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A 



HARVARD COLLEGE 
LIBRARY 




FROU THE BEQUEST OF 

GEORGE FRANCIS PARKMAN 

(CUu of 1844) 



OF BOSTON 



»irj'i»I' illAlSBSI »U3 
«XIr73tU ASIA. , 




A 







XiA.A.A^^^VX^ 



UA.'^^Of 



KKTXRID IK STATIONERS* HALL. 

Printed by Oliver & Boyd, / \* 

Twaeddale Court, High Street, Bdinburgli. n 









MAECO POLO. 




OLIVER & BOYD, BDINBURQH. 



THB 



TRAVELS 



OP 



MARCO POLO, 

GREATLY AMENDED AND ENLARGED 

FROM 

YiXUABLE EABLT MANUSCRIPTS RECENTLY PUBLISHED BT THE 
FBBNCH SOCIETY OF GEOGRAPHY AND IN ITALY BY 
COUNT BALDELLI BONI. ' 

WITH COPIOUS NOTES, 

XVBTBATIirO THJB ROUTRS AND OBSERVATIONS 09' THX AI7TH0B, AND 
COM PARINO THJSM WITH THOSK OF MORS RKCSNT TRAVELLKRS. 

BTHUGH MDRMT, F.B.S,E. 

TWO MAPS AND A VIGNETTE. 
THIRD EDITION. 



EDINBURGH: 

OLIVER & BOYD, TWEEDDALE COURT; 
AND SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & CO.^ LONDON. 

MDCCCXLV. 



at i^Z'!^'^"^ 



n 




^^ I y 0..U 



Xl, V, vx^-Cv VA_, 



U.A.'\^t/, 



/ 



KNTIRID IH stationers' BALL. 



Printed by Oliver & Boyd, / 

Tweeddale Court, High Street, Edinburgh. ^') 



PREFACE. 



^^t»N^^^>^#^^^^^F^^» 



Masgo PoijO has been long regarded as at once the earliest 
and most distinguished of European trayellers. He sur- 
passed every other in the extent of the unknown regions 
which he visited, as well as in the amount of new 
and important information collected ; having traversed 
Asia from one extremity to the other, including the 
elevated central regions, and those interior provinces of 
China from which foreigners have since been rigidly 
excluded. " He has," says Ritter, " been frequently 
called the Herodotus of the Middle Ages, and he has a 
just claim to that title. If the name of a discoverer of 
Asia were to be assigned to any person, nobody would 
better deserve it." The description of the Chinese court 
and empire, and of the adjacent countries, under the most 
powerful of the Asiatic dynasties, forms a grand historical 
picture not exhibited in any other record. His return 
along the southern coasts of the continent abounds also 
in curious and novel observations. Doubts, it is well 
known, were at first raised respecting the accuracy of 
his statements ; but they are now fully proved to 



6 PREFACE. 

have arisen solely from the fact that his discoveries 
far transcended the knowledge of his age. In proportion 
as those distant regions became known, his reports re- 
ceived confirmation ; and eminent travellers of recent 
date have added strong testimonies to his veracity. 

The value of his narrative being thus acknowledged, 
it may seem surprising that no edition of it, in a form ge- 
nerally accessible to the British public, has ever appeared. 
It exists only in voluminous collections, and in the pon- 
derous though interesting work of Mr Marsden. With 
a view to supply this defect, the present publication was 
undertaken. 

In the prosecution of this task, it soon appeared that 
there was room for much more than a mere reprint ; 
and access has been obtained to important materials^ 
unknown to Mr Marsden, or any former British edi- 
tor. The two versions recently edited by the French 
Society of Geography, and the early Italian ones by 
Count Baldelli Boni, are undoubtedly at once more 
copious and genuine than any before published. They 
prove that various difficulties, which embarrassed Mr 
Marsden, and shook the traveller's authority, arose 
only from the corrupted state of later copies. They 
contain also a considerable number of additional chapters 
and passages. By carefully collating them with early 
editions, and accredited manuscripts in the British 
Museum, it is hoped that a purer and more complete 
text has now been produced than any that has hitherto 
appeared in our language. 

To enable the reader to follow satisfactorily the route 
of the author, and the scope of his narrative. Notes 
and Illustrations of considerable extent have been intro- 
duced. Time has effected such mighty changes on the 



PREFACE. 7 

names and aspect of those regions, at best imperfectly 
known, that much research was requisite to ascertain 
the countries actually visited, and prove the accuracy 
witli which they are described. The Editor readily 
acknowledges his obligation to the ample materials col- 
lected for this purpose by Marsden and Boni. He has, 
however, in many cases deemed it necessary to refer to 
original sources, in order to correct or illustrate both 
these learned writers. Since the date of their publica- 
tions, too, narratives by eminent travellers, Humboldt, 
Bumes, Wood, Wellsted, and others, have afforded new 
means of elucidating the text, and confirming its authen- 
ticity. The series of chapters recently printed by the 
French Society, being unknown to Mr Marsden, could 
not receive his annotations ; but the Editor hopes that, 
by a collation with Haithon, De Guignes, Malcolm, 
Price, and other historians, he has proved their agreement 
with the best Oriental authorities. 

Previous to Polo's travels, successive embassies had 
been sent to the several princes of the Mongol race, 
then reigning in Central Asia. As their narratives illus- 
trate those of our traveller, a copious abstract of them is 
prefixed, in which aid has been derived from the ver- 
sions lately edited by the French Society, and the learned 
commentary of M. D'Avezac. This introduction, taken 
in connexion with the text and notes of Marco, will be 
found to include a complete historical view of the 
dynasty of Gengis Khan, the most powerful that ever 
ruled in the East. 

A preliminary account is given of the several manu- 
scripts and early editions, from the examination of which 
the present text has been composed, comprehending an 
estimate of their respective merits ; a task which their 



8 PREFACE. 

great number and wide variations have rendered by no 
means easy. Another is prefixed, exhibiting the grounds 
upon which the authenticity of our adventurer's narra- 
tive is established ; and it is hoped that some additional 
proofs have been thereby supplied, and not a few diffi- 
culties removed. 

A Map of Central Asia has been constructed on a scale 
suited to the Work, with a view to illustrate the routes 
both of the early embassies and of Marco Polo ; and 
great care has been taken to render it as accurate as the 
somewhat uncertain materials would admit. One of 
China has also been inserted, to enable the reader to 
follow the traveller through that extensive empire. 

Edinburgh, April 1844. 



CONTENTS. 



PRELIMINARY NOTICE. 

AUTHENTICITT OF THE WORK — MANUSCRIPTS AND EDITIONS 

CONSULTED. 

Doubts as to Aathenticity^Causes— Their temporary Preva- 
lence — How gradually removed — Grounds of Confidence in 
the Narrative— No prior Source of Information ; yet accurate 
Survey of the Eastern Regions — Recent additional Proofs — 
Charges against Marco— Miraculous Events— Exaggeration 
of Numbers — Extraordinary Objects— Omissions— The Great 
Wall — Tea — His Work not written in a desultory Maimer — 
Fresh Confirmations afforded in this Edition — Manuscripts 
employed— That pubUshed by the French (geographical So- 
ciety—Its great Value— The Narrative written in French— 
Rusticien de Pise— Berne MS.— Paris Latin — Ramusio's 
Edition— Its general Estimation— Followed by Mr Marsden 
— Shown to be grossly corrupted — Interpolated Passages — 
Their Errors and Contradictions— By whom probably in- 
serted—Are of some Value — Edition b^Pipino — Manuscripts 
in the British Museum— Grynaeus-Muller— First English 
and French Translations — These include all the most import- 
ant— Arrangement of the Work, Page 13 



INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. 

EMBASSIES TO THE EAST PRIOR TO MARCO POLO. 

Great Plain of Scythia or Tartary— Its Inhabitants, Turks, 
Mongols— Former Conquests — Temugin or Gengis — His first 
Exploits— Ouang or Prester John -His Defeat and Death — 
Extensive Conquests of Gengis -Tartar Invasion of Europe 
—Ravages— Embassy and Letter from the Pope - Carpini's 
Journey through Poland — Reception by the Tartar Chief 
Corrensa — Journey to the Volga — Court of Baatu -Journey 
through Tartary —Arrival at the Imperial Court -Great 
Splendour — Numerous Ambassadors— Treatment of the Mis- 



10 CONTENTS. 

sion— Letter from the Emperor to the Pope — Return to Eu- 
rope — Embassy by Ascelin— Reaches the Army of Baioth- 
noy — Rash Conduct and rough Reception — Final Dismissal 
— Changes in the MongolJ)yna8ty — Embassy to the French 
King — He sends a Mission under Rubruquis— Landing at 
Soudak — Journey through the Crimea — Visit to a Tartar 
Chief, Scacatai— Description of Comania and Russia— Court 
of Sartach — Of Baatu — Journey through Tartary— Arrival 
at the Imperial Court — Reception — Audience of the Great 
Khan— Various Superstitions — City of Karakorum — Religi- 
ons Controversy — Dismissal of the Ambassador — His Jour- 
ney homeward— The l^artars — Their Government — Manners 
— Physical Condition— Religion — Military System— Break- 
ing up of the Dynasty of Gengis, , Page 41 



TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 

Preuminart Notice, 89 

introductobt nabratite of the journey. 

Prologue — Journey of Nicolo and Maffio Polo into the East— 
Their Arrival at the Court of Kublai, the Tartar Emperor 
of China — Sent back on a Mission to the Pope— Return, 
carrying Marco with them— Final Departure, and Voyage 
through the Lidian Ocean to Persia— Arrival at Venice,.. .95 

PART I. 

DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, AND OF THE COURT OF THE EMPEROR 

KUBLAI. 

Kublai, Great Khan of the Tartars, and Emperor of China— 
His War with Nayan— Favour for the Christians — Descrip- 
tion of Kambalu (Pe-King)— An Insurrection there — Great 
Festivals celebrated by the Emperor— Their Order and Pomp 
— His extensive HuntingExpedi tions — Leopards,Falcons,and 
other Animals employed — Mode of pursuing and taking the 
Grame—HuntingPalace atShandu iuTartary — AtCianganor — 
Paper Money — Large Revenue — Arrangement of his Govern- 
ment and Officers — Bounty towards the People— Manners and 
Superstitions of the Chinese — Marco Polo's Journey through 
the Western Provinces — Thibet, Bengal, and the neighbouring 



CONTENTS. 1 1 

Countries— Retnm to theVicinityof Pe-king— Journey through 
the EastemProvinces— The Yellow River— Manjior Southern 
Chma — Its Conquest by Kublai — Character of the deposed 
King — Nan-king and other great Cities — The Kiang — Its im- 
mense Trade and Shipping — Kin-sai, the Capital — Its extra- 
ordinary Extent and Magnificence — Splendour of its Palace — 
Journey through Tche-kiang and Fo-kien — The Porcelain 
Manufacture — Arriyal at Zai-tun or Amoy^ Page 107 



PART II. 

CENTRAL ASIA. 

Description of Armenia and Turcomania— Greorgia ; the Iron 
Gate — The Caspian — Kingdom of Mosul— Bagdad ; its Siege 
and Capture — Tauris —Report of Miraculous Events — De- 
scription of Persia — Yezd and Herman — Journey to Ormus — 
Daring Robbers — Description and Trade of Ormus — Journey 
to Khorasan — Alaodin, the Old Man of the Mountain — ^His 
feigned Paradise— Assassinations— Subdued by the Tartars 
—Journey to Balkh— To Badakshan— Mines of Ruby and 
Lapis Lazuli — Peshawer— Cashmere— Source of the Oxus 
in Lake Sir-i-kol — Plain of Pamir, called the Roof of the 
World— Extreme Cold— Kirghizes and other rude Tribes — 
Gashgar — Samarcand — Yarcund — Khoten — Pein — Orna- 
mental Stones— Lop — Frightful Passage of the Great Desert 
—Kingdom of Tangut ; Manners and Superstitions— Great 
Caravan Station at Kamul ; strange Customs— Sou-tcheou — 
Kan-tcheou or Campion— Journey to Ezina and Karako- 
rom — Rise of the Empire of G^ngis —Manners, Customs, and 
Superstitions of the Tartars— Their Government — Conduct 
of their Wars — Route through Siberia to the Northern 
Ocean— Various Places on the Frontier of China— The Yak, 
the Musk Animal, and beautiful Pheasants — Country of 
Prester John— Imperial Hunting Palaces, 205 



PART III. 

VOYAGE THROUGH THE INDIAN SEAS, AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS 

OF WESTERN ASIA. 

Chinese Navigation to India— Description of Japan — Expedi- 
tion sent thither by Kublai— The Oriental Archipelago ; its 



12 CONTENTS. 

Produce of Gold and Spices— Visit to Tsiompa— War between 
the King and Kublai— Account of Java — Malacca— Arriyal 
at Sumatra — ^Voyage round the Island — The different King- 
doms—Savages of the Interior— Produce of Palm-toddy, 
Camphor, Sago— The Andaman and Nicobar Islands— Cey- 
lon ; its Pearls and Rubies— Superstitious Legends of the 
People — Coast of Maabar or Coromandel— Various Customs 
and Superstitions— Masulipatam ; its fine Cloths — The Dia- 
mond Mines— Madras and the Legend of St Thomas— The 
Bramins and their various Orders and Observances - Cail, 
Coilon ; Comari (Cape Comorin)— Eli or Dely — Malabar 
Coast— Dreadful Piracies— Tana and Cambaia— Sumnaut 
(Guzerat) — Mention of Mekran— Polo gives Reports collected 
respecting Africa— Socotra ; Whale-fishery — Madagascar ; 
fabulous Rumours— Confounded with Southern Africa — Zan- 
guebar ; why considered an Island— Abyssinia ; its Descrip- 
tion — Wars with Adel— -Arabia, Aden, Shaher, Dofar, Kal- 
hat— Return to Ormus— Undertakes to relate the Revolutions 
of Western Asia — Kaidu, Prince of Samarcand— His Wars 
with Kublai— Exploits of his heroic Daughter — His Contest 
with Argon, Prince of Persia- Various Adventures of Argon, 
who is defeated and made Prisoner, but afterwards raised 
to the Persian Throne— His Death— Reigns of Quiacatu and 
Baidu— The latter vanquished by Ghazan, Son to Argon- 
Tartar Kingdom in Siberia ; Dog-sledges ; fine Furs — Region 
of Obscurity in the North — Russia— Black Sea and neigh- 
bouring Countries— Succession of Tartar Princes on the 
Volga— Great War between Barka and Hoolakn — Another 
between Toctai and Nogai — Conclusion, Page 270 



ENGRAVINGS. 



Map of Central Asia, To face the Vignette, 

Vignette— Festival of the Great Khan. 

Map of China, Tofaoe'page 107 



TRAVELS 

OP 

MARCO POLO. 



PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. 

Authenticity of the Work — Mantiscripts and Editions 

Consulted. 

Doubts as to Antbenticity — Causes — Their temporary Pre- 
Talence— How gradually removed— Grounds of Confidence 
in the Narrative— No prior Source of Information ; yet ac- 
curate Survey of the Eastern Regions — Recent additional 
Proofs — Charges against Marco— Miraculous Events — Ex- 
aggeration of Numbers — Extraordinary Objects— Omissions 
—The Great Wall— Tea— His Work not written in a de- 
sultory Manner— Fresh Confirmations afforded in this Edition 
—Manuscripts employed — That published by the French Goo- 
graphical Society — Its great Value— The Narrative written 
in French— Rusticien de Pise— Berne MS.— Paris Latin— 
Ramusio's Edition— Its general Estimation— Followed by 
Mr Marsden — Shown to be grossly corrupted — Interpolated 
Passages— Their Errors and Contradictions— By whom pro- 
bably inserted— Are of some Value— Edition by Pipino— 
Manuscripts in the British Museum— Grynseus — Miiller — 
First English and French Translations— These include all 
the most important — Arran^ment of the Work. 

Bepobe entering on the work of our distinguished tra- 
veller, there are <;ertain preliminaries which must be 
adjusted, in order that the reader may derive due satis- 
^tion from the perusal. These arise chiefly from the 
period at which the expedition was performed, and the 
circumstances under which the narratiYC was published. 



14 AUTHENTICITY OP THE WORK. 

When Marco returned from the East, Europe was sunk 
in profound ignorance, and most of the regions which 
he had traversed were wholly unknown : hence doubts 
of the authenticity of his statements arose, and had long 
an extensive prevalence. It must therefore be desirable, 
m the first instance, to state the grounds upon which 
these have been refuted, and the fidelity of his report 
fully established. 

Another circumstance requiring attention is, that the 
editions, multiplied in an illiterate age when printing 
was unknown, vary remarkably from one another, and 
are in many cases extremely corrupted. It will there- 
fore be expedient to submit to the reader the authori- 
ties upon which the present text has been established, 
the different versions consulted, together with an esti- 
mate of the value which has been assigned to each. 

In every narrative of travels, authenticity is an es- 
sential quality, without which it must be altogether 
worthless. However striking or amusing, it can other- 
wise be only a romance, and as such tarnished by the 
attempt to present it under an historical character. He 
who traverses regions totally unknown to the men for 
whom he writes, has the power of imposing upon them 
the belief of wonders, without the danger of detec- 
tion ; and the pleasure of thus exciting surprise has 
doubtless tempted some to abuse what has even been 
termed a traveller's privilege. On the other hand, 
he is placed in a very painful situation, when his 
countrymen or readers choose to disbelieve his most 
veracious statements. He has no evidence to produce 
in their support ; he can only reiterate assurances, ex- 
posed to the mortification of perceiving that they are 
slightly regarded. There is a species of pride in the sup- 
posed detection of fraud, which biases many in favour of 
scepticism. Of the two errors, we believe this the more 
frequent, so that an unjust stain still rests on the name 
of many eminent explorers. 

There is no traveller, with regard to whom this con- 
troversy has been more largely agitated, than he whose 
work is now edited. The v ess and distance of the 



AUTHENTICITY OF THB WORK. 15 

regions described, and the ignorance of Europe during 
80 many ages respecting them, would have enabled him 
to hazard the boldest assertions ; while, if doubts should 
have arisen, there were no means by which they could 
be removed. The sceptical party appears for some 
time to have predominated, both among the learned 
and the multitude. For the entertainment of the latter, 
it is said to have been common to introduce on the stage 
a personage under the name of Polo, who amused the 
audience by relating the most ridiculous and extravagant 
fictions. By the former, according to Miiller, the 
narrative was classed with the Dialogues of Lucian and 
the Voyages of Pytheas, of which Strabo says, that if 
they had been written by Mercury himself, he would 
not have believed them. Even in regard to the naviga- 
tor now mentioned, we are convinced that he was treated 
with similar injustice, and that his survey of the British 
coasts, even to their northern extremity, included dis- 
coveries equally real and important. 

We are inclined to think that this disbelief was much 
leas prevalent during the life and age of Polo himself. 
Pipino, who then published his Latin edition, merely 
expresses an apprehension lest the many uncommon par- 
ticulars related by him should appear incredible to the 
inexperienced reader. He refers to the high character 
borne by Marco and his father, both then alive, adding 
that his nncle, also a worthy and pious man, had on his 
deathbed solemnly declared to his confessor the truth of 
every thing related by his nephew. Indeed, as we shall 
have opportunities of more fully observing, the steps of 
the traveller were, during the early part of the fourteenth 
century, followed by a considerable number both of 
merchants and churchmen ; an archbishopric was even 
founded at Kambalu or Pe-king. The princes of the 
great conquering dynasty founded by Gengis, by no 
means cherished tlie exclusive spirit usual in Asiatic 
monarchies, and above all in China. They were, on 
the contrary, fond of inviting to their court foreigners 
of all descriptions ; and their religious views, liberal 
tthnost in extreme, led them to favour alike the pro- 



16 AUTHENTICITY OF THE WORK. 

fessors of every creed. A complete change in these 
several respects ensued before the close of the century. 
The Tartars were driven out of China by a native race, 
who re-established the wonted barriers by which that 
empire has been so jealously guarded. The Mongol princes 
in Western Asia became converts to Mohammedanism, 
and concurred with the Turkish sovereigns in hostile 
exclusion of every thing that bore the Christian name. 
Europe was thus in a great measure denied intercourse 
with the East ; her merchants, able only with some 
danger to carry on trade in the ports of the Levant and 
Black Sea, were excluded from all the interior regions 
of Asia. Even the narratives of the missionaries, having 
never been translated from the original Latin nor be- 
come objects of popular reading, were no longer in view. 
All the knowledge of those distant regions came to be 
considered as resting exclusively on the testimony of 
Polo, an assertion made even by well-informed writers 
of that age. As his work contained many particulars very 
dissimilar to any witnessed by the European nations, 
whose minds had not been enlarged by commercial and 
maritime intercourse, it cannot be surprising that an 
extensive scepticism as to the tinith of his statements 
should at that period have prevailed. 

A new scene opened as soon as the Portuguese, with 
daring enterprise, had rounded the Cape, and speedily 
made their way to the remotest boundaries of Eastern 
Asia ; for it could no longer be doubted, that king- 
doms, great, powerful, and wealthy, existed in the very 
position which Marco had assigned. Difficulties were 
felt as to the details, particularly arising from the fact 
that the traveller, resident in a Tartar court, had given 
the names used in that country to all Chinese cities, while 
the native ones had since been restored. Hence only 
a qualified praise is given even by eminent geographers : 
yet the rising esteem of the public is marked by the 
insertion of the narrative in the collections of Grynaeus, 
Bamusio, Purchas, and others formed in the course of 
the sixteenth century. Martini, who spent many years 
in China, and first published a detailed description of 



AUTHENTICITY OF THE WORK. 17 

that empire, declared himself openly in Marco's favour ; 
and since that time, his character has continually risen 
with the progress of oriental knowledge. Very recent 
travellers, who have ascended into the least accessible 
heights of the Asiatic continent, express surprise at 
the striking coincidence of their observations with those 
made five hundred years before by this renowned ex- 
plorer. 

With the information which we now possess, it is no 
longer possible to doubt the actual performance of the 
journey, and the general correctness of the narrative and 
descriptions. We may remark that there was no prior 
source whence Marco could have copied, or derived even 
the smallest assistance ; for, besides that he probably was 
not a classical scholar, the mention of the Seres and the 
Sinae in Ptolemy, Pliny, and other ancient writers, was 
much too slight and vague to have afforded a basis on 
which to erect a fiction. We are persuaded he never heard 
those names, or assuredly did not recognise their identity 
with the countries through which he travelled. The Vene- 
tians and Grenoese had factories on the eastern coasts of 
the Mediterranean, and even on the Black Sea ; but 
there is not the slightest tradition that they had advanced 
into the more interior coimtries of Asia. The monkish 
ambassadors, Carpini and Rubruquis, had, we shall see, 
penetrated to a great extent eastwards ; but as they pro- 
ceeded in a more northerly line than that which he fol- 
lowed, they could not have afforded any material help ; 
and indeed we are persuaded that, in an age of such 
imperfect communication, they never came under his 
view. Not only does he never inake the slightest allusion 
to them, but on those occasions where his subject coin- 
cides with theirs, he handles it indeed with the corre- 
spondence natural in true accounts of the same thing, 
yet with variations proving his observations to be dis- 
tinct and independent. 

Having thus ascertained that our traveller had no 
prior source of information, we liave only to consider 
the extreme accuracy of the outline he has drawn 
of those vast regions over which he journeyed. All 



18 AUTHENTICITY OF THE WORK. 

the leading features of the Chinese empire, then al- 
together unknown, are faithfully exhihited. Its two 
main streams, the Hoang-ho and Yang-tse-kiang, are 
shown hoth in the upper and lower part of their course, 
and in the latter as crossed hy the line of the Great 
Canal. The principal eastern, and the whole of the 
western provinces, with the adjacent countries of Thibet 
and Bengal, are exhibited in their proper order and 
position. The large cities of Pe-king, Nan-king, Hang- 
tcheou-fou, Ning-po, Amoy, with many others, are delin- 
eated, some of them under Tartar names, but clearly 
marked out by site and description. The very peculiar 
condition of the empire at this era, newly overrun by 
a successful Tartar invasion, its native dynasty being 
nearly extinguished, accords well with oriental history. 
In regard to the journey out, without noticing Persia, 
which could not be wholly unknown in Europe, wo 
find the mountainous and pastoral region and the rich 
gems of Badakshan, the immensely elevated table-land 
of Pamier, the cities of Cashgar, Yarcund, and ELhoten, 
the wide and dreary expanse of the great desert, all fEiith- 
fully described, which could in that age have been done 
only by one who had personally visited them. In his 
return through the eastern seas, he makes the first men- 
tion of Japan, and of the expedition undertaken against 
it by Kublai, the actual occurrence of which is confirmed 
by Chinese authorities. In his passage through the archi- 
pelago, indeed, some difficulties occur, which we shall find 
reason for imputing to the errors of transcribers. Yet 
the great number and variety of these islands, the periodi- 
cal voyages performed thither during the monsoon, their 
peculiar products of gold, rich spices, and odoriferous 
woods, are entirely accordant with modem experience. 
In Sumatra, though the order and names of the king- 
doms be changed, we recognise its peculiar productions 
and objects ; the camphor, sago, and palm-toddy, as well as 
the ferocity and cannibal propensities of the people of the 
interior. India need not be dwelt upon, being probably 
even then somewhat known, though there is no like- 
lihood that he could have found materjab for his accurate 



AUTHENTICITY OP THE WORK. 19 

delineation of its coasts. In Eastern Africa he obtained 
information further to the south than any of the ancient 
Alexandrine geographers, and has for the first time men- 
tioned Madagascar. This part of his work, however, 
being given upon the information of Arab pilots, is in 
some respects confused and exaggerated. 

On these grounds it has for some time beeii scarcely 
disputed, that Marco did travel over the East, and has 
given a correct outline of its various regions. It has still, 
however, been alleged that in the details he has used to 
excess the privilege of a traveller, and yielded to a spirit 
of romance and exaggeration. His narrative, it is true, 
shows him not insensible to pride in the wonders which 
he was unfolding to the nations of the west ; nor can it 
be denied that he has introduced some statements from 
which our belief must be withheld. A candid examina- 
tion, however, will, we imagine, prove that he made them 
with perfectly good faith, and only shared that spirit of 
credulity which was then general over the world, and 
particularly throughout the East. 

The reader cannot fail to be struck by the miraculous 
legends which are related with the most unhesitating 
belief. These were, however, completely accredited in 
that age, and Marco, as a faithful son of the church, 
which he fully professed to be, could not refuse his 
assent to them. Mr Marsden remarks, that this was 
nearly the period of the miraculous transportation of 
the holy house from Jerusalem to Loretto, where it be- 
came the most frequented of the popular shrines. The 
&ncy of the eastern Cliristians appears to have been at 
least as warm and as unscrupulous. Yet, however im- 
plicit the credence of our traveller in these legends, he 
proves his good faith by never pretending to have been 
an eye-witness, or even to have come near to the time 
and place of their occurrence. In this respect he agrees 
with Oderic of Portenau, while our countryman Sir John 
Handeville professes to have witnessed with his own eyes 
every marvellous object which he reports. The moving 
of the mountain near Bagdad by the prayer of a pious 



20 AUTHENTICITY OP THE WORK. 

shoemaker, is referred to a date nearly fifty years proTi- 
ous to his wanderings ; nor does it clearly appear that 
he ever visited that capital. The journey of the three 
magi, and the perpetual fire kindled hy the sacred box 
thrown into a well, helong evidently to a still mon 
distant era. He may he thought indeed to intimate that 
he saw not only their tomhs but their persons in a state ol 
partial preservation ; yet this merely implies that thiea 
figures, probably chiefs of ancient note, were exhibited 
in this half-embalmed state. Again, the miraculoni 
elevation of the pillar in the church of Samarcand is a 
mere hearsay statement ; for we think it evident that he 
never was in that city, but collected his information at 
Cashgar, three hundred miles distant. It was, moreover, 
a perplexing article in the creed of the middle agee^ 
that, besides the miracles of which the church required 
the belief, others of a most awfiil kind might be per- 
formed by the agency of magicians, evil spirits, and 
demons. Nay, this apprehension continued to prevai] 
among the Romish missionaries even in the seventeenth 
century; and when encountered by the fraudulent wonden 
of a pagan priesthood, they durst not disown their exist- 
ence, but merely hoped to overpower them by a greatei 
agency. Hence the skilful impostures, practised by the 
professors of the Boodhist superstition, were viewwi by 
Marco as real acts of diabolical power. The most curi- 
ous is that of the cups represented as rising spontane- 
ously from the floor, and placing themselves before the 
emperor. This being stated as occurring at crowded 
festivals, seems to imply that the traveller either witness- 
ed the event personally, or learned it from respectable 
authority. Mechanical skill, in fact, was adequate to 
such a contrivance, and was probably tasked in ordez 
to overawe the monarch, and secure his fiivour. For- 
tunately, on other occasions, the author, attaching an 
idea of guilt to the very mention of such imhallowed 
displays, passes them over with a very hasty notice. 

The statement, perhaps, which excited most amaie- 
ment and doubt at the eta of pubUcation) was that which 



AUTHENTICITY OP THE WORK. 21 

jected the numbers of the people and dimensions of 
ir cities. The extent, magnificence, and population of 
in-sai, the armies and revenues of the great khan, were 
posed to pass all the limits of credibility. China hav- 

already reached neai'ly the same height of greatness 

civilisation as now, while Europe was still in its in- 
cy, every object in comparison was on an astonishingly 
nder scale. The greatest monarch in the West, it is 
bable, had then scarcely a revenue of a million sterling. 
3 estimate of Du Halde, formed seemingly on solid 
unds, makes that of Chma £66,000,000. The simplest 
«ment of facts would thus have appeared to European 
ders amazing and incredible. Nor is it denied that 
re was also some considerable exaggeration. Num- 
s, when spread before the eye, and passing the means 
computation, act strongly on the fancy, and excite 
impassioned wonder, which leads to extremes. It 
old not be diihcult to prove that in all the histories 
the middle ages, especially of the East, the aimies 
I other assemblages are greatly overrated. Those 
;aged at the battle of Bovines are commonly stated 
160,000, yet Sismondi, by the application of a rigor- 

criticLsm, has reduced them to 15,000 ; and we are 
suaded he might have applied a similar scale to other 
cements equally accredited. Who can believe that 
the first crusade 700,000 men could even attempt, 
hout stores or magazines, to march through Eastern 
rope, — ^a region then imperfectly cultivated I The 
[mates of Sir Alexander Bumes respecting Bokhara 
I the adjacent regions, show that Timur could never 
^e drawn from them those immense hosts with which 
is represented as invading the Turkish dominion. We 
fht probably criticise on a similar ground the boasted 
laments of Darius and Xerxes. It is only in very 
iem times that the arrangements for census and 
ster have been carried to such perfection, that we 

place any precise dependence on their results. Now, 
rco did not and could not pretend to have himself 
nted over those immense numbers. He stated them 



22 AUTHENTICITY OF THE WORK. 

as derived from official documents, where there were 
motives of interest and vanity to swell the amount* 
The principal, in the case of Quin-sai, is a letter from 
the fallen queen to the conqueror, written to induce him 
to spare that mighty capital. The traveller indeed ex- 
presses his own opinion of its correctness, hut evidently 
founded on a vague survey, while dazzled hy its vast 
magnitude. We shall, moreover, find occasion to observe, 
that, in the various copies of the manuscript, num- 
bers have been strangely corrupted ; the amount has 
even, by the addition of a single figure, been multiplied 
ten times. Thus, a particular distance in Arabia is 
made in different editions, four, forty, and even four 
hundred miles. 

There are other marvels from which our traveller 
has incurred reproach. His reputation has been par- 
ticularly damaged by the rukh of Madagascar, a bird to 
which gigantic proportions are certainly assigned. Here, 
however, he was describing an object 2000 miles out of 
his course, and on the information of Arab pilots, whom 
he must have taken on board at Sumatra. Their warm 
eastern fancy had been excited by the mention of such 
a marvellous bird in their favourite work of the Arabian 
Nights, with which the albatross, or the African condor, 
might be identified. There is a great variation respect- 
ing the number of paces into which the wings expand, 
and the most marvellous particular of the feather ninety 
spans long, is found only in the later versions, where 
we have no doubt it has been interpolated by another 
hand. He is reproached also with the account he gives 
of the mode of procuring diamonds, by eagles picking 
them up when attached to pieces of meat. This too will 
appear to be a hearsay account, referable to the same sage 
authorities, whose imagination was fed from the like ro- 
mantic source. Indeed, Count Baldelli Boni has lately 
found the statement in a scientific Turkish work, thus 
fully proving its prevalence in the East, and clearing 
Marco of any concern in its fabrication. 

He stands charged, moreover, with sins of omission, 



AUTHENTICITY OF THE WORK. 23 

as not mentioning remarkable objects which ought to 
have presented themselves to his observation. Mr Mars- 
den considers the most serious of these to be his silence 
reinfecting the Great Wall, and inclines to think that a 
passage descriptive of it must have dropt out in the 
process of copying. We cannot think this probable, 
especially after the early and numerous editions that have 
lately appeared. We expect to prove that the emperor's 
spring-huntings did not, as the English annotator sup- 
poses, extend into Tartary ; but his summer palace of 
Shong-tu certainly lay beyond the wall ; and Marco prob- 
ably at some time accompanied him thither. This great 
barrier had doubtless been erected centuries before, but 
by no means in the same substantial shape as at present. 
For several ages after the entrance of the Tartars, being 
of no politic^d value, it was probably allowed to go to 
decay, and perhaps even demolished where a thorough- 
fare was desirable. It was by the Yuen dynasty, after *J? 
the expulsion of those conquerors, that it was restored, • 
and brought to its present perfection. 

Mr Marsden notices the absence of any mention of 
teoy the use of which had been fiilly established. We 
shall find, however, that the traveller had little social 
intercourse with the Chinese, but almost exclusively 
with the Tartars, whose habits and ideas were wholly 
different. I am convinced, too, that the " wine of spices," 
repeatedly mentioned, at least included tea. The term 
spice will be found to have had a much more compre- 
hensive meaning than at present, extending even to 
sugar ; and we are not aware that the Chinese spirits are 
flavoured with any aromatic ingredient. The ** country 
wine, constantly made fresh," is manifestly tea. 

Even those, however, who admit the prevailing honesty 
and correctness of the author's observations, still charge 
his itinerary statements as rambling, incoherent, and 
often erroneous. Martini, though he generally defends 
the narrative, says: — ^*' He follows no regular order, 
but describes objects in an interrupted manner, and as it 
were by leaps." Forster makes a similar charge, in 



24 AUTHENTICITY OF THE WORK. 

which Mr Marsden concurs.* The present editor, afler 
a careful examination of the purer editions, and compa- 
rison with what is known of the countries surveyed, is 
convinced that these errors are chiefly those of the com- 
mentators themselves, misled in many cases hy the im- 
perfect and corrupt versions to which alone they had 
access. Mr Marsden, from this latter cause, thinking him- 
self ohliged to admit some important mistakes, gave up, 
unfortunately, all expectation of finding an accurate and 
consistent itinerary. Hence, wherever there appeared 
any con*espondence of name or description, he thought 
himself entitled to suppose any errors, however enor- 
mous, as to distance and direction. Even when a little 
attention would have shown a site altogether accordant 
with the description, he preferred one very remote and 
improbable. When, however, on a careful examination 
of the former edition, we found that the grosser errors 
disappeared, the idea was conceived, that a correct and 
consistent itinerary of the whole expedition might be 
formed. Allowing for some errors of transcription, 
which probably still remain, for a somewhat loose mode 
of stating the directions, and for our own ignorance of 
many of the regions described, this seems to have been 
realized by us, as far as could reasonably be expected. The 
route through China, and through Central Asia, has, it is 
apprehended, been very distinctly made out, commenc- 
ing at Balkh. Before reaching that city, it Ls scarcely 
presented in a regular shape, though the general direction 
may be traced. In the voyage homeward, much is stated 
from hearsay, and the errors of transcription appear par- 
ticularly numerous ; but attempts have been made to 
clear up the difficulties. The voyage round Sumatra 
will perhaps, by an easy supposition, appear to have been 
made in a natural and probable course, instead of those 
irregular starts and movements which Mr Marsden sup- 
poses ; and his consequent censure upon Marco for the 
mode of treating that island will prove unfounded. 



MUller, p. 16. Marsden, p. 236. 



AUTHENTICITY OP THE WORK. 25 

A collation with the purer editions has also shown, 
that several marvellous statements, which have most 
shaken the traveller's credit, were superadded hy faithless 
editors, seeking thus falsely to enhance the interest of 
their publication. The ninetjr-span feather of the rukh, 
as already observed, is only foimd in very modem edi- 
tions. To the terrific appearances described in the 
passage of the great desert, similar extravagant additions 
have been made, which, when pruned away, leave only 
such impressions as might naturally haunt the minds of 
those obliged to traverse so formidable a region. The 
editor may add, as mentioned in the preface, that recent 
narratives, especially of expeditions made by our adven- 
turous countrymen into Central Asia, have confirmed 
some of Marco's most important statements. He may 
thus flatter himself, that the authenticity of this illustri- 
ous traveller will now be established more firmly than 
ever, and on a solid basis. 

We now proceed to make some observations on the 
manuscripts and editions out of which the text has been 
derived. In all works composed before the invention of 
printing, and circulated in manuscript, not even excepting 
the sacred scriptures, a great number of various readings 
occur. These, however, usually form mere objects of 
critical curiosity, without affecting the body or substance 
of the composition. They consist frequently in the omis- 
sion or insertion of a particle, or the substitution of one 
synonyme for another. But in the work now edited, the 
variations are so great as to convert the several editions 
almost into distinct tracts. Long passages and chapters, 
omitted in one, are inserted in another, and the most 
important facts are reported in contradictory shapes. 
An elaborate critical examination is therefore necessary, 
before we can hope to give the text in any degree of 
purity. 

These wide variations appear to have arisen from the 
very great popularity of the work in an age when not 
only printing was unknown, but the art of writing 



26 BIANUSCRIPTS AND EDITIONS CONSULTED. 

very little diffused. In multiplying copies, the general 
tendency was to curtailment, which was prompted even 
by the great care and splendour with which many of 
the manuscripts were prepared. Their production was 
accordingly both laborious and expensive, and it was 
even an object to economize the rich material of vel- 
lum, on which many were written. This appears clearly 
in an elegant MS. in the British Museum, where, at the 
conclusion of Polo's travels, a new work is begun on 
the same page, and even the same column. The reduc- 
tion is usudly effected by merely omitting such pas- 
sages as, often with very little reason, were deemed of 
inferior interest. Thus, indeed, what remained was pre- 
served pure ; but it was exhibited in a very disjointed 
form; and injudicious attempts were afterwards made 
by others to supply the obvious deficiencies. These 
unseemly gaps usually increase towards the close ; either 
because the writer became tired of his task, or that the 
allotted space was nearly exhausted. The most cele- 
brated of the early editions, being the translation into 
Latin by Pipino, is little better than an epitome. It 
is curious, too, that all the copies printed in the Italian 
language which Mr Marsden could trace were mere po- 
pular abridgments.* 

In 1559 appeared the second volume of Ramusio's 
collection, in which is inserted an edition much more 
full than any then in circulation. It immediately 
became the standard one, being used by Purchas for his 
Pilgrims, and thence copied into most of the similar publi- 
cations. Mr Marsden has employed it almost exclusively, 
quoting in its favour the opinions of Robertson and 
Vincent.t It was probably the best within his reach ; 
but important materials have since been published, which 

* Apostolo Zono spoaks in high terms of the one first pub- 
lished m 1490(Fontanini,Bibliotecad'Eloquonza Italiana, Yen. 
1753, p. 270-273 ) ; but Mr Marsden, who seems to have examined 
more carefully, declares it merely " calculated to surprise and 
amuse an ignorant reader." (Introduction, p. Ixiii-lxv.) 

f Introduction, p. xxx. 



MANUSCRIPTS AND EDITIONS CONSULTED. 2^ 

prove, in our apprehension, that it and all the others 
were both defective and corrupted. 

In 1824, the Greographical Society of Paris published 
editions of two manuscripts preserved in the Royal 
Library. The first is in very old and rude French, 
— ^nearly unintelligible but for the aid of an excellent 
glossary, — and the rules of grammar and orthography 
fer from being duly observed. It has been copied so 
carelessly, that proper names are seldom spelt twice in 
the same manner, but sometimes in three different modes 
in the course of one chapter. The editor will own that 
he began his examination rather from curiosity than with 
any hope of deriving much new light from it. He 
had not long continued the collation, however, when 
he became sensible of its decided superiority to the 
previous editions, Ramusio's included. This appeared 
evident, when itinerary statements, which in the latter 
were wholly inconsistent with the features of the region, 
and had thrown Mr Marsden into extreme perplexity, 
were here given in a shape which rendered them per- 
fectly correct and consistent. In particular, the connexion 
between the western and south-eastern routes through 
China, which that gentleman considered it utterly im- 
possible to trace, is shown in the clearest possible man- 
ner. Other serious perplexities are elucidated in a man- 
ner equally satisfactory ; and the editor hopes by these 
means to have established the whole itinerary through 
China as uniformly correct. Even the blemishes of this 
edition appeared on consideration as affording inferences 
in favour of its genuineness. The colloquial style 
used to a great extent, the verbose language, the re- 
petition of the same sentences in nearly the same 
words ; — such redundances were little likely to have 
been superadded, especially at a time when abridg- 
ment was so much studied. They bore rather the 
marks of being the first rough state in which the nar- 
rative had been produced. 

On procuring from the Continent additional materials, 
the editor had the satisfaction to find that the same 



28 MANUSCRIPTS AND EDITIONS CONSULTED. 

favourable opinion had there been generally formed. 
Nay, it has become the prevailing impression, that French 
is the language in which the narrative was originally 
written. He will own that this idea, when first present- 
ed, was repelled by him as devoid of all probability. M, 
Parris, however, the learned editor of the French Chron- 
icles, observes, that what appears most probable is 
not always best supported by evidence. It is indeed 
remarkable, that tliis conclusion was first maintained by 
a learned Italian. Count Baldelli Boni, in editing the 
Crusca, the earliest and best of the Italian MSS., and 
collating it with the Pucci, supposed to rank next in 
antiquity, found in both the clearest marks of their 
being translated from a French original. This tran- 
spired in consequence of blunders evidently caused, by 
a very imperfect knowledge of that language. Thus, 
cheveux (hairs) is translated horses, tres (very) three, 
boue (mud) oxen. Mention being made of one who 
was jadis rot (formerly king), the translator makes it 
King Jaddis, a prince whose reign is nowhere else re- 
corded. Sel, le roiy and other French terms, are given 
unaltered. In explaining Oriental terms, it is repeatedly 
said : " Vale dir in Francese."* All this would scarcely 
have satisfied us, but for a very curious discovery made 
by M. Parris. He has found that Rusticians, the prison- 
companion of Polo, and who at least aided in writing hi» 
narrative, was a native of France, and author of a French 
book of considerable magnitude. It is an abridgment 
of all the histories connected with the Round Table, and 
has prefixed to it a preface or prologue, which, allowing 
for the difference of subject, is almost identical with 
that which precedes the narrative of Polo.f M. Parris 
mentions it only as existing in MS. ; but there is a 
printed edition, wliich, as well as another work equally 
voluminous by the same author, the editor has had an 



♦ II Millione. Introduction, cxxxi. Recueil de Voyages, &c., 
par la Soci^td.ae Geographie, vol. iv. p. 408. 
f Journal Asiatique, September 1833, pp. 250, 251. 



MANUSCRIPTS AND EDITIONS CONSULTED. 29 

opportunity of inspecting.* This Rusticians, indeed, 
called there Rusticien, appears to have been a person of 
no small eminence in his day, and particularly distin- 
guished by the patronage of English monarchs. From 
Mr D'lsraeli's researches we learn, that Henry III. pre- 
sented him with two handsome chateaux ;t and his 
second work is stated in the preface to have been compos- 
ed at the urgent request of Edward I. From these cir- 
cumstances, it appears no longer doubtful that this cele- 
brated narrative was originally written in French. 

This manuscript was mentioned by M. Langles to 
Mr Marsden, as bearing date about 1300, with an offer 
of every facility for consulting it ; of which the latter, 
with reason, regrets that he was not able to avail him- 
self, j; M. Parris describes it as evidently belonging to 
the first years of the fourteenth century ; while the 
character of the writing, the style of the coloured ini- 
tials, the rudeness of the parchment, indicate to a prac- 
tised eye that it must have been copied in Italy.§ There is 
a curious notice on a MS. in the public library at Berne, 
stating the Lord de Cepoy to have received it, in 1307, 
from Marco Polo himself, to be presented to Charles of 
Valois, second son of the King of France, who, in right 



• Gyron de Courtois, avecques la devise des armes de tous 
les ChevaUers de la Table Ronde. Gothic letter, folio, 339 pages 
(openiiiffs, 4 columns each), no date nor publisher's name. 

The following is the prologue : — 

Seigneurs, Empereurs, Roys, Princes, Dues, Contes, Barons, 
Chevuiers, Vicontes, Bourgeois, et tous les grand hommes de 
cestui monde, qui talent avez et desir de vous delecter en rom- 
mans, prenez cestuy-ci et le factes lire de chief en chief, so 
aurez parties de toutes les grands advantures du temps du Roy 
Merpendragon, &c. 

Meliadus de Leonnoys. Ensemble plusieurs autres nobles 
proesses de chevalerie factes par le Roy Artus, Palamedes, 
Galan, &c., folio, 199 pages, 4 columns each. Gassiot du Pre. 
Paris, 1521. 

+ Amenities of Literature, vol. i. p. 103. The learned author, 
however, is quite at a loss who Rusticien was. 

t Introduction, p. Ixix. 

§ Journal (as above), p. 249. 



30 MANUSCRIPTS AND EDITIONS CONSULTED. 

of his wife, claimed the throne of Constantinople, and 
therefore took a deep interest in Oriental affairs. The ex- 
pressions would seem to attach this incident to the Berne 
MS., which Mr Marsden justly rejects ; but there may 
be tnith in the story, though thus wrongly applied. The 
language used, " see here the book," seems to refer, 
as to a known fact, that there was a book thus trans- 
mitted. In that case, there can be little doubt of its 
being the one in question. M. D'Avezac mentions in 
corroboration, that there is another MS. in the Royal 
Library (10,270), in which the same narrative is con* 
tained, and that the present one came from the old lib- 
rary of the kings of France at Blois.* 

The society have also published, in the same volume, 
a Latin MS., found in the royal collection. From the 
description, we were led to suppose it the one men- 
tioned by Apostolo Zeno, as being in the possession of 
the writers styled the Order of Preachers ; and this opin- 
ion is confirmed by Count Boni.t "We agree with him 
that the publication of this also has been a valuable boon 
to literature. It is much more copious than Pipino, or 
than any other known Latin vemon ; and it displays a 
considerable agreement with the French, though evidently 
not so ancient. It has several of the additional chapters 
found in tliis last ; also the prologue, which decidedly 
marks an early copy ; and it explains with equal clearness 
the connexion between the two Chin6se journeys. At the 
same time, it is better arranged in books and chapters, 
while it is pruned of repetitions and redundances. This 
being the case, and as our present object is to produce, 
not a mere antiquarian curiosity, but a book fitted for 
general perusal, we have taken it as the basis of our 
text, carefully incorporating, however, all the addi- 
tional information contained in the French version ; 

* Marsden, Introd. p. Ixvii. Recueil do Voyages, &c., vol. 
iv. pp. 409, 410. Boni, II Milliono, Introd. p. cxxx. 

f Fontanini, Biblioteca Italiana, p. 272. Marsden, Introd. 
p. ivi. Boni, Introd. p. cxzziii. 



MANUSCRIPTS AND EDITIONS CONSULTED. 31 

and where a difference exists, usually preferring its 
authority. A good deal even of its colloquial tone has 
been retained, as giving to the narrative an original and 
even lively character. 

It remains to estimate the edition of Ramusio, pub- 
lished, as already stated, in 1559, as part of his Collec- 
tion of Voyages and Travels, and which ha^^een almost 
exclusively followed by Mr Marsden. The most remark- 
able circumstance in this version is, that, while it wants 
a number of chapters found in the French and other 
early ones recently edited, it contains many long pass- 
ages and even chapters not found in them or any other 
icdition, either MS. or printed. This did not appear 
very wonderful to Mr Marsden, who had seen only 
abridged and mutilated versions ; but now that we are 
supplied with others as copious as they are early and 
pure, it appears very mysterious how he obtained 
possession of so much additional matter. Yet Count 
Boni, after editing the two oldest Italian versions, con- 
siders his as still the best, and has reprinted it in the 
same work.' He is obliged indeed to admit, that these 
passages could not exist in the original MS. written by 
Rusticians ; but he has formed a theory, that Polo, 
after returning to Venice, revised and new-modelled 
the whole, making the additions in question ; and that 
& copy, in this more perfect state, reached the Venetian 
editor.* M. Klaproth expresses his concurrence in this 
opini6n,t which, it appears, from a communication with 
which M. Jomard has favoured us, he always retained. 
It is not without great difl&dence that the editor dissents 
from such high authorities ; yet a very careful collation 
has led him to the conclusion, that certainly a great 
part, and probably the whole, of this additional matter 
is interpolated by a foreign hand. The grounds of this 



♦ II Millione, Introd. p. Tiii-XTi. 

f Journal Asiatique, September 1833, p. 252-254. 



32 MANUSCRIPTS AND EDITIONS CONSULTED. 

judgment shall be fully stated, to enable the reader to 
judge for himself. 

1. We refer to the gross itinerary errors already 
mentioned, and in regard to which this edition is even 
somewhat more faulty than any other. A similarly 
unfavourable change has taken place in regard to im- 
portant matters of fact. But can we suppose that Marco 
would deliberately vitiate his own narrative ; and that 
he substituted erroneous statements instead of the cor- 
rect ones which he had originally written or commu- 
nicated to Rusticians I Is it not certain rather that 
these errors were introduced by the ignorance of sub- 
sequent copyists or editors ! 

2. In the passages peculiar to Ramusio, opinions and 
sentiments are expressed diametrically opposite to those 
which pervade all the rest of the narrative. Nothing 
is there more conspicuous than the profound and admir- 
ing veneration with which the Emperor Kublai is every 
where mentioned. On the contrary, in the chapter on the 
conspiracy of Achmac, found only in that writer, a very 
hostile disposition prevails. It is there stated that ^' his 
reign was universally detested by the people of Cataya," 
p. 122. Yet in a few chapters after, it is said (in every 
edition), that " he is adored by them as a god." Can 
we suppose that Marco, in revising his work, would 
give his sanction to opinions thus contradictory, allow- 
ing the former and opposite ones to remain \ In the 
two characters of the King of Manji, the contrast be- 
tween the general one and that found only in Ramusio 
is almost equally striking. 

3. We may remark the singular ignorance of this 
editor respecting the manner in which the narrative was 
produced. His supposition, that it was originally writ- 
ten in Latin, need not be refuted, since it is given up 
by his warmest supporters. He boasts of having seen 
many early MSS., but dwells chiefly upon one in that 
language " of marvellous antiquity," which he flattered 
himself had been copied from another in the hand- 



MANUSCRIPTS AND EDITIONS CONSULTED. 33 

writing of Marco.* When he attached to this MS. such 
a high and illusory value, it could not appear of much 
importance to examine others supposed later, and mere 
tnuislations. There are, in &ct, few traces of such research 
or collation. He gives a professed copy of the original 
prologue ; but it differs essentially from that found 
in all the earlier editions. No mention is madd of the 
agency of Rusticians, which yet is stated in the two 
Paris,t the Soranzo, the Berne, three French and one 
Italian in the Bibliotheque Royale, and the first English 
printed edition by Frampton. There is now no doubt 
that such agency was employed ; but Ramusio remained 
wholly ignorant of it, and has circulated throughout 
Europe the story of Marco being aided by a Genoese 
visiter, for which there appears no sort of foundation. 

4. We shall finally notice various sentences and expres- 
sions scattered through the work, which appear clearly 
to come from another pen. The following, though not 
of great consequence, proves unequivocally the exist- 
ence of a system of adulteration. Mention is made of 
a vegetable (the turmeric), as highly valued by the 
inhabitants, " from being an ingredient in all their 
dishes." Mr Marsden is obliged to own, that it seldom 
if ever is so employed in China, but solely and lai^ely as 
a dye-stuff. Now the two Paris editions expressly state 
its chief use is for manufacture {por ovre, in the one, ad 
operandum, in the other). This reason is omitted in the 
abridged Latin editions ; and a writer working upon one 
of them, has evidently thought he could improve it by 
inserting that erroneous explanation. Again, when 
Kublai is represented receiving favourable predictions 



• Navi^tioni e Viaggi, vol. ii. (1565), pref. p. 7. It is some- 
what curious, that in the edition of 1583, published by Giunti, 
after Ramusio's death, this passage is expunged. Hence it prob- 
ably never came under the view of Mr Marsden, who used the 
latter edition. 

t The Crusca and the Fucci both want se?eral of the first 
ehapters. 



34 MANUSCRIPTS AND EDITIONS CONSULTED. 

from his astrologers, all the early editions treat them as 
real ; hut in Rainusio, an intimation is made that it was 
a mere stratagem to encourage his men. Such a flight 
appears to us decidedly heyond the age of Polo, who shows 
elsewhere that he shared all its credulity. Generally 
speaking, indeed, the reflections which pervade this edi- 
tion are out of keeping with the rest, and wholly absent 
in the earlier versions. I am indeed convinced, that 
literary attainments, very rare in that age among the 
laity, were possessed in only a slender degree by this 
great traveller. It seems difficult otherwise to account 
for his adopting such a strange and defective mode of 
making public his narrative, as that which Rusticians 
aflbrded. Ramusio, it is true, in his erroneous prologae, 
and in other passage?, alludes to notes taken during his 
journey; but no mention of them is found in any other 
edition, and I greatly doubt if they ever existed. 

There is, however, an argument used by Mr Marsden, 
which deserves great consideration. The facts stated in 
the most doubtful of these passages are confirmed by 
good Chinese and other oriental authorities ; and it is 
asked, whence, in that age, could they have been derived 
but from Polo himself \ Count Boni states that, after a 
good deal of hesitation, this argument had determined 
him to consider them as genuine. M. Klaproth was doubt- 
less swayed by the same motive. These learned writers, 
however, have altogether overlooked the circumstance, 
that during the fourteenth century a very active com- 
munication was carried on between Europe and China. 
The emperors of the Mongol dynasty did not enforce the 
exclusive system now practised ; on the contrary, we shall 
see them filling their courts with men of every nation and 
every creed. About the time when thePoli departed, Juan 
de Monte Corvino, a Minorite friar, reached Kambalu, 
where he was allowed to build two churches, and could 
boast of some converts. In 1314, he was created arch- 
bishop of that city, and other priests were sent out to 
act as bishops and suffragans. In 1830, he died, and a 



MANUSCRIPTS AND EDITIONS CONSULTED. 35 

new primate was named.* The same year, the khan sent 
Andrew, a monk, with fifteen companions, on an embassy 
to the Pope.f It is not exactly known when or how this 
establishment was broken up ; it may probably have been 
effected upon the expulsion of the Tartars by a native 
Chinese dynasty. In 1335, Pegoletti, an Italian, pub- 
lished an itinerary from Tana, on the Black Sea, to Pe- 
king. It is a mere list of places, with the distances and 
expenses^ such as he would scarcely have thought of 
making known, had it not been a route in some degree 
frequented. There would thus be ample materials for in- 
terpolating genuine information even into early editions. 
Many of these passages bear marks of being written by 
a churchman, and this would accord with the &cts above 
stated. If one might hazard a conjecture, he was 
perhaps some priest returned from Pe-king (suppose 
at the breaking up of the establishment) who being em- 
ployed to make a translation or copy, might be allowed 
to enrich it with his own observations, and even those 
of his friends. 

Under these circumstances, it became a serious question, 
whether, in the text of this volume, the passages found 
only in Ramusio should be retained or expunged. The 
latter course appeared too strong for the editor to take 
upon his own judgment, yet unconfirmed by that of the 
public. The reader might be unwilling to have with- 
held from him descriptions which have so long formed part 
of the standard edition of these travels ; and besides, as 
there is reason to believe that they are ra a great measui*e 
derived from authentic sources, they may still be held 
deserving of perusal. It has, however, appeared advis- 
able to point them out in the notes ; and when the state- 
ments contained in them contradict those in the early 
editions, or are palpably erroneous, they are withdrawn 
from the text. 



* Maritime and Inland Discovery, vol. i. p. 311-313. 
f Klaproth, in Joum. Asiat. voL xii. p. 8^ 



36 MANUSCRIPTS AND EDITIONS CONSULTED. 

Besides the three authorities now mentioned, the text 
has heen carefully collated with the following important 
manuscripts and printed editions. 
• That formerly belonging to the Accademici della Cm*- 
ca; which is now, it appears, in theMagliahecchi Libiary. 
That body always boasted of it as the most ancient and 
most complete, — pretensions which Zeno and Marsdenare 
inclined to diq)ute,* though not on any precise grounds^ 
and without having seen it. Count Baldelli Boni, how- 
ever, who has favoured the learned world with a printed 
edition of it, gives reasons for considering the claim to 
be well founded, so far at least as Italian MSS. are con- 
cemed.t There is a note prefixed by a writer, stat- 
ing it to have been copied by Michael Ormanni, his 
maternal great-grandfather, who died in 1309, only about 
twelve years after the narrative was written. This cannot 
perhaps be implicitly relied on ; but the count considen 
the appearance and style of the MS. as quite confirming 
the statement, and leaving at all events no doubt of its 
being the earliest Italian manuscript now known. Its 
peculiar importance is derived from the confirmation it 
afibrds of the genuineness of the French edition, from 
which the count seems justly to describe it as a transla- 
tion " abridged and purged of useless words and repeti- 
tions.'* This origin, proved clearly by mistakes arishig 
from imperfect skill in that language, led him, even 
without the additional information of M. Parris, to the 
remarkable conclusion, that the narrative was originally 
written in French.J 

The Pucci MS. is considered by the count as next in 

* Marsden, Introduction, pp. Ixi, Ixii. 

f This important work is in four volumes 4to. Florence, 1827. 
The two first, entitled " II Millione de Marco Polo," contain 
the Crusca MS. collated with several other early Italian ones ; 
also a reprint of Ramusio's edition. The count has added a 
number of valuable notes and illustrations. The last two vol- 
umes, entitled " Storia delle Relazioni Vicendevole," &c., con- 
tain abridged narratives of other early travellers in Asia. 

X II Millione, Introduction, p. vi-cxziii ; tomo i. p. 131. 



1IANU8CRIPTS AND EDITIONS CONSULTED. 3^ 

antiquity, and as written in the course of the fourteenth 
oentury. M. Zurla informed him that the Soranzo, so 
highly estimated by Mr Marsden, was later, and only 
an abridgment. The first very closely follows the 
Crusca, yet the ^vriter must have had a French copy 
before him,* the use of which is proved by fresh errors 
in the meaning of its terms. We have thus additional 
proof of the French being then regarded as the original. 
Count Boni has given a valuable collation of this MS. 
with the Crusca. 

A Latin translation was made by Pipino, a monk of 
the Order of Preachers, who undertook the task at the 
desire of his superior. After some years' labour it was 
completed in 1320, while the traveller was still alive ; 
and it may therefore be considered the earliest of which 
the date is fully ascertained. But, though professing 
to be a translation, it is greatly abridged ; and in the 
hands of the friar errors were committed which have run 
through other editions. What is left may be held as 
tolerably pure ; and the editor has had the opportunity 
of consulting it in two shapes. 

5116. Harleian MS., British Museum, — This codex, 
to which Sir Henry Ellis assigns the date of about 1400, 
is written with care and elegance. It wants some pas- 
sages that are in the printed edition, but what remains 
is on the whole more to be depended upon. 

Marci Pauli de Consuetudinibus et Condicionibus 
OrientaUum Regionum, 4to. — This is the printed edition 
without place or date, which last is supposed to be about 
1484. It is very rare, and is more complete than the 
MS. just mentioned ; but, compared with it, there are 
several errors, especially in the numbers. 

251. Sloane MS., British Museum, — This is an Italian 
manuscript, dated 1453. M. Zurla wrote to Count Boni, 
that he considered it on a level with the Soranzo, but I 
incline to believe it somewhat later. The prologue is 

• Ibid. Introduction, p. vii-cxxv. 



38 MANUSCRIPTS AND EDITIONS CONSULTED. 

different, and wants the mention of Rusticians. It is 
modestly called an epitome, but it is really more copiooB 
than any other, except Ramusio and those recently edited. . , 
It contains, though in an abridged form, the historical \ 
chapters at the end, which the former wants ; nay, it ' 
has the war between Toctai and Nogai, which is found 
in no other except the French. The abridgment, being 
made as usual by simple omission, leaves the remaining 
text pure. The handwriting is exceedingly indistinct ; 
which, added to the antiquity of the language, renders 
the deciphering of it a very laborious task. Mr Marsden^ 
though assisted by a gentleman versant in ancient char- 
acters, has made some serious mistakes. 

A Latin edition was prepared with great care by 
GrynsEus, who published it both separately and in his 
Novus OrUs, It does not vary extensively from Pipino^ 
yet seems drawn from another source, and is translated 
in a much more elegant style. It is curious that the 
names are different and more barbarous. This edition 
became, for some time, the standard one ; and reprints 
continued to be made even after Ramusio's appeared. 
There is an early impression bearing the name of Helm- 
stadt, 4to, 1585, with some notes, but of little value. 

This edition was republished by Andrew MuUer, 4to, 
Berlin, 1671. He illustrated it by learned though ill- 
arranged notes, and by a collation with a manuscript in 
the electoral library, which, however, is only one of Pi- 
pino's version. The whole of this edition is rendered 
into French by Bergeron, — Voyages en Asie. 

The most noble and famous Travels of Marcus Paulus, 
&c., translated into English, published at London, by 
Ralph Newberry, 1579, and containing a Dedication by 
John Frampton, the translator. — This, from Mr Mars- 
den's observations, appears to be taken from the Seville 
edition of 1520, always considered very rare and valuable, 
and not we imagine without reason. It has the prologue 
and the name of Rusticians (called Ustachco), pretty 
sure marks of genuineness. Though on the whole rather 



MANUSCRIPTS AND EDITIONS CONSULTED. 39 

fiill, there are some serious omissions. The hook is 
said to he extremely scarce. 

La Description geographique des Provinces et Villes 
les plus fameuses de Tlnde Orientale, &c. Par Marc 
Pauley gentilhomme Venetien, Paris, 4to, 1656. — This is 
the first French printed edition, and is stated to he trans- 
lated fifom the Latin, which appears to he that of Gry- 
neus in the Novus Orhis. 

This list, derived from the puhlications of the Greographi- 
cal Society and Count Baldelli Boni, includes the earliest 
manuscripts and editions known to exist in the French, 
the Italian, the Latin, and the English languages. The 
only others of any consequence accessihle to Mr Marsden, 
were the first printed Italian, 1490, and German, 1477. 
They appear to he only hibliographical curiosities, and 
have not served him either in forming or illustrating his 
text. The first, according to his statement, is a mere popu- 
lar abridgment. The editor has seen one, 12mo, Trevigi, 
1267 (for 1627), which he imagines to he an exact re- 
print, for it agrees with Mr Marsden's account of the 
other, in beginning with the ridiculous story of a man at 
Trebisond who had tamed 30,000 partridges, and then 
taking up the Poll at the court of Kamhalu. Of the Ger- 
man edition, Mr Marsden has given the prologue, which, 
containing no mention of Rusticians, must have been 
from a MS. of secondary value. 

It will be observed that no pretension is here made to 
a verhcU collation of these different editions ; a curious 
but herculean task, foreign to the object of this work. 
The editor, however, has endeavoured to bring into view 
the discrepancies on points of important information^ 
and if possible to distinguish the truth. When it is 
mentioned that a passage is either found or wanting in 
the early editions, this of course can include only those 
now quoted, as the editor can say nothing of any which he 
has not had the opportunity of inspecting. 

It will be proper here to mention a single particular, 
in which the usual arrangement of the work has been 



40 MANUSCRIPTS AND EDITIONS CONSULTED. 

departed from. After the brief narrative of the journey 
with which it opens, the remainder consists of a descrip- 
tion of the various countries and cities visited by the 
traveller. They may therefore be introduced in any 
order which seems most convenient. As China is the 
most important of the regions described^ and was then 
distinguished by peculiar splendour, it is not without 
propriety that it occupies the first place. It is followed 
by a description of Central Asia, and then of the coun- 
tries on the Indian Ocean. The text has been given 
entire, including all the additional matter, and also pass- 
ages which, though perhaps doubtful, have long been 
comprehended in the work. This edition therefore will, 
it is believed, be more complete than any hitherto given 
to the world. 



INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. 

Embassies to the East prior to Marco Polo, 

Great Plain of Scythia or Tartary — Its Inhabitants, Turks, 
Mongols— Former Conquests — Temugin or Gengis — His first 
Exploits— Ouang or Prester John— His Defeat and Death — 
Extensiye Conquests of Grengis— Tartar Invasion of Europe 
— Ravages— Embassy and Letter from the Pope— Carpini's 
Journey through Poland — Reception by the Tartar Chief 
Corrensa — Journey to the Volga— Court of Baatu— Journey 
through Tartary— Arriyal at the imperial Court — Great 
Splendour — Numerous Ambassadors— Treatment of the Mis- 
sion—Letter from the Emperor to the Pope— Return to Eu- 
rope — Embassy by Ascelin— Reaches the Army of Baioth- 
noy — Rash Conduct and rough Reception — Final Dismissal 
— Changes in the Mongol Dynasty — Embassy to the French 
King— He sends a Mission under Rubruquis— Landing at 
Soudak— Journey through the Crimea — Visit to a Tartar 
Chief, Scacatai— Description of Comania and Russia— Court 
of Sartach — Of Baatu — Journey through Tartary— Arrival 
at the imperial Court— Reception — Audience of the Great 
Khan— Various Superstitions — City of Karakorum — Religi- 
ous Controversy— Dismissal of the Ambassador — His Jour- 
ney homeward— The Tartars — Their Government — Manners 
— Physical Condition— Religion — Military System— Break- 
ing up of the Dynasty of Gengis. 

From the remote shores of Eastern Asia, westward as far 
as the Rhine, extends a vast plain, which, during the 
whole period of ancient history, presented an aspect of 
the deepest barbarism. The population had nowhere 
advanced beyond the pastoral state, whoso occupations 
they combined with the more favourite ones of war and 
plmider. Such enterprises were greatly facilitated by 



42 EMBASSIES TO THE EAST 

the moveable nature of their property, which rendered 
it easy to assemble in large bodies, and march to the 
remotest regions. They were tempted, moreover, by 
the view of rich and civilized kingdoms, extending \ 
in a continuous belt along the whole southern border <J 
both continents. Hence, in the earliest times, arose a 
mighty and incessant impulse ; so that, from the heart 
of the north, there issued, in successive swarms, not 
armies, but whole nations, with wives, children, herds, 
and flocks, cutting their way with the sword into fairer 
and more fruitful lands. The shepherds of Scythia 
seated themselves on the greatest thrones of the east. 

The Koman empire, in the utmost height of her 
power, unable to make the slightest impression on this 
vast mass of barbarism, sought merely, by strong chains 
of fortresses on the Danube and the Rhine, to secure 
themselves against its irruption. It was not till the eighth 
century, that Charlemagne, by means of his arms and 
policy, stamped upon Grermany some rude elements of 
civilisation, which were gradually developed. Thence 
a portion spread eastward, till it included Russia, which 
was not then, however, the vast sovereignty we now 
behold, but a large dukedom, extending on both sides 
of the Dnieper, and of which Kiev was the capital. The 
remainder of Europe in that direction, and the whole 
north of Asia, continued unchanged. To this region, 
marked by a wild and rude uniformity, the ancients had 
given the name of Scythia ; yet, at the several points 
of contact with it they recognised distinct nations, as the 
Groths, the Alani, the Massagetes. During the early 
part of the middle ages, the conquests made by a people 
called Tartars spread their name so extensively, that it 
was studiously adopted, and has become general over all 
that portion of the world. Still the inquirer into orien- 
tal history discovers a variety of tribes, bearing distinct 
appellations, and exhibiting separate characters. 

The most prominent division is into Turks and Mon- 
gols; for the Mantchoos lie somewhat beyond our 
range. The former are spread widely over the central 



PRIOR TO MARCO POLO. 43 

part of Asia, where vast naked plains are interspersed 
'with well-watered spots, which are brought under 
tolerable cultivation. Bordering at some points on the 
great southern kingdoms, they have imbibed a portion 
of their iixed and civilized habits. Enjoying a plentiful 
subsistence, and leading a free and natural life, their 
bodily structure has been happily developed ; they are 
plump, with fair complexions, a good deal resembling 
Europeans, and are celebrated for their beauty through- 
out the east. The Mongols have their domain to the 
north and east of the Turkish ; it lies along the border 
of the Altai, and in the rude valleys formed by its 
branches. Their external form, which has made them 
be classed as a distinct race, exhibits a complete contrast 
to that of their neighbours. Their figure is short and 
broad, the face flat, with high cheek-bones, eyes small and 
curved, with a nose scarcely rising above the other fea- 
tures. Their country, though containing good pastures, 
is barely capable of culture, to which the people are 
almost strangers. Thus, compared with the Turks, they 
present this type of barbarous life in a purer and more 
complete state ; they are fiercer, can assemble in larger 
numbers, and move with greater rapidity. Hence they 
have generaUy domineered over the surrounding nations ; 
though, except China, they have rarely penetrated into 
any of the civilized kingdoms. They have merely im- 
pelled against them other tribes situated nearer their 
borders. From Europe they seemed placed at an almost 
immeasurable distance ; yet history records two occa- 
sions when they spread wide desolation over that con- 
tinent. The first occurred in the fifth century, when, 
under the name of Huns, they were led by Attila, sur- 
named the Scourge of God, and esteemed their supreme 
monarch. But though he compelled several of the 
Gothic nations to seek refuge in the Roman empire, he 
himself never formed any permanent settlement within 
the boundaries of the Danube and the Rhine. 

Seven hundred years after, another name arose, which, 
in point of grandeur and terror surpassed even that of 



44 EMBASSIES TO THE EAST 

Attila. The Yeka or Great Mongols inhabited an exten- 
sive region along the foot of the Altai, which appears 
to be rude and uncivilized beyond even the other terri- 
tories claimed by that race.* About 1176, Jessagi Bay- 
adur, khan of tliis people, died, leaving the succession to 
his son Temugin, then only thirteen years of age ; and 
hands so youthful being ill fitted for such a sway, a num- 
ber of the clans assumed independence, or united under 
another chief.t Only about a third remained true to 
him ; yet with these, even at his immature age, he took 
the field, but was unable to accomplish any decisive suc- 
cess. Continued efforts for nearly twenty years were ne- 
cessary, before he could establish his dominion over his 
own hereditary lands. He then turned his arms against 
the neighbouring tribes, of whom he could complain 
that they had favoured his refractory subjects ; and in 
less than ten years, he compelled, though with difficulty, 
these hardy shepherds to join his standard, j; In the 
course of this long struggle, he had become inured to all 
the arts of policy and war ; he had formed a veteran 
army devoted to his person ; and had organized it more 
regularly than was usual among the troops of that wild 
country. He now found no rival except in Ouang, khan 
of the Keraite Mongols,§ who had long ranked as the 
most powerful prince in that part of Asia. 

Ouang appears to be the monarch so celebrated in 
the middle ages under the appellation of Prester John ; 
and in point of fact, the idea of a christian prince in 
that remote interior of Asia is not so chimerical as may 
at first sight be supposed. We shall find in the fol- 
lowing narrative that the professors of the Nestorian 
sect were numerous there, especially at Karakorum, 
the capital of the sovereign just named. Having pene- 
trated from Syria, and become the ruling sect among 

* Recueil do Voyages et do Mdmoires, public par la So- 
citft^ de Gdographie (4to, Paris, 1839), tome iv. p. 630. 

t Grenealogical History of the Tartars, by Aoulghazi (Lon- 
don, 1730), p. 63-65. 

t Ibid. p. 66-69. Recueil, &c. p. 537. 

§ Recueil, p. 535. 



PRIOR TO MARCO POLO. 45 

the Eighurs, a Turkish tribe immediately south of his 
dominioD, they thence made their way among the 
Mongols, to whom they taught the art of writing and 
some other primary elements of civilisation.* It ap- 
pears by no means impossible that they might make a 
convert of Ouang. It is also, however, very probable, 
that he followed the course usually taken by all the 
Tartar princes towards powerful sects ; inviting them 
to his court, showing kindness to their leaders, seeking 
from them favourable omens, even expressing in pri- 
vate attachment to their creed, and holding out hopes 
that he would embrace it. These attentions, exaggerated 
by those to whom they were paid, might easily create in 
Europe the idea of a great Asiatic ruler combining the 
character of king and of priest ; for the latter office in 
that age was by no means considered a derogation from 
the former. We shall find similar rumours spread on the 
some grounds respecting the fiercest of the posterity of 
Gengis. Ouang, amid the versatility of oriental names, 
might readily be converted into John ; indeed Abulfaraj, 
an eminent eastern writer, calls him King John. He 
is said to have extended his dominion very wide, and in 
a work of that age is called the Terror of Asia.t 

Friendship had hitherto reigned between him and 
the Prince of the Yeka Mongols ; but they were now 
too mighty to move in one sphere. The annals of the 
latter, which alone survive, accuse the other of jealousy, 
and of seeking to entrap him by base stratagems. Cer- 
tain it is that war arose ; — they fought ; — Ouang was 
totally routed, and in his flight killed by two personal 
enemies, — an event which the conqueror is said to have 
generously regretted. J Temugin, now undoubtedly the 
most powerful ruler in Asia, opened his mind to more 
extended schemes of conquest ; and an entertainment 
given to his chiefs, in celebration of the victory, was 
marked by a striking though preconcerted event. Cokza, 
an aged chief, whose daughter he had married, and who 

♦ RecueU, pp. 521, 522. + Ibid. p. 550-553. 

t Abulghazi, p. 70-78. 



46 EMBASSIES TO THE EAST 

possessed a high fame for sanctity, presented himself, and 
delivered a letter said to have heen received from the 
celestial regions. It was found to contain an injunction, 
that the prince should change his name to Gengis^* 
" the Most Great," and a promise, that he and his pos- 
terity would for ever hold the place of grand khan over 
all the Tartars. It added, that Heaven had bestowed 
on them an entire dominion over mankind ; so that all 
nations were bound to pay them implicit obedience.f 
Gengis joyfully accepted the commission, which he was 
already prepared to execute. 

He began now to turn the tide of conquest in every 
direction over Asia. We cannot here enter into the de- 
tail of his proceedings, which indeed are somewhat ob- 
scure ; but it appears certain that, on the side of China, he 
humbled the dynasty of the Kin, and became possessed 
of nearly the whole country north of the Hoang-ho. In 
the battle of Kalka, he defeated Duke Mieizzlaw of Rus- 
sia ; but did not advance into Europe. He completely 
overran the north of Persia, and extorted homage from 
the Syrian and Armenian kingdoms. On the frontier of 
India, he became master of Cabul, and reached the 
western banks of the Indus, though he did not cross 
that river. He had thus vanquished the barbarous 
portion of Asia, without penetrating very deeply into its 
civilized regions. This task was left to his successors. 

In 1220, Gengis died, J having designated as successor 
Okkoday,§ his third son, who had been much distin- 

• Amid the perplexing variations of oriental orthography, 
the editor has determined generally to follow Mr Marsden, 
who has bestowed pains, ana possessed the requisite qualities 
for deciding on this subject. As some guide to the reader 
through this labyrinth, he will give, as the narrative proceeds, 
the pnncipal shapes assumed by the name of this ana several 
other £;rcat chiefs. He is also called Zingis, Chingis, Tchingis, 
Tchenkis, Tchinkis. 

+ Abul^hazi, pp. 78, 79. He does not mention the letter ; 
but its existence will appear evident in the course of the narra- 
tive ; and this was apparently the occasion on which it was 
forged. 

t Ibid. p. 146. 

§ Callea also Oukodoy, Ugadai, Oktai. 



PRIOR TO MARCO POLO. 47 

guished by his warlike exploits. Five years afterwards, 
a general assembly of the chiefs was held at the imperial 
tent on the Orchon, when it was determined to send a 
grand expedition against Europe. The command was 
given to Baatu,* the ofispring of Jugi,+ eldest son to 
Grengis, and he had with him many princes of the blood- 
royal, particularly KuyukJ and Mangou,§ also grand- 
sons to the founder, and who afterwards rose in succes- 
sion to the dignity of grand khan. A force was placed 
at their disposal, which has been estimated, probably 
with great exaggeration, at 600,000 men.|| Never, per- 
haps, was the earth swept with a mightier tempest of 
desolation. Marching across nearly the whole of the 
northern parts of Asia and of Europe, they encountered 
every where nations too warlike to yield, yet too weak 
to resist. These tribes were devoted to almost indiscri- 
minate slaughter ; and certain travellers, who soon after 
passed over this immense plain, saw only a desert strewed 
with the bones of the vanquished. Entering Europe, 
they overran Russia and Poland, after which they ad- 
vanced into Silesia. The duke, with all the force he could 
muster, met them at Waldshut,near Liegnitz ; but he was 
completely routed, and his whole army cut to pieces. 
They then poured down upon Hungary, and finding no 
troops to oppose them, wasted it throughout with fire and 
slaughter.ir 

This dreadful inroad struck Europe with extreme ter- 
ror, for there seemed nothing to prevent the whole con- 
tinent from being overwhelmed by the arms of the barba- 
rians. Chimerical fears were added ; it being reported 
that the bodies of the vanquished after being slain were 
greedily devoured. A letter is found from Pope Innocent 
IV. expressing a dread of the entire destruction of the 
christian name. That pontiff endeavoured to induce all 

• Called also Batou, Bathyn, Baty. 

+ Called also Tcboutcby, Zuzi. 

X Called also Gayuk, Cuyn^, Chin. 

§ Called also Mangii, Mongou, Mankoa, Mengko. 

II Recueil, pp. 460, 461. t Ibid. pp. 461, 462. 



48 . EAlWsSIES TO THE EAST 

the European natiorab to rise in mass against the io' 
yaders ; an object which might certainly he oonsidend 
legitimate, though the prevailing divisions rendered thft 
accomplishment difficult.* 

While the panic was still at its height, this tenibk 
foe suddenly disappeared. It was supposed that tha 
intelligence of the King of Bohemia, the Dukes of 
Austria and Carinthia, liaving assembled forces, and being 
in fiill march, had alarmed them into this step. The 
real cause, however, was the death of Okkoday, which 
took place in 1241 ; when the leading chiefs in the anny 
being candidates for the throne, hastened back into their 
own country to be present at that important electioiL 
They seem, however, to have felt the niilitary chancter 
of Europe to be such, that their conquests there could 
not be covered by a mere detachment ; hence, evacuat- 
ing Hungary, Poland, and even Kiev, they retired be- 
hind the Dnieper. The want of any fixed rule in 
oriental succession made it difficult to settle so migh^ 
an inheritance. The late emperor had designated to the 
throne his grandson Schyramoun ; but, on account of his 
youth, had named as regent the Empress TaurokliudL 
This princess, however, was mother to Kuyuk, and deter- 
mined to exert her influence among the tribes in &Toiir 
of her own son. Baatu, who might have advanced 
strong pretensions, did not choose to excite any division, 
but remained sullenly on the banks of the Volga, neither 
opposing nor sanctioning the rival claims.t The lady, 
as we shall see, ultimately succeeded in raising KnyiDc 
to the supreme dignity. 

Europe was for the present delivered ; but as the 
Tartars had uttered loud threats of speedily returning 
with a greatly augmented force, the utmost alarm pre- 
vailed lest this menace should be executed. There 
accordingly seemed an urgent call for some measure 
which might mitigate their rage, or altogether avert 
the pressure of such a calamity. The power of the pope 



♦Hakiuyt. Recueil, p. 463. 'V'RftCKi^SL,^ AfifL 



PRIOR TO MARCO POLO. .49 

being then at its utmost height, and forming the sole 
tie by which the diflFerent states of Europe were con- 
nected, was the only source whence such a proposal for 
the conamon defence could emanate. He was naturally 
disposed to employ churchmen, who alone perhaps pos- 
seted the requisite education. The mendicant orders, 
particularly the Franciscan and Dominican, enjoying 
then a paramount influence, were readily selected for a 
mission to the formidable potentate. Their religious 
character would have commanded respect; but the 
studied .meanness of their exterior, added to an utter 
ignorance of mankind, ill fitted them to exert an influ- 
ence over a proud prince, whose court was filled with 
ambassadors from all the countries in the East. 

. At that moment two Tartar armies maintained a 
menacing position. One was that which had first invaded 
Europe, and was still posted on its frontier ; the other, 
station^ in the north of Persia, threatened at once the 
caliphate and the eastern empire. On determining to 
send envoys to each, the pope divided the duty between 
his two &vourite orders. John de Piano Carpini, a 
Franciscan, advanced in age, and who had been employed 
in various confidential transactions, was named for the 
northern host. He was to be accompanied by Stephen of 
Bohemia, and Benedict of Poland ; but the former was 
unable to complete the journey. The Persian mission 
was intrusted to Dominican friars, named Ascelin or 
Anselm, Alexander, Simon de St Quentin, and Albert.^ 
Carpini, who proceeded first on his destination, was 
furnished by the pope with the following letter, which, 
indeed, is not inserted in his relation, but has been ex- 
tracted by M. D'Avezac from the Minorite annals.+ 

** Innocent, Bishop, Servant of the Servants of God, 
TO the Kino and People of the Tartars. 

** Since not only men, but also irrational animals, and 
even the mechanic€il mundane elements, are united by 

* Recueil, p. 464. f Ibid. p. 478. 

D 



50 EMBASSIES TO THE EAST 

fiome kind of alliance, after the example of superio 
spirits, whose hosts the Author of the universe ha 
established in a perpetual and peat^efal order, we ar 
compelled to wonder, not without reason, how you, a 
we have heard, having entered many lands of Chrif 
tians and others, have wasted them with horrible deso 
lation, and still, with continued fury, not ceasing t 
extend further your destroying hands, dissolving ever 
natural tie, neither sparing sex nor age, direct indii 
ferently against all the fury of the sword. We there 
fore, after the example of the Prince of Peace^ desirinj 
to unite all mankind in unity and the fear of Go^ 
warn, beseech, and exlioi*t you, henceforth to deas 
wholly from such outrages,, and especially from th 
persecution of Christians ; and since, by so many an* 
so great offences, you have doubtless grievously pro 
voked the wrath of the Divine majesty, that you mJak 
satisfaction to him by suitable penitence ; and that yoi 
do not be so daring as to carry your rage farther, be 
cause the omnipotent God has hitherto permitted th 
nations to be laid prostrate before your face. He some 
times thus passes by the proud men of the age ; but i 
they do not humble themselves, he will not fail t 
inflict the severest temporal punishment on their guill 
And now, behold, we send our beloved brother John, an* 
his companions^ bearers of these presents, men conspicuou 
for religion and honesty, and endued with a know 
ledge of sacred Scripture, whom we hope you wil 
kindly receive and honourably treat as if they wer 
ourselves, placing confidence in what they may sa; 
from us, and specially treat with them on what relate 
to peace, and fully intimate what has moved you t 
this extermination of other nations, and what yoi 
further intend, providing them in going and retumin] 
with a safe conductor, and other things needful for re 
turning to our presence. We have chosen to send t 
you the said friars, on account of their exemplary con 
duct, and knowledge of the sacred Scriptures, and be 
cause they would be more useful to you as imitatin 



PRIOR TO MARCO POLO. 51 

the humility of our Saviour ; and if we had thought 
they would he more grateful and useful to you, we 
would have sent other prelates or powerful men." 

Carpini* and his companions, heing destined to take 
the route of Poland and Russia, departed from Lyons 
on the 16th April 1245, and proceeded first to Bohe- 
mia. The king showed a deep interest in theii* suc- 
cess; gave them recommendations to all the christian 
sovereigns through whose territory they were to pass ; 
supplied a safe conduct; and defrayed their expen- 
ses to the court of his nephew Boleslaus, duke of Sile- 
sia. That prince forwaided them with similar atten- 
tions to Conrad, duke of Lantiscia (Masovia), where 
they had the good fortune to find Wasilico, duke of 
Russia. He earnestly favoured their design, and gave 
them much information respecting the people whom 
they were about to visit, and the mode in which theV 
must be dealt with. Presents, he warned them, were 
indispensable, and for that purpose he supplied beaver 
and other valuable furs, to which more were added by 
Conrad and the Duchess of Cracow. Carpini took the 
opportunity of urging Wasilico to renounce his Greek 
heresy, and return to the unity of the church ; but 
this was courteously evaded by saying, that such a step 
could not be decided in the absence of his brother 
Daniel. Conveyance was afibrded to Kiev, then the 
capital of Russia, to which the enemy's outposts had 
closely approached. Great dread was inspired into the 
minds of the travellers by the character of the Lithu- 
anians, a barbarous race, who made frequent incursions 

♦ The narrative of Carpini. with a previous descriptive ac- 
coont of the Tartars, was puolished by Hakluyt, vol. i. p. 53, 
&c. The Paris Geographical Society have edited it anew 
(Recueil de Voyages, &c.) from an ancient MS. in the Ley den 
Library, collated with others in the Royal Library at Paris, 
and the British Museum. The variations are curious ; but do 
not materially affect the tenor of the recital. M. D'Avezao 
has prefixed a very learned dissertation, with illustrative docu- 
ments, from which I have derived important advantages. 



52 EMBASSIES TO THE EAST 

into the territory ; however, the party were dragged 
in their wagon through ice and snow without sustaining 
any loss. At Kiev, the Kussian nohles told them it 
was vain at such a season to use their own horses in a 
country where there was neither hay nor grass ; and 
native ponies were substituted, which could find food 
even under the snow. 

On the 4th February 1246, the friars set forth, and 
a few days after arrived at Canow, the first post of 
that warlike and terrible race to whom they were 
sent. Their appearance caused the utmost surprise ; and 
an armed p£urty rushed upon them in a threatening 
manner, demanding what sort of persons they were. 
They replied, that they were the messengers of their 
lord the pope ; upon which the intruders departed. 
Next morning, some of the leading officers inquired 
whence they came, and on what business ! They then 
delivered the message of his holiness, expressing his 
desire that the Tartars should be the friends of Chris- 
tians, and attain their own salvation by embracing the 
true faith ; adding his surprise at their committing such 
dreadful massacres, and especially upon believers, who 
had never injured them. He warned them that as 
they had grievously ofiended God, they ought to be- 
ware of such deeds in future, and repent of what 
they had already done. Finally, they were requested 
to write to the pontifi^, stating what their present inten- 
tions were. This was not very cautious language ; how- 
ever, being probably ill understood, and delivered in a 
quiet manner, it kindled no apparent resentment They 
were told they must go forward to the station of the great 
leader Corrensa, who held command along the whole 
frontier. Oriental princes are fond of receiving em- 
bassies, which they consider not only as a matter oi 
state, but always represent as the instruments whereby 
homage and tribute are laid at their feet. 

On reaching this court they were assigned a remote 
station, and messengers came to ask, " with what they 
would incline to him ;" meaning, it seems, what presents 



PRIOR TO MARCO POLO. 53 

they intended to give. They made many apologies on 
account of the length and difficulty of the journey, but 
tendered what they could, which was accepted. Being 
led to the general's tent, they were required to kneel 
three times before the entrance ; and upon being ad- 
mitted, they presented in the same humble attitude the 
letter of his holiness to the barbarian chief, whom they 
found seated in the midst of his officers. An interpre- 
ter, whom they broxlght from Kiev, could not convey 
the import of the epistle ; however, the usual course 
was taken of sending them forward to Baatu, the com. 
mander in the late invasion of Europe. 

In this journey the friars passed over the vast plain 
of Southern Kussia, then called Comania,* watered by 
the great rivers Dnieper, Don, Volga, and Yaik or 
Ural. On the third of these mighty streams were 
ranged the troops of Corrensa. They were obliged to 
perform the march with harassing rapidity, changing 
horses three or four times a-day, and posting from morn- 
ing to night. Having arrived, they were lodged as be- 
fore at a distance, and obliged to go through the same 
ceremonies, with the addition of passing between two fires. 
To this they at first strongly objected ; but, being in- 
formed that it was considered quite necessary to secure 
against evil design or poison, they at length yielded. 
They delivered the letter kneeling to the khan, who was 
seated in great pomp on a lofty throne beside one of his 
wives. The members of his family and the more dis- 
tinguished chiefs sat on a bench beneath him, all others 
on the ground, the men on the right and the women 
on the left. Only his own kindred could enter without 
an express order. He is described as kind to his fol- 
lowers ; skilful, and experienced, but dreadfully cruel 
in the prosecution of war. 

The friars were furnished at this court with inter- 



• The Comanians appear to have been once a very numer- 
ous tribe of Tartars, called in the East Kapchak, and by the 
Slavonic nations Polowski, but no trace of them seems now to 
remain. Recueil, p. 487. 



54 EMBASSIES TO THE EAST 

preters, who, aided by themselves, made a translation of 
the pope's letter. Baatu is said to have read it atten- 
tively, but without any observation. On coming out, 
however, it was announced, according to the usual 
system, that they must proceed onward to be presented to 
Cuyne (Kuyuk) Khan, the great emperor of all the Tar- 
tars, whose residence lay far to the eastward. This was a 
most painful arrangement, rendered more so by the in- 
timation, that only two were to go on, and the two others 
to be detained, and sent back witli a message to the 
pope. They durst not, however, object, but went with 
many tears, " not knowing whether it was to life or to 
death." They were very unfit for so hard a journey, 
having for many days received no food but millet, 
and no drink except snow melted over the fire. Yet 
they were obliged to ride at the same fiirious speed, 
changing horses, where they could be got, several times 
a-day. Their route lay still through Comania, describ- 
ed as a very great and long country, whose inhabitants 
had been recently vanquished and nearly exterminated 
by the Tartars ; and the dismal spectacle was every 
where presented of their skulls and bones lying ne- 
glected on the ground. A similar scene was exhibited 
during their progress through the territory of the Kan- 
gittae* and the Bisermini.t They then travelled several 
days along the banks of a small inland sea, apparently 
the Balkash. It was described to them as subject in 
winter to most violent gusts of wind, issuing, as was im- 
agined, from a small aperture in a mountain situated on 
the shore. Here they found a Tartar court occupied by 
Ordu, a prince of great age, with one of his wives. They 
halted a day and obtained some refreshment, but were 
not admitted into his presence. Their advance was con- 
tinued with greatly increased hardship, leading into a 

* A Tartar horde, called properly Kanklis, a name said to be 
still retained among some of the No^ay tribes. Recueil, p. 500. 

f This is the Russian name for Mussulman, and has been 
applied here to Turkestan, whose inhabitants had actually 
embraced that faith, and through whose territory the mission 
now proceeded. Recueil, pp. 501, 502. 



PRIOR TO MARCO POLO. 55 

k1 and mountainous region, where much snow fell, 
hey were called upon to increase even their rapid 
)f trayelling, in order to be present at the approach- 
lection of the emperor, 

length their weary journey terminated, and they 
3d at the great imperial court ; where a tent was 
ed to them, and their expenses handsomely defray- 
rhe papal letter, as interpreted at the court of Baatu, 
lelivered, and read by Cuyne ; but they were not 
I into his presence, because he was not yet elected, 
lid not therefore exercise any functions of sove- 
ty. A few days after, however, they were invited 
3 tent of his mother, where all the imperial state 
it that time exhibited. It was formed of the finest 
i cloth, and of such vast dimensions, that in their 
jn it could have contained 2000 persons. There 
two gates, one of wliicli, appropriated to the mo- 
1, stood continually open and unguarded, yet no one 
le dared to enter by it; the other was the gate of 
nee, but admission was granted only by the prince's 
;ss order. In front was a barrier, which, if any one 
i without license, he was severely beaten, and, if he 
ipted to flee, was shot. On the outside were ranged 
es and ambassadors from all the courts of Asia, — 
iliph, the Turkish dynasties, Georgia, India, China, 
Duke leroslaus of Kussia. The whole number 
tated to Carpini to exceed 4000. The scene, which 
lazzling, exhibited in protiise display all the pomp 
} eastern world. The ambassadors were mounted on 
ed horses superbly caparisoned, richly ornamented 
trappings of pure gold. Each day they appeared 
liiBFerent dress ; in white, in scarlet, in blue, lastly, 
ry rich Baldakin (Bagdad) robes, considered then 
nest of any. Koumiss, or fermented mare's milk, 
1 was most copiously supplied, was drunk till the 
ng in immense quantities. The friars, on inti- 
ig a strong dislike to it, were supplied with ale, but 
with difficulty allowed to keep within the bounds 
deration. 



56 EMBASSIES TO THE EAST 

Meantime, the chiefs, admitted into the great tent, 
were deliberating on the choice of an emperor. From 
the augmented pomp with which Guyne appeared, the 
opinion became daily stronger that the election would 
fall upon him ; and, after a month, though not publidj 
announced, it became generally understood that this 
decision had been formed. The whole multitude of 
princes and ambassadors then thronged to a spot three 
or four leagues distant, beautifully situated on a river 
between mountains, where the golden tent had been 
pitched. It much exceeded the other in splendour, being 
supported on pillars richly gilded, and covered in a great 
measure with the finest Bagdad cloth. The grand cere- 
mony was delayed a few days by a tempest of hail ; but 
at length, on the 24th August, the whole multitude as- 
sembled, and, turning their faces to the south, performed 
various genuflexions. They then turned to the tent, 
and a gilded chair being brought out, upon which 
Cuyne was seated, the Tartar chiefs said " we wish, 
we pray and command, that you have power and dominion 
over us all.** Cuyne replied, " if you wish that I be 
your king, are you resolved and disposed each of you to 
do all that I shall command, to come when I call, to go 
whither I send, and to kill all whom I shall order to be 
killed r* The chiefs replied, « yes." « Then,'* said 
he, " henceforth my word alone shall be my sword." 
Immediately after, he was seated on a chair of felt, and 
addressed as follows : — '^ Look on high, and see God ; 
and look down on the felt whereon thou sittest. If thou 
dost govern well, thou shalt reign in power and mag- 
nificence, and the whole earth shall be subject to thee ; 
but if ill, thou shalt be poor, miserable, vile, and con- 
temptible, and shalt not have power even over the felt 
whereon thou sittest." His principal wife was then 
placed in the same seat, and both were lifted up into the 
air, and proclaimed with loud shouts Emperor and Em- 
press of all the Tartars. The ceremony was closed 
with profound genuflexions by the chiefs of the whole 
people, though the friars boast that they formed an ex- 



PRIOR TO MARCO POLO. 5? 

ception, " because they were not subject to him." Con- 
sidering, however, that they had, without hesitation, 
performed this homage to inferior chiefs, the withhoM- 
ing it from the supreme ruler on so high an occasion 
seems neither reasonable nor prudent.* 

This emperor is described as being about forty or forty- 
five years of age, of middle stature, extremely consid- 
erate, serious, and grave in his demeanour. It was 
even asserted that he had scarcely on any occasion been 
seen to laugh ; and from the moment of his elevation, 
no stranger, however illustrious, was allowed to speak to 
him. The communication was entirely through the 
officials ; nevertheless, during the whole time that the 
petitioner stated his request and received the answer, he 
remained on his bended knees. His maj esty had resigned 
none of the pretensions of his family to universal do- 
minion. On his seal was engraved, " God in heaven, and 
fcuyne Khan upon earth, the power of God : the seal of 
the emperor of all men." 

A few days after the ceremony, the friars, with all 
the other ambassadors, were admitted to an audience. 
Presents on such occasions are always expected in the 
East ; and at so solemn a time they were displayed with 
almost unrivalled magnificence. They appeared to be 
very numerous ; robes of satin, purple, silk interwoven 
with gold, and precious furs. A small tent (umbrella), to 
be placed over the emperor's head, was entirely studded 
with gems ; and at a little distance were ranged more than 
five hundred wagons laden with gold, silver, and the rich- 
est silks. After this exhibition, the friars were asked what 
they intended to present ; but, having exhausted their 
slender stock of skins, they were obliged to declare that 



* Bergeron (Voyages en Asie, Have, 1735, p. 14) has given 
some of these details from the Speculum Historiale of Vincent, 
who states that he had obtained it verbally from Simon de 
St Quentin. That friar indeed was with the Persian, not the 
Tartarian mission ; hut he is understood to have possessed 
extensive knowledge respecting the East. See Recueil, pp. 
404, 405. 



58 EMBASSIES TO THE EAST 

they had nothing whatever ; nor is it said that any re- 
sentment was expressed. 

They seem even as yet to have had the impression 
that they were regarded with favour and treated with 
respect. Nay, hopes were held out by some of the 
household, though seemingly without any foundation, 
that the great monarch might embrace the christian 
faith. They were now politely desired to return and spend 
a few days at the court of the queen-dowager. But what 
was their dismay to learn that, during their absence, the 
khan had '' set up his standard against the church of 
God, and the Roman empire, and .all the kingdoms and 
nations of the West, unless, according to injunctions in 
the letter to the Lord the Pope, they should become 
subject to him." From this disastrous intelligence^ 
the traveller endeavours to justify a feeling of pride, 
arguing that there being no other land on earth which 
they feared except the christian, they had determined 
to make war against it. The pretension to universal 
dominion had always been maintained by this race ; yet 
we may suspect that the lofty tone of the pope's de- 
spatches, and the imprudence of his envoys, were instru- 
mental in prompting to this hostile assertion of it. 

The friars then returned to court, and remained there 
a month, during which time victuals were most scantily 
supplied ; the provision allowed for four days scarcely 
sufficing for one. They were then sent for by the em- 
peror, who asked, through his prothonotary, whether 
the pope had any one about him that could explain the 
Russian, the Tartar, or Saracenic language. It was ' 
answered that none of them were understood in Europe. 
An arrangement was therefore made, that the letter 
should be written in Tartar, and carefully explained to 
them, after which they were to translate it into Latin, 
read it twice over, and see that it was fully comprehended* ' 
They are chargeable with the great omission of not giving 
the slightest hint of its contents ; but this has just been 
supplied by M. D' Avezac from a MS. in the royal library 
at Paris. It is as follows : — 



PBIOB TO MABGO POLO. 59 

^* LETTER OF THE KING OF THE TARTARS TO THE LORD POPE. 

" The strength of Gk)d, Kuyuk Khan, the ruler of all 
men, to the great Pope. You and all the christian people 
who dwell in the West have sent by your messengers sure 
and certain letters for the purpose of making peace with 
us. This we have heard fi^m them, and it is contained in 
your letter. Therefore, if you desire to have peace with 
us, you pope, emperors, all kings, all men powerful in 
cities, by no means delay to come to us for the purpose 
of concluding peace, and you will hear our answer and 
our will. The series of your letters contained that we 
ought to be baptized and to become Christians ; we briefly 
reply, that we do not understand why we ought to do so. 
As to what is mentioned in your letters, that you wonder 
at the slaughter of men, and chiefly of Christians, especi- 
ally Hungarians, Poles, and Moravians, we shortly answer, 
that this too we do not understand. Nevertheless, lest 
we should seem to pass it over in silence, we think proper 
to reply as follows. It is because they have not obeyed 
the precept of God and of Gengis Khan, and, holding 
bad counsel, have slain our messengers ;* wherefore Grod 
has ordered them to be destroyed, and delivered them 
into our hands. But if God had not done it, what could 
man have done to man ! But you, inhabitants of the 
West, believe that you only are Christians, and despise 
others ; but how do you know on whom he may choose 
to bei^w his favour. We adore God, and, in his strength, 
will overwhelm the whole earth from the east to the 
west. But if we men were not strengthened by God, 
what could we do 2" 

It was intimated to the friars that the emperor was 
disposed to send ambassadors along with them, but wished 
the proposal to come from themselves ; and a Tartar chief 
strongly urged them to make it. They considered how- 



* Allusion is here made to Tartar ambassadors, whom the 
Russians murdered before the battle of Kalka. 



60 EMBASSIES TO THE EAST 

ever that, as these envoys were without doubt intended 
to act merely as spies, their hostile designs would be 
encouraged by the view of the dissensions prevailing in 
Europe ; and that in the present state of public feeling 
in the West, they would probably be killed, a violence 
which, in the case of a royal representative, the Tartars 
were understood never to forgive. They declined there- 
fore making any overture ; and the emperor did not 
choose to send an embassy unasked. 

On the 13th November, having obtained permission to 
depart, and the imperial seal as a passport, they took 
their leave. They travelled all winter through a wide open 
country, being commonly obliged to sleep on the ground, 
after clearing away the snow, with which, in the morn- 
ing, they often found themselves covered. They passed 
rapidly through the stations of the diflPerent chiefs, and 
on the 8th June, to their inexpressible satisfaction, ar- 
rived at Kiev. The people came to meet them with 
joyful congratulations, as men risen from the dead ; and 
they received the same cordial welcome throughout the 
whole of Russia, Poland, and Bohemia. Carpini after- 
wards spent three months at Lyons with the pope, by 
whom he was soon after created Archbishop of Anti- 
vari, in Dalmatia.* 

It was not till 1247 that Ascelin,t with the three 
Dominican friars, travelled through Syria to the Tartar 
host, then encamped in Persia. They appear to have 
been much inferior, both in prudence and intelligence, 
to the former party. Drawn from the depth of conven- 
tual life, strangers to the world and the mode of dealing 
with mankind, they imagined that the pope's mandate, 
when announced, would command obedience among the 
most savage tribes. Accordingly, they approached the 

• Recueil, D. 598. 

+ Simon cfe St Quentin, one of the number, wrote a very 
copious relation, from which onl^ a few extracts were inserted 
by Vincent in his Speculum Historiale, and they have been 
copied by Bergeron (voyages en Asie). M. D'Avezac made a 
search, but without success, for a MS. of the original (Recueil, 
&c. p. 405). 



PRIOR TO MARCO POLO. 61 

army in the most confident manner, and apparently with- 
out any apprehension. Being met by several chiefs 
demanding who they were and whence they came, they 
described themselves as the ambassadors of the pope, the 
head of the christian world, throughout which he was 
every where regarded as a father. The Tartars then said, 
in an ironical tone, '^ since your pope is so great a man, he 
doubtless knows that the khan is the son of God, by 
whom he has been invested with the dominion of earth, 
and that by his instructions Baatu in the north, and 
Baiothnoy* here, receive the same honours." Ascelin 
had so little judgment as to reply, that the sovereign pon- 
tiff knew nothing of any such persons, but only that there 
was a barbarous people called Tartars, who invaded and 
destroyed many nations, particularly the christian ; he 
earnestly exhorted them to repent of their past wick- 
edness, and cease to annoy the people of Grod. What- 
ever the chiefs might think of this speech, they simply 
conveyed it to the commander: but, after changing their 
clothes, they came forth with the usual inquiry as to 
what presents he had brought. It was answered, that 
the pope received gifts from all men, but never gave 
them to any, far less to strangers and infidels. The 
Tartars, still without any remark, went back to their 
chief, and returning in fresh clothes, expressed astonish- 
ment how foreigners dared to approach their great master 
without offering a present. They added, however, that 
the firiars might still have an audience of Baiothnoy, 
provided, according to his strict regulation, they would 
perform three genuflexions before him. Having con- 
sulted together, they decided, that it would be a 
shame and scandal to perform such an act of idolatry 
to a pagan. Yet they intimated, that if the khan and 
his people would become Christians, the ambassadors, for 
the honour of the church, would perform this homage. 

• Noy or Noyan appears to express a commander-in-chief, 
but not of the blood imperial, and therefore not entitled to the 
rank of khan. The proper namo of this diief is said to be Bat- 
chou (Recueil, p. 464). 



62 EMBASSIES TO THE EAST 

Upon hearing this proposal, the chiefs, who hitherto had 
studiously preserved outward decorum, burst into the 
most furious rage. They declared that they would be 
sorry indeed to become christian dogs like their visiten ; 
adding, to their utter horror, that the pope was a dog. 
The others attempted to reply ; but, luckily perhaps for 
themselves, their voice was drowned in shouts and 
clamour; and a council was called, to determine the 
manner in which they should be treated. 

The only consideration at first was concerning the mode 
in which they should be put to death. Some reconmiend- 
ed that they should be flayed alive, and their skins, 
stuffed with hay, sent to Rome. Others proposed, that 
in the first battle with the Christians, they should be ' 
placed in front, and made to fall by the weapons of 
their own countr3rmen. In this crisis, however, female 
humanity interposed, and saved them from so dreadful 
a destiny. The principal wife of Baiothnoy ran to him, 
and without hoping to move his pity, represented the 
disgrace that would be certainly incurred by thus violat- 
ing the law of nations, as well as the sure effect of deter- 
ring many other embassies which now came with grateful 
homage and presents. She urged also the likelihood of 
his incurring the displeasure of the khan, which had been 
strongly expressed on a foimer occasion of similar bar- 
barity. Several chiefs embraced the same views, and it 
was finally determined not to proceed to extremity. 
The friars were even, according to the usual custom, 
invited to proceed into the interior of Tartary, and ap- 
pear at the court of the great sovereign. They considered 
themselves, however, as having seen quite enough of 
Tartar courts, and declared that having fulfilled their 
appointed mission, nothing but force should induce them 
to proceed farther ; and this the commanders did not 
choose to employ. 

Their only object now was to quit this dreadful spot, 
and return to Europe. Baiothnoy having suffered the 
letters to be presented to him, and ordered them to be 
interpreted, they hoped that their deliverance was not 



PRIOR TO MARCO POLO. 63 

far distant. On soliciting, however, passports and guides, 
it was intimated, that since they had come so far to see 
a Tartar army, they should wait till a large reinforce- 
ment arrived, which would exhibit its qualities on a much 
grander scale. They solemnly protested against having 
the slightest wish to see any thing more of their troops ; 
but it soon appeared, that, besides overawing them by 
this spectacle, the design was to keep them some time as 
objects of insult and derision. They were nearly starved 
on minute rations of black bread and sour milk, while 
invention was daily tasked to find new modes of an- 
noying them. Particular delight was taken in taunting 
them respecting the pope, and requiring them to say 
how many armies that prince maintained ; what battles 
he had gained ; and what kingdoms he had conquered. 
When it transpired that he had neither soldiers nor 
dominions, it was triumphantly asked how such a per- 
sonage could be compared to their great khan, who had 
subdued nations innumerable, and was obeyed in the 
remotest extremities of the East and Uie West. The 
treatment they received was, on the whole, exceedingly 
barbarous; which the commander, on being appealed 
to, excused on the ground of their rude speeches, — a 
charge which they treat as altogether unfounded, though 
the reader may, perhaps, form a different judgment. 
Even after they seemed on the point of escape, they were 
detained some weeks longer till a certain messenger 
named Auguta should arrive from the great ruler. The 
object seems to have been, that they might witness, 
without sharing, the drinking, dancing, and howling, 
with which, during a whole week, his visit was cele- 
brated. 

At length the friars obtained their long-desired dis- 
missal, and had two letters put into their liands. The 
first, impiously termed a " Letter of God," had been sent 
by the khan to Baiothnoy, with the view of its being 
circulated over the whole world, and among all nations. 
It intimated, that while the deity was high over all and 
immortal, he had appointed Gengis the only lord of 



'T 



64 EMBASSIES TO THE EAST 

earth ; and it gave warning of the dreadful consequences 
that would overtake all who should disobey this nniyer- 
sal empire. The latter chief had been dead twenty years ; 
but his commission was considered as descending to hir 
posterity. It was probably a copy of the same forgery, 
which we have seen presented to that great conqueror 
on a high festive occasion. The other, from Baiothnoy 
himself to his holiness, contained the following expres- 
sions : — ^* Know, pope, that your messengers have come 
to us, and have delivered your letter, and have held the 
strangest speeches that ever were heard. We know not 
if you authorized them ; but we announce the firm com- 
mand and ordinance of God, that if you desire to remain 
seated in your land and inheritance, you, pope, come to 
us in your proper person, and do homage to him who 
justly rules the whole earth. If you do not obey, God 
only knows what may happen." However unsatisfiie- 
tory these despatches might be, the friars thought them- 
selves too happy in being allowed to depart with them. 
The threat announced during Carpini's residence, in a 
manner so solemn and terrible, of again invading the 
western kingdoms, was not immediately carried into exe- 
cution. Kuyuk died a year after, not without suspi- 
cion of poison ; and as only grandsons of the great con- 
queror survived, their claims, according to the loose 
ideas of succession in the East, were nearly balanced. 
The uncertainty continued several years, though with- 
out leading to any serious conflict. Baatu, as the off- 
spring of Jugi, the eldest son, stood nearest, and the 
European invasion threw lustre over his name; yet 
Tauiai and his family, by their conquests in China, as 
well as by their actual possession of the seat of Mongol 
power, had acquired a peculiar consideration. The dif- 
ficulty was removed by the former waving his claims, 
and declaring in favour of his cousin Mangou, the son of 
Tauiai. He invited the principal chiefs to come to his 
court along with that prince, who, in 1251, was there 
chosen great khan, or general emperor of all the 
Tartars. 



PRIOR TO MARCO POLO. 65 

That people, meantime, continued to maintain empower- 
M army on the eastern frontier of Persia. After sub- 
duing all the Arab kingdoms in Central Asia, their 
object was to subvert the imperial throne of Bagdad, 
the mightiest sovereignty of the West. The mission of 
Ascelin and his companions, however ungraciously 
received, had probably excited their curiosity, which 
wa0 always alive to every thing that could lead to the 
extension of their dominion. They might then easily 
learn the gallant achievements of the Europeans in 
Syria, and the zeal against the Mohammedan name by 
which these had been inspired. When St Louis, king 
of France, was at Nicosia in Cyprus, he received a 
letter from the chief then commanding this army, 
whose name is given as Erkaltay. The contents are 
somewhat variously reported, being even said to inti- 
mate, that he himself, as well as the great khan and 
all his chiefs, having embraced the gospel, were en- 
gaged in war for its propagation. More probable ac- 
counts represent him as merely professing goodwill 
towards Christians, and zeal to aid their views against 
the Moslem states. An intention was expressed of next 
year laying siege to Bagdad, when his majesty was so- 
licited at least to keep employed the arms of the Soldan 
of Egypt. That zealous monarch was delighted with 
the proposal, and immediately sent an embassy, of 
which, however, no record appears to have been pre- 
served.* At the same time, a report was received, that 
Sartach, the son of Baatu, now commanding on the west- 
em frontier of Tartary, had become a Christian. To 
him also the king then determined to send a mission, 
of which a Aill and interesting narrative has come down 
to our time.f 

♦ Astley's Voyages, vol. iv. p. 552. 

t Hakluyt inserted in his Cfollection the original Latin, but 
only in part. Purchas having procured a complete copy, made 
an English translation, which he introduced at the be^;inning 
of his third part. The Greographical Society of Pans have 
jost published a full edition of the original, from a manuscript 

E 



66 EMBASSIES TO THE EAST 

It was conducted by William de Rubruquis, a Minor- 
ite friar, with three brethren and a servant. He went 
by way of Constantinople, whence he sailed on the 7th 
May 1253, and on the 21st arrived at Soldaia, now So«- 
dak, in the Crimea. To this place, which was the theatre 
of a very active trade, caravans firom remote parts of the 
continent brought not only ermine and other predou 
fars from Siberia, but also cotton and silk &bne8 
and spices from India. He met a very friendly recep- 
tion from the merchants, who enjoyed the free pro- 
fession of Christianity, having a bishop and cathednl 
church. He immediately began his inquiries about Sar- 
tach, particularly whether, according to the report pre- 
vailing in the Holy Land, he were really a believer. 
The bishop, without seemmgly committing himself to 
this extent, told him many good things respecting the 
said Sartach, which afterwards proved to be wholly un- 
founded. 

On the 1st June, our traveller set out with a provision 
of wines, fruits, and biscuits, having received intima- 
tion that no one was welcomed there who came with an 
empty hand. He placed these commodities, togetherwith 
vestments and books, on wagons drawn by oxen, which 
he had been advised at Constantinople to prefer to pack- 
horses ; but by following this " evil counsel," he found 
the length of his journey doubled. The country was a 
wide plain covered with numerous traces of the calamities 
which had overwhelmed the Comanians. Fleeing in 
crowds into this narrow peninsula, where there were no 
adequate supplies of food, they had, after enduring the 
utmost extremities of famine, been driven to the dh^fiil 
resource of devouring each other. In three days he 
met the Tartars, among whom he thought himself quite 
in a new world. They rode up in their usual uncere- 
monious manner, and on seeing him provided with wine 
and biscuit, solicited a portion. Being presented with 

in the British Museum, collated with others at Cambridge and 
Levden. The variations are curious, but not of great magni- 
tude. 



PRIOR TO MARCO POLO. 67 

one flagon, they pressed for another, arguing that a man 
could not enter a house on one foot; hut the friars 
would extend their bounty no farther. The next ques- 
tion was, whence they came, and whither they were go- 
ing. They stated their desire to visit Sartach, and, in 
the first instance, Scacatai, who, they had learned, com- 
manded the outposts on the frontier. After consider- 
able delay, horses and guides were promised ; but, in the 
mean time, intense curiosity was manifested respecting 
the contents of the carts, and the nature of the presents 
designed for the monarch, whether they were gold, silver, 
or precious cloths ; but care was taken to afford no in- 
formation on such subjects. During a tedious delay, 
however, they continued, he says, incessantly " begging 
our bread for their young brats, wondering at all things 
which they saw, and desiring to have them." He ad- 
nodts that they took notiiing by force, but were most 
shameless and importunate beggars. As their demands 
were steadily resisted, the intercourse became so dis- 
courteous, that on leaving them, he felt as if '^ escaped 
out of the hands of devils." 

Next day, he met the carts of Scacatai " laden with 
houses, and methought that a mighty city came to meet 
me." These moving abodes, composed of a frame of 
"wicker, covered with white or black felt, and thirty feet 
in diameter, are placed on huge wagons, drawn each by 
twenty-two oxen. About three o'clock they " unladed 
their houses," when there appeared huge droves of cattle 
and sheep, but very few men ; indeed the friars learned 
ihat the general had not under him above five hundred 
soldiers. An interpreter who waited on them was present- 
ed with some victuals, but he expressed much discontent 
at not receiving also a rich garment. When they 
showed him the biscuit, wine, and apples, destined for 
the chief, he declared these wholly inadequate, without 
the addition of valuable robes. It appeared, in fact, 
that cloth, with which they had come wholly im- 
provided, was the only article here esteemed. Even 
money was neither known nor cared for, so tliat when 



68 EMBASSIES TO THE EAST 

presented with a gold coin they simply wished to know 
whether it were copper. However, it was necessary to 
admit them into the presence of Scacatai, whom they 
approached with a good deal of timidity. He sat on a 
couch, having beside him his wife, whose nose formed 
a considerable subject of wonder to the friars^ not yet 
accustomed to the peculiarity of Mongol features. They 
verily thought she had cut and pared it till she had left 
herself no nose at all. She had besmeared it and the 
eyebrows with a black powder, rendering herself^ in 
their apprehension, a most ugly creature. Howevery the 
chief received them very graciously, accepting their 
wine and fruits with the plea of poverty for not giying 
more. 

The wortiiy monks afterwards made great efibrts to 
convert some of them to the true &ith, but soon fonnd 
an irresistible obstacle in the opinion which the Russians 
had installed, that no true Christian could taste a drop of 
koumiss, their favourite liquor, and without whkh, 
they asserted, that it was impossible to subsist in the 
desert. Rubruquis sought to persuade them that pnre 
religion did not prohibit the temperate use of a whole- 
some beverage ; but the idea had taken such deep root, 
that nothing could remove it, and all his efforts proved 
abortive. 

On Whitsunday he received letters and guides for 
Sartach ; but in proceeding, he encountered so many 
annoyances, that he felt as if ^' he passed through one of 
hell's gates." His attendants proved bold thieves ; but, 
taught wisdom by repeated losses, he kept very strict 
watch over them. He soon came to the narrow isthmus 
which connects the Crimea with the continent. Here were 
a ditch dug from sea to sea, and a customhouse for levy- 
ing duties, principally on salt. On leaving the penin- 
sula, he entered the vast plain of Comania, or Kapchak. 
On one side was the gulf of Azof, on the other an im- 
mense level surface, extending in some places upwards 
of twenty days' journey, and covered with the richest 
pasture, yet in the greater part of it not an inhabitant 



PRIOR TO MARCO POLO. 69 

had been left. On this dreary route nothing appeared 
but water, sky, and the sepulchres of the Comanians. 

Russia is described as a vast country stretching to- 
wards the north, but which had been, and still was, 
dreadfully wasted by the Tartars. He endeavoured to 
employ his interpreter as a vehicle for conveying to the 
other attendants some knowledge of the christian faith. 
The linguist, though objecting much to being made a 
preacher, put on an appearance of complying ; but the 
acquisition of a slight smattering of the language enabled 
the friar to perceive that, instead of conveying pious in- 
structions, he was talking on the most indifferent sub- 
jects. The attempt was therefore renounced. After 
some days the travellers arrived at the Tanais (Don), 
which is noticed as the boundary of Russia, and 
compared to the Seine for magnitude. Here they re- 
mained three days, being well regaled on turbot and 
other delicate fish. The country beyond was finely 
wooded and watered, abounding in furs, honey, and 
wax. From a difficulty in procuring horses, Rubru- 
quis was obliged to walk a good part of the way ; but, 
in a few days, came in view of the Etilia or Volga, 
which struck him as the mightiest river he had ever 
seen. He was correctly informed as to its course into 
the Caspian, a lake or sea four months' journey in 
circuit. On the 2d of August, three days after leaving it, 
he arrived at the camp of Sartach. 

Here Tartar life was for the first time presented on 
a great scale; for this chief had six wives, and his 
eldest son three ; while each female owned a large house 
and two hundred carts. It was necessary to appear 
before Cojat, a Nestorian in high authority ; but the 
guide was not a little dismayed at finding no present, 
either for himself or that great personage. To the chief, 
who was seated in state, with music and dancing before 
him, the friar introduced himself as a man who had 
renounced gold, silver, and every precious article, and 
possessed only the vestments proper to his office ; having 
therefore nothing of his own, he could not give to 



70 BMBASSIES TO THE EAST 

others. This explanation was received graciously ; and 
after some questions respecting European princes, he was 
allowed to depart. But next morning an order came 
from the minister to bring all his books and vestments; 
and, the stranger not daring to object, they were spread 
forth in the presence of numerous chiefs assembled on 
horseback. Struck with their beauty, Cojat asked if 
he would bestow all those things upon Sartach. Grief 
and trembling seized Rubruquis at this suggestion ; but 
with all the composure in his power, he stated that 
these were holy things, which it was unlawftil for any 
except priests to wear. He was then desired to invest 
himself in them, and appear before the great lord. He 
took a rich cushion, a bible presented to him by the 
king, and a psalter, containing beautiful pictures, re- 
ceived from the queen. A curtain of felt being then 
raised, exhibited the chief seated in the midst of all his 
wives, and with great store of koumiss and drinking- 
cups on a bench before him. The monks entered sing- 
ing Salve Beginay when the clerk and interpreter, but 
not the friar, were required to bend the knee. The 
Mongol leaders, at the same time, were rushing in and 
rudely jostling them. Sartach examined the bible, and 
the cross with the image on it, putting some questions 
respecting both ; but our traveller was dismayed to 
hear nothing that favoured the report, upon which 
this painful journey had been undertaken, of his being 
a believer in the gospel. He never even seemed to refer 
to the subject, except in a tone of scoffing and derision. 
On inquiry, the sole ground of the rumour was found 
to be, that when christian merchants, many of whom 
passed this way, brought liberal presents, they were 
graciously accepted ; but when Mohammedans offered 
larger gifts, they met a welcome still more cordial. 

To this severe disappointment was soon added an- 
other grievous affliction. Next morning after the inter- 
view, the Nestorian sent for him, and, according to the 
usual system, announced that he must proceed onward 
to the court of Baatu. The mandate was so peremptory. 



PRIOR TO MARCO POLO. 71 

that he did not attempt to object, but was dismayed at 
being desired to leave behind his books and vestments. 
He argued strongly against this demand, and thought he 
had succeeded ; but next day a priest and a brother of 
Cojat laid forcible hands upon them. On its being 
represented that they were necessary for a decent ap- 
pearance before Baatu, the answer was, that the same 
articles could with no propriety be exhibited before 
both princes. Rubruquis opened his mouth to make 
as he thought a triumphant reply, but was desired to be 
silent and depart. He contrived, however, to secrete 
the bible, but durst not venture on the psalter, which, 
from its golden pictures, had attracted peculiar atten- 
tion. 

In pinxseeding eastward, the friar was kept in great 
fear, being assured that a number of runaway captives, 
forming themselves into bands, often during the night 
attacked travellers, whom they murdered and robbed. 
He was extremely struck by the majestic appearance of 
the Volga, and wondered from what regions of the earth 
such huge and mighty waters should descend. Being 
informed of the great sea into which it feU, he had 
sufficient knowledge of geography to recognise it as the 
Caspian, and by his route detected the error, then pre- 
vailing it seems in Europe, of considering the latter « 
gulf of the Northern Ocean. 

On reaching the station of Baatu, he was astonished at 
the scene which presented itself. The tent-like houses 
covered a vast space of ground, which had the appearance 
of a mighty city. Yet, like those of the children of 
Israel, they were arranged in regular order, and each man, 
when he unloaded his house from the cart, knew where 
to place it. The centre one, according to which all 
were placed, was the great orda or tent of Baatu. On 
their arrival a Saracen received them, though without 
supplying victuals ; and next day he led them to the 
prince, warning them not to speak till ordered, and then 
briefly. Vast crowds flocked to see the friars, who, 
standing in the habit of their order, bareheaded and 



72 EMBASSIES TO THE EAST 

barefooted, were it is said '^ a great and strange spec- 
tacle in their eyes." So accommodating was the khan, 
that he caused a large tent to be pitched, that the people \ 
might indulge their curiosit3^ The party being intoo- 
duced, found him on a high gilded seat, beside one of his 
wives, with the others on one side^ while the rest of the 
space was filled by the chiefs. On a bench before him 
was koumiss in stately cups of silver and gold set with 
precious stones. Rubruquis being then called upon to 
kneel, bent upon one knee ; but finding this unsatisfoc- 
tory, did not choose to contend, and dropped upon both. 
Misled by this position, instead of answering questions, 
he began a prayer for the conversion of the khan^ with 
warning of the dreadful consequences of unbelief. The 
prince merely smiled ; but the derision which was loudly 
expressed by the surrounding chiefs, threw him into a 
good deal of confusion. He then delivered the king's 
letters, unwilling, it should seem, to describe himself as 
a roy£d messenger, but rather as sent by Sartach, and 
having come under the impression that both he and 
Baatu were Christians ; a remark of which no notice was 
taken. The chief then began to inquire respecting the 
King of France, and the war which he was waging a^inst 
the Saracens. He asked the friar to sit and take a 
draught of koumiss, and seeing his eyes cast down, 
desired him to look up. 

The reception was thus considered satisfactory ; but 
no sooner had they gone out, than the usual dread an- 
nouncement was made, that they must proceed onward 
through Tartary, and appear before Mangou, the supreme 
khan. They were struck with consternation, the inter- 
preter declaring he esteemed himself a dead man. Ru- 
bruquis was also much discomposed by being told that 
he could take with him only this personage, whose con- 
duct had much displeased him ; but by earnest entreaty 
he was allowed the associate, while the clerk was obliged 
to return. 

Being warned that he must travel four months 
thi'ough regions of extreme cold, he was made to leave 



FRIOR TO MARCO POLO. 73 

most of his common clothes, and invest himself in gar- 
ments of ram-skin, with the wool inside. He departed 
on the 16th September, and proceeded through the 
country of Cangle (Bjinkli Tartars), having on the right 
the Caspian, and on the left the region named Bulgaria 
the Greater. They were hurried rapidly forward, being 
obliged, he says, to travel every day as far as from Paris 
to Orleans ; a space which his troubles have evidently 
led him to overrate. As the Mongols chose always the 
best horses for themselves, and our friar was corpulent 
and unwieldy, he found it a most laborious task to keep 
pace with them. His allowance in the morning was 
only a little millet and water, but in the evening mut- 
ton and a dish of broth, which marvellously refreshed 
him. On the whole, however, he complains that " of 
hunger and thirst, cold and weariness, there was no end." 
In twelve days he reached the great river Yakok (Yaik 
or Ural) coming from the country of Pascatir (the 
Bashkir Tartars). At this stage, ceasing to behold either 
city or town, they entered " a huge and vast desert, 
which was in dimensions like unto the ocean sea." The 
guide at first treated them with great contempt, and 
considered his lot hard in being obliged to accompany 
** such base fellows ;" however he gradually conceived a 
more &vourable opinion of their characters, and intro- 
duced them to the residence of Mongol chiefs, by whom 
they were courteously entertained. OiBFers were even 
made to them of gold, silver, and fine cloths, and much 
surprise was expressed when these gifts were rejected. 
Inquiries were renewed as to the western countries, the 
number of cattle and sheep in them, and particularly 
whether the great pope was, as had been reported, 600 
years old. After a long progress they turned southward, 
and found ranges of mountains interspersed with fertile 
valleys and large rivers. On the banks of one was a city 
named Coilac, represented as the seat of .^ great trade, but 
which, with other places mentioned, our imperfect know- 
ledge of the region renders it difficult to identify. Here 
the traveller met votaries of the Shaman or Buddhist 



74 EMBASSIES TO THE EAST 

religion, so >videly diffused through Eastern Asia. He saw 
their idols of large dimensions placed behind a chest or 
table covered with candles and rich oblations : a report 
was even made of one in Cathay, which could be seen at 
the distance of two days' journey. Yet, on being strictly 
interrogated, they professed belief in the unity and spi- 
rituality of the Deity, and represented themselves as ven- 
erating such images as representations only of deceased 
friends. Their priests reside in convents, containing one 
or two hundred inmates. On meeting in the temples^ 
they remain in long rows, when, though profoundly 
silent, they are understood to be mentally repeating cer- 
tain mysterious words. Our friar made frequent but vain 
efforts to provoke them to speech. The Mongols adopt 
their system, not generally, but to the extent of framing 
in felt likenesses of dead relations, and placing them in a 
separate tent, into which none but themselves are per- 
mitted to enter. Rubruquis made the attempt, but got 
himself heartily scolded in consequence. They have also 
diviners, who precede their marches, and fix the spot 
Avhere the tents are to be pitched. 

On leaving Coilac and the lake, they proceeded north** 
ward through a mountainous region covered with deep 
snow. No human abodes appeared, except the post- 
stations maintained by the sovereign, and even these at 
no very convenient distances. Violent gusts of wind, 
which are said to be sometimes so strong as to blow 
travellers into the rivers or lakes, rushed through the 
valleys. They came to a pass of the most frightful aspect, 
which superstition had peopled with demons, who were 
believed occasionally to dart forth and carry off unfortu- 
nate strangers. Rubruquis was requested to guard against 
these dangers by some good words ; and he complied so 
far as to read the creed, when the whole party passed 
without the slightest molestation from Satan or his emis- 
saries. This raised his reputation so high, that he was im- 
portuned from all quarters for bits of writing ; and hence 
he conceived that, with an expert interpreter, he might 
have made a number of converts. At length they came 



PRIOR TO MARCO POLO. 75 

to the plain where Ken (Cuyne or Kuyuk) Kh^ui 
had heen visited by Carpini. Mangou, however, had 
chosen a different residence, which they could reach 
only by going northward, over another range of high 
country. In their progress they came to a plain like the 
sea, where there was not even a molehill ; and another 
day brought them to the palace of that great lord. 

They experienced no very cordial welcome ; for while 
the guide had a spacious house assigned to him, the three 
Europeans were thrust into a little cottage, with scarcely 
room to lay their clothes. Being, as usual, interrogated 
as to his purpose, Rubruquis replied, that he had visited 
Sartach on the supposition of his being a Christian, and 
had been sent forwcu*d by him and by Baatu. They next 
demanded whether he came to make peace \ He replied 
that his master, the French king, having never done them 
wrong, he knew not why they should make war upon 
him. It soon transpired, however, that by peace they 
really meant submission ; and they 6ontinued repeating, 
in a tone of lofty wonderment, " why came you, seeing 
you came not to make peace V He seems to have been 
hereby transported beyond the bounds of christian 
feeling, intimating a disposition to preach war against 
them to the ends of the earth. 

Next day, the friar having appeared in public bare- 
footed according to the costume of his order, drew round 
him a crowd of men, who gazed on him as a monster, 
asking if he wished to lose his feet. In fact, during the 
day, his toes became frozen, and it was necessary to 
cover this part of his person. Seeing a house with 
a cross upon it, he entered and found a well-ordered 
altar with images, and an Armenian, somewhat lean, 
and clad in rough haircloth, who received him cordially. 
This person had come from the territory of Jerusalem, 
in the hope of converting Mangou KJian, and earnestly 
exhorted Rubruquis to strenuous exertions for that pur- 
pose. He even advised him, in case of compliance, to 
tender the submission of the French king ; an expedient 
which the other refused to adopt. Towards evening, 



76 EMBASSIES TO THE EAST 

they obtained a small meal ; but the guide and his com- 
panions, having got drunk, never thought of them ; in- 
deed they seemed not to attract attention in any qmuter. 
A few days after, however, they were brought to the 
court, and being examined by some Nestorian priests as 
to the degree of homage they were willing to pay the 
great khan, they gave satisfactory answers, and were led 
to the gate of his house. When they had sung a hymn, 
and been carefiilly searched for concealed weapons, the 
felt curtain was raised, showing the interior of the tent 
covered all over with cloth of gold. The khan, seated 
on a bed or rather sofa, appeared about forty-five, of the 
middle size, with a flat nose, and wrapt in rich and bril- 
liant fur. Beside him sat his wife, a pretty little young 
woman ; also, Cirina, a grown-up daughter, with hard 
features, understood to be mistress of the household. 
Four different liquors were offered, but he left the choice 
to themselves, and was presented with one made from 
rice, of which, moved by respect, he drank a little. It 
happened that Mangou had in the apartment some fal- 
cons and other birds, which he made to light on his 
hand, and whose movements interested him so much 
more than the message of the friars, that for a long time 
he took no notice of them whatever. At length, they 
were desired to speak, being at the same time order^ 
to drop upon their knees. Rubruquis gave the same 
account as before of the circumstances which had led 
him to visit the imperial court, concluding with a re- 
quest to remain in the country, and teach his religion. 
He added an apology for not having brought gold, silver, 
or other precious articles. The khan replied in lofty 
terms : — ** Even as the sun spreads his beams every 
where, so our power and Baatu's spreads itself every 
where, so that we have no need of your silver and gold." 
Here, however, a serious obstacle arose to farther inter- 
course. The interpreter had taken such advantage of 
the abundant supply of liquor, that he could no longer 
distinctly convey the sentiments intrusted to him. The 
extreme awkw£u*dness of this situation was alleviated by 



PRIOR TO HARCO POLO. 77 

the appearance of strong symptoms that Mangou had also 
indulged too freely; and under these circumstances, the 
earliest opportunity was embraced of taking their leave. 
They were followed by the secretary, who proceeded to 
examine them respecting the kingdom of France, espe- 
cially the number of rams, oxen, and horses contained 
in it. These inquiries, to our traveller's deep indigna- 
tion, were found to be made on the understanding that 
the Tartars were presently to proceed thither and take 
possession of the whole. It was also announced that 
Mangou charitably allowed him to remain two months, 
when the extreme cold would be mitigated. He solicited 
permission to reside permanently, but received no answer. 
He had now the satis£Eu:tion of meeting a lady from 
Mentz, whose husband was employed as an architect, 
and began to find himself generally viewed with a more 
&Y0iiiable eye. Having complained, that in his present 
mansion he had not even room to pray for the khan, he 
was provided with an abode somewhat more spacious. 
The supply of victuals even would have been tolerable, 
were it not that whenever the painty sat down to their 
meals, half-starved natives rushed in for a share. The 
monk indeed asserted that the khan was at least partial 
to Christians ; but this soon appeared to be a complete 
deception. He merely maintained a friendly intercourse 
with all the sects, and obtained from each prayers and 
£Ehvourable predictions ; while they readily followed his 
court, " as flies do honey." He bestowed on them gifts, 
and they prophesied to him prosperity. This mortifying 
impartiality became very evident on a great holiday, 
when the Nestorian priests went in first and performed 
their ceremonies ; but they were followed by the Sara- 
cens, and these by the idolaters. The friar, having one 
day entered a Nestorian chapel, was much surprised to 
find Mangou seated. He was made to sing a psalm, and 
to show his bible, breviary, and images, which the prince 
carefully examined. The latter then departed, but his 
lady remained, and having filled a large cup with liquor, 
desired a blessing on it, fell on her knees, and drank it 



78 EMBASSIES TO THE EAST 

ofF. Similar observances continued, till her majesty, 
being completely drunk, was carried home in her chariot. 
Rubruquis generally remarks, that the persons here call- 
ing themselves Christians did the utmost dishonour to 
their holy profession. Courting the grandees by the 
most abject flattery, they allowed their magical and 
idolatrous rites to pass without censure, and instead of 
reproving their intoxication, shared it in the most scan- 
dalous manner. He was much dissatisfied even with hia 
Armenian friend, whom he accompanied to a great lady 
called Cota, then extremely unwel^ and on whom all the 
arts of magic and divination had been vainly exhausted. 
The priest presented what he termed holy water, but 
it proved to be an infusion of rhubarb, the effects of which 
were represented as supernatural, and being probably 
adapted to the full habit of body which her mode of living 
had produced, afforded speedy relief. Our friar was ti 
first struck with awe at the sight of this object, which 
he conceived as bearing a sacred and mysterious charac- 
ter ; but on learning that it was a mere cathartic root, 
expressed much displeasure at such deception. He ob- 
served too, that though, in drinking, the lady did homage 
to the cross, there were four swords half-drawn disposed 
at each side and both ends of the bed ; while a silver 
chalice, suspected to have been carried off from a church 
in Hungary, was fiUed with ashes and a black stone, 
evidently for purposes of conjuration ; yet to these pro- 
fane objects no exception was taken by the monk. 

towards the end of Lent, the khan removed to his 
royal seat of Karakorum, when the friars, with other of- 
ficial attendants, were expected to accompany him. The 
route lay northward, among hills covered with deep 
snow ; and the cold becoming most intense, their prayers 
were solicited in order that the animals composing the 
train might not perish. After two days it abated, and 
on Palm Sunday, at nine in the morning, they entered 
the city, bearing the cross aloft, and met a Nestorian 
procession, which they accompanied to church. This 
capital of an empire which embraced nearly half the 



PRIOR TO HARCO POLO. Jd 

world, is described as unfit to bear any comparison with 
the town of St Denis, near Paris. There were two prin- 
cipal streets, one occupied by the Saracens, adjacent to 
the court where the fairs were held, and merchants 
chiefly resorted ; the other by the Chinese, where trades 
and manufactures were practised. The palace, situ- 
ated near the gate, occupied an extensive space, enclosed 
by a brick wall like a monastery. The great hall for 
festivals is compared to a church, having two rows of 
pillars, and three gates on the south ; while on the north 
side was the raised seat for the monarch. William Bou- 
chier, husband to the lady from Mentz, had constructed 
here a most admired ornament. It was a silver tree, 
having at its foot four lions, while through the trunk 
ascended an equal number of pipes, conveying respec- 
tively wine, koumiss, mead, and rice liquor. From the 
top, these conduits branched downwards, and became 
connected with serpents, which twined round the body 
of the tree. On the summit stood an angel, who, on a 
signal given by the butler, blew a trumpet, at which 
sound the servants, from copious stores provided in a 
concealed apartment, filled the pipes with their appro- 
priate beverages. These, after making the circuit of the 
trunk and branches, descended into vessels prepared 
beneath for their reception. The khan held two great 
annual festivals, one at Easter, and the other at Midsum- 
mer, which last, as the more important, was attended by 
all the chiefs within twenty days' journey. On these occa- 
sions he had a very elevated place, where he " sat above 
like a god." One lady was seated by him ; while other 
places, considerably beneath, but still higher than those 
for the rest of the company, were occupied by the mem- 
bers of his femily. All the men were on one side, the 
women on the other ; while in the midst, between the 
throne and the silver tree, was an empty space for ser- 
vants or ambassadors. 

The authorities at Karakorum were found in con- 
siderable agitation, in consequence of a report that 400 
assassins, disguised in various habits, were on the watch 



nc 



80 EMBASSIES TO THE EAST 

to kill the emperor. The friars underwent a strict 
mination by the magistracy, and afterwards at court by 
several of the chief secretaries. To the latter the ulti- 
mate statement of Rubruquis was, that he came to speak 
to the khan words of God. They then demanded what 
words these were, expecting, he believes, that acoordli^ 
to the usual practice, they would consist in announdng 
some prosperous event. On the contrary, he gave an 
honest and faithful exposition of christian duty. The 
examiners being mostly Saracens, were much displeased, 
and took a most unfair advantage of him, by demandingi 
whether his remarks did not imply that Mangou ELban 
did not keep the commandments of Grod. This cruel 
thrust he attempted to parry by saying that he was 
ready to expound his views to the monarch, leaving him 
to determine that point for himself. The other party, 
however, choosing, not without some reason, to consider 
him as thus admitting their allegation, proceeded directly 
to inform his majesty that he was denounced by this 
stranger not only as an idolater, but a violator of the di- 
vine statutes. Mangou appears to have been a good deal 
discomposed ; yet he did not take any violent step. He 
merely sent his secretaries to the friars, observing that 
the Christians, Saracens, and Tuines (idolaters), had 
separate laws and books, and each insisted that his own 
was the best. He desired, therefore, that they should 
meet, explain, and compare their respective tenets, so 
that he might judge which was purest. Yet his dis- 
pleasure was shown by the arrival next day of the mes- 
sengers to announce, that having now resided long in 
the country, they must take their departure. They 
had indeed much exceeded the two montlis allowed in 
the beginning of January, having nearly reached Whit- 
sun-eve ; yet they liad hoped to be silently permitted to 
remain. The same wish was intimated, as in the case of 
Carpini, that ambassadors should accompany them to 
France ; but Rubruquis declared his inability to guar- 
antee their safety in the warlike countries tlirough which 
he was to pass. 



PRIOR TO MARCO POLO. 81 

The preparations for the conference continued, and 
seem to have excited a considerable ferment, since the 
khan thought it necessary to proclaim, << that none speak 
contentious or injurious words to other, nor make any 
tumult, on pain of death," The idolaters murmured 
somewhat loudly at this unprecedented attempt to dive 
into their secrets ; but they were not aUowed to escape. 
By the final arrangement, the friar was pitched against 
them, seconded by the Nestorians, and even the Saracens, 
who concurred in his undertaking to prove the existence 
of one supreme deity, while the opposite party main- 
tained the false doctrine : — ^** fools say there is one God, 
but wise men say there are many." From his report, 
he appears really to have maintained the argument in a 
very respectable manner, and boasts that his opponents, 
though without manifesting any signs of conviction, were 
reduced to silence. The two other parties celebrated 
this issue with a song of triumph, and then, according to 
their usual custom, by copious libations. 

Next day, Rubruquis was again called to court, but 
warned to say nothing relative to his departure, as that 
was a point irrevocably decided. On coming into the 
presence, he was sharply asked, whether he had really 
termed tiie monarch an idolater. He denied it, and hav- 
ing repeated what he really said, was told it was well, 
as the alleged speech would have been highly improper. 
Mangou then began a sort of confession of faith, inti- 
mating, that he believed and served one God, who, he 
supposed, might reveal himself in different modes to 
different nations. He taunted the friar, by remarking 
that the Christians, who had received the Scriptures, did 
not observe them ; but afterwards said, he meant no 
personal application. He even offered gold, silver, and 
fine cloths ; but the holy man said, he wanted only aid 
for his journey, with a pass that would carry him to the 
King of Armenia. He was told that he should have 
both. Having then obtained leave to speak, he somewhat 
earnestly solicited permission to return ; but after some 
musing, the answer was given : — " You have a long way 

F 



82 EMBASSIES TO THE EAST 

to go ; make yourself strong with food." In this not 
uncourteous refusal he was obliged to acquiesce. 

Rubruquis, though he declined receiving a political 
envoy, had readily agreed to take a letter, the composition 
of which occupied a considerable time. The courts in- 
deed, was entirely engrossed by the arrival of ambassadors 
from Bagdad, from India, and from Turkey, and by a 
festival, at which much drinking took place. At length 
the epistle was delivered, the terms of which are some- 
wliat intricate ; but the general tenor was to announce^ 
as usual, the empire of the world conferred by heaven 
upon Gengis and his posterity, the obligation of the King 
of France, as of all other monarchs, to obey it, and the 
serious consequences that would result if he &iled to 
comply. It was the 9th of July before the mission 
were ready to depart, when, notwithstanding their re- 
solution against receiving presents, they found it neces- 
sary, out of respect to the monarch, to accept each a 
single garment. This disinterestedness was extolled by 
the Nestorians to the idolaters ; but they replied, it 
was because the travellers were fools, while they them- 
selves, like wise men, if the khan should offer all he 
possessed, would gladly accept it. 

Rubruquis, in his return, was enabled by the milder 
season to take a more direct course, by which, in two 
months and ten days, he reached the court of Baatu. The 
tract of country, however, through which he passed, was 
most desolate ; and on one occasion only did he see the 
appearance of a house. Sartach was met on his way to 
pay homage to Mangou ; he treated the pilgrims cour- 
teously, and gave an order on Cojat's father to deliver up 
all the articles that had been detained. Havmg determined 
to proceed by land, on account of tlic approach of winter, 
the traveUers were furnished by Baatu with a guide to 
conduct them to the Soldan of Turkey. In passing 
through the Caucasian territory, they found the moun- 
tain-regions occupied by independent tribes, who made 
frequent inroads into the plain, so that even with a good 
escort they did not feel altogether secure. Proceeding 



PRIOR TO HARCO POLO. 83 

through Derbend, or the Iron Gate, they came to the 
junction of the Kur and Araxes ; then ascended the 
coarse of the latter river, having Mount Ararat on their 
light. On reaching Erzeroum, they found themselves 
within the Turkish dominion, and proceeded direct to 
Iconium,its capital, for that empire then scarcely extended 
beyond Asia Minor. It was found much weakened by 
war with the Tartars and other vicissitudes ; so that it 
was said, '* a child ruleth in Turkey, having no treasure, 
few warriors, and many enemies." That power, how- 
ever, was destined soon afterwards to break forth with 
increased energy, and become the terror of Europe. Ru« 
bruquis embarkedat Aiasfor Cyprus, and thence proceeded 
to Antioch and Tripoli, where he rejoined his chapter. 

These two expeditions conveyed to Europe a pretty 
distinct view of the economy of that mighty empire, 
which held sway over nearly one-half of the world, 
and struck terror into the rest. The spectacle is the 
more interesting, too, as it is now passed for ever. A 
people sunk in the depth of barbarism, ruling or over- 
awing the entire circle of civilized nations, is a pheno- 
menon which the lapse of ages can never reproduce. 
Intelligence, weahh, machinery, now give to the latter 
an undisputed superiority over brute courage ; and ten 
British regiments would have speedily subverted the 
empires of Grengis and of Timur in their greatest glory. 
The aspect, therefore, which the first and greatest of 
these presented, must be very deserving of attention. 

One of the circumstances which most struck the friars 
was the complete and absolute subjection in which the 
khans held a people, who might least have been ex- 
pected to submit to such rule. They had seen in Europe, 
not indeed any regular despotism, yet the high domi- 
nation of lords over their serfs, and of the heads of the 
church over the inferior orders ; but no subordination, 
civil or ecclesiastical, could be compared with that which 
they here witnessed. The monarch appointed to each 
chief his place of residence, ordered him wherever he 
pleased, to war, to life, or to death, and was obeyed 



84 EMBASSIES TO THE EAST 

without the slightest hesitation. No man, in relation 
to him, could call any possession his own, but held every 
thing at the command of the ruler. His messengen 
were furnished with horses, and whatever they wanted, 
in the countries through which they passed. If he desired 
to add to his wives the daughter or sister of any of his 
subjects, she was yielded up without hesitation; nay, 
a selection of the most beautiful maidens was periodi- 
cally made, of whom he retained part for himself, and dis- 
tributed the others among his officers. To account for a 
sway so despotic, we may remark, that all Tartary wai 
then one vast camp, engaged in habitual war ; and to 
carry on military operations with success, complete dia- 
cipline and subordination were necessary. Grengis had 
also succeeded in overawing an ignorant people, by a 
pretended commission, and even, it was said, a forged 
letter from the deity, placing in his hands the dominion 
of the whole world. His splendid victories and exten- 
sive conquests, might seem to confirm this donation; 
and even their pride might lead them to submit to an 
authority which had raised their nation to such a height 
of greatness. 

Another circumstance, equally opposite to precon- 
ceived ideas, was the polish, courtesy, and respectful 
familiarity, which distinguished their social intercourse. 
Quarrels, blows, combats, and bloodshed, then so frequent 
in Europe, were not witnessed, even amid their deepest 
potations. Honesty was every where conspicuous ; dieir 
wagons and other property were secure without locks 
or guards ; and if any of their cattle strayed, arrange- 
ments were made, by which they were speedily recover- 
ed. Notwithstanding the frequent scarcity of victuals, 
they were generous in relieving those in greater want 
than themselves. But towards all other nations they 
displayed the most inordinate pride. Great kings from 
different parts of Asia occasionally visited the khan ; 
yet the meanest Tartars, appointed to attend on those 
princes, treated them as their inferiors, took precedence 
of them in walking, and occupied the principal seats in 



PRIOR TO MARCO POLO. 85 

the apartmeDts. Their reckless massacres in war, too, 
were generally known. It is even aaserted, that to pro- 
mote their views of conquest, there was no deceit or 
stratagem to which they would not stoop ; nay, that 
they had gained more hy these arts than hy their valour 
in the field. It must, however, be observed, that the 
law of nations, in regard to ambassadors, appears to have 
been very well observed, even where their conduct did 
not give satisfisu^ion. While within the territory, they 
were guarded, and their wants supplied ; and if in this 
last respect they often suiBFered much misery, it seems to 
have been rather the fault of subordinate functionaries, 
than the intention of the rulers. 

In the domestic condition of this people we observe 
remarkable contrasts. Within their rude tents glittered 
all the pomp of the East ; gems, gold, the richest fabrics 
of Bagdad, India, and China. These were brought pro- 
fusely in name of presents, but in reality, under the 
influence of fear, as tribute. Yet this splendour was 
accompanied with a scanty supply even of the humblest 
necessaries of life. The subsistence of the great body 
of the people depended almost entirely on the milk of 
their cattle, during the season when it could be procured. 
That of mares was preferred to all others, especially 
after being fermented into their fevourite liquor. In its 
absence, that of cows, sheep, and goats, was gladly con- 
sumed. In winter, when animals no longer yielded this 
beverage, recourse was had to millet, not made into bread, 
but dissolved in a large proportion of melted snow, and 
drunk as if it had been milk. Those who could afford 
to kill a sheep from time to time had in the evening a 
small dish of mutton made into broth. Even tliis 
scanty diet often failed, and these hardy warriors were 
obliged to spend whole days without food, — a privation 
which they bore patiently and even gaily. Yet this 
fortitude in submitting to necessity can scarcely be 
called temperance, sinca at their feasts, and on every 
occasion when koumiss could be procured, they indulged 
in the wildest excesses of intoxication. It may have 



86 EMBASSIES TO THE EAST 

been observed, that even at the imperial banquets^ the 
entertainment did not go beyond a suflBciency of mut- 
ton ; the real luxury consisting in an immoderate con- 
sumption of intoxicating fluids. — The general conduct of 
the sexes was correct ; their discourse was free from 
immodesty; and the breach of the marriage- vow was 
severely punished. But the extreme length to which 
polygamy was carried among the chiefs was at once 
immoral, and unjust towards the body of the people. 

The religious condition of this singular society may 
be sufficiently collected from the narrative already given. 
The family of Gengis and all the great leaders professed 
a species of deism, which might even have been consid- 
ered pure, had it not been solely employed as an engine 
of state policy. Its main tenet was the commission 
given from on high to hold the whole earth in subjec- 
tion, and the consequent right to carry war and desola- 
tion among every people who should refuse to obey 
the mandate. In other respects a complete toleration 
was extended to the different creeds which prevailed 
in the country ; including that of the Nestorian Chris- 
tians, of the Mohammedans, who, as long as the caliphate 
survived, were called Saracens ; and lastly, of the votaries 
of the Shaman superstition, nearly identical with that of 
Boodh or Fo, — a system widely diffused through eastern 
Asia. The priests of all these sects were not only fav- 
oured but courted, admitted to the palace, and loaded with 
gifts ; while to each separately was held out the hope 
of his tenets being adopted by the monarch. No such 
intention, it may be presumed, was ever entertained ; yet, 
besides the policy of conciliating the respective votaries, 
there docs not seem to have been wanting a certain vague 
belief in them all, to the extent at least of expecting bene- 
fit from their prayers, and the fulfilment of auspicious 
predictions. The imperial creed too, amid its boasted 
purity, included, for purposes of divination and the cure 
of diseases, the meanest and most childish practices. 

Carpini has given an account of the military sys- 
tem of the Tartars, — a subject which then excited in 



PRIOR TO MARCO POLO. 87 

£iirope the most intense interest. It seems to have 
included systematic arrangements, then unknown in 
Europe, where the troops, rushing to battle under their 
feudal lords, displayed little more than a gallant onset. 
Here they were arranged in bodies of 10, 100, 1000, 
10,000, commanded by oflBcers rising always higher in 
station ; while a few, of still more elevated rank, exer- 
cised the general direction of the war. They did not 
mingle with the combatants, but remained in the rear, 
issuing orders. If any members of a corps fled while 
the others maintained their ground, or stood aloof while 
the rest advanced, they were killed on the spot. Not- 
withstanding their daring valour, they resorted to every 
species of stratagem. They sometimes placed their cap- 
tives on horseback in the rear, or formed even clothes 
into the shape of men, in order to magnify their apparent 
numbers. Before an engagement, detachments were 
placed in ambush, which, during the conflict, appeared 
suddenly on the enemy's flanks, spreading confusion and 
dismay. When they were to cross a broad river, they 
spread over it large hides, fastened by the comers with 
ropes, placing themselves and their baggage upon them. 
Horses were then attached in front, the foremost line 
of which was guided by men swimming. On capturing 
a city, inquiry was made for the best artificers, who, 
with a few others to serve as slaves, were carried along 
with them : all the rest were massacred without mercy. 
Noble or distinguished persons were never, spared, or if 
by any chance they were, it was only to be kept in per- 
petual captivity. 

The panic which still reigned in Europe of a second 
Tartar invasion proved happily unfounded ; the khans 
being diverted in the first instance by more tempting 
objects. Hulagu, a nephew of Mangou, in 1258, sub- 
verted the caliphate, and Kublai, in the course of the 
next twelve years, made the complete conquest of 
China. The most violent dissensions then broke out 
among the members of this powerful dynasty, and the 
vast mass was soon broken into separate and hostile 



88 EMBASSIES TO THE EAST, &c 

fragments. Kublai was the last who was c 
Grand EJian of all the Tartars ; and even his re 
did not extend far beyond the limits of China 
we shall find him, in the narrative of Marco P 
bining the rude magnificence of the desert 
pomp and somewhat of the elegance of the most 
empire then in the world. 



TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 



Preliminary Notice. 



At the time when the events now related took place, ties 
of a more salutary nature connected Europe with the 
Eastern world. The Italian towns had become con- 
spicuous as the scenes where arts and commerce, after 
being nearly crushed by the inroad of the barbarous 
nations, first began to revive. Their manufacturing 
industry, indeed, though very considerable, was surpassed 
by that of the Low Countries ; still they formed almost the 
sole channel by which intercourse was maintained with 
Asia, whence at that time were imported all articles 
of luxury, — ^precious stones, pearls, spices, and cloths of 
unrivalled fineness. Venice, Genoa, and Pisa contended 
with each other in this career ; but the first, owing to her 
situation and superior power, held the principal place. 
Her position was much advanced by a very extraordi- 
nary event, which occurred in the beginning of the 
thirteenth century. A crusade had been organized in 
France among a number of the nobles, who, proceed- 
ing to Venice, procured the necessary shipping by in- 
ducing Dandolo, the doge, a gallant chief, with other 
distinguished persons, to share in the enterprise. On 
reaching the shores of the Levant, their views took a 
very singular direction ; for instead of advancing to 
the Holy Land, they turned their arms against Constan- 
tinople, carried that capital by storm, and placed Bald- 
win, count of Flanders, on the imperial throne of the 
East. The Venetians shared, not only the booty, but 



90 PRELIMINARY NOTICE. 

also the power acquired by this wicked achievement. 
They were allowed to occupy an extensive quarter of 
the city, and to maintain there a podesta or bailo, in- 
vested with very ample jurisdiction. 

There had never been wanting native merchants^ 
ready to bring the desired commodities from the remoter 
provinces of Asia to the contiguous parts of Europe. 
But the Venetian traders, encouraged by their increasing 
prosperity, and the advantageous position now attained, 
began to aim at penetrating into the interior, and ob- 
taining the goods on better terms in the country where 
they were produced. The dominions of the caliph, the 
head of the Mohammedan feith, opposed, it is true, a 
powerful obstacle to their taking the most direct route. 
But the successors of Gengis, though so terrible and 
merciless in the field, welcomed in their tented cities^ 
without the least distinction of country or religion, all 
who brought articles that were either ornamental or 
useful. We have seen from Rubruquis, how Chris- 
tian merchants, on paving their way with presents, 
passed unmolested through the camps of Sartach and 
Baatu. There were soon found distinguished citizens of 
Venice ready to follow in the same track. 

Nicolo and Maffio Polo, two individuals who united the 
character, then common, of nobles and traffickers, in the 
middle of the thirteenth century, set out for Constantin- 
ople, whence they proceeded to the shores of the Crimea. 
There they were encouraged to visit a great Tartar 
chief on the Volga, where a series of events, for which 
we shall refer to the following narrative, led them 
on eastwards as far as China. After a short stay, 
they returned to Venice ; and two years later, went 
back, according to engagement, carrying with them 
Marco, son to Nicolo, a promising youth. They spent 
twenty-four years in the East, chiefly at the court of 
the great khan, the Tartar monarch who ruled over 
China. At the end of that time they finally returned ; 
but, on reaching Venice, were so completely altered, — 
their dress, appearance, and even language had become 



PRELIMINARY NOTICE. 91 

SO foreign, — ^that their nearest friends were unable to re- 
cognise them. After obtaining with difficulty access to 
their paternal mansion, they determined by a public 
display to satisfy their countrymen as to the happy re- 
sults of their journey. All their relations and acquaint- 
ances were invited to a magnificent feast. They then 
presented themselves in splendid dresses, first of crim- 
son satin, next of damask, and lastly of velvet bearing 
the same colour, which they successively threw oflF and 
distributed among the company. Returning in their 
ordinary attire, Marco produced the rags in which they 
had been disguised, ripped them open, and exhibited 
such a profusion of diamonds, rubies, sapphires, and pre- 
cious jewels, as completely dazzled the spectators. Mr 
Marsden questions this anecdote, as unsuitable to the 
dignity of their characters ; yet there is no reason to 
suppose in them any indificrence to display ; and Ra- 
musio assures us, that about 200 years after, when he 
was a boy, he had been told it by MaJipiero, an aged and 
respectable senator, who had heard the story from his own 
grandfather. It appears certain, that on the news of 
their wealth and adventures, persons of all ranks, ages, 
and professions, flocked to the house with congratula- 
tions and inquiries. Marco, whose society was courted 
by all the distinguished youths, stood forth as principal 
orator. Having often occasion in his enumerations of 
people and treasure, to repeat the term million, then not 
very common in Europe, the surname of Millione was 
applied to him, first in jest, but Ramusio says he has 
seen him thus named in the records of the republic ; and 
the house in which he lived, down to that day, bore the 
title of the Corte del Millione, Count Boni has even 
adopted this as the title of his learned work on the 
subject. 

Meantime, he appears not to have thought of com- 
mitting his observations to writing ; and the fruits of 
his travels would probably never have reached posterity, 
but for a severe misfortune by which he was overtaken. 
Venice and Genoa, those two mighty rivals, were then 



92 PRELIMINARY NOTICE. 

at open war ; and news arrived that a fleet belonging 
to the latter had appeared on the coast of Dalmatia. 
Andrea Dandolo was immediately sent against them, 
when Marco, with characteristic spirit, offered his ser- 
vices, and was appointed to the command of a galley. 
The squadrons encountered near the island of Curzola ; 
and it was a disastrous day for Venice. Her fleet was 
completely defeated; and Dandolo himself, who was 
made prisoner, escaped only by a voluntary death the 
ignominy of being carried in triumph to Oenoa. Mano^ 
also, was wounded and taken ; but, too wise to imitate the 
rash example of his commander, he was conveyed to that 
city, and lodged in prison. Here, according to Ramusio, 
liis character and adventures excited an extraordinary 
interest ; and being visited by the principal inhabitants^ 
his captivity was rendered as mild as possible. A mora 
important circumstance was, that he had a fellow-pris- 
oner, Rusticians, a citizen of Pisa, though of French 
origin, who was imbued with an enthusiastic love of 
legendary and romantic lore. One of such a temper 
could not but listen with rapture to the wondrous tele 
of his companion ; and it was soon agreed between 
them, that it would be most unjust to the world to with- 
hold from it the knowledge of so many marvellous 
scenes as those which he had witnessed. Marco, we 
suspect, was no great penman ;* but his companion was 
fond of composition, tliough without having attained 
very high proficiency. We quite agree with Count Boni, 
from the tenor of the narrative, that the traveller wrote 
no part of it, but merely dictated ; nay, we doubt much 
if there was 'any such regular or author-like process as 
this term would imply. We should rather say that 
he talked it to his companion, who wrote it down as he 
best could. The frequent change from the first to the 
third person seems to prove, that while some parts were 

* According to Kamusio, ho sont to Venice for his notes, 
which aro indoed repeatedly referred to in that editor's text ; 
but, as not the slightest mention is made of them in any of the 
earlier editions, we greatly doubt if they ever existed. 



PRELIMINARY NOTICE. 93 

thus committed to paper, others were written from 
memory after the conversation. Thus, by a curious 
combination of circumstances, was produced, in a foreign 
language and an irregular form, this extraordinary his- 
tory. It was stUl a sealed book to the traveller's coun- 
trymen ; but there seems every reason to believe that 
it soon received an Italian dress, under which it was 
rapidly circulated. 

On the 12th May 1299, peace was concluded between 
the two rival cities ; and Marco in consequence regained 
his liberty.* On his arrival, he found a considerable 
change in the &mily. His father, dreading, it is said, 
that through the son's captivity there should be no heirs 
to his great wealth, had taken a young wife ; not being, 
perhaps, unwilling to excuse, on this ground, a step which 
might seem unsuitable to his age. Hence Marco found 
on his return three young brothers who had been bom 
during his absence. He had too much discretion to 
take umbrage at this circumstance, or the consequent 
diminution of riches, which, indeed, were still suffi- 
ciently ample for all parties. Following soon after the 
example of his parent, he became the father of two 
daughters, named Moretta and Fantina. The rest of his 
life was spent in Venice ; but modem inquirers have in 
vain sought to trace in it a single incident. It has only 
been discovered, that his will was made in 1323, proving 
him to have at least exceeded the age of sixty-six. 

• Boni, II Millione, i. introd. xix. Mr Marsden supposes 
him liberated by the kindness of the Genoese ; but the count 
seems to have had more precise information. 



TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO. 



Introductory Narrative of the Journey. 

Prologue — Journey of Nicolo and Maffio Polo into the East — 
Their Arrival at the Ck>urt of Kublai, the Tartar Emperor 
of China — Sent back on a Mission to the Pope — Return, 
carrying Marco with them — Final Departure, and Voyage 
through the Indian Ocean to Persia — Arrival at Venice. 

Prologue. 

EsiPERORs, kings, dukes, marquises, counts, knights, 
and all persons wishing to know the various generations 
of men in the world, also the kingdoms, provinces, 
and all the regions of the East, read this book : in it 
you will find very great and wonderful things of the 
nations, chiefly of Armenia, Persia, and Tartary, India, 
and various other provinces. In the present work Messer 
Marco Polo, a prudent and learned citizen of Venice, 
relates in order the various things which he himself 
saw, or heard from men of honour and truth. And 
those who read this book may be assured that all things 
in it are true. For I would have you to know that, 
from the creation of Adam to the present day, no Pagan, 
or Saracen, or Christian, or any other person of whatever 
race or generation, explored so many parts of the world, 
or saw such great wonders, as this Messer Marco Polo. 
He being in the year of our Lord 1295 shut up as a 
captive in the prisons of Genoa, thought with himself 
what a great evil it would be, if the wonders seen and 
heard by him should not be known to those who could 
not view them with their own eyes. He therefore 
caused the accounts here contained to be written by 



96 INTRODUCTORY NARRATIVE 

Messer S. Rusticians of Pisa, who was confined with him 
in the same prison, in.the year of our Lord 1298. 

I.— Nicolo and Maffio Polo travel into the East. 

In the year of our Lord 1260, the Emperor Baldwin 
^reigning at Constantinople, Nicolo Polo, father of the said 
Marco, and Maffio, hrother of Nicolo, entered a ship, 
laden with divers costly goods ; and, spreading their 
sails, committed themselves to the deep. They arrived in 
safety at Constantinople, where they disposed of their 
cargo with advantage. They then determined to proceed 
together, in search of farther profit, to the Greater 
Sea ;* and, having purchased many precious jewels, de- 
parted from Constantinople, and, entering a ship, sailed 
to Soldaia.t After remaining there some days, they 
resolved to proceed farther, and, mounting on horseback, 
came by continued journeys to Sara, the residence of 
Barka Khan, king and lord of the Tartars, who then 
inhabited Bulgaria. J That prince, who was much rejoiced 
at their arrival, received them very honourably and 
kindly. They gave him all the jewels brought fix)m 
Constantinople, which he gladly accepted, and bestowed 
in return double their value. After they had dwelt in 
this city a year, a most furious war arose between Barka 
and Alau, the ruler of Eastern Tartary. Their forces 
were led against each other ; and, after a very sharp 
contest and much slaughter on both sides, Alau was 
victorious.§ This war rendered it impossible for the 

• The name given at Constantinople to the Black Sea, as 
distinguished from the smaller one of Marmora, on which that 
capital is situated. 

r Called now Soudak. This part of the Crimea, forming 
then the entrance into the northern regions of Europe and Asia, 
is described by Rubruquis, page 66. 

It: This is not to bo confounded with the country of the same 
namo on the Danube, but is applied to the great plains on the 
Volga, and by early travellers is often called JBulgaria the 
Greater. Barka was the brother of Baatu. and succeeded to 
his dominion. Sara, by Kamusio called Assara, is Sarai, a 
town on the Volga, founded by that prince, and not far firom 
the modem Astracan. 

§ Alau, in the histories of Asia named Hoolaku. was a grand- 
son of Gengis, and brother of Mangou. He had received the 



OP THE JOURNEY. 97 

Venetians to return with safety by the same road, and 
they thought it advisable to proceed eastward, and en- 
deavour by another route to find their way back to 
"Venice. Departing from Barka they happily reached 
a certain city named Oukaka, subject to the dominion 
of a western chief. Thence they passed a river named 
Tigris,* and wandered through a desert during seventeen 
successive days, finding no inhabitants, except Tartars 
dwelling in tents and subsisting by their cattle. They 
then came to a city in the province of Persia, named Bok- 
hara,t the noblest in that country, governed by a king 
called Barak. Here, being unable to proceed, they re- 
mained three full years. 

II. — ^They arrive at the Court of the Tartar Emperor of China. 

While the brothers sojourned in Bokhara, it hap- 
pened that Alau, lord of the East, despatched ambas- 
sadors to the sovereign of all the Tartars, who in their 
language is called the great khan, meaning the king 
of kings, and whose name was Kublai. They, on 
meeting the brothers, felt not a little wonder, having 
never seen any men from the Latin countries.} Ad- 
dressing them courteously, they besought that they 
would accompany the embassy to the khan, promising 
much honour and wealth, since, though wonderfully 

command of that force which we have repeatedly seen sta- 
tioned on the eastern frontier of Persia, and now occupied 
the greater part of that empire. In 1258, he rendered him- 
self famous by the capture of Bagdad, and the subversion of 
the caliphate. The term Eastern applies only to his relative 
position in regard to the Volga. The details of this war will 
oe given from the French edition at the close of the work. 

• The travellers would doubtless be not a little bewildered 
in this disastrous journey through an unknown country. This 
certainly appears in their mistaking for the Tigris a river 
which undoubtedly was the Sirr or Sihon, the ancient Jaxartes. 

t A well known city of Central Asia. The making it part 
of Persia may be ascribed to the same confusion of ideas which 
is adverted to in the last note. 

t The term Latin during the middle a§es was used to ex- 
press the nations of Western Europe subject to the spiritual 
dominion of the pope. They were tnus distinguished from the 
subjects and dependents of the Constantinopolitan empire, 
whose language was Greek. 

6 



98 INTRODUCTORY NARRATIVB 

desirous, he had never seen one of their nation. The 
Venetians made a suitable answer, and frankly agreed to 
comply with the request. They set out and continued 
a whole year travelling in a north-eastern direction ; 
and though much delayed by heavy snows and the swell- 
ing of rivers, at length reached the residence of that 
mighty monarch, having beheld on their way many 
wonderful objects, which will be described hereafter in 
this book. 

III.— Their Reception. 

Kublai, illustrious for his benignity, received the 
brothers kindly and joyfully, being very desirous to 
see Latins. He urgently inquired what sort of em- 
peror they had, how he lived and administered justice ; 
asking questions also respecting the supreme pontiff, 
and aU the acts and manners of the Christians — ^to which 
they made judicious replies in the Tartar language, 
which they had learned. 

IV. — Sent back on an Embassy to the Pope. 

This great king and master of all the Tartars in the 
world, and of all those regions, being informed respect- 
ing the actions of the Latins, was greatly pleased. Call- 
ing a council of his barons, he informed them, that he 
wished to send messengers to the pope, the lord of the 
Christians ; which they unanimously approved. He then 
asked the brothers in friendly terms to be the bearers 
of his message ; and this they prudently declared them- 
selves ready and willing ta undertake. He next ordered 
letters to be written, to be conveyed by them in com- 
pany with a certain baron named KogotaJ, whom he 
assigned as a companion. He instructed them, after 
the necessary salutations, to request of his holiness to 
send a hundred wise men, learned in all the seven arts, 
who might show to the idolaters, and others subject 
to his dominion, the diabolical nature of their law, and 
how that of the Christians was superior. Farther, he 
piously enjoined them to bring a portion of the oil of the 
lamp burning in Jerusalem before the sepulchre of our 



OP THE JOURNEY. 99 

Saviour.* Moreover, he gave to them a golden tablet 
marked with his seal, containing an express order, that 
wherever they went they should have their necessities 
supplied. Having received this, and taken leave of the 
king, barons, and the whole court, they mounted their 
horses and commenced their journey. After some days, 
Kogotal, th6 baxon, at a city named Alau, fell sick and 
could not proceed ; but the brothers went on till they 
came safely to Laias,t in Armenia. In this journey, 
however, owing to the bad roads, and the large rivers 
which they could not cross on horseback, three years 
were consumed. Wherever they went, on showing 
the golden tablet, they were received with the greatest 
honours, and supplied with whatever they wanted, 

y. — Find him dead, and await a new Election. 

Departing ifrom Laias in April 1269, the brothers 
arrived at Acre, where they learned with much grief 
that his holiness Clement IV. was dead.J They there- 
fore went to Theobald, viscount of Piacenza, who re- 
sided there as legate of the apostolical see, and was a 
man of high authority and virtue. They related to him 
the cause why they wished to visit the supreme pontiff. 
He was struck with admiration, and revolving in his 
mind, that the holy Roman church and the Christian 
faith might hence derive the greatest benefit, advised 
them to wait till another pope should Be named, to 
whom they might deliver their embassy. They there- 
fore determined to spend the interval in visiting their 
families at Venice. Departing from Acre, they pro- 
ceeded to Negropont, and thence to their native city. 
Here Messer Nicolo found that his wife, whom he left 
pregnant, had died, leaving a son named Marco, the 
same who wrote this book.§ 

* These sentiments are doubtless coloured, yet we haye re- 
peatedly seen that the princes of this race were desirous to bo 
on friendly terms with the professors of every religion. 

t TheGiazza of Ramusio. It is Aias,on the Gulf of Scanderoon. 

i This event had taken place in November 1268. 

§ The chronology of the narrative down to this period is very 
perplexing, and there are manifestly errors even in the purest 



100 INTRODUCTORY NARRATIVE 

Waiting the appointment of another pope, the travel- 
lers spent two fiill years at Venice. 

VI.— Their Return to Kublai. 

At last seeing that no pontiff was elected, and un- 
willing to delay their return to the great khan, they 
departed, taking with them Marco, son of Nicolo. They 
repaired to Acre, and told the legate, that having 
tarried too long, and there being no appearance of 
an election, they must beg permission, in conformity 
with that monarch's injimctions, to take the portion 
of oil from the lamp burning before the sepulchre. 
Having obtained his consent, they went to Jerusalem, 
took what they desired, and returned, when he gave 
them letters, with permission to depart. They proceeded 
from Acre to Laias ; but during their stay there, were 
informed that the legate himself had been appointed 
pope, under the name of Gregory X. of Piacenza, being 

versions. The first departure was in 1250, according to the two 
Paris editions, the printed Pipino, the Basle, ana Ramasio. 
(The Crusca and Pucci are liero wanting.) Two MSS. of Pi- 
pino indeed make it 1252 ; but this does not help us much ; for 
by a subsequent statement it appears that the war which obuged 
them to leave the court of Barka, after remaining a year, bi^e 
out in 1261. None of the editions intimate any stay at Con- 
stantinople or Soudak, except the Strozziani MS. quoted by 
Count Boni (II Milliono, i. 73), which represents them as 
stopping some time at both places ; but this being comparatively 
modem, is little likely to correct the errors of earlier and better 
versions. Besides, there is another clement to adjust. Marco 
being born soon after his father's departure, his ago would fix 
the date ; but here the variations are most perplexing. The 
French makes it at Nicolo's arrival to be 12 ; the Paris Latin, 
the Basle, and Pipiuo, 15 ; the Berlin MS. 17; llamusio, 19 ; 
which last Mr Marsden admits as probably adopted in order to 
accord with the 1250. It would have made him a grown man 
on Ills arrival in Cliina, which would scarcely agree with the 
language there held. Mr Marsden inclines to make the age 15, 
and the departure 1255. I shall onlv observe, that if we sup- 
pose an error of 10 years (the simplest that could be made), 
and the real departure 12()0. this would agree with all the par- 
ticulars of the journey, ana very nearly with the age of 1*2, as 
given in the French edition. Without venturing a very posi- 
tive opinion, it may be noticed that there is historical evidence 
for the main dates of the arrival at Barka's court in 1*^0, at 
Acre in 1269, and the departure thence in 1271 or 1272. . 



OF THE JOURNEY. 101 

the same who afterwards held a council at Lyons, on 
the Rhone.* The new pontiff sent a messenger after 
them, desiring their immediate return ; and they joy- 
fully obeyed, making the voyage in a galley prepared 
for them by the King of Armenia. They paid their 
homage to his holiness, who received them graciously, 
loaded them with many honours, and gave them two 
very learned friars, of the order of preachers, the wisest 
that could be found in those parts, named Nicolo of 
Vicenza and William of Tripoli, to accompany them to 
the great khan. He bestowed on them letters and pri- 
vileges, instructed them in the message which he wished 
to be conveyed to that monarch, and gave his benediction 
to Nicolo, Maffio, Marco, and the two friars. They then 
proceeded together to Laias ; but while there, the Soldan 
of Babylonia, named Bonduchdaree, came with a mighty 
army to attack the city.t In these circumstances, the 
preachers, struck with the fear of war, and with the 
dangers already encountered, gave to Nicolo and Mafl&o 
certain letters, and resolved to proceed no farther. Then 
the brothers commenced their journey, and by constant 
marches arrived safely at a very rich and powerful city 
named Clemenfu,J where the great khan resided. The 
observations made by them on this expedition will be 
narrated afterwards in the proper place ; but on account 
of the severe weather, as well as the difficulty and 
danger of passing the rivers, they consumed in it three 
years and a half. When their return became known to 
the khan, he rejoiced exceedingly, and ordered forty of 

• The election of Gregory X. actuallv took place in 1271-1272, 
and Mr Marsden (pp. 17, 21) has collected eyidonce that he 
then resided at Acre as le^te. 

+ This is Bibars, the Mameluke soldan of Egypt, who, for 
several years before and after this period, ravaged many parts 
of Syria and Asia Minor. Cairo in that age was frequently 
named Babylonia, of which we shall see repeated instances. — 
Marsden, p. 755. 

X Elsewnere, Clemcnisu, Clenensu. It is very difficult to iden- 
tify this place^ there being nothing to fix its position, and no 
name of a Chinese town resembUng it. Mr Marsden (p. 23), 
considers it as most probably Tai-yuen-fou, capital of Shan-see, 
where Du Halde mentions that Kublai resided some time, while 
a new city was building at Kambalu. 



102 INTRODUCTORY NARRATIVE 

his messengers to go to meet them, hy whom they were 
supplied with every necessary, and loaded with honours. 

VII. They are honourably receiyed. 

Having reached this great city, where the mon- 
arch had his abode, they went to his palace, presenting 
themselves most humbly on bended knees. He desired 
them to rise, and asked how they did; they replied, 
that, by the grace of God, they were well, especially since 
they had found him healthy and cheerful. He then 
inquired about their transactions with the supreme 
pontiff, when they explained to him all that they had 
done, delivering the letters confided to them by Pope 
Gregory, He received them graciously, commending them 
for their fidelity and attention. They next presented 
the oil from the sepulchre, which he reverently accepted. 
He inquired, who was that young man with them, to 
which Nicolo replied : " my lord, he is your servant, 
my son." " Then," said the great khan, " he is welcome, 
I am much pleased with him." He celebrated their 
return by a joyful feast ; and while they remained in 
his court, they were honoured before all his barons. 

VIII.— Employments and Missions of Marco. 

During this stay, Messer Marco acquired the Tar- 
tar and four other languages, so as to speak and write 
them well ; he learned also their manners, and became 
in all things exceeduigly sensible and sagacious.* When 
the great khan saw him display so much worth and 
prudence, he sent him as his messenger to a very distant 
land, which it required six months to reach. He re- 
turned and reported his embassy very sensibly, relating 
many new things respecting the countries through 
which he had travelled ; while other ambassadors, being 
able to say nothing, except about the special message 
intrusted to them, were accounted foolish and ignorant 
by the khan, who was greatly delighted to become ac- 
quainted with the varieties of nations. Messer Marco, 

• We are to recollect this is written by Rusticians, not by 
Marco, though doubtless with his cognizance. 



OF THE JOURNEY. 103 

aware of this, studied all these strange objects, and thus 
pleased beyond measure his majesty and the barons, who 
predicted that, if he lived, he would become an eminent 
man. In short, he remained in the court of the khan 
seventeen years, and never ceased to be employed as an 
ambassador. The other chiefe then began to envy the 
honours paid to him, and his knowledge of the country, 
which exceeded that of any other person who ever visited 
it,* 

IX.— They seek to return Home. 

After Nicolo, Maffio, and Marco had remained long 
at the court of the great khan, and accumulated 
very considerable wealth in gold and jewels, they felt 
a strong desire to revisit their native country. Nicolo 
therefore took an opportunity one day, when the mon- 
arch seemed in particularly good humour, to throw 
himself at his feet, and solicit for them all permis- 
sion to depart ; but the sovereign was now so much 
attached to his visiters that he would by no means 
listen to this proposal.t It happened, however, that the 
Queen Bolgana, the spouse of Argon, lord of the East, J 
died, and in her last wiU enjoined that he should re- 
ceive no wife unless of her family. He therefore sent 
as ambassadors to the khan three barons, Aulatam, 
Alpusca, and Goza, with a great train, requesting a lady 
of the same lineage with the deceased queen. The 
monarch received the embassy with joy, and selected 
a young princess of that house. Every thing being ar- 

* Ramnsio says that he regularly committed them to writing. 
This is in no other edition, and the fact I think very doubtful. 

+ A sentence is here tasen from Ramusio ; but we have he- 
sitated to add, on his sole authority, the offer to double all their 
possessions, and grant whatever tney desired. 

X Argon or Arghun, the grandson of Hoolaku,is well known 
as having succeeded in 1284 to the sovereignty of Persia and 
the adjacent countries. Ramusio calls him ** sovereign of India," 
for which Mr Marsden (p. 30) finds much apology necessary : but 
the expression in the text, taken from the Paris editions, clears 
all difficulty ; for we have seen that Eastern was the name 
given in Europe to the Tartars ruling over this region. — See 
Note, pp. 96, 97. 



\ 



104 INTRODUCTORY NARRATIVE 

ranged, and a numerous train of attendants appointed, 
they were graciously dismissed, and began their retain ; 
but after travelling eight months, their advance was 
rendered impossible by fresh wars that had arisen amoi^ 
the Tartar princes. They were therefore very reluct^ 
antly obliged to retrace their steps, and state the canae 
that had arrested their progress. It happened that at 
that time Marco arrived from a voyage to India, and, 
by relating the novelties he had observed, pleased 
those envoys very much, proving himself well fitted 
to guide them by this route, which he recommended 
as shorter and easier than that by land. They therefore 
besought as a favour of the khan, that the Latins mighi 
accompany them and the queen. The sovereign granted 
this favour, yet unwillingly, on account of his love for 
them. 

X. — ^Voyage, and Arrival at Venice. 

When that great monarch saw that they were about 
to depart, he called them before him, and delivering 
golden tablets signed with the royal seal, ordered that they 
should have free passage through his land, and that their 
charges, with those of all their family, should be every 
where defi-ayed. He caused to be prepared fourteen ships, 
each with four masts, and many with twelve sails ; upon 
which the barons, the lady, and the three brothers took 
leave, and, with numerous attendants, went on board. 
The prince gave them their expenses for two years; 
and after sailing three months, they came to a certain 
island named Java, where are many wonderful things, 
which I shall relate in this book. They then departed 
from it ; and I must tell you that they sailed through 
the seas of India full eighteen months, and saw many 
strange objects, which will also be hereafter described. 
At length they came to the court of King Argon, but 
found that he was already dead, when it was determined 
to give the princess in marriage to Casan,* his son. I 
must tell you, that though in that vessel there em- 

^ More properly Ghazan, who did not^^ovr^^ex, «AR.cti<\ ^« 
tluvne tm i295.— M arsden, p. 36. 



OF THE JOURNEY, 105 

Ixirked full 600 persons, exclusive of mariners, all died 
except eighteen ;* and they found the dominion of the 
land of Argon held by Achatu,t to whom they very 
tenderly recommended the lady on the part of the great 
khan. Casan was then at a place on the borders of 
Persia, which has its name from the arbor secco, where 
an army of 60,000 men was assembled to guard certain 
positions against hostile irruption. They accordingly 
went thither, fulfilled their mission, and then returned 
to the residence of Achatu, J where they reposed during 
the space of nine months. They then took leave and went 
on their way, when the monarch presented four golden 
tablets, with instructions that they should be honoured, 
and all the expenses of themselves and their family 
defeayed. This was fully executed, so that they fre- 
quently went accompanied by 200 horsemen. § I have 

* This is the statement in the two Paris, the Cmsca, and 
the Pucci editions. The printed one of Pipino has only eighty- 
two out of the 600 ; but tne Latin museum MS. has 582, thus 
substantially agreeing with the others, and making it probable 
that the 500 was omitted only by an error of the press. On the 
other hand, Ramusio, after having said that four of the vessels 
had crews of fully 250 men (mariners, we presume, included), 
states, that of the whole, about 600 died, among whom were 
two of the ambassadors ; but that all the females, except one, 
survived. 

f Kaikhatu, uncle to Ghazan, who was unable to prevent 
his holdinjg the sovereignty for several vears. Being murdered, 
however, by a usurper, the latter marched to avenge his death, 
triumphed, and became sovereign of Persia. Though of puny 
stature, he was considered a wise and able prince.— Marsden, 
p. 36. 

X This statement is in Ramusio only ; yet its correctness is 
rendered highly probable by oriental mstory, which shows that 
Ghazan resided at this period in Khorassan. Mr Marsden 
(p. 110) seems to prove that the arbor secco meant the plane-tree, 
which flourishes particularlv in that part of Persia, and is callea 
div from not yielding any truit. 

§ Ramusio has, " This could not have been dispensed with, 
as Achatu's government was unpopular, and the people were 
ready to commit outrages, on wmch thev would not have ven- 
tured under their lawful sovereign." This rather accords with 
the tenor of history, which represents Achatu as dissolute and 
tyrannical, and proves him to have fallen a sacrifice to an in- 
surrection among his chiefs. The sentence, however, is so 
much out of harmony with the rest of the chapter, that I can- 
not believe it to have emanated from Marco. 



106 INTRODUCTORY NARRATIVE OF THB JOU] 

also to tell you to the honour of those three I 
whom the great khan had placed such confide 
pomting them to conduct the Queen Cocacin 
daughter of the King of Manji,* to Argon, th< 
the East ; — ^that those two young and beautifi 
were guarded by them as if they had been thei 
ters, and bestowed upon them the veneration 
fathers. Indeed, Cocacin and her husband Cai 
reigning, treated the messengers with such 1 
that there was nothing they would not have < 
them ; and when they were about to depart, tl 
grieved very much, and even shed tears.t Th 
much time and many labours, by the gi*ace of C 
came to Trebisond, then to Constantinople, Ne 
and finally to Venice. They arrived in the y€ 
bringing with them great riches, and giving tl 
God, who had delivered them from many lab< 
dangers. 

• This princess of Manji appears only in the Fr 
Crusca editions ; but, on such authorities, I do not li 
introduce her to my readers. The writer here evidc 
back to state particulars formerly omitted. 

+ Ramusio nas, " In the course of the journey, our 
received intelligence of the grand khan having dop: 
life, which put an end to all hopes of their being able 
into those regions." Kublai died early in 1294 ; it v 
fore quite possible the news might reach them. 1 
shall we say to the expressed hope (softened by Mr 
into prospect),o>fteT the extreme anxietv they had felt 
to Venice ? Besides, we find the traveller, in 1298, sj 
that monarch as alive, and calculating what ago he w 
be, in a manner quite inconsistent witn Mr Marsdeo 
tous assumption of his having copied from former no 
looking so great an event. My impression is, that th 
in Ramusio has been gone over bv some one acquai 
Asiatic history, but not by Marco himself. 




PART I. 

^^t^ption of ChirMj and of the Court of the Emperor 

Kublai, 

^BMai, Great Khan of tho. Tartars, and Emperor of China — 
His War with Nayan — FaTour for the Qiristians — Descrip- 
tion of Kambalu (Pe-king) — An Insurrection there — Great 
Festivals celebrated by the Emperor — Their Order and Pomp 
-^Siseictensiye Hunting Expeditions — Leopards,FaIcons,an(l 
other Animals employed — Mode of pursuing and taking tho 
Game — HuntingPalace atShandu inTartary — AtCianganor — 
P&per Money — Large Revenue — Arrangement of his Govern- 
ment and Officers — Bounty towards the People — Manners and 
Superstitions of the Chinese — Marco Polo's Journey through 
the Western Provinces — Thibet, Bengal, and the neighbouring 
Countries— Return to theVicinityof Pe-king— Journey through 
the Eastern Provinces — The Yellow River— Manji or Southern 
China — Its Conquest by Kublai — Character of the deposed 
King — Nan-king and other great Cities — llie Kiang — Its im- 
mense Trade and Shipping — Kin-sai, the Capital — Its extra- 
ordinary Extent and Magnificence — Splendour of its Palace — 
Journey through Tchc-kiang and Fo-kien — The Porcelain 
Manufacture — Arrival at Zai-tun or Amoy. 

I.— Power and Magnificence of Kublai. 
Now I am to give you a wonderful account of the 
greatest king of the Tartars, still reigning, named 
Kublai, or lord of lords. That name is assuredly well 
merited, since he is the most powerful in people, in lands, 
and in treasure, that is, or ever was, from the creation 
of Adam to the present day ; and by the statements to 
be made in tliis book, every man shall be 8a\Aa?ve<V WvaX. 
he really is so. Whosoever descends in t\ie toccX \«v<ei 



108 DESCRIPTION OF CHINAy AND OF THE 

from Gengis is entitled to be master of all the Tartars^ 
and Kublai is the sixth great khan. He began to reign 
in the year of our Lord 1256,* and maintained the do- 
minion by his valour, address, and wisdom. His brothers 
sought to oppose his succession, but by bravery and 
right he triumphed over them.t From the beginning 
of his reign, forty- two years have elapsed to the present 
day, in the year 1298. He is now full eighty-five yean 
old, and before liis accession commanded many armies, 
when he approved himself good at weapons, and a brave 
captain. But since that time he has joined the army 
only once, which was in the year 1286, and I will teU 
you on what occasion. 

II. — Insurrection raised by Nayan. 

You must understand that a certain cousinj; of his, 
named Nayan, who, like his ancestors, was his vassal, yet 
had many lands and provinces of his own, and could raise 
400,000 horscmen,beingtliirty years old,refusedto remain 
longer in subjection, and assumed the whole sovereignty 
to himself. He sent to a certain great lord, named 
Kaidu, a nephew of that monarch, but in rebellion against 
him, and desirous of doing him the greatest injury. To 
him Nayan proposed to attack the monarch on one side, 
while he himself advanced on another, so that they might 
acquire the dominion over his whole territory, Kaidu 
declared himself well pleased, and promised to be ready 
at the time appointed. He could bring into the field 
100,000 cavalry ; and those two assembled a mighty army 

* Ramusio makes him only twenty-seven years old at his ac- 
cession, which Mr Marsden (p. 265) admits to be very improb- 
able. The statement hero ^ven from the Paris editions makes 
him forty-three, which agrees with the best authorities. Ho 
was not the stjpth but only the Jifth of this line of sovereigns. 
We shall afterwards see now Marco fell into this error. 

't'His brother, Artigbuga, after Mangou's death, was proclaim- 
ed at Karakorum ; nor was it till after a severe struggle, that 
Kublai prevailed.— -Marsden, p. 2()5. 

X In all the editions ho is called uncle, which does not at all 
agree with their respective ages. Mr Marsden (p. 266) shows 
that he must have been a more distant relative. 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 109 

on horseback and foot, and marched agamst the great 
khan. 

III. — Kublai prepares to meet him. 

When Kublai learned these things, he was not at all 
alarmed, but declared, that he wished he might never 
wear a crown, nor hold sway over a kingdom, if he did 
not bring the traitors to an evil death. He therefore made 
his whole army be prepared in twenty-two days, and so 
secretly, that nothing was known beyond his own council. 
He raised full 360,000 mounted soldiers, and 100,000 in- 
fantry ; and the reason of their number not being greater, 
was, that they consisted only of his huntsmen, and those 
immediately round his person, the rest being employed 
in carrying on distant wars ; for if he could have assem- 
bled his whole host, the multitude would have been such 
as no man could have numbered. He then called his 
astrologers, and asked of them if he would be victorious ; 
they answered, that he would do to his enemies accord- 
ing to his pleasure.* 

IV. — Description of the Battle. 

The great khan having assembled these forces, took 
his departure, and in twenty days came to a vast plain, 
where Nayan had assembled sdl his troops, amount- 
ing to 400,000 warriors. The khan took much care 
to scour the paths, and intercept all who could have 
carried the intelligence ; so that when he approached 
at dawn of day, the rebel was lying asleep in bed 
with a favourite wife, not having the least dread of 
his arrival, and, consequently, no guard on any side 
of the camp. Kublai then advanced, having a tower 
fixed upon four elephants, whereon were placed his 
ensigns, so that he could be seen by the whole army. 

* In Ramusio onlyy there is a sentence intimating that this 
was a mere manoeuvre to encourage his men. This reflection 
was, we are convinced, internolated in a more enlightened ago 
than that of the traveller. The two Paris, the Crusca, Pipino, 
and all the early editions, mention it as real information ob- 
tained Crom those personages. 



lip DESCRIPTION OF CHINA^ AND OF THE 

His men, divided into bands of twenty thousand, sur- 
rounded in a moment the adverse force, each soldier 
having a footman on the crupper behind him, with a 
bow in his hand. When Nayan and his men saw their 
camp thus encircled by the khan and his host, they 
were seized with amaze ; yet they ran to arms, formed 
themselves in order of battle, and were soon prepared to 
strike. Then began the beating on many instruments, 
and singing with loud voices ; for it is the custom of 
the Tartars, that until the horn termed naccar is winded 
the troops do not engage. But when that grand trumpet 
of the great khan was sounded, all the other performers 
began playing, and raising their voices very loud, mak- 
ing a noise that was truly most wonderful. Then the 
two armies rushed against ea<;h other with sword, spear, 
and lance, while the footmen wei-e prepared with bow 
and quiver. The battle was fierce and cruel ; the ar- 
rows filled the air like rain ; horses and horsemen were 
seen falling to the ground ; and the tumult was such, 
that if Jove had thundered, he could not have been 
heard. Nayan was a baptized Christian, and therefore 
had the cross upon his standard.* Never, in our day, 
was there so hard and terrible a combat, nor so many 
assembled on one field, especially of horsemen ; and the 
number who fell on both sides was fearful to behold. 
The battle continued from nine in the morning till mid- 
day ; but the great khan at last remained master of the 
field. When Nayan and his men saw that they could 
hold out no longer, they betook themselves to flight ; 
but it availed them nothing ; he was taken, and all 
his troops surrendered.t 

* Wo havo had ample occasion to observe, that a certain form 
of Christianity haying, during that a^o, made considerable pro- 
gress in Central Asia, was embraced by several monarchs. 
Others who did not go so far, yet courted tho good opinion 
of its professors, and sought from them omens and imaginary 
means of success. 

+ This war of Kublai with Nayan and Kaidu is related by 
Do Guignosj from oriental authorities, with a few variations, 
usual in different narratives of such events. 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. Ill 

v.— The Death of Nayan. 

When that great monarch heard that Nayan was 
taken, he ordered hhn to be put to death m the manner 
I am now to tell you. He was wrapped in a carpet, and 
violently tossed to and fro till he died. This mode was 
adopted^ that, being of imperial lineage, his blood might 
not be shed on the ground, nor his cries ascend into the 
air. When that battle was gained, four of his provinces 
paid tribute and homage to the great khan. These 
were Cicorcia, Cauli, Bastol, and Suchintin. 

YI. — ^Kublai silences the Mockery of the Jews and Saracens. 

When the monarch had achieved this triumph, the Sara* 
cens, Pagans, Jews, and other generations of men who be- 
lieve not in Grod, expressed wonder at the cross which the 
vanquished leader had carried on his standard, and said in 
derision of the Christians, — ^*'seehowthe cross of your God 
has aided Nayan and his people." They made such a 
noise on this subject, that it came to the ears of the prince, 
who was much displeased, and sending for the Christians, 
said to them, — "if your God did not assist Nayan, he acted 
with great justice, because he is a good and righteous God, 
Nayan was a traitor and rebel against his lord, and there- 
fore God did well in not assisting him." Then the Chris- 
tians replied, — " 0, great sire ! thou hast spoken the truth, 
for the cross will aid nothing unjust, and he met only 
what he well deserved." Having gained this victory, the 
great khan returned to his capital, Elambalu, with much 
festival and rejoicing. When the other king, named 
Kaidu, heard how his ally had been worsted, he was 
struck with fear, and did not attempt to lead his army 
against the monarch.* Now you have seen how that 
prince went to battle, and for what cause, wliile on all 
other occasions he sent his son and his barons ; but this 



* Kaida, however, continued to maintain his indej>endent 
rule over a great part of Turkestan. We shall hear more of 
this prince towards the end of the narrative. 



112 DESCRIPTION OF CUINA, AND OF TUB 

war was of such magnitude that it seemed to deserve his 
own immediate presence. 

VII.— His Opinions as to the Christian Religion. 

The grand klian, having ohtained this splendid vio- 
tory, returned with great pomp and triumph to hk 
capital of Kamhalu. He arrived there in Novembery 
and remained till after March, in which month our ieft- 
tival of Easter occurred. Aware that this was one of 
our most solemn periods, he commanded all the Chris- 
tians to attend him, bringing with them their book con- 
taining the four gospels. He caused it, in a very respect- 
ful manner, to be repeatedly perfumed with incense^ 
ordering all his nobles present to do the same. Such 
was the custom upon each of the two great festivals of 
Easter and Christmas ; and he followed the same course 
ns that pursued by the Saracens, Jews, and idolaters. 
Being asked the reason of this conduct, he replied, — 
" there arc four great prophets revered and woi^ipped 
))y different classes of mankind. The Christians hold 
Christ as their divinity ; the Saracens, Mohammed ; the 
Jews, Moses ; and the idolaters, Sogomombar Khan, their 
most distinguished idol. I honour and respect all the four, 
and seek aid from them, as any one of them may really 
bo supreme in heaven." Yet, from the behaviour of his 
majesty towards the Christians, he evidently believed 
their faith the best and truest ; ol)serving, that it enjoin- 
ed nothing on its professors that was not full of virtue and 
holiness, lie would not indeed allow the cross to be borne 
before them in processions, ])ecause, as he siiid, on it so 
exalted a person had been nailed and put to death. Some 
may ask, why if thus partial to the true faith, he did not 
openly embrace it ? He stated his reason to Nicolo and 
Mnffio Polo, when, on his sending them ambassadors to 
the Pope, tliey ventured to address to him a few words on 
the subject. " Why," said he, " should I become a 
Christian 2 You must yourselves see that the professors 
of that faith now in this country are ignorant and weak, 
unable to do any thing extraordinary, while the idolo- 



COURT OP THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 113 

tcTS have power to do whatever they please. While I 
am seated at tahle, the cups, filled with wine or other 
beverage, come to me from the middle of the hall spon- 
taneously, without being touched by any human hand. 
They are able to control bad weather, and force it to re- 
tire to any quarter of the heavens ; they can perform 
other wonderful things of the same nature. You have 
witnessed their idols exercising the faculty of speech, 
and predicting whatever events are inquired into. Should 
I become a convert and profess Christianity, the nobles 
of my court, and others disinclined to the faith, will ask 
what adequate motives have induced me to be baptized. 
What wonders, what miracles, they will say, liave its 
ministers performed! But the idolaters declare, that 
their exhibitions are made through their own holiness 
and the might of their idols. To this I shall be unable 
to make any answer, and be considered as labouring under 
a grievous mistake, while the heathen teachers, by the 
profound art which they display, may easily accomplish 
my death. Return, however, to your pontiff, and pre- 
sent to him my request, that he would send a hundred 
persons learned in your law, who, when confronted with 
the others, will be able to control them, and while 
proving themselves endowed with similar skill, shall ren- 
der their antagonists unable in their presence to carry on 
these practices. On witnessing this, I will interdict the 
exercise of their religion, and suffer myself to be baptized. 
This example will be followed by aJl my nobility, and 
by my subjects in general ; so that the Christians in these 
regions will become more numerous than those inhabiting 
your own country." From this language it evidently ap- 
pears that had the pope sent out persons duly qualified 
to preach the gospel, the great khan would have em- 
braced that fiiith, for which he certainly entertained a 
strong predilection.* 

^m ^ - I ' a -— ■— — ■ ■ — . 

* This carious chapter is one of those found only in Ramusio. 
There is no decided internal proof against its heing genuine, 
and the condnct of Kublai sufficiently accords with that usually 
held by Tartar monarchs. Yet there is, I think, clear evidence 

H 



1 1 4 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, AND OF THE 

YIII.— Howards bestowed on his Soldiers. 

Now let us tell of the officers and barons of the 
fi^rcut khan, and how he rewarded those who fought with 
him in the battle against Nayan. To those who com- 
manded 100 men, he gave the command of 1000, and 
to tliose of 1 000 that of 10,000 ; and he bestowed, accord- 
ing to their rank, tablets of gold or of silver, on all of 
which was written, — " By the might of the great God, 
and by the favour which he gave to our emperor : may 
that prince be blessed, and may all those who do not 
obey him die and be destroyed." Those who hold theae 
documents enjoy certain privileges, with written instruo- 
tions how they are to exercise their authority. He who 
commands 100,000 men receives a golden one, weighing 
000 saggi, under which is sculptured a lion on one side, 
and on the other the sun and moon. Those who bear 
these noble tiiblets have instructions, tliat whenever they 
ride they should bear above their head an umbrella of 
gold, and as often as they are seated, it should be upon 
silver. There are also tablets whereon is sculptured a 
gerfalcon, which he gives to three great barons, who liave 
then e(iual autliority with himself. They can take, 
whenever they please, and lead from place to place, the 
troops and horses of any prince or khig ; and whoever 
dares to diso])ey in any thing their will and mandate, 
must die as a rebel to the sovereign.* Now let us speak 
of the outward form and manners of this mighty prince. 

of interpolation. The following chapter, in all the early editions, 
statcA the amount of the rewards which the soveroien gave to the 
officuFri who had distinguished themselves in the battle against 
Nayan. in llamusio, dropping all allusion to that event, it 
states those which he usually gives on such occasions. The 
change is obviously made, because the insertion of the pre- 
sent chapter broke the connexion, a blemish that would Have 
become evident had the subject been treated in the first man- 
ner, which yet is doubtless the natural and original one. 

* It is still the practice of the Chuicse ffovemment to indi- 
cate rank by richly ornamented tablet^, wnich, in the vnlgar 
language of Canton, are called chops. They are now of doth ; 
but the Tartars, a people of a dificront genius, might very pos- 



r 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 115 

IX. — The Person of Kublai — ^His Wives, Concubines, and Sons. 

The great khan, lord of lords, named Kublai, is of 
a fine middle size, neither too tall nor too short; he 
has a beautiful fresh complexion, and well-proportioned 
limbs. His colour is fair and yermeil like the rose, 
his eyes dark and fine, his nose well formed and placed. 
He has four ladies, who always rank as his wives ; and 
the eldest son, bom to him by one of them, succeeds as 
the rightful heb of the empire. They are named em- 
presses ; each bears his name, and holds a court of her 
own ; there is not one who has not 300 beautiful 
maidens, with eunuchs, and many other male and female 
attendants, so that some of the courts of these ladies 
contain 10,00D persons; and when he wishes to visit 
any one, he makes her come to his apartment, or 
sometimes goes to hers. He maintains also a number of 
concubines. There is a race of Tartars who are called 
Migrat or Ungrat,* and are a very handsome people. 
From them are selected 100 girls,t the most beautiful 
in all their country, who are conducted to court. He 
makes them be guarded by the ladies of the palace ; and 
they are examined if they have a sweet breath, and be 
somid in all their limbs. Those that are approved in 
every respect wait upon their great lord in the following 

dbly prefer the precious metals. The Venetian saggio is the 
sixth part of an ounce, making thus the largest tablet ^y ounces. 
The term Mandarin, being modern and rortuguose, could not 
be expected here. 

• Ungut, Ramtisio. This appears to be the country of the 
Eighurs or Uighurs, inhabiting Turfan and Hami, to the west 
of China. They are of the Turkish race, and noted for the 
beauty of their persons. — Marsden, p. 284. 

f Kamusio says that they are valued at from sixteen to 
twenty or twenty-one carats, the highest number being re- 
quhred in the case of his majesty. Mr Marsden (p. 285), con- 
sidering the term as meaning four grains of gold, laments that 
the most brilliant of these beauties should be reckoned worth 
only 13s. 4d. The carat, however, is used also in estimating 
the diamond, when it bears surely a higher value. Considering, 
however, that the term is entirely European, and the statement 
foond in no early edition, I incline to reject it altogether. 



1 16 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, AND OF THE 

order : six of them attend every three days, then other 
six come in tlieir place, and so on throughout the year. 
It may be asked, if the people of this province do not 
feel aggrieved by having their children thus foidUy 
taken away. Assuredly not : on the contrary, they 
regard it as a &vour and an honour ; and the fethen 
feel highly gratified when their daughters are thus se- 
lected. If, says one, my daughter is bom under an 
auspicious planet, his majesty can best fulfil her des- 
tiny by marrying her more nobly than I can do. On 
the contrary, if the young lady, by bad conduct or any 
misfortune, be found disqualified, he attributes the dis- 
appointment to her malignant stars.* Know, too, that 
the great khan has by his wives twenty-two sons ; the 
elder was named Gyngym Khan, and was to be lord of all 
the empire after his father ; but he died, leaving a son 
named Temur, who in time will succeed ; he is a wise 
and good man, tried in many battles.t The monaidi 
has also twenty-five sons by his concubines ; and each 
is a great baron ; and of the twenty-two sons by hie 
four wives, seven reign over large kingdoms, like wise 
and good men, because they resemble their fieither, — 
and he is the best ruler of nations and conductor of 
wars in the world. Now I have told you about himself, 
his wives, sons, and concubines ; next I will relate how 
he holds his court. 

X.— His magnificent Palace in Kambalu. 

He resides in the vast city of ICambalu, three months 
in the year, December, January, and February, and 
has here his great palace, which I will now describe. 



* Tho reader has already seen this t)rrannical custom even 
in tho rudo court of Mangou Khan. It is proper to notice that 
this satisfaction of tho people in having tnoir daughters thus 
taken from them is found only in Ramusio, not in any of the 
early editions. 

f Temur actually succeeded his grandfather in 1294, and is 
celebrated in the Chinese annals as a mild, upright, intelli- 
gent, and liberal prince. Boni, vol. ii. p. 167. 



COU^T OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 1 IJ 

[t is a complete square, a mile long on every side,* so 
that the whole is four miles in circuit ; and in each 
ingle is a very fine edifice, containing bows, arrows, 
K>ids, saddles, bridles, and all other implements of war. 
[n the middle of the wall between these four edifices 
ire others, making altogether eight, filled with stores, 
ind each containing only a single article. Towards 
the south are five gates, the middle one very large, 
never opened nor shut unless when the great khan is 
bo pass through ; while on the other side is one by 
vehich all enter in common.f Within that wall is 
mother, containing eight edifices similarly constructed ; 
in which is lodged the wardrobe of the sovereign. 
These walls enclose the palace of that mighty lord, 
nrhich is the greatest that ever was seen. The floor 
rises ten palms above the ground, and the roof is exceed- 
ingly lofty. The walls of the chambers and stairs are all 
M)vered with gold and silver, and adorned with pictures 
)f dragons, horses, and other races of animals. The hall 
is so spacious that 6000 can sit down to banquet ; and the 
lumber of apartment&is incredible. The roof is externally 
[>auited with red, blue, green, and other colours, and is 
M) varnished that it shines like crystal, and is seen to a 
preat distance around. It is also very strongly and du- 
rably built. Between the walls are pleasant meadows 
illed with various living creatures, as white stags, the 
nusk animal, deer, wild goats, ermines, and other beau- 
;iful creatures. The whole enclosure is full of animals, 
jxcept the path by which men pass. On the other side, 
x>wards the south, is a magnificent lake, whither many 

* Ramusio has eight miles ofl each side. This immense extent 
8 not supported by the Paris editions, the Crusca, and Pipino^ 
vhich are according to the text. The French edition of 1556 
las two leagues in circuit. Astley (vol. iv. p. 11) has collated 
;he modem descriptions, which agree closelj with that of 
Polo, and make the whole circuit only fifteen li. or four miles 
md three quarters. Count Boni points out that Oderic, in about 
1330, states only four nules. There seems no doubt, therefore, 
)f the corruption of Ramusio*s text. 

f The reader will recollect the same arrangement described 
)y Carpini in the great orda or tent of Cuyn^ Khan. 



118 DESCRIPTION OP CHINA, AND OP THE 

kinds of fish are brought and nourished. A river enten 
and flows out ; but the fish are retained by iron gratings. 
Towards the north, about a bowshot from the palace^ 
Kublai has constructed a mound, full a hundred paces 
high and a mile in circuit, all covered with evergreen . 
trees which never shed their leaves. When he hears of 
a beautiful tree, he causes it to be dug up, with all the 
roots and the earth round it, and to be conveyed to him 
on the backs of elephants, whence the eminence has 
been made verdant all over, and is called the green moun- 
tain. On the top is a palace, also covered with verdure ; 
it and the trees are so lovely that all who look upon 
them feel delight and joy. In the vicinity is another 
palace, where resides the grandson of the great khan, 
Temur, who is to reign after him, and who follows the 
same life and customs as his grandsire. He has already 
a golden bull and the imperial seal ; but he has no au- 
thority while his grandfather lives. 

XI.— Description of the City of Kambalu. 

Having described to you the palaces, I will tell you 
of the great city of Cathay, which contains them. 
Near it is another large and splendid one, also named 
Kambalu, which means in our language city of the lord; 
but the monarch, finding by astrology that this town 
would rebel, built another near it, divided only by a 
river, and bearing the same name, to which its inhabitants 
were compelled to remove.* It forms a regular square, 
six miles on each side, and thus twenty-four miles in 
circumference. It is surrounded by wtdls of earth, ten 
paces thick and twenty in height ; yet the upper part 
becomes gradually thinner, so that at top the breadth is 



* This is the statement in the two Paris editions, and in the 
Crusca, which calls it Camblau ; but in Kamusio the new city 
is named Tai-du, more properly Ta-tou or the ^cat court ; and 
there are oriental accounts of its bearing this name. Here, 
therefore, as on other occasions, though we may doubt that the 
statement came from Marco, it appears to be irom some well- 
informed quarter.— Marsden, p. 300. 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 119 

only tliree paces. There are twelve gates, each contain- 
ing an edifice, making one in each square of that wall, 
and filled with men, who guard the place. The streets 
are so broad and so straight that from one gate an- 
other is visible. It contains many beautiful houses and 
palaces, and a very large one in the midst, containing a 
steeple with a large bell, which at night sounds three 
times ; after which no man must leave the city without 
some urgent necessity, as of sickness, or a woman about 
to bear a child. At each gate a thousand men keep guard, 
not firom dread of any enemy, but in reverence of the 
monarch who dwells within it, and to prevent injury by 
robbers.* 

XII.— The Suburbs — Merchants. 

When the monarch comes to his chief city, he re- 
mains in his noble palace three days and no more, 
w]ien he holds a great court, making high festival and 
rejoicing with his ladies. There is a vast abundance of 
people through all the suburbs of Kambalu, which are 
twelve in number, one corresponding to each gate ; no 
one can count the number of residents ; and they contain 
as stately edifices as any in the city, except the king's 
palace. No OD,e is allowed to be buried within the city ; 
and no females of bad character can reside there, but 
must have their dwellings in the suburbs, where there 
are said to be no fewer than 20,000. There are brought 
also to Kambalu the most costly articles in the world, 
the finest productions of India, as precious stones and 

* Kambalu is not a Chinese term, but is a corruption of that 
of Khan-baligh, " the City of the Khan," used by the Arabians 
and Persians. There is no doubt of its being that now called 
Pe-kin^. The square form, the breadth of the streets, and their 
stretching in a direct line, nave been observed by all travellers, 
and indeed generally characterize Chinese cities. The lofty 
structures rising above the gates, and filled with armed troops, 
are noticed by Le Comte ana Staunton. The shutting of these is 
still announced by the sound of a bell, and that of Pe-king is 
said to be the largest in the world, weighing 120,000 lbs. There 
is no mention of it in Ramusio.— Marsdeu, pp. 300, 305, 306. 
Afitley, vol. iv. p. 8-10. 



120 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA^ AND OF THE 

pearls, with all the produce of Cathay and the surround- 
ing countries, in order to supply the lords and the barons 
and ladies who reside there. Numerous merchants, 
likewise, bring more than a thousand wagons laden 
with grain ; and all who are within a hundred miles 
of the city come thither to purchase what they want.* 

XIII. — Wicked Administration of Achmac — Insurrection. 

I will hereafter particularly mention a council of 
twelve persons, having power to dispose at will of the 
lands, governments, and all things belonging to the 
state. One of these, a Saracen, named Achmac, had 
acquired an extraordinary influence with the great khan ; 
indeed his master was so infatuated with him that 
he allowed him the most uncontrolled license. It was 
«ven discovered after his death that he had employed 
spells to fascinate the khan, and compel him to give 
full credit to what was told him by his favourite, who 
was thus enabled to conduct public affairs according 
to his pleasure. He disposed of all the commands and 
public offices; passed sentence upon offenders; and 
when desirous to inflict an injury on any one whom he 
hated, needed only to go to the emperor and say, " such 
a man has been guilty of an offence against your majesty, 
and deserves death," The monarch usually replied, do 
as you judge best, and Achmac then ordered him to be 
immediately executed. So manifest were the proofs of 
his influence, and of the sovereign's implicit reliance on his 
statements, that no one dared to contradict him on any 
occasion ; even those highest in office stood in awe of 
him. Any one charged by him with a capital offence, 
whatever means he might employ to justify himself and 
refute the accusation, could not find an advocate ; for 
none dared to oppose the purpose of Achmac. Thus 

• Marsden, pp. 307, 308, quotes good authorities for the sub- 
urbs being twelve in number, and very extensive. From Staun- 
ton's account, however, they appear to be now less considerable. 
The influx of foreigners, welcomed under the Mongol dynasty, 
must be much diminished under the present exclusive system. 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 121 

he caused unjustly the death of many, and was also en- 
abled to indulge his unlawful propensities. Whenever 
he saw a woman who pleased him, he contrived either 
to add her to the number of his wives, or to lead her 
into a criminal intimacy. On receiving information of 
any man having a beautiful daughter, he despatched 
emissaries with instructions to say to him, " what are 
your views with regard to this handsome girl? the 
best thing you can do is to give her to the lord-vice- 
gerent ;" for so they termed Achmac, implying that he 
was his majesty's representative ; " we will induce him 
to appoint you to a certain government or office for three 
years." The father was thus tempted to give away his 
child ; and as soon as the affair was arranged, the other 
went and informed the emperor that a government was 
vacant, or would become so on a particular day, and re- 
commended the parent as well qualified to discharge its 
duties. His majesty consented ; and the appointment 
was immediately made. Thus, either through ambition 
to hold high office, or dread of his power, he obtained 
possession of the fairest females, under the denomination 
of wives or of concubines. Besides, he had twenty- 
five sons, who held the highest offices in the state, and, 
availing themselves of his authority, were guilty of simi- 
lar violent and licentious proceedings. He had likewise 
accumulated great wealth, since every one who obtained 
an appointment found it requisite to make him a liberal 
present. 

During a period of twenty-two years, he exercised 
this absolute authority. At length the Kataians, natives 
of the country, unable to endure longer his multiplied 
acts of injustice and violation of domestic rights, began 
to devise means of bringing about his death and the over- 
throw of the government. Among the leading persons in 
this plot wasChenku, a commander of 6000 men, in whose 
&mily his dissolute conduct had spread dishonour. He 
proposed the measure to one of his nation, named Vanku, 
who commanded 10,000 men, and suggested for its exe- 
cution the period when the great khan, having completed 



122 DESCRIPTION OP CHINA, AND OP THE 

his three months' residence m Kambalu, should have 
departed for his palace at Shandu, while his son Gengis 
had also retired to the place usually visited by him at 
that season. The charge of the city was then intrusted 
to Achmac, who communicated all affairs that occurred 
during his master's absence, and received the necessary 
instructions. Vanku and Chenku, having thus con- 
sulted together, imparted the design to some leading 
pei*sons among the Elataians, and also to their friends in 
various other cities. They formed an agreement, that 
on a certain day, immediately on perceiving a signal 
made by fire, they should rise and put to death all per- 
sons wearing beards. This distinction was made be- 
cause they themselves naturally wanted this append- 
age, which characterized the Tartars, the Saracens, and 
the Christians. The grand khan, having acquired the 
sovereignty of Kataia, not by any legitimate right, but 
solely by force of arms, placed no confidence in the na- 
tives, and therefore intrusted all the provincial govern- 
ments to Tartars, Saracens, Christians, and other foreign- 
ers belonging to his household. From this cause his 
reign was universally detested by the people, who found 
themselves treated as slaves by the Tartars, and still 
worse by the Saracens. 

Vanku and Chenku, having thus arranged their plans, 
succeeded at night in entering the palace ; when the 
former placed himself on one of the royal seats, made 
the apartment be lighted up, and sent a messenger to 
Achmac, then residing in the old city. He professed to 
come from Gengis, the emperor's son, who, he said, had 
unexpectedly arrived, and required his immediate at- 
tendance. The viceroy was much surprised by tlus intelli- 
gence ; but, as he stood in awe of the prince, he pre- 
sently obeyed. On passing the gate of the new city, he 
met the Taiiar officer named Kogatai, who commanded 
the guard of 12,000 men, and who asked him whither he 
was going at that late hour. He stated his intention of 
waiting upon Gengis, whose arrival had just been an- 
nounced to him. " It is very surprising," said the officer^ 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 123 

" how he should have come so secretly that I was not 
apprized of it, so as to send a party of guards to attend 
him." The two Kataians, meantime, felt confident, that 
if they could succeed in despatching Achmac, they 
had nothing farther to fear. On entering the palace, and 
seeing so many lights blazing, he prostrated himself 
before Vanku, whom he supposed to be the prince, when 
Chenku, who held a sword ready in his hand, severed his 
head from his body. Kogatai had stopped at the door ; 
but, seeing this catastrophe, he exclaimed that treason 
was at work, and presently discharged an arrow, which 
slew Vanku as he sat upon the throne. He then caused 
his men to seize the other, and despatched an order to the 
city to kill every one who should be found abroad. The 
ELataians, however, seeing the conspiracy discovered, one 
of their chiefs killed, and the survivor a prisoner, re- 
mained in their houses, and could not make the concerted 
signals to the other towns. Kogatai lost no time in send- 
ing messengers with a particular relation of these events 
to the khan, who, in reply, ordered him diligently to in- 
vestigate the conspiracy, and to punish according to the 
degree of their guilt those found implicated in it. Next 
day, after receiving this command, he examined all the 
Kataians, and inflicted the punishment of death on the 
ringleaders. Other cities known to have participated 
in the guilt suffered similar inflictions. 

When his majesty returned to Kambalu, he inquired 
eagerly into the cause of this disturbance, and learned 
that the infamous Achmac and seven of his sons (the 
others being less culpable) had committed several enor- 
mities. He gave orders that the treasure, which he 
had accumulated to an incredible amount, should be 
removed from his place of residence to the new city, 
where it was lodged in his own treasury. He directed 
even that his corpse should be disinterred, and thrown 
into the street, where the dogs might tear it in pieces. 
The sons, who had pursued the same criminal course 
with their father, were ordered to be flayed alive. Con- 
sidering also the principles of the accursed sect of the 



124 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, AND OF THE 

Saracens, which allow them to indulge in the commission 
of every crime, and even to murder those who differ 
from tliem on points of belief, whence even the detestable 
Achmac and his sons might have imagined themselves 
guiltless, he regarded the whole body with contempt 
and abomination. Summoning them to his presence, 
he forbade the continuance of many practices enjoined in 
their law, ordering that in future their marriages should 
be arranged according to the Tartar custom ; and that, in 
killing animals for food, instead of cutting their throats, 
they should rip open the stomach. Marco Polo was on 
the spot when these events took place.* 

XI v.— Guards of the Great Khan. 

When the great khan holds a court, he is guarded, 
on account of his excellency and honour, by 12,000 
horsemen, who are called quiesitauy that is, faithful 
servants of their lord ; and this he does not from fear 
but regard to his high dignity. Over these 12,000 are 
four captains, so that each commands 3000 ; and they 
keep guard in turn three days and three nights, eating 
and drinking at the expense of the prince. Then they 

* This is the most important of the chapters found exclusively 
in Ramusio. Mr Marsden proves the correctness of the main 
facts by a quotation from De Guignes, who relates them with 
such variations as prove him to have drawn from an independ- 
ent Oriental source. Count Boni has also found a similar ac- 
count in the Chinese history translated by Mailla. The minister 
is there called Achma ; but the real name is the common 
Turkish one of Achmed or Achmet. Although this chapter is 
evidently written by one possessing information on Cninese 
afifairs, yet the complete contrast ^tweon the tone in which 
the khan is mentioned here and in every other place, makes 
it impossible to believe that it could have come from the same 
quarter. The peculiar bitterness with which the Saracens are 
mentioned seems to confirm the suggestion formerly made that 
the writer was a churchman. It may easily be supposed that 
the event might give Kublai a prejuaice against tfie sect, yet 
we can scarcely believe that he showed it by such childish 
enactments as those here stated. De Guignes represents him 
as having ordered the goods of the guilty minister to be given 
up to plunder. Mr Marsden ur^es, with some reason, that the 
statement in the text, of his having taken them to himself, is the 
more probable one. 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 125 

go away, and another party comes ; and so they proceed 
throughout the whole year. 

XV. — The Magnificence of his Festivals. 

When the khan wishes to celehrate a splendid festi- 
val, the tahles are so arranged that his is much higher 
than the others, and he sits on the north, with his &ce 
toward the south. His first wife is seated beside him on 
the left, while, on the right, are his sons and nephews, 
and all those of imperial lineage, who are so stationed 
that their head is on a level with the feet of the mon- 
arch. The barons sit stiU lower ; while the ladies, 
daughters, and female relations of the khan are placed 
beneath the queen on the left side, and under them all 
the wives of the barons ; every class knows the spot 
where they ought to sit. The tables are so arranged that 
the monarch can see aU the company, who are very 
numei-ous ; and outside of that hall there eat more 
than 40,000 persons, who have come with presents or 
remarkable objects from foreign parts, and attend on 
the days when he holds a court or celebrates a mar- 
riage. In the midst of this hall is a very large vessel of 
fine gold, containing wine, and on each side two smaller 
ones, whence the liquor is poured out into flagons, each 
containing fully enough for eight men ; and one of these 
is placed between every two guests, who have besides 
separate cups of gold to drink out of.* This supply of 
plate is of very great value, and indeed the khan has 
so many vessels of gold and silver that none without 
seeing could possibly believe it. 

At each door of the great hall, or of any part of the 
palace occupied by his majesty, stand two officers of gi- 
gantic height, holding in their hands staves, to prevent 
persons who enter from touching the threshold. If any 
one chances to commit this offence, they take from him 

* In Ramusio it is said that the large vessel with wine is equal 
to a tun, and that, beside it, there are two ec^naX to hogsheads 
filled vnth milk. This last article is not mentioned in any early 
edition. 



126 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, AND OP THE 

his garment, which he must redeem by a payment, or if 
they spare his dress, inflict at least a number of blows 
fixed by authority. As strangers may not be awai'e of 
tliis prohibition, officers are appointed to warn them of 
it at the time of introduction. Since, however, some of 
the company, on leaving the hall, may be so affected 
with liquor as to be unable to guard against the acci- 
dent, it is not then severely punished. Those who serve 
the khan at table are great barons, who hold their mouths 
carefully wrapped in rich towels of silk and gold, that 
their breath may not blow upon the dishes. When he 
begins to drink, all the instruments, which are very nu- 
merous, are sounded, and wliile the cup is in his hand, 
the barons and others present fall on their knees, and 
make signs of great humility ; this is done every time he 
drinks, or when new viands are brought in. These I 
shall not attempt to recount, since any one may believe 
that he will have the greatest variety of beasts and birds, 
wild and domestic, and of fishes in their season, and in 
the greatest abundance, prepared most delicately in vari- 
ous modes suitable to his magnificence and dignity. 
Every baron or knight brings his wife, and she sits at 
table along with the other ladies. When the great sire 
has eaten, and the tables are removed, a number of 
jesters, players, and other witty persons perfoiin various 
pieces, exciting much mirth and pleasure among the 
company, who then all depart and go to their homes.* 

XVI.— Great Festival at the King's Birthday. 
The Tartars celebrate a festival on the day of their 



* The reader may compare this festival with those celebrated 
by the khaua in the wilds of Tartar^. See pages 70, 72, 79. The 
mode of arranging the company continues the same. The num- 
ber and varietv of dishes formed a natural improvement in this 
more plentiful region. The performance of the jesters and 
actors is a Chinese amusement, of which no mention is made 
in that rude country. It is only in one sentence from Ramu- 
sio that allusion is made to that tendency to intoxication which 
was there so recklessly indulged, and was not probably here 
altogether unusual. 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. ] 27 

nativity. The birthday of the khan is on the 28th Sep- 
tember, and is the greatest of all, except that at the begin- 
ning of the year. On this occasion he clothes himself 
in robes of beaten gold, and his twelve barons and 
12,000 soldiers wear like him dresses of a uniform colour 
and shape ; not that they are so costly, but similarly 
made of silk, gilded, and bound by a cincture of gold. 
Many have these robes adorned with precious stones and 
pearls, so as to be worth 10,000 golden bezants. The 
great khan, twelve times in the year, presents to those 
barons and knights robes of the same colour with his 
own ; and this is what no lord in the world can do. On 
the day of his nativity, all the Tartars from every pro- 
vince of the world, who hold lands under him, celebrate 
a festival, and bring presents suited to their station. The 
same is done by every individual who asks from him any 
fevour or office. He has twelve barons who bestow com- 
mands on such persons as they think proper. On that 
day, the Christians, Saracens, and aU the races of men who 
are subject to him, make prayers to their gods that they 
will preserve, and grant him a long, healthy, and happy 
life. I will tell you no more of this festival, but of an- 
other which they celebrate at the beginning of the year, 
called the White Feast. 

XVII.— FeBtival of the New Year. 

The Tartars begin their year in February,* when 
the khan and his people celebrate a feast, where all, 
both men and women, are clothed in white robes. They 
consider these as signifying joy and good fortune, 
and that hence all prosperity will happen to them 
throughout the year. On that day, all who hold land 
or any dominion under him, make the most magnifi- 
cent presents in their power, consisting of gold, silver, 
pearls, precious stones, and rich white cloths ; so that, 

* It appears by the Tables of Ulugh Beig that the Chinese 
really beein their year in February^ on the day when the sun 
reaches the middle point of Aquarius. Mr Marsden, p. 331, 
confirms this by other authorities. 



128 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, AND OP THE 

during the whole year, he may have ahundance of trea- 
sures, and of the means of enjoying himself. They 
present also more than 5000 camels, with about 
100,000 beautiful white horses. On that day, too, he 
is gratified with at least 5000 elephants covered with 
cloths of silk and gold, finely wrought with figures 
of beasts and birds, and each having on his back a box 
filled with vessels of gold and silver, and other things 
necessary for the feast. They all pass before the great 
khan, and form the most brilliant spectacle ever seen 
in this world. In the morning of that festal day, before 
the tables are spread, the kings, generals, counts, astro- 
logers, physicians, falconers, and many other officers and 
rulers, repair to the hall of the sovereign, and those who 
are not admitted remain without the palace in a place 
where the monarch can fully see them. They are in 
the following order : — Foremost, his sons, nephews, and 
others of his lineage, then kings, generals, and others 
according to their rank. As soon as each has taken his 
place, a great prelate rises and says, with a loud voice, 
" incline and adore ;" and presently all bend down, 
strike their foreheads on the earth, and make prayers 
to their master, adoring him as a god.* This they do 
four times, and then go to an altar, on which is written 
the name of the great khan. Then, out of a beau- 
tiful box, they pour incense on that table in rever- 
ence of him, and return to their place ; they next make 
those rich and valuable presents which I have described. 
When all these things have been done, and the prince 
has seen them all, the taljles are placed, and they sit 
down, when the feast is ordered and celebrated in the 
manner already explained. Now that I have described 
to you the joy of the White Feast, I will tell you of a 
most noble thing done by this monarch ; for he has 
ordered vestments to be bestowed upon the barons there 
present. 

• We find here described that servile homage, called kotou, 
the existence of which is too well known to require any con- 
firmation. 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 129 

XVIII.-— Robes bestowed by the Great Khan. 

He has twelve barons, who are called guiesitariy or 
the faithful men of the supreme lord. He gives to each 
thirteen vestments, differing in colour, and adorned with 
precious stones, pearls, and other great and most valu- 
able articles ; also a golden girdle, and sandals worked 
with threads of silver, so that each, in these several 
dresses, appears like a king ; and there is a regula- 
tion what dress ought to be worn at each of the feasts. 
The monarch has thirteen robes of the same colour with 
those of his barons, but more costly.* And now I will 
relate a most wonderful thing, namely, that a large lion 
is led into his presence, which, as soon as it sees him, 
drops down, and makes a sign of deep humility, owning 
him for its lord, and moving about without any chain. 
Now you shall hear of the great himtings made by this 
powerful ruler. 

XIX. — Profusion of Game supplied to his Court. 

He resides in the city of Cathay, that is Kambalu, 
three months, December, January, and February, and 
has commanded that, for forty days' journey round, all 
the people should engage in hunting and falconry. The 
various lords of nations and lands are ordered to bring 
to him large beasts, stags, boars, wild-goats, and other 
animals. Those at the distance of thirty days' journey 
send the bodies preserved with the entrails taken out, 
while those at forty setid only the skins, which are em- 
ployed as furniture for his army. 

XX. — Leopards and other wild Animals kept for Hunting. 

Now let us tell of the beasts which his majesty 
keeps for hunting. Among these are leopards and 
lynxes, or stag- wolves, well fitted for that purpose. He 



• The bestowal of robes upon courtiers, however foreign to 
our customs, is shown by Mr Marsden to be a usual bounty at 
oriental courts. 

I 



130 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, AND OF THE 

has also many lions larger than those of Babylon, of a 
beautiful hair and colour, striped lengthways, black, red, 
and white, and trained to catch stags, wild-oxen, hogs, 
wild-goats, and asses ; and it is delightful to see one of 
these chases, where the hunters go out, carrying the 
lion in a cage, and with him a small dog.* They have 
likewise abimdance of eagles, with which they capture 
hares, foxes, and even wolves ; those which are trained 
to catch these last are very large, and of great weight, so 
that no wolf can escape them. 

XXI. — His numerousDogs and splendid Hunting Expeditions. 

Now let us speak of the dogs kept by this monarch. 
He has two barons who are brothers, named Bayam 
and Migam ; they are called dnuci, that is, the keepers 
of mastiff dogs, and each commands a party of 10,000 
men, one clothed in vermilion, and the other in blue ; 
whenever they go out with the monarch they are dressed 
in these vestments. In each party there are 2000 of 
the men, who guide respectively one, two, or more large 
mastiffs, making altogether a vast multitude. When 
his majesty goes to hunt, these two brothers attend him 
on opposite sides, each with 10,000 men and 5000 dogs; 
and they hunt thus a day's journey distant from each 
other, and never pursue any animal which is not captur. 
ed. It is indeed beautiful to see the speed of these dogs 

* The lion here and elsewhere described by our author is 
manifestly the tieer. See Mr Wilson's remarks in Account of 
China, Edinburgh Cabinet Library,vol. iii. p. 393. Mr Marsden 
(p. 339) observes, that the Asiatics generally make little distinc- 
tion between the two species. The tiger, I imagine, was un- 
known in Europe when Marco left it. and seeing it the only 
wild animal similar in size and strengtn, he might readily view 
it as merely a variety of the lion. Mr Marsden (p. 338) men- 
tions, that the Moguls of Hindostan employ small leopards 
for hunting. There is no doubt, especially after what we have 
seen done by Mr V. Amburgh, that if no pains are spared, as 
would be the case here, the strongest and fiercest animals may 
be brought under complete control. The lion itself, in Bomou, 
is tamed into a domestic favourite ; for which purpose the sul- 
tan sent a present of one to Major Denham, who, wisely I 
think, declined the complimeut. 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR EUBLAI. 131 

and the hunters, for when the prince goes out with his 
barons, boars and other animals are running on every side, 
and the dogs pursuing. 

XXII.— Falconry and the Chase after Birds. 

When the monarch has remained in Eambalu these 
three months, he departs and goes southward* to the 
ocean two days' journey distant. He leads with him 
10,000 falconers, conveying full 6000 gerfidcons, pere- 
grine falcons in abundance, and also many vultures; 
but do not imagine that these are all kept in one place ; 
there are 200 here, 300 there, and so on. The birds 
caught are mostly presented to the great sire, and when 
he goes to hunt with his gerfalcons, vultures, and falcons, 
10,000 men are ranged, two together, so as to enclose 
much ground ; these are called toscaor, meaning in our 
language men who remain on the watch, and each has 
a call and a hood to invite the birds. And when any 

* As the direction here assigned bears upon what Mr Mars- 
den considers the most serious objection to our traveller's au- 
thenticity, a few observations may be proper. The two Paris 
editions, the Crusca, and the earliest English one (bv Framp- 
ton), all make it south. The Latin ones by Pipino ana Grvneus 
fpve no direction. Ramusio alone has Grecoy which Mr M. 
translates north-east ; but the term, meaning a wind blowing 
from Greece into Italy, could imply only a small declination 
northwards. Besides, the station is said to be only two days' 
journey from Pe-king, which Mr Marsden insists must be a gross 
error; "for the whole context shows that he is speaking of one of 
the emperor's distant progresses through the Mantchoo country." 
I cannot discover any expression that involves such a meaning. 
It seems to have become nxed in the mind of the learned author, 
that because the present emperors have their summer residence 
in that quarter, ICublai must have had his also. He forgets 
that the former circumstance is owing to their being of Mantchoo 
origin, and consequently attached to that region, vs^hile the 
Mongol dynastv had not the slightest tie to it. There appears, 
then, no grouna to sup{>ose that the station here described was 
beyond the limits of Cnina, or that Marco, in visiting it, must 
have crossed or seen the great wall. Since writing the above, 
I have had the satisfaction to find my opinion coincide with 
the conclusion of Count Boni (II Millione, vol.ii. d. 193), who, 
moreover, judiciously observes, how very unsuitable the begin- 
ning of March would have been for an excursion into the frozen 
mountains of Tartary. 



132 DESCRIPTION OP CHINA, AND OF THE 

falconer, by order of his majesty, sends forth a falcon, 
he has no need to follow it, because wherever \t may go, 
it is watched by the men ranged in double order, who can 
either catch it again, or if necessary afford it succour. 
Each of the birds belonging to the sovereign and barons 
has a tablet of silver on its feet, with its name and that 
of the owner inscribed, so that wherever caught, it 
can be returned to him. If he is unknown, the ani- 
mal must be earned to a chief named bulangaziy or 
guardian of things that are lost, who stands with his flag 
on an elevated spot, and all who have missed any thing 
go to him and recover it. Whoever finds a horse, a bird, 
a sword, or any thing else, and does not carry it to the 
owner or to this officer, is treated as a robber; thus 
scarcely any thing is ever lost. When the monarch 
goes upon these excursions, he has with him four 
elephants, and a chamber prepared, covered within with 
cloth of beaten gold, and outwardly with lions* skins, 
where he keeps twelve of his very best gerfistlcons, 
with twelve barons to amuse him by their society. As 
the falconers ride by, they call, " Sire, the birds are 
passing," when he throws open the chamber, and seeing 
the object, selects the geifalcons that please him, and 
sends them forth against the birds, few of which ever 
escape. Lying on his couch, he can view and enjoy the 
chase. Thus, I think, there is not, and never will be, any 
lord in the world, who has or can have so much diver- 
sion as the great khan. 

XXIII.— Magnificent Tents of the Great Khan. 

When this mighty monarch comes to one of his 
places, named Chaccia, he causes his tents to be pitched, 
with those of his sons and barons. These exceed 
10,000 in number, and are very beautiful and rich. 
That in which he keeps his court is so large that 1000 
knights can dwell in it ; this is for his nobles and other 
attendants. He himself resides in another, looking west- 
ward, where those to whom he wishes to speak are in- 
troduced ; while there is an interior chamber in which 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 133 

he sleeps. The two halls have each three fine columns 
of aromatic wood, and are covered outwardly with beau- 
tiful lions' hides, all striped with black, white, and ver- 
milion, so that water cannot enter. The inside is lined 
with skins of ermine and zibelline, of the highest value, 
especially the latter, of which a robe suitable for a man 
would be worth 2000 golden bezants, while a common 
one would be worth 1000. The Tartars call them royal 
skins, and they are as large as those of a fawn ; the 
whole hall is covered with them, worked most delicately 
in intaglio. These apartments contain furniture of such 
value that a little king could not purchase them. Around 
are large tents for his ladies, and for his gerfalcons 
and other beasts and birds ; for he brings all his train, 
doctors, astronomers, hunters, and other officials, so that 
the whole appears a large and crowded city. He remains 
there till the feast of the Resurrection, during which 
time he does nothing but chase cranes, swans, and other 
birds, when those who catch any bring them to him, and 
thus the sport is beyond what any one can describe. 
No baron, nor lord, nor husbandman, can keep a dog 
or falcon for twenty days' journey round his residence ; 
beyond that distance they may do what they please. 
No person, too, of whatever condition, must, from March 
to October, take any game, but leave them to multiply 
their kind ; so that hares and stags become so fearless as 
frequently to come up to men, yet are not taken. The 
great khmi then returns to the city of Kambalu by the 
same road, hawking and sporting. 

XXIV.— Hunting Palace at Shandu in Tartary • 

At Shandu in Tartary, near the western frontier 
of China, he has built a very large palace of marble 

• This and the following chapter are usually inserted in a 
different place, at the close of the journey through Central Asia. 
It appeared to us that it would be interesting to introduce them 
here, and thus complete the account of Kublai's huntings, and 
his mode of spending the year. The places will be afterwards 
noticed in the itinerary order, and an attempt made to fix their 
position. 



134 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, AND OF THE 

and other valuable stones. The halls are gilded all over 
and wonderfully beautiful, and a space sixteen miles 
in circuit is surrounded by a wall, within which are 
fountains, rivers, and meadows. Here he finds stags, 
deer, and wild-goats to give for food to the falcons and 
gerfalcons, which he keeps in cages, and goes out once 
a- week to sport with them. Frequently he rides through 
that enclosure, having a leopard on the crupper of his 
horse, which, whenever he is inclined, he lets go, and it 
catches a stag, deer, or wild-goat, which is given to the 
gerfalcons in the cage. In this park, too, the mon- 
arch has a large palace framed of cane, the interior 
gilded all over, having pictures of beasts and birds most 
skilfully worked on it. The roof is of the same material, 
and so richly varnished that no water can penetrate. I 
assure you these canes are more than three palms thick, 
and from ten to fifteen paces long. They are cut length- 
ways, from one knot to the other, and then arranged so 
as to form the roof. The whole structure is so disposed 
that the khan, when he pleases, can order it to be taken 
down, for it is supported by more tlian 200 cords of silk. 
His majesty remains there three months of the year, 
June, July, and August, the situation being cool and 
agreeable ; and during this period his palace of cane is 
set up, while all the rest of the year it is down. On 
the 28th of August, he departs thence, and for the 
following purpose : — There are a race of mares white 
as snow, with no mixture of any other colour, and 
in number 10,000, whose milk must not be drunk by 
any one who is not of imperial lineage. Only one 
other race of men can drink it, called Boriat, because 
they gained a victory for Gengis Khan. When one of 
these white animals is passing, the Tartara pay respect 
to it as to a great lord, standing by to make way for it. 
The astrologers and idolaters, too, have told the khan, 
that on the 28th August this milk must be sprinkled 
through the air, and over the earth, that the spirits may 
drink plentifully, and may preserve all that belong to 
him, men, women, beasts, birds, and other things. But 



COURT OP THE EMPEROR EUBLAI. 135 

there is a wonderful circumstance that I had forgotten. 
When the monarch remained in that palace, and there 
came on rain, fog, or any had weather, he had skilful 
astronomers and enchanters, who made these mischiefs 
fly away from his palace, so that none of them could 
approach it. These wise men are called Tebet and 
Quesmur ;* they are idolaters, and more skilful in 
diabolical arts and enchantments than any other gene- 
ration ; and though they do it by the art of the devil, 
they make other men believe that it is through their 
great sanctity and by the power of God.t I must tell 
you, too, another of their customs, that when any man 
is judged and condemned to death by his lord, they cook 
and eat him, but not when he dies a natural death, j: I 
will tell you, too, a great wonder which these baksi 
do by their enchantments. When the monarch sits at 
table in his hall of state, and the cups are ten paces 
distant, fiill of wine, milk, and other beverages, they cause 
them, by their magical spells, to rise from the pavement 
and place themselves before the prince, without any one 
touching them ; this is done in the presence of 10,000 
men ; and the fact is real and true, without any lie.§ 

• Meaning that they come from the countries of Thibet and 
Cashmere. This clearly marks the disciples of Boodh, who 
have their chief seat in the former region. 

+ Ramusio has the following passage ; — " They exhibit them- 
selves in a filthy and indecorous manner, regardless of their 
character and the respect due to others. They suffer their faces 
to remain unwashed, and their hair uncombed, Uving in a state 
altogether squalid." Mr Marsden admits that this passage ap- 

C^' ) to the Indian yogis, and in no degree to the priests of 
dh. It seems a blundering interpolation by one who had 
some knowledge, but confused and indistinct, of Eastern affairs. 

:]: It is difficult to ima^ne what can have induced the author 
to make this extraordinary statement. Probably the en- 
mity of a hostile sect may ha^e led them to impute this enor- 
mity to their adversaries. 

§ The advanced state which the mechanical arts have long 
attained in China might easily enable the priests to produce 
this deception. A connexion with some court grandees might 
permit them to introduce the requisite machinery; for one can 
scarcely think with Mr Marsden that the khan was privy to it. 
If there be any truth at all in the conversation he is made to 
hold, pp. 11*2, 113, he certainly was not. 



136 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, AND OP THE 

These baksi, when the festivals of their idols come round, 
go to his majesty and say, " Great sire, you know the 
feast of such an idol approaches, and are aware that he 
can cause bad weather and much mischief to your cattle 
and grain. We pray, therefore, that you will give us all 
the sheep with black heads, also incense, aloe- wood, and 
such and such other things." This they tell to the barons, 
who repeat it to the khan, and he gives what they de- 
mand. Then they go to the image and raise in his presence 
a delicious fragrance, with incense and spices, cook the 
flesh, and place it with bread before him. Thus every god 
has his day of commemoration in the same manner as our 
saints. They have also extensive abbeys and monasteries^ 
one of which here resembles a little city, containing 
upwards of 2000 monks, who are clothed in a particular 
dress, which is handsomer than that of other men. They 
worship their idols by the grandest feasts, songs, and 
lights that ever were seen. And I may tell you that 
many of these baksi, according to their order, may take 
wives, do so, and have a number of children. Yet there 
is another kind of religious men called sensi, who observe 
strict abstinence ; they eat nothing but the husks of com 
boiled in warm water, fast often in the course of the year, 
have many large idols, and sometimes adore fire. Their 
observances differ from those of every other sect ; they 
would not take a wife for any thing in the world. They 
shave the head and beard, wear black and blue dresses 
of coarse canvass, sleep upon mats, and lead the hardest 
life of any men on earth. Their monasteries and their 
idols all bear the names of women.* 

XXV.— Palace at Cianganor. 
At Cianganor, too, three days' journey distant, the 
khan has a large palace, where he is fond of resid- 
ing, because there are many lakes and rivers, as well 
as fine plains, abounding in cranes, pheasants, part- 

* The extensive monasteries here described axe common in 
Tangut, upon which this residence bordered. Mr Marsden, 
pp. *260, 261, has shown that the observances here described are 
usually practised by the votaries of Fo. 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 137 

ridges, and other birds. Here, therefore, he has de- 
lightful hawking, and abundant exercise for his falcons 
and gerfalcons. There are five kinds of cranes which 
I must describe. The first are black like crows, and 
very large. The second are white, and very beautiful, 
for all the feathers are full of round eyes, lie those of 
the peacock, and glitter like gold. The head is white, 
black, and red all round, and they are larger than any 
of the others. The third species resemble ours. The 
fourth are small, and have in their ears very magnificent 
red and black feathers. The fifth are all gray, with 
handsome red and black heads, and are very large. Near 
this city is a valley where the khan has ordered the 
erection of various small houses, in which are kept flocks 
of partridges, and he employs a number of men to guard 
these birds, so that they are in abundance ; and whenever 
he comes into this palace, he finds as many as he desires. 

XXVI. — ^Paper Money — Immense Wealth of the Great Khan. 

With regard to the money of Kambalu, the great khan 
may be called a perfect alchymist, for he makes it himself. 
He orders people to collect the bark of a certain tree, 
whose leaves are eaten by the worms that spin silk. The 
thin rind between the bark and the interior wood is taken, 
and from it cards are formed like those of paper, all black. 
He then causes them to be cut into pieces, and each is de- 
clared worth respectively half a livre, a whole one, a silver 
grosso of Venice, and so on to the value of ten bezants. 
All these cards are stamped with his seal, and so many 
are fabricated, that they would buy all the treasuries 
in the world. He makes all his payments in them, 
and circulates them through the kingdoms and pro- 
vinces over which he holds dominion ; and none dares to 
refuse them under pain of death. All the nations under 
his sway receive and pay this money for their merchan- 
dise, gold, silver, precious stones, and whatever they 
transport, buy, or sell. The merchants often bring 
to him goods worth 400,000 bezants, and he pays 
them all in these cards, which they willingly accept, 



138 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, AND OF THE 

because they can make purchases with them through- 
out the whole empire. He frequently commands those 
who have gold, silver, cloths of silk and gold, or other 
precious commodities, to bring them to him. Then he 
calls twelve men skilful in these matters, and commands 
them to look at the articles, and fix their price. What- 
ever they name is paid in these cards, which the mer- 
chant cordially receives. In this manner the great sire 
possesses all the gold, silver, pearls, and precious stones 
in his dominions. When any of the cards are torn or 
spoiled, the owner carries them to the place whence they 
were issued, and receives fresh ones, with a deduction of 
3 per cent. If a man wishes gold or silver to make 
plate, girdles, or other ornaments, he goes to the office, 
carrying a sufficient number of cards, and gives them in 
payment for the quantity which he requires,* This is the 
reason why the khan has more treasure than any other 
lord in the world ; nay, all the princes in the world to- 
gether have not an equal amount. 

XXVII. — The Twelve Governors of Provinces and their Duty. 

He has appointed twelve very great barons, who hold 
command over all things in the thirty-four provinces. 
They reside in a palace within the city of Kambalu, 
large and beautiful, containing many halls and apart- 
ments ; and for every province there is an agent and a 
number of writera or notaries, having each a house to 



♦ The use of paper money at this period is fully confirmed by 
Chinese history (Marsden, pp. 356, 357). It is said to have 
been first introduced by Hong-vou. of the dynasty which pre- 
ceded the Mongol conquest, and to have been adopted by 
Okkoday, the immediate successor of Gengis. Kublai seems 
to have carried it to a greater extent than any of his prede- 
cessors ; and the Yuen dynasty, who expelled the Tartars, at- 
tempted to continue the practice; but it has been long since dis- 
usea, and only detached remnants are preserved as curiosities, 
or as amulets.— Account of China^ Edinburgh Cabinet Library, 
vol. ii. p. 247. Count Boni mentions, that the morus papyri- 
/era (paper-bearing mulberry) is a peculiar species lately in- 
troduced into Italy, though used only for common purposes, 
and no trial, he regrets, has yet been made of producing from 
it that article II Millione, i. 89. 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR EUBLAI. 139 

himself. They manage all the provincial affairs according 
to the will and pleasure of the twelve harons. The latter 
have power to appoint the lords of the provinces above 
mentioned ; and having chosen the one whom they judge 
best qualified, they name him to the great khsji, who 
confirms him, and bestows a golden tablet corresponding 
to his command. These twelve barons are called in the 
Tartar language sdeng, that is, the greater officers of 
state. They order the army to go where and in what 
numbers they please, but all according to the commands of 
the great sire ; and they do every other thing necessary for 
the provinces. The piedace in which they dwell is called 
scieuy and is the largest in all the court ; they have the 
power of doing much good to any one whom they favour. 

XXVIII. — The CJouriers of the Great Khan and their Stations. 

I must now inform you, that from the city of Kam- 
balu, many messengers are sent to divers provinces, 
and on all the roads they find, at every twenty-five 
miles, a post called jamby where the imperial envoys are 
received. At each is a large edifice, containing a bed 
covered with silk, and every thing useful and convenient 
for a traveller ; so that if a king were to come, he would 
be well accommodated. Here, too, they find full 400 
horses whom the prince has ordered to be always in 
waiting to convey them when sent into any quarter, 
along the principal roads. When they have to go 
through any district where there is no habitation, the 
monarch has caused such edifices to be reared at the 
distance of thirty-five or at most forty miles ; thus they 
go through all the provinces, finding every where inns 
and horses for their reception. This is the greatest estab- 
lishment that ever was kept by any king or emperor in 
the world ; for at those places there are maintained more 
than 200,000 horses.* Also the edifices, furnished and 

* Here follows a long passage (exclusively in Ramusio) ac- 
counting for the great population of the country ; but it bears 
80 apocr3rphal a cnaracter, asserting that every man has from 
six to ten wives, and owns six or eight horses, that, in the 



140 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, AND OF THE 

prepared in the manner now described, amount to more 
than 10,000.* Moreover, in the intervals between these 
stations, at every three miles, are erected villages of 
about forty houses, inhabited by foot-runners, also em- 
ployed on these despatches. They wear a large girdle, 
set round with bells, which are heard at a great distance. 
When one of them receives a letter or packet, he runs 
full speed to the next village, where his approach being 
announced by the bells, another is ready to start and 
proceed to the next, and so on. By these pedestrian mes- 
sengers the khan receives news in one day and night 
from places distant ten days' journey ; in two, from 
those distant twenty ; and in ten, from those distant a 
hundred.t From them he exacts no tribute, but gives 
them horses and many other things. When his mes- 
sengers go on horseback to carry intelligence into the 
provinces or bring tidings from distant parts, and, more 
especially, respecting any district that has rebelled, they 
ride in one day and night 200, 250, or even 300 miles ; 

absence of any early authority, I have determined to reject it. 
It mentions, however, correctly, the great care with which the 
land is cultivated. 

• Government posts for the conveyance of intelligence and 
messeneers have been long and generally employed by Asiatic 
monarchs. Count Boni even finds them mentioned m the Cyropse- 
dia of Xenophon. We have seen Carpini and Rubruquis tnus 
conveyed across the whole breadth of Tartary. I cannot but 
think, however, that the numbers here, as in other instances, 
are much exaggerated. If we suppose 20,000 miles of roaa 
thus provided, the stages would still he short of 1000. I doubt, 
however, if we can adopt Mr Marsden's conjecture of a cipher 
too much ; for in early MSS. the numerals are always Roman. 
It is also absurd to suppose such a number of horses kept in 
waiting at everv stage ; but the author mi^ht be misled by the 
circumstance, that any largo mission passmg to or from court 
is supplied with the number wanted by impressment among the 
farmers. The word iamb seems to be the Persian yam or tarn, 

+ It seems difiRcult to understand why these foot-runners 
should have been employed on the same roads with the horse- 
couriers, who would surely travel more quickly. I cannot but 
suspect that the former were confined to those barren tracts 
which did not afibrd the requisite forage. Mr Marsden quotes 
Bell of Antermony for the modern practice ; his journey lay 
through the great desert. 



COURT OP THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 14 1 

and when there are two, they receive two good horses, 
bind themselves round the head and body, and gallop 
full speed from one station to the next at twenty- 
five miles' distance, where they find two others fresh and 
ready harnessed, on which they proceed with the same 
rapidity. They stop not for an instant day nor night, 
and are thus enabled to bring news in so short a period. 
Now, I will tell you the great bounty which the mon- 
arch bestows twice in the year. 

XXIX. — The Care and Bounty of the Monarch towards his 

Subjects. 

He sends his messengers through all his kingdoms 
and provinces, to know if any of his subjects have 
had their crops injured through bad weather or any 
other disaster ; and if such injury has happened, he 
does not exact from them any tribute for that season or 
year ; nay, he gives them com out of his own stores to 
sabsist upon, and to sow their fields. This he does in 
summer ; in winter he inquires if there has been a mor- 
tality among the cattle, and in that case grants similar ex- 
emption and aid. When there is a great abundance of 
grain, he causes magazines to be formed, to contain wheat, 
rice, millet, or barley, and care to be taken that it be 
not lost or spoiled ; then when a scarcity occurs, this 
grain is drawn forth, and sold for a third or fourth of 
the current price.* Thus there cannot be any severe 
fiunine ; for he does it through all his dominions ; he 
bestows also great charity on many poor families in 
Kambalu ; and when he hears of individuals who have not 
food to eat, he causes grain to be given to them. Bread 
is not i*efused at the court throughout the whole year 
to any who come to beg for it ; and on this account he 
is adored as a god by his people. His majesty pro- 



• The formation of public granaries to be opened in times of 
scarcity is common. The same may be said of the remission 
of taxes in unfavourable seasons. Besides motives of human- 
ity, these measures are prompted by the dread of insurrection, 
wMch is often excited in this empire by intervals of severe 
dearth. — Marsden, p. 371. 



142 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, AND OF THE 

vidcs them also with raiment out of his tithes of wool, 
silk, and hemp. These materials he causes to be woven 
into different sorts of cloth, in a house erected for that 
purpose, where every artisan is obliged to work one day 
in the week for his service. Garments made of the 
stuffs thus manufactured are given to destitute families 
for their winter and summer dresses. A dress is also 
prepared for his armies ; and in every city a quantity 
of woollen cloth is woven, being defrayed from the tithes 
there levied. It must be observed, that the Tartars, 
according to their original customs, when they had not 
yet adopted the religion of the idolaters, never bestowed 
alms ; but when applied to by any necessitous person, 
repelled him with reproachful expressions, saying, — 
begone with your complaints of a bad season, God has 
sent it to you, and had he loved you, as he evidently 
loves me, you would have similarly prospered. But 
since some of the wise men among the idolaters, espe- 
cially the baksi, have represented to his majesty, that 
to provide for the poor is a good work and highly grate> 
ful to their deities, he has bestowed charity in the man- 
ner now described, so that, at his court, none are denied 
food who come to ask for it.* He has also so arranged 
tliat in all the highways by which messengers, mer- 
chants, and other persons travel, trees are planted at short 
distances on both sides of the road, and are so tall that 
they can be seen from a great distance. They serve 
thus both to show the way and afford a grateful shade. 
This is done whenever the nature of the soil admits of 
plantation ; but when the route lies through sandy deserts 
or over rocky mountains, he has ordered stones to be 
set up, or columns erected, to guide the traveller. Officers 
of rank are appointed, whose duty it is to take care tliat 
these matters be properly aiTanged, and the roads kept 
constantly in good order. Besides other motives, the 

* The last three sentences are in llamusio alone, and from 
their tendency to depreciate the khan, I cannot help suspecting 
them to bo the production of the same pen which narrated the 
rebellion of Achmac. 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR EUBLAI. 143 

great khan is influenced by the declaration of his spoth- 
sayers and astrologers, that those who plant trees receive 
long life as their reward. 

XXX. — Liquor used for Wine in Cathay. 

You must know that the greater part of the people 
of Cathay drink a wine made of rice and many good 
spices, and prepare it in such a way that it is more 
agreeable to drink than any other liquid. It is clear and 
beautiful, and it makes a man drunk sooner than any 
other wine, for it is extremely hot,* 

XXXI. — Stones which are burnt instead of Wood. 

It may be observed, also, that throughout the whole 
province of Cathay, there ai*e a kind of black stones 
cut from the mountains in veins, which bum like logs. 
They maintain the fire better than wood. If you put 
them on in the evening, they will preserve it the whole 
night, and will be found burning in the morning. 
Throughout the whole of Cathay this fuel is used.t 
They have also wood indeed ; but the stones are much 
less expensive. 

XXXII.— The Astrologers of Kambalu— the Tartar 
Computation of Time. 

The city of Kambalu contains, inclusive of Chris- 
tians, Saracens, and Kataians, about 5000 astrologers 
and soothsayers, whom the emperor provides with food 
and clothing, as he does the poor families; and they 

• It is well known that the Chinese distil a spirit from rice, 
of which they drink plentifully. Yet, from tne mention of 
spices, which they do not mix with it, I incline strongly to be- 
hove that tea entered partly into our author's idea, and that, 
being little familiar with Chinese customs, he confounded the 
two together. 

+ This is evidently coal, which abounds in China, but was 
then unknown in the part of Europe from which the traveller 
came. If I remember right, iEneas Sylvius, when relating his 
journey in Scotland, uses the very same expression, describing 
the weekly distribution among the poor of stones for the pur- 
pose of fuel. 



]44 DESCRIPTION OP CHINA, AND OF THE 

are constantly practising their art. They have astrolabes, 
on which are delineated the planetary signs, the hours 
of passing the meridian, and their successive aspects dur- 
ing the whole year. The astrologers of each separate 
sect annually examine their respective tables, to ascer- 
tain thence the course of the heavenly bodies, and their 
relative positions for every lunation. From the paths 
and configurations of the planets in the several signs, 
they foretell the state of the weather and the peculiar 
phenomena which are to occur in each month. In one, 
for instance, there will be thunder and storms ; in an- 
other earthquakes ; in a third violent lightning and rain ; 
in a fourth pestilence, mortality, war, discord, conspi- 
racy. What they find in their astrolabes they predict, 
adding, however, that God may at his pleasure do either 
more or less than they have announced. 

Their annual prophecies are written on small squares 
called takuini, which are sold at a moderate price to all 
persons anxious to search into futurity. Those whose an- 
nouncements prove more generally correct are accounted 
the most perfect masters of their art, and consequently 
held in the highest honour. When any one projects 
a great work, a long journey for commercial purposes, 
or any other undertaking, the probable success of which 
he is desirous to learn, he goes to one of these astrolo- 
gers, informs him of the time at which he intends to set 
out, and inquires what aspect the heavens then exhibit. 
The astrologer replies, that before he can answer, he 
must be informed of the year, month, and hour of his 
nativity, on learning which he examines how the con- 
stellation that was then in the ascendant corresponds 
with the aspect of the celestial bodies at the time of the 
Inquiry. Upon this comparison he founds his predic- 
tion as to the favourable or unfavourable issue of the 
enterprise. 

The Tartars compute time by a cycle of twelve years, 
the first of which they name the lion ; the second, the 
ox ; the third, the dragon ; the fourth, the dog ; and so 
on till all the twelve have elapsed. When any one, 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 145 

therefore, is asked the year in which he was born, he 
answers, it was in that of the lion, on such a day, and 
at such an hour and minute ; all of which had been care- 
fully noted in a book. When the years of the cycle are 
completed, they begin again with the first, and con- 
stantly go over the same round.* 

XXXIII.— Religion and Customs of the Tartars (Chinese). 

These people are idolaters, and each person has, for 
the object of worship, a tablet fixed against an ele- 
vated part of the wall of his apartment, having a name 
written on it which denotes the high, heavenly, and 
mighty God, and this they daily worship, burning in- 
cense before it. Raising their hands, and beating their 
faces three times against the floor, they entreat from 
him the blessings of sound understanding and bodily 
health, addressing no other petition. Below, on the 
floor, they have a statue named Natigai, considered as 
the god of terrestrial objects, or of whatever is produced 
on the earth. They suppose him to have a wife and 
children, and worship him in the same manner w^ith 
incense, lifting their hands, and bending to the ground. 
They pray to him for good weather, plentiful crops, 
increase of family, and other such objects. They believe 
the soul to be so far immortal, that immediately after 
death it enters another body, and according as a man's 
actions in tliis life have been virtuous or wicked, his 
future state will be progressively more or less fortunate. 
If he has been poor, yet acted worthily and respectably, 
he will be bom anew, first of a lady, becoming himself a 
gentleman ; then of a woman of rank, becoming a noble- 
man, and he will continually ascend in the scale of 
existence till he becomes united with the divinity. On 
the contrary, if a gentleman's son have acted unworthily, 

♦ The Tartars really have a cycle of twelve years. — marked 
by names of animals ; but there seems to be a mistake in those 
here given. Tho most correct list is said to be the rat, ox, tiger, 
hare, dragon, serpent, horse, sheep, monkey, cock, dog, ana 
hog.— Marsden, p. 380. 



146 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, AND OF THE 

he will, at his next birth, become a clown, and at length 
a dog ; descending always to a condition more vile than 
the former. 

They converse courteously, accosting each other with 
politeness and with countenances expressive of plea- 
sure ; they have a well-bred air, and a manner of eating 
particularly cleanly. The utmost reverence is shown to 
parents ; and should any child treat his with disrespect, 
or neglect to assist them, there is a public tribunal hav- 
ing for its especial object to punish the crime of -filial 
ingratitude. Malefactors, when found guilty, after being 
apprehended and thrown into prison, are strangled ; 
but such as remain till the expiry of three years, a 
time appointed by his majesty for a general release, are 
sot at liberty, having however a brand fixed on one of 
the cheeks, by which they may be recognised. 

The great khan has prohibited all gambling and other 
species of fraud, to which this people are addicted be- 
yond any other upon earth; and as a reason for this 
prohibition, he tells them in his edict, '' I subdued you 
by the power of my sword, and consequently whatever 
you possess belongs of right to me ; in gambling, there- 
fore, you sport with my property." Yet he does not, by 
the right thus claimed, take any thing on an arbitrary 
principle. The orderly and regular manner in which all 
ranks present themselves before him deserves notice. 
On approaching within half a mile of his residence, 
they testify their reverence for his exalted rank by an 
humble, subdued, and quiet demeanour, so that not 
the least noise is heard, nor does any one call, or even 
speak aloud. Every man of rank carries with him, 
while he continues in the hall of audience, a vessel into 
which he spits, that he may not soil the floor ; and hav- 
ing done so, he replaces the cover, and makes a bow. 
They usually take with them handsome buskins of white 
leather, and on reaching the court, before entering the 
hall, where they wait to be summoned by his majesty, 
put them on, giving those worn in walking to the care 
of the servants. This precaution is taken that they may 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 147 

not sully the beautiful carpets, curiously wrought with 
silk and gold, and exhibiting a variety of colours.^ 

XXXIV. — Marco Polo's Journey— The River Polisangan and 

its beautiful Bridge. 

I have now to inform you that the great khan having 
sent Messer Marco as his ambassador into the western 
provinces, he departed from Kambalu, and travelled 
in that direction full four months. You shall now 
hear all that he saw on that journey going and return- 
ing. When a man leaves Kambalu and has gone ten 
miles, he finds a river called Pulisangan, which flows 
on to the ocean, and is crossed by many merchants with 
their goods. Over it is a grand stone bridge, which 
has not its equal in the world ; it is 800 paces long and 
eight broad, and ten horsemen can ride abreast over it. 
It has twenty-four arches, supported by piers in the 
water, and is wholly of marble, finely wrought into 
columns in the manner that I will tell you. At the 
head of the bridge is a column of marble, above and be- 
neath which are beautifully carved lions of the same ma- 
terial, and about a pace distant is another column, with 
its lions, and between the two are slabs of gray marble, 
to secure passengers from falling into the water ; and the 
whole bridge thus formed is the most magnificent object 
in the world. + 

* These two chapters are found in Ramusio only. They are 
evidently written by one who had considerable knowledge of 
Qiina. The prevalence of astrology, and the sanction of it by 
government, the polite and ceremonious behaviour, the tenets 
of Fo, and tne rage for gambling, are all correctly stated. There 
is, however, a want of distinctness, particularly in the Tartars 
and Chinese being confounded togetner. The title of the second 
chapter refers to the former, while its contents relate entirely to 
the latter. On the whole there is nothing in them absolutely to 
negative their being composed by Marco; yet they appear writ- 
ten in a different tone, and considering their absence in all the 
early editions, I am strongly inclined to believe, that like others 
they have been inserted by a different pen. 

t Magalhaens describes a similar bridge, and agrees in think- 
ing it perhaps the finest in the world, though he insists that it 
is not exactly on the site indicated by Marco. It was destroyed 



148 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, AND OF THE 

XXXV.— The great City of Geo-gui. 

After leaving that bridge a man travels thirty miles 
westward, finding every where fine trees, villages, and 
inns, and then comes to a city which is named Geo-gui,* 
The country is rich in grain, the people are all idolaters ; 
they live by merchandise and the arts, making cloth of 
gold, as well as silk, and beautiful linen. There are also 
numerous houses for the reception of strangers. A mile 
beyond that city are two roads, one leading westward 
through Cathay, the other southward to the great pro- 
vince of Manji. In riding westward through Catiiay 
full ten days,t you find always handsome cities and cas- 
tles, abundance of arts and merchandise, fine inns, trees, 
vines, and a civilized people. 

XXXVI.— The Cities of Ta-in-fu and Pi-an-fu. 

At the end of this journey is a kingdom named Ta- 
in-fu, j: with a capital of the same name. It contains 
many arts and much merchandise, with a large supply 
of stores necessary for the imperial army. The district 
presents numerous vineyards, and being the only part of 

by a flood in 1668, and not replaced by one of equal beauty. 
The Crusca and Paris Latin make thirty-four arches ; but the 
French and Kamusio (in accordance with Magalhaens) only 
twentv-four. 

* This place, called by Ramusio, Gouza, seems correctly fixed 
by Marsaen (p. 392 ) at Tso-tcheou, not a city of the first magni- 
tude, but exhibited inD'Anville's mapof Pe-che-lee,as the point 
at which the two great roads here mentioned diverge. 

t The distances are all given in journeys. Eacn of these, 
according to the best estimate the editor can form, may be 
rockonea at about fourteen miles in a direct lino ; but this is 
not (|uite uniform. The direction is always given towards a 
cardinal point, without noticing pretty extensive deviations 
from it. With these allowances, tne itinerary will, it is believed, 
be found extremely correct. 

t Tai-yuen-fou, capital of the province of Shan-see. Beinf 
the residence of the Tay-ming dynasty, it contains splendid 
palaces, now in ruin ; and it is still very populous. Arms in 
this less warlike age are no longer fabricated ; but the neigh- 
bouring mountains abound with iron, and works are carried 
on in tnat metal.— Astley's Voyages, vol. iv. p. 52. 



COURT- OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 149 

Cathay where wine is made, supplies it to the surround- 
ing provinces. It yields also much silk, abounding in 
the trees on which the worms are fed. A degree of civil- 
isation prevails among all the people of this country, in 
consequence of their frequent intercourse with the num- 
erous towns which lie very near each other. The mer- 
chants are constantly carrying their goods from one to 
another, as fairs are successively held at each. Five 
days' journey beyond the ten already mentioned, there 
is said to be another city still larger and handsomer, 
named Achbaluch, where are the limits of his majesty's 
hunting-ground, within which no person must sport, 
except princes of his family, and others whose names are 
inscribed on the grand falconer's list ; beyond, all per- 
sons qualified by their rank have that liberty. The khan 
scarcely ever follows the chase in this quarter ; hence 
the wild animals, especially hares, multiply to such a 
degree, as to cause the destruction of all the growing 
com. This having come to his knowledge, he was in- 
duced to repair thither with his whole court, and prodi- 
gious quantities of game were then taken.* Leaving 
Ta-in-fu, and riding westward full seven days through 
very fine districts, amid numerous merchants, you find 
a large town, named Pi-an-fu,t supported by commerce 
and the silk manufacture. 



XXXVII.—The Castle of Caya-fu— Story of its King and 

Prester John. 

Two miles west of Pi-an-fu is a famous castle, named 
Caya-fu,J built anciently by a king named Dor. In 
this castle is a very beautiful palace, with a great hall, 
containing portraits, beautifully painted, of all the kings 

* This account of Achbaluch and the hunting is exclusively 
in Ramusio. 

+ Pin-yang-fou, the second city of Shan-soe, not inferior to 
the capital.— Astley, vol. iv. p. 52. 

* This place is called variously Chin-cui, Cay-cui, and in Ra- 
musio Chai-cui. Mr Marsden supposes, probably enough, Kiai> 
tcheou. Count Boni suggests Tai-ping-hien ; but we cannot 
find this place on the Jesuits* or any other map. 



150 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, AND OF THE 

who formerly reigned in these provinces. Having men- 
tioned this King Dor, I will tell you a curious stoiy 
of what passed between him and Prester John. The 
two sovereigns being at war, Dor was in so strong a situ- 
ation that the other could not reach him, and was there- 
fore much chagrined ; upon which seven of his servantB 
said that they would bring before him his adversaiyy 
and if he wished even alive. He said he should be 
very much obliged to them. Having obtained this per- 
mission, they went to the king and presented themselves 
as strangers desirous to serve him. He gave them an 
honourable welcome, and they began their duties with 
the utmost zeal, rendering themselves extremely accept- 
able. After they had remained two years, he became 
greatly attached to them, and confided in their love 
as if they had been his sons. Now hear what these 
wicked fellows did, and how difficult it is to find de- 
fence against a traitor. The king happened to go out 
on an excursion with a small number of persons, among 
whom were these seven. When they had passed a river 
distant from the palace, seeing that the king had not 
attendants enough to defend him, they laid hands on 
him, drew their swords, and threatened to kill him 
unless he instantly went along with them. He was 
greatly surprised, and said to them, — " What mean 
you by this, my sons \ — what are you saying — whither 
do you wish me to go ?*' They replied : — " We wish 
you to come with us to Prester John, who is our 
master." When Dor heard this, he almost died with 
grief, and said, — " ha ! my good friends, have I not 
honoured and treated you as children ; why will you 
betray me into the hands of my enemy ! This would 
be a most wicked and disloyal action." They replied 
that it must be so. They led him to their sovereign, who 
rejoiced greatly, and addressed the king in very rough 
language. He made no reply, not knowing what to 
answer ; upon which, the other set him to keep his 
cattle, as a mark of disgrace and contempt, and during 
two years he performed lYua iaei^a\ o^^^. M\ietS2^ 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 151 

time Prester John was appeased, and resolved to spare 
his captive. He bestovired on him splendid regal vest- 
ments, paying him great honour, and saying, — ^** Now 
own you were not a man capable of making war against 
me." The king then replied, — " Sire, I always knew 
that I was unable to contend with you ; I repent much 
of my former bad conduct, and promise faithfully that 
I will always be your friend." Then said the chris- 
tian prince, — ** I will impose upon you no more hard- 
ship and grief ; you shall receive favour and honour.*' 
Having then supplied him with many horses hand- 
somely equipped, and a numerous attendance, he per- 
mitted him to go. Dor then returned to his kingdom, 
and from that time was a Mthfiil friend and servant of 
Prester John,* 

XXXVIII. — The great River Kara-moran, and the City 

Ca-cian-fu. 

Twenty miles westward from that castle is a river 
called Kara-moran,t so large and broad that it cannot be 
crossed by a bridge, and flows on even to the ocean. On 
its banks are many cities and castles, likewise many mer- 
chants and manufactured goods ; and in the country 
around ginger grows in great abundance. The number 
of birds is wonderful, so that for a Venetian grosso one can 
buy three pheasants ; and after travelling three days, you 

* This story is of course ^ven b)r the traveller on hearsay ; 
yet there seems nothing in it very improbable. With regard 
to the name Dor (absurdly converted in the Latin versions into 
Darius), Mr Marsden makes an ingenious and very probable 
conjecture, that it is applied to the dynasty of Kin, a word in 
Chinese signifying gold. These princes of Tartar origin had, 
previous to the Mongol invasion, occupied all this part of Asia. 
See Account of China, Edinburgh Cabinet Library, vol. i. p. 
100. Prester John, an odd and celebrated name, is understood 
to apply to Ouang Khan, who at the same period reigned at Kara- 
korum and the adjacent part of Eastern Tartary.— See Intro- 
duction to the Missions ; the Travels of Carpini and Rubruquis. 

f This term, signifying in China the Black River, is applied 
here to the great stream of the Hoang-ho, or Yellow River, the 
second in magnitude of the inland currents which water the 
empire. 



152 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, AND OF THE 

find a noble city named Ca-cian-fu.* The people are 
idolaters, as likewise those of Cathay. It is a city of 
great merchandise and many arts. They have abun- 
dance of silk, with cloth of gold of all fashions. I will 
go on to tell you of the capital of the kingdom. 

XXXIX.— The City of Quen-gian-fu. 

When a man has left the city of Ca-cian-fu, and travel- 
led eight days westward, he finds always cities and 
castles, merchandise and arts, pleasure-grounds and 
houses ; and the whole country is full of mulberries, 
producing abundance of silk. The men are idolaters 
and live by labouring the ground, hunting, and hawking. 
At the end of the eight days he comes to the noble city 
of Q;Uen-gian-fu,f capital of a kingdom anciently magnifi- 
cent and powerful, and which had many noble and valiant 
kings. At present the crown is held by Mangalu, a son 
of the great khan. That city is rich in merchandise and 
manufactures, particularly of implements for the supply 
of an army ; likewise every thing necessary for the sub- 
sistence of man. The people are all idolaters. West- 
ward is a beautiful palace of King Mangalu, which I will 
describe to you. It lies in a great plain watered by a 
river, as also by many lakes and fountains. A wall five 
miles in circuit, surrounded with battlements, and well 
built, encloses this splendid edifice, having halls and 
chambers adorned with beaten gold. Mangalu exercises 
his dominion with great justice, and is much beloved 

• Mr Marsden is unable to find any large city on this line. 
Count Boni suggests Hoa-tcheou. which indeed had occurred to 
me ; but it will not accord with the eight days to Si-ngan-fou. I 
would suggest Tong-tcheou ; for there is no reason to suppose 
that the river may not have been crossed before its bend to the 
eastward. 'This site would nearly correspond to all the data, 

f Ken-zan-fu, Ramusio. This is Si-ngan-fou, capital of Shen- 
soe, the residence of the throe imperial dynasties, Chen, Sin, and 
Han. A large palace, and walls four leagues in compass, still 
attest its former grandeur. —( Astley, vol. iv. pp. 53, 54.) Count 
Boni thinks it Han-tchong fou ; but the eijj:ht days from Hoa- 
tcheou would be quite inadequate to reach that city. He for- 
{[;ets, too, that he would then have forty days to spend between 
It and Tching-tou-fou, a period much too large. 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. ]53 

by his people ; the residents in the district enjoy great 
amusement in hawking and hunting.^ 

XL.— The Province of Cun-chin. 

A man departing from this palace travels three days 
westward through a very fine plain, always finding vil- 
lages and castles, with men living by merchandise and 
rearing silk in great abundance. He then comes to 
great mountains and valleys belonging to the province 
of Cun-chin ;+ the people are all idolaters, and sub- 
sist by agriculture and hunting, having many forests 
full of various wild animals. Thus a man rides for 
twenty days through mountains, valleys, and woods, 
always finding cities, castles, and good inns. 

XLI. — The Province of Achalech-Manji. 

After this journey, he enters a province named Acha- 
lech-Manji, entirely level, and full of cities and castles. 
The people are all idolaters, and live by merchandise 
and art, and the province yields such a quantity of 
ginger, that it is distributed throughout Cathay, 
to the great profit of the inhabitants. The land also 
yields rice, wheat, and other grain, and is rich in all 
productions. The principal country is caUed Achalech- 
Manji, which means in our language one of the borders 
of Mfuiji. This plain lasts for two days, and we then 
travel twenty through mountains, valleys, and woods, 
seeing many cities and castles. These people are idol- 
aters, and live on the fruits of the earth and the flesh 



* This agrees with De Guiffnes' statement, quoted by Mars- 
den, that Mangkola, a son of Kublai, was governor of Shen-see, 
Se-tchuen, and Thibet, and resided at Si-ngan-fou. — Marsden, 
p. 406. 

+ This province, called in other editions Kun-kin, Chin-chin, 
Chym, is considered by Mr Marsden (p. 408) to be Se-tchuen; 
but the distances compared with the map will show evidently 
that it is still only the southern part of Shen-see, which bears 
in fact the rude and mountainous character here ascribed to 
it (Astley, vol. iv. p. 54). This part of China seems then to 
have been differently and more minutely subdivided than at 
present. 



154 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, AND OF THE 

of birds and beasts ; for there are abundance of lions, 
bears, wolves, stags, deer, and particularly of those ani- 
mals which yield the musk.* 

XLII.— The Province and City of Sin-din -fu. 

When a man has left this country and travelled twenty 
days westward, he approaches a province on the borders 
of Manji named Sin-din-fu. The capital, bearing the 
same name, was anciently very great and noble, governed 
by a mighty and wealthy sovereign. He died, leaving 
three sons, who divided the city into three parts, and each 
enclosed his portion with a wall, which was within the 
great wall of twenty miles in circuit. They ranked 
still as kings, and had ample possessions ; but the great 
khan overcame them, and took full possession of their 
territory. Through the city, a large river of fresh 
water, abounding with fish, passes and flows on to the 
ocean, distant eighty or a hundred days' journey ; it is 
called Quian-su. On that current is a very great number 
of cities and castles, and such a multitude of ships, 
as no one who has not seen could possibly believe. 
Equally wonderful is the quantity of merchandise con- 
veyed ; indeed it is so broad as to appear a sea and not 
a river. Within the city, it is crossed by a bridge, 
wholly of marble, half a mile long and eight paces 
broad ; the upper part is supported by marble columns, 
and richly painted ; and upon it are many houses where 
merchants expose goods for sale ; but these are set up in 
the morning and taken down in the evening. At one of 
them, larger than the others, stands the chamberlain of 
the khan, who receives the duty on the merchandise 
sold, which is worth annually a thousand golden bezants.t 



• Mr Marsden is unable to identify this district. It appears 
to us that of Han-tchong-fou, which lay exactly in the route of 
the traveller, whose de8crii)tion very closely corresponds with 
that given by good authorities.— Astley^ vol. iv. p. 54. 

t Sin-din-fu is evidently Tching-tou-fou, anciently one of the 
greatest cities of the empire, though nearly destroyed during 
the civil war in the sixteenth century. Mr Marsden (pp. 411, 
412) is embarrassed by the river, flowmg near and even through 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR EUBLAI. 155 

The inhabitants are all idolaters ; and from that city a 
man goes five days' journey through castles, villages, 
and scattered houses. The people subsist by agriculture, 
and the tract abounds with wild beasts. There are also 
large manufactures of gauzes and cloth of gold. After 
travelling these five days, he comes to Thibet. 

XLIII.— The ProTince of Thibet. 

This is a very large province ; the men have a lan- 
guage of their own, and are idolaters. They border 
upon Manji and many other countries, and are very 
great robbers ; the extent is such, that it contains eight 
kingdoms and many cities and castles. There are also 
extensive rivers, lakes, and mountains, where is found 
a vast quantity of gold. Cinnamon and coral occur, 
which last is very dear, because they place it round the 
neck of their women and their idols, and hold it as a 
precious jewel. Here are made camlets, and other cloths 
of silk and gold. There are very skilful enchanters and 
astrologers, but extremely wicked men, who perform 
works of the devil, which it were unlawful to relate, they 
would strike with such amazement. They have mastiff 
dogs as large as asses, and excellent in taking wild animals. 
This province was entirely destroyed by Mangou, the 
fifth great khan, in his wars ; and its many villages 
and castles are all demolished.* Here grow large canes, 
fifteen paces long and four palms thick, whUe from one 
knot to the other is full three palms. The merchants and 
travellers, who pass through that country in the night, 
take these canes and set them on fire, when they make 

it, being identified with the grand stream of theYang-tse-kiang. 
Yet this is supported by the best editions, and even the word 
terra is commonly used in this journal as synonymous with 
city. The case we take to be, that the inhabitants mistook this 
important tributary for the main stream, whose early course 
through the wilds of Tartary was probably unknown to them. 
• This accords with De Guignes,who says : " Mangou Khan 
named the general Holitai to go and subject Thibet. All the 
coontry was desolated, its cities and its castles rased.'' — Mars- 
den, p. 416. 



156 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, AND OF THE 

such a loud crackling noise that lions, hears, and other 
destructive animals are terrified, and dare not approach. 
They also split them in the middle, and produce thus 
so mighty a sound, that it would he heard in the 
night at the distance of five miles ; and the explosion is 
so alarming, that horses unaccustomed to it often break . 
their reins and harness, and take to flight. For this 
reason, travellers, riding such horses, bind them by the 
feet, and stop their eyes and ears.* A man travels 
twenty days through these countries without finding 
either inns or victuals ; he must therefore carry with 
him food for himself and his cattle during the whole of 
that space, meeting always, too, ferocious wild beasts^ 
which are very dangerous. 

XLI v.— Another Part of Thibet. 

Tlie traveller then comes to a pai-t of Thibet where 
there are houses and castles ; but the people have a 
bad custom. None of them for the whole world will 
marry a virtuous maiden, saying that she is worth no- 
thing without having had many lovers. When strangers, 
therefore, pass through, and have pitched their tents, or 
taken their lodging in inns, the old women bring their 
daughters, often to the number of thirty or forty, and 
offer them as wives during their stay ; but they must 
not carry them thence, either back or forward. When 
the merchant is about to depart, he gives to the lady 
some toy or jewel as a testimony that she has lived 
with him. These jewels she hangs to her neck, and is 
anxious to have at least twenty ; for the more she can 
show, the higher is she valued, and the more readily 
obtains a husband. After being married, she is strictly 
watched, and any infidelity is deeply resented. These 
people are idolatrous and wicked, not holding it sinful 
to commit wrong and robbery ; in short, they are the 
greatest thieves in the world. They live on the fruiter 

* Mr Marsdcn, p. 416, mentions, as well known in India, 
the great noiso maae by nouses of cane, when set on fire, and 
which resembles the discharge of musketry. 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 157 

of the earth, hut mostly hy hunting and falconry ; and 
the country contains many of those animals which pro- 
duce musk, and are called in the Tartar language gudderi. 
That sinful people have many good dogs,* which they 
employ in the pursuit of wild animals. They have 
neither the cards nor money circulated hy the great 
khan, but make money of salt. They are poorly clad 
with the skins of beasts, canvass, and buckram ; they 
have a language of their own, which they call Tebet.t 
Now I will tell you of Kain-du. 

XLV. — The Province of Kain-du. 

This is a province lying to the west, having only 
one king, the inhabitants idolaters, and subject to the 
great khan. It contains a number of cities and castles, 
with a lake, in which are found many pearls ; but 
the monarch forbids them, under a severe penalty, to 
be removed except for his own use ; because, if any 
one were allowed to take them, they would become 
worth almost nothing. There is also a mountain, 
whence are quarried turquoise stones in gi'eat abun- 
dance, very large and beautiful ; but he does not allow 
them to be removed unless by his mandate. In this 
province they have a strange and base custom, that a 
man thinks there is no disgrace in an improper intimacy 
between his wife or sister and a stranger or other per- 
son. On the contrary, when such a one comes to reside 
in his house, the master presently goes out, and leaves 
him with his wife. The visiter remains often three 
days, and places a hat or something else at the window 

* Hamilton particularly observes that the dogs of Thibet are 
very stout and ferocious. — Description of Uiudostan, 2 vols 4to, 
vol. ii. p. 570. 

+ The country here described is the north-eastern part of 
Thibet, inhabited by the people called Si-fan. It is extremely 
little known, but there is every reason to believe it to corre- 
spond vnth our author's description. There is understood to 
be considerable laxity in regard to the virtue of females before 
marriage ; but the extreme ill-conduct here stated is probably 
confined to the great routes, where the resort of caravan-mer- 
chants affords temptation to such irregularities. 



158 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, AND OF THE 

as a signal ; and the husband never returns till he sees 
this taken away. This is said to be done in honour of 
their'idols, who on that account bestow on them many 
blessings. Their gold is in small rods, — the value being 
determined according to the weight, and not marked by 
any stamp. The small money is thus made : they take 
salt, form it into a shape, so that it weighs about half a 
pound, and eighty of these are worth a rod of gold. They 
have a very great number of the animals which yield 
the musk ; likewise fishes from the same lake whence 
the pearls are drawn ; also the usual kinds of wild birds 
and beasts. No wine is obtained from vines, but it is made 
from grain or rice with many spices, which makes a good 
liquor. In that province also grows a tree called garofol; 
it is small, with leaves like a laurel, but longer and 
narrower ; it bears a small white flower.* It yields 
ginger, cinnamon, and other spices, which come into 
our country ; but I have now said to you enough of 
Kain-du. After travelling ten days you come to a river 
which bounds it, named Brius. In it is found a great 
quantity of gold dust ; and on its banks abundance of cin- 
namon ; it flows on to the ocean. Now let us tell yoa 
of Caraian.f 



* The clove is here eyidentlv described, — a statement which 
Mr Marsden considers as reflecting beyond any other on the 
traveller's accuracy. We cannot, however, help observing, 
that the flora of this country is wholly unknown ; and there is 
every reason to suppose it rich and peculiar. From Turner's 
account it appears that varieties of cinnamon and of other aroma- 
tic plants abound in Thibet ; and there seems no reason why the 
clove or some plant resembling it should not occur. Count Boni 
quotes Bissachere for its existence in Tonquin. — II Millione, 
vol. ii. p. 260. 

f I reluctantly feel obliged to differ from my predecessors as 
to the course followed in the subsequent chapter. Mr Marsden, 
with Gaubil and Dc Guignes, considers Kaiu-du as Yung-ning- 
tou,and the route thence to be through Yun-nanto Yong-tchan/^, 
on the borders of Ava. Count Boni states, that after much hesi- 
tation he yielded to this opinion. I am persuaded, on the con- 
trary, that it lay through Thibet, and then down the highest 
steeps of the Himalaya. The route from Tching-tou to Yung- 
ning through Thibet would form a great circuit, with the sole 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 159 

XL VI. — The Province of Caraian. 

When a man has departed and crossed the river, he 
enters this province, which is large, and contains seven 
kingdoms extending westward. The people are all 
idolaters, and under the dominion of the great khan. 
The king is a son of his, named Essetemur, and is great, 
rich, and powerful. He is also brave and upright, 
ruling his country with much justice.* When the tra- 
veller has crossed the river, he passes, during a journey of 
five days, through a country where there is abund^ce 
of cities and castles, with many very good horses ; and the 
people are supported by cattle and the produce of land. 
Their language is extremely difficult to understand. At 
the end of these five days, he comes to the capital of the 
country, named Yaci,t which is particularly great and 

apparent view of passing through that wild country, while 
there was a direct and shorter route through the interior of 
China. Between the latter place and Yong-tchan^, thirty davs 
are spent, corresponding to above 400 miles, and m which the 
traveller passes tnrough three countries, one of them containing 
seven kingdoms ; yet the actual distance is only 200 miles. The 
deflection westward is very small ; yet the general line of 
route is nearly north-west. The rugged character of the 
countrv, the stupendous mountains, the abundance of gold 
and salt,* the superstitious priesthood, all agree with Thibet. 
There is, doubtless, reason to think that Yun-nan may in 
these respects resemble it ; yet by no means on so vast a scale. 
I shall not be able to identify the names of places ; but as 
little has Mr Marsden on his route been able to do so. Gen- 
erally, they are uncouth and dissimilar to Chinese terms. We 
shall soon come to a stupendous descent, occupying two davs 
and a half, exactly agreeing with that from Thibet to tne 

Slain of India ; while x un-nan, though mountainous, is never 
escribed as a table-land. Lastly, we shall see the traveller 
passing through the very part of Yun-nan here supposed, yet 
not recognising it as ever seen before, but describing it as al- 
together a new country. 

* There are no means of identifying this sovereign, whom we 
cannot suppose to be the son and successor of Kublai ; but 
De Guignes mentions Yeson-timour, a nephew of that prince, 
who may possibly have ruled in this district. 

+ This place is considered bv Mr Marsden and Count Boni 
asTali-fou in Yun-nan, but without any correspondence of name 

* Hamilton, Description of Hindostan, vol. IL p. 5G8. 



160 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, AND OF THE 

noble, with many merchants and numerous arts. There 
are here various sects, Saracens, idolaters, and Nestorian 
Christians. There is a good deal of grain and rice, yet 
the country is not very fertile. They make a drink of the 
latter which intoxicates like wine. Money is formed 
of porcelain, such as is found in the sea,^ and eighty 
pieces are worth one bar of gold, or eight of silver. They 
have pits whence they draw vast quantities of salt, 
from which the king derives a great revenue.t Adultery 
is not considered as a crime, unless when accompanied 
with violence. There is a lake here extending a hundred 
miles, and containing many large fishes, the best in the 
world. They use the raw flesh of all fowls and beasts ; 
for the poor people go to the market and get it newly 
taken from the animal, put it in garlic sauce, then eat 
it ; the rich likewise eat it raw, but previously cut into 
small pieces, and the sauce mixed with good spices.;]; 

XLVII. — The Province of Karazan and its great Serpents. 

When a man leaves Yaci, or Chiaci, and goes ten 
days westward, he finds the province of Karazan, 
with a capital of the same name. The people are 
all idolaters, and subject to the great khan ; the king 
is a son of that monarch, named Kogatin. Gold dust 
is found in the river, and on the mountains in large 
l)ieces so abundantly that a bar is given for six of silver. 
The porcelain, too, formerly described circulates for 
money, but is procured from India. Here are snakes 
and serpents so huge as to strike all men with astonish- 
ment ; they are ten paces long, ten palms broad, and 
have no feet, but only a hoof like that of the lion ; the 



or description. One of the appellations given to it in the French 
edition is Chiaci. I would point out Chiaki in Thibet, which 
would be reached soon after passing the San-pou, and has near 
it the great lake of Paltd. 

• These are cowries, found chieflv in the Maldives, but also 
abundantly in Silhct, a district of Bengal. Marsden, p. 427. 

t The abundance of rock-salt in Tluoet is well known. 

X Mr Marsden, p. 429, has collected full evidence of the 
custom of eating raw flesn in Thibet. 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 161 

nose is like a loaf of bread, the mouth so huge that it 

would swallow at once a man whole ; the teeth are 

immense, nor is there any wild beast whom they do not 

strike with terror. There are smaller ones eight paces 

long and six palms broad. The mode of catching them 

is this : — They remain during the day in great caverns 

under the earth, to avoid the heat, but at night go out 

to feed, and seize all the animals whom they can reach ; 

they also seek drink at the rivers, fountains, and lakes, and 

then make a deep track in the sand, as if a barrel had 

been dragged through it. In it the people fix a stake, 

fasten to it a steel instrument sharpened like a razor, 

and cover it over with sand. When the serpent comes 

through the track, and strikes against the steel, he 

is pierced with such violence, that his body is divided 

from one side to the other, as high as the umbilical cord, 

and he presently dies. They then take the body and 

extract the gall-bladder, which they sell very dear, 

being an excellent medicine for the bite of a mad dog, 

when administered in small dozes. It is also valuable in 

childbirth, and when given to the woman, a safe delivery 

immediately follows. The flesh also is sold at a high 

price, being considered delicate food.* The serpent also 

enters the dens of lions, bears, and other fierce animals, 

and devours their whelps, when he can get at them. 

Here, too, are very large horses, which are carried 

into India to be sold. They cut two or three nerves 

from the tail, so that they may not strike with it the 

man who rides, which is considered disgraceful. These 

people ride like the French, with long staffs, have arms 

covered with buffalo hide, and cany lances, spears. 



* This account of the alligator is by no means strictly 
accurate ; but as the animal was probably not seen but de- 
scribed upon the hearsay of not very intelligent informants, 
this cannot be considered wonderful. The eating of the flesh of 
the serpent tribe, even as a delicacy, is hj no means uncommon 
among rude Asiatics. Nor is the superstitious value attached to 
the gall-bladder without example among ignorant tribes. — 
Marsden, pp. 432, 433. 

L 



162 DESCRIPTION OF CHIN Ay AND OF THE 

and poisoned arrows. Before the great khan conquered 
them they had a wicked custom, that when any stranger 
came to lodge with them who was agreeable, wise, and 
opulent, they killed him during the night by poison 
or some other mode. This was not out of enmity or 
with the view of taking his money, but because they 
imagined that his wisdom and other good qualities would 
thus remain with them. However, about thirty-five 
years ago, after that monarch conquered the country, he 
prohibited this crime, which, from fear of him, they no 
longer commit. Now let us tell of another province 
called Kardandan. 

XLVIII — The Province of Kardandan. 

When a man departs from Karazan, and travels to 
the westward, he enters a province named Kardandan, 
inhabited by idolaters, and subject to the great khun. 
The chief city is called Vociam. All the people have their 
teeth, both upper and lower, covered with gold, which 
thus appear to be made of that metal.* The men are 
soldiers, and regard nothing but war ; the women, with the 
slaves, perform all the work. When any lady has been 
delivered of a boy, the husband goes to bed, taking the 
child with him, and remains there forty days. He thus 
allows rest to the mother, who is only obliged to suckle 
the infant. All his friends then come and make a festival, 
when the wife rises, manages the domestic affairs, and 
serves her husband, still lying in bed. They eat all 
kinds of flesh, both raw and cooked, and rice dressed 
along with it, and make a very good wine of rice and 
spices. They have money of gold and porcelain, and give 
a bar of gold for five of silver, having no mines of the 
latter metal within five days' distance ; by this exchange 
the merchants make great profit. This people have neither 
idols nor churches, but adore the master of the house, and 
say of him, " wc are his ; and he is our god." They 

• Count Boni quotes from Martini the account of a country 
north of Yun-nan,and consequently Thibet, where this practice 
prevails — II Millione, ii. 269. 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 163 

hare neither letters nor writing, which is not wonderful, 
because they live in an unfrequented place, that cannot 
be visited in the summer on account of the air, which is 
then so corrupted and pestilent that no foreigner can 
live there. Whenever they have dealings together, 
they select a piece of timber, square or round, cleave 
it in the middle, and each takes a half ; this must be 
done before two, three, or four witnesses. When the 
payment comes to be made, the one receives the money 
and gives his half of the wood.* In all those pro- 
vinces there is no physician, but when any one is sick, 
doctors and exorcists of evil spirits are sent for, who, 
on coming to the patient, begin their incantations, beat- 
ing instruments, singing and dancing. In a short time 
one of them falls to the ground, foams at the mouth, and 
becomes half-dead, when the devil enters into his body. 
The other magicians then ask the half-dead man what 
is the cause of the patient's illness. The demon answers 
from his mouth that the sufferer has given displeasure 
to such or such a spirit, who is therefore tormenting 
him. They then say, ** we beseech you to pardon 
him, and take in compensation for his blood the pre- 
sents which we now exhibit," Then if the sick man 
is to die, the fiend in the body of the magician says, 
— ** the spirit has been wronged and displeased to such 
a degree, that he will not spare him for any thing in 
the world." If on the contrary a cure is to take place, 
the devil from the body says, " take so many sheep 
and so many dishes of rich pottage, and make a sacrifice 
of them to the angry spirit." The relations of the 
patient do every thing thus ordered, killing the sheep, 
sprinkling the blood, and preparing the dishes of pottage. 
A great assemblage is made of men and women, who 
hold a joyous feast, dancing and singing songs in praise 
of the spirit. They bum incense and myrrh, with 
which they fumigate and illuminate the whole house. 



* Mr Marsden, p. 440, gives other examples of this rude 
mode of bargaining. 



]64 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, AND OF THE 

When they have acted thus for ahout an hour, the first 
magician again falls down, and they inquire if the sick 
man is now pardoned and will he cured. It is then an- 
swered that he is not yet pardoned, hut something more 
must he done, after which forgiveness will he granted. 
This order is oheyed, when he says, ** he is pardoned, 
and will he immediately cured." The company then 
exclaim, '* the spirit is on our side," and having eaten 
the sheep and drunk the pottage with great joy and fes- 
tivity, they return to their homes.* 

XLIX. — Of the great Battle fought between the Tartars and 

the King of Mien. 

Now I must mention a very great battle which 
was fought in the kingdom of Vociam, and you shall 
hear all how it happened. In the year of our Lord 1272, 
the great khan sent a mighty captain, named Nescardin, 
with 12,000 men, to defend the province of Caraian. 
He was a prudent man, very strong in arms and skilful 
in war ; and the soldiers with him were good and very 
brave warriors. Now the King of Mien and of Ban- 
galat were afraid lest he should invade their territory ; 
yet they thought they were able to overcome and de- 
stroy the whole army in such a manner that the 

• The precise position of this country cannot be identified ; 
but it is evidently situated on the most rugged heights of the 

freat mountain- chain, inhabited by a demi- savage people, 
he fantastic conduct ascribed to the husband on his wife's 
accouchement is very positively stated in regard to certain 
South American tribes ; and it is not altogether impossible 
that it may exist in some comers of Asia ; but it seems more 
probable tnat the traveller was misled bv false reports. The 
enchantments described are those usually practised by the 
priests of Fo, who have their central seat in Thibet. 

f The versions present a curious difficulty, whether one or 
two kings are here meant. The Paris Latin is clear : ** Rex 
Mien et Rex Bangilla audientes.** The Basle edition is simi- 
lar. Ramusio seems to make only one, and Mr Marsden con- 
siders this confirmed by the context. Nothing can be made of 
the French edition : " Le roi de Mien ot de Bangala ke molt 
estoit poisant row, — ceste rot,— quant il soit," &c. My impres- 
sion is that the two kings unitcu their forces, but only that of 
Mien came forward in tue combat. 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 165 

great khan might never feel inclined to send another 
into the same quarter. They assembled, therefore, 60,000 
horse and foot, with 2000 elephants, each of which had 
on its hack a castle well fortified and defended by 
twelve, fourteen, or sixteen men. The King of Mien 
came with the above army to the city of Vociam, where 
was the array of the Tartars, and took post in a plain 
at the distance of three days' journey. Nescardin was 
somewhat alarmed, considering how small a force he had 
in comparison with the host of the King of Mien ; but 
he took courage, reflecting that his troops were brave 
and most valiant warriors. He therefore marched to 
meet them in the plain of Vociam, and pitched his camp 
near a great forest, filled with lofty trees, into which he 
was aware that elephants could not enter. The King 
of Mien, seeing the army of Nescardin, advanced to attack 
it. The Tartars went with great boldness to meet 
them, but when their horses saw the elephants with 
the wooden castles upon them, stationed and arranged 
in the first line, they were struck with such terror that 
the riders could not, either by force or any contrivance, 
make them approach. They, therefore, immediately 
alighted, and tied them to the trees, when the in- 
fantry returned to the line of elephants, and began to 
discharge their arrows with the utmost violence. Those 
who were on the backs of the animals fought bravely ; 
but the Tartars were stronger, and more accustomed to 
battle. They wounded very severely with these missiles 
a multitude of the elephants, which, being ten*ified, took 
to flight and rushed with violence into the adjacent 
wood. As they could not be restrained from entering, 
and rushing backward and forward through the thick 
trees in confusion, they broke the wooden castles on 
their backs, and destroyed all their equipments. When 
the Tartars saw these animals disposed of, they ran to 
their horses, which were bound to the trees, mounted 
them, and rushed upon the warriors of the King of 
Mien. They began the attack with a shower of arrows, 
but as the king and his troops still defended themselves 



166 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, AND OF THB 

valiantly, they drew their swords, and rushed into close 
combat. Now mighty blows were struck ; swords and 
spears were fiercely thrust on both sides ; heads, arms, 
and hands were struck ofi^ ; and many warriors fell to the 
earth dead and dying. The noise and cries would have 
drowned the loudest thunder. At length, after mid- 
day, the host of Mien gave way; and the king, with all 
who survived the battle, took to flight, pursued by 
the Tartars, who killed many of the fugitives.* When 
satisfied with pursuit, they returned to the wood to 
catch the elephants. They endeavoured to stop the flight 
of these animals by cutting down the trees and laying 
them across ; yet they are so intelligent, that the 
soldiers would not have succeeded but for the aid of 
some of the captives taken in battle, through whose 
means they were able to recover two hundred. From 
this time the great khan began to employ elephants in 
his army, which he had not hitherto done. Afterwards 
that monarch conquered the lands of Mien, and added 
them to his dominion. 

L.— Of the great Descent. 

When you have departed from the said province 
of Caraian, there begins a great descent, which continues 
for two days and a half;t and in all this journey 
nothing occurs worthy of notice, except that there 
is a great space in which a market is held on certain 
days of the year. Thither come many merchants 
from divers countries and districts, some of whom bring 
gold and silver to exchange ; and they give an ounce of 

* Ramusio has here several sentences of criticism upon the 
military conduct of the King of Mien ; but they are not sup- 
ported by any early edition, and such discussion is quite un- 
usual witn our traveller. They conclude also with the errone- 
ous statement that the ^cat khan subdued, in consequence, the 
whole territories of the King of Bengal and Mien. 1 have not, 
therefore, inserted them. 

+ This immense descent without any previous rise is quite 
what might be expected from the table-land of Thibet. Tnere 
is no reason to suppose any thing similar in Yun-nan, which, 
though mountainous, is nowhere described as a table-huid. 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 167 

the former for five of the latter. None but those who 
bring the gold can penetrate into the countries where it 
is produced, so difficult and intricate are the roads. 
When a man has travelled these two days and a half, 
he comes to a district which is called Anniz, on the 
borders of India, towards the south, and then he goes 
for fifteen days through a region covered with woods 
filled with elephants, unicorns, and other savage beasts, 
but not containing any human habitation. 

LI.— Of the City of Mien, and the most beautiful Tomb of 
« the King. 

At the termination of these wild and pathless tracts is 
a large and noble city called Mien, the capital of the pro- 
vince.* The people are all idolaters, with a language 
peculiar to themselves, and are subject to the great khan. 

* De Guignes and Gaubil think that Mien is Pegu, which, 
by d'Anville's map of Yun-nan, really appears to bear that name 
in China, and to this Count Boni assents. Marsden (p. 445), 
sensible that this would derange the whole itinerary, fixes it in 
the cai)ital of Ava. I cannot, however, see that such a position 
is consistent with the data in the travels. In the following 
chapter, Bengal, in reference to Mien, is said to be, in Ramusio, 
" posta ne* confini dell' India verso mezo di," which Mr Marsden 
translates " on the southern confines of India," an expression to 
which it seems here impossible to attach any distinct idea. But 
the two Paris editions state its position to the south quite dis- 
tinct, and in a different place from its relation to India. The 
Italian MS. in the Museum sa^rs, " una provincia posta verso 
mezodi" Pipino : " ad meridiem in confinio Indiae." There seems 
thus a complete agreement that Bengal lay south of Mien, 
which must then lie between it and the Himmalehs. A proba- 
ble place seems to be Beyhar, always a separate kingdom, and in 
the 16th century very powerful, till it was taken and its temples 
demolished by the Mohammedans in 1661. (Hamilton, vol. i. 
p. 216.) Turner describes the country north of it as singularly 
desolate. The position of Silhet might perhaps agree still better 
as to distance from the Himmalehs. These gilded structures, 
as a new object, struck the Tartars with astonishment ; but 
Mr Marsden (p. 450) shows them to be common even in small 
cities of the north of India. Those here described are on a 
very small scale, compared with similar ones in the capitals 
of regu and Ava. No one, I think, who reads Maior Symes' 
description of the variety and magnificence of the gilded edifices 
in the Burmese metropolis, can suppose the present account 
applicable to it. 



168 DESCRIPTION OF CHIN Ay AND OF THE 

About this city I will tell you a thing very remarkable. 
There was anciently in it a rich and powerful king, 
who, being about to die, commanded that on his tomb 
should be erected two towers, one of gold, and the other 
of silver. They are full ten paces high, and of a suitable 
thickness ; the first, being composed ofstone, is covered all 
over with gold to the thickness of a finger, so that to the 
spectator it appears wholly of that metal. The summit is 
round, and filled with little golden bells, which the wind, 
whenever it strikes them, causes to ring. The other 
tower is similarly formed, but is coated with silver, and 
has silver bells. By these buildings the king intended to 
display his greatness and dignity, and they are the most 
beautiful and valuable to be seen in the world. Between 
them he caused the sepulchre to be constructed, where he 
is now buried. When the great khan conquered that 
city, he desired all the players and buffoons, of whom 
there were a great number in his court, to go and achieve 
the conquest, offering them a captain and some warlike 
aid.* The jesters wUlingly undertook the affair, and set- 
ting out with the proffered assistance, subdued this pro- 
vince of Mien. When they came to that noble city, and 
saw these splendid edifices, they admired exceedingly, and 
sent to the great khan an account of their beauty, and of 
the manner in which they were constructed, asking if he 
wished them to be demolished, and the gold and silver 
sent to him. The monarch, on hearing this, commanded 
that they should not be destroyed, since the king had 
erected them to commemorate his greatness, and no 
Tartar touches any thing belonging to a dead man. 
They were therefore to continue in the same condition 
as they now stood. This province contains elephants, 

* Mr Marsden (p. 450) is much scandalized at this idea of an 
armv of jesters, and endeavours to believe that sorcerers and 
jugglers were rather intended. The jesters, however, have all 
the manuscripts in their favour ; and the whole appears to us 
to have been a frolic, including a display of the facility with 
which the conquest could be achieved. Care would of coarse 
be taken, and is indeed intimated, to support them by more 
experienced warriors. 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 169 

wild oxen large and beautiful, stags, deer, and other 
animals. Now, let me tell you of another which is called 
Bangala. 

LI I. — Of the Province of Bangala.. 

This is a province towards the south, which, in 
the year 1290, while I, Marco, was at the court of the 
great khan, was not yet conquered, but the army was 
there, ready to march for that purpose. It has a king 
and languages of its own, and the people are most wicked 
idolaters. They are on the confines of India.* The 
barons and lords of that country have oxen as tall as 
elephants, but not so weighty ; and live on flesh and rice. 
They have great abundance of silk, with which they 
carry on extensive manufactures ; also ginger, sugar, and 
many other costly spices. This place is visited by numer- 
ous merchants, who purchase slaves, make them eunuchs, 
and then either sell or convey them to other places.t 

LIII.— Of the Province of Kangigu. 

KangiguJ is a province towards the east, subject to 
a king ; the people are all idolaters ; have a language 
of their own ; and owning the supremacy of the great 
khan, they pay him an annual tribute. The king is so 
luxurious as to have 300 wives, for as soon as he hears 
of a beautiful woman in the country he takes her to 
himself. The people have much gold and many precious 
spices ; but being far from the sea, their commodities do 
not bring the full value. They have many elephants 
and beasts of various other kinds. All the men and 

* We may again observe that Bengal is not considered here 
as part of India. 

•f It seems from this imperfect account of Bengal, and no 
itinerary being given to it, that Marco did not actually visit 
the country, which indeed, in its existing relation to his master, 
he could scarcely have done with safety. 

X The route here evidently lies across Assam, Cashgar, and 
Cassay. rude territories to the north of the Birman empire, 
which has exercised over them a precarious rule : but part has 
been recently annexed to British dominion. Tne practice of 
tattooing is known to prevail in some of these districts. 



170 DESCRIPTION OP CHINA, AND OP THE 

women paint their bodies, the colours being worked 
in with the claws of lions, dragons, and eagles, and thos 
never effaced. In this manner they stain their neek^ 
breast, hands, limbs, and indeed their whole penoo. 
This is considered extremely genteel, and the more mjr 
one is painted, the higher is his rank considered. Now 
let us tell you of another province named Amu. 

LIV.— Of the Province of Amu. 

Amu* is also a province towards the east, subject to 
the great khan. The people are idolaters, live by pas- 
turage and agriculture, and have a language of their 
own. The ladies wear on their arms and legs valuable 
bracelets of gold and silver, and the men have 
these still finer and rarer. They have good horses in 
considerable numbers, many of which the Indians piff- 
chase and sell again to much advantage. They have aln 
abundance of oxen and buffaloes, because they have ex- 
tensive and good pastures ; in short, they have plentf 
of the means of subsistence. From Amu to Kangigu, are 
fifteen days, and thence to Bangala, which is the third 
province behind, are thirty days. Now let us come to 
another province, which is called Tholoman, and lies eigbt 
journeys from this to the east. 

LV. — Of the Province of Tholoman. 

Tholomant is a third province towards the east. All the 
people arc idolaters, have a language of their own, and 
arc under the great khan. They are handsome, of rather 
a brown complexion, good men at arms, and have a num* 
her of cities, castles, and forts, on the top of very high 

* Bamoo, or Bhamo, a province known to lie south-east </ 
Ava ; but we have vei^r little information respecting it. 

f Mr Marsden is at a loss respecting this name, and his sqK* 
gestiou of its application to the Birman empire generally is quits 
untenable. There seems no reason for not acquiescing in (he 
idea thrown out in Astley's Voyages (vol. iv. p. 596) of its be- 
ing the part of Yun-nan inhabited by the Lolos, governed by 
brave feudal chiefs, nearly independent, though owning theea- 

Eremacy of the court of China. — See Account of China, Edin- 
urgh Cabinet Library, vol. iii. p. 46. 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 171 

mountains. When they die, the bodies are burned, 
and the bones which cannot be consumed are placed 
in chests and carried to the caverns of high moun- 
tains, where they are kept suspended, so that neither 
man nor beast can touch them. Gold is found here ; 
but the small money is of porcelain, which circulates in 
all these provinces. The merchants, though few, are 
rich ; the people live on flesh and rice, and have many 
good spices. 

LVI. — Of the Province of Cyn-gui and its Lions. 

Cyn-gui is a province likewise situated towards the east, 
and when a man leaves Tholoman, he goes twelve days 
along a river, where there are towns and castles, but no- 
thing else worth mentioning. At the end of these twelve 
days, he finds the city Sinugul, very large and noble. The 
inhabitants are all idolaters, and subject to the great 
khan. They live by merchandise and arts, and weave 
cloths of the bark of trees, which make fine summer 
dresses. They are good men at arms ; but they have no 
money except paper. There are in this country so 
many lions, that if a man were to sleep out of doors, 
he would presently be killed and eaten by them ; and 
at night, when a bark sails along the river, if it were 
not kept at a good distance from the bank, they would 
rush in and carry off" the crew. However, though these 
animals be so large and dangerous, the natives have 
a wonderful manner of defending themselves ; for the • 
dogs of that country are so daring, that they will assault 
a large one, and, seconded by a man, will kill him. I 
will tell you how : when a man is on horseback with 
two of these dogs, as soon as they see a lion, they throw 
themselves behind him, and bite his thighs and body. 
The lion turns furiously round, but they wheel about 
with him so swiftly, that he cannot reach them. He 
then retreats till he comes to a tree, against which he 
places his back, and turns his face to the dogs ; but 
they continue always biting him from behind, and mak- 
ing him turn round and round. Meantime the man 



1 72 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, AND OF THE 

discharges arrows without ceasing, till the animal falls 
down dead, and thus one man and two spirited dogs are 
sufficient to kill a large lion. The inhahitants of this 
province have a good deal of silk, and a great trade is 
carried on to all quarters along the river. 

LVII.— Arrival at Sin-din-fu, and Journey back to Gin-gni. 

Continuing to journey on its hanks for twelve days 
more, we discover a number of cities and castles. The 
people are idolaters, subject to the great khan, and use 
paper money. Some are good at arms, others are mer- 
chants and artificers. At the end of the twelve days, the 
traveller comes to Sin-din-fu,* of which mention has 
been made above. He then rides seventy days through 
provinces and lands which we formerly went over, and 
have already described. At the end of that period, he 
comes to Gin-gui, where we formerly were.f 

* Mr Marsden complains here of a perplexity for which there 
does not appear the slightest ground. He is, indeed, partly 
confused by a blunder of Ramusio, who speaks of the twelve 
days as if they were the same as the twelve da^s in the last 
chapter ; but the French edition distinctly states it as a second 
joumev. Now we have the ascertained points of Bamoo on 
one siae, and on the other Sin-din-fu, which the reader may re- 
collect as identified with Tching-tou-fou ; andwe have thirty-two 
days' journey, which agrees with the distance ; while intervening 
brancnes and tributaries of the Yang-tse-kiang amply ftimisn 
the rivers. £very thing agrees most distinctly ; and how the 
learned writer could fly off to Koei-tcheou I cannot conceive. The 
only difficulty respects the precise position of Sinugul, called by 
Kamusio Cintigui. I have little hesitation in agreeing with 
Count Boni, who considers it Sou-tcheou, at the junction of the 
Kiang with the river from Tching-tou-fou ; for the last syllable 
pronounced hard and guttural, is always made gu by our travel- 
ler. Here, too, on examining the map, we shall see dearly 
that, in going from Bamoo to Tching-tou-fou, he must hare 
passed through Yun-nan, and even near Yong-tchang. Yet 
ne in no degree recognises it, and describes it in terms wholly 
different from what he did in his former (supposed) passage. 
Is not this a strong proof that his route then was wholly 
through a different country ? 

+ Mr Marsden (p. 462) yields here to comj^lete despair^ and 
conceives that any attempt to connect this with the remainder 
of the route as constituting one journey would be quite fruit- 
less. It appears to him tl^t there must be two itineraries, one 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR EUBLAI. IJS 

LVI II.— Cities of Ca-cian-fu, Cian-glu, and Cian-gli. 

From Gin-gui or Greo-gui a man travels four days, 
finding a variety of cities and castles. The people are 
great artificers and merchants, suhject to the mighty 
khan, and use paper money. At the end of the four days 
you come to Ca-cian-fu,* a large and noble city, lying to 
the south, in the province of Cathay. The inhabit^ts are 
subject to the same monarch, are all idolaters, and bum 
the bodies of their dead. They have a good supply of 
silk, which they make into different kinds of cloth. A 
large river flows past it, along which great abundance of 
merchandise is conveyed toKambalu, with which it is made 
to communicate by the digging of many canals. Now 
let us pass to another city called Cian-glu. The natives 
are idolaters, subject to the khan, use paper money, 
and bum the bodies of their dead. In that city, salt is 
made very extensively, and I will tell you how. There 
is a species of earth fiiU of it, and they pile it up in heaps, 
upon which they throw a great quantity of water, to satu- 



broken off and the other begun in a manner equally abrupt. 
The confusion has arisen altogether from the gross corruption 
of Kamusio's and all the other texts to which the learned writer 
had access. In the French edition, everything is connected in 
the most distinct manner. He arrives at Tching-tou-fou, which 
he notices as having been formerlv visited. He then travels 
seventy days' joumev back along the route he had come, and 
notices having already given a description of it, which he has of 
course no occasion to repeat. He then arrives at Gin-gui, the 
same as Geo-gui or Gouza, already mentioned as the point 
where the two routes divide, one leading south-west, the other 
south-east. Having completed the former, he now enters upon 
the latter. Ramusio gives only twenty days from Sin-din-fu, 
a period quite inadequate. T^e ItaUan MS. does the same, 
though Mr Marsden has not understood its almost illegible 
characters. Pipino and the Basle editor have made a strange 
blunder indeed. They have imagined the Cyn-gui mentioned m 
the last chapter to be the same as Gin-^i, thousn the places are 
a thousand miles distant, and all the mtermediate itmerary is 
therefore expunged as an excrescence. 

• Pa-zan-fu, Ramusio. This appears to be Ho-kien-fou, a 
large city of Pe-che-lee, with walls four miles in circuit. It nas 
a river on each side, but at a little distance ; these may probably 
be connected vrith it by canals. — Marsden, p. 463. 



174 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, AND. OF THE 

rate it with the mineral. They next boil it in large 
cauldrons of iron, till it evaporates, and leaves a white 
and minute salt, which is exported to all the countries 
round.* Five days' journey from Cian-glu is Cian-gli,t 
where are many cities and castles. It is a town of Ca- 
thay, and the whole people are idolaters, subject to the 
khan, and use paper money. Through the middle of 
that territory flows a great river, on which is conveyed 
much merchandise of various kinds. 

LIX. — Condi-fu — Rebellion against the Great Khan. 

In departing from Cian-gli, we come in six days to 
Condi-fu, a great city, which the khan conquered by force 
of arms, but still it is the noblest in the province.} 
There is a wonderful abundance of silk, as well as orch- 
ards with many delicate fruits, and the situation is 
delightful ; it has also under it fifteen other cities of 
preat importance and commerce, whence it derives 
high honour and dignity. In the year 1273, the khan 
gave to Litan, one of his barons, 70,000 horse to defend 
and secure that city ; but when the said baron had 
remained some time in the country, lie arranged with 
certain men to betray it, and rebel against his lord. 
When the khan knew this, he sent two of his command- 
ers, Aguil and Mongatai, with many troops, against the 
traitor. On their approach, the rebel went forth to meet 
them with his forces, consisting of a hundred thousand 
cavalry and many infantry, both of the country and of 



* Cian-glu or Chan-fflu, is Tsan-tchoou, a considerable town, 
Btill in Pe-che-lee. Mr Marsden (pp. 464, 465) seems to prove 
that the salt here mentioned is nitre or saltpetre. Count Boni 
( vol. ii. pp. 294, 2.95) identifies the two last places with Poo-linc- 
fou and Moantchin ; but wo incline to prefer Mr Marsdeirs 
sites. 

f Though there is no resemblance of name, this appears to bo 
Te-tcheou, on the river Eu-ho, and at the entrance of tho pro- 
vince of Shan-tung. — Marsden, p. 466. 

^ Tudinfu, Ramusio ; Tsi-nan-fou, capital of Shan-tung, and 
of a kingdom long independent. It contains ver^ fine build- 
ings, ana modem travellers agree veith our author lu describing 
the environs as particularly ^rtile and beautiful. 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR EUBLAI. J 'J5 

those he had brought with him ; and there was a very 
great battle between him and those two chiefs. Litaii 
was killed, with many others ; and the khan caused all 
those who had been guilty to be put to death, and spared 
the lives of the rest.* Now let us tell of another coun- 
try named Sin-gul. 

LX.— Cities of Sin-gui, Lin-gui, Pin-gui, and Cin-gui. 

When a man has gone south from Condi-fu, he 
finds cities and castles, many animals of the chase and 
birds, with a vast abundance of all productions, and then 
comes to Sin-gui,t which is noble, great, and beautiful, 
with much merchandise and many arts ; the whole 
people are idolaters, subject to the khan, and use paper 
money. They have a river which is of great utility, 
because the people of the country have divided the stream 
which comes from the south into two parts ; one goes 
eastward towards Manji, the other westward towards 
Cathay ; and the land has thus a wonderful number of 
ships, though not of large size, with which they convey 
goods to other provinces, and bring thence an almost in- 
credible quantity of merchandise. When a man departs 
from Sin-gui and goes eight days to the south, he finds 
many rich cities and castles. The people are idolaters, sub- 
ject to the khan ; they bum the bodies of their dead, and 
use paper money. At the end of eight days he arrives at 
a town named Lin-gui,J great and noble, with men-at- 

* This revolt is recorded with nearly the same circumstances 
in the Chinese annals. The name there given to the leader is 
Litan, with which the French version affrees, while in Ramu- 
sio it is corrupted into Lucansor. — Marsden, p. 468. 

+ I cannot but much wonder that Mr Marsden (p. 470, and 
Count Boni, vol. ii. p. 299) should place Sin-gui at Lin-tsin- 
tcheou, which lies north of Tsi-nan, instead of souihy and would 
be goin^ completely backwards. It appears quite clearly to 
be Tsi-ning-tcheou,a town agreeing in name ana situation, and 
placed on a central part of the great canal. Though holding 
only the second rankjthe traffic derived from this situation raises 
it to a level with great cities. 

X J. Arrowsmith has here Lin-tching-hien, for placing which 
he had doubtless good authority, though I cannot find it on any 
other map. 



176 DESCRIPTION OP CHINA, AND OP THE 

arms, and also arts and merchandise. Here are wild ani- 
mals and every kind of provision in abundance. When 
he departs from Lin-gui, he goes three days to the south, 
finding cities and castles under the powerful khan ; the 
people idolatrous, and burning the bodies of their dead. 
There is much excellent hunting of birds and beasts. At 
the end of these three days, he discovers a very good city 
named Pin-gui.* The people have all things necessary 
for subsistence, raise much silk, and pay a large revenue 
to the sovereign. A great quantity of merchandise is 
laden here for the province of Manji. When a man has 
departed from Pin-gui, and travelled two days with his 
face to the south, through beautiful and rich countries, 
he finds the city of Cin-gui,t very large, and full of mer- 
chandise and arts. The people are wholly idolatrous, 
bum the bodies of their dead, their money is paper, and 
they are under the khan. They have much grain and 
grass. When a man leaves Cin-gui, he finds cities, vil- 
lages, and castles, with handsome dogs and good pastur- 
age ; the people being such as are above described. 

LXI.— Of the great River Kara-moran. 

At the end of two days a man finds the great river 
called Kara-moran, coming from the lands of Prester 
John. It is full, broad, and so deep that a large ship 
can pass through its channel ; and there are on it 
ftill 15,000 vessels, all belonging to the khan, meant for 
conveying his goods when he goes to the islands of 
the sea, which is distant about a day's journey. And 
each of these ships requires fifteen mariners, and carries 
fifteen horses with their riders, provisions, and every 
thing else necessary for them.J When a man passes 



• Evidently Pi-tcheou, a considerable city of the second rank. 

+ Sut-zi-hien, in the Jesuits' man, a^ecs as to situation, and 
has some resemblance of name, it is curious that these three 
last places are not in Ramusio, nor indeed any other edition, 
except the two Paris and the Crusca. 

X This is evidently the great stream of the Hoang-ho, or 
Yellow River, the second in China. The vessels are doubtless 



COURT OP THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 177 

that river, he enters the province of Manji, and I will 
tell you how it was conquered hy the khan. 

LXII.— Of the Province of Manji, and how it was made 
subject to the Great Khan. 

In the extensive province of Manji there was a lord and 
king named Facfur, who, excepting the great khan, was 
the mightiest sovereign in the world, the most powerful 
in money and people ; but the men are not good at arms, 
nor have horses trained to war, nor experience in battle 
and military operations, otherwise they would never 
have lost so strong a country. All the lands are sur- 
rounded by waters so deep that they cannot be passed 
unless by bridges, and the chief cities are encompassed by 
broad ditches filled with water. The khan, however, in 
the year of our Lord 1273, sent one of his barons, Bayam 
Cinqsan, which means Bayam with the Hundred Eyes : 
for the King of Manji had found out by astrology, that he 
could lose his kingdom only by a man having a hundred 
eyes. This Bayam marched with a very great force, 
many ships, horse and foot, and came to the first city 
of Manji, called Koi-gan-zu, which we will presently 
describe. He called upon it to surrender ; but the peo- 
ple refused. He then went to another city, which also 
refused, and so he passed five, leaving them behind, 
because he knew that the khan was sending a large addi- 
tional force. He took, however, the sixth by storm, 
and then successively reduced other twelve ; after which 
he marched direct to the capital of the kingdom, called 
Kin-sai, where the king and queen resided. When the 
monarch saw this great army, he was struck with such 
terror that he fled from the continent with many of his 
people, having 1000 ships, and sought refuge among the 
islands. The queen, however, remained and defended 
herself as well as she could against Bayam. But having 
at length asked what was the name of that commander, 

ezaffgerated, as indeed numbers generally are in this and other 
wor^ of that age. Mr Marsden conjectures that in transcrib- 
ing a cipher has been added, and that it should have been 1500. 



1/8 DESCRIPTION OP CHINA, AND OP THE 

and being told it was Bayam with the Hundred Eyes, slie 
remembered the prophecy mentioned above, and imme« 
diately surrendered the city to him.* Presently all 
the cities of Manji yielded, and the whole world does not 
contain such a kingdom, and I will now describe its 
magnificence. 

LXIII.-^Of the Piety and Justice of the King towards his 

Subjects. 

This King Facfur maintained 15,000 poor children, be- 
cause in that province many are exposed as soon as they are 
born by parents who cannot support them ; so, when a 
rich man had no issue, he went to the king and got as many 
as he pleased. And when the boys and girls came of age, 
the king married them together, and gave them the 
means of living ; and thus were educated 20,000 males 
or females annually. He did another thing : when he 
went through any place and saw two fine houses, and by 
the side of them a small one, he inquired why the first 
were greater than the other ; and being told that it be- 
longed to a poor man, who could not afford to build one 
larger, presently he gave him money enough to enable 
him to do so. He made himself be served by more than 
1000 domestic servants of both sexes. He maintained 
his kingdom in such justice, that no evil was done, and all 
commodities could be left unguarded except by the royal 
equity. Now I have given you an account of the king ; 
I will tell you of the queen. She was led to the great 
khan, who made her be honoured and served as a power- 
ful sovereign ; but the king, her husband, never came 
out of the islands of the ocean, and died there, and thus 



* The Chinese annals generally a/E^ree with this narrative, 
though with some difference of circumstances. Considering the 
firmness displayed by the unfortunate queen, we may infer that 
she had more cogent motives for surrender than the above ridi- 
culous superstition. She does appear to have made little or no 
resistance. Her honourable captivity, and the attentions paid 
to her by Kublai's queen, are recorded by other authorities.— 
Marsden, p. 479-481. 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 179 

the whole kingdom remained with the khan.* Now 
let us tell of the province of Manji, and the manners 
and customs of the people ; beginning with the city of 
Koi-gan-zu. 

LXIV. — Of the Cities of Koi-gan-zu,Pau-chyin, and Chaym. 

Koi-gan-zu is a great, rich, and noble city, at the 
entrance of the province of Manji, lying to the south. 
The whole people are subject to the khan ; they are 
idolaters, and bum the bbdies of their dead. It lies 
on the river Kara-moran, and hence is full of ships ; 
for many merchants bring their commodities thither 
to be distributed throughout other cities. It is the 
capital of the province. Here is made a very great 
quantity of salt, which is supplied thence to forty different 
towns ; the khan has a large revenue from this and 
other trades here carried on.t And now let me tell 
you of another city called Pau-chym. 

When a man departs from Koi-gan-zu, he goes a whole 
day along a causeway finely built of stone, and on each 
side is a large water, so that it is impossible to enter the 
province unless by this causeway. He then finds a 
city called Pau-chym ; J all the people are idolaters, bum 

* It seems somewhat odd, that Marco should adopt so pane- 
gyrical a tone towards a prince whom he might have been sup- 
posed to view from a hostile position, especially as the Chinese 
annals represent him voluptuous ana dissolute. He may have 
had amiable qualities, and the tone in Kublai's court seems to 
have been that of kindness towards the fallen dynasty. During 
the long voyage, too, which the Poli made with the Princess 
of Manji, and the consequent intimacy, she may have inspired 
them with favourable impressions respecting her father. Ra- 
musio only has one or two sentences of a different teudencv, 
but they ill accord with the rest, and the facts are more fully 
brought forward afterwards. The collecting of exposed children, 
and educating those that survive, is stUl a practice of the 
Chinese government. 

+ This is Hoai-ngan-fou, which quite answers the descrij)tion 
hero given. The salt is drawn from saline marshes in its vicin- 
ity. It is not the capital of Kiang-nan, but, as already observed, 
the provinces were then differently and more ininutely sub- 
diviaed.— Marsden, p. 482. 

:J: Called Pao-yn^shien by Sir George Staunton, who ob- 
served it scarcely rising above the level of the waters. 



180 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, AND OF THE 

the bodies of their dead, and are under the great khan. 
They are artificers and merchants, have abundance of 
silk, and make much cloth of it mixed with gold, and 
thus earn a sufficient livelihood. Through all that coun- 
try the paper money of the khan is circulated. 

When a man sets out from Pau-chym, he travels a day 
and discovers a very large city named Chaym.* There is 
great abundance of the necessaries of life ; fish beyond 
measure, beasts and birds for sport in great numbers, so 
that for a Venetian silver grosso you may purchase three 
pheasants. 

LXV.— Of the Qty of Tin-gui, and its great Saltworks. 

Tin-guit is a pretty agreeable city, a full day's journey 
from Chaym. The people are idolaters, subject to the 
khan, and use paper money ; they have merchandise 
and ai*ts, and numerous ships belonging to them. It 
lies to the south-east, and on the left, nearly three 
days' journey to the eastward, is the ocean, where salt is 
made in great quantities. Here is a city named Cyn-gul, 
large, rich, and noble, to which all the salt is brought, and 
the khan draws from it a revenue so wonderful that 
it could not be believed.J 

LXVI.— Of the great City of Yan-gui. 
When a man leaves Tin-gui he proceeds a day towards 
the south-east,§ through a very fine country, finding 

* Kain, Ramum ; Kao-yeou, a considerable town on the banks 
of the lake of the same name, and reaching also to the canal. 

t Mr Marsden (p. 485), imagines this to be Tai-tcheou, a place 
considerably to the eastward ; but there appears no cround for 
going so far out of the route ; besides that the number of ves- 
sels seems clearly to fix it as still on the banks of the lake. 

X llamusio causes a strange confusion by making Cyn-gui or 
Chin-^ui ])art of the route, thus breaking up all tne distances 
and directions in the itinerary. The French version here followed 
Quite clears up the difficulty. The saltworks on the ocean, and 
Oyn-^ui, the snipping port, form no part of the route, but are 
mentioned a| important particulars heard of at Tin-gui. 

§ The points of the compass, says Mr Marsden, p. 486, must 
here be strangely perverted. It is only, however, by his own 
unauthorized excursion to Tai-tcheou, and the errors of Rama- 



COURT OF TH£ EMPEROR KUBLAI. 181 

towns and castles, and then comes to Yan-gui,* a large 
and beautiful city, which has under it twenty-four, all 
good and of great trade. Its affairs are administered by 
one of the twelve barons of the khan ; Messer Marco 
Polo, of whom this book treats, governed it three yeaft. 
Here are made many arms and other equipments for 
knights and men of war ; for in this place and around it 
numerous troops are quartered. I will now tell you of 
two great provinces lying to the west, and as I shall 
have much to say, I will begin with Nan-ghin. 

LXVII— Of the great City of Nan-ghin. 

Nan-ghin+ is a province towards the west, belonging 
to Manji, and is very noble and rich. The people are 
idolaters, use paper money, and are subject to the great 
khan. They live by merchandise and arts, have silk 
in abundance, and make cloths of it interwoven with 
gold, in all fashions. They have an ample supply of 
every kind of grain and provisions ; for the land is very 
fruitful. There are also lions and animals for huntiog. 
There are many rich merchants who carry on much 
trade, and pay a large revenue to the great sire. But I 
will now go to the noble city of Sa-yan-fu, respecting 
which I shall have much to say. 

LXVIII. — Of the City of Sa-yan-fu, and how it was taken. 

Sa-yan-fu is a large and magnificent city, having under 
it twelve others also great and noble ; it is the seat 
of many valuable arts and of much merchandize. J 

sio's version. The route, as we have shown, lay throughout 
alon^ the eastern shore of the Kao-yeou lake, which, especially 
in this last part, runs exactly in the direction stated in the text. 
— (See Du Halde's Map of Kiang-nan.) 

• Yang-tcheou-fou, an ancient city stiU described as large and 
flourishing, though it has onlv ten others under it. Le Comte 
was told it contained two millions of people ; doubtless a vast 
exaggeration. 

f Nan-king, a vast city, considered as a rival capital to Pe- 
king, and even as containing a larger population. It does not 
seem in our author's time to have been quite so great, Hang- 
tcheou-fou being then the chief city of the south. 

t This is Siang-yang-fou, a large city in Hou-quang, having; 



182 Dr.SCRIPTION OF CHINA, AND OP THE 

The inhabitants are idolaters ; they use paper mone}', 
are subject to the khan, and bum the bodies of their 
dead. This city held out three years after all the 
rest of the province had yielded to the conqueror, who 
besieged it with a mighty army ; but he could approach 
it only on the side which lies to the north, because it was 
elsewhere surrounded by a large and deep lake, by which 
the besieged obtained abundance of provisions. The 
army was therefore about to abandon the siege in much 
grief and wrath, and this news was just brought to the 
khan, when Messeri Nicolo, Maffio, and Marco Polo said, 
— " we shall find a way by which the city shall be made 
to surrender.'* The monarch, who was most eagerly bent 
on its capture, readily listened. Then said the two 
brothers and their son Marco, — ** Great sire, we have 
with us in our train men who will make such an engine 
as will discharge large stones, which the citizens will not 
be able to endure, and will be obliged to yield." The khan 
was much rejoiced, and desired that they should execute 
their plan as soon as possible. Now, they had in their com- 
pany a German and a Nestorian Christian who wei*e skilfiil 
in such works, and made two or three machines sufficient 
to throw stones of 300 pounds weight. When these 
were conveyed to the army and set up, they appeared 
to the Tartars the greatest wonder of the world. They 
then began discharging stones into the city, which struck 
the houses, broke and destroyed every thing, and caused 
the utmost noise and alarm. When the inhabitants saw 
a calamity such as they had never witnessed before, they 
knew not what to think or say. They met in council, 
and concluded that they must be all killed, unless they 
submitted. They therefore intimated to the lord of the 
host that they would surrender on the same terms that 
others had done. This was agreed to, and Sa-yan-fu came 
under the power of the great khan, through the interposi- 
tion of Messeri Nicolo, Maffio, and Marco ; and it was not 

others under its jurisdiction. The author evidently goes a good 
deal off his way m order to introduce the achievement of him- 
self and his relatives. 



COURT OP THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 183 

a small service, for this town and province are among 
the best in his possession, and he draws from them a 
great revenue.* Now, we shall leave this subject and 
treat of a city called Sin-gui. 

LXIX. — Of the City of Sin-gui and the River Kiang, and the 
Multitude of Cities on that River. 

When a man leaves Yan-gui and goes fifteen milesf 
south-east, he perceives a certain city named Sin-gui, 
which is not very extensive, but has great merchandise 
and much shipping. The people are idolaters, use paper 
money, and are subject to the khan. That city stands 
upon a river, named Kiang, which is the largest in the 
world ; being in some places ten miles broad, and up- 
wards of a hundred days' journey in length. Through 
it the inhabitants have a lucrative trade, which yields 
a large revenue to the khan. And on account of the 
many cities on it, the ships navigating and the goods 
conveyed by means of it are more numerous and valuable 
than in all the rivers of Christendom and the adjacent seas 
beside. I tell you I have seen at that city no fewer than 
6000 ships sailing at once on its stream. J For that river 

• The Chinese histories mention this mode in which the city 
was taken, and that the engineers were persons from Western 
Asia, but say nothing of the roli. If, however, as in the French 
text here follovired, they merely pointed out the persons by 
whom these machines could be constructed, this was a private 
transaction, which might easily escape the notice of these 
writers. It were more difi&cult if, as represented in Ramusio's 
text, they invented and superintended the whole transaction ; 
but this we have no doubt is a corruption. 

+ All the editions, except the Pans, make this journey from 
Sa-yan-fu. Mr Marsden (p. 495) justly observes that this place 
is far more distant from the Kiang, and insists that the true 
reading must be days. He even asserts that this is supported 
by Ramusio and the Museum Italian MS. ; but it is odd that 
he is mistaken in both points, being misled in the last by the 
very obscure handwriting. The French edition, I apprehend, 
again lets us into the real state of the case, by making the 
departure from An-gui (Yang-tcheou-fou). The descriptions 
of Nan-king and Siang-yang form no part of the itinerary, but 
are extraneous objects introduced on account of their great 
importance. The traveller is supposed to have been aU the 
while at Yang-tcheou, and thence to continue his route. 

X Strong as these expressions are, they scarcely exceed those 



184 DESCRIPTION OP CHINA, AND OF THE 

flows through sixteen provinces, and has more than two 
hundred great towns on its banks. The ships are covered, 
and have only one mast ; yet they are of heavy burden, 
and carry each from 4000 to 12,000 cantars. They have 
ropes composed of cane for drawing them through the 
water ; those belonging to the larger vessels are thick, 
and fifteen paces in length, being cloven at the end, 
and bound together in such a way as to make a cord 
300 paces long. 

LXX.— Of the City of Cai-gui. 

Cai-gui is a small city towards the south-east,* situated 
upon the bank of the above-mentioned river ; all the people 
are idolaters, subject to the khan, and use paper money. 
Here are collected large quantities of com and rice ; and 
there is a passage by water to the city of Kambalu and the 
court of the khan ; grain from this place forms a con- 
siderable part of the provision required by his court. The 
monarch made this communication by digging long 
and deep canals from one river to another, and from 
lake to lake, so that a large ship may pass through. 
And by the side of this water-channel goes a road, so 

used by the most sober modem travellers, on viewing the 
immense multitude of vessels upon this mighty river, which 
is evidently the Kiang or Yang-tse-kiang, the greatest in the 
empire. 

• There is some intricacv hero. Mr Marsden (p. 498) places 
Cai-gni on the southern oank ; but to support this, he has 
altered the text even of Ramusio, which merely states that it 
lay to the south-east (we apprehend of Yang-tcheou). Both the 
Paris editions, after describing it, say, " Now, let us cross the 
river." This plainly implies that it was on the northern bank, 
which is corro Derated by its being the key of the communica- 
tion along the canal with Fe-king. I have no doubt it is Qua- 
tcheou or Koua-tcheou, a large and flourishing place, though not 
of the first magnitude, and in the precise situation indicated. 
There remains some difficulty as to Sin-gui. My impression is, 
that it is the place mistaken by Mr Marsden for Cai-gui, viz. a 
suburb of Tching-kiang-fou, lying on the river, yet described as 
at some distance from the main body of the place ( see Le Comte 
in Astley, vol. iii. p. 622). In this case, the route of fifteen 
Jailes must have crossed the river to Sin-gui, and then returned 
to take a view of Cai-gui. In fact, the French edition, after 
describing Sin-gui, says, " Now let us return to Cai-gui." 



COURT OP THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 185 

that you may take either the one or the other, as is most 
convenient. In the middle of that river, opposite the 
city, is an isle of rocks, on which is a monastery of idola- 
ters, where there are 200 monks, who serve a very great 
numher of gods. Now, let us cross the river, and tell 
of a city named Cin-ghian-fu.* 

LXXI— Of the City of Cin-ghian-fu. 
Cin-ghian-fu is a city of Manji, and the people are 
such as we have already described, idolaters, and subjects 
of the great khan. They are artificers, merchants, and 
hunters, raise much grain, and make cloths of silk and 
gold. Here are two churches of Nestorian Christians, 
formed in the year 1278 ; which happened because at 
that time the governor under the khan was a Nestorian, 
named Marsarchis, and he caused these two edifices to 
be built. Now, let us go to the great city of Cin-ghin-gui. 

LXXII.— Of the City of Cin-ghin-gui, and of a dreadful 

Slaughter. 

When a man leaves Cin-ghian-fu, and travels three 
or four days south-east, he always discovers cities and 
castles, with much merchandise ; the people are all idola- 
ters, subject to the khan, and use paper money. Then 
he comes to the city of Cin-ghin-guit great and noble, the 
people idolaters, and subject to the khan ; they have 
abundance of provisions, produce and manufacture a vast 
quantity of silk. And here I will tell you a wicked 
thing which the people of this city did, but it cost them 
dear. When Bayam, called the chief of the Hundred 
Eyes, conquered all the province, and took the capital 
itself, he sent a body of troops to reduce this place. It 
surrendered, and the soldiers entered and found such 
good wine, that they drank till they were intoxicated, 
and became quite insensible. When the men of the, 

• This seems to be the main body of the citv Tching-kiailg-fou, 
and therefore treated as an inland city. The proximity of all 
the three places last named seems proved by no distance being 
stated between them. 

t Tchang-tcheou-fou, near the line of the canal, a large and 
flourishing city. 



186 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, AND OF THE 

city saw them in this condition, that very night they 
slew them all, so that not one escaped. When Bayam 
the commander heard of this disloyal conduct, he sent 
an army who took the town, and put all the inliabitants 
to the sword. Now, let us go on, and I will tell you 
of another named Sin-gui. 

LXXIII.— Of the aty of Sin-gui, of Un-gui, and of Ughim. 

Sin-gui is a very great and noble city. The people are 
idolaters, subject to the great khan, and use paper 
money. Most of them live by merchandise and arts, 
raise much silk, make cloths of it interwoven with gold 
very costly and fine. The town is forty miles in circuity 
and the number of inhabitants is so great, that no 
person can count them, and if they were men-at-amu^ 
those of the province of Manji would conquer the whole 
world ; they are not so, however, but prudent merchants^ 
and, as already observed, skilful in all the arts. They 
have also many persons learned in natural science, good 
physicians, and able philosophers. The city has 1600 
stone bridges under which a galley might pass ; and in 
the mountains adjacent grow rhubarb and ginger in 
such abundance, that for a Venetian grosso you may 
buy forty pounds of the latter, fresh and good. Sin-gui 
has under it sixteen large cities of arts and trade. Its 
name signifies the earth, and another large touTi near it 
is called heaven, and these appellations they derive from 
their great nobleness.* Now, let us depart from this 
place, and I will tell you of another city called Un-gui.t 
It is a day's journey from Sin-gui, and is large and good, 
with merchandise and arts ; but there is nothing so re- 
markable about it as to be worth describing ; therefore 
we shall go on to delineate another called Ughim. 

■ ■-' ■ ^ !■■■■■■ II.M» l—.M I ■-» ^^^-^^-^^^^^^ 

• This is Sou-tcheou-fou, which all travellers unite with wr 
author in describing as one of the largest and most beautifol- 
cities of the empire. It sooms, indeed, to have improved iwt 
modern times, and now in gayety and splendour to eclipse 
Hang-tcheou-fou, since the latter ceased to be a seat of empire— • 

f Mr Marsdon (p. 608) thinks this Kia-hing a town on th^^ 
canal between the two great cities. Ramusio calls it Va-gio. 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 187 

It is great and rich ; the men are idolaters, subject to 
the great khan, use paper money, and have abundance 
of all things. There is nothing else worth mentioning ; 
therefore I will go on to tell you of the noble city of 
Kin-sai, which is the capital of the kingdom of Manji. 

LXXIV. — Of the most noble and wonderful City of Kin-sai ; and 
of its Population, Trades, Lake, Villas, and splendid Palace. 

When a man leaves Ughim, and goes three days, 
he observes many noble and rich cities and castles, 
with great merchandise. The people are all idolaters, 
subject to the khan, use paper money, and have abund- 
ant means of subsistence. At the end of these three 
days, he finds a very noble city named Kin-sai,* which 
means in our language the city of heaven. And 
now I will tell you all its nobleness ; for without 
doubt it is the largest city in the world. And I will 
give you the account which was written by the Queen 
of Manji to Bayam, who conquered that kingdom, 
to be transmitted to his master, who thereby might 
be persuaded not to destroy it. And this letter contained 
the truth, as I Marco saw with my own eyes.t It re- 
lated, that the city of Kin-sai is 100 miles in circum- 
ference, and has 12,000 stone bridges ; and beneath 
the greater part of these a large ship might pass, and 
beneath the others a smaller one. And you need not 
wonder there are so many bridges ; because the city 
is wholly on the water, and surrounded by it like 

• This is undoubtedly Hang-tcheou-fou. The term here used 
means canital citv. 

t This letter ot the queen is found only in the French edition. 
The Paris Latin and the Crusca make it the kinc ; but, be- 
sides their inferior authority, that prince had fled beiore Bayam 
came up. Perhaps it was a mistake in translating the French 
roine. There is nothing of the kind in any other edition ex- 
cept Ramusio's, where it is said that Marco made notes of every 
particular ; but we have already intimated strong scepticism as 
to the existence of any such documents. The description, there- 
fore, not being by our traveller himself, may form some excuse 
for its exaggeratious. He guarantees it, indeed ; but this can 
only mean that he saw all the objects to be on an immense scale, 
as they really were. 



188 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, AND OF THB 

Venice. It contains twelve arts or trades, and each 
trade has 12,000 stations or houses ; and in each station 
there are of masters and labourers at least ten, in some 
fifteen, thirty, and even forty, because this town supplies 
many otiiers round it. The merchants are so nume-. 
rous and so rich, that their wealth can neither be told 
nor believed. They, their ladies, and the heads of the 
trades do nothing with their own hands, but live as 
cleanly and delicately as if they were kings. These 
females also are of angelic beauty, and live in the most 
elegant manner. But it is established that no one can 
practise any other art than that which his father followed, 
even though he were worth 100,000 bezants. To the 
south of that city is a lake, full thirty miles in cir- 
cuit ; and all around it are beautiful palaces and houses, 
so wonderfully built that nothing can possibly surpass 
them ; ,they belong to the great and noble, men of the 
city. There are also abbeys and monasteries of idolaters 
in great numbers. In the middle of the lake are two 
islands, on one of which stands a palace, so wonder- 
fully adorned that it seems worthy of belonging to the 
emperor. Whoever wishes to celebrate a marriage or 
other festival, goes thither, where he finds dishes, plates^ 
and all implements necessary for the occasion. The city 
of Kin-sai contains many beautiful houses, and one 
great stone tower, to which the people convey all their 
property when the houses take fire, as often happens, 
because many of them are of wood. They are idola- 
ters, subject to the great khan, and use paper money. 
They eat the flesh of dogs and other beasts, such as 
no Christian would touch for the world, Qn each of 
the said 12,000 bridges, ten men keep guard day and 
night, so that no one may dare to raise a disturbance,' or 
commit theft or homicide. I will tell you another thing, 
that in the middle of the city is a mound, on which stands 
a tower, wherein is placed a wooden table, against which 
a man strikes with a hammer, so that it is heard to a 
great distance ; this he does when there, is an alarm of 
fire, or any kind of danger or disturbance. The great khan 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 189 

causes that city to be most strongly guarded, because it is 
the capital of all the province of Manji, and he derives 
from it vast treasure and revenue ; he is likewise afraid 
of any revolt. All the streets are paved with stones and 
bricks ; and so are the high roads of Manji, on which 
account men may travel very pleasantly either on horse- 
back or on foot. In this city, too, are 4000 baths, in which 
the citizens, both men and women, take great delight, and 
frequently resort thither, because they keep their persons 
very cleanly. They are the largest and most beautiful 
baths in the world, insomuch that 100 of either sex 
may bathe in them at once. Twenty-five miles from 
thence is the ocean, between south and east ; and there 
is a city named Gau-fu,* which has a very fine port, 
with large ships, and much merchandise of immense 
value from India and other quarters. Past this city 
to the port flows a stately river, by which the ships can 
come up to it, and which runs thither from a great 
distance. The khan has divided the whole province of 
Manji into nine large kingdoms, all of which pay him 
annual tribute. In Gan-fu resides one of the kings, who 
has under him 140 cities. I will tell you a thing you 
will much wonder at, that in this province there are 
1200 towns, and in each a garrison amounting to 1000, 
10,000, 20,000, and in some instances to 30,000 men. But 
do not suppose these are all Tartar cavalry ; for part are 
infantry and sent from Cathay. But the riches and profit 
which the khan derives from the province of Manji 
is so great that no man could dare to mention it, nor 
would any one believe him ; and therefore I shall be 
silent. I will tell you, however, some of the customs of 
Manji. One is, that whenever a boy or girl is bom, the 
day, hour, and minute are written down, also the sign 
and planet under which the birth takes place, eo that 
all may know their nativity. And when any one 

• This is undoubtedly Ning-po, near the mouth of the river 
on which Hang-tchcou-fou stands, and opposite to the Tchu-san 
islands. It and Amoy are the two chief seats of foreign trade 
on the eastern coast of China. 



190 DESCRIPTION OP CHINA, AND OP THE 

wishes to undertake a journey, or do any thing else of im- 
portance, he repairs to the astrologer, states these particu- 
lars, and asks if he should go or act otherwise. And they 
are often thus diverted from their journeys and other de- 
signs ; for these astrologers are skilful in their arts and 
diabolical enchantments, and tell them many things 
which they implicitly believe. Another custom is, that 
when a body is to be burned, all the relations dress them- 
selves in canvass to express grief, and go with the corpse, 
beating instruments, and making songs and prayers to their 
idols. When they come to the place where the ceremony 
is to be performed, they frame images of men, women, 
camels, horses, clothes, money, and various other things, 
all of cards. When the fire is fully lighted, they throw 
in all these things, saying that the dead will enjoy them 
in the other world, and that the honour now done to 
him will be done there also by idols. In this city of 
Kin-sai is a palace of the king who fled, which is the 
noblest and most beautiful in the world. It is a square, 
ten miles in circuit, surrounded by a lofty wall, within 
which are gardens abounding in all the most delicate 
fruits, fountains, and lakes supplied with many kinds 
of fish. In the middle is the edifice itself, large and 
beautiful, with a hall so extensive that a vast number 
of persons can sit down at table. That hall is painted 
all over with gold and azure, representing many stories, 
in which are beasts, birds, knights, ladies, and various 
wonders. Nothing can be seen upon the walls and roof 
but these ornaments. There are twenty others of similar 
dimensions, such that 10,000 men can conveniently sit at 
table ; and they are covered and worked in gold very 
nobly. This palace contains also 1000 chambers. In the 
city are 160 toman of fires, that is, of houses ; and the 
toman is 10,000, making 1,600,000 houses,* among which 

• This statement^ allowing five inhabitants to a house, would 
make 8,000,000, which must, no doubt, be a great exaggeration. 
We are to consider, however, that Hang-tcheou-fou is represent- 
ed even now as little inferior to Pe-king, which it much surpasses 
in in<lusti7 and commerce, — and that it was then, in addition, 
the seat of the most splendid court in the East. Probably, 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. ] 91 

are many great and rich palaces. There is only one 
church of Nestorian Christians. Each man of that city, 
as also of the others, has written on his door the name of 
his wife, his children, of his sons' wives, his slaves, and 
of all his household ; and when any one is horn, he adds 
the name, and when he dies, takes it away. Thus the 
governor of each city knows the names of every person 
in it ; and this practice is followed in all the towns of 
Manji and Cathay. The same account is given of the 
strangers who reside for a time in their houses, both when 
they come and when they go ; and by that means the 
great khan knows whoever arrives and departs, which 
is of great advantage.* 

LXXV.— Farther Particulars of that City. 

There are within the city ten principal squares or 
market-placeSjf besides which, numberless shops run 
along the streets. These squares are each half a mile 
in length, and have in front the main street, forty 
paces wide, and reaching in a straight line from one 
end of the city to the other. Thus they are, altoge- 
ther, two miles in circuit, and four miles distant from 
each other. The street is crossed by many low and 
convenient bridges. Parallel to it, but on the opposite 
side to the squares, is a very large canal, and on its bank 
capacious warehouses, built of stone, to accommodate the 

therefore, it was the greatest city that ever existed, and con- 
tained not much fewer than half the number now stated. The 
printed edition of Pipino has only 1,060,000 houses ; but, as it 
gives the same number of tomans with the others, this appears 
an error of the press ; and it is otherwise in the MS. The Basle 
edition has only 600,000 ; but it cannot be received against all 
the others. 

• Mr Marsden mentions having been informed by Mr Reeves 
of Canton that this arrangement is still practised. 

t The additional matter in Ramusio relating to Kin-sai be- 
in^ particularly copious, it has been thought advisable to collect 
it into one chapter, so that the reader may see it distinct from 
that included in the early editions, and which forms the pre- 
ceding chapter. At the end, some inquiry will be made whether 
it really was written by the traveller himself. Meantime, it 
may be observed, that there is no reason to doubt the information 
being generally authentic. 



192 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, AND OP THE 

merchants from India and other countries, and receive 
their goods ; this situation being chosen as convenient 
with regard to the market-squares. Each of these, on 
three days in every week, contains an assemblage of from 
40,000 to 50,000 persons, who bring for sale every de- 
sirable article of provision. There appears abundance of 
all kinds of game, roebucks, stags, fallow-deer, hares, and 
rabbits, with partridges, pheasants, francolins, quails, 
common fowls, capons, ducks and geese almost innumer- 
able ; these last being so easily bred on the lake, that for a 
Venetian silver grosso you may buy a couple of geese and 
two pairs of ducks. In the same place are also the 
shambles, where cattle, as oxen, calves, kids, and lambs, 
are killed for the tables of the rich and of magistrates. 
These markets afford at all seasons a great variety of 
herbs and fruits ; in particular, uncommonly large pears, 
weighing each ten pounds,* white in the inside like paste, 
and very fragrant. The peaches also, both yellow and 
white, are in their season of delicious flavour. Grapes 
are not cultivated, but very good ones are brought dried 
from other districts. Wine is not esteemed by the na- 
tives, who are accustomed to their own liquor, prepared 
from rice and various spices. From the sea, twenty-five 
miles distant, a vast supply of fish is conveyed on the 
river ; and the lake also contains abundance, the taking 
of which affords constant employment to numerous fisher- 
men. The species vary according to the season, and the 
offal carried thither from the city renders them large and 
rich. In short, the quantity in the market is so immense, 
that you would think it impossible it could find pur- 
chasers ; yet in a few hours it is all disposed of, so many 
inhabitants are there who can afford to indulge in such 
luxuries. They eat fish and flesh at one meal. Each 
of the ten squares is surrounded with lofty dwelling- 
houses ; the lower part being made into shops, where 
manufactures of every kind are carried on, and imported 

. • Mr Marsden (p. 157) quotes authorities in favour of tWs 
enormous sizo. particularly Van Braam, who was served with 
one 15 inches long and 14 thick. 



COURT OP THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 193 

articles are sold, as spices, drugs, toys, and pearls. In 
some shops is kept only the country wine, which is con- 
stantly made fresh, and served out at a moderate price. 
In the several streets connected with the squares are 
numerous baths, attended by servants of both sexes, to 
perform the functions of ablution for the male and fe- 
male visiters, who from their childhood are accustomed to 
bathe in cold water, as being highly conducive to health. 
Here, too, are apartments provided with warm water for 
the use of strangers, who, from want of use, cannot en- 
dure the shock of the cold. All are in the daily habit 
of washing their persons, especially before meals. 

In other streets reside the females of bad character, 
who are extremely numerous ; and not only in the streets 
near the squares, which are specially appropriated to 
them, but in every other quai'ter they appear, highly 
dressed out and perfumed, in well furnished houses, and 
with a train of domestics. They are perfectly skilled 
in all the arts of seduction, which they can adapt to per- 
sons of every description ; so that strangers who have 
once yielded to their fascination are said to be like men 
bewitched, and can never get rid of the impression. In- 
toxicated with these unlawful pleasures, even after re- 
turning horne^ they always long to revisit the place 
where they were thus seduced. In other streets reside 
the physicians and the astrologers, who also teach reading 
and writing, with many other arts. On opposite sides 
of the squares are two large edifices, where officers ap- 
pointed by his majesty promptly decide any differences 
that arise between the foreign merchants and the inhabit- 
ants. They are bound also to take care that the guards 
be duly stationed on the neighbouring bridges, and in 
case of neglect, to inflict a discretionary punishment on 
the delinquent. 

On each side of the principal street, mentioned as 
reaching across the whole city, are large houses and 
mansions with gardens ; near to which are the abodes 
and shops of the working artisans. At all hours you 
observe such multitudes of people passing backwards and 

N 



194 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, AND OF THE 

forwai'ds on their various avocations, that it might seem 
impossible to supply them with food. A different judg- 
ment will, however, be formed, when every market-day 
the squares are seen crowded with people, and covered 
with provisions brought in for sale by carts and boats. 
To give some idea of the quantity of meat, wine, spices, 
and other articles brought for the consumption of the 
people of Kin-sai, I shall instance the single article of 
pepper. Marco Polo was informed by an officer employ- 
ed in the customs, that the daily amount was forty-thrce 
loads, each weighing 243 pounds. 

The houses of the citizens are well built, and richly 
adorned with carving, in which, as well as in painting 
and ornamental buildings, they take great delight, and 
lavish enormous sums. Their natural disposition is pa- 
cific, and the example of their former unwarlike kings 
has accustomed them to live in tranquillity. They keep 
no arms in their houses, and are unacquainted with their 
use. Their mercantile transactions are conducted in a 
manner perfectly upright and honourable. They also 
behave in a friendly manner to each other, so that the 
inhabitants of the same neighbourhood appear like one 
family. In their domestic relations, they show no jealousy 
or suspicion of their wives, but treat them with great re- 
spect. Any one would be held as infamous that should 
address indecent expressions to married women. They 
behave with cordiality to strangers who visit the city for 
commercial purposes, hospitably entertain them, and 
afford their best assistance in their business. On the 
other hand, they hate the very sight of soldiers, even the 
guards of the great khan ; recollecting, that by tlieir 
means they have been deprived of the government of 
their native sovereigns. 

On the lake above mentioned are a number of plea- 
sure-barges, capable of holding from ten to twenty per- 
sons, being from fifteen to twenty paces long, wiUi a 
])road level floor, and moving steadily through the water. 
Those who delight in this amusement, and propose to 
enjoy it, either with their ladies or companions, engage . 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 195 

one of these barges, which they find always in the very 
best order, with seats, tables, and every thing necessary 
for an entertainment. The boatmen sit on a flat upper 
deck, and with long poles reaching to the bottom of the 
lake, not more than two fathoms deep, push along the 
vessels to any desired spot. These cabins are painted 
•in various colours, and with many figures; the exte- 
rior is similarly adorned. On each side are windows, 
which can at pleasure be kept open or shut, when the 
company seated at table may delight their eyes with 
the varied beauty of the passing scenes. Indeed, the 
gratification derived from these water-excursions ex- 
ceeds any that can be enjoyed on land ; for as the lake 
extends all along the city, you discover, while stand- 
ing in the boat, at a certain distance from the shore, all 
its grandeur and beauty, palaces, temples, convents, 
and gardens, while lofty trees reach down to the water's 
edge. At the same time are seen other boats continu- 
ally passing, similarly filled with parties of pleasure, 
(generally, indeed, the inhabitants, when they have 
finished the labours of the day, or closed their mercantile 
transactions, think only of seeking amusement with their 
wives or mistresses, either in these barges or driving 
about the city in carriages. The main street already 
mentioned is paved with stone and brick to the width 
of ten paces on each side, the interval being filled up with 
small gravel, and having arched drains to carry off the 
water into the canals, so that it is always kept dry. On 
this road the carriages are constantly driving. They are 
long, covered at top, have curtains and cushions of silk, 
and can hold six persons. Citizens of both sexes, desirous 
of this amusement, hire them for that purpose, and you 
see them at every hour moving about in vast numbers. 
In many cases the people visit gardens, where they are 
introduced by the managers of the place into shady ar- 
bours, and remain till the time of returning home. 

The palace already mentioned had a wall with a 
passage dividing the exterior court from an inner one, 
which formed a kind of cloister^ supporting a portico 



196 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, AND OF THE 

that surrounded it, and led to various royal apartments. 
Hence you entered a covered passage or corridor, six 
paces wide, and so long as to reach to the mai^in of the 
lake. On each side were corresponding entrances to 
ten courts, also resembling cloisters with porticos, and 
each having fifty private rooms, with gai'dens attached, — 
the residence of a thousand young females, whom the 
king maintained in his service. In the company either 
of his queen or of a party of those ladies he used to seek 
amusement on the lake, visiting the idol-temples on its 
banks. The other two portions of this seraglio were 
laid out in groves, pieces of water, beautiful orchards, 
and enclosures for animals suited for the chase, as an- 
telopes, deer, stags, hares, and rabbits. Here, too, the 
king amused himself, — his damsels accompanying him 
in carriages or on horseback. No man was allowed 
to be of the party, but the females were skilled in 
the art of coursing and pursuing the animals. When 
fatigued they retired into the groves on the mai^gin of 
the lake, and, quitting their dresses, rushed into the 
water, when they swam sportively in different directions, 
— the king remaining a spectator of the exhibition. 
Sometimes he had his repast provided beneath the 
dense foliage of one of these groves, and was there 
waited upon by the damsels. Thus he spent his time 
in this enervating society, profoundly ignorant of mar- • 
tial affairs ; hence the grand khan, as already mentioned, 
was enabled to deprive him of his splendid possess- 
ions, and drive him with ignominy from his throne. 
All these particulars were related to me by a rich 
merchant of Kin-sai, who was then very old ; and, 
having been a confidential servant of King Facfiir, 
was acquainted with every circumstance of his life. 
He knew the palace in its former splendour, and de- 
sired me to come and take a view of it. Being 
then the residence of the khan's viceroy, the colon- 
nades were preserved entire, but the chambers had 
been allowed to go to ruin, — only their foundations re- 
maining visible. . The walls, too, including the parks 



COURT OP THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 197 

and gardens, had been left to decay, and no longer con- 
tained any trees or animals.* 

LXXVI. — Revenues of the Great Khan from Kin-sai and 

Manji. 

I will now tell you of the large revenue which 
the khan draws from this city, and the territory un- 
der its jurisdiction, which is the ninth part of the 
province of Manji. The salt of that country yields 
to him in the year eighty tomans of gold, and each 
toman is 70,000 saiks, which amount to 6,600,000, 
and each saik is worth more than a gold florin ; and is 
not this most great and wonderful ! In that country, too, 
there grows more sugar than in the whole world besides, 
and it yields a very large revenue. I will not state it 
particularly, but remark that, taking all spices together, 

• At the close of this large mass of information, the curious 
question arises, whether we are really indebted for it to the 
traveller himself. I have already noticed the complete contrast 
between the Character of the king here dven and that found in 
Chapter LXI I., which is sanctioned by all the editions. We may 
observe, also, that the present tense, used in the early versions 
to describe the palace, evidently as in full splendour, is here 
changed to the past, and only part is represented in repair, the 
rest being allowed to go to ruin. Yet Marco's visit there 
could be only a few years after the conquest, when so great a 
change would have been very improbable. This half-stealthy 
mode of visiting it vnth an old merchant of Kin-sai seems to 
accord very ill with his official situation, which would have 
opened to him regular access. He would doubtless, indeed, 
visit the governor, and probably be accommodated within the 
edifice. The hatred of the Chinese towards the Tartar guards, 
though probably true, would not we think have been mentionea 
by him. On the whole, we feel persuaded that he had no con- 
cern with any of these passages, and that they were inserted 
by some private traveller, who visited the city at a considerably 
later period. There is no doubt it was one who had good op- 
portunities of observation ; indeed, his character of the king 
accords better with Chinese history than that of Marco's, who, 
as formerly observed, had been somehow biassed on this sub- 
ject. Former insertions seemed to bear the marks of a church- 
man ; but this, we think, comes from a merchant,— a peculiarly 
copious detail being given both of the transactions and social 
habits of that class. We know not even if there be elsewhere 
so full an account of the mode of spending life among the most 
opulent class of the Chinese. 



198 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA AND OP THE 

they pay 3J per cent., which is levied too on all other 
merchandise. Large taxes are also derived from wine, 
rice, coal, and from the twelve arts, which, as al- 
ready mentioned, have each twelve thousand stations. 
On every thing a duty is imposed ; and on silk especially 
and other articles is paid ten per cent. But I, Marco 
Polo, tell you, because I have often heard the account of 
it, that the revenue on all these commodities amounts 
every year to 210 tomans, or 14,700,000 saiks, and that is 
the most enormous amount of money that ever was heard 
of, and yet is paid by only the ninth part of the pro- 
vince of Manji.* Now let us depArt from this city of 
Kin-sai, and go to another called Tam-pin-gui. 

LXXVII. — Tam-pin-gui and other Cities. 

When a man departs from Kin-sai, and goes a 
day to the south-east, he finds always most pleasant 
houses and gardens, and all the means of living in great 
abundance. At the end of the day he discovers the 
city already named,t which is very large and beau- 
tiful, and is dependent on Kin-sai. The people are sub- 
ject to the khan, use paper money, are idolaters, and 
burn the bodies of their dead in tlie manner already 
described. They live by merchandise and arts, and 
have an ample supply of provisions. And when a man 
goes three days to the south-east, seeing very large 

* The florin being estimated by Mr Marsden at ten shillings 
sterling, this makes £7,350,000. Both Du Halde and Macart- 
ney reckon the present amount at about £66,000,000 (Account 
of China, Edinburgh Cabinet Library, vol. ii. p. 183) ; and as the 
southern provinces are much the most productive, and Kin- 
sai doubtless superior to any other, there appears no verv 
great exaggeration. The amazement with which the travel- 
ler is struck, and which was equally felt in Europe, may be 
understood, when we consider that the revenues of its greatest 
princes were in that age very slender, perhaps in few cases 
amounting to a million sterling. 

f Mr Marsden is unable to find a city on this site, and I 
cannot concur vrith Count Boni in thinking it Fu-yang. which 
is much more than a day's journey from the capital. The 
Jesuits' map has the mark of a town at the proper place, but 
without any name. 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 199 

cities and castles, and much trade, he comes to the city 
of Un-gui,* under the government of Kin-sai, and other- 
wise like the former. When he departs from tJn-gui and 
goes two days south-east, he every where perceives towns 
and castles, so that he seems to be going through a city. 
Every thing is in abundance ; and here are the largest 
and longest canes in all the country, for know that 
some are four palms in circuit and fifteen paces long.t 
At the end of the two days he comes to Chen-gui, J which 
is large and beautiful. The people, who are idolaters, are 
under the great khan and the jurisdiction of Kin-sai, and 
have abundance of silk and provisions. In going four days 
south-east he finds cities and castles, and all things in the 
utmost plenty. There are birds and beasts for the chase, 
with lions very large and fierce. Throughout all the 
province of Manji there are neither sheep nor lambs, 
but oxen, goats, and hogs in great variety. At the end 
of the four days he finds Cian-cian,§ a town situated on a 
mountain, which divides the river into two parts, 
each flowing in a different direction. The people 
are like the former ; and, at the end of three days more 
we reach the city of Can-giu,|| large and beautiful ; and 

* U-guiu, Ramusio. Mr Marsden, again at a loss, suggests 
Hou-tcneou, at which the Count justly wonders, it being in the 
completely opposite direction ; but I am convinced that this is 
Fu-yang. 

f Martini and Du Halde agree as to the luxuriance of the 
canes which grow in Tche-kiang. Marsden, p. 548. Boni, 
vol. ii. p. 344. 

4:Gen-gui, Ramusio. Mr Marsden thinks itTchu-ki ; but it aj)- 
pears to me clearly Yen-tcheou-fou. Both the name and posi- 
tion closely agree. Further remarks will be made in the next 
note. 

§ 2jen-gian, Ramusio. Mr Marsden considers it clear that this 
is Yen-tcheou-fou. We would observe, however^ that ten dajrs 
have been spent in coming from the canital, — a distance on this 
supposition of only seventy miles. On the other hand, the 
journey hence to Kien-ning-fou is about 220 miles, yet occupies 
only nine days. If we are to attach any credit then to our 
traveller's statements, this place must be Kiu-tcheou, which 
the French name resembles, and Z in the Venetian dialect is 
identical with G or K. 

II Gie-za, Ramusio. This, I apprehend, must be one of the 
frontier-places between Kiu-tcheou and Fo-kien; perhaps Kiang- 



200 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, AND OP THE 

this is the last tinder the jurisdiction of Kin-sai ; for 
now commences another kingdom, which is one of the 
nine parts of Manji, and is called Fu-gui. 

LXXVIII.-The Kmgdom of Fu-gui. 

When a man goes from the last-mentioned city of Kid- 
sai he enters the kingdom of Fu-gui ;* and, after tra- 
velling seven days, he finds houses and villages, the inhah- 
itants of which are all idolatei's,and under the jurisdiction 
of Fu-gui. They have provisions in great abundance, 
with numerous wild beasts for hunting ; also large and 
fierce lions. They have ample supplies of ginger and ga- 
langa, so that for a Venetian grosso you can buy eighty 
pounds. And there is a fruit or flower having the 
appearance of saffron, and though not really so, yet of 
equal value, being much employed in manufacture. They 
eat the flesh of the filthiest animals, and even that of 
a man, provided he has not died a natural death ; but 
if he has been killed, they account his flesh extremely 
delicate. When they go to war they cut their hair 
very close, and paint their faces an azure colour like the 
iron of a lance. They fight all on foot except their 
chief ; and are the most cruel race in the world, because 
they go about the whole day killing men, drinking 
their blood, and eating their flesh.t 

chan-fui, which much rcsomblcs the French namo. Mr Mars- 
den maintains that it must be Kiu-tchoou itself, as being a 
frontier-city ; but he forgets that it borders on Kiang-see ; 
while Fo-kien is the province now to bo entered. 

* This is the French name and the most correct, while 
llamusio has Concha ; and it is curious that the former ver- 
sion gives it that name in a subsequent chapter. 

f Mr Marsden is appalled at the mention of such a people 
in the most civilized part of China, and has recourse to his 
favourite hvpothesis of a transposition of notes, causing to be 
applied to them what was true only of certain tribes of Sumatra, 
lie does not seem aware that some parts of Fo-kien rank with 
the rudest portions of the empire, in whose weakened state it 
was not unlikely that such races might still find harbour there. 
We shall soon see how difficult even Kublai found it to keep 
them in subjection. They still bear a rude, bold, independent 
character, quite unlike that of the other Chinese (Account. of 
China, Edinburgh Cabinet Library, vol. ii. pp. 368, 369). The 



COURT OF THE EMPEROR KUBLAI. 201 

LXXIX.— Of the Cities of Que-lin-fu and Un-quem. 
In the middle of these seven days you come to a 
city called Que-lin-fu,* which is very large and beau- 
tiful, subject to the great khan. It has three bridges, 
the largest and most magnificent in the world ; for each 
is a mile long and ten paces broad, and all supported by 
columns of marble. The people live by merchandise and 
arts, and have abundance of silk and ginger. The ladies 
here are very beautiful. They have another strange 
thing, hens that have no feathers, but skins like a cat.t 
They lay eggs like those of our hens, and are very good 
eating. And in the remainder of the seven days' jour- 
ney we discover many cities and castles, merchants and 
merchandise, and men of art. There are lions, great 
and fierce, doing much injury to the passengers, who on 
this account cannot travel without imminent danger. At 
the end of the journey is found a city called Un-quem, J 
where there is made such a quantity of sugar, that the 
whole court of the khan is thence supplied, which is 
worth a vast treasure. Beyond it is the large city of 
Fu-gui, capital of this kingdom. 

LXXX.— Of the City of Fu-gui. 
Fu-gui,§ as just stated, is the capital of the kingdom of 

asserted cannibalism was probably an exaggeration, suggested 
by the fears of the people. 

• Kien-ning-fou, on the river Min, which Martini describes 
as equal in magnitude to the capital, though much injur- 
ed during the recent wars. He notices, too, its magnificent 
bridges. 

t It has been impossible to find any confirmation of this 
account ; though Du Halde mentions a small species in Se-tchuen 
(probably the same) with a woolly covering similar to that of 
sheep. 

$ Commentators have not been able to find this city. Ming- 
tsing a^ees very exactly as to site, and we imagine must be the 
place, tnough there is no resemblance of name. 

§ Instead of this Ramusio has Kan-giu, which, as our 
traveller's giu corresponds with tcheou, is just the Chinese name 
for Canton, thus strangely confounded with Fou-tcheou-fou. I 
have no doubt it is a gross modern interpolation, after the 
Portuguese had brought the former place strongly to the view 
of Europeans. Some one then thought it would improve the 



202 DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, AND OF THE 

Con-cha, which is one of the nine parts of Manj i. In that 
city is much merchandise and art ; the people are idola- 
trous, and subject to the great khan. He keeps there a 
strong army, because the towns and castles often revolt, 
and whenever they do so the troops hasten thither, take, 
and destroy them. Through the middle of that city flows 
a river a mile broad ; here much sugar is made, and an 
extensive trade is carried on in precious stones and pearls, 
which are brought by merchants from India and its 
isles. It is also near the port of Zai-tun on the ocean, 
whither come many ships from Hindostan with much 
merchandise ; and they ascend by the great river to 
Fu-gui. The people have abundance of all things 
necessary for subsistence ; fine gardens, with good fruit ; 
and the city is wonderfully well ordered in all respects. 
But we will now go on to other matters. 

LXXXI. — Of the most noble Port of Zai-tun, and of Ti-min-guL 

When one departs from Fu-gui, passes the river, and 
goes five days south-east, he finds cities and castles, 
where there is abundance of all things, woods, birds, and 
beasts, with the tree which bears camphor. The people 
are all idolaters, under the great khan and the jurisdic- 
tion of Fu-gui. At the end of the five days he finds a 
city called Zai-tun,* which is a noble port, where all 
the ships of India arrive, and for one laden with pep- 
per which comes from Alexandria to be sold through- 
out Christendom, there go to that city a hundred. It 
is one of the two best ports in the world, and the most 
frequented by merchants and merchandise. Know, too, 

work to insert it, not aware that he was placing it 500 miles 
from its real position. I cannot but wonder that Mr Mars- 
den should attempt any defence of such a reading. He nr^es 
that Canton was unknown for 200 years after the narrative 
was written ; but it was well known at least 60 years before 
Ramusio's edition, which alone contains this readinje. The 
description here given of Fou-tcheou-fou, the capital of Fo-kien, 
appears perfectly correct. 

* We agree with Mr Marsden in thinking Zai-tun to be the 
celebratea port of Amoy, still one of the most considerable in 
the empire. 



COURT OP THE EMPEROR KUBliAI. 203 

that the khan draws thence a large revenue, because 
all the ships from India pay upon their several kinds 
of goods, stones, and pearls, ten per cent., that is one in 
ten. The ships take for their freight, on small merchan- 
dise, thirty per cent. ; on pepper, forty-four ; on lignum, 
aloes, sandalwood, and other bulky articles, forty ; so 
that merchants, between the freight and the duty, pay a 
full half of all commodities brought into that port. 
Those of this country are all idolaters, and have great 
abundance of every thing necessary for the human body. 
In that province is a city, named Ti-min-gui,* where they 
make the most beautiftil cups in the world ; they are of 
porcelain, and are manufactured in no other part of the 
earth besides that city; for a Venetian grosso you may 
purchase three cups of this most elegant ware. The 
people of Fu-gui have a language of their own. Now, 
I have told you of this kingdom, which is one of 
the nine, and the great khan draws from it as much 
duty and revenue as from that of Kin-sai. We have 
not told you of the nine kingdoms of Manji, but only 
of three, Manji, Ejn-sai, and Fu-gui, and of these you 
have heard fully ; but the others I cannot now de- 
scribe, because it would be too tedious, and our book 
has not yet treated of other things which I wish to 
write about ; for I have to tell you of the Indians, who 
are well worthy of being known. Their country con- 
tains many wonderful things found in none of the other 
parts of the world, which it will be good and profitable 
to write. And, I assure you, Marco remained so long in 

• Mr Marsden and Count Boni consider this to be Ting-tcheou, 
a large city in the upper part of Fo-kien, though it is known 
that the manufacture, in a fine shape, is now wholly confined 
to King-te-tching, in Kiang-see. Tne former imagines that it 
may have been transferred from the one place to the other, 
through the exhaustion of materials. To myself there appears 
no doubt that the place alluded to is no other than Kmg-te- 
tching itself. The names greatlv resemble ; and though not in 
Fo-kien, it is on the immediate border. The traveller, writing 
from hearsay, could not be expected to be rigidly accurate as 
to such a point ; nor is it even certain if the Hmits of the pro- 
vinces were then exactly what they now 'are. 



204 DESCRIPTION OP CHINA, Ac 

India, and saw so much of its produce, customs, and 
merchandise, that no man could better tell the truth. 
Therefore I will put them in writing, precisely as Messer 
Marco truly said them to me.* 

* This second introduction of himself by Rusticians exists 
only in the French edition. Even the Crusca condenses the 
whole pto one sentence, beginning, ** I. Marco Polo." &c. 
Ramusio somewhat expands it, but still showing only the 
traTeller himself in the third person. I have inserted it, how- 
ever, being inclined to consider it genuine. Ramusio speaks 
of a sea-cnart of the coasts of India, of which no mention 
occurs in any other edition. This account of India will form 
the third part of the present yolume. 



PART II. 

Central Asia, 

Description of Armenia and Turcomania— Georgia ; the Iron 
Gate — The Caspian— Kingdom of Mosul— Bagdad ; its Siege 
and Capture — Tauris— Report of Miraculous Events — De- 
scription of Persia — Yezd and Kerman — Journey to Ormuz — 
Daring Robbers — Description and Trade of Ormuz — Journey 
to Khorasan— Alaodin, the Old Man of the Mountain — His 
feigned Paradise— Assassinations— Subdued by the Tartars 
—Journey to Balkh— To Badakshan—Mines of Ruby and 
Lapis Lazuli— Peshawer— Cashmere— Source of the Oxus 
in Lake Sir-i-kol — Plain of Pamir, called the Roof of the 
World— Extreme Cold— Kirghizes and other rude Tribes — 
Cashgar — Samarcand — Yarcund — Khoten — Pein — Orna- 
mental Stones— Lop — Frightful Passage of the Great Desert 
—Kingdom of Tangut ; Manners and Superstitions— Great 
Caravan Station at Kamul ; strange Customs— Sou-tcheou— 
Kan-tcheou or Campion— Journey to Ezina and Karako- 
rum— Rise of the Empire of Grengis— Manners, Customs, and 
Superstitions of the Tartars— Their Government — Conduct 
of their Wars — Route through Siberia to the Northern 
Ocean— Various Places on the Frontier of China — The Yak, 
the Musk Animal, and beautiful Pheasants — Country of 
Prester John— Imperial Hunting Palaces. 

I. — On Armenia the Lesser. 

You must know there are two Armenias, a great and 
a lesser one, which last has a king who rules with pure 
justice, and is subject to the Tartars. This region* 
contains many cities and castles, and abundance of all 
things, with beasts and birds for hunting and hawking ; 

-■■.--^■---■1 ■■■-■.■ ■ I lll.^-»ll I !■.-■■ ■ _, ,1. 

* This little kingdom, nearly coinciding with the pashalic of 
Adana, was formed in the r2th century, under the reign of 
Alexis Comnenus, by an Armenian lord named Kaghic, whose 
posterity reigned two centuries.— Marsden, p. 42. 



206 CENTRAL ASIA. 

but I must tell you the. air is not very healthy. The 
gentry used formerly to be valiant and good at arms ; 
but now they are mean and vile, and remarkable only 
for being hard drinkers. On the seacoast is a city 
named Laias,* which carries on a very great trade ; for 
thither all the spices, rich cloths, and other precious 
articles, are brought from India across the Euphrates, 
which the merchants of Venice, of Pisa, and of Genoa, 
come to purchase. By this town we enter the province 
of Turcomania. 

II. — On Turcomania. 
In Turcomaniat are three distinct races of men : — The 
Turcomans adore Mohammed, and are simple people, 
speaking a very rude language. They live amid moun- 
tains and valleys where there is good pasturage for 
cattle, by which they subsist ; and I assure you that 
they rear excellent horses and mules of great value.. 
The two others are Armenians and Greeks, who dwell 
mingled in cities, and subsist by merchandise and manu- 
factures ; they work carpets and crimson silk, the rich- 
est and most beautiful in the whole world. They have 
many towns, of which the principal are Como, Casserie, 
and Sevasto. J They are subject to the Eastern Tartars. 
Now, let us leave them, and speak of Armenia the 
Greater, 

III. — On Armenia the Greater. 

Armenia the Greater§ is a large country, and, at 
the entrance of it is a city called Arzinga, in which is 
made the best buckram in the world. There are several 
baths of warm spring water, the b^t and most beauti- 
ful any where to be found. There are many castles, 

■ ■ ■ » ■ ^ ■ ■ ■ I I — ■■»■ — »■■ i-i- ■ !■■■ — 

* Aias, already mentioned, lies near Scanderoon, to which 
its great trade has since been transferred. 

^' This name is applied to all that part of Asia Minor then 
jeet to the Turks, consisting chiefly of the modem prov- 
inces of Caramania and Roomyan. 

X Cogui or Icouium, the capital *, Kaisariah ; Scbaste or 
Sivas. 

§ This celebrated and ancient kingdom was then still gov- 
erned by a separate monarch. It retains at present the 
name, but is divided between the Persians and Turks. 



CENTRAL ASIA. 207 

* 

and cities, among which the noblest is Arzinga, the seat 
of an archbishop, and the metropolis of the whole dis- 
trict ; there are also Argiron and Darzizi.* I assure 
you the province is very large, and during the summer 
all the Tartars of the Levant reside here with their 
flocks and herds, on account of its rich pastures ; but in 
winter they cannot remain because of the severe cold 
and snow, amid which the animals could not live. Now, 
in this Armenia is the ark of Noah on a great moun- 
tain.t The circuit of its base cannot be traversed in 
less than two days ; and the ascent is rendered impractic- 
able by the snow on its summit, which never dissolves, 
but is increased by each successive fall. On the lower 
declivities, the melted snows cause an abundant veget- 
ation, and afford rich pastures for the cattle which in 
summer resort thither from all the surrounding coun- 
tries. To the south-east it borders on a kingdom called 
Mosul, inhabited by Jacobite and Nestorian Christians, 
of whopi we will mention more hereafter. On the 
north it extends to the Georgians, and on that fron- 
tier is a fountain whence rises oil in such abundance 
that a hundred ships might be at once loaded with it. 
It is not good for eating, but very fit for fuel, for anoint- 
ing the camels in maladies of the skin, and for other 
purposes ; for which reason people come from a great dis- 
tance for it, and nothing else is burned in all this coun- 
try. J Now let us quit Armenia, and tell of Georgia. 

IV. — On Georgia and its Productions. 

In Georgia§ is a king always called David Melik, 
which means David the King ; he is subject to the Tar- 

• Erzeroum and Argish, both still towns of importance. 

+ Ramusio has " an exceedingly great mountain, on which 
it is said the ark of Noah rested ;" more correct, but we ima- 
gine the text is the original. This is Ararat, 17,359 feet high, 
exceeding Mont Blanc by about 2000. M. Parrot recently 
ascended it, we believe for the first time. 

$This is the well known petroleum or rock-oil.found copiously 
near Baku, in the province of Shirvan. — Marsaen, p. 51, 

§ In Ramusio and all the editions known to Mr Marsden, the 
term is Zorzania, — the Z for G being peculiar to the old Ven- 
etian dialect. The Paris, Crusca, and rucei use correctly the G» 



208 CENTRAL ASIA. 

tars ; and anciently all the monarchs of this province 
were horn with the mark of an eagle on their left shoulder. 
They are a handsome people, good archers, and valiant 
in battle. They are Christians of the Greek church, 
and wear their hair close shaven in the manner of clergy. 
This is the province which Alexander could not pass 
through on account of the narrowness of the path ; be- 
cause on one side is the sea, and on the other very liigh 
mountains, over which it is impossible to ride ; and, as 
this strait continues above four leagues, a few men 
might hold out against the whole world. This was the 
reason why he could not pass ; but he built a very 
strong tower, that no one might come upon him from 
the other side, and it is called the Iron Gate.* This 
is the place mentioned in the book of Alexander, where 
he enclosed the Tartars within their mountains ; though 
the Tartars did not exist at that time, but a certain 
people called Comani, and other races besides.. There 
are many cities and castles, with silk in abundance, with 
which, added to gold, they make cloths the most beauti- 
ful that ever man saw. Here are the finest eagles in the 
world ; also victuals of every kind in abundance. The 
province is full of great mountains, and of narrow 
passes, so that I can tell you the Tartars could never 
obtain the entire sovereignty of it. There is a monastery 
called St Leonard, containing a great wonder, which I 
will now relate. A large lake of water issues from a 
neighbouring mountain, in which, during the whole 
year, there is not found a fish great or small, except from 
the day before Lent down to the evening of Easter Sun- 
day ; and during the whole of that time fishes are taken 
in great abundance, but none at any other. And know 
that this sea of which I have spoken is seven hundred 
miles in circuit, and receives the Euphrates, one of the 
delights of paradise, and many other great rivei-s. It 
is all surrounded by mountain and land ; and lately 

• This is the name given to it by the Turks. The report 
of its being built by Alexander is prevalent among the natives, 
though perhaps apocryphal. — Marsden, p. 56. 



CENTRAL ASIA. 209 

the merchants of Genoa, who have built ships, navigate 
it, bringing silk, which is called geUe,* Into this sea the 
great rivers Herdil,+ Greihon, Kur, and Aras enter. In 
that province there is a grand city named Tefiis, with 
suburbs and fortified posts around it. The inhabitants 
are Armenian and Georgian Christians, with some few 
Mohammedans and Jews. There are manufactures of 
silk and other articles. Now, having told you of the 
boundaries of Armenia to the north, I will describe those 
to the south and east. 

v. — On the Kingdom of Mosul. 

Mosul is a great kingdom on the eastern border of 
Armenia, and inhabited by various denominations of 
men, whom I will now describe. There is a race called 
Arabic, who adore Mohammed ; also another who hold 
the christian law, but not as the church of Rome com- 
mands ; they err in many things. They are denominated 
Nestorian and Jacobite, and have a patriarch named 
Jatolior, who makes archbishops, bishops, abbots, and 
other clergy, and sends them to all parts of Bagdad, 
India, and Cathay, as the pope does from Rome. All 
the Christians who are in those parts are of this sect ; 
and all the cloths of silk and gold, which are called 
mosulin, are made there. I tell you, too, that the great 
merchants who are called mosulin, and bring the largest 
quantity of all costly spices, are of this kingdom.;]; 

• Mr Marsden conjectures very probably that this name is 
from Ghilan, — a, proTince where raw silk is produced in great 
abundance. The author is mistaken as to the Euphrates ; but 
it comes near to the Caspian, and he is writing from hearsay. 

t This is the same name with Etil or EtUia, which we haye 
repeatedly seen applied to the Volga. The Geihon appears to 
be the Oxus, which was then supposed to fall into the Caspian, 
instead of the Aral. 

X Mosul seems to have been then a main entrepot for the 
commerce of Central Asia. We cannot seemingly doubt, that 
the muslins here procured were those of India, especially when 
we find the name Muslin applied to merchants bringing other 
goods from that region. There were some cotton manufac- 
tures in the place itself, which might aid the mistake of sup- 
posing the whole produced there. 



210 CENTRAL ASIA. 

Among its mountains are people called Kurds, who 
are Nestorian and Jacobite Christians, but some are 
Saracens, and reverence Mohammed. They are an over- 
bearing and wicked people, ever ready to rob the mer- 
chants.^ Now let us leave Mosul, and speak of the 
great city of Baldach.f 

VI.— On Baldach. 

At this place dwelt the caliph, chief prelate of all the 
Saracens in the world, as the pope is at Rome. Through 
the middle of it flows a very large river, by which you 
can proceed to the sea of India, whence merchants go 
and come with their goods. From Baldach to the ocean 
by the stream is a voyage of eighteen days. The mer- 
chants going to India sail down that river to a place 
named Chisi,:|: and then enter the Indian sea. Between 
Baldach and Chisi is a great city named Bascra ;§ and 
the woods around that city yield the finest dates in the 
world. In Baldach are many rich cloths of silk and 
gold, on which birds and beasts are represented ; and it 
is the greatest and noblest city in all these regions. And 
know, assuredly, that the caliph was found to possess 
the most abundant treasure in gold, silver, and pre- 
cious stones that ever was in the possesion of man ; 
and I will tell you how it happened. In the year 
of our Lord, 1255,|| the great sire of the Tartars, who 
is named Alau,^ brother to the great sire that now 
reigns, assembled a very large army, and marched upon 

* This character continues notorious and unmitigated to the 
present day. 

f Bagdad, which, though it had lately ceased to be the 
capital of the caliphs, was still probably the greatest and most 
flourishing city of Western Asia. 

It Kishm, a considerable island near the opposite extremity 
of the Persian Gulf, not far from Ormuz. 

§ The great commercial city which we call Bussora, more 
properly pronounced Basra. The abundance of dates in its 
neighbourhood is particularly mentioned by Niebuhr.— Mars- 
den, p. 65. 

II This is the date in the early editions ; in Ramusio it is 
1250 ; but the real one is 1258. 

^ Hoolakui «on to Taulai, and brother to Mangou Khan. 



CENTRAL ASIA. 211 

Baldach and took it by force, which was a glorious ex- 
ploit ; for it contained more than 100,000 horsemen be- 
sides foot soldiers ;* and when it was taken, he found 
the caliph in possession of a tower fall of gold, silver, and 
other treasure, such as never was seen at once in one 
place. When he discovered it he sent for the monarch 
and said : *^ Caliph, why have you amassed such a treasure, 
and what do you mean to do with it ! Did you not know 
that I was your enemy, and coming to attack you with 
this mighty host I Knowing this, why did you not take 
your treasure, and give it to knights and soldiers to de- 
fend you and your city V* The caliph replied nothing, 
because he knew not what to say. Then, said Alau : 
" Caliph, since I see you love so much your treasure, I 
will give it you to eat." He then commanded that he 
should be shut up in the tower with the ti'easure, and 
that nothing should be given to him to eat or drink. 
Then he said to him : " Caliph, eat your treasure as 
heartily as you please, for you will never eat any thing 
else." He was then immured in the tower, where he died 
at the end of four days.t And after him there never 
was any other caliph. 

VII.— On Tons or Tauris. 

Toris J is a great city, in a province called Yrac, con- 
taining many towns and castles ; but as this is the chief, 
I will tell you about it. The men live by merchandise, 
and by fabricating fine cloths of silk and gold. The 
place is so well situated that merchants proceed hither 
from India, Baldach, Mosul, Cremosor, and many other 
places. The Latin traffickers come to meet those from 

* This is the statement in the early editions ; in Ramusio 
the 100,000 men are mentioned as composing the Tartar army. 

f This story is given also in the history of Haithon, king 
of Armenia, and was doubtless the general belief of Western 
Asia. 

t Tauris, or Tabreez. a celebrated city of Persia, and a 
favourite residence of Haroun al Raschid, and afterwards <^ 
Hoolaku the Tartar. Chardin describes it as containing half 
a million of people, and as riyalling Ispahan. It is now greatly 
decayed. 



212 CENTRAL ASIA. 

strange countries, from whom they purchase precious 
pearls and other valuable articles. The men are of in- 
different character and very mixed origin, Armenians, 
Nestorians, Jacobites, Georgians, and Persians, and some 
who adore Mohammed. The inhabitants of the city are 
called Taurisians. Around it are very fine gardens, full 
of fruits and vegetables. 

The Saracens here are most wicked and disloyal. They 
maintain that whatever is robbed or plundered from men 
of a different creed is justly acquired ; while they regard 
as martyrs those of their own sect who die by the hands 
of Christians. If, therefore, they were not checked by 
their present rulers, they would break out into many 
outrages. These principles are common to them alL 
At the point of death, the priest comes and demands 
whether they believe that Mohammed was the prophet 
of God. If they profess this belief, they are assured of 
salvation ; and through this easy absolution, which leaves 
scope for the perpetration of every crime, they have 
succeeded in converting many of the Tartars, who feel 
thus at liberty to indulge their worst propensities. 

Near Toris is a monastery named after St Barsamo, 
and famous for sanctity. It contains an abbot and many 
monks, who dress like the Carmelites. Unwilling to 
lead an idle life, they are constantly weaving woollen 
girdles, which they place on the altar of their saint du- 
ring divine service ; and while going round the province 
to ask alms (as do their brethren of the Holy Ghost), 
they present these to their friends and persons of dis- 
tinction, who value them as beneficial in the cure of 
rheumatism,* 

VIII. — On a certain Miracle of the Movement of a Moantaiu 

in that Region. 

Now I am to tell you of a great miraclet which 

* The two preceding paragraphs being only in Ramusio, I 
incline to think we may recognise in them the same ecclesiasti- 
cal hand to which there has appeared reason to suppose that 
his edition has been much indebted. 

f This chapter is strongly stamped with the credulity of the 



CENTRAL ASIA. 213 

happened between Baldach and Mosul in the year 1225. 
There was a caliph in the former who held the Christians 
in great hatred, as it is natural for all the Saracens in the 
world to do. He thought day and night how he might 
compel all those in his country to become converts, or 
else kill them. Many others concurred in that wicked 
purpose, and they agreed upon this plan : They found in 
the gospel a text saying that if a Christian had as much 
faith as a grain of mustard-seed and made his prayer to 
God, he would be able to join two mountains together. 
On finding this text, they felt great joy, thinking they 
had thus either a means of converting them, or a pre- 
text for killing them outright. He therefore sent for all 
the Jacobite and Nestorian believers in his country, who 
were very numerous ; and when they came before him, 
he showed them this gospel, made them read it, and 
asked if it were true. They replied that it was so. 
Then, continued the caliph, since so many Christians 
are here, there surely must be among you this small 
measure of faith ; therefore, said he, pointing to a large 
hill in view, you must remove that mountain, or I will 
put you all to death, because otherwise you must be 
wholly destitute of faith, and on that account deserve 
to die. If, however, you will turn to our good law of 
Mohammed, you shall be forgiven ; and, in the mean 
time, I allow you tefi days to do what is required. He 
then dismissed them. On hearing what the caliph had 
said, they were in great fear, and knew not what to 
resolve. Then they all assembled, small and great, 
men and women, the bishop, archbishop, and priests 
of whom there were a considerable number, and they 
remained eight days and eight nights in prayer, that 
God, in his mercy, and for the diffusion of his faith, 
would come to their aid, and enable them to escape this 

age, from which it would be unreasonable to expect onr travel- 
ler to be exempt. On his part it is mere hearsay, and reported 
as having happened fifty years before he passed through Persia. 
It may be considered a curious example of the sort of legends 
then circulated in that part of the world. 



214 CENTRAL ASIA. 

cruel death with which they were threatened. But 
what have I now to tell you ! While they were thus 
deeply engaged in prayer, an angel, by the message of 
Grod, appeared to a bishop who was a man of very holy 
life. He said, ^ Oh, bishop ! do you now go to a certain 
shoemaker with one eye, and tell him that at his prayer 
the mountain will be moved." Nqw this shoemaker was 
a very honest and chaste man ; he fasted and went re- 
gularly to mass, and 'gave every day bread to the 
poor. I will tell you a thing that he did, to prove 
his good faith and life. It happened one day that 
a very beautiful woman came to his shop to purchase a 
pair of shoes, and in order to make them fit, he was 
obliged to look at her foot and ankle, and they were so 
finely shaped that he felt his eye take an undue pleas- 
ure in viewing them. As soon as she was gone, he 
began bitterly to reproach himself and remembered the 
text, ^* if thine eye ofi^nd thee, pluck it out, and cast 
it from thee." He then took a sharp weapon, and stuck 
it into his eye, so that it burst in his head, and he never 
saw with it again. Thus you see he was a most holy 
and good man. When, therefore, the bishop had this 
vision, he told it to all his people, and they agreed 
that this shoemaker should be called before them, 
and when he came, they requested him to pray to €rod 
that he would make the mountahi move. But when 
the shoemaker heard what the bishop and the others 
said, he answered that he was not so good a man as 
that God or our lady should for his ss^e do so great 
a miracle. But the Christians pressed him so earn- 
estly, that he at last agreed, and made the prayer. 
When the final day was come, they all rose early in 
the morning, great and small, jnale and female ; and 
entering the church, they sung the holy mass, and then 
proceeded out to the plain in front of the mountain. 
They were fully a hundred thousand, and they all placed 
themselves in front of the cross. The caliph then came 
with a vast number of Saracens, eager to slay the un- 
believers, for they thought it impossible the hill could 



CENTRAL ASIA. 215 

be moved, and they themselves were in great fear and 
doubt ; nevertheless they had good hope m their Creator. 
Then the shoemaker fell on his knees before the cross, 
lifted his hands to heaven, and prayed fervently that the 
mountain might be moved, and the Christians there 
assembled escape a dreadful death. When he had made 
his prayer, it was not long before the vast eminence began 
to stir, and move from its place. The Saracens, on see- 
ing this, wondered greatly, and many of them were con- 
verted ; nay, the caliph himself became a believer in the 
gospel, but secretly, and when he died, a cross was 
found round his neck ; for which reason he was not 
buried in the same place with the other sovereigns, but 
in a tomb by himself. Now let us leave Baldach and 
go to Persia. 

IX.— On the Province of Persia, and the Journey of the Magi. 

Persia is a very extensive province, anciently very rich 
and flourishing, but now in a great degree wasted and 
destroyed by the Tartars. It contains a city called Sava, 
whence the three magi came to adore Jesus Christ when 
born at Bethlehem.* In that city are buried the three, 
in separate tombs, above which is a square house care- 
fully preserved. Their hearts are still entire, with their 
hair and beards.t One was named Balthazar, the other 
Gaspar, the third Melchior. Messer Marco inquired 
often in that city about these three magi, but no one 
could tell him any thing, except that they were ancient 

• The same observations may apply to this as to the preced- 
ing chapter. It is wanting in Pii)ino, the Basle version, and 
iu Ramusio, so that Mr Marsden, finding it only in the Italian 
epitome, has not given it a place. Yet ne seems to admit its 
genuineness, of which there can be no doubt, since it is found 
in the two Paris, the Crusca, and Pucci versions. As, therefore, 
we are giving an edition, not a selection, of the traveller's effu- 
sions, there seems no ground for its non-insertion. 

t There is some appearance of the author here speaking as 
an eye-witness of this extraordinary scene. He only stands 
committed, however, to the extent of^ having seen three bodies 
partially embalmed ; and there is no room to doubt that this 
art may have been iu some degree practised in Persia. 



216 

kings, who woro then; buried. They informeil him, how- 
ever, that three days' jonmey farther wasa tower calltJ 
the Castle of the Fire-worsliipperB, because the men Ibert 
venerate fire, and for the fallowing reaaoD. Thryny 
that anciently three ktugs of that country went to witn 
a certain prophet, newly bom, and carried three ofierinp^ 
gold, incense, and myrrh, to know if he were a kii^ I 
god, or a sa^ ; for they said that, if he took gold, he wu 
aking; if inuenae, hewaaa god; if myrrh, be wnsnagt. 
They went in one after anollier, and though tbeywenof 
different ages and fashions, he appeared to each of tlitn 
exactly like himself. When they came out and ooi»- 
pared what they had seen, they wondered much, SCi 
theu went in altogether, and the child then appwanJU 
them what he really waa, a boy of tliirteen day» di 
They presented lo iiim the three offerings, and ha tod 
them u!l, whence tiiey concluded that he was at OBM 
god, king, and sage. He presented to thmn a closed box, 
desiring them not to open it till their return home. 
After having travelled a number of days, however, they 
were curious to see what was in the bos, and opeoed it, 
when they found only a atone, which was meant to ex- 
press that they should remain firm in the faitU which tlujr 
had received. They did not understand tliis meaniii;, 
and despising the gift, threw it into a well, when imno- 
diately a great fire come down from heaven, and bepn 
to hum brightly. When they saw this wonder, tttj 
were quite astonished, and repented tliat they had thrmni 
away the stone. They however took a portion of the fire, 
carried it to their country, and placed It in their chnidi, 
where they kept it continually burning. They renn 
It as a god, and use it for burning all their sacrifices ; ai 
when at any time It goes out, tliey repair to that irdl, 
where the fire is never extinguished," and &om it biiif 



m: 



ano which had prob^h u 
Dffinin thisregiDa. *"."** 




CENTRAL ASIA. 217 

a fresh supply. This is what all the people of that 
country tell, and Messer Marco was assured of it by those 
of the castle, and therefore it is truth.* One of these 
kings was of Saba, the other of Ava, the other of the 
castle. Now let me tell you of Persia, its cities, and the 
actions and customs of the people. 

X.— On the Kingdoms of Persia. 

Know, then, that in Persia there are eight kingdoms, 
because it is a very great country, and I will tell you 
their names. The first is called Casum ;+ the second, 
to the south, Cardistan ; the third Lor ; the fourth Ciel- 
stan ;J the fifth Istanit ;§ the sixth Cerazi ;|| the seventh 
Soucara ;ir the eighth Tonocain,** which is on the re- 
motest frontier. In this last are many fine horses of 
high value, which are taken in large numbers to be sold 
in India ; and the greater part of them are worth two hun- 
dred livres tournois each. They have also the finest asses 
in the world, one of which is worth full thirty marcs of 
silver.tt The men of that country lead these horses to 
two cities on the banks of the sea of India, called Chisi 
and Curmosa, and find there merchants, who buy them 
and carry them into their distant country. In these 
kingdoms there are many cruel men, who are con- 
stantly killing one another, and but for the fear of 

• However peremptory this assertion is, we may observe 
that it is founded wholly upon the testimony of others. 

'^ Casbin. X Seemingly Segistan. § Ispahan. || Shiraz. 

% Mr Marsden supposes this to.be a corruption of Korkan 
or Gurkan, the ancient Hyrcania ; but Count Boni seems 
justly to object that this territory lies north of the following, 
which yet is described the most northerly of all. He suggests 
the district of Sinjar, traversed by the Hennas, which falls into 
the Upper Euphrates ; in fact, the modem province of Algezira. 
— II Millione, vol. ii. p. 42. 

** Called elsewhere Timochain, seems to be the name of the 
city of Daumghaun, generally applied to the province of Khor- 

asan. 

-f-f" The excellence of the Persian horses is too well known to 
require comment ; the asses are equally famed in the country, 
and called by Chardin the first in the world. He mentions 400 
francs as the price of a good one. — Marsden, p. 79, 



218 CENTRAL ASIA. 

the Eastern Tartars, who now rule in this land, they 
would ruin the merchants. As it is, unless the latter are 
well provided with arms and hows, they often kill or 
hurt them severely.* These men all hold the law of 
Mohammed. In the city are industrious merchants ; they 
make rohes of silk and gold of various fashions, and raise 
also plenty of cotton. The country abounds in wheat, 
barley, millet, as well as in vines and other iruits.f Some 
may imagine that the Saracens do not drink wine, as 
being forbidden by their law ; but they quiet their con- 
sciences by thinking that if boiled over the fire, which 
Tenders it milder and sweet, it may be drunk without 
breaking the commandment. Changing its taste, they 
change its name, and no longer call it wine, though it 
really is so.$ Let us now leave them, and tell you of 
YasdL 

XI.— On the Qty of Yasdi. 

Yasdi § is a beautiful and noble city, with rich man- 
u&ctures. The people make silk cloths called by 
its name, which the merchants carry into various coun- 
tries. They all adore Mohammed. When a man departs 
from that city, he rides seven days over a plain, where 
in three places only there are habitations and inns for 
the traveller. There are many forests filled with part- 
ridges and other birds, which afiford excellent sport ; also 



* The eleTated tracts of Persia have always been infested by 
predatory tribes, unless when kept in awe by a vigorous gov- 
ernment. 

f The fertility of the plains of Persia, and its fine manufac- 
tures, especially in silk, have been always noted. — Marsden, 
p. 80. 

XI think, in these two sentences, so abruptly introduced into 
Kamusio's edition only, we may discern the foreign hand which 
has reneatedly displayed such fervent zeal against the follow- 
ers of Mohammed. 

§ This city, commonly called Yezd,Ues out of the general route 
of traveUers ; but aU who have visited it describe its greatness, 
flourishing commerce, and extensive silk manufacture, which is 

•TrSwfhn^'^'''^ i? ^*? "*«^"1- ^^ ^^ ^^ said to contain 
Ji),000 houses.— Marsden, p. 81 ; Boni, vol. ii. p. 46. ''""''"" 



CENTRAL ASIA. 219 

beautiful wild asses. At the end of these seven days a 
country called Creman presents itself.* 

XII. — On the Kingdom of Creman. 

Creman is a kingdom anciently belonging to Persia, 
and which used to be governed by a hereditary prince ; 
but since the Tartar conquered it, he appoints what 
deputy he pleases. In that region the stones called tur- 
quoises are in great abundance ; they are found in the 
mountains, and excavated from the rocks. The inhabit- 
ants make all things necessary for troops, such as reins, 
saddles, bows, arrows, quivers, and all kinds of arms, ac- 
cording to the custom of the country. The ladies work 
very neatly cloths of gold and silk, representing with the 
needle, beasts, birds, and many other objects.t In the 

* Here we find the first commencement of an itinerary ; for 
not a single station has been indicated in passing across Persia. 
Yet I fear we shall not be able to trace the same precision 
which was so remarkable in the journey through China. The 
traveller was then very young, and had not probably the same 
accurate recollection. Many of the stages are much longer, 
which may have been in consequence of travelling post, the 
means of which would be fumisned to them on goin^ to the 
imperial court. Yet they be^n with a singular deviation in 
the journey to Ormuz. Count Boni supposes the one here related 
to be that afterwards made in conveying the two princesses to 
Ghazan, on the northern frontier. We cannot but imagine, 
however, that they would go on to Bagdad, and would not be 
led along this desert and perilous route. Besides, a journey 
both to and from Ormuz is here narrated. Amid their own 
total silence as to the motive, we need not spend much time in 
conjecture. Perhaps they might have commercial transactions 
there, or, as enterprising merchants, might wish to view this 
celebrated emporium. They might even have an idea of proceed- 
ing by sea to China. Such deviations, however, give some ex- 
planation of the extraordinary period of three years and a half 
employed in their journey out. 

+ Kerman, capital of the province of that name, the ancient 
Carmauia (quite different from Caramania in Asia Minor). It is 
still a considerable city, though much declined since the time 
when, as Pottinger states, ^* its manufactures of shawls and 
arms were celebrated all over Asia.*' It was also enriched by 
the transit of the Indian goods landed at Ormuz. Since the 
passage by the Cape, and the transference even of the Gulf-trade 
to Bushire, it has greatly suffered. Turquoise miues are found 



220 CENTRAL ASIA. 

mountains are reared the finest falcons in the world, for 
though smaller than the peregrine species, they fly so 
swiftly that no hird can escape them. When a man 
leaves the city of Creman, he trayels seven days through 
towns and fortified places, finding much amusement, be- 
cause there are great numbers of wild beasts and birds. 
At the end of these seven days, he comes to the declivity of 
a mountain, and continues two days always descending. 
There are abundance of fruits, but no habitation, only 
shepherds pastuiing their flocks. The cold on this road 
during winter is so great that a man cannot safely 
travel unless with a very ample provision of clothes. 

XIII.— On Camandu, Keobarle, and the Karauna Robbers. 

At the bottom of this descent is a very extensive plain, 
at the commencement of which is a city named Ca- 
mandu,* once wonderfully great and noble, but now 
much declined, because the Tartar invaders have re- 
peatedly plundered it. The heat here is extreme, and 
the province is called Reobarle.f Its fruits are dates, 
pistachio nuts, apples of paradise, and others which do 
not grow in our country. Here are a species of birds 
called francolin, which are different from those of other 
lands, their colour being a mixture of white and black, 
while the beak and feet are red. The oxen are very 
large, white as snow, and the hair very smooth, in con- 

in different parts of Persia ; but MrMarsden has not succeeded 
in supplying proof of their existence in this neighbourhood. — Pp. 
83,84. 

* It has been impossible to find any account of this city, 
though D'Anville's map shows on this site one named Memaun. 
It is likely that there was a flourishing place on the great cara- 
van-route above alluded to, the discontinuance of which, how- 
ever, rendered it impossible that it should revive after the catas- 
tropne here mentioned. This tract is now as Httle known as any 
in Asia ; vet Marco's description seems to intimate that it would 
reward the curiosity of some one of our enterprising travellers. 

t Mr Marsden observes^ that this is probaoly identical with 
Rudbar, a name common m Persia, ana signifying " a river in 
a valley." Count Boni suggests Robat. passed by Pottinger on 
his way from Kerman to Smraz ; but tnis appears quite oat of 
the direction. 



CENTRAL ASIA. 221 

sequence of the heat. Between the shoulders is a hump, 
two palms high, and their appearance is the most heau- 
tiful of any in the world. When the owner wishes to 
load them, they hend down as the camels do, and after 
receiving their hurden, rise and hear it well, heing 
extremely strong. There are sheep as large as asses, 
and with tails so thick and so hroad as to weigh full 
thirty pounds. They are also fat, and make excellent 
food.* The people have castles and cities surrounded 
by walls of earth, in order to defend themselves against 
the Caraunas, a mixed race between the Indians and the 
Tartars. When these people wish to overrun the coim- 
try and rob it, they, by their enchantment and diaboli- 
cal agency, cause the day to become dark, so that you 
can see to little or no distance, and this darkness tliey 
make to last seven days.t They know the places 
so well, that they can ride during the thickest of it ; 
and they are sometimes ten thousand in number, so that 
nothing found on the plain, man, beast, or any thing, 
can escape. They kill the old persons, and cany oflF 
the young to sell them for slaves. Their king is called 
Nogodar, and he went to the court of Ciagatai, who was 
the brother of the great khan, with 10,000 men, and 
remained with him, because his uncle was very powerful. 
During this stay, Nogodar committed a very great wick- 
edness, and I will tell you what it was. He departed 
from his uncle Ciagatai, who was in Great Armenia, 
and took with him 10,000 of his people, who were 
very cruel, and marched by Badasian and through a 
province called Fascial, and another called Chesciemur, J 



* This species of sheep is well known in different parts of 
Asia. Both Russell and Chardin reckon the weight of the tail 
to be from fifteen to thirty pounds. — Marsden, p. 89. 

f This is a startling" statement, but we know nothine of the 
district ; its moist and even marsny character, indicated by the 
luxuriant pasture, might naturally in this hot climate cause the 
ascent of heavy vapours and fo^. The plunderers, taking ad- 
vantage of these occasions, mieht readily, by a superstitious 
people, be supposed to produce them. 

t Peshawer and Casmnere. Mr Marsden has not been able to 



222 CENTRAL A6IA* 

losing many of his people and beasts, because the roads 
were narrow and very bad ; and when they had passed 
all these provinces, they entered into India, on the 
borders of one called Dilivar. They came to the city 
of the same name, and took it from a king called Asidiu 
Sultan, who was very great and rich. There Nogodar, 
with his people, continues to rule, and makes war witli 
all the other Tartars who dwell in the surrounding coun- 
try.* Having told you of this plain, and of the people 
who produced darkness in order to rob, I must aJso 

trace any history of this prince, who indeed does not appear 
amonff De Guignes' elaborate hst of the posterity of Grengis. 
The lollowing notices may throw some li^nt upon the subject. 
In the oriental history of Haithon, king of Armenia, it is men- 
tioned that Grogodothai (Bergeron, Chagodai in Purchas, part 
iii. p. 114), second son of Okkoday,the successor of Gengis (and 
thus a jiephew of Zagatai), was supplied by his father with an 
army, and marched southward into India : but having to pass 
over mountains and through deserts, he lost many men and 
horses, and was unable to maJce any conquest. He then came and 
complained of his hard fortune tonis brother Jochi, the ruler of 
Turkestan and Persia, who generously gave him a share of his 
own possessions. I tnink, however altered the circumstances, 
this is evidently the same story. Let us now turn toDow's trans- 
lation of Ferisnta's Indian History. It is there stated, that in 
1242 (about the time that might be supposed) the Moguls in- 
vaded the western provinces, plundered Lahore, and then re- 
treated to Ghizni ; uiat they afterwards attempted to enter by 
way of Thibet, but were totally defeated ; ana that they also 
failed by way of Koondooz and Talikan. It is added, tnat in 
1245, they made themselves masters of Cabul, Candahar, Ghizni, 
Balkh^ and Herat. Putting all this together, we may with proba- 
bility mfer, that the prince, after his failure in India, obtained 
reinforcements from his relations, and established a kingdom in 
Afghanistan, of which our oriental histories seem to contain no 
record. The unfavourable representations made in the text 
were naturally dictated by the people who were smarting under 
the ravages or his predatory bands. 

* It is curious tnat this narrative occurs only in the French 
edition and in Ramusio, a circumstance creditable to both. In 
the latter, however, there are some gross corruptions, particu- 
larly in introducing Malabar as the chief object and seat of 
invaBion. This, which causes Mr Marsden much perplexity, 
is, we apprehend, a modern interpolation, after the exploits oi 
Gama and Faria had made that territory an object of intense 
interest in Europe. Dilivar (Lahore or Lanawar) is also changed 
to Dely, a town on that coast. 



CENTRAL ASIA* 223 

mention that Messer Marco himself was nearly taken 
by them amid this gloom, but though a number of his 
companions were captured, and either killed or sold as 
slaves, he himself escaped to a castle named Canosalmi.^ 

XI v.— On the City of Cormos. 

That plain extends five days' journey southward, and 
you then come to a descent which continues twenty miles 
by a very bad and difficult road, full of wicked robbers. 
You then approach the very beautiful plain of Formosa, 
watered by fine rivers, with plantations of the date-palm, 
and having the air filled with francolins, parrots, and 
other birds unknown to our climate.t You ride two 
days through it, and then arrive at the ocean, on which 
there is a city and fort named Cormos. J The ships of 
India bring thither all kinds of spiceries, precious stones, 
and pearls, cloths of silk and gold, elephants' teeth, and 
many other articles. It is the capital of a kingdom, 
having many cities and castles under it, and the sovereign 
is called Ruemedan Achomac. The climate, however, is 
intensely hot, and extremely unhealthy, and when any 
foreign merchant dies, the king inherits all his property. 
Wine is here made of dates and other spices, and is 
extremely good ; but when drunk by men unaccustomed 
to it, has a strong purgative quality, though, after some 
use, it agrees well, and promotes corpulence. The people 

* This, Mr Marsden observes, is probably the Persian word 
Khanab-al-salam, ** a place of safety." Captain Grant, in de- 
scribing an adjacent district, through which he travelled, ob- 
serves, that every village had near it a fort, to which the 
inhabitants could flee in case of invasion.^ Journal of the Royal 
Asiatic Society, vol. v. p. 337. 

f This appears evidently to be the plain of Minab. which 
Captain Grant describes as forty-five miles in circumierence, 
abounding in palms, and fertile in grain.— Journal, as above. 

X Ormuz, in some editions Hormos, the orientals prefixing a 
soft aspirate, here expressed by C. Its fame during the middle 
ages, as an emporium of Indian wealth, need not be dwelt upon. 
In 1507, it was captured by Albuquerque, and in 1622, the 
English and Shah Abbas united in reducing it, when the prin- 
cipal edifices were razed to the ground, and it has now no longer 
any existence as a city. 



224 CENTRAL ASIA. 

live chiefly on dates and salted fish, particularly the 
tunny ; considering these victuals to he the most whole- 
some, and that if they used wheaten hread and flesh they 
would fall sick. The ships are very had, and many are 
lost from not heing secured hy nails like ours, hut sewed 
together by a thread made of the hark of the Indian nut- 
trees, which heing softened in water, becomes like horse- 
hair, and is durable enough. They use it for want of 
iron, but it is by no means strong or secure. They have 
a mast, sail, and rudder, all single, and a coverlet of 
leather, which is spread over the goods, and on that they 
place the horses, many of which are transported into 
India. These ships, too, are not tarred, but covered with 
the oil of flsh. The people are black, and adore Mo- 
hammed. They do not remain in the city during sum- 
mer, for then they would all die, but retire to the 
country, where they have verdant gardens, finely watered 
by streams. Even there they would not escape, be- 
cause there often blows from the sandy tracts that sur- 
round the city a wind so excessively hot that it would 
kill them all, if they did not plunge into the water 
and thus escape it.* They sow wheat, barley, and 
other kinds of grain in the month of November, and reap 
them in March, when they become ripe and perfect ; 
but none except the date will endure till May, being 
dried up by the extreme heat. I have also to tell you, 
when men or women die, great grief is shown, and the 
ladies, during full four years after the death of their hus- 
bands, make lamentations at least once a-day. On these 
occasions, they assemble their relations and neighbours, 
who join them in loud meanings and cries. In proof of 
the extreme violence of the heat, Marco Polo mentions 

* This is the sirocco or Bimoom, the distressing and even 
fatal effects of which need not be described. Strange as thiB 
remedy may seem, Mr Marsden quotes two good travellers, 
Pietro dcUa Vale and Schillinger, for the fact of recourse being 
had to it in this very place, represented as the hottest on the 
face of the earth. Count Bom, vol. ii. p. 54. quotes also Taver- 
nier and Chardin for the unhealthiness, and extreme intensity 
of the heat. 



CENTRAL ASIA. 225 

the following circumstance which occurred during his 
residence. The ruler of Cormos neglected to pay his trib- 
ute to the King of Creman, who took the resolution of 
enforcing it at the season when the principal inhabitants 
go into the country. He therefore despatched 1600 horse 
and 5000 foot through the district of Reobarle, to take 
them by surprise. Being misled, however, by the guides, 
they did not reach the place till night, when they halted 
to rest in a grove near the town. On renewing their march 
next morning, they were attacked by the hot wind, and 
aU suffocated ; not one surviving to carry back the fatal 
intelligence. When the people of Cormos learned this 
event, smd went to bury the dead bodies lest they should 
infect the air, they found them so softened by the intense 
heat, that the limbs, when handled, separated from the 
trunks ; and it was necessary to dig graves close to where 
the corpses lay.* 

XV.— Return to Creman. 

We will now leave this city, and not go on to 
India, for I will describe it farther on in my book, in the 
proper time and place. We will return, therefore, by 
another road to Creman, because the countries now 
to be delineated can be reached only by way of that 
city, and I must tell you that Ruemedan Achomac, 
of whom we have just spoken, is subject to its king. 
The route in returning thither from Cormos is through 
a very fine plain. There are many springs whence tie 
water issues in a hot state, forming baths very salutary 
in cutaneous and other diseases. Here is abundance of 
fruits and dates, also of partridges and other birds ; but 
the wheaten bread, owing to the quality of the water, is 
80 bitter that no one unaccustomed to its use can eat it. 
I now wish to tell you of a country lying to the north. 
When a man has left Creman, he travels seven days in 
that direction, through a very dreary region. During 

* Mr Marsden, p. 100, quotes firom Chardin an instance of 
this condition of the bodily frame being actually produced by 
the action of the simoom. 



threo days he finds no river, and the little water nut 
with is salt, green like graaa, and so bitter that it is im- 
pofisible to drink it, aod if a man taatea even a drop, it 
produces violent purging. Travellers, therefore, cany 
water with them ; but- the heasts being obliged to drink 
Rich as they find, suffer severely. The whole t»et a 
an arid desert, destitute of animals, which could not find 
food. On the fourth day, you reach a river of ftwh 
water, but with its channel mostly under ground. lo 
some Bpots, however, the force of the current makM 
abrupt openings, when the stream appears for a dunl 
space, and drink is abundantly supplied. Then ti>lbn 
another tract that lasts four days, and ia also a diy 
desert, with bitter water, and no animals except wild 
Bases. At the end of the four days, we leave the king- 
dom of Creman and proceed towsids Cobinam. 

XVI.— On the Qlj of Cobinam, 
Cobinam ia a great city inhabited by Mohammedui, 
There is abundance of iron, brass, and andanico, of the 
second of which they construct lai^ and beautifiil mii- 
rora; they make here also the tutty, which is extrunelj 
good for the eyes, and likewise sponge, in the Ibllowing 
manner. They take a vein of earth fitted for this pur- 
pose, and throw it into a burning furnace, above which 
is a grating of iron ; then the smoke and tnoistoire 
ascending adhere to the iron and form tutty, while Ihe 
earth which remains in the furnace becomes ^>oiige.* 
XVII. — On the Province of Tonocain. 
When a man departs from Cobinam, he goes thiongh 
a desert of eight days, and the country is very arid ; 
there is neither fruit nor trees, and the water ia bit- 
ter and bod, so that he must carry both it and toot 
for himself, but the beasta drink that on tlie nad, 

* Cobinam is Khubws, a plme onoo oonaiderftble, but do* 
much decayed. Mr Marsdea Donsldera andanico to be tuitimnf , 
and rcproscnts it as the anbitance throim into thtt f\iraaoe ; tntl 
the early editions make it an earth, lu the EVendi oika, lb* 
mirrors are of brass ; ia Ramuaio'a, of stael. 





CENTRAL ASIA. 227 

though very unwillingly. He then comes to a province 
called Tonocain,* with cities and many castles, bordering 
upon Persia towards the north; and there is a very 
great plain on which grows what the Christians call 
the dry tree, which I will describe to you. It is very 
kige, and its leaves are green on one side and white on 
the other. It yields a nut like the chestnut ; but there 
18 nothing within it. It is a strong wood, and yellow 
like box ; and there is no other tree in those parts for 
a hundred miles round, except on one side, at ten miles' 
distance.t It is said by the people of the country to be 
the place where Alexander fought with Darius. There 
are many towns and castles, and the inhabitants have 
abundance of all good things, the climate being neither 
too cold nor too hot. Now I must tell you of a country 
called Mulecte, where the Old Man of the Mountain 
used to dwelL 

XVIII. — On the Castle of the Old Man of the Moantain, and 
how he trained and employed his Assassins. 

You shall learn all about the Old Man of the Moun- 
tain, as I Marco heard related by many persons. He 
was called in their language Alaodin, and had caused to 
be formed, in a valley between two mountains, the largest 
and most beautiful garden that ever was seen. There 
grew all the finest fruits in the world, and it was adorned 
by the most beautiful houses and palaces, the interior 
being richly gilded, and furnished with finely coloured 
pictures of birds and beasts, and the most striking ob- 
jects. It contained several conduits through which flowed 

* Timochain, Ramtmo. There seems no doubt that this is the 
same word with Daumghaun ; but wo see no necessity for 
supposing, with Mr Marsdon, that they went back to that city, 
which would be a yery retrograde course. The name is here 
eyidentl^ applied to a large province, including probably the 
best cultivated part of Khorasan. Their direction trom Kerman 
through Khubees would lead to one of its eastern districts, 
which would also agree better with the subsequent itinerarjr. 

+ Mr Marsden, p. 110, proves this to be the plane-tree, wmch 
appears really to abound m this part of Persia, but was then 
unknown in Europe. 



228 CENTRAL ASIA. 

respectively water, wine, honey, and milk. Here were 
ladies and damsels unequalled in beauty and in the 
skill with which they sung and played on instruments 
of every description. Now the Old Man made his people 
believe that this garden was paradise, and he formed 
it thus because Mohammed had given the Saracens to 
believe that those who went into that place would 
meet great numbers of beautiful women, and find rivers 
of water, wine, milk, and honey; hence the visiters 
were led to think that this really was paradise. Into this 
garden he admitted no man except those whom he wished 
to make assassins. The entry to the spot was commanded 
by a castle so strong that he did not fear any power in 
the world. He kept in his court all the youths of the 
country between twelve and twenty years of age, and 
when he thought proper, selected a number who had 
been well instructed in the description of paradise. He 
gave them a beverage which threw them into a deep 
sleep, then carried them into the garden, and made them 
be awakened. When any one of them opened his eyes, 
saw this delightful spot, and heard the delicious music 
and songs, he really believed himself in the state of 
blessedness. When again, however, he fell asleep, he 
was brought out into the castle, where he awoke in 
great wonder, and felt deep regret at having left that 
delightful abode. He then went humbly to the Old 
Man, worshipping him as a prophet. Being asked 
whence he came, he told that he had been in the 
paradise described by Mohammed, relating all he had 
seen, and saying that he desired much to die and re- 
turn thither. The chief then named to him a great 
lord whom he wished him to kill. The youth cheerfully 
obeyed, and if in the act he was taken and put to death, 
he suffered with exultation, believing that he was to go 
into the happy place. If, after performing the deed, he 
escaped, the Old Man received him with the greatest 
honour, and when he wished to destroy another chief, 
employed him afresh, saying that he was sent into 
paradise. Thus scarcely any person could escape being 



CENTRAL ASIA. 229 

slain, when the Old Man of the Mountam desired it ; and 
many harons became vassals to him through the dread 
of thus losing their lives.* 

XIX.— How Alan took and killed the Old Man of the Mountain. 

Having now told you of the Old Man of the Moun- 
tain and his assassins, you shall hear how he was killed. 
I had forgot to mention, that he had other old men 
placed under him, one of whom he sent into the coun- 
try of Damascus, and the other into Kurdistan. But 
now let us come to his destruction. It was in 1262 
that Alau, the Lord of the East, having heard of his 
wicked deeds, determined to destroy him. He sent his 
generals with a great body of men, who besieged the 
castle full three years, and then could only reduce it 
by famine. Alaodin being taken, was killed, with all 
his people, and since that time there has been no assassin ; 
and thus ended his dominion andfhis wickedness.t 

* The dynast}r of the Ismailies or Assassins is fieimous in 
the history of Asia. Among the ^eat men who fell its victims 
are mentioned Mostarsched, caliph of Bagdad ; a son of the 
Caliph Mostali; Nizam ul Mulk, a famous Turkish vizier; areis 
of Ispahan and one of Tauris; a mufti of Casbin. Count Boni 
considers the castle to have been somewhere between Cas- 
bin and Amol. Mr Marsden, while he admits the particulars 
here given to coincide with the general belief of Asia, considers 
them extravagant and incredible. We really see nothing very 
improbable in such a scheme being adopted by a daring ana 
crafty chief, having to do with a simple and credulous race. 
That writer and De Guignes suppose that Alaodin merely 
introduced these youths into his palace, and b}r indulging them 
in every luxury made them zealous in nis service. We cannot 
but observe, that such treatment would rather tend to enervate 
and attach them to life, than impel them thus wildly to renounce 
it. The term assassin does not occur in Ramusio, but is found 
in the earlier editions. 

f Alau, as formerly noticed, is Hoolaku, brother to Mangou 
the supreme khan, who sent orders to him to proceed against 
this atrocious potentate. The latter was for some time protected 
by Baatu, ana his successor Barka ; but in 1255 (for the date 
of the text, as in other instances, is incorrect), Hoolaku invest- 
ed the castle, and, after a siege of twenty-seven months, reduced 
it by famine. Rokneddin, who had succeeded to Alaodin, was 
carried with his family to Karakorum, where they were all put 
to death. It may be observed, that the term " old man," is an 



230 CENTRAL ASIA. 

XX.~Of a certain City named Sapurgan. 
When a man departs from that castle, he rides 
through beautiful hills covered with rich herbage, with 
fruits and all things in great abundance. The country 
extends to a journey of six days, and contains cities the 
inhabitants of which adore Mohammed. Yet sometimes 
yau find a desert of fifty or sixty miles, without water, 
which men must carry with them. When the traveller 
has rode six days through the country now described, 
he finds a city called Sapurgan.* It has great abundance 
of all things, among which are the finest melons in the 
world in great plenty, and they are preserved in this 
manner : The people cut them all round like cucumbers, 
and dry them in the sun, when they become sweeter than 
honey, and are sold through all the country. Here is 
fine hunting of beasts and birds. Now I will go on to 
another city named Bijlk. 

XXI.-Of the City of Balk. 
Balk is a great and noble town, and was anciently 
still more so ; but the Tartars have spoiled and wasted 
it, so that many beautiful houses and palaces of marble 
are now destroyed.f It was here, as I was told by the 
people, that Alexander took to wife the daughter of 
Darius. The people revere Mohammed ; and at this 
point ends the dominion of the Eastern Tartars, this city 
being the boundary of Persia, between north-east and 

improper translation of sheik, chief, or ruler.— Marsden, pp. 

119, i5o. 

* This is evidently Shibbergaun, a town near Balkh. The 
period of twelve days seems too small ; though, as already ob- 
served, the journey was probably from the eastern instead of 
the western part of Khorasan. It may be suspected, too, that 
the interval of desert has been omitted. 

+ Balkh, one of the most ancient and celebrated cities of Asia, 
but which has suffered severely in modem times by its exposure 
to Tartar invasion. After being restored to some degree of 
prosperity by a late ruler, KiUich Ali,it has been nearly ruined 
Dy the violence of Murad Beg, the chief of Koondooz. Moor- 
crofb reckoned it to contain only a thousand families, and, what 
is singular, could discover no monuments of ancient grandeur. 
—Vol. ii. p. 494. 



CENTRAL ASIA. 231 

east. Now let us tell of another comitiy named Dogana. 
On leaving Balk, you ride two days between north-east 
and east, and find no habitation, because the people have 
all fled to the fortresses in the mountains for fear of 
wicked men, who lay waste the land. There is no want 
of water or game, and lions are also seen. No food is to 
be procured, but travellers must carry it both for them- 
selves and their horses. 

XXII.— Of the Castle of Taikan. 
When a man has rode these two days, he finds a castle 
called Taikan,* where there is a great corn-market, 
and the country round is fine. The mountains towards 
the south are very high, and formed entirely of salt,t 
which is the best in the world, and people come for it 
from a distance of thirty days* journey round. It is so 
hard, that it can be broken only by great iron hammers ; 
and there is enough to supply the whole human race till 
the end of time. Departing from that city, you go three 
days north-east, through a fine country, well planted 
with grain and fruits. The people, who are followers of 
Mohammed, are wicked and murderous. They spend 
much time in the tavern, for they have abundance of 
good wine, well prepared. They wear nothing on their 
heads but a cord ten palms long wrapt round it. They 
are good hunters, and thus supply themselves with veni- 
son ; but have no clothing except the skins of animals. 

XXIII.— Of the aty of Scassem. 

When a man travels three days, he finds a city named 
Scassem,J which is on the plain, while the others are 

* See in a note on the following chapter a discussion as to 
the place here named. 

f There appears no doubt that the immense salt formation 
which begins at Kalabaeh, on the western bank of the Upper 
Indus, extends northward to this quarter. South of Koondooz, 
Mr Wood found the valley of Shor-Ab, or the Salt Water, which, 
draining the mountains of Eshk Meshk, becomes thus impreg- 
nated with the mineral contained in them.— Pp. 131, 409l 

X There seems here a serious difficulty, in which Marsden and 
Boni could not give us any assistance, as they were destitute of 
the precise local information recently furnished by Moorcroft 



232 CENTRAL A8IA. 

on the mountains, and through it flows a consider- 
able river. There are here many porcupines, and when 
the hunters set their dogs upon them, the hogs collect 
together and push their spines against their assailants, 
and often hurt them severely.* This Scassem is a large 
province, and the shepherds dwell in caverns on the 
mountains, which are easily formed, being wholly of 
earth, and make large handsome habitations.t When 
a man leaves this city, he travels three days without 
finding a house, or any thing to eat or drink, being obliged 

and Wood. If we assume Taikan to be KhooUoom, and Scas- 
sem to be Koondooz, and then reckon the three days from the 
last to Badakshan, the itinerary will exactly correspond with 
the geography of the country. But the names have no resem- 
blance, while they are found almost identical in two other 
foints of the territory ; Tai-kan in Talikan, and Scassem in 
sh-kashm. Yet this space would occupy about twenty jour- 
neys .; while the first place would be on the border of Baclak- 
shan, the latter on its eastern, instead of three days short of 
its western frontier. The perplexity is increased by variation 
of texts ; for the French, the Crusca, and the FSicci, have 
twelve daysfVom Balkh to Tai-kan, which would carry the travel- 
ler to Talikan ; but the three days thence to Ish-kashm would 
be very inadequate, while the relation with Badakshan would 
be quite broken up. Pipino, the Basle, the Paris Latin, and the 
Riccardino, all agree with Ramusio in the two days. The 
French fails often in numbers ; and the old words doze, twelve, 
and dou^twOf might, in bad MS., be easily mistaken. The descrip- 
tion of Scassem, as situated in a large plain, with a river running 
through it, corresponds exactly to Koondooz. Ish-kashm, in- 
deed, has also these features, but not so remarkably ; and the 
ruby mines in its vicinity would surely have been mentioned. 
On the whole, I cannot doubt that Khoolloom and Koondooz 
are the two stations ; though how these names have been applied 
to them, must be submitted to the decision of oriental scholars. 
Places in Asia, at the distance of five centuries, are subject to 
great variation of nomenclature. 

* Mr Wood (p. 249) mentions the great facility afibrded by 
the hog-tracks in travelling over the snow, those animals being 
so numerous, that they had trodden it down like a flock of 
sheep. He does not expressly say that they were hedgehogs. 

+ Mr Wood does not fully confirm this, but describes them 
as always built on the slope of a hill, and sunk two feet under 
ground. They are spacious, containing under one roof com- 
partments for difierent related families. To form such houses 
on this site, much Excavation must have been employed. — P. 
269-271. 



CENTRAL ASIA. 233 

to carry provisions with him, and he then enters the dis- 
trict of Badascian. 

XXIV.— Of the ProTince of Badascian. 

Badascian is a large province, whose people adore 
Mohammed, and have a language of their own. It is 
governed by kings descended from Alexander and the 
daughter of Darius lord of Persia, and all these kings 
are called in Saracen Zulcamem, which means in their 
language Alexander.* In this country occur the preci- 
ous stones called halasiuy which are very heautifui and 
valuable. They are found in the rocks of a mountain 
called Lighinan, and are cut out of very deep caverns, as is 
done by those who work silver mines. Know, too, that 
the king makes them be worked out for himself, and no 
other man may cut out balasiu on that mountain, on pain 
of death. His majesty sends them as presents to other 
princes and great lords, either as homage, or in token 
of friendship, and he likewise sells them for gold and 
silver. The prohibition is enforced that they may 
continue valuable ; for if all persons were allowed to 
dig for them, they would be quite depreciated, t You 

■'■■■■■■■ iii» ■ ■■■^^■■- M^-^^^M ■■ ■■ I ■ ■ » ■ I — — — ^^^M I I — - 

* This descont is still confidently claimed by several moun- 
tain-chiefs in this and the adjacent territories. It is even ad- 
mitted by the people, among whom it procures great respect. 
Reports have also been received, that these tribes remained 
pagan amid surrounding Moslems, and had a peculiarity of lan- 
guage and manners, wnich might, it was supposed, mark a 
Greek origin. Of this, Mr Wood (p. 241-271), on attentive 
examination, could discover no trace. They appeared to him 
merely the Tajiks, or natives, who had been driven by Moslem 
conquest into these mountain recesses. The claim appeared 
to him to rest merely on the vague reverence there entertained 
for the name of Sekander Zool Kumein. It probably, however, 
arose under the Greek kingdom established in Bactria (Balkh) 
soon after Alexander's death, which continued several ages 
powerful and flourishing. The sovereigns would probably pass 
in the countrv for descendants of the Macedonian conqueror ; 
nor is it unlikely that branchea of their families might intermarry 
with great mountain-chiefs. Genealogical records in such situ- 
ations are long and carefully preserved. 

f The Balass rubies have always been celebrated in the East. 
(Marsden, p. 132.) Mr Wood was disappointed in his attempt 



234 CENTRAL ASIA. 

must likewise know, that in other mountains of the same 
country are found the stones of which ultramarine is 
made, and it is the finest and hest in the world.* There 
are also lofty hills containing veins yielding silver in 
abundance. The country is extremely cold, but it 
breeds very good horses, which run with great speed 
over these wild tracts without being shod with iron.f 
There are found also the falcons called sacriy which fly 
well and swiftly; also those called lanier ; and there 
is abundant hunting of beasts and birds. Wheat and 
good barley are plentiful ; they have no oil of olives, 
but make it from sesamum and nuts. This kingdom 
has many a narrow pass and strong post to secure it 
against the entrance of enemies, and the cities and castles 
are strongly built on high mountains, j; The people 
are good archers and hunters, and mostly clad in the 

to reach them ; but he learned that they were on the northern 
bank of the Oxus. opposite to Ish-kashm. and at the westeni 
extremity of Badaksnan. They were saia to be 1200 foot above 
the river, either in red sandstone or limestone^ largely impreg- 
nated with magnesia, forming a material easily worked. The 
ffalleries were described as numerous. They have always, it 
should seem, continued to be a royal monopoly ;^but Murad Beg, 
the tyrannical chief of Koondooz, on conquering the country, 
being irritated at the small profit which the gems afibrded, 
seized all those employed and sold them as slaves, so that the 
mines are not at present worked. — P. 316. 

* The lapis lazuli mines are also well known, and were found 
by Mr Wood to the north of Badakshan, on the Kokcha, its 
principal river. They are about 1500 feet above the water, in an 
unstratified limestone, veined black and white. The rock is 
first softened by fire, and then beaten with hammers, till the 
stone is extracted. For the last four years, this working also 
has been suspended by the caprice of Murad Beg. — P. 263-266. 

f Mr Wood describes the horses of tliis country as not posses- 
sing the body and power of those of Turkestan, but as a small and 
hardy breed, well suited to the territory. Endurance, he says, 
is more valued than speed ; yet the latter is called into requi- 
sition, since the gallop is tne usual pace, and distances are 
measured by the time they can bo thus traversed. He says, 
tiiAv are shod on the fore though not on the hind feet, thus only 
confirming the statement of our traveller ; but there may 
w been a chauj^e since his time.— P. 222. 

.,. The mountainous character of the country and its lofty 
pMses are strikingly depicted by Mr Wood, pp. 249, 250. 



CENTRAL ASIA. 235 

skins of beasts, on account of the scarcity of cloth. The 
great ladies, however, wear from sixty to a hundred yards 
of bombasine wrapped round their body, in order that 
they may appear very fat, because the men delight in 
such a shape.* 

On the summits of the mountains the air is so pure 
and salubrious that the inhabitants of the towns and 
lower valleys, when attacked by fever or other inflam- 
matory complaints, immediately remove thither, and in 
three or four days recover their health. Marco Polo 
affirms, that he himself experienced its excellent effects ; 
for after being confined nearly a year by sickness, he 
was advised to try change of air by ascending the hills, 
and he then immediately regained his strengtli.t 

XXV.— Of the ProTmce of Fascia. 

You are to know that ten days south from Badascian 
is a province called Pascia.:j; The people have a pecu- 
liar language ; they are worshippers of idols, and much 
skilled in enchantments and diabolical arts. The men 
wear ear-rings and buckles of gold and silver, with 
pearls and precious stones. They are a very artful and 

• " Like the mantilla of Spain," says Mr Wood, p. 224, " the 
^own of the Uzbeck lady envelops the head as with a hood, and 
trom about the ears are suspended the sleeTes, long narrow slips 
of cloth that sweep the ground, and which dangle to and fro as 
the portly beauty rolls along." 

f This paragrajph, found onlj in Ramusio, is submitted to the 
reader. Besides its absence in all the early editions, it seems 
mysterious when and how the traveller spent so lon^ a period in 
this remote region, and why such a circumstance is omitted in 
even the slight introductory narrative of his travels. We find 
no 'recent mention of any unhealthy tracts in Badakshan. 
Bumes (vol. ii. pp. 227.228) describes its cUmate generally as 
genial and delightful ; but that of Koondooz as pestilential. 

:|: The name m most editions is Bascia. That in the text is 
one of three in the French version, here adopted as confinnin;^ 
what we have no doubt is the just opinion of Mr Marsden, that 
the place indicated is Peshawer. There is no other in that 
quarter possessing the importance here ascribed to it ; and the 
peculiar heat is fully confirmed by Forster and Flphinstone. 
(Marsden, pp. 135, 136.) Ck>unt Boni objects that it ought to be 
on the roaa to Cashmere ; but this is not said in the text. 



236 CENTRAL ASIA. 

malicious people. The province is extremely hot, and 
the people live upon flesh and rice. Now let us leave 
it, and tell of another, which is distant from this seven 
days towards the south-east. 

XXVI.-Of the Province of Kesimur. 

Kesimur is inhabited by idolaters, who have a lan- 
guage of their own. They have a wonderful knowledge 
of the enchantments of devils, making their images 
speak, and by sorcery changing the seasons, causing great 
darkness, and doing other wonders which could Qot be 
believed unless they were seen. The idols of this pro- 
vince are the heads over all the others^ and went down 
hence to the neighbouring countries. The people are 
meagre and of a brown complexion ; but the females are 
very beautiful. They live on flesh and rice, and have 
a number of cities and castles. They have woods and 
deserts, and passes so strong that they have little dread 
of an invader : their king rules with great justice. 
In this country are hermits, who observe great absti- 
nence in eating and drinking, and carefully abstain from 
all offences against their faith ; and this is done through 
veneration of their gods. They have abbeys and mon- 
asteries, are held in much reverence by the people of 
the country, and live to a great age.* The corsd brought 

* The description here given of this celebrated region does not 
exactly correspond to our ideas. We do not believe that Marco 
personally visited it ; yet the lofty mountain-passes and the 
temperate climate are correctly described ; but he would, we 
think, have noticed, had he been there, the beauty and fertility 
of its valley. Moorcroft states that the inhabitants, of the 
cities at least, are slightly made, and that their complexion 
varies from dark to olive. The beauty of the females, so celebrat- 
ed in the East, is mentioned in the French^ Crusca, and Pucci, 
and, though expunged from the others, is again noticed in 
Ramusio. But the sacred character ascribed to the region, and 
its being a chief seat of the Boodhist reli^on here evidently 
described, is not confirmed by recent authorities. Both Forster 
and Moorcroft intimate that no oriental nation is so indifferent 
upon such subjects. (Marsden, p. 140; Moorcroft, vol. ii. pp. 128, 
129.) Marsden, however, has quoted testimonies from the Ayin 
Akbari and Abu'lfazl, to its having, even in the sixteenth cen- 



CENTRAL ASIA. 23? 

from our land is sold more readily there than in any 
other nation. From this place you may go to the sea of 
India, and if we went farther we should enter into that 
country ; but being to return that way, we will then de- 
scribe it in due order^ and now go back to Badascian. 

XXVII.~Of the Countries of Yokhan, Pander, and Belor. 

When a man departs from Badascian, he goes twelve 
days between north-east and east, along a river which 
belongs to a brother of the lord of that land. There are 
many castles, and a good number of inhabitants, who are 
valiant and adore Mohammed. He then comes to a 
province named Vokhan, not very large, being only three 
days' journey in every direction. The people are of 
the same description, and subject to the ruler of Bad- 
ascian.* Wild beasts and birds of every kind for hunting 
are most abundant. Having left this place, and tra- 
velled three days, always over mountains, he ascends to 
a district which is said to be the highest in the world.t 

tury, borne this religious reputation. In 1585, however, it was 
subjected to the Mogul empu^ and became the favourite sum- 
mer residence of the princes of that dynasty. The presence of 
a Mohammedan court^ the most splendid and luxurious in the 
East, was very inconsistent with the maintenance of an ascetic 
superstition. Under its influence was seemin^ljr formed that 
inndel and licentious character which now distinguishes the 
people. There are remains of splendid temples, but in ruin. 
(Moorcrofb, vol. ii. p. 255.) The absence, too, of vAl mention of 
the shawl manufacture is remarkable ; but this splendid fabric 
maj haye grown under the patrons^ afforded by the imperial 
residence, as it has declined since that was withdrawn. 

* This is Wakhan, extending exactly, as here described, 
along the banks of the Upper Oxus. The inhabitants are 
Mohammedans, and resemble their neighbours, though living in 
a somewhat ruder style. They are at present governed by a 
separate chief. — Wood, p. 369, &c. 

f Strong as this expression is, it is nearly correct ; for, as 
a table-land, only that of Bolivia, which was unknown to 
our traveller, could rival that here described. Mr Wood 
estimates its several heights at 15,600 feet, being almost on a 
level with the summit of Mont Blano ; and the difficulty of 
respiration incident to such high situations was decidedly felt. 
The natives call this place Boni-i-damiah, or the roof of the 
world.— P. 352-362. 



238 CENTRAL ASIA. 

Here he finds a plain between two vast hills, through 
which flows a very fine river, issuing from a lai^ lake ;* 
and it is the best pasturage in the world, for a lean 
animal becomes fat here in ten days.t All kinds of 
wild animals abound ; in particular, a species of sheep 
with horns of three, four, and even six palms long. 
These are formed by the shepherds into large spoons, out 
of which they eat ; and are even employed in enclosing 
the places where they keep their cattle. The horns are 
heaped up in large quantities along the road, for the 
purpose of guiding travellers during winter, when it is 
covered with snow. J While a man passes for twelve 
days along this high plain, which is called Pamier,§ he 
sees neither habitation nor verdure, but must carry all 
his provisions along with him. No birds can live in 

* This is the Oxus issuing from the lake Sir-i-kol, fed from 
the perpetual snows of the surrounding mountains. Mr Wood 
(p. 355) was peculiarly struck with tne accuracy of the de- 
scription given by our traveller of this s^ot. The mention of 
the lake occurs only in Ramusio, and is creditable to that 
edition. 

t Mr Wood (p. 365) was informed by the Kirghiz of the 
grass here being so rich, that a sorry horse is brought into good 
condition in less than twenty days. ** Their flocks and heras," 
says he, " roam over an unlimited extent of swelling grassy 
hills of the sweetest and richest pasture." This luxuriant 
vegetation, caused probably by exuberant moisture, is remarked 
also in the valleys of the Himmaleh, where the inhabitants 
assert, that whatever is cropped during the day is reproduced 
in the night. — Account of India (Edinburgh Cabinet Library), 
vol. i. p. 32. 

t Mr Wood (pp. 350, 351) fully recognises the astonishing 
size of these horns, which, projecting above the snow, often 
indicated the direction of the road ; and were disposed in a 
semicircle round the summer encampments of the Kirghiz. 
They belong, he says, to an animal between the goat ana the 
sheep. 

§ M. Humboldt seems to charge our traveller with applying 
this name to a plain, when it oelones merely to a station, 
situated, according to nim, in 39*" 30' N. lat. Mr Wood, how- 
ever, who was on the spot, fully confirms Marco's statement 
(p. 331), describing Pamir as a verv lofty table-land, stretch- 
ing north from 37** 2', consequently Humboldt's station was only 
its northern limit.— Fragmens de Geologic et de Climatologie 
Asiatiques (2 torn. 8vo, Faris, 1831), p. 56. 



CENTRAL ASIA. 239 

this cold region ; and I can even state that the fire 
does not bum so clear nor with the same colour as 
in other places, nor does it cook victuals so well.* Leav- 
ing this place, he has to go on forty days between north 
and north-east, and passes many rivers and deserts ; and 
in all this journey finds neither verdure nor habitation, 
but must carry all his provisions along witli him. This 
country is called Belor.t The people live in very lofty 
mountains. They are idolaters, extremely savage, vio- 
lent, and cruel, subsist by hunting, and dress themselves 
in the skins of beasts, j; 

XXVIII.— Of the Province of Cascar. 

Cascar was anciently a kingdom, but is now under 
the dominion of the great khan. The people adore 
Mohammed, and have cities and castles ; they are sit- 
uated between the north and east. They subsist by 
merchandise and manufactures, having also fine gardens, 
vineyards, and orchards, with a good supply of silk. 
The merchants, in carrying on their trade, go round the 
whole world ; but they are sordid and covetous, eating 
and drinking very poorly. Some Nestorian Christians 
reside here, observing their own customs and laws. 

* Humboldt (Fraffmens, &o. pp. 56. 57) remarks that our trav- 
eller was the first \^o pointed out tliis circumstance, which he 
himself often found verified in his mountain excursions. It 
arises, we imagine, not as Mr Marsden supposes from the 
severe cold, but from the thinness of the air. 

t Beloor or Beloot Taugh is the name given to that lofty 
range, which shuts in on the west Thibet and Chinese Turkestan. 
All accounts agree as to its elevated and desolate character. 
Marsden, pp. 144, 145. 

X It must be confessed that Mr Moorcroft ffives rather an 
opposite character^ representing them as simple and peaceful 
shepherds, many of them owning large herds and flocks. This, 
however, was from hearsay; whue Mr Wood, who reached their 
country, describes them (p. 338) as inveterate thieves, who 
rifle every caravan they can master, and commit robberies even 
on each other. Mention is, however, made by him of a tribe 
called the Kazaks (pp. 337,343), who inhabit the low plains alons 
the foot of this ^eat mountain range, and who really correspond 
to Mr Moorcroft's report, being prooaUy the race described to 
him ; but they did not come under the view of our traveller. 



240 CENTRAL ASIA. 

The people have a language of their own ; and the pro- 
vince extends five days' journey.* Now let us leave it 
and speak of Samarcan. 

XXIX. — Of the City of Samarcan. 

Samarcan is a very great and nohle city, lying to the 
south, inhahited hy Christians and Saracens. The peo- 
ple are governed by a nephew of the great khan, who, 
however, is not his friend, but is in open hostility 
against him. I have to tell you a great wonder which 
happened in this city. You must know that not very 
long since, Ciagatai, brother ta the great khan, became a 
Christian, and was lord of that and of many other 
countries. The believers of Samarcan rejoiced greatly 
at his conversion, and erected a large church in hon- 
our of it, bearing the name of St John the Baptist. 
They took a large and fine stone belonging to the Sara- 
cens, and made it the base of a column, which rose in 
the middle of the edifice, and supported the whole roof. 
Now it came to pass that Ciagatai died, whereupon the 
Mohammedans, having been much enraged at this stone 

• This city and territory, called commonly Cashgar, is men- 
tioned by Ptolemj as the country of the Casii, and by Ibn 
Haukul and Edrisi under the name of Chage ; but Hitter (Asien, 
vol. yii. p. 409) justly observes, that our traveller is the first 
who has given any distinct account of it. The place is still the 
most important in Eastern Turkestan, retaining a great trade, 
particularly in horses, but, from causes to be afterwards ex- 
plained, is now in this respect inferior to Yarcund. Humboldt 
supposes it to contain 15,000 houses and 80^000 inhabitants 
(Fragmens, &c., p. 250) ; but Bumes (vol. ii. p. 230), while 
estimating Yarcund at 50,000, considers it the more populous of 
the two. All this territory, in the middle of the eighteenth 
century, was independent ; but in 1757 the Mantchoo rulers 
of China, taking advantage of internal dissensions, reduced it 
to subjection. They merely hold it, however, in military occu- 
pation, allowing the Mussulman magistrates to administer the 
government. Mr Eraser (Travels in Knorasan, App. pp. 1 14, 1 15) 
considers them thus in a happy situation ; ]ret they themselves 
thought otherwise, since in 1827 they raised a formidable 
insurrection, but bein^ subdued, their leader was taken and 
put to death. This city, now the chief mihtary station, has 
always a garrison of 5000 CHiinese.— Bumes, vol. U. p. 228-231. 



CENTRAL ASIA. 24l 

being taken for the use of the church, consulted with 
each other how to recover it hy force. This they could 
now easily do, being ten to one of their adversaries. 
Several of their elders went and told the Christians 
that they wished to receive back the slab, which 
had been formerly theirs. The latter answered, that 
they would willingly restore it, but for the injury it 
would do to their building, and offered to pay a fair 
price for it. The others replied, that they wished neither 
gold nor treasure, but must have their stone. The 
government now belonged to the nephew of the great 
klian, who commanded that within two days it should 
be restored. When the Christians received that order, 
they were much grieved, and knew not what to do. 
They went, however, and with many tears implored 
John the Baptist to relieve them in this tribulation. 
On the morning of the day when the stone was to 
be returned, the pillar, by the power of our Lord, rose 
up at least three palms, and supported itself as well 
as when the stone was beneath it, and has continued to 
do so till this day. This was and still is accounted one 
of the greatest miracles that ever happened in the 
world.* Now let me tell you of a province which is 
called Yarcan. 



* It was a considerable disappointment, when expecting a 
description of this celebrated Asiatic capital, to fina only the 
ridiculous legend here narrated. Ciagatai, commonly called 
Zagatai, was one of the sons of Gren^s, who actually held sway 
in this region. According to the histories, he usually resided 
with his brother Okkoday, but he might visit occasionally this 
fine possession. Mr Marsden repels the idea of his being a 
Christian ; yet P^tis de la Croix (Histoiro de Grenghiscan^ p. 
100) mentions that, amid the philosophic indifference whicn 
reigned at his court, several members of the conqueror's family 
embraced this and other creeds. At all events, the Nestorians 
may have gained his favour in preference to their rivals. In 
regard to Marco, we may notice that, as on other occasions, 
he only displays the credulity of his age, and is merely repeat- 
ing a aistant hearsay, for we can see no ground to tmnk with 
Mr Marsden that he ever visited Samarcand. The nephew 
here mentioned as hostile to the great khan is doubtless Kaidu, 
whom we have already seen (p. 108) making war against that 



242 CENTRAL ASIA. 

XXX.— Of the Province of Yarcan. 

Yarcan is a province five days' journey in length. 
The people obey the law of Mohammed, but there are 
some Nestorian Christians; they are subject to the 
nephew of the khan mentioned above. All necessa- 
ries are in great abundance. Cotton is also grown, and 
the inhabitants are skilful artisans. They suffer severe- 
ly by swellings in the legs and in the throat, occasioned 
by the bad quality of the water.* Finding nothing else 
worth mentioning, I shall go on to Cotan. 

XXXI.— Of the great Province of Ck>tan. 

Cotan is a province between north-east and east, and 
is eight days' journey in length. The people adore 
Mohammed ; they have a number of cities and castles. 
The capital is a noble town, caUed by the name of the 
kingdom. They have all things in abundance, a large 
supply of silk, with vineyards and good orchards. They 
carry on merchandise and manufactures, but are not 
men at arms.t 

monarch, and the seat of whose power we shall afterwards 
ascertain to be in this part of Tartary. 

This city, in the fourteenth century, acquired an extraor- 
dinary splendour, when Timur, after conquering the greater 
part of Asia^ made it his capital ; and his tomb^ a lofty edifice, 
still adorns it. On the breaking up of his empire, it of course 
declined ; and when the succoring princes transferred their 
seat of government to Bokhara, it fell into such decay, that 
its once celebrated colleges were tenanted by vnld beasts. 
(Izzut Oollah, in Oriental Magazine. Calcutta, vol. iv. p. 129.) 
Efibrts have recently been made, and with some success, to re- 
store it ; yet Sir Alexander Bumes (vol. ii. p. 184) still reckons 
the population short of 10,000. 

* Called elsewhere Carchan, Baroam, Karkan ; but the 
name in the text (from the French) comes nearest to the usual 
modem one of Yarcund. This city was first known through 
our traveller, and since his time has acquired great additional 
importance in consequence of its conquest by the Chinese, who 
made it the exclusive seat of commerce on this frontier, as Can- 
ton and Kiachta elsewhere. The population is reckoned by Sir 
Alexander Bumes at 50,000. That writer mentions the disease 
called the guinea-worm as committing great ravages in Bokhara, 
and it may probably extend to this acnacent territory. 

t This country, commonly called Khoten, by the Chinese 



CENTRAL ASIA. 243 

XXXII.— Of the Province of Pein. 

Pein is a province five days' journey in length, be- 
tween north-east and east. The people adore Mohan>- 
med, are subject to the great khan, and have a number 
of towns and castles. The noblest city and capital is 
called by the name of the kingdom. Here is a river in 
which are found the stones named jasper and calcedony. 
The people are very well supplied with necessaries, and 
grow a good deal of silk.* They live by merchcmdise 
and arts, and have a custom which I will now tell you. 
When a woman has a husband who has gone a journey, 
and is to be absent above twenty days, as soon as he has 
departed she takes another partner, being fuUy allowed 
by usage to do so ; while the husband, in the place 

Yuthia, and in Sanscrit Kustana, was first pointed out to En- 
rope by Marco, and is now well known as the finest tract 
in Eastern Turkestan. It is celebrated for its mild climate, 
the copious product of silk and wine, the industrious and peace- 
able cnaracter of the inhabitants. Most writers, like Marco, 
have given the same name to the canital ; but Moorcroft's 
informant calls it Elchi, while Izzut Oollah (Oriental Maga- 
zine, vol. iv.jp. 296) has it Aichi. It is said to. contain 6000 
houses, and there are rep<H:ted to be in it and five other cities 
1 02,000 inhabitants. (Moorcroft, vol. i. p. 367-369.) Ritter con- 
siders Khotento contain in all about two and a half millions. — 
Asien, vol. vii. p. 353. 

* The position of this city has hitherto defied conjecture ; for 
though D'Anville has laid it down (seemingly too far east), he 
rehea upon the data of our traveller. The following may tlurow 
some Ught on the subject : — Timkowski, among the cities of 
this quarter, mentions Ouchi with its dependencies, Aksou. 
Sairam, and Bai (vol. i. p. 390). This last, as m oriental names u 
and P may be considerea identical, and a and e easilj convertible, 
is in fact equivalent to Pei. Again, Moorcroft gives the itin- 
erary of a merchant who seems to have followed nearly in the 
steps of Marco. He describes the river which waters Knoten as 
meeting with another, and the united stream fiowing on for six 
days' journey, when it comes to Bai. This gives very precisely 
the position assigned by our traveller to Pein. The orna- 
mental stones mentioned are found in the Ehoten rivers, and 
as the waters flow on to Bai, are likely to occur there also. 
They are named by Moorcroft (vol. i. p. 375) jasper agate; by 
Timkowski, y u or oriental jade. The latter (vol. i. p. 395) relateB 
that they are obtained in the bed of the stream by diving, and 
are variously coloured with white, green,yellow, and vermilion. 



244 CENTRAL ASIA. 

where he goes, takes another wife. Know that all the 
provinces now described from Cascar to the present, and 
still farther on, belong to Great Turkey. Now let us 
tell of a province named Ciarcian. 

XXXIII.— Of the Province of Ciaroian. 

Ciarcian is a province of Great Turkey, lying between 
north-east and east, with a capital city of the same 
name. The people adore Mohammed, and have a good 
number of towns and castles. There is a river bringing 
jasper and calcedony, which, being of excellent quality, 
they take to sell in Cathay, and thus make great profit. 
This province is sandy, as well as the whole road from 
Cotan hither ; and much of the water is bad and bitter, 
but in various places it is good. When an enemy passes 
through the country, they flee with their wives, children, 
and cattle, two or three days' journey through the sand 
to places abounding in fine water and pasturage ; and 
no one can tell where they have gone, because the wind 
blowing the sand obliterates all traces of their march, 
and they thus escape the invader. But when a friendly 
army passes through, they send away only the beasts, 
because the troops would take and eat them, without 
any payment.* After departing from Ciarcian, you 
go five days through the waste, finding the water bad 
and bitter, but occasionally sweet and good. At the 
end of these five days you come to a city which lies 
at the commencement of the great desert, wherein pro- 
visions are laid in for its passage, and therefore I must 
tell you about it. 

* This place is the same called in the common maps Hara- 
shar, but oy Izzut Oollab (Oriental Magazine, vol. iv. p. 293) 
and Moorcroft's informer, Karashehr. which is explained to 
mean the ^ Black Gty.*' It is described as seated on a large 
navigable river, formed by the junction of those flowing res- 
pectively from Khoten and Yarcund. Timkowski (vol. i. p. 388) 
describes it as abounding with ffood pasturage and water ; but 
this probablv applies omy to the district around the capital. 
It seems oda that Mr Marsden should refer it to the Chen-chen 
of De Guignes, which he afterwards, with better reason, applies 
to a quite diflbrent territory. 



CENTRAL ASIA. 245 

XXXIV.— Of the aty and Desert of Lop. 
Lop* is a large city at the entrance of the great desert 
bearing its name, and lying between the east and north- 
east. It belongs to the khan, and the people adore Mo- 
hammed. You must know that those peraons who wish to 
pass this tract rest in the city a week to refresh them- 
selves and their cattle ; then, having taken a month's 
provisions and provender, they enter upon the desert, 
which I assure you is so extensive that if a man were 
to travel through its whole length, it would employ a 
year ; and even at its smallest breadth, a month is re- 
quisite.t It consists altogether of mountains and valleys 
of sand, and nothing is got to eat ; but after travelling 
a day and a night, you find sweet water sufiicient for 
from fifty to a hundred men, with their animals. A 
larger body could not be supplied. Thus, water is seen 
daily, or altogether in about twenty-eight places, and 
except in three or four it is good. Beasts or birds there 
are none, because they could not find food ; but there 
is a great wonder which I must now tell you. When 
a party rides by night through this desert, and any one 
lags behind, or straggles from his companions through 

* The lake of Lop is a conspicuous feature shown in the 
Jesuits' map, and called by Timkowski (vol. i. p. 389)Lob-nor. It 
appears to be the final receptacle of the united streams flowing 
from Khoten, Yarcund, and Cashgar. The town of Lop is not 
any where mentioned ; but it is probable there should be one 
on this site; and the present route, as we shall have again 
occasion to observe, is very little frequented. 

t The great desert of Gobi or Shamo, extends from the 
sources of the Amour to the borders of Thibet, in a direction 
between north-east and south-west. The entire length cannot 
fall much short of 2000 miles, which perhaps could not easily be 
trayersed in much less than a year. We never heard, however, 
of any one who followed such a course, the object bein^ gen- 
erally to cross it on the way to China. On this long line it 
varies much both as to breadth and sterility, generally in- 
creasing towards the south, and in proportion to its distance 
from the branches of the Altai. The quarter where it was 
crossed by Marco appears to have been peculiarly formidable, 
and we shall immecuately observe that another lias been more 
generally followed ; but the present was probably chosen as the 
most direct. 



246 CENTRAL ASIA. 

sleep or any other cause, when he seeks to return to 
them, he hears spirits speak to him in such a manner 
that they seem to be hb comrades, and they frequently 
call him by name, and thus lead him out of his way so 
that he never regains it, and many persons are thus lost 
and perish. I must tell you, too, that even by day you 
hear these voices of spirits, and even tambours, and many 
other instruments sounding,* They find it necessary, 
also, before going to rest at night, to fix an advanced 
signal, pointing out the course to be afterwards held ; 
likewise to attach a bell to each of the animals, that they 
may be more easily kept from straggling. In this manner, 
amid much danger and fear, this desert is passed. Now we 
must tell you of the countries that lie on the other side. 

XXXV.— Of the Province of Tangut and Gty of Sacchion. 
When you have rode thirty days through this desert, 
you find a city named Sacchion,t which belongs to the 

* This passaffe no doubt bears a stamp of the age and 
resion ; yet when we consider the dreary situation of one 
who, in the depth of nij^ht, should be separated from his com- 
pany in the midst of this vast wilderness, we can little wonder 
that the illusions here described should arise. Nor is it sur- 
prising that even during the day, when travelling amid the 
deep silence of the desert, mysterious noises should be conjured 
up or exagi^erated. Mr Wood, in a somewhat similar tract, 
was assured, and found some reason to believe, that a peculiar 
sound accompanies the march of a caravan, arising seeminf^ly 
Arom a stream of sand raised by the movement of so many 
animals. It was chiefly sensible on a slope ; probably too where 
there is a mixture of nints or i>ebbles. — Pp. 181, 182. 

In Ramusio this account is expanded into considerably 
greater extravagance. It is said — ^'^In the nieht they are per- 
suaded they hear the sound of a large cavalcade on the one side 
or the other of the road. Sometimes likewise by day the spirits 
assume the appearance of their travelling companions, who 
address them dv name, and endeavour to conduct them out of 
the proper road. Some also are said, in crossing the desert, to 
have seen what appeared a body of armed men advancing to- 
wards them, and, apprehensive of being attacked and plundered, 
have taken to flight.*' It seemed unfair to our traveller to in- 
corporate these statements with his text ; but we have ^ven 
the following sentence, which may be founded on real infor- 
mation. 

f This is undoubtedly Cha-tcheou or Sha-shew, a sort of ad- 
vanced post of China, on the eastern border of the desert. 



CENTRAL ASIA. 247 

khan. The province is called Tangut,* and the people 
are idolaters, mixed with some Nestorian Christians 
and Saracens. The first have languages of their own ; 
they suhsist not hy merchandise, but by the grain which 
they produce from the earth. They have many abbeys 
and monasteries, all full of idols of various shapes, to 
which they offer frequent sacrifices and homage. Every 
man who has children rears a sheep, and at a particular 
festival at the end of the year, leads them along with 
that animal into the presence of the god, to whom they 
all perform reverence. They cook the sheep and offer 
it very humbly before the idol, leaving it while they 
make their prayers for the safety of their children. 
They then take the meat and carry it to the house, or 
wherever they please, send for their relations, and eat it 
■with great joy and respect. They afterwards collect the 
bones, and preserve them with much diligence. You must 
know likewise, that when any one of them dies, his body 
is burned, and after he is carried to the place for this last 
ceremony, they erect in the middle of the path a house 
of cane, covered with cloths of silk and gold. When 
the dead man is laid before this ornamented house, 

, * Tangut is one of the most celebrated names in the history 
and geography of Asia during the middle ages. Klaproth (Jour- 
nal Asiat. vol. xi. p. 461, &o.) estimates it as extendmg between 
33° and 45"' N. lat. and from IS" to 33" long. W. from Pekin. 
He considers it as including the country of the Eighurs, with 
the northern part of China as far as the Hoang-ho. He divides 
it into four provinces : Kamul, Barkoul (or Tchinsi), Turfan, 
and Ouroumpsi. It composed the once powerful kingdom of 
the Hia, a people who seem distinctly traced to thoir origin in 
Great Thibet. Being, according to Klaproth, driven tnenee. 
they migrated northward, and not only occupied this part of 
Central Asia, but overran afterwards a great extent of the em- 
pire. The}r brought with them from its central seat the Boodh- 
ist superstition, here indicated by the extensive monasteries 
and various rites. Marco thus proves his accurate obser- 
vation ; for, in crossing the desert, ne had left behind him Turk- 
estan, where the Mussulman faith had been generally estab- 
Hshed. De Guignes (quoted by Boni, vol. iv. p. 96) states their 
original name to have been Tanh-hiang, changed for the coun- 
try into Tangut. and for the people into Hia. Their power was 
completely crushed by Grengis and his successors, and the very 
name of Tangut has gradually died away. 



348 CENTRAL ASIA- 

they place before Mm wiuB and Tictuals, believing tint 
he will be similarly hononred in the other world. At 
the place of burning, too, they cut in paper, men, b 
camela, nnd coins of the size of bezants, confiaced tint 
tho deceased will possess all these things 'u 
state. On this occasion, all the instmnienta in ihc lad 
are aouniied before the corpse, 1 must tell you, too, tint 
a^r death the relations send For the astrologer, who k 
informed of the day, month, and year of hi nali'rilj, 
and then divines, by his diabolical art, the day ou vrbkh 
the burning ought to taie place. If it shouldbeawwlt, 
a month, or six mocths, they keep it all that time, 
and never hum it till the appointed day. During tim 
interval, the; depout it in a large box covered with 
cloth, and so preserved with crocus and other sptcci tlw 
no stench arises. Throughout this period, they plan dlUv 
before the box meat and diink, and leave it then for 
some time, till they lliink he has eaten it. Thesn uc- 
cerers, too, often tell the relations that the dead half 
mtist not be carried out by tlie main door, but by a pri- 
vate one, or even through a breach made in the wilL* 
All the idolaters in the world proceed in this maonei. 
Now I must go to another city which lies to the aonlh, 
near the extremity of this desert. 

XXXVI.-Of the aiy of Kwnnl. 
Kamul+ IS a province, formerly a kingdom. 



observimce of tb... 
roli)!ion of the Lan — 
f Cal1<id also Khamil, softened bj the Chinese u 



recroaaiue the desert. His fsther sod nnl^ 
ry likely have rageed it in their joninM oM 
I here deseribed, silaBted Id a son at cmhl It 
.o .__ .1. .. ^jjj jjrejter faria?; 



however, njtpit tbt! 

or home. Being,as1. 

aflbrds the meuu i^ crossing 

Bad tberefora, thoagb Birenitoua, u 

was taken by the ambassadors of ... 

(MatsdMi, p. 17S> ; also bv lout Oolaih. Maoremll'B 



okh, and bj Cm . 

ji 



CENTRAL ASIA. 249 

cities and castles, with a capital of the same name. It 
stands between two deserts, the great one already de- 
scribed, and a smaller one, extending three days' journey. 
The people are all idolaters, and have a peculiar lan- 
guage ; they live by the fruits of the earth, having 
enough to eat, and also to sell to the passenger. They 
are men of great gaiety, thinking of nothing but to 
sound musical instruments, to sing, dance, and delight 
their hearts. When a stranger comes to lodge in a 
house, the master is highly pleased, and leaves him with 
his wife, desiring her to treat him in every respect as a 
husband, while he himself goes and spends two or three 
days elsewhere. All the men of the province proceed 
in this manner, and do not account it any disgrace. The 
women are handsome, gay, and fond of diversion. Now, 
when Mangou Khan reigned as sire of the Tartars, 
it was reported to him how the people of Elamul 
gave over their wives to strangers, when he sent orders 
that, under a severe penalty, travellers should not be 
henceforth entertained in this manner. When they re- 
ceived this injunction, they were greatly grieved, held 
a council, and did what I will now tell you. They 
made up a large present, and sent it to Mangou, 
praying that he would allow them to treat their 
wives according to the custom handed down to them 
by their ancestors, who, for this kindness to strangers, 
had gained the favour of their idols, and their corn 
and other crops had greatly multiplied. When he 
heard this message, he said, " Since you are so bent on 
your own shame, let it be so." He allowed them, there- 
fore, to do as they pleased, and hence they have always 
maintained this custom.* 

ant, after following our traveller's route to Karashehr, then 
struck northward to Ouchi, and thence crossed the desert to 
Kamul. (Vol. i. p. 378.) The latter, according to Timkowski 
(vol. ii. p. 386), is still equally frequented, the concourse of 
Caravans giving it the appearance of a large capital. 

• This degrading practice, as formerly observed, is but too 
common at great caravan-stations, especially where merchants 
remain a considerable time. Sir A. Bumes (voL ii. p. 232) 



250 CENTRAL ASIA. 

XXXVII.-.Of the Province of Ginghintalas. 
Ginghintalas* is a province which is near the desert, 
between north and south, sixteen days' journey in ex- 
tent, and subject to the great khan. It contains cities, 
castles, and three descriptions of men, idolaters, adorers 
of Mohammed, and Nestorian Christians. On the borders 
of it, towards the north, is a mountain containing a 
very abundant vein of copper and antimony. There is 
also one from which is made the salamander ; but do 
not suppose this is the animal so called, for no crea- 
ture can live in ^re, because it is compounded of the four 
elements. It is only through ignorance that the sala- 
mander is called an animal ; and a Turk, named Zur- 
ficar, who was very learned, and governor of this pro- 
vince for three years under the great khan, being much 
employed in working the mines, gave me an account of it. 
When this ore is taken from the mountain, and is broken, 
it strings together, and forms a thread like wool. Being 
then dried, pounded in a large mortar, and washed, there 
remains that thread of which I have spoken. Being then 
woven like wool, it forms cloth, which is dingy in 
colour at fii*st, but when placed and left some time in 
the fire, it becomes white as snow, without dirt or stain. 
This is the truth of the salamander, and every thing else 
said about it is mere fable. t I can tell you, too, that at 

mentions, that the system of temporary wives prevails even 
at Yarcund. The superstitious motive alleged was doubtless 
conjured up to conceal a still baser one. In Ramusio, it is 
asserted that they obeyed the command of the khan three 
years ; but that the earth ceased to yield its accustomed fruits, 
and various unfortunate events occurred, which induced them 
to send the deputation mentioned in the text. No such state- 
ment is to be round in any early edition. 

* In the Crusca and Pipino, Chinchitalas. De Guides and 
Marsden suggest Chen-chen, or Leou-lan, to the south of Kamul. 
Count Boni points it out on the Jesuits' map, in about 40** N. lat. 
and IS"* long., W. from Pe-king. I incline to mention Barkoul. 
called by the Chinese Tchins%,a, province of Tangut, elevated 
and colcL about 100 miles N. W. or Kamul. (Klaproth, as above ; 
Hitter, Asien, vol. i. p; 379.) The expressions seem to indicate 
a site beyond Kamul, and the hilly character of the tract would 
accord l>etter with its containing remarkable minerals. 

t The later editions exhibit a striking proof of the manner 



CENTRAL ASIA. 251 

Rome there is a cloth which the great khan sent to the 
pope as a costly present, and the sadarium of our Lord 
was placed within it. Now let ns tell you of other pro- 
vinces to the south-east and east. 

XXXVIII.— Of the Province of Succiur. 

When you have departed from the province now de- 
scribed, you go ten days in the same direction. In all 
that way there are few habitations, nor does any thing 
occur worth mentioning. You then find a district called 
Succiur,* with a capital of the same name. The people 
are Christians, and idolaters, and under the great khan. 
All the three provinces last described belong to the gen-, 
eral one named Tangut. Through all its mountains, 
rhubarb is found in great abundance, and the merchants 
purchase and carry it over the whole world.t They 
cannot, however, take this road through the mountains 
with any animals but those accustomed to the country, 
because a poisonous plant grows there, which, when 
eaten, causes the hoofs to drop off ; but the native cattle, 
having learned its dangerous quality, carefully avoid it.} 
They live by the fruits of the earth, but attend little to 
merchandise. Now I must tell you of another city. 

in which the author has suffered by the corruption of his text. 
In Pipino and Ramusio the paragraph begins by saying, that 
** clotn is made of salamanders.*' This has been treated as an 
instance of gross credulity. In the present text, from the 
Trench and Crusca, the name of the animal is evidently intro- 
duced as a simile, and the idea of its actual existence treated 
with contempt. The mineral here mentioned is the asbestos, 
distinguished by its pecuUar qualities of separating into threads 
which can be woven into cloth, and c^ being incombustible. It 
is now well known, and specimens are preserved in the British 
Museum and other places. 

* In the French Suctuir, in Ramusio Succuir. The name in 
the text is taken from the Crusca, as coming nearest to that 
of the place undoubtedly meant, wmch is Son-teheou, the first mi 
that extreme north-western part of the province of Shen-see 
which {)rojects far x>ut into Tartary. 

f This plant is still produced here of peculiar excellence, and 
is a leading article in the trade with the Russians at Kiachta. 
Marsden, p. 180. 

i This sentence occurs only in Ramusio, and Mr Marsden 
has not been able to find any oonfinnation of the fact. 



252 CENTRAL ASIA. 

XXXIX.— Of the ProTince of Canpicion. 
Canpicion* is a great and noble town, chief and capital 
of the whole province of Tangut. The people are idola^ 
ters, and there are some who adore Mohammed, and also 
Christians who have three large and beautiful churches. 
The first have monasteries and abbeys according to 
their custom, with a very great number of idols, some of 
which, I assure you, are ten paces high, severally formed 
of wood, of earth, and of stone, all beautifully covered 
with gold and ivory. Their priests live more respect- 
ably than others, and guard themselves against luxury, 
though they do not hold it for a very great sin. They 
observe the lunar months like ours, and in one of 
them do not kill any beast or bird. For five days they 
eat no food that has had life, and live more strictly 
than usual. They take sometimes thirty wives, or 
as many as they have wealth to maintain, and give 
them a dowry in beasts, slaves, and money ; but the 
first wife ranks always as the principal.t If any of 
them do not please him, she may be divorced. They 
marry their cousins and even the wives of their father, 

* This city, called by Ramusio Campion^ by the Persian am- 
bassadors Kam-giou, by Goez Can-ceu, is Kan-tcheou, situated 
farther east in the same projecting part of Shen-see. P^tis de 
la Croix also calls it the capital of Tangut ; but perhaps he 
followed our traveller. According to Klaproth (Journal Asiat. 
vol. xi. p. 463)^ the residence of the sovereign of that country 
had been at Hm^-tcheou, now Ning-hia; but as his power ha4 
been for some time extinguished, JKan-tcheou was then pro> 
bably the chief city of the region. 

t Although our traveller had formerly described the Boodh- 
ist observances, he was struck by seeing them here on a greater 
scale than before. Large monasteries and gigantic images are 
its leading features, carried out alwavs to the utmost extent 
that the means of the worshippers admit ; they would there- 
fore be more ample in this great capital than in the former 
almost desert route. The practice of polygamy startles Mr 
Marsden, as bein^ contrary to the precepts of this religion, and 
its practice in Thibet ; but there is no want of proof that the 
Tartars, while adopting its forms and observances, do not al- 
low it to interfere with a habit so rooted among them as that 
of taking as many wives as they are able to support. Mr 
Marsden himself quotes Pallas for this observation, which is 
ftdly confirmed by Timkowski, vol. ii. p. 310. 



CENTRAL ASIA. 253 

and do not regard as sins many things which we ac- 
count great ones ; for they live ]ike beasts : therefore let 
us leave them and go to the north. But I must tell you 
that Messeri Nlcolo, Maffio, and Marco^ remained in that 
city a year, on particular business which I need not 
enter into. We shall now go sixty days northwards.* 

XL.~Of the ProTince of Ezina. 
After riding twelye days, you come to a city named 
Ezina,t which is at the northern extremity of the desert 
of sand, and still in Tangut. The people, who are idol- 
aters, breed camels and other beasts, and have falcons 
of different species and of good quality. They live by 
the fruits of the earth and cattle, and are also employed in 
merchandise. In this city, a man lays in provisions for 
forty days, during which time, travelling from Ezina 
northwards, there is neither habitation nor inns. But the 
people, except during summer, remain in the valleys ; and 
in the mountains they find a number of wild beasts, 
especiaUy asses : there are also pine^forests. At the end 
of these forty days they reach a northern province, and 
you shall hear what it is. 

XLI.~Of the City of Karakorum. 
Karakorum is a city three miles in circuit,;|; which was 

* The traveller appears at Kan-tcheou to close his itinerary 
into China, as no series of stations is thence siven either to 
Kambalu, or to the place called Clemenfu, where the party 
found the emperor. He has taken advantage, however, of bis 
long residence, either by excursions^ or as we rather suspect by 
careful inquiry, to obtain information respecting the countries 
stretching from it in various directions ; and these he now 
communicates. 

t This city, though now ruined, is mentioned in the history 
of Gengis as one of great importance, and its capture in 1224 
ranks among his important exploits. It is described as situated 
on a river flowing from the north, and falling into the Hoang-ho 
near Kan-tcheou. — P^tis de la Oroix, p. 376. 

X Our readers who have perused the narratives of Carpini 
and Rubruquis must be familiar with this celebrated Tartar 
capital. Its dimensions appear here exaggerated ; butprobablv 
the space occupied by the tents of the erratic tribes is mcluded. 
Even after the removal of the court to Pe-king, this place con- 
tinued to possess great importance, being the resioence of a 



254 CENTRAL ASIA. 

the first that the Tartars took when they issued from 
their country, and I am to tell you of their actions and 
manners, how they gained command, and spread them- 
selves over the world. You must know that they dwelt 
in the north, about Ciorcia, in which region are great 
plains, and no abode in cities or castles, but good pastur- 
age, large rivers, and abundance of water. They had 
no lords, yet paid tribute to the great sire, named in 
their language Unchan, whom we call Prester John, and 
who is spoken of over all the world. They paid to him 
one beast out of every ten ; but they multiplied so 
greatly, that he became afraid of them, and resolved to 
separate them into different countries ; for which pur- 
pose he sent his barons among them. The Tartars 
on hearing this were much grieved, and, holding a 
council, determined to flee through desert countries to 
the north, where he could not reach nor injure them. 
They then ceased to obey or pay tribute to him,* and 
remained thus for a long time. 

XLII. — On Gengis, the first Khan of the Tartars. 
Now it happened that, about 1187, the Tartars appoint- 
ed a king, who was named in their language Gengb Khan. 
He was a man of great worth, sense, and prowess ; and 
let me tell you, when he was elected, all the Tartars in 
the world that were scattered through those strange 
countries came and owned him as their lord. He main- 
tained his power with great vigour, and the multitudes 
who ranged under his standard were almost innumerable. 
When he saw so numerous an army, he went conquering 
other countries, and made himself master of eight pro- 
vinces ; yet he neither injured nor robbed the people of 
any thing, but placing them under leaders in whom he 

governor who possessed the power of life and death. To this 
office Kublai, in 1*293, namednis grand sonTemur. When that 
prince, however, succeeded to the throne, and removed to China, 
this Tartar capital sunk into decay, and we are not aware or 
any modem notice of its existence.— Hitter, Asien, vol. i. p. 561. 
* According to the learned history of P^tis de la Croix, the 
first step in tmrowing off the yoke oi Ouang Khan consisted in 
refusing to pay tribute to him. 



CENTRAL ASIA. 255 

could confide, led them on to other triumphs. Thus 
he overthrew, as you have, heard, a multitude of na- 
tions ; and seeing his good command and mildness, they 
cheerfully followed him, upon which he formed the de- 
sign of subduing a great part of the world. In the 
year 1200, he sent a message to Prester John, asking his 
daughter to wife. Hereupon that monarch was very in- 
dignant, and said, — ** What impudence is this in Grengis 
Khan I Knows he not that he is my man and my vas- 
^1 ! Return, and tell him that I would bum my daugh- 
ter sooner than give her to him, and that he deserves to 
be put to death as a traitor and disloyal to his lord." He 
then desired the messengers to depart forthwith, and 
never return. They presently went away, and coming 
to their master, told him in order all that the other 
had said. 

XLIII. — His Battle with Prester John, and Victory over him. 

When Gengis Khan heard this boastful speech, 
his heai-t swelled, so that it almost burst within him ; 
for you must know he was a man of very great pride. 
He then said to his minister, and to all about him, that 
he would not continue to hold the sovereignty, unless 
Prester John were made to pay more dearly for this 
villany than ever man did, and he must soon be made to 
see whether he was his vassal. Then he summoned 
round him the greatest army that ever was seen or heard 
of, and sent notice to Unchan that he must defend 
himself, as he was coming against him. When that 
prince knew certainly the approach of Gengis with 
so great a force, he made light of it, saying, they 
were not men-at-arms ; yet resolved that should he 
approach, he would do all in his power to take and 
put him to death. He then ordered all his people to be 
prepared and summoned from many and strange parts, and 
a greater host and of more formidable aspect was never 
seen. And why make a long story \ The khan, with all 
his people, came to a great and beautiful plain, named 
Tenduc, in Prester John's country, where he pitched his 



256 CENTRAL ASIA. 

camp, and rejoiced greatly to hear that his enemj was 
coming, because it was an excellent situation for giving 
battle. He sent for his astrologers, who were Christian 
and Saracen, and required to know which would con- 
quer in that battle, he or his antagonist. The latter 
could tell nothing of the truth ; but the former showed 
it openly ; for they brought before him a cane, cut 
in the middle, and placed the two parts on different 
sides, and wrote the name of Gengis on one, and of 
Unchan on the other, telling him, that when they had 
made their enchantment, he whose cane should come 
above that of the other would conquer in battle. He 
desired that this should be shown to him as soon as pos- 
sible. Then they took up the Psaltery, read certain por- 
tions, and performed their enchantment, when presently 
the cane on which was the name of Gengis, without any 
one touching it, joined the other, and mounted above it, 
and this was witnessed by all present. When he saw 
this, he was greatly rejoiced, and seeing that the Chris- 
tians were men of truth, held them always in great 
honour.* Two days after, the armies engaged, and it was 
the greatest battle that ever was fought. The slaughter 
was terrible on both sides ; but at length Grengis con- 
quered, his enemy was slain in the engagement, and he 
himself became master of all his land. From that day 
he went on conquering many castles and provinces, and 
reigned six years ; but, at the end of that time, he be- 
sieged a fort, named Cangui, where he was wounded in 
the knee by an arrow, and died. This was a great mis- 
fortune, for he was a brave and wise man.t 

* In the edition of Fipino and all the subsequent ones to Ha- 
musio inclusive, no mention is made of the Christians as con- 
cerned in this coinuration. Supposing these editors cler^- 
men, they might haTO respectable motives for suppressing 
facts httle honourable to the professors of this true faith. The 
text here given, however, being supported by all the early au- 
thorities (tne two Paris editions, the Crusca and Pucci), appears 
undoubtedly genuine. 

t We are obliged to observe, that the author's historical in- 
formation does not display the accuracy usually found in his 
observations and desonptions. His early account of Gemgis 



CENTRAL ASIA. 257 

XLIV. — On the Khans who reigned after the Death of Gengis. 
After the death of Gengis, the next khan was Cui, 
the third Bacui, the fourth Alton, the fifth Mangou,the 
sixth Kuhlai,* who is greater and more powerful than 
all the rest; for the other five together had not so 
much power as this Kublai ; nay, let me tell you, that 
all the emperors in the world, and all the Christian 
and Saracen kings, do not equal him, as is shown 
fully in our book. Now you must know that the 
great lords of the lineage of Gengis Khan are buried 
in a lofty mountain called Altai, and whenever the 
chief lords of the Tartars die, if it should be a hundred 
days' journey distant, they must be conveyed thither 

exhibits indeed a rude conformity with the best histories, which 
do not themselves rest on any very assured basis. (See p. 43-47.) 
But his placing the death of that conqueror only six years after 
the conquest oi this rival, and thus sixteen years before its real 
period (in 1226), appears, after all the excuses urged by Mars- 
den and Boni, to be most extraordinary. Yet we can scarcely 
doubt that he would use the best means within his reach, and 
can only infer the gross ignorance which reigned in this splendid 
courtj on subjects which might have been supposed most deep- 
ly to interest it. It appears, indeed, that no attempt was maae 
to draw up a written history of the conqueror's exploits till the 
time of Ghazan Khan, whom our traveller visited on his return. 
A Mongol chief, called Poulad, then took extraordinary pains 
to collect all the traditions on the subject. — Marsden, p. 198. 

* Our traveller has not redeemed his historical character by 
this list of the great khans, successors of Gengis. He has made 
five instead of the four whom our readers may recollect, Ok- 
koday, Cuyn^ or Kuyuk, Mangou, and Kublai. Two of these 
five also appear to have been princes that never reigned ; so 
that one is omitted. There is much appearance, however, as 
if these names had been tampered witn b;^ editors, with the 
view of accommodating them to preconceived ideas. Thus, 
Bakui, French ; Backui. Crusca ; JBacchia, Fttcci, becomes in 
Ramusio Bathjn, identiiving him with Baatu or Bath}r, so well 
known by his invasion of Europe. I rather suspect him, how- 
ever, to be Okkoday or Oktai, placed only by mistake after in- 
stead of before Cuyn^. Again, Alton, French ; Alcon, Crtuoa^ 
becomes in Riccardino Alan ; in Gryneu» Allau, the name given 
elsewhere to Hoolaku, the conqueror of Bagdad. I should some- 
what suspect the person meant to be Taulai or Tuli, the father 
of Kublai, who never, indeed, reached this supreme power ; yet 
the report of his having done so might become popular in the 
court of his son. 



258 CENTRAL ASIA. 

to be interred. I will tell you another striking wonder ; 
that when the bodies of the khans are carried to 
these mountains, the conductors put to the sword all 
the men whom they meet on the ]x>ad, saying, " Gro and 
serve the great lord in the other world ;" and they do 
the same to the horses, killing also for that purpose 
the best he has. You must know that when Mangou 
died, more than 20,000 men were slain, who had been met 
on the road when his body was removed to be buried.* 

XL V. — On the Religion, Customs, and Manners of the Tartars. 

Now since I have begun speaking of the Tartars, I 
will tell you many things about them. They abide dur- 
ing winter in plains and warm situations, where there 
is abundant herbage for their cattle ; and in summer 
they retire to cool places on mountains and high val- 
leys, where water abounds. They have wooden houses 
covered with felt, of a round shape, which they convey 
"with them wherever they go ; for they have them so 
well boimd with twigs as to be easily carried. When- 
ever they take down and set up a house, the gate is 
always placed to the south. They have waggons so 
well covered with black felt, that if it should rain the 
whole day, no water would reach any thing within ; 
and they are drawn by oxen and camels. On the top 
they place their wives and children ; and I must tell you 
that the ladies buy, sell, and perform all the work ne- 
cessary for their husbands, who do nothing but hunt, 
hawk, and go to war. They live on flesh, milk, and 
the produce of hunting, and likewise on rats of Pharaoh, 

* The custom of interring the Mongol chiefs at the Altai 
appears confirmed by the numerous golden ornaments which 
Pallas describes as haying been dug out of tombs in that re- 

S'on. For the dreadful massacre here reported, neither Mr 
arsden nor Count Boni have been able to find an^ other 
authority ; but they insist upon that of our traveller being suf- 
ficient. Considering it, however, as only a hearsav statement 
from such informants, above fifteen years back, I feel inclined 
to consider it as vastly exaggerated. In Ramusio the number 
is only 10,000. 



CENTRAL ASIA. 259 

which are found here in great numbers.* They eat also 
the flesh of camels, dogs, and indeed of every kind of 
animal, and drink mare's milk. They shun the seduc- 
tion of married females^ as a most vile and shameful 
thing ; and the wives are very faithful, performing 
extremely well the business of the household. Every 
man may take as many as he pleases, even to a hun- 
dred, if he can maintain them ; yet they hold the first 
as the principal and most respectable. They scruple 
not to marry their cousins, and if the father dies, the 
eldest son may take all his wives, except his own 
mother ; he marries also the widow of his deceased bro- 
ther. They celebrate their marriages by great festivals. 
The Tartars, who believe in a deity of a sublime and 
heavenly nature, bum incense in censers to him, and 
pray that he may preserve them in health of mind and 
body. They have also one called Nacygai, whom they 
call their earthly god, who guards their children, cattle, 
and com. They fashion him of felt and cloth, keep him 
in their house, and pay him great honour and reverence. 
They make for him also a wife and children of cloth, 
placing the first on his left hand, and the latter in front. 
Before eating, they take the fat meat and anoint his 
mouth with it ; then lay bread before the door of his 
chamber. Having done this, they say that their god 
and his family have had their share, and sit down to 
their own meals. I told you that they drink mare's 
milk, but it is in such a manner that it seems white 
wine, being of an agreeable taste, and called chemiu8,f 
The wealthy wear rich robes of gold and silk, with 

varied furs of the ermine, sable, and fox. Their har- 

■ 

* These animals are described by Bell and Du Halde as a 
species of marmot, of a brownish colour, that burrow in the 
hills of this part of Asia. Our traveller identifies them with 
the ichneumon, popularly called the mouse or rat of Pharaoh. 
The Crusca has pomi (apples) of Pharaoh, an evident mistake. 
The Paris Latin makes a very strange one, dropping the rats, 
and translating faraon /arrt/m, grain, the representing of Which 
as abundant would have been indeed most erroneous. 

t Koumiss, a well-known fermented preparation of mare's 
milk, used by all the Tartar nations. 



260 CENTRAL ASIA. 

ness is beautiful and of great value ; their arms are 
bows, swords, and clubs ; but the first is more used than 
the others, because they are excellent archers. On 
their back they wear armour of buffalo and other very 
strong hides. 

I will tell you the manner in which they maintain 
justice. If a man has stolen an article of little value, 
they give him seven lashes, or seventeen, or twenty- 
seven, going on thus always to three hundred and seven,* 
and many die under them. If he steals a horse or 
any thing else for which he deserves to die, he is cut 
through the middle with a sword ; yet if he can pay 
nine times the value of what he has stolen, he is allowed 
to live. Every lord or other man, who owns oxen 
or any cattle, makes them be marked with his seal, 
and then allows them to feed on the plains or among 
the mountains ; and whoever finds one straying brings 
it to him whose mark is upon it. The sheep and laml^ 
however, are guarded by a shepherd. Their cattle are 
all remarkably large, lat, and beautiful. They have 
another wonderful custom which I had forgot ; for 
when two men have one a son, the other a daughter, 
dead at the age of four, they marry them together, and 
represent the union by cards, which they set on fire, and 
when they see the flame and smoke ascending, they 
make great shouts and run backward and forward, say- 
ing that the dead are going to their children in the 
other world, and are to be husband and wife there. 
They do more, for they paint on cards the simili- 
tudes of men, horses, cloths, bezants, and harness, then 
burn them, and say that all these things will be pos- 
sessed by their children in the other world. f 

XLVI.— On their Wars, and the Order of their Armies. 
The Tartars are good men-at-arms in battle, capable 

* In Ramnsio, the numbers are 7, 17, 27, 37, 47, and so on to 
a hundred. 

t Mr Marsden, p. 219, has quoted from Navarette and Sir 
John Malcolm testimonies to the existence of this extraor- 
dinary custom in Tartary and the parts of China bordering 
on it. 



CENTRAL ASIA. 261 

of much endurance ; and they can go through more 
warlike toil than other men. Often, when necessary, 
one of them will remain a month without any food, 
except the milk of a mare and the flesh of animals killed 
hy him in hunting, his horse feeding on the grass, 
without his needing to bring barley or straw. He is 
very obedient to his master, and when necessary will 
remain the whole night armed on horseback. They are 
the men in the world most capable of enduring fatigue 
and trouble, subsisting at the least expense, and best 
fitted for conquering lands and kingdoms. They ar- 
range their armies in the following manner. When 
a Tartar lord goes to war, he has with him 100,000 
men. He places a chief over every ten, every hundred, 
every thousand, every ten thousand, so that each ofl&cer, 
even the commander of the hundred thousand, has to deal 
only with ten persons ; for he gives his orders to the 
chiefs of ten thousand, they to those of one thousand, 
they to those of a hundred ; and thus every man answers 
to his captain. The hundred thousand is called a tut, 
and ten thousand a toman.* When the armies are 
marching through plains and mountains, they send 
200 men two days in advance, also behind and on each 
side, so that they cannot be attacked by surprise. And 
when they are marching a long way they carry no 
baggage, but merely two large leathern bags^ in which 
they put their milk, and a little earthen pot for cook- 
ing their victuals. They take a small tent, under which 
they remain during rain. And I tell you also, that 
when necessary they ride full ten days without food, and 
without lighting a fire ; but piercing a vein of their 
horse, they drink his blood. They have likewise their 
milk dried into a species of paste, which, when about 
to use, they stir till it becomes liquid and can be drunk. 
When they go to battle with their enemies, they conquer 

* In Ramusio, the tut or tuo is made 100, and the toman 1000. 
The number of 10,000 assigned to the latter, given in the text 
from the French version, is undoubtedly the correct one.— 
Marsden, p. 215. The Crusca omits the toman. 



262 CENTRAL ASIA. 

in this manner : they apparently hetake themselves to 
a shameful flight, for they have so trained their horses 
that they turn round and round like dogs. And when 
they are fleeing and hotly pursued, they fight as well 
as when they face the enemy ; for in their swiftest 
flight they wheel ahout and discharge their arrows, 
which kill hoth men and horses of the opposite army, 
who, when they think their adversaries discomfited 
and vanquished, fall themselves one after the other. 
When the Tartars have thus made a great slaughter, 
they turn and rush on so violently, that they soon 
gain a complete triumph. All that I have told you 
here applies to the genuine Tartars ; but they are now 
much altered ; those who live in Cathay have adopted 
the manners and customs of the idolaters ; those in the 
Levant imitate the Saracens.* I have said nothing here 

* The reader who has followed the accounts of this people 
given hy Carpini and Rubruquis will be able to compare them 
with that here furnished. Theirs is fuller, and dniwn from 
more intimate inspection at a time when the inhabitants were 
more unmixed than they are here stated to have become 
after the conquest of Chma. Our traveller's description is 
evidently not copied from them, yet exhibits so close a coinci- 
dence as is creditable to both parties. They had mentioned 
that in the field every species oi stratagem was studiously re- 
sorted to. The statement here made that they systematically 
fought flying, though it has passed into popular belief, is proba- 
bly exaggerated. 

Having in the course of this volume heard so much of the Tar- 
tars, the reader may not be unwilling to learn something of their 
present state, as recently observed by Timkowski ; in whose eyes 
thev appeared to retain all the habits which might enable them 
t in to overrun and desolate the world. They are, however. 
> .i in subjection by China, and their irregular hordes could 

t now make head against a disciplined force. Room is thus 
.w.t onlv for the display of their most amiable qualities : kind- 
heir families,— generosity and hospitality to strangers. 
.. vwnts are still similarly constructed j milk, with occasion- 
MAj a little mutton, continues to be their staple food. They 
oiave been generally converted to the Shaman superstition, 
which has gained possession of nearly all Eastern Asia ; yet 
they have not the means of celebrating its rites with the same 
pomp as elsewhere. Its priests are as usual called in to per- 
zorm magical cures ; but they have introduced among this rude 
nice some tincture of books and literature. — Travel, vol. ii. 
p. 296-347. 



CENTRAL ASIA. 263 

of the mighty acts of the great khan, the sire of all the 
Tartars, nor of his splendid imperial court ; for these 
wonderful things are described elsewhere in this book. 
But let us now return to our route on the great plain 
where we were when we began to speak of their actions. 

XLVII. — On the Plains of Bangu, and the extreme Parts of 

the North. 

When you depart from Karakorum, and from Altai, 
where the khans are interred, as I have related above, you 
go northwards through a country which is called the 
plain of Bangu, and continues during a journey of forty 
days. The inhabitants, who are called Mecri, and are 
very savage, live on the flesh of animals^ chiefly deer, nay 
I assure you that they ride upon these animals. Their 
customs resemble those of the Tartars, and they are 
subject to the great khan. They have neither com 
nor wine, but in summer abundance of beasts and birds 
for hunting and hawking ; though in winter none re- 
main in the country on account of the intense cold. After 
travelling these forty days you come to the ocean ; and 
there is found a mountain, where the peregrine falcons 
build their nests. You must know this place contains 
neither men nor women, nor beasts, nor any birds, ex- 
cept one species, which is called barghenlac, on which 
the hawks feed. They are of the size of partridges, 
have feet like parrots, and tails like swallows, and 
they fly very swiftly. When the great khan wishes 
peregrine falcons, he sends thither for them. In an 
island of that sea, too, are bred the gerfalcons ; and I 
assure you the place is so &r north, that the polestar 
remains behind, and is seen to the south. Those birds are 
bred on that isle in such abundance, that the great khan 
obtains as many as he pleases; while others are con- 
veyed to Argon and other lords of the East.* Now that 



* The country here described is evidently the eastern part 
of Siberia ; and though the account is given only from distant 
hearsay, it is by no means incorrect. The dreariness of its 
aspect, the absence of culture, the disappearance in winter of 



^ 

N 



I have told you of tbese northern provinces us &riutLB 
ocean, let ub return to Canpicion, 

XLVIII.— On the great City of Ergjaul. 
When a man departs from that dty, ho goes fivB hjt 
eastward through a couDtiy n-here there are many aprib) 
who are often heard speaking dnring the night. Yoo 
then find a kingdom caUed Erginul,* belonging to tha 
great khan, and included in the large province of T»- 
gut. Tlicre are a good many towns, the chief one bea^ 
ing the fame name ; and the people are a mixtun of 
Nestoriim Christians, idolaters, and Mohammeduu. 
Proceeding thence south-east, you come into the counby 
of Cathay, wlien you will find in the way a city auiKd 
Singuy.t There are a good many otiier towus^ BtiU in 



imd the locka are likely to be teuaii ted by povrerfol birds olpttf. 
The search after theES to gratify the poesion for fklooary, Ibao 
iiniyer™J lUndng the Tartm chiefs, wis Bvidantly the imptilM 
which led to the opening of this route. The barghenloo euuHt 
be identified ; and it seems scarcely probable that it iboidd be 
the only bird ; ^ot we have very littfa means of judging. 

In lu.muEio, It is said that the gDtfalcDDS sent from EntiM 
are not coDvoyed to ibe great Ichan, but only to sumo of llie 
Tartar or other chiefs of the East. There is notiiing of Ihli in 
the early editions. 






r the 1 



ly wMch lie describes U 



supposes Eruinul ti 
ip'ound, the oiatanct . . .,. . 
here stated, and Ibe direction so 



Mr 1 



Sound, the ^. , ^ 
re stated, and Ibe direction south-south-west, inatetul of uc 
The Jesuits' map exhibits, iu exactly the position indionMd, 
p1i«e called Neuoi-Tusn. If we just maJie the not nmuoi 
Gbauge_i>f the £st N into R, the names will sound rerj 



p1i«e called Neuoi-Tus 

-'■- igoof Iheffist Nin . ,_, 

Jhfl Paris Latin has Erguyl ; the luUiui MS. £i^wil. 



tioii on the frontier of China Proper. Boni, boirerer, 



I hOWBWf, UMWCW, 

or Kan-tdM«kJ|i . 



CENTRAL ASIA. 265 

Tangut, and subject to the great khan ; and the inhab- 
itants are as above described. There are a vast number 
of wild oxen, as large as elephants, and very beautiful, 
— their back being entirely covered with white and 
black hair, three palms long. These animals are 
also caught and tamed, when they do twice as much 
work as the common ox.* This country, too, produces 
the best musk in the world, and I will describe the animal 
by which it is supplied. It is small, about the size of an 
antelope, which it resembles in the feet and tail, but has 
a soft thick hair like the stag, no horns, only four teeth, 
two above and two below, three inches long and very 
sharp. It is a beautiful creature ; and, on its being 
taken, there is foimd a bag between the skin and the 
flesh, containing a bloody imposthume, which, when the 
skin is cut through, is drawn out, and forms the musk 
whence issues so strong an odl^ur.t In this country it 
is very abundant, and of good quality. The people also 
raise plenty of corn, and engage in merchandise and manu- 
factures. The region extends to a journey of full twenty- 
five days. There are pheasants twice as large as ours, 
with tails from seven to ten palms long. J Others re- 

with seeming probability, the cit^ here mentioned to be Si-n^an, ' 
capital of Shen-see. That extensive province, stated afterwards 
to oe twenty-five days' journey in length, appears here cor- 
rectly descnbed. Its fertilit^r and populousness are combined 
with a de^ee of rudeness wmch makes it approximate to the 
neighbourm^ districts of Tartary. Mr Marsaen urges in sup- 
port of his view the statement of its being still in Tangut ; but. 
as we have already observed, this name was then extendea 
as far as the Hoang-ho,and consequently included Shen-see. 

* This is the vak or bos grunniens, having its shoulders and 
tail covered witn a profusion of soft black hair ; an appendage 
which must augment its apparent size^ here somewhat exa|;ger- 
ated. It more properly belongs to Thibet ; but Du Halde,m de- 
scribing Shen-see, intimates its occurrence here, by mentioning 
the number of wild bulls and the manufacture of cow^s hair, 

t The musk animal also belongs peculiarly to Thibet ; but, 
hke the other, appears introducedby Marco in treating of the 
country where he first saw it. It is elsewhere repeatedly men- 
tioned. In Ramusio, the bag is said to be formed at the time 
of full moon ; but this fabulous statement is not in the early 
editions. 

t The fine pheasants of China, with the length of their beauti- 



266 CENTRAL ASIA. 

semble ours ; and there are various birds, with finely 
coloured wings. The people, who are idolaters, are 
fat, with small noses, black hair, and no beard anleas 
on the chin. The ladies have no hair except on the 
head, and are every way very handsome. The men 
are voluptuous, and are authorized by their law and 
usage to take as many wives as they can maintain. If 
a woman is beautiful, though of humble birth, a great 
baron readily espouses her, giving to her mother such 
a sum of money as may be agreed on. 

XLIX. — On the Province of Egrigaia. 

When a man departs from Erginul, and goes eight 
days eastward, he finds a province of Tangut called 
Egrigaia,* where there are cities and castles, and the 
chief one is named Calacian.t The people are idolaters ; 
yet there are three towns* held by Nestorian Christians. 
They are subject to the great Tartar ; and in this city is 
made cloth of camels' hair, the most beautiful and val- 
uable in the world. There is a kind of wool whence they 
manufacture very fine white camlets in great quantities. 



ful tails, have of late years attracted the attention of Europe, 
and adorned its menageries.— See Account of China, Edinburgh 
Cabinet Library, vol. lii. p. 418. 

* The traveller, now returning to Erffinul, proceeds east- 
ward to the place here named, of which Mr Marsden can find 
no trace unless in the Ei^hur country ; but this lies in quite a 
different direction. M. Klaproth (Jour. Asiat. yol. xi. p. 63) 
observes that Hing-tcheou, now Ninghia, the residence of the 
former soverci^ of Tangut, was called, in the language of that 
country, Eyirkiai, which he supposes with ^eat probability to 
be the Egrigaia of our traveller. In fact, if we take Erginul 
to be Nguei-yuen, we shall find it to be exactly in the specified 
distance and direction from that place. 

t Marsden suggests that Calacia may be the Cailac of Ru- 
bru^uis, or Cialis of Goez ; which Count Boni justly rejects as 
admitted to be at an immense distance from the territory here 
treated of. He suggests, seemingly on good grounds, Calatu, a 
place on D'Anville^s map, some distance north of Ninghia, and 
on a branch of the Hoang-ho, in the most northerly nart of its 
course. Our traveller now enters upon a third detacned itine- 
rary, to illustrate interesting objects adjacent to those of which 
he has been treating. 



CENTRAL ASIA. 267 

These the merchants convey by many routes to Cathay 
and other parts throughout the world. Now let us go 
to Tenduc, in the territory of Prester John. 

L.— On the Province of Tenduc, and of Grog and Magog. 

Tenduc is a province towards the east,* where there 
are cities and castles, and the chief one bears the same 
name. The people belong to the great khan, like all 
those formerly subject to Prester John. In this pro- 
vince there is a king named Greorge, descended from that 
prince, and who indeed enjoys his power. He holds 
the land under the khan, but only a part of that which 
was possessed by his ancestor. I assure you, however, 
that the khans have often given their daughters and 
female relations to the reigning kings of this line. In 
this province are found the stones whence azure is made ; 
they are plentiful and good. Camlets, too, are woven 
of camels' hair. The natives live on cattle and the fruits 
of the earth, and have likewise some merchandise and 
manufectures. The Christians, as already mentioned, 
are masters of the land ;t but there are also idolaters and 
worshippers of Mohammed. There is likewise a people 

* Tenduc is mentioned by P^tis de la Croix (p. 34) as one 
of the most extended tracts of Karakithay. This name, 
meaning the Black Cathay, belonged to a oistrict occupiea 
by numerous Chinese, who, when their country was overrun 
b^ the Leao and the Kin. sought new settlements in the 
wilds of Tartary. They filled a long territory to the south 
of Mongolia and north of Tangut, and reaching apparently 
farther eastward than is represented in the map of M. D'Ave- 
zac. They introduced into this wide refi[ion a degree of cul- 
ture and population to which it was before a stranger ; but 
which, amid subseauent revolutions, it has been unable to sup- 
port. It yielded, however, to the arms of Ouang Khan, and 
was incorporated into his dominions ; afterwards, witn the 
others, it was annexed to the empire of Gengis. Mr Marsden's 
idea of any connexion with the Tungnsi appears quite un- 
founded. 

+ We have mentioned elsewhere the widely prevailing report 
of Ouang Khan being a Christian sovereign, and therefore named 
Prester John. The statement now made tends to confirm it. 
We may notice also the letter to the Pope from Juan de Monte 
Corvino, who boasts of having baptized the son of Prince Greorge 
here mentioned.— Marsden, p. 244. 



268 CENTRAL ASIA. 

called Argon, meaning in French Guasmul, that is, mixed 
of two different races. They are handsomer than the 
others, more prudent and commercial. Know that in 
this province was the chief, seat of Prester John, when 
he ruled over the Tartars and all the surrounding 
countries ; and this George is the sixth in succession 
from him. This, too, ia the place which we in our 
country call Grog and Magog, but they call it Ung and 
Mungul ;* and in each province was a difiPerent race of 
people, — in Ung were the Gog, and in Mungul dwelt the 
Tartars. 

When a man rides through that province seven days 
eastward towards Cathay, he finds many cities and castles. 
The inhabitants are Mohammedans, idolaters, and Chris- 
tians ; they carry on trade, and manufacture fine gilded 
cloths, called nascisiy with various kinds of silk cloth, 
and are subject to the great khan. There is a city named 
Sindacui, with many manufactures of harness and trap- 
pings necessary for an army. In the mountains of that 
country is a place named Idlfu, where there is a very 
productive silver mine. They have no want 6f beasts 
and birds for hunting. Now let us depart from this 
province and its cities, and travel three days, when we 
shall find a town named Cianganor, in which is a fine 
palace of the great khan [already described, p. 136]. 

Jil.— On the City of Chandu. 

Departing from this city, and travelling three days 
between north and north-east, you come to another 
named Chandu,t built by Kublai, the great khan now 



• Gog and Magog were celebrated in the Middle A^es, espe- 
cially amon^ the Saracens, as two mighty giants who held a 
fortified station in the north of Asia. Tne resemblance of their 
names to Ung and Mungul, with a corresponding roughness of 
character, seems to have suggested the present crude theory 
respecting their identity. 

+ The position of this place seems to admit of no doubt, since 
Gerbillon, in 1691, while accompanying the emperor on an ex- 
cursion into Mongolia, visited its ruins. He mentions them 
under the name oiShangtu, as those of the country palace of 



CENTRAL ASIA. 269 

reigning. Here he has built a most magnificent palace. 
[This, too, was formerly described when treating of the 
mode of life and hunting residences of that great mon- 
arch, p. 133, &c.] 

the emperors of the Yuen dynasty, as the Chinese termed that 
founded by Kublai. The position is in lat. 40" 22' N. N. E. of 
Pe-king. Gerbillon particularly notices the great abundance 
of every species of game. Its position must determine the preced- 
ing one 01 Cianganor, from which it is stated to lie three days' 
journey north-east. In that precise site we find a cluster of 
lakes, with several riyers agreeing exactly with the description 
given in Part I. Chap. xxiv. Besides the itinerary data, every 
particular shows the two places to be closely adjacent. I can- 
not, therefore, but much wonder that Mr Marsden should fix 
it, on a mere rude resemblance of name, in the Chahan-nor, 
or White Lake, situated, as he admits, at a very great distance. 
M. Ritter ( Asien, vol. i. jp. 141 ) suggests the Taal nor, which 
is indeed nearer ; but stul more than three days distant. It 
lies, besides, due north, instead of south-west, as stated by our 
traveller, whose authority therefore must be entirely thrown 
aside if we adopt either of these suppositions. Indeed, I cannot 
but remark, that Mr Marsden has been pecuUarly unsuccessful 
in tracing the positions on this frontier, so that, were it not 
for the aids or Count Boni and M. Klaproth, I should have 
found myself much at a loss. This failure appears to have arisen 
chiefly &om his unfortunate habit of supposing himself at lib- 
erty, where he could find the slightest resemblance in name and 
description, to suppose his author guilty of the most enormous 
errors as to distance, direction, and position. In a note on one 
of these chapters he agrees with Forster, that ** Marco Polo 
does not point out the situation of his places in the proper order, 
but goes from one to another just as nis fancjr leads nim.'^ It 
is hoped, however, that reason has now been given for believing 
that most of these alleged mistakes are in fact those of his 
editors and interpreters. 



PART III. 

Voyage through the Indian SeaSy and Historical Accounts 

of Western Asia, 

Chinese Navigation to India — Description of Japan — Expedi- 
tion sent thither by Knblai— The Oriental Archipelago ; its 
Produce of Gold and Spices— Visit to Tsiompa— War between 
the King and Kublai— Account of Java — Malacca— Arrival 
at Sumatra — Voyage round the Island — The different King- 
doms—Savages of the Interior— Produce of Palm-toddy, 
Camphor, Sago— The Andaman and Nicobar Islands— Cey- 
lon ; its Pearls and Rubies — Superstitious Legends of the 
People— Coast of Maabar or Coromandel— Various Customs 
and Superstitions — Masulipatam ; its fine Cloths — The Dia- 
mond Mines— Madras and the Legend of St Thomas— The 
Bramins and their various Orders and Observances— Cail, 
Coilon ; Comari (Cape Comorin) — Eli or Dely — Malabar 
Coast— Dreadfhl Piracies — Tana and Cambaia— Somnaut 
(Guzerat)— Mention of Mekran— Polo gives Reports oolleoted 
respecting Africa — Socotra ; Whale-fishery — Madagascar ; 
fabulous Rumours— Confounded with Southern Africa — Zan- 
guebar ; why considered an Island— Abyssinia ; its Descrip- 
tion — Wars with Adel — Arabia, Aden, Shaher, Dofar, Kal- 
hat— Return to Ormus — Undertakes to relate the Revolutions 
of Western Asia— Kaidu, Prince of Samarcand — His Wars 
with Kublai— Exploits of his heroic Daughter — His Contest 
with Argon, Prince of Persia— Various Adventures of Argon, 
who is defeated and made Prisoner, but afterwards raised 
to the Persian Throne— His Death— Reigns of Quiacatu and 
Baidu— The latter vanquished by Ghazan, Son to Argon- 
Tartar Kingdom in Siberia ; Dog-sledges ; fine Furs— Region 
of Obscurity in the North— Russia— Black Sea and neigh- 
bouring Countries — Succession of Tartar Princes on the 
Volga — Great War between Barka and Hoolaku— Another 
between Toctai and Nogai — Conclusion. 

I. — India and the Ships navigating thither. 

Having described so many inland provinces, I will now 
enter upon India, with the wonderful objects in that 



TOYAGE THROUGH THE INDIAN 8EAS, Sec 2?! 

r^on. The ships in which the merchants navigate 
thither are made of fir,* with only one deck, hut many 
of them are divided beneath into sixty compartments, in 
each of which a person can be conveniently accom- 
modated. They have one rudder and four masts ; while 
some have two additional, which can be put up and taken 
down at pleasure. Many of the largest have besides as 
many as thirteen divisions in the hold, formed of thick 
planks mortised into each other. The object is to guard 
against accidents which may cause the vessel to spring a 
leaky such as striking on a rock or being attacked by a 
whale. This last circumstance ia not unusual ; for dur- 
ing the night the motion of the ship through the waves 
raises a foam that invites the hungry animal, which, 
hoping to find food, rushes violently against the hull, 
and often forces in part of the bottom. The water, 
entering by the leak, runs on to the well, which is al- 
ways kept clear ; and the crew, on perceiving the occur- 
rence, remove the goods from the inundated division, and 
the boards are so tight that it cannot pass to any other. 
They then repair the injury and replace the articles. The 
plaiJ^ are double, fastened with iron nails, and plastered 
without and within, but not secured by pitch, of which 
the people are destitute. They therefore take lime, beat 
it into fine powder, and mix it with an oil from trees, so 
that it becomes equal to glue. These vessels carry two 
hundred mariners, and five or six thousand loads of 
pepper ; they are moved by oars, on each of which four 
hands are employed. Every one of them has two barks, 
large enough to carry a thousand loads, and forty seamen 
well armed, who often assist in dragging the large ships. 

* Mr Marsden does not belioTe that timber of this species can 
be accessible to the Chinese shipbuilder. He does not perhaps 
duly consider, that amid the elaborate cultiyation, forests are 
allowed to grow only on the loftiest mountain-ridges. Those, 
in the south especially, reach quite an Alpine height, and must 
have a cold climate suited to northern trees. Tne produce is 
easily conveyed down to the coast by the numerous rivers and 
canals. — Historical Account of China (Edinburgh Cabinet Li- 
brary), vol. i. p. 19 ; voL ii. pp. 232, 233. 



272 VOYAGE THROUGH THE INDIAN gBAS^ 

Ten small boats are also kept for fishing and varions 
other services ; two being attached to each baik. 
When the ships have sailed a year, and stand in need 
of repair, a fresh plank is fastened above the two otbsrs, 
then nailed and cemented, till they sometimes acquire 
a depth of six planks.* Having thus described the 
merchant- vessels that go to India, I will tell you of the 
country itself ; but first I must mention the many iales 
in this sea lying to the eastward ; and first, of one named 
Zipangu. 

II.— Island of Zipangu, and Tartar Expedition thither. 

This is a very large island, fifteen hundred miles from 
the continent.t The people are fair, handsome, and of 
agreeable manners. They are idolaters, and live qmtt 
separate, entirely independent of all other nations. 
Gold is very abundant, and no man being allow- 
ed to export it, while no merchant goes thence to 
the mainland, the people accumulate a vast amount. 
But I will give you a wonderful account of a very large 
palace, all covered with that metal, as our churches are 
with lead. The pavement of the chamber, the halls, 
windows, and every other part, have it laid on two 
inches thick,;); so that the riches of this palace are 

* Tho division into compartments completely detached firom 
each other, and the use of a cement composed of lime and oil, is 
Btill the system upon which Chinese junks are constructed. 
Historical Account of China (Edinburgh Cabinet Library), 
vol. ii. pp. 239, 240. The mention of wmdes, and of the pro- 
ceedings in case of a leak, are found only in Ramusio. The 
advantage stated in the latter case is obvious and important ; 
but we are not aware of accidents from whales being usual in 
the Chinese Sea. 

t This is evidently Japan. Tho nearest part of the northern 
island is reckoned by Mr Marsden (p. 572), rather seemingly 
too low, at only 500 miles. Chinese li (about a third of a mue) 
may have been meant ; or the writer might refer to the most 
central part of the group. 

i The extent and productiveness of this empire, with the 
studied exclusion of forei^ers, are circumstances well known. 
Tho gold mines are described as very considerable, and mono- 
polized by the sovereig^n. The modern palace is not represented 
as so richly covered with gold ; but authorities, both European 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 273 

incalculable. Here are also red pearls, large, and of 
eqoal Talue with tiie white, with many other precious 
stones.* Kublai, on hearing of this amazing wealth, 
desired to conquer the island, and sent two of his barons 
with a very luge fleet containing warriors, both horse- 
men and on foot. One was named Abatan, the other 
Yonsanicin, both wise and valiant. They sailed from 
Zai-4an and Kinnsai, reached the isle, landed, and took 
possession of the plain and of a number of houses ; but 
they had been unable to take any city or castle, when a 
sad misadyenture occurred. A mutual jealousy arose 
amongst them, which prevented their acting in any con- 
cert. One day when the noHh wind blew very strong, 
the troops expressed to each other apprehensions, that if 
they remained, all the vessels would be wrecked. The 
whole then went on board and set sail. When they had 
proceeded about four miles, they found another small 
isle, on which, the storm being violent, a number sought 
refoge. Others could not reach it, many of whom suffer- 
ed sidpwreck and perished ; but some were preserved and 
sailed for their native country. Those who had landed, 
30,000 in number, looked on themselves as dead men, 
seeing no means of ever escaping ; and their anger and 
grief were increased, when they beheld the other ships 
making their way homeward. 

The sovereign and people of the large isle rejoiced 
greatly when they saw the host thus scattered and many 
of them cast upon the islet. As soon as the sea calmed, 
they assembled a great number of ships, sailed thither 
and landed, hoping to capture all those refugees. But 
when the latter saw that their enemies had disem- 
barked, leaving the vessels unguarded, they skilfully re- 
treated to another quarter, and continued moving about 
till they reached the ships, and went on board without 

and C3iinese, state this ornament to have been formerly em- 
ployed miMh more profusely.— Marsden. pp. 572, 573. 

*Coimt Boni quotes Thunberg and Olivier de Nort, both for 
the abundance of pearls in Japan and for their red colour. 
This tint is obserred even in a tew of those found in Ceylon. 
— Marsden, p. 573. 

8 



274 VOYAGE THROUGH THE INDIAN SBAS, 

any opposition. They then sailed direct for the principal 
island, hoisting its own standards and ensigns. On see- 
ing these, the people believed their own countrymen had 
returned, and allowed them to enter the city. The Tar- 
tars, finding it defended only by old men, soon drove 
them out, retaining the women as slaves. When the 
king and his warriors saw themselves thus deceived, 
and their city captured, they were like to die of grief; 
but they assembled other ships, and invested it so 
closely as to prevent all communication. The invaders 
maintisdned it seven months, and planned day and 
night how they might convey tidings to their master 
of their present condition ; but finding this impossible, 
they agreed with the besiegers to surrender, securing 
only their lives.* This took place in the year 1269. 
The great khan, however, ordered one of the command- 
ers of this host to lose his head, and the other to be sent 
to the isle where he had caused the loss of so many men, 
and there put to death. I have to relate also a very won- 
derful thing, that these two barons took a number of per- 
sons in a castle of Zipangu,and because they had refused to 
surrender, ordered all their heads to be cut off ; but there 
were eight on whom they could not execute this sen- 
tence, because these wore consecrated stones in the arm 
between the skin and the flesh, which so enchanted them, 
that they could not die by steel. They were therefore 
beaten to death with clubs, and the stones, being extract- 
ed, were held very precious.t But I must leave this 
matter and go on with the narrative. 



* Both in the Chinese and Japanese annals, this expedition 
is related, and represented as having been rendered abortive by 
disastrous shipwreck. In particulars, however, theydiflfer from 
each other ; while our traveller, having been in China when 
the news arrived, had the best opportunities of gaininff infor- 
mation. There is no reason to suppose, therefore, that his more 
detailed account may not be generally correct. 

t The delusion of supposing persons rendered invulnerable 
by the use of amulets, is stated by Mr Marsden (p. 575) to be 
common in the oriental islands ; and an instance is mentioned 
when the Portuguese were imposed won by it. 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 275 

III. — Idolftiiy and Cruelty of the Japanese. 
The idolaters of Caihay, of Manji, and of these isles, 
haye all a uniform worship ; their idols have heads re- 
spectiyely of the dog, the hog, the sheep, and various other 
animals. Some have a head and four &ces, others three 
heads, one in the proper place, and one on each shoulder. 
Certain images haye four, ten, and even a thousand 
handsy and these last are held in peculiar reverence. 
When the Christians ask them why they form idols in 
80 strange a manner, they reply, — ^ Our ancestors left 
them to us, and we will leave them to our children." 
The actions of these heings are so various and diaholical, 
that they must not he mentioned in this hook, because 
it would be a wicked thing in Christians to read them.* 
I shall only mention, that any idolater of these isles, 
when he captures an enemy, who cannot procure a 
ransom in money, invites his friends, who cook and eat 
the prisoner, reckoning his flesh the most delicate food 
that can be obtained, f 

IV. — Sea of China, and numerous Island84: 
You must know, that the gulf containing this island 

* The religion of Boodh, Ions the most popular in China, has 
also been extensiyely diffused through Japan, so that the super- 
stitions of the two countries are correctly represented as simi- 
lar. The deformed and multiform idols, either native or intro- 
daeed from India, are also common. Thunberg mentions many 
in the temj^es at Miaco, each brandishing from twenty to forty- 
six arms. 

f This report, though probably quite unfounded, is not un- 
likely to have arisen during the imbittered war waged between 
the Tartars and Japanese. 

X Bamnsio begins this chapter thus : ** Departing from the 
port of Zai-tnn, and sailing a westerly course inclining to the 
south, for 1500 miles, you pass the gulf named Keinan, the 
navigation along the northern shore of which occupies two 
mon^. It bounds the southern part of Manji, and then 
approaches the countries of Arica, Toloman, and many others 
auready mentioned." Mr Marsden admits that the period of 
two months is too large, and that the numerous and distant 
coasts mentioned in the chapter are improperly stated as within 
the golf, whereas they evidently include all those belonging 
to the Indian archipelagiv' £[^tner of these errors appears in 



276 VOYAGE THROtTGH THB INDIAN SBASj 

is called that of Zin, meaning in their language the sea 
opposite to ManjL According to skilful and intelligent 
mariners, who have made the Yoyage, it contains 7448 
isles, mostly inhabited. In all these there grows no tree 
which is not agreeably firagrant, and also useful, being 
equal or superior in size to the lignum aloes. They 
produce also many and yarious spices, including pepper 
white like snow, as well as the black. They yield also 
much gold, and various other wonderful and costly pro- 
ductions;*' but they are very distant and difficult to 
reach. The mariners of Zai-tun and ELin-sai, who visit 
them, gc^n indeed great profits ; but they spend a year 
on the voyage, going in winter, and returning in the 
summer ; for the wind in these seasons blows only from 
two different quarters, one of which carries them thither, 
and the other brings them back.t But this conntiy u 
immensely distant from India. You may observe, too, 
that though the sea be called Zin, it is really the ocean, 
just as we say the sea of England, the sea of Rochellc^ 
The great khan has no power over these islands. Now 
let us return to Zai-tun, and resume our narrative. 

y — Of Cianba, and Expedition thither. 

On leaving that port, and sailing west and somewhat 
south-west 1500 miles, you reach a country named Cian- 

our text, taken from the early editions. The mention, however, 
of Keinan (evidently Hai-nan) shows some kind of imormation 
in the person who inserted the passa^ in Ramusio. 

* The number stated is doubtless tanciful and exaggerated ; 
yet when we consider the various groups composing we orien- 
tal archipelago, — many consisting of numerous islet8,->the 
whole amount must be yery great. They are. as here justly 
noticed, productive beyond any other part of the world in aro- 
matic and odoriferous plants, also very rich in gold. 

t The distance would not be yery formidable to a British mar- 
iner, but is otherwise to the ruder Chinese navigator ; while this 
sea, too, is tempestuous and dangerous. The junks still perform 
only one vojrage in the year ; and, as here correctly stated, 
sail in the winter with the north-east monsoon, and i^tum in 
summer with the south-west one.— Marsden, p. 58*2. 

X The object seems here to be, to distinguish the ocean and 
its branches from a great lake or enclosed sea, like the Caspian. 
In Ramusio we have the Egean Seai instead of that of RocheUe. 



AUD HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN AfilA. 277 

ba,* which is very rich and extensive. The people are 
idolaters, have a language of their own, and a king, who 
pays tribute to the great khan, but only in fine elephants 
peculiar to the oountiy. That monarch, seeking to 
subdue hun, sent, in 1278, one of his barons with many 
men, horse and foot, who began to lay waste the country. 
The sovereign, who was very aged and much afraid 
of such powerful warriors, did not venture to engage 
them on the open plain, remaining secure in strong cities 
and fortresses ; but all the lands and houses were wasted 
and destroyed. Grieved at the desolation of the terri- 
tory, he sent messengers, who said to the great khan, 
** Sir, the King of Cianba salutes you as his liege lord, 
and states himself to be a man of great age, who has long 
preserved his kingdom in peace. He offers to be your 
vassal, and pay a liberal tribute in elephants, and be- 
seeches that your baron and army will cease to ravage 
his kingdom." The khan, having heard this message, 
took pity upon him, and ordered his general to with- 
draw, and conquer another country ; and he has ever 
since received this tribute of the largest and most 
beautiful elephants.t In this kingdom, no handsome 
girl can be married till the king sees her, when, if 
pleased, he takes her to wife ; otherwise, he gives her 
money, with which she can be married to a nobleman. 
In 1285, when I, Marco Polo, was there, the king had 
326 sons and daughters, of whom 150 were men that 



* Ziamba, Ramusio. This is eyidently Tsiompa, called also 
Gampa, a maritime country between Cochin-china and Cam- 
boia, and which, projecting beyond the former, terminates the 
deep ffulf of whicn itself, Tonquin, and Southern China, are the 
boun&ries. 

jr It is sufficiently evident, even from our author's narrative, 
which was doubtless that current at the court of Kublai, that 
the issue of this expedition was the reverse of triumphant, and 
that the emperor piuaied such lenient terms solely because he 
could not push his demands farther. It appears by Chinese 
history, that the war was still more disastrous than is here re- 
presentod, their army being closely hemmed in, and with dif- 
ficulty effecting its retreat. — Marsden, p. 588. In the Crusca 
MS. the tribute is said to have consisted of twenty elephants. 



278 VOYAGE THROUGH THB INDIAN SEAfi^ 

could carry arms. Besides elephants, the country abounds 
in lignum aloes, and the wood called ehony,* which is 
very hlack, used in making chess-boards and writing- 
desks. I now proceed to a great island named Java. 

VI.— The Island of Java. 

Departing from Cianba, and going south and south- 
east 1500 miles, you come to this island. Good mari- 
ners, who know it intimately, describe it as the largest 
in the world, with a circuit of more than 8000 miles. The 
people are subject to a powerful king, are idolaters, and 
pay no tribute to any other prince. The territory is 
very rich, yielding pepper, nutmegs, galang% cubebs, 
cloves, and all the richest of spices. Many merdiants 
from Zai-tun and Manji come and carry on a great and 
profitable traffic. Its treasure also is so immense, that 
it can scarcely be estimated.t On accotmt of the long 
and difficult navigation, the great khan never could 
acquire dominion over it. 

VII. — Kingdom of Lochac. 

Leaving this island, and sailing between south and 
south-west 700 miles, you find two isles, a large and a 

* Elephants abound in all the countries between India and 
Cliina, and Mr Marsden quotes the Flora Cocbin-chinensis 
for the copious supply of ebony, and its adaptation to orna- 
mental furniture. 

t The dimensions here assigned are much greater than those 
of Java Proper ; whence Zurla contends that Borneo is the 
island described ; but Count Boni seems to state sufficient reasons 
against this opinion. I incline, however, decidedly to concur with 
a suggestion slightlY made by Mr Marsden, that the ^reat Java 
of our traveller included both these islands. It is impossible 
otherwise to make even an approach to the dimensions here 
stated, and the calling SumatraLt/^/^ Java would be preposterous. 
It is also verv unlikely that he should have omitted aU mention 
of Borneo, wnich lay so completely in his way. The pepper and 
other spices were evidently procured in Java Proper, including, 
indeed, several that are raised in the Moluccas and other islau«U 
to the eastward ; but Java has always been the chief mart, 
where the Chinese apparently found them assorted for sale. 
The great abundance of gold (meant by treasure) could only 
be found in Borneo. 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 279 

small, called Sondur and Condur.* Departing thence, 
and going south-east still 500 miles, you find a very 
extensiye proyince named Lochac.t The people are 
subject only to a native king, are idolaters, with languages 
of tiieir own. They are tributary to no power, being so 
situated that no invader can reach their land ; otherwise 

* These appear evidently to be Pnlo Condore, a small group 
off the coast of Camboia, and a oommon rendezvous of vessels 
naviefttin^ these seas. But there is an extraordinary error in 
the cureetion S. S. W., which, instead of bringing a ship from 
Java hither, would carry it into the heart of the Southern 
Ocean. It is found alike in the earliest editions and in Ram- 
asio. The Basle gives no direction ; and Muller, intimating 
no difforence, seems to imply the same in the Berlin MS. m 
Pij^no ; but I suspect the learned editor has neglected the col> 
lation, as the Museum MS. and the printed edition agree in 
niitlHngr it south-wost. I havc no doubt Mr Marsden points out 
the real eause. Java was not in the line of the voyage, but de- 
scribed, as indeed is pretty distinctl}r intimated, from the report 
of mariners at Tsiompa. Having given the description, he re- 
turns to that country and reports the trip thence to Pulo 
Condore, which is exactly in tne direction of south-west. In 
Pipino, both MS. and printed, the expression is : '* Dimissa 
insula Java ;" which can quite bear the sense, *' Ceasing to 
treat of ;" and probably a term of this import was in the ori- 
ginal, which the other copvists and translators have misunder- 
stood, and made it to imply departure from, &c. 

f The distance in Ramusio is fiftv miles ; and Mr Marsden 
c(mcludes that it must be Camboia, tne capital of which is by an 
early writer called Loech. But all the best editions, — the 
French, Paris Latin, Crusca, Pucci, and Pipino, make the dis- 
tance 500 miles, so that the country reached must be the eastern 
coast of what is now termed Malacca. There is, however, the 
great error of making the direction south-ea«/ instead of south- 
wesi ; and this is common to the early editions and to Ramusio. 
It is probably a mistake in copying bad manuscript. Sceloc 
and Ghurbin sound very unlike ; yet the number of letters is the 
same ; a bad G might be mistaken for S, and h for /. Gryueus, 
who ^ves no direction in the precedinjg route, states here the 
right one. south-west. It is the same in the French edition of 
1556. The learned editor of the Novus Orbis might, from other 
information, perceive this mistake. ' Pipino, too, having made 
the route to the two islands south-west, intimates here its 
continuance iuUra quas ad quingenta milliaria est Lorach). 
This correctness of tne middle editions, while both the early 
and late ones are erroneous, appears curious. Pipino trans- 
lated at a time when he mignt have access to excellent MSS.; 
and being a learned man, might interpret them better than the 
other copyists or translators. 



280 YOYAOB THROUGH THE INDIAN SBAS, 

it would soan be subdued by the great khan. Brazil- 
wood is in abundance, and gold in almost incredible 
quantities. There are elephants and other animals for 
hunting ; and from this place is derived all the porcelain 
that is circulated as money through the provinces now 
described. I have only to add, that the country is diffi- 
cult to reach ; the king himself does not wi^ to be 
visited by strangers, and thus no one knows his treasure 
and condition.* 

VIII. — Pentam and other Islands. 

When a man goes 500 miles southward from Lochac, 
he finds an island named Pentam, very wild, all covered 
with odoriferous woods. Thence he navigates between 
these two islands about sixty miles, drawing only four 
paces of water, so that large vessels in the passage must 
remove their rudder. He then goes on south-east 
about thirty miles, and reaches an island also named 
Pentam, with the noble and rich city Malauir, having 
much traffic in spices and other articles. The people 
have a king and languages of their own,+ 

* This country, as aboye obseryed, must have been the 
easteru coast of Malacca, which the Malays had only re- 
cently reached, and not yet fiyen their name. It is diffi- 
cult to find one resembling Locnao, unless it be in Ligor, the 
seat formerly of a great trade ; ch and g being always inter- 
changed. The coast is still little known or ireqnented, and 
from the same causes, being out of the common route of navi- 
gation, and the people very rude. Gold dust is mentioned as 
an export from all its havens. Elephants' teeth are albo 
noticeu, and timber is plentiful (Milburn's Oriental Commerce, 
vol. ii. p. 320-341). The only mistake appears to be about the 
shells used for money (cowries), which are found on the acya- 
oent coast of Borneo ; but perhaps a quantity of imported one^ 
had been here seen. The words ** for money " are wanting in 
the French, — probably an omission, as the Crusca has them, 
llamusio mentions '* a fruit called berchi, in size resembUng a 
lemon, and of delicious flavour." This is wanting in the early 
editious, and Mr Marsden cannot find any confirmation of it ; 
generally, however, the fruits of the country are said to be good. 

t The uavigatiou in this chapter is iutncate ; vet I think it 
may be traced. The first 500 miles is evidently along the coast 
of Malacca, terminating at the island of Bintang. The next 
(>0 must then have been through the Straits of Sincapore, which 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 281 

IX.— Island of Little Jaya (Sumatra). 

Departing from Pentam, and going 130miles south-east, 
you find the island of Java the Lesser ; hut notwithstand- 
ing this title, it is ahove two thousand miles in circuit, 
with eight kingdoms, and the same numher of crowned 
sovereigns.* I will tell you the whole truth ahout it. 
The people are idolaters, and each nation has a lan- 
guage of its own. There is a very great abundance of 
treasure and costly spices, as well as of lignum aloes 
and many other woods unknown in our country. What 

Mr Horsburgh (yol. ii. p. 177-182) describes as difficult, and in 
many parts very shallow. He might then come to the island 
of Pantjoor. acnacent to Sumatra, and which he also names 
Pentam. Possibly, however, it might be Batang, and the 30 
miles be along its south-western coast. We haye seen our 
anthor^s fondness for identifying names that are at all similar. 
Ramosio's text is here yerv defective and confused, rendering 
it impNOSsible for Mr Marsaen to form any idea of the course. 
He nuUces the 60 miles south-east, and the 30 without direction ; 
and he has nothing to show that there are two Pentams. 

• The name oi Lesser Java is evidently given, thoi^h it is 
admitted with no strict propriety, to the large island oi Suma- 
tra. Its extent, its products, its people, are described with 
very great correctness. The local details are more difficult to 
trace, as the author has given neither distances nor directions, 
names are much altered, and its turbulent little kingdoms are 
liable to such constant revolutions, that the most powerful in 
one aee ceases to exist in another. Yet I cannot out wonder 
that Mr Marsden (p. 600) should pass a general censure against 
onr traveller's descripttion, and prefer to it the meagre one of 
Barbosa. I am convinced, however, that the learned editor 
has misconceived the whole scope of this voyage, which he sup- 
poses to have been through the Straits of Mtuacca, and along 
the northern coast of the island. It appears to me, on the con- 
trary, that they went through the Straits of Sunda, and then 
along the western side. This was, no doubt, a circuitous 
route : yet many motives might bias them. It appears from 
Mr Horsburgh (vol. ii. p. 139) that the Malacca channel is 
dangerous to those unacquainted with it, as the Chinese were. 
Knowing the island evidently by way of Java, they might pre- 
fer, the route familiar to them. We find them setting out with 
a course of 130 miles in the best editions, and 100 in others, to 
the south-east; a strange aberration from a track lying due 
north-west through the Malacca channel. One or two errors 
of direction have oeen lately observed ; but these are rare, and 
the versions in that case diner ; but here they all agree. Other 
and perhaps more decided proofs will be developed in examin- 
ing the details. 



282 YOYAGB THROUGH THE INDIAN SEAfly 

will appear very wonderful is, that this isle lies so far 
south, that the north star is never seen. Now I will 
tell you of each kingdom hy itself. 

X.— Kingdom of Ferlech. 

In that of Ferlech are Saracen merchants, who come 
with their vessels, and have converted the people to the 
law of Mohammed ; hut only in the city, for those in 
the mountains live like hrutes, eating the flesh of men 
and of the vilest animals. They worship various objects, 
particularly the first thing they meet firfter rising in the 
morning.* 

XI.— Kingdom of Basman. 

Leaving Ferlech, you enter Ba8man,f a kingdom by 
itself, whose people have a language of their own, and 
live without law, like beasts. They own the supremacy 
of the khan, but pay him no tribute, because the great 
distance prevents his troops from reaching them ; yet 
they sometimes make him a present of strange objects. 
Here are wild elephants, and unicorns not much smaller, 
being double the size of a buffalo. They have a large 

* M];Marsden, obserring that the Arabs convert the Malay 
p into f, considers this place as Perlak, at the north-eastern 
point of the island. Yet Tanjong Perlak is merely Diamond 
Point, nor is there any record of a kingdom or even city 
bearing the name. Our views would place it about the middle 
of the eastern coast, particularly in the kingdom of Siak. and 
the name is not very unlike, though certainly with no striking 
resemblance. The cannibals are the Battas, inhabiting the in- 
terior of the country, and who have always borne that reputa- 
tion. ^ The Saracen religion was about this time established in 




Pa9em, a short distance west of Diamond Point. Count Boni, 
urging that the sovereignties could not well be so crowded to- 
getner, supposes Pasaman to be on the western coast. Our 
views would point to Pasaumah, in the interior from Palem- 
bang, near indeed to the western coast^ yet communicating by 
a large river with the eastern, to which its power, formerly 
greater, may at this time have extended. On the whole, there 
is certainly nothing decisive in these two stations ; but per- 
haps the next may be otherwise. 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 283 

• 

black horn in the middle of the forehead, and beneath 
the tongue sharp prickles, which can inflict severe 
wounds. Their heads resemble that of the wild boar, 
yet they carry them bent to the earth. They are very 
ugly, and fond of wallowing among mire.* It is not 
tme, as asserted among us, that they allow themselves 
to be taken by a virgin, but quite the contrary. There 
are here good and serviceable falcons, black like crows ; 
also a prodigious number of monkeys of various forms 
and habits. But you must know that those who bring 
the little men from India practise a great deception. I 
assure you the figures to which they give that name are 
manufactured in this island in the following manner : — 
There is a species of small monkey, with a face resembling 
the human, which they catch, skin, and shave off all the 
hair except on the beard and chin ; having then moulded 
them into a human semblance, they dry and preserve them 
with camphor and other articles. But it is a gross de- 
ception ; for neither in India, nor in any other country, 
however savage, are there men so snudl as these pre- 
tended ones.t Now let us tell of a kingdom called 
Samara. 

XII^— Kingdom of Samara. 

When a man departs from Basman, he finds the 
kingdom of Samara, in which I myself, Marco Polo, 

* llie rhinoceros, an animal then probably unknown in Ea- 
rope, is here described with considerable accuracy. We may ob- 
serve, that the southern part of the east coast, where we suppose 
onr traveller now to be, is described on Mr Marsden's map as 
fenny, and subject to inundation ; the situation best fittea for 
this animal, which would be out of place amid the mountainous 
tracts in the north. 

f We have here a curious mention of a fraud practised on our 
ignorant ancestors. The belief of a nation of pigmies in the east 
was prevalent in that age, and is countenanced m the travels of 
Odenc and Mandeville. The former describes them on report ; 
the latter avers that he saw them. The merchants, it ap- 
pears, took advantage of this delusion, by preparing and selling, 
probably at high pnces, specimens of this pretended variety of 
mankind. Our traveller's good sense and accurate observ^atiou 
enabled him to expose the trick. 



284 TOYAGE THROUGH THE INDIAN BEA89 

remained five months, because the bad weather did 
not allow us to sail. Here neither the north star nor the 
constellation of the Greater Bear appeared. The people 
are savage idolaters, governed by a rich and powerfixl 
king, and owning a nominal submission to tiie great 
khan. During our stay, we landed and erected castles 
of wood and twigs, where we remained through the fear 
of these wicked men, who eat their fellow-creatures.* 
The best fishes in the world are found here. The people 
have no wheat, living on rice ; and they make no wine. 
You must know there is a kind of tree, of which they 
cut a branch, and place a pot beneath, when, daring the 
night, the vessel is filled, and very good wine is thus 
produced, both red and white. The tree resembles a 

* Mr Marsden considers this place as Sama-langa, a port on 
the northern coast, and Count JBoni appears to acauiesce. I 
am convinced, on the contrary, that it is the Bay of oamanffka 
(Samanca, Horsburgh), at the southern extremity ; and uiis 

Position, it is appr^ended, forms a main key of the voyase. 
t is mentioned that not only the north star, but ^ose m uie 
Wain or Greater Bear had become invisible. This last could not 
be strictly true, but of course th^y were seen more partially the 
farther south he went. At all events, the disappearance of these 
northern stars is noticed more emphatically, and as taking place 
to a greater extent, than in the middle part of the island, oppo- 
site tne Straits of Sincapore. Does not this imply that he was 
now on the southern coast, in about 5° S. lat. not on its opposite 
one. above 10° northward 1 Again, in turning the western point 
of this bav, he would come upon the ocean, and encounter m all 
its force the north-west monsoon, which, from October to April, 
blows with great violence, accompanied vnth thunder and hght- 
ning (HorsDurgh, p. 47). If they arrived at the beginning: of 
this period, the detention is easily accounted for. But this 
monsoon blows chiefly south of the equator ; indeed, both Mr 
Horsburgh (Introd. p. 4), and Mr Wright (Nautical Directory, 
p. 17), consider its range as not extenaing beyond 12** S. and 
4° N. lat. It could not therefore reach the northern coast of this 
great island, though stated to blow with peculiar force on the 
western. Mr Marsden (History of Sumatra, p. 297) describes 
the shores of this bay as occupied by a ferocious people named 
Drangabung who had been the terror of all theur neighbours 
till lately, when their villages were destroyed. The Crusca 
gives the name Samarcha, which comes still nearer to Samara. 
There is thus a concurrence of circumstances showing this to 
have been the port described, and, consequently, the expedition 
to have passed through the Straits of Sunda. 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 285 

small date-palm, with four branches, and when it ceases 
to give out more wine, they water its root, which causes 
it to produce again.* They have great quantities of 
very laige Indian nuts, and eat all kinds of flesh, good 
and bad. Now let us tell you of a kingdom which is 
named Dagroian. 

XIII.— Kingdom of Dagroian. 

This kingdom has a language of its own ; the people 
are very savage, subject to a king, but owning the su- 
premacy of the great khan.t They are savage idolaters, 
and have the following very bad custom : — ^When a man 
fiills sick, his relations send for the magicians, and inquire 
If he will recover, as these deceivers profess to know, 
by their enchantments and idols, whether he will live or 
die* In the latter case, the friends send for persons who 
place something over hismouth,by which he is sufibcated. 
They then cook the body, and all the kinsmen come 
and eat his flesh, taking care not to leave the small- 
est portion; which they believe would breed worms, 
and thus seriously afflict the soul of the deceased. 
They next collect the bones, and place them in a 
laige and beautiful chest, which they caiTy to caverns 
in the mountains, beyond the reach of wild beasts 
or any other injury. When they take any man be- 
longing to another country, who cannot redeem him- 
self, they kill and eat him in like manner. This is a 
very bad practice. | I must now, however, tell you some- 
thing of Lambri. 

* Mr Marsden (Historv, p. 88) mentions palm-trees, of 
several species, from which the natiyes, in the manner de- 
scribed, extract the liquor called toddv, which in a few hours 
fermenw and becomes intoxicating. The cocoa-nut, mentioned 
in the following sentence, is equally plentiful. 

i* Dra^oyan, Ramusio. — Mr Marsden supposes this to bo 
Indragin, on the eastern coast. On the contrary, we look 
to the western^ where the name most similar appears to be Ayer 
Aje (Ayer Rajah or Indrapour, Milbum), in about 2° S. lat., 
and near the highest mountains of the island. 

t Mr Marsden has been able to find no confirmation of this 
pecnliarly barbarous custom. The Battas, howeyer, a numerous 



286 YOTAOE THROUGH THE INDIAN 8EAB, 

XIV.— Kingdom of LambrL 
Lambri is a kingdom having a sovereign of its own, 
who owns the supremacy of the khan. The people are 
all idolaters ; they have a great abundance of camphor 
and other spices ; likewise brazil-wood.* This they sow, 
and when it has grown to a little twig, they transplant 
it to another place, and at the end of three years 
root it up.t We brought some of this seed to Venice, 
but it did not spring at all on account of the cold. I 
will tell you another very wonderful thing ; for there 
are men in this kingdom who have tails like dogs, larger 

people in the interior, are believed to eat the fle8h,not onlv of their 
enemiesjbut of condemned criminals. It appears also ( Miursden's 
Sumatra, p. 388), that at the death of relations, a ^eat feast is 
held, ana numerous animals killed, the blood of wnich is par- 
tially sprinkled oyer the coflta. A groundwork is thus afford- 
ed, which a credulous fancy might work up into the story here 
narrated. 

* Mr Marsden proceeds on the supposition of this being Jambi, 
on the eastern coast, yet repeatecQy admitting that it has no 
correspondence except the imperfect one of name. He himself 
alludes to what we must agree with Count Boni in considering 
the real site. De Barros, the early historian of the Portuffuese 
conquests, gives a list of kingdoms in their order : Daya, Lam- 
bri, Achem, and others. The first and last of these being at the 
north-west extremity of the island, Lambri must be in the same 
quarter. It might seem, indeed, to be between them ; but the 
historian concludes thus : '* Barros, Quinchel, and Mancopa, 
which falls upon Lambri, which is near to Daya, the first that 
we named." This distinctly implies that Lambri was more 
distant than Acheen, and hence farther south than Daya. Ac- 
cordingly, in about 4° N. lat. Delisle's map has, in conspicuous 
characters^ Labou. Mr Marsden has here Nalabu. whicn he de- 
scribes (History, p. 185-188) as the seat of a considerable trade. 
Mr J. Arrowsmith has it Analaboo ; still evidently the same with 
the Labou of Delisle. and, as I apprehend, the Lambri of De 
Barros and our traveller. Now his fieet was here, since, in the 
chapter after next, it is mentioned as thence finally settmg sail. 
This is surely a strong confirmation of the voyage being along 
the western coast ; for had their tedious detention been on the 
northern, it was little likely they should then sail 100 milet» 
southward, without any object, and merely to return. 

+ Ramusio represents this process as taking place with an- 
other vegetable resembling the orazil-wood, which Mr Marsden 
conjectures to be indigo. Our text, taken from the early edi- 
tions, makes the plantation to be of the brazil itself. Incugo i& 
afterwards descnbed under its own name. 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 287 

than a palm, and who are covered with hair. They 
remain in the mountains, never visiting the towns.* 
There are unicorns, with various heasts and hirds for 
hunting. Now let us depart and tell you of Fansur. 

XV. — Kingdom of Fansur. 

The people of Fansur are idolaters, have a king, and 
nominally acknowledge the great khan. Here grows 
the best canfara fansuriy which is much more valued 
than any other ; indeed it sells for its weight in gold.t 
Wine is drawn from trees, in the manner described 
above : another wonder is, that, in this province, meal 
is obtained from them. These are large, the bark thin, 
and the interior all full of meal. The inhabitants take 

* It is rather mortifying, after Marco had repelled one fable 
of this description, that he should have given heed to another 
so similar. Mr Marsden mentions reports he had heard of 
sava^ men covered with lon^ hair, ana shunning all commu- 
nication with the other inhabitants. I cannot help thinking it 
▼erv probable, that the orang-outang or pon^o of Borneo mav 
loTK m some wild mountainous recesses of this adjacent island. 
Count Boni mentions, that Carletti, whose travels he had seen 
in MS., states his having heard a story exactly similar to this 
from his Chinese pilots. 

+ Facfor, Fiptno, Fanfur, Ramusio. Mr Marsden sup- 
poses this to be Kampar, on the eastern coast, in which 
the Itahan editor seems to acquiesce. I cannot but think 
the real site perfectly evident, though in a very different quar- 
ter; for it must be the district which yields that very fine 
camphor, for which the island is celebrated, bearing twenty 
times the price of that of Japan. This is completely ascer- 
tained to be in the interior from Barus or Baroos, on the west- 
em coast, whence it is called over the east Camphor-Bants 
(CravTfurd's Indian Archipelago, vol. i. p. 517). The very 
similar expression in the text seems to show that the two 
places, though vdth names somewhat dissimilar, are in fact the 
same. Mbf^^ ^^^ quotes from Abulfeda the notice of Fansur 
as distnEoished for this article^ named Fansurensis, Accord- 
ing to Captain Low, it is found 250 miles N. from Ayer Bongey, 
on the western coast only, being scarcely ever seen on the op- 
posite side of the mountains (Journal Roval Asiatic Society, 
vol. ii. p. 45). It will be observed that the neet had sailed on to 
Lambn, whence in the next chapter we shall see it departing. 
It was therefore by a detached excursion, or by diUgent in- 
quiry, that Marco gained his information respecting this im- 
portant seat of commerce. 



288 VOYAGE THROUGH THE INDIAN BSA8» 

it out, and make a very good paste, of which we oflen 
ate.* Having told you of the kingdoms in this part of 
the isle, I will say nothing of the two others, hecause 
we did not visit them. I will now, therefore, go to 
another small island called 6avenispola.t 

XVI.— Islands of Neouyeran and Angaman (Nicobar and 

Andaman). 

Departing from Java and the kingdom of Lamhri, 
and travelling northward about 150 miles, you find 
two islands, one of which is called Necuveran. j; The 
people have no king, and live like brutes, both men and 
women going quite naked. They are idolaters, and 
have forests of noble and valuable trees ; among which 
are sandal- wood, the Indian nut, clove, brazil, and many 
others. 

Angaman is a very lai^ island, without a king ; the 
people idolaters, resembling savage beasts ; indeed they 
are a most extraordinary race, having a head, teeth, and 
jaws like those of a mastiff dog. They are very cruel, 
and eat all the men of every other nation whom they 

* This is manifestly the sago, a food now well known and 
valued in Europe. Ramusio has a passage stating that the 
wood is as hard as iron, and sinks when thrown into water; that 
it is capable of being split eyenly from one end to the other, 
like the bamboo ; that the natives make it into lances, which, 
when hardened in the fire, are superior to those of iron. This 
Mr Marsden obseryes to oe quite an erroneous statement, as 
applied to the sago, being applicable only to a palm of a quite 
different species. There is not the least trace in the early 
editions or such a paragraph, which has evidently been inter- 
polated by some inaccurate observer. 

t In the Crusca, Nenispola. It is curious that this island is 
never again mentioned, and occurs only in it and thip. French 
edition. Count Boni suggests that it may be PulowtgL 

X In Ramusio, it is added :— '* The other An^ma^ This 
is evidently interpolated by some one who was ignorant of the 
latter being too distant to admit of its being the island meant, 
which is evidently another of the Nicobar group plainly de- 
signated under the name of Necuveran. The ruae yet harm- 
less character of the people, and the noble trees with which 
the soil is clothed, are fully confirmed by good subsequent 
authorities. 



AMD HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 289 

can seize.* They have great abundance and variety of 
spices, with fruits di£ferent from ours, but live chiefly on 
flesh and milk. Having told of these various people, I 
will now mention another idand. 

XVII.— Island of Seilan. 

When you depart from Angaman, and sail about a 
thousand miles westward, a little to the south, you 
reach the island of Seilan,t the very best of its size 
in the world. It is 2400 miles in circuit ; yet I must 
tell you that anciently it was larger, being 8600, as 
appears by the old maps of the mariners on that sea ; but 
the north wind blows with such violence, that a great 
part has been carried away by the water.;]: The people 
have a king called Sendemain, and are tributary to none ; 
they are idolaters, and go quite naked, except a small 
covering round the middle. They have no grain but 
rice^ living on it and on flesh. I will now describe 
the most precious thing in the world ; for here are 
noble and beautiful rubies, which can be procured no- 
where else ; also the sapphire, the topaz, the amethyst, 
and various other precious stones. The king has the 
most beautiful ruby that ever was or can be in the whole 
world. It is the most splendid object on earth, and 
seems to glow like fire ; it is of such value as money 

* The group pf the Andamans is here manifestly pointed out. 
All accounts agree as to the ferocious and intractable disposition 
of the inhabitants ; Mr Colebrook considers them as perhaps the 
least civilized race in the world. It is even strongly reported, 
thoni^ seemingly not proyed, that they are guilty of cannibalism. 
The resemblance to the canine race is too strongly stated ; yet 
they belongto that of the Papuas or oriental ne^oes, whose ge- 
nerally dBflpmed visase, witn a projection in the lower part of 
the &ce^f^es a consi(&rable simiJanty to the animal mentioned. 

f This is evidently the well-known island of Ceylon, and 
both the distance and direction are here extremely correct. 

i The maps of Ptolemy, to which the Arab nayi^tors were 
aocustomed to pay great regard, represent the island of Tapro- 
bane under very exaggerated dimensions. Finding these erro- 
neous, yet not yrilling to believe him mistaken, they probably 
reconciled the difference by the unfounded theory stated in 
the text. 



290 VOYAGE THROUGH THE INDIAN BEAB, 

could scarcely purchase.* The great khan sent his 
messengers to him, wishing to huy it, and ofieriug 
the value of a city. The monarch replied, that he had 
received it from his ancestors, and would for no earthly 
coDsideration part with it. The people are not men- 
at-arms, hut un warlike and cowardly ; when they need 
soldiers in war, they send for those of another country, 
commonly for Saracens. 

XVIII.— Origin of the Boodhist Religion in Seilaa.t 

I have also to tell you that in this island there is a 
great mountain, of wMch the rocks are so broken that it 
can be ascended only by chains of iron suspended, where- 
by men may mount to the summit. Here, aoooiding 
to the Saracens, is the monument of Adam our first 
father ;| but the idolaters consider it as that of Seigamon 
Borcam. They describe this last as the first man whose 
image they worshipped, and as the best that ever lired 
in their country. He was son to a great, rich, and 
powerful king, yet refused to succeed to the throng or 
to attend to any worldly concern. The monarch, who 
had no other son, was both grieved and angry. He made 
him large promises, offering even to re»gn, and raise 
him immediately to the throne ; but the youth would 
listen to no such proposal. The &ther was like to 

* Ceylon is described as peculiarly distinguished for the num- 
ber and Yariety of its precious stones, but not, as our traveller 
represents, for their exoeUence. Rubies are particularly men- 
tioned in tne foremost place, and though they are usually small 
(Milbum, vol. ii. p. 360), there seems no improbability of some 
one very fine specimen havin/^ been found. Count Bom rofers to 
a notice of the present one m Haithon*s History of Armenia, 
ch. vi., a good and quite independent authority. 

t This chapter^ in the French, Crusca, and Ramnb, is in- 
troduced some time after, as giving particulars preYiously 
omitted. We have thought it more satisfactory, after the 
example of the Paris Latin, to introduce it here as its proper 
place. 

X The principal mountain in the island, and one of great 
altitude, was really named Adam's Peak by the Arabs, before 
the arrival of Europeans. It is of very difficult ascent ; and Mr 
Davy actually mentions the use of chains in reaching its sum- 
mit.— Marsden, p 671 



W HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 291 

>f grief, but bethought himself of a plan for bring- 
him back to the world. . He lodged him in a very 
palace, and appointed 80,000 beautiful damsels to 
3 and amuse him. The prince, however, remained in- 
ible to their seductions, and led a more virtuous and 
te life than before. Now his habits had been so re- 
3 that he had never seen a dead person, or one not per- 
y sound in his members. One day, happening to ride 
3s the path where a man lay dead, he was utterly 
lished, and asked of his attendants what that was. 
I being explained, he inquired if all men died, and 
g told they did so, he walked on, musing very 
ly. Some time after, he saw one unable to walk, 
with all his teeth decayed through extreme old age. 
ing asked, and being informed what that was, he 
Eured he would no longer remain in this evil region, 
would seek a place where men neither died nor 
r old. He left the palace, and journeyed into great 
trackless mountains, where he spent his whole life 
lously and chastely, observing rigid abstinence ; so 
had he been a Christian, he must have been a ver}- 
t saint. When he died, his corpse was carried to his 
er, who, on seeing the body of one whom he loved 
3r than himself, was grieved to the heart. He made 
[nage of him composed of gold and precious stones, 
the people of the country adored him as a god, and 
' say that he died eighty-four times, becoming first an 
hen a horse, then a dog, and various other animals ; 
that the eighty-fourth time he became a god, and they 
ihip him as their best and greatest. These were the 
idolaters, from whom all the others in Seilan 
3 descended. But I assure you, many from the 
b distant countries come hither on pilgrimage, as 
istians to the shrine of St James, and the monument 
his mountain is said to be that of the prince, whose 
1, hair, and skull were preserved. But the Sara- 
say that it is that of Adam, our first parent, 
knows which is right, but one cannot believe the 
T, for the Scriptures of our holy church assure us 



2&2 TOYAGB THROUGH THB INDIAN BEAM, 

that he died in another part of the world.* Now it 
happened that the great khan, hearing that the tomh of 
Adam, with the other ohjects mentioned, was <m this 
mountain, sent, in 1284, a numerona embaaqr* who 
travelled by land to the island of Seilan. They went 
to the king, and procured two of the grinding teeth, 
which were very large, also the hair, and the cap, of 
beautiful green porphyry. They then retamed, and 
sent notice to their sovereign of what they were bringing, 
when he ordered his subjects to go forth and meet these 
relics of our first &ther. All the citizens of Eambaln 
came out ; the chief men received the sacred objects, 
and brought them to his majesty, who welcomed them 
with great joy and reverence. I assure you, too, they 
found this cup to be of such virtue, that when food was 
introduced for one man, there would be enough for five ; 
and the great khan declared he had tried this, and found 
it the truth.t Now having told you truly all this his- 
tory, I will leave it and relate other things. 



* Ser^amon, in Ramusio Sogomon, is a oormption of Sa- 
kya-muni, a common appellation of Boodha, known as the chief 
object of veneration m Ceylon, as well as Burmah. Mr 
Marsden (p. 672), refers to an ** Account of the Ineama- 
tion of Buadha/' translated from the Burman by Mr Carey. 
In accordance with oar author, he is described as a young 
prince flying into the wilderness, and in vain tempted by his 
tather with every species of splendour, and particularly with 
female attractions, to return into the world. It is amnmng to 
observe how Marco, following the ideas of his age, is struck 
with admiration at the senseless ascetic life lea by this ob- 
ject of Indian idolatry. The doctrine of transmigration here 
alluded to, also characterizes that creed. The French edition 
in this part followed is more copious than that of Bamusio ; 
and such is frequently the case with the remainder of the narra- 
tive ; whereas the latter had hitherto contained osaally all the 
passages found in any other edition, with others peeoliar to 
Itself. 

t If, however, the modem inhabitants may be believed, the 
khan did not monopolize these precious relics. They still pre- 
serve in the great temple at Candy a tooth of that sacred per- 
sonage, in honour of which a splendid festival and procession 
are annually held.— Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. 
iii. p. 161. 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 293 

XIX. — Kingdoms of Maabar. 

When yon depart &om Seilan, and go westward about 
sixty miles,* yon come to the extensive province of Maabar, 
on tiie mainland. It is called India the Greater, and is 
indeed the noblest and richest country in the whole 
world,f In this province there are five kings, who are 
brothers, and the one that reigns here is called Sender- 
bandi Davar. The largest and finest of pearls are found 
in a gnlf between this continent and the island, having 
nowhere more than ten or twelve paces depth of water, 
and in some places only two. Vessels, large and small, 
resort thither from the beginning of April to the middle 
of May, and cast anchor in a place called Bettalar, about 
sixty miles out at sea ; they then go in boats and begin 
the fishery. Many merchants, formed into companies, 
hire and pay the men employed. They gave a tenth to 
the king, and a twentieth to the Abraiamain, who en- 
chants the fishes, depriving them of the power to injure 
the persons who dive under water for the pearls ; indeed 
he can enchant also all kinds of beasts and bii*ds. The 
charm, howevei", lasts only during the day ; at night the 

* This is exactly the distance from Aripo, the most north- 
easterly part of Ceylon, to the nearest part of the continent ; 
hut Mr Marsden, in msiking this remark, refuses to claim any 
credit on that ground for the author, on account of his alleged 
general want of precision on these points ; but we have en- 
deavonred to show that most of his supposed mistakes havo 
been in fkct those of his learned editor himself, or of the cor- 
rupt texts to which he had access. He imagines the port sailed 
from to be Columbo ; but gives no reason, nor can we discover 
any, for a locality which would convert Marco*s very accurate 
statement into one much the reverse. 

f Maabar must not be confounded with Malabar, though it 
has been so, and the latter term, in Ramusio's text, is errone- 
ously substituted. Signifying ^ the passage," it appears to 
ap]»nr to that chain of sand-oa&s and coral-reefs named Adam's 
Bnage by the Arabs, and Rama*s Bridge by the Hindoos. Mr 
Karsden has quoted several v^iters, both Arab and Indian, 
applying the term Mabar, or Maber. to this district, which ap- 
pears to include Tanjore and the Cfamatic. The term India, 
as we may observe more fully afterwards, was applied in that 
aeB generally to the southern countries or Asia, among which 
nindostan is justly distinguished as the greatest and finest. 



294 VOYAGE THROUGH THE INDIAN SBA8y 

animals enjoy fall liberty. When the men in the boats 
have found water four to twelve feet deep, they plunge to 
the bottom, and get shells called sea-oystersy and with- 
in whose flesh are found pearls of all sizes and shapes. 
These are brought up in very large quantities^ and dis- 
tributed over the world, — ^the king drawing from them 
a great revenue.* During the rest of the year they 
are not found here ; but at a place 800 miles distant, 
where they are taken from September to the middle of 
October. 

XX.— Hindoo Customs and Superstitions. 

Now, in all this province of Maabar, there is not a 
tailor, for the people go naked at every season. The 
air is always so temperate, that they wear only a 
piece of cloth round the middle. The king is dressed 
just like the othei's, except that his cloth is finer, t 
and he wears a necklace full set with rubies, sapphires, 
emeralds, and other precious stones, worth a great trea- 
sure. He has also suspended from his neck a silken 
cord, reaching a pace down, and containing 104 of the 
largest pearls and most valuable rubies. It is worn be- 
cause he repeats every day, morning and evening, 104 
prayers in honour of his idols. To this he is bound by 
his faith and religion, by the example and injunction of 
his ancestors. I He wears also round three parts both 

* This account of the place, the period, and the mode of 
taking the pearls, is accordant with the best modem observa- 
tions. The king still claims the same right, but prefers to make 
it available by farming the privilege to the mercluuits en- 
gaged. The operatives, however, are paid by shares of the 
produce. Among these the enchanters are considered as indis- 
pensable as ever, to secure the divers against the sharks, who 
are the ravenous fishes here alluded to. — Marsden, p. 627-630. 

t Mr Marsden quotes Sonnerat and Barthema in confirma- 
tion of this statement. We may add, that Dubois (Manners 
and Customs of India, 4to, pp. 204. 205) represents this as still 
the genuine Hindoo dress, thougn those connected with the 
Mohammedan courts have adopted from them in addition the 
turban and the muslin robe enveloping the person. 

X The use of such chaplets or rosaries, to accompany prayers, 
is common among the votaries of the Bramin and Booahist 
religions, as well as of the Catholic. According to Mr Mars- 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 295 

of his arms and legs, bracelets of gold, full of goodly 
stones and pearls. In short, the number of his jewels 
is surprising, being of more value than a handsome city, 
and no wonder, since they are all produced in his own 
dominions. No man is allowed to export either a pearl 
or stone of great value, but must produce it to him, 
and as he gives double its cost, they do so very willingly, 
whence he has collected so ample a store. Now I must 
tell you of other marvellous things : he has 500 wives ; 
and as soon as he sees a beautiful lady, takes and 
keeps her for himself.* He did the same in the case 
of a very handsome wife of his brother, who, being 
a prudent man, submitted, and did not quarrel on 
that account.t The king has certain faithful adherents, 
who attend him on horseback wherever he goes, and 
hold great commands under him ; nay, what is wonder- 
fdl, they serve him both in tliis and in the other world. 
Whenever he dies, and his body is thrown into a 
great fire, these vassals throw themselves after him, 
that they may accompany and serve him still in the 
fature state.j; It is the national custom that, when 
the king dies, and leaves a great treasure, his son will 
not spend it for the world ; saying, I have all my 
£EithePs kingdom and people, why should I not support 
myself as he did. Thus the treasure collected in this 
kingdom becomes immense.§ 

den's best information, the number of beads is 108, — a small 
discrepancy. In Ramnsio (only), it is added that the daily 
prayer consists in the repetition of the word pacauca. 

* Ramnsio says, '* at least a thousand '^ but the present 
number only is stated in the French, Crusca, and other early 
versions, and is surely amply sufficient. 

*f< In Kamusio, this forbearance is ascribed to the interposi- 
tion of their mother ; which, in the early versions, is introduced 
elsewhere, and in more general terms. 

X The examples of the servants of Indian princes burning 
themselves along with their masters, are stated by Mr Marsden 
to be numerous ; and he quotes from Barbosa and the early 
Arabians instances of its oeing done by a previous voluntary 
engagement. 

I The accumulation of treasure, so rare in Europe, is a gen- 
eral policy of oriental princes. 



296 VOYAGE THROUGH THE INDIAN SEAS, 

In this country no horses are reared, and hence the 
greater part of ilie revenue is employed in obtaining 
them from foreign regions. The merchants of Chinno8» 
of Quisci, of Dufar, of Soer, and of Aden, whose proyinces 
contain many steeds of fine quality, purchase, em- 
bark, and bring them to the king and his four princely 
brothers, selling them for 500 sagi of gold, worth more 
than 100 marcs of silver. I assure you, this monarch 
buys annually more than 2000, but, by the end of the 
year, they are all dead, from wanting the medicine 
necesaaxy to keep them in health. The merchants who 
import them wish this to happen, and are therefore 
careful not to introduce the cure.* Another custom 
is, that when a man has committed a crime, and is con- 
demned to die, he expresses a wish to devote himself in 
honour of a certain divinity, to which the king consents. 
Then his relations and friends place him on a wagon, 
giving him twelve knives, and lead him through the 
city, calling out, " This brave man is about to kill 
himself for the love of the great idol." When they 
come to the place of execution, he takes a knife and 
cries aloud, " I kill myself for the love of such a deity." 
He then, with different knives, strikes himself in one 
arm, then in the other, next in the stomach, and so on 
till he expires, when the relations bum his body with 
great joy.t I must tell you another custom of this 

* Mr Marsden finds undoubted testimonies, f^om Abulfeda to 
Dr Buchanan, that no horses are bred in the southern part of 
the peninsula ; but all those used are imported. Ck>unt Boni 
(p. 172) has found in Tavemier and the Lettres Edifiantes, that 
frequent medicine and pecuUar care are requisite to keep them 
in health. 

t The prevalence in India of the dark practice of religions 
suicide is well known. There is no other authority for confin- 
ing it to criminals, or even considering it customary in their 
case. The traveller may have witnessed an instance of the 
kind, and applied it too generally. Mr Ward, however, ob- 
serves that the practice prevails cbiefiy amonff those exposed 
to incurable diseases, distress, or contempt. He reckons the 
number who thus perish in Bengal at 500. The cutting with 
sharp instruments is mentioned by modem writers, not as a 
mode of producing death, but as an exhibition made by super- 
stitious mendicants. 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 297 

country, that when a man is dead, and his body burned, 
his wife throws herself into the fire with her lord ; she 
is then much praised by the people, and many ladies 
follow the example.* The men also of this kingdom 
adore idols, and many worship the ox, saying, he is a 
valuable animal, and on no account would they kill 
him, or eat his flesh. Yet there is a race named gaui 
who eat it, but as they dare not slay the animal, they 
use only those that die a natural or accidental death. 
All the people, too, anoint their houses with its dung.f 
It is the custom also that the king, barons, and 
other persons sit upon the ground, and when asked why 
they decline a more honourable seat, they say, " We 
came from earth, and must return to it, and cannot too 
much honour this common mother." These gaui who 
eat beef are the persons by whose ancestors St Thomas 
the apostle was killed ; hence none of this lineage 
can enter the place where he lies buried, nor could 
twenty men force them in, nor ten hold them there, on 
account of the virtue of that sacred body, j; 



* The reader is probably familiar with the Suttee^ or custom 
of Hindoo widows bnmine themselves on the funeral-pile of 
their husbands, now happily abolished by the British govern- 
ment. In Ramusio, it is represented as peculiar to the widows 
of the criminal suicide ; but the early versions more correctly 
report it as a general practice. 

f The degradiuA^ homage paid to this animal, as also the 
filthy manner in wnich it is expressed, are well known; and Mr 
Marsden has accumulated abundant evidence on the subject. 
Dubois (p. 121) mentions that it is death to kill a cow^ and 
expresses his astonishment that the natives should not nse in 
insorreotion at the view of Europeans slaughtering and devour- 
ing in such numbers these adored divinities. That they merely 
deplore it in silence is considered a striking evidence of their 
tame and passive disposition. 

X These gaui are evidently the outcast and despised race 
named Pariahs, who, being excluded from aU intercourse with 
the higher castes, observe none of those restrictions as to 
food in which the latter take pride. They are supposed to 
form a fifth of the population of Southern India. See Account 
of British India (Edmburgh Cabinet Library), vol. ii. pp. 333, 
334. The odious character attached to them probably sug- 
gested to the Christians of the country the legend respecting 



298 VOYAGE THROUGH THE INDIAN SEAS» 

In this country there grows no grain but rice. It is 
remarkable that large fine horses in process of breeding 
produce only ponies with twisted legs, unfit for rid- 
ing, and good for nothing. The people go to battle 
with lance and shield, entirely naked ; yet are they not 
valiant and courageous, but mean and cowardly. They 
kill no animals of any description ; but when they wiJi 
to eat their fiesh, make them be slain by the Sa^racens 
and other nations, whose laws and customs are difier- 
ent. Both men and women wash the whole body in 
water twice every day, morning and evening, and till 
then will neither eat nor drink. He who omits this 
observance is regarded as we do a heretic* 

Very severe justice is executed upon those who 
commit murder or any other trespass. When a creditor 
has repeatedly applied for payment and been de- 
ceived by fallacious promises, he takes tlie following 
course. He draws a circle round the debtor, who 
dares not move beyond it, till he has either made pay- 
ment or given good security ; and should he attempt to 
escape, he becomes liable to capital punishment. Mar- 
co himself, when returning homeward through this 
country, was eyewitness to a remarkable transaction 
of this nature. The king owed a sum of money to 
a foreign merchant, and being frequently solicited, he 
put him ofiF with empty promises. One day, when his 
majesty was riding out, the creditor took the oppor- 
tunity of describing such a circle round his person. On 
seeing what had been done, tlie monarch immediately 
stopped, and did not move from the spot till the de- 
mand was satisfied. The people viewed with admira- 
tion tliis conduct, and pronounced their sovereign well 
entitled to the epithet of just, t 

St Thomas, and the absurd statement here made, which our 
traveller too lightly believed. 

* The practice of ablution, so well suited to the climate, 
is very general in India, and used as a reli^ous observance. 
— Marsden, p. 642. 

t This paragraph, with the exception of the first sentence, is 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 299 

Most persons abstain from drinking wine, and reject the 
testimony or guarantee of those who indulge in it ;* also 
of mariners, accounted a reckless and desperate race. 
Dissolute conduct is practised without censure. The heat 
is wonderful, and is the cause of their going naked. No 
rain falls except in June, July, and August, and were 
not the air cooled by showers during these three months, 
it would be impossible to live. Many are skilled in an 
art which they call physiognomy, which consists in know- 
ing men or women, their qualities good or bad, by merely 
seeing them. They regard auguiy beyond any people in 
the world ; for, I assure you, if a man sets out on a 
journey, and meets an omen deemed unlucky, he often 
turns back.f Whenever a boy or girl is bom, the father 
or mother causes the nativity to be written out, the day, 
mouth, and hour, and these are interpreted by astrologers 
learned in enchantment and the magical art. 

As soon as a son attains the age of thirteen, he is set 
at liberty, and no longer allowed to remain in his father's 
house. He receives from twenty to twenty-four groats of 
their money, and is then considered capable of earning 
his own subsistence by some trade. These boys, accord- 
ingly, run about in all directions throughout the day, 

exclusively in Ramusio. The drawing of the circle is an 
authentic Hindoo custom. Mr Marsden admits the kind's 
conduct to bear an air of romance. We have formerlv ob- 
served that the name of Marco is studiously introduced into 
these apocryphal passages. 

* All accounts agree in the detestation with which drunken* 
Bess is regarded by the Brahminlcal orders. Ramusio alone 
uses the qualified expression, wine from grapes ; which we can 
scarcely consider genuine in regard to a country where at that 
time it could scarcely be known. 

t Ramusio here says : " In every day of the week there is one 
hour which they regard as unlucky, and this they name choiach : 
For instance, on Monday, the hour mezzaterza ; on Tuesday, 
that of terza ; on Wednesday, that of nona ; and during these 
hours thev make no purchases nortransact anybusiness,beiieving 
it would be unfortunate. In the same manner, they ascertain 
by means of their books the qualities of everv day throughout 
the year." This passage does not occur in the early editions, 
and Mr Marsden has been able to find only sHght confirmation 
of it. 



300 YOYAOB THROUGH THE INDIAN SBAS, 

buying and selling. During the pearl-fisheiy, they fre- 
quent the beach and purchase firom the fishermen five 
or six small ones, which they carry to the merchant, 
who, on account of the heat, has remained seated in his 
house. They tell him what they have piud, and de- 
mand a reasonable profit, which he usually gives. The 
day's business being over, they carry provision to their 
mothers, who prepare and dress it for their dinner ; but 
they do not depend at all on their fitther for a mainte- 
nance.* 

Here, and throughout all India, the birds and beasts are 
different from ours, except one bird, which is the quail. 
They have also bald owl^ which fiy in the night ; they 
have neither wings nor feathers, and are as large as an 
eagle. The eagles are black like crows, larger than 
ours, expert both at fiying and hawking. Another thing 
worth mentioning is, that they feed their horses with 
flesh and many other dishes cooked with rice. Their 
monasteries are filled with idols, to whom many young 
girls are devoted by their parents. They must go to the 
monastery whenever required by the superior, which is 
usually several times a- week. They there sing, dance, 
and make great rejoicings. These young ladies also 
prepare savoury dishes of flesh and other food, which 
they carry to the sanctuary, and place before the idol 
as much as would make a good meal for a great lord. 
They then dance, sing, and rejoice, till time has been 
given for him to feed on the substance of the meat, 
when they take and eat it themselves, with great re- 
joicing. These ladies, who are very numerous, continue 
the same mode of life till after their marriage.f Having 

* This paragraph, with the exception of the first sentence, 
is only in Kamusio. Mr Marsden gives evidence, that Indian 
boys, at a very early period, are actively employed in earning 
a subsistence for themselves. 

t These Cunsheny^ or dancing-girls, are a well-known ap- 
pendage to Hindoo temples. Dr Buchanan assures us, that 
there is none of any consequence in the south to which a num- 
ber of them are not attached. He and other writers represent 
them as leading very irre^lar lives, which is not expressly 
stated here, yet seems imphed in a subsequent passage. 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 301 

given you this full account of the manners, customs, and 
doings of this kingdom, we shall depart and tell of an- 
other, named Mutfili. 

XXI. — Masulipatam— Diamonds of Grolconda. 

At this kingdom we arrive after departing from Maa- 
bar and travelling northward about a thousand miles. 
It is subject to a queen of great wisdom, whose husband 
died forty years ago, and her love to him was such that 
she has never married another. During this whole term, 
she has ruled the nation with great equity, and been 
beloved beyond measure by her people.* They are 
idolaters and independent ; they live on rice, flesh, and 
milk. In this khigdom, you must know, is found the 
diamond; there are several mountains, among which, 
during rain, water flows with great turbulence, and 
through wide caverns; and when the shower ceases, 
men search through the ground previously inundated, 
and find the gems. In summer, there is not a drop of 
water, and the heat can scarcely be endured, while 
fierce and venomous serpents inspire great fear; yet 
those who venture thitlier discover valuable diamonds. 
There is also an extensive and deep valley, so enclosed 
by rocks as to be quite inaccessible ; but the people 
throw in pieces of flesh, to which the diamonds ad- 
here. Now you must observe, there are a number of 
white eagles, which, when they see the flesh in the 
bottom of the valley, fly thither, seize and carry it to 
difierent spots. The men are on the watch, and as soon 
as they see the bird with the spoil in its mouth, raise 
loud cries, when, being terrified, it flies away and drops 
the meat, which they take up, and find the diamond 
attached. Even when the prey has been swallowed, 
they watch where the excrement is voided, and obtain in 

* This place, called in Ramasio Murphili and Monsul, is Ma- 
sulipatam, a flourishing town, the chief of the northern Circars. 
The distance and direction here given are correct. The queen 
is not mentioned in Ramusio : but is introduced on the author- 
ity of the two Paris and the Crusca editions. 



302 VOTAOE THROUGH THE INDIAN SEAS, 

this way not a few jewels. Now this is the only conn- 
try in the world containing these precious stones ; and 
do not suppose that the hest come to our christian coun- 
tries ; they are carried to the great khan and other lords 
of those regions, whose ample treasure enables them to 
purchase.^ I must mention, too, that here are made the 
most beautiful and valuable cotton cloths in the world ; 
also the thinnest and most delicate, resembling our 
spiders' webs.t They have abundance of animals^ and 
the lai^st sheep in the world, with plentiful subsistence 
of every kind. I must now describe the place containing 
the body of the apostle St Thomas. 

XXII. — St Thomas (Madras), Legends respecting him. 

This is in a small town of Maabar, containing few 
inhabitants, and seldom visited by merchants, there 
being little trade, and the roads difhcult. Many Chris- 
tians and Saracens, however, resort thither in pilgri- 
mage : the latter esteem him a great saint, and even 
assert that he was a Mohammedan. But I will now relate 
a wonder. The Christians, who repair to that shrine, take 
from the place a red earth, carry it into their country, and 
give a small portion to any person sick of a fever, who is 
presently cured. But I have now a miracle to tell ; for 
about the year 1288, a baron of this district had a great 

* The diamond mines of Goloonda, in the interior, are 
celebrated throughout the world. This and Pannah, another 
not very remote district of Hindostan, are the onl^ quar- 
ters, previous to the discovery of Brazil, in which tms most 
valued of the precious stones was found. The territory in 
ruffged and rock}r, though not in the degree here described ; 
and it really is in the moistened soil, after the inundation 
caused bv the periodical rains has subsided, that the diamonds 
are mostly found. The story of the eagles must be classed as 
fabulous ; yet there is no reason to suppose it of our author's 
invention. It is found in the Arabian flights, where it seems 
only adoi)ted from the general belief of Asia. Count Boui 
met with it in a scientific treatise on Precious Stones, recently 
translated by Signer Rainieri trom the Turkish of Ahmed 
Teifachite. 

t Masulipatam is well known as the chief mart for the fine 
cotton cloths made on the coast of Connnandel. 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 303 

quantity of rice, and filled with it all the houses around 
the church. The pilgrims having thus no place to lodge, 
prayed him much to desist ; hut heing fierce and proud, 
he paid no regard to their entreaty. Next night, accord- 
ingly, Messer St Thomas appeared to him with a fork 
in his hand, which he thrust forcihly against his throat, 
causing severe pain, and saying, ^ If you do not forth- 
with empty my houses, you shall die an evil death." 
He disappeared, and the haron rose early in the morn- 
ing, related the apparition, and caused all the huild- 
ings to he emptied. The Christians greatly rejoiced, 
and honoured this great apostle. I could relate other 
wonderful cures effected on persons labouring under 
various bodily infirmities ; but I will now merely 
describe his death. He had left his hermitage in the 
wood, and was engaged in prayer, while aroujid were a 
number of peacocks, which are more numerous here than 
elsewhere in the world. Now an idolatrous Gaui, aim- 
ing at one of these birds, let fly an arrow without seeing 
the saint, whom, however, it sti-uck on the right side ; 
and finding himself thus wounded, he very mildly adored 
his Creator, and soon after expired. But before coming 
hither, he had converted many people in Nubia,* as I 
will afterwards narrate. 

When a child in this province is bom, they anoint 
him every day with the oil of sesame, which makes him 

* There can be no doubt, that, from the earliest ages of 
Christianity, there resided here a body of Christians, who. with 
or without reason, believed that they were converted oy St 
Thomas, and that ne here suffered martyrdom. Meliapour, a 
few miles from Madras, always, with the earliest European 
travellers, bears his name ; even the Arabs called it Beit-tuma 
or Temple of Thomas. Some learned writers maintain, that it 
was not the apostle, but a Syrian monk of the same name, who 
penetrated into this region ; but the contrary is the general 
DeUef of the East. The events here narrated are stamped with 
the oreduUty of the age : yet in fact there is nothing in them 
•actually supernatural. The death of the apostle, as related, 
might easily happen by mere accident ; and m the case of the 
nobleman, there is merely a dream, wnich the representations 
of the Christians, though repelled at the moment, might easily 
excite in his mind 



304 VOYAGE THROUGH THE INDIAN SBA8, 

become blacker than at birth; for whoever L most 
deeply tinted is honoured in proportion. Indeed, these 
people paint their god and all their idols black, and their 
de^dls white as snow. The men, when they go to battle, 
place such faith in the ox as a holy thing, that they 
take the hair of the wild bull, and if they fight on a 
horse, attach it to the neck ; if on foot, to their shield ; 
thinking themselves thus better secured against every 
danger. Hence, the hair of this animal sells at a con- 
siderable price.* 

XXIII. — Lar ; the Bramins. 

Lar is a province lying westward of this place, and 
thence came originally all the Abraiamain in the world* 
These are the best and most honest of all merchants, 
and would not on any account tell a lie.t They neither 

* The inhabitants of this southern part of India are of a very 
dark colour, and they haye the custom of frequently anointing 
their bodies with oil ; but there is no reason to suppose the two 
circumstances connected in the manner here supposed. Many 
images of the Hindoo deities are formed of a species of blaoK 
granite, and some of their asuras or demons are painted white ; 
nere, too. the motive assigned is probably fanciful. The hairs 
of the wild bull are doubUess those of the yak or Thibetian ox, 
which, under the name of chowry tails, are considered by 
Hindoo ^andees one of the most valued ornaments. The super- 
stitious importance attached to them is nowhere else mentioned ; 
yet is not impossible. Probably, however, Marco had little 
ojpportunity of confidential intercourse with the natives ; so 
that, while he correctlj observed their actions, he had not equal 
means of penetrating into their motives. 

t The origin of the Bramins, who are evidently the order 
here alluded to, has baffled the most learned inquirers ; and it 
could not be expected that our traveller, in this cursory visit, 
should throw much light upon the subject. Yet it is curious 
that Ptolemy has placed in this quarter the Brachmani Magi ; 
and Dr Buchanan mentions that the Bramins here consider 
themselves a separate and superior race to those of the north : 
looking down witli contempt even on such as serve the saorea 
shrines of Benares. — Buchanan, vol. i. p. 308. 

The position of Lar or Lac, to the west of Madras, oarries 
us to Arcot and Conjeveram, the last noted for its splendid 
pagodas ; and here, in fact, D'Anville, in his " Antiquity de 
rinde,'* places the Brachme of Ptolemj. The appearance of 
simplicity and austerity might easily impose on our author. 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 305 

eat flesh nor drink wine, are faithfiil to their wives, and 
lead every way very virtuous lives. They take nothing 
from any one, and do nothing that could be considered 
a sin.* They are all known by a silk thread worn over 
ihe shoulder, and tied beneath the opposite arm, so that 
it passes across both the breast and back.t They have 
a rich king, who readily purchases precious stones, and 
enjoins that the merclumts shall offer to him all the 
pearls brought from Maabar, for which he pays double the 
cost. They therefore procure them in large quantities. 
Theyare idolaters,and regard omens from birds and beasts 
more than any other nation in the world. I will tell 
you one of their customs : when one wishes to treat for 
any merchandise, he rises and observes his shadow in the 
son ; and if it be of the due length, on that day, accord- 
ing to certain rules, he makes his bargain ; but if it be 
not long enough, he will not buy a single article. K 
they go to a house for this purpose, and see one of the 
fttiimAla named tarantula, which here greatly aboimd, 
they observe if it comes to them from a lucky quarter, in 
which case they buy ; but if otherwise, they give up the 

who would have little opportonity of observing the frauds with 
which this order are charged. See Account of India (Edin- 
burgh Cabinet Library), toT. ii. p. 329-331. The mention of them 
as merchants does not exactly accord with our ideas, and Count 
Boni suspects thev may be confounded with Banians ; but 
the latter are chiefly confined to the great cities on the western 
coast. Dnbois informs us, that in this part of India many 
Bramins pursue that avocation ; and wo learn from Buchanan 
(as above) that there are two classes, Vaidika, devoted to spiri- 
tual services, and Lokika, who follow secular employments. 
The latter are regarded as decidedly inferior ; yet tney do not 
lose caste, and may intermarry with the others. 

* Ramnsio alone has an additional sentence : ** When any for- 
eign merchant, unacquainted with the customs of the country, 
introduces himself, and intrusts his adventure to one of them, 
he carefiilly attends to his interest, and renders him a faithful 
account, not even demanding any recompense, unless it is cour- 
teously proffered." This editor also diners in sayine that the^r 
eat meat, and drink the wine of the country. (>ount Boni 
is so convinced, and with reason we think, of this being an 
error, that he has altered it in his reprint. 

t The zennar. or sacred cord, is a well-known appendage of 
the Bramin. — Marsden, p. 666. 

u 



306 YOYAOB THROUGH THE INDIAN BEAB, 

transaction and go away. Nay, I assure you, if one leaving 
his house hears a man sneeze in a manner that does not 
appear lucky, he stops and re-enters. Even if on his 
road he sees a swallow approaching from the right or 
left, in an unlucky manner, he returns.* Their teeth 
are very good, through the use of an herb, which makes 
them look extremely well, and is very salutary.f They 
never bleed from the vein or any otiier part, yet per- 
fectly preserve their health. 

There are among them an order named ouigoi, who 
live to an extraordinary age, even 160 or 200 years, 
yet can perform all the service of the monastery and 
idols as well as younger men. This is owing to their 
great abstinence in eating and drinking ; for they snhflist 
mostly on rice and milk. They mingle also quicksilver 
and sulphur, making a beverage which they drink from 
their infancy, saying that it lengthens their liTes.j; 
There is also in this kingdom a religious order of m<Nre 
rigid cuigui, observing the strictest abstinence, leading 
a very rude and severe life, and going perfectly naked. 
They adore the ox, and many wear on their forehead a 



* We cannot better illustrate this passage than by the fol- 
lowing extract from Professor Wilson s Hindoo drama, a work 
richly illustrative both of the poetry and manners m India. 
It is a speech which the native poet puts into the month of a 



pecuUarly sa^e and philosophic character :— 
'* Facing the sun, on yonder blighted t 



The bird of evil augury is perched. 
■ thebli ■ " ■ 



tree, 



Ha ! on my path the black snake sleeping lies : 
Roused from his slumber, he unfolds in wraUi 
His spiry length, and threatening beats the ground 
With bulk inflated, whilst his hooded neck 
Expands, and from between his ?enomed fimgs 
Protrudes his hissing tongue. I slip, yet here 
No plashy mire betrays my heedless feet. — 
Still throbs my left eye, and my left arm trembles ; 
And still that bird in flight sinistral cries 
To warn me of impending ill.^ 
t The chewing of the betel-leaf, a habit nniyersal in India, 
is here eyidently alluded to. Ramusio has it not in this place, 
but introduces it afterwards at much greater length. 

t This sentence appears only in the fVenoh ana Cmsoa, and 
I have not been able to find any authority for the practice. 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 30? 

small efi&gy of one in copper or bronze gilded. They also 
bum the dung, and reduce it to a powder, with which 
they leverentially anoint many parts of their body, as 
ChiisiianB use holy water. They eat neither from spoon 
nor platter, but £rom laige leaves, mostly of the apple 
of paradise. Even these must be dry ; for if green, they 
are said to haye a soul, which it would be sin to kill ; 
and they would rather die than commit towards any ani- 
mal an action believed unlawful. When asked why they 
feel no shame in going naked, they say, because they 
wish to have nothing belonging to this world, which 
they entered without clothing ; and committing no sin, 
ihey have no reason to be ashamed. Besides, they kill 
no living creature, neither fly nor flea, nor hog nor 
worm, coniidering they have souls. They will sleep 
on the earth without any covering, whence it is a great 
wonder they do not die, much more that they enjoy 
80 long a life. They fast the whole year roundF, drink- 
ii^ ODiy water.* Some reside in the monastery to 
serve the gods ; but before admission they undeigo the 
following trial. The young girls ofiered to the idols 
cat^ these new candidates, and endeavour variously to 
entertain them. Such as appear to take any pleasure 
in these endearments, are rejected as unworthy ; but if 
they show themselves totally indifferent, they are then 
retained.f Such are the customs of these cruel and 



* The term in Ramusio is tingui ; but that of cuigm in the 
e&rly editions comes much nearer to that of jogi, or po^^ by 
which, as well as that of sannpasif and sometimes frktrsj, is 
desi^[iiated a much-noted class of Hindoo ascetics. Tnelr rigid 
abstmence. rejection of clothes, and scrupulous tenderness as 
to animal me, have been observed from the earliest ages. The 
leaf here noticed is that of the plantain, which really is of extra- 
ordinary size, and used by the natives to hold their boiled rice. 

f This odd trial is found only in the French and Crusca (not 
in Ramusio), and I have not been able to trace any actual con- 
firmation of it. It is, however, distinctly stated that the san- 
nyasi, when raised to the rank of great gurus or teachers in 
the temples, are required, from that moment, to renounce all 
the pursuits and pleasures of life, and most especially the so- 
ciety and even sight of the female sex.— Dubois, p. 353. Bu- 
chanan, vol. i. p. 22 ; vol. iii. p. 79. 



308 YOYAOB THROUGH THE INDIAN SEAS, 

perfidious idolaters, who bum the bodies of their dead, 
because otherwise they would breed worms, which after 
eating the flesh would starve, and thus involve in great 
sin the soul to which the body belonged. But I will now 
cease saying any more about them. 

XXIV.—aty of Caa. 

Cail is a great and noble city, belonging to Asciar, 
eldest of the five brother-kings. Its port is fi^quented 
by all the ships from the west, Curmos, Quisci, Aden, and 
the whole of Arabia, laden with merchandise and horses. 
The merchants bring them hither as to a good market^ 
frequented by purchasers from other quarters.* The king 
possesses immense treasures, and wears many precious 
stones. He rules his nation very justly and uprightly, 
for which cause the merchants frequent it, and afford 
him great profit. He has three hundred wives and up- 
wards, holding it a high honour to increase their num- 
ber. When discord arises among the five brother-kings, 
their mother, who is still alive, rushes between them, 
and will not allow them to fight. Often, when they 

* Cail or Kaol is mentioned by different early travellers afi an 
important haven. Mr Marsden finds the name in Valentyn's 
map, near Tutacorin, in the Tinnevelly country. This, as 
will appear in the following chapter, would entirely derange 
our traveller's itinerary ; which, nowever little it may be re- 
garded by him, we reluctantly admit. The term, signifying 
pagoda, is found attached to different spots. We wouldsuggest 
Fomt Calymere, called by D'Anville Callamera Pagode. In 
fact, Milbum (vol. i. p. 364) mentions that there are nere two 
remarkable temples ; a circumstance affording strong presump- 
tion of there having formerly been an important city ; and at 
half a mile's distance is still a largo village, with considerable 
trade. Here the passage from Ceylon is shortest, and the 
small distance formerlv stated shows this to be the vicinity to 
which they crossed ; ana there has never hitherto been the least 
mention of any movement southward. In the Crusca, and in 
an Italian Ma. of the French library, the name is Caver, at 
once suggesting the great river Cavcry, which &lls into the 
sea not mr from Point Calymere. We cannot, it mav be said, 
take the benefit of both names ; yet it seems impossible not to 
attach importance to this curious circumstance. If we place 
Oiil here, it will be presently shown that the traveller's iti- 
nerary becomes perfectly correct. 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 309 

will not yield to her prayer, and are about to engage, 
she takes a knife and says, *^ If you will not renounce 
this quarrel, I will kill myself presently, and cut away 
the paps with which I gave you milk." When the 
sons see this great piety in their mother, they feel them- 
selves boujid to make peace. But as soon as she is dead, 
they cannot fail to quarrel and destroy each other. 

All the natives here, as well as generally throughout 
India, have continually in their mouths the leaf called 
tembul. It affords them gratification, and its use has be- 
come quite habitual ; after chewing they spit out the mois- 
ture. The rich mix it with camphor and other aromatic 
drags, and even with quick-lime. When anyone wishes to 
insult another in the grossest manner, he spits this juice 
in his fisMje. The injured party then hastens to the king, 
and declares his wish to decide the quarrel by combat. 
His majesty furnishes him with a sword and small 
shield ; and all the people assemble as spectators of the 
conflict, which is only terminated by the death of one 
of the parties. They are not, however, allowed to strike 
with the point of the sword.* Now let us depart and 
tell you of the kingdom of Coilon. 

XXV.— Kingdom of Coilon. 

After departing from Maabar, and going south-west 
500 miles, you arrive at Coilon.t The people are ido- 

* This paragraph is only in Ramusio, whore the sentence 
referring to betel in the earlier editions has been expunged, in 
order to prepare for it. The custom of mixing it with spices, 
and even quick-lime, is correctljr stated. In regard to the other 
particulars, the only confirmation which Mr Marsden could 
find is, that judicial duelling is practised at Onore, on the 
opposite coast of Malabar. 

T Koulam, Ramusio. Mr Marsden naturally enough supposes 
this to be Coulan, on the western coast, about 100 miles beyond 
Cape Comorin. Count Boni, however, has clearly shown that 
ilra place of that name described by Marco and other early Eu- 
ropeans lay to the east of that great promontory, from which 
D\Anville makes it 15, and Rennell 60 miles distant. Milbum 
has it still in his map. Coilon being thus fixed here, and tak- 
ing C^ at or near Calymere, the route of 500 miles south-west 
becomes perfectly correct, iustead of the enormous errors other- 



310 VOYAGE THROUGH THB INDIAN SEAS, 

laters, yet among them are Christians and Jews. They 
have languages of their own, and a king tributary to no 
one. In tihis territory grows extremely good brazQ-woody 
called coilomin. Pepper greatly abounds, being collect- 
ed in the months of May, June, and July ; the trees 
are carefully planted and irrigated. Indigo also is yery 
plentiful and good, being made of an herb which they 
place in a great vessel, then pour in water, and leave it 
till the juice is given out. Being then placed in the 
hot sun, it boils, acquires consistence, and becomes 
what we see. In this country the heat of the son can 
scarcely be endured ; if you put an egg into any river, 
it will be boiled before you have gone any great dis- 
tance. Hither resort many merchants from liftuaji, Ara- 
bia, and the Levant, bringing quantities of goods^ and 
carrying away those of the country. There are various 
animals different from all others in the world; such as a 
black lion, without either spot or mark ; parrots of nu- 
merous kinds, some white as snow, with red beak and 
feet ; others red and white, most lovely ; and some ex- 
tremely small, and also very beautiful. The peacocks are 
much larger, handsomer, and of a different species from 
ours. The domestic fowls are also peculiar ; in short, 
they have all things, fruits, beasts, and birds, dissimilar to 
ours, and both handsomer and better. They have no 
grain but rice, and make a wine from sugar, which is 
good, and intoxicates sooner than that from grapes. 
Every thing necessary to support life abounds. Here are 
a number of skilful astrologers and physicians, who 
know how to preserve the human body in health. Both 
sexes are completely black, and wear no covering except 
a fine cloth about the middle.^ Their behaviour to each 

wise imputable, and which would have been a heavy blot in 
respect to a space which he himself actually trayersecL 

* These details resemble those formerly given, and are cene- 
rally correct. This being the most southern quarter of l^dia. 
the heat is of course peculiarlv intense. The rude process <u 
manufacturing indigo is said to oe very tolerably described. By 
the lion, the traveller usually means the tiger ; and this speeies, 
as well as the panther, is stated by Paolino to be here of a very 
dark colour. 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 31 1 

other shows little sense of propriety. A man will marry 
his cousin-gennan, the widow of his father, and even of 
his brother ; this is the custom among all the people of 
India. 

XXVI.^^omari (Cape Comorin). 

Comari is a country of India, remarkable in this re- 
spect, that the nprth-star, which we had not seen since 
leaving Java, appeared to us when thirty miles out at 
sea, rising about a cubit above the horizon. There are 
£bw domestic, but abundance of wild animals, particu- 
lariiy monkeys of various shapes, some of which would 
almost seem to be men. There are cats of a very pecu- 
liar and wonderful species, lions, leopards, and ounces 
In great numbers.^ I will now proceed to Eli. 

XXVII.-EU or Dely. 

£11 is a kingdom, about 800 miles west of Comari. 
The people are subject to a king, idolaters, with a pe- 
culiar language, and independent of foreigners. I will 
tell you fully their customs and manners, which you 
will understand better, as we approach nearer home. 
There is no port except a large river, with a good en- 
trance. Pepper grows in great abundance, and there is a 
considerable produce of ginger and other spices. The king 
is very rich, but not powerful in men ; yet his dominions 
have such strong approaches, that he has no dread of in- 
vasion. If any vessel destined for another port is driven 
hither by stress of weather, the people seize and possess 
themselves of all its cargo, saying, ." You were going to 
another place, but Grod sends you and yours to me." In 
this they think themselves quite guiltless. Ships come 

* Ck>niari is eridentlv the country aronnd Cape Comorin, the 
sonthem promontory ox India. While Coilon was supposed to be 
westwara, it appeared entirely misplaced ; but when the former 
is fixed in the east, the cape comes quite in its place. The ad- 
jacent territory is really described as rude and thinlv inhabited. 
The former disappearance of the north-star, which seems to 
mean the Greater Bear, must have been owin^ to the season of 
the year, not, as he seems to suppose, to his place on the earth, 
for his track had for some time been considerably farther north. 







312 YOTAOE THROUGH THB INDIAN 8BA8y 

irom Manji and other parts in the summer, load 
eight days, and depart as soon as possible, there being n 
port, but dangerous sandbanks. Those of Ma^fi 
least apprehensive, being provided with laige woodi 
anchors. There are here lions and other wild 
with good hunting.* 

XXVIIL-Melibar or Malabar. 

Melibar is a great kingdom towards the westward, wil 
a sovereign and languages of its own.t The people 
idolaters, and subject to no foreigner. Here the north 
star, at its greatest height, appears two cubits above th^ 
water. From this and an adjacent province named Gos- ' 
urat, there issue annually a body of upwards of a hun — 
dred vessels, who capture other ships and plunder 
merchants. Being sea-robbers, they carry with the: 
their wives and children, and remain together all th< 
summer, doing great injury to trade. These wio! 
corsairs form what they call a ladder on the sea ; twent 
of them place themselves five miles from each other, 
and thus command a himdrcd miles in extent. Whe 
a merchantman comes in view, a light is kindled 

* Eli or DeW is evidently derived from Mount Delly, a small 
space north of Cananor. A little southward it is a biYMui river, 
with a port anciently flourishing ; but Paolino found it, even in his 
time, almost closed up, the trade being probably tnuisferred to 
Cananor and Calicut. The distance is very correct ; but the 
traveller here and all alonji^ this coast, has given the directioD 
too much to the cardinal point of west, omitting to notice the 
great declination southward. 

t This name is Malabar ; but Mr Marsden imputes a verj 
great error in beginning it here, while the small tract called bj 
tno natives Malayalam lies wholly south of Mount Dell^ 
Marco, however, would naturally take the information from his 
Arab pilots ; and that nation, followed by modem Europeans, 
invariably ascribe to it a much greater extension. The very 
term is Arabic, and, as well as the native one, means mountain- 
country, which is applicable to the whole T&ug^ of this western 
coast. It is admitted that Abulfeda uses it in this extended 
sense ; and Linschoten, ch. xlii. p. 77, states the Malabars as 
extending from Goa to Cape Comorin ; which would, we ap- 
prehend, nearly coincide with the popular ideas in modem 
Europe. 





AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 313 

which is repeated by one after another; so that no 
vessel sailing here can escape them. The mariners, 
however, knowing well their wicked customs, come 
well armed and prepared, and fight a desperate battle, 
often beating them off with loss ; but at other times fall 
into their hands. The pirates then take the ship with 
all the goods, but do no injury to the men, saying to 
them, ^ Cro and collect another cargo, that we may have 
a chance of getting it too."* 

In this country is a vast abundance of pepper, and also 
of ginger, with a good supply of cinnamon and other 
spices, also cubebs and cocoa-nuts. Cotton cloths, the 
most beautiful and delicate in the whole world, are here 
manufactured, with other valuable articles.t To pur- 
chase these goods, the merchants from other quarters 
bring copper, which they use as ballast ; cloths of silk and 
gold, sandal-wood, and other spices. Ships come even 
from the great province of Manji; and the dealers 
here convey the goods to various quarters in the west, 
whence the most valuable are forwarded to Alexandria. 
Having told you now of Melibar, we shall go to Gozurat, 
but it would be too tedious to inform you of all the cities 
of these countries, they are so very numerous. 

XXIX. — Kingdom of Gozurat.t 
Gozurat, too, is a great kingdom to the west, having 



* Nothing can be more accordant with the tenor of history 
than the piratical habits which tho author ascribes to this and 
the adjoining province. The rude temper of the mountaineer 
tribes, and the numerous small harbours along the coast, have 
led in almost every age to this enormity. Even Ptolemy has 
designated it the coast of the pirates ; and Pliny complains of 
the losses there sustained by tno East India trade. The only 
exception perhaps is at the present, when it has been nearly- 
put down by the superior navy of Britain. In our traveller's 
time, there api>ears to have been no dominant power to keep 
the marauders in check. 

f This coast is well known as the chief quarter whence Eu- 
rope is supplied with pepper ; and it is rich in other spices, 
though of less importance. The cotton manufacture also nour- 
ishes, but the autnor is rather hasty in using a^in the super- 
lative degree, already applied to those of Masuhpatam. 

;{: It is impossible not to be startled by finding the name of 



314 VOYAGE THROUOH THE INDIAN SEAS, 

languages and a king of its own, and subject to no other. 
Here the north-star rises to the apparent height of six 
cubits. The greatest pirates in the world live here, and 
have a most wicked custom ; after taking a merchant, 
tliey make him drink tamarinds and sea-water, then 
examine carefully if he voids any pearls or precious 
stones, which are alleged to be usually swallowed on such 
emergencies.* There is in this land a great quantity of 
pepper and indigo, with a good deal of ginger. Cot- 
ton also abounds, and the trees which bear it, when 
twenty years old, rise to the height of six paces ; but 
the produce is then unfit to be spun, and can only be 
used for quilting. Before twelve years, it is well fitted 
for the former purpose.t An immense quantity of 
dressed leather is prepared from the skins of the goat, 

Guzerat applied to this coast, under which it is neyer recognised 
by Europeans, while he will be found not applying the term to 
that so named bv us. On this last point, howerer, Mr £3phin- 
stone (History or India, toI. i. p. 550) states, that the name is 
not known to the natives, who use those of Soreth and Kalti- 
war. Mr Hamilton (Gazetteer of India, toI. l p. 601) remarks, 
that the greater part of Malwa and Khandeisn was formerly 
named (jruzerat. Indeed, this must have been the oricinal i^ 
plication of the term, only extended to the peninsula by its 
oecoming part of the same yicerovalty. This brings it rery 
close to the district here mentioned ; and the same power may 
at the time have ruled over both. Linschoten, chaps, ix, z, 
mentions, that all the ports on this coast contained numerous 
Gozuratis, whom he combines with the Banians as tibe most 
active merchants. Abulfeda agrees with our author in stating 
Malabar and Guzerat as confining with each other. 

* This coast, which includes the tract called the Concan, real- 
ly is still more infamous for piracy than the one farther soutih. 
At Gheria, in the last century, Aqgria had established a kind 
of piratical kingdom, which the utmost efforts of the British 
navy were required to extirpate. — Account of India (Edinburgh 
Cabmot Library), vol. ii. p. 119-121. 

t The species described here is not the common cotton shrub, 
which is an annual, but the bombax or silk-cotton tree. In Ra- 
musio, it is said to be " suitable for muslins and other manu- 
factures of extraordinary fineness." Mr Marsden reasonably 
suspects this to bo a corruption ; and, in fact, the F^ndi and 
other early editions merely say, as in the text, ^ wdl fitted for 
spinning.'^ Even this is going too far ; and the author seems 
to have oeen led into confusion by supposing the annual plant 
to be the bombax in a young state. 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 315 

the bufialo, the wild ox, unicorn, and various other ani- 
mals, and it is laigely exported to Arabia and adjoin- 
ing regions. Coverlets of red leather are also frained, 
with representatioBs of birds and beasts, most delicately 
interwoven with gold and silver thread. They are won- 
derfully beautiful, and being used by the Seu'acens for 
sleeping upon, are worth ten marcs of silver. There are 
also cushions woven with gold, valued at ten marcs. In 
short, this leather is embroidered for royal use, more 
delicately than in any other part of the world.* 

XXX.— Tana (Bombay). 

Tana is a great kingdom in the west ; the inhabitants 
idolaters, with a language of their own, under a sovereign 
subject to no other. It does not produce pepper, or 
such spices as the other provinces ; but yields incense, not 
white, but of a brown colour.t There is a great trade 
in leather finely dressed, also in good cotton, both raw 
and made into cloth. The merchants import gold, silver, 
brass, and other goods necessary for these kingdoms, 
receiving various articles in return. But I have a bad 
thing to tell you ; for many pirates issue hence, scour- 
ing the sea, and greatly injuring the sailors ; and the 
king sanctions their conduct, having made an agreement, 
that they bring to him all the horses captured, which 
are very numerous, being in great request over all In- 
dia. But gold, silver, precious stones, and the rest of 
the cargo, belong to themselves. Now this is bad and 
very imjust conduct. Let us leave this country and 
speak of Cambaia. 

* We are not accustomed to Tiew this as an Indian manofao- 
tore ; yet Linschoten describes it in nearly the same terms ; 
so that it appears to have flourished at an early period. The 
practice of dyeinf skins still prevails. 

f The name in Kamusio is Kanan ; in others Ghana and Caria ; 
but Mr Marsden justly infers that the real one is Tana, on 
the island of Salsette near Bombay ^ and this name is really 
found in the French and Crusca editions. Marco is correct in 
stating that no pepper is here produced. The incense described 
is gum benzoin ; but Mr Marsden infers that it must have been 
imported from Sumatra, and only seen in the warehouses here. 



316 TOYAOE THROUGH THE INDIAN SB AS, 

XXXI. — Kingdom of Cambaia. 
This is a great kingdom to the west ; the people idol- 
aters, with a language of their own, and a ruler subject 
to no other. Here the north-star appears more fully, 
as it always does the farther you go westward. This 
region is rich and productive, particularly in excel- 
lent indigo ; also cotton, both raw and manufeustured, 
which is exported to many other countries. I may add, 
many hides are dressed, and worked with a skill nowhere 
surpassed ; also other articles too tedious to enumerate. 
The foreign merchants bring mostly gold, silver, and 
brass. The people are not pirates, but honest ; living 
by trade and manufacture.* And now I will tell you 
of Semenat. 

XXXII.— Kingdom of Semenat (Sumnaut). 

This is a great country to the westward. The in- 
habitants are idolaters, with languages of their own, and 
a monarch subject to no other. They are not pirates, but 
live by trade and industry, as good men ought to do. The 
country is rich, and frequented by many merchants. 
The people, however, are fierce and cruel idolaters.t 

Kesmacoran is a kingdom with a sovereign and lan- 
guages of its own. The people are idolaters, and raise 
abundance of rice, on which and on ilesh and milk 

* This is evidently Camboia, an important kingdom, the 
capital of which is situated at the head of the giuf of that 
name. The latter bounds the peninsula of Guzerat, of which 
probably a considerable part is here included. The shores of 
this inlet being out of the groat maritime route, were not a 
natural seat of piracy, with which indeed this country has 
never been rei)roached. 

t This is evidently Sumnaut or Puttan Sumnaut, celebrated 
for its splendid temple, destroyed in 1024 hj Mahmoud the 
Ghiznevide. See Account of British India (Edinburgh Cabinet 
Library), vol. i. p. 194-196. The name is here generally applied 
to the territory which we call Guzerat. The had character of 
the people is supposed by Mr Marsden to have been dictated 
by religious antipathies ; but it appears in fact that the Kattees 
or natives of Kattiwar are pecuharlv barbarous and ferocious, 
exceeding in this respect their neighbours the Rajpoots, them- 
selves fiercer than the other Hindoos. — Trans. Bombay Litenry 
Society, vol. i. pp. 265, 273, 274. 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 317 

they subsist. There is a great trade by sea and land, 
but nothing else worth mentioning.* Now this is the 
last province found in India, in proceeding between west 
and north-west ; and all the kingdoms already desciibed, 
from Maabar to this, belong to that India which is called 
the Greater, and is the first of any in the world. I have, 
however, only mentioned those on the seacoast, since to 
treat of the inland ones would have been too tedious. 
I shall therefore proceed to notice certain islands, 
also belonging to India, and first two called Male and 
Female. 

t XXXIII. — Islands called Male and Female. 

The isle called Male is full 500 miles out at sea, south 
of Kesmacoran. The people are baptized Christians, 
attached to the law and customs of the Old Testament ; 
they are very reserved in their intercourse with their 
wives. All the latter, indeed, dwell in another isle which 
is called Female. The men go and reside there three 
months in the year — March, April, and May — ^when they 

* Mr Marsden states that he felt difficulty as to this name, till 
he applied to Major Rennell, who suggested that it was the same 
with Kidg-Makran, usually applied in India to Mekran, the most 
southern province of Persia. Kidg he supposed to have been 
an ancient metropolis, whose name, accordmg to a usage pre- 
valent in India, was joined to that of the country. Pottinger, 
accordingly, found Kedge to be the actual capital of Mekran. 
Having sailed along this extensive coast, Marco would enter the 
Persian Gulf, and conclude his voyage ; but we shall find him 
now describing on hearsay the extensive regions on the western 
shores of the Indian Ocean. 

+ We have observed that the Poli, with their fair charge, 
would undoubtedly steer from the coast of Guzerat to the Per- 
sian Gulf, with the view of landing at Ormus. In undertaking, 
therefore, to give us a view of the western borders of the Indian 
Ocean, Marco could only be ^ided by the reports of his Arab 
pilots. Though daring and skilful in their vocation, they could 
not be men of highly cultivated minds, and were probably 
deeply imbued with that taste for the marvellous, indicated by 
the publication, during that centurv, of the celebrated fiction 
of tne Arabian Nights. Mr Crawfurd has remarked the pro- 
bability that at Sumatra he would be obliged to take on board 
pilots of this nation, the influence of whose spirit may perhaps 
be remarked during the whole of the subsequent voyage. 



318 YOYAOE THROUGH THE INDIAN SEAS, 

return to their own residence, and spend the remaining 
nine months in labour. In this isle is found very fine 
and beautiful amber. The people live on rice, Hiilk, and 
flesh, and excel in fishing, capturing enough both for 
their own food and for exportation. They have no 
ruler except a bishop subject to the Archbishop of 
Scotra, and have languages of their own. The isle 
where their Wives reside is thirty n»le8 distant ; bat 
they could not live if they spent the whole year with 
them. The sons remain with their mothers till the age 
of fourteen, when they go to join their fathers in their 
separate abode.* 

XXXIV.-l8le of Scotia. 

About 500 miles south from these isles you find that 
of Scotra, the people of which are baptized Christiansy 
and have an archbishop. Ambeigris is very plentiful, 
being voided from the entrails of whales, which are 
pursued most actively, in order to obtain this preoioua 
article. They strike into the animal a barbed iron so 
firmly that it cannot be drawn out. A long line at- 
tached enables them to discover the place where the 
dead fish lies, and drag it to the shore, when they ex- 
tract from its belly the ambergris, and from its head 
several casks of oil.t Fine cotton cloth is made ; and 

* Mr Marsden supposes the islands here meant to be those 
named Abd-al-curia or the Two Sisters, lying to the west of 
Soootra ; and Count Boni coincides. I cannot but remark. 
however, that they are placed midway between Mekran ana 
this last, 500 mUes from each, and the total 1000 is necessary, 
and indeed not auite sufficient, to make up the distance. The 
two islands would, by the above supposition, be on the opposite 
side of Soootra, and yery near it, while the whole descnption 
seems to indicate them as remote from any other land. Count 
Boni, indeed, was informed by M. Zurla, that in the Soranzo 
MS. the distance is made only forty mUes ; but this codex, be- 
ing proved to be of secondary importance, can scarcely stand 
against the united voice of all the others. I cannot help sus- 
pecting the whole to be a mere flight of Arabian fancy. Mr 
Marsoen has found in Barbosa, and Count Boni in De Barros, 
representations of the females of Socotra as somewhat Ama- 
zonian, both as to valour and separation from the other sex. 

t This passage, though only m Ramusio, gives a tolerably 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 319 

abtindance of good salt fish prepared. The people suh- 
sist on rice, milk, and flesh ; and go naked ^ter the 
manner of the other idolatrous Indians. To this island 
come many ships and merchants ; and indeed all those 
destined for Aden touch there. The archhishop has no 
connexion with the See of Rome, hut is suhject to a 
primate resident at Bagdad, who appoints him, as well 
as sends mandates to hishops and prelates in other quar- 
ters of the world. Hither, too, repair many corsairs 
with their ships, to sell their hooty, and find a ready 
market, hecause the Christians, knowing it to have heen 
abstracted from idolaters and Saracens, scruple not to 
purchase.* 

I can tell you, moreover, that these Christians are the 
most skilful enchanters in the world. The archbishop, 
indeed, forbids and even punishes this practice, but 
without any avail ; for their ancestors, they say, fol- 
lowed it before them, and they will continue. For in- 
stance, if a ship is proceeding full sail with a favourable 
wind, they raise a contrary one, and oblige it to return. 
They can make it blow from any quarter they please, 
and cause either a dead calm or a violent tempest.t 

correct acconltt of the capture of the spermaceti whale. The 
opinion here giyen of the origin of ambergris has been contro- 
verted, bat is the one now generally received. See Maccol- 
loch's Ck>mmercial Dictionary, p. 30. 

* Socotra is not much firequented now, when vessels studi- 
ously steer through the open ocean ; but in an age when they 
kept dose to the coast, it became necessarily a main thorough- 
fare for those passing between the respective shores of Asia and 
AfHca. Mr Marsden has successfully^ proved its haVing then 
been so, f^m the best early authorities. The same situation 
would naturally render it the haunt of pirates ; indeed Abulfeda 
actually charges the people as themselves engaged in that en- 
ormity. There is also abundant proof of their having em- 
braced Christianity under a schismatic form, the Nestorian 
or Jacobite. 

f A power over the winds is often claimed by sorcerers ; and 
in this solitary island, surrounded by a stormy ocean, the pre- 
tension would be both natural and profitable. Howeyer httle 
our readers may be inclined to admit it, there is ample proof 
of its being generally believed in by the early Portuguese navi- 
gators. 



320 VOYAGE THROUGH THE INDIAN SEASy 

They perform many other marvellous enohantmentfl^ 
which it would be wrong to relate ; they would excite 
such amazement. We shall therefore leave ihem^ and 
describe the island of Madagascar. 

XXXV.— Madagascar. 

This is an island towards the south, about a thoiUBiid 
miles from Scotra. The people are Saracens^ adoring 
Mohammed ; and thiey have four sheiks, or old men, who 
rule the entire country. This is really one of the noblest 
and greatest islands in the world, being reputed 4000 
miles in circuit. In no region are so many elephants 
bred, and their teeth sold, as here and in Zanghibar.* 
No flesh is eaten but that of camels, of which an incred- 
ible number are killed every day ; and being supposed 
better and more wholesome than any other, it is used 
if possible during the whole year.t The red sandal grows 
here to the height of our forest trees, and is sold with 
advantage to foreigners. Ambergris also abounds, from 
the number of whales which, as you know, yield that 

* Tho present is believed to be the first notice conveyed to 
Europe oi this great island. Its dimensions are exaggerated, 
even if wo take Kamusio's estimate of 3000 ; but in the earlier 
editions it is as here, 4000. Considering this, with the mention 
of tho elephant and the giraffe, — animals not found in this 
island, — I have little doubt that the Arabs combined with their 
idea of Madagascar a lar^e portion of the adjacent continent. 
Comparing the present with the following chapter, it iwill be 
seen that they had not traced in any continuous manner the 
coast of Eastern Africa, but had reached only detached portions, 
which they conceived to be large islands. From what is stated 
respecting the currents, they evidently had not penetrated 
through the Mozambique channel, and might easily suppose 
the numerous islands in the northern part to belong to a mass 
of land. The Moslem religion and Arab social system do not 
now exist ; but there is full proof of their being formerly estab- 
lished, though expelled after the decline of that nation in 
Eastern Africa, where, even at the arrival of the Portuguese, 
they were found holding great sway. 

t Camels are not found here ; and though Marsden mentions 
instances of their flesh being prized as food, there can I think 
be no doubt that the animaialluded to is a peculiar species of 
ox or bison, witli a hump on the shoulder, which Flacourt re- 
ports having been by some mistaken for a camel. 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 321 

snbstance. There are leopards, ounces, and lions ; likewise 
vaiiouB other animals, such as stags, wild goats, and deer, 
some of great size, llie birds are equally various, several 
wonderfully different from ours. Many ships arrive 
with abundance of goods, as cloths of silk and gold, 
which are profitably exchanged for those of the country. 
Mariners^ however, cannot reach the other islands lying 
south of this and of Zanghibar, owing to the violence of 
the current running in this direction. It is such, that 
wiiile vessels can come hither from Malabar in twenty 
dayi^ they spend three months in returning. 

Now I must mention, that in these southern isles, the 
birds called griffon are reported to exist, and to appear 
at certain seasons ; yet they are not formed as we describe 
and paint them, heJf-bird, half-lion, but exactly like the 
eagl^ only immeasurably larger. They are represented so 
huge and powerful, as to take up the elephant and carry 
liim high into the air, then let him drop, whereby he is at 
once killed, and they feed upon his carcass. It is asserted 
that their wings are twelve paces long, and when spread 
out, extend thirty paces across ; they are thick in propor- 
tion. I must add, that the khan sent messengers to obtain 
information about the country, and also the release of one 
of his subjects who had been made prisoner. They and 
the captive related to him many great wonders of these 
strange isles, and brought teeth of a wild boar, incon- 
ceivably large : I assure you, he found them to weigh 
fourteen pounds. You may thus judge as to the size of 
the boar; and indeed some are equal to a bufialo. There 
are also girafies and wild asses, and other beasts and 
birds wonderfully different from ours. To return to 
the griffon ; the people of the island do not know it 
by that name, but call it always rue ; but we, from 
their extraordinary size, certainly conclude them to be 
griffons.* Having nothing more to tell of this island, 
1 will go on to that of Zanghibar. 

* The bird mentioned in this curious paragraph appears to 
be either the albatross, which, though proper to more southern 
latitudes, may have occasionally visited the shores of Mada- 



322 VOYAGE THROUGH THB INDIAN BBAS, 

XXXVI.— Coast of Zanffhibar. 
This 18 a very great and noble island, about 2000 
miles in circuit.* The people are all idolaters, hare 
languages and a king of their own, and are subject to 
no other power. They are not very tall, but so broad 
and thick, that in this respect they appear like giants ; 
and they are likewise immensely strong, bearing as large 
a burden as four other men, which is really no wonder, 
for they eat as much as five. They are perfectly black, 
and go naked, with the exception of a cloth round the 
waist. Their mouth is so wide, their nose so turned up, 
their lips and eyes so big, that they are horrible to be- 
hold,t and any one meeting them in another country 

fascar, or else the condor of Southern Africa. The former 
as been known to measure from wing to win^ 15 feet, the 
latter above 10. In either case the exaggeration is fetymtX ; 
the statement, however, varies much ; for the extreme kn^th, 
instead of 30 paces as here, in the Crusca is only 20, ana in 
Ramusio 16. The latter adds the acooant of a feather 90 spans 
longj and the quill part two palms in circumference, which was 
carried to the great khan, dv whom it was ipeatly admired. 
As nothing of all this is found in any early edition except the 
Itahan Museum MS.,-~not a first authority, — ^we mav conclude 
it to be the unauthorized embellishment of some faithless trans- 
lator. The statement rests only on the warm fancy of the 
Arabs, here peculiarly excited by the mention of such a f^OLH- 
tic bird in the Arabian Nights, from which in fact they have 
borrowed the name rukh. Nay, there appears to be through- 
out Asia a superstitious beUef of its existence. The identity 
with the griffon is admitted in the French version, here followed, 
to be a comment of the writer's own, for which I have no doubt 
we are indebted to the romantic studies of Rusticians \ so thai 
two schools of fable have been at work in producing this extra- 
ordinary paragraph. 

The boar here mentioned appears to be the boschwerk, called 
by Linnaeus stts ethiopicus. It has four tusks, the two lar^[e8t 
of which, nine inches long and five in circumference, project 
like horns, being turned up at the end, and rendering the ani- 
mal truly formidable (Barrow's Africa^ vol. i. p. 303). A large 
specimen might possess such a dimension as is here stated. 

* This is evidently the part of the eastern coast of Africa 
usually called Zanguebar, which signifies country of the Ethio- 
pians or Negroes. We pointed out under the last chapter that 
want of the knowledge of Africa, viewed as a continent, which 
probably led the Arabs to consider this and other districts as 
islands. 

t We have here a picture of the negro, evidently drawn from 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 323 

virould believe them devils. Elephants abound, and a 
great traffic is carried on in their teeth ; likewise lions 
of a peculiar species, with ounces and leopards. In short, 
they have all kinds of beasts different from others in. 
the world ; including sheep entirely white, with only 
the head black, and none of any other colour.* Here 
too is the giraffe, a most beautiful creature, whose shape 
I will describe. Behind, it is low, and the legs very 
short ; while those before, and the neck, are very large, 
so that its head rises three paces from the ground. The 
animal is small, and is quite harmless ; and its colour 
being red and white, in circles, it is very beautiful.t 
But there is a thing which I had forgotten about the 
elephant, that it caresses the female in the same man- 
ner as Ihe human species. I must say, the women 
of this island are most ugly objects ; with large mouth, 
eyes, and nose, and their breasts four times the ordi- 
nary size ; in shorty they are hideous. The people live 
on rice, flesh, milk, and dates, and though they have 
no vines, make a very good liquor of rice, sugar, and 
spices. There is a great trade, particularly in elephants' 
teeth ; and a good quantity of amber. The men are 
very brave in combat, and have little fear of death. 
They have no horses, but fight upon camels and ele- 
phants, placing on them castles well covered, with six- 
teen or twenty men mounted on them, bearing lances, 
swords, and staves, and making a very powerful force 
in battle.^ They have no arms except leathern shields, 

the life, yet very strongly caricatured. The traveller does not 
intimate whether he had ever seen one himself. Probably he 
had not, and received the description from his Arab shipmates. 

* Mr Marsden finds this statement confirmed by Hamilton, 
a ffood authority. 

T This elegant animal, now familiar in our menageries, is 
here correctly described. 

X The traveller is correct as to the number of elephants, but 
appears mistaken in supposing them tamed and trained for war. 
They certainly were so oy the Carthaginians ; but there is no 
account of such a practice in modem times. He probably had 
seen them so employed in India, and on learning that they were 
here equally numerous, too hastily concluded that the same 
coarse would be followed. He is correct as to the want of horses. 



324 YOTAGE THROUGH THE INDIAN SEAft, 

lances, and swords, with which they fight well* When 
leading the elephant to the comhat, they give him to 
drink of their wine or liquor, which renders him more 
'fierce and efiective. I must now proceed to ihe great 
province of Abascia, but first wish to say something 
more of India in general. 

XXXVII.— The Islands hi the Indian Sea. 
You must know I have described only its noblest 
kingdoms and isles; those that make the flower of 
the region, and to which the rest are mostly subject. 
No man could enumerate all the islands ; they are esti- 
mated at 12,700, inhabited and uninhabited, accord- 
ing to the writings of the most skilful mariners. In the 
Greater India, which extends from Maabar to Kesma- 
coran, are thirteen very great kingdoms, of which I have 
described ten. The Lesser India, stretching from Zina- 
ba to Montifi, contains eight, and this is exclusive of 
numerous others that are in the islands.* 

XXXVIII.— Kmgdom of Abascia. 
Abascia is a very great province, called the Ifiddle 
India.t The supreme monarch is a Christian ; the other 

* We have had occasion to observe the wide extension giren 
to the name of India. Here are clearly distingtushed thiee 
regions so named: the Greater, including Hindostan and South- 
ern Persia ; the Lesser*, or the countrv beyond the Gaoffes ; 
the Middle, meaning Abyssinia. Mr Marsden has found, in 
the early travellers, Conti and Barbosa, neariy the same limits 
and divisions applied to this celebrated name. Indeed, in tbo 
popular language of Europe, the term East Indies is still ap* 
plied to all the southern coasts of Asia, exclusive of Chins ; 
Ecut being evidently added to distinguish it from the region 
since discovered ana named the West Indies. The islands here 
mentioned are supnosed by Mr Marsden to be the very numer- 
ous groups of the Maldives and Laccadives. He is doabtless 
so far correct; but considering the extension of the name east- 
ward, it seems probable that tne Oriental Archinelago is also 
included, especially when we find the mention or langdoms in 
these islands. In Ramusio, Zinaba is Zampa (Tsioinpa)| the 
first kingdom reached after leaving China, virhile Montifi i< 
Murphih, the name given in that emtion to MasuUpatam. 

f This is evidently Abyssinia, and indeed the name here 
resembles more that of Habbesh, used by the natives. Tbe 
Crusca has Nabasce. 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 325 

six kings are subject to him, three being believers, and 
three Saracen. The christian people of this province 
have three marks upon their face, one firom the forehead 
to the middle of the nose, and one on each cheek, made 
"with a hot iron, and herein consists their baptism. There 
are also Jews having a mark on each cheek, and Saracens 
with only one on the forehead and nose.* The great 
king lives in the middle of the province ; the Saracens 
towards Aden. In this district Messer St Thomas the 
apostle preached, and after converting the inhabitants, 
went to Maabar, where he died, and his body remains, 
as formerly mentioned. This country contains many 
good men-at-arms and well mounted cavalry, who 
are much needed; for wars are frequent with the 
Sultans of'Adent and Nubia, and with other powei-s. 
But I will tell you a memorable story of what happened 
in the year 128i3. This king, who is lord over all Abascia, 
wished to go in pilgrimage to adore the sepulchre of 
Christ in Jerusalem. The barons represented the danger 
of the journey, and advised him to send a bishop or some 
other great prelate. The monarch having agreed, one 
of very holy life was chosen, who readily undertook the 
mission. He was equipped most handsomely as a pil- 
grim, and travelled by land and sea till he arrived at 

^ This practice of baptism by cauterizing is mentioned by 
Baiboea, Linschoten, and other early authors, beins intend- 
ed, it is said, to rei)resent baptizing by fire. Ludolfus, a 
later but authentic historian, denies this on the authority of 
the Jesuit missionaries, and says that such marks, though 
sometimes made, are only as an imaginary preservative against 
cold. Thore seems, however, full testimony to their early exist- 
ence as a rite, though perhaps it has fallen into disuse. 

f This is evidently Adel, a great Mohammedan kingdom 
east of Abyssinia. The change from one liquid to another is 
easy, and indeed it is not improbable that tne Arabian Aden 
mij^ht at one period have extended its name and power to this 
reffion. It is curious that in the Ousca, the one is called 
Adenti, the other Edenti. The long wars between the two 
kingdoms are ftiUy commemorated oy historians ; Bruce ob- 
serving, that the precise period here referred to formed nearly 
a blanx in the annals or that kingdom, so that it is impos- 
sible to find any confirmation of the military events now to 
be related. 



326 VOYAGE THROUGH THE INDIAN SBAS, 

Jenisalem. Repairing to the sepulchrey he performed 
the due homage before an object so exalted; and 
having presented great offerings from the king, and 
well fulfilled his mission, he set out on his return. He 
passed through Aden, a country where Christians are 
hated as mortal enemies. The governor, learning that he 
professed this religion, and was a messenger of the sove- 
reign of Abascia, warned him, that unless he embraced 
the law of Mohammed, he would suffer a shameful pun- 
ishment. The bishop replied, that he would sooner die. 
The other, greatly enraged, ordered him to be forcibly 
circumcised, and then sent him away, telling him that 
this was meant as an afiront to his master. The prelate 
was much grieved, but consoled himself by thinking 
that he had suffered for the law of his &ith, and God 
would recompense him in the other world. As soon 
as he could travel, he proceeded to Abascia, and ap- 
peared before the king; who, having inquired about 
the sepulchre, and being told the whole truth, accounted 
it a most holy and pious visit. The bishop then related 
the affront put upon him by the ruler of Aden, when 
liis majesty fell into such a transport of grief and rage, 
that he almost died. He called aloud in the hearing 
of all the bystanders, that he would never wear a 
crown, nor rule a province, till he had taken such ven- 
geance as should be spoken of throughout the world. 
Presently he prepared a vast body of troops, on horse- 
back and foot, also elephants with well-armed castles, 
having twenty men upon each. He then set out and 
marched directly onward to the territory of Aden. Its 
cliiefs, with a great multitude of Saracens on foot 
and horseback, came to defend their country, and a 
most obstinate battle was fought ; but the enemy 
could not withstand the force of the King of Abascia, 
because the Christians are more valiant. They fled 
and were slain in great numbers. The victor, entering 
the country in three or four places, greatly wasted and 
destroyed it, killing many of the inhabitants. He 
then thought the afii'ont sufficiently avenged ; and in- 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 32? 

deed I must tell you he could effect no farther devasta- 
tion, the region hemg extensive, and full of dangerous 
passes, where a few men could greatly harass an army.* 
I will now relate other matters of Ahascia, which yields 
a great variety of all things necessary for subsistence. 
The people live on rice, flesh, milk, and sesamum, and 
have elephants, not bred there, but brought from the isle 
of the other India. Giraffes, however, are in great 
numbers ; also lions, leopards, ounces, wild apes, and 
many beasts and birds different from ours. The do- 
mestic fowls are the most beautiful in the world ; and 
the ostriches as large as asses. They have parrots, beau- 
tiful and various ; also monkeys and cats of two species, 
with &ces exactly like those of men. This Abascia con- 
tains numerous cities and castles, and is much frequented 
by merchants ; many cloths of cotton and buckram are 
wrought there.t I might relate other things, but must 
DOW go on to the province of Aden. 

XXXIX.-City and Kingdom of Aden. 

This country is subject to a lord, called sultan. The 
people are all Saracens, adoring Mohammed, and wishing 
the greatest mischief to Christians. There are many cities 
and castles ; for Aden is the port to which the Indian 
ships bring all their merchandise. It is then placed on 
board other small vessels, which ascend a river about 
seven days, at the end of which it is disembarked, laden 
on camels, and conveyed thirty days farther. It then 
comes to the river of Alexandria, and is conveyed 
down to that city. By this route alone its inliabitants 

* In Ramusio, the king is represented as having taken and 
pillaged the capital. Mr Marsden is perplexed by finding no 
record of any such comi>lete success. The text here given nrom 
the early editions exhibits it as only a partial and temporary 
inroad. 

f This description of Abyssinia is tolerably accurate, con- 
sidering the channels through which it was procured ; though 
its features are not suificientlv distinguished from those of the 
southern and central parts ox Africa. The isle alluded to is 
probably Zanzibar. In Ramusio, the country is described as 
extremely rich in gold ; an error not in the early editions. 



I 



328 VOYAGE THKOUGH THE INDIAN SEAS, 

receive tiieir pepper, apices, and costly goods.* Ffom 
Aden, too, sliipa sail Ibr India with vsrious goodg, eqieci- 
Sklly very fine and valuable horses, which, ae jou knov, 
are Hold there for full a. htmdred marks of silver. TTw 
aultan draws a great revenue Irom the duties on time 
cargi>es ; and a thus one of the richest princes in tk 
n-orld. Bnt, I assure you, he did great injury to the 
Christians ; for when the governor of Babylonia attsckt^ 
and tooktliecity of Acre,committingniuchdevaaUIiaD, 
he was assisted by this prince with 30,000 hones ttnd 
40,000 camels. This aid was given rather out of hatrvd 
to believers than good-will to tliat prlnce.f But no* 
I will tell you of anotliec great city. 



* The spkadour and proeperitv of Aden in tbii 

— '— ^-"-'- the oriental writora,—- - 

IS &om it the imsj^- 



liueiiet 
fUrybrB 



This wea.Uh was derived, as here elated, from its b^Dj; ttim lb* 
main cbBnnel b; nUch the Indian commodiliea reached Edkim 
b^ way of Aleiandria. At that time, it appears, large nasd* 
did not venture npon the intricate navi^tLoa of the Red Si 
and their cajj 
a^ of the C; . , 

were enabled to ageand, Adeu ennk in 
ment for seafaring peraons. Id tl ' 



barona tribes of the in 

In all the earl; editions, including Pipino and arTnens, Ih6 
Bed Sea is b; mistake ealled a riner. The Arabia term jair, 
water, is used indiaiirimiiiatel<r in this sense, and in that af «(ft 
or lake. This circumalaDce oflen causes eonfnsioD, and mfiii 
easily mislead oar traveller. In Raniuaio,it is properly Balwit 
a rulf. He, or another modem editor, inigbt easn; nan tbe 
intimation nBcesBOiy to make this corroctioa. The vojige 19 
also slated at tweatj days, a more suitable time. 

f The snltan here allnded to is soppossd to be Saladii, the 
celebrated ruler of f^ypt ; for Cairo was in that age called Ba- 
i._i__- iiaring, after the fall of Bagdad, boeome the ^Hl 



L EivlDR 



of MohammedaapuwerlBoni, p,iS7). The FrenehiChitca, 

"'"■''" ' " ' ■ Pipino, Qtyneo*, and 

137; but they mixu be 



and the Paris I^tiu 

Bamusio have 

giving B round number, without attemptinj; 




AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 329 

XL.— City of Escier (Shaher). 
Sscier is a very large town to the north-west (north), 
four hundred miles from Aden.* A count here rules 
with justice, but subject to the soldan of Aden ; and the 
people are Saracens, adoring Mohammed. The port is 
good, frequented by many ships and merchants from 
India, who bring various commodities, and carry away 
others, particularly horses of great value, and yielding 
large profit. In this province grows a great quantity 
of fine incense, also of dates.t They have no grain ex- 
cept rice, and little of that ; hence com is profitably im- 
ported &om other countries. Fish is caught in such 
plenty, that for a Venetian gros you may purchase two 
large tunnies. The people live on rice, flesh, and fish, and 
have no wine except what they make from sugar, rice, 
and dates. But I must tell you, too, that they have sheep 
without ears, or any opening for them ; but where the 
ears should be, is a little horn ; these are small and 
very beautiful creatures. J Another thing you will much 

* There is a singalar discrepancy here as to the distance ; 
for while the CroBca and Paris Latin have four miles, Pipino 
and Ramusio have forty, and the early French 400. This last 
18 undoabtedly correct, for Mr Marsden, notwithstanding his er- 
roneous versions, clearlv recognises here the Sch'dhhr of Nie- 
buhr, Sahar of D'Anyille, situated at exactly 400 miles from 
Aden. Mr Wellsted describes it under the name of Shaher, as 
still the largest town on this part of the Arabian coast, extend- 
ing a mile and a quarter in length (Travels in Arabia, vol. ii. 
p. 443). In this, however, and the two following routes, the 
early editions commit the neavy error of making the direction 
noTm-west instead of north-east, 1 incline to suspect a mis- 
take of transcription : for tramontane (north) mignt easil}r, in 
bad MS., be mistaken lor vermaistre (north-west). It is curious 
that Pipino, Gryneus, and the French of 1565, reallv have norths 
whioh 18 correct, allowing for the frequent habit or orienting to 
a oardinal point. We may refer to our observations in a former 
instance, in which these middle editions were correct, while the 
early and later ones were erroneous. Ramusio has a different 
mistake, making it south-east ; while the Italian Museum MS. 
has ostro (south). 

«t* The coast of Hadramaut, here described, is celebrated for 
its copious production of incense ; and the valuable spice named 
oUban or trankincense, seems peculiar to it. — Marsden, pp. 
730, 731. 

X Mr Marsden has not been able to find any account of this pe- 



330 VOYAGE THROUGH THE INDIAN SEAS^ 

wonder at is, that all the animals, sheep, oxen, and camels, 
eat fish, because there is no grass, for it is the most 
arid place in the world. These fishes are very small, 
caught in March, April, and May, in wonderful quantities. 
They are dried, lodged in houses, and given as food to 
the animals during the whole year. The people eat them 
also when quite alive and newly taken. There are also 
plenty of large ones, which being made into a kind of 
biscuit, by cutting them into small pieces and drying 
them in the sun, are preserved under cover during the 
whole year.^ The incense, mentioned as so abundant, 
is purchased by their lord at ten golden bezants the 
cantar, and retailed to the merchants for forty, so that 
he makes a very large profit. Let us now leave this city, 
and tell you of Dufar. 

XLI— CityofDufar. 

This is a beautiful, large, and noble city, 500 miles 
south-west from Escier.t The people are Saracens, 
adoring Mohammed, and ruled by a count, who is sub- 
ject to Aden, to which, indeed, this city belongs. The 

culiar species ; but the varieties of the sheep are numerous. One 
reared in this arid country would of course be diminutive. The 
want of ears would doubtless be suggested by the absence or 
small size of the exterior appendage. 

* £xtremely little is known of this coast; but in reeard to 
that on the Persian Gulf, which is exactly similar, Niebmir and 
Chardin fully confirm the copious supply offish, and the practice 
of feeding cattle with them. This, indeed, is a natural re- 
source, wnere this food is so abundant, and vegetables so scanty. 
On the opposite side of the gulf, where circumstances are simi- 
lar, the same particulars are noticed by Arrian, in his Voyage 
of Nearchus. 

t Dufar, or Dofar, is a well-known port in Arabia, and the 
distance here stated (from the French) is just about mb actual 
one from Shaher. The other editions commit strange errors ; 
the Crusca and Paris Latin have five, Ramudo twentv miles. 
The direction is, as before, erroneous, doubtless f^om toe same 
cause, whatever that may be. This chapter is omitted in Pipino 
and Gryneus ; otherwise we may presume the ri^ht direction 
would have been there given. Mr Wellsted, in his late survey, 
found the district not very flourishing, with no port that ooold be 
reckoned more than a village. Dofar, nowever, was the principal 
one, surrounded by a well-cultivated country. — Vol. ii. p. 453. 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 331 

port is very good, and merchants convey thence many 
very fine Arabian horses. Numerous cities and castles de- 
pend upon it, and the country yields much incense. The 
trees are about the size of a small fir, and incisions are 
made with knives in various places, whence flows the 
incense, which, indeed, through the great heat, often 
runs out of itself. I shall now proceed to relate of the 
Gulf of Calatu. 

XLII.— Gulf and Qty of Calatu. 

Calatu is . a large city within the gulf of the same 
name, six hundred miles north-west from Dufer.* It 
is a noble seaport, inhabited by Saracens, who are sub- 
ject to Cormos. When the melik of that city is at war 
with a more powerful prince, he retires to this place, 
which is strong by nature and art, and finds himself 
secure. The people have no grain but what they import. 
Many ships bring the goods and spices of India, which 
are distributed throughout the interior, and many fine 
horses sent in return. But I must observe, that this 
city is at the mouth of the Gulf of Calatu, so that the 
melik can prevent vessels from sailing in or out without 
his consent. This power he often uses against the sultan 
of Creman ; for when that prince demands any exorbi- 
tant tribute from him or other vassals, they remove from 
Cormos to Calatu, and allow no ships to pass, whence 
the other prince sufieis severely, and is obliged to abate 
his demands. The people of this country live on dates 

* This is Kalhat, near a cape of the same naine. at the en- 
trance of the Persian Gulf, on the western side. Tne distance 
from Dofar here given (from the French) is correct : in the 
other editions it is absurd,— in the Paris Latin six, in Kamusio 
fifty miles. The place has no loneer any existence, and Mr 
Marsden imagines it must have included Muscat, probably at 
that time under its dependence ; but this is impossible, the two 
sites being 100 miles distant. Mr Wellsted lately visited that of 
Kalhat, and found it covered by extensive ruins, fiilly confirm- 
ing that early splendour and importance which our traveller 
ascribes to it. Only one mosque remained entire, and there 
was a small fishing-village to the north.— Travels in Arabia, 
vol.i. p. 41. 



332 VOYAGE THROUGH THB INDIAN SEAS, 

and salt fishy which are abundant ; bat many rich men 
are well supplied with better food. 

XLIII.— Return to Cormos. 

After departing from Calatu, and sailing three hun- 
dred miles between north-west and nortli, yon find the 
city of Cormos '* but if you take a direction from the 
former place between north-west and north, and sail five 
hundred miles, you come to Q,uis. However, we shall 
pass over this last place, and speak of Cormos, a lai^ and 
noble capital, subject to a melik, who comnoiands many 
towns and castles. The people are Saracens, and adore 
Mohammed. The heat is very great, on which account 
every house is provided with ventilators ^aced on the 
side whence the wind blows, which being thua admitted, 
renders the mansion tolerably cool. We gave an ac- 
count of this place formerly, as well as of Quis and 
Creman, but have since made a circuit which brought 
us back to it. However, we w!ll say no more, but pro- 
ceed now to the description of Great Turkey .f 

• Ormtis. — This voyage was probably performed by Marco 
himself, on his way Irom India to Persia ; and^ he is strictly 
correct as to distance and direction. The latter is erroneous in 
Ramusio,— north-east. 

t In the Crusca, it is said : — " In now retoming, we will re- 
late all the particulars that we had omitted." This is more fully 
expressed in Ramusio : — ** Before bringing the work to a conclu- 
sion, I shall step back and notice some reeions lyin^ towsurds 
the north, which I omitted to speak of in the precedmg book." 
There is nothing of this in the French, which I am persuaded is 
here the genuine text, while the other editors have interpolated 
their own ideas on tne subject. The reader who attentively 
peruses the following chapters will perceive that the ground 
gone over is by no means the same as formerly. Tartar kin^- 
aoms and countries were indeed treated of, but these were m 
the east and north-east of Asia, the original seat of Mongol 
power. We are now introduced to those in the centre and noitn- 
west of that continent. We have seen that the Poli, after land- 
ing in Persia, escorted the two princesses to Casan or Ghazan, 
then commandinji; in Khorasan. I apprehend that the succeed- 
ing information IS that collected during the residence there. 

The following chapters will be chiefly new to the English 
reader, and include an historical account of the most remark- 
able events in the history of central and north-western Asia, 



AKD HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 333 

XLIV.— Turkestan— Wars of Kaidu. 
Thb country lies to the north-west as you go from 
Cormos to the river Gihon, extending towards the ter- 
ritory of the great khan. It is governed hy a nephew 
(cousin) of his, named Kaidu, grandson of Oiagatai,* 
brother to that monarch. He is a very powerful lord, rul- 
ing many cities and castles. His subjects are Tartars, 
very able combatants, much inured to fighting, and he 
does not obey the khan, but is rather at perpetual war 
with him. This is because ELaidu demanded constantly 
from that monarch a share of his conquests, particu- 
larly in Catai and Manji. The latter said he would 
willingly grant it to him, as to his other descendants, 
if he would come to his court and council whenever sum- 
moned. But the other, afraid to trust his imcle, offered 

• 
during the thirty years preceding. Marco has not appeared to 
shine in respect to the early Mongol history ; but we found rea- 
son to ascribe this to the ignorance prevalent at the court of Ku- 
bkd. Ghazan,on the contrary, was a most accomplished and intel- 
li^nt prince. He was the first who, by collecting the loose 
traditions, formed a written history of Grengis and his successors 
(Marsden, p. 198). De Guignes describes him as habitually 
studying the great actions of Cvrus and Alexander, and striv- 
ing to imitate mem. He formea a body of institutes in regard 
to all the branches of government, which are still observed in 
Persia, and have been translated into English by Colonel Kirk- 
patrick (Malcolm's History of Persia, vol. i. p. 438). There 
seems ground, therefore, to suppose, tnat the information ob- 
tained from him respecting recent events and adjacent countries^ 
would be generally correct. 

Ramusio, hitherto so copious, has omitted all this historical 
matter ; so that it is unknown to Mr Marsden, of whose learn- 
ed aid the editor is thus deprived. Nor has he obtained much 
from Count Boni, who has nearly confined his illustrations to 
Ramusio's text. He hopes, however, to prove, that the events 
now narrated accord in their general outline with the most 
authentic oriental histories. If there is a discrepancy respecting 
some important details, it is not greater than is found in these 
histories themselves ^ and there may perhaps appear reason to 
think that, in some instances, Marco s statement is the most 
correct yet ^ven to the world. 

* According to Abulghasi, he was grandson to Ugadai or 
Okkoday ; his father, named Kashi, having died of excessive 
drinking. In either case, he will be cousin, not nephew, to 
Kublai ; but our traveller is not very precise in these genea- 
logical matters. 



334 VOYAGE THROUGH THE INDIAN SEAS, 

to obey him where he was, but dreaded that if in his power 
he would be put to death. Hence arose this discoid, and 
the khan drew his forces around the realm of Elaidu to 
guard against an invasion ; yet that prince contrived 
to penetrate, and fought repeatedly with the armies 
of Kublai ; for he could bring into the field 100,000 
brave and skilful horsemen. He had with him also 
many lords of the imperial lineage. Each soldier car- 
ries to battle sixty arrows, thirty smaller for shooting, 
and thirty larger, pointed with heavy iron, to throw 
against the face or arms of the enemy, or cut the cords of 
his bow ; and when they have discharged all these, they 
lay their hand on their swords, and strike most terrible 
blows. Now, in the year 1266, this king, with his cousin 
named Jesudar, assembled a very great army, and 
marched against two barons that were also his relations, 
but held their lands from the great khan. Kaidu and 
his cousin fought with these two chiefs, who had also 
a very large force, so that between them there were 
100,000 horsemen. They contended hardly and long, 
and many fell on both sides ; but at last Kaidu con- 
quered; however, the two barons, being well mount- 
ed, escaped without injury. The victor then became 
still more proud and boastful ; yet he returned home 
and remained two years in peace. Then he assem- 
bled a mighty host of cavalry, having learned that at 
Karakorum there was a great army under Nomogan, a 
son of the khan, and George, a grandson of Prester 
John. He marched thither with all speed, and the two 
chiefs being informed of his approach, courageously pre- 
pared to meet him with their horsemen, amounting to 
upwards of 60,000. Having reached the place where 
his men were ranged in tents on the plain, they skil- 
fully established their own camp. Each party rested and 
made preparations for three days, when they advanced 
to the combat. There was little advantage on either 
side ; both having about 60,000 mounted men well armed 
at every point, divided into six squadrons of 10,000. 
They waited only till they heard their lord soimd the 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 335 

naccar ; meantime performing loudly on various musical 
instruments. At length the signal was given, when the 
hosts rushed against each other, laying their hands on 
their bows. The arrows filled the air like rain ; men 
and horses were mortally wounded ; noise and cries 
arose so loud that the thunder of Jove could not have 
been heard. Truly this was an evil hour for many, who 
on both sides fell dead and dying. The arrows being dis- 
charged, they rushed on with sword and spear, giving and 
receiving most dreadful blows. You might see arms and 
hands cut off, and numbers of men rolling senseless on the 
earth. Kaidu displayed signal prowess, and his soldiers 
would have often been driven off the field, had he not 
encouraged and rallied them. On the other side, the 
two princes also firmly stood their ground, and it really 
was one of the most cruel battles ever fought between 
Tartar tribes. Yet though each strove with all his 
might to discomfit the other, neither could succeed, and 
the conflict lasted till evening. On this fatal day, multi- 
tudes of men fell, many wives were made widows, chil- 
dren made oi-phans, and households filled with tears and 
lamentations. But when the sun set, the struggle could 
endure no longer, and both parties returned to their 
camp overpowered with fatigue, happy to rest dur- 
ing the night. When morning dawned, King Kaidu, 
having received intelligence that the great khan was 
marching against him with a mighty host, deemed it 
unsafe to remain longer. Wherefore he and all his 
men mounted and rode off to their own country ; the 
two princes were so exhausted, that they did not attempt 
to follow, so that he with his people reached Samarcand, 
the capital of his kingdom.^ 

* We have been already introduced to Kaidu as the relation 
and imbittered enemy of Kublai. As he seems never to have 
been reco^ised as a regular sovereign, the notices of him in 
oriental history are extremely slight. De Guignes, however 
(tome iii. p. 185-187), mentions his repeated inroads, and parti- 
cularly his attempts to obtain possession of Karakorum, which 
would have throvm great lustre on his arms. On occasion of 
the principal conflict, he represents the army as commanded 



336 VOYAGE THROUGH THE INDIAN 8EA8, 

The great khan felt much wrath at Bjudu for com- 
mitting such ravages, and bethought himself, that bad 
he not been his nephew, he would have seized his land 
and put him to a cruel death ; but regard to his own 
flesh restrained him. Thus he escaped out of the hand 
of the mighty monarch. But I have wonderful atories 
to tell you about a daughter of this prince. 

XLV.— Exploits of a Tartar Princess, Daughter to Kaida. 

This young lady was in Tartar named Aigiarm, which 
means in our language ^^ brilliant moon." She po ooeooo d 
such strength that none of the youths or nobles in the 
whole kingdom could vanquish her, but were all beaten. 
Her father wished to marry her to a baron ; but she 
refused ever to unite herself to any one who could not 
vanquish her in fair combat ; and the king granted her 
this privilege. She rejoiced greatly, and published 
through various parts of the world, that if any gentle 
youth would come, try her in pitched battle, and gain 
the victory, she would accept him for her lord. This 



by Bayam,the conqueror of Maiyi ; but Kublai, unjnstly jeal- 
ous of that officer, sent his grandsou Temur and another prince 
to supersede him ; yet before their arrival, he had gained 
the victory. Our traveller, getting his information throng 
Kaidu, might be mistaken on this point. De Goignes repre- 
sents the seat of that prince's power as in Almaligh, to the 
north-east of Turfan, and among the tribes north of tho Altai. 
Marco, on the contrary, here distinctly states it as imme- 
diately north of the Oxus, and Samarcand as his capital. All 
his particulars accord with this ; the distance of lorty days' 
journey to Karakorum ; the combination with Barak in the 
invasion of Khorasau, and the accidental but evident notice of 
him in treating of Samarcand. Price, in fact, calls him (Keyda ) 
Khan of Turkestan, and mentions an inroad by him into Kho- 
rasau (Mohammedan History, vol. ii. p. 605). I am convinced, 
then, Marco was right, and that tho French writer merely, 
from the repeated attempts against Karakorum, concluded that 
his territory la^ adjacent to that capital. 

Kaidu continuea thirty years powerful and formidable; 
but. in 1301, having been attacked by Temur, the successor of 
Kublai, he was defeated and died of grief, when his family sub- 
mitted. — De Guignes, tome ill. pp. 194, 195. 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OP WESTERN ASIA. 337 

news was spread wide througli the surrounding coun- 
tries, and I assure you many gentlemen came and made 
the trial, which was arranged in the following manner. 
The king, with many young nohles and ladies, assembled 
in the great hall of the palace, when the princess entered 
in a robe of cotton richly adorned, attended by youths 
similarly attired. The agreement was, that if the can- 
didate prevailed and threw her to the ground, he should 
have her for his wife ; but if victory declared on her 
side, he was to give her a hundred horses. Thus she had 
gained above ten thousand steeds, because she could 
find no youth or damosel that could overcome her ; nor 
was this wonderful, for she was large, tall, and well- 
formed in her limbs, indeed almost a giantess. Now, 
about the year 1280, there came the son of a rich king, 
an extremely handsome young man, with a brilliant re- 
tinue and a thousand very fine horses. He addressed him- 
self to Elaidu, who was very desirous of marrying him 
to his daughter. He therefore caused her to be privately 
dealt with, to allow herself to be conquered ; but she 
declared she would not do so for any thihg in the world. 
One day then, the king and queen, with many nobles 
and ladies, assembled hi the great hall; the princess 
and prince then entered, and their handsome appear- 
ance struck all with wonder ; he was really so strong 
and powerful, that no one else could contend with him. 
When they were in the middle of the hall before this 
great assembly, the agreement was formally made, that 
the suitor, if vanquished, should lose his thousand horses. 
Bat all the company, as well as the king and queen, 
expressed their wishes that he should be successful. 
The two then rushed together, and wrestled violently, 
dragging each other in different directions : but at last 
the lady prevailed, and threw him on the ground, to 
the great grief of all the spectators ; he thus forfeited 
the thousand horses. But I have to inform you, that 
Kaidu led this daughter to many battles, and in no en- 
counter could any warrior withstand her. On many 
or^iisinns. she rushed among the enemy, seized one of 

Y 



338 VOYAGE THROUOH THE INDIAN SEAS, 

the chiefs, and dragged him over to her own army.* 
I will now, however, proceed to a great battle fought 
between her father and Argon, the son of Abaga, lord of 
the East. 

XLVL— Great Battle between Barak and Argon. 

Abaga ruled many provinces bordering on thoee of 
Kaidu, and it was where grows the tree called in the 
book of Alexander the Arbor SeccoA As that prince 
committed great ravages on his territory, he sent his 
son Argon, with a very large host of cavalry, into the 
country of the Arbor Secco, to the river of Gihon, where 
he took a station fitted to guard the country agahist the 
invader. Kaidu, however, assembled a great body of 
horsemen, and gave the command to a brother named 
Barak, very brave and skilful, desiring him to oppose 
the enemy. Barak, with his troops, rode on till tiiey 
came to the river, and were ten miles distant from Aigon. 
The latter, informed of the approach of his adversary, 
made diligent preparation ; the two remained three 
days in their respective camps. When they were 
fully prepared, and the naccar began to sound, they 
no longer delayed, but rushed furiously against each 
other. The arrows might be seen flying on all sides, and 
the air was so full of them, that it seemed to rain ; and 
when both parties had discharged them, and many men 
as well as horses had been slain, they seized their swords 

* The editor is obliged to say, that he has in vain searched 
the records of the East for any notice of this Herculean fair one ; 
nor docs Count Boni appear to have been more fortunate. But 
our information respecting Kaidu himself is so excessiyelv slight, 
and only as connected with the history of Kublai, tnat we 
could not reasonably expect any mention of an incident of this 
merely domestic nature. 

t Abaga, in 1283, succeeded Hoolaku, the conqueror of Bag- 
dad, as lord of the £ast. or ** of the £astem Tartars," a rule 
which included the whole of Persia, with parts of Syma and 
Asia Minor. He is described as a wise and able prince. We 
have already observed, that the arbor secco means the plane- 
tree, considered characteristic of Khorasan, the most eastern 
province of Persia, and one of vast extent, reaching from the 
Caspian to the Oxus, called here Gihon. 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 339 

and spears, and began a most fierce and cruel combat. 
Arms and legs were cut off, chargers killed, and many 
dreadful wounds inflicted ; the noise and cries were such 
as would have drowned the loudest thunder. I assure 
you, in a few hours the ground was covered with dead 
and dying. Finally, Barak and his men could not endure 
the force of their adversary, and retreated across the 
river ; while the victor pursued and killed a great num- 
ber.* Thus Argon gained the day ; and having begun to 
speak of him, I will relate his other adventures, and how 
he became sovereign lord after the death of Abaga, his 
father. 

XLYII.— Argon and Aoomat contend for the Persian Empire 

Not long after Argon had gained this battle, he re- 
ceived news of the death of Abaga. He was much 
grieved, yet prepared with his whole host to rettlm to the 
court, and take possession of the sovereignty ; but he 
had forty days to march before arriving there. Now a 
brother of the deceased monarch, named Acomat Soldan, 
who had become a Saracen, having heard of the event, 
bethought himself, that since the heir was so distant, he 
himself might succeed. Having prepared a large body 
of men, he marched directly to the capital, and seized the 
supreme power. He found such an amount of treasure, 
that it could scarcely be counted. He lavished his 
bounty in a wonderful manner on the chiefs and barons, 
who declared him a good master, liked him, and 
wished for no other. He studied to be popular, and to 
please all men ; yet the action he had committed was 

* This inroad is related by De Guides, tome iii. p. 260, and by 
Price, Mohammedan History, vol. ii. p. 576. The former calls 
the invader Berrak Khan, the latter Beraak. They describe 
the battle as haying taken place near Herat, bat differ from our 
traveller in one important particular, representinj^ Abaga him- 
self as having commanded the army. Yet as Price recognises 
Argon as having been in possession of the government of Kho- 
rasan, there can be scarcely a doubt, that he would at least be 
present in the engagement. If we are correct in supposing the 
mformation derivedfrom Ghazan, son to that prince, this can- 
not be denied to be a good authority. 



340 VOYAGE THROUGH THE INDIAN SEAS, 

vile, and blamed by many. It was not long till he 
learned that Argon was marching against him with a 
very powerful force. He made no delay, nor showed 
surprise, but actively summoned his barons and troops ; 
and in a week he had assembled a numerous body of 
cavalry, who all marched cheerfully against Argon, ex- 
pressing their earnest desire to kill or take him. 

Soldui Acomat having thus assembled 60,000 horse- 
men, set out and marched full ten days without inter- 
ruption, when he learned that Argon, with an equal 
force, was five days' journey distant. He pitched his 
camp and awaited the enemy in a large and beaatifol 
plain, which seemed well adapted for Uie combat. He 
then summoned his people, and thus addressed them : — 
** My lords, you know how well I am entitled to suc- 
ceed my brother, being son of the same &ther, and having 
accompanied him in all his conquests. Because Aigon 
is son to Abaga, some think he ought to succeed ; but 
with all due respect to them, I consider this unjust. 
Even during my brother's life, I was reasonably entitled 
to half the kingdom, only through my mildness I al- 
lowed him the whole, but now I ought to succeed. I 
pray you then to defend my right against Argon, and 
preserve to us the rule ; for I seek only the name and 
dignity, and leave to you the profit and possession of all. 
I need say no more to wise men, who love justice, and 
will do all things for the general honour and benefit." 
When the barons, chiefs, and soldiers heard this speech, 
they declared with one consent their resolution to ad- 
here to him while they had breath, and defend him against 
all, and particularly Argon, whom they trusted they 
would capture and place in his hands. 

When that prince learned that his rival was waiting for 
him with so great a multitude, he was much discomposed ; 
he considered, however, how injurious it wonldbe to show 
melancholy or fear, and the necessity of displaying val- 
our and boldness. He sent for his lords and counsellors, 
and having assembled a great number, thus addressed 
tlicm : — " My dear brothers and friends, you know well 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OP WESTERN ASIA. 341 

how tenderly my father loved you, regardmg you while 
he lived as kindred and children ; also how many great 
battles you fought with him, aiding him to conquer all 
his kingdom. Now I am the son of him who loved you 
so much, and to me you are equally dear ; I therefore 
trust you will aid me against the man who seeks, con- 
trary to all right and reason, to disinherit me. Consider 
also, that he has forsaken our law and embraced that of 
Mohammed ; it were fitting indeed that a Saracen should 
rule over the Tartar nation! Therefore, friends and 
brothers, I trust that you will willingly and heartily 
support me, and that each will display such valour, 
that the battle may be ours, and we may comfort our- 
selves by thinking that the right is on our side." After 
this speech, each lord and chief thought to himself, that 
he ought rather to die than not strenuously endeavour to 
gain a triumph. While the rest were silent, one great 
lord arose and said : — " Noble sire, we know fully the 
truth of what you have said, and I will now answer in 
the name of all now present, that while life remains in 
our bodies, we are ready to die rather than fail to con- 
quer. Victory, too, appears to us certain, since we are 
so greatly in the righ^ and our enemies in thje wrong. 
I advise, then, that we march as soon as possible against 
the foe, and pray all our companions to display such 
valour, that their deeds may be spoken of over the whole 
world." That brave man having concluded, all present 
assented, and eagerly desired battle. Next morning. Argon 
and his troops began their march, riding towards the 
plain on which their enemies were posted, and pitched 
their camp ten miles distant from that of Acomat. 

Argon now chose two intelligent men, in whom he 
greatly confided, and sent them to his uncle. They 
moimted on horseback, went direct, and alighted at the 
pavilion of the soldan, whom they found with a nume- 
rous company of barons. Being well acquainted, they 
saluted him courteously, and received a cheerful wel- 
come. After some time, one of them rose and said, — 
" Noble sire, your nephew Argon wonders greatly at 



342 YOYAOE THROUGH THE INDIAN 8EA8, 

your seizing his kingdom, and coming thus to fight 
against him. This is not good conduct^ nor due fiom 
an uncle towards a nephew ; he therefore courteonuljr 
prays you to abstain, and desiring neither war nor quar- 
rel, will respect you as superior and &ther, both of him- 
self and of the whole country." Acomat answered,— 
'' My lords messengers, my nephew is entirely mis- 
taken ; the land is mine, I conquered it alcmg with his 
father. If he will consent, I will make hha a great 
lord, endowing him with spacious estates, treating him 
as my son and the highest under myself; otherwise, be 
assured, I will endeavour to put him to death." The 
envoys then asked repeatedly, if they could hope for 
no other determination. He replied, never in his life- 
time. They then departed, and rode to the camp of 
their lord, alighted at the tent, and told him his uncle's 
declaration.* Argon was greatly enraged, and said aloud 
in the hearing of all, that he would never live in comfort 
till the whole world had seen the signal vengeance he 
would take on his uncle. He said to his chie^ — ** Now 
let us without further delay march against these traitors 
and endeavour to destroy them." The night was spent 
in busy preparation ; and Acomat Soldan, being warned 
by his spies, was equally active. 

XLVIII.— Great Battle between them. 

Next day Argon, having made all his arrangements, 
advanced in good order ; while his antagonist, not waiting 
his arrival, led on his troops to the encounter. They 
soon met, and the two great hosts, who had much de- 
sired the battle, rushed without delay €igainst each other. 
Arrows flew like rain, chiefs fell to the ground, the 
air resounded with the cries and lamentations of the 
wounded and dying. Their arrows being exhausted, tliey 
rushed on with swords and spears; arms, hands, and 
heads were cut off, and the noise would have drowned 
the loudest thunder. In that day many brave men 

* The Paris Latin version terminates here abruptly, in the 
middle of the narrative. 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 343 

died, and many ladies were left disconsolate. Argon 
assuredly displayed great prowess, and set a g;allant ex- 
ample ; but in vain, — ^fortune turned against him, — ^his 
men, compelled to flee, were pursued and slain in great 
numbers. Among the fugitives, he himself was cap- 
tured, when the pursuers stopped and returned with him 
to their camp, rejoicing beyond measure. Acomat caused 
him to be imprisoned and carefully guarded ; then, be- 
ing of a voluptuous disposition, he returned to court to 
enjoy the society of his numerous and handsome wives. 
He instructed the commander of the host to guard the 
captive as himself, and return at leisure that his troops 
might not be fatigued. He then departed, while Argon 
remained in chains, and so grieved, that death appeared 
to him desirable. 

XLIX.— Final Issue of the Contest. 

Now there was a great and aged Tartar baron, who 
felt much pity for the prisoner, and bethought him how 
wicked it was to keep their lord in this condition. He 
resolved, therefore, to attempt his deliverance. He ar- 
gued to this effect with many other chiefs, who, esteem- 
ing his wisdom, and conscious that he spake the truth, 
entirely agreed with him. Then Boga, who had made 
the proposal, Elcidai, Togan, Tegana, Taga, Tiar Oula- 
tai, and Samagar, all went to the tent of the captive 
prince. The first, as the eldest and the leader, addressed 
him thus, — " Noble prince, we are now ftiUy sensible 
of having acted wickedly towards you, and have deter- 
mined to return to the right path ; we will therefore 
deliver and own you as justly our liege lord." Argon, 
who thought they were mocking him, was both grieved 
and angry. " My lords," said he, " you have done 
wrong enough in seizing your sovereign and making 
him a captive. Pray depart, and do not also make him 
a subject of mockery." ** Illustrious prince," said Boga, 
" we positively speak the truth, and will make oath to 
it according to our law." Then all the barons swore 
tliat they would obey him as their lord, w^hile he in 



344 VOYAGE THROUGH THE INDIAN SEAS, 

return bound himself in no degree to resent past wrongSy 
but hold each of them as dear as Abaga his father had 
done. They then freed him from his chains, and did 
homage to him. He now ordered them to discharge their 
arrows against the tent of the melic ; and that chief, 
named Soldan, who was the first after Acomat, and the 
commander of the whole host, was quickly slain. 

Finding himself thus lord of all, he gave orders to 
march to the court, and was instantly obeyed. One day, 
thereafter, when Acomat was holding a splendid festival 
in his palace, a messenger came to him and said, — ** Sire, 
I bring you with regret unwelcome tidings ; the barons 
have delivered Argon, owned him as lord, and killed 
Soldan your faithful friend. They are coming now with 
their utmost speed to take and slay you." He was then 
silent, but the other was completely amazed and terrified. 
However, as a bold and brave man, he ordered the mes- 
senger not to say a word to a living creature ; then 
mounting on horseback, set out with a few trusty ser- 
vants, to seek refuge with tlie Sultan of Babylon, leav- 
ing all in ignorance whither he had gone. After march- 
ing six days, he came to the only pass by which he 
could penetrate. The commander who guarded it knew 
him, and seeing him fleeing with only a few adherents, 
determined to seize him. Acomat entreated for mercy, 
and offered a great treasure as the price of liberty ; but 
the other, being greatly attached to Argon, replied that 
the wealth of the world would not prevent his placing 
him in his master's hands. He prepared a large com- 
pany, and set out with his captive, watching him so 
carefully as to make escape impossible. They rode on 
to the court, where Argon had arrived only three days 
before, and been much vexed to find that his uncle had 
escaped ; but when the guardian of the pass brought the 
fugitive before his presence, he felt the greatest possible 
joy. He received the latter sternly, telling him that 
he would meet with the treatment he deserved ; and 
without asking any one's advice, he commanded him to 
be led forth and slain. This mandate was speedily exe- 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WEST£JIN ASIA. 345 

cuted, and the body was thrown into a place where it 
was never seen more,* Thus have you heard the whole 
affair of Argon and of Acomat his uncle. 

L.— Reign of Argon. 

Argon was thus master of the palace and of the kingdom, 
and the barons from every quarter came to render him 
due homage and obedience. After governing some time, 
he sent Casan his son with 30,000 men, to the coun- 
try of the Arbor Secco, there to guard and secure his 
laiid and people. Argon began his reign in the year 
1286, after Acomat had ruled two years. The former, 
after holding the sceptre six years, died, not without 
strong suspicions of poison.t 

--■I.. .— ^Mi.i.i ■ -■ ,■■■—- — - ■■ — _■ ■ ■■■i^.» — ■—■■■■IB I »■ I ^B .m „ , 

* This train of events is related by all the oriental authori- 
ties, but with considerable variations both from each other and 
from our author. D'Herbelot {voc. Argon) represents the 
prince, after the election of his uncle, as fleeing into Khorasan, 
then defeated, not by Ahmed (Acomat) in person, but by Ali- 
nak, his general ; as not taken in battle, but fleeing to a 
fortress, wnere that officer by fair promises induced him to 
surrender, and thei) made him prisoner. His deliverance by 
the Emir Bou^ha, and the other events, j^retty closely agree. 
The account given by De Guignes (tome iii. p. 264) is nearly 
similar to the above. Haithon represents the sultan him- 
self (called Mahomet ) as pursuing the prince into his mountain- 
fortress, capturing and delivering him to be guarded by his 
general. But Price (Mohammedan History, vol. ii. p. 578-582) 
gives the most detailed and, it should seem, most carefully in- 
vestigated narrative ; and it comes much closer to that of our 
traveler. He confirms his possession of the government of 
Khorasan, and the sultan having marched against him in per- 
son, but reports the prince as defeated bv an advance-guard of 
15,000 men, and maae prisoner by Alinak (Ally Eynauk). The 
return of the sultan, tne interview of Bouka with Argon, and 
his surprise of the general's tent, are related nearly as here. 
Ahmed, however, is represented ^not very nrobably) as refusing 
to flee, and thus falling into the nands of nis nepnew, who de- 
livered him to the sons of a chief whom he had killed, and who 
speedily put him to death. Considering these wide discrep- 
ancies m the best historical records, and the peculiar oppor- 
tunities of Marco, I cannot think it at all improbable that his 
narrative may come nearer to the truth than any other. 

t I do not observe these suspicions in any other narrative. 
It does, however, appear, that Argon had become unpopular, 
and his death was somewhat sudden. Ghazan, who viewed his 



346 VOYAGE THROUGH THE INDIAN SEAS, 

LI. — Reign of Quiacatu. 

When Argon was dead, his nncle^ named Qniacatu, 
brother to Abaga, immediately seized the throne, wiiich 
was easily efifectedy as Casan was distant at the Arbor 
Secco. The latter, when informed of these events, 
was much grieved at the death of his parent, and still 
more incensed at Quiacatu having seized his inheritance. 
He was afraid, however, to march at once against him, 
but resolved, that at the proper time and pla^ he would 
take as signal vengeance as his &ther had done on Aco- 
mat.* Thus Quiacatu obtained general obedience, except 
over the troops whom Casan immediately conamanded. 
He married the wife of Argon his nephew, and indulged 
largely in the pleasures of the seraglio. At the end of 
two years, however, his death ensued, being occasioned 
by poison.t 

LII.— Contest between Baidu and Gh&zan. 

Baidu, his uncle, and a Christian, then seized the sover- 
eignty, and was generally obeyed, unless by Casan and 
his army. The latter, on learning these things, regretted 
much that he had not been able to punish Quiacatu, but 
determined to take such vengeance on Baidu, that the 
world might admire it. He marched without delay against 

Buccessors in a hostile light, might be disposed to be jealous on 
ihts subject. 

* These feelings are not stated in the histories, and indeed, 
under the circumstances, would doubtless be concealed ; but 
they are highly probable, and likely to be communicated to the 
Poll, with whom Ghazan was on so friendly a footing. 

t This prince occurred to us formerly under the name of Kai- 
khatu, as receiving the Poli and their two fair charges, on their 
first arrival from China. He is characterized by De Guignes 
(who calls him Kandgiatou), as irreligious, perjured, and de- 
bauched, yet ruling with justice. After displaying at first some 
vigour, he abandoued himself to profligate habits, and so dis- 
gusted the chiefs,that a general confederacy was formed against 
nim. His unpopularity rendered it impossible to make any 
serious resistance ; he was taken and put to death (De Guignes, 
tome iii. p. 266. Price, vol. ii. p. 599-601). Poison was a very 
likely mode of effecting this object ; though we do Jiot find the 
assertion made any where else. 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 347 

that chief, who, informed of his approach, assembled a 
great force, and marched ten days' journey to meet him, 
when he encamped, and awaited his adversary, earnestly 
exhorting and encouraging his troops. In two days Ca- 
san came up, and immediately a battle began, most bloody 
and desperate ; but it was vain for Baidu to struggle, 
since, as soon as the contest commenced, many of his 
men went over and fought on the side of his opponent. 
He was accordingly discomfited, and killed. Casan, 
thus victorious, immediately marched to court and as- 
sumed the sovereignty, when all the barons paid him 
homage and obedience ; and this was in the year 1294.^ 
Thus have you heard the whole train of affairs from 
Abaga down to Casan. You must likewise know that 
Alau^ who conquered Bagdad, and was brother to Kublai, 
was ancestor to all the princes now named ; for he was 
the father of Abaga, grandfather of Argon, who was 
the parent of Casan, now reigning. Having told you 
all about these Tai'tars of the East, I might go on to 
treat of Great Turkey ; but the truth is, I have done so 
already, mentioning all the acts of Kaidu, so that I have 
nothing more to Say, and shall therefore now tell you of 
the provinces and people that lie to the northward. 

LIII. — Of Conci and his Northern Kingdom. 

In this quarter is a king named Conci. He and all 
his people are Tartars, and adhere to the rudest and most 
brutal customs of that nation, never having changed 
since the time of Gengis IChan.t They have a god of 

* Baidu is stated in the histories to have been a grandson of 
Hoolaku, in which case he must have been nephew, not uncle to 
Kaikhatu ;but we have found our author before not very precise 
upon these points. De Guignes and Price mention several nego- 
tiations between the two claimants ; but both agree with our 
author, that the final downfal of Baidu was occasioned by the 
union of the chiefs against him, and in favour of his rival, whose 
more legitimate claim was already supported by a hign repu- 
tation and brilliant talents.— De Guignes, vol. iii. p. 269. Price, 
vol. ii. p. 601. 

t There is little or no doubt that this is the dynasty which 
De Guignes calls Touran, or of Siberia, tome i. p. 290, 291 . He 



348 VOYAGE THROUGH THE INDIAN SEAS, 

felt, named Nacigai, to whom they also give a wife, 
calling these two lords of the earth, who guard all their 
com, heasts, and landed property ; and when they get 
any victuals, they anoint with them the mouth of these 
deities. The king is independent, being of the imperial 
lineage of Gengis, and a near relation of the great khan. 
He has neither cities nor castles, but his people reside 
in vast plains, diversified with valleys and mountains. 
They are very submissive to him, and he successfully 
studies to preserve among them peace and union.* They 
have no grain, but live on milk and cattle, which 
abound, including camels, horses, oxen, sheep, and other 
animals. There are also bears, white all over, and longer 
than twenty palms, with foxes, large and black ; likewise 
a great number of sables, whose costly skins I have 
mentioned as woi*th each a thousand bezants. The rats 
of Pharaoh are plentiful, and very large, affording food 
to the people during the whole summer. In short, all 
kinds of wild beasts abound in this savage and track- 
less region. I must also mention, that this king has a 
country in which horses cannot travel, on account of the 
numerous lakes and fountains, and the quantity of ice 
and mud. This rugged tract extends thirteen days' 
journey, and at the end of each is a post-house to accom- 
modate the messengers, with about forty dogs, almost as 
large as asses, to convey them from one post to the other. 
As wheeled carriages cannot travel here, they employ 
sledges, so formed as to move over the surface witliout 



mentions that Baatu, after the conquest of Moscow, intrusted 
a body of troops to his son Scheibani, who established himself 
on the mountains of ArallC Ural), and thence extended his do- 
minion over Siberia. The name here given does not occur in 
the list of its princes ; yet De Guides mentions Conzi as one 
of the sons of Scheibani. Ramusio, after omitting the pre- 
ceding chapters, has inserted the present one, but is led bv 
the similarity of name into the strange blunder of confound- 
ing this peaceful prince with the fierce and restless Kaidu, on 
which Mr Marsaen has founded some very misplaced com- 
ments. 

* This sentence is not in the French edition, but being in the 
Paris Latin and Ousca, as well as Ramusio, appears genuine. 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OP -^ESTERN ASIA. 349 

sinking ; such, indeed, as are used in this country to con- 
vey hay and straw when there is great rain and mud. On 
the sledge is spread a hear*s skin, whereon the messenger 
sits, and the dogs drag it direct to the following post. The 
guardian mounts a similar carriage, and guides him by 
the best and nearest way. At the next post, they find 
another relay of sledges and dogs, and the one which 
conveyed them returns. The men dwelling in this wild 
country are very expert hunters, capturing many precious 
little animals, such as sables, ermines, and black foxes, 
whose skins yield a large profit. They have engines so 
well contrived that no animal can escape. But owing 
to the extreme cold, all their habitations are under 
ground.* Having nothing more to mention, we shall 
depart and treat of a place where there is perpetual 
twilight. 

LIV.— The Region of Obscurity. 

You must know, that beyond this kingdom is a pro- 
vince called Obscurity, because there never appears either 
sun, moon, or star ; but it is always dark, as with us 
during twilight.t The people have no ruler, but live 
like brutes. The Tartars, however, make occasional in- 

* To those at all acquainted with Siberia, it need scarcely be 
remarked how very accurate is the description here given both 
of its pastoral and frozen regions ; the beautiful furs ; the white 
or polar bear ; the sledges drawn by large dogs ; the subter- 
raneous habitations. 

+ Instead of this, Ramusio says, ** during most of the winter 
the sun is invisible, and the atmosphere is obscured, as it ap- 

eiars to us at the dawn of dav, when we see very imperfectly." 
e adds afterwards, " the inhabitants take advantage of the 
summer season, wmu they enjoy continual daylighty to catch," 
&c. These statements are in no early edition, and I cannot 
help thinking that they betray the additional information de- 
riyed from voyages performed long after into the northern 
regions. The Cnisca ^oes very far, representing the darkness 
as complete, and the night perpetual ; a statement which dis- 
mays Count Boni, and arose probably m>m some misunderstand- 
ing of the original. I incline to think the French the most cor- 
rect, and that the constant twilight mentioned arises rather 
firom dense fogs on the shores of the northern ocean, than from 
the position on the earth's surface. 



350 VOYAGE THROUGH THE INDIAN SEAS, 

roads in the following manner : — ^They ride on mares that 
have just hrought forth foals, which last are left at the 
border. They then traverse the country, plundering 
whatever they can find ; and when they wish to return, 
the mares, seeking to find their young, know the way 
better than the riders.* The people are all hunters, and 
take, great numbers of sables, black foxes, and other 
anim«5s with costly furs. Those on their frontier meet 
them at a fixed period, purchase these skins, and sell 
them elsewhere with an ample profit. These people are 
tall and well made, but pale and colourless. The terri- 
tory borders on one side upon Great Russia, of which I 
shall now proceed to speak. 

LV. — Description of Russia and seyeral a4jacent Countriefi. 

Russia is a very great province towards the north, 
inhabited by Christians, who follow the Greek Church. 
They have languages of their own, and several kings. 
They are a very simple people, but extremely hand- 
some, with a fair complexion. The entrances and passes 
into it are very strong ; they own some small allegiance 
to the Tartar king of the West, named Toctai. The 
country yields few commodities, except an abundance 
of the furs already described, equal to any in the world. 
There are considerable silver mines. But now let us 
leave it, and describe the Greater Sea, with the provinces 
around. But first let me tell you of a province lying 
between north and north-west, and bordering on Russia, 
named Lac, inhabited by a mixture of Christians and 
Saracens, and subject to a king. The people carry on 
merchandise and manufactures, and have a vast variety 
also of valuable furs.t But now I must go back to 

* There is no modem record of such predatory inroads^ but 
the country has been long held by Russia, a civilized and 
powerful government, which would not permit such lawless 
proceedings. Neither is there any other mention of this curious 
mode of finding their way back ; out, no doubt, under these cir- 
cumstances, the animals would trace it better than the riders. 

t Count Boni thinks Lac (Lacca, Crusca) to be Poland, the 
inhabitants of which, he says, own Lech for their progenitor. 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 351 

Russia, and mention something that I had forgot. It 
is so very extensive as to reach the ocean, where are 
isles on which pilgrim-falcons and gerfalcons are found, 
and carried to various parts of the world. Now from 
Russia to Oroech is no great distance ; hut the extreme 
cold renders the journey very difficult.* This would 
be the time to speak of the Strait of Constantinople and 
the mouth of the Great Sea ; hut on considering that 
many others have written on the subject, we shall omit 
them, and proceed to treat of the Tartars of the West, 
and the lords by whom they are ruled. 

LVI. — Succession of Western Tartar Princes. 

The first lord of these Tartars was Sain, a very great 
and powerful king. He conquered Russia, Comania, 
Alania, Lac, Mengiar, Zic, Gucia, and Gazaria. The in- 
habitants had all been Comanian ; but having no unity 
or connexion, lost their country, and were driven into 
various parts of the world, while those who remained 
became servants of this conqueror. After him reigned 
successively Patu, Barka, Mungletemur, Totamongur, 
and Toctai, the present sovereign.t Having thus re- 

Yet, though Poland was well known in that ace, and traversed, 
as we have seen, by contemporary travellers, this name is never 
found applied to it. It is stated, too, to be partly inhabited by 
Saracens (Mohammedans), which might, it is said, refer to 
Baatu's expedition ; but his troops were not Mussulmans, and 
they retirea in a body, leaving not one behind. The Count's 
version (the Crusca) wants the sentence about Constantinople, 
whence the position W.N W, appears to be from Russia ; Aut 
this is here supplied from the French, and if genuine, Lac must 
bear that direction &om the imperial capital. I incline to thhik 
it Moldavia and Bessarabia, not then subject to Russia, and to 
which Mohammedans might have penetrated. 

* In the Crusca, it is Orbeche, in the Pucci, Osbech ; whence 
Count Boni supposes it to mean the Uzbeks. The French editor, 
however, has in the margin Norvege (Norway), with which 
suggestion I incline to concur. The country seems spoken of 
as one known to Europeans ; while the other would be too 
distant. Neither Lac nor Oroech are in Ramusio ; so that we 
have no aid from Mr Marsden. « 

+ This list is tolerably correct, if we except a great error at 
the outset, by which Sam and Patu (Baatu) are represented as 



352 YOTAOE THROUGH THE INDIAN SBAS, 

counted the kings of the Western Tartars, I will now 
descrihe a great hattle fought between Alau, lord of 
the East, and Barka, lord of the West, with the occasion 
which led to it. 

LVII. — Dispute between Barka and Hoolaku. 

You must know that about the year 1261 there aross 
a great discord between these two monarchs. It was 
about a province on their respective irontier which each 
desired and would not yield, but resolved to seize it 
and see who would oppose him. Thereupon they de- 
clared war, summoned their respective subjects, and 
made the greatest preparation almost ever known. I 
assure you, in six months each had assembled fiill 300,000 
horsemen, well provided with every warlike implement. 
Alau, lord of the East, then set out with all his troops, 
and having rode many days, reached a wide plain be- 
tween the Iron Gates and the Sea of Sarain. There he 
pitched his camp, which, I have heard, contained many 
rich tents, and made a splendid appearance. Being here 
on the frontier, he resolved to* wait, and see if Barka 
would come. That prince having completed hb pre- 
parations, and learned the approach of his foe, without 
delay began his march. He rode on till he came to 
the great plain where his enemy was posted, and pitch- 
ed his camp at ten miles' distance. I declare to you, it 
was fully as beautiful as tliat of Alau, filled with tents 
and pavilions of cloth of gold. His army, too, was more 

— • 

distinct princes ; whereas these are only different names of the 
same ^eat warrior, with whom our readers must now be 
pretty well acquainted. De Guignes, tome i. p. 287, calls him 
Batou Sain ; Abulghasi, p. 195. Batu Sager. The appella- 
tions, however, are so striking!]^ dissimilar, that we cannot 
much wonder at their being considered applicable to different 

Persons. De Guignes' list is as follows :— Batou Sain died in 
256 ; Bereke, 1266 ; Toudan Mangou, 1287 ; Toulabouga^ 1291; 
Toghtagou (called by the Russians Toctais), 1313. The subse- 
quent names, with the usual variations, agree with those of our 
author, except in the absence of Tolobuga ; but he will come 
in our way again, when we shall have occasion to make some 
curious observations respecting him. 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 353 

numerous, amounting, without a lie, to 350,000 horse- 
men.* They rested two days in their tents, when Barka 
thus addressed his men : — ^** Noble chiefs, you know 
how, since coming to the sovereignty^ I have loved you 
as brothers and sons ; you have accompanied me in 
many great battles, and aided in conquering much ter- 
ritory. Alau, a great and powerful prince, proposes 
wrongfully to fight against us ; but having the right on 
our side, we may confidently expect to conquer, espe- 
cially since our army is more numerous. In this confi- 
dence, then, noble chie&i, and having come so fax for 
battle, let us prepare in three days to engage, arranging 
so wisely, and displaying such valour, that our fame 
may spread over the world." He was then silent ; and we 
must now return to his antagonist, who, when he heard 
of his adversary's arrival with so great an army, assem- 
bled his principal men and said : — '^ Noble brethren and 
Mends, you have throughout all my life supported and 
aided me, enabling me to conquer in many battles ; nor 
indeed ever fighting one in which we were not victori- 
ous. We have come here to combat the great Barka, 
who indeed has as many and even more troops ; but ours 
are braver, and I feel confident of victory. I rejoice, 
then, to hear by the spies, that he is coming to give us 
battle in three days^ and I expect every one to be well 
prepared, with his accustomed bravery, rather to die on 
the field with honour, than to suffer disgrace and dis- 
comfiture." 

LVIII.— Great Battle between them. 

On the appointed day Alau rose early, summoned his 
men to arms, and ranged them very skilfully in order of 
battle. He formed thirty squadrons, each containing 
10,000 horsemen, making in til the nimiber of 300,000, 

* These nninbers are no doubt exaggerated ; but this I ap- 
prehend to be the case in all the histories of the middle a^es, 
especially of the East. Haithon represents ^ochtai (Toctai), a 
successor of Barka, as able to bring into the field 600,000 
horsemen. 

z 



354 TOTAGB THROUGH THE INDIAN BBA89 

with able leaders and captains. By his order his 
squadrons then advanced at a moderate pace over the 
plain, till they arrived mid-way between the two campsy 
where they topped and awaited the enemy« On tiie 
same morning, Barka similarly arranged his men, form- 
ing tliirty-five squadrons of 10,000 each, with good 
officers and commanders. He then made lus troops ride 
forward to within half a mile of the enemy, when 
they halted, and again proceeded till the ho^ being 
within two bow-shots of each other, stopped and ar- 
ranged their squadrons. The plain was the largest 
and finest in all that country ; which, assuredly, was 
very necessary to afiford a field of battle for such mighty 
armies, amounting to 660,000 men. Indeed Alau and 
Barka were the most powerful princes in the world, and 
were near relations too, — ^being both of the imperial 
lineage of Gengis Khan. 

The two great kings with all their troops being thus 
marshalled, impatiently waited for the naccar as a signal 
of battle. When it sounded, the armies rushed forward 
and discharged arrows against each other. The air was 
filled, and the sky became invisible ; numbers of men 
and horses fell to the earth, which was covered with dead 
and dying. The arrows being exhausted, they struck 
dreadful blows with swords and spears ; assuredly there 
had not for a long time been a battle in the world 
fought by such numerous armies. Alau, most brave and 
powerful in arms, showed himself this day worthy of 
ruling a kingdom and wearing a crown. He displayed 
signal prowess in his own person, and by his example 
infused extraordinary courage into his men. His 
achievements, indeed, astonished both friends and ene- 
mies ; he appeared, not a man, but thunder and tempest 
Barka, too, fought most bravely, and made himself 
worthy of the admiration of the whole world ; but it 
was all in vain ; his men were either killed, or so over- 
whelmed and exhausted, that they could endure no 
longer. When evening arrived, they fled with their 
utmost speed. The victor and his troops rapidly pur- 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 355 

sued, and after committing dreadful slaughter returned, 
threw aside their arms, and had their wounds washed and 
dressed. They were, indeed, quite overpowered and 
exhausted. The night was spent in repose, and next 
day he ordered all the dead bodies both of friends and 
enemies to be burned. He then returned into his coun- 
try with all the troops who survived the battle ; for I 
assure you, although he conquered, he had lost a vast 
number, yet still more had fiEdlen on the opposite side.* 
Having told you thus of Alau and his victory, we shall go 
on to treat of a battle between the Tartars of the west. 

LIX. — Controversy between the Tartar Princes, Toctai and 

Nogai. 

tYou must know that in this quarter the great lord 

* This war is narrated in all the oriental histories j yet it 
must be confessed with very wide variations. D'Herbelot 
{voc. Abaka) and De Guignes (tome iii. pp. 258, 259) mention 
no hostilities till after Hoolaku had been succeeded by Ab^^, 
who sent his son Schamat to Derbend against Barloi. That 
prince is said to have gained a signal victory, which did not, 
nowever, prevent his opponent from speedilv returning with an 
immense force; but death put an end to his lurther proceedings. 
Yet these writers incidentally notice, that some years before 
Barka had formed an alliance with Egypt, and carried on oi>e- 
rations which had led to severe losses on the side of Syria. 
Haithon of Armenia (Purchas, vol. iii. p. 117), whose local posi- 
tion makes him a good authority, states Hoolaku. as personally 
en^[aged in a great battle against Barka. Mr Price relates a 
senes of transactions conducted bythat prince, who, after several 
encounters near Schamachie, on December 1264, surprised and 
defeated Barka, who then retreated. The army pursued ; but, 
through want of caution, allowed themselves to be in their turn 
surprised ; and, while retreating across the Terek, the ice broke 
and a number were drowned. But the date is 1264, three years 
later than our author's. Now Price mentions that Barka com- 
menced his invasion in 1260, but that no steps were taken to 
check it till 1264 (Mohammedan History, vol. ii. p. 571). We 
cannot but think this very improbable, and that tnere must be 
here a blank in oriental history, which, indeed^especting all 
this series of events, is extremely defective. This would be 
supplied by the present narrative, which represents Hoolaku, 
as mig^ht be expected, marching inmiediately against the invader, 
and giving him so severe a repulse as mi^ht make him discon- 
tinue all operations till 1264, when he might return with re- 
cruited strength. 

t The following chapters are found in the early French ver- 



356 TOTAOB THROUGH THE INDIAN SEAB, 

of the Tartars was named Mongutemur, and Jie was sao- 
ceeded by Tolobuga, a very young man. ToAmangu^ 
a powerfiil chief, aided by a king named Nogai,* killed 
that prince and succeeded to the sovereignty. He 
died, however, soon after, and in his room was elected 
Toctai, a very wise and able chief. Meantime, two sons 
of the slain monarch having grown up to manhood, 
and being wise and prudent, assembled a large body of 
troops, and marched to the court of Toctai. They went 
and threw themselves on their knees before him^ when 

sion, but not in any other printed one, nor in say mann- 
script to which we nave had access, except the Italian in the 
Museum. A question may therefore be raised as to their gen- 
uineness. Besides, however, the hiffh character of the edition, 
the style is exactly the same, though the statements are some- 
what more loose and careless : but, indeed, they have been so 
during several preceding chapters. The outline of the informa- 
tion is confirmed, as elsewhere, by ffood oriental aathoritieB. 
We have pointed out the motives wmch led transcribers and 
translators to the system of abridgment by simple omission, and 
how these became always stronger as the work drew to its 
close. The different editions, accordingly, have been dropping 
off one after another ; and only the Crusca comes down u> the 
present point. There is also an Italian MS. in the Royal Lib- 
rary at Paris, which, from the hst of names pubUshea by the 
Greo^aphical Society (p. 552), appears to do so. The Italian 
MS. in the Museum, besides containing an abridged narrativeof 
the succeeding events^ affords a strong corroboration of their 
having been included m the original narrative. 

* De Guignes gives an account of the rise of the dynasty oi 
Nogai (whom he calls Nogaia), and from whom probably a 
numerous tribe of Tartars derive their appellation. Being: em- 
ployed with a strong force to keep in check certain northern 
tribes, he threw off tne yoke of his master, and having married 
a natural daughter of the Emperor Michel Paleologus, assumed 
the title and rank of a sovereign. This author agrees in making 
him accessory to the murder of Tolobuga ; but he represents 
Toctai as his accomphce, and thereby placed on the throne, mak- 
ing Totamangu the predecessor of the murdered prince. On 
this subject, however, see the next note. That Toctai might 
become the bitter enemy of the person who had raised him to 
the throne is not without example in the annals of ambition ; 
yet our author's account seems the more probable one. The 
two princes could never have come to solicit redress for their 
father's death from him who was its chief author. De Guignes, 
it is true, has no such incident ; but there seems difficulty in 
supposing it to be a complete fiction. 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 357 

he bid ifiefa welcome, and desired them to rise. The 
two youths then stood up, when the eldest began to 
speak thus : — ^^ Noble sire, we come as sons of Tota- 
mangu, who was killed by Tolobuga and Nogai.^ The 
former being dead, we can say nothing ; but we seek 
vengeance on Nogai, and pray that you, as his rightful 
lord, make him appear and account for the death of our 
father." The youth was then silent, and Toctai, feel- 
ing that he had spoken truth, replied, — " My noble 
fiiend, I will willingly do what you ask." He then 
sent two messengers with this injunction to Nogai, who 
laughed at it, and positively refused to come. They rode 
back and reported this answer, when their master, much 
enraged, said in the hearing of all around him, — ^^ If 
God aid me, either Nogai shall obey my mandate, or I will 
march with all my men to destroy him." He then sent 
two other messengers, who rode to the court of the Tartar, 
presented themselves, and saluted him. He bid them 

* I am obliged to notice here a gross inoonsistenov in the 
French text. Before, it was Totamangu who killed Tolobuga ; 
now it is the reyerse ; and this second version is carried through 
the whole succeeding narrative. According to it, the order of 
the sovereigns will a^ree with De Guignes, who places Tota- 
mangn first ; and as this order is given in two different parts of 
his work, drawn from different authorities, it is probably cor- 
rect (vol. i. p. 287 ; tome iii. pp. 346, 347). The transition m the 
original is curiously made : — ^ Or avint qe endementier deus 
filz de Tolobuga qe occis avoit est^, furent creu et estoient homes 
qe bien pooient porter armes. II estoient sajes e provens : 
cesti deus freres, ee furent les jUz de Totamangu,^* I cannot 
but sus^ct that this is a rough way of acknowledging his error, 
and talun^ up the real state of the case. The Museum MS. in- 
deed carries out through the whole the first statement of Tolo- 
buga as the murdered prince, and his sons as seeking redress, 
llie French, however, is undoubtedly the earliest version, and 
the Italian transcriber, on seeing the discrepancy, might natur- 
ally seek to remove it by continuing the nrst statement, sup- 
posing it the most correct. There appears reason to think that 
the contrary is the truth ; an opinion which seems farther con- 
firmed by De Guignes' report (tome iii. pp. 346, 347), that Tolo- 
buffa haa nearly usurped the supreme power even in the lifetime 
of Totamangu, who, unable to control his turbulent chiefs, re- 
signed the crown. This is not very far &om the statement of 
Marco ; for in such a society, the abdication of a monarch and 
his death were not likely to be very distant. 



358 TOYAGB THROUGH THE INDIAN SEAS, 

welcome, when one of them said, — ^^ Noble' sire, Toctai 
gives warning, that unless you come to his court to account 
for your conduct to the sons of Totamangu, he will march 
against you with all his people, and do you all the injury 
in his power ; therefore be careful what you do in thk 
business, and what message you send." The other wrath- 
fully replied, — " Grentlemen, return to your lord, and 
tell him from me, that I little dread the threatened 
war, and am ready to come and meet him half-way." 
The messengers, on hearing this speech, without delay 
set out, and rode till they came to their master, and 
told him all that Nogai had said. Seeing that war was 
inevitable, he immediately sent his messengers to all his 
subjects, and summoned them to prepare and march 
against his adversary. And what shall I say ! He as- 
sembled the greatest armament in the world. When the 
Tartar prince heard this, he also made great preparations ; 
but his people being less numerous, he could not assemble 
an equ^ army ; however it was very powerfnl. 

When Toctai was fully ready to take the field, he set 
out, leading with him, I assure you, two hundred thou- 
sand horsemen. He rode on to the large and beautiful 
plain of Nerghi, and there pitched his camp. Hither also 
came the two sons of Totamangu, with a noble com- 
pany of men, to avenge the death of their father. Now 
let us turn to Nogai, who on learning his approach set 
out with all his troops, and, without doubt, they were up- 
wards of 150,000 horsemen, all good and valiant, better 
men at arms than those of the enemy. Two days after, 
he aiTived and pitched his camp at ten miles distance. 
On both sides were seen very rich tents and pavilions of 
cloth of gold, fully displaying the wealth of these kings. 
They then waited a short time on the plain for refresh- 
ment and repose. . 

LX.— Great Battle. 

Toctai now assembled his people, and spoke as fol- 
lows : — " My lords, we have come to fight King No- 
gai, and with great reason, since all this feud and enmity 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 359 

have arisen from his not coming to account for his conduct 
to the sons of Totamangu. Since then his behaviour is 
thus unreasonable, we must feel good courage and hope 
of conquest ; and I earnestly pray that each man be va- 
liant, and strive to carry destruction and death among the 
enemy." The other, too, thus addressed his men : — 
** Noble friends and brethren, you know how many great 
and hard battles we have gained, and against better men 
than now oppose us ; therefore you may feel assured of 
victory. Besides, we are fully in the right, and he in 
the wrong ; for, as you know well, he is not my lord, 
nor entitled to call me to his court to give an account to 
others. I say no more, but pray every one to perform 
such exploits, that the whole world may admire them, 
and your name may always strike terror." The two 
kings, having thus spoken, made no delay in forming 
their order of battle. The first drew out twenty squad- 
rons, and his enemy fifteen, of 10,000 men each, with 
good captains and conductors. Having rode on to within 
bow-shots, and the naccar having sounded, they rushed 
forward and discharged their arrows, when many horses 
and riders fell dead, loud cries arose, and tears were 
shed. Afterwards they all advanced with sword and 
spear ; hands, heads, and arms were cut off ; knights fell 
dead and wounded to the earth ; the cries, noise, and clash- 
ing of arms, would have drowned the loudest thunder. 
Never almost was there a battle in which such numbers 
fell ; but the greater loss was on the side of Toctai, for 
his adversary had better men-at-arms. The two sons of 
Totamangu displayed great prowess, striving to the ut- 
most to avenge the death of their father ; but it was in 
vain. The battle, in short, was most bloody and dread- 
ful ; many who in the morning were alive and vigorous, 
during the day fell slain, and many happy wives were 
made widows. Toctai strove with all his might to sup- 
port his people and his honour, and displayed indeed a 
prowess worthy to be praised by the whole world. He 
rushed amid the enemy like one that cared nothing for 
life or death, striking to right and left, rescuing his 



360 VOYAGE THROUGH THB INDIAN SBASy 

people when seized or taken. He did much injury that 
day hoth to enemies and friends ; of the one he kUled a 
vast number, and the other, from his example, derived 
boldness to push against their foe, and thus met instant 
death. Nogai, on his side, equally acted the hero ; he 
rushed among the enemy as the lion does among other wild 
beasts, casting down and killing all whom he encounter- 
ed. He threw himself among the thickest of the foe, and 
all fled before him like wec^ and timid animals. His 
troops emulated his valour ; but why make a long story ! 
The people of Toctai did every thing possible to support 
their honour, though in vain, for tiiey had too good 
and stout men to deal with. They had suffered so much 
as to make it evident that if they remained they would 
all perish. They therefore took to flight as quiddy as 
they could, the victor with his troops pursuing and kill- 
ing them in great numbers. Thus have you heard how 
Nogai gained the battle, and be assured there died in it 
60,000 men ; but the other king escaped, as well as the 
two sons of Totamangu.* 

LXI.-~Concla8ion. 

You have now been informed of all the actions of the 
Tartars and Saracens, of their customs, and of other 
countries throughout the world, so far as they could be 
searched out and discovered. We have only declined 
saying any thing of the Black Sea and the surroimding 
provinces, although we fully explored them, because it 

* Do Guides relates the events of this war, bat, as already 
observed, he does not introduce the two princes, sons of Tot^ 
mangu or Tolobuga, but represents Toctai as impelled merely 
by jealousy of his neighbour or vassal, and a determination to 
humble him. There is a still more serious discrepancv ; for, in- 
stead of representing Nogai as victorious, he reports him as de- 
feated and killed. Yet it is remarkable, that in another part of 
his work ho mentions him, on the authority of Abulfeda, as hav- 
ing lived many years after, and died only in 1299. He notices 
himself the variation of the two accounts, but does not seem 
able to say which is right. We confess ourselves equidly at a 
loss ; but it would be hard to decide against our author on such 
varying authority. 



AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF WESTERN ASIA, 361 

would seemingly have been useless, and a repetition of 
what others relate every day. The Venetians, the Ge- 
noese, the Pisans, and many other nations, are continu- 
ally navigating it, so that every one knows the border- 
ing countries. You have been informed in a chapter at 
the beginning, of our departure from the great khan, 
and the trouble and solicitation which Mj^o, Nicolo, 
and Marco had in obtaining his permission. You have 
learned also the accident whg*eby it was procured, 
without which we should have found it very difficult to 
return into our country. But I believe it was the plea- 
sure of God, that they might make known the great 
things that are in the world, and, as formerly declared 
in the preface, there never was a man, either Christian 
or Saracen, or Tartar or Pagan, who explored so much 
of the world as did Marco, the son of P^icolo Polo, that 
noble and great citizen of Venice.* DeoGratias. Amen, 
Amen. 

* This conclading address is given by Count Boni from the 
Ousca and Pucci editions, where alone it occurs, and with 
some variation of language. Considering how the other editions 
have dropped off before coming to this point, we cannot wonder 
at its absence in any of them except the French, which stops 
abruptly at the close of the preceding chapter. This circum- 
stance, though difficult to account for, seems insufficient to make 
us reject a passage supported by two such valuable editions. 
We may observe a curious change in the last sentence, from the 
first to the third person. This, I apprehend, arises from Rusti- 
cians first vnritingas an amanuensis, then beginning in his own 
person, when he pronounces a panegyric upon Marco, which 
would not have come very gracemlly from the traveller himself. 



INDEX. 



A. 

(Abyssinia), kingdom of. 
The inhabitants converted 
homas, 325. Its king de- 
3 ruler of Adel (Aden), 326. 
tions of the country, 327. 
in (Bramins), order of, 293, 

•Manji, province of, 153. 
chief minister of Kublai, 
:ed administration, 120-124. 
by Yanku and Chenku, 

the Saracen, contends for 
iian empire, 3^. His bat- 
Argon ,342. Is seized and 
14. 

ty of Palestine, 99, 100. 
i*eak, a mountain of Cey- 
I. 
Iel\ a kingdom and city of 

Africa, 325. Is invaded 
ling of Abascia, 326. 
iity and Icingdom of Ara- 
. Inhabited by Saracens, 
great seat of Indian com- 
ib. Its sultan assists Sa- 
the siege of Acre, 328. 
the Old Man of the Moun- 
7. His garden and castle, 
K. How he trained and 
k1 his assassins, 228. His 
>29. 

Soolaku, ruler of Eastern 
, sends ambassadors to the 
lan ( Mangou ) , 97* Makes 
ih Barka, whom he de- 
;, 352-355. Captures Bag- 
1 subverts the caliphate, 
97, 210. Takes and puts 

the Old Man of the Moun- 
). Is succeeded by Abaga, 

mtains, where Gengis and 
endants are interred, 257, 

moo), province of, 170. 
(Andaman) Islands, 288, 

I celebrated mountain of 
a, 207. 



Argiron (Erzeroum), a city of Ar- 
menia, 207. 

Argon, lord of the East, 103. His 
battle with Barak, 338. Contends 
with Acomat for the Persian em- 
pire, 339. Is defeated and taken 
Srisoner, 343. His rescue and 
eath, 344, 345. 

Armenia the Greater, 206, 207. 

Armenia the Lesser, 205. Is sub- 
ject to the Tartars, ib. 

Arzinga, a city of Armenia the 
Greater, 206. 

Ascelin, or Anselm, a Dominican 
friar, his mission to the Tartars, 
then encamped in Per^ 60. Re- 
ception by Baiothnoy the Tartar 
ctiief, 61. His dismissal, 63. 

Astrologers and soothsayers, 143. 



B. 



His 



Baatu, a Tartar chief, 47, 64. 
court, 71 • 

Badascia (Badakshan), province of, 
18, 232. Abounds in precious 
stones, 233, 234. Its chiefs de- 
scended from Alexander the Great , 
233. Lapis lazuli mines, 234. 

Bagdad, oee Baldach. 

Baiothnoy, a Tartar' chief, 61. His 
letter sent by Ascelin to the Pope, 
64. 

Baksi, priests of Boodh, their en- 
chantments and idol worship, 135, 
136. 

Baku, a city of Persia, abounds in 
naphtha, 207, 216. 

Baldach (Baxdad), city of, its cap- 
ture by Hoolaku, 97, 210. Its 
rich cloths and great wealth, 2;U. 
Treasures of its caliph, 211. 

Balk (Balkh), city o^ 230. Its de- 
cay, ib. 

Bangala (Bengal), province of, 169. 

Bangu (Eastern Siberia) , country of, 
263. 

Barka khan, 96. Defeated by Alau, 
ib. 

Barons, twelve great, appointed by 
Kublai, governors 01 provinces, 
138. 



364 



INDEX. 



Bascra (Bussora), city of, 210. 

Bayam, Kublai's general, conquers 
King Facfur, ifj. Captures Cin- 
ghin-gui, 185. 

Belor (Beloor), a mountain range, 
239. 

Bolcliara, city of, 97> 

Boni, Count Baldelli, editor of two 
Italian versions of tlie Travels, 
22, 28, 30, 31, 36, 124, 131, 138, 
219. 

Boodliism in Central Asia, 247. Ex- 
tensively diffused through Japan, 
27«. 

British Museum, MSS. of the Tra- 
vels in, 26, 37. 

Brius river, 158. 

Bulgaria, a country on the Volga, 

Bumes, Sir Alexander, 21, 249. 

C. 

Ca-cian-fn (Tong-tcheou), city of, 
152. 

Ca-cian-fu (Ho-kien-fou), a city of 
Cathay, 173. 

Cia-guijQua-tcheou), city of, 184. 

Cail or Elael, a city of Southern India, 
308. The king possesses great 
treasure8,-,ih. 

Calacian, a city of Tangut, Central 
Asia, 266. 

Calatu (Kalhat), a city at the en- 
trance of the Persian Gulf, 331. 

Camandu, a city of Persia, 220. 

Cambaia (Cambay), a kingdom of 
Western India, 316. 

Can-giu (Kiang-chan-fui), city of, 
199. 

Canpicion (Kan-tcheou), capital of 
the province of Tangut, 252. 

Caraian, province of, 159. 

Carpini, a Franciscan friar, his 
mission to Cuyni (Kuyuk) Khan, 
49. Reaches Kiev, 51. Arrives 
at a Tartar court, 52. His recep- 
tion at the court of Cuyn§, 55-58. 
Departure and return, 60. 

Casan or Ghazan, his contest with 
Baidu, 346. Assumed the sove- 
reignty of Persia, 347. 

Cascar (Cashgar), province and city 
of, 18, 239, 240. 

Cathay or Kataia, northern China, 
120, 122, 143, 148. City of Cathay 
or Kambalu (Pe-king), 129. 

Caya-fu, a famous castle, 149. 

Chandu, a city of Tartary, 268.— 
See Shandu. 

Charlemagne, in his reign Germany 
emerged from barbarism, 42. 

Chaym (Kao-yeou), a large city, 180. 

C/ien-gui (Yen-tcheou-fou),cll^ ol, 
199. 



\ 



China, its preatness and civihsatioD, 
21. Rehgion and Customs (tf the 
Chinese, 145. 

Chinese empire, unknown to Euro- 
peans before Polo's travds, 17, 18i 

Chinese navigation to India, 27(). 

Chisi (Kishm), an island in the Ph- 
sian Gulf, 210, 217. 

CiMatai or Zagatai, one of the son 
of Gengis, 221. Becomes a convert 
to Chrutianity, 240, 241. 

Cianba (Tdompa), a coontrr be- 
tween Cochin China and Cam- 
boia, 277> Kubiai sends an expedi- 
tion thither, ib. 

Cian-dan (Kiu-tcheon), a town on 
a mountain, 199. 

Cianganor, imperial palace at, 136, 
268. 

Cian-gli (Te-tcheon), city oi; 174. 

Cian-gla (Tsan-tcheoa), cttj of, 
173. 

Ciufdan (Karashehr), a provinee of 
Tartary, 244. 

Cbi-ghian-fu (Tchin-kiang-foa), dty 
of, 185. 

Cin-ghin-gni (Tchang-tcheoii-<iMi),a 
great and noble city, 186. 

.Chi-gui (Snt-zi-bien), city of, 176. 
Another city of the same name, 
180. 

Clemenfu (Tai-yuen-fou), a rich and 
powerful, dty, 101. 

Clement IV., Pope, death of, 99. 

Cobi or Shamo, great desert of, 245, 
246. 

Cobinam (Elhubees), dty of, 226. 

Coilac, city of, 73, 74. 

Coilon, a kinjgdom of India, 309- 
311. 

Comari, a country of Southern India 
around Cape Comorin, 311. 

Cond, king of Touran, 347. 

Condi -fu (Tsi-nan-fou), dty of, 174. 

Cormos (Ormus), a dty and island 
in the Persian Gulf, 223, 332. A 
great emporium of Indiai> com- 
merce, 223. Extreme violence of 
the heat, 224. Invaded by the 
King of Creman (Carmania), 2S5. 

Corvino, a Minorite friar, created 
Archbishop of Kambalu, 34. 

Cotan (Khoten), province of, 24S. 

Couriers of the great khan, 139. 

Creman (Carmania), kingdom of. 
219. Its productions and manti&c- 
tures, ib. City of Creman (Her- 
man), 219,220. 

Crusca MS. of the Travels, 36. 

Cun-chin, province of, 163. 

Cuyn^ (Kuyuk), khan, 54. Elected 
Emperor, 56. His letter to the 
YQV^,b^. \\S&d«(kth, 64. 



INDEX. 



365 



D. 

Dandolo, Andrea, Doge of Venice, 
89. His fleet defeated by the Ge- 
noei>e, 92. 

De Guignes, 124. 

Dogs, hunting, 130. 

Dominican fhare ; their mission to 
Persia, 49. Commence their jour- 
ney, 60. Their reception by 
Baiothnoy, 62 ; and dismissal, 63. 

Dor, king, story respecting, 149. 
Carried a prisoner to Prester John , 
150. Is restored to his kingdom, 161. 

Dufar or Dofi^t a seaport of Ara- 
bia, 330. 

Du Halde's estimate of the revenues 
of China, 21. 

E. 

E^igaia (Ninghia), a province of 
Tangut, 266. 

Eighurs, a Turkish tribe, 45,116, 247. 

Elephants, used in hunting excur- 
sions, 1^. 

Eli or Dely, a kingdom of India, 311. 

Erginul, a kingdom and city of Tan- 
gut, 264. 

Escier (Shaher), a city of Arabia, 
329. 

Euphrates river, 208. 

Europeans, excluded from China 
and the interior regions of Asia, 16. 

Ezina, a city of Tangut, 253. 

P. 

Facfnr, king of Manji or Southern 
China, 177> Conquered by Kub- 
lai, ib. Bounty to his subjects, 178. 

Falconry in China, 131. 

Festivals, magnificence of Tartar 
and Chinese, 125-128. 

Fire worshippers (Guebres) in Per- 
sia, 216. 

Fo-kien, province of, uncivilised 
tribes in, 200. 

Frampton, John, his English trans- 
lation of Marco Polo, 38. 

French Geographical Society, edi- 
tions of the Travels published by, 
27. 

Fu-2ui or Concha, kingdom of, 200. 
The capital, Fu-gui (Fou-tcheou- 
fou) , a place of extensive trade, 201. 

G. 

Gan-fii (Ning-po), a fine seaport and 
chief seat of foreign trade, 189. 

Gaul or Pariahs of Southern India, 
297. 

Gengls, the first khan of the Tartars, 
254. His battle with Prester John 
<Unchan or Ouang), 45, 266, 256. 
His conquests, 46, and death, ib. 
256. Hw successors, 257> 



Geographical Society of Paris, edi- 
tions of Marco Polo published by, 
27. Superiority to previous ones ,ib. 

Geo-gui or Gin-gul (Tso*tcheou), 
city of, 148, 172. 

Georgia, kingdom of, subject to tlu 
Tartars, 207. Account of its people 
and productions, 208. 

Ginghmtalas (Barkoul), a province 
of Tangut, 260. 

Golconda, in India, diamond mines 
of, 301, 302. 

Gozurat, a kingdom of India, infa- 
mous for pirates, 313, 314. 

Great wall of China, 23. 

Gregory X., Pope, 100. 

H. 

HoRng-ho, a river of China, 18. See 

Kara-moran. 
Hoolaku. — See Alan. 
Horsburgh, Mr, on the navigation 

of the Indian Ocean, 281. 
Huns invade Europe, 43. 

L 

Iconium, capital of Asia Minor, 83. 
Innocent I v.. Pope, his letter to the 

Khan of the Tartars, 49. 
Islands of the Oriental Archipelago, 

276,276. 
Ismalies or Assassins.— See Alaodin. 

J. 

Japan, expedition of Kublai against, 

18.— -See Zipangu. 
Java, island of, 104, 278. 
Java, Little (Sumatra), 281. Kin;;- 

doms of, 282-288. 
Jomard, M., 31. 

K. 

Kaidu, a powerful chief of Turkes- 
tan, 333. Rebels against Kublai, 
108, 111. His battles, and invasion 
of. Karakorum, 334, 33h. His 
death, 336. Exploits of his daugh - 
ter Aigiarm, 336>338. 

Kain-du, province of, 157. 

Kambalu (Pe-king), capital of China, 
111, 112. Description of the palace, 
117; of the city, 118. Its suburbs , 
119. Astrologers in, 143. 

Kamul (Khamilor Hamil), city and 
province of, 248. 

Kangigu, province of, 169. 

Karakorum, capital of the Mongols, 
44, 78, 253. 

Karamoran (Hoang-ho), a great 
river of China, 151, 176, 179. 

Karazan, province and city of, l&K 
Its great snakes and serpents, 161. 
Wicked custom of the inhabitants, 
162. 



300 IK I 

KkT«udwi^(irat[ni» oT, IBt. Ma- 

■Mini, 103. 114. 
KuUla.— B« Citlikv. 
Kantmur ICailiinin). * ptovlDCI ol 

Nurdiirn Indli.Mt. 

toUavwt or Iha Ind'iu, SlU. 
KholHi, ■ ally of TuiknUn, IS. 
K<air, Iha uioiml aplUI of Ruula, 

KIn-Ml OF Quln-Ml iHuii-tehwiii- 
fnu), onplUI ofMimi. 117. H" 
ItK Hlont md pouulilhui.'ll 
IKK. hhM. m, IW. 6ui 



Ktrihli4rtb>, nMm ov« Uw wJIdi 

Kkprolh, M., 31. 34. 
Knntol, > Tutar offion-, IN. 
Knrna-ni {ITul-nnn-foa). a dtj 

orManJI. 17S. 
Kntni, or oarainonjr a[ vrattrallon, 

m. 

Clihwi07^ illi n«p4Loh of Nl- 
«la wd Hafflo Polo, M. Illi 
pnmi and naanlllonin. 107. 
War ollh Nayan and Kaldu. 10» 
lin. nMurSirlka ChrUtlani, 
til. OpIiihNiiaftlMOhFhIMnRe- 
UiWn, 111, 111. Kawarda lo hli 
HMItni, 114. till paraon, wjim. 
As.. US. Ilnardi, IM. Manl- 
noonnutlililortlvab.lU. llunt- 
hw ai|MillIli>ni> »<*■ >*<■ Nun- 
Ilh malth, ISJ. Illi »>Hi»n 
nfpnidiiixa, I3tt. Cuu^m, l.m 

Kiirdn.l'nluibltanUorilnniouiiUlni 






lovhar iVnmbiiM, nnwhm ot.miL 
l.op, cMi. <IOMt. and IDw or. Ml. 
I.mri*. (i|, litd^ el PranM. Korlora 
411 <nntiji»r noin Iba Tiftan. fliL 
MciLli WilhiuH do Kubruquii « ■ 



'Xive fuir bolwveo Lt 



Uai)JI» gnat mvvLnr* ' 
ConqiwTfd Ivy Uajpnoi 



Moiwili. In Cvnii 
AiSi. 41. Invad 

AlUla, 4.1, 
If mill, kinvlomnf, 



Til. 77. Iftt. »W. Slit. ill. KBi. 
Mnu^W. 'kbix ol R.'ihnrl'. iil. 



EX. 367 

Tnioli, K, 31. FollDini] br 
MsTiden, 31. IclerpolBUd pH- 

Beolatle, ■ pnvlDDe of Fgnla, >M. 
lUptoplaud pK>diKtlon(,«Sa.lll . 



PsmLer (Punlr), aloftyUble-lmd, id Die Tarlsn, Be. Jiiunwy 

237-m. through IheCrtaHi. Hi. Vmi in 

Parrla, H., editor or the French Ecseatal, kTuur chief. Be. Hli 

Cbronldei, 98. ducripllon ol CDDUnla and Rib- 

Pueiii(Pah>wn),pn)<iDUOl,t.'W. sin. I». (IK. Arrlml iC lliownp 

Puu-chvm (FHi.yiijHliim), dtyof, of SvUch. W. FroccKU to Iha 

n». coun or Bum, 71. Joumn 

Prin (Bsl),pniTlnuaf. M3. through Tutor}. U.73-7i. Af 

PRitup'(Bfeling). an iilud In the th,! i;ri9il kbnn.VS' C^infennitD 

BIralti of HHlgocB, tW. with LUe lioptriid iwreliiriiui, uri. 

Pofllaf proviDCV of, US. Number fiLidepartur«»09. Jouneybotoe. 

of kbudanu In, Slj. EioUenn mrdi, «9, 83. 

of Ita honet, Ih. Riwda, daacripUon oF. 3N>. 

Id (Fln-nng-iau). till oT. 149. BiuIicljUB, lh« prlHn gompan>on of 

' (n^tcbewi), city rY, 176. Uareo Polo, it, 99, 3i, », M. 



> BascMoD (Cha^tcfaoou), dty of, M 
' et Tbomai, lagandi ropoctlng, 3D 



^wlir«r 37- '"""" 
PolD, Nlooh] and Maflla, t 

rHMeniia In Cblna, 90. 

Into tho Bail ud rsa 

Barks Khan, 98. Arrii 

ootut of Kublal, 9R eei ..^ „ 

antmbUHIoUwFopeJh- Their noble dtT of, HO, M3. 

arrival at Vaiice, ». Return to BapurgBii(8blbber>aun),oltyol.S3n. 

China, 100. Pinal departure and aamceui, tbelr wloked principle, 194, 

arclTai at Venice, lot.loe. 919. Haind of the Chrbtiani. 

Polo, Hamo, travaliof.auIheiiMcltr "^i ^>^ 

or the work, 14. General correci- Bartach,aTartar chtcT.SE. 

ntuof tlunarratlie, 17.19; son- Ban, tfaeditof the Uirce Dugl, In 

Obiemllone on Ibe nunuioipti Sa-.nn'hi (Xug'Tang-fou), ctly ol, 

andedlUaDiof,(I.40. Theaulhor 181. 

99. Reidng hie Hbeitf, S3. A» uliyot, ^], 

comranls hia tathsr and uncle Bcutm (Bocutml lata nf, SJfl~l*l. 

to China, 100. Ti employed In Scythlani, their early inviialoni of 

embBHie* by Kublal, 10!. Rli wulbcmFegtoie, 41, 49. 

Journey in China, 147. li gover- Sollan (Ceylanl, laland of, S8n.>Rt. 

norotVan-gui (Yang-tcheou-fou), Abounda in predoui Btanoi,I8», 

IBl. SBO. Orlainof flmdhliniln,«W, 

Popa of Rome, hie pAramouot hi- 991. 

Prceter Joho. — See Ouang Khan. India, '.il^ 

Puliungan river, 147. Sernnion Borcain, Korj of, 980. 

Pundiu In hit PlUrime tuea Ra- 991.991. 



Que-lio-hi (KlcD-nlng-Riu), dty 

Quen.glan'fU (Sl-ngin-lOu), city 

dum^wl. dty ol, 91,99.— BeeKinial. and dty ( 
B1n-sttl(Til 



.fulTdilng.lon.foii 



368 



INDEX. 



Sin-gui (Sou'tcheou-fou), a great 

and noble citv, 186. 
Sinugul (Soui-tcheou), city of» 171, 

172. 
Sirocco, or simoom of the East, fatal 

effects of, 224. 
Sismondi, M., 21. 
Sondur and Condur (Palo Gondore, 

&c), islands on the coast of Cam- 

boia, 279. 
Succiur (Soa-tcheoa),a city in the 

north-west of China, 251. 
Buraatra, island of, 18. See Java, 

Little. 
Suttee, prevalence of in Malabar, 297. 

T. 

Tai-lcan (Khoolloom), castle of, 231. 

Tai-in-fu (Tai-yuen-fou), kingdom 
and city of, 148. 

Tam-pin-gui, city of, 198. 

Tana (Bombay), a kingdom of In- 
dia, 315. 

Tangut, province of, 246, 247. 

Tartars driven out of China, 16. 
Their invasions, 18, 42. Conquests 
under Gengis and Oldioday, 46, 
47. Government, 83. Domestic 
condition, 84, 85. Religion, cus- 
toms, and manners, 86, 258-263. 
Military system, 86, 87. Compu- 
tation of time, 144. Their wars, 
and > the order of their armies, 
260-263. 

Tea, not mentioned expressly by 
name, 23, 143. 

Teflis, a city of Armenia, 209. 

Temugin, Khan of the Great Mon- 
gols, 44. Changes his name to 
Gengis, 46.— See Gengis. 

Toinur, grandson and successor of 
Kublai, 116, 118. 

Tenduc, a province of Eastern Tar- 
tary, 267- The chief seat of Pres- 
ter John, 268. Called Gog and 
Magog, ib. 

Tents of the great khan, 132. 

Thibet, the chief seat of Boodhism, 
155-167. 

Tholoman (part of Yun-nan), pro- 
vince of, 170. 

Ti-uiin-ffui (King-te-chinp:), porce- 
lain manufactures of, 203. 



Tin-gui, city of, 180. 

Toc-tai, his controrersy witli Nogai, 
365, by whom he is defeated in a 
great battle,- 358-360. 

Tonocain (Daumgliaun), province 
of, 226, 227. 

Toris (Tauris or Tabreez), a cele- 
brated city of Persia, 21 1 . 

Travellers, early, their credulity, 19. 

Turcomania, races of men inhabit- 
ing, 206. Subject to the Eastern 
Tartars, ib. 

Turkestan, a countnr of Central 
Asia, inhabited by the Turks, 42, 
333. 

U. 

Ughim, city of, 186. 
Un-gui (Kia-hing), city of, 186. 
Un-quem (Ming-tsing), city of, 201. 
Ural river, 73. 

V. 

Venice, a powerful state, 89. 
Vociam, city of, 162. Kingdom of, 

164. 
Vokhan (Wakhan), province of, 237. 
Volga river, 69, 71. 

W. 

Waldshut, battle of, 47. 



Y. 

a city 



of Thibet, 



Yaci (Chiaki), 

159, 160. 
Yang-tse-kiang or Kiang, a groat 

river of China, 18, 183. 
Yan-gui (Yang-tcheou-fou), citv of, 

which Marco Polo governed, 181. 
Yarcan (Yarcund), province of, 242. 
Yarcund, city of, 18. 
Yasdi ( Yezd), a city of Persia, 2\H. 

Z. 

Zai-tun (Amoy), a noblo port, 2(t2. 

Zanghibar (Zangiiebar) , a country 
on the eastern coast of Africa, 322. 

Zipangu (Japan), invasion of by 
Kublai, bow frustratod, •27:{, 274. 
Idolatry and cruelty uf the inhabi- 
tants, 275. 



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