called lanier ; and there is 
abundant hunting of beasts and birds. Wheat and good 
barley are plentiful ; they have no oil of olives, but make 
it from sesamum and nuts. This kingdom has many a 
narrow pass and strong post to secure it against the en- 
trance of enemies, and the cities and castles are strongly 
built on high mountains.* The people are good archers 
and hunters, and mostly clad in the skins of beasts, on 
account of the scarcity of cloth. The great ladies, how- 
ever, wear from sixty to a hundred yards of bombasine 
wrapped round their body, in order that they may appear 
very fat, because the men delight in such a shape. t 

On the summits of the mountains the air is so pure and 
salubrious that the inhabitants of the towns and lower 
valleys, when attacked by fever or other inflammatory 
complaints, immediately remove thither, and in three or 
four days recover their health. Marco P6lo aflSrms that 
he himself experienced its excellent eflfects ; for afler be- 
ing confined nearly a year by sickness; he was advised to 
try ctiange of air by ascending the hills, and he then im- 
mediately regained his strength.t 

XXV. — Of the Prorince of Fascia. 

You are to know that ten days south from Badascian is 
a province called Pascia.^ The people have a peculiar 
language ; they are worshippers of idols, and much skilled 
in enchantments and diabolical arts. The men wear ear- 

* The mountainous character of the country and its lofty passes are 
strikingly depicted by Mr. Wood. pp. 249, 250. 

t '* Like the mantilla of Spain," says Mr. Wood, p. 924, " the gown 
of the Uzbeck lady envelops the head as with a hood, and from about 
the ears are suspended the sleeves, long narrow slips of clo^ that sweep 
the ground, and which dangle to and fro as the portly beauty rolls along." 

X This paragraph, found only in Ramusio, is submitted to the reader. 
Besides its absence in all the early editions, it seems qiysterious when 
and how the traveller spent so long a period in this remote region, and 
why such a circumstance is omitted iu even the slight introductory na]> 
rative of his travels. We find no recent mention of any unhealthy tracts 
in Badi^han. Bumes (vol. ii. pp. 227, 228) describes its climate gen- 
erally as genial and delightful ; but that of Koondooz as pestilential. 

^ The name in most editions is fiascia. That in the text is one of 
three in the French version, here adopted as confirming wliat we have 
BD doubt is the just opinion of Mr, Marsdeu, that the place indicated is 
Peshawer. There is no otl^e? in ^hat quarter posseasinip the iipDortanre 



208 CBNTKAL ASIA. 

ring** and buckles of gold and silver, with pearls and pre 
cious stones. They are a very artfal and malicious peo- 
ple. The province is extremely hot, and the people liye 
upon flesh and rice. Now let us leave it, and tell of an- 
other, which is distant from this seven days towards the 
south-east. 

XXVL— Of the Pnmnoe of Keaimar. 
Kesirour is inhabited by idolaters, who have a language 
of their own. They have a wonderful knowledge of the 
enchantments of devils, making their images speak, and 
by sorcery changing the seasons, causing great darkness, 
and doing other wonders which could not be believed unless 
they were seen. The idols of this province are the beads 
over all the others, and went down hence to the neighbour- 
ing countries. The people are meagre and of a brown com- 
plexion ; but the females are very beautiful. They live 
on flesh and rice, and have a number of cities and cas- 
tles. They have woods and deserts, and passes so strong 
that they have little dread of an invader : their kine rules 
with great justice. In this country are hermits, who ob- 
serve great abstinence in eating and drinking, and care- 
fully abstain from all offences against their faith ; and this 
is done through veneration of their gods. They have ab- 
beys and monasteries, are held in much reverence by the 
people of the country, and live to a great age.* The cc- 

hera Moribed to it ; and the peculiar heat is folly confirmed by Fonter 
and Elphinstone. (Mandeu, pp. 135, ISO.) Count Boni objects that it 
ought to be OB the road to Cashmere ; but this is not said in the text. 

* The description here given of this celebrated region does not ezactly 
oorreepond to onr ideas. We do not believe that Marco personally visited 
it ; yet the lofty monntain-pesses and the temperate climate an correctly 
described ; but he would, we think, hsTC noticed, had he been there, the 
beauty and fertility of its valley4 Muorcrofl states that the inhabitants, 
of the cities at least, are slightly made, and that their complexion varies 
from dark to olive. The beaolhr of the females, so celebrated in the East, 
is mentioned in the French, Crusca, and Puoci, and, though expunged 
from the others, is again noticed in Ramusio. But the sacred character 
ascribed to the region, and its being a chief seat of the Boodhist religion 
here evidently described, is not confirmed by recent authorities. Both 
Forster and Moorcroft intimate that no oriental nation is so indifiTerent 
UDon such subjects. (Marsden, p. 140 ; Moorcroft, vol. ii. pp. 128, 199.) 
Marsden, however, has quoted testimonies from the Ayiu Akbari and 
AbuMfazl, to its having, even in the sixteenth century, borne this reli- 
gious reputation. In 1585, however, it was subjected to the Mogul em- 

J«re, and became the favourite summer residence of the princes of that 
ynaaty. The presence of a Mohammedan court, the mrwt splen<)id and 



CENTRAL ASIA. 209 

nl lironght fnm oar land is sold more readily there than 
in any other nation. From this place you may go to 
the sea of India, and if we went farther we shonld enter 
into that country ; hot being to return that way, we will 
then describe it in due order, and now go bacdL to Badas- 
cian. 

JLAVU.^Of the CoantriM of Volihui, Pami«r, and B«l0r. 

When a man departs from Badascian, he goes twelve 
days between north-east and east, along a river which 
belongs to a brother of the lord of that land. There are 
many castles, and a good number of inhabitaots, who are 
valiant and adore Mohammed. He then comes to a prov- 
ince nnoaed Vokhan, not very large, being only three days' 
journey in every direction. The people are of the same 
description, and subject to the ruler of Badasciam.* Wild 
beasts and birds of every kind for hunting are most abun- 
dant, having left this place, and trav^ed three days, 
always over mouniains, he ascends to a district which is 
said to be the highest in the world.f Here he finds a plain 
between two vast hills, through which flows a very fine 
river, issuing from a large lake ;t and it is the best pas- 
turage in the world, for a lean animal becomes fat here in 

bDcaiioiM in the East, was 'very moonsiitent with the maintenaaee of an 
•acetic tapentitioa. Under its influence was seemingly formed that in- 
fidel and boentioas chanu:!ter which now distingniahes the people. There 
an remains of splendid tosaples, but in ruin. (Moorcroft. vol. ii. p. S55.) 
The absence, too, of tJX mention of the shawl manufacture is xemarka- 
bte ; but this splendid &bric may hare grown under the patronage af- 
forded by the imperial residence, as it has dediaed since that was nith- 
drawn. 

* This is Wakhan, extending exactly, as here described, along the 
banks <^ the Upper Oxns. The inhabitants are Mohammedans, and re- 
semble their neighbours, though living in a somewhat ruder style. They 
are at present governed hjr a separate chief.-~Wood, p. 360, &c. 

t Strong as this expression is, it is nearly correct ; for, ss a table-land, 
only that of Bolivia, which was unknown to our traveller, could rival 
that here described. Mr. Wood estimates its several heights at 15,600 
feet, being almost on a level with the summit of Mont Blanc ; and the 
difficulty of respiration incident to such high situations was decidedly 
felt. The natives call this place Boni-i-damiah, or the roof of the world. 
P. S53-362. 

% This is the Oxus issuing from the lake Sir^i-kol, fed from the per- 
petual snows of the surrounding mountains. Mr. Wood (p. 355) was 
peculiarly struck with the accuracy of the description given by our trar- 
^ar of thia spot. The mention of the lake oaaurs only in Bamnsio, tad 
is creditable to that edition. 



2lt> TKNTKAI^ ASIA. 

ten days.* All kinds of wild animals abound ; in partic- 
nlar, a species of sheep with horns of three, four, and 
even six palms long, liiese are fonned by the shepherds 
inio large spoons, out of which they eat ; and are even 
emi^y^ in enclosing the places where they keep their 
cattle. The boms are heaped up in large quantities along 
the road, for the purpose of guiding travellers during win< 
ter, when it is covered with snow.f While a man passes 
for twelve days along this high |dain, which is called Pa- 
mier,t he sees neither habitation nor verdure, but must 
cany all his provisions along with hioL No birds can live 
in this cold region ; and I can even state that the fire does 
not bum so clear nor with the same colour as in otho 
places, nor does it cook victuals so well.^ Leaving this 
place, he has to go on forty days between north and north- 
east, and passes many rivers and deserts ; and in all this 
journey finds neither verdure nor habitation, but must 
carry all his provisions along with him. This country is 
called Belor.it The people live in very lofty mountains, 
They are idolaters, extremely savage, violent, and cruel, 

* Mr. Wood (p. 365) was infonned by the Kirghiz of the grass here 
being so rich, that a sorry horse is brought into good condition in less 
than twenty days^ '* Their flocks and herds," sajrs he, " roam ofveT an 
nnlimited extent of swelling grassy hills of the sweetest and richest 
pasture." This Inxariant regetatian, cansed probably by exttbennt 
moistore, is remarked also in the valleys of the Himrtaleh, where the 
inhabitants assert, that whatever is cropped dnring the day is repro- 
duced in the night.— Account of India (Edxnbnrgh Cabinet Library), vol. 
i. p. 33. 

T Mr. Wood (pp. 350, 351) folly recognises the astonishing size of these 
horns, which, projecting above the snow, <rften indicated the direction of 
the road ; and were disposed in a semicircle ronnd the summer encamp- 
ments of the Kirghiz. They belcmg, he says, to an animal between the 
goat and the sheep. 

t M. Humboldt seems to charge onr traveller with applying this name 
to a plain, when it belongs merely to a station, situated, accordiiur to 
him, in 39*^ SO' N^ lat. Mr. Wood, however, who was on the spot, mlly 
confirms Marco's statement (p. 331), descrihing Pamir as a very lofty 
table-land, stretching north from 37^ S', consequently Humboldt's sta- 
tion was only its northern limit. — Fra^mens de Geologic et de Climato- 
logie Asiatiques (S torn. 9vo, Paris, 1831), p. 56. 

k Humboldt (Fragmens, Ac, pp. 56, 57) remarks that our traveller was 
the first who i>ointed out this circumstance, which he himself often fouitd 
verified in his mountain excursions. It arises, we imagine, not as Mr. 
Msrsden supposes from the severe cx>ld, but from the thinness of the air. 

II Beloor or Beloot Taugh is the name given to that lofty range which 
shuts in on the west Thibet and Chinese Turkestan. All accounts mgnt^ 
a9 to its elevated and desolate character. Maredeu, pp. 144, 145. 



CENTRAL Asia; 21 Ir 

subsist by hunting, and dress themselves in the skins of - 
beasts.* 

XXVIII.—Of the Provmc8 of 1 

Cascar was anciently a kingdom^ bik is now under the 
dominion of the great khan. The people adore Moham- 
med, and have cities and castles ; they^re situated be- 
tween the north and east. They subsist T>y merchandise 
and manufactures, having also fine gardens, vineyards, 
and orchards, with a good supply of silk. The merchants, 
in carrying on their trade, go round the whole world ; but 
they are sordid and covetous, eating and drinldng very 
poorly. Some Nestorian Christians reside here, observ- 
ing their oWn customs and laws. The people have a lan- 
guage of their own ; and the province extends five days' 
journey, t Now let us leave it and spe^ of Samarcan. 

XXIX.— Of the City of Samarcan. 

Samarcan is a very great and noble city, lying to the 



* It mxist lie confessed that Mr. Moorcroft gives rather an opposite 
character, representing- them as simple and peaceful shepherds, many 
of thero owning large herds and Aocks. This, however, was from hear- 
say; while Mr. Wood, who reached their country, describes them, (p. 
338) as inveterate thieves, who riile every caravan they can master, and 
commit robberies even on each other. Mention is, however, made by 
him of a tribe called the Kazaks (pp. 337, 343), who inhabit the low 
plains along the foot of this great mountain range, and who really cor- 
respond to Mr. Moorcroft^s report, being probably the race described to 
him : but they did not come under the view of our traveller. 

t This citv and territoaj, called commonly Cashgar, is mentioned by 
Ptolemy as the country of the Casii, and by Ibn Haukul and Edrisi un- 
der the name of Chage ; but Ritter (Asien, vol. vii. p. 409) justly ob- 
serves, that our traveller is the iirst who has given any distinct account 
of it. The place is still the most important in Eastern Turkestan, re- 
taining a great trade, particularly in horses, but, from causes to be af- 
terwards explained, is now in this respect inferior to Yarcund. Hum- 
boldt supposes it to contain 15,000 houses and 80,000 inhabitants (Frag- 
ments, &c., p. 250) ; but Bnmes (vol. ii. p. 230), while estimating Yax^ 
cund at 50,000, considers it the more populous of the two. All this ter- 
riiorv, in the middle of the eijpfhteenth century, was independent ; but 
in 1757 the Mantchoo rulers of China, taking advantage of internal dis- 
tensions, reduced it to subjection. They merely hold it, however, in. 
military occupation, allowing the Mussulman magistrates to administer 
the government. Mr. Eraser (Travels in Khorasan, App. pp. 1)4, 115) 
considers them thus in a happy situation ; yet they themselves thought 
otherwise, since in 1827 they raised a formidable insurrection, but being 
subdued, their leader was taken and put to death. This city, now the 
ehief military station, has always a garrison of 5000 Chinese .^-BumeSi 
vol ii p. 238-231 



313 eSHTKAL AMA. 

MOth* mhalnted by Chiiatiaiis and Saraeeas. The peo- 
ple are governed by a nephew of the great khan, who, 
howeyer, is not his friend, but is in open hostility against 
him. I hare to tell yon a great wonder which happened 
in this city. Ton must know that not Tery Ibng since, 
Ciagatai, brother to the great khan, became a Christian, 
and was lord of that, and of many other coantries. The 
betieTcrs of Samarcan rejoiced greatly at his oonTcrsion, 
and erected a large dinrch in honour of it, bearing the 
name of St John the Baptist. They took a large and 
fine stone belonging to the Saracens, and made it the base 
of a column, wluch rose in the middle of the edifice, and 
suppOTted the wMe roof. Now it cimie to pass that Ci- 
agatai died, wherenpon the Mohammedans, having been 
much enraged at this stone being taken for the use of the 
churdi, consulted with each other how to recover it by 
force. This they could now easily do, being ten to one 
of their adversariesi Several of their elders went and 
told the Christians that they wished to receive back the 
slab which had been formerly theirs. The latter answer- 
ed, that they would willingly restore it, but for the injuiy 
it would do to their building, and of^red to pay a fair 
price for it. The others replied, that they wished neither 
gold nor treasure, but must have their stone. The gov- 
ernment now belonged to the nephew of the great khan, 
who commanded that within two dttys it should be re- 
stored. When the Christians received that order^ they 
were much grieved, and knew not what to do. They 
went, however, and with many tears implored John the 
Baptist to relieve them in this tribulation. On the morn- 
ing of the day when the stone was to be returned, the 
pillar, by the power of our Lord, rose up at least three 
palms, and supported itself as well as when the stone was 
beneath it, and has continued to do so till this day. This 
was and still is accounted one of the greatest miracles 
that ever happened in the world.* Now let me tell you 
of a province which is called Yarcan. 

* It. was a considerable disappomtment, when expecting a description 
of this celehrated Asiatic capital, to find only the ridicnloas legend here 
narrated. Ciagatai, oommonly called Zagatai, was one of the sons of 
Oengis, who actually held sway in this region. According to the histo- 
ries, h« ttsaally resided with his brother Okkoday, but he might viat 
oocaaionally this fine possession. Mr. Marsdeu repels the idea of htf 



t 

XXX.-- Of ihe Frorince of Yarean. 

Yarcan* is a province five days' journey in le^ngth. The 
people obey the law of Mohammed, but there are some 
Kestorian Christians ; they are subject to the nephew of 
Che khan mentioned above. AU necessaries are in great 
abundance. Cotton is also grown, and the inhabitants 
are skllliil artisans, They suffer severely by swellings 
in the legs and in the throat, occasioned by the bad qual- 
ity of the water. Finding nothing else worth mention- 
ing, I shall gooa to Cotan. 

XX^.— Of the great Pc<mnc« of Cotan. 

Ootan is a provkice between north-east and eaftt, and 
is eight days* journey in length. The people adore Mo- 
hammed ; they have a number of cities and castles. The 
capital is a noble town, called by the name of the king* 
^om. They have all things m abundance, a large supp^ 
of silk, with vineyards and good orchards. They carry 

teiaf a Chriatiaii; yet P^tis de la Croix (Hktoire de Gengtiiacaa, p. 
100) mention* that, amid the philoeqxhic indifference which reined at 
hi* court, leveral members of the conqneror^ family embraced thia and 
other rjeeds. At all events, the Nestorians maj have gained his favour 
in preference to their rivals. In regard to Marco, we may notice that, as 
<m other occasions, he onlydisplaysthe^redalityef hieage, and is mere- 
ly repeating a distant hearsav, for we can see no ground to think with Mr. 
Marsden that he ever visited Samareand. The nephew here mention- 
ed as hostile to the great khan is doubtless Kaidu, whom we have al- 
ready seen (p. 108) making war against that monarch, and the seat of 
whose power we shall afterwards ascertain to be in this part of Tfcrtary. 

This city, in the fourteenth century, acquired an extraordinary splen- 
dour, when Timur, after eonqvering the greater part of Asia, made it 
his capital ; and his tomb, a lofity edifice, still adorns it. On the break- 
ing up of his empire, it of ooufse 4eclined ; and when the succeeding 
pnnces transferred their seat of government to Bokhara, it fell into such 
decay, that its once celel»ated colleges were tenanted by wild beasts. 
<Izzat Oollah, in Oriental Magazine, Calcutta, voL iv. p. 139.) Efforts 
liave recentlv been made, and with some success, to restore it ; vet Sir 
Alexander Bumes (voL ii. p. 184) still reckons the population abort of 
10,000. 

* Called elsewhere Carchan, Barcam, Karkan ; but the name in the 
text (from the French) comes nearest to the usual modern one of Yar- 
4*.und. This city Mras first known through our traveller, and since his 
time has acquired gre*^ additional importanoe in oonseqaenoe of its con- 
quest by the Chinese, who made it the exclusive S(*at of commerce on 
this fioniier. as Canton and Kiachta elsewhere. The population is 
reckoned by Sir Alexander Bumes at 50,000. That writer menrinns the 
disease called the guinea-worm as committing great rawges in Bokha- 
ra, nnd it may probably extend to this adjacent territory. 



214 CENTRAL ASIA. 

on merchandise and mannfactures, bat ane not laen at 
anna.* 

XXXII. — Of the Province of Pein. 

Pein is a province five days' journey in length, between 
north-east and east. The people adore Mohammed, are 
subject to the great khan, and have a number of towns 
and castles. The noblest city and capital is called by the 
name of the kingdom. Here is a river in which are found 
the stones named jasper and calcedony. The people are 
very well supplied with necessaries, and grow a good deal 
of silk, t They Hve by merchandise and arts, and have a 
custom which I will now tell you. When a woman has 
a husband who has gone a journey, and is to be absent 
above twenty days, as soon as he has departed she takes 
another partner, being fully allowed by usage to do so ; 
while the husband, in the place where he goes, takes an- 
other wife. Know that all the provinces now described 
from Cascar to the present, and still farther on, belong to 
Great Turkey. Now let us tell of a province named Ciar- 
cian. 

* Thn county, commonly called Khoten, by the Chinese Tuthia. 
imd in Sanscrit &astana, -was first pointed out to Europe by Marco, and 
is now weU known as the finest tract in C^istem Turkestan. It is cele- 
brated for its mild climate, the copious product of silk aud wine, the in» 
dustrious and peaceable character of the inhabitants. Most writers, like 
Marco, have given the same name to the capital { but Moorcroft's infor- 
mant calls it £lchi, while Izzut Oollah (Oriental Magazine, vol. iv. p. 
296) has it Aichi. It is said to contain 6000 houses, and there are re> 
ported to be in it and five other cities 102,000 inhabitants. (Moorcroft, 
vol. i. p. 367-369.) Hitter c<H^iders Khoten to contain in all about twor 
and a half millions. — Asien, vol. vii. p. 353. 

t The position of this city has hitherto defied conjecture ; for though. 
D'A-uville has laid it down (seemingly too far east), he relied upon the 
data of uur traveller. The following may tlirov some light on the sub> 
ject : — Timkowski, among the cities of this quarter, mentions Ouchi 
with its dependencies, Aksou, Sairam, and Bat (vol. i.p. 390). This lost,, 
us in oriental names Band P may be considered identical, and a and e 
easily convertible, is in fact equivalent to Pei. Again. Moorcroft givea 
the itinerary of a merchant vrho seems to have followed nearly in the 
steps of Marco. He describes the river which waters Khoteu as meet> 
ing with another, and the united stream flowing on for six days journey,, 
when it comes to Bai. This gives very precisely the position assigned 
by our traveller to Pein. The ornamental stones mentioned are found 
in the Khoten rivers, and as the waters flow on to Bai., are likely to oc- 
cur there also.. They are named by Moorcroft (vol. i. p. 375) jaspei 
agate ; by Timkowski, yu or oriental jade. The latter (vol. i. p. 395) 
relates that they are obtained in the bed of the stream by diving, and 
are variously coloured with whitc^ green,, yellow, and vermilion. 



CENTRAL ASIA, 215 

' SXXIII^~OftheProTiBe»of Ciamaa. 

Ciansian is a province of Great Turkey, lying between 
north-east and east, with a capital city of the same name. 
The people adore Mohammed, and have a good number 
of towns and castles. There is a river bringing jasper 
and calcedony, which, being of excellent quality, they 
take to sell in Cathay, and thus make great profit. Thia 
province is sandy, as well as the whole road from Cotan 
hither ; and much of the water is bad and bitter, bnt in 
various places it is good. When an enemy passes through 
the country, they flee with their wives, children and cat- 
tle, two or three days' journey through the sand to places 
abounding in fine water and pasturage ; and no one can 
tell where tbey have gone, because the wind blowing the 
sand otditerates aU traces of their march, and they thus 
escape the invader. But when a friendly army passes 
through, they send away only the beasts, because the 
troops would take and eat them, without any payment.* 
After departing from Ciareian, you go five days through 
the waste, finding the water bad and bitter, but ooeasion- 
ally sweet and g^. At the end of these five days you 
come to a city which lies at the commencement of the 
great desert, wherein provisions are laid in for its pas- 
sage, and therefore I must tell you about it. 

XXXIV.— Of th« City and Desert of Lop. 

Lopt is a large city at the entrance of the great desert 
bearing its name, and lying between the east and north- 
east. It belongs to the khan, and the people adore Moham- 

* This place is the same called in the common maps Harashar, but 
by Izzat Oollah (Oriental Magazine, toI. iv. p. 293) and Moorcrot's fin- 
former, Karashehr, which is explained to mean the " Black City." It 
is described as seated on a large navigable river, fonned by the junction 
4^ those flowing respectively from Khoten and Yarknnd. Timkowski 
(vol. i. p. 388) describes it as abounding with good pasturage and wa- 
terj( but this probablv applies only to the district around the capital. It 
seems odd that Mr. Marsden should refer it to the Chen*chen of De Guig- 
nea, which he afterwards, with better reason, applies to a quite differ- 
ent territory. 

t The lake of Lop is a conspicuous feature shown in the Jesuits' map« 
an 3 called by Timkowski (vol. i. p. 389) Lob-nor. It appears to be the 
final receptarle of the united streams flowing from Khoten, Yarcund, and 
Cvishgar. The town of I^p is not anywhere mentioned ; but it is proba- 
bfe there should be one on this site ; and the present route, as we shall 
bftve again occ^^sion to observe, is very little frequented. 



21C 

med. Ton miMi know that those persons wbo wish to pm 
this tract rest in the city a week to refresh themselves 
and their cattle ; then, having taken a month's provisions 
and provender, they enter upon the desert, which I assure 
you is so extensive that if a man were to travel through 
its whole length, it would employ a year ; and even at its 
smallest hre^h, a month is requisite.* It consists alto- 
gether of mountains and valleys <^ sand, and nothing is 
got to eat ; but after travelling a day and night, you find 
sweet water sufficient ibr from fifty to a hundred men, 
with their animals. A larger body could not be supplied.. 
Thus, water is seen daily, or altogether in about twenty- 
eight places, and except in three or four it is good. Beasts 
or biids there are none, because they could not find food ; 
but there is a great wonder which I must now teU yon. 
When a party rides by night through this desert, and any 
one lags behind, or straggles from hu companions throogii 
sleep or any other cause, when he seeks to return to themt 
he hears spirits speak to him in such a manner that they. 
seem to be his comrades, and they frequently call him 1^ 
name, and thus lead him out of his way so that he never 
regains it, and many persons are thus lost and perish. I 
must tell you, too, that even by day you hear these voicesf 

* The great deiert of Gobi or Shamo, extends irom the eoarces of the 
Amoar to the borders of Thibet, in a directiuu between north-east and 
Boath-wcst. The entire leugth caunot fall mach short of 3(IU0 miles, 
which perhaps could not be easily traversed in mach less thao a year. 
We never heard, however, of any one who followed such a coarse, Hm 
object being generally to cross it on the way to China. On this long line 
it varies much both as to breadth and sterilitj, generally increasing to- 
wards the south, and in proportion to its distance from the branches of th« 
Altai. The quarter where it was crossed by Marco appean to luive been 
peculiarly formidable, and we shall immediately observe that another has 
been mure generally followed ; but the present was probably chosen as 
the most direct. 

t This passage no donbt bears a stamp of the age and region ; yet when 
we consider the dreary situation of one who, in the depth of night, should 
be separated from his company in the midst of this vast wilderness, we 
ean little wottder that the illusions here described should arise. Nor is 
it surprising that even during the day, when travelling amid the deep 
silence o'' tae desert, mysterious noises should be conjnrt^ up or exag^ 
geraied. Mr. Wood, in a somewhat similar tract, was assured, and found 
some reason to believe, that a peculiar sound accom|)anies the march of a 
caravan, arising seemingly from a stream of sand raised by the uiuve- 
meut of so many animals. It was chiefly sensible on a slope ; probably 
too where there is a mixture of flints or pebbles.— Pp. 161, 183. 

In Bamusio this account is expanded intoconsiderably graater oacC>m«» 



gilNYRAU ASIA. 217 

of spirits, 9n(l even tam)M>urs, and many utber instru< 
ments sounding. They find it necessary, also, before 
going to rest at night, to fix an advanced signal, pointing 
out the course to be afterwards held ; likewise to attach 
a bell to each of the animals, that they may be more easily 
kept from straggling. In this manner, amid much danger 
ami fear, this desert is passed. Now we must tell you 
of the countries that lie on the other side. 

XXXV.— Of the ProriDce of Taogut and City of Sacchion. 

When you have rode thirty days through this desert, you 
find a city named Sacchion^* which belongs to the khan. 
The province is called Tangut,! and the people are idoia- 
ters, mixed with some Nestorian Christians and Saracens. 
The first have languages of their own ; they subsist not 
by merchandise, but^y the grain which they produce from 
the earth. They have many abbeys and monasteries, all 
full of idols of various shapes, to which they offer fre^^uent 

actnce. It it nid— <* In tba night they are penninded they hear the 8oan4 
of a laxge cavalcade on the one side or the other of the road. Sometimea 
lihewiae by day the spirits assume the appearance of their travelling com- 
panions, who address them by name, and endeavour to conduct them out 
of the mtaper road. Some also are said, in crossing the desert, to have 
M«a what appeared a body of armed men advancing towards them, and, 
aiqprebensive of being attacked and plundered, have taken to flight." It 
seemed unfair to our traveller to incorporate these statements with his 
text ; but we have given the following sentence, which may be founded 
on real information. 

* This is undoubtedly Cha-tcheou or Sharshew, a sort of advanced post 
of China, on the eastern border of the desert. 

t Tangnt is one of the most celebrated names in the history and geo- 
graphy of Asia during the middle ages. Klaproth (Journal Asiat. vol. 
xi. p. 461, &c.) estimates it as extending between 83^ and 45^ N. lat. 
and from 13° to 330 long. W. from Pekin. He considers it as including 
the country of the Eighurs, with the northern part of China as far as 
the Hoang-ho. He divides it into four provinces : Kamul, Barkonl (or 
Tclunsi), Tarfan, and Ouroumpai. It composed the once powerful king- 
dom of the Hia, a pei^Ie who seem distinctly traced to their origin in 
Great Thibet. Being, according to Klaproth, driven thence, they mi- 
gva'ed northward, and not only occupied this part of Central Asia, but 
overran afterwards a great extent of the empire. They brought with 
them from its central seat the fioodhist superstition, here indicated by 
the extensive monasteries and various rites. Marco thus proves his ac- 
canite observation ; for, in crossing the desert, he had left behind him 
Turkestan, whfre the Mussoluan faith had been generally established. 
De Guigues (quoted by Boui, vol. iv. p. 96) states their onginal name to 
have been Tuuh-hiang, changed for the country int« Tangut and for the 
people into Hia. Their power was completely crushed by Gengfs and 
bis saccessors, and the very name of Tangut has gradually died away. 




218 , CENTRAL ASIA. 

sacrifices and homage. Every man who has children 
rears a sheep, and at a particalar festival at the end of 
the year, leads them along with that animal into the pres- 
ence of the god, to whom they all perform reverence. 
They cook the sheep and offer it very humbly before the 
idol, leaving it while they make their prayers for the safe- 
ty of their children. They then take the meat and carry 
it to the house, or wherever they please, send for their 
relations,' and eat it with great joy and respect. They 
afterwards collect the bones, and preserve them with 
much diligence. You must know likewise, that when 
any one of them dies, his body is burned, and after he is 
carried to the place for this last ceremony, they erect in 
the middle of the path a house of cane, covered with 
cloths of -silk and|[old. When the dead man is laid before 
this ornamented bouse, they place before him wine and 
victuals, believing that he will be similarly honoured in 
the other world. At the place of burning, too, they cut in 
paper, men, horses, camels, and coins of the size of be- 
zants, convinced that the deceased will possess all these 
things in the future state. On this occasion, all the in- 
struments in the land are sounded before the corpse. £ 
must tell you, too, that after death the relations send for 
the astrologer, who is informed of the day, month, and 
year of his nativity, and then divines, by his diabolical art, 
the day on which the burning ought to take place. If it 
should be a week, a month, or six months, they keep it 
all that time, and never burn it till the appointed day. 
During this interval, they deposit it in a large box covered 
with cloth, and so preserved with crocus and other spices 
that no stench arises. Throughout this period, they place 
daily before the box meat and drink, and leave it there for 
some time, till they think he has eaten it. These sor- 
cerers, too, often tell the relations that the dead body 
must not be carried out by the main door, hut by a private 
one, or even through a breach in the wall.* All the idol- 
aters in the world proceed in this manner. Now I must 
go to another city which lies to the south, near the ex- 
tremity of this desert. 

♦Mr. Marsden (p. IM) has quoted good avthoritie* for the obMnranca 
of these ceremonies in Thibet, the chief seat of the religion of the 
Lamas. 



CENTRAL ASIA. 219 

XXXVL-^Of the City of Kamul. 

Ksmul* is a province, formerly a kingdom, containing 
cities and castles, with a capital of the same. name. It 
stands between two deserts, the great one already de- 
scribed, and a smaller one, extending three days' journey. 
The people are all idolaters and have a peculiar language ; 
they live by the fruits of the earth, having enough to eat, 
and also to sell to the passenger. They are men of great 
gaiety, thinking of nothing but to sound musical instru- 
ments, to sing, dance, and delight their hearts. When 
a stranger comes to lodge in a house, the master is high- 
ly pleased, and leaves him with his wife, desiring her to 
treat him in every respect as a husband, while he himseli 
goes and spends two or three days elsewhere. All the 
men of the province proceed in this manner, and do not 
account it any disgrace. The women are handsome, gay, 
and fond of diversion. Now, when Mangou Khan reigned 
as sire of the Tartars, it was reported to him how the 
people of Kamul gave over their wives to strangers, when 
he sent orders that, under a severe penalty, travellers 
should not be henceforth entertained in this manner, 
When they received this injunction, they were greatly 
grieved, held a council, and did what I will now tell you. 
They made up a large present, and sent it to Mangou, 
praying that he would allow them to treat their wives 
according to the custom handed down to them by their 
ancestors, who, for this kindness to strangers, had gained 
the favour of their idols, and their corn and other crops 
had greatly multiplied. When he heard this message, he 
said, ^'Since you are so bent on your own shame, let it be 

* Called also Khamil, softened by the Chinese to Hamil. The travel- 
ler hexe, and we suspect in his next chapter, evidently turns aside from 
his route to describe remarkable objects. This city being, as he justly 
states, north-west from Cha-tcheou, could not have been visited without 
a retrograde movement, and without again crossins and recrossing the 
desert. His father and uncle, however, might very likely have passed it 
in their journey out or home. Being, as here described, situated in a 
sort of oasis, it affords the means c^ crossing the waste with greater fa- 
cibty, and therefot^, Chough circuitous, is generally preferred. It was 
taken by the ambassadors of Shah Rokh, and by Goez (Marsden, p. 173) ; 
also by Izzut OoUah. Moorcro/l's informant, after following our travel- 
ler's route to Karashehr, then strack northward to Ouchi, and thence 
crossed the desert to Kamul. (Vol. i. p. 378.) The latter, according to 
Timkowski (vol. ii. p. 386), is still equally frequented, the concourse of 
caravans giving it the appearance of a large capital. 



220 CENTRAL ASIA. 

80.'* lie allowed them, tberefore, to do as they pleased 
and hence they have always m^ntained this castom.'* 

XXXVlI.— Of the Prorince of Ginghintahis. 

Ginghintalast is a province which is near the desert, 
between north and south, sixteen days* joarney in extent, 
and subject to the great khan. It contains cities, castles, 
and three descriptions of men, idolaters, adorers of Mo- 
hammed, and Nestorian Christians. On the borders of it, 
towards the north, is a mountain containing a very abun- 
dant vein of copper and antimony. There is also one 
from which is made the salamander ; but do not suppose 
this is the animal so called, for no creature can live in fire, 
because it is compounded of the four elements. Jt is only 
through ignorance that the salamander is called an ani- 
mal ; and a Turk, named Zurlicar, who was very learned, 
and governor of this province for three years under the 
great khan, being much employed in working the mines, 
gave me an account of it. When this ore is taken from 
the mountain, and is broken, it strings together, and forms 
a thread like wool. Being then dried, pounded in a large 
mortar, and washed, there remains that thread of which I 
have spoken. Being then woven like wool, it forms cloth, 
which is dingy in colour at first, but wh^n placed and left 
some time in the fire, it becomes white as snow, without 
dirt or stain. This is the truth of the salamander, and 
every thing else said about it is mere fable. I can tell 

* This degrading pnctice, as formerly obeerred, is bat too oammoa at 
treat caravaQ-stattons, especially where merchants remain a oonsideni- 
Dle time. Sir A. Barnes (yoI. li. p. 233) mentions, th^t the system of 
temporary wives prerails even at Yarcund. The saperstitious motiTe 
alleged was doubtless co^jared ap to conceal a still baser one. In Ra- 
musio, it is asserted that they obeyed the command of the khan three 
y^ears ; bat that the earth ceased to yield its accastomed fruits, and va- 
rious unfortunate events occurred, which induced them to send the dep- 
utati n mentioned in the text. No such statement is to be found in any 
early edition. 

t lA the Crnsca and Pipino, Chinchitalas. De Guignes and Marsden 
suggest Chen-chen, or Leou-Ian. to the south of Kamul. Count Boni 

g)int8 it out on the Jesnita' map, in about 4(P N. lat. and 150 long., W. 
om Pe-king. I incline to inention Barkoul, called by the Chinese 
Tckinsiy a province of Tangut, elevated and cold, about 100 miles N. 
W. of Kamul. (Klaproth, as above ; Ritter, Asien, vol. i. p. 379.) The 
expressions seem to indicate a site beyond Kamul, and the hilly charac- 
ter of the tract, would accord better with its containing remarkable 
minerals. 



CSNTRAL ASIA. 221 

700, too, that at Rome there is a cloth* which the great 
khan sent to the pope as a costly present, and the sudari- 
Qm of oar Lord was ]>laced within it. Now let us tell you 
of other prorinces to the south-east and east. 

XXXVUl. — Of the Province of Saceior. 

When you have departed from the province now de- 
scribed, you go ten days in tlie same direction. In all 
that way there are few habitations, nor does any thing 
occur worth mentioning. You then find a district called 
Succiurt with a capital of the same name. The people 
are Christians, and idolaters, and under the great khan. 
All the three provinces last described belong to the gene- 
ral one named Tangut. Through all its mountains, rhu- 
barb is found in great abundance,, and the merchants pur- 
chase and carry it over the whole world.^ They cannot, 
however, take this road through the mountains with any 
animals but those accustomed to the country, because a 
poisonous plant grows there, which, when eaten, causes 
the hoofs to drop off; but the native cattle, having learn- 
ed its dangerous quality, carefully avoid it.f They tive 
by the fruits of the earth, but attend little to merchandise. 
Now I must tell you of another city. 

XXXIX. — Of the Prarinee of Canpician. 

Canpicion is a great and noble town, chief and capital 
of the whole province of Tangut. The people are idola- 
ters, and there are some who adore Mohammed, and also 

* Tlw lUer editioiM exhibH a stnldiig pioof of the maimer in wliich the 
author has fufiered b^ the eormptioa or his text. In Pipino and Rama- 
■io the paraciaph begins by saying, that ** cloth is made of salamanders." 
This has been treated as an iustanoe of gross eredality. In the present 
text, frooa the French and Crasca, the name of the animal is OTidentlr 
introdnced as a simile, and the idea of its actual existence treated with 
contempt. The mineral here mentioned is the asbestos, distinguished by 
its pecnliar qualities of separating into threads which can be woven into 
doth, and of beiug incombustible. It is now well known, and specimens 
are preserved in the British Museum uid other places. 

t In the French Suctuir, in Ramusio Suceuir. The name in the text 
is taken from the Cmsca, as coming nearest to that of the place undoubt- 
edly meant, which is Sou-tcheou, tne first on that extreme north-western 
ppn of the province of Shen-see which projects far out into Tartary. 

\ This plant is still produced here of peculiar .excellence, and is a 
leading article in the trade with the Russians at Kiachou MarMlen, 
^180. 

6 This sentence occurs only in Ramusio, and Mr. Maisden has not been 
abU to find any confirmation of the fact. 



222 CKKTBAL ASIA. 



wlw h«vB three large and beantiliil chaiclies.* 
The first have ■wiiMr ric s a^ abbeys according to their 
CTHtiian, with a very great omnba' erf* idols, some of which, 
I assore 700, are tea paces high, seTeraUy formed of wood, 
of earth, and of stooe, all beaotifidly coYcred with gold 
and iYory. Their priests Mtc more respectably than oth- 
ers, and goard themselTcs against luxury, though they do 
not hold it for a Tery great sm. They obeenre the Inoar 
months like ours, and in one of them do not kill any beast 
or bird. For fiTc days they eat no food that has had life, 
and live more strict^ than nsoaL They take sometimes 
thirty wires, or as many as they have wealth to maintain, 
and give them a dowry in beasts, slaTes, and money ; bat 
the fost wife ranks always as the principaLt If any of 
them do not please him, she may be divorcied. They mar- 
ry their ooosins and even the wives of their father, and do 
not regard as sins many things which we account great 
ones ; for they live like beasts : therefore let as leave them 
and go to the north4 But I must teU you that Messeri 
Nicolo, Maffio, and Marco, remained in that city a year, 

* This dtj, called by Banrasto Guiq>iaB, bjr the Penian ambaaaadon 
Kam-giofo, hj Goes Can-oea, is Kan-tcheoa, sitaated farther east in the 
aame jffejectiBS part of Shen-^ee. Flstis de la Croix also caalla it the 
capital of Taainit ; hot peA^w hefiiUoired oar tiaveller. Accordiiig to 
KlaproCh (Joomal Asiat. toL xi. p. 463), the residence of the sovereign 
of thateoontiyhad been at Hing-tcheon, now Ning-hia ; bat as his power 
had been for soaw time extinguished, Kan-tdieoa was then probablj the 
chief city of the region. 

t AIAoogh oar traicller had formeily described the Boodhist obser- 
irances, he was struck by seeing them here on a greater scale than before. 
Large monasteries and gigantic images are its leading features, carried 
oat ahrays to the utmost extent that the means of the worshippers ad- 
mit ; they would therefore be mare ample in this great capitnl than in 
the former almost desert roate. The practice of polygamy srartles Mr. 
Marsden as being contiary to the precepts of this religion, and its prac> 
tice in Thibet ; bat there is no want of proof that the Tartars, while 
adopting its forms and obaerranoes, do not allow it to iitterfere with a 
habit so rooted among them as that of taking as many wives as they are 
able to support. Mr. Marsden himself quotes Pallas Kir this oiwcrvution, 
which is fully confirmed l^ Tirokowski, vol. ii. p. 310. 

% The traveller appears at Kan-tcheou to close his itinerary into China, 
as no series of stations is tbence given either to Kambalu, or to ^Jie place 
called Clemenfn, where the party found the emperor. He has taken ad- 
vantage, however of his long residence, either by ezcursiohs, or as we 
rather suspect W careful inquiry, to obtain information respecting the 
countries stretehmg from it in various directions ; and these he now 
communicates. 



CENTRAL ASIA. 223 

on particiilar business which I n^ed not enter into. We 
shall now go sixty days northwards. 

XL.-xOf the Province of Ezina. 

After riding twelve days, you come to a city named 
Ezina,* which is at the northern extremity of the desert 
of sand, and still in Tangut. The people, who are idola- 
ters, breed camels and other beasts, and have falcons of 
different species and of good quality. They live by the 
fruits of the earth and cattle, and are also employed in 
merchandise. In^hls city, a man lays in provisions for 
forty days, during which time, travelling from Ezina 
northwar(te, there is neither habitation nor inns. But the 
people, except during summer, remain in the valleys ; and 
in the mountains they find a number of wild beasts, es- 
pecially asses : there are also pine-forests. At the end 
of these forty days they reach a northern province, and 
you shall hear what it is. 

XU. — Of the Ci^ of Earakonim, 

Karakorum is a city three miles in circuit,! which was 
the first that the Tartars took when they issued from 
their country, and I am to tell you of their actions and 
manners, how they gained command, and spread them- 
selves over the world. You must know that they dwelt 
in the north, about Ciorcia, in which region are great 
plains, and no abode in cities or castles, but good pastur- 
age,^ large rivers, and abundance of water. They had no 
lords, yet paid tribute to the great sire, named in their 
language Unchan, whom we call Prester John, and who 

* This city, thongh now ruined, is mentioned in the histoty of Gengis 
as one of great imiwrtance, and its captnre in 1934 ranks among his im- 
portant exploitB. It is described as situated on a river flovidng from the 
north, and falling -into the Hoang-ho near Kan-tcheou. — P6tis de la 
Croix, p. 376. 

t Onr readers who have perused the narratives of Carpini and Rubrn- 
^uis mast be famihar with this celebrated Tartar capital. Its diraeosions 
appear here exaggerated ; bnt probably the space occupied by the tents 
of the erratic trit^s is included. Even after the removal of the court to 
Fe-king, this place continued to possess great importance, being the resi- 
dence of a governor who possessed^ the power of life and death. To this 
office Kublai, in 1293, named his grand-son Temur. When that prince, 
however, sncoeeded to the throne, and removed to China, this Tartar 
capital sunk into decay, and we are not aware of any modem notice of 
its existence.— Ritter, Asien, vol. i. p. 561. 

S 



4^24 OENTEAL. ASIA. 

w ftpoken of all over the world. Tbey paid to him one 
beast out of eveiy ten ; hat they multiplied so greatly, 
that he became afraid of them, and resolved . to separate 
them into different eountnes ; for which purpose he sent 
his barons among them. The Tartars on hearing this 
were much grieved, and» holding a council, determined 
to flee through desert countries to the north, where he 
could not reach nor injure them. They then ceased to 
obey or pay tribute to him,* and remained thus for a long 
time. 



XLII.— Ob Gengis, the lint Khan of Um Ttftan. 

Now it happened thai» aboat 1187, the Tartars appmnt- 
ed a king, who was named in their language G<»igis 
Khan. He waa a man of great worth, sense and prowess ; 
and let me tell you, when he was elected, all the Tartars 
in the world that were scattered through those strange 
countries came and owned him as their lord. He main- 
taioed his power with great vigour, and the multitudes 
who ranged under his standard were almost innumerable. 
When he saw so numerous an army, he went conquering 
other countries, and made himself master of eight provin- 
ces ; yet he neither injured nor robbed the people of any 
thing, foot placing them under leaders in whom he could 
confide, led them on to other triumphs, liius he over- 
threw, as you have heard, a multitude of nations ; and 
seeing his good command and mildness, they cheerfoHy 
followed him, upon which he formed the design of subdu- 
ing a great part of the world. In the year 1300, he sent 
a message to Prester John, asking his daughter to wife. 
Hereupon that monarch was very indi|nant, and said, — 
'' What impudence is this in Gengis Khan 1 Knows he 
not that he is my man and my vassal 1 Return, and tcdl 
him that I would burn my daughter sooner than give her 
to him, and that he deserves to be put to death as a trai- 
tor and disloyal to his lord " He then desired the mes- 
sengers to depart forthwith, and never return. They 
presently went away, and coming to their master told 
him in order all that the other had said. 

♦ Acoofdinrto the iMined history ef Fitia de k CraU, the fint Mm 
Jn throwu^off the yoke ef Ovmttg Khui eooeitted in ntnmf t»mw 
tribute to him. ^ *^' 



CENTRAL ABIA. 9^5 

XLm.— His Battle with Pnstar John, and Victory over hiw. 

When Gengis Khan heard this boastful speech, his 
heart swelled, so that it almost barst within him ; for yon 
must know he was a man of very great pride. He then 
said to his minister, and to all about him, that he would 
not continue to hold the sovereignty, unless Prester John 
were made to pay more dearly for this villany than ever 
man did, and he must soon hie made to see whether he 
was bis vassal. Then he summoned round him the great- 
est army that ever was seen or heard of, and sent notice 
to Unchan that he must defend himself, as he was coming 
against him. When that prince knew certainly the ap- 
proach of Gengis with so great a force, he made light of 
it, saying, they were not men-at-arms ; yet resolved that, 
should he approach, he would do all in his power to take 
and put him to death. He then ordered all his people to 
be prepared and summoned from many and strange parts, 
and a greater host and of more formidable aspect was 
never seen. And why make a long story 1 The khan, 
with all his people, came to a great and beautiful plain, 
oaoted Tenduo, in Prester John's eoontry, where'be pfteh^ 
ed his camp, and rejoiced greatly to hear that his enemy 
was coming, because it was an excellent situation for 
giving battle. He sent for his astrologers, who were 
Christian* and Saracen, and reqniredto know which would 
conquer in that battle, he or his antagonist. The latter 
could tell nothing of the truth ; but the former showed it 
openly ; for they brought before him a case, cut in the 
middle, and placed the two parts on differenj^ sides, and 
wrote the name of Gengis on one, and of Unchan on the 
other, telling him, that when they had made their enchant* 
ment, he whose cane should come above that of the other 
would conquer in battle. He desired that this should be 
shown to him as soon as possible. Then they took up 
the Psaltery, read certain portions, and performed their 
enchantment, when presently the cane on which was the 

* la the edition of Pipino and all the sabseqnent onei to Ramnalo in- 
dnsive, no mention ie made o{ the Christians as concerned in this 
jaratioo. S« 
able motives 

this tnia fiiith. T&a text h^re given, -, , » ., - 

the aariy aothcnda* (th* toro Paris editions, the Cram vSi Fucei), ip> 
pears nnddnbre43y g^nnin* 




226 CENTRAL ASIA. 

name of Gengis, without any one touching it, joined the 
other, and mounted above it, and this was witnessed by 
aU present. When be saw this, he was greatly rejoiced, 
and seeing that the Christians were men of truth, held 
them always in great honour. Two days after, the ar- 
mies engaged, and it was the greatest battle that ever 
was fou^t. The slaughter was terrible on both sides ; 
but at length Gengis conquered, his enemy was slain in 
the engagement, and he himself became master of all his 
land. From that day he went on conquering many castles 
and provinces, and reigned six years ; but, at the end of 
that time, he besieged a fort, named Gangui, where he 
was wounded in the knee by an arrow, and died. This 
was. a great misfortune, for he was a brave and wise 
man.* 

XLIV^-<hi the Kbans -who reigned after the Death of Gengis. 

After the death of Gengis, the next khan was Cui, the 
third Bacui, the fourth Alton, the fifth Mangou, the sixth 
Kublai,t who is greater and more powerful than all the 

* We Bxe obUged to obeenre, that the avthor^a historical information 
does aot display the accuracy usually found in his obserrations and de- 

acriptions. His earl^ accoant of Gengis exhibits indeed a rude confonn- 
ity with the best histories, which do not themselves rest on any very 
assured basis. (See p. 43-47.) But his placing the death of that con> 
iqaeror only aiz years after the conquest of this rival, and thus aizteev 
rears before its real period (in 1226), appears, after all the excuses urged 
by Marsdeu and Bom, to be most extraordinary. Vet we can scarcely 
doubt that he would use the best means within his reach, and can only 
mfior the gross ignorance which reigned in this splendid court, on sub- 
jects which might have beeu supposed most deeply to interest it. It ap- 
pears, indeed, that no attempt was made to draw up a written history of 
the conquerror*s exploits till the time of Ghazan Khan, whom our trav- 
ell«r visited on his return. A Mongol chief^ called Poulad, then took 
extraordinary pains to collect all the traditions on the subject. — Marsden, 
p. 198. 

t Our traveller has not redeemed his historical character by this list 
of the great khans, successors of Gengis. He has made five instead of 
the four whom our readers may recollect, Okkoday, Cuyn^ or Kuyuk, 
Mangou, and Kublai. Two of these five also appear to have been princes 
that never reigned ; so that one is omitted. There is much app«i,a" ance, 
however, as if these names had been tampered with bveditorn,-»vith the 




Europe. I rather suspect hiitl, hor/e^e^, to be Ukkodav '" r Oktai, placed 
^y by mistake after instead of heOn Onyni. J ^t a, Alton, i!V«r i* ; 
Alcon, Onuea, becomes m Riic^.r-ltr^ Ala-:; til i^^^tcvf Allan, V 



CENTRAL ASIA. 227 

rest ; for the other five together had not so much power 
as this Kublai ; nay, let me tell you, that all the emperors 
in the world, and all the Christiaa and Saracen kings, do 
not equal him, as is stiown fully in our book. Now you 
m.u9t know that the great lords of the lineage of Gengis 
Khan a e buried in a lofly mountain called Altai, and 
whenever the chief lords of the Tartars die, if it should 
be a hundred days* journey distant, they must be convey- 
ed thither to be interred. I will tell you another striking 
wonder ; that when the bodies of the khans are^^ajried 
to these mountains, the conductors put to the swor4 all 
the men whom they meet on the road, saying, " Go and 
serve the great lord in the other world ;" and they do the 
same to the horses, killing also for that purpose the best 
be has. You must know that when Mangou died, more 
than 20,000 men were slain, who had been met on the 
road when his body was removed to be buried.* 

XLV.— On the Religion, Costoms, and Manners of the Tartaxs. *fl' 

Now since I have begun speaking of the Tartars, I wiilj*^ 
tell you many things about them. They abide durinjr^ 
winter in plains and warm situations, where there ii"?^ 
abundant herbage for their cattle ; and in summer they '* 
retire to cool places on mountains and high valleys, wheri?^*^^ 
water abounds. They have wooden houses covered ^^^;~ 
felt, of a round shape, which they convey with^l^m?:^' 
wherever they go ; for they have them so well IBa&na^^- 
with twigs as to be easily carried. Whenever they ^^'f 
down and set up a house, the gate is always VJ^f^^H 
the south. They have waggons so well coverea "sm^Y 
black felt, that if it should rain the whole day, no"w#8^^^ 
could reach any thing within; and they are drawn by ^ 

name given elsewhere to Hoolakn, the conqueror of Bagdad. |lg^^,o 
somewhat snspect the person meant to be Taulai oar TnU, the ft^ W ^ 
Kublai, who never, indeed, reached this supreme power ; 7®* tt»«gR*Jf,n,a 
of his having done so might become popular in ^^e^eonrt of WsJgJ ^^ 
* The custom of interring the Mongol chiefs at the Altw "PlT^SJcgf ja tM 
firmed by the numerous golden ornaments which Pp^ S^^SSct 
having been dug out of tombs in that region. For tn^weadmrJS^ 
ore here reported, neither Mr. Marsden nor Count BohlfflaWWeiTftir 
to find any other authority ; but they insist upon that of our traveUer 
being sufficient. Considering it, however, Morfy a heanaystateMt 
ftomatfch informants, above fifteen years back, I feel ittcl»a«d J* comi- 
der it as vastly exaggerated. In Ramusio the niimber is only 10,uw. 



228 CBNTRAL ABIA. 

oxen and eameU. On the top they place their wives and 
children ; and I mast tell you that the ladies buy, sell, 
and perform all the work necessa^ry for their husbands, 
who do nothing but hunt, hawk, and go to war. They 
live on flesh, milk, and the produce of bunting, and like- 
wise on rats of Pharaoh, which are found here in great 
numbers.* They eat also the flesh of camels, dogs, and 
indeed of every kind of animal, and drink mare's milk. 
They shun the seduction of married fenaales, as a most 
vile and shameful thing ; and the wives are very faithful, 
performing extremely well the busmess of the honsehold. 
Every man may take as many as he pleases, even to a 
hundred, if he can maintain them; yet they hold the first 
as the principal and most respectable. They scruple not to 
marry their cousins, and if the father dies, the eldest son 
may take all his wives, except his own mother ; he mar- 
ries also the widow of bis deceased brother. They cele- 
brate their marriages by great festivals. 
. The Tartars, who believe in a deity of a sublime and 
heavenly nature, burn incense in censers to him, and pray 
that he may preserve them in health of mind and body. 
'they have also one called Nacygai, whom they call their 
earthly god, who guards their children, cattle and com. 
They fashion him of felt and cloth, keep him in their house, 
and pay him great honour and reverence. They make 
for him also a wife and chfldren of cloth, placing the first 
on his left hand, and the latter in front. Before eating; 
they take the fat meat and anoint his mouth with it ; then 
lay bread before the door of his chamber. Having done 
this they say that their god and his family have had their 
share, and sit down to their own meals. I told you that 
they drink mare's milk, but it is in such a manner that it 
seems white wine, being of an agreeable taste, and called 
ehemius.i The wealthy wear rich robes of gold and silk, 

* These animals are described by Bell and Dn Halde as a specie* of 
tn&rmot, of a brownish colour, that burrow in the hills of this part of Asia. 
Our traveller identiftet them with the ichneumon, popularly called th« 
mouse or rat of Pharaoh. The Crasca has pomi (apples) of Pharaoh, an 
evident mistake. The Paris Latin makes a very strauM one, droppinf 
the rats, and translating faraon farrum, grain, the representing of whiA 
M abundant would have been indeed most erroneous. 

^ ^ ?**?^' * ^*":'™**'^'* fermented prspantion ofta^nH niUt, nmd 
^ all tks Tartar nations. • — t — »- 



CSNTRAL AMA. $S0 

wMi Ttried fairs of the ermine, sable, and fox. Their bar* 
ness is beautiful and of great yalue ; their arms are bows, 
swiMrds, and clubs ; ^nt the first is more used than the 
others, because they are excellent archers. On their 
back they wear armour of buffalo and other very strong 
hides. 

I will tell you the manner in which they maintain jus- 
tice. If a. man has stolen an article of little value, they 
give him seven lashes, or seventeen, or twenty-seven, 
going on thus always to three hundred and seven,* and 
many die under them. If he steals a horse or any thing 
else for which he deserves to die, he is cut through the 
middle with a sword ; yet if he can pay nine times the 
▼alue of what he has stolen, he is allowed to live. Eve- 
ry lord or other man, who owns oxen or any cattle, makes 
them be marked with his seal, and then allows them to 
feed on the plains or among the mountains ; and whoever 
finds one straying brings it to him whose mark is upon it. 
The sheep and lambs, however, are guarded by a shep- 
herd. Their cattle are all remarkably large, fat, and beau- 
tiful. They have another wonderful custom which I had 
forgot ; for when two men have one a son, the other a 
daughter, dead at the age of four, they marry them to- 
gether, and represent the union by cards, which they set 
on fire, and when they see the flame and smQke ascend- 
ing, they make great shoots and run backward and for- 
ward, saying that the dead are going to their children in 
the other world, and are to be husband and wife there. 
They do more, for they paint on cards the similitudes of 
men, horses, cloths, bezants, and harness, then burn them, 
and say that aH these things will be possessed by their 
children in the other world, t 

XliVI.— Qn their Wub, and tih* Older of their Armiee. 

The Tartars are good men-^at-armsin battle, capable of 
much endurance ; and they can go through more warlike 
toil than other men. Often, when necessary, one of them 
will remain a month without any food, except the milk of 

* In Ramusio, the nombert are 7, 17, 87, 37, 47, and so on to a han- 
dled. 

t Mr. Mandea, p. S19, has quoted from NaTarette and Sir John Mai- 
eohn, tettimoniee to the exietence of this eztraovdinaiy cnstom in Tar- 
tarj and the parts of China bordering on it. 



230 CENTRAL ASIA. 

a mare and the flesfi of animals Julled by him in hnntiiig, 
his horse feeding on the grass, without his needing to 
bring barley or straw. He is very obedient to his master, 
and when necessary will remain the whole night armed 
on horseback. They are the men in the world most ca- 
pable of enduring fatigue and trouble, subsisting at the 
least expense, and best fitted for conquering lands and 
kingdoms. They arrange their armies in the following 
manner. When a Tartar lord goes to war, be has with 
him 160,000 men. He places a chief over every ten, ev- 
ery hundred, every thousand, every ten Uiousand, so that 
each officer, even the commander of the hundred thou- 
sand, has to deal only with ten persons ; for he gives his 
orders to the chiefs often thousand, they to (hose of one 
thousand, they to those of a hundrevd ; and. tlins every 
man answers to bis captain. The ]|H9idr^ thousand is 
called a tut, and ten thousand a toms^.t,c:.When the ar- 
mies are marching through plains and mfimntains, they 
send 200 men two days in advance, also behind and on 
each side, so that they cannot be attacked by surprise. 
And when they are marching a long way they carry no 
baggage, but merely two large leathern bags* in which 
they put their milk, and a litUe earthen pot for cooking 
their victuals. They take a small tent, under which they 
remain. during rain. And I tell you also, that when ne- 
cessary they ride full ten days without food, and without 
lighting a fire ; but piercing a vein of their horse, they 
drink his blood. They have likewise their mlU^^avdia- 
to a species of paste, which, when about \q i|a^t}i^XBtB]t>i. 
till it becomes, liquid, and can be^gf^k^^yiJa(^ tbeoregUUii' 
to battle with their enemies, they conquer, in^this^ ¥¥^^^ 
ner : they apparently betake t6!e«Q6elves'''ft^'8namefuI 
flight, for they have so trainedctbeir horsei^ that they turn 
round and round like dogs. ■ r^nd^when they are fleeing 
and hotly pursued, they fighl/Hs well as when they face 
the enemy ; for in their swiftest flight they wheel about 
and discharge their arrows, which kiU both men and horses 
of the opposite army, who, when they think their adver- 

* In Ramusio, the tat or tac is made 100, and the tomaa 1000. Th« 
number of 10,000 asaigned to the latter, given in the text tttm. the 
French version, is nndoubtedly the correct ane.—Maxsdea, p. 315. Th« 
Cnuea omits the toman 



CENTRAL ASIA. 281 

8arie& discomfited and yanquished, fall themselves one 
after the other. When toe Tartars have thus made a 
great slaughter, they turn and rush on so violently that 
they soon gain a complete triumph. All that I have told 
you here applies to the genuine Tartars ; but they are 
now much altered ; those who live in Cathay have adopt- 
ed the manners and customs of the idolaters ; those in the 
Levant imitate the Saracens.* I have said nothing here 
of the mighty acts of the great khan, the sire of all the 
Tartars, nor of his splendid imperial court ; for these won- 
derful things are described elsewhere in this book. But 
let us now ret^ to our route on the great plain where 
we were when we began to speak of their actions. 

XL VII. — On the Plains of Bangu, and the extreme Parts of the North. 

When you depart from Karakorum, and from Altai, 
where the khans are interred, as I have related above, 
you go northwards through a country which is called the 
plain of Bangu, and continues during a journey of forty 
days. The inhabitants, who are called, Mecri, and are 
very savage, live on the flesh of animals, chiefly deer, nay 
I assure you that they ride upon these animals. Their 

* The reader who has followed the accqjints of this people given by Gar- 
pini and RnbrQ^iTiis will be able to ccnnpare them with that here furnish- 
ed. Theirs is fuUer, and drawn from more intimate inspecticm at a time 
when the inhabitants were more anmixed than they are here stated to 
have become after the conquest of China. Our traveller's description 
is evidently not copied from them, yet exhibits so close a ccyncidence as 
is creditable to both parties. They had mentioned that ju the field ev- 
ery species of stratagem was studiously resorted to. The statement 
here made that they systematically fought flying, though it has passed 
into popular belief, is probably exaggerated- 
Having in the conne of this volume heard so much of the Tartars, the 
reader may not be unwillin«[ to learn something of their present state, 
as recently observed by Tinucowski ; in whose eyes they appeared to re- 
tain all the habits which might eniU>Ie them again to overrun and deso- 
late the woild. They are however, held in subjection by China, and 
their irregular hordes could not now make head against a disciplined 
force. Room is thus left oaiy for the display of their most amiable qual- 
ities : kindness in their families, — ^generoaity and hospitality to stran- 
gers. Their tents are still similarly constructed ; milk, with occasion- 
ally a little mutton, continues to be their staple food. They have been 
generally converted to the Shaman superstition, which has gained pos- 
session of nearly all Eastern Asia ; yet they have not the means of cel- 
ebrating its rites with the same pomp as elsewhere. Its priests are as 
umal called in to perform mag-ical cures ; but they have introduced 
UBong this rude race some tincture of books and literature.— Travels, 
TOL it. p. S8&-d47 



U2 CStfTKAL ASIA. 

eMtoBM reoembie those of the Tartars, and they ere sub- 
ject to the great khan. They hare neither corn nor- wine, 
but in summer abundance of beasts and birds for hunting 
and hawking ; though in winter none remain in the coun- 
try on account of the intense ooid. After travelling these 
forty days you come to the ocean ; and there is found a 
mountain where the peregrine falcons build their nests. 
You must know this place contains neither men nor wo- 
men, nor beasts, nor any tMrds, except one species, which 
is called bargkenlacj on which the hawks fe^. They are 
of the size of partridges, have feet like parrots, and tails 
like swallows, and they fly very swiftly. When the great 
khan wishes peregrine falcons, he sends thither for them. 
In an isJand of that sea, too, are bred the gerialcoos ; and 
I assure you the place is so far north, that the polestar re- 
mains behind, and is seen to the south. Those birds are 
bred on that isle in such abundance, that the great khan 
obtains as many as he pleases ; while others are convey^ 
ed to Argon and other lords of the East.* Now that I 
have told you of these northern provinces as fkr as the 
ocean, let us return to Canpicion. 

XLVIII.-— On the great City of Erginul. 

When a man departs ffom that city, he goes five days 
eastward through a country where there are many spirits, 
who are often heard speaking during the night. You then 
find a kingdom called £rginul,t belonging to the great 

* The cowQ^ here deacribed is evidently the eastern pot of SAetia ; 
and thoagh the account ia given only from distant heaxsay, it ia by no 
means incorrect. The dreaiiness of its aspect, the a b seiw of enltura, 
the disappearance ia winter of animals* erea of the rein-deer, an all 
characteristic features. The shmes of the northern oeoan in this qan*- 
ter are very little known to ourselves, but are doubtleaa aa deaolata ma 
described, and the rocks are hktHj to be tenanted by nowerfttl birda of 
prey. The search after these to gratify the passion »r faleonry, thaa 
universal among the Tartar t^iefs, was evidently the impnlae winch Isd 
to the opening of this route. The baivhenlac eannot be identiflad ; aaad 
it seems scarcely probable that it should be the only bird ; yet wa hacwa 
vety little means of judging. 

In Ramusio, it is said that the gerfalcons emit hon Eoropa an 
conveyed to the great khan, but only to some of the Tartar or 
chieft of the East. There is nothing of this in the early editions. 

t Marco, having finished his noxthem excanion, begins another ha a 
diffennt direcUon, the tracing of which is attended with somo dsOettar* 
Tills and the two following distriote, however, an ezpreaaly mantiaMd 
by P*tia de la Cwmx (p. 481) as parts of Tangut, which 0«d^ haU te 



CfeNTKAL ASIA. %98 

kluui, and is tnekided in the lai^e province of Tangiit. 
There are a good many towns, the chief one bearing the 
same naine ; and the people are a mixture of Nostoriau ' 
Christians, idotaters> and Mohammedans. Proc«tfding 
thence south-^ast, you come into the countty of Cathay, 
when yoQ will find in the way a city named Singuy* 
There are a good many other towns, still in Tangut, and 
subject to the great khan; and the inhabitants are as 
above described. There are a vast number of wild oxen, 
as large as elephants, and very beautiful,— their back be- 
ing entirely covered with white and black hair, three palms 
long. These animals are also caught and tamed, when they 
do twice as much work as the common ox-.t This coun- 
try, too, produces the best musk in the world, and I will 
describe the animal by which it is supplied. It is small, 
about the size of an antelope, which it resembles in the 
feet and tail, but has a soft thick hair like the stag, no 
horns, only four teeth, two above and two below, three 
inches long^ and very sharp. It is a beautiful creatdre ; 
and, on its being taken, there is found a bag between the 
skin and the fiesb, containing a bloody imposthume, which, 

subjection ; there can be no doubt, therefore, that these existed and were 
kiufWn under the names by which he describes them. Mr. Marsden sap- 
pomn Eip^inal to be Kokonor, but seemingly on no good ground, the dis- 
tance being, as he admits, much greater tiiian here stated, and the direoi^ 
tioa BOttth-south'West, instead of east. The Jesuits' map exhibits, in 
vxaCf^j the position indicated, a place called Nguei-yuen. If we just 
make the not unusual change of the first N into R, the names will sound 
rery similar. The Paris Latin has Ergnyl ; the Italian MS. Ergiuul. 

* Mr. Marsden supposes this to be Si-ning, a well-known station on the 
frontier of China Proper. Boni, however, observes, that from a place 
five days* journey east of Kan-tcheou, the route thither would be due 
south. He conceives, therefore* with seeming probability, the city here 
mentioned to be Si-ngan, capital of Sheu-see. That extensive province, 
itated afterwards to be twenty-five days' journey in length, appears here 
cormctly described. Its fertility and populousness arf combined with a 
iegree of rudeness which makes it approximate to the neighbouring dis- 
tricts of Tartary. Mr. Marsden urges in support of his view the state- 
ment of its being stiU in Tangut ; but as we have already observed, this 
name was then extended as far as the Hoang-ho, and consequently in- 
inclnOed Shen-see. 

t This is the yak or bo9 grwmienty haiving its shoulders and tail cov- 
ered with a prdfosion uf soft black hair ; an appendage which must 
augment its aroarent size, hero somewhat exaggerated. It moro prop- 
erty belongs to Thibet ; but Du Halde, in describing Shen-see. intimates 
ita ooeunrenoe hero, by mentioning tlia number a wild bulls aaid the 
of M«e*« kair. 



984 CENTRAL ASIA, 

when the akin is cut through, is drawn out, and forms the 
musk whence issues so strong an odour.* In this coun- 
try it is very abundant, and of good quality. The peopie 
also raise plenty of com, and engage in merchandise and 
manufactures. The region extends to a journey of full 
twenty-five days. There are pheasants twice as large as 
ours, with tails from seven to ten palms long.f Others 
resemble ours; and there are various birds, with iineiy 
coloured wings. The people, who are idolators, are faU 
with small noses, black hair, and no beard unless on the 
chin. The ladies have no hair except on the head, and 
are every way very handsome. The men are voluptu> 
ous, and are authorized by their law and usage to take as 
many wives as they can maintain. If a woman is beau- 
tiful, though of humble birth, a great baron readily es- 
pouses her, giving to her mother such a sum of money as 
may be agreed on. 

XLIX.— On the Province of Egrigaia. 

When a man departs from Erginul, and goes eight days 
eastward, he finds a province of Tangnt called £grigaia,t 
where there are cities and castles, and the chief one is 
named Calacian.^ The people are idolaters ; yet there 

* The musk animal also belongs peculiarly to Thibet ; but, like the 
other, appears introduced by Marco in treating of the country where he 
fijirst saw it. It is elsewhere repeatedly mentiooed. In Ramusio, the 
^g is said to be formed at the time of full moion ; but this fabulous state- 
ment is not in the early editions. 

t The fine pheasants of China, with the length of their beautiful tails, 
have of late years attracted the attention of Europe, and adorned its 
menageries. — See Account of China, Edinburgh Cab. Lib. vol. iii. p. 418. 

i The traveller, now returning to Erginul, proceeds eastward to the 
place here named, of which Mr. Marsden can fihd no trace unless in tha 
Eighur country ; but this lies in quite a different direction. M. Klaproth 
(Jour. Asiat. vol. xi. p. 63) observes that Hing-tcheou, now Ninghia, the 
residence of the former sovereign of Tangut, was called, in the Ianipiag« 
of that country, Eyirkiai, which he suppoises with great probability to 
be the Egrigaia of our tiC^eller. In fact, if we take Erginul to be Nguei* 
yuen, we shall find it to be exactly in the specified distance and directioa 
from that place. 

^ Marsdeii suggests that Calacia may be the Cailac of Rubruquis, or 
Cialis of Goez ; which Count Boni justly rejects as admitted to be at an 
immense distance from the territory here treated of. He suggests, seem- 
ingly on good grounds, Calatu, a place on D'Anville's map, some distance 
north of Ninghia, and un a branch of the Hoang-ho, in the moat north- 
erly part of Its course. Our traveller now enters upon a third detached 
Itinerary, to illustrate interesting objects adjacent to these of which he 
has been treating. 



CENTftAL ASIA. 385 

are three towns held by Nestorian Christians. They are 
subject to the great Tartar ; and in this city is made 
cloth of camels' hair, the most beautiful and valuable in 
the world. There- is a kind of wool whence they manu- 
fectare very fine white camlets in great quantities. These 
the merchants convey by many routes to Cathay and other 
parts throughout the world. Now let us go to Tenduc^ in 
the territory of Prester John. 

L. — On the ProTince of Tenduc, and of Gog and Magog. 

Tenduc is a ]»Fovince towards the east,* where there 
are cities and castles, and the chief one bears the same 
name. The people belong to the great khan, like all those 
formerly subject to Prester John. In this province there 
is a king named George, descended from that prince, and 
who indeed enjoys his power. He holds the land under 
tbQ khan, but only a part of that which was possessed by 
his ancestor. I assure you, however, that the khans have 
often given their daughters and female relations to the 
reigning kings of this line. In tbis province are found 
the stones whence azure is made ; they are plentiful and 
good. Caoolets, too, are woven of camels' hair. The 
natives live on cattle and the fruits of the earth, and 
have likewise some merchandise and manufactures. The 
Christians, as already mentioned, are masters of the land ;t 
but there are also idolaters and worshippers of Moham- 
med. There is likewise a people called Argon, meaning 
in French Gnasmul, that is, mixed of two d£9erent races. 

* Tendae ii mentioned bj P^tie de la Croix (p. 34) as one of the most 
extended tneta of Karakithaj. This name, meaning the Black Cathay, 
belonged to a district oocvj»ed by numeroas Chinese, who, when their 
comatry was overran by the Leao and the Kin, sooght new settlements 
in the wilds of Tartafy. They filled a long territory to thd sonth of 
Mongolia and north of Tangnt, and nachinr apparpntly farther east- 
ward than is represented in the map of M. D'Avezac. They introduced 
into this wide r^on a degree of caltnre and popolation to which it was 
before a stranger ; but whieb, amid subsequent z«Tolutions, it has been 
unable to support. It yielded, however, to the arms of Onang Khan, 
and was incorporated into his dominions ; afterwards, with the others, 
it was aiinexed to Che empire of GengiS' Mr. Marsden^s idea of any con- 
nexion with the Tong^si appears quite unfounded. 

t We have meatiaiwd ebewhere the widely prevailing report of Ouang 
Khan, being a Christian soveraigay and therefioTQ named Prester John. 
The statement now made tends l».conina it. We may notice also the 
letter to the Pope from Joas da BConte Gorvino, who boasts of having 
bfpti:0»d the son of PriiWie Qeof^o here meatiagird.— -Marsden, p 844. 



286 CBNTmAL ASIA. 

Tbey are handsomer than the others, B^ore pradent and 
eommercial. Know that in this province was the chief 
seat of Prester John, when he ruled over the Tartars and 
all the surrounding countries ; and this George is the sixth 
in succession from him. This, too^ is the piace which we 
in our country call Gog and Magog, but they call it Ung 
and Mungul ;* and in each province was a different race 
of people, — in Uug were the Gog, and in Mungul dwelt 
the Tartars. 

When a man rides through that province seven days 
eastward towards Cathay, he finds many cities and qas- 
tles. The inhabitants are Mohammedans, idolaters, and 
Christians ; they cany on trade, and manufacture fine 
gilded cloths, caSed mueui, with various kinds of silk 
cloth, and are subject to the great khan. There is a city 
named Sindacui, with many manufoeturee of hamese and 
trapfungs necessary for an army. In the moantains of 
that country is a place named Jdifu, where there is a voy 
productive silver mine. They have no want of beasts and 
birds for hunting. Now let us depart from this pnyviaoe 
and its cities, and travefthree days, when we sbafi find a 
town named Cianganor, in which is a fine pi^Mse oi the 
great khan [already described, p. 131]. 

LI.— Oa the City of Chaada. 

Departing from this city, and travelling three days be- 
tween north and north-east, you come to another named 
Chandu,t built t^ Kublai, the great khan new reigning. 

* 0«B aadBfigiag weraoetobntodiathelGddte A«M. wpMidly •uoQi^ 
the San«eM, «• two mightj gmi* who held » fottised station in feho 
north of Ana. The reeembjaace of their names to TJng and Mungol, 
with a conreepondinf ronffhseei of character, eeeme to luen sogsaated 
the ^Mnt «9rade theoiy reepeotinff their identity. 

t The poeitton of this place seem* to admit of no doubt, aince Gerbil- 
lon, in 1691, while aoconuMmying the emperor on an «icarnon into Mon- 
golia, visited its rains. He mentions them wider tlm name of Sbaagtu, 
as these of the coan^y palaoe of the emperars of the Yuen dyoasty, as 
the giinese termed that founded by Kublsi. The position is in latitude 
40^ 22' N. N. £. of Pe-kinff. ' GerbiUon particularly notices the grieat 
abont^uce of every species of game. Its position must determine the 
preceding one of Cianganor, from which it is stated to lie three daya* 
}oamey nmth-essL In that precise site we find a duster of lakes, with 

S^' i^SSi^A^^^ ^'^ •^^y vvtioain shews the two plaoes 
xstsden should fixit.on amer« xvde rteettUsnceornsme^ia the Cliar 



CENTBAL ASIA. 237 

Here he has built a most magnificent palace. [This, 
too, was formerly described when treating of the mode 
of life and hunting residences of that great monarch, 
p. 118,&c.] 

han-nnr, or White Lake, situated, as he admits, at areiygreat distance. 
M. Ritter (A>ien, toI. i. p. 141} soggoara the Tool nor, which is indeed 
nearer ; hot atill more than three days diitetat. It lies, besides, due 
north, instead of south-west, as stated by our .traveller, whose authority 
therefore must be entirely thrown aside if we lulopt either of these sup- 
poeitions. Indeed, I cannot but reraaik, that Mr. Marsden has been pe- 
culiarly unsuccessful in tracing the positions 'on this frontier, so that, 
were it not for the aids of Count Boni and M. Klaproth, I should have 
found myself much at a loss. This failure appears to have arisen chiefly 
from his uinfoxtunate liabit of Bupposing himself at liberty, where he 
could find the sligliitest resemblance in name wad description, to supjtose 
his author guilty of the most enormous errors as to distance, direction, 
and poeitioa. In a note on one of these chapters he agrees with Forster, 
that " Marco Polo does not point out the situation ^ his places in the 

f roper order, but goes from one to another Just as his fancy leads him.'' 
i ia hopeid however, that reason has now been given for Oelievini^ tiiat 
moat en tlkeee alleged mistakes are in fnct those of hie editors and inter- 
pratezs. 



PARTHL 

Voftgt iknmgk tke htdimn Seas, and Historical Accounts 

tf Western Asia,. 



Cbisese Ksngmtmi to I»dift— Descriptioa of Jmpui— Kcp^fitioa sent 
dudmbrKiililai — Che Oriental Arcliipelago ; its Froduoe of (3dld and 
Spioes— Visit to TVdompa — Wsr between the Kinr and Kab!ai-rAe- 
eooat of Jav» — Malarra — Anival at Somatra — Toyage round the 
Idaad — The dilferent Kingdoms — Sarages ef the Intorior-'Prodixce 
of IVIm-toddj, Camphor, Sago— The Andaman and NiedMtr Islands 
^-Cejloa ; its Pearis and RulHes — Soperstitioos Legends of fhe Peo- 
ple— <>Mat of Maabar or Coromandel— Varions Costoms and Super- 
stitions— Masnlipatam ; its fine Cloths — ^the Diamond Mines— Ma- 
ibas and the L^fend of St. Thomas— The Bnunins and their -varioo* 
Orders and Obsernmoes — Cail, Cofl<m ; Comari (Cape Comorin)— 
Eli or Dely— Malabar Coast— Dreadful Pinunes— Turn and Cambaia 
— Snuttant (Gnxerat) — ^Mention of Mekran— Polo gires Reports col- 
lected respecting Afiiea—Soootra ; Whale-fishery— Madagascar ; fab- 
nloasSnmoan— Confoonded with SontliemAfrfct^ — Zangaebar ; why 
ooBsidered an Island — ^Abyssinia ; its Description — Wars with Adel— 
Arabia, Aden, Shaher, Dtnar, Kalhat — Retom to Ormns — Undertakes 
to relate the Revolutions of Western Asia — Kaidn, Prince of Samar- 
caad — ffis Wars with KnbUd — Exploits of his heroic Daughter— His 
Contest with Aigottt Prince of Persia — ^Various Adventures of Aiipou, 
who is defeated and made Prisoner, but afterwards raised to the Per- 
sian Throne^His Death — Reigns of Quiacatu and Raidu — The latter 
vanquished by Ghazan, Son to Argon — Tartar Kingdom in Siberia ; 
Dog-sledges ; fine Furs — Region of Obscurity in the North— -Rumia 
— Black Sea and neighbouring Coudtries — Succession of Tartar Prin- 
ces on the Volga — Great War between Borka and Hodlaku — Another 
between Toctai and Nogai — Conclusion. 

I. — India and the Ships navigating thither. 

Hating described so many inland provinces, i will now 
enter upon India, with the wonderful objects in that re- 
gion. The ships in which the merchants navigate thither 
are made of fir,* with only one deck, but many of them are 

♦ Mr. Marsden does not believe that timber of this species can be ac- 
cessible to the Chinese shipbuilder. He does not perhaps duly consider, 
that amid the elaborate cultivation, forests are allowed to grow only on 
•.he loftiest mountain-ridges. These, in the south especially, reach quite 
ill Alpine height, and must have a rr.Ul climate suited to northern trees. 



1>H£ INOtAN SISAB; KT€. ^89 

divided beneath into sixty compartments, i& each of which 
a person can be conveniently accommodated. They have 
one rndder and four masts ; while some have two addition- 
al, which can be pat up apd taken down at pleasure. Many 
of the largest have besides as many as thirteen divisi<N)s 
in the hold, formed of thick planks mortised into each 
other. The object is to guard against accidents which 
may cause the vessel to spring a leak, such as striking on 
a rock or being attacked by a whale. This last circum- 
stance is no3t unusual ; for during the night the motion of 
the ship through the waves raises a foam that invites the 
hungry animil, which, hoping to find food, rushes vio- 
lently agamst the hull, and often forces in part of the bot- 
tom. The water entering by the leak, runs on to the well, 
which is £^ways kept dear ; and the qrew, on perceiving 
the occurrence, remove the goods from the inundated divi- 
sion, and the boards are so tight that it cannot pass to 
any other. They then repair the injury and replace the 
articles. The planks are double, fastened with iron nails^ 
and plastered without and within^ but not secured by 
pitch, of which the people are destitute. Th^ therefore 
take lime, beat it into tine powder, and mix it with an oil 
from trees, so that it becomes equal to i^lue. These ves- 
sels carry two hundred mariners, and five or six thousand 
loads of pepper; they are moved l^ oarS) on each of 
which four hands are employed. Eveiy one of them has 
two barks, large enough to carry a thousand loads, and 
forty seamen well armed* who often assist in dragging 
the large ships. Ten small boats are also kept for fishing 
and various other services ; two being attached to each 
bark. When the ships have sailed a year, and stand in 
need of repair, a fresh plank is fastened above the two 
others, thea nailed and cemented,* till they sometimes ac- 

The produce is easily convejed down to the coast by the numerous riv- 
era and canals. — Historical Account of China (Edinburgh Cabinet U* 
brary), vol. i. p. 19 ; vol. ii. pp. 232, 233. 

* The diyisioD into coinpartments completely detached from each other, 
and the use of a cement composed of lime and oil, is still the system 
upon which Chinese junks arexonstructed. Historical Account of &hina 
(Edinburgh Cabinet Library), vol. ii'l pp. 239, 240. The mention of 
whales, and of the proceedings in case of a lealc, are found only in Ra- 
musio. The advantage stated in the latter case is obvious aod impor- 
tant : but we are noi aware of accidents from whales being usual in the 
Chinese Sea. 



240 THE INDIAN SEAS, AND HISTORICAL 

quire a depth of six planks. Having thas d^csrifed the 
merchant-yessels that go to India, I will tell you of the 
coantry itself; bat first I must mention the many isles in 
this sea lying to the eastward ; and first, of one named 
Zipangu. 

II.*— Island of Zipangu, and Tartar Expedition thither. 

This is a very large island, fifteen hundred miles from 
. the- continent.* The people are fair, handsome, and of 
agreeable manners. They are idolaters, and lire quite 
separate, entirely independent of all other nations. Gold 
is very abundant, and no man being allowed to export it, 
while no merchant goes thence to the mainland, the peo- 
ple accumulate a vast amount. But I will give yon a 
wonderful account of a very large palace, all covered with 
that metal, as oar churches are with lead. The pavement 
of the chamber, the haUs, windows, and every other part, 
have it laid on two inches thick, t so that the riches of 
this palace are incalculable. Here are also red pearls, 
large, and of equal value with the white, with many other 
precious stones.t Kublai, on hearing of this amazing 
wealth, desired to conquer the island, and* sent two of his 
barons with a very large fleet containing warriors, twth 
horsemen and on foot. One was named Abatan, the other 
Yonsanicin, both wise and valiant. They sailed from 
Zai-tun and Kin-sai, reached the isle, landed,, and took 
possession of the plain and of a ndmber of houses ; but 
they had been unable to take any city or castle, when a 
sad misadventure occurred. A mutual jealousy arose 
amongst them, which prevented their acting in any con- 
cert. One day when the north wind blew very strong, the 

* This ia evidently Japan. The nearest part of the northern island is 
reckoned b;^ Mr. Marsden (p. 572), rather seemingly too low, at only 500 
miles. Cmnese li (about a third of a mile) may have been meant ; or 
the writer might refer to the most central part of the group. 

t The extent and productiveness of this empire, with the studied ex- 
clusion of foreigners, are circumstances well known. The gold mines 
are described as very considerable, and monopolized by the sovereign. 
The modem palace is not represented as so richly covered with gold : 
but authorities, both European and Chinese, state this ornament to have 
been formerly employed much more profusely.— Marsden, pp. 572, 573. 

t Count Bom quotes Thunberg and Olivier de Nort, both for the abun- 
dance of pearls in Japan and for their red colour. This tint is obse rved 
even m a few of those found in Ceylon.— Marsden, p. 573 



ACCOUNTS tiV VVKv-STEHN AttI A, '>H 

troops expressed to each otlier apprehensions, that if they 
remained, all the vessels would be wrecked. The whole 
then went on board and set sail. When they had pro- 
ceeded about four miles, they ibund another small isle, 
■i>n which, the storm being violent, a number sought re- 
fuge. Others could not reach it, many of whom suffered 
shipwTeek and perished ; but some were preserved and 
sailed for their native country. Those who had landed, 
30,000 in number, looked on themselves as dead men, see- 
mg no means of ever escaping; and their anger and grief 
were increased, when they beheld the other ships making 
their way homeward. 

The sovereign and people of the large isle rejoiced 
greatly when they saw the host thus scattered and many 
of them cast npon the islet. As soon as the sea calmed, 
they assembled a great number of ships, sailed thither and 
landed, hoping to capture all those refugees. But when 
the latter saw that tlieir enemies had disembarked, leav- 
ing the vessels unguarded, they skilfully retreated to an- 
other quarter, and continued moving about till they reach- 
ed the ships, and went on board without any opposition. 
They then sailed direct for the principal island, hoisting 
its own standards and ensigns. On seeing these, the pe^ 
pie believed their own countrymen had returned, and al- 
lowed them to enter the city. The Tartars, finding it de- 
fended only by old men, soon drove them out, retaining 
the women as slaves. When the king and his warriors 
saw themselves thut deceived, and their city captured, 
they were like to die of grief; but they assembled other 
ships, and invested it so closely as to prevent all commu- 
nioation. The invaders maintained it seven months, and 
planned day and night how they might convey tidings to 
their master of their present condition ; but finding this 
impossible, they agreed with the besiegers to surrender, 
securing only their lives.* This took place in the year 
1269. The great khan, however, ordered one of the com- 

* Both in the Chinese and Japanese annals, this expedition is related, 
and represented as having been rendered abortive by disastrous ship- 
wnNrk. In particnlars, however, they differ from each other ; while our 
traveller, having been in China when the news arrived, had the best 
opportunities of gaining information. There is no reason to suppose, 
tbtrafore, that his more detailed account may not be generally cor- 
rect. 



242 THE IllDIAN SEAS, AND SIBTORICAL 

manders of this host to lose his bead, and the other to be 
sent to the isle where be had caused the loss of so many 
men, and there put to death. I have to relate also a very 
wonderful things, that these two barons took a number of 
persons in a castle of Zipangu, and because they had re- 
fused to surrender, ordered all their heads to be cut off; 
but there were eight on whom they could not execute this 
sentence, because these wore consecrated stones in the 
arm between the skin and the flesh, which so enchanted 
them, that they could not die by steel. They were there- 
fore beaten to death with clubs, and the stones, being ex- 
tracted, were held very precious.^ But I must leave this 
matter and go on with the narrative. 

III.— Idolatty and Cruelty of the Japanese. 

The idolaters of Cathay, of Manji, and of these isles, 
have all a uniform worship ; their idols have heads re- 
spectively of the dog, the hog, the sheep, and various other 
animals. Some have a head and four faces, others three 
heads, one in the proper place, and one on each shoulder. 
Certain images have four, ten, and even a thousand hands, 
and these last are held in peculiar reverence. When the 
Ohristians ask them why they form idols in so strange a 
manner, they repfy, — ** Our ancestors left them to us, and 
we will leave them to our children.-* The actions of 
these beings are so various and diabolical, that they must 
not be mentioned in this book, because it would be a wick- 
ed thing in Christians to read them.t I shall only men- 
tion, that any idolater of these isles, when he captures 
an enemy, who cannot procure a ransom in money, in- 
vites his friends, who cook and eat the pri8oner,t reck- 

* The delusioa of neppoting wmnm rwidereidl inTufaten^le bj titf 
use of amulets, is stated by Mr. Majaden (p. 57&) to be common in the 
oriental islands ; and an instance is mentioned when the Portug-uese were 
imposed upon by it. 

f The religion of Boodb, loag the moat popular in China, has alao 
been extensively diflfused through Japan, so that the superstiticms of the 
two countries are correctly represented as similar. The deformed and 
multiform idols, either native or introduced from India, are also cook- 
mon. Thanberg mentions many in the temples at Miaco, «ach twand- 
ishing from twenty to forty-six arms 

i This report, though probably quite unfounded, is not unlikely to 
have arisen during the imbittered war waged between the Taitan and 
Japanese. 



ACCOUNTS QF WE8THKK ASIA. 2418 

otting his 'flesh the most' delicate food that can be ob- 
tained. 

IV. — Sea of China, *nd namerout Islands.* 

You must know, that the gulf containing this island is 
called that of Zin, meaning in their language the sea op- 
posite to Manji. According to skilful and intelligent mari- 
ners, who have made the voyage, it contains 7448 isles, 
mostly inhabited. In all these there grows no tree which 
is not agreeably fragrant, and also useful, being equal or 
superior in size to the lignum aloes. They pr^uce also 
many and various spices, including pepper white like 
snow, as well as the black- They yield also much gold, 
and various other wonderful and costly productions ;t but 
they are very distant and difficult to reach. The mari- 
ners of Zai-tun and Kin-sai, who visit them, gain indeed 
great profits ; but they spend a year on the voyage, going 
in winter, and returning in the summer ; for the wind in 
these seasons blows only from two different quarters, one 
of which carries them thither, and the other brings them 
back.t But this country is immensely distant from In- 
dia. You may observe, too, that though the sea be call- 
ed Zin, it is really the ocean, just as we say the sea of 
England, the sea of Kochelle. The great khan has no 

* Ramnsio beffins this chapter thus: "Departing from the port of 
Zai-tun, and sailing- a westerly coarse inclining to the soath, fur 1500 
miles, yon pass the gulf muned Keinan, t&e navigation along the north- 
em shore of which occapies two months. It bounds the southeni pitn 
of Manji, and then a^roaches the coantries of Arica, Tolflinan,jitnd many 
others already meutiaDed.** Mr. Marsden admits that the period of two 
ooouths is too laige, and that the nnmerons and distant coasts mention- 
ed in the chapter are improperly stated as within the gulf, whereas they 
evidently include all those belonging to the Indian archipelago. Neither 
of these errors appears in oar text, taken from the early editions. The 
mention, however, of Keinan (evidently Hai-nan) shows some kind of 
isformatioa in the person who inserted the passage in Ramusio. 

t The number slated is doubtless fiuiciful and exaggerated ; yet when 
we consider the vanous groups composing the oriental archipelago,—- 
many consisting of numerous islets, the whole amount must be very 
great. They are, as hers justly noticed, productive beyond any other 
part of the world in aromatic and odoriferous plants, also very rich in gold. 

t The distance would not be very formidable to a British mariner, bat 
is otherwise to the rvder Chinese navigator ; while this sea, too, is tem- 
pestuons and dangerous. The junks stiU perform only one vovage in 
the year ; and, as hers eorrectly stated, sail in the winter with the north- 
east monsoon, and return in summer with the sooth-west one.— Mars- 
den « p. 58S. 



944 THE INDIAN 8EAS9 AND HISTORICAL 

po^er over these islands.* Now let as return to Zai4iiii, 
and resame our narrative. 

y. — Of Ciantw, and Expedition thither. 

On leaving that port, and sailing west and somewhat 
sooth-west 1500 miles, you reach a country named Cian- 
ba,t which is very rich and extensive. The people are 
idolaters, have a language of their own, and a king, who 
pays tribute to the great khan, but only in fine elephants 
peculiar to the country. That monarch, seeking to sub- 
due him, sent, in 1278, one of his barons with many men, 
horse and foot, who began to lay waste the country. The 
sovereign, who was very aged and much afraid of such 
powerful warriors, did not venture to engage them on the 
open plain, remaining secure in strong cities and fortress- 
es ; but all the lands and houses were wasted and destroy- 
ed. Grieved at the desolation of the territory, he sent mes- 
sengers, who said to the great khan, " Sir, the king of Cian- 
ba salutes yon as his liege lord, and states himself to be a 
man of great age, who has long preserved his kingdom in 
peace. He offers to be your vassal, and pay a liberal tribute 
in elephants, and beseeches that your baron and army will 
cease to ravage his kingdom." The khan, having heard 
this message, took pity upon him, and ordered his gene- 
ral to withdraw, and conquer another country ; and he 
has ever since received this tribute of the largest and 
most beautiful elephants, t In this kingdom, no handsome 
girl can be married till the king sees her, when, if pleased, 
he takes her to wife ; otherwise, he gives her money, 
with which she can be married to a nobleman. In 1285, 

* The object seems here to be, to distingaish the ocean and its Inrauch- 
es from a great lake oar enclosed sea, like the Caspian. In Ramnsio w» 
have the Egean Sea, instead of that of Rocfaelle. 

t Ziamba, Raimuio, This is evidently Tsiompa, called also Ciaii»> 
pa, a maritinie country between Cochin-china, and Camboi8,and whichp 

? rejecting beyond the former, terminates &e deep gulf of which itself, 
i'ouquin, and Soathem China, are the boundaries. 
t It is sttflSciently evident, even from our author's narrative, which 
was doubtless that current at the coari of Eublai, that the issue of this 
expedition was the reverse of triumphant, and that the emperor granted 
such lenient terms solely because he could not push his demands fiar- 
ther. It appears by Chinese history, that the war was still more disaa- 
trous than is here represented, their army being closely hemmed in, and 
with difficulty effecting its retreat.— Marsden, p. 588. In the Crusca 
MS. the tribute is said to have consisted of tvfnty elephants. 



ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 24d 

When I, Msfco Polo, was there, the king had 326 sons 
and daaghters, of whom 150 were men that coald carry 
arms. Besides elephants, the country abounds in lignum 
aloes, and the wood called ebony,* which is very black, 
used in making chess-boards and writing-desks. I now 
proceed to a great island named Java. 

VI.— The Island of Ja\a. 



Departing from Cianba, and going south and south-east 
1500 miles, you come to this island. Good mariners, who 
know it intimately, describe it as the largest in the world, 
with a circuit of more than 3000 miles. The people ar6 
subject to a powerful king, are idolaters, and pay no trib- 
jate to any other prince. The territory is very rich, yield- 
ing pepper, nutmegs^ galanga, cubebs, cloves, and all the 
richest of spices. Many merchants from Zai-tun and 
Manji come and carry on a great and profitable traffic. 
Its treasure also is so immense, that it can scarcely be 
estimated.t On account of the long and difficult naviga- 
tion, the great khan never could acquire dominion over it. 

Vn.— Kingdom of Lochac. 

Leaving this island, and sailing between aouth and 
south-west 700 miles, you find two isles, a large and a 
small, called Sondur and Condur.t Departing thence, and 

* Elephants abound in all the countries between India and China, 
and Mr. Maraden quotes the Flora cochin-chinensis for the copious sup- 
ply of ebony, and its adaptation to ornamental furniture. 

t The dimensions here assigned are much greater than those of Java 
Proper ; whence Zurla contends that Borneo is the island described : bat 
Count Boni seems to state sufficient reasons against this opinion. I in- 
cline, however decidedly to concur with a suggestion slightly made by 
Mr. Marsden, that the great Java of our traveller included both these 
islands. It is impossible otherwise to make even an approach to the di- 
mensions here stiOed, and the calling Sumatra LittU Java would be pre- 
posteruuK. It is also very unlikely that he should have omitted all men- 
fjcm of Borneo, which lay so completely in his way. The pepper and 
other spices were evidently procured in Java Proper^ including indeed, 
several that are raised in the Moluccas and other islands to the east- 
ward ; but Java has always been the chief mart, where the Chinese ap- 
parently found them assorted for sale. The great abunduice of gold 
(meant by treasure) could only be found in Borneo. 

% These appear evidently to be Pulo Condore, a small group off the 
coast of Camboia, and a common rendezvous of vessels navigating these 
aeas. But there is an extraordinary error in the direction S.S.W., which, 
instead of bringing a ship from Java hither, would carry it into the heart 
of the Southern Oceaa. It is found alike in the earliest editions and in 



246 THJ2 INDIAN S£Aii, AND HISTOBICAL 

going south-east still 500 miles, yon fiod aiwry extenBiTe 
province named Lochac.* The people are subject only 
to a native king, are idolaters, with languages of their 
own. They are tributary to no power, being so situated 
that no invader can reach their land ; otherwise it would 
soon be subdued by the great khan. Brazil-wood is in 
abundance, and gold in almost incredible quantities. There 
are elephants and other animals for hunting ; and from 
this place is derived all the porcelain that is circulated as 
money through the provinces now described. I have only 
to add, that the country is difficult to reach ; the king him- 
self does not wish to be visited by strangers, and thus no 
one knows his treasure and condition.! 

lUmosio. The Bwh gitw sodireetion ; ud llttUiBr, iiftimfttingr &o dif- 
fisreiioe,. t«ein« to imply tiie Hia»B in the Borlin MS. of Pipiao ; but I m»- 
pect ths leamftd editor has neglected the collation, as the Museum MS. 
and the printed edition agree in malting it BOnth-w«st. I have no donht 
Mr. Manden points ont the real cause^ Java was not in the line of the 
voyage, bnt.descnribed, as indeed is prottgr diatinetly intimated, igom. the 
raport of nuuriners at Tsiompa. Having given the description, he re- 
turns to that country and reports the trip thence to Pulo Condore, which 
is exactly in the directioia. of south-west. In Fipino, both MS. and 
printed, the expression is : " Dimisaa insula Java ;" which can quite 
bear the sense, ** Ceani&g %o treat of ;" mnd probaUy a term of this im- 
port was in the original, which the othor copyists and translators have 
misunderstood, and made it to imply departure from, Itc. 

* The distance in Ramnsio is fifty miles ; and Mr. Marsden concludes 
that it must be Camboia, the capital of which in hyflu early writer call- 
ed Loech. But all the best editions, — ^the Freadi, Paris Latin, Crusca, 
Fucci, and Pipino, make the distance 500 miles, so that the ooantry 
reached must be the eastern coast of what is now termed Malacca. 
There is, however, the great error of making the direction south-aMt 
instead of aanthrweet ; aad this is common to tha eaily editions and to 
Ramusio. It is probably a mistake in copying bad manoscript. Soeloc 
a»td Garbia sound -very unlike ; yet the number of letters is the same ; a 
bad G might be nastuen for S, and b for l^ Gryneus, who givw no di- 
YectioQ in the preceding routd, states here the right ona, south-west. It 
is the same in the FVench edition of 1556 The learned editm* of the 
Novus Orbis might-, from other information, perceive this mistake. Pi- 
pino, too, having made the reute to the two islands 8outh>west, intimates 
here its continuance (tUtra qnen ad quingenta milliaria eat Lorach). 
This correctness of the middle editions, while both the early and late 
'mes are erroneous, appears curious. Pipino translated at a time when 
ne might have access to excellent MSS. ; and being a learned man, 
might interpret them better than the other copyistsor translators. 

t This country, as above observed, must have been the eastern coast 
of Malacca, which the Malays had only recently reached, and not yet 
^iven their name. It is difficult to find one resembling Loc^hac, unless 
It be in Ligorr, the seat formerly of a great trade ; c* and *• being alwayt 
mtwchanged. Thf coast in still little knewn or fxvquented, and ttom 



ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 347 

Vm.— Peutua and otlker Istaoda. 

When a man goes 500 miles southward from Lochac, 
he finds an island name Pentam, very wild, all covered 
with odoriferous woods. Thence be navigates between 
these two islands about sixty miles, drawing only four 
paces of water, so that large vessels in the passage must 
remove their rudder. He then goes on soath-east about 
thirty miles, and reaches an island also named Pentam, 
with the noble and rich city Malauir, having much traf- 
fic in spices an4 other articles. The people have a king 
and languages of their own.* 

IX. — ^bluid of Littl^^JsTB (Somatra.) 

Departing from Pentam, and going 130 miles south- 
east, you find the island of Java the Lesser; but notwith- 
standing this title, it is above two thousand miles in cir- 
cuit, with eight kingdoms, and the same number of crown- 
ed sovereigns.! 1 will tell you the whole truth about it. 

the Bune cames, being oat cf tke common roirte of naviffation, and the 
people very rude. Gold dust is mentioned as an export from all its ha- 
vens. Elephants* teeth are also notieed, and timber is plentiful (Mil- 
bum's Oriental Commerce, vol. ii. p. 3^0-341). The only mistake ap- 
pears to be about the shells used for money, (oowries), which are found 
on the adjacent coast of Biwneo ; but perhaps a quantity of imported 
ones had been here teen. The words ** for money'' are wanting in the 
Fronch, — ^probablv an omission, as the Crusca has them. Ramusio men- 
tions ** a fruit called berchi, in size resembling a lemon, and of delieioos 
flavour." Thte is wanting in the early editions, and Mr. Marsden can- 
not find any confirmation of it ; generally, however, the fruits of the 
coxmtry are said to be good. 

* The navigation in this chapter is intricate ; yet I think it may be 
traced. The first 500 miles is evidently along the coast of Malacca, ter- 
minating at the island of Bintang. The next 60 most then have been 
through the Straits of Sincapore, which Mr. Horsbuigh (vol. ii, p, 177^ 
182) describes as difficult, and iu many parts very shallow, ^e might 
then come to the island of Paatjoor, adjacei^ to Sumatra, and which he 
•hio names Pentam. Possibly, however, it migl^it be Batang, and the 90 
miles be along its south-western coast. We have seen our author's fond- 
ness for identifying names that are at all similar. Bamusio's text is here 
very defective and confused,.rendering it impoesible for Mr. Mars4en to 
form any idea of the course. He makes the 60 miles south-east, and the 
SO without direction ; and he haa nothing to show that there are two 
l^eniame. 

t The name of Lesser Java is evidently given, though it is admitted 
with so strict propriety, to the laTge island of Sumatra. Its extent, its 
podncts, its people, are described with very great correctness. The 
local details are more difficult to trace, as the author haa given neither 
dietancea nor directions, names an mnch altered, and its turbulent litde 
^ngdoms ars liable to such constant revolutions, thi^ i))e mof t powernl 

'IT 



348 THE INDIAN SEAS, AND HISTORICAL 

The people are idolaters, and each nation has a language ~ 
of its own. There is a very great abundance of treasure 
and costly spices, as well as of lignum aloes and many 
other woods nnknown in our country. What will appear 
▼ery wonderful is, that this isle lies so far south, that the 
north star is never seen. Now I will teU you of each 
kingdom by itself. 

X.-^Kingdom of Ferlech. 

In that of Ferlech are Saracen merchants, who come 
with their vessels, and have converted the people to the 
law of Mohammed ; but only in the city, for those in the 
mountains live like brutes, eating the flesh of men and 
of the vilest animals. They worship various objects, par- 
ticularly the first thing they meet after rising in the morn- 
ing.* 

XI.— Kingdom of Buman. 

Leavmg Ferlech, you enter Basman, a kingdom by 
itself, whose people have a language of their own, and 

m one agv coftses to exist in another. Yet I cannot but wonder that Mr. 
Marsdes 'p. 600) should pass a general censure against our traveller's 
description, and prefer to it the meagre one of Barbosa. I am conTinced, 
however, that the learned editor has misconceived the whole scope of this 
voyage, which he supposes .to have been through the Straits of Malaoea, 
and along the northern coast of the island. It appears to me, on the 
coiftrary, that they went through the Straits of Sonda, and then alon^ 
the western side. This was, no doubt, a circuitous route ; yet many 
motives might Mas them. It appears from Mr. Horsburg (vol. ii. p. 139} 
that the Malacca channel is dangerous to those unacquainted with it, as 
the Chinese were. Knowing the island evidently by way of Java, Uier 
might prefer the route familiar to them. We find them setting oat wita 
a course trf* 130 miles in the best editions, and 100 in others, to the #Milft- 
$a*t ; a strange aberration from a track lying due norA-west throuffh 
the Malacca uiannel. One or two errors of direction have be^n lately 
observed : but these are rare, and the versions in that case differ ; but 
here they all agree. Other and perhaps more decided proofs will be 
developed in examining the details. 

* Mr. Marsden, dbserving that the Arabs convert the Malay p into/, 
considers this place as Perlak, at the north-eastern point of the island. 
\ et Tanjong Perlak is merely Diamond Point, nor is there any record 
of a kingdom or even city bearing the name. Our views would place it 
about the middle of the eastern coast, particularly in the kingdom of 
Siak, and the name is not veiy unlike, though certainly with no striking 
resemblance. The cannibals are the Battas, inhabiting the interior of 
the country, and who have always borne that reputation. The Saracen 
religion was about this time established in Malacca, and was therefor* 
very b'kely to have partially made its way into Samatra.->Marad»«>'« 
Htstory, pp 861,208. 



ACCOUNTS OP WBSTEKN ASIA. 249 

live without law, like beasts.* They own the sapremacy 
of the khan, but pay him no tribute, because the great 
distance prevents his troops from reaching them; yet 
they sometimes make him a present of strange objects. 
Here are wild elephants, and unicorns not much smaller, 
being double the size of a buffalo. They have a large 
black horn in the middle of the forehead, and beneath the 
tongue sharp prickles, which can inflict severe wounds. 
Their heads resemble that of the wild boar, yet they carry 
them bent to the earth. They are very ugly, and fond of 
wallowing among mire.f It is not true, as asserted 
among us, that they allow themselves to be taken by a 
virgin, but quite the contrary. There are here good and 
serviceable falcons, black like crows : also a prodigious 
number of monkeys of various forms and habits. But 
you must know that those who bring the little men from 
India practice a great deception. I assure you the fig- 
ures to which they give that name are manufactured in 
this island in the foUowing manner : — ^There is a species 
of small monkey, with a face resembling the human, 
which they catch, skin, and shave off* all the hair except 
on the beard and chin ; having then moulded them into a 
human semblance, they dry and preserve them with cam- 
phor and other articles. But it is a gross deception ; for 
neither in India, nor in any other country, however sav- 
age, are there men so small as these pretended ones.t 
Now let us tell of a kingdom called Samara. 

* Mr. Manden finds this kingdom in Pas6, formerly called Pa^em, a 
•hort distance west of Diamond Point. Count Bom, urging that the 
sovereignties could not well be so crowded together, supposes Pasaman 
to be on the western coast. Our Ttews would point to Pasaumah, in th^ 
interior from Palembang, near indeed to the western coast, yet conunu- 
nicating by a laige river with the eastern, to which its power, formerly 
greater, may at wis time have extended. On the whole, there is cer- 
tainly nothing decisive in these two stations ; but perhaps the next may 
be oiherwise. 

t The rhinoceros, an animal then probaly unknown in Europe, is here 
described with considerable accuracy. We may observe, that the south* 
em part of the east coast, where we suppose our traveller now to be, is 
described on Mr. Marsden'a map as fenny, and subject to inundation ; 
the situation best fitted fur this animal, which would be out of place 
amid the mountainous tracts in the north. 

X We have here a carious mention of a fraud practised on our ignorant 
ancestors. The belief of a nation of pigmies in the east was prevalent 
in that age, and is countenanced in the travels of Oderic and Mandeville. 
The former describes them on report ; the lattar av^rs that he saw theni. 



250 THE IHDIAN SBAS* AMD BI8TOBICAL 

XII. — ^Kingdom of S«mum. 

When a man departs from Basman, he finds the king- 
dom of Samara, in which I myself, Marco Polo, remained 
five months, because the bad weather did not allow us to 
sail. Here neither the north star nor the constellation 
of the Greater Bear appeared. The people are savage 
idolaters, governed by a rich and powerful king, and own- 
ing a nominal submission to the great khan. During our 
stay, we landed and erected castles of wood and twigs 
where we remained through the fear of these wicked 
men, who eat their feUow-creatures.* The best fishes in 
the world are found here. The people have no wheat, 
living on rice ; and they make no wine. You must know 
Uiere is a kind of tree, of which they cut a branch, and 
place a pot beneath, when, during the night, the vessel 
is filled, and very good wine is thus produced, both rc^ 

Tlie iDBrchante, it appears, took advantage of thM deliwioa, hy pirapuuv 
and aeUuig, prolMbly at high prices, specimens of this preteaiided Tarietjr 
<tf mankind, Oar traveller's good sense and accurate obsenratioai en»> 
Ued him to expose the trick. 

* Mr. Marsden considers this place as Sama^Iwiga, a port oa die nor* 
theni coast, and Count Bomi appears to acquiesce. I am eosiTinoed, oa 
the contrary, that it is the Bay of Samragka (SamanCa, AwsAwy), at 
the soothem extremity ; and this position, it is apprehended, forms a 
main key of the voyage. It is mentioned that not only the north star, 
hot those of the Wain or Greater Bear had beomoe invisible. This last 
oonld not be strictly tme, bat oi coarse they were seen more paxtiaUy 
the farther south he went. At all events, the disappearance of theae 
northern stars is noticed more emphatically, and as taking place to a 
greater extent, than in the middle part of the island, oppoeittt the Straits 
cf Sincapore. Does not this imply that he vras now on the southern 
coast, in about 5^ S. lat., ntft on its opposite one, above 10^ northward ? 
Again, in taming the western point of this bay, he would come upon 
the ocean and encounter in all its fbrro the north-west monsoon, whK^, 
from October td April blows with great violence, accompanied with thoft' 
der and lightning (Horsboigh, p. 47). If they arrived at the begianlng 
of this period, the detention is easily accounted for. But this monsoan 
blows chiefly south of the equator; indeed, both Mr. Hoiaba^h (L&trod. 
p. 4) and Mr. Wright (Nautical Directory, p. 17) consider its range as 
not extending beyond 12^ S. and 4^ N. lat. It could not therefore reach 
the northern coast of this great island, though stated to blow with pecu- 
liar force on the western. Mr. Marsden (History of Sumatra, p. SOT) 
describes .he shores of this bay as occupied by a ferocious people named 
Orangabung who had been the terror of all their neighbours till lately, 
when their villages were destroyed. The Crusca gives the name Sa- 
marcha, which comes still nearer to Samara. There is thus a concur- 
rence of circumstances showing this to have been the ywrt described, 
and, consequently, the expedition to have pessed through thf» Straus of 
i^ttnda. 



ACCOUNTS OF WE8TEBN ASIA. 261 

and white. The tree resembles a small date-palm, with 
foar branches, and when it ceases to gire out more wine, 
they water its root, which causes it to produce again.* 
They hare great quantities of very large Indian nuts, and 
eat all kinds of flesh, good and bad. Now let us tell you 
of a kingdom which is named Dagroian. 

XIII. — ^Kii^om of Dttgroiaa. 

This kingdom has a language of its own ; the pdople are 
very sa^Kige, subject to a king, but owning the supremacy 
of the great khan.t They are savage idolaters, and have 
the following very bad custom: — ^Wben a man falls sick, 
his relations send for the magicians, and inquire if he will 
recover, as these deceivers profess to know, by their en- 
chantments and idols, whether he will live <>r die. In the 
latter case, the friends send for persons who, place some- 
thing over his mouth, by which he is suffocated. Th^ 
then cook the body, and all the kinsmen come and eat his 
flesh, taking care not to leave the smallest portion : which 
they believe would breed worms, and thus seriously afflict 
the soul of the deceased. They next collect the bones, 
and place them in a large and beautiful chest, which they 
carry to caverns in the mountains, beyond the reach of 
wild beasts or any other injury. When they take any 
man belonging to another country, who cannot redeem 
himself, they kill and ea^ hiin in like manner. This is a 
very bad practice.! I must now, however, tell you some- 
thing of Lambri. 

* Mr. Maraden (History, n. 88) mentions palm-trees, of sereral species, 
from which the natives, in the manner described, extract the liqoor called 
toddy, which in a few hours ferments and becomes intoxicating-. Tha 
cocoa nut, mentioned in the following sentence, is equally plentiful. 

t Dragoyan, Ramusio. — ^Mr. Marsden supposes this to be Indragiri, ou 
the eastern coast. On the contrary, we look to the western, where the 
name most similar appears to be Ayer Aje (Ayer Rajah or Indrapour, 
Milbum)y in about 2^ S. lat., and near the highest mountains of the 
island. 

t Mr. Marsden has been able to find no confirmation of this peculiarly 
barbarous custom. The Battas, however, a numerous people in the in 
terior, are believed to eat the flesh, not only of their enemies, but r 
condemned criminals- It appears also (Manden's Sumatra, p. 388), th 
at the death of relations, a great feast is held, and numerous anima 
killed, the blood of which is partially sprinUed over the cofBn. A ground 
work is thus afforded, which a credulous fancy might work up into t\ 
■iorr here narrated. 



252 THB INDIAN SEAS, AND HISTOEICAL 

XtV. — ^Kingdom of Lambri. 

Lambri is a kingdom having a sovereign of its own, 
who owns the supremacy of the khan. The people are all 
idolaters ; they have a great abundance of camphor and 
other spices ; likewise brazil-wood.* This they sow, and 
when it has grown to a little twig, they transplant it to 
another place, and at the end of three years root it up.t 
We brought some of this seed to Venice, but it did not 
spring at all on account of the cold. I will tell you another 
very wonderful thing ; for there are men in this kingdom 
who have tails like dogs, larger than a palm, and who are 
covered with hair. They remain in the mountains, never 
visiting the towns. t There are unicorns, with various 
beasts and birds for hunting. Now let us depart and tell 
you of Fansur. 

* Mr. Maraden proceeds on the sappoeitioa of tiiis being Jambi, on the 
eastern coast, yet repeatedly admitting that it has no correspondence 
except the imperfect one of name. He himself alludes to what we must 
agree with Count Boni in considering the real site. De Barroe, the early 
historian of the^ Poitngnese conquests, gives a list of kingdoms in their 
order : Daya, Lambri, Achem, and others. The first and last of these 
being at the north-west extremity of the island, Lamhri must be in the 
same quarter. It might seem, indeed, to be between them.; but the his- 
torian concludes thus: ^* Barros, Quinchel, and Mancopa, which -fidls 
upon Lambri. which is near to Daya, the first that we named.'* This 
distinctly implies that Lambri was more distant than Acheen, and henoe 
farther south than Daya. Accordingly, in about 4^ N. lat. Dolisle's map 
has, in conspicuous characters, Laboa. Mr. Marsden has here, Nalabu, 
which he describes (History, p. 185-188) as the seat of a considerable 
trade. Mr. J. Arrowsmith has it Analaboio ; still evidently the same with 
the Labou of Delisle, and, as I apprehend, the Lambri of De Barros and 
our traveller. Now his fleet was here, since, in the chapter after next, 
it is mentioned as thence finally setting sail. This is surely a strong 
confirmation of the voyage being along the western coast ; for had their 
tedious detention been on the northern, it was little likely they should 
then sail 100 miles southward, without any object, and merely to return. 

t Ramusio represents this process as taking place with another vege- 
table resembling the brazil-wood, which Mr. Marsden conjectures to be 
indigo. Our text, taken from the early editions, makes the plantation 
to be of the Brazil itself. Indigo is afterwards described under its owa 
name. 

It It is rather mortifying, after Marco had repelled one fable of thia 
description, that he should have given heed to another so similar. Mr. 
Marsden mentions reports he had heard of savage men covered with long 
hair, and shunning aU communication with the other inhabitants. I can- 
not help thinking it very probable, that the orang-outang or pougo of 
Borneo may lurk in some wild mountainous recesses of this adjacent 
island. Count Boni mentions, that Carletti, whose travels he had seen 
in MS., states his having heard a atory exactly similar to this from his 
Chinese pilots. 



ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 253 

XV. — ^Kingdom of Fansur. 

The people of Fansur are idolaters, have a king, and 
nominally acknowledge the great khan. Here grows the 
best canfara fcMsuri^ which is much more valued than any 
other ; indeed it sells for its weight in gold.* Wine is 
drawn from trees, in the manner described above : anoth- 
er wonder is, that, in this province, meal is obtained from 
them. These are large, the bark thin, and the interior all 
fall of meal. The inhabitants take it out, and make a 
very good paste, of which we often ate.t Having told 
you of the kingdoms in this part of the isle, J will say noth- 
ing of the two others, because we did not visit them. I 
will now, therefore, go to another small island called Gav- 
enispola-t 

XVI.— Itfauods of Necavenn and Augamaa CNioobar and Andaman.) 

' D^arting fix>m Java and the kingdom of Lambri, and 
travelling northward about 160 miles, you find two islands, 

* Facfur, Fipino, Fanfor, RamMtii. Mr. Mandan sapposea thia to 
be Kampar, on the eaatem coast, in which the Italian editor aeeuis to 
acquiesce. I cannot bat thick the real site perfectly evident, though in 
a very different quarter ; for it mutt be the district which ^elds that 
very fine camphor, for which the island is celebrated, bearing twenty 
times the price of that of Japan. This is completely ascertained to be 
m the interior from Bams or Barooe, on the western coast, whence it is 
called over the east Camphor- Barus (Crawfoitl's Indian Archipelago, 
voL i. p. 517). The very similar expiiesaion in the text seems to show 
chat the two places, though with names somewhat dissimilar^ are in fact 
the same. Count Boni quotes from Abulfeda the notice of Fansur as 
distinguished for this article, named FcauurenMtn. According to Cap- 
tain I^w, it is found 250 miles N. from Ayer Bongey, on the western 
coast only, being scarcely ever seen on the opposite side of the moun- 
tains (Juamal Royal Asiatic Society, vol. ii. p. 45). It will be observed 
that the fleet had sailed on to Lambri, whence in the next chapter we 
shall see it departing It was therefore by a detached excursion, or by 
diligent inquiry, that Marco gained his information reapecting this im- 
portant seat of commerce. 

t This is manifestly the sago, a food now well known and valued in 
Europe. Ramusio has a passage stating that the wood is as hard as iron, 
and sinks when thrown into water ; that it is capable of being split evenly 
from one end to the other, like the bamboo ; 1;hat the natives make it into 
lances, which, when haidened in the fire, are superior to those of iron. 
This Mr. Maraden observes to be quite an erroneous statement, as applied 
to the sago, being applicable only to a palm of a quite different species. 
There is not the least trace in the early editions of such a paragraph, 
which has evidently been interpolated by some inaccurate observer. 

X In the Crnsca, Jftniapola. It is curious that this island is newr 
again mentioned, and occurs on] v in it and the French edition. Cooat 
mni sanr**^ t«t it may be Polowav. 



254 THS INDIAN 8EA8, AND HISTORICAL 

one of which is called Necareraii.* The people have no 
king, and live like brutes, both men and women going 
quite naked. They are idolaters, and have forests of 
noble and valuable trees ; among which are sandal-wood, 
the Indian nut, clove, brazil, and many others. 

Angaman is a very large island, without a king ; the 
people idolaters, resembling savage beasts ; indeed they 
are a most extraordinary race, having a bead, teeth, and 
jaws like those of a mastiff dog. They are very cruel, 
and eat all the men of every other nation whom they can 
seize, t They have great abundance and variety of spices, 
with fruits different from ours, but live chiefly on flesh and 
milk. Having told of these various people, I will now 
mention another island. 

XVn.—l8land of Seilm. 

When you depart from Angaman, and sail about a thoa- 
sand miles westward, a Uttle to the south, you reach the 
idand of Seilan^ the very best of its size in the world. 
It is 3400 miles in circuit ; yet I must tell you that an- 
ciently it was larger, being 3600, as appears by the old 
maps of the mariners on that sea; but the north wind 
^ blows with such violence, that a great part has been car- 
ried away by the water.^ The people have a king called 

* In Ramntio, it is addad :-~*' The other Angaman.** Tbiais eridentljr 
interpolated by some one who was ignorant of the latter being too distant 
to admit of its being the island meant, which is evidently another of th* 
Nicobar group plainlr designated onder the name of Neenveran. Tha 
nxde yet harmless character of the people, and the noble trees with 
which die soil is clothed, are fiilly coniBimed by good subsequent author- 
ities. 

t The gronp of the Andamans is here manifestly pointed out. All 
accounts agree as to the ferocious and intractable di^sosition of the vnr 
habitants ; Mr. Colebrook considers them as perhaps the least ciVilized 
race in the world. It is even strongly reported, though seemingly not 
proved, that they are guilty of cannibalism. The resemblance to the 
canine race is too strongly stated ; yet they belong to that of the Papuaa 
or oriental negroes, whose generally deformed vtsage, with a projectioo 
in the lower part of the face, gives a considerable similarity to the ani- 
mal mentioned. 

X This is evidently the well Imown island of Ceylon, and both the dis- 
tance and direction are here extremely correct. 

^ The maps of Ptolemy, to which the Arab navigators we» accus- 
tomed to pjHT great regard, represent the island of Taprobane under very 
exaggerated dimensions. Finding those erroneous, yet not willing to 
believe him mistaken, they probably reconciled the ditter»nce by the on- 
fuunded theory stated in the text. 



ACCOUNTS OF WB8TBRN ASIA. 255 

Sendemain, and are tributary to none ; they are idolaters, 
and go quite naked, except a small covering round the 
middle. They have no grain but rice, living on it and on 
flesh. I will now describe the most precious thing in the 
world ; for here are noble and beautiful rubies, which can 
be procured nowhere else ; also the sapphire, the topaz, 
the amethyst, and various other precious stones. The 
king has the most beautiful ruby that ever was or can be 
in the whole world. It is the most splendid object on 
earth, and seems to glow like fire ; it is of such value as 
money could scarcely purchase.* The great khan sent 
his messengers to him, wishing to buy it, and offering the 
value of a city. The monarch replied, that he had re- 
ceived it from his ancestors, and would for no earthly 
consideration part with it. The people are not men-at- 
arms, but unwarlike and cowardly ; when they need sol- 
diers in war, they send for those of another country, com- 
monly for Saracens. 

XVIII.TrOngiA of the Boodhift Religioa in Seilan.t 

I have also to tell you that in this island there is a great 
mountain, of whic^ the rocks are so broken that it can be 
ascended only by ohains of iron suspended, whereby men 
may mount to the summit. Here, according to the Sara* 
eens, is the monument of Adam our first lather ;t but the 
idolaters consider it as that of Sergamon Borcam. They 
describe this last as the first man whose image they wor- 
shipped, and as the best that ever lived in^ their country. 
He was son to a great, rich, and powerful king, yet re- 
fused to succeed to the throne, or to attend to any worldly 

* Ceylmi is described as pieeoliarlj distin^iehed for the number ani 
▼ariety of its precious stones, but not, as our traveller represents, for 
their excellence. Rubies are particularly mentionod in the foremost 
place, and thoufh they are usu^y small (otilbum, toI. ii. p. 360), there 
seems no improbability of <some one yery fine specimen having been found. 
Count Boni refers to a notice of the present one in Haitlion's History of 
Armenia, ch. yi., a good and quite independent authority. 

t This chanter, in the French, Crusca, and Ramusio, is introduced 
some time after, as giving particulars previously (xnitted. We hive 
thought it more satisfactory, after the example of the Paris Latin, to 
introduce it here as its proper place. 

X The principal mountain in the island, and one of great altitude, was 
roajly named Adam's Peak by the Arabs, before the arrival of Europeans. 
It is of very difficult ascent ; and Mr. Davy actually mentions the use oi 
chains in reaching its summit.— Marsden, p. 671 . 



25iJ TiiK INDIAN BEA&y AND III8TOKICAL 

concern. The monarch, who had no other son, was both 
grieved and angry. He made him large promises, offer- 
ing even to resign, and raise him immediately to the 
throne ; but the yoath would listen to no such proposal 
The father was like to die of grief, but bethought himself 
of a plan for bringing him back to the world. He lodged 
him in a very fine palace, and appointed 30,000 beautiful 
damsels to serve and amuse him. The prince, however, 
remained insensible to their seductions, and led a more 
virtuous and chaste life than before. Now his habits bad 
been so recluse that he had never seen a dead person, or 
one not perfectly sound in his members. One day, hap- 
pening to ride across the path where a man lay dead, he 
was utterly astonished, and asked of his attendants what 
that was. This being explained, he inquired if all men 
died, and being told they did so, he walked on, musing 
very deeply. Some time after, he saw one unable to 
walk, and with all his teeth decayed through extreme old 
age. Having asked, and being informed what that was, 
be declared he would no longer remain in this evil region, 
but would seek a place where men neither died nor grew 
old. He left the palace, and journeyed into great and 
trackless mountains, where he spent his whole life virtu- 
ously and chastely, observing rigid abstinence^ so that 
had he been a Christian, he must have been a very great 
saint. When he died, his corpse was carried to his fa- 
ther, who, on seeing the body of one whom he loved bet- 
ter than himself, was grieved to the heart. He made an 
image of him composed of gold and precious stones. AU 
the people of the country adored him as a god, and they 
say that he died eighty-four times, becoming first an ox, 
then a horse, then a dog, and various other animals ; but 
that the eighty-fourth time he became a god, and they 
worship him as their best and greatest. These were the 
first idolaters, from whom all the others in Seilan were 
descended. But I assure you, many from the most dis- 
tant countries come hither on pilgrimage, as Christians to 
the shrine of St. James, and the monument ori this moun- 
tain is said to be that of the prince, whose teeth, hair, and 
skull were preserved. But the Saracens say that it is 
that of Adam, our first parent. God knows which is right, 
but one cannot believe the latter, for the Scriptures of 



ACCOUNTS OP WESTERN ASIA. '357 

our holy charch assure us that he died in another part of 
the world.* Now it happened that the great khan, hear- 
ing that the tomb of Adam, with the other objects men- 
tioned, was on this mountain; sent, in 1284, a numerous 
embassy, who travelled by land to the island of Seilan. 
They went to the king, and procured two of the grinding 
teeth, which were very large, also the hair, and the cup, 
of beautiful green porphyry. They then returned, and 
sent notice to their sovereign of what they were bringing, 
when he ordered his subjects to go forth and meet these 
relics of our first father. All the citizens of Kambalu 
came out ; the chief men received the sacred objects, and 
brought them to his majesty, who welcomed them with- 
great joy and reverence. I assure you, too, they found 
this cup to be of such virtue, that when food was intro- 
duced for one man, there would be enough for five ; and 
the great khan declared he had tried this, and found it the 
truth, t Now having told you truly all this history, I wilt 
leave it and relate other things. 

XIX. — Kingdoms of Maabar. 

When you depart from Seilan, and go westward about 
sixty miles,t you come to the extensive province of Maa- 

* Sergtaaaonj in Ratnnsio Sogomon, is a oornlption of SalcTa^muni, a 
coDimonappellation of Boodha, known as the chief object of veneration 
in Ceylon, as well as Bunnah. Mr. Marsden (p. 072), refers to an ** Ao- 
eonnt of the Incarnation of Buddha," translated from the Bnrman by 
Mr. Carey. In accordance with our author, he is described as a young 
prince flying into the wilderness, and in vain tempted by hi« father with 
every species of splendour, and particulaily with female attractions, to 
return into the world. It is amusing to olMerve how Marco, following 
the ideas of his age, is struck with admiration at the senseless ascetic 
life led by this object of Indian idolatry. The doctrine of transmigration 
here alluded to, also characterizes that creed. The French edition in 
this part followed is more copious than that of Ramusio ; and such is 
frequently the case with the remainder of the narrative ; whereas the 
latter has hitherto contained usually all the passages found in any other 
edition, with others peculiar to itself. 

t If, however, the modem inhabitants may be believed, the khan did 
not monopolize these precious relics. They still preserve in the great 
temple at Candv a tooth of that sacred personage, in honour of which a 
splendid festival and procession are annually held. — Journal of the Royal 
Asiatic Society, vol. iii. p. 161. 

X This is exactly the distance from Aripo, the most north-easterly part 
of Ceylon, to the nearest part of the continent ; but Mr. Marsden, in 
making this remaik, refuses to claim any credit on that ground for the 
author, ou account of his alleged general want of precision on these 



258 THE IfTDIAN SEAS, AND HISTORICAL 

bar, on the mainland. It is called India the Greater, and 
is indeed the noblest and richest country in the whole 
world.* In this province there are five kings, who are 
brothers, and the one that reigns here is called Sender- 
bandi Davar. The largest and finest of pearls are fisund 
in a gulf between this continent and the island, having 
nowhere more than ten or twelve paces depth of water, 
and in some places only two. Vessels, large and small, 
resort thither from the beginning of April to the middle of 
May, and cast anchor in a place called Battalar, about six- 
ty miles out at sea ; they then go in boats an>l begin the 
fishery. Many merchants, formed into companies, hire 
and pay the men employed. They gave a tenth to the 
king, and a twentieth to the Abraiamain, who enchants 
the fishes, depriving them of the power to injure the per- 
sons who dive under water for the pearls ; indeed he can 
enchant also all kinds of beasts and birds. The charm, 
however, lasts only during the day ; at night the animals 
enjoy full liberty. When the men in the boats have found 
water four to twelve feet deep, they plunge to the bottom, 
and get shells called sea-oysters, and within whose flesh 
are found pearls of all sizes and shapes. These are 
brought up in very large quantities, and distributed over 
the world, — the king drawing from them a great revenue, t 

points ; but we have ende%voared to ahow that most uf his supposed 
mistakes have been in fact Uiose of his learned editor himself^ or of the 
corrupt texts to which he had access. He imagines the port sailed from 
to be Columbo ; but gives no reason, nor can we discover any, for a lo- 
cality which would convert Marco's v^ry accurate statement into one 
much the reverse. 

* Maabar must not be confounded with Malabar, though it has been 
so, and the latter term, in Ramasio's text, is erroneously substituted. 
Signifying " the passage," it appears to apply to that chain of sand-banks 
and coral-reefs named Adam's Bridge by the Arabs, and Rama's Bridge 
by the Hindoos. Mr. Maraden has quoted several writers, both Arab 
and Indian, applying the term Mabar. or Maber, to this district, which 
appears to include Tanjore and the Camatic. The term India, as we 
may observe more fully afterwards, was applied in that age generally 
to the southern countries of Asia, among which Hiudostan is justly dis- 
tinguished as the greatest and finest. 

f This account uf the place, the period, and the mode of taking the 
pearls, is accordant wiih the best modem observations. The king still 
claims the same right, but prefers to make it available .by farming the 
privilege to the merchants engaged. The operatives, however, axe paid 
by shares of the produce. Among these the enchanters are considered 
as indispensable m ever, to secure the divers against the sharks, who 
an the ravenous fishes hero alluded to.— Marsden, p. 6S7-63Q. 



.coo..™ o,,™,™ .«C r^ 

During tbe rest of the yei^ they are not found here ; but 
at a place 300 miles distant, where they are taJien from 
September to the middle of October. 

XX. — Hindoo CJnstoms and Supentititms. 

Now, in all this province of Maabar, there is not a tailor, 
for the people go naked 'at every season. The air is always 
so temperate, that the)^ wear only a piece of cloth round 
the middle. The king is dressed just like the others, ex- 
cept that his cloth is finer/ and he wears a necklace full 
set with rubies, sapphires, emeralds, and other precious 
stones, worth a great treasure. He has also suspended 
from his neck a silken cord, reaching a pace down, and con- 
taining 104 of the largest pearls and most valuable rubies. 
It is worn because he repeats every day, morning and eve- 
ning, 104 prayers in honour of his idols. To this he is 
bound by his faith and religion, by the example and injunc- 
tion of bis ancestors.! He wears also round three parts 
both of his arms and legs, bracelets of gold, full of goodly 
stones and pearls. In short, the number of his jewels is 
surprising, being of more value than a handsome city, and 
no wonder, since they are all produced in his own domin- 
ions. No man is allowed to export either a pearl or stone 
of great value, but must produce it to him, and as he gives 
double its cost, they do so very willingly, whence he has 
collected so ample a store. Now I must tell you of other 
marvellous things : he has 500 wives ; and as soon as he 
sees a beautifol lady, takes and keeps her for himself.t 
He did the same in the case of a very handsome wife of 
his brother, who, being a pnident man, submitted, and did 

* Mr. Manden qadte* Soanerat and Barthenui in oonflnnation. of this 
statement. We may add, that Dubois (Manners and Customs of India, 
4to, pp. 804, S05) represents this as still the genuine Hindoo dress, 
though those connected with the Mohammedan courts have adopted 
from them in addition the turban and the muslin robe enveloping the 
person 

t The use of such chaplets or rosaries, to accompany prayers, is com- 
m(m among the votaries of the Bramin and Boodhist religions, as well as 
of the Catholic. According to Mr. Marsden's best information, the num- 
ber of beads is 106, — ^a small discrepancy. In Ramusio (only), it is 
added that the daily prayer consists in the repetition of the word pa- 

% Ramosio aays, " at least a thunsaad ;" but the present number only 
is stated in the Freneh, Cntfca, and other early versicms, and is surely 
iply sulBdenf . 



260 THE INDIAN SEAS, AND HISTORICAI* 

not quarrel on that account.^ The king has oertain faith- 
ful adherents, who attend him on horseback, wherever he 
goes, and h<dd great commands under him T nay, what is 
wonderful they serve him both in this and in the other 
world. Whenever he dies, and his body is thrown into 
a great fire these vassels throw themselves after him, that 
they may accompany and serve him still in the future 
state, t It is the national custom that, when the king 
dies, and leaves a great treasure, his son will not spend 
it for the world ; saying, I have all my father's kingdom 
and people, why should I not support myself as he did. 
Thus the treasure collected in this kingdom becomes im- 
mense, t 

In this country no horses are reared, and hence the 
greater part of the revenue is employed in obtaining them 
from foreign regions. The merchants of Curmos, of 
Quisci, of Dufar, of Soer, and of Aden, whose provinces 
contain many steeds of fine quality, purchase, embark, 
and bring them to the king and his four princely brothers, 
selling them for 500 sagi of gold, worth more than 100 
marcs of silver. I assure you, this monarch buys annu- 
ally more than 2000, but, by the end of the year, they are 
all dead, from wanting the medicine necessary to keep 
them in health. The merchants who import them wish this 
to happen, and are therefore careful not to introduce the 
cure.^ Another custom is, that when a man has commit- 
ted a crime, and is condemned to die, he expresses a wish 
to devote himself in honour of a certain divinity, to which 
the king consents. Then his relations and friends place 
him on a wagon, giving him twelve knives, and lead him 
through the city, calling out, " This brave man is about 

* In Ramnsio, this forbearance is ascribed to the interposition of their 
mother ; vrhich, in the early versions, is introduced elsewhere, and in 
more general terms. 

t The examples of the servants of Indian princes bnming themselves 
along with their masters, are stated bj Mr. Marsden to be numerous ; 
and he quotes from Barbosa and the early Arabians instances of its be- 
ing dune by a previous voluntary engagement. 

X The accumulation of treasure, so rare in Europe, is a general policy 
of oriental princes. 

$ Mr. Marsden finds undoubted testimonies, from Abulfeda to Dr. Bu- 
chanan, that no horses are bred in the southern part of the peninsula , 
but aU those used are imported. Count Boni (p. 172) has found in T«r 
vernier and the Lettres Edifiantes, that frequent medicine and peculiar 
rare re requisite to keep them in health. 



ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ABXA. 201 

to kill himdelf for the love of the great idol" When they 
come to- the place of execution^ he takes a knife and cries 
aloQd, '* I kill myself for the love of such a deity." He 
then, with difTereot knives, strikes himself in one arm, 
then in the other, next in the stomach, and so on till he 
expires, when the rdations burn his body with great joy.* 
I must tell you another custom of this country, that when 
a man is dead, and his body burned, his wife throws her- 
self into the fire with her lord ; she is then much praised 
by the people, and many ladies follow the example. 1 
The men also of this kingdom adore idols, and many wor- 
ship the ox, saying, he is a valuable animal, and on no 
account would they kill him, or eat his flesh. Yet there 
is a race named ganit who eat it, but as they dare not 
slay the animal, they use only those that die a natural 
or accidental death. All the people, too, anoint their 
houses with its dung.^ It is the custom also that the 
king, barons, and other persons sit upon the ground, and 
when asked why they decline a more honourable beat, 
they say, " We came from earth, and most return to 

* The pnTaleiice in India of the dark pncti'^ of religiooa suicide it 
well known. There is no other authority for confining it to c-riminals, 
or even considering it customary in their case. The traveller may have 
witnessed an instance of the kind, and applied it too gene rally. Mr. 
Ward, however, observes that the practice prevails chiefly among those 
exposed to incurable diseases, distress, or contempt. Ha reckons the 
nuniber who thus perish in Bengal at 500, The cutting with sharp in- 
Btmments is mentioned by loudem writers, not as a mode of producing 
death, but as an exhibition made by superstitious miiudicants. 

t The reader is probably familiar with the Suttee^ or custom of Hindoo 
widows burning themselves on the funeral-pile of their husbands, now 
happily abolished by the British goremment. In Ramusio, it is repre- 
sented as pecuUar to tho widows of the criminal suicide ; but the early 
versions more correctly report it as a general practice. 

X These gaui are evidently the outcast and despised race named Pa- 
riahs, who, being excluded from all intercourse with the higher castes, 
observe none of those restrictions as to food in which the latter take 

£ride. They are supposed to form a fifth of the population of Southern 
ndia. See Account of British India (Edinburgh Cabinet Library), vol. 
ii. pp. 333, 334. The odious character attached to them probably sug- 
gested to the Christians of the country the legend respecting St. Thomas, 
and the absurd statement here made, which our traveller too lightly be- 
lieved. 

$ The degrading homage paid to this animal, as also the filthy manner 
in which it is expressed, are well known ; and Mr. Marsden has nccu- 
mulated abundant evidence on the subject. Dubois (p. 121) mentions 
that it is death to kill a cow, and expresses his astonishment that the 
natives should not rise in insorreetion at the view of Europeans slang^h- 



262 THE INDIAN SBA8, AND HlflTOKICAI. 

it, and cannot too much honour this common mother." 
These gaol who eat beef are the persons by whose an- 
cestors St. Thomas the apostle was killed ; hence none 
of this lineage can enter the place where he lies bori- 
ed, nor could twenty men force them in, nor ten hold 
them there, on account of the virtue of that sacred 
body. 

In this country there grows no grain but rice. It is re- 
markable that large fine horses in process of breeding 
produce only ponies with twisted legs, unfit for riding, 
and good for nothing. The people go to battle with lance 
and shield, entirely naked ; yet are they not valiant and 
courageoos, but mean and cowardly. They kill no ani- 
mals of any description ; but when they wish to eat their 
flesh, make them be slain by the Saracens and other na- 
tions, whose laws and customs are different. Both men 
and women wash the whole body in wiUer twice eyeiy 
day, morning and evening, and till then will neither eat 
nor drink. He who omits this observance is regard^ as 
we do a heretic* 

Very severe justice is executed upon those who com- 
mit murder or any other trespass. When a creditor has 
repeatedly applied for payment and been deceived by fair 
lacious promises, he takes the following course. He 
draws a circle round the debtor, who dares not move be- 
yond it, till he has either made payment or given good 
security ; and should he attempt to escape, he becomes 
liable to capita punishment. Marco himself, when re- 
turning homeward through this country, was eyewitness 
to a remarkable transaction of this nature. The king 
owed a sum of money to a foreign merchant, and being 
frequently solicited, he put him off with empty promises. 
One day, when his majesty was riding out, the creditor 
took the opportunity of describing such a circle round his 
person. On seeing what had ^en done, the monarch 
inunediately stopped, and did not move from the spot till 
the demand was satisfied. The people viewed with ad- 

torinff and deTonrin^ in snch nnmbers theae adored divinitiaa. That 
«hey merely deplore it in silence la considered a striking evidence of their 
tame and paaaive dispoaition. 

*,T^? practice of ablution, ao well auited to the clitnate, ia TeTy nn- 
eral m India, and used aa a relifioua observance.— Mandan, p. Ott. 



ACCOUNTS OF WJBSTERN ASIA. 263 

miration this conduct, and pronounced their sovereign 
well entitled to the epithet of just.* 

Most persons abstain from drinking wine, and reject 
the testimony or guarantee of those who indulge in it ;t 
also of mariners, accounted a reckless and desperate race. 
Dissolute conduct is practised without censure. The 
heat is wonderful, and is the cause of their going naked. 
No rain falls except in June, July, and August, and were 
not the air cooled by showers during these three months, 
it would be impossible to live. Many are skilled in an 
art which they call physiognomy, which consists in know- 
ing men or women, their qualities good or bad, by merely 
seeing them. They regard augury beyond any people in 
the world ; for, I assure you, if any man sets out on a 
journey, and meets an omen deemed unlucky, he oAen 
turns back.t Whenever a boy or girl is born, the tather 
or mother causes the nativity to be written out, the day, 
month, and hoar, and these are interpreted by astrologers 
learned m enchantment and the magical art. 

As soon as a son attains the age of thirteen, he is set 
at liberty, and no longer allowed to remain in his father's 
house. He receives from twenty to twenty-four groats 
of their money, and is then considered capable of earning 
his own subsistence by some trade. These boys, accord- 
ingly, run about in all directions throughout the day, buy- 
ing and selling. During the pearl-fishery, they frequent 
the beach and purchase from the fishermen five or six 

* This paragraph, with the exception of the first sentence, is ezela- 
sively in Kamusio. The drawing^ of the circle is an authentic Hindoo 
cnstom. Mr. Marsden admits the king's conduct to bear an air of ro- 
mance. We have formerly observed that the name of Marco is studi- 
ously introduced into these apocryphal passages. 

t All accounts agree in the detestation wiui which drunkenness is re- 
garded by the Bndiminical orders. Ramusio alone uses the qualified 
expression, wine from grapes ; which we can scarcely consider genuine 
in regard to a country where at that time it could scarcely be known. 

t Ramusio here says : " In every day of the week there is one houi 
which they regard as unlucky, and this they name choiaeh : For in- 
stance, on Monday, the hour meiiaterza; on Tuesday, that ot'terza ; on 
Wednesday, that of nana ; and during these hours they make no pur- 
chases nor transact any business, believing it would be nnfortanate. In 
the same manner, they ascertain by means of their books the qaalitiei 
of every day throughout the year." This passage does not occur in the 
«>arl^ editions, and Atr. Marsden has been able to find only slight 9onfij> 
II ation of it. 

X 



264 THE INDIAN SEAS, AND HISTORICAL 

small ones, which they carry to the merchant, who, on 
account of the heat, has remained seated in his house. 
They tell him what they have paid, and demand a rea- 
sonable profit, which he usually gives. The day*s busi- 
ness being over, they carry provision to their mothers, 
who prepare and dress it for their dinner; but they do 
not depend at all on their father fur a maintenance.* 

Here and throughout all India, the birds and beasts are 
different from ours, except one bird, which is the quail. 
They have also bald owls^ which fly in the night ; they 
have neither wings nor feathers, and are as large as an 
eagle. The eagles are black like crows, larger than ours, 
expert both at flying and hawking. Another thing worth 
mentioning is, that they feed their horses with flesh and 
many other dishes cooked with rice. Their monasteries 
are filled with idols, to whom many young girls are de- 
voted by their parents. They must go to the monastery 
whenever required by the superior, which is usually sev- 
eral times a-week. They there sing, dance, and madce 
great rejoicings. These young ladies also prepare sa- 
voury dishes of flesh and other food, which they cany to 
the sanctuary, and place before the idol as much as would 
make a good meal for a great lord. They then dance, 
sing, and rejoice, till time has been given for him to feed 
on the substance of the meat, when tbey take and eat it 
themselves, with great rejoicing. These ladies, who are 
very numerous, continue the same mode of life till after 
their maniage.t Having given you this full account of 
the manners, customs, and doings of this kingdom, we 
shall depart and tell of another, named Mutfili. 

XXI.— Masulipatam — Diamonds of Golcondit. 

At this kingdom we arrive after departing from Maa- 
bar and travelling northward about a thousand miles. It 
is subject to a queen of great wisdom, whose husband 

* This paragraph, with the exception of the first sentence, is only in 
Ramusio. Mr. Marsden gives evidence, that Indian boys, at a very early 
period, are actively employed in earning a subsistence for themselves. 

t These Caa^Aemf, or dancing-girls, are a well-knoMm appendage to 
Hindoo temples. Dr. Buchanan assures us, that theos is none of any 
consequence in the south to which a number of them are not attached. 
He and other wnters represent them as leading very iriegnlar livta^ 
which IS not expressly stated here, yet seems implied in a VihMMmit 
passage. ^ 



ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 265 

died forty years ago, and her love to him was such that 
she has never married another. Daring this whole term, 
she has ruled the nation with great equity, and been be- 
loved beyond measure by her people.* They are idola- 
ters and independent ; they live on rice, flesh, and millL 
In this kingdom, you must know, is found the diamond ; 
there are several mountains, among which, during rain, 
water flows with great turbulence, and through wide 
caverns; and when the shower ceases, men search 
through the ground previously inundated, and find the 
gems. In summer there is not a drop of water, and the 
heat can scarcely be endured, while fierce and venomous 
serpents inspire great fear ; yet those who venture thither 
discover valuable diamonds. There is also an extensive 
and deep valley, so enclosed by rocks as to be quite inac- 
cessible ; but the people throw in pieces of flesh, to which 
the diamonds adhere. Now you must observe, there are 
a number of white eagles, which, when they see the flesh 
in the bottom of the valley, fly thither, seize and carry it 
to diflferent spots. The men are on the watch, and as 
soon as they see the bird with the spoil in its mouth, raise 
loud cries, when, being terrified, it flies away and drops 
the meat, which they take up, and find the diamond at- 
tached. Even when the prey has been swallowed, they 
watch where the excrement is voided, and obtain in this 
way not a few jewels. Now this is the only country in 
the world containing these precious stones; and do not 
suppose that the best come to our Christian countries ; 
they are carried to the great khan and other lords of those 
regions, whose ample treasure enables them to purchase, t 

* Thi« place, called in Ramtisio Morphili and Monsnl, is Masulipatam, 
a floarishing town, the chief of the northern Gircan. The diatance and 
direction here given are correct. The qaeen is not mentioned in Ramn- 
sio ; bat is introdnced on the authority of the two Paris and the Crusca 
editions. 

t The diamond mines of Golconda, in the interior, are celebrated 
thronghoat the world. This and Pannah, another not very remote dis- 
trict of Hindostan, are the only quarters, previous to the discovenrof 
Brazil, in which this most valued of the precious stones was found. The 
territory is ragged and rocky, thoagh not in the degree here described ; 
and it really is in the moistened soil, after the inundation caused Inr 
the periodical rains has subsided, that the diamonds are mostly found. 
The story of the eagles must b^ classed as fabuldns ; vet there is no 
reason to suppose it of our author^ i&vention. It is found in the AjnbiMa, 
lights, where it seems only adopted from the general belief of Asia. 



2M rH£ INDIAN SEAS, AND HISTORICAL 

I mast mention, too, that here are made the moist beauti- 
ful and valuable cotton cloths in the world ; also the thin- 
nest and most delicate, resembling our spiders* webs.* 
They have abundance of animals, and the largest sheep 
in the world, with plentiful subsistence of every kind. I 
must now describe the place containing the body of the 
apostle St. Thomas. 

XXU/— St. ThoBss (M«drM>, Legends Twpecdng him. 

This is in a small town of Maabar, containing few in- 
habitants, and seldom visited by merchants, thei'e being 
little trade, and the roads difficult. Many Christians and 
Saracens, however, resort thither in pilgrimage ; the latter 
esteem him a great saint, and even assert that he was a 
Mohammedan. But I will now relate a wonder. The 
Christians who repair to that shrine, take from the place 
a red earth, carry it into their conntry, and give a small 
portion to any person sick of a fever, who is presently 
cured. But I have now a miracle to tell ; for about the 
year 1288, a baron of this district had a great quantity of 
rice, and filled with it all the houses around the church. 
The pilgrims having thus no place to lodge, prayed him 
much to desist ; but being fierce and proud, he paid no 
regard to their entreaty. Next night, accordingly, Messer 
St. Thomas appeared to him with a fork in his hand, which 
he thrust forcibly against his throat, causing severe pain, 
and saying, " If you do not forthwith empty my houses, 
you shall die an evil death.'* He disappeared, and the 
baron rose early in the morning, related the apparition, 
and caused all the buildings 'to be emptied. The Chris- 
tians greatly rejoiced, and honoured this great apostle. I 
could relate other wonderful cures efiTected on persons la- 
bouring under various bodily infirmities ; but I will now 
merely describe his death. He had left his hermitage in 
the wood, and was engaged in prayer, while around were 
a number of peacocks, which are more numerous here 
than elsewhere |n the world. Now an idolatrous Gaui, 
aiming at one of these birds, let fiy an arrow without see- 
Count Boni met with it in a scientific treatise on Precious Stones, ro- 
eently translated by Signar Rainieri from the Turkish of Ahmed Tei- 
lachite. 

* Masnlipatara is .well known as the chief in*rt for the fine cotton 

'-^*"i snoe on the coast of'Coromandel. 



ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 267 

ing the saint, whom, however, it struck on the right side ; 
and finding himself thus wounded, he very mildly adored 
his Creator, and soon after expired. But before coming 
hither, he had converted many people in Nubia,* as I will 
afterwards narrate. 

When a child in this province is born, they anoint him 
every day with the oil of sesam^, which makes him be- 
come blacker than at birth, for whoever is most deeply 
tinted is honoured in proportion. Indeed, these people 
paint their god and all their idols black, and their devils 
white as snow. The men, when they go to battle, place 
such faith in the ox as a holy thing, that they take the 
hair of the wild bull, and if they fight on a horse, attach 
it to the neck ; if on foot, to their shield ; thinking them- 
selves thus better secured against every danger. Hence, 
the hair of this animal sells at a considerable price, t 

XXIU.^Ljur ; the Bninins. 

Lar is a province lying westward of this place, and 
thence came originally all the Abraiamain in the world. 
These are the best and most honest of all merchants, and 

* There can be no doubt, that, from the earliest ages of Christiaaityt 
there resided here a body of Christians, who, with or without reason, 
believed that they were converted by St. Thomas, and that he here suf- 
fered martyrdom. Meliapour, a few miles from Madras, always, with 
the earliest European travellers, bears his name ; even the Arabs called 
it Beit-tuma or Temple of Thomas. Some learned writers maintain, 
that it was not the apostle, but a Syrian monk of the same name, who 
penetrated into this region : but the contrary is the general belief of th« 
East. The events here narrated are stamped witb the credulity of th« 
age ; yet in fact there is nothing in them actually supernatural. The 
death of the apostle, as related, might easily happen by mere accident ; 
and in the case of the nobleman, there is merely a dream, which the 
representations of the Christians, though repelled tt the moment, might 
easily excite in his mind. 

t The inhabitants of this southern part of India are of a very dailt 
colour, and they have the custom of frequently anointing their bodiea 
with oil ; but there is no reason to suppose the two circumstances con- 
nected in the manner here supposed. Many images of the Hindoo deities 
are formed of a species Of black granite, and some of their asura* or 
demons are painted white ; here, too, the motive assigned is probably 
fanciful. The hairs of the wild bull are doubtless thode of the yak or 
Thibetian ox, which, under the name of chowry tails, are considered b^ 
Hindoo grandees one of the most valued ornaments. The supersti- 
tious importance attached to them is nowhere else mentioned ; yet is not 
impossible. Probably, howeyer, Marco had little opportunity of confi- 
dential intercourse with ib.e natives ; so that, while he correctly observed 
their actions, he had not equal means of penetrating into tbeir motives. 



366 THE INDIAN 8EAS, AND HISTORICAL 

would not on any account tell a lie.* They neither eat 
flesh nor drink wine, are faithful to their wives, and lead 
every way very virtuous lives. They take nothing from 
any one, and do nothing that could be considered a sin.t 
They are all known by a silk thread worn over the shoul- 
der, and tied beneath the opposite arm, so that it passes 
across both the breast and back.t They have a rich king, 
who readily purchases precious stones, and enjoins that 
the merchants shall ofier to him all the pearls brought 
from Maabar, for which he pays double the cost. They 
therefore procure them in large quantities. They are 
idolaters, and regard omens from birds and beasts more 
than any other nation in the world. I will tell you one of 
their customs : when one wishes to treat for any mer- 
chandise, he rises and observes his shadow in the sun ; 
and if it be of the due length, on that day, according to 

* Th« origin of the Bmnins, who an eTidendy the order here alladed 
to, hM baffled the most learned inquirers ; and it could not be expected 
that cmr traveller, in this cursory visit, shoold throw much li^ht upon 
the subject. Tet it is curious that Ptolemy has placed in this quarter 
the Brachmani MMgi ; and Dr. Buchanan mentions, that the Bramins hers 
consider themselves a separate and superior race to those of the north ; 
looking doMm with contempt even on such as serve the sacred shrines of 
Benares. — Buchanin, vol. i. p. 308. 

The position of Lar or Lac, to the west of Madras, carries us to Arcot 
and Conjevenun, the last noted for its splendid pagodas ; and here, in 
&ct, D'AnviUe, in his " Antiquity de I'Inde," places the Brachme of 
Ptolemy. The appearance of simplicity and austerity might easily im- 
pose on our author, who would have little opportunity of observing the 
frauds with which this order are chaned. See Account of India (Edin- 
burgh Cabinet Library), vol. ii. p. 329-331. The mention of them as 
merchants does not exactly accord vrith our ideas, and Count Boni sus- 
pects they may be confounded with Banians ; but the latter are chiefly 
confined to the great oi^es on the western coast. Dubois informs us, 
that in this part of India many Bramins pursae that avocation ; and we 
learn from Buchanan (as above) that there are two classes, Vaidilca, de- 
voted to spiritual services, and Lokika, who follow secular employments. 
The latter are regarded as decidedly inferior ; yet they do not lose 
caste, and may intermarry with the others. 

t Ramusio alone has an additional sentence : " When any foreign mer- 
chant, unacquainted with the customs of the country, introdaces himself, 
and intrusts his adventure to one of them, he carefully attends to his 
interest, and renders him a faithful account, not even demanding any 
recompense, unless it is courteonsly proffered." This editor also differs 
in sajring that they eat meat, and drink the wine of the country. Count 
Boni is so convinced, and with reason we think, of this being an error, 
that he has akered it in his reprint. 

t The semMT, or sacred cord, is a well-known appendage of the Bra 
aiin.^Marsdea, p. 64M. 



AqCOUNTS OF WE8TEBN ASIA. 269 

ceTtoin rules, he makes his bargain ; but if it be not long 
enough, he will not buy a sin^e article. If they go to a 
house for this purpose, and see one of the animals named 
tarantula, which here greatly abound, they observe if it 
comes to them from a lucky quarter, in which case they 
buy ; but if otherwise, they give up the transaction and 
go away. Nay, I assure you, if one leaving his house 
hears a man sneeze in a manner that does not appear 
lucky, he stops and re-enters. Even if on his road he 
sees a swaBow approaching from the right or left, in an 
unlucky manner, he returns.* Their teeth are very good, 
through the use of an herb, which makes them look ex- 
tremely well, and is very salutary.! They never bleed 
fVom the vein or any other part, yet perfectly preserve 
their health. 

There are among them an order named cuigui, who live 
to an extraordinary age, even 160 or 2O0 years, yet can 
perform all the service of the monasteiy and idols as well 
as younger men. This is owing to their great abstinence 
in eating and drinking ; for they subsisMnostly on rice 
and milk. They min^e also quicksilver and sulphur, 
making a beverage which they drink from their infancy, 
saying that it lengthens their lives.t There is also in this 
langdom a religious order of more rigid cuigui, observing 
tibe strictest abstinence, leading a very rude and severe 
life, and going perfectly naked. They adore the ox, and 
many wear on their forehead a small effigy of one in cop- 

* We cannot better illustrate this passage than by the following ex- 
tract ftom Professor Wilsom^s Hindoo dnuna, a work richly illustrative 
iMth of the poetry and manners of India. It is a speech which the native 
poet puts into t^ mouth of a peculiarly sage and philosophic character : 

" FadtK the •!», on jronder bKflihtad tne, 
The biro of erO augury » percned. 
Hal on my path the black anak* Bleeping lies: 
Rooaed flrom hia alumber, he unfolds m wrath 
Hia apny lencth, and threatening beata the ground 
With bulk inflated, whilat hia hooded neck 
Expanda, and from between his venomed Suofni 
Protrudes his hissing topgoe. I slip, yet here 
No plashy mire betnys my heedless feet — 
Still throbs my left eye, and my lefl arm trembles; 
And still that oird in fligfat ainistnl cries 
To warn me of impenung ilL" 

t The chewinff of the betel-leaf, a habit nniTersal in India, is here 
evidently alluded to. Ramusio has it not in this place,- but introduces it 
afterwards at much greater length. 

% This sentence appears only in the French and Crusca, and I have 
aot been aUe to find any authority for the practice. 

Z2 



276 THE INDIAN 8£A8, AND HISTOBIGAL 

per or bronze plded. They also bum the dung, and re- 
duce it to 8 powder, with which they reverentially anoint 
many parts of their body, as Christians use holy water. 
They eat neither from spoon nor platter, but from large 
leaves, mostly of the apple of Paradise. Even these 
must be dry ; for if green, they are said to have a soul, 
which it would be sin to kill ; and they would rather die 
than commit towards any animal an action believed un- 
lawful. When asked why they feel no shame in going 
naked, they say, because they wish to have nothing be- 
longing to this world, which they entered without cloth- 
ing ; and committing no sin, they have no reason to be 
ashamed. Besides, they kill no living creature, neither 
fly nor fiea, nor hog nor worm, considering they have 
seals. They will sleep on the earth without any eoTer- 
ing, whence it is a great wonder they do not die, much 
more that they enjoy so long a life. They fast the whole 
year round, drinking only water.* Some reside in the 
monastery to serve the gods ; but before admission they 
undergo the following trial. The young girls- oflbred to 
the idols caress these new candidates, and endeavour 
variously to entertain them. Such as appear to take any 
pleasure in these endearments, are reelected as unworthy ; 
but if they show themselves totally indifferent, they are 
then retained.! Such are the customs of these cruel and 
perfidious idolaters, who bum the bodies of their dead, 
because otherwise they would breed worms, which af^er 
eating the flesh would starve, and thus involve in great 
sin the soul to which the body belonged. But I will now 
cease saying any more about them. 

* The tenn in Ramusio is tingui ; but that oi euigtti in the early edi- 
tions comes much nearer to that o€ jogi, or yogit by which, as well as 
that of sannftuij and sometimes/'aAtVff , is desig'nated a much-noted dasa 
of Hindoo ascetics. Their rigid abstinence, rejection of clothes, and 
scrupnioas tenderness as to animal life, have been observed from the 
earliest ages. The leaf here noticed is that of the plantain, which 
really is of extraordinary size, and used by the natives to hold their 
boiled rice. 

t This odd trial is found only io the French and Crusca (not in Ramu- 
sio), and I have not been able to trace any actual confirmation of it. It 
is, however, dirtinctly stated that the sannyasi, when raised to the rank 
of great gurus or teachers in the temples, are required, fitnn that mo- 
ment, to renounce aU the pursuits and pleasures of life, and most espe- 
cially the society and even sight of the female sex.—Dnbois, p. 353. 
Bachanan, vol. i. p. 28 ; vol. iii. p. 79. 



At?COUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 271 

XXIV.— City of Cail. 

Call is a great and noble city, belonging to Asciar, eld- 
est of the five brother-kings. Its port is frequented by 
all the ships from the west, Ctirmos, Quisci, Aden, and 
the whole of Arabia, laden with merchandise and horses. 
The merchants bring them bkher as to a good market, 
frequented by purchasers from other quarters.* The king 
possesses immense treasures, and wears many precious 
stones. He rules his nation very justly and uprightly, 
for which cause the merchants frequent it, and afford him 
great profit. He has three hundred wives and upwards, 
holding it a higti honour to increase their number. When 
discord arises among the five brother-kings, their mother, 
\frho is still alive, rushes betweetithem, and will not allow 
them to fight. Often, when they will not yield to her 
prayer, and are about to engage, she takes a knife and 
says, " If you will not renounce this quarrel, I will kill my- 
self presently, and cut away the paps with which I gave 
you milk." When the sons see this great piety in their 
mother, they feel themselves bound to make peace. But 
as soon as she is dead, they cannot fail to quarrel and de- 
stroy each other. 

All the natives here, as well as generally throughout 
India, have continually in their mouths the leaf called tern- 
bul. It affords them gratification, and its use has become 
quite habitual ; after chewing they spit out the moisture. 

* Cail or Eael is mentioned by difTerent early travellers as an impor- 
tant haven. Mr. Marsden finds the name in Valentyn's map, near Tu- 
taoorin, in the TiimeveDy country. This, as will appear in the fbllowio; 
chapter, would entirely derange our traveller's itinerary ; which, how- 
ever little it may be regarded by him, we reluctantly admit. The term, 
signifying pagoda, is found attached to different spots. We vnmld sug- 
gest Point CsJjrmere, called by D'Anville Callamera Pagode. In fact, 
Milbum (vol. i. p. 364) mentions that there are here two remarkable 
temples ; a circumstance affording strong presumption of there having 
formerly been an important city ; and at half a mile's distance is still a 
large village, with considerable trade. Here the passage from Ceylon 
is shortest, and the small distance formerly stated shows this to be the 
vicinity to which they crossed ; and there has never hitherto been the 
least mention of any movement southward. In the Crusca, and in an 
Italian MS. of the French library, the name is Caver, at cmce suggesting 
the great river Cavery^'which falls into \he sea not far from Point Caly- 
mere. We cannot, ic may be said, take the benefit of both names ; yet 
it seems- imposKiUe not to attach importance to this curious circum- 
stance. If vr« place Cail here, it will be presently shown that the trav- 
eller's itinerary becomes perfectly correct. 



^72 THE INDIAN dBAS, AND UldTOUICAL 

The rich mix it with camphor aod other aromatic drugs, 
and even with quick-lime. When any one wishes to in- 
sult another in the grossest manner, he spits this juice in 
his face. The injured party then hastens to the king* and 
declares his wish to decide the quarrel by combat. His 
majesty furnishes him with a sword and small shield ; and 
all the people assemble as spectators of the conflict, which 
is only terminated by the death of one of the parties. 
They are not, however, allowed to strike with the point 
of the sword.* Now Jet us 'depart and tell you of the 
kingdom of Coilon. 

XXV. — Kingdom of Coilou. 

Afler departing from Maabar, and going south-west 500 
miles, you arrive at Coilon. t The people are idolaters, 
yet among them are Christians and Jews. They have 
languages of their own, and a king tributary to no one. 
In this territory grows extremely good brazil-wood. caUed 
coilomin. Pepper greatly abounds, being collected in the 
months of May, June, and July ; the trees are carefully 
planted and irrigated. Indigo also is very plentiful and 
good, being made of an herb which they place in a great 
vessel, then pour in water, and leave it till the juice is 
given out. Being then placed in the hot sun, it boils, ac- 
quires consistence, and becomes what we see. In this 
country the heat of the sun can scarcely be endured ; if 
you put an egg into any river, it will be boiled before you 
have gone any great distance. Hither resort many mer- 
chants from Manji, Arabia, and the Levant, bringing quan- 

* This paragrapb ia only in Ranrasio, where the aentenoe referring to 
betel in the earlier editiona haa been expunged, in order to prepare for 
it. The cuatom of mixing it with apices, and even quick-lime, is cor* 
reedy stated. In regard to the other jMrticulars, the only confirmation 
whica Mr. Marsden could find is, that judicial duelling la practiced at 
Onore, on the opposite coast of Malabar. 

f Konlam. Ramutio. Mr. Marsden naturally enough supposes this 
to be Coulan, od the western coast, about 100 miles beyond Cape Como« 
rin. Count Boni, however, has clearly shown that the place of that 
name described by Marco and other early Europeans lay to the eu»t of 
that great promontory, from which D'Auville makes it Ifi, and Rennel 
60 mues distant. Milbum has it still in his map. Coilon being thus 
fixed here, and taking Gail at or near Calymei«, the route of 500 miles 
south-west becombs perfectly correct, instead of the enormoas errors 
otherwise iniputable. and which would have been a heavy bloT in rmpeet 
to a space which he himself actually traversed. 



ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA, 273 

tities of goods, and carrying away those of the country. 
There are various animals different from all others in the 
world ; such as a black lion, without either spot or mark ; 
parrots of numerous kinds, some white as snow, with red 
beak and feet ; others red and white, most lovely ; and 
some extremely small, and very beautiful. The peacocks 
are much larger, handsomer, and of a different species 
from ours. The domestic fowls are also peculiar ; in short 
they have all things, fruits, beasts, and birds, dissimilar to 
ours, and both handsomer and better. They have no grain 
but rice, and make a wine from sugar, which is good, 
and intoxicates sooner than that from grapes. Every 
thing necessary to support life abounds. Here are a num- 
ber of skillful astrologers and physicians, who know how 
to preserve the human body in health. Both sexes are 
completely black, and wear no covering except a fine cloth . 
about the middle.* Their behaviour to each other shows 
little sense of propriety. A man will marry his cousin- 
gennan, the widow of his father, and even of his brother ; 
this is the custom among all the people of India. 

XXVI. — Comari (Cape Gomorin). 

Comari is a country of India, remarkable in this respect, 
that the north-^tar, which we had not seen since leaving 
Java, appeared to us when thirty miles out at sea, rising 
about a cubit above the horizon. There are few domes- 
tic, but abundance of wild animals, particularly monkeys 
of various shapes, some of which would almost seem to 
be men. There are cats of a very peculiar and wonderful 
species, lions, leopards, and ounces in great numbers, f I 
will now proceed to £li. 

* These detaik resemble those fonnerly given, and are generally cor- 
rect. This being the most southern quarter of India, toe heat is of 
course peculiaxly intnnse. The rude process of manafiicturing indigo 
is said to be rery tolerably described. By the lion, the traveller usually 
means the tiger ; and this species, as well as the panther, is stated by 
Paolino to be here of a ver>' dark colour. 

t Comari is evidently the country around. Cape Comorin, the southern 
promontory of India. While Coilon was supposed tu be westward, it 
appeared entirely misplaced ; but when the former is fixed in the east, 
the cape comes quite in its place. The adjacent territory is really 
described as rude and thinly inhabited . The former disappearance of the 
north-star, which seems to mean the Greater Bear, must have been owing 
to the season of the yean not, as he seems to suppose, to his place on the 
earth, for his tvark hsd for some time been considenai>ly fnrther north. 



274 THB liriHAlf 8EA8, AHD HI8TOE1CAL 

XJLVIL— EB or Dely. 

Eli is a kingdom, about 300 miles west of Comari. The 
people are sa^ect to a king, idolaters, with a pecaliar lan- 
guage, and independent of foreigners. I will fell yon fa\\y 
tbeir customs and manners, which yon will understand 
better, as we approach nearer home. There is no port 
except a large riTcr, with a good entrance. Pepper grows 
in great abundance, and there is a considerable produce 
of ginger and other spices. The king is very rich, but 
not powerful in men ; yet his dominions haye such strong 
approaches, that he has no dread of invasion. If any 
vessel destined lor another port is driven hither by stress 
of weather, the people seize and possess themselves of all 
its cargo, saying, ** Yon were going to another place, but 
Grod sends yon and yours to me." In this they think 
themselves quite guiltless. Ships come from Manji and 
other parts in the summer, load in eight days, and depart 
as soon as possible, there being no port, but dangerous 
sandbanks. Those of Manji are least apprehensive, being 
provided with large wooden anchors. There are here lions 
and other wild beasts, with good hunting.* 

XXVm.— Melibur or Malibv. 

Melibar is a great kingdom towards the westward, with 
a sovereign and languages of its own.f The people are 
idolaters, and subject to no foreigner. Here the north- 
star, at its greatest height, appears two cubits above the 
water. From this and an adjacent province named Goz- 

* Eli or Dely is evidently derived from Mount Belly, a small space 
north of Cananor. A little southward it is a broad river, with a port 
anciently flourishing; bat Paolino found it, even in his time,' almost 
closed up, the trade being probably transferred to Cananor and Calicut. 
The distance is very correct ; but the traveller here and all along ihis 
coast, has given the direction too much to the cardinal point of west 
omitting to notice the great declination southward. 

t This name is Malabar ; but Mr. Marsden imputes a very great erroir 
in beginning it here, while the small tract called by the natives Malaya- 
lam lies wholly south of Mount Delly. Marco, however, would natu- 
rally take the information from his Arab pilots ; and that nation, followed 
l>v modern Europeans, invariably ascribe to it a much greater extension. 
The very term is Arabic, and, as well as the native one, means n^ount- 
iin-country, which is applicable to the whole range of this western coast. 
It is admitted that Abnlfeda uses it in this extended sense ; and Linscho- 
ten, eh. xlii. p. 77, states the Malabars as extending from Go* to Cap* 
Comorin ; which would, we apprehend, nearly coincide with the populai 
ideas in modern Europe. 



ACCOUNTS OP WESTERN ASIA. 275 

urat, there issue annaally a body of upwards of a hundred 
vessels, who capture other ships and plunder the mer- 
chants. Being sea-robbers, they carry with them their 
wives and children, and jemain together all the sum- 
mer, doing great injury to trade. These wicked corsairs 
form what they call a ladder on the sea ; twenty of them 
place themselves five miles from each other, and thus 
command a hundred miles in extent. When a merchant- 
man comes in view, a light is kindled, which is repeated 
by one after another ; so that no vessel sailing here can 
escape themi The mariners, however, knowing well their 
wicked customs, come well armed and prepared, and fight 
a desperate battle, often beating them off with loss ; but 
at other times fall into their hands. The |>irates then take 
the ship with all the goods, but do no injury to the men, 
saying to them, " Go and collect another cargo, that we 
may have a chance of getting it too.*'* 

In this country is a vast abundance of pepper, and also 
of ginger, with a good supply of cinnamon and other 
spices, also cubebs and cocoa-nuts. Cotton cloths, the 
most beautiful and delicate in the whole world, are here 
manufactured, with other valuable articles.t To purchase 
these goods, the merchants from other quarters bring cop- 
per, which they use as ballast ; cloths of silk and gold, 
sandal-wood, and other spices. Ships come even from 
the great province of Manji ; and the, dealers here convey 
the goods to various quarters in the west, whence the 
most valuable are forwarded to Alexandria. Having told 
you now of Melibar, we shall go to Gozurat, but it would 
be too tedious to inform you of all the cities of these coun- 
tries, they are so very numerous. 

* Nothing can be more accordant with the tenor of hintory than the 
piratical habits which the author ancribea to this and the adjoining prov- 
ince. The rvuie temper of the mountaineer tribes, and the uamerous 
small harlionrs along the coast, have led in almost every age to this enor- 
mi ty. Even Ptolemy has designated it the coast of the pi rates ; and Pli ay 
complains uf the losses there sastained by the East India trade. The 
only exception perhaps is at the present, when it has been nearly put 
down by the superior navy of Britain. In our traveller's time, there ap- 
pears to have been no dominant power to keep the marauders in check. 

t This coast is well known as the chief quarter whence Europe is 
supplied with pepper \ and it is rich in other spices, though of less im- 
portance. The cotton manufacture also flourishes, but the av'^ior is 
rather hasty in using again the superlative degree, already aprued to 
those of Masulipatam. 



276 THE INDIAN SEAS, AND HISTORICAL 

XXlX.<*Kiiigdom of Gosant.* 

Gozurat, too, is a great kingdom to the west, haying 
languages and a king of its own, and subject to no other. 
Here the north-star rises to the apparent height of six 
cubits. The greatest pirates in the world live here, and 
have a most wicked custom ; after taking a merchant, 
they make him drink tamarinds and sea-water, then ex- 
amine carefully if he voids any pearls or precious stones, 
which are alleged to be usually swallowed on such^mer- 
gencies.t There is in this land a great quantity of pep- 
per and indigo, with a good deal of ginger. Cotton also 
abounds, and the trees which bear it, when twenty years 
old, rise to the height of six paces ; but the produce is 
then unfit to be spun, and can only be used fo|[ quilting. 
Before twelve years, it is well fitted for the former pur- 
pose.^ An immense quantity of dressed leather is pre- 
pared from the skins of the goat, the buffalo, the wild ox, 
unicorn, and various other animals, and it is largely ex- 
ported to Arabia and adjoining regions. Coverlets of red 
leather arc also framed, with representations of birds and 

* It is impossible not to be startled by finding the name of Gazent 
api)lied to uiis coast, under which it is never recognized by Europeans, 
while he will be found not applying the term to that bo named by us. 
On this last point, however, Mr. Elphinstone (History of India, vol. i. 



p. 550) states that the name is not known to the natives, who use the 
of Soreth and Kattiwar. Mr. Hamilton (Gazetteer of India, vol. i. p. 
601) remarks, that the greater part of Malwa and Khandeish was for- 
merly named Guzerat. Indeed, this must have been the original ap^- 
cation of the term, only extended to the peninsula by its becoming part 
of the same viceroyalty. This brings it very close to the district hexe 
mentioned ; and tne same power may at the time have ruled over both. 
Linschoten, chaps, ix., z., mentions, that all the ports on this coast con- 
tained numerous Gozuratts, whom he combines with the Banians as the 
most active merchants. Abulfeda agrees with our author in stating 
Malabar and Guzerat as confining with each other. 

t This coast, which includes the tract called the Concan, really is 
still mure infamous for piracy than the ond fieirther south. At Gheria, 
in the last century, Angria had established a kind of piratical kingdcnn, 
which the utmost efforts of the British navy were required to extirpate. 
Account of India (Edinburgh Cabinet Library), vol. ii. p. 119-121. 

t The species described nere is not the common cotton shrub, which 
is an annual, but the bombax or silk-Cotton tree. In Ramusio, it is said 
to be '* suitable for muslins and other manufactures of extraordinary 
faneness. Mr. Marsden reasonably saspeots this to be a corruption ; 
and, m fart, the French and other early editions merely say, as in the 
text, well fitted for spinning." Even this is going too far ; and the 
author seems to have been led into confasion by supposing the annua! 
plant to be th« bftnibax in a young state. 



=\ 



ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 277 

beasts, most delicately interwoven with gold and silver 
thread. They are wonderfully beaatiful, and being used 
by the Saracens for sleeping upon, are worth ten marcs of 
silver. There are also cushions woven with gold, valued 
at ten marcs. In short, this leather is embroidered for 
royal use, more delicately than in any other part of the 
world.* 

XXX. — Tana (Bombay). 

TSna is a great kingdom in the west ; the inhabitants 
idolaters, with a language of their own, under a sovereign 
subject to no other. It does not produce pepper, or such 
spices as the other provinces; but yields incense, not 
white, but of a brown colour.! There is a great trade in 
leather finely dressed, also in good cotton, both raw and 
made into cloth. The merchants import gold, silver, 
brass, and other goods necessary for these kingdoms, re- 
ceiving various articles in return. But I have a bad thing 
to tell you ; for many pirates issue hence, scouring the sea, 
and greatly injuring the sailors ; and the king sanctions 
their conduct, having made an agreement, that they bring 
to him all the horses captured, which are very numerous, 
being in great request over all India. But gold, silver, 
precious stones, and the rest of the cargo, belong to them- 
selves. Now this is bad and very unjust conduct. Let 
us leave this country and speak of Cambaia. 

XXXI. — Kingdom of Cambaia. 

This is a great kingdom to the west ; the people idoIa« 
tors, with a language of their own, and a ruler subject to 
no other. Here the north-star appears more fully, as it 
always does the farther you go westward. This region 
is rich and productive; particularly in excellent indigo ; 
also cotton, both raw and manufactured, which is export- 

* We are not accastomed to view this as an Indian manufactnre ; yet 
Linachoten describes it in nearly the same terms ; so that it appears to 
have floorishMl at an early period. The practice of dyeing skins still 
prevails. 

t The name in Ramasio is Kanan ; in others Ghana and Caria ; bat 
Mr. Marsden justly infers that the real one is Tana^ on the island of 
Salsette near Bombay ; and this name is really found in the French and 
Crusca editions. Marco is correct in stating that no pepper is hore pro- 
duced. The incense described is gum benzoin ; but Mr. Marsden infers 
that it most have (>een imported from Somatra and only seen in the 
•var^houses here. 



278 THE INDIAl^ SEAS, ANli HISTOKICAL 

ed to many other coantries. I may add, many hides are 
dressed and worked with a skill nowhere surpassed ; also 
other articles too tedious to enumerate. The foreign 
merchants bring mostly gold, silver, and brass. The peo- 
ple are not pirates, but honest ; living by trade and man- 
ufacture.* And now I will tell you of Semenat. 

XXXII. — Kingdom of Semenat (Sumnaat). 

This is a great country to the westward. The inhab- 
itants are idolaters with languages of their own, and a 
monarch subject to no other. They are not pirates, but 
live by trade and industry, as good men ought to do. The 
country is rich, and frequented by many merchants. The 
people, however, are fierce and cruel idolaters.! 

Kcsmacoran is a kingdom with a sovereign and lan- 
guages of its own. The people are idolaters, and raise 
abundance of rice, on which and on flesh and milk they 
subsist. There is a great trade by sea and land, but no- 
thing else worth mentioning. :t Now this is the last prov- 
ince found in India, in proceeding between west and 
north-west ; and all the kingdoms already described, from 
Maabar to this, belong to that India which is called the 

* This is evidently Camboia, an important kingdom, the capital of 
which is situated at the head of the gulf of that name. The latter 
bounds the peniosola of Guzerat, of which probably a ctmsiderable part 
is here included. The shores of this inlet being out of the great mari- 
time route, were not a natural seat of piracy, with which indeed this 
country has never been reproached. 

t lliis ifl evidently Sumnaut or Puttan Samuant, celebrated for its 
splendid temple, destroyed in 1024 by Mahmond the Ghiznevide. See 
Account of British India (Edinburgh Cabinet Library), vol. i. p. 194- 
196. The name is here generally applied to the territory which we call 
Guzerat. T%e bad character of the people is supposed by Mr. Marsden 
to have been dictated by religious antipathies ; but it appears iu tact that 
the Kattees or natives of Kattiwar are peculiarly barbarous and fevocitius, 
ezcneding in this respect their neighbours the Rajpoots themselves, fiercer 
than the other Hindoos. Trans. Bombay Lit. Soc., vol. i. pp. 265, 273, 274. 

i Mr. Marsden states that he felt difficulty as to this name, till he ap- 

Slied to Major Rennell, who suggested that it was the same with Kidg- 
lakran, usually appli^ in India to Mekran, the most southern province 
of Persia. Kidg he supposed to have been an ancient metropolis, whose 
name, according to a usage prevalent in India, was joined to that of the 
country. P^tmger, accordingly, found Kedge to be the actual capital 
of Mekran. Having sailed altmg this extensive coast, Maroo would enter 
the Persian Gulf, and conclude his voyage ; but we shall find him wm 
describing on hearsay the extensive regions on the western shores of the 
Indian Ocean. 



ACCOUNTS OF VVESTEKN ASU. 279 

Greater, and is the first of any in the world. I have, 
however, only mentioned those on the seacoast, since to 
treat of the inland ones would have been too tedious. I 
shall therefore proceed to notice certain islands also be- 
longing to India, and first two called Male and Female. 

*'XXXni. — Islands called Male and Female. 

The isle called Male is full 500 miles out at sea, south 
of Kesmacoran. The people are baptized Christians, at- 
tached to the law and customs of the Old Testament ; they 
are very reserved in their intercourse with their wives. All 
the latter, indeed, dwell in another isle which is called 
Female. The men go and reside there three months in 
the year — March, April, and May — ^when they return l<» 
their own residence, and spend the remaining nine months 
in labour. In this isle is found very fine and beautiful am- 
ber. The people live on rice, milk, and flesh, and excel in 
fishing, capturing enough both for their own food and for 
exportation. Ttyey have no ruler except a bishop subject 
to the Archbishop of Scotra, and have languages of their 
own. The isle where their wives reside is thirty miles 
distant , but they could not live if they spent the whole 
year with them. The sons remain with their mothers till 
the age of fourteen, when they go to join their fathers in 
their separate abode, t ^ 

* We have obMmred that the Polt, -with their fair charge, Mronld un- 
doobtedly steer from the coast of Gazerat to the Persian Gulf, with the 
▼iew of landing at Ormus. In undertaking^ thoreforA, to give ua a view 
of the western borders of the Indian Ocean, Marco could only be guided 
by the reports of his Arab pilots. Though daring and skilful in their 
vocation, they coaid not be men of highly cultivated minds, and were 
probably deeply imbued vnth that taste for the marvellous, indicated by 
the ptiblication, during that century, of the celebrated fiction of the 
Arabian Nighta. Mr. Crawfurd has' remarked the probability that at 
Sumatra he would be obliged to take on board nilots of this nation, the 
iiiduenee of whose spirit may perhaps be remarked during the whole of 
the subsequent voyage. 

t Mr. Marsden supposer the islands here meant to be those named 
Abd-al'CUTia or the Two Sisters, Jying to the west of Socotra ; and 
Count Boni coincides. I cannot but remark, however, that they are 
placed midway between Mekran and this last, 500 miles from each, 
and the total 1000 is necessary, and indeed not quite sufficient, to make 
up the distance. The two islnnds would, by the above supposition, be 
on the opposite side of Socotra, and very near it, while the whole de« 
scription aeems to indicate them as remote from any*bther land. Count 
ilrmi, indeed, was informed by M. Znria, that in the Soranzo MS. the 
di^tauce ia niade ouly fiirtv milee ; but this codex, being proved to be of 

Y 



280 THE IITDIAN 8BAS, AND HISTOEICAL. 

XXXIV.— Iflla of Scotnu 

About 600 miles soath from these isles yoa find that 
of Scotra, the people of which are bapti?^ Christians, and 
have an archbishop. Ambergris is very plentiful, being 
voided from the entrails of whales, which are porsaed 
most actively, in order to obtain this precious article. 
They strike into the animal a barbed iron so firmly that 
it cannot be drawn out. A long line attached enables 
them to discover the place where the dead fish lies, and 
drag it to the shore, when they extract from its belly the 
ambergris, and from its head several casks uf oil.* Fire 
cotton cloth is made ; and abundance of good salt fish pre- 
pared. The people subsist on rice, milk, and flesh ; and 
go naked after the manner of the other idolatrous Indians. 
To this island come many ships and merchants ; and in- 
deed all those destined for Aden touch there. The arch- 
bishop has no connexion with the See of Rome, but is sub- 
ject to a primate resident at Bagdad who appoints him, as 
well as sends mandates to bishops and prelates in other 
quarters of the world. Hither) too, repair many corsairs 
with their ships to sell their booty, and find a ready mar- 
ket, because the Christians, knowing it to have been ab- 
stracted from idolaters and Saracens, scruple not to pur- 
chase, t ^ 

I can tell you moreover, that these Christians are the 
most skilful enchanters in the world. The archbishop, in- 
deed, forbids and even 'punishes this practice, but without 

fccondary inusortaiice, can scarcely stand agfamst the united voice of ali 
the others. I cannot help suspecting the whole to be a mere fliglit of 
Arabian fanej. Mr. Miarsden has foand in Barbosa, and Count Buni in 
De Barros, representations of the females of Socotra as somewhat Ajaar 
zonian, both as to valour and separation from the other sex. 

* This passage, though only in Ramusio,- gives a tolerably correct ao- 
eount of the capture of the spermaceti whale. The (qyinion here given 
of the origin of ambergris has been controverted, but is the one now 
generally received. See Macculloch's Commercial Dictitmary, p. SO. 

t Socutra is not much frequented now, when vessels studiously steer 
through the open ocean ; but in an age when they kept cloee to the ooast, 
It became necess^ily a main thoroughfare for those passing between the 
respective shores of Asia and Africa. Mr. Marsden has successfuUy 
proved Its havmg then been so, from the best early authorities. The 
^^VT^^^'^T'^}? naturally render it the haunt of pirates; indeed 
Abulfeda sctuaDy charges the people as themseWes enga^d in that enor 
nuty. There is also abundant proof of their having embraced Chri*- 
ttawty under a schismatic form, the Nestorian .»r Jarobif* 



ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ABIA. 281 

any avail ; for their ancestors, they say, followed it before 
them, and they will continue. For instance if a dhip is 
inroceeding full sail with a favonrable wind, they raise a 
contrary one, and oblige it to return. They can make it 
blow from any quarter they please, and cause either a dead 
c^lm or a violent tempest.* They perform many other 
marvellous enchantments, which it would be wrong to 
relate ; they would excite such amazement. We shall 
therefore leave them, and describe the island of Mada- 
gascar. 

XXXY . — Mndagaacar. 

This is an island towards the south, about a thousand 
miles from Scotra. The people are Saracens, adoring Mo- 
hammed ; and they have four sheiks, or old men, who nile 
the entire country. This is really one of the noblest and 
greatest islands in the world, being reputed 4000 miles in 
circuit. In no region are so many elephants bred, and 
their teeth sold, as here and In Zanghibar.f No flesh is 
eaten but that of camels, of which an. incredible number 
are killed every day \t and being supposed better and more 

* A power over the winds is often claimed by sorcereTS ; and in this 
aolitaiy island, sarrounded by a stormy ocean, the pntension would be 
both natural axtd profitable. However little our readers may be inclined 
to admit it, there is ample proof of its being generally believed in by the 
early Portognese navifi:aton. 

t The present is believed to be the first notice conveyed to Enrope of 
thia great island. Its dimensions are exaggerated, even if we taSae Ra- 
masio's estimate of 3000 ; but in the earlier editions it is as here, 4000. 
Considering this, with the mention of the elephant and the giraffe,— 
animals not found in this island,— I have little doabt that the Arabs 
combined with their idea of Madagascar a large portion of the adjacent 
oontineat. C<nnpariug the present with the following chapter, it will 
be seen that they had not traced in any continnoas manner the coast o( 
Eastern Africa, but had reached only detached portions, which they con- 
ceived to be large islands. From what is stated respecting the cnrrents, 
they evidently had not penetrated through the Mozambique channel, and 
might easily suppose the numerous islands in the northern part to belong 
to a mass of land. The Moslem religion and Arab social system do not 
now exist ; but there is full proof ol their being formerly established, 
tiioogh expelled after the decline of that nation in Eastern Africa, where, 
even at the arrival of the Portuguese, they were found holding great 
sway. 

t Camels are not found here ; and though Marsden mentions instances 
of their fiesh being prized as food, there can I think be no doubt that the 
ammal ^uded to is a peculiar species of ox or bison, with a hump on 
the shoulder, which Flaoourt reports having been by some mistaluw <or 
aoamal. 



382 THE INDIAN BSA8, AND HIBTOftiCAL 

wholesome than any other, 4t is used if possilde daring 
the whole year. The red sandal grows here to the height 
of oar forest trees, and is sold with adTantage to foreign- 
ers. Ambergris also abounds, from the number of whales 
which, as you know, yield that substance. There are 
leopards, ounces, and lions ; likewise various other ani- 
mals, such as stags, wild goats, and deer, some of great 
size. The birds are equally various, several wonderfully 
d^erent from ours. Many ships arrive with abundance 
of goods, as cloths of silk and gold, which are profitably 
exchanged for those of the country. Mariners, however, 
cannot reach the other islands lying south of this and ol 
Zaoghibar, owing to the violence of the current running 
in this direction. It is such, that while vessels can come 
hither from Malabar in twenty days, they spend three 
months in returning. 

Mow I must mention, that in these southern isles, the 
birds called gritfon are reported to exist, and to appear at 
certain seasons ; yet they are not formed as we describe 
and paint them, half-bird, half-lion, but exactly like the 
eagle, only immeasurably larger. They are represented 
so huge and, powerful, as to take up the elephant and car- 
ry him high inio the air, then let him drop, whereby he is 
at once killed, and they feed upon his carcass. It is as- 
serted that their wings are twelve paces long, and when 
spread out, extend thirty paces across ; they are thick in 
proportion. I must add, that the khan sent messengers 
to obtain information about the coantry, and dso the re- 
lease of one of his subjects who had been made prisoner. 
They and the captive related to him many great wonders 
of these strange isles and brought teeth of a wild boar, in- 
conceivably large : I assure you he found them to weigh 
fourteen pounds. You may thus judge as to the size of 
the boar ; and indeed some are equal to a buffalo. There 
are also giraffes and wild asses, and other beasts and birds 
wonderfully different from ours. To return to the grifiun ; 
the people of the inland do not know it by that name, but 
call it always rttc ; but we, from their extraordinary size, 
certainly conclude theqa to be griffons.* Having nothing 

♦ The binJ mentioned in this cwriotts pan«mph appeal^ to be either 
the albatroM, which, though proper to more aoiithem latitadea, may har* 
oTPaeionally Tinted the shores of Madaffascar. or else the condor o£ Smith- 



ACCOUNTS OF WESTfi&N ASIA. 283 

mate to tell of this island, I will now go on to that of 
Zaaghibar. 

XXXVI.— Coast of Zanghibor. 

This is a very great and noble island, about 2000 miles 
in circuit.* The people are all idolaters, have languages 
and a king of their own, and are subject to no other power. 
They are not very tall, but so broad and thick, that in this 
respect they appear like giants ; and they are likewise 
inuuensely strong, bearing as large a burden as four other 
men, which is really no wonder, for they eat as much as 
five. They are perfectly black and go naked, with the 
exception of a doth round the waist. Their mouth is so 
wide, their nose so turned up, their lips and eyes so big, 
that they are horrible to bebold,t and any one meeting 
them in another country would believe them devils. £le- 

em Africa. The former has been known to measure from wing to wing 
15 feet, the latter above 10. In either case the exaggeration is very great ; 
the statement, howerer, varies much ; for the extreme length, instead of 
90 paces as here, in the Crusca is only 30, and in Ramusio 16. The 
latter adds the account of a feather 90 spans long, and the quill part 
two palms 'in ciicomferenoe, which was cacried to the great Jchan, by 
whom it was greatly admired. As nothing of all this is found in any 
•arly e^jticm except the Italian Museum MS., — not a first authority, — 
we may conclude it to be the unauthorized embellishment of some faith- 
lees translator. The statement rests only on the warm fancy of the 
Araba, here peculiarly excited by the mention of such a gigantic bird in 
the Arabian Nights, from which, in fact, they have borrowed the name 
rukh. Nay, there appears to be throughout Asia a superstitious belief 
of its existence. The identity with the griffon is admitted in the French 
venioA, hen followed^ to be a comment of the writer's own, for which 
I have no donbt we are indebted to the romantic studies of Rusticians ; 
•o that two schools of fable have lieen at work in producing this e2:tra- 
ordinary paragraph. 

The boar here menttened appears to be the boechwerk, called by Lin- 
B»08 *u» etkiopieu*. It has fuar tusks, the two largest of which, nine 
inches long and five in circumference, project like horns, being turned 
up at the end, and rendering the animal truly formidable (Barrow^ 
Africa, vol. i. p. 303). A large specimen might possess such a dimension 
ms is here stated. 

* This is evidently the part of the eastern coast of Africa usually 
called Zanguebar, which signifies country of the Ethiopians nr Negroes. 
We pointed out under the last chapter that want of the knowledge of 
Africa, viewed as a continent, which probably led the Arabs to consider 
this and other districts as islands. 

t We have here a picture of the negro, evidently drawn from the life, 
TSt very strongly caricatured. The traveller does not intimate whether 
ne had ever seen one himself. Probably he had x{ot, and received the 
ion from his Arab shipmates. 



284 THE INDIAN 8EA8, AND HIBTOIICAL 

phanto abound, and a great traffic is carried on in then 
teeth ; likewise lions of a peculiar species, with ounces 
and leopaitls. In short, they have a!l kinds of beasts dif- 
ferent from others in the world ; iacluaing sheep entirely 
white, with only the head black, and none of any other 
colour.* 

Here too is the giraffe, a most beautiful creature, 
whose shape I will describe. Behind, it is low, and the 
legs very short ; while those before, and the neck, are 
very large, so that its head rises three paces from the 
ground. The animal is small, and is quite harmless ; and 
its colour being red and white, in circles, it is yery beau- 
tiful, t But there is a thing which I had forgotten about 
the elephant, that it caresses the female in the same man- 
ner as the human species. I must say, the women of this 
i^nd are most ugly objects ; with large mouth, eyes, and 
nose, and their breasts four times the ordinary size ; in 
short, they are hideous. The people live on rice, flesh, 
milk, and dates, and though they have no vines, make a 
very good liquor of rice, sugar, and spices. There is a 
great trade, particularly in elephants' teeth ; and a good 
quantity of amber. The men are very brave in combat, 
and have little fear of death. They have no horses, but 
fight upon camels and elephants, placing on them castles 
well covered, with sixteen or twenty men mounted on 
them bearing laiices, swords, and staves, and making a 
very powerful force in battle, t They have no arms ex- 
cept leathern shields, lances, and swords, with which they 
fight well. When leading the elephant to the combat, they 
givo him to drink of their wine or liquor, which renders 
him more fierce and effective. I must now proceed to 
the great province of Abascia, but first wish to say some- 
thing more of India in general. 

* Mr. Manden finds this statement confirmed by Hamilton, a good 
authority 

t This elegant animal, now familiar in oar menageries, is hers cor* 
rectly described. 

t The traveller is correct as to the number of elephants, but fpnn 
mistaken in supposing them tamed and trained for war. They certainly 
were so by the Carthafimans ; but there is no account of such a prac- 
tice in modern times. He probably had seen them so employed in India, 
ajad on learning that they were here equally numerous, too hastUy con- 
cluded that rhe same course would be JoUowed. Ha is correct as totlM 
want of horses. 



ACCOUNTS or WESTERN ASIA. 285 

., XXXVIL^The Iflands in the Indian Sea. 

Yoa must know I have described only its noblest king- 
doms and istea ; those that make the flower of- the region, 
and to which the rest are mostly subject. No man could 
enumerate all the islands ; they are estimated at^ 12,700, 
inhabited and uninhabited, according tp the writings of 
(he most skiifur mariners. In the Greater India, which 
extends from Maabar to Kesmacoran, are thirteen very 
great kingdoms, of which I have described ten. The 
Lesser India, stretching froip Zinaba to Montifi, contains 
eight, and this is exclusive oif numerous others that are in 
the islands.* 

XXXVIIL— Kingdom of Abasda. 

Abascia is a very great pro vince, called the Middle In- 
dia, t The supreme monarch is a Christian ; the other six 
kings are subject to him, three being believers, and three 
Saracen. The Christian people of this province have 
three marks upon their face, one from the forehead to 
the middle of the nose, and one on each cheek, made 
with a hot iron, and herein consists their baptism. There 
are also Jews having a mark on each cheek, and Sara- 
cens with only one on the forehead and no^e.t The great 
king lives in the* middle of the province; the Saracens 

* We luiTO hBd occation to observe the wide extension given to the 
name of India. Here are clearly distiuniiahed three regions so named : 
the Greater, including llindostan and Southern Persia ; the Lesser, or 
the country beyond the Ganges ; the Middle, meaning Abyssinia. Mr. 
Manden lias found, in the early trHvellers, Conti and Barbosa, nearly 
the same limits and divisions applied to this eelebrated name. Indeed, 
in the popular language of Europe, the term East Indies is still aiq>lied tq 
all the southern coasts of Asia, exclusive of China ; East being evident- 
ly added to distinguish it from the region since discovered and named the 
fVewt Indies. The islands -here mentioned are sappoaed by Mr. jifazsden 
to be the very mmierous groups of the Maldives and Lac^idives. He is 
doubtless so &r correct ; but considering the extension of the name east- 
ward, it seems probable that the Oriental Archipelago is also included, 
especially when we find the mention of kingdoms in these islands. In 
Ramusio, Zinaba is Zampa (Tsiompa), the first kingdom reached after 
leaving China, while Montifi is Murphili, the name given in that edition 
to Mdsalipatam. 

t This IS evidently Abyssinia, and indeed the name here resembles 
more that of Habbesh, used by the natives. The Crusca has Nabasce. 

t This practice of baptism by cauterizing is mentioned by Barbosa, 
Linschoten, and other early authors, being intended, it is said, to rep- 
resent baptizing by firo. Ludolfiis, a later but authentic historian^ de- 
nies this on the aothority of the Jesuit missionaries, and says that such 



9M THE nf DIAN SEAS, AND BI8TOEICAL 

tpwaids Aden. In tins district Messer St. ThomaB the 
apostle pieaehed, and alter conTerting the mhabitaBts, 
went to Maabar, where he died, and his bodj remains, as 
formeriy mentioned. This conntry contains many good 
men-at-arms and well moonted cavalry, who are mnch 
needed ; for wars are freqaent with the Sultans of Aden* 
and Nabia, and with other powers. Bnt I will tell yon a 
memoraUe stoiy of what happened in the year 1288. 
This king, who is lord over all Abascia, wished to go in 
pilgrimage to adore (he sepulchre of Christ in Jerusidem. 
The barons represented the danger of the jonrney, and ad- 
▼iaed him to send a bishop or some other great prelate. 
The monarch haring agr^, one of very holy life was 
chosen, who readily undertook the mission. He was 
equipped most handsomely as a pilgrim, and travelled by 
hud and sea tUl he arrived at Jerusalem. Repairing to 
the sepulchre, he performed the due homage before an 
object so exalted ; and having presented great offerings 
from the king, and weU fulfilled his mission, he set out on 
his return. He passed through Aden, a country where 
Christians are hated as mortal enemies. The governor, 
learning that he professed this religion, and was a mes- 
senger of the sovereign of Abascia, warned him that un- 
less he embraced the law of Mohammed, he would suffer 
a shameful punishment. The bishop replied, that he 
would sooner die. The other, greatly enraged, ordered 
him to be forcibly circumcised, and then sent him away, 
telling him tiiat this was meant as an affront to his mas- 
ter. The prelate was much grieved, but consoled him- 
self by thinking that he had suff'ered for the law of his 
fhith, and God would recompense him in the other world. 
As soon as he could travel, he proceeded to Abascia, and 

marlu, though sometimes made, are only as an imi^nary preaerratiTS 
against cold. There seems, however, full testimony to their early ex- 
iatenee as a rite, though perhaps it has faUen into disuse. 

* This is evidently Adel, a great Mohammedan kingdom east of Abys- 
sinia. The change from one liquid to another is easy, and indeed it is 
sot improbable that the Arabian Aden might at one period have extended 
Its nairte and power to this region. It is curious that in the Crasca, the 
one is called Adenti, the other Edenti. The long wars between the two 
kingdoms are fully commemorated by historians ; Bruce ohsenring, that 
the preciss period hers referred to formed nearly a Uank in th« •"««l« 
ti that kingdom, so that it is impossible to find any ooniinBKtioa of ths 
ailitary srents now to be related 



ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. ' 287 

appeared before the king ; who, having inquired about the 
sepulchre, and being told the whole truth, accounted it a 
iDost holy and pious visit. The bishop then related thp 
affront put upon him by the ruler of Aden, when his ma 
jesty fell into such a transport of grief and rage, that he 
almost died. He caUed aloud in the hearing of all the by- 
standers, that he would never wear a crown, nor rule a 
province, till he had taken such vengeance as should be 
spoken of throughout the world. Presently he prepared a 
vast body of troopsi on horseback and foot, also elephants 
with weU-armed casties, having twenty men upon each. 
He then set out and marched directly onward to the ter- 
ritory of Aden. Its chiefs, with a great multitude of Sar- 
acens on foot and horseback, c«ame to defend their coun- 
try, and a most obstinate battle was fought ; but the ene- 
my could not withstand the force of the King of Abascia, 
because the Christians are more valiant. They fled and 
were, slain in great numbers. The victor, entering the 
country in three or four places, greatly wasted and de- 
stroyed it, killing many of the inhabitants. He then 
thought the affront sufficiently avenged; and indeed I 
must tell you he could effect no farther devastation, the 
region being extensive, and full of dangerous passes, 
where a few men could greatly harass an army.** 

I will now reltfte other matters of Abascia, which yields 
a great variety of all things necessary for subsistence. 
The people live on rice, flesh, milk, and sesamum, and., 
have elephants, not bred there, but brought from the isle 
of the other India. GiraflTes, however, are in great num- 
bers ; also lions, leopards, ounces, wild apes, and many 
beasts and birds different from ours. The domestic fowls 
aie the most beautiful in the world ; and the ostriches 
as large as asses. t They have parrots, beautiful and vari- 

* lu Ramuflio, tke Idng is repreaentod m having taken and pillaged 
the capitaL Mr. Manden is perplexed bv finding no record of any sach 
complete succeM. The text here given from the early editiont ezhibita 
it as only a partial and temponury inroad. 

t This description of Abyssinia is tolerably aecnrate. considering the 
channels through ^hich it was procured ; thoagh its features are not 
anfficiently distingpuished from those of the southern and central partt 
of Africa. The isle alluded to is probably Zanzibar. In Ramusio, the 
OQfontTy is deecribed as extremely rich in gold : an error not in the early 
edittons. „ 

r 



fSSS TU£ INDIAN HBAS, AND HUSTOSXCAL 

0Q8 ; also monkeys and cats of two species, with faces 
exactly like those of men. This Abascia contains nu- 
merous cities and castles, and is much frequented by mer- 
chants ; many cloths of cotton and buckram are wrooglit 
there. I might relate other things, but must now go on 
to the province of Aden. 

XXXIX. -City and Kingdom of Adea 

This country is subject to a lord, called sultan. The 
people are all Saracens, adoring Mohammed, and wishing 
the greatest mischief to Christians. There are many 
cities and castles ; for Aden is the port to which the In- 
dian ships bring aU their merchandise. It is then placed 
on board other small vessels, which ascend a river about 
seven days, at the end of which it is disembarked, laden 
on camels, and conveyed thirty days farther. It then 
comes to the river of Alexandria, and is cor^eyed down 
to that city. By this route alone its inhabitants receive 
their pepper, spices, and costly goods.* From Aden, too, 
ships sail for India with various goods, especially very fine 
and valuable horses, which, as you know, are sold there 
for full a hundred marks of silver. The sultan draws a 
great revenue from the duties un these cargoes ; and is 
thus one of the richest princes in the world. But, I as- 
sure you, he did great injury to the Christians ; for when 

* Th« spleudoux and prosperity of Aden in this age ib 2Qii£nned pu* 
tiaJly by the oriental writers, and more folly by Barijosa. Blpore dnwa 
from it the image— 

" BlooauoK M Men ia its nrliest hour.** 
This wealth was derived, ais here stated, fnm ite being then the main 
channel by which the Indian commodities reached Europe bv way of 
Alexandria. At that time, it appears, large vessels did not venture upon 
the intricate navigation of the Red Sea, and their cargoes were dis- 
charv^' At this city. After the passage of the Cape, and the improved 
navigation by which they were enabled to ascend, Aden snnk into a 
mere plnce of refreshment for seafaring persons. In this view, and as 
sQbservient to steam navigation, the British government have recently 
parchaaed it, but find it difficult to maintain against the barbarous tribes 
of the interior. 

In all the early editions, including Pipino and GTryneus, the Red Sea 
is by niiatske caUed a river. The Arabic term bakr, water, is used in- 
discriminately in this sense, and in that of sea or lake. This ciream- 
stance often canses confusion, and might easily mislead our traveller. 
U Ramosio, it is properly called a gulf. He, or another modem editor, 
nnght easdy have the information necessary to make this conection. 
The vovsff* IS siso stated at twenty days a mor« sMitabl. rim» 



ACCOUNTS OF WESTSBN ASIA. 289 

the governor of Babylonia attacked and took the city of 
Acre, committiog much devastatioa, he was assisted by 
this prince with 30»000 horses and 40,000 camels. This 
aid was given rather out of hatred to belieyers than good 
will to that prince.* But now I will tell you of another 
great city. 

XL.— Cit)r of Escier (Shaher). 

Escier is a very large town to the north-west (north;, 
four hundred miles from Aden.t A count here rules with 
justice, but subject to the soldan of Aden ; and the people 
are Saracens adoring Mohammed. The port is good, ^e- 
quented by many ships and merchants from India, who 
bring various commodities, and carry away others, partic- 
ularly horses of great value, and yielding large profit. In 
this province grows a great quantity of fine incense, also 
of dates.t They have no grain except rice, and little of 
that ; hence com is profitably imported from other coun- 
tries. Fish is caught in such plenty, that for a Venetian 
gros you may purchase two large tunnies. The people 
live on rice, flesh, and fish, and have no wine except what 

* The sultan here alluded to is supposed to be Saladin, the celebrated 
filler of Egypt ; for Cairo was in that age called Babylonia, lumng, after 
the fall of Bagdad, become the capital seat of Mohammedan power 
(Bonij ]>. 467). The French, Crnsca, and the Paris Latin give no date ; 
bat Pipino, Gryneus, and Rflimosio have 1300. The true one was 1187 ; 
hot they might be giving a round number, without attempting precision. 

t There is a singular discrepancy here as to the distance ; for while 
the Crnsca and Paris Latin have four miles, Pipino and Ramusio have 
Ibzty, and the early French 400. This last is undoubtedly correct, for 
Mr. Marsden, notwithstanding his erruneous versions, clearly recognizes 
here the Schfthhr of Niebuhr, Sahar of D'Anville, situated at exactly 
400 miles from Aden. Mr. WelUted describes it under the name of 
Shaher, as still the largest town on this part of the Arabian coast, ex- 
tending a mile and a quarter in length (Travels in Arabia, vol. ii. p. 443). 
In this, however, and the two following routes, the early editions com- 
jnit tite heavy error of making the direction north-WMt instead of north- 
east. 1 incline to suspect a mistake of transcription ; for tramontane 
(north) might easily, in bad MS., be mistaken for vermaistre (north- 
west). It is curious that Pipino, Gryneus, aitd the French of 1505, 
really hayfl norths which is correct, allowing for the frequent habit ol 
orienting to a cardinal point. We may refer to our observations in a 
former instance, in which these middle editions were correct, while the 
early and later ones were erroneous. Ramosio has a different mistake, 
mffcing it south-east ; while the Italian Museum MS. has ostro (south). 

% The coast of Hadramaut, here described, is celebrated for its copious 
production of incense ; and the valuable spice named oliban or fnuikiu- 
(^ense, seems peculiar to it.— .MarsJea. pp 730, 73]. 



290 THE IXDIAV SEAS, AND HISTORICAL 

thej make from sugar, rice, and dates. But I most tell 
you, too. that they bare sheep without ears, or any open- 
ing for them ; but where the ears should be, is a httle 
bmn ; these are small and very beautiful creatures.* An- 
other thing you will much wonder at is, that all the ani- 
mals, sheep, oxen, and camels, eat fish, because there is 
no grass, for it is the most arid place in the world. These 
fishes are renr small, caught in March, April, and May, in 
wonderful quantities. They are dried, lodged in houses, 
and given as food to the animals during the whole year. 
The people eat them also when quite alive and newly 
taken. There are also plenty of large ones, which being 
made into a kind of biscuit, by cutting them into smaU 
pieces and drjing them in the sun, are preserved under 
cover during the whole year.f The incense, mentioned 
as so abundant, is purchased by their lord at ten golden 
bezants the cantar, and retailed to the merchants for forty, 
so that he makes a very large profit. Let us now leave 
this city, and tell you of Dufar. 

XLL— CHy of Dufiur. 

This is a beautiful, large, and noble city, 500 miles south- 
west from Escier.t The people are Saracens, adoring 
Mohammed, and ruled by a count, who is subject to Aden, 
to which, indeed, this city belongs. The port is very good, 

* Mr. Manden has not been able to find any aoranmt of this peenliar 
qiecies ; bat the irarieties of the sheep are nnmerooa. One reared in this 
arid country woald of course be diminutiTe. The want vt ears would 
doubtless be sngs^ested by the absence or small size of the exterior ap- 
pendage. 

t Extremely little is known of this coast ; but in regvrd to that! on tha 
Persian Gulf, which is exactly similar, Niebuhr and Chardin folly con- 
firm the oopioas supply of fish, and the practice of feeding cattle with 
them. TUs, indeed, is a natural resoarce, where this food la so abun- 
dant, and Tegetables so scanty. On the opposite side of the gulf, when 
circamstances are similar, the same particulars are noticed by Arriaa, 
in his Voyage of Nearchus. 

X Dufar, or Dofar, is a well-known port in Arabia, and the distaaoa 
here stated (from the French) is just aboot the actual one from Shaher. 
Tbe cither editions commit strange errors ; the Cmsca and Paris Latin 
have five, Ramusio twenty miles. Tbe direction is, as before, erroneoos, 
doubtless from the same cause, whatever that may be. This chapter is 
omitted in Pipino and Gryneus ; otherwise we may presume the right 
direction would have been there given. Mr. Wellsted, in his late surrey, 
found the district not very flourishing, with no port that conild be reck- 
oned more than a village. Dofar, however, was the principal one, sur- 
rounded by a well-cultivated countty. — Vet. ii. p. 453. 



ACCOUNTS OF WSSTEBN ASIA. 291 

and merchants convey thence many very fine Arabian 
horses. Numerous cities and castles depend upon it, and 
the country yields much incense. The trees are about 
the size of a small fir, and incisions are made with knives 
in various places, whence Hows the incense, which, in- 
deed, tbroogh the great heat, oflen runs out of itself. I 
shall now proceed to relate of the Gulf of Galatu. 

XLII.— Gulf and City of Calatu. 

Calatu is a large city within the gulf of the same name, 
six hundred miles north-west from Dufar.^ It id a noble 
seaport, inhabited by Saracens, who are subject to Cor- 
mos. When the melik of that city is at war with a more 
powerful prince, he retires to this place, which is strong 
by nature and art, an^I fwA^i liimself secure. The people 
have no grain but what they import. Many ships bring 
the goods and spices of India, which are distributed 
throughout the interior, and many fine horses sent in re- 
turn. But I must observe, that this city is at the mouth 
of the Gulf of Calatu, so that the melik can prevent ves- 
sels from sailing in or oiit without his consent. This pow- 
er he often uses against the sultan of Creman ; for when 
that prince demands any exorbitant tribute from him or 
other vessels, they remove from Cormos to Calatu, and 
allow no ships to pass, whence the other prince suffers 
severely, and is obliged to abate his demands. The peo- 
ple of this country live on dates and salt fish, which are 
abundant ; but many rich men arc well supplied with bet- 
ter food. 

XLIII. — Return to Curmos. 

After departing from Calatu, and sailing three hundred 
miles between north-west and north, you find the city of 
Cormos ; but if yon take a direction from the former 

* This is Kalhat, near a cape of the same name, at the entrance of the 
Persian Gulf, on the western side. The distance from Dofar here giren 
(from the French) is correct ; in the other editions it is absurd, — ^in the 
Paris Latin six, in.Rarausio fifty miles. The plane has no longer any 
existence, and Mr. Marsden imagines it must have included Muscat, 
]»Dbably at that time under its dependence : but this is impossible, the 
two sites being 100 miles distant. Mr. Wellsted lately visited that of 
Kalhat, and found it covered by extensive ruins, fully confirming that 
early splendour and importance which our traveller ascribes to it. Only 
one mosque remained entire, and there was a small fishing-rillage to th* 
Qorth. — Travels in Arabia, vgl, j. p. 41, 



292 THS flTDIAlf 8BAS, AND RIBTOUCAL 

place between north-west and north, and sail five bnndred 
miles, you come to Quia. However, we shall pass over 
this last place, and speak of Corroos,* a large and noble 
capital subject to a melik, who commands many towns 
and castles. The people are Saracens and adore Moham- 
med. The heat is veiy great on which account every 
house is provided with ventilators placed on the side 
whence the wind blows, which being thus admitted, ren- 
ders the mansion tolerably cool. We gave an account of 
this place formerly, as well as of Quis and Creman, but 
have since made a circuit which brought us back to it. 
However, we will say no more, but proceed now to the de- 
scription of Great Turkey.! 

* Ormiu. — This ToyMra wm probablj perfnnned bj Marco fainiMlf, om 
his way fium India to Penia ; and he is itrictly correct ae to dielanoe 
and direction. The latter is enmieoas in Ramosio,— north-east. 

t In the Cmica, it is said : — " In now returning, we will relate all the 
|»articnlars that we had omitted.*' This is more fally expressed in Ra- 
mvsio :— " Before bringing the work to a eondusian, I shall step bo<^ 
and notice some regions lying towards the nocth, which I omitted to 

?ieak of in the preceding book.** There is nothing of this in the 
ranch, which I am persuaded is here the genuihe text, while the 
other editors have interpolated their own ideas on the subject. 'The 
reader who attentively peruses the following chapters will perceiTe that 
the ground gone over is by no means the same as formerly. Tartar 
kingdoms and countries were indeed treated of, but these were in the 
east and north-east of Asia, the original seat of Mongol power. We 
are now introduced to those in the centre and north-west of that conti- 
nent. We have seen that the Poli, after landing in Persia, escorted the 
two princesses to Casan or Ghazan, then commanding in Ithorasan. I 
apprehend that the succeeding information is that collected during the 
residence there. 

The following chapters vfil) be chiefly new to the English reader, and 
include a historical account of the most remarkable events in the history 
of central and 'north-western Asia, during the thirty years preceding. 
Marco has not appeared to shine in respect to the early Mongol history ; 
but we found reason to ascribo this to the ignorance prevalent at the 
court of Kublai. Ghazan, on the contrary, was a most accomplished 
and intelligent prince. He was the first who, by collecting the loose 
traditions, formed a written history of Gengis and his successon (Mars- 
den, p. 1 80) . De Guignes describes him as habitually studying the £* eat 
actions of Cyrus and Alexander, and striving to imitete them. He 
formed a body of institutes in regard to all the branches of governnibiit, 
which are still observed in Persia, and have been translated into Eng- 
lish by Colonel Kirkpatrick (Malcom's Historv of Persia, vol. i. p. 438). 
There seems ground, therefore, to suppose,' that the informanon ob- 
tained from him respecting recent evente and adjacent countries, would 
be generally correct. 

Ramusio, hitherto so oojpious, has omitted all this historical matter : 
so that it is unknown to Mr. Maisden, of w4k0M leaned aid the editor is 



ACCOUNTS or WBSTERN ASIA. 293 

XLIV.>-Tur]Mstan--\yara of Kaidn. 

This country lies to the north-west as you go from Cor- 

mos to the river Gihon, extefiding towards the territory 

of the great khan. It is governed by a nephew (cousin) 

of his, named Kaida, grandson of Ciagatai/ brother to 

that monarch. He is a very powerful lord, ruling many 

cities and castles. His subjects are Tartars, very able 

eombatants, much inured to fighting, and he does not obey 

the khan, but is rather at perpetual war with him. This is 

because Kaidu demanded constantly from that monarch a 

share of his conquests, particularly in Catai and Manji. 

The latter said he would willingly grant it to him, as to 

his other descendants, if he would come to his court and 

council whenever summoned. But the other, afraid to trust 

his uncle, offered to obey him where he was, but dreaded 

that if in his power he would be put to death. Hence 

arose this discord, and the khan drew his forces around 

the realm of Kaidu to guard against an invasion ; yet that 

prince contrived to penetrate, and fought repeatedly with 

the armies of Kublai ; for he could bring into the field 

100.000 brave and skilful horsemen. He had with him also 

many lords of the imperial lineage. Each soldier carries 

to battle sixty arrows, thirty smaller for shooting, and 

thirty larger, pointed with heavy iron, to throw against 

the face or arms of the enemy, or cut the cords of his bow ; 

and when they have discharged all these, they lay their 

hand on their swords, and strike most terrible blows 

Now, in the year 1266, this king, with his cousin named 

Jesudar, assembled a very great army, and marched 

against two barons that were also his relations, but held 

their lands from the great khan. Kaidu and his cousin 

fought with these two chiefs, who had also a very large 

thus depnved. Nor has he obtained much from Coant Boni, who haa 
nearly confiaed his illustrations to Ramusio's text. He hopes, howevet, 
to prove, that the events now n,^rrared accord in their general outline 
with the most authentic orienuk histories. If there is a discrepancy 
respectinn^ some important details, it is not greater than i» found in these 
histories themselves ; and there may perhaps appear reason to thinlT that, 
in some instances, Marco's statement is the most correct yet given to the 
world. 

* According to Abulghasi, he was grandson to Ugadai or Okkoday ; 
his father, named Kashi, having died o£ excessive inking. In Mtmr 
case, he will be cousin, not nephew, to Kublai ; hot our traveller is not 
vtiy prsciea im tlieee genealogical matters. 



S94 THB INDIAN 8EAS, AND HI6TOKICAL 

forcT}, so that between them there were 100,000 horsemeR. 
Thej contended hardly and long, and many fell on both 
sides ; but at last Kaidu conquered ; however, the two 
barons, being well mounted, escaped without injury. The 
victor then became still more proud and boastful ; yet he 
returned home and remained two years in peace. Then 
he assembled a mighty host of cavalry, having learned that 
at Karakorum there was a great army under Nomogan, a 
SOD of the khan, and George, a grandson of Prester John. 
He marched thither with sdl speed, and the two chiefs be- 
ing informed of his approach, courageously prepared to 
meet him with their horsemen, amounting to upwards of 
60,000. Having reached the place where his men were 
ranged in tents on the plain, they skilfully established their 
own camp. Each party rested and made preparations for 
three days, when they advanced to the combat. There 
was little advantage on either side ; both having about 
60,000 mounted men well armed at every point, divided 
into six squadrons of 10,000. They waited only till they 
heard their lord sound the maccar ; meantime performing 
loudly on various musical instruments. At length the sig- 
nal was given, when the hosts rushed against each other, 
laying their hands on their bows. The arrows filled the 
air like rain ; men and horses were mortally wounded ; 
noise and cries arose so loud that the thunder of Jove 
could not have been heard. Truly this was an evil hour 
for many, who on both sides fell dead and dying. The 
arrows being discharged, they rushed on with sword and 
spear, giving and receiving most dreadful blows. You 
might see arms and hands cut ofiT, and numbers of mea 
rolling senseless on the earth. Kaidu displayed signal 
prowess, and his soldiers would have often been driven 
off the field, had he not encouraged and rallied them. On 
the other side the two princes also firmly stood their 
ground, and it really was one of the most cruel battles 
ever fought between Tartar tribes. Yet though each 
strove with all his might to discomfit the other, neither 
could succeed, and the conflict lasted till evening. On 
this fatal day, multitudes of men fell, many wives were 
made widows, children made orphans, and households 
filled with tears and lamentations. But when the sun set, 
the struggle could endure no longer, and both parties re 



ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 295 

turned to their camp overpowered with fatigue, nappy to 
rest during the night. When morning dawned, King Kai- 
du, having received intelligence that the great khan was 
marching against him with a mighty host, deemed it un- 
safe to remain longer. Wherefore he and all his men 
mounted and rode oflfto their own country \ the two prinr 
ces were so exhausted, that they did not attempt to fol- 
low, so that he with his people reached Samarcand, the 
capital of his kingdom.* 

The great khan feh much wrath at Kaidu for commit- 
ting such ravages, and bethought himself, that had he not 
been his nephew, he would have seized his land and put 
him to a cruel death ; but regard to his own flesh restrain- 
ed him. Thus he escaped out of the hand of the mighty 
monarch. But I have wonderful stories to tell you about a 
daughter of this prince. 

XLV. — ^Exploits of a Tartar Princess, Daaghter to Kaida. 

This young lady was in Tartar named Aigiarm, which 
means in our language ** brilliant moon.'* She possessed 
such strength -that none of the youths or nobles in the 
whole kingdom could vanquish her, but were all beaten. 

* We have been already introduced to Kaidu as the relation and imbit- 
tered enemy of Kublai. As he seems never to have been recognised as a 
regular sovereign, the notices of him in oriental history are extremely 
slight. De Guignes, however (torn. iii. p. 185-187), mentions his repeated 
inroads, and particularly his attempts to obtain possession of Karakornm, 
which would have thrown great lustre on hia arms. On occasion of the 
principal conflict, he represents the army as commanded by Bayam, the 
conqueror of Manji ; but Kublai, unjustly jealous of that officer, sent his 
grandson Temur and an<lther prince to supersede him : yet, before their 
arrival, he had gained the victory. Our traveller, getting his informa- 
tion through Kaidu, might be mistaken on this point. De Guignes rep- 
resents the seat of thatprince's power as in Almaligh, to the north-east 
of Turfiui, and among the tribes north of the Altai. Marco, on the con* 
trary, here distinctly states it as immediately north of the Oxas, and 
Saniareand as his capital. All his particulars accord with this ; the dis- 
tance of forty days' journey to Karakorum : the combination with Barak 
in the invasion of Kwrasaa, and the accidental but evident notice of him 
in treating of Samarcaud. Price, in -fact, calls him (Keydu) Khan of 
Turkestan, and mentions an inroad by him into Khorason (Mohammedan 
History, vol. ii. p. (MK^). I am convinced, then, Marco was right, and 
that the French wht^ merely, from the repeated attempts against Kara- 
korum, concluded that'^is territory lay adjacent to that capital. 

Kaidu continued thirty years powerful and formidable : but, in 1301, 
having been attacked by Tetiinr, the successor of Kublai, he was de- 
feated and died of grief, when his family sninnitted. — De Guignes, toma 
iii. pp. 194, 195. 



2M TUR INIMAN HiSAS, AND UlSTORtCAL 

Her fatber wished to marry her to a baron ; but she refti- 
sed ever to unite herseif to any one who could not Tan- 
qoisb her in fair combat ; and the king granted her this 
privilege. She rejoiced greatly, and published through 
I'arious parts of the world, that if any gentle youth would 
come, try her in pitched battle, and gain the victory, she 
would accept him for her lord. This news was spread 
wide through the surrounding countries, and I assure you 
many gentlemen came and made the trial, which was ar- 
ranged in the fc^owing manner. The king, with many 
young nobles and ladies, assembled in the great ball of the 
palace, when the princess entered in a robe of cotton, richly 
adorned, attended by youths similarly attired. The agree- 
ment was, that if the candidate prevailed and threw her 
to the ground, be should, have her for his wife ; but if vic- 
tory declared on her side, be was to give her a hundred 
horses. Thus she had gained above ten thousand steeds, 
because she could find no youth or damosel that could 
overcome her ; nor was this wonderful, for she was large, 
tall, and well formed^ia her limbs, indeed almost a giantess. 
Now, about the year 1280, there came the son of a rich 
king, an extremely handsome young man, with a brilliant 
retinue and a thousand very fine horses. He addressed 
himself to Kaidu, who was very desirous of marrying him 
to his daughter. He therefore caused her to be privately 
dealt with, to allow herself to be conquered ; but she de- 
clared she would not do so for any thing in the world. 
One day then, the king and queen, with many nobles and 
ladies assembled in the great hall ; the princess and prince 
then entered, and their handsome appearance struck all 
with wonder ; he was really so strong and powerful, that 
no one else could contend with him. When they were 
in the middle of the hall before this great assembly, the 
agreement was formally made, that the suitor, if vanquish- 
ed, sitould lose his thousand horses. But all the compa- 
ny, as well as the king and queen, expressed their wishes 
that he should be successful. The two then rushed to- 
gether, and wrestled violently, dragging each other in dif- 
ferent directions ; but at last the lady prevailed, and threw 
him on the ground, to the great grief of all the spectators ; 
he thus forfeited the thousand horses. But I have to in- 
form you, that Kaidu led his daughter to many battles, and 



ACCOM NTsS OF WB9TKUN ASIA. 297 

in no encounter could any warrior withstand her. On ma- 
ny occasions, she rushed among the enemy, seized one of 
the chiefs, and dragged him over to her own army.* I will 
DOW, however, proceed to a great battle fought between 
her father and Argon, the son of Abaga, lord of the East. 

XL VI. — Great fiattle between Barak and Argon. 

Ahaga ruled many provinces bordering on those of Ka- 
idu, and it was where grows the tree called in the book 
of Alexander the Arbor Secco.i As that prince commit* 
ted great ravages on his territory, he sent his son Argon, 
with a very large host of cavalry, into the country of the 
Arbor Secco, to the river Gihon, where he took a station 
fitted to guard the country against the invader. Kaidu, 
however, assembled a great body of horsemen, and gave 
the command to a brother named Barak, very brave and 
skilful, desiring him to oppose the enemy. Barak, with 
his troops, rode on till he came to the river, and were ten 
miles distant from Argon. »The latter informed of the 
approach of his adversary, made diligent preparation ; the 
two remained three days in their respective camps. When 
they were fully prepared, and the naccar began to sound, 
they no longer delayed, but rushed furiously against each 
other. The arrows might be seen flying on all sides, and 
the air was so full of them, that it seemed to rain ; and 
when both parties had discharged them, and many men as 
well as horses had been slain, they seized their swords 
and spears, and began a most fierce and crnel combat 
Anns and legs were cut off, chargers killed, and many 
dreadful wounds inflicted ; the noise and cries were such 
as would have drowned the loudest thunder. I assure 
you, in a few hours, the ground was covered with dead 

* The editor i« obliged to saj, that he has in vain searched the records 
of the East for any notice of this Herculean fair one ; nor does Count 
Boni appear to hare been more fortunate. But our information respect- 
ing Kaidu himself is so txcessively slight, and only as nonnected with 
the history of Kublai, that we could not reasonably expect any mention 
of an incident of this merely docnesiic nature. 

t Abaga, in 1283, sacceeded Hoolaku. the conqueror of Bagdad, as 
lord of the East, or " of the Eaiitem Tartars," a rnle which iucluded 
the whole of Persia, with parts of Syria and Asia Minor. He is de- 
scribed, as a wise and able prince. We hare already observed, that the 
ar^M* ^ee«o means the plane-tree, considered characteristic of Khorasan, 
the most eastern pruvince of Persia, and one of vast extent, reaching 
^om the Caspian to the Oxus, called here Gihon. 



298 THE INDIAN SEAS, AND HISTOEICAL 

and dying. Finally, Barak and his men could not endure 

the force of their adversary, and retreated across the riv- 
er ; while the victor pursued and killed a great number.* 
Thus Argon gained the day ; and having begun to speak 
of him, I will relate his other adventures, and how he be- 
came sovereign lord after the death of Abaga, his father. 

XLVU. — Argon and Aoomat contend for the Persian Empire. 

Not long after Argon had gained this battle, he receiv- 
ed news of the death of Abaga. He was much grieved, 
yet prepared with his whole host to return to the court, 
and take possession of the sovereignty ; but he had forty 
days to march before arriving there. Now a brother of 
the deceased monarch, named Acomat Soldao, who had 
become a Saracen, having heard of the event, bethought 
himself, that since the heir was so distant he himself 
might succeed. Having prepared a large body of men, he 
marched directly to the capital, and seized the supreme 
power. He found such aif amount of treasure that it 
could scarcely be counted. He lavished his bounty in a 
wonderful manner on the chiefs and barons, who declared 
him a good master, liked him, and wished for no other. 
He studied to be popular and to (flease all men ; yet the 
action he had committed was vile, and blamed by many. 
It was not long till he learned that Argon was marching 
against him with a very powerful force. He made no de- 
lay, nor showed surprise, but actively summoned his bar- 
ons and troops ; and in a week he had assembled a numer- 
ous body of cavalry, who all marched cheerfully against 
Argon, expressing their earnest desire to kill or take him 

Soldan Acomat having thus assembled 60,000 horse- 
men, set out and marched full ten days without interrup- 
tion, when he learned that Argon, with an equal force, was 
five days' journey distant. He pitched his camp, and await- 

* This inroad is related by De Guignes, tome iii. p. 260, and by Price, 
Mohammedan History, vol. ii. p. 576. The former calls the invader 
Berrak Khan, the latter Berauk. They describe the battle as having 
taken place near Herat, but differ from our traveller in one important 
particular, reprosenting Abaga himself as having commanded the army. 
Yet as Price recognises Argun os having been in possession of the gov- 
ernment of Khorasan, there can be scarcely a doubt, that he would at 
least be present in the engagement. If we are correct in supposing the 
informatiim derived from Ghazan, son to that prince, thir cannot be de- 
nied to he a gtxxl authority. 



ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 299 

ed tlie enemy in a large and beaatifal plain, which seemed 
well adapted for the combat. He then summoned bis 
people and thus addressed them : — **^ My lords, you know 
how well I am entitled to succeed my brother, being son of 
the same father, and having accompanied him in all his 
conquests. Because Argon is son to Abaga, some think 
he ought to succeed ; but with ail due respect |o them, I 
consider this unjust. Even during my brother's life, J was 
reasonably entitled to half the kingdom, only through my 
mildness I allowed him the whole, but now I ought to suc- 
ceed. I pray you tlien to defend my right against Argon, 
and preserve to us the rule ; for I seek only the name and 
dignity, and leave to you the profit and possession of all. 1 
need say no more to wise men, who love justice, and will 
do all things for the general honour and benefit." When 
the barons, chiefs, and soldiers heard this speech they 
declared with one consent their resolution to adhere to him 
while they had breath and defend him against all, and par- 
ticularly Argon, whom they trusted they would capture 
and place in his hands. 

When that prince learned that his rival was waiting fot 
him with so great a multitude, he was much discomposed ; 
he considered, however, how injurious it would be to 
show melancholy or fear, and the necessity of displaying 
valour and boldness. He sent for his lords and counsel- 
lors, and having assembled a great number, thus addres- 
sed them: — **My dear brothers and friends, you know 
well how tenderly my father loved you, regarding you 
while he lived as kindred and children ; also how many 
great battles you fought with him, aiding him to conquer 
all his kingdom. Now I am the son of him who loved you 
so much, and to me you are equally dear ; I therefore 
trust you will aid me against the man who seeks, contra- 
ry to all right and reason to disinherit me. Consider 
also, that he has forsaken our law and embraced that of 
Mohammed ; it were fitting indeed that a Saracen should 
rule over the Tartar nation ! Therefore, friends and bro- 
thers, I trust that you will willingly and heartily support 
me, and that each will display such valour, that the battle 
may be ours, and we may comfort ourselves by think- 
ing that the right is on our side." After this speech, each 
lonl and chief thought to himself, that he ought rather to 



900 THS INDIAN 8BA8, AND HIBTOEICAL 

die thaa not strennoosly endeaToar tu gam a triumph. 
While the rest were silent, one great lord arose and said : 
" Noble sire, we know folly the truth of what you have 
said, and I will now answer in the name of all now pres- 
ent, that while life remains in our bodies, we are ready to 
die rather than fail to conquer. Victory, too, appears to 
us certain, since we are so greatly in the right, and our 
enemies in the wroi^. I advise, then, that we march as 
soon as possible against the foe, and pray all our compao- 
ions to display sodi valonr, that their deeds may be spo- 
ken of over the whole world.*' That braye man having 
concluded, all present assented, and eageriy desired bat- 
tle. Next morning. Argon and his troops began their 
march, riding towuds the plain on which their enemies 
were posted, and pitched their camp ten mites distant 
from that of Acomat. 

Argon now chose two intelligent men, in whom he 
greatly confided, and sent them to his uncle. They mount- 
ed on horseback, went direct, and alighted at the pavihon 
of the soldan, whom they found with a numerous com- 
pany of barons. Being well acquainted, they sainted him 
courteously, and received a cheerful welcome. After 
some time, one of them rose and said, — " Noble sire, your 
nephew Argon wonders greatly at your seizing his king- 
dom, and coming thus to fight against him. This is not 
good conduct, nor due from an uncle towards a nephew ; 
he therefore courteously prays you to abstain, and desi- 
ring neither war nor quarrel, will respect you as supe- 
rior and father, both of himself and of the whcde country." 
Acomat answered, — " My lords messengers, my nephew 
is entirely mistaken ; the land is mine, I conquered it 
along with his father. If he will consent, I will make 
him a great lord, endowing him with spacious estates, 
treating him as my son and the highest under myself; 
otherwise, be assured, I will endeavour to put him to 
death." The envoys then asked repeatedly, if they could 
hope for no other determination. He replied, never in 
his lifetime. They then departed, and rode to the camp 
of their lord, aDghted at the tent, and told him his un- 
cle's declaration.* Argon was greatly enraged and said 

• The Pang Latin version terminates here abruptly, in the middle of 
the narratiTe- 



ACCOUNTS OF WESTEfiN ASIA. 301 

aioud in the hearing of all, that he would never live in 
conofort till the whole world had seen the signal ven- 
geance he would take on his uncle. He said to his chiefs, 
** Now let us without further delay march against these 
traitors and endeavour to destroy them." The night was 
spent. in busy preparation; and Acomat Soldan, being 
warned by his spies, was equally active. 

XLVIIL— Great Battle between tbein. 

Next day Argon, having made all his arrangements, ad- 
vanced in good order ; while his antagonist, not waiting 
his arrival, led on his troops to the encounter. They soon 
met, and the two great hosts, who had much desired the 
battle, rushed without delay against each other. Arrows 
flew like rain, chiefs fell to the ground, the air resounded 
with the cries and lamentations of the wounded and dy^ 
ing. Their arrows being exhausted, they rushed on with 
swords and spears ; arms, hands, and heads were cut off, 
and the noise would have drowned the loudest thunder. 
In that day many brave men died, and many ladies were 
left disconsolate. Argon assuredly displayed great prow- 
ess, and set a gallant example; but in vain, — ^fortune 
turned against him,^-his men, compelled to flee, were 
pursued and slain in great numbers. Among the fugitives, 
be himself was captured, when the pursuers stopped and 
returned with him to their camp* rejoicing beyond mea- 
sure. Acomat caused him to be imprisoned and carefully 
guarded ; then, belBg of a voluputous disposition, he re- 
turned to court td enjoy the society of his numerous and 
handsome wives. He instructed the commander of the 
host to guard the captive as himself, and return at leisure 
that his troops might not be fatigued. He then departed, 
while Argon remained in chains, and so grieved that 
death appeared to him desirable. 

XLIX.— Final Isaae of the Conteat. 

Now there was a great and aged Tartar baron, who felt 
much pity for the prisoner, and bethought him how wick- 
ed it was to keep their lord in this condition. He resolved, 
therefore, to attempt his deliverance. He argued to this 
effect with many other chiefs, who, esteeming his wisdom, 
and conscious that he spake the truth, entirely agreed with 

Cc 



303 THE INDIAN BSAS, AN0 HISTOKICAL 

him. Then Bogm, who had made the proposal, Elcidai, 
TogaD, Tegana, Taga, Tiar Oalatai, and Semagar, all 
weat to the tent of tbe captive prince. The first, as the 
eldest and the leader, addressed him thus : — '' Nofole 
prince, we are now fuUy sensible of having acted wicked- 
ly towards you, and have determined to return to the 
right path ; we will therefore deliver and own you as just- 
ly our liege lord." Argon, who thought they were mock- 
ing him, was both grieved and angry. ** My lords," said 
h9, ** you have done wrong enough in seizing your sove- 
reign and making him a captive. Pray depart, and do not 
also make him a subject of mockery." *' Illustrious prince," 
said Bog^ " we positively speak the truth, and will make 
oath to it according to our law." Then all the barons 
swore that they wo^d obey him as their lord, while he in 
return bound himself in no degree to resent past wrongs, 
but hold each of them as dear as Abaga his father had 
done. They then freed him from his chains, and did hom- 
age to him. He now ordered them to discharge their ar- 
rows against the tent of the melik ; and that chief, named 
Soidan, who was the first after Acomat, and the com- 
mander of the whole host, was quickly slain. 

Finding himself thus lord of all, he gave orders to march 
to the court, and was instantly obeyed. One day there- 
after, when Acomat was holding a splendid festival in bis 
palace, a messenger came to him and said, — " Sire, I bring 
yon with regret unwelcome tidings ; the barons have de- 
livered Argon, owned him as lord, and killed Soidan your 
&ithful friend. They are coming now with theimtmost 
speed, to take and slay you." He was then silent, but 
the other was completely amazed and terrified. How- 
ever, as a bold and brave man, he ordered the messenger 
not to say a word to a living creature ; then mounting on 
horseback, set out with a few trusty servants, to seek 
refuge with the Sultan of Babylon, leaving all in ignorance 
whither he had gone. After marching six days, he came 
to the only pass by which he could penetrate. The com- 
mander who guarded it knew him, and seeing him flee- 
ing with only a few adherents, determined to seize him. 
Acomat entreated for mercy, and offered a great treasure 
as th'e price of liberty ; but the other being greatly attach- 
ed to Argon, replied that the wealth of the world would 



iiCOOUNTB OF WESTERN ASIA. 303 

not prevent hia placing him in his maBter's bands. He 
prepared a large company, and set out with bis captive, 
watching him so carefully as to make escape impossible. 
They rode on to the court, where Argon had arrived only 
three days before, and been much vexed to find that his 
uncle bad escaped ; but when the guardian of the pass 
brought the fugitive before his presence, he felt the great- 
est possible joy. He received the latter sternly telling 
him that he would meet with the treatment he deserved ; 
and without asking any one's advice, he commanded him 
to be led forth and slain. This mandate was speedily 
executed, and the body was thrown into a place where it 
was never seen more.* Thus have you heard the whole 
affair of Argon and of Acomat his uncle. 

L.— Reign of Aiyoai. 

Argon was thus master of the palace and of the king- 
dom, and the barons from every quarter came to render 
him due homage and obedience. After governing some 
time be sent Casan his son with 30,000 men, to the coun- 
try of the Arbor Secco, there to guard and secure his land 
and people. Argon began his reign in the year 1286, after 

* This train of events is related by all the oriental anthorities, but 
with considerable variations both from each other and from our author. 
D'Herbelot (voc. Argon) represents the prince, after the election of his 
uncle, as fleeing into Khorasan, then defeated, not by Ahmed (Acomat) 
in person, but by Alinak, his general ; as not taken in battle, but fleeing 
to a fortress, where that oflicer by fair promises induced him to surren- 
der, and then made him prisoner. His deliveranoe by Uie Emir Bougha, 
and the other events, pretty cloaely agree. The aocoimt given by De 
Guignes (tome iii. p. 364) is nearly similar to the above. Haithon rep- 
resents the sultan himself (called Mahomet) as pursuing the prince into 
his mountain-fortress, capturing and delivering him to be guanLed by his 
general. But Price (Mohammedan History, vol. ii. p. 578-583) gives the 
most detailed, and, it should seem, most carefully investigated narrative ; 
and it comes much closer to that of our traveller. He confirms his pos- 
session of the government of Khorasan, and the sultan having marched 
against him in person, but reports the prince as defeated by an ad- 
vance-guard of 15,(X)0 men, and made prisoner by Alinak (Ally lljmauk). 
The return of the sultan, the interview of Bouka with Argon, and his 
surprise of the general's tent, are related nearly as here. Ahmed how- 
ever, is represented (not very probably) as refusing to flee, and thus fall- 
ing into the hands of his nephew, who delivered him to the sons of a 
chief whom he had killed, and who speedily put him to death. Con- 
sidering these wide discrepancies in the best historical records, and the 
Ctculiar opportunities of Marco, I cannot think it at all improbable that 
8 narrative may come nearer to the truth than any other. 

Aa 



904 THE DfDIAH 8EA8, AND HISTOUCAl. 

Aeomat Ind nded two yean. The fonner after hoUiiig 
the seeptre six yean, died, not wnhoat strong saspicions 
of poison.* 



When Aigon was dead, his node, named Qaiacata, bro- 
ther to Abaga, immediatehr seized the throne, which was 
easily efiectod, as Casaa was distant at the Arbor Secco. 
The latter, when infonned of these events, was mnch 
grieved at the death of his parent, and still more incensed 
at Qaiacata having seized his inheritance. He was afraid, 
however, to march at once against him, but resolved, that 
at the proper time and place he would tjike as signal ven- 
geance as his father had done on Acomat.t Thus Qai- 
acata obtained general obedience, except over the troops 
whom Casan immediately commanded. He married the 
wife of Argon his nephew, and indulged largely in the 
pleasures of the seraglio. At the end of two years, how- 
ever, his death ensu^ being occasioned by poison.^ 

UL — Contest between Baida and Gluzan. 

Baidu, his uncle, and a Christian then seized the sove 
reignty, and was generally obeyed, unless by Casan and 
his army. The latter, on learning these things, regretted 
much that he had not been able to punish Quiacatu, but de- 
termined to take such vengeance on Baidu, that the world 
might admire it. He marched without delay against that 

* I do not obsenre tbeee saspicions in way other namtive. It does, 
howerer, appear, that Argon had become unpopular, and his death was 
somewhat sudden. Ghazan, who Tiewed his snocessors in a hostile light, 
miffht be disposed to be jealous on this sulqect. 

f These feelings are not stated in the histories, and indeed, nnder the 
circumstances, would doubtless be concealed ; but they arediighlj prob- 
able, and likely to be communicated to the Poli, with. whom Gnaaan was 
on so friendly a footing. 

i This prince occurred to us formerly under the name of Saikhatv, 
as receiving the Poli and their two fair charges, on their first arriTal 
from China. He is characterized by De Guignes (who calk him Kand- 
giatou), as irreligious, perjured, and debauched, yet ruling with justice. 
After displaying at first some vigour, he abandoned himself to profligate 
habits, and so disgusted the chiefs, that a general confederacy was formed 
a^inst him. His unpopularity rendered it itnpossible to make any se- 
rious resistance ; he was taken and put to death (De Guignes, tome iii. 
p. 906. Price, Tol. ii. p. 599-601). Poison ^as a very likely mode of 
eflEbctmg this object; though we do not find the assertion made any 
where else. 



ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 806 

chief, who, informed of his approach, assembled a great 
force, and marched tea days' journey to meet him, when 
he encamped and awaited his adversary, earnestly exhort^ 
ing and encouraging bis troops. Iq two days Casan came 
up, and immediately a battle began, most bloody and des- 
perate ; but it wHs in vain for Baidu to struggle, since, as 
soon as the contest commenced, many of his men went 
aver and fought on the side of his opponent. He was ac- 
cordingly discomfited, and killed. Casan, thus victorious, 
immediately marched to court and assumed the sovereign- 
ty, wben all the barons paid him homage and obedience ; 
and this was in the year 1294.* Thus have you heard 
the whole train of affairs from Abaga down to Casan. 
You must likewise know that Alau, who conquered Bag- 
dad, and was brother to Kublai, was ancestor to all the 
princes now named : for be was the father of Abaga, 
grandfather of Argon, who was the parent of Casan, now 
reigning. Having told you all about these Tartars of the 
East, I might go on to treat of Great Turkey ; but the 
truth is, I have done so already, mentioning^ the acts 
of Kaidu, so that I have nothing more to say, and shaU 
therefore now tell you of the provinces and people that lie 
to the northward. 

LIII.— Of Conci and his Northern Kingdom. 

In this quarter is a king named Conci. He and all his 
people are Tartars, and adhere to the rudest and most bru- 
tal customs of that nation, never having changed since 
the time of Gengis Khan.f They have a god of felt, named 

* Baida is stated in the histories to hare been a grandson of Hoolakn, 
tta which case he mast hare been nephew, not uncle to Kaikhatu ; bat 
we have found oar author before not very precise upon these points. De 
Gnigiies and Price mention several negotiations between the two claim- 
tuts : bat both agree with ottr author, that the final downfall of Baidu 
was occasioned by the anion of the chiefs against him, and in faroar of 
his rival, whose more legitimate claim was already supported by a high 
reputation and brilliant talents. — De Guignes, vol. iii. p. 269. Price, 
vol. ii. p. 601. 

t There is little or no doubt that this is the dynasty which De Guignes 
calls Touran, or of Siberia, tome i. p. 290, 291. He mentions that 
Baatn, after the conquest of Moecow, intrusted a body of troooB to hiv 
■on Sheibani, who established himself on the mountains of Arall (Ural), 
and thence extended his dominion over Siberia.^ The name here ffi^en 
does not occur in the list of its princes ; ^et De Gui^ne^ mantioasX^zi 
as <me of the sor.!» of Sheibeni. Ri«jius;o, after wnitting the ptecedinf 



•M THB IITDEAN IBAS^ AITD HISTOBICAL 

Naeigu, to whom they also give a wife, calUng these 
two lords of the earth, who gaard all their com, beaata, 
tnd landed property ; and when they get any yictoals, 
they anoint with them the mouth of these deities. The 
king is independent, being of the imperial lineage of Gen- 
gis, and a near relation of the great khan. He has neither 
eitiea nor castles, but his people reside in vast plains, di- 
versified with valleys and mountains. They are very 
•abmtssive to him, and be successfully studies to preserve 
among them peace and union.* They have no grain, hot 
live on milk and cattle, which abound, including camels, 
horses, oxen, sheep, and other animals. There are also 
bears, white all over, and longer than twenty palms, with 
(bzes, large and black , likewise a great number of sables, 
who89 costly skins I have mentioned^ as worth each a 
thousand bezants. The rats of Pharaoh are plentiful, and 
▼ery large, affi)rding food to the people during the whole 
summer, in short all kinds of wild beasts abound in this 
savage and trackless region. I must also mention, that 
this king has a country in which horses cannot travel, on 
account of the numerous lakes and fountains, and the 
<|aantity of ice and mud. This rugged track extends thir- 
teen days* journey, and at the end of each is a post-house 
to accommodate the messengers with about forty dogs, 
almost as large as asses, to convey them from one post 
to the other. As wheeled carriages cannot travel here, 
they employ sledges, so formed as to move over the sur- 
face without sinking ; such, indeed as are used in this 
eonntry to convey hay and straw when there is great rain 
and mud. On the sledge is spread a beards skin, whereon 
the messenger sits, and the dogs drag it direct to the fol- 
lowing post. ' The guardian mounts a similar carriage, and 
guides him by the best and nearest way. At the next 
post, they find another relay of sledges and dogs, and the 
one which conveyed them returns. The men dwelling in 
this wild country are very expert hunters, capturing many 
precious little animals, such as sables, ermines, and black 

ehapten, has inserted the iireaent one, bat is led bj the similftrity of 
same into the strangle blunder of confoandinr this peacefnl prince with 
the fierce and restless Kaidix, on which Mr. Marsden has founded some 
very misplaced comments. 
♦ This sentence is-tfbt in ^he Prfrnch edition, but heixkg in the Paris 
— *- and Croaca, as'^ell as Raran«io, appent^ genuine.' 



ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. * 8(17 

foxes, whose skins yield a large profit. They have en- 
gines so well contrived that no animal can escape. But 
owing to the extreme cold, all th^ir habitations are under 
ground.* Having nothing more to mention, we shall de- 
part and treat of a place where there is perpetual twilight. 

LIV.— The Region of Obecurity. 

Yon must know, that beyond this kingdom is a province 
called Obscurity, because there never appears either sun, 
moon, or star ; but it is always dark, as with us during 
twilight. t The people have no ruler but live like brutes. 
The Tartars, however, make occasional inroads in the 
following manner : — ^They ride on mares that have just 
brought forth foals, which last are left at the border. 
They then traverse the country, plundering whatever they 
can find ; and when they wish to return, the mares, seek- 
ing to find their young, know the way better than the 
riders.* The people are all hunters, and take great num« 
bers of sables, black foxes, and other animals with costly 
furs. Those on their frontier meet them at a fixed period, 
purchase these skins, and sell them elsewhere with an am- 
ple profit. These people are tall and well made, but pale 
and colourless. The territory borders on one side upon 
Great Russia, of which I shall now proceed to speak. 

* To thion at all aoqaaioted with Siberia, it need scarcely be remarked 
how very accurate is the detcription here K^iven both of its pastoral aad 
frozen regions ; the beautiful fors ; the white or polsr bear ; the sledges 
drawn by large dogs ; the subterraneoas habitations. 

t Instead of this, Ramosio says, ** during most of the winter the sun is 
invisible, and the atmosphere is obscured, as it appears to us at the dawn 
of day, when we see very imperfisctly." He adds afterwards, ** the in- 
habitants take advantage of tne sununer season, wke* tkeff wjoff eeHHn* 
Mid daylight, to catch,'* dtc. These statements are in no early e<Ution, 
and I cannot help thinkinff that they betray the additional information 
derived from voyages p«rrormed long after into the northern regions. 
The Crusca goes very tar, representing the daricness as complete, and 
the night perpetual ; a statement which dismays Count Boni, and arose 
probably from some misunderstanding of the original. I incline to think 
the French the most correct, and that the constant twilight mentioned 
arises rather from dense fogs on the shores of the northern ocean than 
from the position on the earth's surface. 

* There is no modem record of such predatory inroads, but the coun- 
tnr has been long held by Russia, a civilized and powerful government, 
which would not permit such lawless proceedings. Neither is there aay 
other menti<m of this curious mode of finding their way back ; but. no 
doobt, under these cireumstanoes, the animals would trace it better tnaii 
the riders. 



9M TBB INDIAN 0SA0, AND UI9TORIOAL 

LT.— DMCriptioB of Riusift mad sewral adjacent Cnantrlea. 

Russia is a very great province towards tUe north 
inhabited by Christiaiis who foliow the Greek Church. 
They have languages of their own, and several kings. 
They are a very simple people, but extremely handsome, 
with a fair complexion. The entrances and passes into it 
are very strong ; they own some small allegiance to the 
Tartar king of the West, named Toctai. The country 
yields few commodities, except an abundance of the furs 
already described, equal to any in the world. There are 
considerable silver mines. But now let us leave it, and 
describe the Greater Sea, with the provinces around. 
But first let me tell you of a province lying between north 
and north-west, and bordering on Russia, named Lac. in- 
habited by a mixture of Christians and Saracens, and 
subject to a king. The people carry on merchandise ani 
manufactures, and have a vast variety also of valuable furs.* 
But now I must go back to Russia, and mention something 
that I had forgot. It is so very extensive as to reach the 
ocean, where are isles on which pilgrim-falcons and ger- 
falcons are found, and carried to various parts of the 
world. Now from Russia to Oroech is no great distance ; 
but the extreme cold renders the journey very difficult.f 
This would be the time to speak of the Strait of Constan- 
tinople, and the mouth of the Great Sea ; but on consid- 
ering that many others have written on the subject, we 

* CuontBoni thinks Lac (Lacca, Onuea) to be Poland, the inhabitauts 
of which, he says, own Lech for their progenitor. Yet, thongh Poland 
was well known in that age, and traversed, as we have seen, \ry eontemr 
porary travelleTS, this name is never foand applied to it. It is stated, 
too, to be partly inhabited by Saracens (Mohammedans), which might, 
it is said, refer to Baata's expedition ; but hia troops were not Mussal* 
mans, and they retired in a Iwdy, leaving not one behind. The Count's 
version (the Crusca) wants the sentence about Constantinople, whence 
the position W. N. W. appears to be from Russia ; but this is here sup- 
plied from the French, and if genuine, Lac must bear that direction 
from the imperiaJ capital. I incline to think it Moldavia and Bessarabia, 
not then subject to Russia, and to which Mohammedans might have pen- 
etrated. 

t In the Crusca, it is Orbeche, in the Pucci, Osbech ; whence Count 
Boni supposes it to mean the Uzbeks. The French editor, however, has 
in the margin Norvdge (Norway), with which suggestion I incline to 
Goncur. The country seems spoken of as one known to Eurupeana ; 
while the other would be too distant. Neither Lac nor Oroeoh ara in 
Bamusio ; so that we have no aid from Mr. Marsden. 



ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 309 

shall omit them, and proceed to treat of the Tartars of 
the West, and the lords by whom they are ruled. 

LVI.— Saceession of Western Tartar Princes. 

The first lord of these Tartars was Sain, a very great 
and poweiful king. He conquered Russia, Comania, Ala- 
nia, Lac, Mengiar, Zic, Gucia, and Gazaria. The inhab- 
itants had been all Comanian ; but haying no unity or con^ 
nexion, lost their country, and were driven into various 
parts of the world, while those who remained became 
servants of this conqueror. After him reigned success 
si vely Patu, Barka, Mungletemur, Totamongur, and Toctai, 
the present sovereign.* Having thus recounted the kings 
of the Western Tartars, I will now describe a great battle 
fought between Alan, lord of the East, and Barka, lord of 
the West, with the occasion which led to it. 

LVII. — Dispute between Barka and Hoolaku. 

You must know that about the year 1261 there arose a 
great discord between these two monarchs. It was about 
a province on their respective frontier~which each desired 
and would not yield, but resolved to seize it and see who 
would oppose him. Thereupon they declared war, sum- 
moned their respective subjects, and made the greatest 
preparation almost ever known. I assure you, in six^ 
mcmths each had assembled full 300,000 horsemen, well^ 
provided with every warlike implement. Alau, lord of 
the East, then se^ out with all his troops, and having rode 
many days, reached a wide plain between the Iron Gates 
and the Sea of Sarain. There he pitched his camp* 
which, I have heard, contained laany rich tents, and made 
a splendid appearance. Being here on the frontier, he re- 

* This list is tolerably correct, if we except a great error at the outset, 
by which -Sain and Patu (Baatu) are represented as distinct princes , 
whereas these are only different names of the same great warrior, with 
whom our readers must now be pretty well acquainted. De Guignes, 
tome i. p. 287, calls him Batou Sain ; Aboulghazi, p. 195, Batu Sager. 
The appellations, however, are so strikingly dissimilar, that we cannot 
much wonder at their being considered applicable to different persons. 
De Guignes' list is as follows :— Batou Sain died in 1256 ; Bereke, 1266 ; 
Toudan Mangou, 1287 ; Tovdabovgaj 1291 ; Tughtagou (called by the 
Russians Toctais), 1313. The subsequent names, with the asual varia- 
tions, agree with those of our author, except in the absence of Tolobuga , 
but he will come in our way again, when we shall have occasion to make 
curious observations respecting him. 



ZIQ TBS INDIAN aiiA6, \SU iil.^ro&ICAL 

aolTed to wait and see if Barka would come. Timt piiDoe 
having completed his piefianUions, and learned the ap- 
proach of his foe, without delay began his march. He rode 
on till he came to the great plain where hi» enemy was 
posted, and pitched his camp at ten miles' disitance. I de- 
dajne to you, it was fhUy as heautiful as that of Alan, 
fitted with tents and pavilions of cloth of gold. His army, 
too, was more nomeroDs, amounting, without a lie, to 
350,000 horsemen.* They rested two days in their tents, 
when Barka thus addressed his men : — ** Noble chiefe, you 
know how, since coming to the sovereignty, I have loved 
you as brothers and sons ; yon have aoconqianied me in 
many great battles, and aided in conquering much terri- 
tory. Alan, a great and powerful prince, proposes wrong- 
fully to fight against us ; but having the right on our side, 
we may confidently expect to conquer, especially since 
our army is more numerous. In this confidence, then, no- 
ble chiefs, and having come so far for battle, let us pre- 
pare in three days to engage, arranging so wisely, and 
displaying such valour, that our fame may spread ever 
the world." He was then silent ; and we must now re- 
turn to his antagonist, who, when he heard of his adversa- 
T7*s arrival with so great an army, assembled his principal 
men and said : — ** Noble bretheren and friends, yon have 
throughout all my lifcLsupported and aided me, enabling 
me to conquer in many battles ; nor indeed ever fighting 
one in which we were not victorious. We have come 
here to combat the great Barka, who indeed has as many 
and even more troops ; but ours are braver, and I feel con- 
fident of victory. I rejoice then, to hear by the spies that 
he is coming to give us battle in three days, and I expect 
every one to be well prepared, with his accustomed bra- 
very, rather to die on the field of honour, than to si^r 
disgrace and discomfiture." 

LVni.— Great BaUle betweem tlwm. 

On the appointed day Alan rose early, summoned his 
men to arms, and ranged them very skilfully in order of 

* Theie numliers are no doubt exagg^erated ; bat this I approkeifd to 
be the caee in all tha histories of the middle ages, especialhr of the East. 
Haithon represents Hochtai (Toctai), a successor of Barka, as able to 
hriof into toe field 600,000 horsemen. 



ACCOUNTS OF WESTBEN ASIA. 81 1 

battle. He formed thirty squadrons, each containiog 
10,000 horsemen, making in sQl the number of 300,000, 
with able leaders and captains. By his order his squad- 
rons then advanced at a moderate pace over the plain, til] 
they arrived mid-way between the two camps, where they 
stopped and awaited |he enemy. On the same morning, 
Barka similarly arranged his men, forming thirty-five 
squadrons of 10,000 each, with good officers and com- 
manders. He then made his troops ride forward to with- 
in half a mile of the enemy, when they halted, and again 
proceeded till the hosts, being within two bow-shots of 
each other, stopped and arranged their squadrons. The 
plain was the largest and finest in all that country ; which, 
assuredly, was very necessary to afford a field of battle 
for such mighty armies amounting to 660,000 men. In- 
deed Alau and Barka were the most powerful princes in 
the world, and were near relations too,— being both of 
the imperial lineage of Gengis Khan. 

The two great kings with all their troops being thus 
marshalled, impatiently waited for the naccar as a signal 
of battle. When it sounded, the armies rushed forward 
and discharged arrows against each other. The air was 
filled and the sky became invisible ; numbers of men and 
horses fell to the earth, which was covered with dead and 
dying. The arrows being exhausted, they struck dread- 
ful blows with swords and spears ; assuredly there had 
not for a long time been a battle in the world fought by 
such numerous armies. Alau most brave and powerful 
in arms showed himself this day worthy of ruling a king- 
dom and wearing a crown. He displayed signal prowess 
in his own person, and by his example infused extraordi* 
nary courage into his men. His achievements, indeed, 
ast^ished both friends and enemies ; he appeared, not a 
man, but thunder and tempest. Barka, too, fought most 
bravely, and made himself worthy of the admiration of 
the whole world ; but it was all in vain ; his men were 
either killed, or so overwhelmed and exhausted, tlrat they 
could endure no longer. When evening arrived, they fled 
with their utmost speed. The victor and his troops rap- 
idly pursued, and after commiting dreadful slaughter return- 
ed, threw aside their arms, and had their wounds wa^* 
ed and dressed. They were, indeed, quite overpowere/f 



3113 THE r\J>lAN 8BAd, AMi lIltiTOaiCAL 

and exhausted. The night was spent in repose, and next 
day he ordered all the dead bodies both uf friends and en- 
emies to he burned. He then returned into his country 
with all the troops who survived the battle ; for I assure 
you, although he conquered, he had lost a vast number, yet 
still more had fallen on the opposite side.* Having told 
you thus of Alau and his victory, wc shall go on to treat 
of a battle between the Tartars of the west. 

LlJi. — Controrany between the Tartar Prince*, Toctai and Nugai. 

t You must know that in this quarter the great lord of 
ihe Tartars was named Mongutemur, and he was succeed- 

* This war is narrated in all the oriental histories; yet it must be 
<'<inf('8sed with very wide variations. D'Herbelot (voe. Abaka) and De 
Guigae« (tome iii. pp. 2S8»959) mention no hiistilities till after Hoolakn 
had tieon succeeded by Abaga, who sent his son Schamat to Derfaend 
against Barka. That prince is said to have gained a sirnal victnrr, 
which did not, however, prevent his opponent from speedily returning 
with an immense fonse ; but death put an end to his further procendiags. 
Yet these writers incidentally notice, that some years before Barka had 
formed an alliance with Egypt, and carried nn operati<jns which had led 
to severe losses on the side of Syria. Haithon of Armenia (Purchas, 
vol. iii. p. 1 17), whose local position makes him a good authority, states 
Hoolaku as personally engaged in a great battle against Barka. Mr. 
Price relates a series of transactions conducted by that prince, who, after 
■everal encounters near Sehamachrc, on December isfi54, surprised and 
defeated Barka, who then retreated. The army pursued ; but, throngli 
want of cautioa, allowed themselves to l>e in their turn surprised ; and, 
while retreating acroes the Terek, the ice broke and a number were 
drowned. But the date is 1264, three years later than our author**. 
Now Price mentions that Barka commenced his invasion in 1960, bat 
that no steps were taken to check it till 1264 (M<riuunmedan History, 
vol. ii. p. 5Tlj. We cannot but think this very improbable, and that 
ther J most be here a blank in oriental history, which, indeed, respect- 
ing all this feeries of events, is extremely defective. This wofuld be tup- 
pliea by the present narrative, which represents Hoolakn, as might be 
expoted, marching immediately against the invader, and giving hurso 
severe a repulse as might make him discontinue all operations till R64, 
when he might return with recruited strength. 

t The following chapters are found in the «arl^ Frencli vvrsiim, but 
not in any other printed one, nor in any manuscript to which we have 
had access, except the Italian in the Museum. A Question may there- 
fore be raiapil as to their genuineness. Besides, however, the high 
character of the edition, the style is exactly the same, though the state- 
ments are somewhat more loose and careless ; but, indeed, tbey have 
been so duritig several preceding chapters. The outline of the inform 
mation is confinned, es elsewhere, by good oriental authorities. We 
have pointed out the motives which led transcribers and translaton to 
the system of abridgment by simple omission, and how these betasme 
always stronger as the work drew to its dose. The diflerent editions. 



ACCOUNT:) OF WESTBRX ASIA. Sjd 

ed by Tolobuga, a very young man. Totamangu, a pow- 
erful chief, aitted by a king named Nogai,* killed that 
prince and succeeded to the sovereignty. Ho d»ed, how- 
ever, soon after, and in his room was elected Toctai, a 
▼ery wise and able chief. Meantime, two sons of tho 
slain monarch having grown up to manhood, and being 
wise and prudent, assembled a large body of troops, and 
marched to the court of Toctai. They went and threw 
themselves on their knees before him, when he bid them 
welcome, and desired them to rise. The two youths 
then stood up, when the eldest began to speak thus : — 
** Noble sire, we come as sons of Totamangu, who was 
killed by Tolobuga and Nogai.t The former being dead, 

■ccordiiigly, have been dropping off one after another ; and only tb« 
Crusca come* down to the present point. There is also an Italian MS. in 
the Royal Library at Paris, which, from the list of names published by 
the Geographical Society (p. 552) appears to do so. The Italian MS. in 
the Masenm, beisdes containing an abridged narrative of the succeeding 
•▼ents, affords a strong corroboration of their having been included in 
the original narrative. 

* De Gttignes gives an account of the rise of the djmasty of Nogai 
(whom he calls Nogaia), and from whom probably a numerous tribe of 
Tartars derive their appellation. Being employed with a strong force 
to keep in check certain northern tribes, he threw off the yoke of his 
master, and having married a natural daughter of the Empemr Michel 
Paleologus, assomed the title and rank of a sovereign. This author 
agrees in making him accessory to the murder of Tolobuga ; but he rep- 
resents Toctai, as bis accomplice, and thereby placed on the throne, 
making Totamangu the predecessor of the murdered prince. On this 
■abject, however, see the next note. That Toctai might become the 
bitter enemy of the person who had raised him to the throne is not with- 
out example in the annals of ambition ; yet our author's account seems 
the mon probable one. The two princes could never have come to so- 
licit redress for their father's death from him who was its chief author. 
De Guignes, it is true, has no such incident ; but there seems difficulty 
in supposing it to be a complete fiction. 

1 1 am obliged to notice here a gross inconsistency in the French text. 
Bef^, It was Totamangu who killed Tolobuga ; now it is the reverse ; 
and this second version is carried through the whole succeeding narra- 
tive. According to it»the order of the sovereigns will agree with De 
Gttignes, who places Totamangu first; and as this order is given in two 
different parts of his work, drawn from different authorities, it is prob- 
ably correct (vol. i. p. 287; tome iii. pp. 3 16, 347). The transition in 
the original is curiously made : — ''Or avint qe endemrntier deus filz 
de Tolobuga qe occis avoit est6, furent creu et estoient homes qe bien 
pooient porter armes. II estoient sajes e provens : cesti deus freres^ ea 
furent /m JUt de Totamangu." 1 cannot but suspect that this is a 
rough way of acknowledging his error and taking up the real state of 
the case. The Museum MS. indeed carries out through the whole the 
first statement of Tolobuga as the murdered prince^and his sons as 



914 THB IWDIAir 8EA8, AND BIBTOKiCAL 

we ean Bay nothing ; bat we seek vengeance on Nogai, 
and pray that yon, as his rightful lord, make him appear 
and account for the death of oor father." The youth was 
then silent, and Toctai, feeling that he had spoken truth, 
replied, — " My noble fhend, I will willingly do what you 
ask." He then sent two messengers with this injunc* 
tion to Nogai, who laughed at it, and positively refused to 
oome. They rode back and reported this answer, when 
their master, much enraged, said in the hearing of all 
around him, — ** If God aid me, either Nogai shall obey 
my mandate, or I will march with all my men to destroy 
him." He then sent two other messengers, who rode to 
the court of the Tartar, presented themselves, and saluted 
him. He bid them welcome, when one of them said, — 
" Noble sire, Toctai gives warning, that unless you come 
to his court to account for your conduct to the sons of 
Totamangu, he will march against you with all his people, 
and do you all the injury in his power ; therefore be care- 
ful what you do in this business, and what message you 
send." The other wrathfully replied, — " Gentlemen, re- 
turn to your lord, and tell him from me, that I little dread 
the threatened war, and am ready to come and meet him 
half-way." The messengers, on hearing this speech, 
without delay set out, and rode till they came to their 
master, and told him all that Nogai had said. Seeing 
that war was inevitable, he immediately sent his messen- 
gers to all his subjects, and summoned them to prepare 
and march against his adversary. And what shall I say! 
He assembl^ the greatest armament in the world. — 
When the Tartar prince heard this, he also made great 
preparations ; but bis people being less numerous, he 
could not assemble an equal army ; however it was vety 
powerful. 

■eeking redress. The Frepch, however, is undoubtedly the eurUett 
version, and the Italian traasnriber, on seeinr the discrepancy, might 
naturally seek to remove it by continuing- the first statement, suppoainf 
it the most correct. There appears reason to think that the contrary is 
the truth ; an opinion which seems farther Confirmed by De Guignes' 
report (tome iii. pp. 346, 347), that Tolobaga had nearly usurped the 
supreme power even in the lifetime of Totamangu, who, unable to oon- 
trol his turbulent chiefs, resided the crown. This is not very &r fimA 
the statement of Marco ; fnr m each a society, the abdication of a msap 
avch and bis deaih were not likely to bn very distant. 



ACCOUNTS or WB0TERN ASIA. 31 S 

When Toctai was fully ready to take the fields he set 
eut leading with him, I assure you/two hundred thousand 
horsemen. He rode on to the large and heautifol plain 
of Nerghi, and there pitched his camp. Hither also came 
the two sons of Totamangu, with a noble company of men, 
to avenge the death of their father. Now let us turn to 
Nogai, who on learning his approach set out with all his 
troops, and, without doubt, they were upwards of 150,000 
horsemen, all good and valiant, better men at arms than 
those of the enemy. Two days after, he arrived and pitcl^ 
ed bis camp at ten miles distance. On both sides were 
seen very rich tents and pavilions of cloth of gold, fully 
displaying the wealth of these kings. They then waited 
a short time on the plain for refreshment and repose. 

Toctai now assembled his people, and spoke as fol- 
lows : — <* My lords, we have come to fight King Nogai, 
and with great reason, sinoe all this feud and enmity have 
arisen from his not coming to account for his conduct to 
the sons of Totamangu. Since then his behaviour is thus 
unreasonable, we must feel good courage and hope of 
conquest ; and 1 earnestly pray that each man be valiant, 
and strive to carry destruction and death among the ene- 
my.'' The other, too, thus addressed his men : — " Noble 
friends and brethren, you know how many great and hard 
battles we have gained, and against better men than now 
oppose us ; therefore you may feel assured of victory. 
Besides, we are fully in the right, and he in the wrong ; 
for, as you know well, he is not my lord, nor entitled to 
call me to his court to give an account to others. I say 
no more, but pray every one to perform such exploits, 
that the whole world may admire them, and your name 
may always strike terror.'' The two kings having thus 
spoken made no delay in forming their order of battle. 
The first drew out twenty squadrons, and his enemy fif- 
teen, of 10,000 men each, with good captains and conduc- 
tors. Having rode on to within bow-shots and the naccar 
having sounded, they rushed forward and discharged their 
arrows, when many horses and riders fell dead, loud cries 
arose, and tears were shed. Afterwards they all advanced 
with sword and spear ; hands, heads, and arm^ were cut 



St a THE iNOIAff 8BA» AJlD PUTOUCAL 

* 

off; kniglits feD dead and wounded to the earth ; the 
cries, noise, and clashing of arms would have drowned 
the kNidest thunder, rvever almost was there a battle in 
which such numbers fell ; but the greater loss was on the 
side of Toctai; for his adversary Imd better men-at-arms: 
The two sons of Totamango displayed great prowess, stri- 
ving to the utmost to avenge the death of their father ; but 
it was in vain. The batUe, in short, was most bloody 
and dreadful ; many who in the morning were alive and 
vigorous, during ^be day fell slain, and many happy 
wives were made widows. Toctai strove with aU his 
might to support his people and his honour, and displayed 
indeed a prowess worthy to be praised by the whole world. 
He rushed ^inid the enemy like one that cared nothing 
for life or death, striking to right and left, rescuing his 
people when seized or taken. He did much injury that 
day both to enemies and friends ; of the one he killed a 
vast number, and the other, from his example, derived 
boldness to posh against their foe, and thus met instant 
death. Nogai, on his side equally acted the hero ; he 
rushed among the enemy as the lion does among other wild 
beasts, casting down and killing all whom he encountered. 
He threw himself among the thickest of the foe, and all 
fled before him like weak and timid animals. His troops 
emulated his valour ; but why make a long story 1 The 
people of Toctai did every thing possible to support their 
honour, though in vain, for they had too good and stout 
men to deal with. They had suffered so much as to 
make it evident that if they remained they would all per- 
ish. They therefore took to flight as quickly as they 
could, the victor with his troops pursuing and kiUing them 
in great numbers. Thus have you heard how Nogai 
gained the battle,* and be assured there died in it 60,000 

* De Gaines relates the evente of this war, but, as already nlwerved, 
he does not introduce the two princes, sons of Totamango or Tolobaga, 
but represents Toctai as impelled merely by jealousy of his neighbour 
or vaiisal, and a determination to humble hinu There is still a more 
serious discrepancy ; for, instead of representing Nogai as victorious, 
he reports him as defeated and killed. Yet it is remarkable, that in an- 
other part of his work he mentions him, on Che authority of Abulfe^b, 
ns having lived many years after, and died only in 1299. He notices 
himself the variation of the two aooounta, bat does not seem able to say 
which is right. We r4>nf«as ourselves equally at a loes; but it would 
be hard to dedd<« against our author on such varying autWitv 



ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 317 

men ; but the other king escaped, as well as the two aona 
of Tutaman^. 

LXL— Craaclusloo. 

Ton have now been informed of all the actions of the 
Tartars and Saracens, of their customs, and of other 
countries throughout the, world, so far as they could be 
searched out and discovered. We have only declined 
saying any thing of the Black Sea and the surrounding 
provinces, although we fully explored them, because it 
would seemingly have been useless, and a repetition of 
what others relate every day. The Venetians, the Ge- 
noese, the Pisans, and many other nations, are continu- 
ally navigating it so that every one knows the bordering 
countries. You have been informed in a chapter at 
the beginning, of our departure from the great khan, and 
the trouble and solicitation which Maffio, Nicolo, and 
Marco had in obtaining his permission. You have learned 
also the accident whereby it was procured, without which 
we should have found it very difficult to return into our 
country. But I believe it was the pleasure of God. that 
yiey might have known the great things that are in the 
world, and, as formerly declared in the preface, there 
never was a man, either Christian or Saracen, or Tartar 
or Pagan, who explored so much of the world as did 
Marco, the son of Nicolo Polo, that noble and great citizen 

of Venice.* Deo Gratias. Amen, Amen. 

• 

*Tlu«ooiiclading address is g^ven by Count Boni from the Cnisca and 
Pacei editions, where alone it occars, and with some variation of lan- 
guage. Considering how the other editions have dropped off before 
coming to this point, we cannot wonder at its absence in any of them 
except the French, which stops abmpUy at the close of the preceding 
chapter. This circumstance, though difficult to account for, seems in- 
sufficient to make us reject a passage supported by two such valuable 
editions. We may observe a curious change in the last sentence, from 
the first to the third person. This, I apprehend, arises from Rusticians 
first writing as an amanuensis, then beginning in his own person, when 
he proBounoes a panegyric upon Marco, .which would not have crane 
ver} gracefally from the traveller himself. 



INDEX. 



A. 

ABA.SCIA (Abyninia), kingdom of, 
p. 285. TheiahabitaatscoiiTert- 
ed by St. Thomu, 386. Its kiag 
defeats the ruler of Adel (Aden), 
287. ProdnctitHiB of the coontiy, 
387. 

Abraismain (Bramins), order of, 
858. 367-870. 

Achalech-Mauji, province of^ 136. 

Anhmac, chief minister of Kublai, 
his wicked admioistration, 106- 
110. Is slain hj Vanku and 
Chenka, 109. 

Aoomat, the Saracen, contends for 
the Persian empire, 896. His 
battlewith Argon, 801. Is seized 
and slain, 203. 

Acre, a city of Palestine, 8&-80. 

Adam's peak, a mountain of Cej- 
lon,8U. 

Aden (Adel), a kingdom and city 
of Eastern Africa, 280. Is in- 
Taded by the King of Abasda, 
887. 

Aden, a city and kingdom of Arap 
bia, 888. Inhabited bv Saracens, 
ib. A great seat of Indian com- 
merce, ib. Its saltan assists 
Saladia in the siege of Acre, 289. 

Alaodin, the Old Man of the Moun- 
tain, 800. Ilis garden and cas- 
tle, 800, 801 . How he trained and 
employed his assasins, 301. His 
death, 908. 

Alau, or Hotrfaku, mler of Eastern 
Tartary, sends ambassadors to 
Uie great khan (Manggu), 86. 
Makes war with Barl^, whom 
he defeato, 85, 310, 312. Captures 
Bagdad and subverts the cali- 
phate, 78, 85, 86, 186. Takes 
and puts to death the Old Man of 



the Mountutt, 302. la suoeeedeid 
by Abaga, 897. 

Altai Mountains, where Gengis 
and his descendants are interred, 
337, 231. 

Amu (Bamoo), province of, 150. 

Angamau (Andaman) Islands, 95Z. 
254. 

Ararat, a celebrated mountain of 
Armenia, 188. 

Argiron (Erzeroum), a city of Ar- 
menia, 183. 

Argon, lord of the East, 91. Hit 
battle with Barak, 297. Con- 
tends with Acomat for the Per- 
liian empire, 898. Is defeated 
and taken prisoner, 301. His 
rescue, 302, and death, 304. 

Armenia the Greater, 182, 183. 

Armenia the Lesser, 181. Is sub- 
ject to the Tartars, ib. 

Aronga, a city of Armenia the 
Greater, 182. 

Ascelin, or Anselm, a Dominicaa 
friar, his mission to the Tartars, 
then encamped in Persia, 53. 
Reeeptioa by Baiothnqy the Tar- 
tar chief, 53. His dismissal, 56. 

Astxologers and soothsayers, 127. 



B. 



His 



Baatu, a Tartar chief, 41, 57, 
court, 63. 

Badascia (Badakshan), province €€, 
15, 904. Abounds in precious 
stones, 905, 806. Its chiefs, the 
descendants from Alexander the 
Great, 806 Lapis lazuli mines, 
806. 

Bagdad. See Baldach. 

Baiothnoy, a Tartar chief, 54. His 
letter sent by Ascelin to the 
Pope, 56. 



320 



tND£Jt. 



Baka, priMte of Boodli, thair en- 
chantments and idol 'wonhipy 
190. 

Baku, % dty of Pania, abonndi in 
naphtha, 183, 191. 

Baldach (Bagdad), city of, its cw- 
tan by Hoolaku, », 185. Ita 
rich cloths and great wealth, 180* 
TreiBvres of its caliph, ib. 

Balk (Balkh), city of, 909> Its de- 
cay, ib. 

Banyala (Bengal), province off 149) 

Bangti (Eastern Siberia), country 
o^S31, 232. 

Barkakhan,85. Defeated by Alan, 
ib. 

Barons, twelve gn^at, appointed by 
Knblai, governors of provinces, 
133. 

Bascra (Bossora), city, 185. 

Bi^yam,&Qblai*s general, conqnen 
King Facfnr, Iff/. Captures Cin> 
ghin-gai, 104. 

Belor (Beloor), a moantain range, 
910. 

Bokhara, city of, 00. 

Boni, Count Baldelli, editor of two 
Itidian versions of tho Travels, 
19,33, 94,30, 37,81,110,110, 
139, 193. 

Boodhism in Central Asia, S18» 
Extensively diflhsed through Ja- 
pan, 343. 

British Mnsexun, MSS. of the Tra- 
vels in, 33, 33. 

Brius river, 140. 

Bulgaria, a country on the Volga, 

Bumes, Sir Alexander, 18, 390. 

C. 

Ca-cian-fu (Tong-tcheou), city of, 
134. 

Ca-cian-fn (Ho-kien-fou),acity«f 
Cathay, 153. 

Cai-g-ii (Qoa-tcheou), city of 103. 

Cail *r Kael, a city of Southern 
India, 971. The king possesses 
great treasures, ib. 

Calacian, a city of Tangut, Central 
Asia, 234. 

Calatu (Kalhat), a city at the en- 
trance of the Persinn Gulf, 991 . 

Camandn, a city of Persia, 194. 

B 



Cambaia (Caaibay>, i kingdom of 

Western India, 977. 
Can^ffiu (Kiang^haa-fhi), dty t£, 

Canpicion (Kan-tcheou), capital of 
the province of Tangut^ »1. 

Caraian, province of, 141. 

Carpini, a f*ranciscan friar, his 
mission to Cuyn^ (Kuyuk)Khan, 
43i Reaehes Kiev, 45. Arrives 
at a Tartar court, 40. His re- 
oeptimi at the court of CuymO, 96, 
51. Departure and return, IB 

Casan or Ghtzan, his contest vriA 
Baldu, 304. Assumed the sove- 
reignty of Persia, 905. 

Cascar (Cashgar), provinco and 
city of, 15,911. 

Cathay or Kataia, northern China, 
100, 108, 138, 131. Cit^ tf 
Cathay or Kambalu (Pe-king), 
114. 

Cayarlh, a famous castle, 129. 

Chandn, a city of Taitary, 338. — 
See Shandu. 

Charlemagne, in his fetgn,. Ger- 
many emenred from banMrism, 
37. 

ChMHD (Kao-yooa), a large city, 

Chen-gui (Yen-tciheon-fbu ), dty of 
176. 

China, its greatness and civilisa- 
tion, 18. Religion and Customs of 
the Chinese, 138. 

Chinese empire, unknown to Euro- 

Sans before Polo*s travels^ 15, 
. 

CKinese navigation to India, 838. 

Chisi (Eishm), an island in the 
Persian Gulf, 185, 193. 

Ciagatai or Zagatai, one of the sons 
of Gengis, 196. Becomes a ooa- 
Tort to Christianity, 313. 

Cianba (Tsiompa), a country be- 
tween Cochin China and Cam- 
boia, 344. Kublai sends an ex- 
pedition thither, ib. 

Cian-cian (Kiu-teheoo), a town on 
a mountain, 176. 

Cian^nor, imperial palace at, 131. 

Ctan-glt (Te-toheou), city- of, 154. 

Cian-glu (TSan-tcheou), city of, 
153. 



INDEX. 



321 



Ctamui (Kttirftslielir), a prorinca 
of Tartanr, 315. 

Cin-ghian-ra (Tchin-kiang-fou), 
city of, 163. 

Cin-ghin-gui (Tchang-tcheou-fou) 
a great and noble city, 164. 

Cin-gui (Sut-zi-hien),city of, 155. 
Another city of the same ntime, 
159. 

Clemenfii (Tai-yaen-fou), a rich 
.and powerful city, 90. 

Clement IV., Pope, death of, 88. 

Gobi or Shamo, great desert of, 315, 
316. 

Cobinam (Kbubees), city of, 199. 

Coilac, city o^^. 

Coilott, a kingdom of India, 373, 
S73. 

Comari, a country of Southern In- 
dia around Cape Comorin, 373. 

Coaci, king o/Touraia, 305. 

Condi-fa (Tsi-nan-fou), city of, 
154. 

Cormos (Ormus), a city and island 
in the Persian Gulf, 196,197, 196. 
A (Treat emporium of Indian 
commerce, 197. Extreme vio- 
lence of the heat, 198. Invaded 
by the King of Creman (Carma- 
lua), 196. 

Cesrintt a Minorite friar, created 
Archbishop of Kambalu, 90. 

Cotan (Khoten), province of, 313. 

couriers of the great khan, 133. 

Creman (Carmania), kingdom of, 
19B. Its productions and manu* 
factures, ib. City of Creman 
(Kerman), 193, 194. 

Crusca MS, of the Travels, 31. 

Cun-chin, province of, 135. 

Cuyn6 (Kuyuk), khan, 47. Elect- 
ed Emperor, 49. His letter to the 
Pope, 53. His death, 57. 

Cyn-gui, province of, 151. 

D. 

Dandolo, Andrea, Dwe of Venice, 
79. His fleet defeated by the 
Genoese, 81. 

De Guignes, 110. 

Dogs, hunting, 115. 

Dominican friars ; their mission to 
Persia, 43. ComQienee dieir 
imtmey, 53. Their ivception by 



Baiothnoy, 54: and dismissal. 
56. 

Dor, king, story respecting, 138 
Carried a prisoner to Ptestei 
John, 133. Is restored to his king 
dom, 134. 

Dufar or Dofar, a seaport of Ara 
bia, 390. 

Du Halde's estimate of the reve- 
nues of China, 18. 

E. 

Egrigaia (Ninghia), a province oi 
Tangut, 334. 

Eighurs, a Turkish tribe, 39, 103, 
317. 

Elephants used in hunting excur- 
sions, 117. 

Eli or Dely, a kingdom of India. 
374. 

Erginul a kingdom and city of Tan- 
gut, 333, 333. 

Escier (Shaher), a city of Arabia. 
389. 

Euphrates river, 184. . 

Europeans, excluded from China 
and the interior regions of Asia, 
13. 

Ezina, a«ity of Tangut, 893. 

F. 

Facfur, king of Manji, or Southern 
China, 12^. Conquered by Ku- 
blai, 157. Bounty to his subjeots, 
ib. 

Falconry in China, 116. 

Festivals, magnificence of Tartar 
and Chinese, 110-114, 

Fire worshippers (Quebrea) in 
Persia, 190. 

Fo-kien, province of, uncivilized 
tribes in, 177. 

Frampton, John, his English trans- 
lation of Marco Polo, 34. 

F^nch Geographical Society, edi- 
tions of the Travels published by, 
33. 

F«i-gui tir Concha, kin^om of, 177. 
T^e capital, Fu-gui (Fou-tche< 
ou fou), a place of extenftTt 
trade, 178. 

G. 
Gan-fu (Ningpo;, a (Jno tetport 



INDSZ. 







Snanontj to 

,9L 

Geo-ni or 6w-sm (IW-tclie(m), 
eit7oC131,]53. 

iMan, IS. Aceomt of its 

peofde and prodoctMBS, 183. 18t. 

Gnttttuitalu (Bukoal), m pnmafDo 

Goloonda, in ladia, diaoMBd mines 

of; 964, 965. 
Gonrat, * kin gdo m of Indin, in&- 

mons for pirates . S76. 
Grsnt wall flf duns, 9B. 
Chregory X., Pope, 89. 

H. 
Hiouig^lio, a ri^er of Chxnt, 15 



Hoidska. — See Alan. 
B a n inagh , Mr., on the nsTigation 

of the Indian Ocean, 347. 
Hans inTsde Evrope, 38. 

I. 

looniun, capital of Asia Minor, 73. 
Innocent Iv., Tape, his letter to 

the Khan of the Tttrtars, 43. 
Islands of the Oriental Archipelago, 

943. 
Ismalies or Assassins.— See Alao- 

din 

J. 

Jnan expedition or Knhlai against, 
16.— See Zipanga. 

JaTa, island of, 93, 345. 

Java, Little (Sumatra), 347. King- 
doms of, 347-353. 

Jomard, M., 37. 

K. 
Ksidn^ a powerful chiof of Tnrkes- 



death, 395. Ezploiis of his 
d angh t e r Aigiann, 99^-397. 

Kain-dn, proviafoe o<; 139. 

Kambaln (Pe-king), .o^ntal of 
China, 99. DeaeriptioB of the 
palace, 103, 104 ; of the citj, lOSu 
Its soboxfas, MB, 106. Astralo- 
gers in, 137. 

Kanml (Khamil or ' Qamil), city 
and pioviMw of; 319. 

Kangign, province of, 149. 

Kankomm, c^atal of the Meogels, 
39, flO, 333. 

Karamoran (Hoang-ho), a great 
liver of China, 134, 15S, 158. 

Kararan, prpvinoe and citjof, 1^ 
Its gxeat saakes and aerpenti, ib. 
Widced custom of the inhabi- 
tants, 143. 

Kaidaadaa, province of; 143. Ma* 
gicians, IM, 145. 

Kataia.— See Cathay. 

Kesimor (Caahmue), a p tt m nce of 
Notthem India, 306. 

Keamacoran (Mekran), a kingdom 
to the west of the Indus, STO. 

Khoten, a ci^ of Turkestan, 15. 

KisT, the aadeat capital o^Ruasia, 

Kn-sai or Quin-sai (Hang-tcheou- 
fira), capital of Manii, 157, 165. 
Its extent andV>P<u«ti<»« I^ 
106. Lake, 166, 172. Baths, 167, 
170. Palaces, 166, 168, 173. 
Squares and market-plaoes, 169. 
Houses, ib. Revenoes, 175. 

Kirghiz tribe, roam over the 
wilds of Tartaiy, 310. 

Klaproth, M., 37, 30. 

Kogatai, a Tartar officer, 106. 

Koi-ran-xu (Hoai-ngaa-fon), aci^ 
of Manji, 158. 

Koton, or ceramonj of prostration, 
113. 

Kubiai Kh^n^makes the conquest 
of China, 78. His receptian of 
Nicolo and Maffio Polo, 86. His 
power and magnificence, 95. 
War with Najan and ^aidn,96- 
96. Favour for the Christians, 
99. Opuaiona of tixe Christian 



IXDBX. 



323 



JlAlificm, 99, lOO. Rewards to 
Us soldiers, 101. His peTson, 
wives, &c., 102. Guards, 110. 
Magnificence of his fe8tivals,110. 
Honting expeditions, 114, 115. 
Number and extent of his tents, 
117. His wealth, 131. His gov- 
ernors of provinces, 123. Cour- 
iers, ib. Bounty to his subjects* 
125. His death, 94. 

Kurds, inhabitants of the moun- 
tains of Mosul, 185. 

Kuyak Khan.— See Cuyn^ 



Laias (Aias), a city of Azmenia 

tha Lesser,88, 80, 161. 
I«ar, a province of India, 987. 
Lin-gui, city of, 155. 
Lions, trained to hunt, 115. 
Litan rebels against Kublai, and is 

slain, 154. 
Lochac(Camboia), province of, 246. 
Lop, city, desert, and lake of, 215. 
Louis, St., kinr of France, receives 

an embassy from the Tartars. 57. 

Sends William de Rubrnquis oa 

a mission, 58. 

M. 

Maabar, a province in the south of 
India, 257. The gyHf between it 
and Ceylon, riph in pearls, 358. 
Its Hindoo customs and supei^ 
stitions, 259, 202. Manners and 
social condition of the inhabi- 
tanto, 903, 904. 

Madagascar, first mentioned by 
Polo, 16. The rukk a bird of, 19. 
The island described, 381, 282. 

BCailla's translation of the Chinese 
History, 110. 

Malacod, peninsula of, 246. 

Male and Fen^ale Islands so called. 
279. 

Mangalu, son of Kubl&i, 335. 

Blangon, grandson of Gensis, 41. 
Chosen great khan, 57. His re- 
ception of Rubraquis, 67. 72. 
Superstitions of his court, 69. 
Detolttes Thibet, 137. 

Manji, great province of, 131, 156 
Conquered by Bayam, 165. Con- 
siets of nine kingdoms, 167. Its 



riches, ib. Asttologers, 168. Cus- 
toms, ib. 

Marsden, Mr, pasHm* 

Martini, his description of the Chi- 
nese empire, 14, 90. 

Masulipatam, a provinca of India, 
264. 

Mehbar (Malabar), a kfogdom of 
Southern India, 274. 

Mien, king of, defeated by the Tar- 
tars, 146, 147. Province and 
city of Mien, 147-149. 

Money of the great khan, 121, 122. 

Mongol Emperors, invite foreign- 
ers to their courts, 30. 

Mongols in Central and Eastern 
Asia, 37. Invade Europe under 
Attila,38. ^ 

Mosul, kingdom of, 183. Inhabited 
by various races, 184. An em- 
porium for the commerce of Cen- 
tral Asia, ib. 

Musk animal described, 233, 234. 

N. 

^*?"*\!ii? (Nan-king), great city 
of, 160. 

Nayan, his vebellion against Ku- 
blai, 96. His defeat and death, 
tic. 

Necuveran (Nicobar), Islands, 253. 

Nescardin, Kublai»s general, de- 
feats the Ii;ing of Mien, 146. 

Nestorian Christians and Jacobites 
67 68, 14J, 185, 188, 211, 213, 

SB17. 

NModar, king of Reobarle, 195. 
His predatory expedition, and in- 
vasion of India, 196. 

O. 

Okkoday Khan, his invasion of Eu- 
rope, 41. His death, 42. 

Old Man of the Mountain. Sea 
Alaodin. 

Ouang Khan, or Prester John, 39. 

His death, 40. 
Oxus river, SOO. 

P. 
PMnier (Pamir), a lofty taWe-land, 
*uy-2i 1 . 

Parris, M., editor of the French- 
Chronicles, 25 



324 



INDEX. 



Pascta (Peshawer); proTince of, 

207. 
Pau-chym (Pao-yng-»hi«n), city of, 

158. 

Fein (Bai), prorinoe of, 214. 

Fe-khkff, ci^ of, 105. See K«m- 
bala. 

Pentam (Bintang), an island ia the 
Straits of Malacca, 247. 

Persia, province of, 190. Nniaber 
ofkiiu:<Jom8in,191. ExceUenee 
of itshorses, 193. 

Pi-an-ftt (Pin-yangffou), city of, 
132. 

Pin-gui (Pi-tcheou), city of; 155. 

Pipino his Latin Translation of the 
Travels, 23, 32. 

Polo, Nicolo and Maffio, tbeir long 
residence in China, 80. Jouraey 
into the East and reception by 
Barka Khan, 65. Arrival at the 
court of Kublai, 86. Sent back 
on an embassy to the Pope, 87. 
Their arrival at Venice, 88. Re- 
turn to China, 89. Final depar- 
ture and arrival at Venice, 92- 
94. 

Polo, Marco, traveUoC authentici- 
ty of the work, 12» General cor- 
rectness of the narrative, 14-16. 
Confirmed by recent travellers^ 
22. Observations on the manu- 
scripts and editions of, 22-35. 
The author taken prisoner by the 
Genoese, 81. Regains his liberty, 
82.. Accompanies his fJBthei and 
uncle to China, 89. Is employed 
in embassies by Kublai, 91. His 
journey in Chma, 130. Is gov- 
ernor of Yan-gui (Yang-tcheott- 
fou), 160. . 
Pope of Rome, his paramount in- 
fluence in Europe, 42, 43. 
Prester John.— See Onang Khan. 
Pnlisangan river, 130. 
Purchas in his Pilgrims uses Ra- 
musio's edition of Marco Polo*s 
Travels, 23. 

Q. 
Q«»-ba''fa (Ki«n-ning-f<yn>, city 

of, 177. 
Quen-frian-fn (Si-ngan-fou), city 

of, 194. 



Quitt-sai,city of, 18, 19.— See Ki» 
sai. 

R. 

Ramnsio^s collection of V^ragea 
and Travels, 23, 27. Followed 
by Marsden, 27. Interpolatad 
passages, 27, 31, 93, 119. 

Reobarle, a province of Persia, 194. 
Its people and productions, 194^ 
195. 

Rhinooexoa of Sumatra, 249. 

Rubruquis, William de, his mis- 
sion to the Tartars, 58. Jouir- 
ney through the Crimea, 59. 
Visit to Scacatfti, a Tartar chief, 
60. His description of Comania 
and Russia, 60, 61 . Arrival at 
the camp of Sartach, 61. Pro- 
ceeds to the court of Baatu, 
63. Journey through Tartary, 
64-66. Arrival at the court, and 
audience of the great khan, 66. . 
Conference with the imperial 
secretaries, 71. His departure, 
72. Journey homewards, 73. 

Russia, description of, 308. 

Rusticians, the prison compuuen 
of Mateo Polo, 25, 28, 82, 84. 

S. 
Saochion (Cha-tcheou), city of, 

217. 
St. Thomas, legends respecting, 

266. 
Salt, mountains of, 204. 
Samarcan (Samarcand), great and 

noble city of, 211, 212. 
Sapurgan (Shibbei^un), city of^ 

202. 
Saracens, their wicked principle. 

109, 187. Hatred of the Chris- 
tians, 188, 389. 
Sartach, a Tartar chief, 58. 
Sava, the city of the three magi, 

in Persia, 190. 
Sa-yan-ftt (Sianf-ya»g-foa>, city 

ot 160. 
Scassem (ICoondooz}^ pxovince and 

city oC 204. 
Scotra (Socofra) isle of, 280, S81. 
Scythians, their early inva^iona of 

southern regions^ 36, 87. 
Seilan (Ceylon), island of, 254, 257. 



INDEX. 



f^S 



Abounds in previous stones, 955. 

Origin of Boodbism in, 29S, 256. 
Semenat (Sumnant), a kingdom of 

India, 278. 
Sergamon Borcam, story aL S5iS^ 

256, 257. 
Shamanisni,\videWdifiiisedtlu»nghi 

Eastern Asia, 65, 76, 231. 
Shamo. — See Cobi. 
Shanda, imperial palaee ci, in Tap- 

tary, 108, 118. 
Si-fan, a people of Thibet^ 138.. 
Sin-din-fa (Tching-toa-foa), pror- 

ince and citjr of; 136,. 153. 
Sin-goi (Tsi-ning-teheou), city of; 

154. 
Sin-gni, a city on the Eiang (Yang- 

tse-kiang), 162. 
Sin-gni (Soa-tcheou-fon)^ a great 

and noble city, 164.. 
Sinogul (Soni-tcheon), eity oS, 151, 

152. 
Siroceo, or simoom of the East, 

fatal effecto of,. 198. 
Sismondi, M^ 18. 
Soodnr and Condur (Pnla Coadore, 

Ac), islands on the coast of 

Camboia, 245. 
Socciur (Soa-tcheoa\, a city in 

the north-west of China, 221. 
Sumatra, island of, 16. See Java, 

Little. 
Suttee, pxeralence of in Malabar, 

261. 

T. 

IVi-kan (Ehoolloom),castle of, 204. 

Tai-in-fu (Tai-yuen-foa), kingdom 
and city of, 131. 

Tam-pin-gui, city of, 175. 

Tana (Bombay), a kingdom of la,- 
dia, 277. 

Tangut, profvince of, 217, 218^ 

Tartars driven out of Chin^t 13. 
Their invasions, 15, 36. Con- 
quests under Grengis and Okkp- 
day, 41. Goyemment,. 74. Do- 
mestic condition, 75, 76. Rp- 
ligi<m, customs, and manners, 77, 
228, 231. Military system, 77, 
76. Computation of time, 128. 
Their wars, and the order of 
their armies, 230-232.. 

Ee 



Tea, not mentioned eaepressly by 
name, 2D, 127. 

Teflis, aci^ of Armenia, 185. 

Temngin, Khan of the Great Mon> 
gols, 39. Changee his name to 
GMUgis, 41.— See Gengis. 

Temux, g^ndson itnd successor of 
Kublai, 103, 105. 

Tenduc, a province of Eastern Tar- 
tary,235. The chief seat of Pres- 
ter John, 236. Called Gog and 
Magog, ib. 

Tents of the great khan, 117. 

Thibet, the chief seat of Boodbism, 
138, 139. 

Tholoman (part of Yun-nan), prov- 
ince of, 151. 

Ti-min-gpi (King-te-ching), porce- 
lain manufactures of, 180. 

Tin-gui, city of, 159. 

Toc-tai,hi8 controversy with Nogai, 
312, by whom he is defeated in 
a great battle, 316, 317. 

Tonocain (Daumghaun), province 
of, 200, 201. 

Toris (Tauris or Tabreez), a cele- 
brated city of Persia, 187. 

Travellers, early, their credulity, 
17. 

Turcomania, races of men inhabi- 
ting, 182. Subject to the East- 
em Tartars, ib.. 

Turkestan, a country of Central 
Asia, inhaj>ited by the Turks, 37, 
293. 

V. 

Ughim, city of, 165. 

Vn-gui (Kia-hipg), city of, 165. 

IJn-<iuem (Ming-tsing), city of 

Ural river, 65. 

Y.J 

Venice a powerful state, 79. 
Yociam, city of, 162. Kingdom of. 

145. 
VokhanOyakhan),pirovince of,209 
Volga river, 61, 6a. 

W. 

^aldshut, battle of, 4!^ 



NPEX. 



Taci (Chiaki), a 0(7 of Thibet, 

141, 143. 
Y— f i— kimng, or Kiaa^ , o gnat 

mrer of China, 10, 102. 
Taa-gni (Taaf-Beh«oa-lb«),at7o^ 

which Manw Polo gvyvmodtlflO. 
Tareaa (Tarcoiid),pnmaoe otf^ S13. 
Yaieuad. city of, 10. 
"* * (Yeid), acity of Penia, 1113. 



Z. 

(A««r). 



a aoblo pocl^ 



Zai'tm 

179. 
Zanghibar (Zangnebar), a canntrf 

on tho eastern coast of Afirica». 



Zipanrn (Japan), farfasioa of by 
Kablai, how frnstrated, 941, 342. 
Idolatry and craelty of the iu- 
habitant*, MS. 



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4 Works for Colleges^ SchooUj ij*^., 
Anthon's Fiifst G-reek Lessons, 

ConUining the most important Parts of the Gram- 
mar of the Greek Language, together with appropii 
ate Exercises in the translating and writing of Greek. 
12mo, Sheep extra, 75 cents. 

Anthon's Greek Prose Composition. 

Greek lessons. Part II. An Introduction to Greek 
Prose Composition, with a complete Course of Exer- 
cises illustrative of all the important Principles of 
Greek Syntax. I2mo, Sheep extra, 75 cents. 

Anthon's iEneid of Virgil. 

With English Notes, critical and explanatory, a Met- 
rical Claris, and an Historical, Geographical, and 
Mythological Index. With a Portrait and numeroos 
Illustrations. 12mo, Sheep extra, ^1 25. 

Anthon's Eclogues and Georgics of Vir- 
gil. With Enghsh Notes, critical and explanatory. 
12mo, Sheep extra, $1 25. 

Anthon's Caesar's Commentaries on the 

Gallic War, and the First Book of the Greek Para- 
phrase ; with English Notes, critical and explanatory. 
Plans of Battles, Sieges, &c., and Historical, Geo- 
graphical, and ArcheoTogical Indexes. With a Map, 
Portrait, (Sec. 12mo, Sheep extra, $1 00. 

Anthon's Latin Versification. 

In a Series of Progressive Exercises, inclading Spec- 
imens of Translation from English and German Po- 
etry into Latin Verse. 12mo, Sheep extra, 75 cents. 

Anthon's Key to Latin Versification. 

12mo, half Sheep, 50 cents. 

Anthon's Latin Lessons. 

Latin Grammar, Part I. Containing the most im- 
portant Parts of the Grammar of the Latin Language, 
together with appropriate Exercises in the translating 
and writing of Latin. i2mo. Sheep extra. <75 eents. 



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THE NEW YORK PUBLIC LftRARY 

RBFERENGB DEPARTMENT 



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