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MAGNOLIA IN SPRING

TREES AS GOOD
CITIZENS

CHARLES LATHROP PACK

PRESIDENT OF THE AMERICAN TREE ASSOCIATION

AUTHOR OF

"the SCHOOL BOOK OF forestry," "the WAR GARDEN VICTORIOUS,"
"MEMORIAL TREES," "THE FOREST POETIC," ETC. ETC.

PRICE, $2.00

PUBLISHED BY

THE AMERICAN TREE ASSOCIATION

1214 SIXTEENTH STREET, WASHINGTON, D. C.

PRINTED BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY
PHILADELPHIA, PA.

First Printing, November, 1922
Second Printing, December, 1922

SB
?3

PRINTED BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY

AT THE WASHINGTON SQUARE PRESS

PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A.

DEDICATED TO EVERY MAN, WOMAN
AND CHILD WHO PLANTS A TREE

The author acknowledges with gratitude the assistance derived from the writings
or from consultations with the following : —

F. L. Mulford, Horticulturist, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture;

H. R. Francis, Professor of Forest Recreation, Syracuse University;

Samuel N. Baxter, Arboriculturist, Fairmount Park Commission, Phila., Pa.;

Alfred Gaskill, Former State Forester of New Jersey;

J. Franklin Collins, Forest Pathologist, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture;

W. W. Colton, Former City Tree Expert of Newton, Mass.;

C. A. Reed, Nut Culturist, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture;

Nelson M. Wells, of the F. L. Olmstead Co., Landscape Architects, Brookline,
Mass.;

E. P. Felt, State Entomologist, Albany, N. Y.;

Carl Bannwart, Newark, N. J. Shade Tree Commission;

Bernard E. Fernow, Former Dean of Forestry, University of Toronto;

Lt. Col. C. O. Sherrill, U. S. Public Buildings and Grounds, Washington, D. C;

Norman C. McLoud, of the National War Garden Commission;

Joseph S. Illick, Penna. State Department of Forestry;

Charles C. Deam, State Forester of Indiana;

Charles Sprague Sargent, Author of " Manual of the Trees of North America. ;"

Arthur Newton Pack, Author of "Our Vanishing Forests";

Filibert Roth, Dean of Forestry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.;

J. J. Levinson, Former Forester Prospect Park, Brooklyn, N. Y.;

Mrs. N. Brenizer, Artist of the U. S. Forest Service;

Prof. Nelson C. Brown, Professor of Forest Utilization, Syracuse University;

Col. W. B. Greeley, U. S. Forester;

Col. Henry S. Graves, Former U. S. Forester;

Francis D. Gallatin, Park Commission, New York City;

C. P. Close, Horticulturist, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture;

Luther Burbank, and others.

The author also secured valuable information and illustrations from the following

publications:
"Insects Affecting Park and Woodland Trees, New York State Museum Memoir

No. 8 ";
"U. S. Farmers Bulletin No. 1209 Planting and Care of Shade Trees";
"U. S. Farmers Bulletin No. 1208 Trees for Town and City Streets ";
"Bulletin No. 170 Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station on Shade
Trees."

CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

I. Trees as Good Citizens 17

II. Trees Crown the Home 23

III. How to Identify Shade Trees 27

IV. Selection of Trees for Planting 41

V. The Placing of Shade Trees 68

VI. Shade Tree Planting 76

VII. Roadside Planting of Trees 90

VIII. Nut Trees for Roadside Planting 96

IX. Memorial Trees 108

X. Roads of Remembrance 115

XI. The Hall of Fame for Trees 120

XII. Labelling Shade Trees 127

XIII. Caring for Shade Trees 131

XIV. Pruning Shade Trees 138

XV. Injuries to Shade Trees 149

XVI. Repair of Shade Trees 156

XVII. Damage to Trees by Gases 166

XVIII. Tree Diseases and their Treatment 172

XIX. Tree Insects and their Control 183

XX. Municipal Control of Shade Trees 223

XXI. Legal Value of Shade Trees. . . , 231

XXII. Shade Trees and the Law 240

Arbor Days 248

Index 249

7 .

ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Magnolia in Spring Frontispiece

White Oak leaves and acorn 29

Red Oak leaves and acorn 29

Pin Oak leaves and acorn 29

Bur Oak leaves and acorn 29

Scarlet Oak leaves and acorn 29

Willow Oak leaves and acorn 31

Laurel Oak leaves and acorn 31

Live Oak leaves and acorn 31

Valley Oak leaves and acorn 31

California Live Oak leaves and acorn 31

Carolina Poplar leaves 33

Lombardy Poplar leaves 33

White Ash leaves 33

Green Ash leaves 33

Sugar Maple leaves 35

Red Maple leaves 35

Norway Maple leaves 35

Silver Maple leaves 35

Big-Leaf Maple leaves' 35

Ash-Leaved Maple leaves 35

Oriental Plane leaves 37

London Plane leaves 37

California Sycamore leaves 37

Sycamore leaves : 37

American Elm leaves 39

English Elm leaves 39

Huntington Elm leaves 39

Ginkgo leaves 39

Basswood leaves 39

European Linden leaves 39

Red Oak Tree 45

Pin Oak Tree 46

Scarlet Oak Tree 47

White Oak Tree 47

ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Live Oak Tree 47

Willow Oak Tree 48

Laurel Oak Tree 48

Valley Oak Tree 49

California Live Oak Tree 49

Bur Oak Tree 49

American Elm Tree 50

English Elm Tree 51

Huntington Elm Tree 51

Ginkgo Tree 51

Basswood Tree 52

European Linden Tree 53

Sycamore Tree 54

London Plane Tree 54

Oriental Plane Tree 55

California Sycamore Tree 55

Tulip Poplar Tree 56

Sweet Gum Tree 56

White Ash Tree 57

Green Ash Tree 57

Magnolia Tree 58

Norway Maple Tree 59

Red Maple Tree 59

Sugar Maple Tree 60

Big-Leaf Maple Tree 61

Silver Maple Tree 61

Ash-Leaved Maple Tree 62

Lombardy Poplar Tree 62

Carolina Poplar Tree 63

Mountain Ash Tree 64

Horse Chestnut Tree 65

Hackberry Tree 66

Ailanthus Tree 66

Honey Locust Tree 6j

dlacram of tree planting 69

Growing trees on busy thoroughfares 69

Instructions in tree planting 80

Map of tree-planting areas 85

Trees for planting in classified areas 87

ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

how to plant roadside trees 94

Hickory leaves and nut 98

Pecan leaves and nut 98

Walnut leaves and nut 98

Chestnut leaves and flowers 98

Beech leaves and nut 98

Pecan Tree 102

Walnut Tree 103

Butternut Tree 105

Hickory Tree 105

Beech Tree 106

Chestnut Tree 106

Tree marker used in Washington, D. C 129

Types of tree guards 135

Proper method of pruning trees 143

Improper method of pruning trees 144

Proper healing of wound in a tree 153

Proper and improper tree surgery 157

How to attach eyebolt and stranded wire 158

Method of attaching eyebolt and stranded wire 159

Improper method of chaining a tree 160

how a cavity is caused and how to treat it 162

COLOR PLATES

Magnolia in Spring Frontispiece

FOLLOWING
PAGE

Elms and Maples in Summer 1 8

White Oak in Autumn 2°

Beech in Winter 24

Leaves of White Elm, Red Spruce, Beech, White Ash, Red Maple, Tamar-
ack, White Pine 4°

Leaves of Tulip Poplar, Sweet Gum, Scarlet Oak, Basswood, White Cedar,

Flowering Dogwood, Shagbark Hickory 4°

Leaves of Aspen, Yellow Birch, White Willow, White Oak, Balsam Fir. . . 40

Leaves of Hard Maple, White Maple 4°

Leaves of Red Oak, Chestnut 4°

Aphids or Plant Lice I72

Maple and Other Scale Insects 174

Maple Borers and Cottony Maple Scale 176

White Marked Tussock Moth and Forest Tent Caterpillar 184

Elm Leaf Beetle and Bag or Basket Worm 186

Oak Insects *88

Fall Web Worm and Spiny Elm Caterpillar 19°

BLACK PLATES

OPPOSITE
PAGE

Pin Oak 42

Maple and Elm 44

Ginkgo 68

Basswood or American Linden 70

Red Oak 72

Horse Chestnut 74

European Linden 76

Sweet Gum 78

Willow 80

Catalpa 82

Sycamore 84

A Roadside Lined with Lombardy Poplars 90

Sugar Maple (Forest Form) 92

Shag Bark Hickory 96

Chestnut 100

Pecan 102

Mrs. Harding Planting an Elm 108

Planting at Grant's Tomb no

Tree Planted in Memory of John Muir 112

Marshall Joffre Plants Memorial Tree 114

Theodore Roosevelt Post Planting a Tree 116

Tree Planting on Lincoln Highway 118

The New Garden Oak 1 20

Kentucky Coffee Tree 122

TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

CHAPTER I.

TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

The groves were God's first temples. Ere man learned

To hew the shaft, and lay the architrave,

And spread the roof above them — ere he framed

The lofty vault to gather and roll back

The sound of anthems; in the darkling wood,

Amidst the cool and silence, he knelt down,

And offered to the Mightiest solemn thanks

And supplication.

— William Cullen Bryant.

MAN owes it to himself to see that the street and road-
side shade tree is given its well-earned place in the sun.

This place has been won through a service of centuries.
Since time began, the shade tree has been the changeless
and unfailing friend of the human race. It has graced
earth with its beauty, and to every generation has given
freely of its protective shelter. Beneath its friendly boughs
man has found refuge from the blazing sun and the angry
storm. To every human being the shade tree is a bene-
factor; to every community a blessing and a benediction.

Shade-giving is the one thing in which the tree's
relations with man have stood unchanged. All other
relationships of tree and man have varied with the ages, for
the uses of wood have gone through a steady development
with the progress of the race. Shade trees alone, among the
children of the forest, have been ever constant.

There has, it is true, been no change in the influence of

trees on literature. To-day, as for countless centuries,

man seeks the shade of a friendly tree to write or to enjoy

what others have written. The poets of by-gone ages

2 17

1 8 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

found ease and inspiration in shaded nooks, and the writer
of to-day turns likewise to the shelter of his favorite tree.

One of the beauty spots of the world is the site of the
tomb of Virgil, overlooking the Gulf of Naples. This
tomb marks the great poet's favorite retreat during his
last years of life, and it was there, according to tradition,
that he wrote his undying epics. The visitor to Posilippo
finds it easy to understand why these wooded slopes, over-
looking the blue Mediterranean, held such charm for the
poet and made him choose this spot for his final resting
place. In the same way, a visit to Cambridge shows
why our own Longfellow sought the soothing shade of his
beloved Elms for the writing of poems no less enduring
than those of Virgil. For each of them, as for all man-
kind, the shade trees held irresistible charm.

Trees have had their part in history no less than
in literature. In modern warfare the great generals
pitched their tents and held their councils under
the trees, as did the captains of Carthage, Greece and
Rome. The Cedars of Lebanon and the trees of Gethsem-
ane have deathless place in man's memory. It was under
an Oak that Abraham received the angel, and it was in
the shade of a tree that Socrates and Plato held discus-
sion. Turn where one may, in the pages of history or in
the life of to-day, the shade tree makes constant appeal to
the imagination and to the sense of romance because of its
unchanging role as man's faithful friend. Through all
the ages the sheltering tree has had no rivals. "The
Groves were God's first temples," and man's apprecia-
tion of their use and beauty gives them everlasting place
in his affections.

This permanent kinship entitles the shade tree to a
foremost place on the bookshelf. Shade trees merit the

TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS 19

best attention that can be given them. The more we know
of their proper treatment, the greater will be our opportuni-
ties for enjoying them. The more we study methods for
their growth and nurture, the more of them we will have;
and the more we have, the greater will be the beauty of our
communities and our roads.

The purpose of this book is to simplify to some extent
the problems of those who would grow shade trees. These
problems can be made easy by study and the application
of simple rules of safety and caution. The problems
cover such subjects as the choice of the tree best suited for
planting in a particular soil and location, its planting, its
growth, its care and its protection. To disregard the
information presented is to invite disappointment. To
observe it is to bring true shade tree satisfaction which
will repay the eifort a thousand fold.

It must be borne in mind that for its friendly offices the
shade tree is entitled to man's best care and protection.
In its demands it asks nothing in selfishness. Its one aim
is to thrive for man's benefit. Its sole purpose is to bless
the world with its kindly gifts. In giving the shade tree
its well-earned place in the sun, man is but creating,
for himself and his heirs, a place in the welcome shade.

The city with fine shade trees is the City Beautiful.
Travel where one may, in this country or abroad, it is soon
learned that the final test of a city's beauty is its shade
trees. Fine buildings and broad avenues are not enough.
The best works of artist and architect must have trees to
set off and enhance their splendor. A city without an
abundance of shade trees on streets, on lawns and in parks
is incomplete.

When the traveler gives thought to the world's most
beautiful cities, he thinks instinctively of Washington and
Paris; and in thinking of them he delights in the memory

20 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

of their wealth of trees. To the fame of these two capitals
shade trees have given generously of their charm. In each
of these cities great architects and gifted artists have
created buildings of rare splendor and stately grace, such
as the White House, the Capitol, the Pan-American
Building and the perfect facade of the Treasury Building^
in our own National Capital; and the Louvre, the Elysee
Palace and the marvellous creations of Versailles, in Paris
and its environs. One lingers in admiration and reverence
on these wonders, but the chief charm of both cities is
found in the magnificent shade trees which line their
streets and beautify their lawns, parks and public grounds.

Who can picture Sixteenth Street, or Massachusetts
Avenue, or any of the streets of Washington deprived of
shade tree beauty? How much pride could Americans
take in the beautiful park around their Capitol if the
grounds lacked the trees which now cover its sweeping
slopes? How would Paris look without its Champs
Elysees, its Bois de Boulogne or its Champ de Mars?
Think of New York covered with brick and stone through-
out the area now occupied by Central Park, a Chicago
without Lincoln Park, a Boston without its splendid
Common, or a San Francisco lacking its Golden Gate
Park. Visualize without their trees, the city streets, parks
or lawns with which you are familiar, and see what be-
comes of the City Beautiful.

Throughout America there are cities famous for their
shade trees. The magnificent Elms of New Haven and
Oberlin, the tree-lined thoroughfares of Brooklyn, East
Orange, Springfield, Mass., Detroit, Indianapolis and
Los Angeles — compare them with city streets which lack
the glory of the trees. The contrast should give each of us
increased spirit to see that our own streets and our own
lawns shall not suffer by any similar comparison.

H
m

O
>

TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS 21

The worth of trees to a city is by no means confined to
beauty. The city of fine shade trees is the City Healthful
as well as the City Beautiful. In comfort, in health and in
sanitation the shade tree is an important factor in civic
welfare. Only a part of the benefit gained by man from
shade trees is reckoned as by pleasure to the eye, and relief
from the direct rays of the sun. Added to the welcome
shelter is the cooling influence produced by the trees
through their leaves; for trees transpire through their
leaves in a way that has a pronounced influence on tem-
perature. By absorbing moisture from the earth through
their roots and releasing much of it into the air through
their leaf-pores, the trees cool the air and freshen it. Enter
the woods on a hot summer day, note that the temperature
among the trees is several degrees lower than in the open.
Wherever a shade tree spreads its leafy branches, this
influence is constantly at work.

By this process of evaporating and exhaling moisture,
the trees not only reduce the temperature, but serve a
further useful purpose in giving off oxygen required
by man in the air he breathes; and, by drinking in the
carbonic acid gas, perform a double function in purifying
the air.

Medical authorities recognize the value of trees in
their influence on the health of a community. In the study
of human illness, and particularly of the ailments of children
in the crowded cities, doctors have found that trees do
much toward reducing the death rate. Research has shown
that one of the chief causes of sickness and death among
the children of the congested districts is the stifling heat
of midsummer days, intensified by reflection from heated
pavements and sunbaked walls. On streets where shade
trees are lacking, this reflected heat is given off night and
day, to the severe discomfort and serious harm of people

22 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

so unfortunate as to be denied the grateful shade of tree-
lined thoroughfares.

In addition there is a different stimulus produced on
the nervous system by the various colors. The effect of
green is soothing, so that foliage masses tend to counteract
the irritating effect of many of the colors common in city
streets, especially that of red brick buildings.

What has been said for trees in the city holds equally
well for the open country, although, to those familiar
with country conditions in the eastern United States
a country lacking in trees can hardly be realized. In nat-
urally treeless regions, tree masses are also valuable in
protecting small areas from the sweep of the drying
winds and making possible the growing of plants, not
otherwise practicable, as well as making living conditions
more comfortable.

From every point of view, shade trees are of vast im-
portance to the dweller in city, town or country. In
beauty, in comfort and in public health the shade tree is
the indispensable and never failing friend of man.

CHAPTER II.

TREES CROWN THE HOME

What does he plant who plants a tree?
He plants, in sap and leaf and wood,
In love of home and loyalty,
And far-cast thought of civic good
His blessing on the neighborhood.

ALL of the arguments in favor of trees for the com-
munity at large, and for the town or city street or the
country road, bear with concentrated force on trees for the
individual home. However small the lot, if there is a place
for a tree there should be a tree in that place. If there is no
room for a tree, shrubs, at least, should be planted. Trees
and shrubs give the final touch that marks the difference
between the home and the mere house. Shaded lawns
complete the picture of shaded thoroughfares. They pro-
vide the poetry of the home setting; they give expression to
the bit of sentiment with which every true home-lover is
blessed; they color the home with the tinge of romance
that meets universal human need.

No other feature does as much to give the home a well-
dressed appearance as the presence of trees. Whether it be
the stately mansion, with its broad sweep of spacious lawn,
or the modest residence on the forty-foot lot, the graceful
foliage of trees or shrubs is necessary to produce the home-
like charm. If there is room for many trees, this room
should be used; but the space for the single tree must not
be neglected.

It is only necessary to note the appearance of homes in
general to realize the emphasis of beauty produced by trees
and shrubs. The best kept lawn, whether the impressive
slope of the pretentious establishment or the tiny strip of

24 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

grass on the small city lot, is robbed of its best chance for
attractiveness by a lack of shade and foliage. The transfor-
mation brought about by the planting of trees and shrub-
bery is sometimes beyond belief until the demonstration
has been actually made. By careful planting, the compar-
atively small place can be given the dignity of acres; the
modest home may assume the appearance of the small-scale
estate. The house glimpsed through foliage has a charm
not possible to the more costly house in treeless setting.

In lawn plantings, as in street plantings, the relation of
cost to results is an important consideration. The
increased value, accruing to all of the property on a tree-
lined thoroughfare, is again made greater in the case of the
individual home which adds trees of its own to those of the
street. Any one of us, in buying a home or a site on which
to build, would be influenced in favor of the lot with shade
and foliage. Trees and shrubs give the contact with
Nature which man instinctively craves, and for which he
is willing to pay.

Let it be remembered, then, that in beautifying the
home with trees the outlay is to be regarded as an invest-
ment, pure and simple; an investment in beauty, in health,
in comfort, and, finally, in cash value. Any one of these
would make the investment worth while.

The tree, therefore, should be recognized as blending
beauty, poetry, sentiment and romance with the practical
and important elements of profit and health.

The planting of shade trees, too, must be looked upon as
an investment, not as an expense. Trees increase the dollar
and cent value of property. Those familiar with the
values of residence real estate recognize the greater worth
of homes on streets lined with shade trees. Of two houses
alike in design and structure, the place on the shaded
street will always command the higher price.

BEECH IN WINTER

TREES CROWN THE HOME 25

This principle applies to communities as well as to
individual homes. The visitor to town or city gains his
first and most lasting impression from the presence or
absence of shade trees. The community with streets bare
and bleak and shadeless is dismissed as an undesirable
place in which to live. Shaded streets and tree-clad lawns
have a charm which often proves the deciding factor in
influencing the home seeker in his choice of a place of
residence.

Definite evidence of this is found in the efforts of real
estate men to give new property added beauty and attrac-
tiveness by the planting of trees. That their choice of
species is ofttimes ill-advised, because of demand for
quick growth, does not change the major truth that they
recognize the value of the shade tree. Experience has
shown them that in the sale of homes in a new residence
district, trees are as essential as sidewalks and paving, and
second only to sewer, water, gas and electric connections.

Whether along the street or on the individual lawn,
the cost of planting trees is insignificant, and no man who
can afford to own a home can afford to deny himself and
his family the added beauty, health and comfort to be
derived from trees. It is not a question of one's ability
to afford the outlay. It is a simple truth that none of us
can afford not to do it; tree planting is good business as
well as good taste.

Unlike paving and other improvements, including the
house itself, the tree, properly cared for, is not subject to
depreciation in value. On the contrary, its worth becomes
greater with the passing years. In the towns of New
England to-day there are massive Elms which are known
to have spread their overhanging beauty before the eyes of
the Pilgrim, and which now give to the old homes a
value that can be measured in dollars just as surely as in

26 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

beauty, in the same way that the massive Oaks of the South
Atlantic and Gulf States have added beauty and value to
plantation and town. What could be a more grievous
mental picture than that of Northampton, Greenfield, or
historic Williamstown, in Massachusetts; picturesque old
Charlestown, in New Hampshire, or Savannah, Georgia,
or Mobile, or Tuscaloosa, Ala., or Pass Christian, Miss.,
or any one of scores of other communities, shorn of
the crowning beauty of these stately veterans of shade?

The community in which any one of us may live is
entitled to this asset. That our forefathers failed to
provide shade for the coming generations is no excuse for
similar failure on our part. The longer we delay the plant-
ing the more remote will be the time of gaining the bene-
fits of the trees we plant. We can never start any younger.
This applies to communities and individuals alike. The
time, therefore, for a beginning is the immediate present.

CHAPTER III.

HOW TO IDENTIFY SHADE TREES

OW many trees do you know well enough to call by
name at sight? Can you tell an Oak from a Beech,
a Red Oak from a White Oak or a Norway Maple from a
Sugar Maple? Do you know the difference between the
Buckeye and the Horse Chestnut?

The man who loves trees should be able to identify
them at a glance. This does not mean that he should
turn botanist and spend his life in the pursuit of such
terms as "staminal differentiation" or "pinnately com-
pound," or that he must study the trees of Borneo or
Madagascar. It does not call for scholarly research into
the many-syllabled Latin names employed by the scien-
tists. Platanus Occidentalis is all right for the expert, but
for the plain citizen the simple name of Sycamore meets
every demand. The one thing that is suggested is that he
should make himself familiar with the trees most commonly
found in his own section of the country and that he
learn to know them by the names in everyday use.

A little study along this line may save one from em-
barrassing moments when somebody asks the name of a
particular tree in city park or by country roadside.

Take the Oaks, for instance. The average man is not
concerned with the distinction between Quercus palustris
and Quercus velutina. What he wants to know is how to
tell the Pin Oak from the Black Oak. He would like
to be able to distinguish an Oak from the other trees and
the different species of Oaks from one another.

As a group the Oaks carry general marks of distinction

from other trees. One of these marks is the bearing of

28 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

acorns, in which the Oak has no competition. Within
the group itself, however, there is more or less kinship
of appearance which is confusing to the person who has
given no thought to identifying trees.

All of the Oaks may be grouped as either white or
black. To the former group belong the White Oak
proper and the Bur Oak, Swamp White Oak, Chestnut
Oak, Overcup Oak, the Post Oak and Live Oak, which
may be recognized by the rounded lobes of their leaves,
with the exception of the Post Oak and Live Oak, which
have no lobes; and by their light grey or light buffish-
brown bark, which breaks off into loose, flaky scales.
The Bur Oak is distinguished from its close kinsmen by
its cork-like branches. The trees of this group mature their
acorns in a single year, and for this reason acorns of old and
new crops are never found on a tree at the same time.

To the Black Oak group belong the Black, Red, Pin
and Scarlet Oaks, Spanish, Water, Willow and Laurel
Oaks. Instead of the rounded lobes of the leaves of the
other group, all of these have leaves with lobes that are
sharply pointed, or the leaves are tipped with bristles.
The Pin Oak may be recognized by its horizontal and
drooping zigzag lower branches, the deeply cut leaves, the
tiny branchlets set into its limbs suggesting wooden pins,
and the small acorns and cups. The Black Oak has rough,
dark bark, growing in ridges; its leaves are a deep lustrous
green above and dull light olive green beneath; its buds
are pointed and have a dense, hairy covering. The inner
bark is yellow and has a very bitter taste, in sharp dis-
tinction to that of the closely related trees such as
Scarlet Oak. The Scarlet and Red Oak have nearly
smooth bark. The Red Oak when young has bark that is
almost smooth, greyish or greenish cast brown, becoming
darker later. Its new twigs are terra-cotta colored and the

SCARLET
OAK

3o TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

older ones sepia-brown or grey. Its buds are pointed and
practically free from hairs; the leaves are not as deeply
lobed as the Black and Scarlet Oak and are of a dull, dark
green or yellowish green on the upper side, somewhat paler
underneath and with lighter veins. In the autumn the
leaves turn a deep maroon red. It has a large acorn set
in a broad shallow cup. The Scarlet Oak has thick dark
brown bark, with irregular, shallow furrows. Its leaves
are thin, a shiny olive green above, somewhat paler
beneath. The autumn coloring of the leaves is deep, car-
dinal red. The buds are blunt and smooth with a slight
hairy covering at the base. The oaks of the Black Oak group
require two years to mature their acorns, and for this reason
the same tree will, at the same time, show young acorns of
the new crop and fully grown acorns of the previous year.
The kernel of the acorn in the White Oak group is mostly
lacking in the bitter principle, some of them being quite
edible, while those of the Black Oak group are bitter.

Ash leaves are composed of several leaflets along a
single leaf stalk. These leaflets are in pairs, opposite to
each other on the stem, together with a terminal leaflet.
The number of leaflets on each ranges from five to nine,
most frequently seven. The leaves are also arranged
opposite one another on the twigs and branches. There
is a wide difference between the characteristics of the
Green Ash and those of the White Ash. The leaves of
the White Ash are whitish beneath and smooth, often
with a few suggestions of coarse teeth; those of the Green
Ash are green on both surfaces and have teeth like saws.

While the Horse Chestnut belongs to the same genus as
the Buckeye, the two are quite different. The leaves of
the Horse Chestnut are seven-fingered, while those of the
Ohio, Sweet and Red Buckeyes are usually five-fingered;
the flowers of the former are five-petaled, of the Buckeyes

WILLOW

OAK

LAUREL OAK

LIVE

VALLEY OAK

CALIFORNIA LIVE OAK

32 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

four-petaled. The fruit of the Horse Chestnut is a glob-
ular husk containing a single nut; that of the Buckeye
usually contains two. The Horse Chestnut has the ad-
vantage of the Buckeye in profusion and beauty of blooms.
The buds of the former are sticky, shiny and resinous,
which is not true of the Buckeye.

The Maples have opposite leaves, with deeply recessed
edges and always bear keys, or seeds with a long wing-
like appendage, in pairs. These are as characteristic as
acorns are of the Oaks. The leaves are borne in pairs, one
opposite the other, along the stems. On the Norway
Maple, the leaves are broader than long, iive-lobed and
easily identified for the reason that the leaf stalks and
veins give forth a milky juice when cut or broken. Its
bark is dark grey, fairly smooth and compact, with
shallow, close and narrow furrows. Its twigs are compara-
tively stout. The Sugar Maple has leaves very much
like those of the Norway Maple, but are longer than
broad and the exuded sap is clear. Its bark is a light
brownish-grey, deeply furrowed perpendicularly into coarse
flakes. Its twigs are about half as thick as in the Norway
Maple. The bark of the Red Maple is smooth in youth,
furrowed and shaggy and with long ridges on older trees,
and changing in color from light to dark greyish-brown
as the tree matures. The leaves are quite variable but are
three-lobed, sharp pointed and, quite unlike the Norway
and Sugar Maple, have definite saw-tooth edges. Leaf
and flower buds as well as twigs and fruits are red, the
summer foliage a light green on red stems and the autumn
leaves a brilliant scarlet. There is a variety with yellow-
ish instead of red twigs, flowers and fruits.

The Box Elder, or Ash-leaved Maple, is to be distin-
guished by its ash-like leaves of three to five leaflets on
a single stalk, coarsely toothed and usually deep green.

POPLAR

[SVHITE
ASH

GREEN ASH

34 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

The bark on the trunk resembles that of the Ash, and is
light brownish-grey, with narrow, shallow furrows. The
young twigs are a light olive green.

The Sycamore is a large, handsome American tree.
Its European relatives are called plane trees. The name
Sycamore is used in Europe for the Sycamore Maple or
False Plane Tree, while in the Orient and among the
ancients it was a kind of Fig. The Sycamore is also called
Buttonwood, Buttonball or Button Ball tree, Plane tree
and American Plane. It has large maple-shaped leaves
but has balls instead of keys as the seed vessel; the leaves
of the Sycamore are not borne opposite one another, being
thus in contrast to the habit of the Maple. Furthermore
its bark peels off in thin, brittle layers, a characteristic
lacking in the Maples except to a very small extent in the
Sycamore Maple. The peeling process leaves almost white
patches on the dull, ruddy brown bark, giving a character-
istic mottled effect which can be recognized at a long
distance. This appearance is not even suggested in the
Sycamore Maple. Another characteristic peculiar to this
tree is that the base of the leafstalk makes a cap-like cover-
ing over the young buds and the bud is not seen in the axil
of the leaf as in nearly all other trees. The leaves are light
green, five-lobed, and with a few coarse teeth. The fruit is
in the form of a single ball, rarely two, known as the but-
tonball, which changes from green to light brown in the au-
tumn and hangs throughout the winter. The London
Plane, often cultivated as the Oriental Plane — a sister tree
to the Sycamore — sheds its bark as does the Sycamore but
leaves pale greenish patches beneath, instead of almost
white ones. Instead of the single ball the fruit of this
tree is generally borne in clusters of from two to four.

In the American Elm, the trunk divides gradually a
short distance from the ground into two or more stout

SUGAR BRJ JWMAPLE

ASH LEAVED MAPLE go

36 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

branches, which curve gracefully upward and outward to
form a symmetrical, rounded, wide-spreading or vase-
like top. This tree's brownish grey bark is furrowed into
perpendicular flat-topped ridges, very rough and solid,
with whitish inner layers. The tree is marked by droop-
ing twigs, and by pointed leaves which are usually quite
rough above, sharply double-toothed, with straight, pale
veins clearly marked and extending to the teeth on the
margins. The English Elm has an oblong top, often
divided into two sections, one above the other and the
lower smaller than the upper. The trunk does not sep-
arate into branches as in the American Elm, but is more
or less continuous well into the top of the tree. Its
branches are crooked and heavy, and its twigs do not
droop as do those of the American Elm. The leaves are
similar to those of the American Elm, but are apt to be
smaller. The two trees are similar as to bark, except that
the bark of the English Elm is the harder and coarser.

The Hackberry resembles the Elm in some respects,
but its trunk does not divide so gradually. Its light
bark is irregularly ridged and after a few years is covered
with prominent wart-like projections of the outer bark,
which are a distinguishing characteristic. The leaves,
like those of the Elm, are unevenly developed and lopsided
to a much greater extent than in the Elm. They are a
light olive green, sharp pointed and coarsely toothed,
and each leaf has its two lowest side veins prominent
and extending well up from the base. The berry resem-
bles a yellow cherry, turning to purple-black and is sweet
and edible.

While the various Poplars have numerous points in
common, they are marked by distinctive characteristics.
The Lombardy Poplar is tall and slender, shaped like the
spire of a church, and its erect branches normally start at

ORIENTAL
PLANE

LONDON

pl/ne

CALIFORNIA

SYCAMORE

38 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

a point not far above the ground; its bark is brown and
rough, the leaves a dull olive green, blunt toothed and
triangular, often broader than long, and tapering to a
sharp point. The Carolina Poplar, or Cottonwood, has
a wider crown and more open branching than the Lom-
bardy Poplar, and is marked by its large twigs at the
ends of branches; its bark is dark grey, almost smooth, and
its leaves are larger than those of the Lombardy and have
coarse teeth. The Quaking or American Aspen, another
member of the Poplar group, is easily recognized by its
finely toothed, small, trembling leaves, its reddish
brown twigs and its sharply pointed narrow buds; its
trunk, gradually tapering to the top and its slender
branches. In the Large-toothed Aspen the buds are
thicker and broader and the leaves have much coarser and
more remote teeth. The unfolding leaves are white and
woolly.

The Ginkgo is a tree of unusual appearance, with
slender branches, extending upward and outward from
the trunk at an angle of approximately 45 degrees. The
trunk and branches are straight and tapering, the bark
dark brown or greyish, smooth in youth and becoming
rough and seamed. The leaves are a bright green, fan-
shaped, and have several short clefts in the edge, and
grow from alternating short button-like branches in
clusters of from three to six. Because the leaves resemble
those of the maidenhair fern in shape, though much
larger, this tree is frequently called the Maidenhair Tree.

The American Beech is marked by its smooth, close
grey bark, hugging the trunk and branches even in old
trees, which permanently show every cut or bruise. In
its close bark it resembles the Red Maple, but in the
Beech the branches and twigs are alternate, while in the
Red Maple they grow opposite each other. The leaves

AMERICAN ELM

EUROPEAN LINDEN

40 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

of the Beech are thin, finely and straightly veined, sharp
pointed and sharply toothed. The nuts grow two in a
bur and form a sharply three-sided pyramid of a shiny
brown color. The European Beech has similar though
often darker bark, and its leaves are proportionately
broader, though smaller, with less pronounced teeth and
with 5 to 9 pairs of side veins, instead of 9 to 14 pairs,
as in the American Beech.

The trunk of the Grey Birch, when young, has a shiny
bark of reddish brown, and as the tree matures, the bark
becomes a dull chalky white with triangular dark patches
underneath the bases of the branches. The bark is close-
fitting, does not peel rapidly, and has thick short hori-
zontal lines. The branches are slender and the lowest
droop, while those near the top are ascending or erect.
The leaves are triangular, sharply long pointed, and have
fine teeth. The White, or Canoe Birch, has buff-white
bark which peels off in paper-like layers. It lacks the
triangular patches seen on the Grey Birch. The leaves
are egg-shaped instead of triangular and double-toothed.
The Paper Birch resembles the Grey Birch in that it has
the same chalky-white bark, but it is different in that the
bark of the Paper Birch peels off readily in thin layers, and
that the dark, triangular patches are missing.

The Basswood, or American Linden, has brownish
grey bark with long, vertical fissures. The leaves are
broadly heart-shaped and one-sided at base. The leaves
of the European Linden are more evenly heart-shaped
and are smaller than those of the Basswood. The flowers
of the Basswood have five creamy white petals opposite
petal-like scales; in the flowers of the European tree these
scales are lacking.

WHITE ELM RED SPRUCE BEECH

WH ITE ASH

RED MAPLE

WHITE PINE

TULIP POPLAR

SWEET-GUM

SCARLET OAK

BASSWOOD WHITE CEDAR FLOWERING DOGWOOD SHAGBARK HICKORY

HARD MAPLE

WHITE MAPLE

RED OAK

CHESTNUT

CHAPTER IV.

SELECTION OF TREES FOR PLANTING

T is of basic importance in the planning of shade tree
planting that due care and attention be given to
the selection of the species best suited for the particular
location. Choosing the right variety is the starting point
of shade tree success. A tree unsuited to the climate, soil,
or other local conditions of growth can not be expected to
produce the desired results. All other rules may be care-
fully observed and the most painstaking and intelligent
attention may be given to planting, pruning and general
care, but if an unsuitable variety is selected, the results
will be disappointing.

Choice of proper varieties is not difficult. The factors
that determine the selection are adaptability to the
climate and to the soil of the locality, suitability of the
size, form and denseness of shade to the streets upon
which they are to be planted, and ability to withstand
gases, smoke and other untoward city conditions.

To secure hardiness, trees should be used that are known
to thrive locally or under similar conditions. They should
also be selected with regard to the soil where they are to
be grown. The soil of streets is often far from ideal and
as it is impossible to modify more than a small part of
the future feeding ground, trees must be selected to suit
the soil. Another requirement is hardiness, ability to
overcome handicaps, combined with adaptability to
particular environment. In cold climates this factor
includes strength to withstand snow, ice and freezing,
and in all climates it involves power of resistance to wind,
mechanical injuries, insects and diseases. Rapidity of

42 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

growth is another point for consideration and in this it
is as necessary to know what to avoid as what to seek.
The lure of rapid growth has been responsible for the
planting of numbers of Silver Maples, Carolina Poplars,
Water Oaks and other species undesirable for the region
where they were planted. It must be remembered that
these trees grow rapidly but that they are short lived.
A Carolina Poplar or Silver Maple will have to be replaced
at about the time a Red Oak, a Sycamore or a Norway
Maple has reached its best development. It must be
remembered also that careful cultivation is a factor in
tree growth, and that some of the slower growing varieties
will show more rapid increase, under proper care, than
the desirable ones would if left to shift for themselves.

Shade-giving qualities are also an important factor,
particularly for street trees. Too much shade may be
as undesirable as too little, and selection should be
based on the character and width of the street. For
narrow streets it is best to have trees of slender growth
or small size, with light foliage, or those in which develop-
ment can be controlled by pruning, in order that the sun-
light may not be entirely shut oif from the houses and
the grass. On thoroughfares of unusual width, the utmost
in dignity and effectiveness may be obtained by using the
largest trees and allowing full development of the crown.

A point to be borne in mind is that beauty is not the
sole result desired in successful shade tree development.
If it were, it would be hard to resist the temptation to use
exclusively trees of the broad spreading type, for the sake
of the overhanging arch of foliage which would result
from the meeting of the branches from the two sides of the
street. Experience has shown that, despite the beauty of
an archway shade, the dense foliage of the arch may
prevent the free circulation of air, shut off sunlight from

o
>

SELECTION OF TREES FOR PLANTING 43

the grass, and produce undesirable dampness by inter-
fering with speedy drying-out after rainfall. It may often
be much better to have trees of more upright growth.
If the upright trees lack the over-arching beauty of the
others, they offer compensation in their individual state-
liness, and by serving as a beautiful frame for setting off
their environment. A thoroughfare lined with trees of
this type offers a vista not possible with the trees which
arch the roadway from curb to curb. A variation is the
use of trees of a type to be kept closely pruned into small
size and formal shape. For exclusive business streets and
those where narrow sidewalks and poor growing conditions
are a handicap, this is particularly desirable. It is much
used in European cities, where careful attention has been
given to tree planting. With proper attention and care,
trees of small size will thrive in small patches of soil
where larger trees, with their spreading root systems,
might languish. The effect of these formally pruned trees
is dignified and decorative, and gives a fine touch of green
to a street lined with high-class shops or handsome houses
in solid rows. An important advantage of this type of
planting is that, in the event of the death of one of the
trees, replacement is easy when nursery stock is kept for
the purpose. European cities provide for replacements by
keeping a supply of fair-sized trees in -municipal nurseries
for emergency use. Since all the trees are kept pruned to
small size, little time is required before a transplanted tree
has developed a crown uniform with that of the older tree.
Clean habits are as important in trees as in human
beings. Some trees are entirely lacking in observance of
the proprieties as to causing litter through blooms or
fruit or through the breaking and falling of fragile twigs
and branches. These trees are to be avoided for the sake
of neighborhood pride in good housekeeping. The Caro-

44 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

Una Poplar is one of the worst offenders. Its brittle
quality causes limbs to break, while its bulging roots and
trunk mar the evenness of curb and sidewalk and cause
cracking of concrete or flagstones; and the dropping of
spring blossoms is so extensive as to become a nuisance.

Silver Maples break sidewalks through the action of
their roots, and have disadvantages similar to those of the
Carolina Poplar. The staminate (male) Ailanthus is
objectionable to many because of the unpleasant odor of
its flowers, and care should be taken to use only pistillate
(female) trees, the flowers of which lack this odor. Only
the staminate or non-fruit-bearing form of the Ginkgo
should be used as the falling fleshy fruits not only make
the pavement slippery, but are somewhat poisonous
to the skin of some people. The Cottonwood spreads
its seeds in the form of a fine cotton or down which
is quite objectionable because it is often irritating to the
respiratory organs and is most untidy. It can be avoided
by using staminate trees only. As Poplars are grown
from cuttings, trees of the desired sex may be obtained by
making cuttings from trees of that sex. Root cuttings
from an ungrafted tree of the proper sex could be used for
propagating the Ailanthus, but the Ginkgoes would have
to be grafted.

A final consideration, but by no means the least
important, is the element of beauty. This involves form,
vigor and suitability to location and environment.
Factors of beauty also include the coloring of the leaves
and the nature and appearance of flowers or fruit. Fine
examples of coloring are to be found in the brilliant
autumn foliage of the Red Oak, following its summer
dress of heavy dark-green leaves. The gorgeousness of the
Maples in autumn coloring makes these trees general
favorites for street planting. Of the Horse Chestnut, the

MAPLE AND ELM.

SELECTION OF TREES FOR PLANTING

chief charm is its beautiful flowers in spring, but this is
counteracted by its bareness when it sheds its leaves in
early autumn.

For the country as a whole, no trees can be named as
entirely good and none as entirely bad. Even for any par-
ticular city or county the same holds, as width of street,
character of soil or other consideration may render a tree
that in general is excellent for the locality, of little value
for the particular purpose. Further, trees that are most
undesirable over a large range of country are, many of
them, of much value under more severe conditions, such
as the Poplars and the Hackberry, which are valuable
trees in many parts of the West.

Here is presented a list of good trees for many sections
of the United States and also a list of those that are often
mistakenly used.

Red Oak.— The Red
Oak comes nearest of any to
being the best shade tree
for the eastern half of the
United States. It is a strong
competitor of the Elm in
the regions of the latter's
best development, as well as
of the Sugar Maple where it
thrives best, and of the
Willow Oak and Live Oak in their special region, but has a
much wider range of prime development than any of these.
It grows more rapidly than other Oaks and adapts itself to a
wide diversity of soil conditions. This species is at home in
almost any soil, including locations close to the ocean. Its
trunk is straight and strong, its top symmetrically oval or
round, and foliage luxurious and turning a bright red with
the approach of cold weather, remaining on the tree till late

TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

PIN OAK.

in the fall. It largely escaped injury in New England
in the severe sleet storm of November 1921 that was
so destructive to the Elms, Maples and other orna-
mental trees. The city of Washington has used the Red
Oak on stretches of street, with results that are not
excelled on any thoroughfare in the city, as has also
Atlanta, Georgia.

Pin Oak. — Among the Oaks, first choice for street
planting is usually, though undeservedly, given the Pin

Oak, so named in allusion to
the dead twigs, which re-
semble pins driven into the
trunk. With fair soil this
tree grows well in small area,
and it yields to pruning in a
way that makes it possible
for the tree to be kept of
relatively small size or be al-
lowed to attain considerable
development. Where the
root area is restricted, pruning will check expansion
of the top and hold crown and root system in the
harmonious relationship needed for best results. The
Broadway roof of the New York subway, far uptown,
shows these trees, growing in shallow soil and pruned
into formal shape with excellent effect. The Pin
Oak has upright trunk and its crown is a natural
pyramid, with young slender horizontal branches, nor-
mally of formal outline and fine foliage. Either pruned,
or permitted to follow its full development, the tree is
highly desirable for street purposes. It has few enemies
and these are easily controlled. The autumn foliage is
a deep scarlet and extremely attractive, but the dead
leaves hang on most of the winter.

SELECTION OF TREES FOR PLANTING

Scarlet Oak. — This tree
is even less exacting as to
soil than the Red Oak. It
will grow almost anywhere
and the brilliant coloring
of its autumn foliage fully
justifies its name. A row
of these Oaks brightens the
landscape with the striking
beauty of a forest of flame.
It is to gravelly soil what
the Pin Oak is to wet clay.

WHITE OAK

frQftfgrflftr--

hastened by proper location
and good soil, while its long
life — comparable with that
of the Live Oak and the
Valley Oak — gives it lasting
beauty and value.

Live Oak. — For planting
in the Southern states, where
mild climate and general
conditions are favorable, the

SCARLIT OAK. .^

White Oak.— While

better suited for lawn plant-
ing than for street purposes
the White Oak holds high
place. Short and sturdy,
but capable of being pruned
to a high head, with spread-
ing top, the tree is pleasing
to the eye and productive
of excellent shade. Its slow
growth may be materially

LIVE OAK

'■%

TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

VILLOty>"* v v OAK

Live Oak is an ideal street tree. Its broad, spreading
top and evergreen leaves make it excellent as a shade tree,
and it is much used in the towns and cities of the South.
The tree is comparatively slow in growth and thrives
in well drained soil. Most used in cities near the coast.
Willow Oak. — This tree, sometimes erroneously called
the Water Oak, is one of the best of the quick-growing

oaks for use in the Southern
states. It is frequently used
with the Water Oak for
street planting and is usu-
ally confused with it. It is,
however, a distinct tree,
which can be distinguished
readily from the Water Oak.
It is longer lived and is its
equal in every other respect.
Trees of this variety, which
apparently have been planted about 80 years, are found in
excellent condition, while Water Oaks planted at the same
time, have either entirely disappeared or are showing
marked evidences of decline. In the South the Willow Oak
is readily transplanted, as trees 12 feet high are dug from
the woods and planted on
the street with success. In
the extreme South this tree
is nearly half evergreen. Its
foliage does not assume the
bright colors of the Red, Pin
and Scarlet Oaks.

Laurel Oak. — The Lau-
rel Oak is a large oval headed
tree that is not as rugged
and irregular as the Live

LAUREL ^ -~-V^ OAK

.»-

Sgsaa**-

SELECTION OF TREES FOR PLANTING

Oak, but is suitable for street
planting in the Southern
states. It has large, thick,
glossy leaves, and in the
warmer regions it is almost
evergreen. It is readily
transplanted, but as it is not
so common in the woods as
the Willow Oak and the
Water Oak it has not been
so much used as a street tree.

CALIFORNIA LIVE^t. OAK

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able for use in California
near the ocean. It is also
useful in region 3 and in the
western part of region 5.
It is easily transplanted
when young, especially
when planted from pots.

Bur Oak.— The Bur Oak

or Mossy Cup Oak is one

of the large native Oaks and

in many sections of the

VALLEY OAK

*m^ —

Near the Gulf of Mexico it
is called the Water Oak.

Valley Oak.— The Valley
Oak is a beautiful tree for
regions like California.
When transplanted young,
especially if taken from a
pot, it is easily established
where there is opportunity to
water it for a few years.

California Live Oak. —
This is an evergreen suit-

BUR OAK--'\_

5°

TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

country is much used as a shade tree. It is especially
useful on the black soil just east of the dry farming sections
of the country, where the rainfall is too meager for the
Red Oak and Pin Oak to be at their best. In the autumn,
the leaves turn a dull red or maroon. The tree thrives in
deep, rich soil.

American (or White) Elm. — This tree stands forth
as the dean of shade bearers and city beautifiers for
New England, New York and the Great Lakes region.

To have seen the stately
dignity and towering grace
of the Elms of New Haven,
Cambridge, Oberlinor Evan-
ston is to have seen Ameri-
can shade trees at their best.
For wide streets and broad
avenues it has no superior.
With its high-arching crown,
its gracefully drooping foli-
age of brilliant green, the
American Elm affords a summer picture not offered by
any other variety of tree; while the leafless crown is sil-
houetted against the background of winter sky with an
artistry by which poet and painter are at once inspired
and baffled. Whether alone or in company, the Elm is
of commanding beauty. The solitary tree of this species
carries the perfect message of the reigning monarch, while
the broad avenue, enclosed in a double row of the trees
offers an arching vista finely expressive of the thought
that "The groves were God's first temples." Where its
serious enemies can be controlled, it can be used to advan-
tage. It is particularly susceptible to the elm leaf beetle
and the tussock moth. If it can be watered when young,
it does well in many parts of the dry Western country.

SELECTION OF TREES FOR PLANTING 51

English Elm. — The

English Elm is a tall, oval-
headed, compact, handsome
tree with leaves which arc
smaller than those of the
American Elm, and which
stay on much later inthefall.
It is at its best in the Puget
Sound region, equalling the
American Elm there and on
the coast of California ex-

HUNTl^^p*r '3j£gz elm

pact than the American
Elm. It succeeds well in the
Pacific Coast states.

Ginkgo. — The Ginkgo or
Maidenhair Tree, which
was imported from China
and Japan, has taken fore-
most rank among the desira-
ble trees for shade purposes
in the cities of eastern Amer-
ica. Because of its hardiness

ENGLISH ILM

celling it. It also thrives in
the Sacramento and San
Joaquin Valleys and in the
Atlantic States from Wash-
ington to Georgia.

Huntington Elm. — The
Huntington Elm is a com-
paratively round-headed
European variety. It is a
large, handsome tree with
good foliage andismorecom-

TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

and its freedom from insects and diseases, its use has been
given special attention by the United States Department
of Agriculture. One of the most effective bits of group
planting in the city of Washington is the collection of
Ginkgoes in the grounds of this department. The tree
thrives on poor soil, and is not injured by the reflected heat
from pavements, which causes serious harm to many trees.
If unpruned, its shape is conical, with occasional stray
branches at almost any angle, but becomes a broad, flat-
topped tree with age, having obliquely-spreading straight
branches. By trimming, it may be developed into rounded
form at an early age. There is a pyramidal form that is
comparable in its outline to a Lombardy Poplar that
maintains its typical outline. Its vigorous persistence of
growth against obstacles and its response to control of
form by pruning make it a valuable tree for narrow city
streets. The name Maidenhair Tree comes from the
leaves being shaped like the leaflets of the Maidenhair
fern. These are dark green and turn a brilliant yellow.
The pistillate trees bear yellowish soft-fleshed fruits in
abundance. These are objectionable because, in dropping^
they make the sidewalks slimy and slippery; they have a
very disagreeable odor, and the flesh is poisonous to some

skins. By using only the
staminate form, grafted from
mature trees, there need be
no trouble from the fruits.
Its use is growing in favor
and should be encouraged.

Basswood or American
Linden. — Advocates of the
Basswood for street purposes
will find a living and force-
ful argument for this species

V > "* BASSWOOD

SELECTION OF TREES FOR PLANTING

in the beauty of Massachusetts Avenue in the city of Wash-
ington. On a stretch of several miles along this famed resi-
dential thoroughfare, the entire planting, consisting of two
rows on each side of the street, is in Basswoods. The well
rounded crowns and generous leafage of these trees give
the street an attractiveness which is emphatic even in a
city so well shaded as Washington, and with the coming
of the fragrant June blossoms the effect is all the more
pleasing. The tree is subject to insect enemies and sensi-
tive to their attacks, but its beauty repays the effort re-
quired for overcoming these handicaps. It demands a
deep, rich soil.

European Linden. — Of
attractiveness akin to that
of the Basswood is the
European member of this
family. The European Lin-
den is erect and symmetrical,
with attractive foliage which
renders it an ideal street tree.
In European cities it is one
of the trees generally used.
Its hardiness, adaptability,
relatively rapid growth, response to pruning and ability
to overcome obstacles, make it suitable for most conditions
of soil and environmont. It is well adapted to narrow
streets. In selecting specimens for planting, care should
be taken to obtain the tree in its true type, Tilia vulgaris.
The large-leaved European Linden, Tilia platyphylla, is
less desirable and invites serious damage from the red
spider. Tilia Argentea is also good.

Sycamore. — One of the best of native trees is the
Sycamore or Buttonball. This tree is tall and stately,
with broad, open top, growing to large size and adapted

EUROPEAN

TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

>A T8-3

'%?&££?& SYCAMORE

to wide streets. Although frequently severely pruned,
its appearance is not permanently injured thereby. The soil

for the Sycamore should be
rich and moist. Properly
placed it grows very rapidly
and is well adapted to the
conditions imposed by city
environment. It suffers
much from a disfiguring leaf
and twig blight, especially
in early spring, and in New
York and New England it is
especially subject to sun-
burn, frost crack and winter killing.

London Plane. — A relative of the American Syc-
amore is the London Plane — usually listed by nursery-
men as Oriental Plane. It is supposed to be a natural
hybrid between our Sycamore and the true Oriental Plane.
This is more symmetrical and compact than the Sycamore,
and in many cities it is more used than any other tree,
because of its beauty and the readiness with which it
adapts itself to the condi-
tions of city environment.
The tree has the stateliness
characteristic of the Ameri-
can Sycamore and a finely
formed top of much grace
and dignity, with perfect
symmetry as one of its most
striking and pleasing points
of attractiveness. In com-
mon with the Sycamore, it
may be pruned vigorously with a minimum of damage,
and this is a factor in its selection for narrow thorough-

LONDON ^j£f§^ ■%£ PLANE

SELECTION OF TREES FOR PLANTING

ORIENTAL-*- J\ [&d$P.

LANE

fares. It is one of the most rapid growers among the
desirable trees, and, unlike other trees which develop
rapidly, it has the advantage of long life. Freedom from
serious disease and insect attacks are strong points in its
favor. It is more regular in form than the Sycamore, but
it is also subject to blight and in New York and New
England to sun-scald, frost crack and winter killing.

Oriental Plane. — This is
also a large, handsome tree
much used abroad. Paris
holds the Plane as one of
its favorites and not less than
thirty per cent, of the trees
of the French capital are of
this variety. It is scarce in
this country, although it is
listed by nurserymen. The
tree almost universally
planted under this name in this country is the London
Plane. It would add variety to our planting if available.

California Sycamore. —
The California Sycamore is a
native of the Pacific Coast
and is well adapted to culture
under those conditions. It
is better than the American
Sycamore for the West.

Tulip Tree.— The great
size of the Tulip tree, some-
times called the Tulip Pop-
lar and the Yellow Poplar,
makes it especially suited for planting on wide thorough-
fares where the space calls for trees of generous propor-
tions. The splendor of its tulip-like blossoms gives it wide

If ^}j?j v vyJ-

\prtM

CALIFORNIA
SYCAMORE

TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

popularity. These flowers are a blend of green and
yellow, touched with orange, and their brilliance is ample
reward for the painstaking care required in successful

transplanting. The tree is
of symmetrical form with
comparatively narrow top,
and though its wood is rather
brittle, its foliage is grace-
ful and extremely pleasing
to the eye. It requires
deep, rich soil and plenty
of moisture. It should
be transplanted only in
early spring.

Sweet Gum. — The Sweet Gum has many points to
recommend it for street planting where it is hardy, and it
may well be regarded as one of the most desirable trees
for this purpose east of the Appalachian Mountains from
New Jersey southward. Its narrow and well-shaped top,
symmetrical growth and graceful, star-shaped leaves,
give it an especial beauty during the season of green
foliage. With autumn the
green changes with kaleido-
scopic effect into red and
yellow, with touches of
brown and purple, lending
unusual splendor to the
street lined with these trees.
In its winter dress of spiked
balls, the Sweet Gum lacks
the bareness of other trees
and thus carries its orna-
mental effect throughout the changing seasons of the
year. The soil for this tree should be rich and moist,

SELECTION OF TREES FOR PLANTING 57

although its vigor enables it to adapt itself to less favor-
able conditions. It is difficult to transplant near the
limits of its successful cultivation. In regions where the
ground freezes in the winter it would best be moved only
in very early spring. Its roots are particularly tender
and susceptible to drying out, like Magnolias and the
Tulip tree. Where practicable, it may be moved with a
ball of earth; but as it does especially well on light soils
near the coast, this is fre-
quently impracticable and
unnecessary.

White Ash. — Though not
so much used as some other
trees, the White Ash has fine
possibilities as a street shade
tree. Its comparatively light
foliage makes it especially
desirable for streets, as the
open crown permits the pas-
sage of sunlight and free circulation of air. The tree de-
velops a round, graceful top and it grows fairly rapidly.
Rich soil and moisture are required, but under favorable
conditions it is thrifty and hardy. It is rather subject to

attacks of oyster shell scale
and leopard moth. The chief
drawback is its short sea-
son of foliage, being similar
to the American Elm in
this respect.

Green Ash. — Though of
smaller growth than the
White Ash, the Green Ash is
much used in western cities
and has a distinct place in

TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

the tree planting program of any community. It is even
more hardy than the White Ash and makes a good species
for narrow streets where dense shade is not wanted.

Magnolia. — A favorite tree in the South is the Great
Flowered or Evergreen Magnolia. Its broad, elliptical
leaves are evergreen, and to the deep green lustrous

beauty of these is added the
splendor of the creamy white
blossoms, which grow in
tropical profusion. The tree
is one of the most superb
growths to be found in Amer-
ica and is adapted for street
planting where an evergreen
is suitable. It is hardy from
Washington to Saint Louis
southward and in California
and the western parts of Oregon and Washington. The
soil should be rich.

Palmetto. — The Palmetto is one of the palms native
from South Carolina southward, where it can be used
as a street tree, as also in southern Texas and southern
California. Its massive, spreading leaves give it a richness
comparable only with Palms.

Camphor Tree. — The Camphor tree thrives through
most of Florida and southern California, succeeding where
the orange will grow. It is much used for its shade in
these regions. The tree is an evergreen with shiny leaves
and does not demand rich soil.

Norway Maple. — Although it has many good qual-
ities to commend it, the Norway Maple is too dense
in foliage to be desirable for street planting. Also it is
naturally a low-headed tree and when the attempt is made
to get the branches high, much of the beauty of the tree

SELECTION OF TREES FOR PLANTING

is destroyed. It is one of the handsomest for open lawns,
and especially when grown with the lower limbs resting
on the ground. It is hardy and bears transplanting ad-
mirably. It has a long sea-
son of foliage, extending
from early spring to late
autumn, giving beauty to a
street when other Maples
are bare. It is round-headed
and symmetrical and readily
controlled by pruning, so
that if thoroughly and con-
sistently thinned it can be
maintained as an attractive
tree for street purposes. Its natural outline is usually good.
Its growth is fairly rapid and it adapts itself to almost any
soil and environment, is not subject to serious diseases and
suffers less than most species from insect attack. Its worst
enemies are the tussock moth and the leopard moth, but
these usually do not cause great damage. Plant lice attack

it at times but it is seldom
that the tree requires spray-
ing for these. It is more re-
sistant than the other
Maples to illuminating gas
in the soil.

Red Maple. — One of the
recommendations for the
Red Maple is its all-the-
year-round beauty. Even
winter does not rob it of its
attractiveness, for when bare of leaves, its red twigs and
branches weave a delicate tracery against sky and building,
which contributes a grace and charm much to be desired.

o a

RED €. &'& MAPLE

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TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

The tree starts to blossom at the first hint of early spring
and its small red flowers, followed soon by red fruits, are
a delight to the eye after the winter's cold. Throughout
the summer there is pleasing contrast of bright green leaves
with the red stems on which they grow, while autumn
brings a brilliant scarlet tinge which may well be considered
the crowning glory of the year. It is sturdy and is proof
against storms. Its oval head and medium size make it an
excellent tree for narrow streets. It is of slow growth in
its early stages, but when it is firmly rooted, its develop-
ment becomes much more rapid. It thrives best in moist
soil. Like the Norway Maple it is subject to few diseases
and insects. It drops its foliage very early in the autumn
and does not thrive under city conditions; but is excellent
in the suburbs and near the ocean.

Sugar Maple. — In gen-
eral appearance this tree is
much like the Norway
Maple, though oval-headed
instead of round-headed and
less dense. In streets of con-
siderable width, with ample
parking, the tree is well
worth planting, but in spite
of a certain hardiness it lacks
the power of the Norway
Maple to overcome the handicap of paved streets and con-
gested surroundings. This tree lacks adaptability to soil
conditions and requires much moisture, therefore is best
used only under suburban conditions. Where the proper
conditions exist, however, it is extremely attractive, be-
cause of its erect growth and symmetrical form. The
autumn coloring of the foliage is particularly fine, with its
riot of red, yellow and orange, though it drops its leaves

SELECTION OF TREES FOR PLANTING

early in the autumn. During the winter the tree has a
beauty and grace similar to that of the Red Maple. It may
be pruned into a low, spreading crown. It is more sus-
ceptible to insect attacks than the Norway and Red Maples
and suffers from borers, scale and leopard moths.

Big Leaf Maple. — The Big Leaf Maple is a strikingly
handsome native of Oregon, Washington and California,
with normal height ranging
from thirty to sixty feet,
and under the best condi-
tions reaching ninety feet. It
is much used as a shade tree
in the Pacific Coast states.
This species requires deep,
rich soil, but thrives from
the Sierra Nevada Moun-
tains to the Coast, and is one
of the best for that country.

Silver Maple. — As in the case of the Carolina Pop-
lar, the Silver Maple has been much planted because

of its rapid growth. This
tree is also proof against
many of the hardships of
city life, but it is undesir-
able in most of the country
because of its early loss of
strength and resultant de-
cay and the damage to pave-
ments caused by its bulging
surface roots. The tree lit-
ters the street through the
breaking and dropping of its brittle branches, and heavy
storms often break off large limbs. When sleet storms
occur, this tree is usually the first to be damaged. Damage

TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

from insects is another fruitful source of dissatisfaction
with this species. Its use should not be recommended
in regions more favorable for tree growth, but from the
Missouri River westward there are many places where its
use is warranted.

Ash-Leaved Maple (Box Elder). — Of rapid growth
and thriving even against adverse conditions, this tree

is used where other trees
will fail. While short-lived,
with a tendency to heave
and crack sidewalks and
pavements, and scragglyon
top, it is most desirable for
planting under conditions
unfavorable to other trees,
and it has its distinct place
in city shade tree develop-
ment in the Western states.

ASH LEAVBD MA?LE

It should not be planted where other trees will thrive.
Lombardy Poplar. — The stateliness of tall growth
is the distinguishing characteristic of the Lombardy
Poplar, the only member of
the Poplar family which is
eligible for street planting
except west of the iooth
meridian. Its erect trunk
and narrow form, suggest-
ing the spire of a lofty cathe-
dral, lend themselves well to
the dignified beautification
of a narrow street, although
little shade is produced. It

is frequently disfigured by Poplar canker disease. The tree
grows rapidly and its life is comparatively short.

SELECTION OF TREES FOR PLANTING

1 " ■ ' 1. *■'

U .

CAROL! J^$|^ POPLAR

Carolina Poplar. — Choice of the Carolina Poplar in
the eastern states is chiefly influenced by its rapid
growth, and this very rapidity of development carries with
it one of the factors which make the choice unwise. Its
rank growth involves short life, and it is necessary to
remove this tree at about
the time more slowly grow-
ing species would be coming
into their full usefulness and
beauty. The Carolina Pop-
lar, like certain other trees,
litters the street with falling
flowers, seeds and leaves.
After a few years of growth
under humid conditions, its
wood becomes brittle to
such an extent as to cause the breaking of limbs and
branches, adding another source of litter. The persistent
and widespreading roots of the trees penetrate sewers
and drain pipes and are a frequent nuisance in this
respect; while the main roots are so near the surface as to
cause cracking of sidewalks and derangement of curbing.
The only excusable location for the Carolina Poplar is
the congested business street, where it is to be kept severely
pruned into formal shape and small size, or the western
half of the country. In congested streets the Ginkgo is
better. Real estate operators have been liberal users of
the Carolina Poplar in suburban residential allotments
because of their cheapness and ease of culture, but the
planting of the tree for this purpose is shortsighted and
adds no permanent value to property. In the drier
regions of the west, where but few trees thrive, it can be
used to advantage, and under these conditions its most
serious defects in regions more favorable to plant growth
are overcome by the adverse conditions.

TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

Beech. — In spite of its beauty and vigor, the Beech is
not a good tree for street planting because of the difficulty
of transplanting, its failure to thrive under the trying
conditions to which street trees are subject both below
and above ground, and the density of its foliage, which
produces too heavy shade for street planting. It is,
however, quite desirable for lawn and park planting.
(See Chapter vm.)

Pecan. — A tree adapted for use in the South is the
Pecan, which adds shade value to its production of nuts.
The tree is tall and slender, with narrow leaves of grace-
ful type. It requires considerable room and rich soil, and
is better adapted to suburban streets and country roads
than to city streets. (See Chapter vm.)

Mountain Ash. — The Mountain Ash is a beautiful
and ornamental small tree, with an extreme height

of thirty feet and with spread
of top ranging from eight to
fifteen feet. It has slender
branches which grow up-
ward, and thin foliage which
produces moderate shade.
In May or June it is covered
with white flowers, followed
by large clusters of orange
red berries in autumn. This
tree thrives best in cool loca-
tions and so is adapted only to the most northern states.
It is not adapted to general use.

Horse Chestnut. — The Horse Chestnut is a tree
with arguments for and against its use in street planting.
Its springtime beauty is one of the finest things any shade
tree has to offer, by virtue of the magnificent display of
white flowers surmounting the large dark compound

IN ASH

—&

SELECTION OF TREES FOR PLANTING

leaves over the whole of the
oval top. This floral rich-
ness has caused the tree to
be widely used in the streets
of Paris, where the Horse
Chestnut eloquently ex-
presses the French love of
beauty. The tree does not
require very rich soil and is
of fairly rapid growth. On
the other hand its leaves
drop off during the summer, due largely to a fungus
trouble, leaving the tree bare during the autumn months,
while the dropping of buds, flowers and nuts in the vary-
ing seasons results in much street litter. The disease that
causes this dropping of the leaves can be largely con-
trolled by spraying. The tree suffers much from insect
and fungus attacks, as well as from boys trying to secure
the non-edible nuts; and while its attractiveness is be-
yond question, this charm is fleeting, and the tree does
not commend itself to general use in street planting. It is
more at home on lawns and in parks or other open spaces.

Black Locust. — The Black Locust has many fine
qualities for narrow streets, but it is so subject to attacks
and serious injury from boring insects that its use is not to
be advised in the east. It is one of the best in the western
half of the country.

The Conifers. — While highly ornamental for lawns
and parks, or other open places, the Pines and kindred
trees, classified as Conifers, have no place in street plant-
ing. The mere fact that they are evergreens is enough
to bar them from this usage. Their winter shade is unde-
sirable and in addition to this, they do not yield readily to
pruning. Besides which, the normal shape of many of

TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

HACKBERRY

them is with branches resting on the ground, and the
removal of these destroys the beauty of the tree. More-
over, they will not withstand the soot and dust and sul-
phur fumes prevalent in a city.

Hackberry. — Because of its ability to thrive in

poor soil and in varying cli-
mates, the Hackberry has
staunch friends among the
planters of street shade
trees, especially in the south.
It is valuable in the western
half of the country, but in
the east it is rather ragged.
In appearance, it is much
like the Elm, although smal-
ler and more erect. The tree
is affected in someplaces bya disease called Witches'Broom.
Ailanthus or Tree of Heaven. — The chief recommen-
dation for this tree for street planting is that it will
thrive where others would die. The poorest soil and
the most forbidding environment seem to offer no dis-
couragement to it. Its growth is very rapid and, in its
younger years, it has attractive form, which it maintains
with advancing age if not
mutilated by accident or
severe pruning. It is useful
where other trees would not
grow, especially in the heart
of cities, and for this reason
should have its place among
trees to be considered for
congested areas. The foliage
is rich and heavy and prod-
uces good shade. Because

SELECTION OF TREES FOR PLANTING

ftQ^JPcu4T

of a heavy and disagreeable odor emitted by the staminate
trees, only the pistillate form should be used. These may
be readily secured by grafting from proper trees or by
growing them from cuttings. The city of Paris uses the
Ailanthus freely in street planting.

Honey Locust. — The soft, delicate foliage of the
Honey Locust gives this tree an attractiveness which en-
titles it to a claim on the
interest of tree planters. The
foliage is light and open and
produces the moderate
shade desirable for narrow
streets. Its flowers are fra-
grant and rich in honey, and
the thorns on the branches
add to its picturesque effect.
The tree is of hardy and
fairly rapid growth, and not
exacting as to conditions of soil and environment, standing
pruning well. It is particularly useful because it thrives
in the dry regions of the west. In some sections the
thorns are considered an objection, and a'thornless form
is sometimes obtainable.

Pepper Tree. — The California Pepper tree is much
used in southern California. It is a moderate-sized,
broad-headed tree with fine foliage, which gives it a light,
airy appearance. During the fall and winter it is covered
with scarlet berries which in contrast with the persistent
foliage produce a pleasing effect.

i^Sg^fes

CHAPTER V.

THE PLACING OF SHADE TREES

STREET planting of shade trees must adapt itself to con-
ditions. Appearance and the opportunity for proper
growth are the determining factors in successful planting,
and the community which pays closest attention to these
points will find itself the town or city beautiful in the
full meaning of the phrase. To ignore them will cause
coming generations to wonder why so little heed was paid
to the simplest rules of tree planting. Proper location
with regard to the general appearance of the street or
road is as important as good conditions for growth.
On formal roads and city streets uniformity in species, size
and shape and regularity of arrangement are essential.
On country roads naturalistic planting is usually best.
Haphazard selection and placing should be avoided, for
with it comes a mixture that is usually undesirable and
sometimes fantastic — a hodgepodge of trees which defeats
the efforts at beauty and attractiveness.

Tree location covers a wide range of possibilities.
The most restricted and least frequent way is growing
them in large tubs or boxes. Between this and the
informality of country roads or the formal planting of wide
parkways or boulevards are many possibilities, and careful
study of these will do much to aid in making an appro-
priate selection for any location.

Plans for the arrangement of trees along a street or
roadway may be divided into six general classes, suited to
various conditions.

(i) The Two-row Type of Sidewalk Planting.— A
row of trees along each side of the street is so natural and

GINKGO.

THE PLACING OF SHADE TREES

Diagram for tree planting on narrow avenue,
planted alternately.

Trees 45 feet apart and

so prevalent that it may be described as the normal type
of street planting. It gives the ideal effect for which
street shade trees have been utilized — a thoroughfare
lined with welcome shade and graceful foliage. In most
streets this arrangement affords the acme of decorative
effect and
comfort. The
usual place
for these is
between curb
and side-
walk, al-
though on

narrow streets the sidewalk is sometimes next to the curb and
the trees are back of it. A parking strip, separating walk
from curb with a ribbon of grass, adds materially to the
beauty of the street, serves to help protect pedestrians from
the dust and mud of street traffic, and affords the neces-
sary area for trees and their root development. It is a nar-
row street that cannot spare at least 4 feet on each side for

a parking strip of this char-
acter, with its tree-planting
possibilities. The best prac-
tice adopts 4 feet as a mini-
mum width for the strip;
under no circumstances
should a tree be planted
nearer the curb than 2 feet
and, where space permits,
this should be increased. A
residence street width of 50
feet between the building

w&Sl^J?^«^m^™ ^SteTK 1Ines suggests a roadway of
Sdeep:^ and curb " m ** earth 3 to not over 24 feet, sidewalks

70 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

of 4 feet each, strips of 5 feet between sidewalk and curb,
and an inner strip of 4 feet between sidewalk and building
line. On a 60 foot street with 26 foot roadway, there is room
for 5 foot sidewalks, 6 foot outer strips and 6 foot inner
strips. The 30 foot roadway of an 80 foot street may
be flanked on either side by a parking strip of 10 feet,
sidewalk of 7 feet width and inner strip of 8 feet; while a
width of 100 feet affords room for a row of trees along
either curb, with generous inner and outer parking strips,
and a central parkway of 20 feet.

Where through traffic has developed on narrow streets
or there are car tracks, then a larger proportion must be
devoted to the traffic way than indicated above, a street
50 feet wide having a roadway possibly 30 feet wide,
parking strips of 4 feet, sidewalks of 6 feet; or if the traffic
would warrant, then a sidewalk of 4 feet and an inner
parking strip of 2 feet. On a 60 foot street with 30
foot roadway, there is room for 5 foot sidewalks, 6
foot outer strips and 4 foot inner strips. The 40
foot roadway of an 80 foot main traffic street may be
flanked on either side by parking strip of 8 feet, sidewalk
of similar width and inner strip of 4 feet; while a width
of 100 feet affords room for two 20 foot roadways, a
row of trees along either curb, with 8 foot inner and
6 foot outer parking strips, a sidewalk 6 feet and a central
parkway of 20 feet.

(2) Two rows on each side of the street. — This is an
extension of Plan I, for use on streets in which additional
space is available. By placing a line of trees along the
curb, and a second line between the sidewalk and the
property line, the volume of shade and the decorative
effect are increased; but the plan has its disadvantages in
that overcrowding is apt to be the result unless the street
is wide, the buildings are set well back and the trees are

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THE PLACING OF SHADE TREES 71

planted at liberal distances apart. Because of better soil
and light conditions, one row usually develops more rapidly
and more vigorously than the other, producing a ragged
and uneven effect. The plan is not recommended unless
there is the ideal condition of abundant space. By alter-
nating the trees, that is, putting them first on the outside of
the sidewalk and then on theinside,theeffectofadoublerow
may be produced in a narrower space than where all 4 trees
are placed in a straight row across the street. See diagram.

Turf

* Tree

Tree *

Sidewalk

* Tree

Tree *

Turf

Roadway

Turf

* Tree

Tree *

Sidewalk

* Tree Turf

Tree

(3) With Center and Side Planting. — This also is
an extension of Plan 1. It calls for one or two rows of trees
down the center of the street, in addition to a row on each
side. This type of planting is used on streets of consider-
able width which have no interfering car tracks. The
plan involves a grass-grown or gravel covered parking
strip in the center of the street, and the effect is extremely
attractive. The trees in this parking strip may be in single
or double line. On Pennsylvania Avenue southeast, and
New York Avenue northwest, of the United States
Capital, as well as streets in Jacksonville, Florida, New
Orleans, Louisiana, Augusta, Georgia, and many other
cities, the trees are in double line, separated by double
street car tracks. This particular arrangement naturally
calls for a great deal of space. Because of their width of
150 feet or more, these streets can accommodate the double

72 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

center row most satisfactorily. Including tree strips the
sidewalks on Pennsylvania Avenue are 20 feet wide,
and each of the two roadways 38 feet, leaving 44 feet
for the parking strip.

With streets less than 150 feet wide, it is desirable to
use small trees, shrubs or evergreen bushes, instead of
trees, for the center planting. Fine park effects may be
obtained with these.

(4) The Center Strip. — For narrow streets without
car tracks, where the buildings restrict the admission of
light, and traffic needs suggest a double roadway, a single
row of trees in the center of the driveway may be advis-
able. An abundant supply of light and sunshine is
essential to the best development of trees. To place trees
along the curb of a street where sunshine is in scant sup-
ply robs the trees of their chance for proper growth. In
general terms, trees cannot be at their best unless their
distance from the building line is at least equal to half
the height of the buildings. In some streets this cannot be
achieved with trees along the side of the roadway, and the
center strip offers the solution.

It may sound contradictory, but the single strip of
trees in the center is used for broad thoroughfares as
well as for those which are too narrow for sidewalk
plantings. A street may be 100 feet in width and yet
have sidewalks too narrow for trees; so narrow that to
place trees along the curb would result in shutting off
light and air from the buildings. By placing the trees
in a central row, the decorative and shade-giving qualities
are obtained, and the trees have the chance for vigorous
growth which would be lacking if they were placed on the
narrow sidewalks. Two central rows, of course, are better
than one and should be planted where space and traffic
conditions permit.

THE PLACING OF SHADE TREES 73

(5) The Potted Type. — This is for streets where brick
or stone paving monopolizes the space and makes natural
tree growth and development impossible. It is extremely
formal, and can be used for narrow streets lined with
handsome buildings, or for a paved plaza or thoroughfare
largely devoted to vehicular traffic, as in the case of the
Park Avenue approach to the Grand Central Terminal in
New York; sidewalks and street pavements cover all
surface, leaving no place in which the usual street trees
would have a chance to live. By planting small trees in
tubs or boxes and placing these containers on the sidewalk
or in the center of the driveway, these man-made obstacles
may be overcome. They are similarly used in some of the
streets of Paris, notably the Rue de Rivoli. The effect
may be strikingly pleasing and highly desirable when
ordinary tree planting is not possible, due to neglect to
provide proper conditions in the original development, or
to the necessity of meeting exceptional features in design.
It is possible by this means to use different trees for
succeeding seasons; but, on the other hand, much greater
care is required to maintain them than to maintain trees
planted in openings in the paving, and thus the expense
is very greatly increased.

(6) The Informal Type. — On country roads, especially
in a rolling or a hilly country, or on secondary highways, the
formality of trees in straight lines, at regular distances
apart, and of uniform size and appearance is inappropriate,
as well as being tiresome to those who may find it neces-
sary to travel along such roads. In contrast to such
arrangement, trees of many species may be scattered at
irregular intervals along the roadside, but selected and
arranged in such manner as to accentuate the natural
beauties of the country through which the road passes.
Such informal planting needs equally as much thought

74 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

and planning as to species and location as does the more
formal planting of city streets.

The placing of the rows of trees on a street is depen-
dent on the width of street and the character of its use.
The spacing of the trees in the rows, however, is dependent
primarily on the species to be used, as well as on the dis-
tance between rows and the closeness with which buildings
have approached or are likely to approach the trees.
Large growing trees should be placed from 60 to 80 feet
apart, although the practice in many places is to plant
them as close together as 30 to 35 feet. Smaller trees
should be planted more closely. When the distance
between the rows of trees is greater than three-fourths of
the proper distance between specimens, then the trees may
properly be planted opposite one another; but when rows
are closer together than that, then the trees had better
be staggered, that is, the trees on one side of the street
should be planted opposite the middle of the space be-
tween the trees on the other side. On narrow residence
streets, with liberal lawns in front of the houses, large
trees may sometimes be used by increasing the distance
between the trees in the row, so that the distance to the
nearest tree on the other side of the street is as great as
that to the nearest tree on the same side of the street
would be, if the trees were planted a normal distance apart.

To be successful, tree spacing must ignore lot lines
and lot ownership, the trees being placed at the proper
distances apart for the effect of the street as a whole,
irrespective of whether or not a tree comes in front of
every lot. This sometimes causes dissatisfaction, but it
is essential to success. If the idea that tree planting is a
community function for community benefit, in the same
way as street paving or sewers, can be impressed on the
owners in contrast to the idea of individual ownership

a
o

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O

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iA.ftk^^t

THE PLACING OF SHADE TREES 75

in the nearby trees, dissatisfaction is less likely to appear.
The distance between trees often has to be slightly
modified, in order that they may be properly placed with
respect to intersecting streets. It is desirable to avoid
placing trees directly on a corner though they may often
come within ten feet of a corner without being objection-
able. By slightly crowding or stretching the distance be-
tween the trees in the middle of the block, adjustments
may often be made that will produce more pleasing
results at the corners, without materially modifying the
effect between.

CHAPTER VI.

SHADE TREE PLANTING

REPARATIONS for planting shade trees begin with
choosing the actual specimen from nursery stock and
continue until the digging of the hole into which the tree
is to be set. Each part of this program calls for the
exercise of care, but there is no mystery about any
feature of it. The one thing to be borne in mind is that
each step is important. Nothing should be neglected and
nothing left to chance or even to guesswork. Correct
planting is half the battle.

In the sense of establishing shade trees in city streets,
planting necessarily means transplanting. To undertake
to raise a tree from its beginning is a needless expenditure
of time and effort. Trees of suitable size may be had of
nurserymen at slight cost and with a saving of several
years in the time required for development. It is possible,
when technical knowledge is at hand, to satisfactorily
transplant trees taken from the woods, but these are
less likely to withstand the shock of moving than those
which have been raised in nurseries, as the nursery trees,
if well grown, have been replanted or root pruned every
year or two, and have by this means been forced to form
a compact root system that is not too large for the limited
area of street environment. Forest trees, with their
longer roots and fewer fibrous roots near the trunk, are
more difficult to transplant and have less certainty of
living than well selected nursery stock. The pruning of
the top, undergone by the nursery tree, is also an impor-
tant factor, as this frees the tree from branches for a height

of several feet and likewise helps to bring about the devel-
76

EUROPEAN LINDEN.

SHADE TREE PLANTING 77

opment of the crown in the way best suited for shade and
ornament.

In choosing nursery stock, when the city does not have
its own nursery, the first consideration is the selection of
the nursery itself. Strict care must be given to confining
purchases to one of known reliability and responsibility.
Trees from other sources are apt to be defective and
improperly developed and trained. The cost of the
specimen is of such small significance, that an attempt to
economize by seeking trees commended by nothing but
lowness of price, is mistaken thrift, and almost certain to
prove expensive in the long run.

The importance of dealing with a nurseryman of high
repute is obvious. This dealer regards every tree with
jealous eye because of its value in contributing to his
prestige as a nurseryman. He is no more willing than the
customer to have his trees prove defective and unsatis-
factory. In addition, he will give valuable advice in the
selection of individual specimens and in their planting and
care. It is to his interest to do all this, and to aid the tree
planter in every possible way, for every tree successfully
planted does its share toward stimulating the industry of
which his nursery is a part.

Choose a tree that is in healthy condition and as
nearly as possible perfect in shape. The nurseryman who
tries to sell a deformed or misshapen tree is a good man
to avoid in making purchases, for his effort in this direc-
tion may be taken as fairly good evidence that other
things are wrong with his stock. Be sure to insist on a
properly trained root system. The trees best suited for
transplanting into street environment are those in which
the roots have been pruned into compact form, to fit
them for life in a ground area restricted by paving, side-
walks, curbs and underground pipe and conduit construe-

78 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

tion. This requires root systems that are compact and
vigorous, and as large as can be accommodated by the
particular site. The greater and more vigorous the
root system, within small area, the more rapid will be the
growth and development of the tree in its new home.

A well developed top is also desirable in the tree to be
transplanted, but it should not be too large for the roots,
as this inequality will result in weak growth, and may
even cause the tree to die soon after removal.

The stem should be straight and the branches should
be from 7 to 9 feet from the ground. In size the stem
should be from 2 to 3 inches in diameter. Trees of
this size bear transplanting better than those which are
larger. Successful removal may be given trees even
12 inches in diameter, but the expense increases very
materially with the greater size. This increased cost is
primarily due to the long period of nursery care required
in bringing it to the larger development, and even more to
the expense of removal and subsequent care. For general
street purposes a maximum of 3 inches has been found by
far the most satisfactory.

Whenever possible, tree purchases should be made at
a nursery near the place at which the tree is to be planted,
as this involves no change of climate, and further, a short
shipping distance is desirable. The more brief the time in
transit, the less danger there is of injury to the tree by
exposure of the roots. It is important to replant a tree
as promptly as possible after it has been removed from its
original location. If necessary, however, to make long
shipment the tree may be fully protected against damage
by careful handling at the source. This is another
argument in support of dealing with nurserymen of the
highest standing, for this type of dealer will be unwilling
to risk his reputation by careless and inefficient packing
and shipping.

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SWEET GUM.

SHADE TREE PLANTING 79

In digging a tree for transplanting the entire root
system should be taken up, with particular attention to
the small roots, for it is through these fine rootlets that the
tree secures its nourishment from the soil. The one
thing most essential is to keep the roots moist during
the journey. A root that is allowed to dry out loses its
vitality and becomes worthless.

Sometimes it is necessary to transplant trees of larger
diameter than three inches, as in the case of replacing a
tree where its companions are of considerable size. This
can be done by digging the specimen with a large ball of
earth about the roots. This earth serves to hold the
moisture and also protects the roots from injury in
handling, but of even more importance it keeps the roots
in close contact with the soil so that growth can be con-
tinued without the tree having to reestablish its growing
connection by sending out new rootlets. In many cities
municipal nurseries are maintained and trees of various
size are available for replacing those which die. This is
one of the important functions of a nursery maintained
by the city, as it is desirable, of course, that the new tree
should be, as nearly as possible, of uniform size with the
other trees on the street. A municipal nursery prepares
these trees for transplanting by a process of checking the
spread of roots as the trees grow. To accomplish this the
trees are root pruned at least every two years. In the case
of the larger trees, a trench is dug around, which results in
forcing the roots to develop compactly, so that the speci-
men may be planted in the restricted area of street
surroundings without trimming the roots at the time of
moving.

The tree planter's responsibility begins with the
arrival of the tree from the nursery, and he should use
care to see that the precautions taken by the shipper are

TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

WELL DEVELOPED HEAD,
5TRON& LEADER, BRANCH-
ES SET AT WIDE, NOT
CLOSE.AN6US.

BEFORE 5ETTING,TREE
SHOULD BE PRUNED AT

POINTS INDICATED BY
LINES; NOT BYCUP-
ENDS Or BRANCHES,

not nullified by careless methods of handling in the
process of planting. His chief duty is to see that the
roots continue well protected against injury and against
loss of moisture through exposure to sun or wind, that
the soil is properly prepared and that the simple rules of

correct planting are
followed. The first of
these rules is to have
the hole ready for the
tree upon arrival.
Sometimes this can
not be done, and in
such case the tree
should be "heeled in"
as soon as it is re-
ceived. The "heeling
in" process consists
of merely placing a
tree or trees in a tem-
porary hole or ditch
from iM to 2 feet in

BASE OF
PERMANENT
CROWN
OFT. ABOVE
PAVEMENT.

SET TREE sothaj
IT STANDS 2
IN. DEEPER

THAN IT 010 ,
IN TH£ NUE-,

STAKE S!h IN.x 10 FT.
DRIVEN 2 FT. IN GROUND
AND SECURED WITH
RUBBER COVERED WIRE,
OR WITH CANVASS

OPENING IN SIDEWALK
AT LEAST 6 SQ.FT.,
KEEP TOP fcolL
. PULVER1ZEP

DIC HOLE IS IN. OR MORE
DEEP; THEN FILL TO
LOWER ROOT LEVEL1 WITH
MIXTURE OF % GOOD SOIL
AND Y4 ROTTED MANURE.

OICH EABTH PACKED
FIPMLY ABOUT ROOTS

depth and with suf-
ficient width to ac-
commodate the roots
without doubling
them up. Trees thus
placed and with the

OBSERVE THESE INSTRUCTIONS IN PLANTING " TOOtS thoroughly and

closely covered with soil, will retain their vigor for a month
or more, and be ready for planting when needed.

The planting hole should be a trifle larger than the root
area of the tree. This makes it possible to give the roots
full space without bending them. The hole should be
about a foot deeper than the roots themselves, and since

WILLOW.

SHADE TREE PLANTING 81

the depth of planting should be as nearly as possible the
same as the depth to which the tree grew in the nursery,
a layer of soil, rich in plant food, should be placed at the
bottom of the hole. This regulates the depth of planting
and gives a fine, mellow soil condition which is important
to growth. The depth of planting may be easily deter-
mined by noting the mark of the soil around the trunk or
stem, indicating the surface line before moving.

In planting along city streets it is often necessary to
provide richer soil than that which is at hand. Earth
with good growing qualities may be procured in the
vicinity of any city or town and the slight additional
trouble involved in this step will be more than repaid by
the results. City soil is seldom of a character that en-
courages vegetation. The ideal soil, is a light sandy loam,
smooth in texture and so porous as to encourage the
passage of air and moisture for feeding the roots. Clay
soil packs tightly and prevents this free circulation, while
too much sand is undesirable in that it does not hold
moisture. The most satisfactory soil carries about
seven-tenths sand, two-tenths clay and one-tenth decayed
vegetable matter or thoroughly rotted manure. Fresh
manure should never be used. A compost heap furnishes
good material in the form of decayed manure mixed with
fine soil. This heap should be prepared a year in advance,
and the alternate layers of earth and manure spaded and
turned occasionally to effect thorough mixing. In provid-
ing new soil the amount required will be from 2 to 3
cubic yards, to give the roots ample nourishment.

Careful attention should be given to pruning before
planting. This applies to roots which may have suffered
injury in the process of digging or in moving, and it also
applies, in a very important measure, to the removal of
a considerable portion of the tree's top. (See Chap, xv)

82 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

Cloudy days are best for planting. Strong sunlight
or wind is harmful in that it causes rapid drying out of the
roots. The tree should be placed without delay in the
waiting hole prepared with its own earth or with the
earth and compost brought from elsewhere.

The tree should be set into the hole with roots spread-
ing naturally, and not crossed nor folded. If any roots
are broken or seriously damaged, they should be cut off
with a clean cut to provide a good surface from which new
roots may start. In filling the hole, finely pulverized
earth should be worked in by hand or a small ramming
stick, so that it completely occupies all the space around
the roots and under them. Enough pressure should be
applied in this process to cause the earth to surround the
roots firmly and compactly. To this end it is essential to
use only moderately moist earth. Wet earth is injurious,
as it will pack and become brick-like on drying and so
impenetrable to the young rootlets, unless it is extremely
sandy. Firmly embedded roots are necessary to enable
the tree to hold its position and not work loose. The
filling and compacting should be continued to a point
2 or 3 inches below the level of the ground. If water-
ing is done, it should be at this point, and it should
be done so thoroughly that the moisture will reach the
entire root system. In humid regions it is not usual to
water at transplanting, if deciduous trees not over 4 or 5
inches in diameter are transplanted while dormant.
In time of drouth in dry countries, for large or evergreen
trees, or for trees that have started to push their foliage,
watering is frequently necessary. Tamping or compact-
ing of the soil after wetting will be injurious. As a final
step in planting, a layer of pulverized earth should
be placed over the compacted or wet soil and left
loose, to facilitate air and water circulation. When trees

CATALPA.

SHADE TREE PLANTING 83

are received in bad condition or for other special reason,
they are sometimes planted by puddling, that is, the tree
is placed in the hole, some loose earth is thrown in about
the roots, the hole is partially filled with water and more
earth is thrown in the water. The tree is planted by moving
it up and down in this mud until there is no question but
the roots are all surrounded by it, and then more soil is
shoveled in, until the mud is crowded over the rim of the
hole. In this method there must be absolutely no com-
pacting of the soil by tamping of any sort or the result
will be a brick in which the tree cannot grow. This does
not apply to real sandy soil. It is important, of course,
that the tree should be in an upright position. It is desir-
able that a stake be driven into the earth alongside the
tree, and tied to it to hold the tree from swaying, until
its roots have taken firm hold.

It must be borne in mind that the mere digging of a
hole is not all that is involved in preparing the tree's new
home. The location of this hole is as important as the
selection of the tree itself. If the planting is in a grass
strip, the problem of location is simplified, as it then be-
comes merely a matter of dividing the space between
sidewalk and curb in such way as to best accommodate
roots. If traffic conditions and limitations of space
require that the sidewalk extend all the way to the curb,
it becomes necessary to provide a free area for the tree.
Twelve square feet should be taken as a minimum for the
unpaved area. In some cities the smallest area permissi-
ble is prescribed by ordinance or regulation. The city
of Washington recognizes the importance of this free space
by providing that the openings shall be 3 by 8 feet in size,
thus establishing 24 square feet as the official requirement.
Without adequate opening, the tree will be choked to
death by the solid sidewalk, which permits the entry of
neither air nor moisture.

84 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

In some streets the entire sidewalk surface is needed
for traffic, and this makes it impossible to sacrifice the
space that is required. In a case of this kind, a sidewalk
grating may be employed, permitting pedestrians to use
the sidewalk up to the very base of the tree and still
providing breathing room for the tree itself. This grating
is level with the surface of the sidewalk, and the ground
underneath slopes away from the tree, forming a pit or
basin, which collects water, and is therefore useful in
supplying moisture to the roots. The grating is so set
as to be easily removed for cleaning the space underneath.
In dense traffic the grating is essential, but where it is
possible to provide a space free from paving, without the
use of the grating, this should be done in the interest of
the tree's best development.

Irrigation and drainage are essential to the life of the
tree. The ideal means of providing water is by having the
tree so placed that the soil surrounding the roots may be
loosened from time to time, in order that surface watering
may penetrate the earth and reach the roots in abundant
supply. This is possible where trees are planted in space
free from paving, such as a strip of gravel or grass be-
tween sidewalk and curb. If a grating is used, it should
be taken up occasionally and the soil underneath made
loose by cultivating. One of the most important features
of the grating is that it allows this cultivation, in addition
to preventing the traffic from packing the surface, as would
occur if foot-traffic were allowed to use the space immedi-
ately surrounding a tree without the protection afforded
by the grating.

If the natural drainage fails to prevent water from
collecting at the roots, artificial drainage may be supplied
by using tile drains, 3 or 4 feet below the surface,
to carry surplus water to the nearest sewer. This is

SYCAMORE.

SHADE TREE PLANTING

necessary only in the case of solid soil, which holds water
and keeps the roots in constant state of excess moisture.
Roots kept too moist are deprived of air, and this is a
serious handicap which is apt to result in the death of the
tree.

Deciduous trees may be planted at any time after the
leaves begin to drop in the fall, and before growth has

In the white areas trees may be planted in the spring or fall. In the dark areas spring planting is
best. In southern Florida plant whenever moisture conditions are favorable.

developed very far in the spring, even when the ground
is frozen, if the bottom and sides of the hole are not
frozen and there is available an abundance of unfrozen,
sufficiently dry earth to place about the roots and nearly
fill the hole. For best results, however, many experi-
enced planters prefer the spring season, as being the time
when all vegetation starts growing, although in the eastern
third of the United States, except the coldest parts, a fall
planted tree will be a half year ahead of a tree planted at
a corresponding time in the spring planting season. Careful
observation has shown that trees planted in the autumn,

86 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

under trying conditions, make slower progress than trees
of the same character planted early the following spring.
In mild climates, this is not a factor, and fall planting is
followed by good results. Except in climates where the
ground does not freeze in winter, a few kinds of trees like
Magnolias, Tulip and Sweet Gum should be transplanted
only in spring. Evergreens should be planted when the
ground is warm. It is usually done in late spring or early
autumn.

THE FOLLOWING MAP AND TABLES SHOW TREES SUITABLE FOR
PLANTING IN DIFFERENT AREAS
The map and tables should be consulted in selecting trees, and determining
their suitability for different regions. The numbers on the map show regions indi-
cated by similar numbers in the tables.

KEY TO CHARACTERS IN TABLES

Numbers I to 32 in tables indicate the regions marked by number on the map.
S — Trees most desirable for street and roadside planting in regions numbered.
s — Trees less desirable but will grow.
R — Trees suited for country roads but not for city streets.
a — Trees suited only for southern parts of regions numbered.
b — Trees which require watering for a few years.
c — Trees worth trying although their adaptability is uncertain,
d — Trees suited only to northern part of region numbered,
n — Trees that are undesirable.

TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

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SHADE TREE PLANTING

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CHAPTER VII.

ROADSIDE PLANTING OF TREES

WELLERS in towns and cities have no monopoly
of the duty to plant shade trees. Rural communities
also have a responsibility in this respect — a responsibility
no less urgent than that of people living in centers of pop-
ulation. Shade is necessary on country roads as well as
on city streets. Man's gifts from the trees in beauty and
in health are as valuable to the owner of farming prop-
erty as to him whose residence is on a city thoroughfare.

Trees are at home in the country. In regions uncrowd-
ed by the habitations of man they have room to attain
their fullest growth and development, thereby lending
picturesqueness and charm to the countryside. The rural
district which is lacking in trees is as desolate as the town
or city likewise unblessed. It should be a matter of pride
for the dweller in rural regions to do all he can to prove that
the city man has none the better of him in appreciation of
shade trees and in growing them successfully.

The success of the American farmer in raising the
crops that feed the nation and a large part of the outer
world shows where he stands in ability to produce; and,
as for appreciation of beauty, we have every reason to
know that this is confined to no class nor environment.

If the rural dwellers of America have failed to make

the most of their opportunities in the planting of shade

trees, it must be granted that the reason is the same that

exists as to the people in our towns and cities — a lack of

stimulus. The interest now current in roadside tree

planting is giving the stimulus that was needed, and there

is good ground for confidence that the result will be a
90

r
o

S
>

►<

ROADSIDE PLANTING OF TREES 91

countryside revealing itself in a new glory of shade tree
riches.

Roadside planting is one of the most important
phases of shade tree development. The highways of
America are the great arteries of the nation. With
the universal use of the automobile, this is true in a sense
previously undreamed. The value of the tree-lined
country thoroughfare to the adjacent property is as
direct as that of the shaded street in town or city. The
charm of the trees will attract where the barren roadside
would repel. There are roads in New Jersey, New York,
Connecticut and elsewhere, for the enjoyment of which
tourists will go many miles out of their way, to the in-
creased prosperity of the surrounding neighborhoods.
Thousands of permanent residents have been attracted
to Pasadena, San Mateo, and other places in California,
to some of the famous resorts of Florida and the Carolinas,
and to summer places in New England, Michigan and
Wisconsin, by the lure of shade tree splendor. Costly
homes and extensive improvements have been established
along the inviting highways in and near these communi-
ties, with the inevitable result that all property values
have been increased to an amazing extent; and largely
because the charm of the trees proved irresistible to
visitors from other places.

Every community may not be suited for a resort, but
none can afford to overlook the value of shade trees. The
highway without trees is merely a means to an end. It
is used simply because it leads somewhere. The road
which has its lines of stately trees carries a charm pecul-
iarly its own, and is sought because of its beauty and
attractiveness. Many communities have already awak-
ened to this truth, and have shown a determination to let
no other community outdo them in offering the shade

92 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

tree invitation to the world-at-large to come and enjoy
the beauties and the restfulness of their highways. Such
development cannot fail to be attended by an increase
in property values, and it has an additional value through
the greater comfort and enjoyment afforded the residents
of a neighborhood by the conversion of plain and unlovely
country roads into driveways of impressive charm and
loveliness.

The range of varieties for country roads is greater than
for city streets, as many trees that do not flourish under
city conditions will attain magnificent growth in the
better conditions of the country. Points to be considered
in selecting trees for the country thoroughfare are beauty,
shade and hardiness. Lack of facilities for artificial
watering makes it desirable to select trees which thrive
under the local conditions.

The Oaks and the Red Maple are good examples of
desirable roadside trees, combining abundant shade
with graceful dignity and beauty. They have the quali-
ties of strength and hardiness which are sought for in trees
for this purpose. The Sycamore is another species which
meets the requirements. In the Oak family fine repre-
sentatives for the country roadside are the Red, Pin,
Scarlet and White Oaks for the North — Live, Willow
and Laurel Oaks for the South, the Mossy Cup Oak for
the prairies, the Valley Oak for California and the Red,
Pin and English Oaks for the western parts of Oregon
and Washington. In more than half the United States
the stately American Elm lends a picturesque magnificence
to the landscape and transforms a road into a splendid
avenue which cannot fail to command the admiration of
the traveler. In the northeast the Lindens and White
Ash are well suited for roadside shade trees, and the
Ginkgo, Tulip, Aspen, Yellow Birch and Beech will

ROADSIDE PLANTING OF TREES 93

likewise be found extremely satisfactory. For the
South, additional desirable trees are the Sweet Gum, Um-
brella or Cucumber tree, Tulip, Ginkgo and Evergreen
Magnolia, and in California the Eucalyptus, the Cali-
fornia Walnuts and large leaved Maple on all the Pacific
Slope, and the Camphor, Silk Oak and Pepper trees for
southern California.

On stretches of road where trees are meant to provide
shelter from wind and storm as well as to furnish shade,
it is well to use types of trees which adapt themselves to
what is known as a windbreak. This purpose is effectively
served in the East by such evergreens as the Spruce,
Balsam, Cedar and Arbor Vitse, and in less degree by
deciduous trees, while in the West only deciduous trees
are available except in California, where the Eucalyptus
is the most important for this purpose.

In roadside planting, trees should be in rows, follow-
ing the alignment of the boundary fences or property
lines on some straight roads, but irregularly placed on
winding roads. When in straight lines, uniform spacing
is important, and there should also be uniformity as to
species, size and shape in order to secure the most satis-
factory landscape effect. As to spacing, a distance of at
least 80 feet between trees should be allowed, to give
room for proper development and to prevent such density
of shade as will hamper the growth of crops near at hand,
and interfere with the view from the roadway. In
providing windbreaks, it is desirable, of course, to have
the trees much closer, and often more than one row on
each side is desirable.

Shrubs, too, have their place in roadside ornamenta-
tion, and their use should be encouraged. Whether in
groups of their own or used with trees, they greatly enrich
the landscape. In some spots, where trees cannot be

TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

i#ii

ffo'-o:

How to plant roadside trees where there are telephone and telegraph poles.

placed to advantage, shrubs will produce highly ornamen-
tal effects. Species native to the neighborhood are
desirable, because of demonstrated suitability to climatic
and soil conditions. A dwarf-growing tree of shrub-like
characteristics which is much used for ornamental drive-
ways is the Hawthorn or Thornapple. The boulevard in
Genesee Valley Park, at Rochester, has been planted with
this variety for a stretch of two and one-half miles.
When in bloom the Hawthorn is a plant of rare beauty
and later in the season, it has the charm of a profusion of
large, red fruit and dense dark green foliage.

The location of the rows of trees along a roadway
must necessarily be determined by local conditions.
Regard must be had for telephone or telegraph lines and
the trees should be located in a way that will result in
the smallest possible interference from wires and poles.
A 60 foot roadway may be advantageously subdivided
into a 30 foot drive, with 15 feet on either side for the

ROADSIDE PLANTING OF TREES 95

accommodation of trees and pole construction. This
makes it possible to place the poles near the roadway
and the trees along the property line, a plan which has
been found effective in Kansas and other states which
have given close attention to roadside planting.

CHAPTER VIII.

NUT TREES FOR ROADSIDE PLANTING

FOR roadside planting many of the best authorities urge
the use of nut trees, as combining the elements of shade
tree beauty with those of crop-producing utility. They
argue that for size, attractiveness and purely ornamental
effect some members of the nut group are among the most
desirable of American trees, and that they excel most
other trees of hardwood timber value in rapid growth,
length of life and resistance to insects and diseases.

With this blend of the artistic and the practical, the
advocates of this type of planting are constantly gaining
new followers, and the growing of nut trees along the
highways is steadily becoming more frequent.

Perhaps the first objection offered when this type is
suggested is the likelihood of raids on the nut crop by
people passing along the highway. The simplest reply is,
even in the event of complete loss of the crop, the property
owner is as well off as he would have been with non-
producing species. His highway has had the benefit of
the shade, the landscape has had the added beauty and
picturesqueness provided by magnificent trees, and his
farm has the increased value that comes from these
advantages. To carry the reply still farther, it may be
pointed out that complete loss is neither necessary nor
probable. In support of this the experience of nut and
fruit growers in various parts of the country may be cited.

In California, the Pacific Northwest, Michigan, and

many other sections we find orange groves, or almond and

walnut groves, apple or peach orchards, and extensive

vineyards coming close to the highways, and more than

SHAG BARK HICKORY.

NUT TREES FOR ROADSIDE PLANTING 97

half the time with no fence or other protection against
raiders from the outside. For all practical purposes, this
amounts to roadside planting. It is true that in some
parts of California the stealing from groves and orchards
near the highway has become so serious that stringent
protective laws have had to be enacted. It is equally
true, however, that with or without the protection of
fences, wherever this sort of thieving occurs it is fairly
certain to extend into the orchards as well as along the
immediate borders of the highways. It must be conceded,
of course, that fruit or nuts grown outside a fence are more
tempting than those inside, and that a certain amount of
stealing from highway trees in excess of that which occurs
on private land must be expected and taken into consider-
ation. Experience in New York has shown that roadside
fruit trees have invited pilfering that extended well into
the orchards and upon the removal of the roadside trees
there was no further trouble, even though there was no
change in the fence. Fruit and nut trees are also liable
to mutilation by the would-be gatherers especially as the
tendency is to attempt to get the crop before it is mature.
On the other hand, it must be remembered that ex-
perience shows that the harvest of nuts from roadside
trees is clear gain, as compared with the non-producers,
and that the yield makes it worth while to undertake the
growing and protection of trees of the nut group if the
owner can be indifferent to the mutilation of the trees.

In some European countries nut and fruit trees along
the roads are sources of material profit. These trees are
owned by the public, and the sentiment of the community
has been sufficient to protect the crops against marauders.
Even though we may assume the lack of any well devel-
oped protective sentiment in this country, the civil
authorities can easily provide regulations which will
7

CHESTNUT

NUT TREES FOR ROADSIDE PLANTING 99

inflict penalties for raids on the product of roadside nut
trees. If the trees are planted and owned by the tax-
payers, such regulations will be the more readily enforced;
but, even in the case of private ownership, it should not be
difficult to afford protection which will assure the property
owner at least a reasonable proportion of the harvest.

The planting of nut trees is of itself comparatively
new in this country. Until within the last ten years,
except in the regions where commercial nut raising had
become established, the individual's proposal to plant trees
for the raising of nuts was usually met by scornful com-
ment. One nut tree planter, in planting an orchard of nut
trees on his farm near Washington some years ago, found
himself the object of critical remarks and good-natured jests
from friends and acquaintances. The most frequent critic-
ism had to do with the length of time involved in waiting for
the young trees to reach the age of production. To one critic
who had thus questioned the wisdom of the undertaking,
the planter replied: "I don't know just how long it
will be before these trees bear, but I do know that they will
be bearing nuts a long time before the trees you are not
planting." That this planter had the right idea is borne
out by the experience of more than one man who has
found that his roadside nut trees have proved themselves
equal to the important task of caring for taxes and insur-
ance on an entire farm — an experience not yet reported
by those who confined their activities to criticism.

As illustrating the not isolated experience of those
who have planted nut trees along roadways, instead of the
usual shade trees, an illuminating incident has recently
come into notice from a Southern plantation. In this case
a tenant farmer in Georgia was having difficulty in raising
the funds for the annual payment of $600 in rent money
and supporting a family of considerable size at the same

ioo TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

time. Prices for cotton, corn and other staples were low
and the demand light. During this period of depression,
the tenant-farmer found financial salvation in the harvest
from 73 Pecan trees clustered about the residential build-
ings of the farm and extending in lines on both sides of his
private entrance and along the public highway in front of
the plantation. These trees had just come into bearing,
and from their crop the tenant netted nearly eight hundred
dollars, practically a third more than the amount of
his rent.

In Portland, Oregon, in 1907, a resident planted eight
seedling Persian (English) Walnut trees along the street in
front of his residence. From these trees each year, in ad-
dition to having all the nuts needed for home consumption
and dividing with the boys of the neighborhood on their
own terms, he now obtains from nuts which he sells
enough revenue to go a long way toward covering his taxes.

A pioneer Pecan planter and one of the best known
growers in Florida, had an experience which is typical of
that of many who are brave enough to weather the jests of
the neighborhood. In the fall of 1893, he ordered 100 Pecan
trees from nurseries in Georgia and Louisiana. His place was
then largely planted to Orange trees but he planned to set
the Pecan trees along the driveway and about the buildings.
The trees arrived at the railroad station, and were still
in the freight house when the famous freeze of 1894
arrived with its temperature of I5°F., killing the citrus
trees and financially ruining many hundreds of people.
Most of his neighbors left the community, but the planter
removed the dead Orange trees and put the Pecans in their
places. In later years he ordered more trees and put them
out, too.

The few straggling neighbors who hung on turned to
cotton, corn, cattle, etc., the "etc." referring largely to

■

NUT TREES FOR ROADSIDE PLANTING 101

caustic witticisms aimed at the planter. They enter-
tained themselves by commenting on what "that d

Yankee" (from Maine) was doing. Their jokes were
varied, as usual in such cases, but the general opinion of
the planter would have been expressed in the terms of
Blackstone by "non compos mentis." Years went by,
and in time these very neighbors came to ask employment
from the planter in his nut orchards. They then frankly
admitted that "It always did seem like the man had more
sense than most people."

The importance of the nut-raising industry along
commercial lines is evidenced by a total investment of
more than $110,000,000 in the growing of Persian (Eng-
lish) walnuts in California, with an annual crop value of
from $10,000,000 to $12,000,000; and the growing of
almonds in the same state, with a yearly yield of
$2,000,000.

Pecans are grown, wild or cultivated, in every Atlantic
seaboard and Gulf coast state from Maryland to Texas,
and up the Mississippi to southern Indiana and eastern
Iowa and in parts of Oklahoma and Kansas. Pecan pro-
duction is bound to increase for the one sufficient reason
that this crop thrives best mainly where no other culti-
vated tree product of importance is being raised. The
range of the Pecan is for the most part north of the citrus
fruit section, and either south of, or below the altitude
level of, the successful raising of apples and other decidu-
ous fruits.

The Pecan is, perhaps, the finest of all American nut
trees for roadside planting wherever conditions of soil and
climate will warrant. It is strictly native to this conti-
nent and is found wild nowhere but in the United States.
Beautiful specimens 3 or 4 feet through at the base and
from 100 to 150 feet in height are found in the alluvial soils

102

TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

of the Mississippi and its tributaries. For both shade
and ornament it is a splendid tree, which thrives in rich
and moist soil.

According to the census of 1920, the total production
of pecans in 1919 was 31,898,548 pounds. Estimating
on a value of twenty cents a pound for the "run of the

drop," this indicates an
addition of more than
#6,000,000 to the wealth of
the pecan-growing states.
Texas produced more than
half of the total yield.

When well chosen and
properly cared for, the east-
ern Black Walnut is one of
the handsomest of all our
native trees. Many nature
lovers class it next to the American Elm in stateliness and
decorative effect. In congenial soils it is one of the
most rapid growers among the hardwoods, and it is by
no means unusual for a seedling to develop a height of
20 inches or more during the first year. The size of
the matured tree is nothing short of magnificent. Dur-
ing a recent contest for the discovery of the handsomest
tree in the state of New York, a Black Walnut was one
of the four largest trees found. In point of permanence
it is also conspicuous, while one of its greatest advan-
tages is the readiness with which it adapts itself to
changed environment. Since its introduction into north-
western Oregon, for instance, it has been found to make
as satisfactory an ornamental tree in that climate as in
the eastern states to which it is native. The city of
Salem, Oregon takes great pride in possessing one of the
finest specimens in America for size and beauty in relation

" ■* " ■ .. -

PECAN.

NUT TREES FOR ROADSIDE PLANTING 103

WALNUT

to age. At the age of 51 years, it had a breast-high
circumference of 10 feet 11 inches. As showing the
utility value of the species, it may be mentioned that this
tree not infrequently produces several bushels of nuts in
one season.

The length of time required to bring a Black Walnut
into production is variable. In a Pennsylvania nursery a
tree has been photographed
which was grafted when
three years of age and which,
in its fourth year, produced
7 nuts. This early fruitful-
ness is not wholly desirable,
as it is better for a tree to
grow for 6 or 7 years before
it is allowed to bear. Never-
theless, this instance is im-
portant in showing that the
time of production is largely in the hands of the grower.
Some specimens run for 1 5 or 20 years before producing, but
this time may be reduced by grafting. Different varieties
may vary also in the matter of leafing-out in the spring and
shedding leaves in the autumn, and in resistance or suscep-
tibility to the attacks of insect pests and fungus diseases. To
realize best results, these differences must be taken into
consideration when seed or young trees are being se-
lected for planting. A good rule to follow is to be sure
that the seed came from a tree which had as nearly as
possible the qualities wanted, and latitude and soil condi-
tions as nearly similar as possible to those of the new
planting.

In California, the highway authorities are planting
many miles of roadway with Black Walnut trees. Stretches
of roads lined with magnificent trees of this species may

io4 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

be found in many places in this state. One of the finest
of these borders the Lincoln Highway fifteen miles west
of Sacramento.

In Livingston County, Michigan, there are numerous
splendid rows of Black Walnut trees from 50 to 60
years of age which are among the beauty spots of the
state's highway system. One of Michigan's planters in
the fall of 1920, procured thirty bushels of selected
walnuts from Mt. Vernon, the George Washington
homestead in Virginia, to be planted by school children
on school grounds and at their homes and along the state
highways. Something like 2000 were planted by him in
a nursery, for subsequent use in the city parks of Saginaw.
An early example of this planter's high valuation of the
Black Walnut is afforded by a handsome and thrifty
specimen now standing in front of the Saginaw postomce,
where it was planted by him 15 years ago.

The Black Walnut develops a well-rounded crown of
symmetrical growth, and in its native state it is found in
rich woodlands over a wide range of country. Its natural
territory extends from Massachusetts south to Florida,
and west and southwest to Minnesota, Nebraska, Kansas
and Texas. Adaptability to strange regions broadens
this range to include almost the entire country for pur-
poses of transplanting or introduction.

The Butternut, a close kinsman of the Black Walnut,
has distinct claims to consideration as a roadside tree,
especially for cold climates. Although less durable for
timber purposes than the Black Walnut, smaller in growth,
and not so attractive in appearance, it has the advantage
of growing in climates too severe for either the Walnut or
the Hickories. In fact, the Butternut thrives further north
than any other tree of the nut-producing group. Its
resistance to frost makes it well worth while as an addi-

NUT TREES FOR ROADSIDE PLANTING 105

BUTTERNUT

&#^

tion to the varieties availa-
ble for northern regions. The
range of this tree is from
Nova Scotia south into
Pennsylvania and Mary-
land, and southwest to Ar-
kansas. Its most common
native regions are the moun-
tains, from Maryland north
to and including New Eng-
land. The nut of this tree
has a very rich flavor. Crop production is irregular, but
sometimes exceedingly generous.

Among the Hickories the Shagbark has a beauty and
individuality all its own, while the best specimens rival
the Maple for sturdy strength and attractiveness. The use
of this species as a roadside tree has many advocates, and

the fine specimens to be
found along the highways of
Michigan and other states
forcefully confirm the argu-
ments in its favor. The tree
grows in practically the
same territory as does the
Black Walnut, but it is of
slower growth and less able
to adapt itself to the con-
ditions of changed environ-

/►"»

HICKORY

ment. Many other Hickories have much the same quali-
ties of beauty that characterize the Shagbark, and to-
gether they cover a wide range of soil and climate.

In comparatively mild climates the Japanese Walnut
makes a satisfactory roadside tree. It is dwarfish in habit,
and somewhat less hardy than the Black Walnut. Success-

io6

TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

ful planting has been practiced over a considerable part
of the country.

The Beech has many qualities which commend it for
highway planting. It is a tree of rugged growth, with

dense foliage of surpassing
beauty, and lends genuine
charm to the roadside land-
scape. Its one drawback, a
minor one, is that its smooth
white bark is a perennial in-
vitation to the carving of
initials. The beech is wide-
spreading as to limbs, round-
topped and symmetrical. Its
native field is for the most
part in the north, but it also grows to large size alongside
the Magnolias of southwest Georgia and other South-
ern states.

The same graceful dignity which makes this tree so
highly prized in parks and on private estates makes it a
favorite for roadside purposes as well. It stands a good
deal of shade, but requires rich, cool and fairly moist soil;
it should never be planted in soil which is dry or gravelly.
It will thrive in soil some-
what too wet for the Black
Walnut, Shagbark Hickory,
or Pecan, but must not be
planted in soil where the
moisture is excessive, as in
swamp lands.

The Chestnut has many
points of value, but the rav-
ages of the deadly blight ren-
der its use hazardous in

NUT TREES FOR ROADSIDE PLANTING 107

many parts of the country. This tree can not be recom-
mended for general planting. There are certain sections,
however, outside of its native range, where the Chestnut
does well and where its planting is being encouraged. This
condition is to be found in western Washington and Oregon,
northern California, and in eastern California in the
foothills of the Sierras.

CHAPTER IX.

MEMORIAL TREES

TREE planting to honor the heroic dead of the Great
War, or others, has given the world a new form of
monument — the memorial that lives.

The memorial tree is clothed in the finest of human
sentiment. In its ever renewing growth it stands forth
as a thing alive, a simple symbol to keep forever green
the memory of those in whose honor it is planted. For
to-day and for generations yet unborn, the message of the
memorial tree is the message of life.

That the memorial tree should altogether supplant
other forms of monument is neither to be expected nor
desired. Memorials of stone or bronze will always have
their place. The massive beauty of the Washington Mon-
ument, the impressive dignity of the Grant Tomb and the
graceful outline of the Arc de Triomphe are enough to
prove the enduring worth of memorials of this character.
Even with such memorials, however, the memorial tree
plays an important part. For bringing out the artistic
symmetry of such structures in their full value, an environ-
ment of trees is indispensable. By enhancing the beauty
of the surroundings they give an added worth and
meaning to the stateliest edifice reared by human hands.

One of the most appealing features of the tree as a
memorial is that this form of expression is possible to
everyone. The memorial tree is suited to the require-
ments of the city as a whole or to the needs of the one
person. It may express the reverence of a community, of
a group or an individual. In either form it is ideal.

It has been gratifying to see the world's response to the
claims of the tree as the most fitting memorial to those who

108

MRS. HARDING PLANTING AN ELM ON INTERNATIONAL AVE. FACING THE
LINCOLN MEMORIAL, WASHINGTON, D. C.

MEMORIAL TREES 109

went to the defence of civilization. Throughout America
and in foreign countries the response has spread on a
growing wave of human approval. Among the Allied
Nations, as in the United States, the people have been
quick to recognize the appropriateness of the living
monument, and to join with America in the planting of
memorial trees.

The movement had its birth with the signing of the
Armistice, when the people of the United States adopted
the tree as their token of tribute. The idea was taken up
promptly by officials, by organizations, by the nation's
editors and by the people. Memorial tree planting had
become an established custom before our troops were
withdrawn from the camps of France. When General
Pershing reached this country after his brilliant leadership
of the American Expeditionary Forces, among his first
acts was the planting of memorial trees in Central Park,
New York, and in Independence Square, Philadelphia.
Dedicated to the soldier dead by their commander, these
trees will stand forth to future generations as noble
sentinels of a noble chapter in American history. Two
years later he carried the message of the memorial tree
overseas, and on French soil planted an Oak in theTroca-
dero gardens, to symbolize America's homage to the soldier
dead of France.

The American Legion responded with the same spirit
which moved the great general. The organization is tak-
ing a leading part in cooperating with the American Tree
Association in spreading the claims of the memorial tree
and in active planting of these living monuments. In
orders to posts throughout the world the Legion early
threw its influence to the movement, and from everywhere
come reports of tree planting by the Legionnaires in
tribute to their comrades-at-arms. A pioneer in this

no TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

work was Colonel F. W. Galbraith, Jr., one of the first
commanders of the American Legion. Colonel Galbraith
entered into the undertaking with the vigor and enthu-
siasm which marked his entire life, and his last official
act, a few days before his tragic death, was to plant
memorial trees at the intersection of the National and
Dixie Highways in Vandalia, Ohio. The Legion will
extend the tree planting along both of these important
roadways, in tribute to Colonel Galbraith as well as to
the men who died in France.

The President and Mrs. Harding have planted a
number of these living memorials. Perhaps the most
notable instance of tree planting by occupants of the
White House was at the formal opening of Armistice
Week, on November 7, 1921. That week will always hold
conspicuous place in American history, as a period made
memorable by the burial of America's Unknown Soldier
and by the opening of the epoch-making Conference on
the Limitation of Armament. The first event on the
week's program was the planting by Mrs. Harding, on the
grounds of the Lincoln Memorial, of two trees to the mem-
ory of the Allied Armies and the Allied Navies. These
trees stand at the head of International Avenue.

It was with a fine sense of fitness that the first mem-
orial tree to be planted in the National Capital was
dedicated to the memory of the men of the United States
Forest Service who had given their lives in the war.

The soldier dead from the Congressional Library were
given the tribute of the memorial tree.

Another tree planted in the National Capital was in
memory of Quentin Roosevelt and was set out by the
pupils of the Force School.

There was pretty symbolism in the plan adopted by
the Daughters of the American Revolution at Arkadelphia,

PLANTING AT GRANT'S TOMB, NEW YORK, IN MEMORY OP GEN. U. S. GRANT
ON THE CENTENNIAL OP HIS BIRTH.

MEMORIAL TREES in

Arkansas, in planting a Maple as the organization's
memorial to the soldiers and sailors of that city. About
the roots of the tree the planters placed soil from each
state in the Union and from each of the Allied countries.
The linking of all sections of the Union is also achieved
in the memorial grove established in Exposition Park by
the Los Angeles Chamber of Commerce. To be known as
the Grove of States, this planting will contain a tree from
each state. The city of Fort Wayne, Indiana, provided
a memorial park, one corner of which is devoted to a five
acre grove of memorial oaks. In this grove each tree is
a tribute to a fallen soldier. In Philadelphia extensive
planting has been done, including 500 trees in Logan
Square.

Baltimore has its Grove of Remembrance in the world
famous Druid Hill Park. The trees in this group were
dedicated to the fallen heroes by the War Mothers of
America, now a part of the Service Star Legion.

Gold Star Mothers planted 150 trees in the forest
preserve of Cook County, 111. In Chattanooga, Tennessee,
more than 188 trees have been planted to the memory of
the soldiers of Hamilton County. New Jersey has been
active in memorial tree planting, with an example set by
Governor Edwards in planting an Arbor Day tree, at
Trenton, to perpetuate the memory of the soldiers of the
state who gave their lives at the call of their country.

The town of Charlotte, Michigan, has given splendid
illustration of the meaning which may be given the plant-
ing of memorial trees — a meaning which embraces com-
munity improvement as well as honor for soldier dead.
Charlotte's memorial took the form of converting an
unsightly piece of ground into a handsome park in which
coming generations could take enduring pride. In this
park the community has planted 7000 White Pines,

ii2 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

iooo Maples and Elms, ioo Black Walnuts, ioo Butter-
nuts and a grove of Red Oaks. In the center of the park
stands a boulder, with the hero list setting forth that the
grove is a memorial to the men of Eaton County who gave
their lives in the war.

An ambitious project in army circles was the planting
of 6000 trees at the balloon school of the United States
Army, at Fort Omaha, Colorado. Nearly 1000 of the
trees were in memory of individuals who died in the
service after having passed through the camps at Fort
Omaha and Fort Crook.

That the tongues in trees may preach their sermons
to man was emphasized in the call for the planting of
memorial trees which went forth to the Christian
Endeavor Societies of the world. In this call, Rev. Francis
E. Clark, founder and life-long leader of the Christian
Endeavor organization, urged upon the members that
through the planting of memorial trees they will come
"closer to the Great Tree Maker." In this phrase Dr.
Clark summed up the appeal of the tree to human hearts,
and gave mighty impetus to a movement in which he
sensed impressive possibilities for the tribute of homage
which would make the world a better place in which
to live.

From the village school to the great universities the
educational institutions of the land have utilized the
memorial tree for voicing their reverence for the memory
of students and to classes. On the drill field of the
University of Illinois, 173 trees were planted in honor of
173 graduates who gave their lives. Georgetown Univer-
sity, at Washington, dedicated 54 trees for the same pur-
pose at its 1 20th commencement, and on the grounds of
many institutions throughout the United States trees
and groves of remembrance have been planted as tributes

TREE PLANTED IN MEMORY OF JOHN MUIR AT THE MUSEUM OP NATURAL

HISTORY, NEW YORK CITY.

MEMORIAL TREES 113

of honor. The University of Washington, at Seattle,
worked out plans for an arboretum to take the form of a
memorial park, traversed by memorial avenues. In this
elaborate undertaking the authorities are planning for a
century ahead, and there is vivid appeal to the imagination
in the future beauty of this living memorial in the great
Northwest.

On the grounds of the State Masonic Home at Eliza-
bethtown, the Masons of Pennsylvania have established
a memorial grove containing 264 trees. Each tree is
registered in the name of a Mason who died in the service
of the flag, and the roster is an impressive showing of the
patriotism of the splendid organization.

When the Children of the American Revolution met
in Washington, they planted a memorial tree in front of the
D. A. R. building to mark the date. In the shape of a
five pointed star of trees, the State Normal School at
Bloomsburg, Pa., honored its graduates. To mark the
centennial of the birth of Clara Barton and of Gen. U. S.
Grant memorial trees were planted. In the latter case the
tree was placed at Grant's Tomb in New York City, having
been sent from the Grant Farm near St. Louis, Mo.

The fiftieth anniversary of the first Arbor Day in
Nebraska, in 1872, called out thousands of new tree
planters. Many of these trees were placed in honor of
J. Sterling Morton, the father of Arbor Day. In front of the
American Tree Association's headquarters are three trees
planted for Morton by the Nebraska Society. Another
was placed by the District of Columbia Federation of
Women's Clubs on the Lincoln Memorial Grounds.

To mark the conference of the Pan-American Women
an International tree was planted on the grounds of the
Pan-American Building, Washington, D. C.

ii4 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

Another interesting group of trees on the Lincoln
Memorial grounds at Washington are the trees planted by
the John Burroughs Clubs of the public schools. This
group for Burroughs, Thoreau, Whitman, Emerson and
Muir is called the Hall of Fame. In Pasadena there is
another Hall of Fame for famous men. At Atlanta there
is an Authors' Grove that is nationally famous. At St.
Louis, Mo., there is a Gold Star Tree Court of Honor,
and there is another at Trenton, Mo. This is part of a
plan for state wide Gold Star Highways. Memorial tree
planting has directed the thought to bigger things. At
Herkimer, N. Y., the American Legion has a memorial
forest well under way in which more than thirty thousand
trees have been put in place.

Everywhere memorial tree planting can be made a
community affair, for the people can be brought together
by tree planting. Whether it be one tree or a memory
mile, there are communitypossibilitiesin theday's program.

The people of the whole country are turning to tree
planting. Prominent visitors from other countries officiate
at plantings. In the list we find Joffre, Foch, the Prince
of Wales, the King and Queen of the Belgians and many
other nationally known people. The tree lends itself to
all times and all occasions.

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CHAPTER X.

ROADS OF REMEMBRANCE.

A NATURAL extension of Memorial Tree planting has
been the development of Roads of Remembrance.

From coast to coast these highways have been planted
with shade trees in grateful tribute to a nation's soldiers.

The Road of Remembrance has no limitations.
Whether on the modest and secluded lane, on the great
transcontinental highway, or on the city boulevard, the
roadside tree is the enduring token of reverence and
appreciation; and in its far-flung gift of shade and beauty
it will bear to coming generations the truth that in these
highways the planters wrought blessings for the future
no less than tribute to the past.

The immediate favor with which the Road of Remem-
brance idea was greeted resulted in definite and active
response to the appealing sentiment of the highway of
tribute. The entire country is now dotted with sections
of highway planting. The spirit of the movement goes
forward in a way that leads to the belief that in coming
years the roadside without shade tree beauty will be
the conspicuous exception to a general rule.

Roadside planting has two-fold appeal. It is a definite
contribution to highway betterment as well as the finest
form of memorial tribute. To clothe the roads of the
land with trees is an important example of community
improvement, and one which will carry its blessings into
the distant future. Just now the movement has especial
timeliness. The country is face to face with opportunity.
In cooperation with the Federal government, the states
are now planning the most extensive program of road

115

n6 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

building yet undertaken in the United States. The work
of construction will embrace every state in the Union.
Aroused by the unusual blend of practical benefit and
sentimental appeal, organizations throughout the country
have become active participants in the creation of Roads
of Remembrance. Women's clubs, automobile clubs,
and highway associations have entered into the spirit of
the movement, with a determination that the newly built
roadways shall be Roads of Tribute in the ideal form.
In the schools, also, the project has gained momentum,
and throughout the land Tree Planting Associations have
been organized to plant particular sections.

The White House has given encouragement and stim-
ulus to the movement through the spoken word, the
written message and active participation. In a letter
the President said:

"I find myself altogether responsive to your request for an appeal
to the people to plant memorial trees along the important public high-
ways as memorials to the men who were sacrificed in the World War,
and, indeed also to those who gave their service without the ultimate
sacrifice. I can hardly think of a more fitting testimonial of our
gratitude and affection than this. It would be not only the testi-
mony of our sentiments, but a means to beautify the country which
these heroes have so well served.

"A general adoption of this plan would, in coming years, be noted
as one of the useful and beautiful ideas which our soldiers brought
back from France. The splendid avenues of France have been among
the great delights and attractions to travellers there, and a similar
development would equally add to the beauty and attraction of our
country. I am pleased to know that the idea has already been taken
up quite extensively and that considerable progress has been made.
If the cooperation of state, municipal and county administrations
may be secured, as well as of the forestry services of the nation and the
states, it ought to be possible to make a rapid advance in a compara-
tively short time. I hope that you and your coadjutors may be
successful in securing a most substantial beginning in this direction
during the present season.

(Signed) Warren G. Harding."

THEODORE ROOSEVELT POST, AMERICAN LEGION PLANTING THE FIRST OP
200 MEMORY TREES TO COL. ROOSEVELT.

ROADS OF REMEMBRANCE 117

Mrs. Harding's approval and support were expressed

in a letter to' the Women's Club at York, Pa. Mrs.

Harding wrote:

"Please allow me to congratulate you on the wonderful work you
have brought to conclusion in the dedication on Memorial Day of
the road of remembrance along the Lincoln Highway. In the plant-
ing of twenty-five miles of that famous highway, you have erected a
memorial that the entire country can enjoy in the years to come.
May long life attend the trees you have placed in the care of the
Lincoln Highway Memorial and Tribute Tree Association.*'

The spirit which prompted these letters is the spirit
which has resulted in roadside planting in all parts of the
country. The planting takes many forms. In Bibb
County, Georgia there is a Cross of Trees with Macon as
the point of crossing. Along the Lincoln Highway there
have been many plantings. At York, Pa., the Women's
Clubs have planted twenty-five miles along both sides of
that highway. The dedication was made a wonderful
event for Memorial Day. The trees have been turned
over to the Lincoln Highway Memorial and Tribute
Tree Association. At Canton, Ohio, where the same
highway passes, the Lincoln Highway Memorial Associa-
tion of Stark County is planting memorial trees. Along
the road leading from the highway to the tomb of William
McKinley there has been planted an Avenue of the
Presidents to lead into the major road. The St. Joseph
County Memorial Tree Forestry Association, at South
Bend, Ind., has completed its share of the tree planting
along the Lincoln Highway in that state. Under the
direction of the Ottawa Permanent Memorial Association
and Ottawa Tree Club, trees have been planted along the
Lincoln Highway in Iowa. Out of Clinton has been made
a "Memory Mile" and planted with trees by the Kiwanis
Club. Thus the work goes on. At Seattle, the Garden
Club has planted 1200 memorial trees and the work has
been but started to the Pierce County line.

u8 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

One of the first Roads of Remembrance to be com-
pleted was fifteen miles of the West Coast road out of
Tampa, Fla., where the Rotary Club has charge of the
work. In Kentucky, there is a twelve mile Road of
Remembrance between Lexington and Georgetown.

The main highway from New York City to Buffalo is
to be a Road of Remembrance and the first trees have
been planted. Victory Oaks have been planted in Louisi-
ana along the Jefferson Highway that leads from New
Orleans to Winnipeg, Canada, and towns all along the
route are making plans for memorial tree planting.
Beautification of the great highways goes hand in hand
with the memorial tree planting. Particular attention
is being paid to this by the Woman's Commission of the
Bankhead National Highway Association. Trees, shrubs
and flowers will be planted along this highway and plans
for a great bird preserve are being pushed. In many
places in California the Road of Remembrance idea has
made great progress. In many of the states the tree
planters are working in close cooperation with the
state highway officials and reports show that hundreds of
towns are providing parks and beauty spots as a result
of the campaign.

On Armistice Day, 1921, the day of the burial of the
Unknown Soldier at Arlington, the American Legion
planted many miles of Roads of Remembrance in Chicago
and on other thoroughfares in various sections of the
country. At Santa Rosa, California, the Legion has co-
operated with the Chamber of Commerce in planting four
and one-half miles of shade trees along a section of the
state highway.

Under the leadership of their Chambers of Commerce,
Joliet, Aurora and Ottawa municipalities have planted
Memorial Trees to the number of 10,000 on the Lincoln
Highway in Illinois.

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ROADS OF REMEMBRANCE 119

In Indiana the Women's Clubs plan to set out Mem-
orial Trees along every mile of the Lincoln Highway in its
course across the state. Richard Bennett of Wisconsin
has planted 70 trees along the 70 rods of highway which
touch his property. This is the unique individual effort
thus far recorded with the Association.

Brooklyn, New York, has undertaken a memorial
highway as an important part of a great civic improve-
ment, which means making over a large part of the muni-
cipality. One thousand trees have been planted at
Middletown, Ohio. Chattanooga is lining the road with
trees as it approaches the city from each direction.
Ware County, Georgia, has given the highway an eight
mile planting. The Jefferson and Dixie highways will
become Roads of Remembrance to an extent in keeping
with the development of the Lincoln Highway.

At Paducah, Kentucky, 2000 memorial trees, lining a
Victory Road, have been set out by the McCracken
County Historical Society, which undertook to provide
a tree for each man and woman of the county who
answered the call of the flag. Mobile has a memorial
highway five miles long. In Lake County, Florida, the
Park Commission's planting of Roads of Remembrance
covers the entire county. Minneapolis has connected
two parks by a memorial boulevard lined with trees for
its full length of seven miles.

In Great Britain the Road of Remembrance Associa-
tion is urging that all memorials be given the proper
setting on Roads of Remembrance or on memorial avenues
leading to such highways.

Beautification of the great highways goes hand in
hand with the memorial tree planting.

CHAPTER XL
THE HALL OF FAME FOR TREES

IT is fitting that trees should have their own Hall of
Fame to give permanent record to their participation
in history.

Through all the ages the trees have had important
share in human progress. Under all conditions and in
all climes they have proved themselves the best of good
citizens. Their story is closely interwoven with the
fabric of time. They have been a part of statecraft, war,
art and literature, and they have stood as silent witnesses
to man's achievements and solemn participants in his
councils of destiny. To carry their message of the past
to the generations of the future is an enterprise of vivid
appeal to the imagination.

Since the creation of the idea of a Hall of Fame for Trees
the spirit of recognition has spread to all parts of the United
States. The study of the trees presented as candidates for
admission to the Hall of Fame has been a study of American
development. Trees now living and offered as nominees
have been sentries of history written and unwritten. Re-
search into the individual records of the candidates has
been an intimate education in the progress of the New
World of Columbus, Washington and Lincoln.

To cover the life span of the nominees the imagination
must go back 4000 years and more. In the Redwood
forests of California stands a tree whose claims rest
on the simple statement of age. The General Sherman
Sequoia is declared to be the oldest thing now liv-
ing. It was of giant growth at the time of the birth of

Christ, almost 2000 years ago. To-day, at an age of
120

THE NEW GARDEN OAK NEAR THE SCENE OF BATTLE OF GUILFORD COURT
HOUSE, N. C, NOMINATED FOR THE HALL OF FAME BY THE DAUGHTERS
OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. BENEATH THIS TREE THE QUAKERS
CARED FOR THE INJURED IN THE BATTLE THAT ENDED THE REVOLU-
TIONARY WAR. FROM HERE CORNWALLIS RETREATED TO YORKTOWN.

THE HALL OF FAME FOR TREES 121

more than 4000 years, it has a diameter of 36^2 feet
and a height of 280 feet. This tree is located in
Sequoia National Park, where it stands as a memorial
to General William Tecumseh Sherman, as well as the
undisputed monarch of the ages.

In sharp contrast to this woodland patriarch is the
Naturalization Tree in Kentucky, a symbol of the
American Spirit of to-day. For this tree no certificate
of age is necessary. Both name and fame rest on its
service in connection with Americanizing recruits at
Camp Zachary Taylor during the recent war. Under its
branches thousands of aliens took the oath of allegiance
upon being mustered into the ranks of the United States
Army. On a single day this tree witnessed the naturali-
zation of 925 of these new Americans and saw their salute
to the flag of their new citizenship.

In the grounds of the White House, at Washington,
stands a tree which links the past and present in an
unusual manner. This tree is the outgrowth of an acorn
brought from Russia, and because of this and its unique
lineage it is known as the Russo-American Oak. The
tree from which the acorn was obtained stands in Petro-
grad. It grew from an acorn produced by a tree at the
tomb of Washington, at Mt. Vernon. The Mt. Vernon
acorn was sent to the Czar of Russia by Senator Charles
Sumner, of Massachusetts, and planted in the grounds
of the Imperial Palace by the Czar as a symbol of Russo-
American friendship. In 1898, the tree which had grown
from Senator Sumner's acorn was located by Ethan
Allen Hitchcock, then American Ambassador to St.
Petersburg. Gathering and planting some of the acorns
from this tree, the Ambassador sent a sapling of the new
generation to President Roosevelt for planting in the
White House grounds. The planting took place on April

122 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

6, 1904, exactly thirteen years before the day on which
the United States joined hands with Russia and other
European countries in the greatest conflict the world has
ever known — a conflict which led to the destruction of
the old Russia and the assassination of the royal family.
The young tree was planted by President Roosevelt him-
self, with the cooperation of Secretary Wilson of the
Department of Agriculture, and Mr. Hitchcock, at that
time Secretary of the Interior. With its registration in
the Hall of Fame, this tree takes conspicuous place in the
list of trees with a history.

In various spots in the District of Columbia may be
found trees of individual celebrity. In the shadow of the
Capitol, within the splendid park surrounding the seat
of government, is a tree planted by George Washington
and now treasured as a priceless memento of the first
President's interest in the beautifying of the city named
in his honor. On Connecticut Avenue hill stands a
stately tree of majestic spread, known as the Treaty Oak,
for the reason that under its branches an important
treaty with the Indians was signed 150 years ago.

George Washington's interest in trees was of far-
reaching influence. In many places trees are now growing
which owe their existence to the Father of the Country.
One of these is reported from the vicinity of Bath,
Pennsylvania. It came from Mt. Vernon as a gift from
President Washington to General Brown, a notable
figure of the Revolution. General Brown planted this
tree in front of his old home, and it is known today as the
Washington Horse Chestnut. In the nomination of this
tree for the Hall of Fame its present base circumfer-
ence is given as 27 feet, 7 inches, with a girth of 17
feet at a point 6 feet from the ground. In the Friends'
Graveyard at Salem, New Jersey, is an Oak under

KENTUCKY COFFEE TREE— FISHKILL-ON-HUDSON, N. Y.

PLANTED IN 1804 IN FRONT OF THE HISTORICAL VERPLANCK MANSION, THE

SCENE OF THE FIRST MEETING OF THE SOCIETY OF THE CINCINNATI. IT IS

75 FEET HIGH— 10 FEET IN DIAMETER. SPREAD OF BRANCHES, 181 FEET.

THE HALL OF FAME FOR TREES 123

which soldiers of Washington's army drilled in the
days of the Revolution. This tree is known to be more
than 300 years old. Its branches cover almost a quarter
of an acre. Of even greater spread than this is the Sir
Joseph Hooker Oak, nominated from Chico, California,
which has a single limb 102 feet in length, and of which
General W. T. Sherman declared that at noon it would
shade an army of 7000 men. Six feet from the ground this
Oak has a circumference of 28 feet, 4 inches.

In various parts of America are trees famous through
association with the Marquis de Lafayette. One Lafay-
ette tree on the battlefield of Brandywine derives its
prestige from the circumstance that when the celebrated
French general was wounded at Brandywine his injuries
were given first aid under this tree. At Annapolis is a
tree under which a reception to Lafayette was held, with
a distinguished company in attendance. In the form of
trees planted by his own hand, General Lafayette left
many mementoes of his travels in America. One of these
is now standing at Concord, New Hampshire. Another
is at Yorktown, near a house in which are still to be seen
cannon balls imbedded in the timbers during the notable
battle of Yorktown.

There are many Lincoln trees which were planted in
memory of the martyred president. These are reported
from various sections of the United States. One of these
is a Hackberry, planted by John Finn on April 27, 1865, at
Decorah, Iowa. This tree now holds place as one of the
finest growths in the state and it has won more than local
reputation for its symmetrical beauty. Another tree of
similar significance stands before the home of Mrs. Allen
Partridge, in Augusta, Maine. With other Lincoln Trees
these specimens have found their merited place in the
Hall of Fame for trees with a history.

i24 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

General Ulysses S. Grant had a keen appreciation of
the worth of trees, and showed his interest by planting
them on many occasions. During the famous journey
around the world which followed his term in the White
House, this celebrated American planted a tree in each
large city in the Orient visited in his travels. Throughout
his tour he was received with ceremony befitting his
widespread renown, and in every city the crowning event
of the day's program was the planting of a tree. As a
result there are many "General Grant" trees in various
parts of the world. Chicago takes deep pride in one of
these, an Elm planted by the soldier-statesman in
Washington Park in 1 879, during his first visit to the city
after his tour of the world.

Indiana treasures with reverence the Constitutional
Elm, with its spread of 124 feet. Under this tree, in 18 16,
was held the Constitutional Convention of Corydon, and
as a result of this association with the making of the
state, the tree holds firm place in the affections of the
people of Indiana. In North Carolina stands the Battle-
ground Oak, also known as the Cornwallis Oak and the
Liberty Oak, because of its association with momentous
events in the war of the Revolution. This tree witnessed
the celebrated battle of Guilford Court House, in 178 1.
In the opinion of its sponsors it is entitled to a place in the
Hall of Fame for its shade tree beauty as well as for its
historical interest. The spread of its branches is more
than 100 feet and its base circumference 21 feet.

The Wesley Oak has been nominated from St. Simon's
Island, off the coast of Georgia. This tree brings its
message of the early days of Georgia's settlement, when
British troops were quartered on the Island. One notable
chapter in its history is linked with the American visit of
John and Charles Wesley, whose memory is sacred to the

THE HALL OF FAME FOR TREES 125

followers of Methodism throughout the world. Both
Wesleys are known to have preached under the Wesley
Oak, with British soldiers as their congregations.

In addition to the General Sherman Sequoia, with its
life span of forty centuries, California offers many other
trees of historical and romantic interest. One of these
is a tree of to-day, which tells a story of modern develop-
ment in the Golden West — a story of the uncovering of
agricultural riches surpassing the gold mines in their
permanent value to the state. This tree, the Hilgard
Chestnut, stands in front of Agricultural Hall, on the cam-
pus of the University of California, where it rears its
stately crown as a living memorial to Professor Hilgard,
first dean of the College of Agriculture. Professor
Hilgard's work for the development of California's
amazing agricultural resources had much to do with the
creation of the State's almost fabulous wealth in farming;
this tree is a grateful tribute to this distinguished man. The
Chestnut was planted in 1885, and in the fall of 1922
its branches covered an area more than 50 feet in diameter.
America has many trees prized for their association
with literature, as the Cambridge Elms, immortalized in
story and poem, the Elms of New~Haven and Princeton,
made famous by intimate relationship with many of the
nation's most gifted men of letters, and the trees of
Boston Common which have sheltered generations of
literary celebrities. A worthy addition to the list, serving
to link the genius of the old world with the spirit of the
new, is the Shakespeare Memorial Oak, occupying a place
of honor on the campus of the University of Rochester in
the state of New York. This Oak was brought from
Shakespeare's home in Stratford-on-Avon, and was planted
at Rochester April 23, 1864, in connection with the
celebration of the tercentennial of Shakespeare's birth.

126 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

Visiting royalty has made its contribution to the
famous trees of America. In Central Park, New York, is
an American Elm which was planted by the late King
Edward VII, of Great Britain, during his visit to this
country as the Prince of Wales. Not more than ioo
feet away is an English Elm, planted in 1919, by the
present Prince of Wales, the widely beloved grandson of
the earlier visitor. The present prince also planted trees
at Annapolis and at Mt. Vernon, and took part in the
ceremonies at which Bishop Harding planted a tree, at
St. Albans Cathedral in Washington. When the King
and Queen of the Belgians visited this country, in 1919,
the Queen planted a European Green Beech in Central
Park, as a token of Belgium's enduring affection for the
people of America. These trees serve as fitting reminders
of the royal visits, and in the years to come they will stand
forth as living symbols of the bonds by which the civili-
zation of the Old World is linked with the New Democracy
of America.

Trees of history abound in all parts of the United
States. Their Hall of Fame was conceived as an open
book of memory for their life stories. In its pages will be
found a record of events generously epitomizing the
development of American civilization. Because of the
existence of this permanent record, generations yet
unborn will have all the more intimate glimpse into the
past and all the clearer conception of the events of history.
In its own particular field of service, the Hall of Fame
for Trees is as necessary and important as the Hall of
Fame in which is perpetuated the memory of the achieve-
ments of man.

CHAPTER XII.
LABELLING SHADE TREES

THE close observer often wonders why so little atten-
tion has been paid to labelling the shade trees of our
towns and cities.

Somebody has said that the effect of reading a label
on a tree previously unidentified is like an introduction to
a stranger, in that it creates an interest otherwise lacking.

Where the trees are labelled, the observer will find
visitors stopping to study the markings and showing gen-
uine interest in the information. Where there are no
labels he will note people vainly trying to establish the
identity of the trees.

The newly developed interest in shade trees, through-
out the country, carries with it an aroused demand for
definite information as to species. For a community
to make liberal expenditures for tree planting and then
stop short of labels is a mistake in policy. The cost of
planting is expressed in dollars; the added expense for
labels is a matter of cents. Since the success of the move-
ment for shade tree development is largely a question of
education, it is obvious that the more we do to make trees
popular the greater will be the public interest in their
planting and protection. Labels will play an important
and necessary part in this educational work, and may
therefore be counted as having a vital influence for the
beautification of the community.

Until quite recently practically none of the cities of

America have undertaken to label the trees in adequate

fashion. In some communities one finds an occasional

label, but too often even this has become illegible and

127

i28 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

useless through the action of the elements. In other
instances, one will find labels which confine themselves
to scientific names, quite out of reach of the everyday
citizen. It is hard to picture the school child or the casual
park visitor growing enthusiastic upon reading a label
which solemnly proclaims a tree to be "Ulmus Americana"
On the other hand, there is something definite and satis-
fying in a label showing the tree to be a good, old-fash-
ioned American Elm, of the type made immortal by the
poets and holding deathless place in the pages of American
history through association with men and events of
distinguished memory. Liquidambar styraciflua hamameli-
dacece would leave the average person unmoved and
unimpressed, but Sweet Gum is a name known to all of
us and well calculated to cause a feeling as of a handshake
with an old friend.

To give labels their true educational worth their use
should be systematic and uniform. They should include
all the trees of the community, whether in parks, on
squares or on the streets. They should be in simple form,
easily read and durable. The information given on each
label should be suited to both student and layman. To
cover these various points involves:

i. Centralized action by municipal authorities or by joint
undertaking on the part of individual property owners.

2. Labels of such material and design as will insure perma-

nent legibility.

3. Information covering the common name of each tree,

its scientific name, and the part of the world to which
it is native, as for example: "Norway Maple, {Acer
platanoides), Europe."

The National Capital has undertaken to set an exam-
ple of effective shade tree labelling. In line with sugges-
tions that the park trees of the District of Columbia

LABELLING SHADE TREES

129

should be marked for the benefit of park visitors, a plan
to achieve this end has been made operative by the
Division of Public Buildings and Grounds. The details
of the Washington system will be of suggestive help to the
authorities of other cities. Lieutenant Colonel C. 0. Sher-
rill, U. S. A.,
describes the
plan as fol-
lows:

"The label
consists of a
base so de-
signed as to be
bent approxi-
mately to fit
the particular
tree on which
it is used. On
the face of this
base is riveted
a plate upon

which will have been previously stamped the botanical and
the common names of the tree. The plate is then fastened
with screws to the trunk of the tree, sufficiently high up
to prevent it from being damaged by children, and yet
not too high to be clearly seen by persons interested in
tree nomenclature.

"A number of different methods have been tried in the
District for labelling trees, but none have ever proven
entirely successful, for the reason that some became
detached and carried away by souvenir seekers. It is
believed that the size and weight of this label, and the
printing on its face, which clearly indicates the fact that
it belongs to the Government, will deter souvenir hunters

Tree marker used in Washington, D. C.

i3o TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

from carrying these labels away. If the plate containing
the name alone should be pried loose it can be readily
replaced at very small expense. The screws used to
attach the label to the tree are placed one above the other
so that the growth of the tree will not pull them out, and
it is believed that they will not do any damage to the
tree."

Let us hope that tne example of the District of Colum-
bia will have its helpful influence on other cities through-
out the United States.

If the trees could speak it is a safe guess that they
would hail their labels as good advertising. The sight of
a fine specimen of shade tree is apt to inspire people
with the desire to possess trees of similar beauty. This is
where the advertising value of the label becomes mani-
fest. Its definite information as to species and variety
brings within public reach the added possibility of gracing
the community with trees of the type most wanted. Tree
labels are desirable from every point of view.

CHAPTER XIII.

CARING FOR SHADE TREES

THE tree planter's responsibility continues from the
time of planting until the tree dies. The young tree
must be cared for and protected with willing hand and
guided to full development. The neglected tree has little
chance. The one way in which planting may be made
successful is by meeting the tree's needs as they arise or
anticipating them. No other method can be depended upon
to produce satisfactory results.

Some of the fundamental requirements of successful
shade tree growth are moisture, nourishment, cultivation
and protection. These involve the tree's very existence.
It is a waste of time and money to undertake planting
without a determination to give close attention to these
essentials.

Watering begins at the time of planting. After this
first supply of moisture is given, the young tree should be
watered with unfailing regularity in dry climates and
occasionally in humid climates, if drouth occurs soon
after planting. This is especially important during the
first season's growth, when the tree is adjusting itself
to its new environment and is fighting to gain permanent
foothold in its strange surroundings. Water not only
supplies moisture, but also conveys into the tree, through
root absorption, the mineral elements and plant food
necessary to growth. In watering, it must be borne in
mind that the roots of a tree are more extensive, and
deeper in the ground, than those of other plants. For
this reason, more water is required to reach the entire

root system. The quantity of water needed varies with

131

132 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

species. Trees which have roots near the surface require
more water than those with roots which penetrate more
deeply, and the trees of rapid growth demand more than
those which grow slowly. As a general rule, watering
should be done every week or ten days when copious
rains are lacking. Too frequent application of water is
as bad as not watering enough, since excessive supply
causes the earth at the roots to become soggy and sour.
During the first year from ten to fifteen gallons of water
should be applied each time.

The water should be applied gradually and so
thoroughly that it will soak into the ground for at least
one and one-half feet. A gradual application is best for
the reason that it resembles Nature's methods. Heavier
application will wash the soil away from the roots near
the surface and cause the formation of a hard top crust
of earth. The water should be encouraged to filter
through the soil. This may be done by using moderately
light soil and keeping the top soil pulverized. A simple
method of applying water to a small number of trees is
to allow it to run slowly through a small opening near
the bottom of a barrel placed near the base of each tree.
Another method, which will be found simpler in watering
a large number of trees, is to make a basin of earth,
surrounding the base of each tree, and fill this with water.
In following either plan, it is desirable to smooth the
surface after the water has penetrated to prevent the
formation of a crust; and to cover the wet soil with dry,
fine soil or a mulch of leaves and straw, to conserve the
moisture by preventing evaporation.

In some cities underground irrigation is provided by
means of tile drains, supplied with water from the city
mains. This is effectual and especially useful in streets
where the paving takes up the entire surface area.

CARING FOR SHADE TREES 133

Akin to watering, and closely related to it in impor-
tance, is cultivation of the soil at the base of the tree.
The ground must be kept free from weeds and sufficiently
loose to permit air to reach the roots. Loose soil holds
moisture much better than soil which is allowed to pack
and form a solid surface. Closely packed soil causes the
moisture to rise to the surface and evaporate, while loose
soil gives the roots the full benefit of it. Lack of cultiva-
tion of the soil may be set down as one of the most frequent
causes of failure in the growing of trees. On the other
hand, careful and oft-repeated cultivation will often insure
success where the handicaps of environment are most
serious. Constant cultivation is needed during the first
summer of the young tree in its new location. To accom-
plish this, the soil should be kept well crumbled to a depth
of three or four inches, in an area extending from the base
of the tree as far as the roots reach.

The nourishment taken from the soil by root absorp-
tion may be augmented to good advantage by covering
the surface around the base of the tree in the autumn
with mulch containing well-rotted manure. In the spring
this should be turned into the soil, where it serves the
double purpose of furnishing added nourishment and
of rendering the soil more porous. Instead of the manure,
chemical fertilizer may be used, but it lacks the organic
matter contained in manure. A good mixture for most
trees in light soil is made up of equal proportions of
nitrate of soda, acid phosphate, muriate of potash and
ground bone. This should be applied in the spring
with the exception of nitrate of soda which should be
applied only when roots are active. The amount required
for the individual tree will be from 1 % to 2 ounces of
the mixture for a tree occupying a space of 8 square
feet. If the nitrate of soda is applied separately % to %

134 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

ounce per tree may be used. Nitrate of soda is a strong
plant stimulant so needs to be used in small quantities at
any one time but can be used more frequently. A year's
supply of the other ingredients may be applied at one time,
using 4 to 12 ounces of the mixture per tree. For heavier
soil the same ingredients are used but in different propor-
tions, the formula calling for two parts of nitrate of soda,
three parts of acid phosphate, one part muriate of potash
and two parts of bone meal. The quantity to be used for
each tree is the same as in the case of the lighter soil.
This fertilizer should be evenly distributed and mixed
into the soil in a thorough manner. Too liberal use of
the chemical mixture will injure the roots.

Protection from injury is essential to the young tree
on the city thoroughfare. All of us have seen boys swing-
ing on the slender stems as if the trees had been planted
as a part of a public gymnasium. We have seen trees
bent down till their tops touched the ground, by those
who find pleasure in watching the flexible stem fly back
to an upright position. We have seen trees die as a result
of these and similar abuses, because of the loosening of the
roots just at the time when it is most important that they
should be allowed to gain firm foothold. We have seen
men tie horses to the slender trees and have found the
horses nibbling at the bark, to the serious injury of the tree.
The horses are not to blame, of course, but this is no
comfort to the man whose tree is ruined in the process.

It was to prevent injuries from these and similar
causes that the tree guard was invented. The loss of
bark caused by horse bites frequently causes a wound
which affects the tree's whole future. With the growth of
the trunk the old wound accumulates thick edges, invites
decay and permits the entry of borers and the growth
of fungus diseases. The death of the tree is apt to follow,

CARING FOR SHADE TREES

135

and all because one horse was hitched to the unprotected
stem. A tree guard would have made the damage
impossible.

Guards are of various styles. Each type has its
advocates, but any guard which prevents injury from
outside sources serves its purpose. One of the most
familiar varieties is a four cornered box made of upright

Types of tree guards

strips of board, anchored to four stakes driven firmly into
the earth. This is a combined guard and support. For
the purpose of keeping the young tree in an upright posi-
tion, the stem is fastened to the top of the guard at each
corner. Galvanized wire netting is much used for guards,
and in some cities this is reinforced with sheet iron for
a couple of feet at the base, to provide protection from
dogs. Guards of iron or other metal are made in many
styles and designs. The type is relatively unimportant,
as long as it furnishes complete protection and is not
distinctly unsightly.

Contradictory though it may sound, the tree must also
be protected against the guard itself. If the flexible
young stem is permitted to sway in the wind and rub
against the edges of the guard, abrasions of the bark will

1 36 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

occur, which may prove as serious as the injury which
might have been suffered if the tree had been left unpro-
tected. This swaying must be prevented by fastening
the stem to the guard itself, or to an upright stake firmly
implanted in the ground alongside the tree. If the guard
is sufficiently strong and is well anchored in the soil,
attachment to the guard is best. If not, then attachment
to a strong stake is the best anchor. This stake should be
about nine feet in length and sunk into the ground to a
depth of at least three feet, to give it the solid footing
necessary for stout support. For fastening the tree to this
stake or to the guard, nothing better can be found than
loops of old rubber hose, which are excellently suited for
the purpose by reason of softness and flexibility. Soft
leather or rope may be used but care must be taken to
keep from binding the tree too tightly. A length of rope
or wire slipped through a rubber hose also serves the pur-
pose well, but wire should not be used unless so protected.
The stake may be either inside or outside the tree guard.
This will depend on the size of the guard, as the stake is
to be placed about ten inches from the tree. To prevent
decay the stake should be tarred or creosoted at the lower
end, with the coating covering the part which is to be
underground and extending for a few inches above the sur-
face as well. Creosote is probably better than tar because
it penetrates the wood while tar merely covers the surface.
The stems of young saplings make the best stakes as they
are likely to be stronger than sawed lumber but they are
difficult to obtain. In attaching a tree to a single stake,
the hose or other attachment should be put on in the form
of a figure 8, so that two bands of the tying material
intervene between the stake and tree and thus help to
prevent chafing. When a guard is used permitting two
attachments, each one should be put on in the form of a

CARING FOR SHADE TREES 137

letter U so as to hold the tree from possible contact with
the opposite side of the guard. The guard should be
kept around the tree for several years, until the trunk
has reached a diameter of six inches at the very least, and
in some locations it should be permanent. With the
growth of the trunk careful watch must be kept to see
that the tree does not become cramped or choked by the
guard. Neglecting to remove a guard when it has been
outgrown is certain to cause injury. In many cases,
the expansion of a trunk within an unyielding guard has
resulted in girdling the tree with a wound causing death.
It is important to keep a guard painted and repaired.
The need of repairs to this protective device is so fre-
quent as to emphasize the danger to which the tree itself
would have been exposed if there had been no such
buifer to parry the blows.

CHAPTER XIV.

PRUNING SHADE TREES

ROPER pruning is essential to success in shade tree
development. A tree may be well planted, duly cared
for and abundantly nourished, but the result may be most
unsatisfactory without judicious pruning. For insuring
development of root and branch, for producing attractive-
ness of appearance, for adapting size to environment, and
at times even for enabling the tree to live at all, pruning
is necessary. There is sometimes a distinction made
between pruning and trimming. When this is done,
pruning refers to that minimum of cutting that may be
necessary to encourage the thrifty growth of the tree and
encourage its development along natural lines while
trimming has reference to changing or restraining the
form to conform to architectural features or conditions.

The underlying principle of pruning is the establishing
of a correct relation, as to size, between top and root
system. In nature a definite balance of this relationship
is maintained. In the growing of the shade tree the
planter must assist nature in order that both upper
growth and root system shall be adapted to the area
available. The pruning of branches and leaf-buds
throws all the vigor of the tree into the remaining parts
and results in more vigorous growth for both top and
roots. In addition to this it is necessary that the tree
should be trimmed for the purpose of creating a symmet-
rical crown, graceful outline and a height of branch which
will not interfere, in street trees, with sidewalk traffic or
with wires.

The first pruning is at the time of planting. Before
the young tree is set out, both top and roots should be
138

PRUNING SHADE TREES 139

given attention. If the roots have been broken or other-
wise injured in digging or handling, the injured portions
should be removed by clean cutting with a sharp knife.
Healing and the natural growth of the root will progress
from a surface which has been cleanly cut, while decay
and death are likely to follow the ragged break or abrasion.
For the top pruning there should be removal of all
branches that can be spared. The amount to be pruned
varies with species. Oaks, for instance, require much
more cutting than do Norway Maples and Elms, but in
many cases it may be said that three-fourths of the leaf-
buds should be removed. This may seem drastic, but it
is necessary for satisfactory growth. The purpose of the
seemingly severe pruning is to reduce the amount of leaf
surface the tree must support the first year. This
decreases the amount of moisture that must be supplied
to the top by the roots, and the lessened drain enables
the root system to use this strength in becoming firmly
established in the soil. In this pruning it is not always
necessary to interfere with the shape of the crown, but
even when it does involve such sacrifice the pruning
should be done. Form can be regained after the tree has
become established, but proper growth cannot be achieved
without the preliminary pruning. New growth, to replace
the branches which have been cut off will start close to
the stem, and this serves a useful purpose through estab-
lishing a compact top. Without this pruning the tree
may not live, and even if it does survive, its crown will
be ragged and its foliage lacking in density.

In pruning at planting time, where only the end of a
branch is to be removed, the cutting should be done
immediately above a strong bud, and care should be taken
to see that the bud which remains is one which points
in the direction toward which growth of the limb is

i4o TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

wanted. For the removal of an entire branch, the cut
should be right at the remaining limb — so close that not
even a slight stub remains. The cut should be cleanly
made and should leave no ragged edge to delay healing.
Any sharp knife may be used but a pruning knife is
desirable and may be obtained at a hardware store.
Pruning shears are clumsy for this delicate work and are
apt to cause bruises on the young and tender tree. The
pruning is more easily done before the tree is placed in its
planting hole.

Sometimes it will be found that with very warm
weather immediately after planting the leaves which
develop will wither and droop. This usually indicates
that the growth of the top has been more rapid than can
be supported by the transplanted roots, and additional
pruning is needed to prevent the death of the tree. In
this secondary pruning up to three fourths of the top
may be removed, even though this reduces the tree to the
semblance of a bean-pole. It is better to take this step
than to have the tree die. After the roots have become
established, the formation of the top will take care of
itself.

After planting, the tree should have annual pruning.
Symmetrical formation of the top cannot be otherwise
secured. As the tree grows it will be found that for
graceful appearance certain branches must be held
in check, while others must be coaxed into full develop-
ment. The amount of light reaching a tree is an important
factor in developing the crown. The strongest growth of
branches is in the direction of the strongest light, and
this must have consideration in pruning for development.
It is well to remember, in planting as well as in pruning,
that such part of a tree as may be shut off from the light
can not have vigorous growth.

PRUNING SHADE TREES 141

The yearly pruning calls for the removal of all crossing
branches and all branches not so located as to aid in the
formation of a well-shaped crown. If the tree has a
tendency to form too dense a top, some of the inner
branches should be removed. As a guide to this removal
it must be borne in mind that too much shade is as bad
as not enough. The top should not be allowed to grow
to a density that will shut off light from nearby houses,
nor prevent some sunshine from reaching the ground
underneath the tree, nor should it interfere with the free
circulation of air. It is important that this pruning be
done early in the life of the tree, so that it may be accom-
plished with a knife. To wait until later, when a saw
must be used, involves larger wounds and slower process
of healing.

The total of such pruning on a normal healthy tree
will be very slight, not averaging more than a cut or two
per tree per year, most trees going for several years
without needing a cut, but nevertheless they should have
an annual inspection with sharp pruning tools in hand.
Where two branches form a sharp fork, that is, if they
almost parallel each other, one of them should be removed.
If both are allowed to grow there will be danger of split-
ting. No two branches or twigs should touch each
other. Where there is such contact one should be cut off.
If there is a tendency toward the formation of more than
one main stem, or trunk, the pruning should remove or
shorten all but the central stem in order to concentrate
the growth in this main leader. If the upper part of the
stem tends to bend downward, a short length of bamboo
or small pole of other light, strong material, tied to the
stem, will hold it in upright position. All shoots which
develop along the trunk and the lower portions of the
branches should be removed.

i42 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

Since the object of pruning is to promote vigorous
and symmetrical growth, it is well to be guided by the
principle that the aim is to produce a primary frame
toward the center, with a surrounding framework. The
primary frame will consist of one or more main branches
from the stem, while about this will be several smaller
branches grouped in a way to form a symmetrical outer
framework. The primary frame should be in harmony
with the habits of growth belonging to the particular
species. Branches which do not conform to the character-
istic shape of the species, and cannot be made to conform,
should be removed. Branches which develop too rapidly
to harmonize with the general framework may be held in
check by removal of their ends. These steps develop
the tree along lines in keeping with the natural growth of
the species. This is always desirable, since pruning is not
intended to alter the normal form of the tree. The
best pruning is that which leaves the tree most natural in
appearance, and in the long run makes it look as if it had
not been pruned at all. An exception to this general rule
is to be made, of course, in trees trimmed into formal
shape and small size for narrow, crowded streets. Trim-
ming for this type of trees should always be done by an
expert.

It is important that the trees should have a proper
height of branching above ground and that the trees
should be uniform in this respect. To achieve this it is
necessary to pursue a policy of gradual removal of the
lower branches. The removal of the lower branches
should proceed with the growth of the tree from year to
year, so that within a few years there will be 10 or
12 feet of the trunk free from branches. This height is
necessary in street trees for the freedom of traffic, and
it is also important in the matter of appearance. Trees

PRUNING SHADE TREES

i43

with low-hanging branches are far less effective than those
which show clean trunks to the proper height. The real
beauty of a tree-lined thoroughfare is lost if the branches
are so low as to shut off the vista of stately trunks and
graceful foliage.

All wood which is either dead or dying should be
removed promptly. A tree that carries a heavy burden

Proper method of pruning trees,
a. — -Tree before pruning,
b. — Distance from trunk for first cutting.
c. — Second cutting of limbs close to trunk and scars finished with mallet and chisel.

of dead limbs loses vigor of growth, and has a ragged and
irregular development. Imperfect limbs, also, should be
removed.

If a tree has not had the early advantages of pruning
during its years of development, even belated pruning
may be made to play an important part in giving it new
vigor and added beauty. Such trees are apt to have
branches which cross or interfere with one another. In
cases of this kind, removal of the branches that can best be
spared will strengthen and improve the others. On a

144

TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

mature tree the cutting should be done at a crotch, and
the wound should be parallel with the stem from which
the limb has grown. The cut should be as close as possible
to the remaining branch to promote rapid healing and a
good appearance afterward. A perceptible collar or shoul-

Improper method of pruning tree.

a. — Tree before pruning.

b. — Limb cut too close resulting in bark peeling.

c. — Unsightly wound caused by this kind of pruning.

der will usually be found around the base of a limb, and the
wound will heal most readily if the cut is made through
this collar. The fact that the close cut involves a larger
wound is less important than the lessened danger of
decay and the better appearance which come with the
absence of an unsightly stub. All cuts should be left
with smooth regular edges and surfaces, as jagged, rough
outlines or surfaces retard healing. When there has
been a clean cut, properly made, a small wound requires
no treatment other than waterproofing by painting the

PRUNING SHADE TREES 145

surface with a coat of shellac. This should be applied

with a brush to the edges of the wound, covering the bark

and at least half an inch of the wood. This should be done

as soon as the cut is dry enough to hold the shellac, and

within three or four minutes at the most after the

cutting. The shellac serves to prevent loss of moisture,

and since the cambium, or inner bark, will die if it is

allowed to dry out, the coating is an essential step.

Wounds more than half an inch in diameter require

artificial protection during the process of healing. This

protection is given by painting with shellac and following

this by coating the center of the wound with coal tar,

creosote or lead paint. The shellac forms one of the best

protecting covers for the sensitive tissue between the

bark and the wood where growth takes place, and which

is called cambium layer or cambium. It is the least

injurious to this vital but sensitive part of the tree of all

of the substances now known. As it is not permanent

when exposed to weather, especially moisture, it needs

to be coated with one of the other substances mentioned.

The shellac need not be applied to the whole wound if the

cambium is thoroughly covered, including an inch of the

adjacent wood.

If the wound is large, it' should be sterilized by applying

antiseptic after the application of the shellac. There are

several preparations of this nature, and among these one

of the best is creosote, which has a particular value in

destroying the germs of decay and preventing destruction.

The creosote is applied with a brush and should cover all

of the exposed wood not covered by the shellac. On top

of the shellac and creosote the surface should then be

covered with a thick coating of coal tar to keep out

water. This waterproof coating should be renewed from

year to year, whenever there is a tendency to crack or
10

146 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

peel. Even when no crack is apparent, recoating will do
no harm, and it may prevent trouble from causes not
visible. If shellac is not used the protective coatings
must not reach the outer edges of the wound, where they
will come into contact with the cambium as the latter is
so sensitive to the chemical action of the material used
for protection it may be killed by contact with it. It is
a good rule not to allow the weatherproof applications to
come within half an inch of the outer edges of the wound,
except to cover shellac. The protective coating is applied
with a brush, and if coal tar is used it is usually necessary
to thin it by heating. Two coats should be applied, and
these should be repeated from year to year until the
wound is healed.

In pruning it is well to start at the top of the tree and
work downward, as this not only simplifies the shaping of
the crown but also makes it easy to remove any limbs
or branches that may lodge in falling. In addition to
cutting close to the trunk or remaining limb, it is impor-
tant to make a clean wound, free from projections or
raggedness, as a rough surface will impede healing. Care
must be taken also to prevent injury to the surrounding
bark. Pruning saws are made especially for this work,
but a rather fine-toothed handsaw may be used. One
with seven teeth to the inch is good for most purposes.
Pruning saws come with teeth on one or both edges.
The two-edged ones should be avoided, as the back is
liable to do damage in close work. Pruning saws sup-
ported on a frame like a meat saw but with the blade on a
swivel are especially desirable.

Great care must be exercised to keep a limb or branch
from splitting and breaking the surrounding bark. In
removing limbs of moderate size this is best accomplished
by sawing underneath first and finishing from above. In

PRUNING SHADE TREES 147

cutting off larger limbs, the first sawing should be from
the under side, at a distance of 10 or 12 inches from
the base of the limb. This cut should extend about half-
way through or until the saw pinches too badly. This
should be followed by a cut from the upper side, a few
inches farther out. The under cut prevents the split,
which is bound to occur when the limb falls, from running
back to the base of the limb and tearing the bark at the
juncture with the parent stem. After the limb has been
removed in this way, the stub may be sawed off at the
trunk or parent stem without danger of splitting. In
the case of a very large limb, the part to be removed should
be supported frcm above by the use of ropes to prevent
it from falling and doing damage to branches beneath.

Pruning may be done at almost any season, except
when the sap is running in the spring. To prune in the
spring will result in "bleeding," or loss of sap. This is
never fatal and it is questionable if it is often seriously
injurious, except to the nerves of sympathetic observers.
The most rapid healing will probably take place following
late spring or early summer pruning, when the tree is in
full growth. The slowest healing probably takes place
following August cuts. Fall or winter are favorable
seasons because of the absence of foliage, which gives a
perfect view of the inner branches of the tree's framework,
and because, being a relatively leisure time, the work might
be more thoroughly and carefully done.

The tools required for pruning increase in number with
the growth of the tree. For the first pruning a sharp
knife is the one tool necessary, and is best whenever it can
be used. In subsequent work a pair of pruning shears will
be found useful. Many of these shears have a single blade
which works against a shoulder applied to the branch.
The pressure of the shoulder to the branch should always

148 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

be upon that part of the branch which is to be removed; if
applied to the part which is to remain, bruising and injury
will result. Some shears cut with a sliding motion of the
blade, resembling the motion of a knife, instead of with
the crushing movement of ordinary shears. The purpose
of this arrangement is to prevent injury to bark or
surface.

A pole pruner is useful as the tree gains height. This is
mounted at the end of a pole 10 or 12 feet in length,
or longer as needed. The cutting is done by operating
the knife by means of a rope, while the workman stands
on the ground. A spring serves to bring the blade back
into position after a cut has been made, so that the blade
is ready for another cut. This implement is useful for
removing small branches and shoots. Of a similar nature
is the useful pruning hook, mounted near the end of a pole.
The curved cutting edge is on the under side of the hook,
and the implement is used by pulling this blade downward
over the branch or twig to be severed. At the end of the
pole is a chisel, to be used with upward stroke and pres-
sure. This chisel is convex, to prevent slipping. A
pruning saw on the edge of a pole is also useful. Great
care must be exercised in the use of the pole instruments
to avoid letting them strike limbs or trunk, as serious
wounds may result from such blows.

For the removal of large limbs a pruning saw must be
used. Saws for this purpose have spreading teeth, to make
a wide cut. The ordinary saw makes a narrow groove,
and lets the green wood bind the blade to an extent which
makes sawing difficult. An ax should not be used for
pruning.

CHAPTER XV.

INJURIES TO SHADE TREES

THOUGH a shade tree may have a thousand enemies
and but one friend, its chance of life is good if that
friend holds a determination to give proper care to injuries
which the tree may sustain.

The sources of injury to the street tree are many and
persistent. City traffic aims countless blows at the trunk;
overhead wires, snow, hail, sleet and windstorms are a
constant menace to the branches and foliage; underground
construction of pipes and conduits constantly threatens
the roots; and, as if these were not enough, carelessness
endangers growth in many ways that can not be enumer-
ated. Wounds and injuries come from these various
sources. These may be overcome only by careful attention.

Even a slight injury may develop into serious results
unless properly treated. For this reason, no wound should
be neglected. Every injury which extends beyond the
outer bark makes a place where insects, parasitic diseases,
or wood decay or all may enter. Every broken limb or
branch offers opportunity for attack. To prevent trouble
prompt action is demanded. Here, if anywhere, is the
need to apply the remedy before the trouble spreads, as
it is not only the cheapest but also the only safe way. The
neglected wound invites decay, which may easily prove
to be fatal.

Traffic injuries take many forms. When a street
tree has outgrown the guard of its youth and this pro-
tection has been removed, damage is possible. Horse
bites are frequent sources of trouble, while other traffic
dangers come from runaway horses or unruly automobiles

149

ISO TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

colliding with unprotected trees, from draymen backing
their trucks against them sharply, while porters or labor-
ers scrape branches or trunk with merchandise in loading
or unloading. Such carelessness will largely be curbed if
it is known that an alert official is watching the trees, and
that punishment will be meted out for damage done.

The top of a tree may sustain either direct or indirect
injury from overhead wires. Linemen should not be
allowed to cut limbs for the stringing of wires, nor should
they be permitted to attach wires to any part of a tree.
In most cases it will be found that the apparent necessity
for either of these things can be averted by careful con-
sideration of other ways and means for the placing of
the wires. Even when this is done, it is sometimes neces-
sary that wires pass through a tree-top, and in such cases,
close watchfulness is required, and if trimming is essential,
it should be done by the city employees, not by the
linemen. A swaying wire may cause serious abrasion,
with possible death for the part affected, especially after
insulation is worn from electric light or power wires.
Linemen should never be permitted to wear spurs in
climbing trees, as the sharp points make serious wounds
in bark and wood through which disease and decay could
enter. Broken limbs and split or torn bark are sequels
to severe storms or heavy snowfall, and many trees have
been lost as a result of neglect to care for the wounds. In
most cases the loss was needless. Even when badly mu-
tilated, trees may be saved for long careers of usefulness
and beauty if given prompt and intelligent attention.

Injury to the roots occurs in the installation of sewers
and conduits, the laying of gas and water pipes, the plac-
ing of paving in street or on sidewalk, the changing of
grade, and similar types of construction. Work on these
improvements is almost certain to cause the cutting or

INJURIES TO SHADE TREES 151

mutilation of roots. Such injuries require immediate
attention. The injured parts must be removed or freed
from ragged edges to facilitate the process of healing, and
in extreme cases by a corresponding trimming of the top,
to reduce the foliage demands to correspond with the
lessened power of the root system. In planning construc-
tion work which threatens damage to the roots of trees,
the harm may frequently be averted by suiting the plan
of work to the existence of trees. Contractors should not
be allowed to excavate near a tree, for any purpose, with-
out the approval of the civic authorities. If the commun-
ity has a shade tree department, the entire work should
be under the supervision and control of that branch of
the local government. Through consultation and cooper-
ation— and through compulsion, if need be — much damage
can be prevented. In underground construction, and even
in widening a street or changing a grade, it is often possible
to modify plans in a way to save trees which would have
been sacrificed if there had been no municipal control.

Underground damage does not always start below the
surface, but it may come from above, as in the case of
salt water from ice-cream freezers emptied near the base
of the tree or calcium chloride or sodium chloride (common
salt) applied to the surface of roads and walks to keep
down dust. These substances are very injurious to the
roots of trees and other plants, as is also water in which
much of either is dissolved. Road oils also have to be
handled carefully in the neighborhood of trees to prevent
injury to the roots. Salt should never be used for melting
ice or snow on a sidewalk near trees, as the brine thus
formed will injure any roots that it reaches. Precaution is
necessary in connection with drainage from mortar beds
placed near trees. Water saturated with lime must not be
permitted to reach nearby root systems, as the lime will
cause serious injury.

1 52 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

Gas leaks are a frequent source of underground damage.
Prevention of trouble from this source and treatment
for the overcoming of injuries are detailed in Chapter xvn.

Much of the damage to shade trees is purely man-
made, ranging from the wounds caused by careless use of
the pruning-hook to those incidental to building construc-
tion. In the erection of a new building a tree is liable to
various forms of mistreatment — all of them injurious and
preventable, as using a tree as part of a scaffold or allow-
ing guy wires or ropes to be fastened to its trunk, piling
of stone, bricks or other building material against it or
striking with the hubs, double-trees or fenders of delivery
vehicles. If, under the stress of extreme and unusual con-
ditions, it should be necessary to permit the use of a tree
as a substitute for the support of a guy wire, ample protec-
tion should be provided in the form of substantial strips
of wood, placed vertically and in such way as to keep the
cutting force from reaching the bark. To use a padding
of burlap or other textile fabric, as is sometimes done,
fails to furnish adequate protection, as the strain pene-
trates this soft material and often causes serious damage.
If the piling of stone, bricks, sand, lumber or other build-
ing material is a necessity due to limited space or other
unavoidable causes, the tree must be protected by strong
wooden guards to prevent cutting or bruising the trunk.

All of these injuries can be avoided. When the damage
has been done the important step is at once to repair the
injury and apply the means of healing. Prompt action
simplifies the healing process and improves the tree's
chance for complete recovery. When bark is torn or
broken, all ragged or loose bark should be trimmed with a
sharp knife or a gouge, and the wound should be given
protective treatment at once by painting the exposed wood

INJURIES TO SHADE TREES

153

with coal tar, creosote or lead paint as directed under
pruning. (See page 145) Ragged edges of the bark should
be pared cleanly with a sharp knife, before treatment, as
smooth edges heal much better than those which are
uneven. If the wood has been injured, the damaged part
should be cleaned out with a knife or gouge before the
treatment is applied. Bark which
is merely bruised, but not torn or
broken, requires no treatment.

In paring the bark around the
edges of a wound, special care must
be taken with the lower edge, as it
is particularly important that this
part should be smooth in outline
and should have no tongues pro-
jecting upwards. The bottom of
the opening should be rounded
downward, or better, pointed, and
its center should be its lowest part.
This is necessary in order that it
may more easily receive nourish-
ment from the down-flowing sap. The flow of sap is in two
directions. Moisture taken from the soil by the roots
carries its contribution of mineral salts upward, mainly
through the sapwood to the leaves, and returns towards
the earth, mainly through the inner bark, after having
been changed in the leaves by the addition of carbon
products, taken from the air under the influence of sun-
light. On its downward journey, this altered sap con-
veys and distributes materials essential to growth that
were prepared in the leaves. The sap travels most
readily in straight lines, and because of this tendency the
sides and upper edge of a wound fare best in the matter

Proper healing of wound in a tree.

154 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

of receiving nourishment, while the lower edge is out of the
direct channel and is less generously supplied. Thus it is
obvious that a tongue of bark, projecting above the lower
edge of a wound or bark below a broad wound, cannot
receive its share of sap, and must therefore languish and
die. Even on the upper edge a projection is undesirable,
but it has better chance than a similar tongue on the
lower edge. From this it is clear that the wound should
have its edges so trimmed as to make as little top and
bottom as possible. In other words, the wound which
has its longest dimension parallel with the limb and the
shortest dimension across it, is the one which will heal
most rapidly. These factors should be borne in mind in
trimming the edges.

In connection with injuries to the bark it must be
remembered that bark which has been seriously damaged,
or which has been torn loose from the trunk, can never
be made to resume its growth. Efforts are sometimes
made to induce growth by fastening the bark to the tree
with nails or otherwise. This not only does no good, but
works still further damage by making an attractive rendez-
vous for insects and decay. The only thing to do in a case
of this kind is to cut away the loose and injured bark and
apply protective coverings.

Freezing sometimes does more or less serious harm to
trees which have been transplanted from warm climates
into regions of severe cold. Cracks or splits in the bark
and wood, caused by alternate freezing and thawing,
invite disease and decay. The wounds should be treated
as soon as they become apparent, which is usually during
the summer, when the bark splits away from the wood.
Injured parts should be cut away and the surface given
a protective coating. Wrapping the trunk of a tree with
burlap or straw, before cold weather, will prevent frost

INJURIES TO SHADE TREES 155

damage, not by keeping the tree warm as many suppose,
but by protecting it from the sun's rays during the day, thus
preventing so much variation in temperature between day
and night. This is especially helpful when the day tem-
perature in the sun is well above freezing and the night
temperature several degrees below. Shading the south
side of a trunk is often sufficient to protect against frost
cracks or sun scald.

In old trees it frequently happens that the bark near
the base comes loose from the trunk, preventing a proper
flow of sap downward and forming a hiding place for
insects which endanger the life of the tree. Loosened
bark may be detected by tapping with a metal object.
If the taps produce a hollow sound, easily recognizable
when contrasted with the sound of taps on a healthy tree,
the loosened bark must be removed and the wound treated
with some protective material as already discussed.

For the repair of all injuries, and even for the chance
to live, the street shade tree needs and merits a friend.
In a town or city where there is a shade tree department,
the friendly offices of healing and repair are best exercised
by the constituted authorities. Where there is no such
department, the tree must look to its next of human kin —
the property owner or nature lover who transplanted it
into its strange environment and who profits most by its
existence and development. For him to withhold the
needed help is to nullify the effort of planting. Such
neglect is short-sighted and inexcusable.

CHAPTER XVI.

REPAIR OF SHADE TREES

TREE repair is comparable with both surgery and
dentistry. For the amputation of limbs the use of
the surgical knife is required; for mending splits in trunks
or frame, the treatment is akin to the application of the
surgeon's brace; and for the prevention of further damage,
due to decay, the human parallel is found in the filling of
a tooth.

In minor operations no particular technical skill or
experience is necessary, but in the more elaborate repairs
the work should be done whenever possible by one who
has high technical skill, knowledge and experience.

Just here let emphasis be placed on the importance of
selecting the right man for intricate operations. None of
us would entrust our families to the care of the casual
stranger, who might happen along and represent himself
as combined surgeon, dentist and mender of clocks and
shoes. For the curing of human ills and the repair of
broken bones we seek the best skill obtainable. Similar
care should be exercised in the matter of helping badly
damaged trees.

This warning is founded on the widespread disaster
resulting from the work of irresponsible, unscrupulous, or
unreliable persons calling themselves tree surgeons. These
are so numerous and their methods so damaging, that every
tree owner or custodian should be on the alert to prevent
his trees from falling into the hands of such "tree
butchers." The employment of a man who cannot show
proper credentials or references, or whose skill is not
known is equivalent to paying out money for the destruc-

iS6

REPAIR OF SHADE TREES

157

tion of a tree. Felling the tree with an ax would be
cheaper and no less certain.

The menace of the incompetent tree surgeon has been
recognized by Connecticut and other states in the passage
of laws designed to
protect the public
against his destruc-
tive methods. One
such law requires
that no person may
practice tree surgery
or repair without a
license, and that this
license shall not be
granted until the
applicant has proved
himself qualified for
the work. If trees
are worth having,

Proper and improper tree surgery.

they are worth pro-
tecting from the rav-
ages of the quack, and
experience shows
that this requires
strict legal regula-
tion, with severe
penalties for the vio-
lator. This sort of legislation seems as necessary for safe-
guarding the welfare of trees as for the protection of
human life and limb.

The simplest surgical operation is the removal of dead
or dying branches or decaying stubs, followed by anti-
septic treatment and the application of a water-proof
covering as protection against moisture and decay.

iS8

TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

In removing a decayed or diseased branch, all the
affected portion should be taken. The cut should be
through sound wood, at a point back of the trouble, unless
the decay extends into the trunk, when it will be necessary
to dig out all the decay and treat it as a cavity. Care
must be taken to make the removal of a branch in such

way as will cause no injury
to the surrounding parts, as
discussed under pruning,
and then treat the wound as
advised for the treatment
of large wounds in the same
chapter. The treatments of
other mechanical injuries
that may be helped by prun-
ing are discussed in the
chapter on injuries.

The splitting of crotches
must be braced to prevent
additional splitting and to
permit healing. If the split
is an old one, the first step is to remove all decayed or
diseased wood from the wound, apply an antiseptic wash
and water-proof the surface by means of an application of
coal tar. Where there is neither decay nor disease, the
antiseptic washing will be all that is necessary in this
preliminary treatment. The next step is to brace the
split part. In the case of a divided trunk, a single bolt,
just above the crotch, will suffice if the split is small; while
for a larger one, it will be found necessary to use one bolt
at the height of the crotch itself, and a second a foot or
more higher, regulating the location of the upper bolt by
the size of the two stems, and their position in relation to
each other.

How to attach eyebolt and stranded wire.

REPAIR OF SHADE TREES 159

For applying the bolt, bore a hole through the center
of the trunk, using a bit a half inch or larger in size. The
larger the tree the larger the bolt required. At each end
of the hole affix an iron washer about three times the diam-
eter of the hole. These washers are affixed by cutting
away some of the outer bark and wood and sinking them
into the depres-
sions thus made
at right angles
to the bolt.
Into the hole

. . Method of attaching eyebolt and stranded wire.

insert a bolt

which fits snugly, and of a length which will cause it to
project from a quarter to half an inch at each side. When
the bolt is in place, a nut should be placed on each end
and these should be screwed up until they are tightly
against the washers. Before the bolt is inserted, tar or
creosote, preceded by shellac on cambium layer, should
be applied to all exposed places, including those cut for
the accommodation of the washers. The hole itself should
also be tarred or creosoted. To complete the work, the
exposed parts of the bolt and nuts should be water-proofed.

Two limbs sometimes split apart where they divide, as
a result of the force of wind-pressure. To check a split of
this nature as soon as possible is important. The process
is called guying. In this work the split is bolted in a man-
ner similar to that used for bracing split trunks.

For guying close to a crotch — within 18 to 24 inches —
a single bolt extending through both limbs may be used.
In applying a brace further from a crotch, flexibility for
the swaying of the limbs in the wind may be obtained by
using a chain or cable attached to bolts instead of a single
bolt. In this method a bolt is put through each limb
with a ring or hook on its inner end, and to these there

i6o

TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

is attached a wire chain or cable of proper length to
connect the two bolts firmly and to hold the limbs tightly
in their relation to each other. By screwing up the nuts
the connection may be tightened slightly, either at the
time of insertion or in case of future need. Instead of
the wire chain or cable connection, a turnbuckle center

may be used, as giving more
freedom in tightening or
loosening the strain on the
bolts, but this is practicable
only when the limbs are
quite close together.

In guying limbs, as in
bracing trunks, it must be
remembered that a coating
of tar or creosote should be
given the hole and edges of
the bark where cut.

If more than two limbs
are involved in a split, they
may be guyed in combina-
tion.

It is of the utmost impor-
tance that guying should
never be done by means of an encircling wire or other
girdle about tree or limbs. With growth of the tree the
girdle will cut into the bark, interfere with the proper flow
of sap and in time shut it off entirely and thus cause the
death of the part above the girdle. To wrap a wire around
a tree for any purpose is almost certain to cause death.

When the loss of bark almost or entirely encircles a
tree, a process known as bridge grafting may reunite the
upper and lower edges of the remaining bark, and thus
sometimes reestablish the flow of sap. The grafting is

Improper method of chaining a tree. Dot-
ted line shows more effective method, b. bolt
c. chain.

REPAIR OF SHADE TREES 161

done in spring, by the use of dormant shoots or twigs of
the previous year's growth somewhat longer than the bare
place, affixed perpendicularly under the freshly trimmed
edges of the bark to bridge the wound. The ends of the
twigs are trimmed wedge shape, and these sharp ends are
inserted between bark and wood, beneath slits in the bark
above and below the wound. When properly placed, they
form a bridge through which the sap may flow. To hold
the bridge in place, a cloth bandage should be tied around
each edge of the bark. To prevent drying, the ends of the
bridging twigs should be coated with melted grafting wax.
This wax may be made of four parts of resin, two parts of
beeswax and one part of tallow, melted together and
worked with greased hands, in cold water, until it becomes
grainy. Success with bridge grafting depends upon close
contact of fresh cambium layers of scion and stock at both
ends, with immediate protection from further evapora-
tion by thorough and careful waxing.

Cavities offer serious problems in the life of a tree and
require careful treatment. Minor cavities may be cared
for by the layman, without previous experience, if simple
rules are closely followed, but in the case of a large one it is
unwise for the work to be undertaken by any but the
technically trained expert.

One of the commonest causes of decayed cavities is
the protruding stub left from careless pruning. Unless
the limb has been cut without leaving a stub, rot will start
which, sooner or later, will spread its decay into the trunk.
Similar results come from neglected surface wounds. In
the course of time troubles thus started imperil the life
of the tree.

In the treatment of cavities it is most important that

no trace of dead or diseased wood be allowed to remain.

The basic principle is to make sure that all decay is
ii

1 62

TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

removed. To leave decayed or diseased tissue will spoil
the whole job.

Repair begins by digging out the diseased or decayed
wood. For this purpose the operator should be equipped
with a knife, gouge, chisels and mallet. He should not be
alarmed at the growth of the cavity brought about by his

How a cavity is caused and how to treat it.

a. — Stub left after pruning.

b. — Decay starting in stub.

c. — Decay well advanced.

d. — Cavity formed in trunk.

e. — Section of trunk showing cavity.

f . — Cavity cleaned out and ready for closing.

digging, for it is necessary to remove the affected tissue,
no matter how large the resulting hole may become. To
make sure that the last trace of decay or disease is taken
out, the digging should extend into healthy wood. On
the outside, the rolls of bark which have grown up at the
edges of the cavity should be pared off to a point even with
the natural shape of the trunk.

When the cavity has been cleaned, exposing a smooth
surface of sound wood at all points, the cambium and
adjacent parts should be painted with shellac; then the
walls should be sterilized with copper sulphate or creosote
applied with a brush. This should be followed by at least

REPAIR OF SHADE TREES 163

two coats of coal tar over the shellac and creosote. If the
cavity is shallow and so shaped that it will drain water,
this treatment is all that will be necessary. It must be
borne in mind that water is the great enemy of wood, and
if the cavity is such as to permit the accumulation of
moisture, an opening should be made at the bottom to
allow any water to run out freely.

A small cavity may be filled with cement mixed with
sand, in the proportion of two parts of sand to one part of
cement, and with enough water to make it plastic, or with
tar and sawdust. To hold this filling, the inner walls of the
cavity should be shaped in a way that will serve to anchor
the cement by giving it a foothold, just as a dentist cuts
grooves and angles into the walls of a tooth to hold a fill-
ing. If the opening is smaller than the interior of the
cavity, no particular anchorage is necessary, as the shape
of the cavity will hold the filling in place, but with a
cavity in which the opening is the largest part, a means of
holding the filling must be provided. One useful form of
anchor is made by cutting a deep groove in the wood
immediately inside the opening and encircling the edges.
This groove grips the cement and serves to hold it firmly
after the hardening process has taken place. If more
anchorage is necessary, it may be provided by means of
flat-headed wire nails or staples, half-way driven into the
walls, the projecting heads furnishing a grip for the
cement.

In placing the cement use a trowel and a tamping
stick. The stick should be an inch or two in thickness and
two or three feet in length, or of such length as may be
best used in the cavity. After a two or three inch layer of
cement has been placed at the bottom of the cavity, the
material should be spread with the trowel and then com-
pacted by use of the tamping stick. This process should

i64 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

be repeated in two or three inch layers until the filling is
complete, and the tamping should always be directed
toward the back of the cavity rather than toward the
bottom. The filling should stop at a point even with the
surface of the wood. To allow the cement to project
outside the wood, so that it is flush with the outer surface
of the bark, will delay the purpose for which the operation
was performed, as such projection will prevent new tissue
from covering the opening without first lifting the edge of
the old bark and growing up over the cement. If the filling
is flush with the surface of the wood and the cambium has
not been injured, a healing callous will promptly grow over
the edges, and if the wound is small this new growth may
eventually cover the entire surface. In overlapping the
edges of the cement, this new tissue completely seals the
cavity and usually keeps out moisture in small cavities.

After the cement has dried, its surface should be coated
with coal tar, to prevent unnecessary absorption of water.

Often creosoted wood blocks, sawdust and tar are used
instead of cement and have some advantages, especially
less weight, without marked disadvantages.

If the cavity is long and deep, leaving little more than
a shell of a trunk, the tree should be removed unless there
is some very special reason for trying to prolong its life.
If it is determined to fill the cavity, the tree should be
braced and guyed and then the cavity should be reinforced
by means of one or more bolts. A cavity less than two
feet long usually requires no such reinforcement, but in
those of greater length a bolt every two feet is desirable.
The bolting is done in fashion similar to the process of
bolting split crotches. The bolt should be half an inch
thick, or even larger for trunks of considerable size, and
must fit snugly into the hole bored for its reception.
It should be placed where the nature of the cavity indi-

REPAIR OF SHADE TREES 165

cates the greatest need. The bolting should be done, of
course, before the cavity is filled.

In considering cavities and their treatment, it is impor-
tant to remember that large cavities offer serious problems
and give chances for complications, and that for this
reason it is generally best to leave them unfilled or open
but if it seems best to have them filled, it will be wise to
place the work in the hands of an expert rather than to try
to repair them without the special knowledge and experi-
ence which are so essential.

CHAPTER XVII.

DAMAGE TO TREES BY GASES.

LLUMINATING gas is a frequent menace to the
street shade tree. Leaky gas-mains or service pipes are
common in town and city streets. The leak may come
from defective construction of the pipe-line or it may
result from the jars and jolts of traffic. The one thing of
real value is a policy of constant watchfulness to detect
trouble at the start, followed by immediate steps to
prevent its further progress and to overcome the damage
already done.

This watchfulness must be exercised wherever a tree is
neighbor to a gas pipe. That it should be an immediate
neighbor in order for trouble to arise is not necessary, for
the damage may spread for a hundred feet or more from
the source of the leak. Frequently it is found that all
trees and other vegetation within this distance are affected
by the poisonous gas. The greatest injury is usually in the
section nearest the leak, of course, but serious harm may
be done at any point within the area through which the
escaping gas penetrates.

The extent of the damage and the rapidity of the
spread of the gas depends on the size of the leak and the
character of the soil. When a pipe becomes broken and
permits the sudden flow of a considerable volume of gas, a
number of trees in the general neighborhood may be killed
within forty-eight hours. If the leak is small, such as
may be caused by the imperfect joining of pipes, or by the
separation of a joint, the spread is much less extensive and
the progress comparatively slow. Sandy soil permits the
gas to travel more rapidly and to extend through a greater
area than does clay.

166

DAMAGE TO TREES BY GASES 167

The presence of a sudden leak of large volume, result-
ing from a break in a main, will usually show itself through
changes in the appearance of all vegetation within a nearby
circle. When the tree is in leaf, a flowing leak of this nature
may generally be located by noting where the damage is
greatest, for it will be found that the leak is near the center
of the area affected, and nearest the particular tree which
appears to suffer most seriously. The exact location may
then be determined by the sense of smell.

When the trees are in foliage, gas poisoning which
results from a sudden flow of gas makes itself immediately
visible by the action of the gas on the leaves. As a result
of the poison the leaves turn yellow, wilt, and finally fall.
Later, the bark is apt to drop off in small patches, while
dark blue stains may be found in the inner bark and in the
roots. In the case of a smaller and more gradual leak the
leaves turn yellow and droop, foliage is gradually thinned
by the falling of some of the leaves, and a general
appearance of unhealthiness and loss of vigor shows itself
in the entire tree.

While the signs mentioned may result from other
causes, and do not always indicate gas poisoning, their
appearance makes it important that an immediate investi-
gation should be made for the location of a possible leak.
The surest proof of the presence of gas is its odor, which is
so pervasive that it cannot be overlooked and is not likely
to be confused with any other scent. When there is the
slightest suggestion of this odor, steps should be taken at
once to locate its origin. Even if the sense of smell does
not detect gas when the symptoms of trouble appear, a
careful search should quickly be made for the purpose of
determining whether or not gas is to blame. In this search,
one or more holes should be made in the ground with a
crow-bar, to a depth of three feet or more. When the

168 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

crow-bar is withdrawn, the gas, if present, may usually be
detected by applying the nostrils close to the hole; or, even
more effectively, by inserting a length of pipe into the
hole and drawing up the gases from the subsoil by inhaling.
A lighted match should never be used in seeking a leak,
because of the danger of causing an explosion.

When gas is discovered, the possibility of saving the
tree depends entirely upon the extent of the damage
already done and the degree of promptness with which the
remedy is applied. If the injury has not progressed very
far, and immediate action is taken to remove the poison,
complete restoration is possible.

One of the first steps, of course, is to see that the leak
is repaired and further damage prevented. Prompt report
to the gas company will usually result in immediate
attention to the matter of repairs, for shade tree destruc-
tion by illuminating gas is recognized by the courts as
constituting cause of action against a gas company.
Many decisions may be found holding companies respon-
sible for the death of trees and enforcing the payment of
cash damages to the owners. The penalties thus exacted
are useful in influencing a gas company to take every care
to prevent leaks, but penalties do not restore trees and
money cannot compensate for their loss. Frequently it
will be found that the company, mindful of court decisions
in awarding damages in similar cases, will cause its men to
render first aid to the soil as well, with a view to preventing
the death of trees in the immediate vicinity. This first
aid is doing everything possible to free the soil of the gas
which has accumulated.

The elimination of gas from the soil is not an easy
matter and sometimes it is impossible to bring the soil
back to a state of freedom from taint, but usually it will
be found that a healthy condition may be restored. One

DAMAGE TO TREES BY GASES 169

of the best means of accomplishing this is to dig a trench
6 or 8 feet from the tree and as deep as the lowest
part of the gas main from which the gas has escaped. If
the gas has penetrated the soil on all sides, this trench
should completely encircle the tree. Otherwise it will be
necessary for it to be only on that side from which the
flow of gas has come. This trench must be open suffi-
ciently long to give the gas abundant time to escape. Ordi-
narily 30 days should be allowed for this.

When the gas has been given time to escape, the trench
may be refilled with the soil if it has been thoroughly
refreshed. It is safer, however, to provide entirely new
earth, fortified by the addition of well-rotted compost in
quantity equal to one-fifth of the bulk of the soil.

If these steps do not restore health, the tree should be
removed. It is wise, however, to wait until an entire
summer has passed before removal. In case removal
proves necessary care should be taken to make sure that
the gas is entirely eliminated from the soil, or fresh soil
should be provided before planting a new tree.

Atmospheric influences are also a source of serious
harm to shade trees. Gases and vapors in the air often
seriously damage and sometimes cause the death of trees.
This menace is especially prevalent in manufacturing
communities, in which stacks and chimneys discharge
their gas-laden fumes and smoke.

A very common offender is the smoke from soft coal,
because of the large percentage of sulphur. The sulphuric
acid resulting from combustion attacks vegetation.
Smoke also causes trouble from soot, which is deposited
on the leaves, obstructing light and clogging the breathing
pores to an extent which sometimes results in asphyxia-
tion. Heavy discharge of smoke also deposits soot parti-
cles on the ground, impregnating the soil with smoke acids

170 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

and reducing fertility. Trees near factories and railroad
roundhouses are particularly liable to damage from soft
coal fumes. The evil effects of soft coal smoke are not
severe in the neighborhood of small manufacturing con-
cerns of the ordinary type, where the chimneys are carried
well above the foliage. Also in humid regions the dust is
washed from the foliage at rather frequent intervals.
Nevertheless, coniferous evergreens and other especially
susceptible trees do not thrive where soft coal is much
used. The use of sulphur for bleaching purposes in an
industrial plant releases gases harmful to vegetation.
Injury is also sometimes caused by the fumes or other
careless discharge of industrial wastes where naphtha,
ammonia, carbolic acid, creosote oil and coal-tar or its
products, or petroleum products are used.

When damaged by atmospheric gases, young leaves
first show discoloration and then slowly droop and die.
The twigs show reduced rates of growth, and gradually
this reduction becomes apparent throughout the entire
tree. These symptoms are followed by the death of the
twigs and sooner or later by the death of branches and
trunk as well.

Trees vary in their ability to resist injury from gases.
It might be supposed that the slow-growing trees of sturdy
nature would be less susceptible to this form of damage
than those of rapid growth and short life. The reverse,
however, has been found true. Among the trees which
suffer most are the Oaks, the Elms, the hard Maples and
the Lindens. At the other end of the scale, with the great-
est powers of resistance, are such trees as the Poplars, the
Box Elder, the Silver Maple and the Ailanthus, which will
survive gas attacks where other trees would succumb. In
England, the Elder has been found to be the tree which
most successfully resists injury of this nature. It is obvi-

DAMAGE TO TREES BY GASES 171

ous that where coal smoke and other harmful gases are
present, tree planting should be confined to the varieties
which are least damaged by the gases.

Trees in the vicinity of cement plants suffer from the
deposit of cement dust on the foliage. Dampness may
cause the dust to "set" or harden, which results in damage,
although rain is apt to wash it off. The gases from open-
air furnaces, used for melting tar and asphalt, and from
steam rollers sometimes do serious harm.

There is no remedy for trees affected by atmospheric
gases. Removal of the cause is the only way to put a stop
to the trouble. The construction of tall smoke stacks
helps to overcome the danger.

Trees weakened from the effect of gases, as from other
causes, are more subject to insect and disease attacks than
are healthy trees.

CHAPTER XVIII.

TREE DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT

IT is not possible that every tree planter should possess
the technical knowledge required for the precise diag-
nosis of every tree ailment, for this is to be gained only by
special technical training and practice. The individual,
however, may at least familiarize himself with some of
the fundamentals. An effort is here made to furnish help
along this line.

Fungus growths on plants are of two kinds. One type
— known as the parasite — lives upon wood bark, leaves or
other live parts and takes its nourishment at the expense
of the tree's vitality. In thus feeding it robs the tree of
its strength and vigor and brings about serious damage.
The other type — known as the saprophyte — lives upon
dead plant material. With this distinction in mind it will
be clear that, with respect to fungous diseases, the par-
asite is cause and the saprophyte effect.

Fungi attack all parts of the tree, from roots to foliage,
flowers and fruit. The results are of varying character and
manifest themselves in various ways. Frequently, the
location of the chief damage is altogether remote from the
point of attack, since a disease of the roots will often
manifest itself through dying leaves and branches at the
top of the tree. The most common form of damage, how-
ever, is localized and brings about the death of individual
leaves or branches or causes decayed cavities which prove
fatal if allowed to progress.

A fungus starts from spores, or tiny organic dust-like

particles, corresponding to seeds in purpose, which are
172

APHEDS OR PLANT LICE

Painted maple aphid

Drepanosiphum acerifolii Thos.

1 Infested leaves of silver maple

2 Adult winged specimen enlarged

3 Nearly full grown nymph enlarged

4 lounger nymph enlarged

Chaitophorus ? aceris Linn.

5 Infested leaves of Norway maple
6 Wingless female enlarged

7 Larva

8 Pupae

9 Adult

10 Infested beech leaf

ii Nymph enlarged

Two-spotted lady beetle
Adalia bipunctata Linn.

Woolly beech leaf aphid

Phyllaphis fagi Linn.

Elm leaf aphid

Callipterus ulmifolii Mon.

12 Infested elm leaf

13 Nymph enlarged

14 Winged female enlarged

Transverse poplar stem gall

Pemphigus populi-transversus Riley

15 Galls

16 Section of one showing plant lice within

Periodical cicada
Tibicen septendecim Linn.

17 Side view of adult

18 Twig showing oviposition scars

L. H. Joutel. 1905

APHIOS OR PLANT LICE

TREE DISEASES AND TREATMENT 173

widely scattered by the wind from a fungus already fully
developed. These spores, lodging in wounds in bark,
wood or twigs, or on leaves, send out rootlike threads and
establish themselves in the tissue adjoining the wound,
for their life work of feeding on the tissues and food manu-
factured by the green leaves of the plant. The roots, or
threadlike filaments force their way into the bark, stem
or leaf in all directions and form a mass of meshed fibres
known to science as the mycelium. It is to this fibrous
mass that the damage is due, as it absorbs the life-giving
food which is needed by the tree itself. When the mycel-
ium has become firmly imbedded in the tissue adapted to
it, it extends to the outer surface, through the original or
another wound in the bark, and shows itself in the form of
the familiar bracket, or perhaps in the form of a toadstool,
a puffball (powdery-looking coating of almost any color).
These are the fruiting bodies, which often produce millions
of spores for creating new generations of fungus growth,
and when mature, they release these dust-like spores to be
scattered on the breezes and begin again their work of
destruction in wounds on other plants.

In the treatment of fungi it must be remembered that
the fibrous mass within the plant is the cause, and the
outside substance, or fruiting body, is the effect. Remedy
calls for the removal or prevention of the cause. To
remove the fruiting body does only temporary good, as
another will quickly grow in its place. The only remedy
is to cut out the entire mycelium. Where this is possible,
and it is thoroughly done, the trouble will not come back.
In applying this treatment, care must be taken to make
the removal complete and to dress and protect the wound
thoroughly, as outlined in the chapters on repairs and the
treatment of injuries.

174 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

The fungous growths which are most conspicuous are
those seen in the form of shelves or brackets on the trunks
and limbs of trees. These outward signs of attack do not
show themselves until the growths have taken deep root
in the interior, and their appearance is a sign that the
damage has already made serious progress.

Prevention of fungous growths is easier and more
effective than subsequent treatment. In most cases the
attacks have their starting points in wounds or scars.
Without these wounds to furnish a place of lodgment, the
spores could rarely gain foothold. Recognition of this
emphasizes the importance of preventing injuries, as far
as this may be possible, and the necessity for giving
prompt healing and protective treatment to all wounds
which may occur, in spite of precautionary measures
which may have been taken. The development of injuries
to bark or wood is akin to the progress of decay in a tooth.
If immediate attention is given, decay is stopped. If
treatment is neglected, a slight injury may develop into
a serious and constantly growing cavity, with grave
consequences.

Fungous growths on trunk and limbs are of many
varieties, but they have the same general characteristics
as to origin, and call for the same action as to treatment.

Some of the common fungous growths are known in a
general way as heart-rots. These assume several forms
and attack the heartwood of many trees such as the Beech,
Aspen, Maple, Birch, Walnut, Oak, Hickory, Alder, Ash,
Poplar and others. The Oak, Ash and Maple heart-rots
so-called, are common on other kinds as well, so these
names are not distinctive and are not generally recognized
in connection with specific fungi. Likewise red heart-rot
and white heart-rot are not used specifically for any fungus
and are often misleading.

SCALE INSECTS

Maple phenacoccus

Phenacoccus acericola King
i Clusters of male cocoons on sugar maple bark

z Females and young on underside of leaf

Black-banded lecanium
Eulecanium nigrofasciatum Perg.

3 Badly infested soft maple twigs

4 Young along sides of leaf veins

10 Male, enlarged

1 1 Full grown female scales showing characteristic markings, enlarged

12 Young, enlarged

Golden oak scale

Asterolecanium variolosum Ratz.

5 Infested oak twig

Tulip tree scale
Eulecanium tulipijerae Cook

6 Badly infested tulip branch

8 Recently hatched young, enlarged

9 Young scales, enlarged

White flower cricket
Oecanthus sp.

7 Oviposition scars

L. H Joutel, 1 90S

MAPLE AND OTHER SCALE INSECTS

TREE DISEASES AND TREATMENT 175

Slime-flux is an ailment frequently found on the Elm,
Maple, Yellow Birch and some other trees. This is in the
nature of an ulcer and is usually associated with a wound.
It is sometimes found in connection with a defective
cement-filled cavity. The ailment usually appears in the
spring and is characterized by a flow of slimy, discolored
sap from the opening. This slime forms a fermenting sub-
stance which may be poisonous to vegetation, as shown by
the killing of grass upon which it drops. It has destruc-
tive effect on the bark and on the wood immediately
beneath, and if it is allowed to progress, serious damage
and even the death of the tree may be caused. The best
method of treatment for slime-flux is to make upright
incisions in the bark, close to the wound, for the purpose
of draining the liquid as quickly as possible and perhaps
introducing an antiseptic wash. After the flow has
stopped, the diseased parts should be cut away and the
surface sterilized and painted as with other cavities.

Various trees are subject to trouble in the form of
root-rot and other diseases of the root system. Root-rot
is the result of a fungus, which usually enters through an
underground wound. This fungus drains the vitality of
the roots and eventually kills the tree or so weakens its
base as to cause it to fall an easy victim to windstorms.
Well-known symptoms of this disease are the hard, black,
branching strands known as "shoestrings," which are found
interlaced in the roots, and particularly between bark and
wood, and penetrating the surrounding soil. These
"shoestrings" ultimately form the fruiting body on the
surface of the ground, which takes the form of a mush-
room appearing to grow from the soil. The mushrooms
are easily recognized when fresh and complete, appearing
in groups or clusters the color of honey. On each of them a
distinct ring appears on the stem, just below the umbrella-

176 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

shaped top, and the stems are swollen at the base. These
two characters often are unreliable as the ring is frequently
evanescent and the swollen base usually is not very pro-
nounced. Trees which are badly afflicted with this form
of rot should be cut down, and it is not safe to replant in
the infected soil.

Coral red spots about the size of a pin's head on the
bark of trees and shrubs are symptoms of a disease com-
monly called Nectria Cinnabarina canker, a fungous
growth closely related to the rusts of leaves, which finds
entrance through small surface wounds. It produces bluish
or blackish streaks in the wood. Once established, it has
a tendency to spread to other trees or plants. This disease
may be cured by cutting and burning all affected bark
and wood and washing the wound with solution of copper
sulphate, using i pound to 5 gallons of water. The exposed
surface should then be coated with coal tar. As with
other diseases, prevention is better than remedy, and if all
wounds are promptly treated when created, the spores will
find no means of entry.

Black knots sometimes appear on twigs and leaves of
Cherries, Plums and allied trees but rarely on shade trees.
While they are not serious, they are unsightly. They may
be controlled by cutting and burning in the early fall and
spraying with either copper sulphate or lime sulphur before
the buds open in the spring.

"Witches' Broom" is a conspicuous growth which is
frequently seen and which impairs a tree's appearance. It
consists of masses of short twigs, so bunched as to cause
them, in some instances, to be mistaken for mistletoe. This
disease is caused by a fungus or an insect, often a mite.
It may be controlled by cutting and burning the affected
parts. Although mistletoe is a parasite plant it is not a
fungus, but belongs to the group of flowering plants to

Sugar maple borer

Plagionotus specious Say

1 Place where egg was laid

la Another more than normally discolored

2 Borer or grub in September from egg laid the same season

3 Nearly full grown borer

4 Adult or beetle

5 Hole through which the beetle escaped from the trunk

6 Sawdust or borings packed in burrow-

Maple and oak twig pruner
Elaphidion villosum Fabr.

7 Grub or borer in its burrow, a portion of the twig being cut away to show its

work.

ja Small twig with only a thin shell of bark, the wood being nearly all eaten

8 Pupa in burrow. The base of both twigs represented has been nearly eaten off

by the larva

9 Adult or beetle

Cottony maple scale

Pulvinaria innumerabilis Rathv.

io Active or recently hatched young

1 1 Adult females, many eggs can be found in the woolly masses

12 Leaf with many young scales on its underside

TREE DISEASES AND TREATMENT 177

which its possible hosts, the trees and shrubs, also belong.
Its part in romance and sentiment does not begin until
the twigs reach the drawing room. On its host the mistle-
toe is a parasite, sapping its strength and retarding its
growth. The damage starts when the mistletoe dies,
for in the process of decay it leaves a cavity which
affords a means of entrance for other more harmful dis-
eases. If allowed to flourish, mistletoe becomes a serious
enemy. It may be controlled by cutting it away com-
pletely and treating the cavity as recommended in previous
chapters.

Various fungous diseases attack the foliage of trees
and these may be the cause of much damage, since it is
through the agency of green leaves that a plant gets its real
nourishment, and any reduction in the foliage decreases
the tree's food supply. In addition to this definite damage
the loss of leaves mars the tree's appearance. If the
growth persists for a single season only, the damage is not
important; but if it proceeds unchecked for several years,
the tree becomes badly weakened and may die.

Protection against these diseases is largely by means
of spraying. The effectual materials are spoken of as
fungicides, the most useful of which are Bordeaux mixture
and ammoniacal copper carbonate. The former is the
least injurious to foliage, while likely to discolor buildings.
The latter is safer near buildings, but needs to be very
carefully made and applied in order not to injure the
foliage.

Bordeaux Mixture. — Bordeaux mixture is composed
of copper sulphate (bluestone) and quicklime, with a
certain quantity of water. The amounts of copper sul-
phate and of lime to be used with a given quantity of

water vary somewhat, according to the kind of trees to be
12

i78 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

sprayed and the disease to be treated. The following
formula is quite satisfactory for general work:

Copper sulphate (bluestone) pounds 3

Quicklime pounds 4

Water to make gallons 50

For severe diseases on trees with resistant foliage it is
often advisable to use 4 pounds of bluestone and 6 pounds
of lime to 50 gallons of water instead of the above formula.

Directions for Making. — To make a single barrel
of Bordeaux mixture, dissolve the bluestone in 25 gallons
of water and in a separate vessel slake the lime and dilute
it to 25 gallons. Then pour the two solutions simulta-
neously through a strainer into the spray tank.

If large quantities are to be used, stock solutions of
the bluestone and lime should always be prepared, thus
saving the time necessary to dissolve the materials. A
stock solution of the copper sulphate may be made by
dissolving it at the rate of 1 pound to each gallon of water.
Fill a 50-gallon barrel two-thirds or three-fourths full of
water and place a sack (or box with perforations in the
bottom and sides) containing 50 pounds of copper sulphate
in the upper part of the barrel, suspending it by a string or
copper wire. In from 12 to 24 hours the sulphate will have
entirely dissolved, and the sack or box should be removed
and enough water added to fill the barrel. After slight
stirring, the solution is ready for use. The stock lime may
be prepared by slaking 50 pounds in a barrel or other
vessel, and finally adding water to make 50 gallons. In
slaking the lime sufficient water should be used to prevent
burning, but not enough to "drown" it, and the mass
should be continually stirred with a shovel or spading fork
until a thin paste is formed.

In making Bordeaux mixture, take the necessary quan-
tities of the stock copper sulphate and the stock lime

TREE DISEASES AND TREATMENT 179

solutions to give the formula in the total amount of water
to be used and place each in separate elevated dilution
tanks, which should hold half as much as the total capa-
city of the spray tank. Thus, if the spray tank holds 200
gallons, each dilution tank should hold 100 gallons; and,
according to the above formula, 20 pounds of copper sul-
phate (20 gallons of the stock solution) and 20 pounds of
lime (20 gallons of stock solution) would be required. To
each dilution tank add water (one-half the total amount
of spray) and after stirring, allow the diluted ingredients
to run, through separate hose or troughs attached to
faucets near the bottom of the tank, into the strainer on
the spray tank, where the two solutions come together,
producing the Bordeaux mixture. Only the quantity
which can be used during the day should be mixed, as the
Bordeaux mixture deteriorates on standing.

In case the dilution tanks are not elevated to admit
of filling the spray tank by gravity, the diluted solutions
must be dipped and poured into the latter by hand, a
bucketful of each simultaneously. This method is advis-
able in small operations, where a few barrels at most are
needed.

It is important that Bordeaux mixture should be
thoroughly strained in order to keep out any coarse parti-
cles that would clog the spray nozzles, and it is a good
practice to strain the stock solution of lime while pouring
it into the dilution tank. The best material for a strainer
is brass wire netting of about 20 meshes to the inch.

Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate. — The formula for
ammoniacal copper carbonate is as follows:

Copper carbonate ounces 5

Strong ammonia (26 Baume) pints 2 to 3

Water to make gallons 50

180 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

Dilute the ammonia with about 2 gallons of water, as
it has been found that ammonia diluted seven or eight
times is a greater solvent for copper carbonate than the
concentrated liquid. Add water to the carbonate to make
a thin paste, pour on about half of the diluted ammonia,
and stir vigorously for several minutes; allow it to settle
and pour off the solution, leaving the undissolved salt
behind. Repeat this operation, using small portions of
the remaining ammonia water until all the carbonate is
dissolved, being careful to use no more ammonia than is
necessary to complete the solution. Then, after adding
the remainder of the required quantity of water, the solu-
tion is ready for application.

Ammoniacal copper carbonate is a clear, light blue
solution, which upon drying leaves little or no stain. As a
fungicide it is inferior to Bordeaux mixture, and should be
used only as a substitute for the latter, when Bordeaux
mixture might discolor adjoining buildings or stain the
foliage of ornamental plants or maturing fruits.

Leaf spots or leaf blights are common forms of this
type of disease. An ailment of this nature causes discol-
ored spots on the leaves, often resulting in holes and some-
times in the destruction and falling of the foliage. Trees
especially susceptible are the Walnut, Elm, Maple, Horse
Chestnut and Sycamore. On most trees the spots are
reddish brown or darker. The remedy is to collect and
burn fallen leaves, to destroy the spores and prevent the
spread of the disease, and to spray with Bordeaux mixture
to kill attacking spores as they start to grow. The spray
should be applied during the dormant season, and repeated
when the leaves expand, and perhaps again two or three
weeks later.

Another form of leaf spots results from anthracnoses,
which affect the stems of young shoots as well as the

TREE DISEASES AND TREATMENT 181

leaves themselves. On the leaves these attacks produce
spots or holes, or cause the foliage to wither as from frost.
This disease is especially prevalent on the Sycamore,
where it follows the veins of the leaf and then spreads,
causing the entire surface to turn brown. It often kills
the shoots of young and tender growth, causing them to
appear as if killed by frost, and may even kill trees. To
control this disease, dead or diseased branches and twigs
should be cut away and burned. Either Bordeaux mixture
or lime-sulphur should be applied by spraying during the
dormant season. Soon after the buds have opened,
affected trees should be sprayed with Bordeaux mixture,
and this spraying should be done a second and a third
time at ten day intervals thereafter.

Powdery mildew is not serious, except to very young
trees and nursery stock. This disease spreads over the
surface of the leaves, forming a delicate white web resemb-
ling dust. It appears on the Oak, Birch, Maple, Poplar
and other trees. It may be removed by application of a
spray of one pound of potassium sulphide dissolved in
fifty gallons of water. Either Bordeaux mixture or diluted
copper sulphate also makes an effective spray, if applied
two or three times in July and August.

Leaf curl appears on Oaks, giving the leaves a blistered
appearance. It should not be allowed to progress
unchecked. Fallen leaves should be burned, and the trees
should be sprayed during the winter with either copper
sulphate or lime-sulphur.

Rust is a fungus which in various forms attacks many
kinds of trees, covering the leaves with brown and yellow
spore-masses, sometimes causing the leaves to become
ragged and unsightly. It attacks such trees as the Linden,
Poplar, Ash, and other broad-leaved trees, and also many
Conifers. On the Red Cedar it produces the reddish

1 82 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

brown globular growths known as cedar apples. Treat-
ment is not always necessary, but when it is needed,
Bordeaux mixture should be applied before the leaves
open in the spring, and several times during July and
August, at two to four week intervals. Removal of the
"apples" from Cedars in the early spring is advisable,
especially if they are near apple trees, as the cedar apples
can readily produce rust on apple trees.

Leaf scorch is an ailment which causes young leaves
and tender shoots to wither and die. It is apt to make its
appearance during a dry, hot spell, following a damp
spring. Many varieties of trees are affected, but Maples
seem to suffer most. Helpful treatment may be given by
keeping the soil well watered and freely cultivated when
the dry season comes, so that moisture and air may reach
the root system for the thorough nourishing of the tree.

Poor soil conditions are the cause of many ailments of
street shade trees. A common manifestation of trouble
of this nature is known as stag-head or top-dry, which
results in slow death of the top, producing an effect sug-
gesting the bare horns of a stag. This is apt to indicate
lack of water or suffocation of the roots. Enrichment of
the soil, a plentiful supply of water and frequent loosening
of the soil by cultivation, are necessary to bring about
recovery of an affected tree.

CHAPTER XIX.

TREE INSECTS AND THEIR CONTROL

TREES have several insect enemies. In a single season,
if allowed to work unchecked, an able-bodied colony
of these pests can undo the efforts of years on the part of
man and nature. Fortunately for the welfare of the shade
tree, most of the damage may be prevented or cured, and
it is to the ways and means of achieving one or the other
of these results that the tree lover will find he must give
careful attention.

Because trees in the forest generally thrive in spite of
their insect enemies, it must not be figured that the
shade tree may be trusted to care for itself. The two situ-
ations are so different as to have little in common. In the
forest the tree has nature's equipment for defense, such
as ideal conditions for growth and for the development of
power of resistance to attacks, and birds and insects of
many kinds to destroy the pests and thus help keep them
under control. In the artificial environment of the town
or city the tree is at a disadvantage. In many situations
its life is a struggle for existence. It must overcome the
handicaps of packed soil, uncertain water supply, crowded
conditions, poisonous gases and the injuries of traffic and
lack of bird and insect protectors. Thus hampered, it is
not strange that the tree lacks the rugged vitality of its
forest kinsmen, and it is not surprising that it should be
less sturdy in its resistance to the attacks of insects.

Damage by these natural enemies affects the tree in
different ways, ranging from injuries so slight as to call
for no attention, to the severe forms which prove fatal.
To combat the ravages of the insects requires watchful-

183

1 84 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

ness. Proper care and attention on this point are essen-
tial, and immunity from damage to highly prized trees is
cheaply purchased by the application of adequate safe-
guards and remedies. The real expense lies in neglect.

Inspection of the trees from time to time is an impor-
tant part of insect control. Careful examination some-
times results in the discovery of insects which have not
yet caused visible damage, and since early action is most
effective, this discovery may save much trouble. In a
community which has a tree warden or other shade tree
officials inspections should be made as a part of the
routine work.

In a single volume it is not possible to discuss in detail
every insect enemy encountered in all parts of a country
as large as the United States. The most that may be
attempted is to treat of those which are most common
and general in their distribution, to show how these in-
sects and their work may be identified, and to point out
the remedies which have been found most effectual.
Supplementary information may be obtained from state
entomologists. Every state and territory maintains a staff
of technical experts and research workers whose function
it is to gather and distribute information as to the insects
prevalent within that particular field. Similar work is
carried on in even more elaborate fashion by the Bureau
of Entomology of the United States Department of
Agriculture at Washington. Specific inquiries through
either of these channels will bring detailed information
on local conditions which will often prove helpful.

In communities where there is an efficient shade tree
commission, tree warden, arboriculturist or other author-
ity charged with responsibility for shade tree development,
these questions will receive more immediate and more
localized attention if placed before the proper official.

White marked tussock moth

Hemerocampa leucostigma Abb. & Sm.

1 Side view of full grown caterpillar

2 Male moth at rest

3 Female moth laying eggs on her recently vacated cocoon

4 Several cocoons

5 Cast skins of caterpillars

6 Work of young caterpillars on under surface of leaf

7 Male pupa

8 Branch girdled by caterpillar

9 End of branch broken off at the point where it was girdled

Forest tent caterpillar : maple worm

Malacosoma dis stria Hubn

io Female moth with wings expanded

ii Male moth with wings expanded

12 Egg belt encircling twig

13 Side view of full grown caterpillar

14 Cocoon in a leaf
13 Pupa

16 Cast skins of caterpillar

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TREE INSECTS AND THEIR CONTROL 185

Of still greater value is the active cooperation of the local
authorities in detecting and fighting the insect enemies,
and this value lies not only in the matter of technical
knowledge but in the facilities for active combat, as well.
The owner of a single tree rarely wants to go to the expense
of buying equipment for spraying and other forms of
treatment. For the municipal government to handle this
work for all taxpayers reduces the problem to its simplest
terms and produces the greatest degree of efficiency with
the least cost to the individual.

The importance of municipal treatment of insect pests
is emphasized by the way many insects spread. It is not
uncommon for all the trees of a given variety to be affected
throughout an entire community. Treatment of an indi-
vidual tree in the event of such an epidemic obviously
accomplishes nothing. The elimination of the visitors
from that particular tree may be complete, but renewal of
the attack will be made by emigrants from infested neigh-
boring trees which have not been treated. The only effec-
tual measure is to treat all trees of the infested species, and
this, of course, cannot be satisfactorily accomplished
without centralized authority and action. This consti-
tutes one of the unanswerable arguments in favor of mu-
nicipal control for street shade trees, however small the
community.

In the absence of a branch of the local government
prepared for such work, it is important for the individual
property owners to act in close cooperation among them-
selves, to achieve the best possible results and to minimize
the cost to each of them. Community ownership of spray-
ing apparatus and other equipment, and community
action in undertaking to overcome insect attacks, will lead
to a solution of many of the tree owners' most serious
problems.

1 86 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

The spread of insects has not infrequently been due to
their being carried on young trees from the nursery. For
this reason it is important that all trees should be free from
insects and diseases when they are sent from the nursery.
Reliable nurserymen, in cooperation with state inspectors,
endeavor to eliminate these troubles from nursery stock.
As an added precaution many kinds can, without injury,
be fumigated at the nursery before shipment. It should
not be necessary to call attention to the worthlessness of
panaceas by which all insect attacks may be prevented
by injecting a fluid into the tree, or by driving special
medicated nails into them. Fakers and rascals, passing as
tree doctors, continue to extract much good money from
a gullible public for worthless or even harmful ministra-
tions. Imposition of this character has been so widespread
as to cause more than one official warning to be issued
against encouraging such methods.

Insect enemies of the trees are of three types, which
may be classified as leaf-chewers, sap-suckers and borers.
The leaf chewers eat the foliage, the sap-suckers suck the
plant juices from the leaves, stems, branches, trunk or
roots, while the borers injure a tree by their tunnels making
the openings opportunities for the entrance of moisture
and decay, but what is more serious, often partially or en-
tirely girdling the inner bark of the tree. In the three
classes there are countless subdivisions, some of which
require special discussion, but in general the methods of
combating are essentially the same throughout any one
class.

The leaf-chewing insects may be destroyed by stom-
ach poisons, applied to the leaves through spraying. The
poison may be placed on the foliage before the insects have
begun active operations in large numbers and be there ready
for their first activities, contingent only on its not being
washed off by rains.

Elm Leaf Beetle

Galerucella luteola Muller

1 Cluster of eggs, enlarged

\a Side view of single egg, more enlarged

2 Recently hatched larva or grub, enlarged

3 Full grown larva or grub, enlarged

4 Pupa, enlarged

5 Overwintered beetle, enlarged

6 Fresh, brightly colored beetle, enlarged

7 Leaf showing eating of larvae or grubs and a few holes eaten by beetles, eggs in

clusters, cast larval skins and full grown larvae

8 Leaf nearly skeletonized by grubs of larvae and on it three cast larval skins

9 Leaf showing holes eaten by beetles

Bag or Basket Worm

ThyridopUryx ephemerceformis Haworth

io Bag or larval case as it passes the winter

11 Same as preceding but cut open to show the pupal case and the eggs

12 Several eggs, enlarged

13 Recently hatched larva, enlarged

14 Cases of young larvae on twig
14a Leaf eaten by young larva?

15 Older larvae in their bags

16 Full grown larva removed from its case

17 Full grown larva walking with its case

18 Male pupa,

19 Female moth

20 Male moth with wings spread

21 Female pupa

22 Bag of male hanging from a leaf and with the empty pupal case protruding

from its lower extremity

D
O

>•

TREE INSECTS AND THEIR CONTROL 187

The sap-sucking type, however, cannot be reached by
poisons, so they must be killed by contact insecticides;
therefore, they have to be destroyed by materials applied
after they have begun operations, and every insect must
be touched by the appropriate insecticide for it to be
effectual.

For the leaf-chewers and sap-suckers wholesale de-
struction is possible, because their destructive work is in
the open, on the outside of bark or foliage.

For borers and others, which conduct their operations
within the wood or underground, the measures of elimi-
nation are aimed at the individual insect, by means of
digging it out or by killing by the use of a wire probe
or injection of carbon bisulphide.

A point to be remembered in applying remedies by
spraying is that the application must be thorough.
Thoroughness means completely covering the leaves, in
order to make certain that all the insects will be reached
by the poison placed on their food, or killing the body of
each insect by smothering with a contact insecticide.

Effectual remedial measures require knowledge of the
habits of the type of insect to be controlled. This knowl-
edge should at least include the ability to distinguish
between the leaf-chewers, the sap-suckers and the borers,
in order to determine the steps that must be taken. In
compiling the suggestions for treatment, which appear in
subsequent pages of this chapter, an effort has been made
to give data which will enable the layman to identify and
classify the insects that may appear on his trees.

Spraying materials may be bought at seed stores and
other places. For small operations it is best, with most of
them, to use the commercial preparations rather than to
undertake to prepare them at home. In buying them, the
highest quality should always be insisted upon. The

1 88 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

recognized standard preparations will give the best results.
It is poor economy to use a preparation because it may be
bought cheap, and it is unwise to experiment with one
which is unknown.

The Stomach Poisons. — The standard stomach poisons
are arsenate of lead and arsenate of lime (calcium
arsenate). Arsenate of lead is the one most used, because
it adheres to the foliage longer than any other stomach
poison, is highly effective, and does no damage to the
leaves when used in proper dilution. Both arsenate of
lead and arsenate of lime may be bought in paste or pow-
der form. The powder is to be preferred for the reason that
it is not injured by freezing or drying. These poisons are
ready for use when purchased, requiring only the addition
of water in proportions which will usually be found speci-
fied on the label of the container.

If there is preference for preparing a poison at home
the formula for arsenate of lead is as follows:

Acetate of lead 12 ounces

Arsenate of soda 4 ounces

Water 15 to 20 gallons

Pour the acetate of lead into a half gallon of water and
the arsenate of soda into a similar quantity of water in a
separate vessel. The contents of the two vessels should
then be poured into a holder, containing from 15 to 20
gallons of water, and well mixed.

Because of their poisonous nature, arsenate of lead and
arsenate of lime must be handled with care. Especial safe-
guards must be used to keep them away from children and
domestic animals.

Contact Sprays. — For the killing of sap-sucking in-
sects the contact sprays are required. These materials
cause death to the insects by coating and clogging the
breathing pores, by direct action on the nerves, or by caus-

Yellow-striped oak caterpillar

Anisota senatoria Abb. & Sm.
i Egg mass on underside of oak leaf

2 Eggshells on partly eaten leaf

3 Leaf stalk bearing shrunken larvae infested by parasite and showing the char-

acteristic feeding of nearly full grown caterpillars

4 Side view of nearly full grown larvae

5 Recently hatched larvae feeding side by side and showing the skeletonizing in

the earlier stages

6 Male

7 Female depositing eggs

Buck or Maia moth
Hemileuca maia Drury

8 Side view of full grown larva

9 Male, showing wings of one side only
io Egg mass

Archips fervidana Clem.
ii Adult

12 Nest composed of partly eaten, curled leaves

Serica trociformis Burm.

13 Beetle on leaf

14 Same

Two-spotted tree hopper

Enchenopa binotata Say

15 Side view of adult

Archasia Galeata Fabr.

16 Side view of adult of a peculiar tree hopper

Thelia acuminata Fabr.

17 Side view of another tree hopper

Dog day cicada or harvest fly
Tibicen tibicen Linn.

18 Side view of adult in resting position

Acorn weevil

Balaninus nasicus Say

19 Adult on twig

20 Same

L. H. Joutel. 1901

OAK INSECTS

TREE INSECTS AND THEIR CONTROL 189

tic action on the tissues. The active elements in these
sprays are lime and sulphur compounds, soaps, petroleum
oils and tobacco extracts. Some of the sprays are:

Lime-sulphur Creosote Oil

Kerosene Miscible Oils

Kerosene Emulsion 40 per cent. Nicotine Sulphate

Fish-oil Soap.

Lime-Sulphur. — This is used against the armored
scale insects, such as the oyster-shell scale or the San Jose
scale. Its use is generally confined to the dormant season,
between late fall and early spring. It may be used as a
spray, or it may be spread on with a paint brush. The
chemicals discolor paint, and for this reason spraying
should be avoided where the paint on buildings will be
reached. The material, as purchased, must be diluted with
water before use, and directions as to dilution will usually
be found with each purchase. In general it may be said
that the lime-sulphur should be used in proportion of 1
pint to each gallon of water.

Kerosene. — Kerosene oil is effective in killing some in-
sects and in the destruction of eggs. It is applied by daub-
ing on the affected surface by means of a mop fastened to a
pole. Kerosene is also used to destroy tent or web caterpil-
lars by burning. For this purpose the mop is used as a torch
and held against the tent or web, with care to inflict the
least possible damage to the tree by the flames.

Kerosene Emulsion. — This is recognized as one of the
most effective sprays for contact uses. With variation
of the proportion of water, this spray may be used in
summer or winter. It is used for the destruction of scales
and soft-bodied insects. The emulsion is made of kero-
sene, soap and water, the soap being required to bring
about the mixing of the other ingredients. This mixture
may be made at home. The formula:

190 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

Kerosene 2 gallons

Fish-oil soap (or laundry soap) yi pound

Water 1 gallon

(One quart of soft soap may be used instead of the soaps
specified above.)

Boil the water and soap together until the soap dis-
solves. This mixture should then be removed from the
fire, the kerosene added and the mixture stirred briskly
for five minutes, or until it has the consistency of cream.

This concentrated mixture must be diluted with water
at the time of spraying. For use in summer, when the
trees are in leaf, the dilution should be at the rate of 5^3
gallons of water to each gallon of the mixture. For use
in winter, when the trees are dormant, the rate should be
\2/i to 3 gallons of water to each gallon of the mixture.
The concentrated mixture will keep for some time in its
original form, but the diluted mixture should be used as
soon as prepared.

Creosote Oil. — This is used for the destruction of tus-
sock moth egg masses, especially when they cannot be
removed successfully. It is applied by daubing with a
mop. The oil thickens in cold weather, in which case it
requires thinning with turpentine.

Miscible Oils. — There are various miscible oils, which
are mixtures to be bought ready-made. Their use is
effective in controlling the scale insects. The mixtures are
sold under various trade names, and since they vary in
strength, careful attention must be paid to the directions
for dilution as printed on the labels. These oils are apt
to injure foliage if applied during the leaf season, and for
this reason they are usually employed as winter sprays.
In addition to this factor, winter spraying has the added
advantages that the absence of foliage makes it possible
to use stronger solution, and also makes it easier to reach
the insects with the spray.

Fall Web Worm

Hyphantria cunea Drury

1 Cluster of eggs

2 Dorsal views of full and partly grown larvse and also a lateral view of a full

grown caterpillar

3 Pupa

4 Pupa, enlarged

5 White form of moth in resting position

6 Spotted form of moth with wings expanded

Figures 2, 5 and 6 are on a small web

Spiny Elm Caterpillar

Euvanessa antiopa Linn.

7 Cluster of eggs on a leaf stem

8 One egg, much enlarged, the dot beside it shows its natural size

9 Caterpillar feeding

10 Chrysalis hanging from a leaf stem

1 1 Butterfly with wings spread

The figures of the egg and caterpillar are on a twig of elm representing the
characteristic work of the caterpillar.

TREE INSECTS AND THEIR CONTROL 191

Nicotine Sulphate. — This is a liquid extract of tobacco,
which is effective against aphids, or plant lice, and other
soft-bodied insects. It may be bought under numerous
trade names. The strength varies with the different
preparations, and directions for proper dilution with water
are usually printed on the labels. The most used form
is the 40 per cent, nicotine sulphate, although any strength
may be used when properly diluted. The addition of 1
ounce of soap to each gallon of spray is useful in causing
the material to spread and stick.

Fish-oil Soap. — This material, also known as whale-oil
soap, is effective against aphids, scale insects and other
sap-suckers. For use in summer spraying, dissolve 1
pound of the soap in from 3 to 4 gallons of water. For use
against scale insects in winter, dissolve 2 pounds of the
soap in each gallon of water. The mixing should be done
over a fire and the spray used before the solution is cold,
as the mixture congeals upon cooling. Common laundry
soap may be used instead of the fish-oil soap.

Poisoned Contact Sprays. — For use against borers,
while they are still feeding in the bark, sodium arsenite
should be added to either kerosene emulsion or miscible
oil sprays. The addition of this poison makes what is
known as a poisoned contact spray, which penetrates
where ordinary water solutions would be ineffectual.
Sodium arsenite may be obtained at drug stores. When
diluting the kerosene emulsion or miscible oil for use, add
one ounce of sodium arsenite to each gallon of the water
employed for dilution, allowing the poison to dissolve
before making the final mixture. The poisoned contact
sprays are injurious to foliage and should be applied
with care.

Carbon Disulphid. — Carbon disulphid partakes of the
nature of contact remedies, but its use is along dif-

192 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

ferent lines. This substance kills by suffocation and is
used against borers, by injections into the openings of their
tunnels. The vapor of carbon disulphid is heavier than
air, and when it is injected the vapor sinks. The injection
is made by using a squirt oil can or a dropper, such as is
employed in- filling fountain pens. After the injection has
been made the hole must be promptly plugged with some
such material as grafting wax, putty or soap, to prevent
the escape of the vapor. Carbon disulphid must be handled
with care. It is highly inflammable and, when inhaled freely,
it is poisonous.

Spraying Apparatus. — For use in spraying small trees
a hand atomizer is adequate. In general appearance this
resembles a tire-pump. It is made of copper, brass or
heavy tin, and holds about a quart of liquid.

A small compressed-air pump is convenient for spray-
ing operations on a small scale. This pump resembles the
fire extinguishers seen in factories and office buildings. It
is made of brass or galvanized sheet steel, and holds from
3 to 4 gallons. It is carried by means of a shoulder strap.
In preparing it for use the liquid is poured into the tank,
the opening closed and air pumped in to provide pressure
for forcibly expelling the liquid.

A barrel hand-pump outfit, holding approximately 50
gallons, may be used for spraying a limited number of
moderate sized trees like apple trees. The working parts
of the pump must be of non-corrosive metal, such as
bronze or brass. The pump may be mounted on either
the head or side of the barrel, and the whole outfit placed
on a wagon or on skids, for convenience in moving from
tree to tree.

Next in size and capacity above the barrel hand-pump
outfit is the double action hand-pump, employed with
150 or 200 gallon tank, the tank mounted on the running

TREE INSECTS AND THEIR CONTROL 193

gear of a wagon, and the pump fastened to a small plat-
form at the top of the tank or at the rear end of the wagon.
Instead of the tank, a barrel, or a 100 gallon hogs-
head, may be used, placed at one end of the wagon
bed to leave room for pump and operator. A suction hose
extends into the container which holds the spray material.
The pump is double action with double cylinder, and gives
pressure for two lines of hose and for double nozzles.

For results in spraying mature street trees, power
sprayers, operated by gasoline engines, must be used, as the
other outfits mentioned are not effective for this purpose.
It is important that communities and neighborhoods should
act together in their purchase and use where no municipal
outfit is at hand. The ideal plan, of course, is to have all
spraying operations conducted by the local government,
since this plan makes it feasible to have even more com-
plete and efficient outfits than are to be expected in com-
munity or neighborhood cooperation. The power sprayer
gives steadier spray than the hand-pump, insuring a more
even and more thorough distribution of the application
and makes it possible to reach the tops of the trees.
Power sprayers as small as one horsepower may be pur-
chased, while there are larger sprayers of as much as
12 horsepower, with capacity of 50 gallons or more to the
minute under pressure of from 150 to 300 pounds. Where
a pressure of less than 100 pounds per square inch is used,
the material is delivered in the form of a mist within a
short distance from the nozzle, which necessitates the
nozzle being carried near to the foliage to be sprayed.
This practically limits the use of hand pumps to trees not
over 30 to 40 feet high and then only after climbing into
the trees. The compressed air pumps are not practicable
for trees over 10 feet high. For tall trees, a solid stream
delivered from a nozzle at a pressure of 150 to 200 pounds
13

194 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

will be thrown into spray as it reaches their tops and will
then descend as a mist over the tree.

For the most extensive spraying operations motor
truck sprayers are sometimes used.

Accessories for Spraying. — There are many types of
spraying nozzles, but the one which has been found
most generally efficient, for both medium and small
outfits, is the whirlpool disc type, adjustable to fine, med-
ium or coarse spray. This nozzle is compact and does
not catch in branches or twigs.

For reaching the upper and inner parts of a tree, where
a mist spray is used, an extension rod is useful. This is a
rod of aluminum, iron or brass, fitted into a bamboo pole,
made in lengths of from 6 to 14 feet, and is used for hold-
ing the nozzle above the head of the operator.

A combination of nozzle and extension rod is the
Worthley nozzle, several feet in length, which directs a
solid stream and makes it possible to reach the top of an
85 foot tree while the operator is standing on the ground.
For foliage nearer the ground and for small trees the
nozzle has a spreader which breaks the force of the solid
stream and produces a fan-shaped spray.

For the larger power outfits and heavier work a nozzle
like that used on a fire hose, but of smaller size, is best.

The hose used in spraying should be of the best grade,
made for high pressure and from ji to ~% inch inside
diameter.

In the absence of spraying equipment, a common
paint or whitewash brush may be used to good advantage
in applying treatment to the trunk and larger branches
of a single tree, or even a small number of trees. This
method is used against the scale insects, and the spray
material is spread on the bark with the brush. Even the
caustic lime-sulphur may be thus applied if proper pre-

TREE INSECTS AND THEIR CONTROL 195

cautions are taken to protect the operator's face and
hands. The use of the brush obviates the injury to paint
on nearby buildings that might be caused by spraying.

Tree Bands. — The use of tree bands as barriers
or traps for insects has occasional value, but they are not as
effectual as many people seem to believe. The usefulness
of bands is confined to protection against those insects
which crawl along the trunk. Against the winged insects
they have no value whatever. To be useful at all the bands
must be closely watched and kept from clogging, drying
out or becoming bridged. They are likely to be injurious
to the trees.

A type of banding which proves effective is made of
cotton batting, 6 to 8 inches wide, wrapped around the
tree with the ends overlapping, and tied securely and
snugly by means of a string around its lower edge, with the
upper part turned down over the string to form a flange of
loose cotton. This stops the insects as they crawl upward.
The cotton must be kept in fluffy condition.

The wingless moths, such as those of the cankerworm,
and the tussock moth, may be trapped by 12 mesh fly-
screen. A strip of the wire screen 12 inches wide should
be cut with a top length slightly greater than needed to fit
around the tree and a bottom length 6 inches greater. The
top edge should be snugly fitted around the tree and
fastened with carpet tacks, leaving the lower part standing
out in a way suggesting an inverted funnel. The spread-
ing lower edge admits crawling insects, and these should
be gathered and crushed daily, to prevent the laying of
any eggs.

Sticky bands are useful against the ascent of cater-
pillars and wingless moths. The sticky material may be
bought ready for use. In preparing to apply it, the tree
should first be encircled with a 2 inch strip of cotton,

196 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

snugly wrapped around the trunk in a way to fill all the
crevices of the bark. Over this there should be placed a
5 inch strip of building tar-paper, tightly drawn and
securely tacked at its overlapping ends. The sticky
substance is then applied to this paper. It should be
renewed when it becomes dry or covered with dust or
insects, as its stickiness is its one point of efficacy.
It should not come in contact with the tree, although
occasionally it is recommended to apply such material
directly to the trunk high enough to be above persons
passing. There is danger from a girdling effect due to the
hardening of the material (Hopkins, U. S. Dept. of Agr.)
and due to the penetration of possible injurious substances
in the material. A sticky fly-paper may be used, over
bands of cotton and with the edges securely bound with
string.

Safeguards against insect attacks are as important in
their way as the application of remedies after the attacks
have taken hold. Much damage may be prevented by
advance precautions. Among the most important steps
of this character is the providing of good cultural condi-
tions and careful attention to all pruning, or accidental
injuries and cavities.

Since trees which are strong and healthy are in best
position to resist insect attacks, it is important that weak-
ened trees should be stimulated by enrichment of the soil.
This may be accomplished by applying nitrate of soda,
stable manure, or other fertilizer containing nitrogen.
This stimulus, combined with pruning and frequent culti-
vation, will produce new vitality and prove helpful in
enabling a tree to combat its insect enemies with its own
forces.

TREE INSECTS AND THEIR CONTROL 197

ALL SHADE TREES

BORING INSECTS
Parandra Borer

Habits This borer probably destroys

and the bases of more shade trees

Damage, than any other insect enemy.
It is especially prevalent in the
eastern part of the United States. The
adult is a large brown beetle, which lays
its eggs in the heartwood near the ground
wherever a wound affords an opening.
Egg-laying takes place shortly after Chest-
nut trees blossom. Upon hatching, the
grubs feed on the wood and completely
honeycomb the base of the tree. Their
work continues for 3 or 4 years and
frequently their presence is not known for
the reason that the wound through which
entrance was gained heals over. Besides
their attacks at the base, the grubs also
enter wounds in the larger limbs. Trees
severely attacked have nothing but an
outer shell and trunks and limbs are easily
broken by the wind.

Remedies. Because of the difficulty of
detecting the presence and
ravages of this borer, it is important to
take steps to prevent a tree from becom-
ing infested. The most direct measure is
to promptly treat all wounds and cavities.
New injuries, scars and other wounds
exposing the wood should be painted or so
treated that they will quickly heal and no
decay be started. Cavities should be
thoroughly cleaned and filled, with every
care taken to see that all infested parts of
the wood are dug out.

ASH

Ash-bud Gall-mite

Remedy.

Habits This mite attacks flower

and buds and causes them to devel-

Damage. op into abnormal, berry-like
form, resembling the galls to be
found on Oaks. Clusters of the galls are
to be found hanging from the ends of
branches. In their later stages of develop-
ment the galls turn red, changing to
brown. The abnormal growth comes,
presumably, from injuries caused by the
mites in feeding. No particular damage
to the tree results.

SAP SUCKING INSECTS

Thorough spraying is usually
successful in the elimination of
the mites. The spraying should be done
during the winter with some form of con-
tact poison, such as kerosene emulsion or
a miscible oil solution.

Habits

and

Damage

San Jose Scale
This sap-sucking scale de- Remedies. This scale may be kept

votes its attacks largely to

fruit trees, but sometimes

damages the Elm and other

shade trees as well. Of the Elms the Eu-

in check by thorough spray-
ing with lime sulphur, miscible oils, fish-
oil solution or kerosene emulsion. The
spraying should be done during the dor-

198

TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

ropean variety is most subject to attack.
The scale infests trunk, limb and bran-
ches. After passing the winter, partly
grown, on the bark it matures in early
June and produces a new generation.
Breeding is repeated several times during
the summer. The young insects are vis-
ible to the eye as they crawl along the
bark before settling down and implanting
their beaks in the bark. Because of the
enormous multiplication by rapidly suc-
ceeding generations, a slight infestation
in the spring may become very serious
during the season.

The mature scale is the size of a pin-
head, or smaller, and is scarcely percep-
tible unless present in abundance. Severe
infestation encrusts trunk and limbs with
ashy-gray scales which produce a yellow,
oily fluid when scraped with a knife; the
foliage appears spotted and diseased. A
slight attack merely checks growth of the
part affected, while a heavy attack causes
branches and twigs to die and sometimes
kills young trees as well.

mant season, between late fall and early
spring, when the tree is bare of leaves.
For heavy attacks one treatment should
be given in the fall after the leaves drop
and another in spring just before the buds
swell.

BEECH

LEAF-CHEWING INSECTS
Gipsy Moth

Habits This leaf-eating insect is

and prevalent in New England,

Damage, where it has caused the death
of thousands of trees. The
male is dark brown with black wing mark-
ings; the female is white with black wing
markings. The grubs are hatched in the
spring, from eggs laid the previous July
on the trunks or underside of branches of
trees, in cavities in the bark or on stones
and rubbish. The egg mass is rounded or
oval, coated with yellowish hairs and
resembling a sponge in appearance. The
young grubs eat holes in the opening
leaves, and in case of severe attack, the
end of June brings total destruction of the
foliage. Trees weakened by severe infes-
tation are subject to attack from boring
insects. It may be safely said that the
gipsy moth, where prevalent, is the most
destructive of all insect enemies of the
trees.

Remedies. The conspicuous appear-
ance of the egg masses makes
them easily located during the fall or
winter. Since it is impossible to gather
these egg masses without scattering the
eggs and thus spreading the infestation,
other methods of control are necessary.
In Massachusetts the attempt to gather
egg masses is forbidden for this reason.
Creosote with a small amount of lamp-
black added, is effectual if applied with a
brush to the egg clusters. In Massachu-
setts a creosote mixture quite generally
used is made up of five parts of creosote,
two parts of carbolic acid, two parts of
spirits of turpentine and one part of
coal tar.

Placing a sticky band around the trunk
prevents caterpillars from climbing a tree,
and is useful after the treatment of the
egg clusters. The bark should be first
scraped, to give a smooth surface, and the

TREE INSECTS AND THEIR CONTROL 199

It is a recently introduced insect so far
confined to a limited range. In that area
it is serious.

Its seriousness is probably part due
to its being in surroundings where its nat-
ural insect and disease enemies have not
been introduced.

The seriousness of the attacks of this
activity in suppression.

sticky material applied with a paddle,
evenly, in a thin layer.

When young caterpillars are found on
the leaves in spring the foliage should be
thoroughly and evenly sprayed with
arsenate of lead paste, in proportion of
one pound to ten gallons of water.

insect class it as one that requires State

SAP-SUCKING INSECTS

Aphids

Habits Beech trees are subject to

and attack from the Beech-tree

Damage, blight aphis and the woolly
Beech aphis. Both are bluish-
white and woolly. The first named
attacks the underside of the branches and
the second the underside of the leaves.
They are sap-suckers, and they mar a
tree's appearance by causing loss of
leaves. They sometimes kill twigs and
even young trees.

Remedy. These insects may be de-
stroyed by spraying in spring
with kerosene emulsion or 40 per cent,
nicotine sulphate, applied when the
invasion is first noted.

BIRCH

LEAF CHEWING INSECTS
Gipsy Moth

(See description and remedies under Beech)

BORING INSECTS
Bronze Birch Borer

Habits This borer's attacks are often

and fatal. The borer is a slender,

Damage, flat, footless grub, creamy
white in color, attaining a
length of about Y\ inch, developing into
a winged beetle which is small and slender
and olive-bronze in coloring. Egg-laying
takes place in May or early June, in cre-
vises on rough surfaces of the bark.
When hatched, the grubs bore through
the bark and make zigzag tunnels in bark
and sapwood, spending the winter in
chambers in the wood and emerging in
April or May as adult beetles, leaving oval
holes in the bark. Severe attack causes
the top branches to die and the vitality of
the tree to deteriorate until, at the end
of a year or two, the tree dies. The pres-
ence and work of the borer is shown by

Prevention There is no remedy for the
and attack of this borer. Prob-

Control. ing, which is effectual
against other borers, does
no good because of the winding character
of the channels; nor is it possible to
remove the borer by cutting, because of
the winding course of the channels and
the large number of the grubs. Pruning
of infested branches may prolong the life
of a tree, but the only safe way is to cut
and burn the tree as soon as dead or dying
tops or other signs of infestation are
manifest.

200

TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

reddish or rusty brown spots on the white
bark of trunk and larger branches; and
under the bark will be found winding
channels. Ridges are often to be seen on
the bark of branches, over the burrows.
These signs show themselves before the
top begins to die.

The injury is due to the burrows in the bark cutting off the passage of the
descending sap, death resulting from girdling that may be as thorough as though
done with an ax.

The elimination of this borer demands neighborhood action, as the cutting of a
single tree will do no good if other trees are infested.

THE BOX ELDER

SAP-SUCKING INSECTS

Box Elder Plant-bug

Habits This sap-sucking, red insect

and feeds on the leaves and tender

Damage, growth of the Box Elder. The
bug first appears about the
time the Box Elder buds open in the
spring, and lays its eggs in the crevices of
the bark. On hatching, the young travel
to the foliage, and great numbers of them
may be seen crawling along the trunk.
The late summer is spent in feeding. In
the fall the bug becomes a troublesome
household pest, because of its habit of
crawling up walls and into houses and
cellars in search of winter quarters.

Remedies. Spraying is the best means
of controlling this insect.
The spray should be applied as soon as
the bugs appear in the spring. Soap
solution or kerosene emulsion will be
found effective.

When the bugs appear in the fall they
should be killed by pouring hot water or
kerosene over them. It will also be found
comparatively easy to sweep them in
quantities into a vessel containing
kerosene.

Box Elder Aphis

Habits This is a sap-eating insect,

and the eggs of which hatch in the

Damage, spring when the tree's buds
begin to open. The hatching
process takes place on the bark and the
young insects migrate at once to the
leaves and tender twigs, where they feed.
A half-dozen or more generations may
develop during a single season. The
insects are pale green in color and they
cover the leaves and twigs with a soot-like
coating, while a sticky liquid will be found
on the leaves and on the ground. The
feeding stunts the leaves and the fun-
gus deposit gives the tree an unsightly
appearance.

Remedy. It is not difficult to control
this insect. Spraying is the
most effectual method. The sprays should
be 40 per cent, nicotine sulphate and
should be applied in the spring when the
tree starts its growth for the new season.

TREE INSECTS AND THEIR CONTROL 201

ELM

LEAF CHEWING INSECTS
Elm-leaf Beetle

Habits Attacks all Elms, especially

and the English Elm. Causes

Damage, leaves to fall; if not checked, it
brings about complete loss of
leaves and if repeated sufficiently often
will cause the death of tree.

The first sign of damage is the appear-
ance of irregular holes in leaves in early
spring. These come from attacks by the
full-grown beetle, which has just come
from its winter quarters in barns, sheds
and similar shelter. At this time eggs are
laid on the under side of the leaves. In
June these eggs hatch into larvae or grubs
which grow to be one-half inch in length;
the larvae feed on the leaves, giving the
leaves the appearance of skeletons or
lacework. Within 15 to 20 days after
hatching the larvae develop into pupae,
or young beetles, which are to be found
at the foot of the tree. Just before this
change the larvae may be seen crawling
down the trunk. In another week the
young beetles become fully grown.

The eggs are orange-yellow in color,
and occur in clusters of from five to
twenty, in irregular rows on the under
side of the leaves. The larvae are yellow-
ish black to blackish. The pupae are
orange-colored.

Combined action on the part of the entire neighborhood is essential in undertaking
the destruction of the Elm-leaf beetle. Unless all trees are treated, the results will
be without value, as the beetles will travel from infested trees to those which may
have been treated. Another factor in the importance of cooperative action is that
expensive spraying apparatus is required for trees as large as Elms and this appar-
atus should be owned by the town or city government or by a number of individual
property owners.

Remedy. The best control is by the use
of arsenate of lead, by spray-
ing, whenever and as often as there are
signs of attack. This poison should be
applied to the foliage in the early spring,
just after the buds have burst, and again
two weeks later. If rains fall after the
spraying it may be necessary to apply the
poison a third or even a fourth time. The
poison must reach the under side of the
leaves to be effective against the eggs and
the larvae. The first spraying is intended
to kill the adults and prevent the laying of
eggs; the later sprayings are additional
safeguards against possible survivors.

To destroy the pupae at the base of the
tree scalding water, thick soapsuds or a
solution of kerosene should be poured
over them in liberal quantities; this
should be used promptly and repeated
whenever and as often as may be neces-
sary until all the insects are destroyed.
The surface of the soil should be turned
by digging, to expose any insects which
may have buried themselves. In the case
of a large tree it is sometimes necessary
to climb to the forks of limbs and gather
stragglers.

Brown-tail Moth

Habits

and

Damage

This leaf-eating insect causes
great damage in New Eng-
land and a severe attack
destroys leaves as fast as
The eggs hatch early in
August, after having been laid in July in
oblong clusters covered with brown hair
on the underside of the leaves. The
young caterpillars make tents for them-

developed.

Remedies. Cutting off the winter

tents and burning them is an
effectual method of destroying this pest.
This must be done before the caterpillars
emerge in the spring. It is also useful to
spray with arsenate of lead when the
leaves are full grown and again when the
caterpillars hatch.

202

TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

selves by fastening leaves together with a
web of silk. These tents are at the ends
of twigs. Before going into winter quar-
ters in the tents, the young caterpillars
feed on the leaves, giving them a skele-
ton-like appearance, but without serious
damage. When the buds begin to form
in the spring the grubs start to devour the
bud scales and small leaves. This spring
feeding sometimes strips a tree of leaves
altogether. The growth of an infested
tree is badly checked.

In appearance the adult moth is pure
white and the tip of the abdomen is cov-
ered with dark brown hairs. The moths
appear during the first week of June and
for several weeks they may be seen clus-
tered around electric arc lights. The
caterpillars are covered with poisonous
barbed hairs which cause severe irrita-
tion when brought into contact with the
human skin.

San Jose Scale

(See description and remedies under Ash)

Bagworm

Habits Less common than the Elm-

and leaf beetle, but causes some

Damage, damage. Appears in bags,
woven by the insect itself from
bits of foliage and a silk fibre. The eggs
are laid within the bags in September and
hatch into caterpillars the following
spring. The caterpillars begin at once
after hatching to feed on the leaves and
to construct bags for themselves. The
insect carries its bag with it in moving
from limb to limb or even from tree to
tree. In winter the bags are conspicuous
on the leafless branches.

Concerted action on the part of an entire neighborhood is essential in the treat-
ment of the bagworm.

Remedies. The bagworm has natural
enemies which usually serve
to keep it within bounds. The simplest
remedy is to pick the bags from the tree,
wherever this can be done, and burn them.
Where the bags can not be thus picked
by hand, or to destroy any which may
have been overlooked, the tree should be
sprayed with arsenate of lead soon after
the time of hatching in the early spring.

Habits

and

Damage.

A black, spiny caterpillar,

marked with red, and about 2

inches long; found in groups.

Eats the leaves. Its presence

is shown by partly eaten leaves or by

entire branches or leaves becoming bare.

Spiny Elm Caterpillar
Remedies.

When the first signs of
injury appear the affected
parts of the tree should be thoroughly
sprayed with arsenate of lead. Where the
clusters are such as to make it possible
to remove them bodily without much

TREE INSECTS AND THEIR CONTROL 203

When fully developed the caterpillar
becomes a chrysalis resembling a sea-shell,
which is fastened to a limb, and which
develops into a butterfly, which in turn
lays eggs.

damage to the tree the twigs carrying the
caterpillars should be cut off. When this
is done the caterpillars may be easily
destroyed by burning, by dipping in
kerosene or by crushing.

Fall Webworm

Habits This pest may be recognized

and by its tent-like web containing

Damage, a quantity of hairy caterpil-
lars together with skeletonized
leaves, the latter usually brown. The
young webworm, or pupa, spends the
winter in silken cocoons, in cracks and
crevices of fences or tree boxes, under
doorsteps, on basement walls, or among
sticks and rubbish. In May the pupa
becomes a moth, which lays its eggs on
the underside of leaves. The young
worms when hatched feed in groups and
construct their web to cover several
leaves, sometimes an entire limb of con-
siderable size. In July, when fully grown
the worms crawl down the tree. A second
crop develops in August in temperate
climates, and in the South a third crop is
known.

To provide suitable apparatus, the spraying should be cooperative. All trees
should be sprayed as those left untreated would communicate the web-worms to
others near at hand.

Forest Tent Caterpillar

Remedies. Like the bagworm, the fall
webworm has natural ene-
mies, which usually keep it in check.
When artificial control is necessary, the
best method is to destroy the cocoon in
winter by hand picking and burning. The
burning of the tents is also necessary. If
foliage becomes affected it should be
sprayed with lead arsenate. To apply
the spray a barrel pump mounted on a
horse-drawn cart may be used in a small
community, with good results. This
should have fifty feet or more of garden
hose. A ten foot bamboo pole, carrying
the spray nozzle at the end, is helpful in
causing the spray to reach the upper
limbs. For larger communities a power
pump, horse-drawn or motor driven, is
most efficient.

Habits This is the caterpillar which

and sometimes is so abundant in

Damage, forests as to strip completely
the foliage of trees over hun-
dreds of square miles. In appearance, it
presents a blue head and it has silver
spots, diamond shaped, down the back.
The young caterpillars emerge from the
eggs when the leaf growth begins in the
early spring. They feed on the leaves and
may destroy all the foliage. They are to
be found in colonies on the trunk and
larger limbs, and are frequently seen
hanging by silken threads. Early in June
they leave the tree and take shelter under
stones, woodpiles, fences and other hiding
places, emerging early in July as moths.
The eggs are laid a little later, around
slender twigs.

Remedies. When not destroyed by
their natural enemies, these
caterpillars must be given careful atten-
tion as soon as detected. The egg masses
on twigs may be hand picked and destroy-
ed or they may be daubed with creosote,
or sprayed with kerosene emulsion or
with one of the miscible oils of standard
make. Early spring spraying with lead
arsenate is effective, when done with
thoroughness.

204

TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

Cankerworm

Habits This is the worm commonly

and known as the "measuring

Damage, worm" or "looper," because
of its curious way of looping its
body in crawling. An attack by this
species may result in the destruction of
the entire foliage of a tree. The species is
divided into spring and fall types; the
latter is the one which attacks shade trees.
The eggs of the fall moth, shaped like
flowerpots, are laid in regular rows,
usually in rings around twigs near the
end of a branch. The eggs hatch into
caterpillars when the leaves start to
expand in the spring. These cater-
pillars feed on the leaves, and in June spin
silken threads by which they descend to
the ground to bury themselves beneath
the surface. They emerge late in the fall.
The egg-layers have no wings and must
crawl up the trunk of a tree to deposit
their eggs.

Remedies. If unchecked by their
natural enemies the can-
kerworms become a serious menace to
trees. The first step is to prevent the
wingless females from crawling up the
trunks in order to lay eggs. This may be
done by banding the trees with some
sticky substance or cotton batting.
(Page 192.) These bands should be placed
late in September and kept in position
until the end of May. Where banding
has not been done, or where it has not
proved effectual, a tree which shows
signs of being heavily infested should be
promptly sprayed with arsenate of lead.
Necessity for spraying is shown by the
appearance of perforations in the leaves
when they are opening in early spring.

White-marked Tussock Moth

Habits One of the worst insect ene-

and mies to the Elm and other

Damage, shade trees, sometimes destroy-
ing the foliage of the trees in
an entire community. City trees seem
especially susceptible to its attacks.
When a tree becomes infested the signs
are at once visible, in the form of conspic-
uous egg masses on the trunk or larger
limbs; these masses are present from the
time of the egg-laying in September, until
the following spring. They are shiny
white, frothy looking patches, with four or
five hundred eggs in a single cluster.
Hatching takes place in May, with a
second brood in August, and each cluster
may produce hundreds of caterpillars.
The caterpillars immediately attack the
leaves, first reducing them to transparent
skeletons and finally devouring all but the
principal veins. After five weeks the
caterpillars weave cocoons in which they
go through the stages of transformation,
emerging as moths to repeat the egg-
laying and hatching process for a second
time and in warm climates for a third time
during the same season. The full grown

Remedies. Destruction of the egg
masses in the fall or winter
is the simplest and most effectual means
of control. They may be easily picked
off by hand, or scraped off and burned; or
they may be destroyed by spraying or
daubing with creosote oil, kept liquid by
being mixed with turpentine. It will be
found that because the masses are loosely
attached the removal can be accomplished
with little effort. If any of the eggs
remain and are hatched the tree must be
thoroughly sprayed with arsenate of lead,
completely covering all infested foliage.
The spraying should be done with equip-
ment and method similar to those out-
lined for the control of the fall webworm.
(Page 203).

The tussock moth does not appear
every year, for the reason that it has a
number of natural enemies which keep
it in check.

TREE INSECTS AND THEIR CONTROL 205

caterpillar is more than an inch long, with
red head, three black plumes, and four
yellow, brush-like tufts on the back.

Community action is essential to the destruction of the tussock moth. To treat
one tree and neglect another will not protect even the tree which is given care, as the
caterpillar travels from one tree to another. All trees should be treated at the same time.

Large Elm Sawfly

Habits This is an insect much like a

and caterpillar, which eats leaves

Damage, and girdles the bark of twigs,
often causing a tree to have an
appearance of having been damaged by
fire. Another form of damage to the
leaves is the appearance of blisters, caused
by the habit of the female of making slits
in the leaves and thrusting eggs into these
pockets. The eggs hatch in early summer
and produce yellowish-white worms,
coiled and cylindrical, with white lines
down the middle of their backs. These
worms feed on the leaves for several weeks
and then bury themselves in the ground at
the base of the tree for the winter. Mat-
ing and the deposit of eggs take place in
the spring.

BORING

Remedies. If the presence of the saw-
flies is detected during the fall
or winter, they should be destroyed at
once, by burning the debris or rubbish in
which they may be hidden or by breaking
up the ground at the base of the tree in
which they may be buried, and crushing
them. In the spring as many as possible
should be picked from the foliage, or
infested leaves taken off and destroyed.
If spraying becomes necessary lead arsen-
ate should be thoroughly applied.

INSECTS

Elm Borer

Habits

and

Damage

This boring insect does great
damage to the Elm, and is
especially apt to attack a tree
weakened by disease or from
other cause. At times it becomes epi-
demic and may destroy the trees of an
entire community or neighborhood. The
eggs are laid singly or in groups on the
bark at any time between May and
August, by a gray, long-horned beetle
about one-half inch long and marked with
red lines and black spots. The eggs
hatch into very small grubs without feet,
and these grubs immediately tunnel
through the bark into the cambium layer.
Here they continue their boring, excavat-
ing wider cavities as they grow larger.
When these cavities encircle a limb or
trunk the effect is to girdle and kill. The
grub is white and more than an inch long
when grown. On reaching full growth it
cuts out a cell under the bark and emer-
ges in the spring as a beetle, making its
exit through a round hole which it cuts

Method There is no way to destroy
of this borer except by total

Combat, removal of such part of the tree
as may be infested. If the
attack of the beetles is discovered when
the infested area is small and confined to
the branches, it is possible to save the tree.
On the other hand, if the trunk has been
attacked there is nothing to do but cut the
tree down. In removing branches or cut-
ting down the tree it is essential that the
wood be burned, as this is the only way
to prevent the borers from migrating to
other trees near at hand.

Since the borer is most apt to attack a
tree already weakened, one of the most
efficient safeguards against attack is to
provide each tree with proper nourish-
ment and protect it from injuries of all
kinds.

7o6

TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

in the bark. The damage to a tree shows
itself first in leaves turning brown at the
ends of infested branches, then by the
death of branches and finally in the death
of the tree. In dying trees, the bark on
trunk and larger branches may be easily
peeled off in patches, and underneath
these the grubs are found.

Leopard Moth

Habits This moth takes its name

and from the leopard-like spots on

Damage, its white wings. The adult
moth lays eggs in crevices of
the rough bark, a single specimen some-
times depositing 700 or 800 eggs. The
larvae, or grubs, hatch within 10 days and
at once begin their destructive work of
feeding on the wood, boring toward the
heart of the tree as they feed. Twigs
infested break off, the bark splits and
forms ugly scars, and chips and matted
discharges are found at the entrance to
the burrow. The grubs' period of activity
continues for two years, serious damage
is caused and frequently the death of the
tree results from girdling of the trunk. In
about two years the grub changes into a
chrysalis and then into a moth, and egg-
laying follows. Even when the attack is
not so severe as to cause death, the
growth of a tree is seriously hampered.

Because of this borer's tendency to migrate from tree to tree,
cooperative work is always necessary.

Treatment. The control of this insect
is difficult. When a tree or
limb has become badly infested before
discovery of the attack, the only recourse
is to cut and burn the infested part
immediately, even if this involves cutting
down the tree itself. This drastic action
is necessary to prevent the spread of the
pest to other trees. In cutting and burn-
ing, care should be exercised, and prompt
action employed, to keep the borers from
escaping and migrating.

If a tree shows a few burrows, it is some-
times possible to arrest the damage by
injecting carbon disulphid into the chan-
nels. This kills the borers. In some cases
the borers may be killed bodily by prob-
ing with a flexible wire inserted into the
channel. Action should always be immedi-
ate when the borer's presence is detected.

community or

Twig Girdler

Habits

and

Damage

hanging.

The pet habit of this insect
is to destroy twigs and bran-
ches by girdling them until
they fall off, or die and remain
The girdler appears in late
summer or early fall and is apt to feed
on the thin bark of twigs before laying
eggs. The female attacks twigs from %
to \yi inches in diameter, and cuts rings
around them deep into the wood; the eggs
are laid in openings cut through the bark.
It is these wounds that cause the twig to
die. After the eggs are hatched the grubs
feed on the wood for a year or more.
Examination of the burrow in a fallen

Treatment. There is no remedy for
this insect pest, but it con-
tributes to its own destruction by remain-
ing in the falling or broken twig. It is
important to gather and burn the twigs
as soon as they fall or break, for the pur-
pose of destroying the girdlers. This is
the only treatment to be given. Nature
helps in destroying the pest by letting
them overcrowd each other in the individ-
ual twig.

TREE INSECTS AND THEIR CONTROL 207

twig will disclose the presence of the grub.
Trees often become badly deformed as a
result of this insect's work.

SAP-SUCKING INSECTS
Oyster-shell Scale

Habits This scale may be recog-

and nized by its shape and appear-

Damage. ance. In color it is brown or
grayish, and in form it is long
and curved, spreading at one end. It is
easily moved by prying beneath it with
a finger nail or knife-blade. The eggs are
laid in the fall and remain all winter under
the parent scale, encrusting the bark of a
branch. Hatching takes place about the
time apple-blossoms fall, and produces
crawling insects which thrust their sharp
beaks into the bark and feed on the sap for
several weeks, until maturity and repeti-
tion of egg-laying. Two broods a year are
developed even as far north as New
Jersey.

Treatment. Nature provides for the
destruction of a large per-
centage of oyster-shell scales, through the
agency of enemy insects. It is unsafe,
however, to leave the work to these ene-
mies, and spraying is necessary for com-
plete elimination. The only time this
spraying is effectual is immediately after
hatching, shortly after the season at which
apple-blossoms fall, when the lice-like
insects are crawling, or have just inserted
their beaks into the bark. Whenever
these insects are visible they should be
sprayed with miscible oils (lime sulphur
hard on foliage), with kerosene emulsion,
or with whale-oil soap in the proportion of
one pound of soap to five gallons of water.

Woolly Elm-bark Aphis

Habits

and

Damage

This insect causes more
damage to the looks of a tree
than to its growth. Its
attacks produce knotted and
gnarled twigs and trunks on young trees.
The American Elm is especially suscep-
tible. An infested tree shows the rough
knots, with clusters of white, woolly sub-
stance and lice-like insects. These insects
appear during the spring and summer,
and spend their entire lives on a single
tree.

Remedies. The insect is easily con-
trolled by spraying with 40
per cent, nicotine sulphate, with kerosene
emulsion or with a solution (5 to 7 per
cent.) of one of the standard miscible oils.
The spray should be applied thoroughly
to the bark. If miscible oil is used the
spray should be applied in the winter
time; +he other should be used as needed.

European Elm Scale

Habits While not often the direct

and cause of a tree's death, this

Damage, sap-eating scale causes injur-
ies which, by weakening the
tree, lead to fatal attack by borers. The
scale winters in crevices of the bark on
the trunk and the larger limbs. At this
period its color is brown, and it is embed-
ded in a white substance resembling cot-
ton. With the approach of warm weather
eggs are deposited, and these hatch in
early summer, producing insects resemb-
ling lice. These insects have coloring of

Remedies. Winter spraying is the
most effectual means of
destroying the scale. The spray should be
kerosene emulsion, or a water solution of
one of the standard miscible oils. Not so
effectual, but useful when needed, is
summer spraying with one of these pre-
parations during the hatching season, in
June or July.

208 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

lemon-yellow. They settle on leaves and
twigs, feeding there until late summer,
when they return to the trunk or larger
limbs.

GALL INSECTS
Gall Aphids

Habits These sap-sucking insects Remedies. Spraying is seldom neces-
and disfigure a tree by causing the sary but if desired a tree may
Damage, growth of swellings known as be sprayed with kerosene emulsion or mis-
galls. These galls sometimes cible oil solution. If the galls appear on
become so numerous as to create alarm, more than one tree in a neighborhood all
but the damage is more to appearance of those infested should be treated,
than to growth or vitality. A tree is sel-
dom harmed in health by them.

GUM (SWEET)

LEAF-CHEWING INSECTS

Forest Tent Caterpillar

(See description and remedies under Elm)

HACKBERRY

LEAF-CHEWING INSECTS

Spiny Elm Caterpillar
(See description and remedies under Elm)

Hackberry Butterfly Caterpillar

Habits This leaf-chewer causes ser- Remedies. These caterpillars fall to

and ious damage to the foliage of the ground with the dropping

Damage, the Hackberry. Two genera- leaves in the autumn and it then becomes
tions develop yearly, from a simple matter to destroy them by raking
eggs deposited on the leaves. The cater- and burning the leaves. Spraying the
pillar is green in color, with pale spots and tree with lead arsenate while the eater-
lines along the back and projections at pillars are feeding is also a means of
each end. It is found on the under side control,
of the leaf. At maturity the caterpillar
develops into a russet gray butterfly,
spotted with brown. The presence of the
caterpillar is indicated by the damage
resulting from its leaf-eating habits.

GALL INSECTS
Hackberry Gall Insects

Habits The galls produced by this Remedies. It is not often necessary to

and insect mar the appearance of a aPP'y treatment against this

Damage, tree by disfiguring the foliage, insect, as the damage is usually slight,

but otherwise they do no par- When treatment is needed the tree should

ticular harm. In the spring, when the be sprayed with kerosene emulsion or

buds begin to swell and open, the insect water-soluble oil. The spray should be

TREE INSECTS AND THEIR CONTROL 209

feeds on the tender growth and lays eggs
on the leaves. In three weeks these eggs
hatch and galls result from swellings
caused by the attacks of the young insects
in feeding. The galls produce deformities
on leaves, leaf-stems and twigs.

HICKORY

LEAF-CHEWING INSECTS
Walnut Caterpillar

applied in the spring, at the time of the
first appearance of the young insects on
the leaves, before the galls close up.

Habits This leaf-chewing caterpillar

and sometimes strips a tree of all

Damage, its leaves. Its favorite is the
Walnut, but it also attacks the
Butternut and the Hickory. In extreme
cases of repeated yearly attacks the death
of the tree results. The caterpillars hatch
from eggs laid by moths in July on the
underside of leaves. Upon hatching the
caterpillars attack the leaves and continue
to feed until early fall. In full growth the
caterpillar is nearly two inches long. It is
black and covered with hairs of a dirty
gray color.

Remedies. The simplest remedy,
where possible, is to collect
the caterpillars while they are on the tree.
Where this can not be done because of the
size of the tree a spray of lead arsenate
will be found effectual.

(See description

Gipsy Moth

and remedies

under Beech)

BORING INSECTS
Hickory Bark Beetle

Habits This boring insect is a seri-

and ous menace to the Hickory,

Damage, frequently causing the death
of trees. The beetles are
hatched from eggs laid, about the time the
pollen falls from Hickory tassels, in cells
at the sides of a vertical channel exca-
vated by the parent beetle between the
inner bark and the wood. At first the
grubs feed on the inner layer of bark and
tunnel the surface of the wood on either
side of the vertical channel, producing a
design resembling a centipede. In case
of severe infestation these tunnels may
completely girdle a tree and cause its
death. Later the grubs tunnel toward the
surface of the bark, where they winter,
emerging in the spring as beetles. The
work of the insect is indicated by damage
to leaves at the base of the leaf-stems, in
the spring, and by clean round holes in
the bark; the foliage fades and dies in
early autumn.

Control. It takes a vigorous tree to
combat this enemy, and for
this reason it is important to keep Hick-
ories in good condition. In case of slight
attack, an efficient aid to control is to
stimulate the vigor of the tree by use of
fertilizer, thus enabling the tree to resist
the damage. Keeping the trunk covered
with strong whale-oil soap-suds will prove
helpful. If a tree is seriously affected it
should be cut down and burned, to pro-
tect neighboring trees from infestation.

2IO

TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

Twig Girdler

(See description and remedies under Elm)

GALL INSECTS
Gall Aphis

Swellings which resemble Remedy. To destroy these insects a

Habits

and tumors and cause deformity

Damage, of the twigs and leaves are
produced by this insect when
spring growth starts. The actual damage
is slight, but the appearance of a tree may
be badly marred by the galls.

spring spraying of kerosene
emulsion should be applied at the time the
buds are opening. This kills the insects
and prevents the creation of the deform-
ing gall growths.

HONEY LOCUST
White-marked Tussock Moth. Twig Girdler.

(See description*and remedies under Elm)

HORSE CHESTNUT
White-marked Tussock Moth.

Oyster-shell Scale

(See description and remedies under Elm)

Leopard Moth.

BORING INSECTS

Twig Girdler

(See description and remedies under Elm)

Linden Borer

Habits This beetle confines its

and attacks to the Linden, in

Damage, which respect it is different
from other insect enemies of
this tree, listed above. The attacks often
cause serious injury. The borer eats the
green bark of growing shoots, the leaf
stems and the larger veins on the under-
side of the leaves. The attack becomes
noticeable toward the close of summer.
Damage by boring is done by the grub,
which eats its way under the bark and
deep into the wood of the trunk, near the
ground, and into exposed roots and lower
limbs. The insect appears in May and
begins its attack. Eggs are laid soon
afterwards in incisions in the bark. After
passing through transformations from
grub to beetle, the insect leaves the tree
through holes in the bark. The time of
departure is throughout the summer. In
appearance the beetles are long-horned,
with six black spots on the back.

Remedies. The surest method of
destroying this borer is to
dig it out bodily, whenever this is possible.
This is especially desirable in the case of
a valuable tree, to make sure of the elim-
ination of the enemy. Another method
employed with good results is to kill the
borer bodily, by probing with a wire into
the burrow. Injection of carbon disul-
phid is effectual when thoroughly done.
Spraying with poisoned miscible oil solu-
tion in the late summer helps in the
destruction of the borers. When a tree is
heavily infested and badly damaged it is
best to cut the tree down and burn it, as
the damage can not be overcome and the
tree is a menace to its neighbors if it is
allowed to stand.

TREE INSECTS AND THEIR CONTROL 211

SAP-SUCKING SCALE INSECTS

Oyster-shell Scale

(See description and remedies under Elm)

San Jose" Scale

(See description and remedies under Ash)

MAGNOLIA

SAP-SUCKING SCALE INSECTS

Magnolia Soft Scale

Remedies. Spraying is the best means
of controlling this scale. The
spray should be applied late in September,
at the time when the young have just
made their appearance. Ten per cent,
kerosene emulsion has been found effec-
tive, as has miscible oil solution. Winter
spraying with undiluted crude petroleum
is advocated by some authorities as an
efficient means of control.

Habits This scale encrusts the

and branches of the Magnolia and

Damage. Tulip tree so thickly at times
as to cause the tree to sicken
and die. After spending the winter on the
bark the scales feed there during the
spring and summer and produce a new
generation toward fall. In September the
young insects settle so densely on the
twigs as completely to hide the bark. At
this time the young may be seen crawling
about, preparing to settle. The fully
grown scale is a vivid gray or light brown,
knotty and prominently raised. The
young scale is black. In addition to the
damage caused by the feeding, the scale
secretes an offensive honey-dew which
invites fungus growth and clogs the pores
of the leaves.

MAPLE
LEAF-CHEWING INSECTS

Forest Tent Caterpillar White-marked Tussock Moth

Bagworm Brown-Tail Moth

(See descriptions and remedies under Elm)
Green-striped Maple Worm

Habits While not prevalent every

and year, this worm does serious

Damage, damage to the Maples at
times and has been known to
strip trees of all their foliage. The moth
appears in May or June, an insect with
woolly body, pale yellow, and having a
wingspread of two inches. Eggs laid on
the underside of leaves hatch into cater-
pillars within ten days. The caterpillar is
smooth, a pale yellowish green, and grows
to be two inches long; it is striped length-
wise with dark green and has long horns
back of the head. The worm feeds on
leaves.

Remedies. Natural enemies, including
birds and insects, serve to
keep this worm in check for the greater
part of the time. . When a tree becomes
infested it should be sprayed with lead
arsenate as soon as the caterpillars make
their appearance. Prompt action is need-
ed to prevent destruction of the foliage.
To pick by hand such caterpillars as may
be in reach is helpful in ridding young
trees of this enemy.

212

TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

BORING INSECTS
Sugar Maple Borer

Habits This is the worst insect

and enemy of the Sugar Maple.

Damage. It differs from other borers in
that its attack is made against
trees which have not been weakened. As
a result of its work large limbs and even
entire trees may be killed. The parent
insect appears between June and August,
emerging from oval holes in the bark. At
this stage it is a thick, black beetle, about
one inch long, with short horns, and
marked with brilliant yellow. Egg-laying
occurs during July or August, causing
discoloration of the bark upon the trunk
and larger branches. The larvae begin
boring soon after hatching, and their
work causes a flow of sap and throws out
a substance which often forms a small
mass on the surface at the point of
entrance. The first winter is spent on the
sapwood and in the following spring the
borer tunnels between bark and sapwood
or into the outer sapwood. The burrows
during the second summer are half an inch
or more in width and almost as deep,
and they form serious wounds. If these
tunnels girdle a tree or limb they cause
death.

The presence of the borer may be
detected by various signs, including dead
limbs, dead areas of bark, ridges or eleva-
tions just under the bark, naked scars on
limbs or trunk, especially near the base of
a large limb, oval holes about half an inch
wide and a substance resembling sawdust
at the base of the tree or in bark crevices.
Sometimes the leaves on a limb will sud-
denly dry up and die, and a flow of sap
and "sawdust" will be found somewhere
on the limb.

Remedies. Careful examination of
trees for signs of the presence
of borers should be made every spring and
fall. If discoloration of the bark and
exuding sap indicate that eggs have been
laid, or if sawdust or excrement have
exuded, prompt action for control should
follow. The first step is to cut away the
bark and follow the burrow till the grub is
located and destroyed. The cutting must
be done with great care, with clean sur-
faces, and the wounds covered with creo-
sote-tar mixture or two coats of good
white lead paint. Sometimes the grub
may be reached, and killed by probing
with a flexible wire to the end of the
burrow. Carbon disulphid injected into
the holes will kill the borers if all openings
are promptly plugged with wax, soap,
clay or putty to shut out air, but when
this method is used it is not possible to
know that the borer has been killed.

Spraying the tree in late summer with
poisoned kerosene emulsion or miscible
oil is effective in killing borers which have
just penetrated the bark. The spray
should be confined to the trunk and the
larger branches and care must be taken
that none of it reaches the foliage, as the
leaves are seriously injured by these
solutions.

Trees which are badly infested, or dying
trees or branches, should be cut down and
burned. This should be done during the
winter and spring, to prevent any of the
adult beetles from emerging and causing
damage to other trees.

Leopard Moth

(See description and remedies under Elm)

Carpenter Worm

Habits

and

Damage

While seldom causing the
death of a tree, this worm is
responsible for serious deform-
ities which result in unsightly
appearance. Its eggs are laid near
wounds or scars and it is through such

Prevention The most effectual treat-
and ment of this insect is to take

Remedies, steps to prevent a tree from
becoming infested. Since
wounds and scars invite the laying of eggs,
it is important to see that no wounds

TREE INSECTS AND THEIR CONTROL 213

openings that the caterpillars, when
hatched, enter the wood to begin their
work. Wounds and scars are a constant
invitation to this insect, and its preference
for such injuries is a strong argument for
protecting trees from injury and the care-
ful dressing and treatment of wounds.
The insect lives for about three years, and
spends almost the entire time eating into
and feeding on the heart-wood. The
burrow may be half an inch in width, and
will cause the wilting of twigs and unsat-
isfactory growth.

Egg-laying occurs early in the summer,
and, soon after hatching, the caterpillar
burrows into the heart-wood. When the
insect emerges, after three years of dam-
age, it is in the form of the adult moth.

occur and that such injuries as may come
are carefully and promptly cleaned and
dressed with tar or paint. (Page 145).

When a tree becomes infested, winter is
the time for destroying the worm. Dur-
ing that season all infested wood should be
cut away and burned. Into the wounds
caused by the cutting and the tunneling,
carbon disulphid should be injected as
an added measure of control, and the
wounds should immediately be plugged
and sealed with soap, grafting-wax, clay
or putty.

Maple and Oak Twig Pruner

Habits This enemy specializes on

and the Maple and the Oak, and

Damage, while it does not kill the trees
it impairs their looks by sever-
ing twigs and causing them to fall to the
ground or hang to branches. The grub
passes the winter in the severed twig,
emerging in June as a pupa or chrysalis.
In July the parent beetle lays its eggs on
small twigs and, upon hatching, the grubs
begin at once to feed on the wood, making
tunnels which sever the twigs. During
the summer the ground is covered with
twigs cleanly cut off, as with a saw. In
the center of each twig is a burrow, filled
with debris, and in this burrow will usu-
ally be found a white grub with brown
jaws. Many twigs almost severed will be
seen hanging from the tree. Damage to
the shape of the tree is the most serious
result.

SAP-SUCKING INSECTS
Oyster-shell Scale

(See description and remedies under Elm)
Cottony Maple Scale

Remedies. Since the insects remain
in the severed ends, the best
remedy is to gather and burn the fallen
and hanging twigs. This should be done
before June, the time for the adult beetles
to leave the twigs in which the winter has
been spent. Action at this time will pre-
vent the laying of eggs for the production
of a new brood.

Habits Considerable damage some-

and times results from the attack

Damage, of this insect. The presence
of the scale is first noticeable
in June, when the body of the adult female

Remedies. It is not always necessary
to apply remedies, but if
needed, a spraying with dilute kerosene
emulsion, summer strength, is effectual if
used during the hatching season. Brush-

214

TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

becomes conspicuous on a twig by the
appearance of white egg masses resemb-
ling cotton. The eggs hatch from early
summer to August, and soon after hatch-
ing the young settle on twigs and the
underside of leaves and begin to feed,
causing the leaves to turn a sickly yellow.
Sometimes the leaves become covered
with honeydew. Badly infested branches
are apt to die. In winter the parent scale,
brown in color, oval shaped, and about
TV inch long, is found on the under side of
twigs and branches.

ing with a stiff broom over the surface
covered by the white egg-masses will
probably destroy the eggs and thus prevent
the production of a new brood. In some
communities the eggs are destroyed by
jets of water at high pressure, applied by
a power sprayer. Cutting and burning
twigs carrying the egg-masses is simple
and useful.

Gloomy Scale

Habits Although it prefers the soft

and or silver Maple, this scale is

Damage, apt to damage all Maples. Its
attacks are especially common
in the South. In appearance the scale te
yellow and shaped like a pouch. The
immature scale spends the winter attached
to the bark, and devotes the spring to
feeding. Its eggs are laid and hatched in
the early summer, and the young crawl
about for a day or two before settling
down to feed and build new scales. Sev-
eral generations follow the first, during the
summer. The presence of the scale is
indicated by a roughening of the smooth
bark and the appearance of dark gray,
scurfy patches with grain-like surface.
Wherever the scales may have peeled off,
white rings are found.

Remedy. Miscible oil solution is the
most efficient means of con-
trol. This solution should be applied by
spraying during the winter. It will usu-
ally be found to serve the purpose.

Terrapin Scale

Habits This scale takes its name

and from resemblance to a mini-

Damage, ature terrapin. It is a raised,
reddish scale, ^ to £- inch in
length and half as wide, with ridges along
its edges. The scale encrusts twigs and
drains their vitality by sap-sucking, caus-
ing the foliage to wilt and die. The hatch-
ing season extends from June through the
greater part of the summer, and the young
insects, of licelike appearance, infest green
shoots and the large veins of the leaves.
On the infested twigs, and beneath them,
a sootlike growth and honeydew are to be
seen. It also infests Oriental Plane.

Remedies. Early spring spraying
applied before the buds have
opened, is an efficient method of control-
ling this insect. For this purpose kerosene
emulsion and miscible-oil solution are
most satisfactory.

TREE INSECTS AND THEIR CONTROL 215

SAP-SUCKING APHIDS
Woolly Maple and Alder Aphis

Habits This insect is more injurious

and than the cottony maple scale.

Damage. It shows itself in the early
spring as a fluffy mass resemb-
ling cotton, on the under side of folded
leaves, and it looks so formidable as to
cause the tree owner much concern. The
cottony mass contains aphids hatched
from eggs which were laid the previous
fall in cracks and under loose bark on the
trunk of the tree. At maturity these
insects leave the Maple and migrate to an
Alder where they produce several genera-
tions that feed on the bark of twigs and
branches throughout the summer. In the
fall the final generation returns to the
Maple preparatory to the production of a
brood which furnishes the eggs for the
following season's hatching. Very little
injury is caused the Maple.

Remedies. Because of the relative
harmlessness of this insect,
treatment is not really necessary. Spray-
ing with 40 per cent, nicotine sulphate or
kerosene emulsion is effectual.

Norway Maple Aphis

Habits This insect is found on the

and under side of Norway Maple

Damage, leaves during the summer,
causing them to show brown
blotches. The leaves are also coated with
the sticky substance known as honeydew,
and so much of this substance is produced
that the ground under the tree becomes
more or less covered with it. The leaves
sometimes fall, disfiguring the tree for the
season and impairing growth. The aphis
may be recognized by its yellowish green
color, with markings of brown, its reddish
eyes and long, hairy antennae.

Remedy. Spraying is usually enough
to destroy this insect. The
spray should be 40 per cent, nicotine sul-
phate, mixed with soap and diluted. It
should be applied as soon as possible after
the insects are discovered on the leaves,
and the spraying should be aimed partic-
ularly at the under side of the leaves.
Where an insecticide is not available, a
stream of water from a garden hose,
applied frequently and with force, will
keep this aphid under control.

Habits Several forms of gall-mak-

and ing insects and mites infest

Damage. Maples, causing the growth of
galls which disfigure the trees
and sometimes cause the premature fall-
ing of leaves. Serious damage is compara-
tively rare.

GALL INSECTS
Gall Insects and Mites
Remedy.

When a tree is badly
infested a thorough spraying
with kerosene emulsion or miscible-oil
solution will prove effectual, if applied
during the winter.

2l6

TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

OAK

LEAF-CHEWING INSECTS
Gipsy Moth

(See description and remedies under Beech)
Brown-Tail Moth — Oaks are very susceptible (See under Elm).

Bagworm White-marked Tussock Moth

Forest Tent Caterpillar

(See descriptions and remedies under Elm)

Fall Cankerworm

Remedies. The treatment for this
worm is the same as that
given for the cankerworm under Elm.

Habits This leaf-chewer develops

and from the spring cankerworm,

Damage, the moth usually emerging
from the chrysalis stage late
in the fall. The parent moth is wingless,
and crawls up nearby trees or bushes to
lay eggs for the spring hatching. The
characteristics of the worm and the dam-
age it causes are the same as those given
for the spring cankerworm. (See Elm).

BORING INSECTS
Carpenter Worm Maple and Oak Twig Pruner

(See descriptions and remedies under Maple)

Leopard Moth

(See description and remedies under Elm)

Two-lined Oak and Chestnut Borer

Habits This borer is the most seri-

and ous insect enemy of the Oak.

Damage. It prefers trees weakened by
disease or by attacks from
other insects, but may attack perfectly
healthy trees. An attack by this insect is
very apt to prove fatal. Laid in the early
summer, in deep cracks in the bark, the
eggs hatch into flat milky or yellowish
white grubs with large heads. These
grubs burrow through the bark and by
fall each of them bores a tunnel which
may be three feet in length diagonally
and across the grain, in the inner bark and
outer wood. During the winter the grubs
remain in the outer bark, emerging late
in the following spring as brownish or
black beetles, % to % inches long, with
two yellow lines along the back. The
tunnels made by the borer are apt to
girdle the tree and prevent the flow of sap,
causing death.

Treatment. When a tree is badly
infested there is no remedy.
When a tree is but slightly affected, spray-
ing of the trunk during the fall with poi-
soned kerosene emulsion will establish
control.

TREE INSECTS AND THEIR CONTROL 217

Gray Aphis

This is a large plant louse nearly ^
inch long. It collects in masses on the
under side of branches, sucking sap and
exuding a honeydew more pronounced
and objectionable than that of the Nor-
way Maple aphid. They appear in mid-
summer and increase until frost. They
are not likely to kill the tree but branches
may succumb where the infestation is
severe. It. is also sometimes seen on the
Linden and on the Pin Oak.

The treatment is the same as for other
aphids.

SAP-SUCKING SCALE INSECTS
Pubescent Oak Kermes

Habits This sap-sucking scale insect

and confines its attacks to twigs

Damage, and leaves, and does no dam-
age beyond checking growth.
It appears on Oaks only. The young
insects, hatched late in the fall, spend the
winter on the bark. In the spring, when
White Oak buds begin to open, the insects
attack the new leaves and tender young
growth. The attack causes crumpling,
and later in the season death results to
the parts affected. The older leaves and
twigs are studded with stationary brown,
pea-shaped scale insects. Some of the
leaves which have been killed remain on
the tree all winter.

Remedy. A simple means of control
is spraying with a solution of
one part of miscible oil to 15 parts of
water. This should be applied when the
insects appear in the spring, at the time
White Oak buds begin to open.

Obscure Scale

Habits This sap-sucking scale insect

and has much the same character-

Damage, istics and appearance as the
Gloomy Scale, (see Maple),
but is somewhat coarser. Its attacks are
confined to Oaks, and it sometimes does
serious damage to young trees and bran-
ches. In the case of severe infestation
it may cause the death of the tree or the
affected parts.

Remedy. Winter spraying with mis-
cible-oil solutien is effectual
in the control of this scale.

GALL INSECTS
Oak Galls

Habits The Oaks are especially

and subject to the visitations of

Damage, gall-making insects affecting
all parts of a tree from roots to
buds. The galls produced by these insects
are swellings of various shapes and sizes,

Treatment. No action is necessary,
unless a fine tree is infested
repeatedly for several years. In such a
case the gall-laden parts should be cut and
burned. The fallen leaves bearing the
galls should be burned as well.

2l8

TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

particularly on twigs and the under side
of leaves. There are several hundred
varieties of the insects. Their principal
damage is to the appearance of a tree and
serious injury is not caused.

POPLAR

LEAF-CHEWING INSECTS
Cottonwood, Poplar and Willow Leaf-beetle

These leaf-eaters are active Remedy. Spraying with lead arsenate

Habits

and

Damage.

in every state of their develop-
ment from birth to maturity
and death, and the several
succeeding generations of a single season
may destroy all the leaves on a tree.
They appear in the spring, after winter-
ing on the tree, and at once begin feeding
on the developing leaves, usually on the
under side. In a short time the parent
lays eggs on the under side of the leaves,
producing a new generation. This pro-
cess is repeated from three to five times
each season. The presence of the insect
is shown by leaves partly or entirely bit-
ten through, early in the season, and later
entirely consumed, by the beetles and
grubs. As grubs the insects are short,
stout, soft-bodied and spotted; upon
developing into beetles they are hard-
shelled, spotted or striped, and half an
inch long. The eggs are yellow or reddish
and are found in batches. Upon reaching
maturity, the beetles issue from skins
fastened to leaves, sometimes called
"hangers."

is the most efficient measure
of control for this insect. This spraying
should be done as soon as the growth of
the tree starts in the spring, when there
are signs of the presence of the beetles.
Care must be taken to direct the spray
against the under side of the leaves. Soap
added to the spraying material will be
useful by causing the spray to stick to
smooth leaves.

Bagworm

Spiny Elm Caterpillar

Large Elm Sawfly

Brown-Tail Moth
Forest Tent Caterpillar
White-marked Tussock Moth
Fall Webworm
(See descriptions and remedies under Elm)

Habits The leaf-chewing caterpillar

and of this moth does serious dam-

Damage, age to the Carolina Poplar and
Willow in the prairie regions
of the United States. A tree may be
entirely stripped of leaves by the attacks
of the two generations produced in a
season. This caterpillar has a thick coat

Cottonwood Dagger Moth

Remedy. Spraying is the most effectual
remedy for this insect. Lead
arsenate, thoroughly applied, will rid a
tree of infestation.

TREE INSECTS AND THEIR CONTROL 219

of yellow hairs, long, soft and drooping,
with five tufts of stiff black hairs on its
back. The moths emerge from the chrys-
alis in the spring and lay their eggs.
From these are developed the caterpillars,
which feed on the leaves and which when
at rest, curl up on the under side of leaves.

SAP-SUCKING INSECTS
San Jose Scale

(See description and remedies under Ash)

BORING INSECTS
Aspen Borer

Habits This borer does considerable

and damage to Poplars, and is

Damage, especially prevalent in the
middle and western states.
The parent insect is a gray beetle, cylin-
der shaped, having brown spots. This
beetle's eggs are laid in a scar in the bark,
in May, June and July. On hatching, the
grub begins its mining, and spends its
first year tunneling just beneath the bark,
following this with two years of mining
deep into the wood. The boring grub is
cylindrical, yellowish, and has a number
of fine, short, hard points on a plate
immediately behind its head. The sign
of this borer's presence is the appearance,
in June or July, of irregular scars on the
trunk of a tree, especially near crotches,
from which there exudes sap carrying
fibrous dust from the boring. Later there
is an enlargement of the holes, with
increased mass of discharge.

Remedies. Spraying infested trunks
in late summer with poisoned
kerosene emulsion or miscible-oil solution
is effectual in destroying the young grubs
in the outer bark. Another helpful meas-
ure is painting the eggs with creosote
or carbolineum. When the young borers
begin to tunnel into the wood in the fall,
they may be dug out and killed; careful
attention should be given to dressing the
wounds caused by this treatment. Trees
badly infested should be cut and burned.

Bronze Birch Borer

(See description and control under Birch)

Mottled Willow and Poplar Borer

Habits Of the enemies of Poplars

and and Willows this is the most

Damage, dangerous. The parent insect
is a broad and stocky snout-
beetle of dark brown coloring mottled
with gray, and with pinkish tint at the
rear of the wing covers. In length it is
about Y% inch. After emerging from the
chrysalis stage in June or July the beetles
feed on the young bark and after a fort-
night the female deposits eggs in cavities

Remedies. The surest way to destroy
this enemy is by cutting and
burning infested limbs or badly infested
trees. This must be done in early sum-
mer, before the insects emerge from the
interior, in order to make sure that all of
them are destroyed. This season is a time
of great activity on the part of the grubs
and the exuding sap and "sawdust" make
it easy to detect their presence. A
thorough coating of the bark with lead

220

TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

gouged in the bark of young growth.
Upon hatching, the young penetrate the
bark and winter beneath it. In the spring
they resume feeding on the cambium or
inner bark. When fully grown, a few
weeks later, they bore into the wood and
into the pith, and tunnel a gallery in the
latter soft material. The presence and
activity of the borer are shown by dead
or dying limbs, swellings and dead patches
of bark, often cracked, on limbs or trunk,
fading foliage and the oozing of sap and
"sawdust" from points of attack. The
half-inch white grub will usually be found
in the burrow when an injured twig is split
open.

arsenate in July, has been found effectual,
as has also the painting of trees with kero-
sene emulsion in April.

Cottonwood Borer

Habits This borer does much dam-

and age, causing death or so weak-

Damage, ening a tree as to cause it to be
broken off by the wind. The
grub is long and cylindrical, yellow col-
ored, and is hatched from eggs laid in
July and August, in small punctures in
the bark, at or below the ground level.
The young borers mine under the bark
and deep into the wood, throwing out
shredded sawdust. The mines thus made
at the base of the tree are responsible for
the weakness that makes the tree fall
before heavy winds. Sickly tops, and
collections of the shredded borings on the
ground, are the indications of the borer's
work. The borer continues his tunneling
for two years.

Remedies. Destruction by digging
out the young borer is the
most successful remedy; or carbon disul-
phid, injected into the hole which shows
fresh sap and borings, will prove effectual
if the hole is promptly plugged and sealed
with grafting wax, putty, soap or clay.
Spraying the trunk with poisoned kero-
sene emulsion, or miscible-oil, is advo-
cated by some authorities for killing the
borers when young.

Carpenter Worm

(See description and remedies under Maple)

Twig Girdler

Oyster-shell Scale

(See descriptions and remedies under Elm)

SAP-SUCKING GALL INSECTS
Poplar Leaf-stem Gall-aphis

Habits The gall formed by this

and insect takes the form of a

Damage, swelling of the stem, in which
a large brood of living lice is
born in midsummer. The aphids feed on

Remedies. Unless the attack is
exceedingly severe, no treat-
ment is necessary. In extreme cases the
destruction of the insects may be accom-
plished by gathering the infested leaves

TREE INSECTS AND THEIR CONTROL 221

the tender growth and cause dropping of
leaves, marring the appearance of the
tree and littering the ground underneath.
Trees are not seriously damaged.

and burning them or dipping them in
kerosene.

SYCAMORE

LEAF-CHEWING INSECTS
Bagworm White-marked Tussock Moth

(See descriptions and remedies under Elm)

SAP-SUCKING INSECTS
Sycamore Lace Bug

Habits While it does not kill trees

and nor cause serious damage, this

Damage, sap-sucking insect is respon-
sible for discoloring the foliage
of the Sycamore and for causing the pre-
mature falling of leaves, marring the
tree's beauty and littering the ground.
The bug appears in the spring, with the
starting of growth, and starts feeding on
the foliage. Within a week or two the
females deposit eggs on the under side of
leaves, and these hatch in another fort-
night. The young insects feed on the
leaves immediately. The adult bugs have
lacelike wings, prettily marked. They are
to be found with their wingless offspring,
in colonies on the under side of leaves.
Two or more generations are produced in
a single season.

Remedy. The insect may be con-
trolled and destroyed by
spraying with soap solution, but this is
not necessary unless the invasion is un-
usually heavy.

TULIP TREE

SAP-SUCKING INSECTS
Tulip Tree Aphis

Habits This species of sap-sucking

and insect infests branches, twigs

Damage, and leaves during the growing
season, feeding on the sap by
means of pointed beaks. The presence
of the aphis is indicated by sticky honey-
dew on the parts affected, and by ants
which feed on this honeydew. The aphis
causes leaves to curl and fall, littering the
ground, but no serious injury results.
In appearance the insect is reddish brown,
with pale green abdomen.

Remedy. Spraying with 40 per cent,
nicotine sulphate is effectual in
destroying this insect. The spray should
be applied as soon as the presence of the
aphis is detected.

222

TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

Tulip Tree Soft Scale

Habits This sap-sucking scale insect

and sometimes causes serious dam-

Damage, age to the branches of a tree.
The young spend the winter
on the bark, and the following spring and
summer they use the bark as their feeding
and breeding ground. They are gray or
brown, about y$ inch long and almost as
wide, and prominently raised. In severe
attacks they encrust the underside of
branches so thickly as to give them a
sickly, blackened appearance, and the
death of the branches may result.

Remedy. Winter spraying with crude
petroleum is effectual. Mis-
cible-oil solution, applied in winter, also
has its advocates. On small trees whale-
oil soap in a proportion of one pound to
four gallons of water, makes a satisfac-
tory spray, if applied just after the young
are hatched, early in September.

WALNUT

Walnut Caterpillar

(See description and remedies under Hickory)

CHAPTER XX.

MUNICIPAL CONTROL OF SHADE TREES

O make street tree planting successful and satisfac-
tory there must be one central head charged with full
responsibility and armed with authority to establish and
enforce suitable regulations. This is necessary in order
to bring about systematic choice of species for planting,
to insure correct spacing between trees, and to provide
for proper pruning as well as adequate protection
against insects and diseases.

This central control is just as important in connection
with trees as in the matter of sewer systems, water-pipes,
sidewalks and paving. Public health and convenience
make it necessary for these improvements to be in the
hands of city or town or district authorities, and the pub-
lic's interest in the shade trees of the community calls for
giving them similar treatment. When individual tastes
and preferences in the matter of shade trees are permitted
to control, one man may plant a Silver Maple, the man
next door choose an Ailanthus, another select the Norway
Maple, and near at hand may come in bewildering suc-
cession a Scarlet Oak, a Sycamore, a Tulip, a Sugar
Maple and a Horse Chestnut. The result of this wide
variation of choice is certain to present a riot of size,
shape and coloring as the trees develop and their widely
different characteristics become emphasized. Such a
street will have an uneven and ragged appearance satis-
factory to no one.

Each street shade tree should be looked upon in its

relationship to all the other trees along that street, or, at

any rate, to those along a particular part of the thorough-

223

224 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

fare. The planting of them according to the personal
tastes of the different owners is as inimical to the general
effect as would be the paving of the street in front of each
property according to the personal preferences of its
occupant. In this selection it is imperative that there
should be harmony of choice and concert of action. In a
real sense, each tree planted belongs to the entire neigh-
borhood. That the man who cuts down his own fine tree
injures the property of his neighbors is recognized in the
law of one state. To plant an undesirable species or type
of tree is an offence equally serious.

With the lack of uniformity that goes hand in hand with
haphazard planting is irregularity in the spacing of trees.
One man may want a tree in the center of his lot frontage,
while his next door neighbor may choose to place one at
each side. Individual preference may cause one man's
tree to crowd that of his neighbor so closely that both will
soon be completely misshapen. Across the street there may
be a gap of 200 feet or more between trees. One con-
dition is as bad as another. Overcrowding and exces-
sive gaps are to be avoided, as harmony is as essential in
spacing as in species.

There is further danger in individual tastes being
exercised on the trees throughout the period of develop-
ment and growth. Such danger exists with reference to
trimming. One may like the trees pruned so low that the
branches touch the hats of passers-by. Another may pre-
fer the complete elimination of the lower branches, and
accordingly, trim his thrifty and growing shade tree close
to the very top; while a third may be too busy to trim his
trees either way. Such diversity brings about an uneven-
ness and raggedness fatal to the desired effect.

Choice of tree guards may give rise to further disparity,
if one uses fancy pine pickets, painted red, another wire-

MUNICIPAL CONTROL OF SHADE TREES 225

mesh, while a third uses wrought iron of highly ornate
design, and a fourth none at all. The result of these vary-
ing tastes and opinions is an assortment of tree guards as
picturesque and kaleidoscopic as the mixture of trees them-
selves, or of possible treatment in trimming.

In the matter of other care, difficulties also arise from
leaving the responsibility on the individual property
owner. Protection from insects is one of the serious prob-
lems in tree care. Insect enemies are various and insid-
ious. They do not advertise and they do not carry
banners nor herald their attacks with blare of trumpets.
They come quietly and by stealth, and frequently serious
damage is done before the property owner knows that any-
thing is wrong. That every man along a street should give
adequate study and attention to insect pests and their hab-
its is hardly to be expected; and even the man who does
know something about the subject may suffer because of
lack of knowledge or indifference on the part of his neigh-
bor, or because he lacks facilities for proper protection. Few
things could be more discouraging than for the man who
conscientiously and painstakingly rids his own trees of
insects to find that a fresh supply drops in on him from the
tree of his next door neighbor.

These problems are cited without intent to discourage
the tree planter, but rather with the thought of pointing
out some of the difficulties that are possible and showing
how they may be avoided. The solution is to be found
in the municipal or community control of all shade trees.
In European cities, the control is almost invariably vested
in the municipal government, and in the United States,
those cities which have made the greatest progress in shade
tree development have established shade tree control with
highly satisfactory results.
15

226 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

Through city control it becomes a simple matter to
see that trees are planted and cared for properly. The
Shade Tree Commission, city tree expert or other respon-
sible head of the work is in position to settle questions as
they arise, including the choice of variety, exact location,
details of planting, necessary care and protection and the
other points involved in securing best results in shade tree
development. Under such central control, uniformity of
species along any street is assured by the provision that no
property owner may plant an undesirable variety, or one
lacking in harmony with its shade tree neighbors. Uni-
formity in spacing is brought about by the location being
officially approved in its relation to the location of existing
or proposed trees. In short, no tree may be planted with-
out formal approval of type and placement, and since
these two points are the very foundation of good planting
the importance of control is obvious.

Central control may give further uniformity by regu-
lating the type of guards that shall be used. This is a
minor point, perhaps, but it is not to be ignored in the
general effect of street development.

In protecting trees against insects and diseases, central
control is most important. In order that pests may be
successfully combated, it is essential that their attacks
should be anticipated as frequently as possible, or at least
that they should be detected promptly after beginning
their destructive work. To the untrained eye this is not
always possible. The tree borer, for instance, works in the
dark, hiding himself soon after birth by eating his way
into the inner wood of the tree, there boring an intricate
system of tunnels. To the observer of surface appearances,
no damage is visible, possibly for years, or until the injury
becomes manifest through dying branches. The tree is
then frequently past saving. Under a well-organized

MUNICIPAL CONTROL OF SHADE TREES 227

shade tree government it is possible for the city's trained
workers to detect attacks and prevent serious injury.
This applies to diseases as well as to insect enemies. By
the timely detection and treatment of these dangers, the
trees of an entire neighborhood may be saved.

Even spraying, simple as it may seem, is a process best
handled by the community-at-large. To spray a small
tree, in the early years, is easily accomplished by the use
of a garden spraying apparatus; but when the tree becomes
larger, the outfit must be more powerful. For the individ-
ual to have such equipment is scarcely expected. For the
city or town government to have outfits which will care for
all the trees of the community is the simplest, most
efficient and most economical plan and, therefore, the
most logical and desirable.

Central control by the municipal government is to be
commended from every point of view, and where such
control is lacking, property owners should insist that it be
provided.

It will be found that the creation of such control will be a
step of great importance in developing attractive streets.

Probably the most satisfactory way of securing super-
vision is through an unpaid commission of three or five
members, which in turn employs an executive officer. In
a small place a commission of three persons may be best,
one being appointed every two years for a six-year term.
In large places five members may be better, and the ideal
term would be 10 years. A compromise would be a five-
year term, a new member being appointed each year. The
great reason for long-term appointees is that it takes two
or three years for a member of such a board or commission
to see and realize the things needed to be done and the
policies that should be carried out. Because it takes a long
time to get results in growing street trees, the policies

228 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

should be as nearly continuous as possible and the terms
of the members long enough to insure a majority of exper-
ienced persons on the board at all times.

The method of appointing the commissioners is not so
important as that each shall be selected from the territory
as a whole rather than from a part of it. In some places,
where the term of service is ten years, each one's successor
is appointed by the remaining commissioners, subject to
confirmation by the court. Where this is done a member
is not permitted to succeed himself. In other places the
commission is appointed by the court; in others, it is
elected by the city legislative body or is appointed by the
mayor, subject to the approval of the legislative body.
The important point is to keep the administration as
nearly as possible on a purely business basis.

A good board can accomplish nothing without liberal
funds. There are two methods of providing these:
(i) By an appropriation from the general tax levy and (2)
by direct assessment against the properties, collectible
with the other taxes. If the funds are provided by appro-
priation, a fixed minimum, expressed in millage of the tax
rate, should be provided in the organization of the com-
mission. This minimum should be such that a fair amount
of maintenance work can be done when no other funds
are available. Councils that appropriate money some-
times hamper boards by withholding appropriations.
Work of the nature of tree planting should not be per-
mitted to suffer or be lost by a year's neglect. The fund
provided by this minimum amount should not be so large
that regular additional appropriations will not be needed
to carry on the work properly, as this will give a desirable
point of contact of the commission or board with the
ordinary channels of expressing public sentiment in the
district interested. The minimum appropriation man-

MUNICIPAL CONTROL OF SHADE TREES 229

datory should be sufficient to prevent injury from lack of
care of work already begun. A period of minimum care
and attention, while a board and the people or their repre-
sentatives are coming to a new understanding of one
another's position, is not necessarily a detriment, provided
a reasonable maintenance has been possible in the interim,
but without such care the results are ruinous, and work
would better not be started than be undertaken with the
possibility of such a period of neglect occurring.

In New Jersey, 100 towns and cities have manifested
recognition of the worth of trees by creating shade tree
commissions. Every community in Massachusetts is
safeguarding its trees through an appointed guardian,
vested with adequate power. Other states and individual
cities are giving increasing attention and appropriations
to undertakings of the same nature and are making
increasingly liberal expenditures to preserve existing trees
and provide new ones to meet recognized needs. In the
face of this, it is safe to assume that the practical American
spirit will not be slow to insist that, if the municipality
spends public funds for planting and protecting its trees,
every precaution shall be taken to prevent private agen-
cies or individuals from causing trees damage, which would
undo the work and destroy the fruits of the labor and
money expended for the conservation of shade and the
beautification of the community.

After a proper governing board is provided, the secur-
ing of a competent executive is a matter of ordinary busi-
ness procedure. It is usually desirable that he shall be not
only a good executive but also a man with a knowledge of
trees and trained in their care, so that he may be a com-
petent adviser of the board as well as its executive.

There has been a most unfortunate tendency to call
such a man a "Forester" and the department that employs

23o TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

him a Forestry Department. It is no more appropriate to
call a man in such a position a forester than an orchardist.
A forester grows trees for the products that may be
obtained when the tree is cut down, an orchardist grows
them for the fruits that may be harvested during life,while
the street tree warden cultivates them for the pleasure and
comfort they may give by their very existence. He is more
nearly comparable to a landscapist than to either of the
other two, but it is a little difficult to determine just the
name that should be applied. Arboriculturist would be
distinctive and, if adopted, would not long seem formid-
able. Tree Warden would make a perfectly good name.
Other tenable names would be Town Tree Expert, Shade
Tree Expert, and City or Town Tree Engineer. The
name City Forester has been so much used largely because
many graduates in forestry have deserted real forestry for
this line of work, but have taken the title with them. It
is to be hoped and expected that as the country develops,
there will be many cities that will obtain forests that will
require real forestry work of some one, in which case
the continuation of the present practice of using the term
"Forester" for street tree workers may prove very con-
fusing, in not distinguishing real forestry work for a city
from purely shade tree work.

CHAPTER XXI.

LEGAL VALUE OF SHADE TREES

SHADE trees have a value which may be translated
into dollars and cents. In no other investment may
the individual or community achieve manifold profits such
as those accruing from tree planting. Along with the divi-
dends in beauty and comfort must be reckoned the cash
value of each tree successfully planted and grown.

Strikingly illustrative of the dollar and cent value of
shade trees is the definite appraisal placed on them by city
authorities. Springfield, Massachusetts, may be cited as
an example. Figures show that Springfield has more trees
in proportion to population than any other American city,
and the municipal government places an appraisal value of
$100 on each tree. With a total of 25, coo trees in the city,
this gives an appraised value of $2,500,000 to be counted
as an added asset of the community. Ann Arbor, Mich-
igan, uses a similar method of computation and reckons
the value of its 8000 trees at $800,000. In reaching these
figures the city officials followed the formula worked out
by Prof. Filibert Roth, one of the foremost of American
foresters, who formulated the first basis for shade tree
valuation in this country.

In undertaking to set a standard for tree values con-
sideration must be given to many factors. A tree may be
of value only for its lumber, or for its shade, or it may be
as priceless as Hartford's Charter Oak or the world famous
Cambridge Elm. With much depending on location and
individual beauty, it is impossible to approach shade tree
values without the law of averages.

231

232 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

With a shade tree certain factors are recognized as
establishing definite value. For the single specimen these
are such characteristics as size, form, type of foliage, lon-
gevity, ability to thrive under the local conditions, relative
immunity from attack of insects and diseases, vigor of
growth, shape, condition with respect to wounds and
cavities and ravages of insects and diseases.

Methods of appraisal have become fairly well stand-
ardized through experience. As a result of close observa-
tion, more than one tree formerly appraised at high value
for street purposes has been "marked down" in some local-
ities, because of the local development of increasing
troubles affecting them, such as the ravages of the elm
beetle or the leopard moth, inability to withstand dry
weather, or other conditions.

Location is a factor of much importance in connection
with accurate valuation. A tree in the center of a narrow
walk may become a nuisance as traffic increases, and for
this reason it is not as valuable as one set in a tree-belt.
A well-planted avenue gives to each of its trees greater
value than an avenue poorly planted, and the tree which
is one of a uniform line has greater value than the tree in a
line which is irregular. A tree top close to others is of less
value than one with plenty of room for its growth. A
wide tree-belt gives a tree more value than does a narrow
one. A narrow street lessens a tree's value; a wide street
enhances it, by giving it the necessary room and by mak-
ing it possible for water mains, sewers and other under-
ground construction to be placed farther from the tree's
roots. The greater the distance of a tree from the curb, the
better its chances for satisfactory growth, and therefore,
the greater its value, since nearness to the curb involves
closer amputation of the roots in the placing of street,
curb, and underground construction, with the added dan-

LEGAL VALUE OF SHADE TREES 233

ger of injury from horses, street traffic and kindred ele-
ments. The existence of numerous water and gas pipes,
sewers and conduits is apt to necessitate much digging,
and this interferes with tree values. Manufacturing dis-
tricts, with their atmosphere of smoke and gases, are not
good tree locations, and although trees are desirable in
such districts, they do not attain the maximum of value
against these handicaps. Similar disadvantages accrue to
the tree so located as to suffer from sun-scorch or drought.

Character and quality of soil enter largely into the
value of the individual shade tree. If a tree is located in
favorable soil, its value is much increased. Cultivated
soil is better than a lawn, of course, but, next to cultiva-
tion, lawn conditions are most favorable to proper growth
and development. Abnormal soil conditions and unsuit-
able soil texture work against a tree and its value. The
distance from a residence and its direction in relation
thereto, involve a tree's worth in terms of shade and,
therefore, play a part in its general appraisal. There is on
oiled roads also a possibility of injury to the roots them-
selves, if the oil niters through the soil.

Shade tree valuation has been approached in various
ways by students of the question. The methods followed
may be summed up under seven headings, as follows:

(1) The Arbitrary Method. — This is an elemental
basis for providing penalties for damage to trees, with an ef-
fort to establish some relationship between the penalty and
the value of the tree itself. In Massachusetts, a state law
authorizes the court to place a fine of not less than $5.00,
nor more than #150 for injury or destruction of an in-
dividual tree. The assessment of actual damage is left
to the discretion of the court. The earliest application of
this principle in American records was the action of the
town meeting of Newark, New Jersey, on February 6,

234 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

1676. This action was based on the premise that "The
Town, seeing some trees spoiled in the streets by barking
or otherwise * * * hath agreed that no green tree within
the Town, as marked with N, shall be barked or felled, or
any otherwise killed, under the penalty of 10 shillings
(for each tree) so killed."

Judicial recognition of this method of computing dam-
ages has been given in various suits at law. In Olean,
New York, judgment of $150 against a gas company was
awarded for four trees destroyed by escaping gas in soil,
and this judgment was affirmed by the Court of Appeals.
In Kansas City, judgment of $200 was obtained against a
telephone company, because the linemen, without consult-
ing the owner, had chopped out the top and center of a tree,
causing its death. This decision is of especial interest, for
the reason that the verdict involved a single tree only, and
that tree a Poplar with a girth of but six inches. One won-
ders what the verdict would have been in the case of a mag-
ificent Elm or some other really desirable tree. In New
York State a verdict of $500 apiece for the destruction of a
row of trees was awarded against an offending construction
company. In the case of Bathgate vs. North Jersey Street
Railway Company, (70 Atlantic Reporter, 132 etc.) it was
shown that four of Bathgate's trees had been injured and
eventually killed by electric current from the company's
wires. Damages were awarded in the sum of $500, and
the decision of the lower court was upheld by the Court of
Errors and Appeals.

(2) Replacement Value. — In the application of this
method computation is based on the cost of removing a
damaged tree and its subsoil, if the latter has become
vitiated, and replacing them with a good tree and good
soil. This plan contemplates that the new tree shall be,
as nearly as practicable, of the same size as the tree which

LEGAL VALUE OF SHADE TREES 235

had to be removed, and a guaranty is required to protect
the owner in the matter of satisfactory growth for the
transplanted tree.

(3) The Roth Method. — This was evolved by Professor
Filibert Roth, Dean of Forestry at the University of Michi-
gan, and is based on profound study and observation
covering many years. In his lectures Professor Roth
discussed the subject for a generation or more and his
calculations attracted such widespread attention that they
were published in the Michigan Manual of Forestry, Vol. II.
As a minimum estimate Professor Roth advocates com-
puting the cost of establishing a tree at $15, plus com-
pound interest at 5 per cent, for the 25 years which must
elapse before the tree has achieved its full value by reaching
the point of development at which it is really serving its
full purpose. After this point has been reached, he figures,
the tree "pays its own way" by its usefulness and beauty.
The value of the tree, at the end of the 25 year period,
therefore, is the $15 investment with added interest in the
sum of $36.80, or a total appraisal of $51.80. Professor
Roth suggests further that the cost of caring for the tree
might also be added.

(4) The Circumference Measurement Method. — This
allows a valuation of approximately $5.00 per inch of cir-
cumference, breast high measurement.

(5) The Diameter Measurement Method. — Many
landscape architects, foresters and others, who have given
serious thought to the subject, advocate the method which
bases appraisal on a tree's diameter 4^ feet from the
ground. This plan allows $10 per inch of diameter.

(6) The Square-foot Basal Area Method. — This plan,
devised by Mr. George H. Parker, of Hartford, Connecti-
cut, bases valuation on an allowance of #75 per square
foot of basal area, breast high measurement, subject to

236 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

specified modifications and deductions for defects of
species, trunk, crown and other factors. Under Mr. Par-
ker's supervision 271 trees on Washington Street, in Hart-
ford, of which 216 were more than one foot in diameter,
were appraised at #37,500.00 or an average of #138.41 for
each tree.

(7) The Square-inch Basal Area Method. — In figuring
the area of a trunk this method reduces the computation to
square inches. It has been used by Mr. W. W. Colton, to
estimate the value of the street trees of that suburban
beauty spot, Newton, Massachusetts. Taking a maxi-
mum of 75 cents for each square inch of basal area, Mr.
Colton, as city forester of Newton, placed a valuation of
#1,516,602 on 12,577 trees. This was an average of
#120.50, and the figures were reached after deductions as
indicated in Plan 6.

Newark, New Jersey, has had an annual appraisal of
its trees for 10 years. This appraisal is made by the City
Shade Tree Commission, at the request of the City Audi-
tor. The inventory carries a valuation of the shade trees
upon the public thoroughfares and in the city parks; and
the financial department of the city government, very
properly, lists the total amount among the assets of the
municipality. The Newark figures have been based
largely on replacement value, which is manifestly inade-
quate, as the trees could not be replaced with others of
equal size at the valuation of #2,037,532.50 given for
66,308 trees, an average of #30.72.

As a concrete example of results to be attained through
application of various plans of appraisal, the Newark trees
might be estimated under four methods. Under the Roth
plan, the trees would be given a valuation of #3,330,884,
equivalent to #50.23 apiece, which is still inadequate. By

LEGAL VALUE OF SHADE TREES 237

figuring the basal area, and allowing #1.00 per square inch,
instead of 75 cents as allowed under the Colton plan, the
valuation averages $88.52 per tree, which reaches gross
figures of $5,869,936; from which, in the absence of precise
figures for each tree, a deduction of 10 per cent, is made
for defects, including faulty location and insect damage,
reducing the average per tree to $79.67 and the total for
the city to $5,282,966.

Guided by these various methods, a plan may be
worked out which may be called the Newark method,
attained by a combination of the Parker and Colton
systems of computation. In this method let us use as a
basis of value the square-inch area of the trunk, 4^ feet
from the ground, and allow a maximum valuation of $1.00
to the square inch of basal area. In the case of a tree 18
inches in diameter, with a basal area of 264.7 square inches,
the value shown would be $264.70. This, of course, would
apply only to a perfect tree with long life prospect, pro-
perly placed and in ideal condition. Deductions must be
made for (1) variation from desirable species; (2) condition
of trunk; (3) condition of top; (4) position with reference
to curb and other menacing construction, and probability
of continuance of life; (5) environment, scenic value and
general desirability. For each of these items a perfect
tree would score 20 per cent. Proportionate deduction is
made for defects or variations. The sum of the five items,
after deductions have been made, represents the percentage
of the tree's value in relation to the value of the perfect tree.

To apply this method to trees of various species
requires the adoption of a basic value for the several
varieties, formulated on a sliding scale which gives the
highest mark to species most suitable for a particular
community and most permanent as to life, and the lowest
mark to those least desirable. As an example of this

23 8 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

sliding scale a basic species-value for New Jersey towns
and cities has been worked out which gives a species score
of 20 to the American Elm, Norway Maple, Red Oak and
Pin Oak, and which grades other trees thus : Oriental Plane
18, European Linden 18, American Ash 17, Red Maple 17,
Sycamore Maple 17, Sugar Maple 16, Horse Chestnut 16,
Tulip 16, Silver Maple 15, and the Carolina Poplar 15.

All things considered, this basis of valuation seems to
come nearer than any other to establishing the true value
of to-day, and does not conflict radically with Professor
Roth's dictum that "from the standpoint of city beauti-
fication, and considering the enjoyment people get out of
them, good shade trees are worth $100 apiece." This
method differs from the Parker and Colton plans in no
other particular than in the value of the unit. It must be
remembered that the Roth method was promulgated 30
years ago, the Parker method in 1907 and the Colton
method in 19 16. In keeping with all else, tree planting
has increased in cost within recent years, and it is proper
to recognize this in formulating a present-day table of
values.

Application of various figures to individual trees
affords concrete example of the workings of the plans of
appraisal. The experience of Newark, New Jersey, may
be accepted as typical of what can be accomplished in any
municipality and for this reason recourse could be had
to the admirable records of that city in working out a table
of values for particular specimens. This table would
take account of one tree of each of nine species set out in
Newark, since the city undertook municipal planting
in 1904. These 9 trees could be regarded as thrifty
representatives of the city's total planting of 32,000 trees,
showing the rate of growth under favorable conditions.

LEGAL VALUE OF SHADE TREES 239

They would be all the more typical for the reason that
Newark can point to a great many other trees of each species
which have shown the same rate of growth and develop-
ment: The trees included in the tabulation would be
selected specimens in perfect condition, with no deduction
necessary for defects. The Newark authorities maintain
that of much this perfect condition is due to the excellent
tree guards used, and this is a point for the consideration
of other cities.

Familiarity with the cost of replacing these trees with
others of similar size prompts the statement that the Roth
method does not produce figures that would cover replace-
ment value at the present increased costs. On the other
hand, the allowance of #10 for each inch of diameter
gives figures that appear excessive in some instances, and
this is as much to be avoided as undervaluation.

Tree appraisal figures tell their own story. They bear
out the truth that tree planting is to be considered as an
investment rather than as an expense, and they show that
the investment is profitable in dollars and cents.

CHAPTER XXII.

SHADE TREES AND THE LAW

IN law, as well as from the point of view of city beau-
tification, shade trees have come to have recognized
value. This legal recognition manifests itself in the writ-
ing of laws to protect trees and to encourage their plant-
ing. Laws of this nature exist in various parts of the
United States as matters of state legislation and in many
communities as items of regulation by cities, towns and
villages. Wherever such laws have been put into effect
their operation has stimulated the planting of shade trees
and giving them the care necessary for their best
development.

Shade tree legislation in the United States began with
the passage of a state law by the Commonwealth of
Massachusetts in 1854. Prior to that time, there had been
scattered attempts to regulate the growth of trees, but this
was the first law to give the trees of an entire state ade-
quate attention. Theretofore, shade trees had been planted
by the citizens of communities throughout the country
on streets and private property bordering the highways,
but little thought had been given to the care and replace-
ment of the trees planted. This part of the undertaking
was left for future generations.

The Massachusetts law was an important step in the
direction of regulation, but it lacked much that was neces-
sary to make it properly effective. It remained for New
Jersey, in 1893, to pass the first really comprehensive state
law pertaining to the care of shade trees. In 1899, Massa-
chusetts once more took the question before its legislature,

with the result that a law was passed providing that every
240

SHADE TREES AND THE LAW 241

town must elect a Tree Warden, and defining the duties
and powers of the office thus created. In 1907, Pennsyl-
vania enacted a shade tree law to a large extent modelled
on the New Jersey law and its amendments. These three
states were the pioneers. The successful operation of their
laws attracted the attention of people elsewhere, and
numerous states now have laws governing the planting and
care of shade trees. It is a tribute to the foresight and in-
telligence with which New Jersey, Massachusetts and Penn-
sylvania handled the subject that the laws of these three
states are still considered the models for such legislation.

The close kinship of the laws of New Jersey and Penn-
sylvania make it possible to summarize them as one.
Under the provisions of these measures, the governing
body of any city, town, township, borough or other munic-
ipality may vote to accept the provisions of the law for
application locally; a shade tree commission is then estab-
lished and to this commission all matters pertaining to
shade tree planting and care are entrusted. Nothing can
be done without the approval and authority of the com-
mission. The law covers planting, pruning, spraying and
removal, thus giving the local government the complete
control so necessary to satisfactory development of a shade
tree system.

Additional power of much importance is given through

the provision that the shade tree authorities need not

wait until property owners decide that their particular

street should have shade trees. The commission may

proceed on its own initiative. After determining that a

street needs trees, it gives public notice of intention to

plant. All persons interested are then given a hearing on

the subject, and after this, the work proceeds along lines

followed in other public improvements. The commission

determines the species to be used and the exact location of
16

242 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

each tree. After the planting has been completed, the cost
is certified to the taxation authorities, to be assessed
against the property directly affected. This assessment
becomes a lien on the property and the taxes are collected
with other taxes. Funds for maintaining the shade tree
department are derived from a tax in an amount not to
exceed ^ of a mill on the dollar of assessed valuation in the
municipality.

The law authorizes the commissions to pass ordinances
covering all phases of planting, protection, regulation and
control of shade trees. These have proved extremely
efficient in protecting trees from damage by electric light,
telephone and telegraph companies and other public util-
ities and in preventing wilful or malicious injury by indi-
viduals. Shade trees need protection and it is only
through the operation of laws, with proper penalties, that
this protection can be given.

The shade tree laws of Massachusetts, as codified and
revised in 191 5, make it compulsory for every town to
elect a tree warden, to have charge of the planting and
care of shade trees. His powers are very definite and he is
responsible for proper shade tree development in his com-
munity. In cities, there are no tree wardens, but the
duties and responsibilities created under the shade tree
law are imposed on such city officials as have charge of the
care of trees. In addition to outlining the duties and
powers of the town and city authorities, the law also
provides that the tree warden of a town or the proper
officials of a city may pass special ordinances and regula-
tions governing shade trees, adapting these regulations to
local conditions, but without conflict with the state law.

In the protection of trees along public thoroughfares
the Massachusetts law has proved itself very efficient, but
it has not accomplished as much as the laws of some other

SHADE TREES AND THE LAW 243

states along the line of promoting the planting of trees.
The weak point in this respect is that the state law pro-
vides no funds for carrying out the provisions of the act.
The matter of raising funds by taxation is left to local
option, which has crippled the operation of the law in
many communities. Some municipalities have officers
empowered to enforce the shade tree laws, but are not
sufficiently aroused to the importance of the question to
appropriate sufficient funds for the maintenance of the
work. The result is a failure to realize the best possibilities
in shade tree development. Another criticism of the Mass-
achusetts law is that it is a mistake to have tree wardens
elected. This subjects the office to political influences,
which are undesirable and which could be avoided by
having the office appointive, subject to approval by a
State officer trained in tree culture and connected with the
Department of Conservation.

Perhaps the most important feature of the Massachu-
setts law is its requirement that every town in the state
must have a tree warden. This provision is tangible
recognition of the value of shade trees to a community,
and placing it on the statute books has resulted in arous-
ing new interest in the subject of trees and tree planting.
The powers conferred on the municipal authorities are
necessarily broad, but even in this respect attention is
given to preventing an unsatisfactory use of these powers
in certain important particulars. In the original law the
final decision for the removal of public trees rested with
the tree warden. Under the revised law recognition is
given the right of the private citizen and property owner
to have a voice in the disposal of such trees. To this end
the warden or other official is required to hold a public
hearing, duly advertised, before any public tree may be
removed. Even after this hearing there is provision for

244 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

appeal to the highest officer of the town or city, followed
by an appeal to the courts if the objector considers it of
enough importance. This feature has been found well
worth while.

Study of the various laws and observation of their
workings suggest that an ideal arrangement would be a
combination of the best features of the laws of New Jersey,
Pennsylvania and Massachusetts. This could be achieved
through an enactment requiring that every city or town
appoint a shade tree commission, and that this body
employ a trained expert to give attention to the interests
of the trees. Provision should be made, of course, for
revenue for carrying on the work. The plan might well
be extended to provide that towns too small for an arrange-
ment of this kind might combine with other towns and
organize a joint council to handle shade tree matters for
all of the towns involved. One expert could thus serve
several towns with slight cost to each of them. Division
of the expense would be easily determined on a basis of
property valuation, population and area. A plan of this
kind has large possibilities in the way of inviting interest
in shade trees in communities which might otherwise con-
sider themselves too small to undertake the proper hand-
ling of the question.

A good state law should have the support of good local
laws in the communities throughout the state. Important
cities in the three states named have followed up the pass-
age of general laws by the passage of local ordinances and
special laws. Some of these municipal governments have
been working under such legislation for a number of years,
and in many of them the results have been highly satis-
factory. Examples of carefully framed and extremely
practical regulations are the ordinances in effect in New-
ark, New Jersey; Philadelphia and Johnstown, Pennsyl-

SHADE TREES AND THE LAW 245

vania; and Boston, Massachusetts. Several other Massa-
chusetts town and cities have admirable laws, as Newton,
Worcester and Fitchburg. The village of Brookline has
what is perhaps the best organized shade tree department
in Massachusetts and its success has been such as to make
it well worth copying.

It is necessary, of course, in formulating local legis-
lation, to have due regard to the local conditions. The
regulations which would be wise and necessary in one com-
munity might not fit some other place. There are many
general requirements, however, which will apply anywhere
and these must not be neglected. Among the latter are
the regulations for shade tree protection from injury or
damage. In any town or city it should be made illegal
and subject to a fine, for any person to affix or attach any-
thing to any tree or to the guard or stakes protecting a
tree. This is intended primarily to bar the nailing of
advertising signs to trees or the fastening of wires or other
things to them. Similar provision should be made to pre-
vent the cutting, painting or marking of trees for any pur-
pose other than protection of the trees themselves, and
then only under written permit and directions from the
authorities. It is also necessary to forbid cutting, destroy-
ing or in any way injuring trees; and since climbing causes
injury, this should be expressly forbidden.

Safeguards should also be provided to prevent any
person from placing about the base of a tree such harmful
substances as oil, salt water, liquid dye or other matter
injurious to tree life, including waste from ice-cream
freezers. This provision should be so devised as to prevent
the discharge of gas in any way that will harm the root
system of trees, or any other parts. Penalties should be
provided for any person who permits a horse or other
animal to injure a tree by biting or otherwise. Stringent

246 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

legislation is also necessary to make it unlawful for any
person to hamper or interfere with the work of an author-
ized employee of the shade tree department in the pursuit
of his duties in caring for and preserving trees.

With increasing interest in municipal shade tree activ-
ities there will necessarily be many points on which local
experience will be lacking. The shade tree authorities
will find it well to profit by the experience of other com-
munities, for in this way they will learn many of the things
necessary. One of the foremost of these is that no man
should accept a position of authority without a full sense
of his obligation to the community. He cannot afford to
become lax in his knowledge of shade tree laws or the
correct interpretation of them, and when he is in doubt on
any point he should seek the counsel of his municipal legal
adviser, or the State Forestry authorities. The tree
official will find that it is undesirable to antagonize prop-
erty owners unnecessarily. Even in carrying out a
requirement that causes objection, tact and discretion will
serve better than arbitrary methods.

An important point in popularizing a shade tree
department is that the official in charge make friends
with the property owners. One of the surest ways to bring
this about is to consult the owners of adjacent property
when contemplating important pruning or other work on
the trees along any street. To go at work of this kind
without conference frequently causes trouble. Experi-
ence shows that if the property owners are consulted
beforehand, they will almost invariably agree to the plan
under consideration.

Some of the other important points to be regarded by
the successful tree warden or supervisor are that irrespon-
sible tree peddlers or self-styled repair experts must be
discouraged, that the rights of the trees come first, and that

SHADE TREES AND THE LAW 247

public service corporations must not be allowed to damage
trees through the stringing of wires, the laying of pipes or
in any other way.

Some states have tried to curb incompetent tree
workers by a system of licenses based on examination.
This would be a help where there is not a thorough system
of tree supervision as there is in Massachusetts and would
be a help to private individuals wishing to have work done
on their own grounds.

When appropriations are insufficient to meet reason-
able demands the issuing of permits to responsible and
competent firms or adjoining property owners for planting
or pruning puts the work on a wrong basis, but is better
than no control.

248 TREES AS GOOD CITIZENS

ARBOR DAY IS OBSERVED ON FOLLOWING DATES.

Alabama February 22.

Arizona In five northern counties, Friday following first day of April.

Elsewhere, Friday following first day of February.

Arkansas First Saturday in March.

California March 7.

Colorado Third Friday in April.

Connecticut In early May, by proclamation of the governor.

Delaware In April, by proclamation of the governor.

Florida First Friday in February.

Georgia. First Friday in December.

Hawaii First Friday in November.

Idaho Various dates in April selected by county superintendents.

Illinois Proclamation of the governor.

Indiana Third Friday in April.

Iowa Proclamation by the governor.

Kansas Option of the governor.

Kentucky In the fall by proclamation of the governor.

Louisiana Second Friday in January, by resolution of State board of

education.

Maine Option of the governor.

Maryland Second Friday in April. Proclamation of the governor.

Massachusetts Last Saturday in April.

Michigan Proclamation of the governor. Usually last Friday in April.

Minnesota Proclamation of the governor. Usually latter part of April.

Missouri First Friday after first Tuesday in April.

Montana Second Tuesday in May.

Nebraska April 22 (birthday of J. Sterling Morton).

Nevada Proclamation of the governor.

New Hampshire Proclamation of the governor.

New Jersey Second Friday in April.

New Mexico Second Friday in March. Proclamation of the governor.

New York Friday following 1st of May.

North Carolina Friday after November 1.

North Dakota Option of the governor.

Ohio Proclamation of the governor. About the middle of April.

Oklahoma Friday following the second Monday in March.

Oregon Second Friday in April.

Pennsylvania Proclamation of the governor.

Porto Rico Last Friday in November.

Rhode Island Second Friday in May.

South Carolina Third Friday in November.

South Dakota No law, but generally observed in April throughout the State.

Tennessee Appointed by county superintendents, in November.

Texas February 22.

Utah April is, by statute.

Vermont Option of the governor. Usually first Friday in May.

Virginia Proclamation of the governor. In the spring.

West Virginia Usually observed on the second Friday in April.

Wisconsin Proclamation of the governor. Usually the first Friday in May.

Washington Proclamation of the governor. Usually the first Friday in May.

Wyoming Proclamation of the governor. Usually the first Friday in May.

The " Father of Arbor Day" was J. Sterling Morton, who, at a meeting of the
State Board of Agriculture in Lincoln, Neb., on Jan. 4, 1872, introduced a resolution
setting aside April 10 for tree planting. Kansas and Tennessee took up the lead in
1875 and in 1882 North Dakota and Ohio followed. Other states then adopted the
idea. In 1885 the Nebraska legislature passed an act changing the date to April 22,
Mr. Morton's birthday, and making it a legal holiday in the State.

INDEX

Ability of trees to resist injury from gases,

170
Accessories, Spraying, 194
Ailanthus or Tree of Heaven, 66
Alder Aphis, Woolly Maple and, 215
American (or White) Elm, 50
American Legion plants Memorial Trees,

109
American Plane, 34
Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate, 179

Formula, 179

How to make, 180

Appearance of, 180
Ancient History, Trees in, 18
Anthracnoses, 180
Anticipating insect attacks, 225
Aphids, Gall, 208

Sap-sucking, 199
Aphis, Box Elder, 200

Gall, 210

Gray, 217

Norway Maple, 215

Tulip Tree, 221

Woolly Elm-bark, 207

Woolly Maple and Alder, 215
Apples, Cedar, 182
Appraisal, Methods of shade tree, 232,

233
Appropriations for shade tree work, 228
Arsenate of lead powder, 188
Ash, Differentiating characters between

Green and White, 30

Green, 30, 57

Leaves, 30

Mountain, 64

Principal insects attacking: Ash-bud
gall-mite, 197; San Jose scale, 197

White, 30, 57
Ash-bud Gall-mite, 197
Ash-leaved Maple or Box Elder, 32, 62
Aspen, American, 38

Large-toothed, 38

Quaking, 38

Borer, 219
Associations, Memorial Tree, 117
Atmospheric influences, Damage to shade

trees from, 169

Bagworm, 202, 211, 216, 218
Bands, Tree, 195
Bark Beetle, Hickory, 209
Bark grafting by bridging, 160
Injuries, 152

Bark, Loosened, 155

Treatment of torn, 152
Barrel hand-pump for spraying, 192
Basic value of shade tree varieties, 238
Basswood, 40, 52
Battle-ground Oak at Guilford Court

House, 124
Beech, American, 38, 64

Characteristics, range, beauty and
adaptability of, 106

European, 40

For roadside planting, 106

Identifying characters of, 38

Principal insects attacking: Gipsy
moth, 198; Aphids, 199
Beetle, Elm-leaf, 201

Cottonwood, Poplar, and Willow-leaf.
218

Hickory Bark, 209
Big-leaf Maple, 61
Birch-borer, Bronze, 199
Birch, Canoe, 40

Grey, 40

Identifying characters, 40

Paper, 40

Principal Insects attacking: bronze
birch borer, 199; Gipsy moth, 199

White, 40
Black knot, Treatment of, 176
Black Locust, 65
Black Walnut for beauty and utility, 102

For California highways, 103
Bolting Limbs, 158
Bolts, Tree, 158
Bordeaux Mixture, 177

Formula, 178

How to make, 178
Borer, Aspen, 219

Bronze Birch, 199

Cottonwood, 220

Elm, 205

Linden, 210

Two-lined Oak and Chestnut, 216

Sugar Maple, 212
Borers, Work of, 187

How to control, 187
Boring Insects, Habits and damage of, 197

How to remedy, 197
Boston Common, Trees of, 125
Box Elderor Ash-leaved Maple, 32

Principal insects attacking, 200
Branching, Pruning for proper, 141
Bridge grafting, 160

249

25°

INDEX

Bronze birch borer, habits and damage

of, 199, 219
Brookline Shade Tree Department, 245
Brown-Tail Moth, 201, 21 1, 216, 218
Buckeye, Ohio, 30

Sweet, 30

Red, 30
Bur Oak, 49

Butterfly Caterpillar, Hackberry, 208
Butternut, Characteristics, range and
adaptability of, 104

For roadside planting, 104
Button-Ball tree, 34
Buttonwood, 34

California laws protect nut groves and
fruit orchards, 97

Live Oak, 49

Old Redwoods, 120

Shade Tree splendor of roads, 91

Sycamore, 55
Cambridge Elms, 125
Camphor Tree, 58
Canker, Nectria Cinnabarina, 176
Cankerworm, 204

Habits and Damage, 216
Capitols, Shade trees of world's, 19
Carbon disulphid, How to use, 119

Action of, 192
Caring for shade trees, 131
Carolina Poplar, 38, 63
Carpenter worm, Habits and damage of,

212, 216, 220
Caterpillar, Habits and damage of Spiny

Elm, 202 208

Hackberry butterfly, 208
Cavities, Bolt reinforcement in large, 164

How to fill, 162

Treatment, 161
Cedar apples, 182

Cement dust injurious to foliage, 171
Center strip type of street planting, 72
Chamber of Commerce plants Memorial

Trees, 118
Charter Oak, Hartford's, 231
Chestnut Blight, 106
Chestnut borer, Two-lined Oak and, 216
Chestnut, Horse, 30, 64
Chestnut not recommended for planting,

io7.
Chewing insects, 186

Leaf, 187
Chisel, Pruning, 148
Circumference measurement method,

The, 235
Cities famous for trees, 20
Citrus fruits, Pecans replace, 100
City authorities appraise shade trees,

How, 233
City Beautiful, 19

City shade tree control, 223
City trees, Struggle for existence of, 183
Colton plan of shade tree valuation, 237
Commission functions, How a shade tree,

241
Commission, Organization of a shade tree,
227

Powers of, 241
Common and scientific names of trees,

Use of, 27
Community ownership of spraying and

other equipment, 185
Compressed air pumps, 193
Conifers, The, 65
Constitutional Elm, The, 124
Contact insecticides, 187
Contact sprays, Formula for various

kinds of, 188
Control of street planting, Importance

of central, 224
Cooperation in shade tree work, 246
CornwallisOak, 124
Cottonwood, 38

Borer, 220

Dagger Moth, 218
Cottonwood, Poplar and Willow Leaf-
beetle, 218
Cottony Maple Scale, 213
Creosote oil spray, Uses of, 190
Creosote, Uses of, 145
Cross of Trees at Macon, Georgia, 117
Crotches, Splitting, 158
Cultivation of base soil, 132
Curb on tree planting, Effect of, 232

Dagger Moth, Cottonwood, 218
Damage to trees by gases, 166

From excavation, 151
Damage, Penalties for tree, 233
Diameter measurement method, 235
Diseases and their treatment, Tree, 172
Diseases of trunks, limbs and roots, 174

Foliage, 177
Dust injurious to trees, Cement, 171
Death of trees caused by gases and

vapors, 171
Dentistry, Tree, 161
Danger from injury to street trees, 134
District of Columbia, Famous trees of,

122
Digging for transplanting, 79
Double action hand-pumps, 192
Drainage of street trees, Irrigation and,

84, 132

Effect of leaking gas on trees, 167
Effect of street on shade tree values, 232
Elder, Ash-leaved Maple or Box, 32
Principal insects attacking, 200

INDEX

251

Elm, American (or White), 34, 50
Borer, 205
Difference between American and

English, 36
English, 36, 51
Huntington, 51
Identifying characters, 36
The Constitutional, 124
Principal insects attacking: elm-leaf
beetle, 201; brown-tail moth, 201;
San Jose scale, 202; bagworm, 202;
spiny elm caterpillar, 202; fall web-
worm, 203; forest tent caterpillar,
203; cankerworm, 204; white-marked
Tussock moth, 204; large elm-sawfly,
205; elm borer, 205; Leopard moth,
206; twig girdler, 206; oyster-shell
scale, 207; woolly Elm-bark aphis,
207; European elm scale, 207; gall
aphids, 208.
Elm-bark aphis, Woolly, 207
Elm-leaf beetle, 201
Elms of New England, 25
Enemies of shade trees, Insect, 149, 183
English Elm, 36, 51
Entomologists, State, 184
Europe, Nut and fruit trees on roads of, 97
European Beech, 40
European Elm scale, 207
European Linden, 53
Excavation injury to street trees, 151
Executive, Proper title for shade tree, 230

False Plane Tree, 34

Fall cankerworm, 216

Fall webworm, 203, 218

Fame for Trees, Hall of, 120

Famous trees of District of Columbia, 122

Fertilizer, Amount necessary, 133

Soil requirements, 133
Fiftieth Anniversary of Arbor Day

planting, 113
Filling for cavities, 161
Financial returns from nut trees, 101
Fine for damaging trees in Massachusetts,

Fines for injuring trees in Olean, N.Y., 234

In Kansas City, 234

In New York State, 234

In Bathgate, N.J., 234
Fish-oil soap spray, How to use, 191
Florida plants Roads of Remembrance,

119
Foliage diseases, 177
Forest tent caterpillar, 203, 211, 216, 218
Formal pruning sometimes desirable, 43
Formation by pruning, 140
Formula for Bordeaux Mixture, 178
Fruit groves near highways, Nut and, 96

Fruiting bodies of fungus, 173
Fumigation of nursery stock, 186
Fungi, Life history of, 172

Treatment of, 173
Fungicides, 178, 179
Fungus brackets, 174

Different types of growths, 172

Gall Aphids, 208
Gall Aphis, 210

Poplar leaf-stem, 220
Gall Insects, 215

Mites and Hackberry, 208
Gall-mite, Ash-bud, 197
Galls, Oak, 217

Gas injured trees, How to save, 168
Gas leaks, How to detect, 167
Gas, Trees susceptible to injury from, 170
Gases, Damage to trees by illuminating,

166

Atmospheric, 170

Injury from, 152
General Sherman Tree, 120
Ginkgo, 51

Identifying characters, 38
Gipsy moth, 198, 199, 209, 216
Girdler, Twig, 206
Gloomy Scale, 214
Grafting, Bridge, 160
Grant Elm, The, 124
Grant Trees, General, 124
Grant's Tomb memorial planting, 113
Gray aphis, Description of, 217
Great Britain, Road of Remembrance

Association of, 1 19
"Great Tree Maker," The, 112
Green Ash, 57

Green-striped Maple worm, 21 1
Grove of Remembrance at Baltimore, 1 1 1
Grove of States at Los Angeles, The, 1 1 1
Growth of shade trees, Stimulating pro-
per, 131
Guards, Tree, 134

Painting, 137

Types of, 135

Value of, 239
Gum, Sweet, 56

Principal insects attacking: forest tent
caterpillar, 208
Guying close to crotch, 159

Hackberry, 66

Characteristics of, 36
Gall insects, 208

Principal insects attacking: spiny elm
caterpillar, 208; hackberry butterfly
caterpillar, 208.
Hall of Fame for Trees, The, 120
Harding endorses Roads of Remem-
brance, President, 116

252

INDEX

Harding Plants Memorial Trees, 1 10

Harmony essential in street planting, 68

Hawthorns for roadside planting, 94

Health factors, Shade trees as, 21

Heart-rot, Red and white, 174

Hickory, Characteristics, range and adap-
tability of Shagbark, 105
Principal insects which attack: Walnut
caterpillar, 209; Gipsy moth, 209;
Hickory bark beetle, 209; twig gir-
dler, 210; gall aphis, 210

Highway planting, 115
On Lincoln, Illinois, 118

Hilgard Chestnut, The, 125

Historic trees, Famous, 122

Honey Locust, 67

Principal insects which attack: white-
marked Tussock moth, 210; Twig-
girdler, 210

Hooker Oak, Sir Joseph, 123

Horse-bites, Injury from, 134

Horse chestnut, 30, 64

Principal insects which attack: White-
marked Tussock moth, 210; Leopard
moth, 210; Oyster-shell scale, 210

Horse chestnut and Buckeye, Differenti-
ating characters between, 30

How fungus lives and grows, 173

How to choose nursery stock, 77

How to detect gas leaks, 167

How to fill cavities, 162

How to identify shade trees, 27

How to prune, 146

Huntington Elm, 51

Identify Shade Trees, How to, 27
Illuminating gas menaces shade trees,

166
Importance of central control in shade

tree work, 226
Influence of street in shade tree valuation,

232
Informal type of street planting, "/}
Injury to street trees, Sources of, 149

From industrial wastes, 170

From freezing, 154

From overhead wires, 150
Insect attacks, Anticipating, 225
Insect pests, Municipal treatment of, 185
Insecticides, Contact, 187
Insects and Mites, Gall, 215
Insects and their control, 183
Insects, boring, 197

Leaf-chewing, 198

Sap-sucking, 197

Various types, 186
Inspection of trees, Necessity of regular,

184
Intrinsic value of shade trees, 25

Investment, Shaae trees an, 24

Tree planting an, 239
Irrigating shade trees, Methods of, 132
Irrigation and drainage of street trees, 84

Japanese Walnut for roadside planting, 105
Judicial computation of damage to shade
trees, 234

Kentucky, Naturalization Tree in, 121
Kermes, Pubescent oak, 217
Knot, Black, 176

Kerosene emulsion spray, Uses of, 189
Formula for, 190

Labelling shade trees, 127
Necessity of, 130

Labels, Methods of attaching tree, 124
Types of, 128

Lace Bug, Sycamore, 221

Lafayette Trees, 123

Landscape value of trees in supplement-
ing memorials, 108

Large Elm sawfly, 205, 218

Laurel Oak, 48

Law, Shade trees and the, 240

Lawns, Shade trees planted on, 233

Laws penalizing tree damage, State, 233

Laws protect groves and orchards in
California, 97

Lead, Arsenate of, 188

Leaf blight, Effect of, 180
How to prevent, 180
When to spray for, 180

Leaf chewing insects, Work of, 187
How to control, 198

Leaf curl, How to control, 181

Leaf Scorch, How to control, 182

Leaks, Gas, 166

Legal regulation of tree operators, 157

Legal value of shade trees, 231

Legislation, Shade tree, 240

Leopard Moth, 206, 212, 216

Liberty Oak, 124

Limbs, Bolting, 159

Lime, Arsenate of , 188

Lime-Sulphur Sprays, Uses of, 189

Lincoln Hackberry, The, 123

Lincoln Highway Association planting,
117
Lincoln Trees, 123

Linden, American (or Basswood), 40, 52
Borer, 210
European, 40, 53

Live Oak, 47

Local conditions affect local tree legisla-
tion, How, 245

Local cooperation in shade tree work, 245

Locating roadside trees properly, 94

INDEX

253

Location as a factor in shade tree valua-
tion, 232

Location of street trees, 68

Locust, Black, 65
Honey, 67

Lombardy Poplar, 36, 62

London Plane, 34, 54

Magnolia, 58

Principal insect which attacks: mag-
nolia soft scale, 211
Maidenhair Tree, or Ginkgo, 38
Map showing tree planting areas, 87
Maple and Oak twig pruner, 213, 216
Maple, Ash-leaved (or Box Elder), 62
Maple Aphis, Norway, 215
Maple, Big Leaf, 61
Norway, 58

Principal insects which attack: forest
tent caterpillar, 211; bagworm, 211;
brown-tail moth, 211; white-marked
Tussock moth, 211; green-striped
maple worm, 211; sugar maple borer,
212; Leopard moth, 212; carpenter
worm, 212; maple and oak twig prun-
er, 213; Oyster-shell scale, 213; cot-
tony maple scale, 213; Gloomy scale
214; Terrapin scale, 214; woolly
maple and alder aphis, 215; Norway
maple aphis, 215; gall insects and
mites, 215
Red, 59
Silver, 61
Sugar, 60
Maple for roadside planting, Red, 92
Maple scale, Cottony, 213
Maple worm, Green-striped, 211
Maples, Identifying characters, 32
Massachusetts, Shade tree commissions
in, 229
Law protects trees in, 233
Shade tree laws in, 240
Tree wardens in, 242
Memorial Trees, 108

At Fort Omaha, Colorado, 112
Nationally known people plant, 114
On drill field of University of Illinois,

112
Park at Fort Wayne, Indiana, m
Tree Association, 117
Tree planting, 108

Planted by Christian Endeavor Soci-
eties, 112
On Lincoln Memorial grounds, 114
President Harding plants, no
Tennessee and New Jersey plant, 1 1 1
Memory Mile, The, 1 17
Method, The Roth, 235
Mildew, Powdery, 181

Miscible oil sprays, Use of, 190

Mites, Gall insects and, 215

Moth, Brown-tail, 201

Moth, Gipsy, 198, 199

Mottled Willow and Poplar borer, 219

Motor truck sprayers, 194

Mountain Ash, 64

Municipal nurseries to provide for

replacement, 43
Municipal shade tree authorities, Powers

of, 243
Municipal control of shade trees, 223

Treatment of insect pests, 185

Valuation of shade trees, 233

National and Dixie Highways, Planting

the, no
Nationally known people plant memorial

trees, 114
Naturalistic planting, 68
Necessity of prompt repair of trees, 155
Nectria cinnabarina canker, Symptoms

and treatment of, 176
Newark, N. J., protects individual trees,

233

Annual shade tree appraisal, 237
New England, Elms of, 25
New Jersey, Shade tree commissions in,
229

Shade tree law, 240
Nicotine sulphate spray, How to use, 191
Normal type of street planting, 74
Northeast, Trees suitable for roads of, 92
Northwest, Trees suitable for roads of, 92
Norway maple, 32, 58
Norway Maple aphis, 215
Nourishment by root absorption, 133
Nozzles, Various types of, 194
Nursery stock, Choosing, 77

Fumigation of, 186
Nut and fruit groves near highways, 96
Nut-raising industry, Importance of, 101
Nut trees, Financial returns from, 101

Pay taxes, 99

Plant, for utility, 96

Oak, Bur, 28, 49

California Live, 49

Chestnut, 28

Identifying characters of bark, 28

Laurel, 28, 48

Leaves, 28

Live, 28, 47

Overcup, 28

Pin, 28, 46

Post, 28

Principal insects which attack: Gipsy
moth, 216; brown-tail moth, 216; bag-
worm, 216; forest tent caterpillar, 216;

254

INDEX

Principal Insects attack: White-marked
Tussock moth, 216; fall cankerworm,
216; carpenter worm, 216; maple and
oak twig pruner, 216; Leopard moth,
216; Two-lined oak and chestnut
borer, 216; gray aphis, 217; pubes-
cent oak kermes, 217; obscure scale,
217; oak galls, 217;
Red, 28, 45
Scarlet, 28, 47
Spanish, 28
Swamp White, 28
Valley, 49
Water, 28
White, 28, 47
Willow, 28, 48
Oak Galls, 217
Oak group, black, 28
Oak kermes, Pubescent, 217
Oak twig pruner, Maple and, 213
Oaks, Identifying characters of fruits and
leaves, 28
For roadside planting, 92
Obscure scale, 217
Officials, Local tree, 184
Oil sprays, Miscible, 190
Ordinances, Shade tree, 242
Oriental Plane, 34, 55
Ottawa Tree Club, 117
Overhead wires, 150
Oyster-shell scale, 207, 210, 211 213, 220

Palmetto, 58

Parasites, 172

Parker plan of shade tree valuation, 237

Pecan, 64

Production figures, 102

For roadside planting, 101

Range of growth, 101

To replace citrus fruits, 100
Pecan trees pay rent, 99
Pepper tree, 67
Penalties for tree damage, 233
Pennsylvania shade tree law, 241
Philadelphia's Memorial Trees, III
Pin Oak, 46
Plane, London, 54
Plane, Oriental, 55
Plane tree, 34
Plant-bug, Box Elder, 200
Planting areas, Map showing, 87
Planting by two-row type, 68

Broad streets, 74

Country roads, 73

Highway, 115

Memorial Tree, 108

Russo-American Oak, 121

Home grounds, 23

Narrow streets, 74

Planting Preparations for, 76
Shade trees, 41
Weather, 82

Points: choice of variety, 41; adapta-
bility to location, 41; hardiness, 41;
rapidity of growth, 41; proper culti-
vation, 42; shade-giving qualities, 42;
physical form, 42; replacement, 43;
clean habits, 43 ; beauty, 43

Planting table, Tree, 88

Poisoned contact sprays, 191

Poisons, Stomach, 188
Formula for, 188

Pole pruner, 148

Poplar Borer, Mottled Willow and, 219

Poplar, Carolina, 38, 61
Leaf-stem gall aphis, 220
Lombardy, 36, 62

Principal insects which attack:
cottonwood, poplar and willow-leaf
beetle 218; bagworm, 218; spiny elm
caterpillar, 218; large elm sawfly, 212;
brown-tail moth, 218; forest tent cater-
pillar, 218; White-marked Tussock
moth, 218; fall webworm, 218; cotton-
wood dagger moth, 218; San Jose- scale,
219; aspen borer, 219; bronze birch
borer, 219; mottled willow and poplar
borer, 219; cottonwood borer, 220;
carpenter worm, 220; twig girdler, 220;
Oyster-shell scale, 220; poplar leaf-
stem gall aphis, 220

Poplars, Distinctive characteristics, 36

Posilippo, 18

Potted type of street planting, 73

Powder, Arsenate of lead, 188

Powdery mildew, How to control, 181

Power sprayers, 193

Practical uses of tree labels, 127

Preparations for planting, 76

Preventing abuse of city street trees,

134
Prevention of fungous growths, 174
Profit in shade tree planting, 232
Protecting street trees from injury, 134
Protection, Local regulations for shade
tree, 2 45
From freezing, 154
Protective Coatings, 145
Protects trees, Massachusetts law, 233
Prune, When to, 140, 147
Pruner, Maple and oak twig, 213
Pruner, Pole, 148

Pruning and trimming, Distinction be-
tween, 138
Pruning, Annual, 140
Early, 141
Chisel, 148
Laws, 148

INDEX

255

Pruning, Necessity of, 139

Reasons for, 138

Results of, 139

Root and branch, 138

Time for, 139

Tools, 141

Top, 139
Pruning tools required, Number of, 147
Pruning wounds, Protection of, 144
Pubescent oak kermes, 217

Red maple, 32, 59

Red Oak, 45

Redwood, Gen. Sherman, 120

Reinforcement in large cavities, 164

Remembrance, The Roads of, 115

Rent, Pecan harvest pays, 99

Repair of shade trees, 156

Replacement of shade trees, 43

Replacement value of shade trees, 234

Resistance to gas, 170

Roadbuilding by states, 115

Roads of Remembrance endorsed by

White House, 115,116
Roadside planting by clubs and schools,

116

Japanese walnut for, 105

Trees adapted for general, 92
Roadside Trees, Desirable, 92
Roadsides, Nut and fruit trees on Euro-
pean, 97
Root absorption, 133
Root-prune before planting, 81
Root-rot, 175

Roots injured by sewers and pipes, 150
Roth, Filibert, 231
Roth Method, The, 23 5
Russo-American Oak in White House

grounds, 121
Rust, Appearance of, 181

Fruiting bodies of, 182

San Jose scale, 197, 202, 21 1, 219
Saprophyte, 172
Sap-sucking insects, 197, 199

Work and control of, 187
Saving gas injured trees, 168
Sawfly, Large Elm, 205
Scale, Cottony Maple, 213

European Elm, 207

Gloomy, 214

Obscure, 217

Oyster-shell, 201, 210, 211, 213, 220

San Jose, 197, 202,211,219

Terrapin, 214

Tulip tree soft, 222
Scarlet Oak, 47

Selection of trees for planting, 41
Sewer and pipe injury to roots, 150

Shade tree commission, How to organize,
226, 227

Financing of, 227

Duties of, 241
Shade tree injury from atmospheric influ-
ences, 169
Shade tree legislation, 240
Shade tree planting, 76
Shade tree splendor of California roads, 91
Shade tree valuation, factors in, 232

The Roth method, 235
Shade trees and the law, 240
Shade trees, Enemies of, 149

Legal value of, 231

Methods of determining value, 232

The Roth method, 235

Circumference measurement method,

235

Diameter measurement method, 235
Square-foot basal area method, 235
Square-inch basal area method, 236
Municipal control of, 223
Pruning and trimming, 138
The placing of, 68
Utility of, 19

Selected List covering adaptability,
soil requirements and general
characteristics with reference to
street planting:

Ailanthus, or Tree of Heaven, 66

American or White Elm, 50

Ash-leaved Maple (Box Elder) 62

Basswood, or American Linden, 52

Beech, 64

Big-leaf Maple, 61

Black Locust, 65

Bur Oak, 49

California Live Oak, 49

California Sycamore, 55

Camphor Tree, 58

Carolina Poplar, 63

English Elm, 51

European Linden, 53

Ginkgo, 51

Green Ash, 57

Hackberry, 66

Honey Locust, 6j

Horse Chestnut, 64

Huntington Elm, 51

Laurel Oak, 48

Live Oak, 47

Lombardy Poplar, 62

London Plane, 54

Magnolia, 58

Mountain Ash, 64

Norway Maple, 58

Oriental Plane, 55

Palmetto, 58

Pecan, 64

256

INDEX

Selected List (Continued). Pepper Tree, 67

Pin Oak, 46

Red Maple, 59

Red Oak, 45

Scarlet Oak, 47

Silver Maple, 61

Sugar Maple, 60

Sweet Gum, 56

Sycamore, 53

The Conifers, 65

Tulip Tree, 55

Valley Oak, 49

White Oak, 47

White Ash, 57

Willow Oak, 48
Shade tree's struggle for existence, 183
Shagbark Hickory, 105
Shakespeare Memorial Oak, 125
Shears, Pruning, 147
Shellac for protecting wounds, 144
For waterproofing surfaces, 144
Shelter, Trees for, 93
Sherman Sequoia, General, 120
Sherrill labels capital's trees, Col., 129
Shoestrings are symptoms of root-rot, 175
Shrubs for roadsides, 93
Sidewalk planting, 69
Silver Maple, 61
Slime-flux, Description and treatment of,

Smoke injures trees, 169

Soap spray, Fish-oil, 191

So-called "Tree Surgeons," 156

Sodium arsenite, 191

Soft-coal smoke injures trees, 169

Soil cultivation at base of trees, 133

For newly planted tree, 81

How to enrich, 133, 196

Requirements for proper tree growth,

133

Shade trees planted in cultivated, 233

Treatment of gas-filled, 168

Requirements of Beech, 106
Sources of injury to street trees, 149
Southern roads, Trees suitable for, 92
Spacing distances in planting, 74
Spacing of roadside trees, 93
Spiny elm caterpillar, 202, 218
Spot, Leaf, 180
Sprayers, Power, 193
Spraying accessories, 194
Spraying apparatus, Community owner-
ship of, 185

Various kinds of, 192
Spraying mature street trees, 193

To control foliage fungus, 177
Spray pumps, Uses of various types, 193
Sprays, Contact, 188

Lime sulphur, 189

Sprays, Kerosene emulsion, 189

Creosote oil, 190

Miscible oils, 190

Nicotine sulphate, 191

Fish-oil soap, 191

Poisoned contact, 191

Carbon disulphid, 191

Sodium arsenite, 191
Square-foot basal measurement method,

235
Square-inch basal area method, 236
Stag-head or top-dry, How to treat, 182
State entomologists, 184
State laws penalizing tree damage, 233
Sterilization of cavities, 162
Sterilizing wounds, 145
Stomach poisons, Formula for, 188
Street in shade tree valuation, Effect of,

232
Street tree location, 68
Street tree planting, Two row type, 68

Center and side planting, 71

The center strip, 72

The potted type, 73

The informal type, 73

Center and side planting, 71
Street trees, Abuses, 134

Proper location of, 68

Spraying mature, 193

Underground irrigation of, 132
Streets, Trees for wide and narrow, 42
Sucking insects, Sap, 197
Sugar maple, 32, 60

Borer, 212
Suits, Verdicts in tree damage, 234
Sulphate, Nicotine, 191
Sulphur bleaching dangerous to trees, 170
Sulphur spray, Lime, 189
Sun-scald, 155
Surgical work on trees, 157
Sweet Gum, 56
Sycamore, 53

California, 55

For roadside planting, 92

Identifying characters, 34

Lace bug, 221

Principal insects which attack: bag-
worm, 221; White-marked Tussock
moth, 221; lace-bug, 221

Various names, 34

Maple, 34

Table, Tree planting, 88
Taxes, Nut trees pay, 99
Temperature, How trees affect, 21
Tent caterpillar, Forest, 203
Terrapin scale, 214
Title of shade tree executive, 229
Toadstools, 173

INDEX

257

Tools, Pruning, 147, 148

Top-dry or stag-head, How to treat, 182

Top pruning, 139

Torn bark, Treatment of, 152

Traffic injuries to trees, 149

Transplant, How to, 80

Transplanting, Digging for, 79

Transplanting trees, 76

Treatment of cavities, 161

Splitting crotches, 158
Treatment of tree diseases, 172
Treaty Oak, 122
Tree a symbol, The, 108
Tree bands, Various types of, 195
Tree damage, Penalties for, 233
Tree diseases and their treatment, 172
Tree guards, 134

How to use, 135

Painting, 137

Types of, 135

Value of, 239
Tree injury by industrial wastes, 170
Tree insects and their control, 183
Tree labels, Cost of, 127
Tree legislation, Shade, 240
Tree planting an investment, 239
Tree planting area map, 87
Tree planting, How to plan, 82
Tree planting table, 88
Tree roots injured by sewers and pipes, 1 50
Tree surgeons, 156
Tree wardens, 230, 241, 242
Trees and the home, 23
Trees and the law, Shade, 240
Trees as good citizens, 17

As health factors, 21

As monuments, 108

For country roads, 91

Crown the home, 23

For roadside planting, Desirable, 92

How to water, 131

Least susceptible to injury from gas, 170

Legal value of shade, 23 1

Most susceptible to gas, 170
To leaf blight, 180

Municipal control of shade, 223

Pruning and trimming, 138

Suitable for Southern roads, 92

Susceptible to heart-rot, 174

Susceptible to slime-flux, 175
Trenching to drive out gas, 169
Trimming and pruning, Distinction

between, 138
Trunks, limbs and roots, Diseases of, 174
Tulip tree, 55

Principal insects which attack: tulip
tree aphis, 221; tulip tree soft scale,
222
Tussock moth, White-marked, 204
Twig girdler, 206, 210, 220

Twig pruner, Maple and Oak, 213
Two-lined Oak and Chestnut borer, 216
Two-row type of street tree planting, 68

Uniformity of species for street trees, 224
Uses of tree bolts, 158
Of tree guards, 135

Valley Oak, 49

Valuation, Factors in shade tree, 232

Value of roadside planting, 90

Value of shade trees, Establishing, 231

Intrinsic, 25

Legal, 231

Replacement, 234
Verdicts in tree damage suits, 234
Varieties of trees for country roads, 91
Victory Road, Kentucky plants, 120
Virgil, Setting of the tomb of, 18

Walnut a rapid grower, 103
Walnut caterpillar, 209, 222
Walnut, Characteristics of black, 103

Japanese, 105

Pays good dividends, 100

Principal insect which attacks: walnut
caterpillar, 222

Range and adaptability of black, 104
Walnuts on Michigan's state highways,

104
Warden, Tree, 230, 241

Duties of Massachusetts, 242
Warning against so-called tree surgeons,

iS6
Washington Horse Chestnut, The, 122
Washington labels trees, 128
Washington's Memorial Trees, no
Watering trees, 131
Weather, Best planting, 82
Webworm, Fall, 203, 218
Wesley Oak, The, 124
When to plant, 85
When to prune, 140, 147
White ash, 57
White-marked Tussock Moth, 204, 211,

216, 218
White Oak, 47
Willow Oak, 48
Willow-leaf beetle, Cottonwood, Poplar

and, 218
Wires, Injury to trees from overhead, 150
Wisconsin, Bennett planting in, 119
"Witches Broom," Appearance of, 176
Woolly elm-bark aphis, 207
Woolly maple and alder aphis, 215
Worm, Carpenter, 212
Worthley nozzle, How to use the, 194

York, Pennsylvania, Road of Remem-
brance, 117

SCHOOL BOOK OF
FORESTRY

BY CHARLES LATHROP PACK

President, American Tree Association

What Every Man, Woman and Child Should
Know About Our Forests

A direct, concise history of the original forests,
their use, their depletion, damage by fire, insects
and disease; the remaining forests, their protec-
tion; the need of new forests and methods of
securing and maintaining them.

A book invaluable to teachers, students and
citizens interested in forests and forestry.

159 Pages
Sixteen Full Page Illustrations

Price $1.00
Order from

AMERICAN TREE ASSOCIATION

1214 Sixteenth Street
WASHINGTON, D. C.

5451

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