Trees in winter; their study, planting, care and identification

TREES IN WINTER

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO
DALLAS • SAN FRANCISCO

MACMILLAN & CO., L.M' D

IONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA
MELBOURNE

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD.

TORONTO

OAK AND ClIKSTNUT IN WINTER AND IN SUMMER

TREES IN WINTER

THEIR STUDY

PLANTING, CARE AND

IDENTIFICATION

BY
ALBERT FRANCIS BLAKESLEE, Ph. DM

PROFESSOR OF BOTANY AND
DIRECTOR OF SUMMER SCHOOL
CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

AND
CHESTER DEACON JARVIS; Ph. D.t

HORTICULTURIST, STORRS
EXPERIMENT STATION

ILLUSTRATED

Ifork

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1926

All rights reserved

COPYRIGHT, 191$,

KT THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.

Set up and electrotyped. Published January, 1913.
Reprinted September, 1926.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE 7-10

INTRODUCTION

THE STUDY OF TREES 11-30

Tree identification — Tree study in relation to poetry and
art — tree photography — tree ecology — tree measurement
— tree collections — tree study in high schools and
colleges — field work — students' collections — tree study in
graded schools.

Part I., Planting and O^c of Trees

CHAPTER I

STRUCTURE, LIFE AND GROWTH OF A TREE 31-45

The parts of a tree — the root — the leaf — the stem —
reproduction.

CHAPTER II

THE PROPAGATION OF TREES 46-60

Propagation from seeds — nature's way — the forest nursery
— collecting seeds for planting — storing seeds — testing
the vitality of seeds — planting seeds — care of seedlings — •
transplanting — propagation by cuttings — making cuttings
— setting cuttings — propagation by graftage — grafting —
budding.

CHAPTER III

TREE PLANTING IN RURAL DISTRICTS 61-74

The conservation of good scenery — a national park system
— sign boards must go — arousing interest — the problem
of the country roads — making the best use of existing
conditions — roadside planting — the use of trees around the
home — adaptation — the function of trees in home de-
coration— shrubs — planting for winter effect — the planting
plan — the finished picture.

CHAPTER IV

TREE PLANTING IN TOWNS AND CITIES 75-95

Trees in relation to city life — suggestions for street
planting — arrangement of trees on the street — parking
strips — permanent and temporary planting — the best
species for city streets — trees of rapid growth — municipal
control of shade trees — parks and public squares — the
natural type — the artificial style — planting suggestions
for city homes — types of city homes — the suburban
lot — back yard planting.

CHAPTER V

THE SELECTION OF TREES FOR SPECIAL PUR-
POSES 96-101

Trees with showy flowers — blooming before or with the
leaves — blooming after the leaves — trees with showy fruits
—trees with strikingly-colored foliage — trees with
brilliant autumnal tints — deciduous trees valued for
their winter effects — very tall trees — columnar or
narrow pyramidal trees — weeping trees — trees resistant
to smoke — desirable shade and avenue trees — trees for
seaside planting — trees for dry situations and dry
climates — trees best adapted to wet soils — trees best
adapted to calcareous or limestone soils — varieties of fruit
trees for home planting — apples, pears, quinces, peaches,
plums', cherries.

CHAPTER VI

HOW TREES ARE PLANTED 102-113

Preliminary considerations — prune before planting —
preparing the ground— staking the ground — setting the
trees — time to plant — making the holes and filling in —
moving large trees — staking and guarding young trees —
stakes — guards — grills.

CHAPTER VII

THE CARE OF TREES 114-123

Improving soil conditions — the need of humus in the soil
—fertilizers for trees — cultivation — pruning shade trees —
how to cut off a limb — time to prune — pruning tools —
taking care of the wounds.

CHAPTER VIII

COMMON INJURIES TO SHADE TREES 124-145

Sources of injury — injuries caused by gas and smoke —
injuries from overhead wires — injuries from regrading
streets — injuries from improper priming — injuries from
horse bites and careless driving — injuries from wind and
ice — injuries from improper soil conditions — renovation
of trees — the natural age limit — tree surgery — dehorning
trees — taking care of recent injuries — filling cavities —
bolting and chaining.

CHAPTER IX

THE CONTROL OF PARASITES 146-173

Fungus troubles — insect troubles — how insects injure trees
— methods of combating insects — spraying for insects —
hand-picking of insects — banding and trapping — pre-
ventive measures — natural enemies of insects — some com-
mon shade tree insects — leaf-eating insects — bag worm,
brown-tail moth, canker worm, elm-leaf beetle, gypsy
moth, slugs, spiney elm caterpillar, tent caterpillar and
fall webworm, tussock moth — sucking-insects — aphis or
plant louse, spruce gall louse — scale insects — borers.

CHAPTER X

INSECTICIDES, FUNGICIDES AND SPRAYING . . . 174-183
Insecticides — stomach poisons — contact insecticides —
fungicides — spraying — spraying machinery.

Pa^t II. , Identification of Trees

EXPLANATION OF TEEMS 183

ANALYTICAL KEY 192

METHOD OF USE, KEY TO GENERA AND SPECIES.

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES 210

The Pines (p. 210-221)— the Larch (p. 222)— the
Spruces (p. 224-233)— the Douglas Fir (p. 234)— the
Balsam Fir (p. 236)— the JBemlock (p. 238)— the Coast
White Cedar (p. 240)— the Arbor Vitae (p. 242)— the
Junipers and Red Cedar (p. 244-247) — the Ginkgo
(p. 248)— the Willows (p. 250)— the Poplars (p. 252-
263)— the Walnuts and Hickories (p. 264-275)— the
Hornbeams (p. 276-279)— theJBirches (p. 280-291)— the
Alders (p. 292)— the_Beech (p. 294)— the Chestnut
(p. 296)— the_0aks_(p. 298-321)— the Elms (p. 322-
329)— the Hackberry (p. 330)— the Mulberries (p. 332-
335)— the Magnolias (p. 336-339)— the Tulip Tree
(p. 340)— the Sassafras (p. 342)— the Witch Hazel
(p. 344) — the Sweet Gum (p. 346) — the Sycamore
(p. 348)— the Pear (p. 350)— the Apple (p. 352)— the
Mountain Ash (p. 354) — the Quince (p. 356) — the
Shadbush (p. 358)— the Hawthorns (p. 360)— the Cher-
ries (p. 362-371)— the Plums (p. 372-377)— the Peach
(p. 378)— the Kentucky Coffee Tree (p. 380)— the
Honey Locust (p. 382)— the Redbud (p. 384)— the Yel-
low Wood (p. 386) — the Locusts (p. 388) — the Ailanthus
(p. 390)— the Sumachs (p. 392-395)— the Holly (p. 396)
-the Maples (p. 398-413)— the Horse-chestnut (p. 414)
—the ^Lmclen (p. 416) — the Dogwoods (p. 418) — the
the Tupelo (p. 420)— the Ashes (p. 422-427)— the
Catalpas (p. 428).

GLOSSARY 430

INDEX 435

PREFACE

The title, Trees in Winter, might seem to one unacquainted with
the subject to confine the usefulness of this book to the months De-
cember, January and February. Winter, as we shall use the term,
is not defined by the human calendar. It is that period when the
tree is in its resting condition, and may be considered to extend
from the shedding of the leaves in the fall to the bursting of buds
in the spring. The period is different for different trees and in dif-
ferent localities, but in the northeastern United States it may be-
gin as early as the latter part of September, with such forms as
the Butternut, and may extend even into the middle of May with
the Catalpa. The title would further emphasize the general rule
brought out in Part I that the buying, planting, and care of trees
should take place only in their dormant condition. Such excep-
tional treatment as spraying for leaf diseases will be discussed
for the sake of completeness but it still remains true that a tree
generally would better be left untouched during its growing season.
The material in Part II, first appeared in pamphlet form as a bul-
letin of the Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station. The demand
for the bulletin, especially for use in the schools, has proven so
great throughout the state that it seems desirable to publish the
information in book form and thus render it more widely avail-
able than could be the case in a state publication of necessarily lim-
ited distribution.

Part I, on the planting and care of trees, has been added in car-
rying out the suggestion of the publishers and many of our corre-
spondents who have thought that such an introductory part would
broaden the usefulness of the book, especially among those who
possess trees of their own. The section is written primarily for
the individual and his home grounds rather than for a municipal
street planting commission. The viewpoint, therefore, will be
more that of the country and of the home than that of the city.
No especial originality is claimed for the material in this part, a
considerable number of publications including government bulle-
tins have been consulted in its preparation. If the arrangement
of the subject matter renders needed information easily obtain-
able, it will have served its purpose.

8 TREES IN WINTER

Part II is intended as a guide to the indentification of our com-
mon trees in winter. Although lumbering and the commercial
handling of trees is chiefly carried on in the leafless season and their
identification at this period consequently is of the greatest import-
ance, still there has been up to the present time little assistance ac-
cessible in this country to one who has wished to be able to dis-
tinguish the trees in their interesting winter condition.

The text with keys in Part II, is an outgrowth of outlines that
one of the authors has developed and used with various modifica-
tions for the last five years in his college classes in Botany and
Forestry. The photographic illustrations are all originals, most
of them by the other author. In Part II, one of us is responsible
for the text and for the selection of the material photographed, and
the other for the majority of the photographs, while in Part I, one
of us has written the introductory chapter on the study of trees and
the chapter on the structure, life and growth of a tree, and the
other the subsequent chapters. We have, however, frequently con-
sulted throughout in the preparation of the book.

The order of arrangement of the species in the text and the
scientific names follow the usage of the seventh edition of Gray's
Manual, and the latter are in accord with the rules laid down in
the Vienna Congress. The figures and descriptions given are of
trees for the most part growing wild in the northeastern portion of
North America, including as its center New England, and the
neighboring regions. A few rarer species which occur only very
locally or in isolated instances within this region have been omitted
from illustration. In their places, however, some of the more
frequently cultivated trees have been included because of their
value for forestry purposes or because of their familiarity in orna-
mental plantings. The varieties of cultivated forms are so num-
erous that it is obviously possible to take account of only the most
common types. Their inclusion, it is believed, will add to the value
of the publication especially for its use in cities. The keys can be
absolutely relied upon only for the species just mentioned from New
England and the neighboring regions. New England, including
as it does the meeting ground between the northern and southern
floras, is extremely rich in the species of trees represented. Part
II, therefore, especially in its descriptive text and illustrations

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 9

should prove of service outside of the geographically restricted
region described.

The photographs of the twigs and of the fruit of the deciduous
trees are very nearly natural size. They have been slightly reduced
in production but all of them to same scale, except the fruits
of the Catalpa, the Chestnut and the Honey Locust as indicated
under these species. Line drawings or touched-up photographs
would no doubt show important details more clearly by emphasiz-
ing certain of the minute markings. Since, however, these details
are often obscure, and moreover receive full recognition in the ac-
companying text, it has been thought that a truer idea of the twigs
would be gained if they were left as they appeared in the photo-
graphs. Accordingly, they have not been "doctored" in prepara-
tion or reproduction. The leafy twigs of the cone-bearing ever-
greens have been more or less reduced as indicated under the de-
scriptions of the genera in the key. All the twigs of a single gen-
us, however, are on the same scale.

Part II follows the same general plan as in the bulletin. Another
winter's study has made possible a number of additions, especially
among the habit characters and some minor corrections have been
made in the text. New habit photographs are given of the Eed
Mulberry, the Sassafras, the Swamp White Oak and the Chinqua-
pin Oak and bark photographs of the Carolina Poplar and the
Chinquapin Oak. Last winter's classes in Botany and Forestry
made use of galley proofs of the keys and descriptive text, and the
present year's classes have used the finished bulletin. The keys
especially have in consequence been considerably modified since
their first arrangement. Many of the explanatory phrases which
may appear to be unnecessary have been inserted at the demand
of the students. Where possible the most obvious characters have
been employed and though the keys in consequence have become
somewhat more cumbersome it is hoped they will prove more
usable. Errors and omissions have no doubt crept in despite the
efforts to avoid them. We would be grateful for any additions or
corrections that may be suggested in the descriptions or keys in
view of a possible further revision of the text,

Acnowledgements are due to the Storrs Agricultural Experiment
Station for the use of the half tone plates of figures 34, 37, 38, 45,
48, 49, and 50 in Part I, and for most of those in Part II; to

]_0 TREES IN WINTER

the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station for the use of
illustiations represented by figures 30, 44, 46, 47, 57, 75, 76, 77,
78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93 and
95; to the Cornell Experiment Station for the use of figures
41, 42, 51, 52, 53, 55, 62, 68 and 69; to the U. S. Department
of Agriculture for the use of figures 71, 72, 73, 74 and 98; to
Messrs. Isaac Hicks and Son for the use of figures 39 and 40; to
the Newark Shade Tree Commission for the vise of figure 54; to
the Frost Bartlett Company for the use of figures 61, 63, 70, and
96; to Mr. A. D. Taylor for the use of figure 23; to Mr. George

A. Cromie for the drawing represented by figure 36 ; to P.

B. Mann for taking one of the habit photographs of the Sassafras
on page 342 ; to Mr. J. M. Johnson for taking the habit photograph
of the Red Mulberry on page 332, to Mr. C. C. Laney for the habit
and bark photographs of the Chinquapin Oak on page 306 ; to Mr.
A. F. Schulze for compiling the index ; to many other people for
assistance in various ways; and especially to the students whose
interest in trees in winter first suggested this publication and
whose cooperation in its production has helped to give it its
finished form.

ALBERT FRANCIS BLAKESLEE.
CHESTER DEACON JARVIS.
Storrs, Conn., March 1912.

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 11

INTRODUCTION.
THE STUDY OF TREES.

It is frequently the practice in an introductory chapter to show
the importance of the subject to be discussed and to attempt to
prove that it, of all subjects for study, is most worthy of the
reader's consideration. Many words could thus be used in de-
scribing the misfortune to civilization, literature and art had our
world been devoid of trees and the product of trees. The for-
ester and the lumberman bear testimony to the utilitarian value
of trees and the landscape architect to their use in making our sur-
roundings more beautiful. It is not necessary, therefore, to jus-
tify the interest in our subject.

Although the botanical specialist and the student of tree dis-
eases, may, it is hoped, find in the present volume added means of
identifying their tree specimens, the book is not intended pri-
marily for the indoor laboratory. It is meant to serve as an intro-
duction to the study and appreciation of one phase of outdoor life.
The present chapter will suggest some of the ways in which the
study of trees may be carried on.

Tree Identification — In the early stages of knowledge come
names. If one objects that so large a part of the book is
given over to the means of distinguishing one tree from another—
in other words to learning their names — it must be remembered
that the natural approach toward knowing a person is learning
his name. It is not otherwise with trees. We who are teachers
know the difficulties in learning the names in a new class of stu-
dents. Some of us may have devised temporary expedients as
jotting down in our roll book such distinguishing facial character-
istics of the students as the color of the eyes or of the hair. No
doubt, if it were worth while, a satisfactory key to the identification
of a class of students could be worked out by the use of such
characters. We have never tried it with our students because we
have soon come to know them less by such detailed marks of dis-
tinction than by the whole face and we finally learn to recognize
them even at a distance by some indefinable peculiarity of form or
habit of gait.

The more minute characters of the twig used in the keys and
descriptive text are to be used as we use the color of the hair and

12 TBEES IN WINTER

eyes in learning our new students. The ideal toward which iden-
tificational studies should tend is the ability to recognize a tree
at a distance. Unfortunately the general appearance or "habit"
of a tree as well as the character of its bark is difficult of precise
description, but if the markings on the twigs are considered chiefly
as first aids to the uninitiated, progress toward this ideal will be
more surely made.

Winter is the best time in which to acquire this ability to recog-
nize trees at a distance. They are individually more conspicuous
at this season. Try watching them from a car window in their
winter aspect and you will be surprised to find how many can be
thus recognized after a little practice. A tree in winter is far from
being the characterless object many believe. Freed from its cov-
ering of leaves, the skeleton of the tree is revealed and with the
method of branching thus clearly discernible, the species may gen-
erally be more readily identified at a distance than when in its
summer garb. There are many forms, moreover, that are diffi-
cult to distinguish by summer features alone, but which in winter
have twig, bud, or other characters which make their separation
comparatively easy.

We have suggested as the goal of identificational study the
power to recognize trees by the more general features of "habit"
and bark. The present volume can be considered only as an intro-
duction toward this study. Extreme care has been taken in the
attempt to obtain photographs that will represent the most typ-
ical appearance of these features. It must be remembered, how-
ever, that no two trees are absolutely alike but that they vary
more or less as shown on page 184 in response to difference in ex-
ternal conditions as, for example, age, soil, light (figs. 18 and 19 p.
39), and locality as well as to innate differences in the individual
trees themselves. Considerations of space forbid usually the illus-
tration of more than a single type and this in general, in connec-
tion with the descriptive text, will suffice. It is hoped, however,
that the present volume will stimulate similar illustrative work on
other more limited areas or on more limited groups where the re-
strictions of space for illustrations need not be so keenly felt.

When once we have begun to acquire a resonable familiarity with
trees, numerous ways in which the study may be advanced will oc-
cur to the reader. The possibilities in Forestry and Landscape

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES IS

Architecture need not be discussed, although some knowledge of
these professional subjects will be of special interest to anyone
who owns a woodlot or landed home, and will be of general inter-
est to all citizens to whom national conservation of our resources
in natural beauty as well as in natural wealth is a matter of con-
cern.

Tree Study in Relation to Poetry and Art- -Trees to most
people are of interest aside from their scientific or utilitarian
value. It is surprising to many to learn that only a small
proportion of the large number of books on trees have been written
primarily from the botanical or the utilitarian point of view. The
marjority view trees as elements in the world of beauty out of doors.
The highest expression of an appeciation of this beauty appears in
the form of poetry or art. It will accordingly be well to consider
trees for a moment from this viewpoint before further discussing
their study.

Poetry is not an unintelligible ebullition of enthusiasm for the
good, the true, the beautiful. Poetry demands sympathy. Sym-
pathy entails familiarity, knowledge; and knowledge is power in
poetry as in business. It is no accident that before a winter book
on trees was ever thought of and the color of the bud used to dis-
tinguish the European Ash from some of its American relatives,
Tennyson was able to characterize a lock of hair as "black as ash
buds in the front of March," and was able to see "a thousand em-
eralds burst from the ruby-budded lime." Few can have a pro-
ductive appreciation for poetry, but if we learn to see clearly and
with sympathy the natural beauty around us we have learned the
foundations upon which poetry is based.

Trees are the most conspicuous living elements in the land-
scape, especially in winter, and as such must appeal strongly to
the student of outdoor life. To the landscape artist they are
more than canvas or pigments, for they are themselves the pic-
ture which on canvas with his pigments he tries to reproduce. If
we study art we are led to visit the museums of art. We learn
how in different times and in different countries men have seen and
interpreted beauty. Some, for example, find beauty in the single
form, others in groups. The result is as varied as the personality
of the artists. Although an advance can be discerned in the
method of expression and, by the process of evolution, such guid-

14 TREES IX WINTER

ing principles as simplicity and unity have become generally ac-
cepted, still it can be readily seen that art has its styles as well as
dress. Landscape architecture has undergone a development and
is subject to changes like other forms of art.

The landscape is a gallery of art always open. The pictures are
many, varied, and ever changing. Trees are the principal figures.
They are interesting for their individual beauty and for their ef-
fect in harmonious groups. It is for us to find these pictures, to
discover what in form or composition or situation makes them
interesting. The student of art does the same for the gallery
masterpieces and opens his eyes to new worlds of beauty. We also
may have our eyes opened, for the landscape is always with us.

Profitable indeed in this connection will be a study of the land-
scape artists. In what way do trees appeal to them ? What part do
trees play in their compositions? Is it the individual tree or
trees in groups that interest them most? Is it in the foreground,
the background or the middle distance that we find them most
frequently represented? What species are preferred? Compare
Euysdael, Corot, Constable and other landscape artists. Are they
alike in their preference?

Claude Monet has given us a wonderful series of pictures of the
Thames Bridge in varying moods. We may find for ourselves as
interesting a series of even a single tree (figs. 1 to 11). Along a
sloping roadside by a farm house stands a Sugar Maple of some
eighty winters. Looked at from east or west the tree is narrow —
perhaps from crowding in its youth by neighbors now no longer
present. From north or south the crown shows the broad, egg-
shaped outline more typical of the species. On the eastern side are
several ragged limbs broken some four or five years since by an ice
storm that blew in a too heavy load of sleet from the east. On the
western side the tree seems perfect. From above on the north its
outlines are partially blocked by buildings and obscured by the
background of the fields below. From the south it seems to raise
its head and shows the limbs clear-cut above the sky line. From a
distance it is a conspicuous landmark and always interesting . AYe
can picture the tree from different viewpoints. We can see it in
different lights and shadows. We can follow the changes in the
background of the picture — the bare ground, the snow, the green
fields; the mists, the rain, the full sunlight, the long shadows and

Fig. 1. (Upper right hand figure) the tree viewed from the south.

Fig. 2. (Middle right hand figure) the .tree viewed from the west.

Fig. 3. (Lower right hand figure) the tree viewed from the east.

Fig. 4. (Upper left hand figure) the tree from the north.

Fig. 5. (Middle left hand figure) the tree in an ice storm.

Fig. 6. (Lower left hand figure) the tree in summer foliage.

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES

15

Figures 1-6. A Sugar Maple. See footnote page 14.

16

TREES IN WINTER

THE SAME MAPLE SEEN PROM A DISTANCE

Fig. 7. (Upper figure) across the meadow.
Fig. 8. (Middle figure) beyond the cornfield.
Fig. 9. (Lower figure) up the road.

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES

17

Fig. 10. The Maple framed in by Elms.

Fig-. 11. The Maple in sunlight and shadow.

the bright tints at sunset or at dawn. We can watch the changes
in the tree itself, can note in winter its type of branching and the
fine penciling of its twigs against the sky, in spring the opening
of its buds and the rapid growth of flower and leaf, in summer the
full foliage, in autumn the rich leaf coloring and the fall of leaf
and fruit.

A swing hangs from a broad spreading lower limb. Children
play about it. Eobins have built their nests in its branches and
here they rear their young. Throughout the long, hot summer
days its dense covering of leaves gives a grateful shade below. To

}g TREES IN WINTER

the sleepy child the moonlight casts weird fairy shadows of the
limbs upon the bedroom floor and the soft rustle of its leaves lulls
him to sleep. Is there great wonder then that in after years
this same child holds the old family tree dear — an inseparable part
of his youth. The tree has helped to make the house a home.
We have been viewing a tree in its human relations. Such a view
may not be botany, but whoever has had a home with a tree, knows
that it is life.

Tree Photography - -It is fortunate for us who are not painters
that the photographic camera offers a means of recording the
pictures as we find them. The ground glass or the "finder" on the
camera or even an empty frame held at varying distances from the
eye will separate for us the view from its surroundings. Only
experience however, will show what results to expect in the de-
veloped picture. In general better effects will be obtained from
near views or from distant views with prominent features in the
foreground.

The condition and position of the sunlight are matters of prime
importance in the photographing of trees. Full light is desir-
able and the sun should be somewhat behind and considerably to
one side of the camera. If light comes from behind the tree a
mere silhouette of the branching is obtained, while if the light
is directly back of the camera the trunk and crown appear flat from
lack of contrast. When one side of the trunk, as viewed from
the camera, appears dark and the other side in direct sunlight, all
the branches of the tree in the finished picture, as well as the trunk,
will appear solid. The position of the light is of even more im-
portance in photographing the bark. Depressions and ridges
seem to disappear when the light shines directly against them
and a somewhat lateral illumination is therefore necessary to bring
out the details of the bark sculpturing.

The position of the camera must also be considered. A tree
viewed from below appears different from what it would if viewed
on the level and from a distance. Habit views are often taken
too near the trees. Moreover, the camera is generally placed be-
low the usual eye level and this position tends to give the tree
an unnatural appearance. It is generally useless to attempt to
show much detail in the method of branching of an individual
tree if the crown cannot be seen clear above the sky line. A cover-

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 19

ing of snow, however, may offer as good a background as the sky
and allow a tree to be photographed against a hillside where other-
wise a satisfactory photograph would not be possible (p. 357). A
white sheet held behind the trunk may afford an artificial back-
ground for a bark photograph. Generally this is not
necessary since bark photographs are taken at close range
and the surrounding objects are mostly out of focus.
If need be, the background can be painted out on the
negative. For habit pictures in sunlight we have found a No.
16 stop and 1/25 — 1/20 second exposure to give good results when
the wind will allow so long an exposure. For bark pictures the
smallest stop and a proportionately longer exposure, say 1/2 to 1
second, will give the greater detail desired in such pictures.

To one interested in botany as an avocation, trees furnish an
especially available subject for outdoor study. They are acces-
sible in city or in country, in winter or in summer. Their size
renders them conspicuous. They can accordingly be studied from
a carriage, an automobile, or a rapidly moving train, and in this
way much learned that would be impossible to discover if the study
were confined to a single locality or if the student were dealing
with smaller forms.

Tree Ecology - - Ecology, the study of plants in relation to
their environment, finds in trees a most convenient group in
which to carry on investigations. The subject is comparatively
new and many problems are as yet unsolved. After some familiarity
has been gained with the trees that grow in one's own locality, it
will be possible to discover something about their distribution. A
list of the local tree flora of one's state, county or town or even of
a more restricted area has a distinct value if carefully made, but it
is far from being the end of tree study. What trees are usually
found growing together and what are the causes that bring them
to be thus associated? Is there a swamp "association," a dry hill-
side association or other associations of more or less well marked
character? What is the influence exerted upon the various species
by differences in character of the soil and its chemical composition
— the presence or absence of lime for example — the amount of
available moisture, the altitude, the exposure to the sun and wind
on different sides of a hill or mountain, the climate and other such

20 TREES IN WINTER

factors and how do they become effective ? What influence do they
have upon the growth of the individual tree ?

If a woods is cut down or burned over or if a pasture is neg-
lected, what are the first trees most likely to grow up? How have
they come there? Are these the trees that will prevail after fifty or
one hundred years? What is the character of the "climax forests"
in the region investigated? In the northeastern part of the United
States there is no lack of deserted pastures in all stages of return
to the forest condition and old, gnarled apple trees even, the rem-
nant of some forgotten orchard, may be found still living in the
midst of the woods and completely surrounded by forest trees.
These various stages of development may be pieced together and
may enable us to make out the order of "forest succession."

The climate of a given locality is the resultant of such diverse
factors as latitude, altitude, rainfall and exposure to wind and
sun. It is expressed by the character of the vegetation. The length
of the growing season, from the gradual awakening of growth in
the spring till its cessation in the fall, is of prime importance to
agriculture. Are the springs and falls early or late in a given lo-
cality? The progress of the seasons can best be measured in terms
of tree activities, such as the appearance of the leaves and flowers,
the ripening of the fruit and the falling of the leaves in different
species. Observations of these points in the yearly history of dif-
ferent species of trees is of so much importance in measuring gen-
eral and local climate, that the Forest Service, Washington, D. C.,
is attempting to obtain records on this subject from as many dif-
ferent places as possible. They will gladly send record blanks to
anyone willing to co-operate with them in making observations.
The time of opening of the bud, of flowering and of leaf fall if ac-
curately recorded, especially for a series of years, although for
only a single species, will be information of value.

The life of the individual tree will well repay our study. What
are the problems that it must solve in order to lead a successful ex-
istence, and how are these problems solved by different kinds of
trees? These questions are discussed in Chapter II. The effect of
external conditions upon the habit is touched upon in Part II.

Tree Measurement- -The information regarding the dimensions
of a tree are of minor importance for purposes of identification, but
are of considerable value to the woodsman. The diameter of the

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 21

trunk may be best measured directly by calipers at breast height from
the ground or indirectly obtained by dividing the circumference by
3 (more accurately by TT =3.1416). A number of rough methods
of estimating height are given in books on forestry. For example,
from a distance equal to several times the length of the tree, the
height of a 10 ft. pole beside the trunk or a mark on the trunk
of known height may be compared with the height of the wh<
tree.

The height to which one can reach may be determined by trial
and this kept in mind as a unit of measure. A piece of paper is
fastened to the trunk at this height from the ground. From a
distance, with arm fully extended, we measure off with the finger
on a lead pencil the height of the paper from the ground which
we will imagine to be 7 feet. Using this distance on the pencil
as a scale, we continue sighting upward and find that the top of
the tree is 8^/2 units, let us say, from its base. Each unit being
7 feet the total height is, therefore, approximately 59^ feet. Ex-
perience has shown that if the distance from which the sights are
made is at least three or four times the height of the tree and the
arm is kept fully extended during the process of sighting, the re-
sults show a fair degree of accuracy.

The shadow of the tree may be compared with the shadow of an
erect pole of known height and the height of the tree computed by
the rule of three. A right angle triangle constructed of wood or
cardboard with two sides equal may be used as a measure. One
of the equal sides is kept vertical by an attached plumb line and
sights are made along the long edge from different distances till
the top of the tree is just seen above the line of sight. The dis-
tance paced to the tree gives the height of its top above the eye.
Instead of using a triangle to find the point from which to pace to
the tree, German foresters are said to sometimes use a cruder
method which consists in bending over with the back to the tree
and finding the distance where the top is just visible when viewed
with the head between the knees. This method, however, has
natural limitations. The last three methods are conditional upon
the tree standing upon approximately level ground.

Instruments for more accurate measurement are on the market
under the name of hypsometers. A home-made instrument may
readily be constructed which has been found to compare favor-

22

TREES IN WINTER

ably in accuracy with the expensive Faustmann hypsometer of
which it is a modification. A rectangular board about a foot in
length is ruled in squares or more conveniently has squared co-

M

K

Fig. 12. Home-made Height Measurer.

ordinate paper pasted on one side (fig. 12). Care should be
observed that the top of the board AF is straight and accurately
parallel to the lines running lengthwise of the paper. The line
MC is numbered from M in any convenient unit, say up to 100,
and using the same unit, the line HK is numbered in both direc-
tions beginning at C. A thread with a weight is attached at M
and hangs free from the zero point at the top of MC. In use a
convenient distance, say 100 ft. from the tree, is first measured off
as a base line, and upon this measurement largely depends
the accuracy of the height estimation. At the 100 ft. mark the

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES

23

top of the tree is sighted along the straight edge AF which may
more conveniently be fitted with some simple form of sights. At
the point B, where the plumb line crosses the line OK the height
of the tree above the eye is indicated in feet. The height of the
eye above the ground is added to this reading if the measurement
is on the level, or a second sight may be made to the base of the
tree and the reading noted on CH added or subtracted, according
to whether the base of the tree is below or above the eye level. If
in the instrument as figured, the base line had been 100 ft. as
suggested, the height of the tree above the eye is given as -iO ft.
If, however, the base line had been 50 ft. the height is given at 20
ft., the reading being taken at the intersection of the thread with
the line running lengthwise through whatever number on MC has
been used to represent the base line. The two smaller diagrams
show the instrument in position for sighting to top and base of tree
respectively. In figure 13 the eye is assumed to be on the level

Pig. 13. Height Measurer in position for sighting to top of tree.

with the base of the tree and only a single sight is necessary. In
figure 14, the base of tree is below eye level and the distance CD
must be found by a downward sight and added to the reading
obtained for BC. It can be readily seen from inspection of the
figures that the method is based upon the similarity of the triangles
ABC and ACD with the smaller triangles abc and acd.

TEEES IN WINTER

*iKxiA,,/, 9
'"*,

v*"''
Fig. 14. Height Measurer in position for sighting to base of tree.

Tree Collections — The collecting instinct is said to be one
of the early marks of a naturalist. Whether this is true or not,
it is certain that the gathering and arranging of a collection is a
sure means of becoming familiar with objects of natural history.
For many it has an irresistable fascination. To the specialist
in systematic botany, a well ordered collection is indispensable.
In any large herbarium it will be found that a considerable part
of the collections have been contributed by amateurs. It is not
enough to have a species represented by a single specimen. All
parts of the plant should be collected in different stages of devel-
opment. It is surprising, therefore, that even the best herbaria
are strongly in need of material illustrating the winter condition of
woody plants, although the winter twigs form one of the best
means of identifying tree species. Plants vary so much, whatever
mark of distinction is considered, that specimens are desired from
different situations and from different geographical regions in order
to show how widely the individual species may vary. The possi-
bilities of collecting, therefore, are practically limitless to those
who are interested in this form of study.

In the preceding paragraphs, some of the methods of tree
study that it has been thought might prove suggestive to the am-
ateur individual student of the subject have been outlined. In
the remaining sections of the chapter, the subject of tree study
in schools will be briefly considered. Forestry schools and for-

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 25

estry classes nee^ not be discussed in this connection. An inti-
mate practical knowledge of trees is the goal of their existence.

Tree Study in High Schools and CoUeges--Boia,ny in colleges
and in high schools under college influences gives in general
little encouragement for outdoor work. This is due in part
to the relative ease of handling students indoors, but more
perhaps to a reaction against the somewhat narrow botany
of the earlier naturalists which consisted largely in becoming fa-
miliar with the mere names of the individual plant species. In
consequence, students after taking an elementary course in the sub-
ject sometimes complain that of the common forms they meet every
day they are no better able to tell one plant from another.

Botany, aside from the subject matter it may offer to the bot-
anical specialist, to the horticulturist, or to the forester, may rea-
sonably be included with other sciences in a general college course
upon two grounds : - - First, the power it may be expected to give
the student to observe accurately, to form correct conclusions from
the facts in hand and to express his thoughts with clearness:
Second, the accumulation of a body of facts that will tend to make
the world about us more intelligible and life, therefore, more in-
teresting. Too frequently we forget that the student and the
student's viewpoint are of more importance than botany and the
botanist's viewpoint. True a certain amount of knowledge of
the internal structure and physiology of plants is necessary to an
understanding of their life activities and rightly forms a promi-
nent part of the result obtained from a general course in botany.
To make anatomy and physiology the total result is to take some-
what the viewpoint of those books on systematic botany which
refuse to consider a plant that has acquired enough human in-
terest to be brought into cultivation, unless the form in question
is also found growing wild.

The questions of a layman will often give us a clue as to what
parts of our subject are of most general interest. The inner mech-
anisms and functions of a bird may be nearly of as much interest to
the laboratory specialist as they are of value to the bird itself, yet
they are of minor interest to the general public. In the writer's
experience, Bird Study and Tree Study form two of the most
popular summer school courses, and largely it is believed because
their air has been an out-of-doors acquaintance with common forms

26 TREES IN WINTER

of wide familiarity. If, in our general course, we should teach
our plant forms more from the standpoint of the human interest
they arouse, and less from that of their evolutionary relationships
we need not thereby suffer in either of our ideals of training for
power or of acquiring a stock of useful information. Even the
much-maligned analysis work, the identification of plants by an
artificial key, has certain peculiar educational advantages too often
neglected. The use of a key demands accurate observation and
careful judgment. If these are not given, the student discovers
his mistake by failure to find the correct species and is automatically
led to repeat his observations.

Field Work - - Field work to be successful must be fully
as carefully planned as indoor laboratory work. In order to pre-
vent the exercise from degenerating into a mere picnic, the purpose
of the trip should be definite and the objects to be observed or the
problems to be studied not too numerous. It is as important to
decide what to leave out as what to include. The ground to be
visited should be gone over by the teacher before each excursion
for the same reason that demonstration experiments in physics or
chemistry must be tried in private in order to insure their successful
performance before a class.

Experience has shown that some form of report, though but
brief, is as necessary with students out of doors as their records
made within the laboratory. Further, the number of students
that can be successfully handled on a field trip is a matter to be
considered. It will differ with the character of the work and the
skill of the teacher. Lack of proper regard for some of the re-
quirements of outdoor work with students has often foreordained
well-meaning efforts to failure, but such failures do not detract
from the education value of the work when properly planned and
executed.

The writer has conducted his identificational tree study in the
following manner. A squad of students provided with writing ma-
terial is brought to the first tree to be investigated and without
being told its name they are asked to write down independently,
each for himself, what they think the tree is. After they have
made their guess, its correct name is given and they are led to
work out the distinguishing characteristics of the tree taking with
them for later comparison specimens of leaves, twigs or fruit ac-

PLANTING AND CARE OP TREES 27

cording to the season. Each tree on the trip is first guessed by
the student before it is discussed by the instructor. A correct
guess counts 1 for such forms as the Tulip Tree, which is the
only one of its genus in the region. Sugar Maple if correctly
guessed would score 2, since there are several Maples to be dis-
tinguished. The guess, Maple or Red Maple for the Sugar Maple,
would score 1, or one-half the value given the full correct name.
At the end of the trip the trees are reviewed from the specimens
collected and the individual scores of the students calculated and
reported. Naturally these scores are not counted at all as marks
in making up the class standing, but the scoring game has been
found to add a decided zest to the exercises. The report called
for consists of a list of the trees studied with a very brief character-
ization of the distinguishing features of each. At the beginning of
each new trip, the trees of the previous exercises are reviewed from
specimens. These frequent reviews are essential. Occasionally,
quizzes consisting in identifying actual specimens on exhibition
or the trees themselves are of value. In summer the distinguish-
ing characters have been taken from the leaves, in winter from
the twigs. The latter from reasons of convenience have been
studied largely in the laboratory.

Ability to distinguish trees from a distance by habit and bark
characters has been much more readily acquired by students than
was at first thought possible. On account of weather considerations,
this work has been carried on chiefly in March and April, before
the opening of the buds and while the method of branching in con-
sequence is still discernible. The process has been the same as in
the field exercises already described, except that the student's guess
must be made before coming near enough to see the detailed marks
of distinction. A closer approach determines the correctness of
his first impression. In review, unfamiliar photographs, respec-
tively of the habit and the bark of the tree in question are ex-
posed together and slowly carried from one end of a row of stu-
dents to the other. This method is in imitation of the car window
identification of trees, and it is surprising how readily photographs
can be thus recognized when once a familiarity with the distin-
guishing habit and bark characters has been acquired. Lantern
slides would doubtless be of much service in this connection.

28 TREES IN WINTER

Students' Collections --Students,' collections formed a prom-
inent part in the older courses in botany. To identify,
collect,, press and mount a hundred specimens, as was frequently
required, gave certainly an added familiarity with plants, but the
amount of mechanical labor involved is unduly large in proportion
to the results obtained.

With trees the flowers are of minor interest, leaves and winter
twigs furnishing the chief identificational features avail-
able for collections. Individual leaves can be easily pressed,
placing them between the pages of a book being frequently suffi-
cient. Winter twigs need no preparation before being sewed
or otherwise fastened to mounting paper. It has been the writer's
practice to require of students a small collection of leaves in the
fall and a similar collection of twigs in the winter or early spring.
Accompanying each leaf or twig is given a short characterization
emphasizing its chief marks of distinction. The specimens may be
largely collected on the field trips and the mechanical labor of
preparation is not excessive.

More elaborate individual work can be done by the student if
time is available. Keys can be worked out for various groups
of trees. A tree book may be made including some of the com-
monest forms within a limited area and representing them by spec-
imens, by drawings, by photographs or by half-tone pictures. Such
a tree book may be with or without written matter on each tree
represented, but its preparation would assuredly give one knowl-
edge of the trees studied. In the writer's experience the most ef-
fective way to learn about trees is to write a book on the subject.

A school collection for permanent exhibition is desirable and
warrants a greater outlay of time and labor than could be given
to the work by the individual students. Each tree should be rep-
sented by at least a leaf, a winter twig, a picture of the bark and
one of the habit. The fruit is also generally desirable. Among
the things that can be added to advantage are the flowers, a seed-
ling, an outline map with shaded areas showing the distribution of
the species, and a series of wood sections such as may be obtained
of E. B. Hough, Lowville, N. Y. These specimens of each species
may be mounted together on cotton in shallow, glass-front boxes
such as the Riker cases, or conveniently exhibited behind glass
which is passepartouted to a firm back in the manner in which pic-

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 29

tures are frequently mounted. Kirkwood in Nature Study
Eeview for January, 1912, describes a method of mounting
specimens in large wooden frames, but if many cases are to be
stored or exhibited the surface dimensions as also the thickness of
the mounts must be kept within limits.

Tree Study in Graded Schools --On account of their con-
spicuousness, accessibility, beauty and utility, trees have formed
an important element in outlines of nature study courses
recommended for elementary schools. Coulter & Patterson in their
Practical Nature Study, to mention but a single book, give valuable
suggestions on tree study with typical lesson plans and topical
outlines by grades and seasons. Farmer's Bulletin No. 468, en-
titled "Forestry in Nature Study," may be obtained free by address-
ing The Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., and should
be in the hands of every teacher interested in nature work.
This bulletin gives outlines for courses of study for the different
grades and a valuable list of supplementary reading and reference
books for nature study teachers together with a key to the more
common genera of trees based on leaf characters. In view of the
accessibility of this publication and the literature therein cited, it
would be inappropriate to enter into an extended discussion of the
place of tree study in the elementary schools. The present book
would draw attention to the fact that trees in winter are more
available for purposes of study than most have believed. The in-
terest shown by classes of summer school teachers in identifying
specimens of twigs collected the previous winter indicates that the
winter study of trees can be taken up with enthusiasm by teachers
in their schools. In our experience, the winter identification of
trees has proven to students one of the most interesting subjects
of their course. It is of decided value for its training in the power
of accurate observation. The work comes at a time when mate-
rial for natural history study seems scanty and might therefore be
used to bridge over the period between fall and spring which are
unfortunately considered by many the only seasons when study of
outdoor life is possible in the schools.

The markings on a branchlet enable us to read a tree's name.
They may also give us a chapter in the tree's past history as is
shown on page 38. By placing twigs in water in the late winter
the bud mav be forced and we may learn the future possibilities

30 TREES IN WINTER

that lie bound up in a winter twig. The name of a tree and its
past and future life, however, form but an introduction to the
study of a tree. What are its relations to utility and to human
enjoyment, are questions that should not be neglected. The skill-
ful teacher will be able to correlate tree study with other work and
so direct the natural enthusiasm of children for outdoor observa-
tion that it may not become a burden to the daily program.

An appreciation of natural beauty is a recognized object of nature
study. It must in general, however, remain a valuable by-product
rather than the immediate object of pursuit. An unreasoning ap-
peal to mere wonder and admiration at the beauties of nature is
likely to have an effect opposite to that desired. The appeal must
come in the way of observations and problems and the problems
must be definite. What is the most beautiful single tree, individ-
ual group of trees, the most beautiful street or the most beautiful
home with tree surroundings in the neighborhood? What are the
elements that make them interesting? From what points of view
are they most pleasing, and what is it that gives these viewpoints an
advantage over others? Such questions, modified to suit the
grade of the pupils, have been suggested by Professor Waugh of
Amherst, and the writer can confirm their usability with students.

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 31

PART I.

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES.

CHAPTER I
STRUCTURE, LIFE AND GROWTH OF A TREE.

Before discussing the planting and care of trees, it is well to con-
sider briefly the structure, life and growth of the individual tree
itself. For a fuller treatment of the subject the reader may be re-
ferred to the current text books on botany and forestry.

A tree is a living thing and as such has the same great problems
to meet that face all living organisms — plants as well as animals.
It must have food in order to live and grow and it must provide for
a continuation of its kind. Animals are able to move about in
search for their food which they obtain ready made from other
animals or from plants. The tree, however, like other green
plants is deprived not only of the power of locomotion but also of
the power of using food made by other organisms. It has, there-
fore, to manufacture its own food. This it does by combining
food constituents from the soil with that from the air and is
therefore a manufacturer as well as a consumer of its own products.
In Chapter I, we shall consider the different organs of the tree in
relation to the manufacture of plant food, to growth and to pro-
duction.

The Parts of a Tree — There are three main parts to a tree
— roots, leaves and stem. The roots obtain water with dissolved
mineral water from the soil and anchor the tree in place.
The leaves have a double function. They gather carbonic acid
gas from the air and they combine this gaseous food constituent
from the air with the food constituents from the soil in the manu-
facture of plant food. The stem connects the roots with the leaves
and raises the latter to a position favorable for carrying on their
work. The three main parts of a tree may now be considered
more in detail. The diagram in figure 15 may serve to make the
explanations clearer.

32

TREES IN WINTER

winter branch

summer branch

dormant bud

sound branch

broken branch
stump decaying

cambium

— sap-wood
- heart -wood

decayed wood
caused by fungus

fruit of fungus

— callused branch

-v- branches lost
in early life

ray

conducting root >^''

Fig. 15. Diagram to illustrate parts and functions of a tree. (Modi-
fied after Fernow).

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES

33

The Root — According to their position, the roots of a tree
may be classified into tap-roots which grow directly down-
ward, surface or tracing roots which occupy a shallow layer just
below ground, and roots which take a position intermediate between
these two types. Some trees like the Hickory, the Bur Oak and
the White Oak regularly develop a strong deep-seated tap-root
and in consequence are able to draw water from the lower levels
but are difficult to transplant ; others like the Birches and
Spruces have only surface roots and are therefore dependent
upon the supply of moisture in the shallow upper layers. Most
of our trees, like the Maple and Ash, are found to have a com-
bination of both kinds. Many forms, moreover, in which one
of these two root types predominates are able to adapt themselves
to the condition of the soil in which they grow. Thus at the
Minnesota Experiment Station, a small Bur Oak growing on dry,
gravelly soil is reported to have developed a tap-root 20 feet long,

Fig. 16. Seedling of Hornbeam, after Strasburger. r zone of root-
hairs near root-tip; hw, main roots; sw, lateral roots; 1,1, foliage leaves;
c. seed-leaves.

34 TREES IN WINTER

while on moist, fertile clay land in the same section such trees
are believed to have tap-roots seldom more than six feet long.

Absorption of water and minerals in solution is the great service
of roots, but it is only their smallest branchlets — the root fibrils
— that are capable of taking in water. The older parts are soon
covered with a waterproof layer of bark and are of service only in
conducting fluids to the stem and in holding the tree in place. The
fibrils, moreover, do not take in fluids throughout their whole ex-
tent but almost exclusively through fine root-hairs, which in the
shape of minute tabular cells form a velvety covering on their
younger portions (fig. 16). These root-hairs are short-lived, en-
during only for a few days or at most weeks. New hairs, however,
are constanly being formed toward the root tips as those further
back die and shrivel up. In some trees it has been shown that fine
threads of various species of moulds growing in the soil surround
the root fibrils and take the place of root-hairs, but it still remains
true that only the youngest parts of roots are capable of absorbing
water. It can be readily understood, therefore, how serious the
damage may be to the tree when its almost invisible root fibrils are
injured in any way as by transplanting. Fortunately roots can
rapidly regenerate lost parts and, if the need of water is lessened
by judicious pruning of the crown, the new rootlets formed will be
able to absorb enough water to keep the tree from withering.

How far roots extend from the trunk is not easy to observe.
Roots of the Elm have been found clogging up drain pipes 150 feet
from the tree, but such a distance must be exceptional. Garden-
ers claim that the parts underground extend laterally as far as
those above ground and such a condition would bring the young
feeding rootlets directly under the edges of the leafy crown. While
this is far from being strictly true, it should be remembered that the
absorbing fibrils are in a circle at some distance from the trunk. In
consequence, any such treatment of the soil, as adding water or
food constituents, should take place at some distance from the
trunk rather than at its base, in order to benefit the tree.

In order to live and grow, roots must have food. This is made
for them in the leaves and handed down through the stem and
older roots. If the supply of food is diminished by a partial loss
of leaves, some of the roots die. If the supply of water and food
constituents from the soil is lessened by root injury a part of the
leafy crown will die. A rather definite balance exists between the
extent of the root system and that of the crown.

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES

K

35

Fig. 17. Cross section through a Beech leaf, after Strasburger. ep,
ep", epidermis, the protective covering of upper and lower surface of
leaf; pi, s and sp, cells containing little granules of leaf-green or
chlorophyll — the places where plant food is made; st, opening through
the epidermis connecting the air passages in the leaf with the free air
outside.

All parts of plants need oxygen. Roots obtain it from the air
in the soil. If the roots are too deeply covered, as when the
ground is filled in above them in changing the grade, or if the air
in the soil is driven out by an excess of water, most trees are likely
to suffer. Some forms like the Elm, however, are naturally able to
endure such unfavorable conditions.

The Leaf — It has been already said that trees are like ani-
mals in their general food requirements, but that they have the
added characteristic of being able to make out of elements obtained
from the soil and from the air the complex food which they require.
This manufacture of plant food takes place within the leaf in mi-
nute granules of leaf-green or chlorophyll (fig. 17). Sunlight is
necessary and furnishes the energy for the process. Carbonic acid
gas from the air enters through small openings into the leaf and is
tjiere broken down into oxygen and carbon. The oxygen is re-
turned to the air in the pure state, while the carbon is united with
the water and minerals from the soil. The complex plant food
which is thus built up, is transported to all the growing parts of the
tree and is used in the construction of new leaves, roots and wood.
Carbon is the conspicuous element in wood, comprising one-half of
its dry weight, and in the production of charcoal is left in nearly a
pure state. When wood is completely burned, the process ob-
served in the leaves is reversed. The water passes off as vapor, the
mineral matter is left in the form of ashes, while the carbon re-
unites with the oxygen of the air in the formation of cabonic acid
gas. The leaf may be compared to a factory. Carbonic acid gas,
water and dissolved minerals are the raw materials. Plant food

36 TREES IN WINTER

is the finished product. Sunlight is the energy which runs the
machinery.

The fact that sunlight is necessary for the formation of plant
food in the leaves, explains the poor development of branches that
are partially shaded. The Post Oak, shown on page 101, was in-
terfered with by a neighboring tree on the right. The scant growth
of limbs on this side is the result. The lower branches of trees
in the woods die and are "self-pruned" when their leaves are so
shaded that they are no longer able to make sufficient food for a con-
tinuation of growth. It is for this reason, that all forest-grown
trees tend to produce tall trunks with but little branching (fig. 19)
while trees in the open (fig. 18) branch more freely and are there-
fore better able to express the habit characters peculiar to the
species.

Species of trees differ in their ability to tolerate shading. There
are "tolerant" forms like the Hemlock, the Beech and the Sugar
Maple that are able to grow under the shade of other trees, and
"intolerant" forms like the Poplars and Birches that are killed by
a relatively small amount of shading. In planting groups the rela-
tive tolerance of the forms represented should be taken into con-
sideration.

Although the leaves are arranged in a position favorable to illum-
ination, they are at the same time exposed to conditions favorable
to evaporation. It has been estimated that a Beech 110 years old
"transpired" through its leaves approximately 2,250 gallons of
water during a single summer and that an Oak with some 700,000
leaves transpired about 180 gallons daily. Such a considerable
amount of water lost by the leaves must be made good by the roots
or the tree will perish from thirst. A diminished root absorption,
brought about by injury during transplanting or caused in any
other way, can be neutralized by pruning the crown and thus reduc-
ing the amount of leaf surface exposed to evaporation.

Trees that drop their leaves all at once are called "diciduous" in
distinction to our Evergreens which retain their foliage through-
out the winter. The latter, however, are not strictly evergreen.
In the White Pine for example (page 211), leaf scare can be found
in increasing numbers on second and third year's growth and show
that in this species the fall of the foliage is gradual and that its in-
dividual leaves usually do not remain on the tree more than three
years. The evergreen character is generally associated with cone-
bearing forms. The Holly is the only broad-leaved tree of the

PLANTING AXD CARE OF TREES

37

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38 TREES IN WINTER

northeastern United States that is evergreen, and the Larch is our
only conifer that is deciduous. Some trees, however, like certain
species of Magnolia, are deciduous in New England and evergreen
in the southern states.

The bare-twigged condition prevents the tree from suffering a
more rapid loss of water than its roots could suppply in the winter
season if the broad, thin leaves were left exposed to evaporation. In
the autumn the living substance of the leaf is broken up and with
all the food remaining is withdrawn into the branches. Only the
framework remains and the colors left by the disintegration of the
green chlorophyll. The leaf has served its function as a machine
for the manufacture of plant food and is now ready for the scrap
heap. Before it dies, however, a separating layer forms at the base
of the leaf stalk and heals the wound before the leaf is abstricted.
Cold or dryness may hasten the process, but an early frost may kill
the leaves and prevent their falling in the normal fashion.

Not only the fall of leaves but also their autumn coloring is gen-
erally independent of frost and may at times occur even in mid-
summer. The trees of the northeastern United States show a more
brilliant coloring than those in the more humid climate of Europe,
and even our native species are said to have duller foliage when
grown abroad.

The Stem - - The stem of a tree has the function of connect-
ing the roots with the leafy crown and of raising the latter above
the shade of competing forms. A branchlet of the Horse-chestnut
(fig. 20) may be taken as a convenient form to illustrate the vari-
ous markings found on a young stem. The large triangular patches
resembling somewhat closed horse-shoes in shape are the leaf-scars
showing where the bases of the leaf-stalks were attached to the twig
before their fall. The little dots corresponding to the nail holes
in a horse-shoe are the bundle-scars and mark the location of the
so-called fibro-vascular bundles that run through the leaf-stalks and
connect with the veins of the leaf acting thus as the channels for
the transference of raw material and manufactured food to and
from the leaf. The leaf-scars are located at the nodes and the por
tion between the nodes is called the internode. Scattered
along the twig are little dots, the lenticels, which are openings that
function to a certain extent like breathing pores.

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES

39

Terminal Bud

Axillary Bud

Fruit Scar

\_-lnternode
v — Node

Lent ice I

Leaf Scar _
Bundle "

Scale Scars
Dormant Bud-

X__luearts growth

Fig. 20. Twig of Horse-chestnut.

Above each leaf-scar is normally produced an axillary-bud so
called because located in the axil or angle made between the twig
and the leaf-stalk when the latter was present. The lateral buds
are in distinction to the terminal buds at the ends of the twigs.

Buds that produce shoots with leaves are called leaf buds. Cer-
tain of the buds — the flower buds — do not continue the growth
of the twig but form the flowers which develop into fruit. Where
the individual fruit (in the Horse-chestnut the fruit cluster) was

40

TREES IN WINTER

attached, a fruit-scar is left, and these fruit scars furnish evidence
of the amount of fruit produced in previous years.

Each bud contains the rudiments of next year's growth with
shortened internodes and minute leaves folded together like a fan
and packed away within the protective covering of the bud-scales.
Buds begin to form by May or June, but remain during winter in a
condensed condition. Growth in the spring consists, foi the most
part, of a rapid elongation of the internodes and an enlargement
of the parts which are already formed in the bud, and may be com-
pleted in a few days. For most trees, the number of leaves and

Pig. 21. Diagram of three-year-old tree after Mueller, to show, on
side B, the number of branches theoretically possible if all the buds
develop and, on side A, the number actually produced. 1 and 2 mark
the end of the first and second year's growth respectively. The branches
have developed from axillary buds such as are seen on the last year's
growth above 2.

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 41

flowers a bud is capable of producing is determined not during the
spring elongation of the bud but during its formation the previous
year. At least a single bud is usually formed above each leaf. Of
all the buds produced in a season only a very small number ever
start and grow into branchlets, and the great majority of these
branchlets eventually die and are pruned .off by the tree. There
is a struggle for existence among buds and branchlets as well as
among seedlings, and the strongest alone survive. The accompany-
ing diagram (fig. 21) shows the condition that might result from
a free development of buds and branches in contrast with the con-
dition that usually exists. Dormant buds frequently retain their
vitality for many years and may be forced into development if
the growth above them is injured. Adventitious buds are those that
form outside of their regular position at the nodes. They are
responsible for the sprouts that regularly form on the cut stump
of Chestnut and many other of our deciduous trees. Poplars and
Willows (p. 251) produce them in abundance when the limbs
are cut back or "pollarded."

The bud-scales are modified leaves which protect the parts with-
in from mechanical injury and from loss of moisture, but except
for the prevention of sudden changes of temperature, they are of
little value as a protection against cold as is so often supposed. At
falling they leave a ring or band of scale-scars marking the limit
of each year's growth. These bands often remain distinct for
many years (see twig of Beech p. 295) and by counting their number
the age of the branchlet may be estimated. Thus it can be readily
seen that the figure of the Horse-chestnut represents growth made
during three years. Each year a ring of new wood is formed just
underneath the bark, and a count of the number of these annual
rings between the central pith and the bark, as seen in a cross
section of a branch or trunk, will likewise give the age of the part
investigated. The uppermost buds of a year's growth are gen^
erally the largest and most likely to develop into branches the
following spring. In some species, as many of the Evergreens,
and the Carolina Poplar (p. 261) for example, the branches com-
ing from these more vigorous buds form regular whorls along the
trunk at the upper part of each year's growth and afford for such
species a third means of estimating the age.

42

TREES IN WINTER

By aid of the markings just discussed on the stem the past his-
tory of the tree can be deciphered often for a considerable num-

r --- Outer Bark
- — Inner Bark

--- Cambium

r Summer Wood
Spring Wood

Cross Section]

Radial Section

Med.Ray

^Cambium" x^_

•«

'—Inner Bark
Sap wood
--Outer Bark

x- Spring Wood

Heart wood

Fig. 22. Diagram to illustrate structure of a block of Oak wood.

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 43

ber of years. The parts of a twig as furnishing a means of iden-
tification is further discussed in Part II.

A general idea of the internal structure of an older stem may
be obtained by the study of a block of Oak wood (fig. 22). Aside
from the relatively narrow pith in the center, the trunk of a tree is
made up of three general regions : — the protective covering of
lark outside, the thick cylinder of wood within and the thin sheet
of delicate tissue forming the cambium between these two regions.
The cambium layer is of special interest since it is the only part
that remains alive throughout the growth of the trees. In making
a whistle, the boy finds in this layer an easy place of separation
of wood from the bark. Each year its outer surface forms a new
layer of the bark and its inner surface a new layer of wood. By
adding an annual ring of wood the cambium itself is pushed out
by just so much each season away from the center of the tree but
always remains a narrow layer. The bark, as well as the wood, is
thus increased in thickness each year, but unlike the wood, it is
subjected to the pressure of growth from within and in most spe-
cies eventually dies, cracks and wears away on the outside as rap-
idly as it is renewed on its inner surface.

The annual rings usually give an accurate record of the age and
rapidity of growth of a tree, since defoliation by insect injury or
other influences that would cause a double period of growth in a
single year are of rare occurrence. Trees like the Oak and Ash
produce in the early part of the growing season large tubular cells
which extend vertically up and down the trunk and later form cells
of smaller dimensions. In such trees, therefore, the porous spring
wood can be readily distinguished from the denser summer wood.

At the end of a log a cross section of the trunk is exposed, and
on it can be seen fine lines radiating out from the center. These
are cut edges of the medullary rays or pith rays, as these narrow
sheets of tissue are sometimes called. A section cut lengthwise of
the log and parallel to the annual rings is called a tangential sec-
tion and shows the extent up and down of the medullary rays as
seen in end view. The radial section is made lengthwise of the
log and parallel to the medullary rays. If extended, it would pass
through the center of the tree. This is the direction in which
lumber is sawed in making "quartered oak." The shiny streaks
in Oak wood cut in this fashion are called the "silver" and are in

44 TREES IN WINTER

fact medullary rays seen in surface view. In the radial section
the annual rings are evident and the spring wood is seen to be made
up of hollow tubes. In the tangential section the rings,, if they
show at all, form V's or ellipses due to the saw failing to cut ex-
actly parallel to the grain. Boards are generally sawed off from
parallel sides of a log so that, although the outer cut is tangential
and the median cut is radial most of the boards will be sections
intermediate between these two. The markings on the finished
lumber will accordingly vary in appearance.

To many it is a surprise to learn that the large bulk of a tree
is dead, literally with no more life than the proverbial barn door.
Hollow trees are not infrequently found alive and flourishing.
Except for their liability to be blown over, they often do not seem to
be greatly handicapped by the loss of inner. wood. The older wood,
therefore, is mainly of service as a mechanical means of support
and has no part in the life activities of the tree. In some forms
the inner wood as it dies, takes on a darker color and under the
name of licartwood is easily distinguished from the younger,
lighter colored sapwood toward the outside. The outer la^vers of
the bark also are dead. There remains, therefore, as the essential
living portion of the stem, the cambium layer with the inner bark
on its outer side, and the sapwood just within.

Experiments have shown that the ascending currents which
carry water and* dissolved minerals up to the leaves are located in
the sapwood. The inner bark transports the manufactured food
from the leaves. If the inner bark is severed, as by "ringing,"
the descending sap is interrupted and the roots ultimately
will die of starvation. Portions above the ring are still able to
obtain water and raw material through the channels in the sap-
wood so that injury brought about by girdling may not make itself
shown till the succeeding season.

The cambium layer is responsible not only for the regular for-
mation of wood and bark but also for their regeneration. An in-
jury which exposes the cambium will excite this layer to increased
growth and a formation of wound tissue or callus will result.
Callus spreads gradually in all directions from the exposed cam-
bium where it first makes its appearance. Bark forms on its outer
surface as it slowly seals over the wound. Unless destructive
wood fungi gain entrance through the wound, the healing pro-

PLANTING AND OARE OF TREES 45

cess may be completed without injury to the tree. Scars, more or
less entirely covered by callus, are familiar objects on trees that
have been pruned. They are shown in figures 44 and 47. The pro-
cess of grafting depends upon the growing together of this wound
tissue found on two different twigs when their cambium layers are
held in contact.

Reproduction -•- A tree is a flowering plant. Except for
a few forms like our fruit trees, Magnolias, Horse-chestnut, Catalpa,
Locust and Tulip Tree the flowers are generally inconspicuous
and consequently often overlooked. From perfect flowers come
seed, and seeds are the natural means of reproduction in flowering
plants. Most species have both sexes upon the same individual,
with male and female organs in the same flower, or in separate
blossoms on the same tree. The Willows, Poplars, and Ashes,
however, have the different sexes on separate individuals, and are
called, therefore, dioecious. A single tree of a dioecious species
will bear flowers of only a single sex. Cuttings carry the sex of
the tree from which they were made. Forms like the Lombardy
Poplar which produce only male flowers never set seed and can be
multiplied, therefore, only by nonsexual methods such as by
cuttings.

Trees do not bear with equal abundance every year. Thus, al-
though a few cones may be produced each season, the White Pine
in the northeastern states has a good seed year but once in about
six years. Reproduction in relation to propagation is further dis-
cussed in the following chapter.

46 TREES IN WINTER

CHAPTER II
THE PROPAGATION OF TREES.

PROPAGATION FROM SEEDS.

Nature's Way — The natural way for trees to reproduce
their kind is by seeds. The trees in the virgin forest
have been produced from seeds and without the aid of man. The
moist floor of the forest offers favorable conditions for the germi-
nation of seed and the growth of the seedlings. There is not
room for the development of all the trees that commence growth.
Only the strongest and most favorably situated individuals survive
and the less fortunate ones are overshadowed and are lost in the
struggle.

Since there is room in the forest for the development of only
a limited number of trees, nature has adopted wonderful methods
for the desemination of seeds far beyond the limits of the forest.
Some specimens that commonly grow along streams make use of
the water to carry their seeds to distant places down stream. This
probably accounts for the rows of Carolina Poplars and Sycamores
along certain river banks and on areas that are usually flooded in
the spring. The seeds of many other species are scattered by
animals. Is it not probable that the Hickories and other nut trees
commonly found growing along stone walls have come from the
nuts accidentally dropped by squirrels on their way to their nest-
ing places? Birds are often responsible for the desemination of
fleshy or berry-like seeds of such species as the Mulberry, Hack-
berry, Sassafras, Dogwood, Mountain Ash, Hawthorn, Shadbush,
Holly, Juniper, Cedar and the Cherries.

The most common agency for the desemination of seeds is the
wind. The seeds of many species are equipped with peculiar de-
vices by which they may be carried various distances from the
parent trees. The Hop Hornbeam seeds carry balloons (see p. 277)
and the Sycamore seeds parachutes. The seeds of the Catalpa fly
in a monoplane (see p. 429) and those of the Elm and Ailanthut
sail through the air on flimsy rafts, (see p. 391). The seeds of the
Birches are constructed in the form of tiny birds (see p. 287), while
those of the Maples (see p. 403) are supplied with wings resem-

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 4?

bling those of certain insects. The Ashes have dart-like seeds that
shoot through the air in great profusion (see p. 423), and the Bass-
wood seeds (see p. 417), are suspended from a leafy shield by means
of which they are carried long distances.

While nature's method of seeding is truly unique, it is also
remarkably extravagant. A very small percentage of the seeds
that are formed ever germinate and develop into trees. Many of
them after falling to the ground are destroyed by forest fires.
A large number are eaten by insects and other animals. Many
more fail to find suitable locations for their germination and
growth. To allow for this great waste and to keep up
the supply of the various species, tree seeds are bourn in
great profusion. It is interesting to estimate the number of seeds
bourn by a single tree of the more prolific species like the
Mulberry, the Catalpa, the Sycamore, the Poplars, the Birches, and
some of the Evergreens.

It may be plainly seen that in the economic production of tim-
ber, natural seeding is not to be depended upon. Although in
the hands of an expert forester the natural seeding of cleared land
from adjacent forests, may often produce satisfactory results.
Direct planting with nursery-grown trees is likely to give quicker
and more certain results and furnish only the desired kinds of
timber.

The Forest Nursery — While it is possible to obtain
seedlings for forest planting at a reasonable price, there is no rea-
son why the farmer or forest planter cannot grow his own trees
from seed. To encourage the planting of forest trees some states
are furnishing young trees at prices but slightly in excess of the
cost of production. Even at these low rates the planter would find
it more satisfactory to grow his own trees. To do this successfully
he needs to know only a few general principles. The method em-
ployed in the growing of some species may differ slightly from that
used in others, but the principles are very much the same with all.
The work now is largely in the hands of specialists, but when farm-
ers and others come to realize the ease with which trees may be
grown and to appreciate the saving in money, there will be more
planting done.

Collecting Seeds for Planting — On account of the diffi-
culty of collecting and the exacting requirements in the

48 TREES IN WliVTEU

handling and storing of tree seeds, the price usually is very high.
According to the reports of the United States Bureau of Forestry,
a pound of Larch seed costs from $12.00 to $16.00, White Pine
from $1.50 to $3.00, Sugar Maple .75c to $1.00, and White Oak
from lOc. to 25c. The forest planter, therefore, would do well
to collect his own seed and thus obviate this unnecessary expense.

In the collecting of seeds it is usually necessary to climb the
trees. The seeds are either picked by hand or are shaken or beaten
off and collected in large sheets on the ground. The practice of
cutting down trees for the purpose of obtaining their seed should
be discouraged. Some species, like the Chestnut, the Beech, the
Hickories, the Oaks, the Walnuts, and the Butternut, are more
easily gathered after severe frosts. The work of gathering seed,
however, extends from April to November, according to the spe-
cies. The season for some species, like the Birches, the Maples,
the Elms, the Poplars and the Willows, is very short, while that for
others, like the Common and Honey Locusts, the Catalpa, the Box
Elder, the Kentucky Coffee Tree, the Sycamore, and the Ashes,
is more extended and may stretch far into the winter. It is diffi-
cult to state definitely the exact time when seeds of the various
species should be collected. Of course they should not be gath-
ered until they are ripe, and to avoid loss it is usually advisable
to collect them as promptly as possible after they reach this con-
dition. Some species must be gathered promptly after reaching
maturity if they are to be saved at all. Others if left either on the
tree or on the ground are likely to be carried away by squirrels.

Storing Seeds-- As a rule, seeds that mature before mid-summer
should be sown when gathered. Those that mature later
than August first should be stored until spring. Large seeds like
the nuts and acorns may be stored in earth outside or in a cold
cellar. The smaller seeds, except those of Evergreens, may be
stored in boxes in thin layers between layers of sand. The boxes
should be buried outside in the ground or placed in a cold cellar
The seed of Evergreens requires a cool, dry place and is usually
placed in sacks and hung in cold sheds or barns. Some seeds need
to be subjected to frost before they will germinate and develop
properly. Others require two or more years contact with the
soil before they will germinate. These cases are exceptions,

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 49

however, and are mentioned here to show that all kinds of seed
cannot be treated in exactly the same manner.

Some seeds require special treatment before storing for the
winter. During the early fall most kinds should be spread out in
thin layers in some cool, airy place, such as under a shed on the
north side of other buildings or on the upper shelves of a cool, dry
cellar. Nuts and acorns are best kept on the ground in a cool
shed. Most kinds require close attention to keep them from
heating and moulding. If the layers are too deep the seed is
likely to mould, and if too shallow it is likely to dry out. The
more succulent seeds should be in thinner layers than the dryer
kinds. With some of the quickly drying sorts it is sometimes nec-
essary to cover them with straw, chaff, or a thin cloth. Some
of the Evergreen cones require excessive drying before they will
open and release their seeds. The fleshy fruits of the Mulberry,
the Cherry, the Hawthorn, and the Plum, require macerating in
water until the seeds can be separated readily from the pulp. The
shucks of Black Walnuts, Butternuts and Hickory nuts should be
removed within a few days after gathering. The most import-
ant point to be observed in the storing of seeds of any kind is to keep
them in a cool, dry place to prevent germination and at the same
time avoid excessive drying.

Testing the Vitality of Seeds-- Some seeds will remain
viable for many years while others must be planted within
a few weeks to insure a good growth. Seedsmen frequently mix
their "left-over" seed with their fresh stock and this sometimes
accounts for the low degree of germination of some samples. It is
well, therefore, to test a sample of seed before buying large quan-
tities. The only strictly reliable test to determine the vitality of
seeds is germination, but this often requires many days or weeks
for results. With a little experience in examining fresh and stale
seed, one may expect to determine fairly accurately whether a given
sample will grow. The examination consists in cutting open about
fifty seeds of a sample and in observing whether the kernels are de-
cayed, moldy, abnormally shrunken or completely dried out. If a
large percentage of those examined are firm, plump, and normally
moist, the sample probably may be relied upon. The seeds of some
species, like the Ashes and Locusts, may be extremely dry and yet
be reliable.

r

0 TREES IN WINTER

The seed of a large proportion of the species will germinate
within ten to thirty days and the vitality of these may be definitely
determined by germination tests. A definite number of seeds of
any sample may be covered with sand or moss at a depth equivalent
to the diameter of the seed. The box containing the sample un-
der test should be kept in a place where the temperature ranges
from 60 degrees to 70 degrees F., and the soil or moss kept in a
moist condition. For the smaller seeds the use of sand will give
the best results and for the larger kinds either moss alone or a mix-
ture of moss and sand is recommended.

Planting Seeds — Seed beds should be located on moder-
ately light, well-drained soil. Whenever possible, it is also well
to locate the bed on the north or east side of a building, forest, or
other windbreak. A common and convenient width for seed beds
is four feet. The length may be extended according to the
amount of seed to be planted. The rows run crosswise of the bed.
In very large plantations it is usually advisable to sow the seed
in long rows or drills clear across the field, in much the same way
that vegetable seed is planted. This arrangement admits of horse
cultivation and lessens the hand work.

The soil should be well prepared by previous cultivation. Its
physical and chemical condition may be greatly improved by tfie
addition of well rotted stable manure. Ground that has been un-
der cultivation for at least one year is not so likely to be infested
with injurious insects and will give better results than newly broken
land.

The best time for planting most species is early spring. Some
species, like Red and Silver Maple, River Birch, Elms, Poplars and
Willows, mature their seeds in June and these must be planted
immediately, but most species are carried over winter and planted
as soon as the soil can be properly worked. If the soil is too wet
the seeds are likely to rot, while if it is too dry the seeds will not
germinate until late in the season and may possibly remain in the
ground until the following season.

The seed of the species that make a small growth during the
first season, like Conifers, Birches, Elms, and Sugar Maple, may
be planted in rows about eight or twelve inches apart. It is some-
times sown broadcast in well prepared seed-beds and the seedlings
transplanted in nursery rows the first or second year following. The

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 51

seed of the rapid-growing species, like the Soft Maples, Hickories,
Oaks, Black Walnut, Butternut, Ashes, Elms, Locusts and Catalpas,
should be given more room and should be planted in rows two to
three feet apart. The seeds should be so spaced in the row that
the seedlings will not require thinning. Medium sized seeds and
those that have tested high in germination may be planted from
one to two inches apart, while the smaller ones and those that have
proven to be low in vitality should be spaced somewhat closer. The
larger seeds like nuts and acorns may be spaced about three inches
apart. For very small seeds it is customary to use a board on
which to stand and thus avoid trampling the soil. The rows in
which the seed is to be planted may be marked off by running a hoe
handle along the edge of the board.

The amount of covering that should be given seeds depends upon
their size and upon the character of soil. Large seeds should be
planted deeper than smaller kinds. A common rule is to cover all
seeds about three or four times their own depth. On light soil, and
especially during dry weather, they should be covered more deeply,
while on heavy soil twice their own depth would be sufficient. In
order to bring the soil moisture up to the level of the seeds and to
prevent the seed from being washed out by rain it is well to roll the
ground or firm it by walking on a board placed along the row.
The loss of moisture and the baking of the surface may be pre-
vented by scattering chaff on the seed bed after planting.

Care of Seedlings — The young seedlings of most species
will require shade for the first season and of the conifers for
the first two seasons. The necessary shade may sometimes be
supplied by the use of evergreen boughs, but the common practice
is to use frames made of lath. (See fig. 28.) The latter are placed
about their own width apart and nailed on end strips about two
inches in thickness and five to six feet in length, The frames are
supported eighteen inches above ground for conifers, and from two
to three feet for other seedlings. The screens are removed only
on cloudy days and during gentle rains. When the soil is suffi-
ciently moist the frames serve a useful purpose by shedding part
of the water that falls. With broad leaved seedlings it is usually
unnecessary to keep the shades on after the first of August.

When it is necessary to water seedlings the water should be
applied gently, allowing it to soak in. When good cultivation is

52

TREES IN WINTER

supplied it is seldom necessary to apply water. The cultivation
should be so frequent and thorough that no weeds will develop and
that a loose soil mulch will be maintained on the surface.

Transplanting — Most trees are large enough to be taken
from the seed bed after one year's growth. Conifers and a few
other species make a very slow growth and should be left in the
seed bed for two years. The seedlings of some of the most rapid-
growing species are occasionally planted in their permanent loca-
tions at the end of the first season, but the usual practice is to trans-
plant them in the nursery for at least one season. The transplant-

Fig. 23. A one-year-old Cedar cutting

ing is usually done in the spring, from the first of April till the
middle of May. The length of time that they remain in the nur-
sery depends upon the growth and this is largely influenced by the

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 53

character of the soil and the kind of treatment. In the moving of
young trees from one position to another, great care should be
exercised in preventing the roots from drying out. This precaution
is especially necessary in the handling of conifers.

PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS

It is a common thing to find willow twigs that have fallen from
trees and taken root. The branches of some species of willow are
so brittle that they are broken off by the wind. Some of these fall
in the water and are carried down stream for many miles and are
finally washed ashore, where they find conditions favorable for
rooting.

From nature, therefore, man has learned that trees may be
propagated by cuttings. Most woody plants when given proper
conditions may be propagated in this way. Species differ greatly
in respect to their amenability to this method of propagation.
Poplars and Willows are very easily propagated from cuttings, and
the desired result often may be attained more readily by this means
than by the collecting and planting of seed. Some species, on
the other hand, are quite difficult to propagate in this way, and with
such the practice is to grow them from seed. The chief advan-
tage in propagation by cuttings is the saving of time. Many trees
started from cuttings are large enough at the end of the second
or third season for planting in their permanent positions on lawns
or along roadsides. Furthermore, there are many horticultural va-
rieties, like the weeping forms, that do not come true from seed
and these must be propagated either from cuttings or grafted on
seedlings of the same or some closely-related species.

Making Cuttings — Cuttings from woody plants are usually
gathered in the late fall or early winter. There are three distinct
kinds employed in the propagation of trees, namely: simple, heel,
and mallet. (See fig. 24).

The simple cutting is employed generally with such trees as the
Willow and Poplar. It consists of a straight portion of a shoot
from six to twelve inches in length, nearly uniform in size
throughout, and containing two or more buds. At the lower end
it is usually cut off just below a bud, because roots develop more
readily at the joints. Some species, like the Apple, Pear, Plum,
Cherry, Hawthorn, Mountain Ash, Elm and Ailanthus, are more

54

TREES IN WINTER

easily propagated from root cuttings than from cuttings taken
from above ground. These are also of a simple type and are
obtained from young trees that have been grown from seeds. The

Fig. 24. Hard wood cuttings. A simple cutting on the left; a heal
cutting in the center and a mallet cutting on the right.

root from one of these trees may often be divided into from three
to twelve pieces.

Heel cuttings are made by severing twigs close to their bases and
in such a manner as to carry with them portions of the parent
branch, forming the so-called heel. Heel cuttings are usually
not more than six inches in length and are frequently used for
the propagation of spruces and firs.

Mallet cuttings are made by severing the parent branch
above and below a short side-branch so as to leave a mallet-like
piece of the former at the base of the latter. They are usually
from five to eight inches in length and are commonly used in the
propagation of Junipers and Arbor Vitaes.

Setting Cuttings — The various kinds of cuttings are handled
in much the same way. After being cut they are usually
tied in bundles of fifty, or more, with all the tops pointing in the
same direction. The bundles are packed in sand or soil and

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES. 55

either buried on the north side of a building or stored in a cool
cellar until spring, when they are ready for planting. During the
winter the lower ends of the cuttings should become callused.
Callusing is the first step toward root formation. The cuttings
are planted usually in rows eighteen to thirty-six inches apart and
about six inches apart in the row. They are placed in the ground
either on the slant or in a vertical position and set so that one or
two buds remain above the surface. The soil always should be
packed firmly about the cuttings. The after treatment is about
the same as for seedlings.

PROPAGATION BY GRAFTAGE

According to Bailey's Cyclopedia of Horticulture, "Graftage com-
prises the process and operation of inserting a part of one plant into
another, with the intention that the part shall grow on the foster
root, together with all the questions which arise in relation to the
practice." It is a comprehensive term, embracing all questions
relating to the operations of both grafting and budding.

This method of propagation is employed when it is necessary to
perpetuate varieties that do not come true from seed, as is the case
with all varieties of our cultivated fruit trees, like apples, pears,
plums, cherries, peaches, lemons and oranges, and with many hor-
ticultural varieties of ornamental trees. It is employed also with
trees that do not bear seeds freely and with those whose seeds
are difficult to germinate and that do not propagate well by cuttings.
The practice is also useful in dwarfing tall-growing species; for ex-
ample, the standard pear is made dwarf by grafting it upon the
quince. Furthermore the practice may be useful in adapting cer-
tain kinds of trees to adverse conditions of soil and climate. For
example on account of the difficulty of growing the plum on light
soil, it is sometimes grafted on the peach, which is better adapt-
ed to sandy soil.

As a rule, grafting must be done with plants of close relation-
ship, but frequently success follows grafting of one species on an-
other, as in the case of plums, and occasionally of one genus or
another, as is the case of the pear and quince. It is not enough,
however, that the graft should unite, but it should form a good
union that is not likely to be parted by wind storms or by heavy
loads of fruit. The limits within which grafting can succeed,
therefore, are to be determined only by experiment.

56 TREES IN WINTER

Grafting — There are many methods of grafting, differing
mainly in the position of the union and in the method with which
the scion and stock are joined. Space here will permit only of a
discussion of general principles and for the technique of the va-
rious methods the reader is referred to Bailey's Nursery Book.

That portion of a plant that is mechanically inserted upon an-
other plant with the expectation that it shall grow, is called the
scion. The plant or the part of a plant upon which the scion is set
is called the stock. The most important point in the whole
operation of grafting is the necessity for inserting the scion in
such a way that its cambium layer or inner hark will come in close
contact with that of the stock. When this condition is fulfilled
all that remains is to prevent the access of moisture and disease
spores and to prevent the parts from drying out before union is
affected. This is accomplished by the use of grafting wax which
may be purchased at small cost or made of the following: resin,
4 parts; beeswax, 2 parts; tallow or linseed oil, 1 part (by weight).
The resin and beeswax are broken finely and melted together with
the tallow. When thoroughly melted the mixture should be
poured into a pail of cold water and left there till it becomes just
hard enough to handle, when it should be taken out and pulled like
taffy until it becomes light brown or fawn in color. In the pull-
ing and subsequent handling the hands should be well greased to
prevent sticking. If the wax hardens before the time for using, it
must be slightly warmed and softened so that it may be applied ex-
peditiously and effectively.

Scions for grafting are usually collected in November, just after
the leaves have fallen, but they may be collected any time during
the dormant season. The scions are tied in bundles, packed in
moist sand or soil and stored in a cool place in the same way as
described for cuttings.

Cleft Grafting is the method commonly employed when it is de-
sired to change the variety of mature fruit trees. The process in
brief is described here and will serve to illustrate more clearly the
essential features of all grafting methods.

A branch, usually less than two inches in diameter is sawed off
squarelv and smoothly. The stub is split down through the center
to a distance of about two or three inches. For this purpose a
special kind of knife is used and a mallet is often used to drive the

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES

57

knife into the stock. The knife is equipped with a short wedge
on the back of the extreme end of the blade. This wedge is used
to hold the slit open while the scion is adjusted. The slit may be
widened by simply pressing on the knife handle and after the

Fig. 25. A Cleft Graft, before and after waxing.

Fig. 26. A scion
for cleft-grafting.

scion has been placed the pressure on the handle may be relieved
and the wedge withdrawn. The pressure of the stock should be
sufficient to hold the scion in position. (See fig. 25.)

The scion is cut in a sloping fashion at the base, or in the form
of a very thin wedge. The sloping part should be thicker on one
side than on the other. The shaping is usually done so that the
lowest bud will come on the thicker side and at a point about
opposite the upper part of the wedge. The upper part is cut off
squarely and at a point slightly above the third bud. (See fig. 2(i ).
If scion wood is scarce two buds are sufficient to each scion.
The scion is adjusted so that the inner bark on the thicker side
comes in contact with the inner bark of the stock. The lower bud
comes about level or just below the surface of the stock and is
usually covered in the waxing process. The task is completed by
covering with wax all exposed cut surfaces.

It is customary,, with branches that are large enough, to insert
two scions. They should be set so that their thicker margins
will be on the outer side of the stock. The second graft affords
a double chance for success and it assists in healing up the wound.

58

TREES IN WINTER

If both scions grow, the weaker one, about midsummer, is sawed
off in a sloping fashion, taking with it part of the stock.
When the scion and stock are about equal in diameter, as is
usually the case in root grafting, the process known as whip grafting
is usually employed. Figure 27 will serve to illustrate the process.

Fig. 27. A root-graft.

Fig. 28. A "stick" of buds.

Budding — The practice of budding has become a more common
means of perpetuating varieties than that of grafting. It is
habitually employed on the trees of most stone fruits and fre-
quently on those of apples and pears. The operation is simple
and consists of inserting a single detached bud under the bark of
the stock. In the hands of experts it can be done with great
speed. The usual plan is for a man to set the buds and a boy to
follow closely and do the tying. The practice is employed chiefly
on stocks of small diameter and preferably on those not more than
one year old.

The work is done whenever the bark will peel readily, which

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES

59

is either in early spring or late summer. As commonly practiced
the work is done in August or early September.

When everything is in readiness the buds are at once taken from
a tree of the desired variety. Long shoots of the past season's
growth are collected for spring budding and of the present season's
growth for summer budding. If the shoots are collected in the
summer the leaves will be on, but these should be cut off promptly,
leaving about a fourth of an inch of the leaf-stalk to serve as a
handle to the bud. This shoot is called a "stick of buds." (See
fig. 28). Each stick contains several buds, al of which are cut.
but not severed, before any of them are inserted. The cutting
consists in taking a slice out of the bark about an inch in length
and extending above and below the hud. A small amount of the
wood from just beneath the bud is likely to be taken, and this may
either be removed or left. When finally severed by making a
straight cut across the top, the result will be a shield-shaped
piece of bark with a bud in the center. A sharp thin-bladed knife
is necessary for clean and rapid work.

Fig. 29. The three stages in the process of shield-budding.

Before inserting the buds the leaves are removed from that
portion of the stock where the operation is performed. A T-shaped
incision is made and, if the bark peels nicely, the bud may be
pushed down under the bark until its abrupt top fits snugly
against the transverse part of the T. The operation is completed
by tying with rafia or some kind of soft cord. The tying material
is usually cut in suitable lengths of about one foot. It should
not be wound over the bud itself. (See fig. 29).

Budding is usually done on seedlings and at a point very near
the ground. With larger trees the various branches should be

60 TREES IN WINTER

budded at positions somewhere near their junction with the main
stem.

In about two or three weeks the bud will have "stuck" or united
to the stock. The bandage then should be cut to allow for the
growth of the stem. The summer-set bud should remain perfectly
dormant until the following spring when the stock should be cut
off just above the bud. This will throw the entire force of the
plant into the shoot that will spring from the bud. Sometimes
a growth of three or four feet will be made the first season and
the following spring the tree may be set out in its permanent
location.

PLANTING AND CARE OF THEES 61

CHAPTER III
TREE PLANTING IN RURAL DISTRICTS.

THE CONSERVATION OF GOOD SCENERY.

Every citizen in every country is interested, or should be inter-
ested, in good scenery. Of the various elements that constitute
good scenery or that go to make up our landscape there are none so
ornamental nor so indispensable as trees. During the early settle-
ment and development of the country the problem was to get rid
of the trees and undoubtedly there was a great waste of timber.
The necessarily wasteful methods of the early settlers were handed
down to the later generations and the wholesale destruction of
forests was thoughtlessly continued until about fifty years ago. At
this time we first began to realize that for the benefit of the
coming generation and for the future prosperity of the country,
something must be done to stop or mitigate the unnecessary waste.

The problem of today then is much different from that of the
early days and we hear a great deal now about the conservation of
forests and the necessity for planting trees. It is an important
problem from the standpoint of economy and almost equally
important from the standpoint of esthetics. This country is noted
for its fine scenery and our beautiful landscape is regarded by
foreigners as one of the country's greatest assets. Undoubtedly
there are many sections of the country that are worth more for
the scenery they possess than for agriculture or forestry. In dis-
cussions relating to the conservation of our natural resources,
therefore, the element of good scenery should always be considered.
Since good forests, good farms, and good waterways contribute
largely to the landscape, the element of good scenery cannot easily
be separated from many of the commonly recognized natural
resources.

Trees have become so much a part of our civilization that it
would seem almost impossible to get along without them. What
would our homes, our country roads, our city streets, our parks,
and our landscape be without them? We all know that trees are
beautiful and even necessary in such places, but we cannot fully
appreciate their value till we have seen the desert. The settlers

62 TREES IN WINTER

in the prairie section of the West have many times declared that
the longing to see the trees and the hills of New England caused
more distress than the desire to see old friends and relatives.

The value of trees from the economic or commercial stand-
point is well understood and can be estimated on the basis of dollars
and cents. Their esthetic value and their value from the stand-
point of health is not so generally appreciated nor is it so amenable
to calculation. We hear a great deal these days about surveys —
forest surveys, agricultural surveys, and the like. A survey in
this sense means an inventory or a stock-taking. It would be
interesting to make a survey based upon the landscape wealth of
any section or of the whole country. It would be interesting also
to compare in such a survey the relative value of the various
elements of the landscape. It seems safe to predict that in most
sections trees would be credited with a very large proportion of
the total wealth.

A NATIONAL PARK SYSTEM

There is a tendency nowadays on the part of the cities to extend
their park systems far into the country. In Massachusetts a reser-
vation scheme known as the Metropolitan Park System, embracing
the whole state is well under way. Immense tracts of land
possessing admirable landscape features have been acquired and
improved. Roads and boulevards, connecting the various holdings
with one another and with the Boston Park System have been
constructed. The trees have been protected from injury and many
new plantings have been made. The aim of the whole scheme is
to preserve the natural scenery and to make it accessible to the
appreciative people of the commonwealth. The project does not
interfere with the utilization of the surrounding land for agri-
cultural purposes. It has had a marked influence upon land values
and has developed among the people a local patriotism and a
greater appreciation for natural scenery.

The movement in Massachusetts is sure to exert a wide influence.
At the present time there is a movement on foot that will connect
Montreal and New York by the use of a great scenic boulevard.
Other states and districts are bound to see the wisdom of such a
policy and to enact similar laws for the conservation of natural
scenery. The next step should bring together the park reserva-

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 63

tions of the various stales and the ultimate result should be what
may be called a national park system. Such a system would unite
the great natural wonders of America, with Niagara Falls as the
central figure. Among the hundreds of special features of this
great national park may be mentioned the gigantic forests of
California, Yellow Stone geysers of Wyoming, the Grand canon
of Colorado, the wheat fields of Kansas, the Mammoth Cave of
Kentucky, the vineyards of New York and Pennsylvania, the
Green Mountains of Vermont, the famous elms and peach orchards
of Connecticut, the apple orchards of Virginia, and the palm
groves of Florida. The railway companies must necessarily take an
active part in such a movement, and many of them have already
made a start in this direction. The traveling public has done
much to encourage development in this respect and can do much
more by patronizing the companies that offer the most attractive
routes.

The Sign-Boards Must Go — There will be no place in the
great national park system for the hideous sign-board so commonly
found along railway lines and public highways. This method
of advertising should be discouraged. How to get rid of this
objectionable feature of the landscape seems like a difficult problem,
but it is believed that the offenders will eventually realize the
advisability of protecting the welfare of the public. There is a
growing sentiment in opposition to the sign-board nuisance. Many
people, by their refusal to use any of the products that they know
to be advertised in this way, have asserted their feelings in a
most effective manner. If their children should "cry for Castoria"
they will endeavor to soothe them with some brand that has been
advertised in a more legitimate fashion.

Arousing Interest — The greatest progress and the most en-
during results in any direction must come through education.
We hear a great deal in these days about the necessity for some
kind of instruction that will fit the child to his environment.
The study of the landscape, of which trees form the chief element,
will go a long way toward developing in the child a love for the
beautiful and eventually bring him in harmony with his surround-
ings. It seems advisable, therefore, that a campaign for the
conservation and improvement of rural scenery should start with
the schools.

64 TREES IN WINTER

Village improvement societies, of which there are a great many,
are doing a splendid work by way of stimulating greater effort
among property holders and municipal officials. Their influence,
however, is too often restricted to the limits of their own little
village and their attitude toward neighboring villages too often
savors of rivalry. If every organization of this sort should reach
out and co-operate with similar organizations in neighboring
villages the result would be almost beyond comprehension. The
influence of such organizations should also be felt on the surround-
ing farms, and farmers should be encouraged to take an active
part in the movement. Many of the more thickly populated
rural sections should have societies of their own. Since well-
kept farms contribute largely to the general appearance of the
country, prizes are sometimes offered either by the state or by
some agricultural association for the best kept farms. This
practice sometimes results in better farms, but the principle is
all wTong. When farmers get the proper spirit they will improve
their farms for the added pleasure and profit to be derived.

The granges, farmers' clubs, women's clubs, and the various
organizations connected with the church, may all share in the
movement for better scenery in the country. Every section has its
own special scenery and it should be the business of some organi-
zation to protect it. If there is no organization in the community
that may be intrusted with the responsibility, one should be formed
for this express purpose.

THE PROBLEM OF THE COUNTRY ROADS

The Location, of Country Roads- -The country road primarily
is for the purpose of communication and transportation. The
first consideration, therefore, should be efficiency. Many of the
country roads to reach their maximum of efficiency should not only
be rebuilt, but should be relocated. It is remarkable that in hilly
sections so many roads follow the shortest route, like the Indian
trails, rather than the natural contours of the land. Eoads that
follow the valleys and the streams are usually more efficient and
decidedly more picturesque. Where the streams are tortuous, of
course, it is possible to overdo such an undertaking. In flat
countries, on the other hand, there is much waste of time in
following the straight concession and crossroad routes. Some

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 65

cities have realized the necessity for abandoning this rectangular
or checkerboard arrangement of streets and are now planning some
diagonal routes between important points. Road builders should
keep in mind that often there is a saving of almost a third of
the distance between two points by traveling in a direct line.
Farmers who live in a checkerboard section would be astonished
if they should figure out the waste involved in traveling over
indirect routes for a period of ten or twenty years. Some farmers
would find that during their lives they have traveled thousands of
unnecessary miles. It is not an easy matter, however, to change
the location of a road and usually we must take them as we find
them.

Although somewhat foreign to the subject under discussion, it
seems advisable to digress just long enough to make a suggestion
for the improvement of country road-beds in sections where stones
are abundant. There are many such locations where the farmers
could build permanent roads in front of their farms by using the
stone from their fields instead of piling up huge walls that not
only occupy valuable space but, furnish the best protection for
injurious insects and obnoxious creatures of various kinds. On
some farms the non-productive area on account of stone walls
often amounts to one-fifth of the total acreage. It would seem
like a feasible thing for the farmers in a certain community to
"get together" on a road improvement proposition of this kind.
The removal of the stone walls could be accomplished during the
winter months and most of the work done during slack seasons.
Some communities undoubtedly could afford to invest in a stone
crusher with which to grind stone for dressing their roads. If
nothing but the native soil is used on top of the rocks the result
will be quite satisfactory, for, on account of the drainage afforded
bv the stone foundation, such roads dry out quickly in wet seasons.
For economic reasons alone, the ridding of the farm of the scat-
tered and piled stones would be worth while. Furthermore, im-
proved roads in any community reduce the cost of transportation
and tend to increase land values.

Making the Best Use of Existing Conditions --In many secnons
of the East the problem is to keep down the brush along
the roadside. The custom in such places is to periodically
mow and burn everything within the highway limits. An able-

•/ o *— *

66 TREES IN WINTER

bodied man,, armed with a brush scythe, is capable of destroying
more good scenery within a few weeks than can be developed on
the same area within several years. Much of this, of course, is
necessary to keep the road clear, but it seems strange that
country and town officials implicated in such wholesale destruction
cannot see the folly of this practice. If it should become necessary
to widen the thoroughfare it would seem unnecessary to have the
cutting extend clear to the limits. By leaving a strip along the
fences, with occasional interruptions for a more extended view,
the effect would be decidedly more pleasing. Within a few years
the larger-growing species may be expected to arch over the road
in such a way as to furnish shelter from the hot rays of the sun
during the summer and cold winds of the winter.

A still better plan would be to retain only a few of the largest
and most desirable specimens to furnish the needed protection
and to contribute to the beauty of the wayside scenery. More
trees may be reserved than will ultimately be required, but some
of them should be cut out as soon as the trees begin to crowd. No
attempt should be made to select trees that are in line, but it is
well to choose only those that are at some distance from the road
bed. Whenever possible, it is well to restrict the selection in a
certain stretch of road to one or two species, but it is better to
have a great variety of species than to have none at all. For this
purpose it is well to select long-lived species, like the Oak, some
of the Maples, the Hickories, the White Elm, the Chestnut, the
White Pine, the Linden, the White Ash, the Tulip, the Sycamore,
and others. The brush around the selected trees will need to be
kept cut for ten or fifteen years, but after that it is not likely to
make much headway in the shade of the larger trees, as may be
seen along country roads that pass through the forest. By allow-
ing some of the trees to develop, therefore, the municipality is
eventually relieved of the necessity for annually or bienially mowing
the brush along the roadside.

It is not an uncommon thing when traveling through rural
communities to find men engaged in cutting down fine road-
side trees. There are various reasons given for such action and
on investigation it is often found to be petty grafting on the part
of one or more of the town officials. Occasionally the men who
are found doing the work will excuse themselves on the ground

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES

67

that in wet weather the trees prevent the road from drying out.
Such an argument carries little weight, for expert road builders
claim that on account of the roots holding the soil in place it is an
advantage to have trees along the roadside. Other offenders will
say that they get the wood as their remuneration for the work

Fig. 30. A country road through a White Pine grove, 50 years old,
at Windsor, Connecticut.

68 TREES IN WINTER

of cutting the brush. On the whole, the apparent inexcusable
destruction of roadside trees is largely the result of ignorance.
Until the town or county officials in rural communities come to
realize the real value of trees, or until public sentiment becomes
much keener than at present, this shameful practice is likely to
continue.

It is unfortunate that the farmer's woodlot is so often located
at the rear of the farm, instead of along the roadside. Everyone
appreciates the short stretches of wooded road in the country and
it is hoped that the few remaining roadside forests will not be
disturbed for many years. If it should be necessary to remove
them at some time it is further hoped that the owners will see
the wisdom of leaving a strip of from one to two hundred feet
along the roadside. This strip would make an excellent place for
the farm woodlot, and for the practice of modern methods of
forest management.

Roadside Planting — In most places there seems to be no reason
for the absence of trees along the country roadside. When we
consider how easily trees may be obtained and how little trouble
and expense tree planting envolves we wonder why we should not
have them along all country roads. Suitable trees usually may be
obtained in neighboring forests without expense. If each farmer
would occasionally spend a few hours in the planting of trees, it
would not be long before the desired result would be attained.
While the planting of a row of trees along the front of a farm
may greatly enhance its value, the result is largely a public benefit
and bears the same relation to the community as sidewalks and
improved roads. For this reason it would be worth while for
every country town to take up the work of roadside planting.

It is always well to select species that are common to the
neighborhood. Exotic forms when found in the country seem out
of place and are not recommended for roadside planting. For the
sake of uniformity it is well to plant only one species on a single
stretch of road. With a view to securing early results, trees of
a rapid growing species are sometimes planted alternately with
the permanent trees. This practice is always attended with the
danger of leaving the temporary trees so long that they are
likely to affect the permanent planting. In order that trees may

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 69

show up at their best they must have plenty of room for develop-
ment.

In the selection of species for roadside planting it is well to
avoid forms that are especially susceptible to injury from insects
and diseases. The Elm in many respects is admirably suited to
roadside planting, but on account of its susceptibility to injury
from the leaf beetle it is not generally recommended. At the
present time it would be unwise to plant the common Chestnut
in the northeastern states on account of the prevalence of the
chestnut bark disease, for which no remedy has yet been devised.

Those who have traveled through the Niagara district of
Ontario or the Annapolis valley in Nova Scotia have been surprised
at the splendid effects obtained from the planting of fruit trees
along the roadside. There is great economy in this practice, but
fruit trees as commercially grown do not offer sufficient protection
from sun and wind. The sweet cherry is probably one of the
best kinds of fruit trees for this purpose. It is a large-growing
tree and is useful in attracting the birds. Farmers can well
afford to grow some fruit especially for this purpose. The birds,
in rendering useful service, more than pay for the fruit they eat.
In some sections of Europe the municipal authorities are accus-
tomed to plant fruit trees along the public highways for the sake
of ornament and economy. The common custom being to offer
the fruit for sale on. the trees and to sell it to the highest bidder.
In many cases the revenue from the sale of fruit is sufficient to
pay for the work expended on the road.

The custom when planting trees on country roadsides, is to
plant in straight rows. Uniformity of arrangement is not so
important for country roads as for city streets, and it is possible
with certain species to produce an effect .so formal that it will not be
in keeping with the natural surroundings. The important point
is to avoid in country plantings everything of an artificial nature.

On narrow roads it is advisable to set the trees very near the
fence, but on roads that are forty feet or more in width, they may
better be set about six or eight feet from the highway limits. This
will allow for a sidewalk on the outer side of the rows of trees. If
the farmer is planting the trees at his own expense it is usually
advisable to set them on his own land, probably four or five
feet from the fence, except where the road is very wide. The

70 TEEES IN WINTER

permanent trees on one side of the road should be set opposite
the spaces on the opposite side. This will allow more room for
the spreading tops and at the same time avoid the appearance oi
formality. Where the roads are narrow and where the trees must
be planted within the highway limits, it is well to avoid the
larger-growing species.

THE USE OF TREES AROUND THE HOME

The Location of the Home — It is remarkable that so many
country residences are located on the hill-tops, fully exposed to the
cold winter winds. Such locations usually are not only unattractive,
but are decidedly inconvenient. It is true that the higher ele-
vations offer better views of the landscape, but, as Mr. Manning
has remarked, "One soon tires of a fine view, if it is secured at the
expense of a daily climb up a long hill." It would seem more
desirable to select for the residence a less elevated site and reserve
the hill-top for an occasional view of the distant landscape. More
pleasing planting effects also may be produced on a gently sloping
hill-side. The matter of convenience is of greatest importance and,
of course, should be given precedence over esthetic considerations.
Adaptation - -Volumes may be written on the subject of rural
adaptation. The present discussion, however, must be limited to
that phase which relates to trees. It is hard, however, to refrain from
expressing disapproval of the type of residence usually found in
the rural districts of America. Too many of. them give the im-
pression that they have been lifted from the crowded city block
and accidentally dropped in the country. The modest frame or
stone cottage with its low sloping roof and graceful dormer win-
dows seems decidedly more pleasing and appropriate than the
erect red brick house with its white mortar, its bright colored
trimmings, and its painfully-symetric outline. While good plant-
ing will go a long way toward covering up deficiencies in the
make-up of the house, the best results can be attained only when
the building harmonizes with the surroundings.

Oftentimes there is just as much lack of harmony in the choice
of species and the planting arrangement as in the stiff and formal
dwelling house. The formal style as applied to landscape art
seems entirely out of place "amid the green fields, and beside
the wanton gracefulness of luxuriant nature." In the past there
has been a great tendency to follow European styles and to use

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 71

foreign species of trees and shrubs. The attempts at formal
gardening in rural districts are becoming less frequent and it is
encouraging to note that there are fewer people nowadays who
believe that it is necessary to trim trees in a variety of fantastic
shapes to bring out their beauty. The tendency at the present
time is to use fewer of the exotic forms and to depend more upon
the native flora, especially in respect to trees. As suggested for
roadside planting, the rural home builder would do well to go to
a neighboring forest for his trees. The foreign species are not
so well suited to the soil and climate, and this is an additional
reason for choosing native forms.

On the small or medium-sized place it is not always practicable
to engage a trained landscape gardner. The owner will probably
get more pleasure from the home surroundings if he can claim
some credit for their creation. The style may not be correct in all
its details, but it is likely to supply the needs of the family and
to increase the knowledge and interest of the owner. For the
planning and planting of large estates it is usually advisable to
engage a landscape architect of ability and reputation. There are
many so-called landscape gardeners soliciting contracts of this
kind who are wholly unreliable and who are likely to do more
harm than good.

The Function of Trees in Home Decoration - - The fundamental
uses of trees around the home are to furnish the great masses of
vegetation with which to frame the home picture, to direct and
restrict the views along desirable lines, to screen objectionable
objects, to emphasize the elevations of the ground, to vary the
sky-line, to furnish shade and shelter, and to give to the surround-
ings the expression of comfort and homliness. Trees contribute
to these purposes mainly by their foliage which varies not only
with the species, but with the changes in season. Their flowers
and their fruit, while largely incidental, are valuable attributes
and should receive careful consideration. Even in their winter
condition, trees possess great beauty, although of a different kind.

Shrubs --~it is difficult to discuss home planting without taking
into consideration the use of woody shrubs. In conjunction with
trees they are useful in the production of great banks of foliage.
As a rule, trees require much less attention than do shrubs, and by
the careful selection of species very satisfactory results may be
produced by their exclusive use. It is always well, however, to
include a few shrubs, even in the most unpretentious plantings.

72 TEEES IN WINTER

Shrubs are largely used in groups and belts and not as individual
specimens. Few shrubs are sufficiently graceful and characteristic
in habit to make pleasing objects when planted singly, but by their
great variety, a group becomes very attractive. Their place is
largely in borders with trees or buildings as back grounds and in
clumps in the open lawn or in the bends of walks and drives.
On small lots the shrubs and small trees should predominate, while
the larger areas will stand a greater proportion of large trees.

Planting for Winter Effect- -It is remarkable in view of the vol-
umes that have been written on subjects relating to landscape arch-
itecture, that so little attention has been given to the matter of
planting for winter effect. Most trees in the northern sections are
dormant or in their winter condition for at least six months in
every year. Although people do not use their gardens and grounds
so much at this season of the year as in the summer, the appearance
of the home surroundings in winter may be greatly improved by
the careful selection of species and by their proper grouping. The
evergreens, of course, are indispensable for winter effect, but some
of them are decidedly more desirable than others. The spruces,
unless used with discretion, are likely to be too formal for rural
planting, but when interspersed with pines and hemlocks are very
useful for backgrounds. The hemlock is the most graceful of ever-
greens and should be more generally planted around rural homes.
It thrives well in shaded locations where other species fail.
There is a great variation in color among evergreens and the somber
effect produced by some kinds may be greatly diminished by plant-
ing with them one of the brighter colored species. The same re-
sult may be attained by using some of the contrasty deciduous
trees, like the white or gray birch. The value of the birches also
may be greatly enhanced by being located in front of an ever-
green background as shown on page 231.

The Planting Plan- -The work of planning the home ground
is greatly facilitated by the use of a plan. (See figs. 32 and 33).
This should be drawn to a scale and should show in the beginning
all the landscape fixtures or those features that must remain
unchanged. Such fixtures include the buildings, the irregularities
of the surface of the ground, the valuable shade trees, the orchard,
the highway and anything else that it is impracticable to move.
The next step after locating the fixtures, is to indicate on the plan
the position of the trees and shrubs to produce the desired effect.

Of course, anyone who attempts to make such a plan, must have

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 73

in his mind a fairly clear conception as to how the place should
look when finished. In other words, he must he somewhat of an
artist. The required conception on the part of the landscape gard-
ener is not unike that of the artist who paints pictures on canvas.
Many people are better artists than they suppose, and it does
not take much ability to make a pleasing landscape picture from
the ordinary country home.

The landscape gardener, whether amateur or professional, before
locating his trees should study the surroundings with a view of
ascertaining the direction of the most pleasing views. In this con-
nection he will consider the views from the various windows of the
house, from the veranda, and from various points on the lawn. In
locating the trees, then, it is necessary to keep constantly in mind
these desirable views. The next problem will be to block out any
3bjectionable views, either on the home grounds or on adjacent lands.
The farm buildings may usually be screened from the house and
from the highway without seriously affecting their convenience. In
some cases the desired effect may be produced by a belt of trees
and shrubs separating the front lawn from the back yard. This
arrangement is not always the most desirable for it is often pos-
sible to give expanse to a small lawn by leaving a vista that extends
far in rear of the house. One or more clumps of trees or shrubs
carefully arranged may effectively block out objectionable views
without completely closing the view in that direction. Further-
more, skillful gardeners often appropriate views through neigh-
boring grounds in order to give expanse to a place that would other-
wise appear crampt. This is accomplished by blocking out the
neighboring houses and by maintaining vistas through the adja-
cent grounds. Similar results may be attained by opening vistas
into adjoining meadows or pasture fields.

With larger areas it is often advisable to separate the grounds in
such a way as to provide for secluded nooks, and this is very easily
accomplished by planting. Such secluded areas, however, should
be relatively small and should not detract from the unity of the
whole scheme. There is not the necessity for seclusion in rural dis-
tricts as in the cities, but when the grounds are large enough it is
advisable to arrange the shrubbery so as to separate a portion of
the rear lawn for the purpose of a home playground. It may in-
clude accommodations for pleasure and recreation, such as tennis
courts, hammocks am] the like.

74

TREES IN WINTER

A common mistake in -dividing the grounds into two or more
parts is in making use of a hedge or solid belt of trees. A much
more pleasing way is to use clumps of shrubbery. These may be a
considerable distance apart, but so arranged that they will block
the view from the street and at the same time maintain an expres-
sion of expanse. It is sometimes desirable, for quick results, to

Fig:. 31. A group of White Pines that
retain the character of an individual

plant trees close together, and a clump of trees of the same species
often produces a pleasing effect. Although the trees in a clump
lose some of their character as they mature, the group as a whole
often assumes the character of an individual tree of the species as
shown in figure 31.

The Finished Picture — Where trees and shrubs have been prop-
erly grouped the result should present a pleasing picture. The
house will naturally be the central figure and any planting scheme
that will detract attention from the house is not considered good
taste. The vistas from the highway should lead to the central
figure --the hoXise. The shrubbery, if well planned, will form an
appropriate frame to the landscape picture. The shrubbery that is
not located in the border or frame of the picture should contribute
somewhat to the picture itself. Such trees and shrubs, therefore,
should be attractive and should be closely related to the house. If
many trees are scattered over the ground one is likely to lose sight
of the central figure and the result is likely to present the appear-
ance of a tree museum rather than a home picture.

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 75

CHAPTER IV
TREE PLANTING IN TOWNS AND CITIES.

TREES IN RELATION TO CITY LIFE.

When we think of the open country we are reminded of the cool
and shady roads, although some country roads are not so alluring
as they ought to be. The thought is comforting. On the other
hand, when we think of conditions in the city, the hot and dazzling
pavements present themselves vividly to our memory. The
thought is anything but comforting. Blessed is the city that is
well supplied with trees. An occasional city has been so well
blessed in this respect that it has become famous the country over,
and such a city is often designated as the Forest City, the Elm
City, or the City of Parks.

The attractiveness of a city depends largely upon its trees. A
city without trees cannot be attractive, and the more trees within
the city limits, the more attractive is the city likely to be. Most
cities are anxious to attract visitors and permanent settlers, and
the success of cities in this direction will depend largely upon their
supply of trees. Trees, therfore, by making a city more attractive,
tend to increase the value of real estate. The value of trees to any
particular property is manifested by comparing the selling price of
property with and without trees. In some cases a lot with two or
three trees along its front boundary will sell at a price fifty per cent,
higher than a similar adjacent lot without trees.

The real value of shade trees to abutting property has also been
shown by court decisions, although in the past judges have usually
underestimated their true worth. The following is an extract
from an editorial in the Newark Evening News, under date of July
20, 1911: —

"The Appellate Division of the New York Supreme Court has
confirmed a judgment of the lower court, fixing what may be
called a good round value on trees in the city.

76 TREES IN WINTER

"A construction company doing some work on a street, found
that the trees hindered their progress. They thereupon cut down
the trees without so much as considering for a moment their value
to the owner's property.

"Suit was at once brought against the company, the damages be-
ing laid at $500, for each tree cut down. The Plaintiff recovered
for the full amount as the value of the trees, and the court added
$1,000, more for punitive damages. It was this verdict that was
carried to the Appellate Court and has been sustained."

Five hundred dollars may seem a large sum for a tree in the
city, but it must be remembered that the value of the trees as
kindling wood or as lumber, or even as the material for house
trimmings or furniture, is not the thing to be considered. The
tree required many years to grow. It not only adorned the prop-
erty but it afforded health, comfort, enjoyment and protection to
its owners. Its place, when destroyed, could not be filled by an-
other tree inside of fifteen, twenty, or thirty years, and all this time
the owners of the property are deprived of its benefits.

Municipalities have just come to recognize the value of trees
from the standpoint of health. Since trees absorb the carbonic
acid gas from the air it is believed that they help to purify the air.
Health authorities are now recommending the planting of trees in
the cities with a view of mitigating the intense heat during the
summer months and of diminishing the death-rate among chil-

SUGGESTIONS FOR STREET PLANTING

Although at the present time much attention is being given to
the planting and care of trees in cities, it is remarkable that the
matter has not received more attention in the past. The cost of
setting out trees is so small compared with the lasting benefits de-
rived from them, that it is hard to understand why cities and towns
should not take up the work on an extensive basis. The smaller
towns should profit from the experience of the larger and older
cities. The problem is decidedly less difficult with small towns,
for they can plan their streets with a view of having them lined
with trees. Trees that get a good start when the town is young
are more likely to thrive well and to administer to the needs of the
mature city, than those that are planted -later, when they are sub-
jected to all the hardships of the crowded city streets.

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 77

The principles involved in the planting of city streets are entirely
different from those involved in the planting of country roads.
In the city the treatment necessarily must be of a formal nature
to harmonize with the geometric lines of city streets. City plant-
ing is done amid artificial surroundings and in this respect it differs
radically from country planting, which is always associated with
natural objects. It is important, therefore, that the trees on a city
street should be uniform in character and should be planted in
straight lines.

Arrangement of Trees on the Street — It is essential for the best
results that streets be sufficiently wide to admit of a strip of
ground between the sidewalk and the curb for the exclusive use of
the trees. This strip need not be more than four or five feet in
width, but twice this width would give the street a better appear-
ance and would facilitate the growth of the trees. On some streets
there is no strip left for this purpose, and the trees necessarily
must grow through openings in the sidewalk. Trees in such posi-
tions do not look so well and are not likely to thrive so well. In
some cases, where the roots may extend beneath the walk to the
open spaces in front of the residences, the trees are not likely to be
seriously handicapped. Where the street is too narrow for a suit-
able planting strip and where there is an open space on the abut-
ting property, it would seem advisable to place the sidewalk near
the curb and to plant the trees along the inside of the walk. When
the buildings are close to the street and when there is no room for
a planting strip, the conditions are unfavorable for the develop-
ment of trees. Oftentimes the roadways are wider than is neces-
sary to accommodate the traffic. In such cases they should be re-
duced in order to make room for planting.

AVhen the planting strip is narrow the trees are usually set in
the center, but with wider strips their position will depend upon
the width of the street and the proximity to tall buildings. Where
the street is wide the trees may be set near the curb. There is
danger, of course, in getting the trees too near the curb, where they
are likely to be injured by horses and vehicles. On the other
hand, where the buildings are tall and near the street, it is neces-
sary to place the trees as near the curb as possible, except where
the streets are very wide.

78 TREES IN WINTER

Parking Strips — With very wide streets it is customary to re-
serve "parking strips" down through the center for the planting
of one or more rows of trees. Such reservations are not recom-
mended for streets less than one hundred feet in width. Where
two rows of trees are required on this strip, and this is always ad-
visable, the street should be at least 130 feet in width. The park-
ing strip when narrow is often used for the planting of shrubbery
alone. Wider strips are often used for walks, bicycle paths, and
street railway tracks.

Very pleasing planting effects may be produced on wide streets
or avenues with parking strips to accommodate two additional rows
of trees. While it is customary to plant but one species on ordinary
streets, the appearance of avenues or boulevards may be greatly en-
hanced by planting a strikingly different species along the parking
strip. On some of the widest streets we frequently find two rows
along each side of the street. This arrangement is seldom satis-
factory for the reason that the trees are likely to become too crowd-
ed. Streets that are wide enough to accommodate four rows of
trees are usually wide enough for a parking strip which would ac-
commodate two rows of trees and thus give a better distribution.

Distance Between Trees — It is well to adopt a uniform system
of spacing the various varieties of street trees. The individuals
should be so spaced that they may develop into perfect specimens.
The distance between the trees should be slightly in excess of the
natural spread of the species when mature. Of course, such factors
as environmental conditions, the character of the soil, the severity
of the climate, and the amount of protection the trees receive, will
exert considerable influence upon the ultimate development. The
distance at which the commonly planted street trees should be
spaced is about as follows : —

White Elm 50 feet

Sycamore 45 "

Sugar Maple 45 "

Silver Maple 45 "

Sycamore Maple 45 "

Eed Maple 40 "

Norway Maple 40 *'

White Oak 50 "

Scarlet Oak .45 "

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 79

Eed Oak 45

Chestnut Oak 45

Pin Oak 40

Tulip 50

Common Locust 45

Honey Locust 40

White Ash 45 "

Linden 40 "

Horse Chestnut 35 "

Sweet Gum 35 «

Ginkgo 35 "

Hackberry 35

Ailanthus 30

Carolina Poplar 30 "

Lombardy Poplar 25

Hardy Catalpa 30 "

Kentucky Coffee 30 "

It is not always practicable to place trees at regular distances,
for they must be made to fit in a given stretch between cross streets.
In some places the trees are arranged along the street in relation to
the abutting property. This is not right, for such an arrange-
ment is likely to lack uniformity. It is usually best to have the
trees regularly spaced and where the street is wide enough for
their full development they should be planted opposite one an-
other. On narrow streets, for the sake of giving them more room,
the trees on one side of the street may be planted opposite the
spaces on the other side. The chief objection to this method of
arrangement is the uneven appearance that it presents at the street
intersections. Whether planted opposite or alternately the rows
should not extend exactly to the corner, for in such positions they
are more likely to be injured and are also likely to interfere with
the illumination of the streets.

Permanent and Temporary Planting — It is always advisable to
plant long-lived trees on city streets. There is always a tempta-
tion, for the sake of getting early results, to plant rapid-growing
species. The rapid-growing species are usually short-lived, and
for this reason are objectionable. While it is usually best to plant
only one species on a given street it is sometimes permissible to
alternate the permanent trees with trees of a quick-growing spe-

80 TREES IN WINTER

cies. The prevailing objections to such a practice are that it breaks
up the uniformity and that the temporary trees are likely to be
left too long, in this way injuring the permanent planting. Trees
radically different in form and coloring, like the Eed Oak and
Carolina Poplar, should present a pleasing effect when regularly
and alternately spaced. When the temporary trees begin to re-
strict the supply of sunlight and the supply of plant food and
moisture, they should be promptly cut down.

The Best Species for City Streets --In the selection of spe-
cies it is well to keep in mind the width of the street, the height
and proximity of buildings, the character of soil, and the relative
susceptibility to injury from the effects of insects, diseases, smoke,
impure air, escaping gas, high and low temperatures, ice storms,
and general neglect. The ornamental value of the various species
should also be considered. Some trees are peculiar for their flowers,
others for their summer or autumn foliage, and still others for their
symmetry. Furthermore, a street tree should furnish the required
shade, and species differ greatly in this respect. Again, some trees
like the staminate Ailanthus are offensive on account of their odor,
and others like the Horse-chestnut and the Locusts are objectionable
on account of unclean habits.

The White or American Elm is probably the most commonly
planted street tree. It makes a tall, graceful growth and has
many commendable points. Unfortunately it is subject while young
to the attacks of borers and to the ravages of the leaf-beetle and
other insects throughout its whole existence. It is still largely
planted, especially in suburban sections where there is a desire to
produce a natural effect.

The tendency at the present time is to use for city street plant-
ing the species that present a more formal appearance. The fol-
lowing are likely to give good results under varying conditions:
Eed Oak, Pin Oak, Scarlet Oak, Red Maple, Norway Maple, Syca-
more Maple, American and European Linden, Sycamore, Ginkgo,
Ailanthus, Hackberry, Sweetgum.

Trees of Rapid Growth - - Where early results are necessary, such
varieties as the Carolina Poplar, Box Elder, Hardy Catalpa, Silver
Maple, Linden, and Sycamore may be employed. The following
table prepared by the late William F. Fox, superintendent of for-
ests for the state of New York, gives the relative growth-rate of

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 81

a number of native species. The table is based upon the behavior

of saplings which in the beginning were three inches in diameter.

It is estimated that in 20 years they should attain the diameter

indicated in the table : -

Silver Maple 21 inches

White Elm 19

Sycamore 18

Tulip Tree 18 "

Linden 17

Catalpa 16 "

Red Maple 1G "

Ailanthus 16 "

Cucumber Tree 15

Chestnut 14 "

Common Locust 14

Sugar Maple 13 "

Horse-chestnut 13 "

Honey Locust 13 "

Red Oak 13 "

Pin Oak 13 "

Scarlet Oak 13 "

White Ash 12

White Oak 12

Hackberry 10 "

MUNICIPAL CONTROL OF SHADE TREES

There are many reasons why the planting and care of shade trees
should be placed in the hands of municipal authorities. If the
work is left to the property holders the streets will lack uniformity
and the result is usually a jumble of trees of various species, of va-
rious ages, and planted at various distances and in various ways, in
line and out of line, continuous and interrupted. Examples of
the result of such methods may be seen in almost any city.

Municipal control is not a new idea as applied to shade trees,
but only during the past ten or fifteen years has its adoption been
at all general. The laws of Massachusetts require each town and
city to appoint some one or more officials whose duty shall be the
planting and care of shade trees. Such officials are designated by
various titles, the more common being: Tree Warden, City For-

82 TREES IN WINTER

ester and Street Commissioner. Many states have in their statute
books laws relating to shade trees in towns and cities. The most
progressive legislation along this line is found in the laws of New
Jersey, Pennsylvania and Massachusetts. Each of these states
leaves the towns and cities free to supplement the statutes by local
ordinances. For the guidance of municipalities that are contem-
plating the problem of municipal control, the shade tree ordinance
of the city of Newark, N. J., is here given in full : —

BE IT ORDAINED by the Shade Tree Commission of the City of
Newark, New Jersey, as follows :

1. It shall be unlawful for any person, firm or corporation, without
the written permit of the Shade Tree Commission, to cut, break, climb
or injure any tree or portion of tree planted or growing in any public
highway within the City of Newark, or cause, authorize or procure
any person to cut, break, climb or injure any such tree or any portion
thereof ; or to cut, break, climb or injure any tree or plant, or any
portion of any tree or plant, planted or growing in any city park or
parking strip within the City of Newark, or cause or authorize or
procure any person to cut, break, climb or injure any such tree or
plant or any portion of such tree or plant ; or to injure, misuse or
remove, or cause, authorize or procure any person to injure, misuse
or remove any device set for the protection of any tree or plant in
any public highway or city park of said City. Any person, firm or
corporation desiring for any lawful purpose to cut, prune or trim any
tree in any public highway of said City of Newark may apply to the
Shade Tree Commission ; and if in the judgment of said Commission
the desired cutting, pruning or trimming shall appear necessary, and
the proposed method and workmanship thereof such as said Commis-
sion approves, the Shade Tree Commission may thereupon issue a
written permit for such work. Any work done under such written
permit must be performed in strict accordance with the terms thereof.

Any person, firm or corporation which shall violate or authorize
or procure a violation of any provision of this section or of any
permission given as aforesaid shall, upon conviction thereof, forfeit
and pay a penalty of Five Dollars ($5) for each and every such
offense.

2. It shall be unlawful for any person, firm or corporation to kill
or remove, or cause, authorize or procure the death or removal of,
any tree planted or growing in any public highway, or any tree or
plant planted or growing in any city park, within the said City of
Newark. Any person, firm or corporation desiring for any lawful
purpose to take down or remove any tree in any public highway of
said City of Newark may apply to the Shade Tree Commission ; and
if in the judgment of the said Commission the desired taking down
or removal shall appear necessary, the Shade Tree Commission may
thereupon issue a written permit therefor. Any work done under such
written permit must be performed in strict accordance with the terms
thereof.

Any person, firm or corporation which shall violate or authorize or
procure a violation of any provision of this section shall, upon con-

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES ' 83

viction thereof, forfeit and pay a penalty of Fifty Dollars ($50) for
each and every such offense.

3. It shall be unlawful for any person, firm or corporation owning:,
or using:, or having; control or charge of gas or other substance
deleterious to tree life to allow such gas or other substance to come
into contact with the soil surrounding the roots of any tree in any
public highway or of any tree or plant in any city park in the City
of Newark in such manner as may injure such tree or plant.

Any person, firm or corporation which shall violate or authorize
or procure a violation of any provision of this section shall, upon
conviction thereof, forfeit and pay a penalty of Ten Dollars ($10)
for each and every such offense.

4. It shall be unlawful for any person, firm or corporation owning,
or using, or having control or charge of gas or other substance
deleterious to tree life, to allow such gas or other substance to come
in contact with the soil surrounding the roots of any tree in any
public highway or any tree or plant in any city park in the City of
Ne~*ark in such manner as shall kill or destroy such tree or plant.

Any person, firm or corporation which shall violate or authorize or
procure a violation of any provision of this section shall, upon con-
viction thereof, forfeit and pay a penalty of Fifty Dollars ($50) for
each and every such offense.

5. It shall be unlawful for any person, firm or corporation to
cause, authorize or procure any brine water, oil, liquid dye or other
substance deleterious to tree life to lie, leak, pour, flow or drip on or
into the soil about the base of a tree in any public highway or city
park in the City of Newark, or onto a sidewalk, road or pavement
therein at a point whence such substance may by lying on, or by
flowing, dripping or seeping into such soil, or in any other manner
whatever, injure such tree ; or to cause or procure such lying, leaking,
flowing, dripping, seeping or injuring.

Any person, firm or corporation which shall violate or authorize
or procure a violation of any provision of this section shall, upon
conviction thereof, forfeit and pay a penalty of Five Dollars ($5)
for each and every such offense.

6. It shall be unlawful for any person, firm or corporation, except
with the written permit of the Shade Tree Commission, to place or
maintain upon the ground in any public highway or city park within
the City of Newark any stone, cement or other material or substance
in such manner as may obstruct the free access of air and water to
the roots of any tree in any such highway or park. Unless otherwise
provided for in such written permit as above provided for there must
be maintained about the base of the trunk of each shade tree in the
public highways and city parks of the city at least six square feet of
open ground for a tree of three inches in diameter, and for every two
inches of increase of such diameter there must be an increase of at
least one square foot of open ground.

Any person, firm or corporation which shall violate or authorize or
procure a violation of any provision of this section shall, upon con-
viction thereof, forfeit and pay a penalty of Ten Dollars ($10) for
each and every such offense.

84 TREES IN WINTER

7. It shall be unlawful for any person, firm or corporation to inter-
fere or cause or authorize or procure any interference with the Shade
Tree Commission or any of its employees, agents or servants while
they are engaged in and about the planting, cultivating, mulching,
pruning, spraying or removing of any tree in any public highway or
city park within the said City, or in the removing of any device
attached to said tree or in such removing of stone, cement, sidewalk
or other material or substance as may be necessary for the protection
and care of any such tree in accordance with the requirements set
forth in Section 6 hereof as to the area of open ground to be main-
tained about the base of the trunk of each shade tree in the public
highways and city parks of the City.

Any person, firm or corporation which shall violate or authorize or
procure a violation of any provision of this section shall, upon
conviction thereof, forfeit and pay a penalty of Ten Dollars ($10)
for each and every such offense.

8. It shall be unlawful for any person, firm or corporation to cause,
authorize or procure a wire or other conductor, charged with electricity,
to come into contact with any tree in a public highway or with any
tree or plant in a city park in the City of Newark in such manner
as may injure or abrade such tree or plant.

Any person, firm or corporation which shall violate or authorize or
procure a violation of any provision of this section shall, upon con-
viction thereof, forfeit and pay a penalty of Five Dollars ($5) for
each and every such offense.

9. It shall be unlawful for any person, firm or corporation to cause
or authorize or procure a wire or other conductor, charged with
electricity, to come into contact with any tree in a public highway
or any tree or plant in a city park in the City of Newark in such
manner as shall destroy or kill such tree or plant.

Any person, firm or corporation which shall violate or authorize or
procure a violation of any provision of this section shall, upon con-
viction thereof, forfeit and pay a penalty of Fifty Dollars ($50) for
each and every such offense.

10. It shall be unlawful for any person, firm or corporation to
attach or keep attached to any tree in any public highway or city
park in the City of Newark, or to the guard or stake intended for
the protection of such tree, any rope, wire, sign or any other device
whatsoever.

Any person, firm or corporation which shall violate or authorize or
procure a violation of any provision of this section shall, upon
conviction thereof, forfeit and pay a penalty of Five Dollars ($5) for
each and every such offense.

11. It shall be unlawful for any person, firm or corporation to tie
any horse or other animal to any tree in any public highway or city
park within said City of Newark ; or, having charge of such horse or
other animal, to allow or cause or procure it to injure any such tree;
or for any person in charge of such horse or other animal to cause or
allow it to stand so that it can injure such tree.

Any person, firm or corporation which shall violate or authorize or
procure a violation of any provision of this section shall, upon con-

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 85

Viction thereof, forfeit and pay a penalty of Ten Dollars ($10) for
each and every such offense.

12. It shall be unlawful for any person, firm or corporation to plant
or set out any shade tree, or cause or authorize or procure any
person to plant or set out any shade tree, in or on any part of any
public highway or city park within the said City of Newark without
first obtaining from the Shade Tree Commission a written permit so
to do or without complying in all respects with the conditions set
forth in such written permit.

Any person, fh-m or corporation which shall violate or authorize or
procure a violation of any provision of this section shall, upon con-
viction thereof, forfeit and pay a penalty of Five Dollars ($5) for
each and every such offense.

13. During the erection, repair, alteration or removal of any build-
Ing or structure within the City of Newark it shall be unlawful for
the person or persons in charge of such erection, repair, alteration or
removal, to leave any street tree in the vicinity of such building or
structure without such good and sufficient guards or protectors as
shall prevent injury to said tree, arising out of or by reason of said
erection, repair, alteration or removal.

Any person, firm or corporation which shall violate or authorize or
procure a violation of any provision of this section shall, upon con-
viction thereof, forfeit and pay a penalty of Ten Dollars ($10) for
each and every such offense.

14. It shall be unlawful for any person, firm or corporation to
enter upon any portion of lawn or other cultivated ground in any
city park within the said City of Newark when forbidden so to do
by an official sign or other official notification.

Any person, firm or corporation which shall violate or authorize or
procure a violation of any provision of this section shall, upon con-
viction thereof, forfeit and pay a penalty of Five Dollars ($5) for
each and every such offense.

15. It shall be unlawful for any person, firm or corporation to
throw, deposit or leave any paper or waste material whatsoever in
or upon any part of the surface of any city park within said City
of Newark or in or upon any park property or appurtenance therein
except in the receptacles provided in such park for that purpose.

Any person, firm or corporation which shall violate or authorize or
procure a violation of any provision of this section shall, upon con-
viction thereof, forfeit and pay a penalty of Five Dollars ($5) for each
and every such offense.

16. It shall be unlawful for any person above the age of fourteen
years to play at any game in a city park in the City of Newark,
except at such times and in such places and under such regulations
as may be designated in writing by the Shade Tree Commission.

Any person, firm or corporation which shall violate or authorize
or procure a violation of any provision of this section shall, upon
conviction thereof, forfeit and pay a penalty of Ten Dollars ($10) for
each and every such offence.

86 TREES IN WINTER

17. It shall be unlawful for any person, firm or corporation to
place or erect any booth, stand or other structure, or to place any
wagon or other vehicle, except such as may be propelled by hand
and adapted for the carrying of children, invalids or dolls, on or in
any city park of the City of Newark, without the written permission
of the Shade Tree Commission.

Any person, firm or corporation which shall violate or authorize or
procure a violation of any provision of this section shall, upon con-
viction thereof, forfeit and pay a penalty of Ten Dollars ($10) for
each and every such offense.

18. It shall be unlawful for any person, firm or corporation to sell
or offer for sale within any city park of the City of Newark any
goods, wares or merchandise whatsoever, or to display or distribute
any advertising device, circular or card in any such park.

Any person, firm or corporation which shall violate or authorize or
procure a violation of any provision of this section shall, upon con-
viction thereof, forfeit and pay a penalty of Five Dollars ($5) for
each and every such offense.

19. It shall be unlawful for any person, firm or corporation to
deface, damage, or in any wise injure any statuary or pedestal, or
other structure or park appurtenance whatsoever, in a city park in
the City of Newark.

Any person, firm or corporation which shall violate or authorize
or procure a violation of any provision of this section shall, upon
conviction thereof, forfeit and pay a penalty of Five Dollars ($5) for
each and every such offense.

20. It shall be unlawful for any person, firm or corporation to
hunt, molest, injure, capture or in any way interfere with the freedom
of any bird, being free and undomesticated, in any city park in the
City of Newark ; or to hunt, molest, injure, capture, or in any way
interfere with the freedom of any squirrel, fish or other animal, being
the property of the City, in any such park.

Any person, firm or corporation which shall violate or authorize or
procure a violation of any provision of this section shall, upon con-
viction thereof, forfeit and pay a penalty of Five Dollars($5) for each
and every such offense.

21. It shall be unlawful for any person to utter any profane,
threatening or abusive language or loud outcry, or perform any obscene
or indecent act, commit any nuisance, solicit any contribution or
subscription, or to play any game of chance, in any city park within
the City of Newark, or to bring into such park any instrument of
chance or gambling whatsoever.

Any person, firm or corporation which shall violate or authorize or
procure a violation of any provision of this section shall, upon con-
viction thereof, forfeit and pay a penalty of Ten Dollars ($10) for
each and every such offense.

22. Every violation by the same person, firm or corporation, of
any provision of any section of this Ordinance, which continues on
any day or days succeeding the first violation thereof, shall constitute
an additional violation for each of such succeeding days.

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES bV

23. All Ordinances and parts of Ordinances heretofore ordained
which are inconsistent with this Ordinance are hereby repealed.

24. This Ordinance shall take effect Immediately.

The Newark Shade Tree Commission is invested by statute with
"exclusive and absolute control and power to plant, set out, main-
tain, protect and care for shade trees in any of the public highways
of the city of Newark; and with exclusive control of the public
parks belonging to or under control of the city of Newark, or any
department in the government thereof, with full power and author-
ity to improve, repair, manage and control the same."

PARKS AND PUBLIC SQUARES

In the early stages of the development of most of the older cities
there was little expectation that such settlements would ever de-
velop into such enormous centers of population. Little attention,
therefore, was given to the matter of making provision for future
needs, and as a result some of the cities have suddenly realized the
need of parks and have expended vast sums of money in acquiring
land for this purpose. Some cities early realized the necessity for
setting aside large tracts of land for public use and others have
had lands donated or bequeathed to them with the stipulation that
they be used for parks or play-grounds. The smaller towns have
profited by the experience of the older cities and many of them
are making reservations for park purposes. There is, therefore, a
demand on the part of the smaller municipalities for information
relating to the selection and planting of trees for parks and public
squares.

Tli e Natural Type — In the making of parks the tendency at
the present time is to maintain or develop some natural landscape.
Most of the largest and best known parks of this country are of
the natural type. The designers of the large city parks have real-
ized the need of a large and secluded strolling ground. Only
the larger tracts of land are suited to the natural type of park. In
some instances, like Keney Park, Hartford; Mount Royal
Park, Montreal ; and many others, the native forest has been pre-
served. The making of a natural park from an existing forest
is a simple matter, consisting chiefly in the planning and construct-
ing of the walks and drives. Many of our large natural parks,
however, had in the beginning very little, if any, woodland, and

88 TREES IN WINTER

most of the trees that are now found growing in them have been
planted. In the planting of these parks the landscape gardeners
have freely copied from nature. In some, like Central Park, New
York, certain sections have been set aside for formal or semi-arti-
ficial gardening.

In the department of a park of the natural type, it is advisable,
as far as possible, to arrange the trees in groups according to spe-
cies. In this connection it is always well to study the special adap-
tation of the various species. Some prefer a light soil, while others
thrive best on heavy or moist soil. Some must have an abundance
of light, while others require some protection from the direct rajs
of the sun. It is hoped that the lists given in the following chapter
may be of some assistance in the way of locating the trees in their
most comfortable environment.

The planting in a natural city park should be so arranged that
nothing can be seen that suggests the city. With this in mind the
borders should be supplied with a fairly dense growth of trees
and shrubs. Some of the large growing evergreens will be found
useful for this purpose, using some brighter colored species, of
course, to enliven the effect.

The making of a natural park is not unlike the work of plan-
ning the home grounds. The principles are the same. While it is
true that most natural parks are larger than the ordinary home
ground, the element of size is not such an important factor after
all. The modest home ground is considered a unit while the large
natural park is usually a collection of units, each one of which may
be developed along much the same line as suggested for the country
home. It must not be understood, however, that a well-planned
natural park lacks unity, although this is the prevailing weakness
of many parks.

Many cities have made th,e great mistake in creating formal
parks when they might just as well have had natural ones. The
chief function of a park is to furnish rest and recreation to the
inhabitants of the city. Those who live in the smaller cities may
readily avail themselves of the refreshing rural scenery which is
the best antidote for the wearing influences of city life. To the
residents of the larger cities the rural scenery is inaccessible. The
city that best serves its inhabitants from the standpoint of parks

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 89

is "the one that furnishes a good supply of rural scenery within
its limits.

The Artificial Style — With small areas it is difficult to follow
the natural style, except at a great loss of space. The artificial
style, therefore, is followed usually on the small city square or
"green." In these the walks follow straight lines and the trees
are usually disposed in such a way as to shade the walks and to
contribute beauty to the surroundings. The arrangement of trees
along the walks should be much the same as suggested for street
planting. Furthermore, the varieties best suited to this purpose, as
a rule, are those that are generally recommended for city streets.

Since the trees in the "green" are usually grown under more fa-
vorable conditions than those on the street, it is possible to select
varieties that are somewhat more exacting in their requirements.
Some of the varieties that are especially valuable for their showy
flowers or for their attractive autumn foliage may be used. A
common error in the planting of formal parks is the tendency to
scatter the trees evenly over the whole area, producing the "nur-
sery" effect. In order to show the individual beauty of the trees
and to furnish sufficient light for the growth of shrubs and herba-
ceous plants, a few open areas should be maintained.

PLANTING SUGGESTIONS FOR CITY HOMES
Types of City Homes — The main factor to be considered in the
preparation of planting plans for the city lot is the size. For
convenience in this discussion it seems advisable then to classify
city homes according to their dimensions. In the first place there
are the pretentious homes, of the men of wealth where the grounds
occupy from half an acre to several acres. On such places -the
planting need not be unlike that recommended for country homes.
Sometimes the owners of such homes prefer to adopt the formal
or artificial style, but in most cases the demand is for the natural
style, and in such cases the object is to imitate rural conditions and
as much as possible to exclude the urban scenery.

Secondly, there is the common suburban home with its detached
house and its small front and back yards. This is the type of
home usually found on the residential streets of the smaller cities
and in the popular suburbs of the larger cities. The people who
occupy such homes are frequently owners and are anxious to makf,
their homes as comfortable and attractive as possible.

90

TREES IN WINTER

The third type of city home is the one which consists of a house
in a solid row of similar units and which is so near the street that
there is no room for planting. Such homes are dependent upon
the street trees for shade. Some of them, however, have some
room in the rear where planting may be done to good advantage.

There are all gradations between these three groups and there
are probably many other types of city homes that cannot well be
classified. The planting for the first group of homes has been

Fig. 32. A planting plan for a small suburban home after Kirkegaard.

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 91

PLANTING LIST FOR PLAN NUMBER ONE
List No. of
No. Plants.
1 290 Berberis Thunbergii. Japanese Barberries. Or Ligustrum

ovalifolium. California Privets to be planted I foot apart.
J 9 Populus nigra var, italica. Lombardy Poplars.

3 25 Althaea Rosea. Hollyhocks, to be planted 1 foot apart.

1 4 VINES AS FOLLOWS:—

1 Lonicera japonica var. Halliana. Hall's Honeysuckle.

1 Clematis paniculata. Panicle-flowered Clematis.

1 Ampelopsis quinquefolia. Virginia Creeper.

1 Lycium halimifolium. Matrimony Vine.
5 7 VINES AS FOLLOWS: —

1 Wistaria chinensis. Chinese Wistaria.

1 Tecoma radicans. Trumpet Honeysuckle.

1 Clematis Jackmanni. Jackman's Hybrid Clematis.

1 Actinidia polygama. Japanese Actinida.

1 Dorothy Perkins Rose.

1 Crimson Rambler Rose.

1 Aristolochia macrophylla. Dutchman's Pipe,
d 2 Early Ripening Grapes.

7 8 Spiraea bumalda, var. A. Waterer. Anthony Waterer Spiraea.

8 6 Cydonia japonica. Japanese Quince.

9 5 Hydrangea paniculata. Fall-flowering Hydrangea.

10 5 Lespedesa bicolor. Bush Clover.

11 7 Forsythia suspensa var. fortunei. Drooping Golden Bell.

12 6 Kerria japonica. Shrubby Globe-flower.

13 5 Rosa rngosa. Japanese Rose.

14 7 Spiraea Thunbergii. Thunberg's Spiraea.

15 7 Stephanandra flexuosa. Stephanandra.
13 5 Rosa rugosa. Japanese Rose.

17 8 Hydrangea paniculata var. glandiflora. Large-flowered Fall

Hydrangea.

18 5 Calycanthus floridus. Carolina Allspice.

19 6 Lonicera tatarica. Tartarian Honeysuckle.

20 7 Elaegnus longipes. Oleaster.

21 5 Diervilla florida. Weigelia.

22 7 Primus japonica. Flowering Almond.

23 4 Myrica cerifera. Bay-berry.

24 5 Rosa rugosa var. alba. White Japanese Rose.

25 10 Amorpha fruticosa. False Indigo.

26 9 Philadelphus Coronarius. Sweet-scented Syringa.

27 8 Syringa vulgaris and persica. Various varieties. Mixed

Lilacs.

28 4 Spiraea japonica var. alba. White-flowered Japanese Spiraea.

29 8 Viburnum opulus. Mountain Cranberry.

30 6 Spiraea prunifolium. Bridal Wreath.

31 6 Spiraea bracteata. Round-leaved Spiraea.

32 6 Sambucus nigra var. aurea. Golden-Leaved Elder.

33 4 Ribes alpinum. Alpine or Mountain Currant,

34 5 Euonymus alatus. Winged Burning-bush.

35 3 Spiraea Thunbergii. Thunberg's Spiraea.

36 5 Acanthopanax pentaphylla. Five-leaved Aralia.

37 5 Acanthopanax pentaphylla. Five-leaved Aralia.

38 6 Prairie Roses.

39 6 Forsythia suspensa. Drooping Golden Bell.

40 5 Viburnum tomentosum var. plicatum. Japanese Snowball.

41 8 Rhodotypus kerrioides. White Kerria.

42 7 Deutzia scabra crenata. Roughed-leaved Deutzia.

43 6 Rhus cotinus. Smoke-bush.

44 5 Chionanthus virginica. White Fringe.

45 6 Cornus alba. Red-barked Ozier.

46 1 Catalpa speciosa. Southern Catalpa.

47 1 Picea alba. White Spruce.

48 1 Apple Tree.

49 1 Picea pungens. Blue Spruce.

50 1 Fagus sylvatica var. purpurea Riversi. Rivers' Purple Beecn

51 1 Betula alba var. pendula laciniata. Cut-leaved Birch.

52 36 Best Hybrid Perpetual Roses.

53 6 Hardy Asters.

54 5 Achillae ptarmica var. The Pearl.

55 6 Coreopsis lanceolata. Lanced-leaved Tickseed.

56 8 Sedum spectabile. Showy Sedum.

57 8 Scarlet Phlox paniculata. Panicled Hardy Phlox.

58 5 Delphiniums. Various species. Perennial Larkspurs.

59 6 Paeonia officinalis. Paeonias.

60 6 White Phlox paniculata.

61 5 Veronica longifolia var. subsessilis. Speedwell.

62 8 Chrysantheum Iwucanthemum var. hybrida. Shasta Daisies.

63 6 Aquilegia chrysantha and various species of tall Columbines.

TALL COLUMBINES.

Tulips, Narcissuses, Hyacinths, Scillas and Snowdrops may
be planted among shrubs and near edge of beds

92 TREES IN WINTER

discussed under the head of Kural Homes. The planting for th<
second group will be discussed under the head of The Suburbar
Lot, and that for the third group under the head of Back Yarc
Planting.

The Suburban Lot — The size and shape of city and suburbar
lots varies so greatly that it is difficult to generalize on matters
pertaining to its planting. A large proportion of them, however
are about 50 x 100 feet, and have the house located in the center
On a lot of this size it is not easy to follow any particular style
Since prevailing custom is the rule in matters of dress and since
trees and shrubs may be regarded as the garb with which we clothe
our homes, it seems safe to take custom as our guide in the mattei
of home planting.

The main objects of planting, of course, are to furnish protection
from the sun, to soften the harsh lines of the buildings,
and to furnish ornament. The planting necessarily must be
simple, and matters of convenience and sanitation should overrule
considerations of beauty. Where trees are planted along the
street it is doubtful whether there will be room for any on the
lawn. Probably a single specimen of a small-growing variety
may be admitted. A white or gray birch may often be so located
that it will give diversity to the sky-line and relieve the harsh
lines of the buildings.

On larger lots, two or three trees may be planted, but these
should be located in the extreme corners. For sanitary rea-
sons, also, there should be no large trees planted so near the house
as to prevent the free circulation of air and the admission of sun-
light. The most common mistake is in getting too many trees around
the house. Evergreens especially should be avoided, except on very
large places. They produce a shut-in effect that is objectionable
on small places.

The dweller in the small city or in the suburbs of the large
city, therefore, must depend largely upon shrubs and herbaceous
plants for his home ornamentation. These are usually grouped
in borders along the boundaries and around the buildings. Small
clumps are often used also in the curves and junctures of the
walks. Occasionally a single specimen or a group may be located
in the open lawn, but as a rule an unbroken greensward will pro-
duce more pleasing results. When the house is located at one side

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 93

of the lot an open space may be left along the other side, connecting
the front and back yards, and in this way giving the expression
of expanse.

Back Yard Phi tit in;/- -By the planting of a fe\v shrubs or small
growing trees the back yard may easily be transformed from a re-
pository for all kinds of rubbish to a beautiful secluded spot where
the family may obtain much enjoyment. The back yard of the
common city residence is usually a piece of ground measuring not
more than fifty or sixty feet in each direction and is oftentimes
much smaller. It is generally surrounded by a high board fence.
In an enclosure of this kind it is well to form a border of shrub-
bery around the whole area and preserve an open center. (See fig.
33). The unsightly fence may be covered by the use of climbers
or tall-growing shrubs. Grape vines, Raspberry and Blackberry
bushes may be used for this purpose. These often thrive better in
shaded locations than the purely ornamental vines and hsrubs. If
preferred some of the ornamentals, like Virginia Creeper, Dutch-
man's Pipe, Philadelphus, Wegelia, and Spirea, may be used. A
space of three or four feet in front of the shrubs may be devoted
to herbaceous perennials or annuals.

The number of trees in a back vard necessarily must be small.

•/ J

As a rule where other plants must be grown there is not room
for more than one tree, and this should not be especially large. It
should be located in the most convenient place to furnish shade, but
should not be too near the house. For this purpose there is prob-
ably nothing better than the pear or the apple. There are longer-
lived species, but, under favorable conditions, they may be expected
to attain an age of at least one hundred years. With a little care
in the way of pruning and spraying, a single apple tree may be ex-
pected to furnish all the apples the ordinary family can use during
the winter. For the sake of giving greater variety and to furnish
fruit over a wider period, the tree may be grafted to two or more
varieties. Cherry trees, although shorter lived, are also very
useful for back-yard planting.

Some species, like the Red and Xonvay Maple or the Pin and
Chestnut Oaks, are not so likely to be affected by insects and dis-
ease, and for this reason are generally preferred, especially when the
trees are not likely to receive the proper attention. Where no shrubs

TREES IN WINTER

PLAAI /MO- 3
Suggestive Treatment of City J3ackyar&

1-i^.i.L^^^^^^^^

6cale A'J i4.4. &

.2. Fed-

8
9

10
11
12
13
14

15
16
17
18

. 33. Suggestive planting plan for a city back yard after Kirkegaard.
PLANTING LIST FOR PLAN NUMBER THREE

Wistaria multijuoa. Loose-clustered Wistaria.
Tecoma radicans. Trumpet Honeysuckle.
Juniperus communis var. hibernica. Irish Juniper.
Eerberis Thunbergii. Japanese Barberry.
Ligustrum ov all folium. California Privets.
Phlox paniculata. In variety. Perennial Phlox.

Rhododendron catawbiense hybridum. Hybrid Rhododen-
drons.

Euonymus europaeus. Strawberry Tree.
Forsythia suspensa var. fortunei. Fortune's Golden Bell.
Coreopsis lanceolata. Tickseed.
Iris germanica. German Iris in variety.
Rosa rugosa. Japanese Rose.
Kalmia latifolia. Mountain Laurel.
Viburnum opulus. Mountain Cranberry.

Symphoricarpos racernosus. Snowberry. »

Paeonia officinalis. In variety. Garden Paeonies.

Kerria japonica. Globe-flower.

Populus nigra var. italica. Lombardy Poplar.

List

No. of

No.

Plants.

1

1

2

1

3

2

4

3

5

4

6 •

6

7

3

3
3
6

15
3
3
3
4
5
3
4

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES

95

or other plants are grown, the number of trees in the back yard
sometimes may be increased, but they should not be planted so
closely that they will interfere with one another's natural develop-
ment and prevent the growth of grass.

96 TKEES IN WINTER

CHAPTER V
THE SELECTION OF TREES FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES.

As has been shown in previous chapters, there are many factors
that determine the choice of species. The fundamental question
to be decided is whether a particular type of tree is suited to the
purpose from the esthetic standpoint. Usually the choice of species
for the production of a given effect is subject to a wide range. Af-
ter considering all of the forms that seem to answer the purpose
in an ornamental way, it is well in the final selection to choose those
having few objectionable features.

Some species are better adapted to a certain set of conditions
than others, and certain conditions beyond our control often restrict
the selection of species to a very narrow range. Some trees will not
grow on dry soil, others fail to thrive on wet soil. Some fail to
develop properly unless there is an abundance of lime in the soil,
and others fail on calcarous soils. Some cannot stand the smoke
and gas common to city streets. Some require plenty of sun while
others, to reach their highest degree of perfection, must be some-
what protected from the hot rays of the sun. Some will not stand
the seashore climate and others will fail at high altitudes.

The relative susceptibility of species to insect and fungus attack
is a subject too often overlooked. Certain species, like the White
or American Elm, are well adapted to ornamental planting, for
both city and country, but cannot be recommended except for
places where they are likely to be taken care of. And again there
are some species that have many desirable qualities and yet are ob-
jectionable in one or more respects. The Horse-chestnut, for
example, is an attractive and effective shade tree, but it is objec-
tionable on account of the litter it produces on the ground. The
Silver Maple is attractive, graceful, and quick-growing, but it is
short-lived and easily broken by wind and ice. The sex of trees is
an important consideration in some cases. For example, the
pistilate or female Carolina Poplar is very objectionale on account
of its cottony seeds that literally fill the surrounding atmosphere and
attach themselves to buildings, to other trees, and to people's cloth-
ing. The male trees of the Ailanthus, also, are exceedingly objec-
tionable on account of the odor produced by the staminate flowers.

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 97

The following lists are furnished with the hope that they may be
of service in the selection of species for special purposes and condi-
tions. They have been modified after Render1, and Fernow2
They are not intended to be complete, but are fairly reliable for
northeastern conditions. The common names are used, but their
corresponding botanic name generally may be obtained by referring
to Part II.

TREES WITH SHOWY FLOWERS.
BLOOMING BEFORE OR WITH THE LEAVES-

Apple (fls. white or pinkish).
Cherries, several species (Us. white).
Flowering Dogwood (fls. white).
Peach (fls. pink).
Plums, several species (fls. white).
Eed Bud (fls. rosy pink).
Red Maple (fls. blood red) .
Shad Bush (fls. white).
Willow (fls. yellow).

BLOOMING AFTER THE LEAVES.

Basswood (fls. white).

Catalpa (fls. white or yellow).

Chestnut (fls. white or yellowish, blooms in July).

Common Locust (fls. white or light pink).

Cucumber Tree (fls. yellow) and other Magnolias.

Hawthorn (fls. white).

Horse-chestnut (fls. white or red).

Mountain Ash (fls. white).

Tulip Tree (fls. yellow).

Yellow Wood (fls. white).

TREES WITH SHOWY FRUITS.

Apple (fr. red or yellow).
Ailanthus var. erythrocarpa (fr. red).
Cherries (fr. red, black or yellow).
Flowering Dogwood (fr. scarlet).
Hawthorns ( f r. refd or yellow) .
Holly (fr. red).
Mountain Ash (fr. red).

1 — Rehder, Alfred, in Bailey's Cyclopedia of American Horticulture IV.,
pp. 1835-6, 1906.

2 — Fernow, B. E., The Care of Trees, pp. 364-373, 1911.

98 TREES IN WINTER

Plums (fr. red, dark blue, or yellow).
Red Maple (fr. red in May and June).
Sassafras (fr. dark blue).
Magnolias (fr. pink).

TREES WITH STRIKINGLY COLORED FOLIAGE.

Beech, var. pur pur ea (Ivs. purple).

Blue Spruce (Ivs. silvery or bluish white).

Box Elder, var. argenteo-variegatum (Ivs. white and green).

Carolina Poplar, va. aurea (Ivs. yellow).

Xorway Maple (Ivs. light or yellowish green in early spring) var.
ReitenbacM (Ivs. becoming dark red in summer) ; var. Scliwed-
leri (Ivs. bright red in spring).

Silver Poplar, (Ivs. white beneath) var. nivea (especially conspicu-
ous.

Sycamore Maple, var. Worleei (Ivs. yellowish).

White Birch (Ivs. light green) ; var. pur pur ea (Ivs. purple).

White Fir, Abies concolor (Ivs. silvery or bluish-white).

White Willow, var. argentea (Ivs. silvery white).

TREES WITH BRILLIANT AUTUMNAL TINTS.

Black Oak (scarlet).

Flowering Dogwood (scarlet).

Gink go (yellow).

Hawthorn (scarlet and orange).

Pin Oak (scarlet).

Red Oak (dull red).

Red Maple (scarlet).

Sassafras (red and yellow).

Scarlet Oak (scarlet).

Shad Bush (red).

Sugar Maple (scarlet and orange).

Sumachs (bright scarlet).

Sweet Gum (red).

Tupelo (scarlet).

White Ash (yellow and purple).

White Birch (yellow).

White Oak (purplish).

DECIDUOUS TREES VALUED FOR THEIR WINTER EFFECTS.

Beech (steel-gray bark; frequently retains its leaves).
Box Elder (light green and purplish branches).

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 99

Bur Oak (corky branches).

Cork Elm (corky branches).

Gray Birch (grayish white bark).

Hawthorn ((.'rateyus virldis and some others, red fruit).

Kentucky Coffee Tree (picturesque, nude branches).

Liquidambar (corky branches).

Mountain Ash (scarlet fruit).

Red Birch (flaky reddish-brown bark).

Sassafras (green twigs).

Striped Maple (striped bark).

Sumachs (scarlet fruit).

White Birch (silvery-white bark).

White Oak (retains its dead leaves).

Yellow Birch (silvery-yellow flaky bark).

Yellow Willowr (yellow branches).

VERY TALL TREES.

Bald Cypress. Pin Oak.

Black Oak. Red Oak

Black Walnut. Sycamore.

Carolina Poplar. Tulip Tree.

Common Locust. White Elm

Honey Locust. White Pine.
Norway Spruce.

COLUMNAR OR NARROW PYRAMIDAL TREES.

Arbor Vitae.

Bald Cypress.

Black Maple, var. monumentale.

Coast White Cedar.

Firs (most species).

Juniper, var. Suecica and pyramidalis.

Larch.

Lombardy Poplar.

Eed Cedar.

Silver Poplar, var. Bolleana.

Spruces (most species).

Tulip Tree, var. pyramidalis.

WEEPING TREES.

Ash (Fraxinus Excelsior, var. pendula).
Basswood (Tilia petiolaris).

100 TREES IN WINTER

Beech (Fagus sylvatica, var. pendula}.
Cherry (Prunus serotina, var. pendula}.
Elm (Ulmus scabra, var. pendula}.
Maple (Acer saccliarinum, var. Wieri).
Oak (Quercus pedunculata, var. pendula}.
Plum (Prunus pendula} .
White Birch (Betula alba, var. pendula}.
Willow (Salix Babylonica}.

TREES RESISTANT TO SMOKE.

Ailanthus. Horse-Chestnut.

American Hornbeam. Linden

Balsam Poplar. Maples (most species).

Carolina Poplar. Shad Bush.

Flowering Dogwood. Sycamore.

Hawthorns. White Oak.

Honey Locust. White Elm.

DESIRABLE SHADE AND AVENUE TREES.

Black Oak. Ecd Oak.

Black Walnut. Scarlet Oak.

Chestnut. Silver Maple.

Chestnut Oak. Sweet Gum.

Ginkgo. Sycamore.

Honey Locust. Sycamore Maple.

Horse-chestnut. Tulip Tree.

Linden. White Elm.

Norway Maple. White Oak
Pin Oak.

TREES FOG SEASIDE PLANTING

Arbor Vitae. Sassafras.

Ailanthus. Scotch Pine.

Austrian Pine. Small-toothed Aspen.

Carolina Poplar. Tupelo.

Common Juniper. White Spruce.

Pitch Pine. Yellow Willow.
Bed Oak.

TREKS FOR DRY SITUATIONS AND DRY CLIMATES.

Black Oak. Scarlet Oak.

Chestnut Oak. Scotch Pine.

Common Juniper. Shad Bush.

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES. 101

Pitch Pine Smooth Alder.

Bed Cedar. White Birch.

Bed Oak.

TREES BEST ADAPTED TO WET SOILS.

Alders. Eed Birch.

Bald Cypress. Eed Oak.

Balsam Fir. Eed Maple.

Black Oak. Silver Maple.

Black Spruce. Swamp White Oak.

Coast White Cedar. Sweet Gum.

Larch. Sycamore.

Linden. Tupelo.

Pin Oak. White Birch.

Pitch Pine. White Spruce.

Poplars (most species). Willows (most species).

TREES BEST SUITED TO CALCAREOUS OR LIMESTONE SOILS.

Austrian Pine. Larch.

Beech. Plums.

Coast White Cedar. Poplars (most species).

Flowering Dogwood. Scotch Pine.

Hawthorns. Shad Bush.

Juniper.

VARIETIES OF FRUIT TREES FOR HOME PLANTING.

Apples : — Yellow Transparent, Bed Astrachan, Williams, Olden-
berg, Gravenstein, Chenango, Wealthy, Mclntosh, Fameuse,
Fall Pippin, Wagener, Jonathan, Sutton, Tolman, Grimes,
King, Hubbardston, Northern Spy, Eed Canada, Golden
Busset, Delicious, Ontario, Eoxbury, Baldwin.

Pears: — Summer Doyenne, Giffard, Bartlett, Flemish Beauty,
Sheldon, Seckel, Bosc, Anjou, Lawrence, Winter Nelis.

Quinces : — Orange, Champion.

Peaches: — Eivers, Greensboro, St. John, Carmen, Mountain Bose,
Early Crawford, Crosby, Champion, Late Crawford, Elberta,
Stevens, Smock.

Plums: — Bed June, Abundance, Burbank, Bradshaw, Imeprial
Gage, Lombard, Yellow Egg, Beine Claude.

Cherries: — May Duke, Wood, Knight, Tartarian, Hortense, Mont-
morency, Morello.

102 TREES IN WINTER

CHAPTER VI

HOW TREES ARE PLANTED.
PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS.

Ordering Trees - - It is always well to procure catalogues from
several reputable nursery concerns. Other things being equal, it
is advisable to order trees from a local nursery. The so-called
"tree agent' is not always reliable and, for this reason, best results
will follow the practice of ordering directly from the nursery.
Since there is so much confusion in names of trees, it is well to
make sure that the nurseryman knows what trees are required.
The Latin name should always accompany the common name.
Even then there is danger of confusion, and to be absolutely
sure of getting the required species, it is desirable to go to the
nursery and personally examine the trees.

Nurserymen carry usually two or more grades of trees. As
a rule the difference between first and second grade trees is in
size or "caliper." If this is the case a second grade tree is
likely to give satisfactory results. It may be a little later in
maturing, but since a small tree suffers less from "shock" in
transplanting, it is likely to catch up to the larger-sized tree
within a few years. It is not advisable to buy third grade or "cull"
trees for they are likely to be weak growers or ill-shaped specimens.
The price of nursery stock will depend upon the grade and upon
the age of the trees. Where quick results are demanded it is
advisable to buy trees two or three inches in diameter or those
that are five to ten years of age, or to plant mature trees as
described later.

Where trees are grown on the place they may be moved with
large balls of earth attached and in this way the shock and risk
of moving may be lessened.

"PuddHinj" and "Heeling In" — Trees come from the nursery
in boxes or bundles. To prevent them from drying out the roots
are usually packed in moist straw or other material. If they
should arrive before planting time the roots should be "puddled"
and the trees "heeled in." Puddling consists in dipping the roots
in a semi-liquid mixture of clay and water. This forms a coating
of clay over the roots and prevents them from drying out. Heeling
in consists in digging a trench from one to two feet in depth,

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 103

depending upon the size of the tree, into which the bundles of
trees are placed and their roots covered with soil. In order to
make sure of having the trees on hand at planting time, it is

Fig. 34. Nursery stock "healed in."

sometimes necessary to order them shipped in the fall. When
they arrive they may be heeled in until ready for use in the
spring.

Prune Before Planting --In the process of digging, no matter
how carefully done, many of the roots are sure to be broken off
or injured in some way. To balance up for this loss of roots the
tree should have its top greatly reduced. This is done by cutting
out superfluous branches and by heading in the remainder. This
practive is not necessary nor desirable for Evergreens. Trees
with abundant root systems will not need to be headed in
so severely as those deficient in roots. The older the tree
when moved the greater the danger in losing its roots, and
the greater the necessity for heading in. With trees not more
than three or four years of age, the removal of most of the past
season's growth will be sufficient, but with older trees it is usually
necessary to remove two or more years' growth. With some trees,
like the Pin Oak, Ginkgo, Poplars and Evergreens, whose .eculiar
beauty is dependent upon a single stem or central leader, it is
necessary to do the pruning on the side branches. This pruning
and heading-in greatly reduces the chances of failure and vet dnr-
not seriously effect the rate of development. The more severe the
pruning the greater the growth during the first few seasons.

104

TREES IN WINTER

It is therefore better to ere by over pruning than by not pruning
enough.

Pig. 35. A fruit tree before and after pruning1, showing proper
treatment preparatory to planting.

The roots also will require some pruning. All mangled roots
should l)e removed, making a fresh, smooth cut. Long, sprawling
roots may also be shortened in to accommodate a smaller hole.

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES

105

Preparing the Ground — Too much cannot be said with regard
to the necessity for making the tree comfortable in its new

SPCCiriCATIONS TOR PLANTING 5TRCLT TRLCS
By City forester Crnmie.

New Hiven, Connecticut
1012

Hurtlry grown trees CJ
inches in dian-ioter, wilh
veil-developed head B'i
MI-DUB roots, qive bey

it •*

'

Prune branches to check, evap-
oration during th<" first year.

Galvanized wire guard. 6
feet high. 6 inches m diarn-
eter, half- inch mesh. •

Lowest branch "/ feet
above the pavement

Clothesline, covered wrth.
rubber hose, inside guard.

"^Chestnut stake. 2i inches m
diameter 9 feet long.

.Liqht mulch of ue" roHed man-
ure, covered with loam Must
not touch th« rooto.

t— .^_^_k__ __. /

gR|'ir — ~~7 ^-yrOpen space m sidewalk. Jt feet
1 ' '(^S -£^ "^ lf~5r W|de. 6 fact long, 1o aHow watering
2lS§^'--? :^' ana ferTilizma. if necessary, cover
\ »T_ ^ . ,l1n ,ron cyah,,^

Hole 3 feet deep, 3 feet
wide. 4feetlon(), filled
with rich loam.

Protect roots from drying while transplanting

Work soil among roots with fmgors; then 3tarnp in m layers

Vater frequently during First two summers.

Fig. 36. Diagramatic specifications for tree planting,
followed by many municipalities.

A schema

position. Wherever practicable, the ground should be plowed
deeply and subsoiled, and in this way the feeding area for tho

106 TREES 1.N VVJMTEK

roots will be enlarged. In low places, where water is likely to
stand during wet seasons, it will be necessary to underdrain, for
few trees will thrive in wet soil. Tile underdrains should be
placed about four feet below the surface. If nearer the surface
they are likely to be stopped up by the roots of the trees. Where
there is an impervious hard-pan near the surface it may be broken
up by the use of dynamite.

On city streets it is usually impracticable to plow, except when
planting newly-formed streets and avenues. When it is not
practicable to break up the whole area where trees are to be
planted, larger holes and greater care in their preparation will
be necessary.

Most soils are deficient in both plant food and vegetable matter
and are greatly benefited by heavy applications of stable manure.
Where the young trees are widely separated it is well to restrict
the application to a radius of about six feet around each tree.
It should be thoroughly mixed up with the soil. On city streets
where the application must be restricted to a small area the
manure is usually mixed with the soil that is placed around the
roots of the tree. For this purpose only very fine, or well-rotted,
manure should be used.

Staking the Ground- -The setting of stakes where the trees are
to be planted is recommended for most kinds of plantations.
Where trees are to be planted in a straight line along a roadside
or on a city street, the problem is a simple one. When trees are
planted for definite effects about the home or in parks, the work
is often perplexing and the correct location of the stakes often
necessitates much shifting. A stake is much easier shifted than a
tree, and the location of trees may be decided upon before the
approach of the planting season.

SETTING THE TREES

Time to Plant - - Spring planting usually gives better results
than fall planting, although with care trees may be planted in
the fall with much assurance of their surviving. The spring is
the natural growing season and trees planted at this time
commence to send out new roots immediately, so that if they were
somewhat carelessly planted they would stand a better show than
those planted in the fall and allowed to remain over winter in an
unfavorable condition. If it is desired to plant in the fall it

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES

107

is of the utmost importance to get the soil well picked around
the roots and to apply on the surface a liberal amount of stable
manure or other coarse material to prevent the tree from being
heaved by frost. Those trees having succulent roots, like the
magnolias, should always be planted in the spring. Spring planting
is usually done as soon as the ground warms up and before the
buds begin to swell.

Ma1cin<j tJte Holes and Filling In -- Where the ground has been
well prepared, it is only necessary to make the holes large enough
to accommodate the root system. Where it is impracticable to
cultivate the whole area where trees are to be planted, it is well
to dig the holes much broader and deeper than is necessary to
accommodate the roots. With ordinary sized trees the holes should
be about two feet deep. Before setting the tree, however, the hole
should be partly filled with surface soil with which some well-

A

~^

0

i

i

!-- ..sft.

l

Fig. 37. The Planting-board. A useful device for locating- trees in
their correct positions.

Fig. 38. How the Planting-board is used.

108 TREES IN WINTER

rotted manure has been mixed. The tree should be set at just
about the same depth at which it grew in the nursery. The roots
are spread out naturally and the fine surface soil thrown or sifted
in about them. Only a small amount of soil should be thrown
in at a time and it should be well tamped, avoiding any open
spaces beneath or about the roots. A pointed stake will be found
serviceable in tamping the soil about the roots. The last few
shovels-full should be thrown loosely about the tree to act as a
mulch.

"Where it is necessary to get the tree in the exact position
where the stake stood, a device called a planting-board will be
found useful. Such a contrivance may be readily made from a
board, eight to ten feet in length, by making a notch in the
center and a hole at each end, as shown in figure 37. Before
digging the hole the board is placed on the ground with the notch
adjusted to the stake that marks the position of the tree. A
guide stake is then driven in the ground through each of the holes
at the end of the board. The board may then be removed while
the hole is being dug, after which it is placed back on the guide
stakes and the tree adjusted to the notch in the center.

Moving Large Trees - - The demand for quick results in tree
planting often necessitates the moving of very large trees. Trees
from twelve to eighteen inches in diameter are often successfully
moved. Very large specimens require the services of expert
tree movers, who have the proper equipment for the purpose.
Frequently, however, it is desirable to go to a neighboring forest
for moderately-sized trees for home planting. Trees from six to
eight inches in diameter may be moved with a fair degree of
certainty and without an elaborate equipment. Since trees grown
in the open are usually more shapely and have better root systems,
they are likely to give better results when transplanted, than
forest-grown trees.

The principles involved in transplanting large trees are the
same as for small trees, but the work is performed at greater
risk. Experts, however, seldom lose a tree.

Where trees are to be carried short distances it is well to
preserve a large ball of earth around the roots. If a large pro-
portion of the roots are kept intact, it will not be necessary to
cut back the top so severely. Where trees must be transported

PLANTING AND CARE OP TREES

109

long distances it is usually necessary to wash the soil from the
roots and to carefully wrap the latter with moist straw and burlap.
Most trees will need to be severely headed-iu or dehorned, but
those with many branches may be safely moved after being severely

Fig. 39. A large Evergreen being transplanted. A large ball of
earth is being retained on the roots.

pruned throughout the whole top. This treatment obviates the
necessity for changing their natural habit. Some trees, of course,
may be greatly improved in form by a severe heading-in. As
in the planting of small trees, the important point with large
trees is in getting the soil well filled in and packed around the
roots of the newly set tree. By directing a stream of water about
the roots the soil may be forced well under the base of the tree.

110

TREES IN WINTER

Newly set trees should be securely guyed for at least one season,
or until their roots become firmly established in their new
position.

Fig. 40. Transplanting- a large tree, showing the method of binding
up the roots, when it is necessary to transport long distances.

Trees with an abundance of small roots are more likely to
survive the process of transplanting. The species that are more
commonly and successfully moved are the Maples, Elms, White
Ash, Basswood, Catalpa, Horse-chestnut, Pin Oak, Poplars, and
Willows. Trees with tap roots and few fibrous roots, like the
Hickories and most Oaks, are moved with less certanity. The very
soft and tender rooted trees, like the Tulip and the Magnolias, are
also difficult to move without loss.

STAKING AND GUARDING YOUNG TREES

Newly-set trees are likely to become ill-shaped and badly damaged
if not properly supported and guarded during the first few years
of their life. This applies especially to street trees, but lawn trees,
although they many not require guards, should be supported in
some simple and inconspicuous manner.

Stakes - - A single stake, painted green, and long enough to
reach almost to the top of the tree and to extend into the ground
at least two feet is the simplest method of supporting young
trees. It is made pointed at the lower end and, after a
hole is made with a crowbar, it is driven into position. Sometimes

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES

111

two stakes are used, one on each side of the tree, but there is
no special need for this additional expense. (See fig. 41). A
common method of attaching the tree to the stake, which should be
done at two or three places, is by means of a manila rope run

Fig. 41. A simple and effective method of staking and guarding
young trees.

through a piece of rubber hose. This is tied around the tree,
using an ordinary double knot, and then the ends are tied around
the stake. The knot between the Jree a_id the stake prevents

112 TEEES IN WINTER

chafing. This is all the protection needed for trees on the lawn
or in positions along the street and roadside where there is little
danger of injury from passing vehicles and thoughtless people.

Guards --Street trees, being subject to various forms of injury,
require guarding as well as supporting and for this purpose a
combination tree-guard and support has been successfully used in
Washington and other cities. These are four-sided wooden boxes
attached to four stakes driven into the ground. The trees are held
firmly in the center of the box by means of leather straps attached
to the corners. Although cumbersome and unsightly in appear-
ance, they are very effective and remain in position for several
years.

A simple and inexpensive guard may be made of heavy wire
mesh and used in combination with the single stake. The cylinder
of wire should be about six feet high and should be attached to
the stake. Wire cloth made of number 16 wire and with one-
inch meshes comes in rolls twenty inches wide. Twenty inches
is just about the right width to encircle the tree and the cloth,
therefore, may be cut in six-foot lengths. The upper edge of the
cylinder may be bound with a piece of rubber hose to prevent
chafing. There are many types of iron guards on the market, but
they are quite expensive and are of very little support to the
tree unless they are set deeply into the soil. They are commonly
used in connection with grills, where they are very useful. They
are less conspicuous and take up less room than the wooden box.

Grills - - Whore trees are set in openings in the pavement or
sidewalk, the space around the base of each tree is often covered
with iron grating to prevent the soil from becoming packed so
hard as to make it impervious to water. Such devices, of which

Fig. 42. A good type of Grill.

there are many styles, are known as grills. They are usually cast
in sections and are adjusted so as to come flush with the side-

PLANTING AXD CARE OF TREES 1]3

walk. They are supported on stakes driven into the ground. It is
well to leave a slight depression in the ground under the grill
for the purpose of holding some of the water that may run into it.
The earth immediately around the tree, however, should be some-
what elevated to prevent the water from coming in contact with
the trunk.

114 TREES IN WINTER

CHAPTER VII
THE CARE OF TREES.

There are many people who believe that a tree after being
properly planted requires no further treatment. While many trees
growing wild have attained a perfect development, it should be
remembered that these are the exceptions and that many of their
youthful companions either have died or have been seriously affected
in form and vitality. When trees become well established and are
allowed to develop under normal conditions they require very
little attention. On the other hand, young trees and trees growing
under abnormal or adverse conditions are less able to take care
of themselves. The growing of trees on narrow streets, where the
ground is almost completely covered with pavement and where
the trees are smothered with smoke and poisoned with coal gas,
is decidedly an abnormal condition and it is a wonder that there
are not more failures.

IMPROVING SOIL CONDITIONS

The Need of Humus in the Soil- -The failure of trees to de-
velop is more often due to an unfavorable physical condition of the
soil than to any other cause. When the physical condition is not
right the tree roots cannot develop properly and the tree cannot
get an adequate supply of water. Since plant food must be
dissolved in water before the tree can make use of it, a shortage
of water means a shortage of nutrition. Moreover, the soil must
be in a good, physical condition for the development of certain
useful micro-organisms and to facilitate favorable chemical action.
The constituent most necessary to keep the soil in a good mechanical
condition and the one most commonly deficient is humus, or
decayed vegetable matter. In nature this is supplied by the con-
tinual decay of leaves and other herbage on the surface. It is
not practicable in our streets and on our lawns to allow the leaves
to remain where they fall and the grass to develop and to con-
tribute vegetable matter when it dies. When lawns are made and
when new streets are being planted it is a feasible thing to apply
a good dressing of vegetable matter in the form of stable manure
or other coarse material. The turning under of a good crop
of herbage is the easiest way to increase the humus content of

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 115

the soil. In farm practice it is a common thing to grow a crop
of clover, rye, or buckwheat for the purpose of ploughing under.

The water-holding capacity of a soil is dependent largely upon
its humus content. Trees growing in soil that is well supplied with
humus are not likely to suffer from drought during dry seasons.
It is not necessary here to enumerate the many other functions
of humus in the soil, but it is enough to say that it should be
supplied whenever practicable.

Fertilizers for Trees --Most soils contain a sufficient supply of
the various elements of plant food - - nitrogen, potash, and
phosphoric acid — and when the soil is in a good mechanical con-
dition the tree is able to obtain without difficulty these elements,

«/

and it is seldom necessary to make additional applications. But
since the soil where our shade trees are supposed to grow is not
usually in a suitable mechanical condition and since it is often
impracticable to improve it in this respect; the application of
chemical fertilizers often proves beneficial.

Inasmuch as soils differ so widely with regard to their manurial
requirements, it is always difficult to make any general recommen-
dations. The following formula is suggested as an annual dressing
for each full grown tree. A very large tree should receive a
slightly heavier dressing and a smaller one proportionately less: —
Nitrate of soda (15% nitrogen or its equivalent) 6 pounds

Muriate or sulphate of potash (50% potash) 6

Acid phosphate (18% phosphoric acid) 8

This is a light dressing and may be greatly increased without
fear or injury. The three compounds may be mixed together and
scattered over the surface of the ground, extending considerably
beyond the spread of the branches. The application should be
made in the spring, just as the leaves are appearing, and during
a heavy rain, or just before watering the ground from a hose.
If these directions are followed and if the lumps are well mashed
there will be no injury to the. grass. The practice of spreading
stable manure on the ground beneath the trees in the fall and in
raking it off in the spring,, is a commendable one, but many
people object to it on account of the odor and appearance.

Cultivation- -Whenever it is feasible, the ground beneath and
around the trees should be cultivated. Cultivation aeriates the
soil and increases chemical action, making more plant food avail-

116 TREES IN WINTER

able. It also assists in conserving the moisture of the soil by
forming a loose mulch on the surface that lessens evaporation.
The turf around the trees would be better broken up every few
years and a good supply of vegetable matte1' added before reseeding.
Such a practice, however, is not always practicable, but where the
trees are located along borders, it may be followed without seri-
ously affecting the appearance of the surroundings.

PRUNING SHADE TREES

Trees on the lawn will require very little pruning, the work
consisting mainly in the removal of dead or diseased branches.
Street trees, on the other hand, require careful training to insure
a symmetrical development and to prevent their branches from
interfering with the traffic. A well-developed street tree should
have a compact and symmetrical head and the branching should
commence at a point eigth or ten feet from the ground. The
beauty in a row of street trees is largely dependent upon
uniformity in size and shape. The individual trees, there-
fore, should be as nearly alike as possible. Some will require
encouraging to keep them up to the average in size, while others
will need to be cut back to keep them down to the average. It
should be remembered in this connection that pruning while the
tree is dormant stimulates vegetative growth and that pruning
during the growing season tends to counteract an excessive growth.

The branching should start at the same height on each tree.
The lower branches need not be cut off until they begin to inter-
fere with traffic, and these should be removed gradually. One
or two of the lower branches may be removed at intervals of
two or three years until the proper height is reached. The base
of the head should not project horizontally, but should ascend
obliquely, producing an arched effect and giving more room in the
center of the street.

How to Cut Off a Limb --When it is necessary to head back
branches, the cut should be made just beyond a side branch that
points in the desired direction. Such a cut, if a large one,
should be made on a slant to prevent the accumulation of moisture
on the surface. In ordinary pruning a whole branch is removed,
and when this is done the cut is made close to the parent branch.
Great care should be exercised in preventing the branch from
splitting down during the process. This trouble may be avoided

PLANTING Ai\TD CARE OF TREES

117

by cutting about half way through the branch from beneath at a
point marked A in figure 43, which may be about six or eight
inches beyond the junction. The final cut is then made from
above and close to the parent branch as shown at B in the
diagram. By the time the saw reaches the center, the branch
will split horizontally at X and drop off, when the cut may be con-

Fig. 43. Diagram to illustrate the method of sawing off a large limb
to prevent it from splitting- down the trunk. Cut first at A and then at
B, when the branch should split along the dotted line X, and drop off.
If the limb does not drop off when the second cut reaches, the half-way
point, a third cut should be made at the point D. After the limb has
dropped off the final cut may be made through to C.

tinned through to C. Sometimes with tough-wooded trees and when
there is a large shoulder at the base, the branch may not split
readily when the second cut reaches the half-way point or the
level of the ending of the first cut. In such cases a third cut
should be made from above at the point D, just beyond the first
cut. When these two cuts meet on the same level the limb will
drop off, when the final cut may be finished.

All cuts should be made smooth and close to the parent branch,
which forms the callus to heal the wound. When there is a
large shoulder at the base of the limb to be removed, there is
always a temptation to make the cut beyond the shoulder and at
right-angles with the branch. Wounds made by cutting in this
direction, although much smaller, will not heal over as readily

118

TREES IN WINTER

as those made by cutting parallel with and close to the parent
branch. (See figs. 44, 45, 46, and 47).

Time to Prune - - In general, priming should be done while the
tree is dormant. Most people prefer to prune in early spring,
believing that the Avounds heal over better when made just before
the tree starts its growth. There are cases, as pointed out before,

Fig. 44. A cut properly made, observe that the wound has already
commenced to heal.

Fig-. 45. The result of bad Pruning.

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES

119

where certain trees may be making too much growth, and where
pruning during the growing season is recommended. While the
practice of summer pruning i« useful in the way of reducing
vegetable growth and in encouraging the development of blossoms
and fruit, it tends to weaken the tree. It produces the same
effect as a partial defoliation by insects. Pruning during the

Fig. 46. An example of bad Pruning. Compare with Pig. 45.

summer, therefore, always should be sparingly done. It is practiced
mostly on fruit trees to encourage fruit development. It should

120

TREES IN WINTER

be remembered that the buds from which the blossoms and fruit
come during any season have been formed during the previous sum-
mer. To have any influence upon the supply of blossoms and fruit
for the following year, therefore, the pruning should be done
early in the summer, before the fruit buds are formed. With
most species the best time is about the first of July. The removal

Pig. 47. An example of good Pruning-. The cuts have been made
close and smooth and the wounds properly dressed.

of foliage, only, will produce the same effect as removing branches
with leaves attached. Since trees rarely grow too rapidly the
practice of summer pruning is seldom necessary. The rule,
however, is to prune in winter for more wood growth and in
summer for more blossoms and fruit.

Pruning should never be done when the sap is moving freely in

PLANTI.Mi AM) C\llK OF TREES

121

the spring, for some trees are likely to suffer seriously from the
loss of sap. Should any dead or diseased brandies be observed
during the summer it is always well, for the sake of appearance, to
remove them immediately.

Pruning Tools - - The tools actually necessary for pruning are
few in number, but good workmen are very particular with regard
to the character of their tools. There are saws specially designed
for the purpose, but a large proportion of them are useless. Some
workmen prefer one type and some another. A small but very
convenient saw is shown in figure 48. This is called the California
Pruning Saw and conies in three sizes based upon the length of

Fig-. 48. Pruning Tools. A 14-inch California Pruning Saw and a
good type of Pruning Shears.

the blade as follows: 12, 14 and 18-inch. This saw is too small for
work where there are many large limbs to be cut, but it should
be included in every primer's kit. A larger saw also will be neces-
sary. A saw of good size and with large teeth, known as Atkins'
Universal Saw, No. 83, is a favorite with many people. A one-
man saw, which is a small cross-cut saw, will be found useful
for the cutting of very large limbs.

The pruner will also require a good set of pruning shears like
those shown in figure 48. These are especially useful in pruning
young trees. There is a knack in using hand shears that when
acquired will greatly facilitate their use. The cutting blade should
be placed on the upper side of the branch so that the weight of
the latter will relieve the binding. It is advisable also to have the
non-cutting blade toward the side to be removed to avoid injuring
the part that is to remain.

Long-handled loppers are useful in ''lopping'' off the ends of
branches. These are similar to hand shears but are attached to
a twelve or fifgteen-foot pole. The shears are operated by the

122 TREES IN WINTER

use of a long rope or steel rod that passes through screw-eyes
on the pole. This tool may also be used as a hook with which
to pull loose branches out of a tree. If a similar instrument

Fig. 49. Four types of "loppers" from which the handles have been
removed for photographing.

could be made with the cutting blade working from above, it
would be a decided improvement. Among the other tools and
accessories that are likely to prove useful may be mentioned, a
small one-handed axe; a piece of rope; tree climbers; a pruner's
belt for the carrying of tools and for supporting the operator.

Taking Care of tlic IVoniKlx — The wounds made by pruning
must be protected to prevent the access of fungi. Small wounds,
or those less than two inches in diameter are likely to heal over
before danger of infection. This depends largely upon the species
and the vigor of the tree. The wounds of Poplars and Willows
heal over quickly, while those of the White Oak or Sugar Maple
heal very slowly. As a rule, all wounds two inches or more in
diameter should be dressed with some preparation. When the
pruning is done in the fall or winter the dressing should be
delayed till spring. This will give the cut surface a chance to dry
out and the wood to become "checked." If the dressing is applied
when the wood is in such condition it will be decidedly more
effective in sealing up the cracks. Thick paint made from white
lead and raw linseed oil will answer the purpose. A little green
or black coloring matter may be added to make the wounds less

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES

123

conspicuous. Most experts use coal tar for dressing wounds. This
material makes an excellent dressing, but occasional samples
containing an excess of creosote or carbolic acid have caused
serious damage to the living bark around the wounds. When care
is exercised in preventing it from running down on the healthy
bark, it may be safely used.

The larger wounds will require later applications every two or
three years unless they are permanently sealed up in some way.
Wounds six inches or more in diameter are sometimes covered
with zinc. When the work of "tinning," as it is commonly called,
is properly done it is a very effective means of taking care of
large wounds. The zinc plates should be cut out so as to fit

Fig. 50. The failure to protect the wound with some kind of dressing
has allowed the entrance of wood-destroying fungi

exactly inside of the cambium layer or inner bark. It is applied
immediately after painting and should be tacked down with large-
headed brads. The brads should completely encircle the plate and
should not be more than one inch apart. When put on in this
way, and before the paint has dried, there will be no danger of
moisture or disease spores getting beneath it. Within a year
or two the callous will form over the edge of the plate making
a permanently tight covering.

124 TREES IN WINTER

CHAPTEE VIII

COMMON INJURIES TO SHADE TREES.
SOURCES OP INJURY.

Trees in the city and sometimes those in the country are
subjected to many forms of injury. Many of the common injuries
are the result of either ignorance or indifference and may easily be
prevented. A large proportion of them, however, may be attributed
to the unfavorable conditions under which the trees are grown.
Many injuries, also, are caused by insects and fungi, but these
are discussed in the following chapter.

'Injuries Caused by Gas and Smoke — It is a common occur-
rence in towns and cities to find trees dying or dead from the
effects of gas. The injury may be caused from the presence of
gas either in the soil about the roots or in the air about the
foliage. Gas in the soil comes from leaking pipes and this
trouble may be avoided by the careful laying of gas mains.
Municipalities should see that gas pipes are properly laid and
corporations should be held responsible for injuries caused by
leaking gas pipes. On account of the impervious layer of soil or
pavement on the surface, a very small leak will often cause much
injury. Sometimes the trees will die gradually, one or two
branches at a time, and may survive for several years. On the
other hand, cases have been recorded where a whole row of trees
has been killed in a single season and from a single leak in a
gas main.

Affected trees will take on a sickly appearance. The foliage
turns yellow and finally falls. The presence of gas in the soil
may usually be detected by boring in several places to a depth of
three or four feet. A soil auger is a useful tool for this purpose,
but where this is not available, a crowbar may be used. The odor
of gas in these holes indicates with certainty its presence in the
soil. Where gas is found it is well to dig a trench around the
trees and to loosen up the soil as much as possible to get rid of
the gas. The leak, of course, should be promptly located and
repaired.

Many trees are injured by the coal gas in the air that comes
from smoke stacks. Trees in the neighborhood of railway yards

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES

125

and manufacturing plants may bo found in various stages of
decreptitude. Tin- only remedies for this trouble are the passing
of city ordinances that aim to regulate the smoke niiisanee and
the avoiding of species like the Klin, the Sugar Maple, and others,
that are especially susceptible to gas poisoning.

Injuries From Ocerhcad Wires- - The construction and opera-
tion of overhead telephone and electric lines is responsible for

Fig. 51. A row of trees that have been butchered by electric linemen.

much serious injury to shade trees. The careless chopping out of
to admit of the free passage of wires may be seen almost

126

TREES IN WINTER

everywhere. Sometimes the whole center of a tree has been
removed and sometimes a large notch has been cut out from one
side of the tree. In either case the general symmetry of the tree
has been spoiled. Occasionally trees have been injured by escaping

Fig1. 52. An illegitimate use of trees.

electrical currents. This trouble comes from having the wires
so near that the branches touch them during a wind storm. Even
though the trees are not burned by the current, the constant
wearing of the bark by the wires causes large abrasions that weaken
the branches to such an extent that they are soon broken down
by the wind.

Telephone and Electric Light Companies should not be allowed
to mutilate valuable shade trees. Where the trees interfere with

PLANTING AXD CARE OF TREES

127

the free passage of the wires overhead, the companies should be
required to adopt the underground system. If it should be
necessary to run a line through street trees the company should be
required to protect such trees from abrasion.

Electric linemen are not the only offenders, but much damage
has been done by building contractors in the use of trees as
anchors for guy wires. A wire tightly wound around a tree soon
interferes with the circulation of sap. (See fig. 53). If trees
must be used for this purpose, care should be observed in protect-
ing them from injury by the use of wooden strips, as shown in
figure 53.

Pig. 53. The right and wrong- methods of attaching- guy wires.

Injuries From Regret-ding Streets - - Workmen engaged in
repairing, widening, or regrading streets often destroy valuable
trees without regard to the effect upon the appearance of the street.
This reckless destruction of trees is usually unnecessary. If a
street should be widened to such an extent that a few trees are
likely to stand in the roadway it is not always necessary that
they should be removed. It is sometimes practicable to project
the curbing at intervals so as to protect the trees, or it may be
advisable to construct a curbing around a tree and allow the
traffic to pass on either side.

In the changing of grade on city streets and country roads
many trees are sacrificed that might be saved by exercising a little
care. If soil is removed around the base of a tree the roots dry
out and if the soil is filled in around the trunk, to the
depth of a foot or more, the roots are deprived of air and the
bark is injured by coming in contact with the soil. AVhere the
grade is lowered it is possible oftentimes to leave a mound of

128

TREES IN WINTER

earth about the tree and the mound may be encircled by curbing
from six inches to a foot or more in height. (See fig. 54). In
case of fills, a tree may often be saved by building up a well

Fig. 54. A method of saving trees where the street grade is being
lowered.

around it, as shown in figure 55. Unless the fill is too deep, the
tree may be saved by filling in around the base with large stones.
On lawns this is by far the better practice. By the time the soil
becomes filled in about the stones the tree will have thrown out
new roots nearer the surface.

Injuries From Improper Pruning -• The commonest and
probably the greatest injury to shade trees comes from improper
pruning and the failure to properly care for the wounds. (See

Fig. 55. Where the grade must be raised about trees they may be
saved by the making of a "well" about each tree.

PLANTING AND CAilE OF TRKKS

129

figs. 45 and 46. The importance of making close, smooth cuts
and the necessity for protecting the1 wounds has been discussed
under the head of Pruning, and the work of repairing damage
from this cause will lie discussed under the head of Renovation of
Trees.

Injury From Horse Bites and Careless Driving - -Where trees
have been used for hitching posts much injury has been the result.
Horses gnaw the bark and cause large wounds on mature trees.
(See fig. 50). Trees affected in this way are much weakened and
are liable to be blown down by wind. Unprotected young trees
are often girdled and killed by gnawing horses. Trees may be
protected from horse bites by using wire netting, but on account of
its unsightly appearance some cities prefer to deal with the problem
by passing and enforcing ordinances. In some cities the teamsters
and drivers who have been responsible for injury in this respect

Fig. 56. "Cause and Effect." A familiar sight along city streets.

have been heavily fined and as a result the trees are seldom injured.
A heavy fine, of course, will not restore an injured tree and since
there is likely to be some who are not familiar with the law and
who do not realize the danger, all trees near the curb should be
protected. In Washington, wire poultry-netting is used for this
purpose. It may be obtained in two-yard widths and just enough
may be cut off to reach around the tree. Sometimes it is wound
twice around. In either case the ends are fastened with light wire

130

TREES IN WINTER

that will break before causing serious pressure on the bark. A
safer way, and one sometimes followed, consists in using a heavier
grade of netting and attaching it on the exposed side of the tree,

Fig-. 57. An excellent method of protecting Shade Trees from injury
by horses.

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES

131

only, as shown in figure 57. The netting is fastened on with
staples and as the tree trunk enlarges, the wire is drawn through
the staples.

Many trees are injured also by passing vehicles. Where the
trunks project out beyond the curb it is difficult to avoid injury.

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jm /^c

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-<7' ^^ <-i'^^^^-

SJ&, .*•• *i_ «,-• ;!'.,? 7V- ^^N>>: -

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Fig. 58. Willow Trees after an ice storm.

132 TREES IN WINTER

On city streets a slight projection of the curbing will often prevent
much injury. On country roads and in places where there is
no curbing, the injury may be prevented by the placing of a
large stone in a sloping fashion in front of the tree.

Injuries From Wind and Ice — Much damage to trees is done by
severe wind storms. The wind, of course, cannot be prevented, but
much trouble may be avoided by the proper selection of species.
Species differ greatly in their ability to withstand wind. Trees
that suffer most are those with brittle wood, like the AVillows,
Poplars, Ashes, and Silver Maple.

Evergreens are often injured by the accumulation of soft snow
on their branches. Valuable specimens should be closely watched
and relieved of their heavy burdens during snow storms. Sleet or
ice storms when followed by strong winds are very destructive to
trees. Serious injury to small-growing trees usually may be avoided
by knocking off the ice as it accumulates. Most danger occurs
when the temperature falls after the storm and the ice becomes
firmly set on the branches and twigs. It is necessary, therefore,
to shake the ice off before it sets. A long slender pole, padded
with burlap, may be used to remove the ice. As a rule, it is
only necessary to remove that near the ends of the branches where
the leverage is greatest. When broken branches are promptly
removed and the wounds properly treated, trees soon recover from
the effects of ice and wind storms. Poplars with excurrent stems
often lose all of their side branches, but new branches soon take
their place.

Injuries From Improper Soil Conditions — The soil along city
streets is often very deficient in plant food and is often in a very
poor mechanical condition. The macadamized and paved streets
shut off the natural water supply and many trees are slowly
dying for the want of water. Since the elements of plant food
must be dissolved in water before the trees can make use of them,
much of the injury may be attributed to starvation. Poor soil
and the lack of moisture produce what is known as "stag-head," the
symptoms of which are a stunted and sickly appearance of the
tree, an imperceptible annual growth, sparsely scattered yellow
foliage, and dead 1 tranches at the top of the tree. The only
remedy for such a condition, of course, is to remove the cause of the
trouble. An open space of at least three feet in diameter must

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 133

be left unpaved around each tree unless the roots may extend
beneath the sidewalk and make use of the adjacent lawn or yard
as a feeding ground. Sometimes trees have been planted in soil
that has-come from excavations and the only means of correcting
such a condition is to remove as much of the soil as possible from
around the roots and substitute for it some rich garden soil, or a
liberal supply of well-rotted stable manure may be mixed with the
soil already about the roots.

Poor drainage is often responsible for much injury. Where the
soil-water comes near the surface, the roots are prevented from
entering deeply into the soil. Trees that have been blown down
and those having crooked and leaning trunks, usally have been
grown under such conditions. Such trouble can be avoided only
by proper under-draining.

RENOVATION OF TREES

The natural age limit — Knowing that some trees have reached
the age of several thousand years, it is surprising that so many of
our shade trees should die so young. The age of a dragon tree
(Dracaena Draco) on one of the Canary Islands is said to be over
6,000 years; that of a Bald Cypress (Taxodium mucronatum) in
Mexico is believed to be over 4,000 years; and that of an English
Oak (Quercus pedunculata) in Europe and a "big tree" (Sequoia
gigantea) in California is known to be over 2,000 years. Many
trees also have attained an enormous size, both in height and diam-
eter. The Eucalyptus in Australia is known to reach a height of
470 feet and the "Big Tree," the Eedwood, and the Douglas Fir of
California often grow to a height of 300 feet. The Sycamore and
the Tulip Tree in the eastern states sometimes reach a height of
150 feet. The tree of largest diameter is found at the base of
Mt. Etna in Sicily. It is a species of Chestnut (Castanca vesca)
and its trunk is over 60 feet in diameter. Some people claim that
this remarkable tree is the result of the union of several individuals.
The Oriental Sycamore comes next with a diameter of about 40
feet.

These remarkable measurements are attained by trees growing
under favorable conditions. The most of our shade trees are not
growing under conditions most favorable to their development. It
is easy to find something wrong with the environment of almost
every tree, and this accounts for the failure or weakening of so

134 TREES IN WINTER

many trees before they reach their maximum development. Al-
though a definite age limit for the various species of trees cannot
be fixed as with animals, we frequently classify them as long-lived
trees and short-lived trees. The Oaks, the White Pine and the
Sycamore are regarded as long-lived trees, and the Poplars, Willows
and most of the Birches as short-lived. Most other species are in-
termediate between these two extremes.

Tree Surgery - - Property holders and those who have charge of
the tree work in cities, are frequently confronted with the necessity
for renovating trees that have been neglected in the past. The
demand for the improvement of neglected trees has brought into
existence a class of men variously known as "professional foresters,"
"tree doctors," and "tree surgeons" and their business is known as
tree surgery. On the whole these people are reliable and are doing
a good work. Some of them, however, are not so dependable and
their work not only is of little value, but is sometimes accompanied
by real injury to the trees. It is well to avoid those who claim
that by injecting into the trunk some magic concoction the tree is
thereafter immune to the attacks of insects and disease.

The reputable tree surgeons are in the habit of making contracts
for the renovation of trees. Towns and cities frequently engage
these experts to treat all or a part of their trees that require at-
tention. Their work usually consists in the removal of all dead
wood from the trees, the dressing of the wounds, the filling of the
cavities, and the necessary chaining and bolting. Sometimes
they are engaged either by the same or a separate contract, to spray
the trees and to treat them in other ways. They may contract to do
the whole job for a stipulated amount, or they may fix a charge
for each tree that requires treatment or for each day that they
work.

Dehorning Trees-- A few years ago in the city of Boston and
other New England cities, many of the park and street trees were
severely headed-in or "dehorned." The practice was limited mostly
to the very tall specimens. Many fine old elms were treated in this
way. The objects seem to have been to encourage a denser growth
and to lessen the danger from falling branches. The desired ob-
jects were accomplished, but at a great sacrifice to the appearance
of the trees for many years. After a lapse of about fifteen years
many of the trees have outgrown the effects of such harsh treat-

PLANTING AND CARIC OF TREES

135

ment and are beginning to regain their natural habit. There arc
few people who approve of the promiscuous dehorning of shade
trees and the practice now is largely restricted to the work of re-
juvenating weak and neglected trees.

There is probably no better way of putting new life into weak
trees than by severely pruning during the dormant season. The
weaker the tree the more severe should the treatment be. A tree
that is making a very small annual growth and that has put out
a scanty supply of foliage should be severely cut back. The re-
moval of three-fourths of the top during the following winter would
tend to awaken new activities. When we consider that the new
growth and the development of the foliage and blossoms must come

BEFORE PRUNING. AFTER PRUNING.

Fig. 59. Heading-in neglected Apple Trees to render them more
easily sprayed and to facilitate the harvesting of the fruit. A common
practice in New England.

from the energy stored up in the lower part of the tree and in the
roots, it is not surprising that there is sometimes a feeble growth.
By removing a part of the top, all of the stored-up energy is forced
into the remaining part with the result that the tree, during the
following season, carries fewer leaves, but these are of a better
color and appearance. A tree sometimes becomes constitutionally
unbalanced from the effects of an inadequate supply of food or water
or from the effects of insect attack, fungus disease, or mechanical
injury. A tree in this condition has not sufficient energy stored up

136 TREES IN WINTER

to put out the required foliage to properly nourish the tree and to
store up enough reserve food material for the following year's
growth. As a result the tree becomes weaker and weaker and,
unless it receives help, finally dies. A severe pruning, while dor-
mant, tends to throw the tree back into proper balance.

Except in serious cases, it is not necessary to completely dehorn
the tree, many weakened trees require only a severe general prun-
ing to put them into proper balance, and with such it would be
unwise to spoil their shape by dehorning. Some ill-formed trees,
on the other hand, are improved in shape by a moderate heading-
in. Neglected apple trees for example, are being severely dehorned

Fig-. GO. Old Apple Trees one year after being- "dehorned."

by many growers in New England and New York for the purpose
of reducing the height of the trees and of developing new heads
nearer the ground. In the most severe cases the whole top is
removed, leaving nothing but stubs from which sprouts readily de-
velop, and these when properly trained, form the new head. (See
figs. 59 and GO).

When weakened trees are dehorned or severely pruned they
should be given good care in every respect. The breaking up of the
turf and the application of fertilizers in the spring and the supply-
ing of water during dry seasons, will go a long way toward reju-
venating old and weakened trees.

Taking Care of Recent Injuries - - Fresh wounds are frequently
found on the trunk or main branches of trees. These are usually
the result of accident, of carelessness, or of wilful destruction. In
some cases trees become girdled from leaving wire labels attached,
from guy wires in construction work, or by mischievous boys. In

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES

137

Fig. 61. A good example of the use of zinc in covering a surface
wound. Observe that the zinc is fitted closely to the freshly cut edges
of the bark and it is applied in pieces that overlap like shingles on a
roof.

138

TREES IN WINTER

other cases the trees are injured by horses or passing vehicles.
Wounds made from any such causes may be easily and quickly
healed if treated before the wound has had a chance to dry out.
They should have their edges trimmed up with a sharp knife,
always cutting back to firm bark. The whole surface should then
be covered with grafting wax and bandaged with cloth. If done
in the early part of the summer a new bark will develop over the
whole surface. This method of healing is different from that
associated with old wounds.

Where a portion of the bark has been removed all around the
trunk, the trouble is more serious, but if the wound is not more than
three or four inches in width and if the injury occurred in the early
part of the summer when the cambium is active, the tree may be
saved by protecting the wound with wax as just described. If the
wound has become somewhat dried, or if it is a wide one, it will
be necessary to resort to bridge-grafting.

For "bridging" a wound it is necessary to smoothly cut back the
edges of the wound to sound bark and connect the two edges with
freshly-cut scions. The scions should be of the past season's growth

Fig. 62. Bridge Grafting1. A process used in healing over wounds
that extend clear around the trunk or a large branch.

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 139

and may be taken from the same tree or some other tree of the same
species. The scions should have their leaves removed, their ends
cut wedge-shaped, and should he just long enough to extend under
the bark about an inch at each end. The whole wound, scions and
all, should be covered with soft grafting wax and cloth bandages.
The scions, when they become united to the bark at both ends, serve
to conduct the elaborated food material down to the lower part of
the tree. In time the wound will heal over completely. (See fig
G2).

"Wounds of the previous season, or those that have been allowed
to dry out, will require different treatment. A girdled tree, if not
treated soon after the accident, will die, but so long as there is a
strip of bark remaining there is hope for the tree. In such cases,
the edges of the wound should be cut back to living cambium and
the wound thoroughly sterilized with copper sulphate, one pound
to ten gallons of water. The whole wound, as soon as dry enough,
should be painted with ordinary white lead paint, or with coal tar,
and then covered with zinc. The zinc should be cut so that it will
fit exactly inside of the wound, and in this way allow the bark or
margin of the wound to heal over the edge of the zinc. The edge
of the zinc should be firmly nailed down, using large-headed nails
not more than an inch apart. The zinc may be painted any color
that will be inconspicuous. If the zinc should become broken so
that water may enter, it should be promptly removed and replaced
with whole strips.

Filling Cavities — Many trees whose trunks have been complete-
ly hollowed out, have been saved from breaking down by the use
of cement filling. Cement is used largely for support and acts
as a reinforcement. In order that there should be no further
decay the work must be carefully done. The accompanying illus-
tration, figure 63, shows the various stages in filling a knot-
hole cavity. Briefly stated the work consists in cleaning out
all the decayed material, sterilizing with copper sulphate so-
lution, and filling with concrete. The edges of the wound
should be trimmed back to living bark. Knot-hole wounds are
usually prepared by sawing off the projection or lip around the
wound. If the decayed area has not extended far enough to weaken
the tree, the cavity need not be filled. It should be cleaned and

140

TREES IN WINTER

Fig-. 63. Tree Surgery. Various stages in the treatment of knot-hole
cavities.

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES

141

sterilized, however, and the opening covered with zinc as described
for large wounds made by pruning.

In slender cavities where there is a small opening, it is necessary
to make some additional holes through the living bark and wood to
facilitate the work of cleaning (see fig. 64), and it is often neces-
sary to enlarge the opening to give more room for working. In
such eases it is also necessary to make up the cement mixture in
a semi-liquid form, so that it will flow into all crevices.

Fig. 64. A well-
'led cavity showing
>e three holes that

•re made through
je living bark to fa-
jitate the work of
waning out and af-
jrward filled with

ncrete.

Fig. 65. This kind of cavity work
does not detract from the appear-
ance of the tree and is a permanent
improvement. Observe that the

cement is molded to form a convex
surface.

Pig. 66. A poor-
ly-filled cavity.
Observe that the
concrete has a
concave surface
and is badly
cracked. It also
projects over the
edge of the bark,
preventing its

healing.

142

TREES IN WINTER

Very large openings will need to be bricked up to hold the con-
crete in position. The proportions used in making up concrete
varies, but most experts use one part cement, two parts sand, and
four parts crushed stone for the main filling. Just enough water
is added to make a mixture that will settle well into all crevices
without much tamping. The finishing is done with a stiffer mix-
ture made up of one part cement to two parts of fine sand and just
enough water to make a good mortar. Sometimes nails are partly
driven into the main filling to assist in holding the finishing ma-
terial in position until it has hardened.

The finishing of the surface is one of the most important feat-
ures of the work. The filling should be left with a convex surface
and the edge of the concrete should be beveled off so that it comes
ji^t beneath the cambium layer or inner bark. If the finishing is
properly done the callous will form over the edge of the filling. In
long cavities that extend far up the trunk, it is customary to divide

Fig. 67. Cross-section of a filled cavity, showing the correct position
of the concrete in relation to the bark and cambium. B — bark; C — •
cambium or inner bark; SW — sound wood; MP — main filling of concrete;
P — iron pipes for reinforcement; F.C. — finishing concrete

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES

143

the filling into two or more sections by cutting into it with a
knife in about the same way that sidewalk builders section off
their concrete walks. (See figs. (>4 and 65). This precaution
obviates the irregular cracking of the concrete due to the swaying
of the tree by the wind. By reinforcing the concrete, also, with two
or more steel uprights, by numerous steel rods, or by iron pipes,
the danger from cracking the filling is greatly reduced. Even
though no cracks are made in the concrete there is likely to be a
crack between the wood and the filling, where water is likely to en-
ter. For this reason some prefer to cover the concrete with zinc,
tacking it down on a freshly-painted surface as previously de-
scribed.

Bolting and Chaining -- Some trees with bad crotches, like the
Elm and Silver Maple, are very liable to split down, unless protect-
ed in some way. Any tree with a cavity in its trunk, no matter how
small, is likely to split open, due to the freezing of the accum-
ulated water. Trees affected in this way, of course, should first
have their cavities filled and the water prevented from accumu-
lating. Any tree that shows a tendency to split should be sup-
ported by bolting or chaining. It is also well to preclude damage
by bracing all trees with bad crotches, even when there is no indi-
cation of splitting. A sudden storm often tears large branches
from the trees that are least suspected of being injured. When
the branch is completely severed there is no hope, and all that can

Fig. 68. The result of improper methods
of supporting a weak crotch.

be done is to trim up and dress the wound. If the branch is not
completely severed and if it may be readjusted without injuring the
connecting tissue, the chances are favorable for saving the limb.

144

TREES IN WINTER

There are many mistakes made in attempting to support a tree
prone to splitting. Sometimes more harm than good is done, and
frequently good trees are seriously injured by the good intentions

Fig. 69. The proper method of inserting a bolt.

of the owner or the poor judgment of the so-called "tree-doctor."
The use of chains, wires, or iron bands around two or more branches
is sure to cause injury. When trees are supported in this way there
is no opportunity for expansion or growth without bringing much
pressure on the bark, and, as a result, the branches affected are
partially girdled and either killed or greatly weakened. (See fig.
68).

When the branches are far apart, the best method of bracing is
in the use of bolts with a hook on one end and a large washer and

Fig. 70. Method of bolting a tree possessing three or more main
branches.

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES

145

nut on the other. These are inserted by boring a hole clear
through the branch and by counter sinking the washer and nut as
shown in figure i>!». Two or more of the bolts may be inserted and
connected by wires or chains. The nuts soon become imbedded in
the wood and the result is a very efficient and inconspicuous method
of bracing.

Where the branches are near together, as is usually the case with
Elms and Silver Maples, the bolt may be made long enough to
extend through both branches and threaded at both ends. The
nuts and washers in this case, also, may be countersunk. The
nearer the crotch the stronger should the bolt be to stand the great
strain during wind storms. A one-inch bolt at a distance of three
or four feet from the crotch is sufficient except for the larger trees.
When the bolting is done at a distance of four or more feet from
the crotch there is more or less swaying motion that tends to weaken
the bolt. For this reason, bolts connected by chains are preferable
to solid bolts, except at points very near the crotch.

146

TREES IN WINTER

CHAPTER IX
THE CONTROL OF PARASITES.

FUNGUS TROUBLES.

Trees are subject to a great many kinds of disease. Few diseases,
however, are so serious as to require treatment. Tree diseases are
caused mostly by parasitic fungi, which are low forms of vegetable
life that live upon and within the tissue of the host plants. The
most serious forms, from the shade-tree standpoint, are those caus-
ing the decay of the trunk and main branches. Since such forms
are not capable of entering the uninjured bark these troubles usually

Fig. 71. A Red Oak tree injured
at the base by fire. A fungus gained
access through the wound and is
rapidly rotting the sapwood beneath.

may be prevented by taking proper care of the wounds. It should
not be assumed that the mere removal of the toadstool-like growths

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES

147

on the trunk or branches of a tree will have any beneficial effect, for
these are the result of disease and not the real trouble. These
familiar fungus growths are found only on wood that has become
diseased as a result of some mechanical injury, which may have
occurred several years before. The treatment for such troubles, as
mentioned elsewhere, consists in removing the decayed wood con-
taining the fungus, sterilizing the wound, and protecting the tree
from further infection.

There are some leaf diseases, like the black-spot or "tar-spot" on
the Maple, that sometimes cause injury, but are seldom so serious
as to kill the tree. There are other tree troubles that affect the
leaves and which frequently cause serious alarm on the part of the
owner of the trees. A branch here and there and sometimes one-
half or more of the tree will show colored and dying leaves, many
of which fall about mid-summer. This trouble is especially com-
mon on the Sugar Maple, and it is sometimes very difficult to deter-
mine the cause. It is probably caused many times by an unbal-
anced condition of the tree. The Sugar Maple develops a large
growth of foliage in the spring, and during the dry months of July
and August the roots seem to have trouble in supplying enough
moisture to take care of the evaporation from the leaves. As a
result, some of the less favored branches lose their leaves. Trees

Pig. 72. Chestnut trees killed by the bark disease.

148

TREES IN WINTER

affected in this way usually leaf out again the following spring and
show no ill effects.

The most serious fungus pest of shade trees in the northeastern
states is the Chestnut-bark disease. Enormous tracts of chestnut
timber have been rendered worthless except for firewood. Orna-
mental chestnuts in parks and on private grounds also have been
killed in many sections. The total financial loss from the dis-
ease is estimated now at $25,000,000. The spores of the fungus
probably enter the bark through small wounds caused by birds,
insects, or abrasions. They commence growth in the cambium

Fig. 73. Diseased Chestnut bark showing- pustules and form of discharge
of summer spores in damp weather. (Magnified 3 diameters.)

PLANTING AND CARE OF TKKKS

149

layer and the disease soon encircles the trunk of the tree, or a single
branch, as the case may be. All parts of the tree above the in-
fection dies, and if the infection starts on the main stem or trunk,
the whole tree is killed.

So far, no means has been devised for the prevention or control
of the disease. When valuable shade trees become affected in
one or more branches, the remainder of the tree possibly may be
saved by promptly cutting out the diseased portion. It is import-

Fl.y. 74. Diseased Chestnut bark
showing pustules of the parasitic
fungus bearing winter spore

ant that the cut be made many feet below the point of infection to
avoid carrying the spores on the pruning saw. Great care also
should be exercised in avoiding injuries to the bark of the re-
maining portion of the tree. The wounds made in cutting
out the diseased branches should be promptly painted with tar to
prevent further infection.

INSECT TROUBLES

How Insects Injure Trees --The caterpillars, as well as some
beetles, injure the trees by devouring the leaves. A tree may be

150 TREES IN WINTER

completely defoliated without being killed. When the foliage is
destroyed early in the season a second crop of leaves usually ap-
pears. The necessity for furnishing a second supply of leaves
in one season weakens the tree, and if it is repeated for three or
four years, is likely to prove fatal. The condition becomes more
serious when the second crop of foliage is also destroyed. Without
foliage the tree cannot store up the necessary reserve material to
supply its needs the following spring.

Another class of insects, mostly grubs, cause injury by burrow-
ing under the bark and into the wood of trees. These are the
so-called borers. Occasionally one of these insects, like the Maple
borer, will completely girdle and cause the death of a tree in one
season, but usually they will work in a tree for many years before it
dies. The insects so weaken the trees that they are finally blown
over or broken down. To this class of insects belong some of
our more serious pests. Their destructiveness is because of their
habit of attacking a tree at its most vital point - - the cambium —
and because their presence is not often detected until much dam-
age has been done. Even when they are known to be present they
are destroyed with great difficulty.

A third class of insects, including the bugs, scales, and plant lice,
injure the trees by piercing the tissue and sucking the juices. The
affected foliage becomes pale in color, curls up, and sometimes dies.
The bark also becomes infested and often large pits or indentations
are formed. With most members of this class, their great power
for destruction lies in their appearing in such enormous numbers
and in their power to reproduce so abundantly. Of the San Jose
scale, for example, there are three or four broods in a season, and
one pair of insects surviving the winter may by fall have progeny
numbering into the billions.

Methods of Combatting Insects — In the control of insect pests
it is necessary to know something about their feeding habits. The
failure to get satisfactory results from spraying may usually be at-
tributed to the use of the wrong remedy. In the control of insects
that obtain their food by sucking, no benefit would be derived from
the application of stomach poisons, for it would be impossible to
get any of the poison into the insects' food. It is necessary,
therefore, to first determine to which class the pest belongs —
whether it is a chewing-insect or a sucking-insect.

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 151

It is well to determine also whether the insect causing the injury
is in the larval or adult form. As a rule, injury is caused by in-
sects in the larval form only, but some species, like the Elm-leaf
beetle, feed during both the larval and adult stages. With insects
of the latter type it is always advisable when possible to destroy
them in the adult form before they have had a chance to deposit
their eggs, and in this way prevent the ravages of the second gen-
eration.

Spraying for Insects — The most common and the most satis-
factory method of controlling insects is by spraying. There are
many instances, however, where spraying is not practicable, and
there are many kinds of insects that cannot be controlled in this
way. The preparation and application of insecticides and the ap-
pliances used in the work will be discussed under the heading of
"Insecticides, Fungicides, and Spraying."

Hand-Picking of Insects — The large and conspicuous cater-
pillars often may be controlled by hand-picking. Their presence
usually may be indicated by their droppings on the ground. Cat-
erpillars that live in colonies or that build tents like the fall web-
worm and the tent-caterpillar, may be destroyed either by burning
with a torch or by cutting or brushing them out and dipping them in
kerosene. Conspicuous nests and egg masses like those of the gypsy,
tussock, and brown-tail moths, may be destroyed either on or off the
tree during the dormant season. Where small bounties have been
offered to school children, serious pests have been kept under con-
trol without further expense.

Borers also are usually controlled by hand-picking, ^ne saw-
dust-like castings around the base of the tree is an indication of
their presence. A sharp pocket knife, with which to dig the insects
out, will be found useful. A flexible wire or an old-fashioned
knitting needle sometimes may be used to kill the insect without
cutting into the bark.

Banding and Trapping — Many ways have been devised for trap-
ping insects and thus preventing them from reaching their feed-
ing and breeding places. These methods of control are especially
useful on forest lands and other places where it is impracticable to
spray. Sticky bands and other obstacles tied around trees make it
possible to destroy many insects that congregate beneath the band
in their efforts to reach the foliage. This method is especially

152

TREES IN WINTER

useful with certain wingless moths that may be prevented from
depositing their eggs. The important point regarding their use
is to have them in position when the insects commence to crawl up
the tree.

The simplest band is made by using a strip of cotton batting,
about eight inches in width and long enough to reach around the

Fig-. 75. Method of applying sticky bands to protect trees from
Canker-worms.

tree and io lap over an inch or more. The batting is firmly tied
around the tree trunk at a point about six feet from the ground.

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 153

The twine used for the purpose should pass around the lower border
of the batting so that the upper border may be turned down, form-
ing an umbrella-like barrier.

The most satisfactory band is one made of sticky material like
"Tree Tanglefoot," a commercial preparation, which may be ob-
tained for about thirty cents per pound. After smoothing off the
bark it may be applied directly to the tree. Young, thin-barked
trees may be injured by direct contact and for this reason the
"Tanglefoot" may be applied to a strip of tarred roofing paper,
which may be attached to the tree. For ornamental trees it is usually
advisable to use the roofing paper, for this may be removed after
the trapping season is over. Where the bark is rough a narrow
strip of cotton batting may be placed beneath the paper to pre-
vent the insects from crawling beneath. (See fig. 75). Where
it is desirable to leave these bands on for more than one
season they should be recoated. Where the paper is tacked only at
the lap it will stretch sufficiently to accommodate at least one
year's growth. Bands put on in this way have been successfully
used for three or four seasons.

Night-flying moths are often trapped around electric lights.
Some insects, like the leopard moth, are hard to destroy in any
other way. The simplest way is to suspend beneath the light a
shallow vessel containing water with a layer of oil on the surface.
The moths are attracted to the light and accidentally drop in the
liquid and are killed.

Preventive Measures - - The careful selection of species for
planting is undoubtedly the best way of handling the insect prob-
lem with respect to shade trees. Some trees are remarkably free
from insect troubles, but none are absolutely immune. The spe-
cies in the following list of commonly planted trees are arranged in
order of least susceptibly to insect attack: Ailanthus, Ginkgo,
Sweet Gum, Basswood, Tulip Tree, Carolina Poplar, Horse-chest-
nut, Sycamore, Hackberry, the Oaks, the Maples, the Elms, the
Locusts. The least susceptible species, of course, are not always the
most desirable for planting, for they may not possess the other
qualifications of a good shade tree.

Since a large proportion of the shade trees in use belong to sus-
ceptible species, the recommendation concerning the selection of
species applies only to new plantations. Much may be done in

154 TREES IN WINTER

the way of preventing injury by keeping trees growing vigorously.
A strong-growing tree is better able to withstand the attack of in-
sects than a decrepit one. Some insects, like the bark-beetles, cause
serious injury to weakened trees, while they seldom affect vigorous
specimens. The burning of infested branches, leaves, fruit or other
rubbish where insects are likely to hibernate will destroy many
pests and lessen the severity of the attack in succeeding seasons.

Natural Enemies of Insects — Much may be done, also, to guard
against insect depradations by protecting the natural enemies of
the insects. In sections where birds are allowed to collect and are
encouraged to nest, the excessive development of insect pests is pre-
vented. Injurious insects also have many enemies among their
own kind. It is a common occurrence to see a large caterpillar
almost completely covered with small white bodies. These are
the cocoons of a parasitic insect, the earlier stages of which have
been spent within the host insect. Caterpillars thus affected some-
times survive, but are usually too weak to complete their develop-
ment. Insects affected in this way should not be destroyed by
man, for in doing so he also destroys many useful parasites.

Some insects are attacked also by certain fungus diseases that
exert a marked influence on keeping the pest under control. Owing
to the influence of a fungus parasite, the gypsy moth in its
native home is not a serious pest. When the insect was accident-
ally imported the fungus parasite was left behind, hence the
seriousness of the pest in this country. A representative of the
United States Department of Agriculture, a short time ago went
to Japan and brought back come cultures of the parasitic fungus.
Efforts are now being made to encourage the development of the
disease amidst the gypsy moths of Maasschusetts.

There are many other examples of insects having been imported
without their natural enemies, and among these are the most serious
pests of trees, such as the San Jose scale, the leopard moth, the
brown-tail moth, and the elm-leaf beetle. Such serious pests as
these and some fungus pests, also, have been imported on nursery
stock and might have been avoided by an adequate system of in-
spection. Some form of legislation is badly needed for the pre-
vention of infested nursery stock coming into this country.

SOME COMMON SHADE TREE INSECTS

To prescribe the proper treatment for the control of any particu-
lar pest, it is necessary to be able to identify the species causing

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 155

the trouble and to know something about its feeding habits. Many
of the failures in spraying may be attributed to the application of
the wrong remedy. Since there are many books and Experiment
Station bulletins relating to specific shade tree pests, it is necessary
here to describe only the most destructive forms. Every state has
its experiment station where insects may be sent for identification
and where advice may be obtained regarding the control of insects
and diseases and other subjects. In the descriptions that follow no
attempt is made at completeness. To call attention to the more
striking characters and habits is the object. The character of the
injury is emphasized because this is usually the most available
means of identification.

LEAF-EATING INSECTS.

Bag Worm - - This insect gets its name from the fact that the
larva carries a sort of bag that protects its body. The forepart
of the caterpillar's body projects through the mouth of the bag.
These bags are very conspicuous on trees in winter and contain
the eggs from which the caterpillars hatch during the month of
May. Each young caterpillar immediately after hatching com-
mences to build a sack for itself, using small pieces of leaves and
fastening them together with threads of silk. The bags increase in
size as the insect develops and are from one to two inches in
length when the larva is full grown. The larva feeds on a great
variety of trees, including the evergreens. When the insect is ready
to pupate it attaches the bag to a branch or twig and reverses its
position in the bag. In about three weeks the mature insect
emerges in the form of an inconspicuous moth. The male moth
flies away, but the female moth is wingless and legless and remains
in the bag until she has deposited her eggs, when she wriggles out
and dies.

The pest may be controlled by collecting the nests during the
winter or by spraying with arsenate of lead as soon as the cater-
pillars appear.

Brown-tail Moth - - This pest was introduced into Massachusetts
about twenty years ago and is now spreading rapidly throughout
the neighboring states and Canada. It feeds on a great variety
of plants and is especially destructive on the Maples, Elms, and
Oaks. The adult moth is snowy-white and is distinguished readily

156

TREES IN WINTER

by the conspicuous brown ending of the body. The female lays
her eggs in July and in the form of an oblong cluster on the under
side of the leaves. The eggs hatch in early August, and the young

Fig-. 76. Adult female (nat-
ural size.)

Fig-. 77. Egg-mass
on a leaf. (Natural
size.)

Fig. 78. The Brown-tail Moth. "Winter nests. (Natural size.)

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES

157

caterpillars commence feeding on the upper surface of the leaves.
A little later, using leaves and silken threads, they build large nests
at the ends of the brunches, and as cold weather approaches the
undeveloped caterpillars enter these nests where they spend the win-
ter. From two to three hundred enter the same nest. They come
out in April, feed upon the buds and leaves, finish their growth and
about the end of June become pupae. They remain in this con-
dition for about two weeks, when the adult moths appear. The cat-
erpillars when they appear are about one and a half inches in
length and are abundantly clothed with hairs which often become
broken and fill the atmosphere with fragments. These hairs com-
ing into contact with the human skin cause a serious irritation.

Tli is pest may be controlled by collecting and destroying the
winter nests, and this is probably the most satisfactory method.
Long-handled "loppers'' (fig. 41) ) may be used for this purpose.
Spraying early in May with arsenate of lead, 10 pounds to 100
gallons of water, may also be depended upon to keep the insect
under control.

Canker Worms — These are the familiar measuring worms or
loopers. They are often observed hanging from a tree by a slender

Pig-. 79. Adult Female Canker-
Worm depositing her eggs.

thread. There are two closely related species, the fall canker worm
and the spring canker worm. They feed upon many kinds of trees,
but seem to prefer the Apple, Pear, Chestnut, Elm, Hickory, Box

158 TREES IN WINTEK

Elder and Maple. The eggs are deposited either in late fall or
early spring, and hatch about May first. Usually the young cat-
erpillars completely devour the tissue of the leaves, leaving noth-
ing but the veins. About the first of June they become full grown
and are almost an inch in length. They let themselves down by
means of a silken thread and go into the ground where they remain
in the pupal state until fall. The adults of the fall species
emerge in November and the wingless females may be seen crawling
up the trunks of trees to deposit their eggs on the branches. The
adults of the spring species emerge in March or April.

Since the females cannot fly, they must crawl up the trees to lay
their eggs, and this suggests the method of control. The pest may
be kept completely under control by banding the trees. (See fig.
75). Spraying with arsenate of lead (ten pounds to 100
gallons of water) will destroy all insects that hatch from the eggs
already on the trees.

Elm-Leaf Beetle — This is another imported insect and is one
of the worst pests of the Elms. Fortunately its ravages are restrict-
ed to the Elms. The adult beetles are a fourth of an inch in length
and are yellowish, grayish, or dull olive-green in color with an in-
distinct dark line along each side of their back. They usually
spend the winter in the attics of houses or other sheltered places.
They appear early in May and commence feeding on the newly-
formed leaves, making characteristic round holes. During the
latter part of May or early in June the beetles deposit the familiar
orange-colored eggs on the under side of the leaves. These hatch
in about a week and the young grubs commence feeding on the un-
der side of the leaf. The grubs mature in about three weeks and
descend to the base of the tree, where they change to pupae. A sec-
ond brood sometimes occurs.

Spraying the newly-formed foliage in May with arsenate of lead
will usually be sufficient to control the pest, but occasionally a sec-
ond application as soon as the grubs appear, will be necessary.
The pupae around the base of the tree may be killed by spraying
with strong kerosene emulsion.

Gypsy Moth - - This destructive insect was imported accidentally
about forty years ago. Its larva feeds on almost any kind of veg-
egation, including all kinds of shade trees and ornamental shrubs.
The eggs are laid usually on the trunks and branches of

PLANTING AND CAKE OF TREES

159

trees, but sometimes on fences and buildings, in July or August.
They are arranged in oval masses and are covered with short hairs.
The whole mass presents a creamy or yellowish appearance. They
remain in this condition until the following May, when the young
caterpillars appear and begin feeding upon the expanding foliage.

Larva Papae Adults

Fig. 80. The Elm-Leaf Beetle in its various stages.

Fig. 81. Holes
made by the adult
Elm-Leaf Beetles.

I,

Fig. 82. Elm-Leaf Beetle Larvae work-
ing on the under side of a leaf. (Natural
size.)

160

TEEES IN WINTER

The caterpillars when mature are somewhat over two inches in
length, and are covered with long hairs. In color they -are dark
brown with a pair of blue spots on each of the first five segments and
a pair of red spots on each of the remaining six segments. In early
July they change to pupae, and in late July develop into adult

Fig. S3. A Gypsy Moth egg-mass,
natural size, after the larvae have
emerged through the small holes.

moths. The moths measure about five inches across the expanded
wings. The male is smaller than the female and is brown in color.
The female is almost white with dark markings. They are heavy-
bodied insects and, for this reason, do not fly long distances.

One of the most effective means of controlling the pest is by de-
stroying the egg masses during the fall and winter. A sponge sat-
urated with creosote and attached to the end of a long pole is used
for this purpose. A little lamp-black is added to the creosote to
color the egg masses. In Massachusetts, the following creosote
mixture is used: Creosote oil 50 parts, carbolic acid 20 parts, tur-

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES

161

Fig. 84. Full-grown Gypsy Moth Larvae.

Fig. 85. Adult female Gypsy Moths depositing egg-masses at
the foot of an Oak Tree.

162 TREES IN WINTER

pentine 20 parts, coal tar 10 parts. With tall trees it is usually
necessary to get up among the branches.

Since the caterpillars feed mostly at night and congregate on
the trunk of the tree during the day, it is possible to trap many of
them under burlap bands. A simple band may be made up by
tying a piece of cheap burlap, eight inches in width, around the
trunk and turning the upper edge down over the string. The bands
should be examined every afternoon and the trapped insects
brushed off into a pail of kerosene and water.

When infested trees have been sprayed with arsenate of lead (12
pounds to 100 gallons of water) soon after the leaves appear, and
while the insects are small, good results have followed. The full-
grown caterpillars are more resistant to arsenical poisons and may
feed upon the sprayed foliage for a long while before they get
enough to kill them.

Slugs — The larvae of certain insects known as saw-flies, are
slimy-looking creatures and are called slugs. One species is quite
troublesome on the Pear, another on the Willow, and the most de-
structive of all on the Larch. The slugs vary in size according to
the species; the species affecting the Willow being over an inch in
length, while that on the Pear is less than a half inch. The slugs
appear in the spring and lavishly feed upon the developing foliage.
They are readily controlled by spraying with arsenate of lead at ord-
inary strength.

Another insect belonging to this class is known as the Maple leaf-
stem borer. It has entirely different habits from those just de-
scribed. The adult lays its eggs in the leaf-stalk at the base of
the blade of the leaf. The young larva tunnels inside the stem,
eating out the tissue. The affected blades break off and fall to the
ground about June first. The stems containing the insects remain
attached to the ground where they pupate and emerge the following
spring as adult saw-flies.

The insect attacks the Sugar, Norway and Sycamore Maples. It
is not widely distributed and seldom causes serious injury. Spray-
ing the ground well with kerosene emulsion about June 15th when
the larvae are going into the soil, has been suggested.

Spiney Elm Caterpillar — This is the name applied to the
larva of the common "mourning cloak" butterfly. Besides the
Elm, it feeds on the Poplar and Willow. In some seasons it be-

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 163

comes a serious pest, but on Elms is controlled readily at the same
time that trees are sprayed for the leaf -beetle. The eggs are laid
early in May and are in cylindrical clusters around the twigs. They
hatch in about two weeks and the caterpillars arrange themselves
in rows facing the edge of the leaf. They completely skeletonize
the leaf, leaving only the veins, and later in the season, only the
mid-ril). When the caterpillars reach maturity, about the first of
July, they are nearly two inches in length, black with white and red
dots, and covered with black branched spines. About this time
they enter the pupal state which lasts about two weeks, when the
adultf appear. The butterflies soon commence depositing eggs
which, when hatched, form the second brood of caterpillars.

It is seldom necessary to spray especially for this pest. If found
on young trees they may be jarred off or the affected twigs may be
cut off and the insects destroyed.

The Tent Caterpillar and Fall Web-worm — It is a common
occurrence to find unsightly looking webs in trees. These are
caused by tent caterpillars or fall web-worms. The larvae feed
on the foliage, but their chief injury is in giving the tree an
unsightly appearance. A species closely related to the ordinary
tent caterpillar that is commonly found on Apple Trees, is called
the forest tent caterpillar. This insect does not build a tent, but
spins a silky web along the branches and the caterpillars congre-
gate in clusters in much the same way as the other species.

The best method of controlling these pests is to cut off and
burn the webs with the insects. Spraying with arsenate of lead
will kill the young caterpillars, but does not get rid of the unsightly
web.

Tussock Moth - - The handsome larvae of this insect is a common
shade tree pest in towns and cities. It feeds on the foliage of
almost all ornamental trees except the evergreens. The insect
passes the winter in the egg stage. The young caterpillars appear
in May and commence to feed on the under side of the leaves,
eating the green portion and leaving the framework. When they
become larger they eat holes through the leaf and when full
grown they eat the entire leaf except the mid-rib.

The full grown larva is very striking in appearance, of yellow
color beneath, with gray stripes along the sides, and a black stripe
between two yellow ones along the back. Along the sides are a

164

TBEES IN WINTER

number of tubercles, each bearing white hairs. Four large tufts
of hair are borne along the back and following these are two

Fig. S6. Tent Caterpillars resting on the outside of their nest.

PLANTING AND CATJE OF TREES

165

bright red tubercles. The bend is bright red and is supplied
with two tufts of long black hairs. A single long tuft is borne
on the posterior extremity.

About the first of July the larva spins a silken cocoon, gray in
color and attached to the roiigb bark of the tree. It remains
in this condition about two weeks when the adult moth emerges.
The female moth which is without wings, about a half inch in

Fig. 87. White-marked Tussock Moth Larvae on under
side of leaf. (Natural size.)

length, and gray in color, soon commences to deposit her eggs.
The eggs are laid on the outside of the abandoned pupal case or
cocoon. These soon hatch forming the second brood which goes
through the same transformations.

166 TREES IN WINTER

The best way of controlling this pest is in the destruction of
the egg-masses during the winter. This may be done either by
scraping them off and burning them or by treating them with
creosote in the same way as described for gypsy moth eggs. The
pest may be controlled also by spraying in June with arsenate
of lead at the rate of six pounds to one hundred gallons of water.
By destroying the first brood in June there should be no trouble
from the second brood later in the season.

SUCKING-INSECTS.

Aphis or Plant Lice- -There are many species of aphis affecting
shade trees. As a rule different species attack different kinds of
trees. They are very much alike except in color. The green,
brown, black, and woolly forms are the most common. The insects
pass the winter in the egg stage and often in early spring the
newly hatched lice may be seen in large clusters on the swollen
buds and newly formed leaves. A little later the leaves curl up
and the insects remain inside sucking the juice from the tissue
of the leaf. The insects multiply very rapidly and often cause
much injury to ornamental trees. They secrete a sort of honey-
dew that collects on the foliage and often drops to the ground.
A fungus often develops on this sweet secretion giving it a black,
unsightly appearance.

This pest seldom becomes so serious as to require treatment,
but may be controlled, if remedial measures are necessary, by
spraying with kerosene emulsion as soon as the young lice appear
and before the leaves begin to curl. Fine tobacco powder blown on
the trees after the leaves have curled will be found helpful in
controlling the pest. The use of whale-oil soap, at the rate of
one pound to five gallons of water, is recommended where only a
small amount of spray material is required. It costs a little
more than kerosene emulsion, but is more conveniently prepared.

The Spruce Gall Louse is different from the other species of
this class in that it builds galls on the growing twigs. In some
sections it has become a serious pest of the Norway Spruce. The
Black, White, and Blue Spruces are also subject to attack. The
eggs are laid about May first, the young lice appearing about a
week later and settling at the base of the new shoots. By some
peculiar form of irritation produced by the insects, a gall-like
swelling is produced. Concealed within these galls the insects

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES

167

feed upon the juices of the plant. There are two broods in a
season and infested trees soon present an unsightly appearance.

Spraying with kerosene emulsion late in April to kill the adult
insects, is usually recommended. Some claim that spraying with
whale-oil soap, one pound to two gallons of water, gives better

Fig. 88. The work of the Spruce Gall-louse.

results. Whatever is used it should be applied before the galls
are formed. On small trees the pest may be kept under control
by cutting out and burning the galls as soon as they are formed
and while the insects are within.

Scale Insects - - The most destructive forms of scale insects are
the cottony maple scale, the woolly maple scale, the San Jose
scale, the oyster-shell scale, the scurfy scale, and the tulip scale.
They are all small and some of them are so inconspicuous as to
go unnoticed until much damage has been done. The young
insects, as a rule, are active only during the first few days of
their life, after which they settle down, project their beak into the
bark, leaf, or fruit and remain there for the rest of their lives.

168

TREES IN WINTER

As a class, they secrete a waxy or scaly covering to their body
and for this reason are called scale insects. The scaly covering
of the San Jose species is circular in outline, either black or
gray in color, and about half the size of the head of a pin. That of
the oyster shell species is elongated, pointed at one end, either

Fig. 89. The San Jose Scale.

Fig-. 90. The Elm Scale.

brown or black in color, and about one-eighth of an inch in
length. The scurfy scale is somewhat fan-shaped, of a pale gray
color, parchment-like, and about one-eighth of an inch in length.
The tulip scale is much larger and more conspicuous, being about
a quarter of an inch in diameter, hemispherical in shape, and dark
brown in color. The cottony maple scale also is a large and con-

PLAXTIXG AXD CARE OF TREES

169

spicuous form.

a large cottonv

Attached to the posterior part of the female is
mass, containing the eggs. As the egg mass
increases in size, the posterior end of the body becomes more
elevated. When full grown, the brown female with the egg-mass
protruding is about a half inch in length. Another species attack-
ing the maple is known as the woolly maple scale and differs from
the above in that the woolly mass completely covers the female and
her eggs.

Fig. 92. The Tulip Scale.

Flg.91. The Cottony Maple Scale.

Most scale insects may be controlled by spraying with either
miscible oil or the lime-sulphur wash during the dormant season.
The former will give better results on old and rough-barked trees.
The important point is to completely cover the surface of the

170

TEEES IN WINTER

bark with the spray. Most of the insects, and especially the San
Jose species, multiply very rapidly, there being several broods in
a season. The fruit trees, like the Apple, Pear, Plum, Peach,
Hawthorn, and Mountain Ash are especially susceptible to the
attack of scale insects. Young trees should be closely watched,
for they are often killed or severely injured before the pest is
observed.

BORERS.

On account of their habit of feeding about the cambium
layer, the insects belonging to this class are very destructive and
are very difficult to control. There are many different kinds of

Fig. 93. The work of the Maple Borer.

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES

171

borers, each having its favorite species or family of trees for its
feeding ground. The Maples, Poplars, Locusts, Elms, and fruit
trees are most susceptible to the attack of some form of borer. As
a rule, their presence is indicated by sunken areas on the bark and
sometimes by sawdust-like castings on the ground, just below the
point of attack. It is well to carefully examine the trunks of
susceptible trees twice a year, in April and October, and dig out
the borers with a sharp pocket knife. A flexible wire or a
common knitting needle may be used where the insect is located
far into the wood.

The larva of the Leopard Motli sometimes called the Imported
Elm-tree-borer, is one of the most destructive shade tree pests.
Around New York, Boston and other cities along the north-
eastern coast it is becoming very troublesome. Its habits are
somewhat different from other borers in that it attacks the smaller

Fig. 94. Trees injured by the Leopard Moth or
the Imported Elm Borer.

branches at the top of the tree, where its presence is not usually
detected until the affected branches have been killed. The infested
area of a tree gradually extends downward until the main

172

TREES IN WINTER

branches and even the trunk become affected. Ti borer often
completely girdles the branch and consequently thai part of the
branch beyond the injury soon dies. Trees affected with leopard
moth borers are strikingly characteristic by their dead branches
at the top of the tree. Most kinds of deciduous trees are subject
to the attack of this pest, but the White or American Elm has
suffered most.

Fig-. 95. The Leopard Moth Larva in its burrow. (Natural size.)

The following paragraphs are copied from the authors' summary of
a valuable bulletin by Brittoii and Cromie* : —

"The moths appear about July first, the males being very
common around electric lights, and the females lay eggs singly or

*Britton, W. E. and Cromie, G. A. The Leopard Moth. Conn. Agr. EXQ,
Sta. Bui. 169, 1911.

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 173

in groups of two, three or four, in the crevices of the bark or near
the buds. The larvae, hatching in a fe\v days., begin to tunnel
in the twigs, and by the end of the season are about one inch in
length. They leave the small branches and crawl over the bark to
enter larger ones, cutting large galleries into them and expelling
the Trass through round holes, which they soon close with silk webs.
During October the borers go deeper into the wood, and remain
through the winter two inches or more beneath the bark. They
pupate in their burrows the second spring, and before the moth
emerges the pupa works itself partly out of the opening, and the
iidiiit Hies away, leasing the empty case protruding from the
burrow.

"There are few natural checks, only one parasite being known in
this country and four in Europe. It is believed, however, that
certain birds, especially woodpeckers, prevent the spread of the
leopard moth in the open country. Many larvae are doubtless
killed by the breaking off of the branches, which in cities are
carted away and destroyed.

'"Removing infested branches; injecting carbon disulphide
(bisulphide) into the burrows, and stopping the opening; probing
with hooked wire for the larva; are some of the meihods of control.

"Planting species of trees not badly infested, like Oaks, Honey
Locusts and Sycamore, and especially those kinds that do not
grow very large, and have a smooth bark; placing trees further
apart, so that the larvae cannot easily crawl from one to the
other; and keeping the trees well nourished and vigorous, are the
chief preventive measures."

174 TREES IN WINTER

CHAPTEE X
INSECTICIDES, FUNGICIDES, AND SPEAYING.

INSECTICIDES.

The reader will understand by this time that there must be two
distinct types of insecticides: stomach poisons and contact insecti-
cides. There are a great many belonging to each class. A large
number of them are superfluous, and to avoid confusion, only
those that are necessary and in common use are discussed here.

Stomach Poisons — The stomach poisons are those that kill
by being eaten, and are used for the control of insects that chew
their food. The most common stomach poisons are arsenate of
lead and Paris green. The latter sometimes causes injury to the
foliage unless used in combination with lime. It is generally used
in the following proportion:

Paris green 1 pound

Fresh stone lime 1 pound

Water 100 gallons

The Paris green should be mixed first in a small quantity of
water to form a thin paste. The lime also should be slaked in a
small quantity of water. Both materials may then be strained
into the spray tank and the required amount of water added.

Arsenate of lead, on account of its safeness, its sticking qualities,
and its general efficiency, has become the standard insecticide for
insects that chew their food. It may be made up at home, but
generally it is better to buy it ready prepared. It comes in either
paste or powder form. Most people prefer to buy the paste.
To prevent it from drying out, the paste should be kept covered
with water. It is generally used in the following proportion:

Arsenate of lead paste 6 to 10 gallons

Water . 100 gallons

to1

The paste should be mixed up with about two quarts of water
and then strained into the tank. Some insects are harder to kill
than others and should receive the maximum amount. Most
forms, however, are readily killed by using six pounds to one
hundred gallons.

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 175

Contact Insecticides - - Insects that obtain their food by piercing
the epidermis and sucking the juices from the plant tissue, must
be killed by contact and the preparations used for the purpose
are called contact insecticides. Such preparations are usually
caustic in character and kill by irritation or by clogging the
breathing pores of the insect.

Common hard soap at the rate of one pound to six gallons of
water, is commonly used for plant lice. Whale-oil soap which
comes in paste form, is usually preferred for this purpose and is
used in the proportion of one pound to five gallons of water. It
is also used to some extent as a dormant spray for scale insects.
For this purpose it is used in the following proportion :

Whale-oil soap 2 pounds

Water 1 gallon

Either kind of soap is more easily dissolved in hot water.

This preparation is too expensive to be used where there are
many trees to be sprayed, but when only one or two trees or a
few bushes are affected with scale insects, it is a convenient remedy
and is not so disagreeable to apply as some of the other prepara-
tions.

Kerosene emulsion is probably the best remedy for the control
of sucking-insects when the spraying must be done while the tree is
in foliage. A stock solution may be made up and used when
required and at any strength:

Kerosene 2 gallons

Hard soap y2 pound

Hot water 1 gallon

Cut the soap into thin slices, dissolve in the hot water, remove
from the fire and pour it into the kerosene while hot. Churn
thoroughly, or pump into itself with a force pump, until a creamy
emulsion is formed, which will mix readily with cold water. For
use on foliage, dilute at the rate of one to twelve. Some plants
with tender foliage require a weaker solution. For use on dormant
trees, dilute at the rate of one to three.

Tobacco decoction, made by steeping one pound of tobacco stems
or waste in two gallons of water, is a safe remedy for plant lice
on tender-foliaged plants.

176 TREES IN WINTER

The lime-sulphur wash is the standard remedy for the control of
scale insects on fruit trees. It may be made up at home, hut it
is disagreeable and exacting work. It may be purchased in con-
sentrated form at from twenty to thirty cents per gallon and
is ready for spraying after diluting it with eight parts of water.
In this proportion it is used only while the trees are dormant. It
has extremely caustic properties and corrodes and discolors every-
thing with which it comes in contact. For this reason it should
not be used in proximity to painted buildings.

Mixrihle or "soluble" oils of which there are many brands on
the market, are useful and convenient preparations for the control
of scale insects. Compared with the lime sulphur-wash, they are
less corrosive, not so disagreeable to handle, and may be safely
used about buildings. They may be purchased at thirty cents to
one dollar per gallon, depending upon the quantity required. They
should be diluted with water in the proportion of one to fifteen
and should be used only during the dormant season. The con-
tainer should be shaken well before drawing off the oil. A few
drops of oil in a glass of water should produce a milky solution.
If the oil does not mix readily with water as indicated by this test,
it should not be used.

Ciu'/xni- bisulphide is a heavy volatile liquid and is sometimes
used for the control of borers affecting the trunk, and of other
insects affecting the roots of trees. It readily evaporates when
exposed to the air. The fumes are poisonous and very inflamable.
A teaspoonful poured into the burrow of a wood boring insect, and
the opening stopped up with wax, will usually kill the pest. The
fumes being heavier than air, settle to the lower places and it is
well, therefore, to get the chemical into the top of the burrow. If
a tree trunk is badly infested it is sometimes advisable to arrange
an oil-cloth jacket around the trunk, tying it tightly above and
below the affected area. A saturated sponge holding about a cup-
ful of the liquid may be hung beneath the jacket and at the upper
part of the trunk. The fumes will penetrate into all crevices, and
within twenty-four hours the inclosed insects Avill be suffocated.

FUNGICIDES

The use of fungicides is to kill fungus spores and to prevent
their access into the tissues of the plant. The standard fungicide
is Bordeaux mixture which may be made up as follows:

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES 177

f Copper sulphate 8 pounds

I Water 50 gallons

r Fresh stone lime 8 pounds

"{ Water 50 gallons

The copper sulphate may he dissolved either by the use of hot
water or by suspending it in a burlap sack at the top of a barrel
of cold water. The lime should be slowly slaked, using a little
water at a time. When both solutions, a and I, are ready, they
should he poured simultaneously into the spray tank. When
large quantities are required it is customary to make up stock
solutions of copper sulphate and of lime, using two pounds of
each to a gallon of water. To make a hundred gallons of Bordeaux
mixture from these stock solutions it will be necessary simply to
measure out four gallons of each, dilute each with 46 gallons of
water (50 — 4 ==46), and strain into the spray tank.

When a tree needs to he sprayed for some leaf-eating insect
as well as for some disease, six to ten pounds of arsenate of lead
may be added to every hundred gallons of Bordeaux mixture.
There are many brands of prepared Bordeaux mixture on the
market and some of them contain arsenic, either in the form of
arsenate of lead or Paris green. Pyro.r and Bonli'iiu.r-Iead are
common examples of such preparations. They are convenient
remedies and are very efficient, but cost more than the home-made
mixture.

The commercial lime-sulpliur wash which has been discussed
under the heading of Insecticides, is also a good fungicide. When
used on Peach trees in the dormant condition, it may be depended
upon to kill scale insects and at the same time to control the
disease known as leaf-curl. Tt is also being recommended as a
substitute for Bordeaux mixture for spnmng during the summer.
For spraying foliage, however, it should he diluted at the rate of
two gallons of the wash to one hundred gallons of water.

SPRAYING

Most people fail to spray for the reason that they believe it to
be a difficult and exacting operation. Those who have had experi-
ence have gained confidence and now regard the operation as a
necessary item in their yearly routine. There are many professional

178 TREES IN WINTER

sprayers going around the country soliciting contracts for this
kind of work. Most of them are reliable., yet there are some who
do not know the first principles of spraying and who have not
the proper equipment for the kind of work they undertake. When
reliable people may be engaged to do the work at the proper time,
it often would be advisable for the property-holder to have his
spraying done by contract. The property-holder, even though he
should not do his own spraying, should know something about the
subject so that he may know whether his work is being properly
done.

When spraying with arsenate of lead for the control of insects
that chew their food, the spray should be applied until it commences
to drip from the foliage. Even though the foliage is not completely
covered, the insects, if they continue to eat, are sure to find some
poison. In the spraying for sucking-insects, on the other hand,
greater care must be exercised, for the spray actually must touch
the insect. In the application of fungicides, also, the whole
surface of the leaves must be covered to prevent the access of the
disease spores.

It is always desirable to spray with the wind. To do this it
is necessary to make a second application after the direction of
the wind has changed. With nozzles that make a fine spray,
it is impossible to spray against even the lightest breeze. It
sometimes happens that the work must be finished at one time
and it is possible to do so by selecting a still day and by using a
nozzle of the Bordeaux type that will produce a coarse spray. A
coarse spray will carry farther, but is more wasteful of material.

Spraying Machinery - - For the private owner who has only a
few trees to spray, a barrel outfit operated by hand and costing
about twenty to twenty-five dollars, will answer the purpose. By
the use of extension ladders, extension rods, and long leads of
hose, it is possible to spray the tallest trees. Barrel outfits
mounted on two-wheel trucks may be purchased at a small addi-
tional cost and are very handy on small places. The small bucket
and knap-sack outfits are useful for bushes and yoimg trees, but
are unsuited to spraying mature trees.

On large estates a power outfit of some kind will be found
very useful. When fine nozzles are used, a three horse-power
gasoline outfit may supply as many as six leads of hose. Such an

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES

179

outfit will supply sufficient pressure for the spraying of the tallest
trees. Where it is desirable to reach the top of tall trees without

Pig. 96. Spraying a large Elm Tree using a hand pump and two

long leads of hose. A very satisfactory outfit where there is danger

of disfiguring buildings and where a high-pressure outfit cannot be
used conveniently.

180

TREES IN WINTER

climbing, a more powerful outfit will be necessary. A ten horse-
power outfit will do the work and is very suitable for towns and
cities. Most municipalities have many trees in the open that may
be sprayed from the ground without fear of disfiguring buildings.
Spraying in this way is decidedly less expensive and less dangerous,
than where it is necessary to climb the trees. A powerful outfit

Fig. 97. The use of a high pressure pump in spraying tall trees.

may be used for both purposes. "\Vhen wanted for working in the
vicinity of buildings, it may be adapted simply by changing the
nozzles.

Nozzles vary greatly in structure and adaptability. When spray-
ing at close range a nozzle that will make a fine mist or "fog1' is

PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES

181

desirable. Those of the disc typo are best suited to the purpose.
When it is required to throw a stream high into the air a nozzle
of either the "Long Distance" or the Bordeaux type will be found
most useful. The "Long Distance" nozzle may be adjusted so

Fig. 99. The Bordeaux Nozzle
commonly used in spraying
shade trees. It may be adjusted
to trow either a straight stream
or a fan-shaped spray.

Fig. 98 An inexpensive
Spraying1 Outfit for small
trees and shrubs.

as to regulate the size of the stream. The Bordeaux type (fig. 99)
may be regulated so as to produce either a straight stream or a
fan-shaped spray.

To avoid troublesome "blow-outs" it is well to use long shank
couplings and two clamps on each section of the coupling.

Rubber hose of the best quality is necessary for high-pressure
work. The half-inch size is sufficient for close work, but for lon°r

O

distance work it is better to use a larger size. It should be strong
enough to stand a pressure of at least two hundred pounds, al-
though for close work it is seldom necessary to maintain a pressure
of more than one hundred ami twenty-five pounds.

Most spraying outfits are supplied with niecliuuifn/ rif/iftitors to
insure the discharge of the mixture at uniform strength. On hand
outfits they are usually attached to and operated with the handle
of the pump. Such agitators seldom furnish sufficient agitation.
especially when there is only one nozzle in operation and the
handle is necessarily moving slowly. For the spraying of aresnate
of lead that quickly settles, it is safer to use an old garden hoe
with which the man who operates the pump may keep the mixture

182

TREES IN WINTER

thoroughly agitated. The best power outfits are supplied with
propeller agitators. These consist of shafts on which are fixed
two or three propellers like those used on small boats.

PART II.

THE IDENTIFICATION OF TREES.

EXPLANATION OF TERMS

Before considering the individual trees in detail it seems de-
sirable to give a general discussion of the different terms used as
headings in the description of the species.

Name — A common English name heads the description of
each tree and this name is used throughout the book as the
designation of a particular species. The same form may be known
in different localities by several entirely different common names.
Thus the Tupelo in some places is called only Pepperidge, in
others, Sour Gum or Black Gum. After consultation with the
literature the name Tupelo was chosen as being somewhat more
desirable for the whole of New England than the other names
given in smaller type as synonyms. Often several common names
may be in about equally frequent use. There is in general, only
one scientific name at present sanctioned by botanical authorities
and this is placed first, followed by the Latin synonyms in italics.

Habit - - By the word habit, we denote the general appearance
of a tree seen as a whole. A tree strictly speaking is generally
considered as a woody growth having an undivided trunk at the
base and rising to at least twice the height of a man. A shrub
on the other hand is low-growing and may branch from the very
base. No hard and fast line, however, can be drawn between a
tree and a shrub. Many trees at the limit of their range or
under unfavorable conditions are reduced to the form and dimen-
sions of a shrub and some forms growing as shrubs in New England
become trees in states outside this group. A young tree sometimes
resembles a shrub, but is more rapid in growth and generally does
not bear fruit until it has reached a considerable size. Of tht
forms on the borderline between trees and shrubs only those have
been treated that have demanded recognition on account of their
commonness or their relationship with other forms.

184 TREES IN WINTER

Two general habit types are recognized - - the spreading and the
erect — often termed deliquescent and excurrent respectively. The
former is well represented by the Apple (p. 353) and White Elm
(p. 327) and the latter by the Evergreens and those of the Poplars
that form narrow conical heads (p. 261-263). By its more erect
habit of growth the Sweet Cherry (p. 369) is readily distinguished
from the Sour Cherry (p. 371) and in like manner the Pear
(p. 351) from the Apple (p. 353). It is these habit differences
that form the most ready means of separating the contrasted
trees just mentioned which may closely resemble each other in twig
characters. The angle which the branches make with the trunk
is frequently a diagnostic character of considerable value. For
example, the ascending and gracefully outward curving limbs of
the American White Elm (p. 327) stand in contrast with the
sharply divergent limbs of the English Elm (p. 325). Likewise
the horizontal branches of the Tupelo (p. 421) and the strongly
pendant lower limbs of the Swamp White Oak (p. 305) are char-
acteristic of these species. The relative thickness of the branchlets
contrasted in the Sweet Cherry (p. 369) and the Black Birch
(p. 281) and the arrangement of the branchlets whether opposite
or alternate and whether erect or drooping, may further be men-
tioned as habit characters.

As one becomes more familiar with trees in their winter aspect,
the number that cannot be recognized at a distance becomes greatly
diminished. We come to know trees by hardly definable traits,
much as we recognize our friends at a distance by some peculiarity
of form or gait. Watching the trees from a car window is a
great help in acquiring this familiarity witli the habit characters.
The method of branching and other features included in the habit
do not furnish such precise marks as do the twigs, and cannot
therefore be of much value in a descriptive key. In fact the
habit varies considerably among individual trees of the same
species, no two trees having exactly the same method of branching.
Moreover trees grown in woods in company with other trees are
prevented by lateral shading from developing their normal form
and produce tall trunks with but little branching. On the other
hand trees apart from other trees have usually been planted for

IDENTIFICATION OF TREES 185

ornament or have originally grown in woods hut have been left
isolated by tin- cutting down of their neighbors. Jn the latter
case the habit will he more or less that of a forest -grown tree
dependent upon the age at which the conditions of light and
.-hade were altered (see lower habit picture p. I52!)). In the
former case the top of the young tree may have been cut in the
process of transplanting causing an increased branching at the
point of cutting and the lower limbs may have been trimmed off,
giving a greater show oL' trunk. These mutilations, however, have
less influence upon the outline of the head or crown than might
be imagined since the tree is generally able to accommodate itself
to such accidents as those mentioned and express its individuality
despite them. The age of the tree is also an important factor
in the outline, young specimens being in general narrower and
more conical than in later life while those in old age may have
lost shape through ice storms, high winds and the attacks of fungi.

So far as possible the photographs may have been taken from
mature specimens growing in the open and only those have been
chosen which have been considered to present an appearance typical
of the species. They will help one to form a mental picture of
those generalized features of a tree in the landscape which may
be recognized at a distance, but which are difficult of analysis.

Bark -- Although it is upon the appearance of the bark more
than upon any other character that the woodsman depends in his
recognition of timber trees, the bark shares with the habit the
misfortune of being difficult of precise description. A study of
the photographs, however, in connection with the description of
the color and texture will enable one to recognize a large propor-
tion of our trees by the appearance of the bark alone. They
have been taken from mature trees of moderate size which have
developed the characteristic sculpturing of the bark rather than
from those of larger size which are less frequently seen. A tape
measure surrounding the trunk or in some instances a penknife
stuck into the bark may serve to give an idea of the relative size
of the markings on the trunk. The heading "Bark" is used
throughout the descriptions in reference to the trunk and larger
limbs and not to the twigs which are described under another
heading.

186 TREES IN WINTER

The color of the outer bark is an important mark of distinction
and is the chief means of separating the different species of the
Birches (p. 281-291). The color and taste of the inner layers
of the bark are in some cases also characteristic. The Black
Oak for example is best distinguished from other Oaks by the
yellow and intensely bitter inner bark. Similarly, the Black Birch,
the Sassafras and the genus Prunus including the Cherries have
barks with characteristic flavors. The swamp-loving Poison
Sumach (p. 395) is the only poisonous tree in New England so
that after this shrubby form is known there need be no fear of
tasting bark and twigs of any unknown tree-like species.

The bark varies in character according to the age of the tree.
In the young tree the bark is smooth, but, as the trunk expands
from the growth of the wood within, the covering of dead bark
outside is forced to crack in a variety of ways giving rise to
characteristic fissures and ridges which become more prominent
as the tree grows older. The bark of few trees such as the Beech
(p. 295) and the American Hornbeam (p. 279) remain smooth,
their outer layers expanding with the growth of the tree. The barks
of others as the Paper and Yellow Birch (p. 283) stretch and peel
off in thin papery layers. In the Birches (p. 289) and Cherries
(p. 369) the breathing pores (lenticels) become horizontally elon-
gated to form narrow transverse streaks which are characteristic for
these forms. When ridges or scales are formed they may be close
and firm and with difficulty removed from the trunk as is the case
with the bark in the Black Oak group or, on the other hand, they
may be easily rubbed off as are the scales of the bark of the
White Oak and of most members of the White Oak group. Bark
of this latter type is called flaky in our descriptions and this
distinction between barks that are flaky and those that are not
flaky is of considerable importance in classification. To avoid
confusion little notice is taken of the minute scales that are
likely to occur on the surface of both types of bark. The bark
may come off in large sheets as in the Shag-bark Hickory (p. 269)
and the Sycamore (p. 349), and the ridges may be long as in
the Chestnut (p. 297) or short and run together to form more
or less perfect diamond-shaped areas as in the White Ash (p. 423)

IDENTIFICATION OP TREES 187

but these as well as other differences in the sculpturing are shown
in the photographs and do not require further discussion.

Twigs --The unqualified word twig refers in the descriptions
to the growth of the past season only. Older twigs and branch-
lets are the designations employed for the small growth of several
seasons. The Horse-chestnut (fig. 20) has been taken as a con-
venient form to illustrate the various markings found on the twig
and is discussed on page 39.

In some species, such as the Black Birch (p. 281) and the
cultivated Cherry (p. 369), a sharp distinction can be drawn
between rapidly-grown long shoots which have elongated inter-
nodes and continue the growth of the twig and slowly grown
short spurs which have greatly abbreviated internodes and crowded
leaf-scars. The fruit-spurs of the Apple (p. 353) and Pear
(p. 351) are of this latter type.

Of the distinctive characters given under the heading twigs may
be mentioned the relative thickness, whether stout or slender, the
presence or absence of thorns or prickles, the color, the taste as
indicated under the discussion of the bark, and the character of
the surface, whether smooth or more or less covered with hairs.
Twigs are called hairy when the hairs are individually distinct,
downy when they are fine and numerous, and woolly or cottony
when they are twisted together into a more or less felt-like mass,
but these distinctions cannot be always sharply drawn. A twig
if smooth may be dull or shiny in appearance. The lenticels are of
most distinctive value in those forms like the Birches (p. 289), in
which they become horizontally elongated with age. The color,
size and shape of the pith are often characteristic as seen in the
wide salmon-colored pith of the Kentucky Coffee Tree (p. 381)
and the star-shaped pith in the Oaks and to a less degree in the
Poplars (fig. 100). The pith, however, frequently varies consider-
ably in color in a given species. Some few trees have their pith
separated by hollow chambers such as the Hackberry and the
Butternut (fig. 101) or have solid pith but with woody cross
partitions such as the Tupelo.

Leaf -scars - - The arrangement of the leaf-scars form primary
divisions in the classification. They may be opposite with two

188 TREES IN WINTER

scars at a node as in the Horse-chestnut, or alternate with only
one scar at the node as in the majority of species. Alternate leaf-
scars may be arranged along the twig in two longitudinal rows
when they are said to be 2-ranked, as in the Mulberry (fig. 103),
or in several rows when they are more titan 2-ranked as in the
Poplars (fig. 100). Twigs sometimes if rapidly grown have the
leaf-scars which are normally opposite pulled apart to appear al-
ternate, but the typical condition will be found on other parts of
the tree. A few species like the Chestnut sometimes take tbe
2-ranked, and sometimes the more than 2-ranked position, and
the number of ranks in other forms may be at times somewhat
obscured by a twisting of the twig. The distinctions in the main,
however, hold good and where a doubt is likely to occur in regard
to the arrangement, a place lias been made in the key for the
species in both the 2-ranked and the more than 2-ranked groups.

The size and shape of leaf-scars are important factors in identi-
fication. They may be very narrow as in the Pear and their
upper margins may be flat or convex as in the Black Ash (p. 427)
or deeply notched as in the White Ash (p. 423) or form a band
nearly surrounding the bud as in the Sycamore (p. 349). They
may become dingy and inconspicuous or be sharply distinct
by color contrast with the rest of the twig. Thus the Elms and
the Poplars have their leaf -scars covered with a light-colored cork-
like layer which makes them conspicuous irrespective of their size.
Leaf-scars may be level with the twig or more or less raised with
their surfaces parallel with the twig or making various angles
with it up to a right angle. Ridges in some cases run down
the twig from the base and corners of the leaf-scar.

At the bases of the leaves of some species a pair of small leaflets
called stipules are regularly formed and leave, at the fall of the
leaf, more or less definite stipule-scars at either side of the leaf-
scar as shown in the Carolina Poplar (fig. 100).

The number, the size, the relation to the surface of the leaf-
scar whether sunken or projecting, and the distribution of the
bundle-scars form important points of distinction. When they are

IDEXTIFICATIOX OP TREKS

189

indistinct, as is frequently the case, they may be revealed
if a thin slice is taken oil' the surface of the leaf-scar.
This surface section must be very thin, however, since
the number of bundle-scars exposed by a deep cut is
often different from that on the surface, and this latter
number is the one used in the keys and descriptions. A
distinction is made between a group in which the
bundle-scars form a single line and a second group in
which they are -variously scattered and grouped or in
a double line.

B-ud* - - In regard to their position buds are ter-
SX minal or lateral. Buds produced at or near the nodes
but not in the axil of a leaf-scar are called accessory
buds. Of these there are two kinds : Superposed buds
located above the axillary buds and collateral buds
located at either side of the axillary buds. The former
are shown in the Butternut (fig. 101 ) and the latter in
the Red Maple (fig. 102). Classified according to what
they produce there are flower bud* which contain the
rudiments of flowers, leaf buds which contain rudiments
of leaves, and vii.rrd buds which produce both flowers
and leaves. Flower buds are generally stouter than leaf
buds.

Most species by the end of the growing season have
terminal buds which remain through the winter
Tx— supuie an<^ are Destined to continue the growth the following
p_staf-ear' sPrmg- In some species, however, such as the Mulberry
shaped Pith (fig. i03)the terminal bud together with the tip of the
twig dies away and drops off before the beginning of winter
leaving a small scar at the end of the twig. The presence or
absence of the terminal bud is a very valuable point of distinction
and is used throughout in the keys. Unfortunately it is not always
possible at a cursory glance to say whether the terminal bud is
present or absent and a hand-lens must generally be used for an
accurate determination of this point. In the Mulberry figured,
the self-pruning scar formed by the dropping off of the terminal
bud is perched on the tip of the twig with the topmost lateral bud
obviously in the axil of the last leaf-scar. Frequently, however,

— P

190

TREES IN WINTER

.

the self-pruning scar may be nearer the lateral bud which bends in
and gives the appearance of being terminal. The presence of a
leaf-scar below it shows that it is in fact axillary,
but since leaf-scars are sometimes present toward
the end of twigs without buds in their axils the
presence of the self-pruning scar at the twig end must
be used as the decisive sign that the terminal bud is
really absent.

Aside from the color, the presence or absence of
hairs, stickiness, fragrance and other such surface
characters, the position of the buds in relation to the
twig may be of importance. Buds that lie close
up against the twig as those of the Small-toothed
Aspen (p. 255) are called appressed, while those
that project more or less away from
the twig as those of the Carolina
Poplar (fig. 100)are called divergent.
In the Common Locust and a few
other forms the buds are sunken
below the surface of the twig, and
can be found only by cutting the
twig lengthwise through the leaf-

Fig. 101. Twig scar.

of Butternut.

t.r — terminal The characters of

ax— axillary ' of most importance are the shape, ^

the bud-scales pig-. 102. Twig of

Red Maple.
5U(j j. A '' ix — axillary bud.

sp — Superposed the number visible in the unmutil- cl collact/fJ[',alH,,^

accessory bud. accessory uuu.

P — chambered arrangement — whether alternate or

'opposite — and the number of ranks they form on
the bud.

Fruit — The fruit generally forms a good means of identi-
fication when it can be found. Unfortunately there are a number
of limitations to its use for this purpose. In the first place many
species of trees do not fruit every year, and it may happen that
the species under examination is not in its fruiting period and
consequently all the trees of the region will fail to show fruit.
Again, in some species such as the Ash the sexes are separate and
consequently only female trees can ever be expected to bear fruit.
The fruit generally does not remain on the tree throughout the
winter but if the tree is sufficiently isolated from other species,

IDENTIFICATION OF TREES 191

a careful search on the ground will often be rewarded by the
finding of specimens of fruit that one can feel sure came from
the tree in question. However, some species such as the Poplars
and the Eed and Silver Maples scatter their fruit early in spring,
and fruiting material of such forms in consequence is not to be
looked for in winter. The immature fruit of some species may be
found on the tree in winter and be of value in identification.
Thus the presence of young acorns on an Oak in winter shows
that it belongs to the Black Oak group.

The staminate flowering clusters are of similar
diagnostic value in certain groups, their presence
or absence, for example, separating the American
Hornbeam from the Hop Hornbeam.

Comparisons — Under this heading are con-
trasted the different species that are considered
likely to be confused. It is believed that the in-
formation in this section will prove more valuable
to one with some knowledge of trees than the more
detailed descriptions first given.

Distribution — The habitat first discussed under
of this heading shows in what kind of locations
as to soil, moisture and exposure the species
bud often mis- normally grows. The information mav be of iden-

taken for a ter- • J

minai bud. tificational value by elimination. Thus if one finds

sc ~ •" s6iL~priJiiiri g

scar left by fail a cedar-like tree on a hillside pasture one can be

of real terminal

bud and tip of sure it is not a Coast White Cedar since this latter
twig.

species grows only in swamps. In like manner the geographical
limits may assist in identification; a Pine found growing wild in
Rhode Island or Connecticut, for example, could not be the Jack
Pine since this is a northern form found native only in the northern
New England states. Although some cultivated trees have escaped
from cultivation, an introduced tree is generally characterized
by the places in which it is found growing.

Wood — Under this heading the information given in regard to
the characters of the wood and the economic value of the species
is of practically no value for purposes of identification of standing
timber, but may prove of general interest to the student of trees,

192 TREES IN WINTER

ANALYTICAL KEY

METHOD OF USE

Despite the fact that the appearance of the bark and the method
of branching are almost exclusively depended upon by the experi-
enced woodsman in recognition of species, these characters are
difficult of precise description and not adapted to use in a key.
The twigs therefore with the scaly buds and leaf-scars are used, as a
basis of the following keys. The word "twig" in the sense here
used, it should be remembered, denotes the growth of the past
season only, and the word "bark'' refers to the bark of the trunk
and older limbs and not of the twigs or branchlets. The student
should read the foregoing section and note the limitation of terras
and characters used in the following pages.

Before attempting to identify an unknown tree it is necessary
to have good material to work with. Care should be taken that
the twigs selected are normal in appearance, being neither abnor-
mally stunted in growth nor unusually elongated as are twigs on
young sprouts. Frequently the species may be determined by an
inspection of the twigs alone but notes on the character of the
bark and the habit of growth as well as specimens of the fruit will
generally be found useful and sometimes necessary.

In the key a choice is given between two paragraphs preceded
by the same number. This choice leads to a new number or to the
name of the species followed by the page where a detailed
description of the tree may be found. The White Ash may be
used to show the method of procedure. Starting with No. 1 we
have the choice between trees with "leaves persistent and green
throughout winter" and trees with "leaves not persistent and green
throughout winter." We choose the latter and this takes us to No.

11 where the decision must be made between "leaf-scars opposite
or in 3's" and "leaf-scars alternate." The leaf-scars on the Ash
are opposite and we take the first 11 and are led to No. 12. At

12 we have the alternative between "leaf-scars, or some of them, 3
at a node" and "leaf-scars always 2 at a node." The first pair
of contrasting characters mentioned are always the most important.
The constant presence in the Ash of two leaf-scars at a node is
sufficient to cause us to choose the second 12, and our choice is
corroborated by the position of the bundle-scars and by the presence
of a terminal bud, so we pass to 13. The upper lateral buds of

IDENTIFICATION OP TREES 193

the Ash are not covered by persistent bases of leaf-stalks and there
are 2 or more pairs of scales to the leaf buds., we therefore pass
to 14. The relatively small size of the buds and their freedom
from stickiness takes us to 15 where the number of the bundle-
scars and the other characters given show us that we have in hand
a twig of one of the Ashes. AVe now turn to ISTo. 1G5 and confirm
our determination of the genus by reading the general description
of the Ashes. To find out which Ash we are dealing with we
precede with the key of the Ashes and, knowing that the leaf-scars
in our specimens are deeply concave on their upper margins, we
conclude that we have the White Ash (Fraa-iniis ainericana).
At page 422 we find a detailed description with photographic
illustrations of this species and may learn the winter characters
of the tree not already given in the key. If the description and
photographs do not correspond to the tree under investigation., we
know that we have gone astray at some point in the key, and
turning back we repeat the analysis taking if need be the other
alternative of a pair where the choice had been doubtful.

The meaning of unfamiliar terms may generally be found in the
glossary. Often, however, the photograph offers a better explana-
tion. Thus in distinguishing the Carolina from the Lombardy
Poplar, the word "spire-shaped" as applied to the habit, can best
be understood by reference to the picture of the latter species.
When a choice within a number seems impossible from the infor-
mation available, trial should be made of both contrasting para-
graphs. In the key to the Oaks, for example, the character of
the bark - - whether flaky or not flaky - - is used as a distinguishing
mark. With only the twig at hand, it may still be possible to trace
the name by trying the tree first under "bark flaky" and if this
does not lead to the correct name, then under "bark not flaky."
It might seem needless to suggest that both the contrasted parts
of each number encountered should be read but work with students
has shown that such a suggestion may be useful.

Sometimes a tree is variable in the characters used in the key.
Thus the Chestnut has terminal buds sometimes present on the twigs
though they are generally absent. In such cases, however, and
where there is a legitimate doubt as to whether the tree should be
placed in the first or the second group, it has generally been placed
in both so that either of the two choices should lead to the correct

194

TREES IN WINTER

name. The determination of the presence or absence of the ter-
minal bud is perhaps the greatest pitfall likely to be found in the
use of the key, but should give little difficulty if the discussion
in the introduction is understood and the terminal scar is looked
for with the aid of a hand-leas,

IDENTIFICATION OF TREES. 195

KEY TO GENERA AND SPECIES

1. Leaves persistent and green throughout winter (Evergreens) 2

1. Leaves not persistent and green throughout winter (dead leaves
often persistent in the Oaks and Beeches) 11

2. Leaves broad, prominently spiny-margined. Holly (Ilex opaca) p.30«

2. Leaves narrow, often minute and scale-like; Conifers (i.e. cone-
bearing trees)

3. Leaves, except scale-leaves, needle-shaped, in definite generally
sheathed clusters on the sides of the branches Pine (Pinus) 85

3. Leaves, not in definite clusters .. 4

4. Leaves opposite or in 3's, therefore 2 or 3 at a node . . 5

4. Leaves alternate, scattered, therefore only 1 at a node 8

5. Leaves whorled in 3's, all alike, whitened above and green below
awl-shaped, sharp-pointed and spreading-; fruit bluish, berry-like;
a shrub or low tree. (See also juvenile condition of Red Cedar) . .
Common Juniper (Juniperus communis) p.244

5. Leaves opposite in 4 ranks, minute, scale-like, closely overlapping 6

6. Young twigs prominently flattened and forming a flat, 2-ranked,
fan-shaped spray often mistaken for the true leaves which are
minute and of two shapes, those on edges of twig being narrower,
those on flat sides being broader and more abruptly pointed with
each leaf generally showing a conspicuous raised glandular dot;

fruit a thin-scaled, oblong, woody cone

Arbor Vitae (Thuja occidentalis) p.242

6. Young twigs not prominently flattened; fruit spherical 7

7. Spray somewhat fan-shaped; young twigs not prominently 4-angled;
leaves all alike in shape, some of them with prominent raised

glandular dot on back; fruit a spherical woody cone

Coast White Cedar (Chamaecyparis thyoides) p.240

7. Spray not fan-shaped; young twigs with typical leaves are prom-
inently 4-angled; leaves without conspicuous glandular dots, of two
kinds; (a) the juvenile form — awl-shaped, spiny-pointed and
spreading, in 2's or 3's at a node and resembling leaves of Common
Juniper, the usual leaf form on young trees but generally to be
found on some parts of older trees; (b) the typical form — smaller,

scale-like and closely appressed; fruit bluish, berry-like

Red Cedar (Juniperus virginiana) p.246

8. Leaves distinctly flattened 9

8. Leaves not distinctly flattened, needle-shaped, 4-angled, sessile on
projections of the bark Spruce (Picea) 91

9. Leaf about 1 cm. long with definite leaf-stalk, leaving prominently
projecting scar when detached. Hemloek (Tsuga canadensis) p.238

9. Leaf about 2 cm. or more long, without leaf-stalk, leaving a flat
or only slightly raised scar when detached 10

10. Buds small, nearly spherical to broadly ovate, their scales covered

and glued together by resinous coating; leaf-scars flat

Balsam Fir (Abies balsamea) p.236

10. Buds larger, narrow conical, without resinous coating; leaf-scars
slightly raised Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia) p.234

11. Leaf-scars opposite or in 3's, therefore 2 or 3 at a node 12

11. Leaf-scars alternate, therefore only 1 at a node 16

12. Leaf-scars or some of them 3 at a node; bundle-scars in an
ellipse; terminal bud absent Catalpa (Catalpa) p.428

12. Leaf-scars always 2 at a node; bundle-scars not in an ellipse;
terminal bud present 13

13. Leaf buds with only a single pair of scales; lateral buds, at least

the upper ones, covered by persistent bases of leaf-stalks

Flowering Dog-wood (Cornus florida) p.418

13. Leaf buds with 2 or more pairs of scales; lateral buds not covered
by persistent bases of leaf-stalks 14

196 TREES IN WINTER

14. Terminal buds large, over 1.5 cm. long, sticky or varnished; leaf-
scar large, inversely triangular; bundle-scars 3-9, conspicuous

Ht*i M'-cin-si mi i (Aesculus Hippocastanum) p.414

14. Terminal buds smaller, unaer l.o cm. long, not sticky-varnished;
leaf-scars smaller 15

15. Bundle-scars, minute, numerous in a U-shaped line often more or

less confluent; bud-scales scurfy (i.e. rougn-downy)

ASH (FraxinusJ 165

15. Bundle-scars not minute, generally definitely 3 in number; bud-
scales not scurfy Maple (Acer) 155

16. Stipule-scars entirely encircling the twig 17

16. Stipule-scars absent or if present not encircling the twig 19

17. Leaf-scar almost completely surrounding th'e bud; terminal bud
absent; (the last lateral bud may appear to be terminal but absence

of terminal bud is shown by small scar at end of twig)

Sycamore (Piatanus) p. 348

17. Leaf-scar not surrounding the bud; terminal bud present 18

18. Buds ovate to conical, hairy at least within; scar of rudimentary

leaf surmounting decurrent ridge on side of bud

Magnolia (Magnolia) 142

18. Buds flattened oblong, smooth without and within; scar of rudi-
mentary leaf, if present, at base of bud

Tulip Tree ( Liriodendron Tulipifera) p.340

19. Twigs with thorns, spines, or prickles, or branches ending in
thorns 20

19. Twigs without thorns, spines, or prickles 27

20. Spines in pairs at the nodes, or twigs covered with weak hair-
like prickles 21

20. Spines not in pairs at the nodes, twigs not covered with weak
prickles 22

21. Buds rusty-hairy, more or less covered by bark; terminal bud
absent Locust (Robinia) p.388

21. Buds, red, exposed; terminal bud present; a shrub

....Prickly Ash (Zanthoxylon americanum) under Comparisons p.388

22. Thorns lateral, regularly placed on the twig at or near the
nodes 23

22. Thorns terminal 25

23. Thorns generally branched, situated above the nodes; buds several

in a longitudinal row, the lower ones covered by the bark

Honey Locust (Gleditsia triacanthus) p.382

23. Thorns generally unbranched on twigs, situated at the nodes;
sometimes branched thorns on trunk; buds exposed 24

24. Thorns generally present at all the nodes; bundle-scar single

Osage Orange (Madura pomifera) under Comparisons p.360

24. Thorns generally absent from many of the nodes; bundle-scars 5
Hawthorn (Crataegus) p.360

25. Terminal bud absent but leaving a terminal scar on twig

PHim (Prunua) 151

25. Terminal bud present, at least on spineless branches 26

26. Tree with bushy habit of growth; twigs with characteristic
licorice-like taste, generally reddish-brown, more or less pale-
woolly at least toward apex; lateral buds blunt, flattish. appressed
and more or less pale-woolly Apple (Pyrus Mains) p.352

26. Tree with upright habit of growth; twigs without characteristic
taste, generally yellowish green and generally smooth; lateral buds
sharp-pointed, smooth or sometimes slightly downy, generally not
flattened nor appressed Pear (Pyrus communis) p.350

27. Pith in section lengthwise of twig seen to be interrupted by hollow
chambers or by thin woody partitions (the partitions are fre-
quently inconspicuous) 28

27. Pith continuous; i.e. without hollow chambers or woody parti-
tions 32

IDENTIFICATION OF TREES. 197

28. Pith chambered but with chambers confined to the nodes

Hickorj (Caryaj 101

28. Pith when chambered with chambers not confined to the noaes 29

29. Pith brown, wide, with hollow chambers; fruit a nut 30

29. Pith light colored, narrow; fruit a small stune-lruit oil

30. Downy patch present above leaf-scar; nut elongated

lint i <T nut (Juyians cinereaj p.2ti4

30. Downy patch absent from leaf-scar; nut round

Black \\ nl HIM (Jugiuns my* <.tj p.lititi

31. Pith with hollow chambers; buds brown, terminal bud absent,
lateral buds appressed Haekberry (Celtis occidentalism p.330

31. Pith with woody partitions in the solid ground-mass; buds reddish,

terminal bud present, lateral buds divergent

Tupelo (Nyssa sylvatlca) p.420

32 Leaf-scars regularly 2-ranked, i.e. arranged in 2 longitudinal rows
on the twig 33

32. Leaf-scars regularly more than 2-ranked, i.e. in more than 2 rows
on the twig 49

33. Terminal bud absent (the last lateral bud may appear to be ter-
minal but absence of terminal bud is shown by small scar at
end of twig) 39

33 Terminal bud present 34

34. Stipule-scars nearly encircling twig; buds long and narrow,
generally over 5 times as long as wide, divergent; bud-scales in
pairs, 4-ranked, 10 or more scales visible Beech (Fagus) p.294

34. Stipule-scars when present relatively short; buds stouter, generally
not over 4 times as long as wide; bud-scales less numerous .... 35

35. Buds stalked 36

35. Buds not stalked 37

36. Buds, for the most part naked, i.e. with undeveloped leaves serving
the function of scales; woody. 4-parted fruits and the remains of

last season's flowers generally present

Witch Hazel (Hamamelis virginiana) p.344

36. Buds covered with bud-scales: fruit a woody cone-like catkin

Alder (A Inus) p.292

37. Leaf-scars very narrow. V-shaped, swollen at the 3 bundle-scars;
buds long, appressed; bud-scale tipped with dark point; stipule-
scars absent Shad Bush (Amelanchier canadensis) p.358

37. Leaf-scars relatively broad; buds shorter; bud-scale without con-
spicuous dark point: stipule-scars present though often incon-
spicuous 38

38. Bundle-scars 3; bark of young stem and branches with horizon-
tally elongated lenticels. often peeling into papery layers; pith
generally elliptical often with irregularly toothed edges; fruit a

catkin, immature catkins generally present on tree in winter

Birch (Betula) 104

3S. Bundle-scars several; lenticels not horizontally elongated; bark
never peeling in papery layers; pith more or less 5-pointed. star-
shaped; fruit a bur Chestnut (Castanea dentatn) p.296

39. Leaf-scar almost entirely surrounding the buds; buds brown, hairy,
several massed together to form a bud-like cone; bundle-scars

raised, generally 5 in a single curved line

Yellow Wood (Cludrastis lutea) p.38«

39. Leaf-scar not more than half surrounding the bud; buds not massed
together into a hairy cone 40

40. Bundle-scars 3 or more in a single curved line 43

40. Bundle-scars more than 3 in a closed ellipse, double line, vari-
ously clustered or irregularly scattered 41

41. 2-3 scales visible to a bud; bundle-scars not prominently pro-
jecting 42

41. 4 or more scales visible to a bud; bundle-scars rather prominently
projecting Mulberry (Morns) 141

198 TREES IN WINTER

42. Twigs usually zigzag; pith roundish; buds and twigs mucilaginous
when chewed; fruit spherical, woody, about size of pea, attached to
a leafy bract. Linden (Tilia) p.416

42. Twigs nearly straight; pith more or less 5-pointed, star-shaped;
buds and twigs not mucilaginous when chewed; fruit a large bur.
Chestnut (Castanea dentata) p.298

43. Buds superposed, at least at some of the nodes; stipule-scars

absent ; older pith with reddish streaks

Redbnd (Cercis canadensis) p.384

43. Buds never superposed; stipule-scars present; pith without reddish
streaks 44

44. 2-3 scales visible to a bud . 45

44. 4 or more scales visible to a bud !!!!!!!!!! 46

45, Buds stout; buds and twigs mucilaginous when chewed; lenticels
not horizontally elongated; fruit spherical, woody, about size of
pea, attached to leafy bract Linden (Tilia) p.416

45. Buds narrower, buds and twigs not mucilaginous when chewed;
lenticels on stems and branches horizontally elongated; bark often
peeling in papery layers; fruit a winged seed-like body borne in
catkins Birch (Betula) 104

46. Bud-scales 2-ranked (i.e. arranged on the bud in 2 longitudinal
rows); leaf-scars covered with a smooth corky layer; bundle-scars

typically sunken; bark ridged; catkins absent

Elm (Ulmus) 138

46. Bud-scales more than 2-ranked; leaf-scars not covered with smooth
corky layer; bundle-scars not sunken; fruit borne in catkins. .. 47

47 Lenticels horizontally elongated with age; bark on young trunks
and branches smooth, not becoming fluted, often peeling into
papery layers but not flaky; fruit a flat seed-like body borne in

catkins; catkins generally present on tree in winter

Birch (Betula) 104

47. Lenticels not horizontally elongated; bark flaky or fluted; bud-
scales 4-ranked; fruit a nutlet attached to a bract 48

48. Bark flaky; twigs 1-2 mm. thick; buds usually 3-7 mm. long;
nutlet enclosed by a sac-like bract; staminate catkins generally

abundantly present in winter

Hop Hornbeam (Ostrya virginiana) p.276

48. Bark smooth, close, sinewy-fluted; twigs about 1 mm. or less
thick; buds usually 2-4 mm. long; nutlet attached to flattish,
toothed bract; staminate catkins enclosed in enlarged scaly buds,

therefore no catkins visible on tree in winter

American Hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana) p.2i78

49. Buds clustered at tips of vigorous shoots; terminal bud not greatly
larger than others of the cluster 50

49. Buds not clustered at tips of vigorous shoots, or if slightly clus-
tered, then terminal bud much larger than others of the cluster 53

50. Bundle-scars numerous, scattered; pith regularly 5-pointed, star-
shaped Oak (Quercus) 109 and 120

50. Bundle-scars 3; pith not 5-pointed, star-shaped 51

51. Terminal bud absent, but leaving a terminal scar on twig

Plum (Prunus) 150

51. Terminal bud present 52

52. Buds woolly at least at tip; collateral buds generally present

Peach (Prunus Persica) p. 278

52 Buds smooth; collateral buds generally absent 145

53. Buds stalked 54

53 Buds not stalked 56

54. Buds bright yellow dotted, often superposed

Bitternut (Carya cordiformis) p.274

54. Buds not bright yellow dotted, not superposed 55

55 Buds always stalked, blunt; stipule-scars present; catkins present
in winter Alder (Alnus) p.292

IDENTIFICATION OF TREES. 199'

65. Buds, except occasionally on rapidly grown twigs, generally not
stalked, pointed; corky ridges generally present on branchlets;

stipule-scars and catkins absent

Sweet Gum (Liquidambar StyracifluaJ p.346

56. Buds sunken (i.e. partially or completely covered by the bark)
for the most part minute and superposed; best seen in a section
lengthwise of the twig, through the node at right angles to the
surface of the leaf-scar 57

56. Buds not sunken and in most cases not superposed 59

57. Twigs very stout, generally 1 cm. or more thick; pith salmon-
colored; buds bronze-silky, exposed but surrounded by an incurved

downy rim of the bark; bundle-scars generally more than 3

Kentucky Coffee Tree (Gymnocladus dloica) p. 380

57. Twigs rather slender generally less than 5 mm. thick; pith whitish
not salmon-colored; bundle-scars 3 58

58. Buds smooth, distant, the uppermost breaking through the bark
above the leaf-scar, the lower ones submerged, appearing in sec-
tion of twig as separate green dots

Honey Locust (Gleditsia triacanthusj p.382

58. Buds downy, clustered together in cavity below leaf-scar

Locust (Robinia) p.388

59. Bud-scale one, large cap-like, terminal bud absent

Willow (Salix) p.250

59. Bud-scales more than one or bud-scales absent; terminal bud
present or absent 60

60. First or lowest scale of lateral bud directly in front (i.e. facing
directly out away from twig; see fig. 100); leaf-scar covered with
a light-corky layer, large inversely triangular; bundle-scars 3,

often compound; pith more or less 5-pointed star-shaped

Poplar (Populus) 96

60. First or lowest scale of lateral bud not directly in front 61

61. Twigs branching freely the first season, therefore branches show-
ing on last season's growth, the branches surpassing the main
axis in length 62

61. Twigs generally not branching the first season or if occasionally
branching then branches not surpassing main axis in length 63

62. Bundle-scar one; twigs greenish, spicy, mucilaginous when chewed.
Sassafras (Sassafras variifolium) p.342

62. Bundle-scars 3, twigs not mucilaginous Alter-
nate-leaved Dogwood (Cornus alternifolia) under Comparisons p.418

63. Bundle-scars 1 or 2; leaf-scars, except on young shoots, mainly
densely clustered on short, stout, wart-like branches 64

63. Bundle-scars 3 or more 65

64. Bundle-scar single; leaf-scars minute, scattered leaf-scars also
present on twigs, very numerous and strongly decurrent; twigs
slender; fruit a cone, generally present Larch (Larix) 90

64. Bundle-scars 2; leaf-scars larger, scattered leaf-scars if present
relatively far apart and not decurrent; twigs stouter; fruit a stone-
fruit generally absent Ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba) p.248

65. Bundle-scars 3 or if more than 3 then in a single curved line
(bundle-scars of Bitternut p. 275 occasionally in single line) 69

65. Bundle-scars more than 3, variously grouped or scattered, but not
in a single line 66

66. Stipule-scars absent; terminal bud present 68

66. Stipule-scars present; terminal bud present or absent 67

67. 2-3 bud-scales visible; bundle-scars not projecting; terminal bud
present or generally absent. Chestnut (Castanea dentata) p.296

67. 4 or more bud-scales visible; bundle-scars projecting; terminal
bud absent Mulberry (Morus) 141

68. Buds large; twigs without resinous juice; fruit a nut; a tree

Hickory (Carya) 101

68. Buds small; twigs with resinous juice; fruit a small white drupe;
a shrub growing in swamps. Polaon Sumach (Rhua Vernix) p.394

200 TREES IN WINTER

69. Bundle-scars 3 74

69. Bundle-scars 4 or more 70

70 Terminal bud absent, but leaving a terminal scar on twig 72

70. Terminal bud present 71

71. Lateral buds mostly large, twig without resinous juice; fruit red,
berry-like; a small tree Mouutaiii Ash (Pyrus) p.354

71. Lateral buds, small, cut twig exuding watery, resinous juice; fruit

small, whitish drupes; a shrub growing in swamps

I* oisou Sumach (Rhus Vernix) p. 394

72. Leaf-scars deeply V-shaped, almost entirely surrounding the
buds 73

72. Leaf-scars, inversely triangular to heart-shaped, large, not more
than half surrounding the bud; twigs stout; pith chocolate-brown.
\ i in n Hi MM (Ailanthus glandulosa) p.390

73. Pith yellowish-brown; twigs stout, exuding a milky juice when
cut Sumach (Rhus) 153

73. Pith whitish; twigs slender, without milky juice

Yellow Wood (Cladrustis lutea) p.386

74. Terminal buds on rapidly grown shoots absent, but leaving a ter-
minal scar 83

74. Terminal buds present 75

75. Lateral buds flattened, appressed, about as broad as long 76

75. Lateral buds not distinctly flattened and appressed, in most cases
longer than broad 78

76. Terminal bud large, generally 12 mm. or more long; some of the
lateral buds generally long, nearly equalling terminal bud; leaf-
scars raised on dark red, polished ridges of the bark

mountain Ash (Pyrus) p.354

76. Terminal bud smaller, generally under 8 mm. long; all lateral
buds small; leaf-scars not on specially colored ridges of the bark 77

77 Tree with bushy habit of growth; twigs with characteristic licorice-
like taste, generally reddish-brown, more or less pale-woolly at
least toward apex; lateral buds blunt, more or less pale-woolly.
Apple (Pyrus Mains) p.352

77. Tree with 'upright habit of growth; twigs without characteristic
taste, generally yellowish-green and generally smooth; lateral buds

sharp-pointed, smooth or sometimes slightly downy • • •

Pear (Pyrus commums) p.350

78 Buds spherical or nearly so, seldom pointed; bud-scales thick,
shining; leaf-scars narrow; twigs more or less zigzag, branches
generally thorny; fruit a small pome; small trees or shrubs. . . . . .

* Hawthorn (Crutaegus) p.360

78. Buds not sphericai; bud-scales thinner "9

79. Leaf-scars narrow crescent-shaped, generally several times as
broad as high

79. Leaf -scars semicircular Vo broadly crescent -shaped, seldom as much
as 3 times as broad as high !

80. Buds long, narrow, elliptical, 3-4 times as long as wide. .......

Shad Bush (Amelanchier canadensis) p..if>«

80. Bud's 'conical', 'stout.' '.'.'. P«-«r (Pyrus commums) p.350

81 Twigs densely speckled with very minute pale dots, brightly
colored generally green-yellow below and more or less reddish
above and highly polished; buds generally densely downy at least

toward apex; collateral buds usually present . . ..

Peach (Prunu* Persica) p.3<H

81. Twigs not "densely 'speckled 'with minute dots; buds not densely
downy, collateral buds generally not present •

82. Twigs without bitter taste; branchlets generally becoming corky-
ridged; bud-scales downy-margined: leaf-soars large with con-
spicuous bundle-scars; fruit a spherical bur-like head generally
present in winter Sweet Gum (Liqui&amoar Styracijlua) p..M<i

•82. Twigs with bitter taste often resembling bitter almonds; branches
without corky ridges; bud-scales not downy-margined; fruit a
Cherry or Plum (Primus) 14?

IDENTIFICATION OF TREES. 201

53. Buds spherical or nearly so; bud-scales thick, shining; twigs more

or less zigzag, often thorny; fruit a small pome

HUM thorn (Crataegus) p.noo

83. Buds not spherical, longer than broad 84

84. Twigs generally gray-woolly toward apex; buds blunt, brown-hairy

at tip; stipule-scars at the sides of leaf-scar

Quince (Cydonia vulgaris) p. ::."•<;

54. Twigs smooth or downy but not woolly; buds pointed, generally
smooth or somewhat downy; stipule-scars more or less behind
leaf-scar Plum (Prunus) 150

THE PINES
Pinus.

Needle-shaped leaves in many small clusters of 5 or less, each
cluster surrounded by a persistent or deciduous sheath and borne on a
rudimentary branch which is subtended by a scale-like primary leaf;
fruit a cone with woody scales, maturing at the end of the second or
third season; seeds winged. The position of the resin-ducts in the
leaves is a distinctive character of some value and may be observed
if a thin cross section is made with a sharp knife and viewed toward
the light with a hand-lens. Twig photographs are about 14 natural size.

85. 5 needles in a cluster AVhite Pine (Pinus Strobus) p.- I"

85. Less than 5 needles in a cluster 86

86. 3 needles in a cluster Pitch Pine (Pinus rigida) p.212

86. 2 needles in a cluster 87

87. Needles 3-6 in. long, cones at right angles to branch 88

87. Needles %-3% in. long, cones pointing either backward or for-
ward 89

88. Twigs reddish-brown, leaves slender and flexible, resin-ducts peri-
pheral; native species Red Pine (Pinus resinosa) p.216

88. Twigs yellowish-brown, leaves thicker and stiff, resin-ducts

between periphery and bundle; European species

Austrian Pine (Pinus Laricio, var. austriaca) p.218

89. Cones pointing forward, leaves %-!% in. long, dark yellowish-
green, resin-ducts between periphery and .bundle; native species.
Jack Pine (Pinus Banksiana) p.214

89. Cones pointing backward, leaves lV2-3% in. long, bluish-green,

resin-ducts peripheral; European species

Scotch Pine (Pinus sylvestris) p.220

THE LARCHES
Larix.

Pyramidal deciduous-leaved cone-bearing trees: twigs with resinous
taste; rapidly-grown shoots with numerous scattered strongly decurrent
leaf-scars with single bundle-scars; short stout wart-like branches
with densely clustered leaf-scars abundant.

90. Cones %-% inch long with few scales; twigs pale reddish-brown;

a native tree growing in swamps

American Larch (Larix laricina ) p. 222

90. Cones 1 inch or more long with many scales; twigs yellowish,

stouter; a European tree

European Larch (Larix decidua) under Comparisons p.222

THE SPRUCES
Picea.

Evergreen pyramidal trees with scaly bark, alternate scattered, 4-
angled leaves without proper leaf-stalks but perched on persistent
decurrent projections from the bark and ovate to cylindrical pendant
cones which fall off the tree entire. The Spruces are distinguished from
the Balsam Fir by the 4-sided scattered leaves, the projecting leaf-scars
and the scaly bark. Twig photographs are about % natural size.

202 TREES IN WINTER

91. Twigs hairy 92

91. Twigs smooth or nearly so, cones cylindrical 94

92. Cones cylindrical, more than 3 inches long; cultivated species ....
• . . •• Norway Spruce (Picea Abies) p.232

92. Cones ovate to oblong, less than 3 inches long 93

93. Leaves dark yellowish green, %-% inch long. Cones ovate-oblong
!1/4-2 inches long; a tree growing on uplands, rarely in wet places,
reaching 40 ft. or more in height. . . Red Spruce (Picea rubra) p.226

93. Leaves bluish green, %-% inch long, cones ovate, %-!% inches
long, persistent on tree for more than a year; a tree growing
chiefly in swamps or lowlands, generally under 30 ft. in height,

sometimes fruiting when less than 5 ft. high

Black Spruce (Picea mariana) p.228

94. Leaves green, cones 4-7 inches long, cultivated species

Norway Spruce (Picea Abies) p.232

94. Leaves bluish green or silvery 95

95. Cones 2V&-4 inches long, cone scales distinctly longer than broad
with narrowed, ragged, blunt apex; cultivated western species.
Blue Spruce (Picea Memiesii) p.230

95. Cones l%-2 inches long, cone scales rounded, not ragged; leaves
generally with unpleasant odor, native in northern New England
but cultivated further south. White Spruce (Picea canadensis) p.224

THE POPLARS

Populus.

Rapidly growing trees generally with erect more or less continuous
trunk forming distinct whorls of branches at top of each year's growth
by which the age of the tree may be estimated; branchlets brittle
easily separating at point of attachment; young bark smooth, generally
light colored; pith, 5-pointed star-shaped, upon drying generally turning
brown or black; leaf-scars large, 3-lobed, inverted triangular, covered
with a light colored corky layer; stipule-scars generally distinct, narrow;
bundle-scars 3, simple or compound in 3 groups; buds with the first
scale anterior (facing outward), the first pair of scales small and
opposite; scale-scars marking annual growth persisting for several
years; seeds downy, produced from catkins in spring, the tree often
spreading widely by formation of root suckers. The Poplars are
dioecious. They resemble the Willows but are easily distinguished
by the numerous scales to the bud. In addition to the native species
here described a rare form, the Downy Poplar [Populus heterophylla L.],
occurs locally in swamps in southern New England.

96. Twigs covered at least at apex with white cottony felt which may

be readily rubbed off exposing the greenish bark below

Silver Poplar (Populus alba) p.252

96. Twigs smooth, not at all covered with white felt 97

97. Twigs yellowish 98

97. Twigs not yellowish (generally reddish-brown) 99

98. Lateral buds for the most part divergent, large, about 10 mm. or
more in length, tree with more or less pyramidal head, but not
narrowly spire-shaped Carolina Poplar (Populus deltoides) p.260

98. Lateral buds for the most part appressed, smaller, generally under

8 mm. long, tree narrowly spire-shaped

Lombardy Poplar (Populus nigra* var. italica) p.262

99. Buds more or less pale dusty-downy

Large-toothed. Aspen (Populus grandidentata) p.256

99. Buds not downy 100

100. Buds large, over 15 mm. long, covered with fragrant sticky gum.

Balsam Poplar (Populus balsamifera) p.25S

100. Buds small, under 10 mm. long, shiny, slightly sticky but not

fragrant Small-toothed Aspen (Populus tremuloides) p.254

IDENTIFICATION OF TREES. 203

THE HICKORIES

Carya,

Trees with smooth gray tough bark in young trees, becoming rough-
ened with age; twigs in the main stout, tough, flexible, but with
difficulty broken, dark, sharply outlined against the sky; buds more
or less naked to evidently scaly, frequently superposed, the lateral
sometimes enclosed in a sac soon splitting at the top and often
stalked; leaf-scars alternate, more than 2-ranked, large, conspicuous,
more or less 3-lobed inversely triangular; bundle-scars conspicuous,
more than 3, irregularly scattered or collected in 3 more or less regular
groups, rarely in a straight line; pith not chambered except at nodes,
sometimes somewhat star-shaped in cross section; lenticels oblong,
conspicuous; fruit an unsculptured nut, inclosed in a husk which
splits into four valves at least at the apex.

101. Buds conspicuously bright yellow with minute glandular dots;
terminal buds elongated, flattened; bud-scales 4-6, valvate in
pairs Bitternut (Carya cordiformis) p.274

101. Buds not conspicuously bright yellow-dotted; terminal buds ovate;
bud-scales, 10 or more, overlapping, or the outermost on lateral
buds usually forming a closed sac soon splitting from the top;
inner scales hairy 102

102. Buds small, terminal buds 5-10 mm. long, their outer darker scales
generally somewhat glandular dotted, but not conspicuously
yellow; outer scales often falling and exposing downy scales
beneath; twigs smooth, comparatively slender; bark not at all or
but slightly shaggy Pignut (Carya glabra) p.272

102. Buds large, the terminal buds 8-15 mm. long, ovate, nearly or
quite glandless; twigs stout, often downy toward tip 103

103. Bark not shaggy; terminal buds broadly ovate to spherical, outer
scales soon falling off entire, exposing pale yellowish-gray silky
scales beneath Mockernut (Carya alba) p.270

103. Bark distinctly shaggy; terminal buds elongated ovate, dark
outer scales persisting through winter but shagging off in pieces
from their apex downward. Shag-bark Hickory (Carya ovataj p.268

THE BIRCHES
Betula.

Bark smooth, in some species peeling into papery layers but not flaky;
lenticels becoming conspicuously horizontally elongated with age; leaf-
scars alternate, 2-ranked, semi-oval to crescent-shaped; stipule-scars
narrow, often inconspicuous; bundle-scars 3 rather inconspicuous; fruit
a flat seed-like body borne in catkins, staminate catkins generally
present on the tree in winter.

104. Bark close, not easily separated into thin papery layers 105

104. Bark easily separated into thin papery layers and generally peel-
ing spontaneously 106

105. Bark dark reddish brown; twigs with strong wintergreen taste.
Black Birch (Betula lenta) p.280

105. Bark chalky-white; twigs without wintergreen taste, generally
roughened with resinous dots. Gray Birch (Betula populifolia) p.286

106. Outer layers of bark chalky-white 107

106. Outer layers of bark not chalky-white 108

107. Native species Paper Birch (Betula alba var. papyrifera) p.288

107. European species European White Birch (Betula alba) p.290

108. Bark reddish-brown to light pink; rare and local in New Hamp-
shire and Massachusetts, occasionally cultivated

Red Birch (Betula nigra) p.284

108. Bark dirty-yellow; common throughout New England

Yellow Birch (Betula lutea) p.282

204 TREES IN WINTER

THE OAKS
Quercus.

The Oaks form a large genus, of which 52 are North American. Of
these, 12 are native to New England. Buds clustered at ends of twigs
more or less 5-sided pyramidal, covered with 5 rows of closely over-
lapping brownish scales. Leaf-scars concave to rounded above, round-
ed at base, generally broader than high and raised with a ridge more
or less well marked, decurrent from lower edge, the ridges from the
5 ranks of leaf-scars causing twig to be more or less 5-angled
especially when dried. Bundle-scars irregularly scattered, inconspicuous.
Stipule-scars inconspicuous. Pith of cut twig 5-pointed, star-shaped.
Cross-section of branch or trunk showing layers of large, porous spring-
wood alternating with dense layers of summer wood. Medullary rays
of wood very prominent, showing as radial lines in cross section of a
log, also generally showing prominently, especially through a hand-
lens, on cut end of stout branchlet of several years growth. Fruit an
acorn inclosed in a scaly cup. Dead leaves often persistent on the
tree during winter.

Key to Oaks based upon fruiting material.

109. Fruit maturing in autumn of second year, ripe acorns therefore
borne upon parts of twig two years old; immature acorns to be
found in winter on twigs of the past season's growth; shell of
nut hairy inside; abortive ovules at the top of the nut; scales

of acorn-cup broad and thin; lobes of leaves bristle-pointed

Black Oaks 110

109. Fruit maturing in one year, ripe acorns therefore borne upun past
season's growth; no immature acorns to be found upon twigs in
winter; shell of nut smooth inside; abortive ovules at base of nut;
lower scales at least of acorn cup more or less thickened at base
giving a knobby appearance to surface of cup; scales more or less
densely woolly; kernel commonly sweetish; lobes of leaves not

bristle-pointed; bark flaky except in Chestnut Oak

White Oaks 1 1 4

110. Cup of acorn shallow saucer-shaped Ill

110. Cup top-shaped 112

111. Cup thin, 15 mm. or less wide; buds 4 mm. or less long

Pin Oak (Quercus palustris) p.314

111. Cup thick, 20 mm. or more wide; buds over 4 mm. long

Red Oak (Quercus rubra) p. 312

112. Buds under 4 mm. long; twigs slender; shrubs

Bear Oak (Quercus ilicifolia) p.320

112. Buds over 4.5 mm. long; twigs rather stout; trees '. 113

113. Upper scales of cup loosely overlapping; buds pointed, whole

surface woolly; inner bark yellow

Black Oak (Quercus velutina) p.31H

113. Upper scales of cup closely overlapping; buds blunt, downy above
middle; inner bark pale red. Scarlet Oak (Quercus coccinea) p.31«

114. Upper scales of cup with thread-like outgrowths forming a
fringe to cup; branchlets often with corky ridges; lateral buds
frequently appressed BHF Oak (Quercus macrocarpa) p.302

114. Cup without distinct fringe; branchlets without corky ridges;
lateral buds divergent 115

115. Bark on branchlets peeling back in dark stiff-papery layers;
marginal scales of cup narrow awn-pointed; acorns long-stalked.
Swamp White Oak (Quercus bicolor) p. 304

115. Bark on branchlets not peeling back in dark stiff-papery layers;
acorns sessile or shcrt-stalked (at times long-stalked in White
Oak) H6

116. Buds sharp-pointed 117

116. Buds blunt 118

IDENTIFICATION OP TREES. 205

117. Nut 20-35 mm. long-; buds 4-10 mm. long; bark thick, furrowed,
not flaky Chestnut Oak (Quercus Prlnus) p.310

117. Nut 15-20 mm. long; buds 3-6 mm. long; bark thin, flaky

Chinquapin Oak (Quercus Muhlenbergii) p.306

118. Twigs slender, generally not over 2 mm. thick; shrubs

Dwarf Chinquapin Oak (Quercus prinoides) p.30N

118. Twigs relatively stout, generally over 2 mm. thick; trees .... 119

119. Twigs, at least in part, covered with very fine close olive-green
down; buds, generally nearly hemispherical, about as broad as
long; scales of cup only slightly knobby, apex of nut generally
downy Post Oak (Quercus stellatu) p.300

119. Twigs smooth; buds distinctly longer than broad, broadly ovate;
scales of cup thick-knobby at base, apex of nut generally smooth.
White Oak (Quercus alba) p.298

Key to Oaks without fruit.

NOTE. (W) after name indicates that the tree belongs to the White

Oak Group.
(B) after name indicates that the tree belongs to the Black

Oak Group.

Immature acorns therefore may often be found on winter twigs of
species marked with (B) but not on those marked with (W).

120. Buds large, those at tip of twig- 4.5 mm. or more long 121

120. Buds smaller, less than 4.5 mm. long 128

121. Bark of trunk flaky 122

121. Bark of trunk not flaky 125

122. Lateral buds generally appressed, buds downy; older twigs often
with corky ridges Bur Oak (W) (Querrus macrocarpa) p. 302

122. Lateral buds divergent, buds smooth; twigs without corky ridges
123

123. Buds narrow conical, pointed

Chinquapin Oak ( W) (Quercus Muhlenbergii) p.SOtt

123. Buds shorter, blunt 124

124. Twigs at least in part covered with very fine close orange-brown
down Post Oak (W) (Quercus stellata) p.3OO

124. Twigs smooth White Oak (W) (Quercus alba) p.298

125. Surface of buds pale-woolly 126

125. Surface of buds not woolly 128

126. Inner bark of trunk orange-yellow; twigs bitter, coloring saliva
yellow when chewed; whole surface of bud woolly; buds large,
ovate-conical Black Oak (B) (Quercus velutina) p.318

126. Inner bark of trunk not yellow; twigs neither bitter nor coloring
saliva when chewed; not more than upper half of bud woolly 127

127. Buds sharp-pointed; ovate, the widest part about %-% above base;

slightly or not at all woolly toward apex

Red Oak (B) (Quercus rubra) p.312

127. Buds blunt-pointed; oval-ovate, the widest part at or slightly below

middle; distinctly woolly above middle

Searlet Oak (B) (Quercus coccineaj p.316

128. Fissures of bark separated by long flat ridges; buds ovate, more

or less constricted at base; twigs not bitter

Red Oak (B) (Quercus rubra) p.312

128. Fissures of bark separated by long rounded ridges; buds narrower,
conical, seldom constricted at' base; twigs more or less bitter when
chewed Chestnut Oak (W) (Quercus Prinus) p.310

}29. Buds narrow, conical 130
29. Buds short, blunt 133

130. Bark of trunk flaky •

130. Bark of trunk not flaky 132

206 TREES IN WINTER

.131. Buds downy, lateral buds generally appressed; older twigs often
with corky ridges Bur Oak (W) (Quercus macrocarpaj i>.:io-

131. Buds smooth, lateral buds divergent, twigs without corky ridges
< iiiii<in)ii»iii Oak ( W) (Quercus MuhlenbergiiJ p.ifOU

132. Twigs of past season dull, finely downy; shrubs

Bear Oak (B) (Quercus ilicifoliaj p.320

132. Twigs smooth, shining; slender pin-like twigs numerous, arising

at nearly a right angle with the branchlets; trees

Piu Oak (B) (Quercus palustris) p.314

133. Bark on branchlets peeling into long, dark, stiff-papery layers.
Swamp White Oak (W) (Quercus McolorJ p.304

133. Bark on branchlets not peeling into long, dark, stiff-papery lay-
ers 134

134. Twigs slender, generally not over 2 mm. thick; shrubs 135

134. Twigs stout, generally over 2 mm. thick; trees 136

135. Bark of trunk smooth; young acorns generally found on winter

twigs; buds more generally conical

Bear Oak (B) (Quercus ilicifolia) p.320

135. Bark of trunk flaky; young acorns never found on winter twigs.
Dwarf < hi mi mi [tin Oak (W) (Quercus prinoides)p.308

136. Lateral buds generally appressed; buds densely downy; older twigs
often with corky rides. Bur Oak (W) (Quercus macrocarpa) p.302

136. Lateral buds divergent; buds not densely downy; twigs without
corky ridges 137

137. Twigs at least in part covered with very fine close orange-brown
down; buds generally nearly hemispherical and about as broad as
long Post Oak (W) (Quercus stellata) p.300

137. Twigs smooth; buds broadly ovate, distinctly longer than broad.
W7hite Oak (W) (Quercus alba) p.298

THE ELMS
Ulmus.

Leaf-scars alternate, 2-ranked, semi-circular, small, but conspicuous,
covered with a light corky layer; b'indle-scars prominent, 3 to several,
sunken; terminal bud absent, lateral buds medium sized with 2 ranks
of over-lapping bud-scales; twigs slender; bark ridged; fruit small, flat,
winged, ripening in spring.

138. Twigs gray and rough and strongly mucilaginous if chewed; tips

of buds conspicuous with long rusty hairs

Slippery Elm (Ulmus fulva) p.322

138. Twigs neither gray and rough nor strongly mucilaginous; buds
without long rusty hairs 139

139. Buds chestnut brown; bud-scales with darker margins; bark
ridged; native species 140

139. Buds smoky brown to almost black; bud-scales nearly uniform in
color, bark firmer, roughened into dark oblong blocks; trunk
mostly continuous into crown with stout limbs arising at a broad

angle; head, "Oak-like;" European species

English Elm (Ulmus campestris) p.324

140. Twigs often with corky ridges; trunk generally continuous into
crown with stiff dependent lower branches; head narrow, "Hickory-
like." Cork Elm (Ulmus racemosa) p. 328

140. Twigs without corRy ridges; trunk dividing into several limbs,
spreading gradually upward and gracefully recurving; head broad,
"Elm-like." White Elm (Ulmus americana) p.326

THE MULBERRIES
Morus.

Leaf-scars alternate, 2-ranked, nearly circular; stipule-scars narrow;
bundle-scars projecting in a closed ring or irregularly scattered; ter-
minal bud absent; bud-scales 2-ranked; twigs with milky juice.

IDENTIFICATION OF TREES. 207

141. Buds about as broad as long, more or less flattened and appressed,
generally under 4 mm. long; bud-scales reddish brown without
darker margins White Mulberry (Mortis alba) p.334

141. Buds longer than broad, not at all or but slightly flattened, diver-
gent, generally over 5 mm. long; bud-scales greenish brown with
darker margins Red Mulberry (Morns rubra) p.332

THE MAGNOLIAS

Magnolia.

Terminal bud much larger than lateral buds; bud-scales valvate,
united in pairs to form a cap. corresponding to stipules, each pair
enclosing in succession an erect folded leaf connected with the next
inner pair of scales; the unmatured leaf which belongs to the outer pair
of stipular scales falling off in autumn and leaving a scar on side
of bud with a decurrent ridge below, representing its leaf stalk;
stipule-scar narrow, encircling the twig; leaf-scars alternate, more
than 2-ranked, broad, oval to narrow crescent-shaped, bundle-scais
numerous, irregularly scattered or in a double row; twigs aromatic;
fruit a cone made up of numerous follicles which split open in the
autumn and let out the large flattish seeds.

142. Buds large 25-50 mm. long; twigs stout; leaf-scars large .... 143

142. Buds small 10-20 mm. long; twigs slender; leaf-scars small ... 144

143. Buds densely pale-downy; twigs light yellowish to bluish-green,
more or less downy, fruit nearly spherical. Large-leaved Magnolia,

Large-leaved Cucumber Tree, Large-leaved Umbrella Tree

(Magnolia macrophylla Michx. ) under Comparisons p.336

143. Buds smooth; twigs brown; fruit elongated

Umbrella Tree (Magnolia tripetala) p.338

144. Twigs brown; leaf-scars narrow, crescent to U-shaped; buds blunt,
densely downy; bark flaky; a tree; in New England found only
in cultivation Cucumber Tree (Magnolia acuminata) p.336

144. Twigs and buds bright green; leaf-scars oval to broadly crescent-
shaped; buds pointed, with long, silky hairs, often nearly smooth;
pith with more or less distinct transverse woody partitions in the
ground mass; bark smooth; in New England usually a shrub,
growing wild in deep swamps in Eastern Massachusetts, also
extensively cultivated. Sweet Bay, Swamp Bay, Laurel Magnolia,

Beaver Tree. (Magnolia virginiana L. ; M. glauca L. )

under Comparisons p.336

THE CHERRIES, PLUMS AND PEACH

Primus.

Leaf-scars alternate, more than 2-ranked; bundle-scars 3; stipule-scars
present, inconspicuous, or absent; buds with scales overlapping in sev-
eral rows; terminal bud present or absent; fruit a drupe.

145. Terminal bud present 146

145. Terminal bud absent. (Plums) 151

146. Twigs densely speckled with very minute pale dots, brightly
colored, generally green-yellow below and more or less reddish
above and highly polished; buds generally densely downy at least

toward apex; collateral buds usually present

Peach (Prunus Persica) p.378

146. Twigs not densely speckled with very minute dots; buds not
densely downy; collateral buds absent (occasionally present in
Wild Red Cherry) 147

147. Buds clustered at tips of all shoots; twigs under 2 mm. thick.
Wild Red Cherry (Prunus pennsylvanica) p.366

147. Buds not clustered, or clustered only on short fruit spurs; twigs
generally over 2.5 mm. thick 148

148. Short stout slow-growing fruit spurs present with buds clustered
at their tips; European species 149

148. Short fruit spurs absent; native species 150

208 TREES IN WINTER

149. Habit erect, generally with a central leader

Sweet Cherry (Prunus avlum) p.368

149. Habit spreading, without central leader; buds smaller; twigs more
slender Sour Cherry (Prunus Cerasus) p.370

150. Bud-scales gray-margined; buds generally over 5 mm. long; bark

smooth; generally only a shrub

Choke Cherry (Prunus virginiana) p.364

150. Bud-scales uniform in color; buds generally under 5 mm. long;

bark becoming rough-scaly; a small to large tree

Wild Black Cherry (Prunus serotina) p.362

151. Native species, growing wild 152

151. Cultivated species. Varieties chiefly of the American, European,
or Japanese type of Plum, p.374

152. Buds generally under 4 mm. long

American Wild Plum (Prunus americana) p.374

152. Buds generally over 4 mm. long. Canada Plum (Prunus nijra) p.372

THE SUMACHS
Rhus.

Shrubs or small trees with pithy twigs and milky or watery juice;
leaf-scars alternate, more than 2-ranked; bundle-scars numerous scat-
tered or in a single curved line; stipule-scars absent; terminal bud
present or absent; fruit a small drupe borne on erect or drooping
clusters.

153. Terminal bud present; fruit smooth white in loose drooping clus-
ters Poison Sumach (Rhus Vernix) p.394

153. Terminal bud absent; fruit more or less hairy, red, in dense erect
clusters 154

154. Leaf-scars narrow, V-shaped, nearly encircling the buds; cut twig
showing milky juice 155

154. Leaf-scars broader; inversely triangular to broadly crescent-
shaped; twig with watery juice and resinous taste

Dwarf Sumach (Rhus copallina) under Comparisons p. 392

155. Twigs densely hairy Stagrhorn Sumach (Rhus typhina) p.392

155. Twigs smooth

Smooth Sumach (Rhus glabra) under Comparisons p.392

THE MAPLES
Acer.

Leaf-scars opposite, narrow U or V-shaped; bundle-scars conspicuous,
equidistant, typically 3, though sometimes each of these becomes
compounded; fruit winged, in pairs.

156. Conspicuous, narrow tooth present between leaf-scars 157

156. Conspicuous tooth absent from between leaf-scars 159

157. Buds white-downy, collateral buds generally present, twigs gener-
ally with a bloom Box Elder (Acer Negundo) p.412

157. Buds smooth, collateral buds never present, twigs without bloom
158

158. Buds with only one pair of scales visible, older branchlets white-
streaked Striped Maple (Acer pennsylvanicum) p.39S

158. Buds with several pairs of scales visible, branchlets not white-
streaked Norway Maple (Acer platanoides) p.408

159. Outer single pair of bud-scales equalling the bud in length, their
edges meeting and enclosing the bud, therefore generally only
one pair of scales visible; pith brown; shrubs or at the most
small trees 160

159. Outer pair of scales shorter than bud, their edges not meeting,
therefore several pairs of scales visible; trees 161

160. Buds and twigs stout, smooth; young bark with longitudinal white
lines Striped Maple (Acer pennsylvanicum) p.398

IDENTIFICATION OP TREES. 209

160. Buds and twigs more slender, both buds and twigs (at least toward

tip) white-downy, white lines absent from bark

Mountain Maple (Acer spicatum) p.400

161. Buds brown, narrow, sharp-pointed, generally 4-8 pairs of closely

over-lapping scales visible, collateral buds absent

Sugar Maple (Acer saccharum p.402

161. Buds red or green, broader, blunt-pointed, fewer scales visible 162

162. Terminal buds small, red, generally under 5 mm. long and not
distinctly larger than lateral buds; collateral buds generally
present; pith often pink; native trees 163

162. Terminal buds large, stout, generally over 5 mm. long and gener-
ally distinctly larger than lateral buds; collateral buds never
present ; European trees 164

163. Broken twigs with rank odor, bark falling away in large, thin
flakes on old trees, branchlets strongly tending to grow down-
ward and curve upward at their tips

Silver Maple (Acer saccharinum) p.404

163. Broken twigs without rank odor, bark rough on old trees but gen-
erally not flaking in large thin scales, branchlets less markedly
curved Red Maple (Acer rubrumj p.406

164. Buds red, inner scales covered with rusty wool; adjacent edges of
leaf-scars meeting and forming a slight projection; bark close-
ridged, not flaky Norway Maple (Acer platanoides) p.40S

164. Buds green, inner scales white- woolly, edges of leaf-scars not

meeting; bark flaking off in squarish scales

Sycamore Maple (Acer Pseudo-Platanus) p.410

THE ASHES
Fraxinus.

Leaf-scars opposite, large, conspicuous; bundle-scars numerous,
minute, forming a curved line often more or less confluent; buds stout,
scurfy, brown or black with ovate bud-scales opposite in pairs; twigs
stout and brittle; fruit winged.

165. Leaf-scars deeply concave on upper margin

White Ash (Fraxinus americana) p.422

165. Leaf-scars not deeply concave on upper margin, semicircular to
shield-shaped 166

166. Bark soft-scaly; buds generally black; last pair of leaf-scars
generally some distance below end of twig giving a stalked-like

appearance to the terminal bud

Black Ash (Fraxinus nigra) p.426

166. Bark ridged, not soft-scaly 167

167. Buds black; trees found only in cultivation

European Ash (Fraxinus excelsior) under Comparisons p.424

167. Buds dark brown; trees native 168

168. Twigs downy Red Ash (Fraxinu* pennsylvanica) p.424

168. Twigs smoeth. Green Ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica, var. lanceolata)

under Comparisons p.424

210 TREES IN WINTER

WHITE PINE

Soft Pine, Weymouth Pine.

Pinus Strobus L.

HABIT — The tallest conifer of New England, 50-80 ft. high with a
trunk diameter of 2-4 ft., in virgin forests of northern New England
trees have been found over 150 ft. in height with a trunk diameter of 7
ft.; trunk straight, tapering gradually, normally continuous into the
crown, with wide-spreading, horizontal limbs, in young trees generally
arising in whorls of five, and with secondary branches in the same plane,
producing characteristic horizontal layers; head broadly conical, spray
delicate, bluish-green.

BARK — On young trunks and branches, smooth, greenish-brown,
becoming fissured into comparatively shallow, broad, flat-topped, longi-
tudinal ridges.

TWIGS — Slender, light brown, smooth or slightly hairy, resinous.

LEAVES — In clusters of 5, without sheaths in winter, soft, bluish-
green, flexible, 3-5 inches long, slender, 3-sided. MICROSCOPIC
SECTION — showing a single fibro-vascular bundle, 1 or 2 peri-
pheral resin-ducts, a single layer of strengthening cells only beneath the
epidermis, stomata only on the two inner sides.

BUDS — Ovate to oblong, about 1 cm. long, sharp-pointed, bud-scales
long, pointed, yellowish-brown.

FRUIT — Cones, 4-10 inches long, stalked, drooping, cylindrical and
more or less curved. SCALES — thin, not thickened at apex and without
spines. Seeds winged.

COMPARISONS — The White Pine is the only Pine of New England
that has 5 needles in a cluster. The layered arrangement of its
secondary branches enables it to be recognized as far as it can be seen.
Young trees can be further distinguished from the Pitch or Red Pines
by the greater delicacy and bluer color of the leafage. Frequently the
terminal bud of the central leader is killed by an insect, the Pine
Weevil, thus interrupting the growth and causing one or more of the
young lateral branches to grow erect to take its place. Gnarled old
specimens which have many times in their lifetime suffered these
insect injuries may present a rather picturesque appearance but are of
little value for lumber. The tree photographed perhaps had its leader
killed when young, but despite the three erect limbs which have taken
the place of the single leader it still shows the outline characteristic
of the species.

DISTRIBUTION — In fertile soils; moist woodlands or dry uplands;
often planted for ornament, wind-breaks and for reforestation. New-
foundland and Nova Scotia, through Quebec and Ontario to Lake
Winnipeg; south along the mountains to Georgia, ascending to 2,500
feet in the Adirondacks and to 4,300 feet in North Carolina; west to
Minnesota and Iowa.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Common, from the vicinity of the sea coast
to altitudes of 2,500 feet, forming extensive forests.

WOOD — Light, not strong, straight-grained, easily worked, light
brown often slightly tinged with red, largely manufactured into lumber,
shingles and laths, used in construction, for cabinet-making, the in-
terior finish of buildings, woodenware, matches and the masts of ves-
sels.

WHITE PINE

212 TREES IN WINTER

PITCH PINE
Hard Pine, Yellow Pine.

Pinus rigida Mill.

HABIT— Generally a low tree 30-50 ft. in height with a trunk
diameter of 1-2 ft. occasionally 70-80 ft, in height with trunk diameter
of 2-4 ft.; trunk more or less tapering, branches thick, gnarled, often
drooping, forming- an open pyramidal or oblong head; foliage in coarse
rigid, yellowish-green tufts. Dead branches and old persistent cones
are frequent and the tree has generally a decidedly scraggly appearance.

BARK — On young trunks and branches rough, broken into reddish
brown scales, with age becoming deeply furrowed into broad flat-
topped ridges separating on the surface into rather loose dark reddish-
brown scales. Clusters of leaves and short branches are not infre-
quently formed directly from the old trunk (see in photograph above
the tape measure.)

TWIGS — Stout, light brown, not downy, roughened especially after ths
fall of the leaves by the decurrent bases of scales subtending the leaf-
clusters.

LEAVES — In clusters of 3, with persistent sheaths, yellowish-
green, 2-5 inches long, stout, stiff, spreading with pointed tips.
MICROSCOPIC SECTION — 3-sided, showing 2 flbro-vascular bundles,
resin-ducts located intermediate between bundles and periphery,
pf lengthening cells beneath the epidermis in patches several layers
thick, generally surrounding the resin-ducts and at one side of
the vascular bundles, stomata on all three sides.

BUDS — Cylindrical to ovate, pointed, resin-coated, scales reddish-
brown.

FRUIT — Cones !1/^-4 inches long, without stalks, ovate becoming more
or less spherical when opened, borne laterally, singly or in clusters
at about a right angle to the twig, often remaining on the branches
for ten or a dozen years and frequently found on trees only a few
feet high. SCALES — thickened at tip and with a stiff recurved prickle.

COMPARISONS — The Pitch Pine is the only native Pine in New
England that has three needles in a cluster. Its ragged appearance with
frequent dead branches, persistent cones, and yellowish-green, stiff
foliage renders it easily distinguished from the White and Red Pines
without examination of the needles.

DISTRIBUTION — Most common in dry, sterile soils, occasional in
swamps. New Brunswick to Lake Ontario; south to Virginia and along
the mountains to northern Georgia; west to western New York, Ohio,
Kentucky and Tennessee.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine— mostly in the southwestern section near
the seacost; as far north as Chesterville, Franklin county; scarcely
more than a shrub near its northern limits; New Hampshire — most
common along the Merrimac valley to the White Mountains and up
the Connecticut valley to the mouth of the Passumpsic. reaching an
altitude of 1,000 feet above the sea level; Vermont — common in the
northern Champlain valley, less frequent in the Connecticut valley; Con-
necticut— rare or local in Litchfield county, frequent elsewhere; com-
mon in the other New England states, often forming large tracts of
voodland, sometimes exclusively occupying extensive areas.

AVOOD- — Light, soft, not strong, brittle, coarse-grained, very durable,
light brown or red, with thick yellow or often white sapwood; largely
used for fuel and in the manufacture of charcoal; occasionally sawed
Into lumber.

PITCH PINK

214 TREES IN WINTER

JACK PINE
Northern Scrub Pine, Gray Pine, Spruce Pine.

Pinus Banksiana Lamb.
P. divaricata auth.

HABIT — Usually a low tree, 15-30 ft. in height with a trunk diameter
of 6-8 inches, under favorable conditions becoming' 50-60 ft. high with
a trunk diameter of 10-15 inches; with large spreading branches forming
an open symmetrical head resembling somewhat the Spruce in regular-
ity of outline or on exposed windy situations and in poor soil becoming
stunted with gnarled stem and irregular scraggly distorted head.

BARK — Dark reddish-brown with irregular rounded edges roughened
with close scales.

TWIGS — Rather slender, reddish to purplish brown, not downy, rough-
ened by scales subtending leaf-clusters.

LEAVES — In clusters of 2 with short persistent sheaths, dark
yellowish-green, Vz-^-Vz inches long, stout, stiff, generally curved and
twisted, flatened or concave on one side, rounded on the other, tip
pointed. MISCROSCOPIC SECTION — showing 2 widely separated
fibro-vascular bundles, resin-ducts located intermediate between bundles
and periphery, a single layer of strengthening cells around the resin-
ducts and one or more layers beneath the epidermis.

BUDS — Ovate, short-pointed, coated more or less thickly with resin.

FRUIT — Cones 1-2 inches long, without stalks, conic-oblong usually
curved and pointed forward, appearing between or sometimes at the
whorls of lateral branches, more or less distorted, remaining closed
for several years, persisting on the tree often for a dozen years.
SCALES — in young cones with an incurved prickle, when mature
thickened at the apex without spines or prickles.

COMPARISONS — The short yellowish-green needles of the Jack Pine
will distinguish this species from other Pines. The longest needles some-
times approach in size short needles of the Scotch Pine ,but those of
the Scotch Pine are of a bluish-green color and moreover their cones
point backward instead of forward as in the Jack Pine.

DISTRIBUTION — Sterile, sandy soil; lowlands, boggy plains, rocky
slopes. Nova Scotia, northwesterly to the Athabasca river, and north-
erly down the Mackenzie to the Arctic circle; west through northern
New York, northern Illinois and Michigan to Minnesota.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — Traveller Mountain and Grand Lake;
Seal's Island on Washington county coast, Harrington, Orland and
Cape Rosier; Schoodic peninsula in Gouldsboro, a forest 30 ft. high:
Flagstaff; east branch of Penobscot; the Forks; Lake Umbagog; New
Hampshire — around the shores of Lake Umbagog, on points extending
into the lake rare: Welch mountains; Vermont — rare, but few trees
at each station; Monkton in Addison county; Fairfax, Franklin county;
Starkesboro.

WOOD — Light, soft, not strong, close-grained, clear pale brown or
rarely orange color -with a thick nearly white sapwood; used for fuel
and occasionally for railroad ties and posts; occasionally manufactured
into lumber.

JACK PIXE

216 TREES IN WINTER

RED PINE
Norway Pine.

Pinus resinosa Ait.

HABIT — A tree 50-75 ft. in height with a trunk diameter of 2-3 ft., in
Maine, reaching- a height of over 100 ft.; trunk erect, continuous into the
crown with stout spreading branches often dependent and ascending at
their tips, more distinctly whorled than in the Pitch Pine, in young trees
clothing the trunk to the ground, forming a broadly pyramidal head
becoming irregularly round-topped with age. Foliage in long flexible
dark green tufts.

BARK — Reddish-brown, with shallow flat ridges, separating off in
irregular thin flaky scales.

TWIGS — Stout, light reddish-brown, not downy, roughened by decur-
rent scales subtending leaf clusters especially toward base of each year's
growth.

LEAVES — In clusters of 2, with long persistent sheaths, dark
green, shining, 3-6 inches long, slender, soft flexible, flattened on one
side, rounded on the other, with pointed tip. MICROSCOPIC SECTION
— showing 2 fibre-vascular bundles, peripheral resin-ducts, a
single layer of strengthening cells beneath the epidermis and around the
resin-ducts, stomata all around.

BUDS — Oblong to conical, pointed; scales reddish-brown.

FRUIT — Cones about 2 inches long, without stalks, ovate-conical,
when opened more or less spherical, making a right angle with the stem,
ripened cones remaining on the tree during winter. SCALES — -thickened
at apex but without spines or prickers.

COMPARISONS — The Red Pine with two long needles in a cluster
should not be confused with our other native New England Pines. It
resembles, however, the Austrian Pine, but may be distinguished from
this species by its more slender flexible needles (see under Austrian
Pine).

DISTRIBUTION — In poor soils; sandy plains, dry woods. Newfound-
land and New Brunswick, throughout Quebec and Ontario, to the
southern end of Lake Winnipeg; south to Pennsylvania; west through
Michigan and Wisconsin to Minnesota.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — common, plains, Brunswick, (Cum-
berland county;) woods, Bristol (Lincoln county;) from Amherst
(western part of Hancock county) and Clifton (southeastern part of
Penobscot county) northward just east of the Penobscot river, the
predominant tree, generally on dry ridges and eskers. but in Green-
bush, and Passadunkeag growing abundantly on peat bogs with Black
Spruce; hillsides and lower mountains about Moosehead, scattered; New
Hampshire — ranges with the Pitch Pine as far north as the White
Mountains, but is less common, usually in groves of a few to several
hundred acres in extent; Vermont — less common than the White or
the Pitch Pine, but not rare; Massachusetts — still more local, in sta-
tions widely separated, single trees or small groups; Connecticut — rare
or local; Granby, Salisbury; Rhode Island — occasional.

WOOD — Light, hard, very close-grained, pale red, with thin yellow
often nearly white sapwood; largely used in the construction of bridges
and buildings, for piles, masts and spars. The bark is occasionally used
for tanning leather.

BED PINE

218 TEEES IN WINTER

AUSTRIAN PINE
Black Pine.

Plnus Laricio, var. austriaca Endl.

HABIT — A tall tree reaching 60-80 ft. in height; trunk erect contin-
uous into the crown, branches in young trees regularly whorled, foliage
in rigid dark green tufts.

BARK — Grayish-brown, roughened with scaly ridges, reddish-brown
within.

TWIGS — Stout, yellowish-brown, not downy, roughened by decurrent
scales subtending leaf-clusters especially toward base of each year's
growth.

LEAVES — In clusters of 2, with relatively short persistent sheaths,
dark dullish green, 3-5 inches long, rigid, flattened on one side, rounded
on the other, sharp-pointed. MICROSCOPIC SECTION — showing
2 fibre-vascular bundles, resin-ducts located intermediate between
bundles and periphery, strengthening cells beneath the epidermis in
patches several layers thick also surrounding the resin-ducts and on
one side of the fibre-vascular bundles, stomata all around.

BUDS — Oblong-conical, pointed, sometimes covered with a white resin.

FRUIT — Cones 21/4-3 inches long, without stalks, ovate-conical, becom-
ing broadly ovate when opened, making about a right angle with the
stem. SCALES — thickened at apex, generally with a short dull spine.

COMPARISONS — The Austrian Pine resembles most closely the Red
Pine among our New England species. The stiff character of its
sharp-pointed leaves in distinction to the soft flexible leaves of the
Red Pine may be observed by striking the open hand against a tuft
of the needles. The winter twigs of the Austrian Pine are yellowish-
brown, those of the Red Pine are bright reddish-brown. The micro-
scopic sections of the leaves of the two species are very distinct.

DISTRIBUTION — A native of Europe but frequently cultivated in
this country as an ornamental tree and to some extent used in forest
planting.

WOOD — Light, soft, rich in turpentine and very durable. In Europe
the wood is used as a building timber and turpentine is obtained from
the tree.

AUSTRIAN PINE

220

TREES IN WINTER

SCOTCH PINE
Scotch "Fir."

Pinus Sylvestris L.

HABIT — A tree up to 70 feet or occasionally 120 ft. in height; as
cultivated in this country in the open, often a low branching tree with
more or less pendant limbs and inclined trunk presenting a rather
straggling or unkempt appearance; frequently of more erect habit, espe-
cially in company with other trees.

BARK — Grayish-brown, scaly, upper part of trunk and branches
characteristically smoothish in appearance by flaking off of the outer
bark in thin papery light-reddish layered scales.

TWIGS — Of medium thickness, dull grayish-yellow, not downy, rough-
ened by scales subtending leaf clusters.

LEAVES — In clusters of 2, persistent, sheaths becoming lacerated,
dull bluish-green l%-3l/& inches long, stiff, generally twisted, flat or
concave on one side, rounded on the other, pointed. MICROSCOPIC
SECTION — showing 2 flbro-vascular bundles, peripheral resin-ducts,
strengthening cells around resin-ducts, at one side of the bundles and
benath the epidermis, stomata all around.

BUDS — Oblong-conical, brown, often somewhat resinous-coated.

FRUIT — Cones 1^-2% inches long, short-stalked, grayish or reddish
brown, conic-oblong, generally appearing with the whorls of lateral
branches, usually pointing backward. SCALES — in young cones with a
short projection which when mature may persist as a short weak incon-
spicuous point or is deciduous, apex of scale thickened with a more or
less prominent four-sided boss often recurved especially toward base
of cone.

COMPARISONS — The Scotch Pine often improperly called Scotch "Fir"
may be distinguished from the other Pines native or cultivated in New
England by the bald reddish appearance of the upper part of trunk
and branches, the short bluish-green leaves and the backward-pointing
cones.

DISTRIBUTION — A European tree cultivated abroad in extensive for-
ests for its timber. In this country more or less planted as an orna-
mental tree, and sparingly escaped from cultivation. In Connecticut
rare or local as an escape; New London, Lyme, Southington, Bridgeport.

WOOD — Light, soft, reddish-brown, with thick light yellowish or red-
dish sapwood, easily split and durable, corresponding in importance
abroad to th3 White Pine in this country.

SCOTCH PINE

222 TREES IN WINTER

AMERICAN LARCH
Tamarack, Hackmatack, Black Larch, "Juniper.'

Larix laricina (Du Roi) Koch.
L. americana Michx.

HABIT — A tree 30-70 ft. in height, with a trunk diameter of 1-3 ft.,
at high altitudes reduced to 1-2 feet in height; trunk erect continuous
into the crown, branches irregular or indistinctly whorled, in young
age and when crowded and in swamps forming a narrow symmetrical
pyramidal head, in old age becoming broader and of irregular form.
The Larch is the only New England cone-bearing tree that sheds its
leaves in the fall; specimens in winter consequently are frequently
mistaken for dead trees.

BARK — On young trunks smooth, with age becoming roughened with
thin, close, reddish-brown, roundish scales.

TWIGS — Slender, smooth, pale orange colored to reddish-brown with
short lateral wart-like branches, with resinous taste.

LEAF-SCARS — Scattered on rapidly grown shoots, very numerous
and strongly decurrent, minute, triangular, with a single bundle-scar;
also on short wart-like branches, smaller and densely clustered.

BUDS — Scattered along last season's twigs, on older growth at the
ends of the short lateral branches, small, about 1 mm. long, spherical,
reddish, shining.

FRUIT — Ovate, oblong cones, about %-% inch long on short, stout
incurved stalks, persistent on trees throughout winter. SCALES — thin,
about a dozen or fewer in number.

COMPARISONS — The American Larch or Tamarack as it is more com-
monly called by woodsmen is hardly to be confused with any other
tree except the European Larch [Larix decidua Mill.; L. europaea DC.].
The European Larch is a species adapted to dryer situations than the
American form. It is readily distinguished by its stouter, yellower
twigs, larger cones, about 1 inch long, with numerous cone scales
(see lower twig in plate).

DISTRIBUTION — Low lands, shaded hillsides, borders of ponds; in
New England, preferring cold swamps; sometimes far up mountain
slopes. Labrador, Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, west to the Rocky
mountains; from the Rockies through British Columbia, northward along
the Yukon and Mackenzie systems, to the limit of tree growth beyond
the Arctic circle; south along the mountains to New Jersey and
Pennsylvania; west to Minnesota.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine, New Hampshire and Vermont — abundant,
filling swamps acres in extent, alone or associated with other trees,
mostly Black Spruce; growing depressed and scattered on Katahdin at
an altitude of 4,000 ft.; Massachusetts — rather common at least north-
ward; Connecticut — absent near the coast; rare in the eastern part of
the state; Union, Tolland; becoming occasional westward and frequent
in Litchfield county; Rhode Island — not reported.

WOOD — Very heavy, hard and strong, rather coarse-grained, very
durable in contact with soil, bright light red, with thin nearly white
sapwood; largely used for the upper knees of small vessels, fence posts,
telegraph poles, railroad ties, in cabinet making and for interior finish
of buildings.

AMERICAN" LARCH
EUROPEAN LARCH (lower twig only)

224 TKEES IN WINTER

WHITE SPRUCE

Cat, Skunk or Labrador Spruce.

Picea canadensis (Mill.) BSP.

P. alba Link.

HABIT— A tree 40-75 feet in height with a trunk diameter of 1-2 ft.;
trunk straight, slowly tapering, branches numerous, slightly ascending
or nearly horizontal, with numerous lateral, generally somewhat pendant
branchlets, spread in more or less well marked dense planes, forming a
broad-based pyramidal head; foliage bluish-green.

BARK — Grayish to pale reddish-brown; on young trunks and branches
smoothish or slightly roughened becoming in a relatively late stage
flaky with small closely appressed scales.

TWIGS — Light, yellc ^-'sh-brown, smooth.

LEAF-SCABS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked, en strongly projecting,
decurrent ridges of the bark. BUNDLE-SCARS — single.

LEAVES — Bluish-green, 4-angled, 10-25 mm. long, blunt or sharp-
pointed, straight or incurved, without proper leaf-stalks with a strong
rank odor when bruised which is responsible for some of the common
names.

BUDS — Ovate, blunt-pointed, light brown.

FRUIT — Oblong-cylindrical cones, l%-2% inches long, generally fall-
ing the first winter. SCALES — thin, flexible and elastic; margin rounded
or straight-topped, generally entire.

COMPARISONS — The White Spruce differs from our other native
Spruces, the Red and the Black, by its smooth twigs, less scaly bark,
rather longer and more nearly cylindrical cones and usually by the
rank odor of its leaves; from the Red Spruce further by its bluish-
green foliage. From the smooth-twigged Blue Spruce it is distinguished
by its smaller cones and less distinctly layered arrangement of branches.

DISTRIBUTION — Low, damp, but not wet woods; dry, sandy soils,
high, rocky slopes and exposed hilltops, often in scanty soil.
Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, through the provinces of Quebec and
Ontario to Manitoba and British Columbia, northward beyond all other
trees, within 20 miles of the Arctic sea; west through the northern
sections of the northern tier of states to the Rocky mountains. Some-
times cultivated as an ornamental tree.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — frequent in sandy soils, often more com-
mon than the Red Spruce, as far south as the shores of Casco Bay; New
Hampshire — abundant around the shores of the Connecticut river, dis-
appearing southward at Fifteen-Mile falls; Vermont — restricted mainly
to the northern sections, more common in the northeast; Massachusetts
— occasional in the mountainous regions of Berkshire county; a few
trees in Hancock; as far south as Amherst, and Northampton, probably
about the southern limit of the species; Connecticut — rare, Waterford,
a few trees in a pasture as an escape from cultivation; Rhode Island —
not reported.

WOOD — Light, soft, not strong, straight grained, light yellow, with
hardly distinguishable sapwood; manufactured into lumber in the
eastern provinces of Canada, and used in construction for the interior
finish of buildings and for paper pulp.

I' Sl'HUCE

226 TREES IN WINTER

RED SPRUCE

Picea rubra (Du Roi) Dietr.
P. nigra, var. rubra Engelm. ; P. riibens Sarg.

HABIT — A tree 40-75 ft, in height with a trunk diameter of l-2V2
ft.; trunk straight, slowly tapering; branches toward the middle of the
tree horizontal with upcurved tips; more or less strongly declined
toward the base forming a narrow conical head somewhat broader than
that of the Black Spruce; foliage dark yellowish-green.

BARK — Reddish-brown, flaky with thin scales.

TWIGS — Brown, more or less densely covered with short rusty to
black hairs.

LEAP-SCARS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked, on strongly projecting
decurrent ridges of the bark. BUNDLE-SCARS — single.

LEAVES — Dark yellowish-green, 4-angled, 10-20 mm. long, blunt-
pointed, straight or curved, without proper leaf-stalks.

BUDS — Ovate, pointed, reddish-brown.

FRUIT — Ovate-oblong cones, iy^-2 inches long, with short stalks not
at all or but slightly recurved, falling the first autumn or sometimes
remaining on the tree a year longer. SCALES — stiff, thin; margin
rounded, entire or slightly toothed.

COMPARISONS — The Red Spruce from its close resemblance to the
Black Spruce is considered by some authors as merely a variety of this
latter species (see Black Spruce under Comparisons). It differs from
the White and the Blue Spruce by its hairy twigs and yellowish-green
foliage and from the Norway Spruce by its shorter cones.

DISTRIBUTION — Cool, rich woods, well-drained valleys, slopes of
mountains not infrequently extending down to the borders of swamps.
Prince Edward Island and Nova Scotia along the valley of the St.
Lawrence; south along the Alleghanies to Georgia, ascending to an alti-
tude of 4,500 feet in the Adirondacks, and 4,000-5,000 feet in West
Virginia; west through the northern tier of states to Minnesota.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — throughout; most common towards the
coast and in the extreme north, thus forming a belt around the
central area, where it is often quite wanting except on cool or elevated
slopes; New Hampshire — throughout; the most abundant conifer of upper
Coos, the White Mountain region where it climbs tc the alpine area,
and the higher parts of the Connecticut-Merrimac watershed; Vermont
— throughout; the common Spruce of the Green Mountains, often in
dense groves on rocky slopes with thin soil; Massachusetts — common in
the mountainous regions of Berkshire county and on uplands in the
northern sections, occasional southward; Connecticut — rare, Litchfield,
Canaan, Salisbury; Rhode Island — not reported.

WOOD — Light, soft, close-grained, not strong, pale, slightly tinged
with red, with paler sapwood generally about 2 inches thick; largely
manufactured into lumber in the northeastern states and used for the
flooring and construction of houses, for the sounding-boards of musical
instruments and in the manufacture of paper pulp.

RED SPRUCE

228 TEEES IN WINTER

BLACK SPRUCE
Swamp, Bog, Water or Double Spruce.

Picea mariana (Mill.) BSP.
P. nlgra Link ; P. brevifolia Peck.

HABIT — In New England usually a small slender tree 10-30 ft in
heig-ht with a trunk diameter of 5-8 inches, much larger northward and
westward, reduced to a shrub 2-5 ft. in height at high altitudes; with
relatively short, generally scattered branches, horizontal or usually
declined and curving upward at the ends; in open-grown trees, basal
branches frequently resting on the ground, taking root and sending up
shoots; crown an irregular open narrow-based cone; foliage bluish-
green.

BARK — Grayish-brown, flaky, with thin scales.

TWIGS — Brown or yellowish-brown, more or less densely covered with
short rusty to black hairs.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked, on strongly projecting
decurrent ridges of the bark. BUNDLE-SCARS — single.

LEAVES — Bluish-green, 4-angled, 5-15 mm. long, blunt-pointed,
straight or slightly incurved, without proper leaf-stalks.

BUDS — Ovate, pointed, reddish-brown.

FRUIT — Ovate cones, V2 to 1% inches long, becoming nearly spherical
when open, on short strongly recurved stalks generally remaining on
the tree for many years. SCALES — stiff, thin; margin rounded, uneven,
ragged, toothed or rarely entire.

COMPARISONS — The Black Spruce closely resembles the Red Spruce
from which it may be distinguished by its shorter, more nearly spherical
cones which generally remain for many years on the tree, by the more
ragged edging of the cone-scales, by the bluish-green color of its foliage
and by its habitat in swampy land. Extreme forms of the two species
Are sufficiently distinct but they are often difficult to distinguish even
in the fruiting condition.

DISTRIBUTION — Swamps, sphagnum bogs, shores of rivers and ponds,
wet, rocky hillsides; not uncommon, especially northward, on dry up-
lands and mountain slopes. Labrador, Newfoundland, and Nova Scotia,
westward beyond the Rocky mountains, extending northward along the
tributaries of the Yukon in Alaska.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — common throughout, covering extensive
areas almost to the exclusion of other trees in the central and northern
sections, occasional on the top of Katahdin (5,215 ft.); New Hampshire
and Vermont — common in sphagnum swamps of low and high altitudes;
the dwarf form, var. semiprostrata, occurs on the summit of Mt. Mans-
field; Massachusetts — frequent; Connecticut — swamps and sphagnum
bogs; rare or local over most of the state but absent near the coast;
usually a small stunted tree 5 to 15 ft. high but growing much larger
in the cool swamps of Litchfield county; in open bogs the trees often
produce cones when not more than 5 ft. high, and the cones persist on
the tree for many years; Rhode Island — North Scituate.

WOOD — Light, soft, not strong, pale yellowish-white, with thin sap-
wood, probably rarely used outside of Manitoba and Saskatchewan ex-
cept in the manufacture of paper pulp. Spruce gum is gathered from
this and the other New England Spruces. Spruce beer is made by
boiling the branches of the Black and Red Spruces.

BLACK SPRUCE

230 TREES IN WINTER

BLUE SPRUCE
Colorado Blue Spruce, Silver Spruce.

Picea Menziesii Engelm.
P. Parryana (Andre) Sarg. ; P. pungens Engelm.

HABIT — A tree reaching in Colorado a height of 100 ft. and a trunk
diameter of 2-3 ft., much smaller in cultivation; branches rigid, horizon-
tal with short, stout, stiff, lateral branchlets arranged in horizontal
planes giving a layered effect to the tree, especially in the young
stages; older trees becoming less regular with a thin, ragged, pyramidal
crown; foliage bluish-green to silvery-white or rarely dull green.

BARK — Grayish-brown, scaly, becoming deeply ridged toward the
base.

T\VIGS — Bright yellowish to reddish-brown, smooth.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked, on strongly projecting
decurrent ridges of the bark. BUNDLE-SCARS — single.

LEAVES — Bluish-green to silvery-white or rarely dull green, 4-angled,
25-30 mm. long on sterile branches, often not over half as long on
fruiting branches, stout, stiff, sharp-pointed, incurved, without proper
leaf-stalks, with a pungent somewhat disagreeable odor when bruised.

BUDS — Ovate, blunt-pointed, light brown.

FRUIT — Oblong-cylindrical cones 2% to 4 inches long, generally not
remaining on the tree after the second winter. SCALES — thin, distinctly
longer than broad with narrowed, flexible, ragged, blunt tips.

COMPARISONS — The Blue Spruce as cultivated as an ornamental tree
is strikingly distinct from other Spruces in its bluish-green or silvery
foliage and the horizontally layered arrangement of its branchlets. The
long stiff sharp-pointed needles and the narrowed elongated scales of
the large cones are further characteristic.

DISTRIBUTION — Along or near streams. Colorado and eastern Utah,
aorthward to the Wind river mountains of Wyoming. Often planted as
an ornamental tree in the eastern and northern states and also in
Europe, especially individuals with blue foliage.

WOOD — Light, soft, close-grained, weak, pale brown, or often nearly
white with hardly distinguishable sapwood.

>-: • >

L

BLUE SPRUCE

232 TREES IN WINTER.

NORWAY SPRUCE

Picea Abies (L.) Karst.
P. excelsa Link.

HABIT — A large rapidly growing tree, 50-100 ft. or more in height
with a trunk diameter up to 2 ft.; with spreading horizontal or ascending
branches and in mature trees generally with strongly drooping lateral
branchlets, forming a rather broad pyramidal head; foliage dark green.
The tree usually has a single erect trunk continuous into the crown
but although the tree photographed shows a double stem it is typical
in general outline.

BARK — Reddish-brown, on young trunks and branches smoothish with
very fine flaky scales becoming with age roughened with larger thicker
flaky scales.

TWIGS — Brown, smooth or hairy.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked, on strongly projecting
decurrent ridges of the bark.

LEAVES— Dark green and usually shining, 4-angled, 15-25 mm. long,
sharp-pointed, without proper leaf-stalks.

BUDS — Ovate, pointed, light brown.

FRUIT — Cylindrical-oblong, pendant cones, 4-7 inches long, light
reddish-brown, falling after the first winter. SCALES — thin, stiff, gener-
ally broader than long, margin more or less irregular and finely toothed.

COMPARISONS — The large cones form the most distinctive character
of the Norway Spruce, and when present easily separate this species
from all others with which it might be confused. The pendant lateral
branches generally strikingly noticeable on the older trees together
with the vigor of growth furnish good habit characters of distinction.

DISTRIBUTION — A large tree of Europe especially abundant in Nor-
way; largely cultivated in this country as ornamental individual trees,
in hedges and for windbreaks.

\VOOD — Light, soft, close-grained, reddish to yellowish white; used
for spars, oars and masts to small vessels.

XORWAY SPRUCE

234 TREES IN WINTER

DOUGLAS FIR
Red Fir, Douglas Spruce.
Pseudotsuga taxifolia (Lam.) Britton.
P. mucronata (Raf. ) Sudw. ; P. Douglasii (Lindl.) Carr.

HABIT — A tree under favorable conditions in the west reaching a
height of 200 ft. or over and a trunk diameter up to 10 or 12 ft.;
branches horizontal with more or less pendulus branchlets forming a
pyramidal head. A number of varieties are in cultivation varying
somewhat in habit and color of foliage.

BARK — On young trunks dark gray, smooth, with few resin blisters,
soon becoming roughened, with reddish-brown scales and eventually
deeply ridged.

TWIGS — Reddish to yellowish-brown, more or less downy, becoming
with age smooth and dark grayish-brown. Photograph of twig is about
% natural size.

LEAVES — Scattered, sometimes appearing somewhat 2-ranked but
less distinctly so than leaves of the Balsam Fir, dark green above, pale
below with grayish lines of minute dots, flattened, generally blunt,
% inch or more long, slightly narrowed at base but not distinctly
stalked, arising at about a right angle to the twig and leaving in falling
a round scar slightly raised at the base, slightly fragrant and aro-
matic when crushed. MICROSCOPIC SECTION — showing a single fibro-
vascular bundle, 2 resin-ducts next to the epidermis, strengthening cells
beneath the epidermis and generally around the resin-ducts, giant
thick-walled irregularly lobed cells frequently appearing in cross-
sections of the leaf on either side of the bundle, stomata on the
under side.

BUDS — Comparatively large, narrowly ovate to conical, sharp-pointed,
reddish-brown, 7-12 mm. long, loosely clustered at tips of twigs; bud-
scales not resinous-coated, often with reflexed tips.

FRUIT — A cone maturing in one season, pendant, stalked, 2-4% inches
long. SCALES — persistent, rounded on edges with conspicuous pro-
truding bracts which are long-pointed and laterally winged like the
feathering on an arrow.

COMPARISONS — The Douglas Fir resembles the Balsam Fir but
may be readily distinguished by its large dark brown buds, free from
resin, by the slightly projecting leaf-scars and especially by the
cones with persistent scales and lobed bracts. Further, a thin knife
section held toward the light and looked at with a hand-lens shows the
two resin-ducts on the edge of the leaf while those of the Balsam Fir
are located between the edge and the bundle.

DISTRIBUTION — Throughout the Rocky mountain system south of
latitudes 55 degrees north to the Pacific coast, forming extensive for-
ests. Planted for ornament in the eastern states where, however, only
plants grown from seed obtained from the interior of the continent
are successful.

WOOD — Light red or yellow, with nearly white sapwood, very
variable in density, quality and in the thickness of the sapwood;
largely manufactured into lumber in British Columbia, western Wash-
ington and Oregon and used for all kinds of construction, fuel, railroad
ties and piles. The bark is sometimes used in tanning leather.

V v

L f ^^. *• • ; : ' ' :

DOUGLAS FIR

236 TEEES IN WINTER

BALSAM FIR
Balsam, Fir, Balm of Gilead Fir.

Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.

<,H1A?IT— A medium sized tree, 25-60 ft. in height with a trunk diameter
of 1-2 ft., becoming- a shrub toward the tops of high mountains-
branches usually arising in distinct whorls and throughout horizontal
ascending or declining, or declining toward the base horizontal in the
middle and ascending toward the top of the tree, forming a symmetrical
broad-based conical head. A rapidly growing comparatively short-lived
tree losing its lower branches at an early period.

BARK — Grayish-brown, smooth with raised blisters containing a
fragrant oily resin; in old trees becoming somewhat roughened with
small scales at base of trunk.

TWIGS — Grayish and more or less downy, becoming with age grayish-
brown and smooth, branchlets mostly opposite arising at a wide angle.
Photograph of twig is about % natural size.

LEAVES — Scattered, on young trees and sterile twigs generally
twisting so as to appear 2-ranked as in the Hemlock, on upper fruiting
branches and leading shoots generally covering the upper side of the
twigs; dark green and shining on upper side, pale below with grayish
lines of minute dots, flattened, generally blunt, about % inch or more
long, slightly narrowed at base but not stalked, arising at about a
right angle to the twig, leaving after falling a flat, round scar,
fragrant, aromatic when crushed. MICROSCOPIC SECTION — showing 2
fibro- vascular bundles closely adjacent and appearing as one in a knife
section, 2 resin-ducts between the bundles and the epidermis with
stomata chiefly on the under side.

BUDS — Small, broadly ovate to spherical, generally less than 5 mm.
long, closely grouped at tips of main twigs; bud-scales varnished and
glued together by resinous coating.

FRUIT — Erect cones ripening in the autumn of the first season.
SCALES — falling and leaving persistent through winter only the erect
central axes to which they were attached.

COMPARISONS — The Balsam Fir is distinguished from our native
New England evergreens by its smooth blistery bark and by its leaves
which are attached directly to the twig and leave a round, flat scar on
falling. From the Hemlock it is further distinguished by the absence
of leaf stalks and from the Spruce by the flattened apparently 2-ranked
leaves. See under Douglas Fir for Comparisons with this species.

DISTRIBUTION — Rich, damp, cool woods, deep swamps, mountain
slopes. Occasionally cultivated as an ornamental tree. Labrador, New-
foundland, and Nova Scotia, northwest to the Great Bear Lake region;
south to Pennsylvania and along high mountains to Virginia; west to
Minnesota.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — very generally distributed, ordinarily
associated with "White Pine, Black Spruce, Red Spruce, and a few
deciduous trees, growing at an altitude of 4,500 feet upon Katahdin;
New Hampshire — common in upper Coos county and in the White
Mountains, where it climbs up to the alpine area; in the southern part
of the state, in the extensive swamps around the sources of the Con-
toocook and Miller's rivers it is the prevailing timber; Vermont —
common; not rare on mountain slopes and even summits; Massachusetts
— not uncommon on mountain slopes in the northwestern and central
portions of the state, ranging above the Red Spruces upon Graylock;
a few trees here and there in damp woods or cold swamps in the
southern and eastern sections, where it has probably been accidentally
introduced; Connecticut — rare cold swamps and woods; Middlebury, Go-
shen, Cornwall, Salisbury; also occurs as an escape from cultivation at
Woodstock, Andover and Farmington; Rhode Island — not reported.

WOOD — Light, soft, not strong, coarse-grained, perishable, pale brown,
streaked with yellow, with thick lighter colored sapwood, occasionally
made into lumber, principally used for packing cases, used largely in
manufacture of wood pulp. From the blisters in the bark Canada
balsam is obtained which is used in medicine and as a medium for
mounting microscopic preparations. The fragrant leaves and small
twigs are used to stuff balsam or so-called "pine" pillows.

BALSAM Fiu

238 TREES IN WINTER

HEMLOCK
Hemlock Spruce.

Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr.

HABIT — A large tree 50-80 ft. in height, with a trunk diameter of
2-4 ft.; branches long, slender, horizontal or drooping at base, ascend-
ing above, forming a broad-based pyramidal head with fine feathery
spray giving a delicate airy appearance to the tree. The apex is plume-
like and generally bent to one side indicating, so woodsmen claim, the
direction of prevailing winds.

BARK — Reddish to grayish-brown, with shallow broad connecting
ridges somewhat scaly on the surface.

TWIGS — Slender, yellowish-brown, more or less downy, branchlets
generally not opposite and arising at less than a right angle. Photo-
graph of twig is about % natural size.

LEAVES — Scattered but generally twisting so as to appear 2-ranked,
dark, slightly yellowish-green above, pale green below with grayish
lines of minute dots on either side of midrib, flattened generally blunt
at the apex, about % inch long with a distinct short stalk, borne upon
a reddish-brown decurrent projection of the bark which is left as a
raised scar at the fall of the leaf. MICROSCOPIC SECTION — showing
a single fibro-vascular bundle and a large resin-duct filling the space
between the bundle and the epidermis.

BUDS — Small, about 2mm. long, ovate, reddish-brown, not resinous-
coated.

FRUIT — Small, stalked pendant cones, ripening the first season, and
generally persistent through winter, about % inch long.

COMPARISONS — In its flattened, apparently 2-ranked leaves the
Hemlock resembles the Balsam Fir, but aside from the difference in
habit and bark, the leaves of the Hemlock are shorter, distinctly
stalked and leave projecting scars when they fall off. Prom the
Spruces it is distinguished by its distinctly flattened and stalked leaves
and flattened spray.

DISTRIBUTION — Cold soils, borders of swamps, deep woods, ravines,
mountain slopes, and also cultivated as an ornamental tree. Nova
Scotia, New Brunswick, through Quebec and Ontario; south to Delaware
and along the mountains to Georgia and Alabama, ascending to an
altitude of 2,000 feet in the Adirondacks; west to Michigan and Minne-
sota.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — abundant, generally distributed in the
southern and central portions, becoming rare northward, disappearing
entirely in most of Aroostook county and the northern Penobscot region;
New Hampshire — abundant, from the sea to a height of 2,000 feet in the
White Mountains, disappearing in upper Coos county; Vermont — common
especially in mountain forests; Connecticut — usually frequent but rather
local in its distribution; Massachusetts and Rhode Island — common.

WOOD — Light, soft, not strong, brittle, coarse-grained, difficult to
work, liable to wind-shake and splinter, not durable when exposed to
the air, light brown tinged with red, with thin somewhat darker
sapwood; largely manufactured into coarse lumber, employed for the
outside finish of buildings. The astringent inner bark furnishes the
largest part of the material used in the northeastern states and Canada
in tanning leather. Oil of Hemlock is distilled from the young
branches.

HEMLOCK

240 TREES IN WINTER

COAST WHITE CEDAR
White Cedar, Cedar.

Chamaecyparis thyoides (L.) BSP.
C. sphaeroidea Spach ; Cupressus thyoides L.

HABIT — A small tree, 20-50 ft. in height with a trunk diameter of
1-2 ft., further south reaching 90 ft. in height and a trunk diameter of
4 ft.; trunk tall, erect, tapering gradually, branches short, slender, more
or less horizontal, with delicate feathery secondary branches and
branchlets loosely enveloping the narrow conical head and surmounted
by an airy, pliant, plume-like terminal shoot.

BARK — Grayish-brown, separating off in narrow, shreddy strips, more
or less spirally twisted; on younger and sometimes also on older
trunks the bark separates off in broader reddish-brown strips, (see
photograph of young- trunk).

TWIGS — Generally less than 1.5 mm. thick, slightly but not
prominently flattened, arranged in more or less fan-shaped clusters in
planes at various angles, the last season's growth bluish-green from the
complete covering of minute leaves, with death of leaves the second
season becoming reddish-brown, older growth slowly losing- its leaves
and marked by scars of deciduous branchlets. Photograph of twig is
about % natural size.

LEAVES — Minute, scale-like, 1-2 mm. long, appressed and closely
overlapping, opposite in 4 ranks, but not giving a conspicuously 4-sided
appearance to the twigs, more or less keeled and with a raised glandular
dot at least on leaves of rapidly grown shoots, with spicy aromatic odor
when crushed.

FRUIT — Small, spherical cones, 5-8 mm. in diameter, inconspicuous in
winter, opening toward the center never toward the base, maturing
the first season and persistent through the winter. SCALES — thickened,
woody, shield-shaped, with a slight projection in middle, each perched
on a stalk connecting it with the center of the cone; seeds winged.

COMPARISONS — The Coast White Cedar resembles the Arbor Vitae
as indicated under this species but its twigs are only slightly flattened,
the clusters of twigs are less distinctly fan-shaped, the twigs and leaves
are smaller and the leaves are of a bluish rather than of a yellowish-
green. The cones are distinctive, being spherical and with thickened
shield-shaped scales perched on stalks connecting them with the center.
Aside from the fruit characters which separate them, the Coast White
Cedar is distinguished from the Red Cedar by the more or less distinct
fan-shaped arrangement of its twigs, the absence of two kinds of leaves,
the more distinct glandular dot generally present on the leaf and by
the fact that the twigs are round or slightly compressed in section
and not distinctly 4-sided as are those of the Red Cedar.

DISTRIBUTION — In deep swamps and marshes, which it often fills
to the exclusion of other trees, mostly near the seacoast. Cape Breton
island and near Halifax, Nova Scotia, perhaps introduced in both;
southward, coast region to Florida and west to Mississippi.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — reported from the southern part of York
county; New Hampshire — Manchester; Rockingham county near the
coast; Vermont — no station known; Massachusetts — occasional in central
and eastern parts, very common in the southeast; Connecticut — rare in
western and central districts — Danbury and New Fairfield. becoming oc-
casional or frequent eastward; Rhode Island — common.

WOOD — Light, soft, not strong, close-grained, slightly fragrant, light
brown, tinged with red, largely used in boat building, and cooperage
and for woodenware, shingles, the interior finish of houses, fence posts
and railroad ties.

I

COAST WHITE CKIHI;

242 TREES IN WINTER

ARBOR VITAE

White Cedar, Cedar.

Thuja occidentalis L.

HABIT — Commonly 25-50 ft. in height with trunk diameter of 1-2
ft., in northern Maine occasionally reaching- a height of 70 ft. and
a trunk diameter of 3-5 ft.; trunk more or less lobed and buttressed
at base, often inclined and twisted, frequently dividing into two or
more stout, erect stems; branches short, horizontal, lower branches often
strongly declined, branchlets numerous, forming a dense, conical head
clothed with foliage to near the base.

BARK — Ashy gray to light reddish-brown, separating off in long,
narrow, flat, shreddy strips, often more or less spirally twisted.

TWIGS — Generally more than 2 mm. wide, decidedly flattened,
arranged in fan-shaped clusters, placed vertically or in planes at
various angles, often mistaken for the true leaves which are minute
and completely cover the last season's growth, dark yellowish-green,
paler on the underside, with the death of the leaves in the second season
becoming pale cinnamon brown and later shining reddish-brown, round
in section, swollen at place of attachment to main branch, and marked
by scars of deciduous branchlets. Photograph of twig is about % nat-
ural size.

LEAVES — Minute, 3-6 mm. long, scale-like, appressed and closely
overlapping, opposite in 4- ranks; on the flattened spray those in the
side pairs keeled, those in the other pair flat, ovate, each with a single
raised glandular spot especially conspicuous on leaves of leading
shoots; with a characteristic camphor-like aromatic odor when crushed.

FRUIT — Small, oblong cones, about % inch long, pale reddish-brown,
opening to the base when mature, maturing the first season and persis-
tent through the winter. SCALES — 6-12, thin, oblong, dry with margins
mostly entire.

COMPARISONS — The Arbor Vitae is often called White Cedar and
resembles the Coast White Cedar, which likewise is often known as
White Cedar, in its bark, its habit of growth and its flattened fan-
shaped spray. The twigs of the Arbor Vitae are much more flattened
and larger and the clusters of twigs more decidedly fan-shaped; the
leaves are also larger and of a yellowish-green color. The cones of
the two species are decidedly different, those of the Arbor Vitae being
oblong with thin scales opening to the base of the cone, those of the
Coast White Cedar being spherical with thickened shield-shaped scales,
perched on stalks attatched to the center of the cone.

DISTRIBUTION — Low, swampy lands, rocky borders of rivers and
ponds. Often cultivated as single ornamental trees and in hedges.
Southern Labrador to Nova Scotia; west to Manitoba; south along the
mountains to North Carolina and East Tennessee; west to Minnesota.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — throughout the state; most abundant
in the central and northern portions, forming extensive areas known
as "Cedar Swamps"; sometimes bordering a growth of Black Spruce
at a lower level; New Hampshire — mostly confined to the upper part
of Coos county, disappearing at the White river narrows near Han-
over; seen only in isolated localities south of the White Mountains;
Vermont — common in swamps at levels below 1,000 ft.; Massachusetts —
Berkshire county; occasional in the northern sections of the Connecti-
cut river valley; Connecticut — rare, Canaan, on a limestone ridge and in
a nearby swamp, Salisbury, rocky hillsides and at another locality in a
deep swamp; apparently native at these three localities; escaped from
cultivation to fields and roadsides at Norwich, East Hartford, Killingly
and Windsor; Rhode Island — not reported.

WOOD — Light, soft, brittle, very coarse-grained, durable, fragrant,
pale yellowish-brown, largely used in Canada and the northern states,
for fence posts, rails, railroad ties, spools and shingles.

AKBOR VITAE

244 TREES IN WINTER

COMMON JUNIPER

Dwarf Juniper.
Juniperus communis L.

HABIT — A shrub or small tree 5-15 ft. high; in the type form with
generally several erect stems, bearing erect branches densely clothed
with foliage, forming a narrow or rather broad compact plume-like
erect growth (habit picture at the right); in the more common dwarf
variety [Juniperus communis, var. depressa Pursh; J. nana of Britton's
Manual in part; J. communis, var. canadensis Loud.; J. communis, var.
alpina Gray's Manual ed. 6 in part], with low-lying branches, frequently
rooting below, radiating from the center and curving upwards to form
low, broad, round mats resembling gigantic birds' nests 1 to 3
ft. high and often 10 to 20 ft. in diameter (habit picture at the left).

BARK — Grayish-brown, breaking on the surface into thin papery
shreddy longitudinal layers, which lift at the ends and edges exposing
the reddish bark below.

TWIGS — Smooth, light yellow, turning to red, prominently 3-angled
the first two years by decurrent ridges from below the leaves. Photo-
graph of twig is about % natural size.

LEAVES — All alike in whorls of 3, separated by short internodes,
spreading from the twigs at a broad angle, 7-20 mm. long, awl-shaped,
stiff and sharp-pointed, free from glandular dots, compressed, the
upper side concave and conspicuously streaked with a broad white line,
the dark green under side appearing uppermost by the bending over
of the twigs and leaves; persistent for several seasons.

BUDS — Distinct, scaly.

FRUIT — About the size of a pea, fleshy, berry-like, dark blue, covered
with a bloom, sweetish with a resinous flavor, remaining on the plant
during winter, but as the species is dioecious, to be found only on a
part of the plants.

COMPARISONS — The Common Juniper is distinguished from its near
relative the Red Cedar, by its lower habit of growth, by the fact that
its leaves are all alike and without glandular dots; in distinction
from the typically appressed leaves of the Red Cedar, the leaves of
the Common Juniper are spreading at a wide angle. They thus resemble
the juvenile type of leaves found on young specimens of the Red
Cedar and on rapid-growing twigs of older trees of the same species
but may be distinguished by being almost always in 3's, wider and
longer, more distinctly whitened above, with a greater separation
between the nodes and by the presence of distinct scaly buds. A number
of forms are described but not always recognized. The dwarf variety
(var. depressa) is described as having leaves 8-13 mm. long, and the
type as having leaves 12-21 mm. long but they are best distinguished
by their different habits of growth as shown in the photographs.

DISTRIBUTION — In poor, rocky soil, pastures and waste open places.
Widely distributed through the colder regions and mountains of the
northern part of the U. S., in a broad band extending westward from
Newfoundland on the north and New Jersey and Pennsylvania on the
south. The dwarf form (var. depressa) occurs throughout New Eng-
land. The type is reported as less common and as occurring in
Massachusetts and south wa.rd; Connecticut — the type is listed as rare
and is reported only from Norwich. It is not uncommon, however,
about Storrs. The variety depressa is frequent throughout the state.

WOOD — Hard, close-grained, very durable in contact with soil, light
brown, with pale sapwood. In northern Europe the fruit is extensively
used in giving its peculiar flavor to Holland gin.

COMMON JUNIPKR

246 TREES IN WINTER

RED CEDAR
Savin, Cedar, Red Juniper.

Juniperus virginiana L.

HABIT — A medium sized tree, 25-40 ft. in height with trunk diameter
of 8-20 inches, much larger in the southern states; trunk more or less
ridged and buttressed at base, with slender branches horizontal below
erect above, forming in young trees a narrow, conical head, becoming
in old age wider, spreading, ovate, round-topped, or on bleak situations
especially near the sea shore more or less irregularly distorted.

BARK — Light reddish-brown separating off in long narrow shreddy
strips more or less fringed at the edges, frequently somewhat spirally
twisted.

TWIGS — Generally 4-sided in mature trees, green from covering of
minute leaves, not flattened nor arranged in fan-shaped clusters,
becoming reddish-brown after the fall of the leaves. Photograph of
twigs is about % natural size.

LEAVES — Dark green or reddish-brown, with aromatic odor when
crushed, persistent for several years, of two kinds: — -

1. The form typical of the species; about 2 mm. or less long, scale-
like, opposite in pairs, forming 4 ranks, closely overlapping and
appressed, rounded, with or without an inconspicuous glandular dot on
the back, ovate, sharp or blunt-pointed. (See left hand twig.)

2. The juvenile form; occurring often exclusively on very young
trees and also frequently together with the typical form on older
trees; narrow, awl-shaped to needle-shaped, sharp-pointed without
glands, spreading, scattered and not overlapping, opposite or in 3's,
5-20 mm. long. (See right hand twig.)

BUDS — Inconspicuous.

FRUIT — About the size of a small pea, fleshy, berry-like, dark-blue,
covered with a bloom, sweetish with a resinous flavor, containing- gen-
erally 1-2 bony seeds. The fruit remains on the tree during winter but
the species is dioecious and consequently not all the trees bear fruit.

COMPARISONS — The Red Cedar resembles the Coast White Cedar but
it fails to show a flattened fan-shaped arrangement of its twigs, its
twigs further are generally 4-sided when bearing »ypical leaves and
on young trees and generally on some twigs of older trees leaves of
the juvenile type may be found. The berry-like fruit of the Red Cedar
when present is the most distinctive character separating this species
from the Coast White Cedar. The Common Juniper is not to be con-
fused with Red Cedar trees that have typical leaves. It resembles
somewhat the juvenile leaved form of the Red Cedar, however, but the
growth of the former is generally less upright, the leaves always in
3's and generally more whitened above and the buds are more
conspicuous.

DISTRIBUTION — Dry, rocky hills but not at great altitudes, borders
of lakes and streams, sterile plains, peaty swamps. Nova Scotia and
New Brunswick to Ontario; south to Florida; west to Dakota, Nebraska,
Kansas and Oklahoma.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — rare, though it extends northward to
tne middle Kennebec valley; reduced almost to a shrub; New Hampshire
— most frequent in the southeast part of the state; sparingly in the
Connecticut valley, as far north as Haverhill; found also in Hart's
location in the White Mountain region; Vermont — not abundant; occurs
here and there on hills at levels less than 1,000 feet; frequent in the
Champlain and lower Connecticut valleys; Massachusetts — west and
center occasional, eastward common; Connecticut and Rhode Island —
common.

WOOD — Light, close-grained, brittle, not strong, dull red with thin
nearly white sapwood, very fragrant, easily worked; largely used for
posts, the sills of buildings, the interior finish of houses, the lining of
chests and closets as a protection of woolen garments against attacks
of moths, for pails and other small articles of wooden-ware, and es-
pecially for lead pencils. A decoction of the fruit and leaves is used
medicinally, and oil of Red Cedar is distilled from the leaves and wood
as a perfume.

RED CEDAR

248 TREES IN WINTER

GINKGO
Maidenhair Tree.

Ginkgo biloba L.
Salisburia adiantifolia Smith.

HABIT — A tree reaching a height of 60-80 ft., with generally a single
erect trunk (a double trunk in tree photographed) continuous into the
crown with straight, slender branches, making an angle of about 45
degrees with the trunk and regularly parallel except those below, which
are more or less declined, forming in mature specimens a very regular
symmetrical broadly ovate to pyramidal head. The secondary branches
are slender and are but indistinctly shown in the photograph. There are
several horticultural varieties including one weeping form.

BARK — Ashy gray, on younger trunks and branches smooth, becoming
with age seamy and longitudinally roughened.

TWIGS — Rather stout, smooth, yellowish-brown, shining, a thin
grayish skin separating off in narrow shreds on older twigs; rapidly
grown twigs of one year's growth, comparatively rare, with scattered
leaf-scars; stout lateral or terminal spurs with thickly crowded leaf-
scars common. PITH — pale yellowish, with ragged outline.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, 2-ranked or more than 2-ranked, semi-oval,
raised, upper margin generally fringed. STIPULE-SCARS — absent.
BUNDLE-SCARS — 2, often most distinct in recent leaf-scars on short
spurs.

BUDS — Light chestnut brown, short, conical, generally under 4 mm.
long, isolated lateral buds on rapidly grown shoots, divergent, on short
spurs generally only terminal buds developed. BUD-SCALES — about 5
visible, broader than long, thickened and dotted toward the middle with
small reddish transparent lumps.

FRUIT — A stone-fruit with a sweet ill-smelling flesh. The tree is
dioecious, there being separate male and female individual trees. On
account of the disagreeable odor of the fruit the male trees are more
frequently planted. The two sexes are said to differ in their growth
forms, a male tree being more narrowly pyramidal while the female
forms a broad head.

COMPARISONS — The Ginkgo belongs to the Gymnosperms, an order
of plants which are mostly cone-bearing like the Pines and Spruces. It
has a peculiarity with the Larch in that it is not evergreen as are
most of its relatives but sheds its leaves in the fall. Like the Larch,
too, it has numerous stubby spurs with crowded leaf-scars. It differs
from the Larch in that its large leaf-scars are not strongly decurrent
and are relatively far apart on the rapidly grown shoots and further
have 2 bundle-scars.

DISTRIBUTION — A native of northern China, introduced into America
early in the century and generally successful in the eastern states as
far north as eastern Massachusetts and central Michigan and along
the St. Lawrence River in parts of Canada.

GlXKGO

250 TREES IN WINTER

YELLOW WILLOW

Golden Osier.
Salix alba, var. vitellina (L.) Koch.

S. vitellina Koch.

HABIT — A large tree reaching 50-80 ft. in height with a trung diam-
eter of 3-5 ft.; trunk short, rarely erect, generally inclining to one side,
dividing low down into a number of stout spreading limbs, forming an
irregular broad rounded head.

BARK — On young stems smooth, becoming with age dark gray ar_J
deeply furrowed.

TWIGS — Rather slender, bright yellow, smooth and shining or dull
with more or less dense covering of fine silky hairs, bitter to taste.
LENTICELS — scattered, inconspicuous. PITH — more or less 5-pointed.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked, narrow, raised, broadly
V-shaped, more or less swollen at the bundle-scars. STIPULE-SCARS —
oblique, close to leaf-scars and often appearing connected with them.
BUNDLE-SCARS — 3.

BUDS — Terminal bud absent, lateral buds about 5 mm. long, oblong,
rounded at apex, smooth or more or less silky-downy, flattened and
appressed against twig. BUD-SCALES- — a single bud-scale visible,
rounded on back, flattened toward the twig, forming a cap to silky-
hairy green leaves within.

FRUIT — A catkin of small capsules containing numerous hairy seeds
ripening in spring. The Willows are dioecious and the male trees of
the Yellow Willow are seldom planted in this country.

COMPARISONS — The species of Willows are closely related and have
hybridized abundantly. Their classification is based largely upon
differences in the pistils and stamens but since the Willows are
dioecious and therefore bear the male and female flowers upon separate
trees, their determination even when in flower is often a matter of
considerable difficulty. The Yellow Willow here described, a yellow-
twigged variety of the less common European White Willow [Salix
alba L.], is one of the most common tree Willows in New
England. The European Weeping Willow [Salix babylonica L.] was
formerly much planted for ornament especially in cemeteries and may be
d-'stinguished by the drooping habit of its branches. The Black Willow
[ItaUx nigra Marsh.], a small-budded species, is the one sizable native
Willow in New England. The Willows may be most readily separated
from the other trees by the single cap-like scale to the bud in con-
nection with the 3-bundle-scars in the narrow leaf-scar.

DISTRIBUTION— A European tree much planted in this country for
ornament. It has become naturalized throughout the populated regions
of New England, in moist places, near streams and ponds.

WOOD — Very light, soft, tough, light brown in color with thick nearly
white sapwood, easily worked and taking a beautiful polish; used in
this country for charcoal and for food.

YELLOW WILLOW

252 TEEES IN WINTER

SILVER POPLAR
White Poplar, Silver-leaf Poplar, Abele.

Populus alba L.

HABIT — A good sized tree 40-75 ft. high, with a trunk diameter of
2-4 ft.; limbs wide-spreading, developing a senes of characteristic
curves with their secondary branches which bend up, out and downward,
forming a large, irregular, open, broad, round-topped head; spreading
abundantly by means of root suckers.

BARK — On young trunks and limbs smooth, characteristically light
greenish-gray or whitish, often with dark blotches; base of older
trunk at length deeply furrowed into firm dark ridges. The Silver
Poplar retains its smooth light-colored bark longer than our other
members of the genus.

TWIGS — Slender or sometimes stout, greenish-gray, densely covered
with thick whitish-cottony wool which can be readily rubbed off and
often remains throughout the winter only toward the apex; where wool
is removed the surface is shiny; short spurs numerous with conspicuous
raised leaf-scars and with terminal buds only. LENTICELS — pale,
round, raised dots. PITH — 5-pointed, star-shaped.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked, semi-circular to in-
versely triangular; on short spurs narrower. STIPULE-SCARS — dis-
tinct. BUNDLE-SCARS — 3, simple or compound.

BUDS — Small, ovate to conical, light chestnut brown; neither sticky
nor fragrant; shining or more or less covered especially toward base
with cottony wool; lateral buds 5-7 mm. long, terminal buds somewhat
larger, thicker. BUD-SCALES — margined with very minute hairs; the
first scale of lateral buds anterior. This first scale in front has a
scale directly above it, the edges of the two being essentially parallel;
likewise the first scale in back generally has a scale directly above it
with similarly parallel edges. The first four scales therefore form two
ranks facing respectively front and back. This condition seems constant
for typical buds, but does not hold for abnormally small buds.

FRUIT — A catkin of small capsules, with hairy seeds ripening in
spring.

COMPARISONS — The Silver Poplar acquires a roughened trunk later
than the other Poplars, retaining the smooth whitish-green appearance
of its bark as a distinctive character. Its generally delicate twigs,
greenish-gray when not covered with cottony wool which generally can
he found at least at the apex, furnish further characters that distinguish
this species from the other Poplars. The two rows of scales with par-
allel edges in the lateral buds are found to a less striking degree in
the larger buds of the Small-toothed Aspen and the Large-toothed
Aspen. Bolles' Poplar [P. alba, var. Bolleana] is a variety of the Silver
Poplar occasionally planted. It is distinguished from the type form by
its narrow outline and appressed branches, thus resembling the Lom-
bardy Poplar in habit. The bark photograph is taken from a Bolles'
Poplar.

DISTRIBUTION — Widely distributed in the Old World. Introduced
from England by the early settlers and soon established in the colonial
towns on the western shore of Massachusetts Bay. Planted or sponta-
neous over a wide area. New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, occasional;
southward to Virginia.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Occasional throughout, local, sometimes com-
mon.

WOOD — Light, soft, weak, reddish-yellow with nearly white sapwood;
difficult to split and to ignite; use'd in Europe for rollers, packing
3ases and flooring.

SILVER POPLAR

254 TREES IN WINTER

SMALL-TOOTHED ASPEN
American or Quaking Aspen, Popple, Poplar, Aspen.

Populus tremuloides Michx.

HABIT — As generally found a small tree 35-40 ft. high, though not
infrequently reaching 50-60 ft. in height with a trunk diameter of IY3
ft. or more; trunk tapering, continuous into top of tree; main branches
slender, scattered, often drooping at the ends forming an open, narrow,
round-topped head; spreading by means of root suckers.

BARK — On young trunks and branches thin, pale yellowish-brown,
orange-green or nearly white with dark blotches below the branches,
smooth with horizontal raised ridges (often encircling limbs); on older
trunks especially toward the base, thick, furrowed and nearly black.

TWIGS — Slender, round, bright reddish-brown, smooth, shining. Older
twigs grayish-brown, roughened by elevated leaf-scars and by swollen
bases of detached branchlets. LENTICELS — light reddish-orange, scat-
tered, oblong. PITH — 5-pointed, star-shaped.

LEAP-SCARS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked, large, inversely trian-
gular, covered with light colored corky layer, upper edge of scar more
or less depressed. STIPULE-SCARS — blackish, more or less conspicuous.
BUNDLE-SCARS — 3, simple or each compounded.

BUDS — Narrowly conical, sharp-pointed, generally appressed especi-
ially toward apex of twig or incurved, about 5-7 mm. long, shining,
slightly sticky but not fragrant; flower buds larger, ovate. BUD-
SCALES — 6 or 7 in number, smooth, reddish-brown, shining, scariouc
along the margins; the first scale of lateral buds anterior, (i.e. facing
outward), reaching about % of the way to the apex, often splitting at
the top.

FRUIT — A catkin of small capsules with hairy seeds ripening in
spring.

COMPARISONS — In general habit and bark characters the Small-
toothed resembles the Large-toothed Aspen. It is readily distinguished
from the latter by its shining reddish-brown, often slightly sticky,
mostly appressed buds which are free from down. Those of the Large-
toothed Aspen are thicker, dull, dusty-looking, more or less gray-downy,
and for the most part divergent. The bark of the Small-toothed Aspen
is generally somewhat lighter in color, often nearly white and generally
earlier and more deeply roughened at the base; the larger branches ot
the Large-toothed Aspen have a tendency to grow out at a wider
angle with the trunk than those of the Small-toothed Aspen. The
buds resemble somewhat those of the Balsam Poplar but are much
smaller, only slightly sticky and not fragrant. It is separated from the
Carolina Poplar and Lombardy Poplar by its reddish twigs, those of the
latter two species being yellow; from the Silver Poplar by absence of
down on twigs.

DISTRIBUTION — In practically all soils and situations except in deep
swamps though more often in dry ground; one of the first trees to
take possession of clearings or burnt lands. Newfoundland, Labrador,
and Nova Scotia to the Hudson Bay region and Alaska; south to New
Jersey, along the mountains in Pennsvlvania and Kentucky, ascending
3.000 feet in the Adirondacks; west to the slopes of the Rocky mountains,
along which it extends to Mexico and lower California.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Common, reaching in the White Mountain region
an altitude of 3,000 ft.

WOOD — Light brown, with nearly white sapwood of 25-30 layers of
annual growth, soft, weak, and soon decaying; used in great quantities
for paper pulp and in the manufacture of excelsior.

SMALL-TOOTHED ASPEN

256 TREES IN WINTEE

LARGE-TOOTHED ASPEN
Popple, Poplar.

Populus grandidentata Michx.

HABIT — Generally a small tree 30-45 ft, in height with trunk diameter
of up to 1V£ ft., at times reaching much greater dimensions; resembling
the Small-toothed Aspen; spreading by means of root suckers.

BARK Resembling that of Small-toothed Aspen though generally
with more yellow or buff color to young trunks and limbs. The older
trunks seem to be rather less deeply furrowed.

TWIGS — Stout, round, reddish-brown or somewhat yellowish-brown,
in early winter often more or less pale-downy in protected portions,
older twigs greenish-gray, otherwise resembling Small-toothed Aspen.

LEAF-SCARS — Resembling Small-toothed Aspen though the rather
larger stipule-scars are often indistinct or absent.

BUDS — Averaging larger than those of Small-toothed Aspen, ovate to
conical, pointed, generally divergent, dull, dusty-looking, due to fine,
close, pale wool, especially at margins of scales; flower buds larger
and thicker. BUD-SCALES — light chestnut brown with scarious mar-
gins; first scale of bud anterior.

FRUIT — A catkin of small capsules with hairy seeds ripening in
spring.

COMPARISONS — The Large-toothed Aspen resembles the Small-
toothed Aspen with which it is frequently confused. For points of
distinction see under the latter species. The Lombardy and Carolina
Poplars are distinguished by their yellow twigs and smooth buds; the
Balsam Poplar by its shining fragrant resinous buds; the Silver Poplar
by its generally more delicate, greenish twigs which are cottony-
woolly at least toward the apex.

DISTRIBUTION — In rich or poor soils; woods, hillsides, borders of
ctreams. Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, southern Quebec, and Ontario;
south to Pennsylvania and Delaware, along the mountains to Kentucky,
North Carolina, and Tennessee; west to Minnesota.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Common, occasional at altitudes of 2,000 feet or
more.

WOOD — Light brown, with thin nearly white sapwood of 20-30 layers
of annual growth, weak and soft, used in manufacture of paper,
excelsior, and to a small extent for woodenware.

LARGE-TOOTHED ASPEX

258 TREES IN WINTER

BALSAM POPLAR
Balsam, Tacamahac, Balm of Gilead.

Populus balsamifera L.

HABIT — A medium sized tree, 30-75 ft. in height with trunk diameter
of 1-3 feet.; head open, comparatively narrow, with spire-like tendency;
spreading by means of root suckers.

BARK — On young trunks and branches smooth, light brown tingec".
with red, on older trunks dark gray tinged with red, broken into broad,
firm, rounded ridges.

TWIGS — Stout to slender, round, bright reddish-brown, smooth, shin-
ing; older twigs dark orange colored becoming gray tinged with yel-
lowish-green, roughened by thickened leaf-scars; short spurs numerous
with terminal but without lateral buds. LENTICELS— oblong, light
reddish-orange, scattered. PITH — 5-pointed, star-shaped.

LEAP-SCARS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked, large, 3-lobed, inversely
triangular, rather narrow for the group. STIPULE-SCARS — distinct.
BUNDLE-SCARS — 3, simple or compound.

BITDS — Large, dark red, resinous, sticky, fragrant, especially if
crushed, narrowly ovate to conical long-pointed, 15-25 mm. long, term-
inal larger and relatively wider than lateral buds. BUD-SCALES — •
thick, smooth, oblong, pointed, red or green, saturated with fragrant
amber-colored resin which on the outside, where exposed to the air,
forms a dark reddish, shining varnish to the bud; the first scale of
lateral bud anterior.

FRUIT — A catkin of small capsules with hairy seeds ripening in
spring.

COMPARISONS — The Balsam Poplar with its varieties is distinguished
from all other forms by the fragrance of its large resinous buds. Twigs
and buds resemble those of the Small-toothed Aspen in color but are
much larger and are distinctly fragrant especially if crushed. The
Balm of Gilead [Populus candicans Ait.] is considered a distinct species by
some and by others only a variety. It is extensively planted. It differs
from the typical Balsam Poplar in its more spreading branches forming
a broader and more open head but the twig characters are closely
similar. The photographs were all taken from this latter variety, the
descriptions from the type.

DISTRIBUTION — Alluvial soils; river banks, valleys, borders ct
swamps, woods. Newfoundland and Nova Scotia; west to Manitoba;
northward to the coast of Alaska and along the Mackenzie River to
the Arctic circle; -west through northern New York, Michigan, Minnesota,

Dakota (Black Hills), Montana, beyond the Rockies to the Pacific
coast.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — common; New Hampshire — Connecticut
river valley, generally near the river, becoming more plentiful north-
ward; Vermont — frequent; Connecticut — local; river banks, wet woods
and roadsides, usually as an escape from cultivation; Southington,
Milford, Wilton, Sherman, New Milford and Kent; apparently native at
Norfolk; Massachusetts and Rhode Island — not reported.

"WOOD — Light, soft and weak; light brown, with thick nearly white
sapwood; used for palls, boxes and paper pulp.

BALSAM POPLAR

260 TBEES IN WINTER

CAROLINA POPLAR

Cottonv/ood, Necklace Poplar.

Populus deltoides Marsh.
P. monilifera Ait. ; P. canadensis Moench.

HABIT — A large tree, the largest of the Poplars, 75-100 ft. in height,
with a trunk diameter of 3-5 ft.; lower branches massive nearly horizon-
tal, those above arising at a sharper angle and forming altogether in old
trees a broad-spreading, rather open head, often as broad as high; in
younger individuals forming a more pyramidal head; of very rapid
growth hence much planted for quick effects. The form cultivated under
the name Carolina Poplar and considered by some distinct from the
Cottonwood, is of pyramidal habit of growth with erect tapering trunk
continuous to the top of the tree and producing branches in whorls at
the upper limit of each year's growth. The habit photograph was taken
from the more commonly cultivated form.

BARK — On young trunks and branches thin, smooth, light yellowish-
green. On older trunks thick, ashy-gray, deeply divided into long,
broad, flattish or eventually rounded ridges of characteristic appearance
in native-grown trees.

TWIGS — Stout, yellowish to greenish-yellow, sometimes with slight
tinge of brown, smooth, round or marked especially on vigorous trees
with more or less prominent wings running down from the two sides
and bases of the leaf-scars. LENTICELS — large, pale, elongated longi-
tudinally.

lifiAF-SCARS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked, large, 3-lobed, inver-
sely triangular. STIPULE-SCARS — generally conspicuous, blackish.
BUNDLE-SCARS — 3, simple or compound.

BUDS — Conical, large, the lateral buds reaching 15 mm., and the
terminal buds reaching 20 mm. in length, frequently much smaller;
lateral buds, especially the larger flower buds, generally divergent and
often strongly recurved; terminal bud more or less distinctly 5-sided.
BUD-SCALES — smooth, light chestnut brown, shining, first scale of
lateral bud anterior; outer scales slightly resinous-sticky, inner scales
thickly coated with a light yellow sticky resin which is scarcely fra-
grant.

FRUIT — A catkin of small capsules with hairy seeds ripening in
spring.

COMPARISONS — The Carolina Poplar is distinguished from pur
other Poplars except the Lombardy Poplar by its light yellow twigs.
The Lombardy has somewhat similar twigs but they are more slender,
the buds are generally much smaller and typically appressed. Appressed
buds do occur on the Carolina Poplar and divergent buds on the
Lombardy, but they are more typical on each tree as indicated. The
distinct habit of the Lombardy Poplar is however a sufficient criterion
of this latter species.

DISTRIBUTION — In moist soil, river banks and basins, shores of lakes
not uncommon in drier locations, often cultivated. Throughout Quebec
and Ontario to the base of the Rocky mountains; south to Florida, west
to the Rocky mountains.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — not reported; New Hampshire — restricted
to the immediate vicinity of the Connecticut river, disappearing near
the northern part of Westmoreland; Vermont — western sections, abun-
dant along the shores of the Hoosac river in Pownal and along Lake
Champlain; in the Connecticut valley as far north as Brattleboro;
Massachusetts — along the Connecticut and its tributaries; Connecticut — •
frequent in the valleys of the Connecticut, Farmington and Housatonic
rivers; rare or occasional elsewhere; Rhode Island— occasional.

WOOD — Dark brown, with thick nearly white sapwood, light and soft,
warping badly in drying and difficult to season, used for paper pulp
and in the manufacture of boxes.

CAROLINA POPLAR

262 TREES IN WINTER

LOMBARDY POPLAR

Populus nigra, var. italica Du Roi.
P. dilatata Ait. ; P. pyramidalis Rozier ; P. fastigiata Desf.

HABIT — A tall tree reaching over 100 ft. in height with a buttressed
tapering, continuous trunk, sometimes as much as 6-8 ft. in diameter
at base; branches numerous, arising low on the trunk, bending upward
at a sharp angle with numerous branchlets also sharply ascending to
form a very narrow spire-shaped tree of decidedly characteristic ap-
pearance; spreading by means of root suckers. It tends to retain its
leaves on the lower part of the tree. (See bark picture.)

BARK — On old trees gray to brown, deeply furrowed.

TWIGS — Resembling those of Carolina Poplar but slender, round and
appressed.

LEAF-SCARS — Resembling those of Carolina Poplar, but smaller.

BUDS — Resembling those of Carolina Poplar but for the most part
appressed, distinctly smaller, terminal buds seldom over 10 mm. long
and lateral buds generally under 8 mm. in length.

FRUIT — Absent, only staminate trees being known of this variety.

COMPARISONS — The Lombardy Poplar is readily distinguished from
all our other trees by its striking spire-shaped habit of growth. In
twig characters it resembles the Carolina Poplar but the twigs are
slender and the buds average smaller and are more characteristically
appressed.

DISTRIBUTION — A European tree much planted in this country for
ornament, escaping to a certain extent to roadsides and river banks.

"WOOD — Light, soft, weak, close-grained, reddish-brown with thick
nearly white sapwood, used to a slight extent in the manufacture of
boxes and wooden ware.

"***'

• '.

LOMBARDY POPLAR

264 TREES IN WINTER

BUTTERNUT
Oilnut, White Walnut.

Juglans cinerea L.

HABIT — A small to medium-sized tree 20-45 ft. in height, with
trunk diameter of 1-4 ft.; comparatively large for the height; soon
dividing into a few stout spreading branches with lower branches
somewhat drooping forming a symmetrical, broad, low, round-topped
head of inversely pyramidal outline.

BARK — On young trunks and branches smooth, light gray, on older
trunks deeply divided into long, rather broad, flat-topped, whitish ridges
separated by smoothish, broader fissures, which are likewise gray or
frequently become black in striking contrast to the whitish ridges; inner
bark becoming yellow on exposure to air, bitter.

TWIGS — Stout, reddish-buff to greenish-gray, downy or nearly smooth,
round or somewhat angled from lobes of leaf-scars, bitter to taste,
and coloring saliva yellow when chewed. LENTICELS — small, pale,
raised dots. PITH — somewhat 5-pointed, star-shaped, dark brown,
chambered, the narrow chambers a little wider than the intervening-
diaphragms.

IjEAF-SCARS — Large, conspicuous, 3-lobed, inversely triangular; mar-
gins elevated, upper margin generally convex, seldom slightly notched,
surmounted by a raised, downy pad. BUNDLE-SCARS — dark, conspicu-
ous in 3 U-shaped clusters.

BUDS — Densely pale-downy; terminal buds large, conical-oblong, 10-
20 mm. long, longer than broad, flattened oblong to conical, obliquely
blunt-pointed; lateral buds smaller, ovate, rounded at apex, 1-3 super-
posed buds generally present above axillary bud. the uppermost, the
largest, often far above the leaf-scar and more or less stalked or
developing into a twig the first season, especially on rapidly grown
shoots; staminate flower buds lateral, rather spherical, protruding the
undeveloped catkins like miniature scaly cones from the envelope of
short scales. BUD-SCALES — thick, outer scales of terminal bud lobed
at apex.

FRUIT — Elongated, 4-10 cm. long, husk thickly covered with sticky
hairs, not regularly splitting. NUT — light brown, elongated-ovate, 4-
ribbed, pointed, rough, deeply sculptured; within, 2-celled at base, 1-
celled above; seed sweet, edible, very oily, soon becoming rancid.

COMPARISONS — In twig characters the Butternut most nearly re-
sembles the Black Walnut but is easily distinguished from this species
(see Comparisons under Black Walnut). Its points of dissimilarity to
the Bitternut are given under this latter species.

DISTRIBUTION — Roadsides, rich woods, river valleys, fertile, moist
hillsides, high up on mountain slopes. New Brunswick, throughout
Quebec and eastern Ontario; south to Delaware, along the mountains
to Georgia and Alabama; west to Minnesota, Kansas and Arkansas.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — common, often abundant; New Hamp-
shire— throughout the Connecticut valley, and along the Merrimac and
its tributaries, to the base of the White Mountains; Vermont — frequent;
Massachusetts — common in the eastern and central portions, frequent
westward; Connecticut and Rhode Island — common.

"WOOD — Light, soft, not strong, coarse-grained, light brown, turning
darker with exposure, with thin, light-colored sapwood, composed of 5
or 6 layers of annual growth; largely employed in the interior finish
of houses and for furniture. The inner bark possesses mild cathartic
properties. Sugar is made from the sap and the green husks of the
fruit are used to dye cloth yellow or orange color.

\

BUTTERNUT

266 TREES IN WINTER

BLACK WALNUT

Juglans nigra L.

HABIT — A large tree, 50-75 ft. high with a trunk diameter of 2-5 ft.,
reaching a height of 150 ft. and a trunk diameter of 6-8 ft. in the Ohio
valley; trunk straight, tapering, giving off stout branches, those below
often nearly horizontal or declined, those above arising at a sharper
angle, spreading, forming an open, symmetrical, round-topped head.

BARK — Thick, dark, rough, deeply furrowed into rounded ridges;
inner bark becoming yellow on exposure to air.

TAVIGS — Stout, densely gray-downy to smooth and reddish-buff; bitter
to taste and coloring saliva yellow when chewed. LENTICELS — small,
pa'e, raised dots, rather inconspicuous. PITH — buff, paler than that
of Butternut, chambered, the open chambers several times wider than
the intervening diaphragms.

LEAF-SCARS — Large, conspicuous, eleyated, 3-lobed, inversely
triangular to heart-shaped, upper margin distinctly notched, enclosing
the axillary bud; no downy pad above leaf-scar. BUNDLE-SCARS —
dark, conspicuous in 3 U-shaped clusters.

BUDS — Pale, silky downy: terminal buds ovate, generally under 10
mm. long and scarcely longer than broad, slightly flattened, obliquely
blunt-pointed; lateral buds smaller, their outer scales opening at apex
during winter, frequently a single superposed accessory bud above
axillary bud. BUD-SCALES — thick, outer scales of terminal bud gener-
ally not evidently lobed.

FRUIT — Round-oval, 4-10 cm. in diameter, husk smooth not regularly
splitting. NUT — dark brown, round-oval, slightly flattened, sculptured
with interrupted, irregular, thick ridges; within 4-celled below the
middle, 2-celled above; seed sweet, edible, oily, soon becoming rancid.

COMPARISONS — The Black Walnut is most closely related to the
Butternut which it resembles in its chambered pith and the general
twig appearance. The Butternut, however, has terminal buds longer
than broad, downy pads above leaf-scars, which are not notched as are
leaf-scars of the Black Walnut, and it further has elongated rather
than spherical nuts. The pith is dark brown while that of Black
Walnut is pale buff and the chambers are not much wider than the
diaphragms. In habit it is a lower, more spreading tree than the
Black Walnut and the light gray color especially of the flat ridges of
the bark is further characteristic. The points of dissimilarity to the
Bitternut are mentioned under this latter species.

DISTRIBUTION — Rich woods, largely destroyed for its valuable tim-
ber and now scarce; occasionally cultivated as an ornamental tree in
the eastern United States. Massachusetts, south to Florida; west to
Minnesota, Kansas, Arkansas and Texas.

IN NEW ENOLAND — Maine. New Hampshire and Vermont — not re-
ported native; Massachusetts — rare east of the Connecticut river, occa-
sional along the western part of the Connecticut valley to the New
York line; Connecticut — rare, roadsides and rocky hillsides in most
localities derived from planted trees; Norwich, East Hartford, Newing-
ton, Southington. Seymour and Southbury. Trumbull and Easton; prob-
ably native at North Canaan; Rhode Island — doubtfully native, Appon-
aug, and elsewhere.

WOOD — Heavy, hard, strong, rather coarse-grained, very durable,
rich dark brown, with thin, lighter colored sapwood of 10-20 layers of
annual growth: largely used in cabinet-making, the interior finish of
houses, gun-stocks, and in boat and ship building.

BLACK WALXUT

268 TEEES IN WINTER

SHAG-BARK HICKORY

Shell-Bark Hickory, Walnut.

Carya ovata (Mill.) K. Koch.
C. alba Nutt. ; Hickoria ovata Britton.

HABIT — A large tree, the tallest of the Hickories, 50-75 ft. high,
with trunk diameter of less than 2 ft.; in the forest producing- a tall,
straight trunk often free from branches for 50 ft. or more surmounted
by a narrow head of few limbs; in the open generally forking low
down or below the middle of the tree into stout ascending limbs
forming an irregular open narrow oblong or inversely conical round-
topped head.

BARK — On young trunks and limbs smooth, light gray, becoming-
seamy; on old trunks shagging characteristically into long flat plates
which are free at the base or both ends.

TWIGS — Stout, somewhat downy or smooth and shining, reddish-
brown to light gray. LENTICELS — numerous, pale, conspicuous, longi-
tudinally elongated. PITH — obscurely 5-pointed, star-shaped.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked, large, conspicuous,
pale, slightly elevated 3-lobed heart-shaped to semi-circular. STIPULE-
SCARS — absent. BUNDLE-SCARS — numerous, irregularly scattered or
arranged in 3 more or less definite circular groups.

BUDS — Large, terminal bud 10-20 mm. long, broadly ovate, rather
blunt-pointed. BUD-SCALES — the 3-4 outer scales dark brown, slightly
downy or nearly smooth, fine-hairy on margins, broadly triangular,
sharp-pointed, the outermost keeled and often with apex prolonged
into a long, rigid point, persistent through winter but cracking and
shagging off from the apex downward; inner scales yellowish-green,
often tinged with red, densely downy on outer surface, shining within.

FRUIT — Nearly spherical, 3-5 cm. long, depressed at apex; husk 5-8
mm. thick, with small pale lenticels, splitting to the base into four
pieces. NUT — whitish, variable in size and shape, generally oblong,
flattened, 4-ridged, rounded or pointed at base and apex; seed sweet.

COMPARISONS — The Shag-bark Hickory is distinguished from other
trees by the distinct shagging of its bark. The bark especially of one
variety of the Pignut shags to a certain extent but not so extensively.
From the Pignut, however, it is distinguished by its larger buds, and
stouter twigs. From the Mockernut it is distinguished by its relatively
longer buds, the darker, comparatively smooth, outer scales of which
remain throughout the winter, though shagging away more or less
completely from the tip toward the base.

DISTRIBUTION — In various soils and situations, fertile slopes, brook-
sides, rocky hills. Valley of the St. Lawrence; south to Delaware and
along the mountains to Florida; west to Minnesota, Kansas, Oklahoma
and Texas.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine, along or near the coast as far north as
Harpswell; New Hampshire — common as far north as Lake Winnepesau-
kee; Vermont — occasional along the Connecticut to Windsor, rather
common in the Champlain valley and along the western slopes of the
Green mountains; Massachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island — com-
mon.

WOOD — Heavy, very hard and strong, tough, close-grained, flexible,
light brown with thin nearly white sapwood; largely used in the manu-
facture of agricultural implements, carriages, wagons, and for axe-
handles, baskets and fuel. The nut is the common hickory nut of
commerce.

.

\

SHAG-BARK HICKORY

270 TREES IN WINTER

MOCKERNUT
Big Bud Hickory, White-heart Hickory.

Carya alba (L.) K. Koch.
C. tomentosa Nutt. ; Hickoria alba Britton.

HABIT — A tall tree 50-70 ft. high with trunk diameter of 2-3 ft.;
lower branches more or less drooping; those above ascending at a sharp
angle, forming a narrow oblong or broad round-topped head, trunk
somewhat swollen at base.

BARK — Light to dark gray, not shaggy, broken by irregular inter-
rupted fissures into shallow rounded and smooth-topped ridges which
are transversely cracked at intervals; the smoothness of the furrows
and of the rounded ridges together with the grayness of the bark is
quite characteristic, giving an appearance as if the roughness of the
bark had been sandpapered down or as if a thin veil had been drawn
over the trunk.

TWIGS — Very stout, generally more or less finely downy, reddish-
brown to gray. LENTICELS — numerous, pale, conspicuous, longitudin-
ally elongated. PITH — obscurely 5-pointed, star-shaped.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked, similar to those of
Shag-bark Hickory but rather tending to be more distinctly 3-lobed with
basal lobe elongated.

BUDS — Terminal buds pale, densely hairy, broadly ovate, blunt or
sharp-pointed, 10-20 mm. long, outermost scales falling in early autumn,
exposing the yellowish-gray, silky inner scales, some of which fall
during the winter.

FRUIT — Spherical to obovate, 4-C cm. long, more or less narrowed at
the ends; husk 3-4 mm. thick, splitting to middle or nearly to base.
NUT — brown, variable in size and shape, spherical to oblong, more or
less flattened and angled and generally pointed at both ends; shell very
tnick; seed comparatively small, sweet.

COMPARISONS — The Mockernut, so named from the disappointingly
small kernel obtained from the relatively large nut, is distinguished
by its large, fat, pale, downy buds, which do not retain the outer
dark scales as do the narrower buds of the Shag-bark Hickory. The
peculiar smoothness of the ridges and furrows of the gray bark is also
a distinctive characteristic.

DISTRIBUTION — In various soils; woods, dry, rocky ridges, mountain
slopes. Niagara peninsula and westward; south to Florida, ascending
3,500 feet in Virginia; west to Kansas, Nebraska, Missouri, Oklahoma,
and Texas.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine and Vermont not reported; New Hamp-
shire— sparingly along the coast; Massachusetts — rather common east-
ward; Connecticut — occasional or frequent; Rhode Island — common.

WOOD — Very heavy, hard, tough, strong, close-grained, flexible, rich
dark brown, with thick nearly white sapwood; used for the same
purpose as that of the Shag-bark Hickory.

MOCKERNUT

272 TREES IN WINTER

PIGNUT
Pignut or Broom Hickory.

Carya glabra (Mill.) Spach.
C. porcina Nutt. ; Hickoria glabra Britton.

HABIT — A good sized tree, 50-60 ft. in height with a trunk diameter
of 1-5 feet.; branches slender, more or less contorted, the lower ones
especially usually strongly pendulous, forming a narrow oblong head
well shown in the tree photographed, or broader in other specimens.

BARK — Dark gray, fissured into irregular diamond-shaped areas
somewhat suggesting bark of White Ash, but narrow ridges flattened
tough, tending to become detached at ends; sometimes somewhat shaggy
especially in one of the varieties mentioned below, which has a bark
approaching that of the Shag-bark Hickory.

TWIGS — Comparatively slender for the genus, smooth, reddish-brown
to gray. LENTICELS — numerous, longitudinally elongated, more or
less conspicuous. PITH — obscurely 5-pointed, star-shaped.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked, obscurely 3-lobed,
heart-shaped to semi-circular or oblong. BUNDLE-SCARS — numerous,
irregularly scattered or collected in 3 more or less definite groups.

BUDS— Reddish-brown to gray, small, terminal bud under 10 mm.
long, oval, blunt or sharp-pointed, becoming subglobose toward spring.
BUD-SCALES — outer scales dark, smooth or finely downy, generally
slightly yellow glandular-dotted, more or less keeled, and sometimes
long-pointed, often falling before the end of winter and exposing the
pale-silky inner scales.

FRUIT — Pear-shaped to oblong to nearly spherical, 3-5 cm. long; very
variable in size and shape; husk under 2 mm. thick, in some forms
splitting only at the apex and enclosing the nut after it has fallen
to the ground, in other forms splitting to the middle or to the base.
NUT — thick or rather thin shelled, generally not ridged nor sharp-
pointed; seed sweet or sometimes bitter.

COMPARISONS — The Pignut is a very variable species and there are
several varieties described, some of which have been recognized as
distinct species, as for instance Carya microcarpa Nutt., — the Small-
fruited Hickory — which is perhaps the most conspicuous. It has a
somewhat shaggy bark and a nearly spherical fruit with the husk
splitting to the base. The most distinctive feature of the whole spe-
cies is the small size of the buds, which before the outer dark scales
drop off resemble buds of the Shag-bark Hickory except for size, and
after these outer scales have been shed may be compared with minia-
ture Mockernut buds. Its bark is not smoothed off like that of the
Mockernut nor except in extreme cases shaggy like that of the Shag-
bark.

DISTRIBUTION — Woods, dry hills and uplands. Niagara pensinsula
and along Lake Erie; south to the Gulf of Mexico; west to Minnesota,
Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas.

IN NEW ENGLAND— Maine — frequent in the southern corner of
York county; New Hampshire — common toward the coast and along the
lower Merrimac valley; abundant on hills near the Connecticut river,
but only occasional above Bellows Falls; Vermont — Marsh Hill, Ferris-
burgh, W. Castleton and Pownal; Massachusetts — common eastward;
along the Connecticut river valley and some of the tributary valleys,
more common than the Shag-bark; Connecticut — occasional or frequent;
Rhode Island — common.

WOOD — Heavy, hard, very strong and tough, flexible, light or dark
brown, with thick, lighter colored or often nearly white sapwood; used
for the handles of tools and in the manufacture of wagons and agri-
cultural implements, and largely for fuel.

PlGXUT

274 TREES IN WINTER

BITTERNUT

Swamp Hickory.

Carya cordiformis (Wang.) K. Koch.

C. amara Nutt. ; Hickoria minima ( Marsh. ) Britton.

HABIT — A tall tree 50-75 ft. in height, with a trunk diameter of
1-2% ft.; trunk generally early developing several stout ascending
and somewhat diverging branches to form a broad spreading head
generally widest toward the top.

BARK — Thin, light gray, close, with shallow fissures and narrow
ridges rarely flaking off in small, thin scales.

TWIGS — Slender, buff or gray or reddish, smooth or slightly downy
toward apex, generally yellow-glandular above. LENTICELS — more or
less distinct, pale, numerous, longitudinally elongated. PITH — infre-
quently star-shaped, brown.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked, obscurely 3-lobed,
heart-shaped, inversely triangular to eliptical, pale, raised, large,
prominent, the upper margin generally rounded, convex to sharp-
pointed, often 2-toothed at apex. BUNDLE-SCARS — prominent, irreg-
larly scattered or collected into 3 more or less regular groups or
sometimes apparently in single curved line.

BUDS — Slender, strikingly yellow with crowded glandular dots,
slightly hairy between the scales; terminal bud 5-15 mm. long, flattened,
obliquely blunt-pointed; lateral buds' more or less 4-angled, the axillary
bud generally minute with one or more larger superposed buds above
it, often considerably separated from each other, the uppermost of the
series stalked or developing into a twig the first season. BUD-
SCALES — 4, valvate in pairs.

FRUIT — Nearly spherical to pear-shaped, 2-3.5 cm. long, generally
4-winged from the apex to about the middle, husk about 1 mm.
thick, yellow glandular-dotted, tardily splitting to about the middle
into 4 valves. NUT — usually thin-shelled, sometimes broader than
long, smooth, short-pointed; seed deeply and irregularly roughened,
sweetish at first, becoming intensely bitter.

COMPARISONS — The Bitternut will not be confused with any other
tree if due notice is taken of the narrow bright yellow, glandular-
dotted often superposed buds. The Butternut has superposed buds but
they are pale greenish-yellow and very downy, not bright yellow nor
glandular dotted and the pith though similarly brown is distinctly
chambered.

DISTRIBUTION — In varying soils and situations; wet woods, low,
damp fields, river valleys, along roadsides, occasional upon uplands
and hill slopes. From Montreal west to Georgian bay; south to Florida,
ascending 3,500 feet in Virginia; west to Minnesota, Nebraska, Kansas,
Oklahoma, and Texas.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — southward, rare; New Hampshire—-
eastern limit in the Connecticut valley, where it ranges farther north
than any other of our Hickories, reaching Well's river; Vermont-
occasional west of the Green mountains and in the southern Connecti-
cut valley; Massachusetts — rather common, abundant in the vicinity
of Boston; Connecticut — occasional: Rhode Island — common.

^'OOD— Heavy, very hard, strong, tough, close-grained, dark brown
with thick light brown or often nearly white sapwood; largely used
for hoops and ox-yokes and for fuel.

BlTTERNUT

276 TKEES IN WINTER

HOP HORNBEAM
Ironwood, Leverwood, Deerwood.

Ostrya virginiana (Mill.) K. Koch.

HABIT — A small tree 25-40 ft. in height with a trunk diameter ol
generally less than 1 ft.; branches long, slender, those below widely
spreading and often drooping but with branchlets tending upward
forming an irregular oblong or broadly ovate head often as broad ac
.all, with slender stiff spray.

BARK — Thin, flaky, light grayish-brown broken into narrow flattish
pieces, loose at the ends.

TWIGS — Slender, 1-2 mm. in thickness, dark, reddish-brown, often
zigzag, for the most part smooth and shining. LENTICELS — scattered,
pale.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, 2-ranked, minute, 1.75 mm. or less in
diameter, flattened, elliptical, projecting. STIPULE-SCARS — triangular,
rather inconspicuous. BUNDLE-SCARS — generally 3, inconspicuous; if
scar is surface-sectioned, 5 bundle-scars are evident.

BUDS — Small, 3-7 mm. long, narrowly ovate, pointed, light reddish-
brown, smooth or somewhat finely downy, slightly gummy especially
within, generally strongly divergent; terminal bud absent. BUD-SCALES
— in 4 ranks, about 8 scales visible, increasing in size from below
upwards, longitudinally striate if viewed toward light.

FRUIT — A small seed-like nutlet, enclosed in an inflated sac-like
veiny bract, long-hairy at base; the fruits aggregated together in a
hop-like cluster about 7 cm. long, with stalks often hairy, generally
falling before winter. Young staminate catkins abundantly present,
cylindrical, usually in 3's, their scales bristle-pointed.

COMPARISONS — The Hop Hornbeam from its general appearance and
bark character is sometimes mistaken for a young Elm. The scales of
the bark, however, are narrower and more flaky; the leaf-scars are
smaller and the bundle-scars are not sunken, the bud-scales are in 4
ranks and the staminate flowers are borne in catkins which are gener-
ally present on the tree in winter. For differences between the Hop
Hornbeam and the American Hornbeam, see under latter species.

DISTRIBUTION — In rather open woods and along highlands. NOVL
Scotia to Lake Superior, scattered throughout the whole country east of
the Mississippi, ranging through western Minnesota to Nebraska,
Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas.

IN NEW ENGLAND— common in all parts.

WOOD — Strong, hard, tough, durable, light brown and tinged with
red or often nearly white, with thick pale sapwood of 40-50 layers of
annual growth, used for fence posts, levers, handles of tools, mallets and
other small articles.

if l

I m

:ta«a

HOP HORNBEAM

278 TKEES IN WINTER

AMERICAN HORNBEAM
Hornbeam, Blue Beech, Ironwood, Water Beech.

Carpinus caroliniana Walt.

HABIT — A low tree or shrub 10-30 ft. high with a trunk diameter
generally under 1 ft.; with long, slender, tough, more or less zigzag
branches not easily broken, which are somewhat pendulous at ends
forming a bushy wide spreading, flat or round-topped head; the trunk
is frequently zigzag above giving appearance of being forked with
broad, rounded crotches.

BARK — Smooth, thin, dark bluish-gray, close-fitting, sinewy-fluted
with smooth, rounded, longitudinal ridges. The smooth ridges of the
bark are very characteristic and may be compared to the appearance
of the wrist which becomes similarly ridged by the protrusion of the
sinews when the hand is clenched.

TWIGS — Slender, about 1 mm. thick or less toward apex, dark red,
and shining, smooth, or often somewhat hairy. LENTICLES — scattered,
pale, generally conspicuous.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, 2-ranked, minute, flattened, eliptical,
projecting. STIPULE-SCARS — narrow, triangular, rather inconspicuous.
BUNDLE-SCARS — generally 3, inconspicuous, up to 5 visible when
surf ace- sectioned.

BUDS — Small, usually 2-4 mm. long, narrowly ovate to oblong, point-
ed, reddish-brown, more or less hairly especially the buds containing
staminate catkins which are larger and oval to obovate; leaf buds
more or less appressed, or only slightly divergent, terminal bud absent.
BUD-SCALES — in 4 ranks about 8-12 scales visible, increasing in size
from below upward, white-scarious and often downy on edges, fre-
quently with a woolly patch of down on tip; longitudinally striate when
viewed toward light.

FRUIT — A small ribbed seed-like nutlet, enclosed by a veiny generally
3-lobed bract about 2.5 cm, long, which is saw-toothed on one side of
larger lobe and often has one of lower lobes lacking, usually falling
before winter. Staminate catkins entirely enclosed in the larger buds
therefore not visible during winter.

COMPARISONS — The American Hornbeam is often confused with the
Hop Hornbeam perhaps chiefly from their unfortunate similarity in
common names. The smooth, close, bluish-gray bark together with
the habitat in which it grows has given it the name of Water Beech.
The sinewy-fluting to the bark is unique among our trees and readily
distinguishes the American Hornbeam from the Hop Hornbeam, the
bark of which is flaky in narrow scales. Further the American Horn-
beam never shows any catkins in winter while they are generally
abundant on the Hop Hornbeam; the buds of the American Hornbeam
are smaller, and have whitish down on the edges; those of the Hop
Hornbeam are for the most part smooth and slightly gummy. The
Beech which the American Hornbeam resembles in its bark has much
larger and relatively longer buds.

DISTRIBUTION — Low, wet woods and margins of swamps. Province
of Quebec to Georgian bay; south to Florida; west to Minnesota,
Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Rather common throughout, less frequen.
towards the coast.

WOOD — Light brown with thick, nearly white sapwood, sometimes
used for levers, the handles of tools and other small articles.

«. •

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•

v— •

AMERICAX HORXBEAM

280 TREES IN WINTER

BLACK BIRCH
Cherry Birch; Sweet Birch,

Betula lenta L.

HABIT — A medium to large sized tree, 50-75 ft. high, with a trunk
diameter of 1-4 ft.; branches long and slender, in young- specimens
upper branches ascending at sharp angle, lower branches horizontal
or drooping with delicate spray forming a narrow head; in older
trees becoming wide spreading, ovate in outline.

BARK — On young trunks and branches smooth, close, not peeling,
dark reddish-brown, shining, with horizontally elongated pale lenticels
resembling the bark of the cultivated Cherry whence the common
name; in older trunks tardily broken into large thick irregular plates;
inner bark with distinct wintergreen taste.

TWIGS — Slender, light reddish-brown, smooth, shining, with strong
wintergreen flavor when chewed; short spur-like lateral shoots abund-
ant, bearing two leaves each season, much roughened by leaf-scars of
numerous past seasons. LENTICELS — pale, raised dots, becoming
horizontally elongated with age. PITH — elliptical.

LEAF-SCARS — Akernate, 2-ranked, small, semi-oval to depressed
inversely triangular to crescent-shaped, projecting. STIPULE-SCARS —
present, narrow, inconspicuous. BUNDLE-SCARS — generally 3 and
inconspicuous.

BUDS — Medium, 5-10 mm. long, conical, sharp-pointed, reddish-brown,
divergent; terminal bud absent on long shoots; buds on short spurs
terminal. BUD-SCALES — downy on margins, overlapping with more than
2 ranks; in buds of long shoots 3 scales visible, two lateral of
equal size reaching half way up and a third with edges rolled around
the bud; scales of terminal buds on short spurs more numerous, about
7 visible.

FRUIT — An erect, stalkless, oval-oblong catkin, 2-4 cm. long, with
smooth scales about 4-6 mm. long, equally 3-lobed above the middle
and with seed-like winged nutlets about as broad as their wings.

COMPARISONS — The Black Birch differs from other Birches in its
close dark Cherry-like bark. It is most closely related to the Yellow
Birch in the character of its fruit and the aromatic flavor of the young
bark. Besides the bark differences, however, the twigs of the Black
Birch have a more decided wintergreen flavor. It has in general a
somewhat less spreading habit of growth, the buds are divergent and
the catkins are not downy.

DISTRIBUTION — Moist grounds; rich woods, old pastures, fertile
hill slopes, banks of rivers. Maine; south to Delaware, along the moun-
tains to Florida; west to Minnesota and Kansas.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — frequent; New Hampshire — in the high-
lands of the southern section, and along the Connecticut river valley
to a short distance north of Windsor; Vermont — frequent in the
western part of the state, and in the southern Connecticut valley;
Connecticut — widely distributed, especially in the Connecticut river val-
ley, frequent or common; Massachusetts and Rhode Island — frequent
throughout, especially in the highlands, less often near the coast.

"WOOD — Heavy, very strong and hard, close-grained, dark brown
tinged with red, with thin light brown or yellow sapwood of 70-80
layers of annual growth; largely used in the manufacture of furniture
and for fuel and occasionally in ship and boat building. Oil of winter-
green, used medicinally and as a flavor, is distilled from the wood, and
beer is obtained by fermenting the sugary sap.

.

: ""-"••

BLACK BIRCH

282 TREES IN WINTER

YELLOW BIRCH
Silver or Gray Birch.

Betula lutea Michx. f.

HABIT — A large tree 60-90 ft. in height, with trunk diameter of
2-4 ft., reaching its largest size in northern New England; in the open
branching low down with long slender wide spreading somewhat
pendulous branches forming a broadly ovate to hemispherical head.
Older trees than the one photographed generally show a broader outline
with the trunk less conspicuously continuous into the head.

BARK — On young trunks and branches close, bright, silvery-yellow-
ish gray, generally at length peeling into thin ribbon-like layers which
roll back and extend up the trunk in long lines of ragged fringe. There
is considerable variation in the amount of peeling of the outer bark. A
well marked condition of peeling is shown in the bark photographed;
the bark of the tree used for the habit showed scarcely any peeling. On
older trunks especially toward the base the silvery bark is entirely
shed and the bark below shows reddish-brown and becomes rough and
fissured into irregular plate-like scales.

TWIGS — Slender, light yellowish-brown, becoming darker, smooth or
somewhat hairy; with only slight wintergreen flavor when chewed;
short spur-like lateral branches abundant, similar to those of Black
Birch. LENTICELS — pale, raised dots, inconspicuous, becoming horizon-
tally elongated with age.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, 2-ranked, similar to those of Black Birch.

BUDS — Similar to those of Black Birch, more or less appressed.
BUD-SCALES — more or less downy.

FRUIT — An erect, stalkless or short-stalked downy catkin, ovate to
oblong, 2-4 cm. long and about 2 mm. wide and relatively wider than
fruit of Black Birch; scales downy on the back and edges, 8-10 mm.
long, longer than broad, nearly equally 3-lobed to the middle; with
seed-like winged nutlets about as broad as their wings.

COMPARISONS — The Yellow Birch differs from the Black Birch as
indicated in Comparisons under the latter species. In the peeling of the
outer bark it resembles the Paper and the Red Birch. Its outer bark,
however, is a dingy yellow and not a chalky white as is that of the
exposed layers of the Paper Birch; moreover, in peeling, the thin layers
tend to curl back to form longitudinal lines of ragged fringe. The
fringes of bark are larger and more ragged than in the Red Birch
but the color alone is sufficient to distinguish the two forms.

DISTRIBUTION — Low, rich woodlands, mountain slopes. Newfound-
land and Nova Scotia to Rainy river; south to the middle states, and
along the mountains to Tennessee and North Carolina; west to Minne-
sota.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Abundant northward; common throughout, from
borders of lowland swamps to 1,000 feet above the sea level; more
common at considerable altitudes, where it often occurs in extensive
patches or belts.

\VOOD — Heavy, very strong, hard, close-grained, light brown tinged
with red, with thin nearly white sapwood; largely used in the manufac-
ture of furniture, button and tassel moulds, boxes, the hubs of wheels
and for fuel.

YELLOW BIRCH

284 TREES IN WINTER

RED BIRCH
River Birch.

Betula nigra L.

HABIT — A medium sized tree, 30-50 ft. in height with a trunk
diameter of 1-1% ft., much larger southward; trunk often divided
relatively low down as shown in photographs into a few slightly
spreading limbs beset with numerous slender more or less pendulous
branchlets, forming a rather narrow oblong head, becoming irregular
and broader with age.

BARK — On young trunks and branches, thin, shining, light reddish-
brown, peeling freely into thin papery layers of various shades of
red and brown which curl back and remain for several years as
ragged fringes and show the light pinkish tints of the freshly exposed
inner layers; at base of older trunks, dark reddish-brown, deeply
furrowed and broken into thick irregular plate-like scales.

TWIGS — Slender, dark red, for the most part smooth. LENTICELS —
pale, becoming horizontally elongated.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, 2-ranked.

BUDS^Small, about 6 mm. long, shining, light chestnut brown
smooth or more or less hairy, ovate, pointed, more or less appressed.

FRUIT — Ripening in late spring or summer, a stalked, downy, cylin-
drical, erect catkin, 2-5 cm. long; scales downy, with 3 narrow
lobes, seed-like nutlet about as wide as the downy margined wings.

COMPARISONS — The Red Birch resembles the Yellow Birch in the
more or less persistent ragged fringes of papery layers into which the
outer bark peels. Its bark, however, is dark reddish to light cinnamon
color, and is rather less ragged in peeling than that of the Yellow Birch
which, moreover, is of a dirty yellowish color. The Black Birch with
its dark bark and the white barked species cannot be confused with
the tree under discussion. This tree is rare and local in New England
and except as planted for ornament is found along river banks.

DISTRIBUTION — Along rivers, ponds and woodlands inundated a
part of the year. Doubtfully and indefinitely reported from Canada;
south, east of the Alleghany mountains, to Florida; west, locally
through the northern tier of states to Minnesota and along the Gulf
states to Texas; western limits, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and
Missouri.

IN NEW ENGLAND— Not reported in Maine, Vermont, Rhode Island or
Connecticut; New Hampshire — found sparingly along streams in the
southern part of the state; abundant along the banks of Beaver Brook,
Pelham; Massachusetts — along the Merrimac river and its tributaries,
bordering swamps in Methuen and ponds in North Andover.

WOOD — Light, rather hard, strong, close-grained, light brown with
pale sapwood of 40-50 layers of annual growth; used in the manufacture
of furniture, wooden ware, wooden shoes and in turnery.

BED BIRCH

286 TREES IN WINTER

GRAY BIRCH

Old-field, White, Poverty, Small White or Poplar Birch.
Betula populifolia Marsh.

HABIT — A small short-lived tree, 20-35 ft. in height with a trunk
diameter of generally less than 1 ft., commonly growing- in clumps;
trunk slender, generally inclined to one side, continuous into top of tree,
with a fringe from top to bottom of short slender branches which grow
upward for a short distance but soon bend downward, with delicate
spray, forming a narrow, open, pyramidal, pointed head.

BARK — Dull chalky-white, close, not peeling, with distinct dark
triangular patches below insertion of branches; inner bark reddish-
orange yellow; base of older trees nearly black and roughened by
irregular fissures; young trunks and branches bright reddish-brown.

TWIGS — Slender, bright reddish-brown or grayish, becoming with age
dull chalky-white, much roughened by warty resinous exudations.
LENTICELS — pale, raised dots becoming with age conspicuous and hori-
zontally elongated.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, 2-ranked, small, with characters of the
genus.

BUDS — Small, about 5 mm. or generally less in length, smooth, some-
what resinous especially within, ovate, pointed, divergent. BUD-
SCALES — finely downy on margins, 3-4 visible.

FRUIT — An erect or pendant, slender-stalked, narrow-cylindrical cat-
kin, 1.5 to 3.5 cm. long; scales minute 2-4 mm. long, finely downy with
broad lateral recurved lobes, and narrow middle lobe suggesting the
silhouette of a sparing bird; seed-like nutlet, minute, narrower than
the wings. Staminate catkin usually solitary.

COMPARISONS — The Gray Birch resembles the Paper Birch in having
a whitish outer bark. The bark, however, is a dingier gray and does
not peel into thin papery layers as does that of the Paper Birch. A
close inspection of its bark sometimes may show a certain breaking
away of the outer part in minute inconspicuous scales, but this is not
to be confused with a natural peeling. The bark, moreover, cannot be
separated into thin papery layers.. The slender twigs are generally
conspicuously roughened with resinous dots while those of the twigs
of the Paper Birch are in general not so roughened except slightly
in certain varieties. The Gray Birch is less inclined to produce large
limbs and the numerous small branches are rather strongly pendant
after leaving the trunk. The species is short lived, never forming a
large tree, and is most frequently met with as a waste-land tree.

DISTRIBUTION — Dry, gravelly soils, occasional in swamps and fre-
quent along their borders, often springing up on burnt lands and usually
the first tree to take possession of abandoned or neglected fields; often
difficult to eradicate as it sprouts readily from the cut stump. Nova
Scotia to Lake Ontario; south, mostly in the coast region, to Delaware;
west to Lake Ontario.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — abundant; New Hampshire — abundant
eastward, as far north as Conway and along the Connecticut to West-
moreland; Vermont — common in the western and frequent in the south-
ern Sections; Massachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island — common.

\VOOD — Light, soft, not strong, close-grained, not durable, light
brown with thick nearly white sapwood; used in the manufacture of
spools, shoe pegs and wood pulp, for the hoops of barrels and largely
for fuel.

GRAY BIRCH

288 TEEES IN WINTER

PAPER BIRCH
Canoe or White Birch.

Betula alba, var. papyrifera (Marsh.) Spach.
B. papyrifera Marsh.

HABIT — A large tree, 50-75 ft. or occasionally more in height with
a trunk diameter of 1-3 ft.; developing when not crowded an open,
irregular, rounded head, with numerous branches and erect branchlets.

BARK — Trunk and older branches chalky-white, peeling or easily
separated into thin paper-like layers of a delicate pinkish to yellowish
tinge where not exposed to the sun, with conspicuous horizontally
elongated, raised lenticels; inner bark reddish-orange yellow. With age
the outer bark rolls back in ragged sheets and the trunk becomes more
or less black-streaked and blotched and the base rough and fissured
into large irregular thick scales. The bark of the Paper Birch is much
sought after by visitors in the woods for use as letter paper, small
picture frames and other souvenir articles. In consequence trees of
this species in the neighborhood of picnic grounds generally are
despoiled of their bark and even its close-barked relative, the Gray
Birch, is not immune from attacks of those who are ignorant of the
difference in bark characters between the two species.

TWIGS — Stouter than those of the Gray Birch; smooth or somewhat
hairy, reddish-brown. LENTICELS — pale, orange colored dots becoming
horizontally elongated. LEAP-SCARS — 2-ranked, resembling those of
the Gray Birch.

BUDS — About 5-10 mm. long, ovate, pointed, divergent. BUD-SCALES
— downy on margins.

FRUIT— A short-stalked, cylindrical, smooth catkin 2-5 cm. long;
scales 4-6 mm. long, with thick lateral lobes, hairy-margined; seed-
like nutlet, narrower than the wings; staminate catkins in 2's or usually
in 3's.

COMPARISONS — The Paper Birch, as known to woodsmen, is distin-
guished by its chalky-white bark peeling into thin papery layers. A
number of botanically more or less distinct separate varieties and
species have been recognized but Betula alba, var. papyrifera is the most
common. The peeling of its bark distinguishes it from the Gray Birch.
The exposed outer bark is more distinctly white and the dark triangular
patches noticeable at the insertion of branches in the Gray Birch are
often absent, especially on older trunks, or less distinct. The bark
does not typically form the ragged fringe characteristic of the Yellow
Birch and while it may not show the characteristic chalky-white where
it has peeled, the color is not a dingy yellow but some delicate shade,
generally of cinnamon.

DISTRIBUTION — Deep, rich woods, river banks, mountain slopes.
Canada, Atlantic to Pacific, northward to Labrador and Alaska to the
limit of deciduous trees; south to Pennsylvania and Illinois; west to the
Rocky mountains and Washington on the Pacific coast.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — abundant; New Hampshire — in all sec-
tio^s, most common on highlands up to the alpine area of the White
Mountains, above the range of the Yellow Birch; Vermont — common;
Massachusetts — common in the western and central sections, rare
towards the coast; Connecticut — rare near the coast, Lyme. Huntington,
becoming occasional northward and frequent in Litchfield county;
Rhode Island — not reported.

AVOOD — Light, strong, hard, tough, very close-grained, light brown,
tinged with red, with thick nearly white sapwood; largely used for
spools, shoe-lasts, pegs and in turnery, the manufacture of wood pulp
and for fuel. The tough resinous durable bark impervious to water is
used by all the northern Indians in their canoes, and for baskets,
bags, drinking cups and other small articles, and often to cover their
wigwams in winter.

i

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PAPER BIRCH

290

TREES IN WINTER

EUROPEAN WHITE BIRCH
European Paper Birch.

Betula alba L.

The European Birch of which our American Paper Birch is considered
a variety is closely related to this latter species. There are many
horticultural varieties. Aside from the weeping variety the forms most
frequently seen in cultivation are erect with fine drooping spray. The
bark is often slashed at the base of the trunk with deep "gusset"-like
furrows exposing the inner bark in sharp contrast to the whiteness
of the outer layers. The outer bark is separable into thin papery layers
but does not seem inclined to peel spontaneously as our native Paper
Birch.

EUROPEAN WHITE BIRCTI

292 TREES IN WINTER

SPECKLED ALDER
Hoary Alder, Alder.

Alnus incana (L.) Moench.

HABIT — A small tree, or more frequently a shrub 8-25 ft. high with
a trunk diameter generally under 5 inches; generally growing in
clumps of several stems.

BARK — Grayish-brown, smooth, with prominent whitish lenticels
somewhat elongated horizontally.

TWIGS — Rather slender, more or less zigzag, finely downy, grayish-
brown, becoming hoary-white toward the tips especially of fruiting
twigs. LENTICELS — scattered, whitish, conspicuous. PITH — dark green,
3-cornered.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, 2-ranked, or sometimes apparently more
than 2-ranked, conspicuous, inversely triangular, raised, light yellowish-
brown. STIPULE-SCARS — narrow, triangular. BUNDLE-SCARS — 3,
often compounded.

BUDS — Distinctly stalked, about 8 mm. long, reddish, more or less

whitened with fine down, slightly sticky within; terminal buds scarcely

larger than laterals. BUD-SCALES — 3 scales visible, closely stuck
together.

FRUIT — A woody cone-like catkin, 6-12 mm. long, remaining on the
plant during winter, often distorted by strap-shaped projections
caused by a fungus. Staminate catkins of the coming season pendant
at the ends of reflexed branchlets with the young fertile catkins
appearing lateral and pointing downward; seed-like nutlets, round,
flattened.

COMPARISONS — The Speckled Alder is distinguished from its most
common relative, the Smooth Alder [Alnus rugosa (Du Roi) Spreng.],
by position of the fertile catkins which in the Smooth Alder are erect
and seem to be terminal and in the Speckled Alder point downward and
seem to be lateral. These two common species occur throughout New
England but intermediate forms are found, especially near their north-
ern limits. The European Black Alder [Alnus vulgarls Hill.] is some-
what planted for ornament in this country and is reported in several
localities as escaped from cultivation. In contrast to our native Alders
it has an erect, distinctly tree-like habit of growth and reaches in
Europe a height of 70 ft.

DISTRIBUTION — Swamps and borders of streams. Newfoundland to
Saskatchewan, south to Pennsylvania and Nebraska.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Throughout, more or less common especially
toward the north, local in sections toward the south; Connecticut —
local or occasional except in the southeastern part of the state where
it is rare.

WOOD — Soft, used as a source of gunpowder charcoal and said to be
further valuable because of its durability in water.

SPECKLED ALDEH

294 TREES IN WINTER

BEECH
American Beech.

Fagus grandifolia Ehrh.
F. ferruginia Ait. ; F. americana Sweet ; F. atropunicea Sudw.

HABIT — A tall tree 50-75 ft. or more in height with a trunk diameter
of l%-4 ft.; in the forest with a tall slender trunk free of branches for
more than half its length; in the open low-branched with numerous
long, slender, widely spreading or drooping branches, forming a sym-
metrical, broad, dense, rounded, oblong or obovate head; roots near the
•surface, widely spreading and sending up shoots which often surround
the parent plant with a thicket of small trees.

BARK — Close, smooth, steel-gray; more or less dark mottled and
covered with lichens in the country; in or about cities where lichen
growth is prevented by injurious gases in the air, a clear, lighter bluish-
gray; from the ease with which it is carved, generally adorned with
initials and conventionalized outlines of the human heart. Considering
the uses to which the bark is often put the Beech might well be called
the "Valentine Tree."

TWIGS — Slender, somewhat zigzag, smooth, shining, reddish-brown,
becoming gray on older growth. Spray flattish from 2-ranked position
of the buds; slow-growing branchlets numerous, leafy at tips, elongat-
ing each season only a small fraction of an inch, and growing but
slightly in thickness; thus one of the twigs in photograph is 29
years old and had grown only 4% inches in length and acquired a
thickness of less than 3 mm. during this time. LENTICELS — numerous,
conspicuous, orange to gray, elongated longitudinally. LEAVES — fre-
quently remaining on tree in winter, pale yellow, oval, sharp-pointed,
with prominent, straight veins, ending in teeth.

LEAF-SCARS — Small, raised, elliptical to semi-circular. STIPULE-
SCARS — narrow, distinct, nearly encircling twig. BUNDLE-SCARS —
inconspicuous, best seen by cutting surface section, 5 or more in double
row or scattered.

BUDS — Conspicuously long and very slender, 10-20 mm. long, about 5
times as long as wide, gradually tapering to sharp-pointed apex; ter-
minal bud present not conspicuously larger than laterals. BUD-SCALES
— numerous, 10-20 in 4 ranks, increasing in length from base to apex,
reddish-brown, their margins more or less finely hairy and often with
a woolly patch of down at tip, leaving a rather long and distinct set
of scale-scars marking each year's growth.

FRUIT — A stalked bur, densely downy and covered with soft spread-
ing and more or less recurved prickles, 4-valved, splitting to near the
base, remaining on the tree into winter, after the nut has fallen. NUT—
brown, shining, 1.0-1.5 cm. long, 3-sided pyramidal; seed sweet, edible.

COMPARISONS — The long narrow buds and the smooth, bluish-gray
bark of the Beech make it an easy tree to identify in the winter. The
pale persistent dead leaves in connection with its habit may frequently
bo used to distinguish the tree from a distance, the Oaks being about
the only other trees that have a similar retention of their withered
leaves. The European Beech [Fagus sylvatica L.] with weeping and
purpled-leaved varieties is frequently planted for ornament. It has a
darker bark than the American tree but quite closely resembles it.

DISTRIBUTION — Moist, rocky soil. Nova Scotia through Quebec and
Ontario; south to Florida; west to Wisconsin, Missouri, and Texas.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — abundant; New Hampshire — throughout
the state; common on the Connecticut-Merrimac watershed, enters
largely into the composition of the hardwood forests of Coos county;
Vermont— abundant ; Massachusetts- — in western sections abundant,
common eastward; Connecticut — occasional or frequent, rarely matur-
ing perfect fruit; Rhode Island — common.

WOOD — Hard, strong, tough, very close-grained, not durable, dif-
ficult to season, dark or often light red, with thin nearly white sap-
wood of 20-30 layers of annual growth: largely used in the manufacture
of chairs, shoe lasts, plane stocks, the handles of tools and for fuel.

BEJECH

296 TREES IN WINTER

CHESTNUT

Castanea dentata (Marsh.) Borkh.

C. sativa, var. americana Sarg. ; C. vesca, var. americana Michx.

HABIT — A large tree, 60-80 ft. in height with trunk diameter of 5-6
ft. or larger; in the forest, trunk tall and slender, in the open, trunk
short and thick generally tapering rapidly from point of branching
into top of tree; lower branches horizontal or declining, often gnarled
and twisted, upper branches arising at a sharper angle, forming a low,
open, broad, spreading, rounded, ovate head often as broad as high.
Young branches tend to bend up from all sides and give an even-edged
outline to the tree as if the head had been trimmed like a round-
topped hedge. The Chestnut, when cut, sprouts readily from the stump
and in consequence in wood-lots Chestnut trees are most commonly to
be found in groups of 2-4 or even more surrounding the old stump from
which they originally sprouted. (See plate.)

BARK — On young trunks and branches smooth, reddish-bronze, often
shining; with age broken by shallow fissures into long, broad, flat,
more or less oblique ridges.

TWIGS — Stout, generally straight, greenish-yellow or reddish-brown,
smooth, round or somewhat angled from base and outer edges of leaf-
scars; somewhat swollen at nodes. LENTICELS — Numerous, conspicu-
ous, forming minute, raised, white dots. PITH — 5-pointed, star-shaped.

LEAF-SCARS — Sometimes distinctly 2-ranked, generally more than
2-ranked, raised, semioval. STIPULE-SCARS — narrow, triangular, often
inconspicuous. BUNDLE-SCARS — scattered, inconspicuous, if leaf-scar
is surface-sectioned bundle-scars are found in two small lateral clus-
ters and a large more or less circular basal cluster.

BUDS — Small, ovate, light to dark chestnut brown, 4-6 mm. long,
often oblique to the leaf-scar; terminal bud generally absent, the end
of the twig being marked by a small scar and the bud at end of twig
being in the axil of the uppermost leaf-scar. BUD-SCALES — 2-3 only
visible, thin-margined.

FRUIT — A large, round bur, sharp-spiny without and hairy within,
opening by 4 valves. Photograph of bur reduced to about */£ natural
size. NUTS — generally 3 (1-5), dark brown, white-downy at apex,
ovate, flattened where in contact with other nuts; seed — -sweet, edible.

COMPARISONS — From the appearance of gnarled old specimens
grown in the open, the Chestnut might be taken for one of the Oaks.
Its pith, further, is star-shaped but its buds are not clustered at ends
of the twigs as in Oaks and have only 2-3 scales visible. At times
the buds of the Chestnut have a 2-ranked arrangement and
in this condition the twigs alone might be confused with
those of the Linden (which see under Comparisons). Since
the tree begins bearing early and the characteristic burs remain on
the ground, the fruit is a valuable winter character. The bark in
middle-aged trees resembles somewhat that of the Red Oak. If the
bark is blazed the wood exposed does not show the short clear lines
representing medullary rays in tangential section seen in Oaks under
similar treatment.

DISTRIBUTION — In strong, well-drained soil; pastures, rocky woods,
and hillsides. Ontario, common: south to Delaware, along the moun-
tains to Alabama; west to Michigan, Indiana, and Tennessee.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — southern sections, probably not indi-
genous north of latitude 44° 20'; New Hampshire — Connecticut valley
near the river as far north as Windsor, Vt. ; most abundant in the Mer-
rimac valley south of Concord, but occasional a short distance north-
ward; Vermont — common in the southern sections, especially in the Con-
necticut valley; occasional as far north as Windsor, West Rutland,
Burlington; Massachusetts — rather common throughout the state, but
less frequent near the sea; Connecticut and Rhode Island — common.

WOOD — Light, soft, not very strong, liable to check and warp in
drying, easily split, durable in contact with the soil, reddish-brown
with thin lighter colored sapwood of 3 or 4 layers of annual growth;
used largely in the manufacture of cheap furniture and in the interior
finish of houses for railroad ties, piling, fence posts, and rails. The
nuts, which are superior to those of the Old World Chestnut in flavor
and sweetness, are gathered in great quantities in the forest and sold
in the cities.

CHESTNUT

298 TBEES IN WINTER

WHITE OAK

Quercus alba L.

HABIT—A large tree with average height of 50-75 ft. and trunk
diameter of 1-6 ft., somewhat various in habit, tending in the open
to show a broad outline, sometimes 2-3 times as broad as high, with
short trunk and lower limbs horizontal or declined, characteristically
gnarled and twisted.

BARK — Light gray or nearly white, whence its name; broken by
shallow fissures into long, irregular, thin scales which readily flake
off. On some trees ridges broken into short oblongs giving a rougher
appearance to bark. Bark up to 2 inches thick in older trees; inner
bark light. The bark is rich in tannin, is of medicinal value and is used
in tanning.

TWIGS — Of medium thickness, greenish-reddish to gray, smooth,
sometimes covered with a bloom. LENTICELS — forming conspicuous,
light-colored, minute, rounded, raised, dots. LEAVES— ^frequently re-
maining on tree throughout winter, oblong to obovate with generally 7
large blunt lobes. PITH — 5-pointed, star-shaped.

BUDS — Broadly ovate, blunt, about 3 mm. long (2-6 mm.), reddish-
brown, sometimes slightly hairy.

FRUIT — Maturing in autumn of first year singly or in pairs, sessile
or sometimes on slender stalks. NUT — ovoid to oblong, rounded at
apex, shiny, light chestnut brown, 1.5-2.5 cm. long, enclosed %-^4
of its length by deep saucer-shaped to hemispherical cup. Scales of
cup white-woolly, thick-knobby at base, with short, blunt tips
becoming thinner and flatter at rim of cup. Meat, sweet, edible,
sometimes roasted and used as substitute for coffee, or when boiled
said to be a good substitute for chestnuts.

COMPARISONS — The White Oak is the most common of the White
Oak group. Its light flaky bark resembles that of several other Oaks.
It is readily distinguished from the Swamp White Oak by absence of
peeling of bark on young branches and by its larger and more
pointed buds; from the Post Oak by absence of greenish down on
twigs and by generally larger, narrower buds; from the Chinquapin Oak
by its blunt buds; from the Dwarf Chinquapin Oak by its larger stature,
larger twigs and buds.

DISTRIBUTION — On moist or dry ground and in various soils,
sometimes forming nearly pure forests. Quebec and Ontario; south to
the Gulf of Mexico; west to Minnesota, Nebraska, Kansas, Arkansas and
Texas.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — southern sections; New Hampshire — most
abundant eastward; in the Connecticut valley confined to the hills in
the immediate vicinity of the river, extending up the tributary streams
a short distance and disappearing entirely before reaching the mouth
of the Passumpsic; Vermont — common west of the Green mountains,
less so in the southern Connecticut valley; Massachusetts, Connecticut
and Rhode Island — common.

WOOD — Strong, very heavy, hard, tough, close-grained, durable, light
brown, with thin lighter colored sapwood; the most valuable of the
Oaks for timber, used in shipbuilding, for construction and in cooper-
age, the manufacture of carriages, agricultural implements, baskets, the
interior finish of houses, cabinet making, for railroad ties and fences,
and largely as fuel.

WHITE OAK

300 TREES IN WINTER

POST OAK
Box White Oak, Iron Oak.

Quercus stellata Wang.
Q. minor Sarg. ; Q. obtusiloba Michx.

HABIT — In New England a small tree with height in southern
section up to 60 ft., with trunk diameter of 3 ft.; at northern limit
a shrub of 10-35 ft. high with trunk diameter of y2-l ft.; in the open
forming a broad dense, round-topped head with stout spreading
branches.

BARK — Flaky; similar to that of White Oak but rather darker,
rougher, corresponding more to type of White Oak bark with short
oblong ridges; V^-l inch in thickness. Twigs when y2 inch to 1 inch
in diameter begin to acquire a flaky bark with loose, dark gray scales
lifting at sides and ends.

TWIGS — Stout, light orange to reddish-brown; the younger growth by
its light color, in striking contrast with darker, older growth which is
often almost black; young twigs covered, at least in part, with short,
dense orange-brown down, rough to the touch, often not easily noticed
without a hand-lens. Late in season down may become almost black
and disappear from the more exposed parts of twig. Bases of leaf-
scars projecting with a sudden curve from the twig. LENTICELS —
pale, minute. LEAVES — often persistent, oblong, obovate, thick with
generally 5 rounded lobes, the middle pair much the largest. PITH —
5-pointed, star-shaped.

BUDS — Broadly ovate, often as broad as long and hemispherical,
blunt, rarely acute, generally under 3 mm. long, sometimes up to 6 mm.
in length. BUD-SCALES — bright, reddish-brown, sparingly downy.

FRUIT — Maturing in autumn of first year, single or in pairs or
clustered; sessile or short-stalked. NUT — ovate to oblong, 1.5-2 cm.
long, generally covered with pale down at apex. CUP — covering
l/3-Vz the nut, top-shaped or cup-shaped, scales rather thin and flat,
only slightly knobby, pale, woolly. Meat sweet.

COMPARISONS — Readily distinguished from White Oak, which it most
nearly resembles, by rough, dirty orange-brown down which is to be
found more or less completely covering twigs. Buds are blunter,
shorter, generally more nearly hemispherical and of a brighter reddish
tinge.

DISTRIBUTION — Doubtfully from southern Ontario; south to Florida;
west to Kansas, Oklahoma and Texas.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Mostly in sterile soil near the sea-coast;
Massachusetts — southern Cape Cod from Falmouth to Brewster, the most
northern station reported, occasional; the islands of Naushon, Martha's
Vineyard, where it is rather common, and Nantucket, where it is rare;
Connecticut — local; usually in rocky ground on and near the coast;
East Lyme and Old Lyme, Branford, New Haven, Orange and Milford,
and westward; extending inland as far as Hamden; on Mt. Carmel and
Huntington at 350 ft. elevation; Rhode Island — along the shore of the
northern arm of Wickford harbor.

WOOD — Very heavy, hard, close-grained, durable in contact with
soil, difficult to season, light or dark brown, with thick lighter colored
sapwood; used for fuel, fencing, railroad ties and sometimes in the
manufacture of carriages, for cooperage and in construction.

POST OAK

302 TREES IN WINTER

BUR OAK

Mossy-cup or Over-cup Oak.

Quercus macrocarpa Michx.

HABIT — Although one of our largest Oaks in the central states, in
New England of medium size only 40-60 ft. in height with a trunk
diameter of 1-3 ft.; in the open forming a broad, round top with thick
spreading limbs and numerous often drooping branchlets.

BARK — Flaky, resembling that of White Oak but rather darker and
with ridges rather firmer.

TWIGS — Stout, yellowish-brown, smooth or downy, twigs on some
trees after the first year developing corky ridges. LENTICELS — minute,
pale, raised dots, inconspicuous. LEAVES — which sometimes persist,
obovate-oblong, divided by deep indentations into 5-7 rounded lobes, the
terminal lobe the largest. PITH — 5-pointed, star-shaped.

BUDS — Conical to broadly ovate, sharp-pointed or blunt, 3-5 mm.
long, reddish-brown, covered with pale wool; lateral buds more or
less strongly appressed and flattened against the twig. Stipules often
persisting at tips of twigs, long, downy thread-like. BUD-SCALES —
relatively few to a bud.

FRUIT — Maturing in autumn of first year, very variable, sessile or
stalked, generally single. NUT — ovate to oval, 2-5 cm. long, apex
rounded or depressed, covered with pale down. CUP — thick, hemi-
spherical to top-shaped enclosing from % to the entire nut; scales of
cup, pale, woolly, thickened at base with pointed tips, tips of upper
scales prolonged into a more or less distinct fringe.

COMPARISONS — The Bur Oak is sharply distinguished from our
other Oaks by a number of well-marked characters such as the presence
of corky ridges on the young branchlets, the copious fringe to the
large acorn, the appressed and downy buds. These characters, however,
are not always present in a given specimen; thus the corky ridges
may fail to appear throughout an entire tree; the acorns may be
reduced in size and in the distinctness of the fringe; and the lateral
buds may be more or less divergent.

DISTRIBUTION — Low rich bottom lands. Nova Scotia to Manitoba;
south to Pennsylvania and Tennessee; west to Montana, Nebraska,
Kansas, Oklahoma and Texas.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — known only in the valleys of the middle
Penobscot and the Kennebec; Vermont — lowlands, about Lake Cham-
plain, especially in Addison county, not common; Massachusetts — valley
of the Ware river, Stockbridge and towns south along the Housatonic
river; Connecticut — rich bottom lands or swampy places, rare or local
and confined to the northwestern part of the state; reported from Ca-
riaan and Salisbury; Rhode Island — no station reported.

WOOD — Similar to that of White Oak from which it is not generally
listinguished commercially, although superior in strength.

BUR OAK

304 TREES IN WINTER

SWAMP WHITE OAK

Quercus bicolor Willd.
Q. plrttanoides Sudw.

HABIT — A medium sized tree, 40-60 ft. high, with trunk diameter
of 2-3 ft.; in the open with round-topped open head, sometimes broader
than high, upper limbs ascending, lower limbs rather small, horizon-
tal or declined even to the ground, with numerous tufted, small,
scraggly, lateral, pendant branchlets. The scraggly branchlets ii:
connection with the peeling of the bark give a very rough unkempt
appearance to the tree. Trunk erect, generally continuous,, sometimes
forking above to give somewhat the aspect of an Elm in respect to
main limbs. In the open this tree may generally be recognized at a dis-
tance by the lower branches which spread out below to form a fringe
reminding one of an old-fashioned hoop-skirt.

BARK — Flaky, grayish-brown, divided by deep longitudinal fissures
into rather long, fiat ridges. Bark on small branchlets, dark reddish-
brown to black, peeling into long, persistent stiff-papery layers,
which curl back and expose the lighter bark beneath.

TWIGS — Mediumly stout to slender, yellowish-green to reddish-
brown, smooth (seldom slightly downy). Medullary rays generally absent
in branchlets even of 6 to S years growth. LENTICELS — pale, raised.
LEAVES — which may persist obovate-oblong, wedge-shaped at base,
wavy-margined to blunt-lobed, with 6-S pairs of primary veins. PITH—
5-pointed, star-shaped.

BUDS — Broadly ovate to oval to spherical; blunt-pointed; small, 2-4
mm. long. BUD-SCALES — brown, at times slightly hairy above middle.

FRUIT — Maturing in one year, single or in pairs or groups of 3,
generally with long stalks, 2.5 to 10 cm. long. NUT — light chestnut
ovate to oblong, 2-3 cm. long, apex covered with pale down, rounded
or pointed. CUP — thick, cup-shaped, about Vs enclosing nut; scales
pale woolly, those at base more or less thickened, at rim of cup tips
of scales elongated, narrow, awn-pointed, often forming short fringe.
Meat sweet, edible.

COMPARISONS — The sycamore-like peeling1 of the bark from the
young branchlets easily distinguishes this species from all other Oaks.
The bark somewhat resembles that of White Oak but is somewhat
darker and the ridges are longer.

DISTRIBUTION — Borders of swamps and streams. Quebec to Ontario,
where it is known as the Blue Oak; south to Delaware along the
mountains to northern Georgia; west to Minnesota, Iowa, East Kansas
and Arkansas.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — York county; New Hampshire — Merrimac
valley as far as the mouth of the Souhegan, and probably throughout
Rockingham county; Vermont — low grounds about Lake Champlain;
Massachusetts — frequent in the western and central sections, common
eastward; Connecticut — frequent; Rhode Island — common.

AVOOD — Similar to that of White Oak, and used for same general
purposes; sapwood, thin, hardly distinguishable from heartwood.

!:,

SWAMP WHITE OAK

306 TREES IN WINTER

CHINQUAPIN OAK

Chestnut Oak, Yellow Oak.

Quercus Muhlenbergii Engelm.

Q. acuminata Houba.

HABIT — Small to medium sized tree 30-40 ft. high with a trunk
diameter of 1-2 ft.; in basin of the Mississippi reaching an exception-
al height of 160 feet; trunk buttressed at base in older specimens,
branches comparatively small forming narrow, round-topped head.

BARK — Thin, flaky, broken into loose grayish or sometimes slightly
brownish scales.

TWIGS — Rather slender, light orange to reddish-brown, smooth.
LENTICELS — pale, inconspicuous. LEAVES — resembling those of
Chestnut with large, incurved, glandular-tipped teeth or rarely with
wavy margin resembling the leaf of the Chestnut Oak. PITH —
5-pointed, star-shaped.

BUDS — Narrowly ovate to conical, sharp-pointed, 3-5 mm. long. BUD-
SCALES — light chestnut brown, slightly hairy on edges, appearing
longitudinally striate if held toward light and viewed with a hand-
lens. Buds similar to those of Chestnut Oak but smaller.

FRUIT — Maturing the first season, sessile or short-stalked, singly or
in pairs. NUT — broadly ovate to oval, 15-20 mm. long, narrowed and
rounded at pale downy apex, light chestnut brown. CUP — thin, rather
shallow cup-shaped enclosing about Y2 or less of the nut; scales pale
brown, woolly, slightly knobby at base of cup, the brownish tips of the
scales sometimes forming a slight fringe at rim of cup. Meat sweet,
edible.

COMPARISONS — The Chinquapin Oak resembles the Chestnut Oak on
the one hand and the Dwarf Chinquapin Oak on the other. It is
distinguished from the former by its flaky, gray bark, and the smaller
size of buds and acorns; from the latter by its sharp-pointed buds and
larger size.

DISTRIBUTION — Rare and local in the Atlantic states, usually on
limestone soil, on dry hillsides, rocky ridges and rich bottoms. Ontario;
south to Delaware and District of Columbia, along the mountains to
northern Alabama; west to Minnesota, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma
and Texas.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Vermont — Gardner's Island, Lake Champlain,
Perrisburg; Connecticut — rare; calcareous ridges in the northwestern
part of the state; Canaan, Salisbury, also along the Housatonic river
in Kent, New Milford and bordering tide water in Milford.

WOOD — Heavy, very hard, strong, close-grained, durable, with thin,
light-colored sapwood, largely used in cooperage, for wheels, fencing
and railroad ties.

CHINQUAPIN OAK

308 TREES IN WINTER

DWARF CHINQUAPIN OAK
Scrub Chestnut Oak, Chinquapin Oak, Scrub Oak.

Quercus prinoicles Willd.

HABIT — A low shrub generally 2-4 ft. high or occasionally reaching
15 ft. in heigh, forming broad clumps by prolific stolons.

BARK — Light brown, scaly; scaliness evident when trunk reaches a
diameter of 1% inches.

TWIGS — Slender; generally not over 2 mm. thick, orange to reddish-
brown ; generally smooth ; a variety, rufescens Rehder, with yellowish
lairs on twigs. LENTICELS — pale, rather conspicuous. LEAVES —
oblanceolate to obovate-oblong, coarsely wavy-toothed. PITH — 5-point-
ed, star-shaped.

BUDS — Spherical to ovate, rounded or slightly narrowed at apex,
about 3 mm. long. SCALES — chestnut brown, thin, scarious and slightly
hairy on edges; small collateral buds sometimes present on either side
of axillary bud.

FRUIT — Maturing the first season, produced in great abundance, ses-
sile or short-stalked, singly or in pairs. NUT — oval, light chestnut
brown and shiny, apex blunt-pointed and covered with pale clown, 15
to 25 mm. long. CUP — thin, deep cup-shaped, covering y2 or more
of nut; scales pale woolly, more or less knobby, thickened at base
of cup, thinner toward rim. Meat sweet.

COMPARISONS — In habit the Dwarf Chinquapin Oak most nearly
resembles the Bear Oak but is smaller when of the same age; has flaky
bark after reaching a trunk diameter of l1/^ inches or more, while the
bark of the Bear Oak is close, for the most part smooth, even on old
specimens not flaky though developing small close scales. It further
belongs to the White Oak group (see page 204) and since both these
two Scrub Oaks produce fruit in great abundance acorns are generally
accessible and easily distinguished. The Bear Oak generally has redder,
sharp-pointed buds, while those of the Dwarf Chinquapin Oak are
blunt with edges of scales ashy with fine wool or mealy scurfiness.
Moreover, except in variety rufescens, twigs of the Dwarf Chinquapin
Oak are smooth. The Chestnut Oak and the Chinquapin Oak are
distinguished by their larger and sharp-pointed buds. The buds of
the Swamp White Oak are somewhat similar to those of the Dwarf
Chinquapin Oak but the larger size of the tree and peeling of the bark
on branchlets of the Swamp White Oak are distinctive. Further west
apparently the species inter-grades into the Chinquapin Oak.

DISTRIBUTION — Dry woods, rocky slopes and hillside pastures, some-
times in open sandy soil. From Maine south to North Carolina, west
to Kansas, Nebraska and Texas.

IN NEW ENGLAND — more or less common throughout.

WOOD — From small size of plant, of no economic value except as fuel.

DWARF C

N OAK

310 TREES IN WINTER

CHESTNUT OAK
Rock Chestnut Oak, Rock Oak.

Quercus Prinus L.

HABIT — A medium sized or small tree, 25-50 ft. high with a trunk
diameter of l-2y2 ft.; further south much larger, reaching 100 ft. in
height; trunk tall, straight, continuous, or divided rather low down into
large spreading limbs, forming broad open head, sometimes broader
than high.

BARK — Brown to black, deeply fissured into long, more or less con-
tinuous, thick, rough ridges which are somewhat flattened on surface or
on older trees more characteristically rounded or sharp-edged, a section
through one of the ridges forming thus an inverted letter "V" with its
apex somewhat rounded or in younger specimens flattened; bark of
young trees and of smaller branches smooth.

TWIGS — Stout, light orange to reddish-brown, smooth with some-
what bitter taste. LENTICELS — pale, generally inconspicuous. LEAVES
— oblong, lanceolate to obovate, wavy-margined with 10-16 pairs of
primary veins. PITH — 5-pointed, star-shaped.

BUDS — Narrowly ovate-conical, sharp-pointed, 4-10 mm, long. BUD-
SCALES — light chestnut brown, slightly hairy toward apex and on
margins, appearing longitudinally striate if viewed toward light with a
hand-lens. Margins of scales tend to lose their brown color and to
become light or dark gray.

FRUIT — Maturing the first season, short-stalked, singly or in pairs.
NUT — shiny, light chestnut brown, oval to ovate to nearly cylindrical,
variable in size and relative thickness; 20-35 mm. long; from three
times to less than twice as long as broad. CUP — thin, deep, top-
shaped to hemispherical, covering % or less of nut; scales reddish-
brown, woolly, more or less knobby especially toward base of cup. Meat
sweet.

COMPARISONS — The Chestnut Oak is readily distinguished from
the other members of the White Oak group by the fact that its bark
is not flaky. Its firm, round-ridged bark is definitely characteristic
when typically developed. The buds resemble somewhat those of the
Red Oak, but are somewhat lighter in color with edges of scales
bleached, are much narrower and for the most part conical, with the
widest part at or very near the base, whereas the buds of the Red Oak
when typically developed, are much fatter, with the widest part about
a third of the distance from the base. The bark of the Red Oak,
moreover, has flat ridges.

DISTRIBUTION — Woods, rocky ridges and hillsides. Along the Cana-
dian shore of Lake Erie; south to Delaware and along the mountains
to Georgia, extending nearly to the summit of Mt. Pisgah in North
Carolina; west to Kentucky, Tennessee, and Alabama.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — Saco river and Mt. Agamenticus. near
the southern coast; New Hampshire — belts or patches in the
eastern part of the state and along the southern border, Hinsdale,
Winchester, Brookline, Manchester, Hudson; Vermont; western part of
the state throughout, not common; abundant at Smoke mountain at
an altitude of 1,300 feet, and along the western flank of the Green
mountains at least in Addison county; Massachusetts — eastern sections,
Sterling, Lancaster, Russell, Middleboro, rare in Medford and Sudbury,
frequent on the Blue Hills; Connecticut — occasional near the coast;
frequent or common elsewhere; Rhode Island — locally common.

WOOD — Heavy, hard, strong, rather tough, close grained, durable in
contact with the soil, largely used for fencing, railroad ties, ranking
next to the White Oak for this purpose, and for fuel. The bark is
rich in tannin and is consumed in large quantities in tanning leather.

CHESTNUT OAK

312 TREES IN WINTER

RED OAK

Quercus rubra L.

HABIT — The largest of our New England Oaks, 50-85 ft. high, reach-
ing an exceptional height of 150 ft.; with trunk diameter of 2-6 ft.;
trunk branching rather higher up than in the White Oak, often continu-
ous into the top of the tree with ascending branches forming a rather
narrow, round-topped head or spreading more widely as shown in the
specimen photographed becoming even broader than high. The limbs
in the main are not so horizontal or declined nor so crooked as in the
White Oak and the tree in consequence offers a less gnarled aspect.

BARK — On young trees and upper parts of older trees smooth, gray-
brown; on trunks of mature trees and on their thicker limbs up to 4 cm.
thick, tardily broken by shallow furrows into dark brown, rather
regular, elongated, firm, coarse, flat-topped ridges. The flat ridges
which are characteristic of the species are often in older trees roughened
up toward the base of the trunk so that the distinctive character of
the bark must be sought higher up on the trunk or on the larger
limbs. Inner bark, light reddish, not bitter.

TWIGS — Mediumly stout to slender, reddish to greenish-brown.
LENTICELS — pale, often inconspicuous. LEAVES — obovate to oblong,
with bristle-pointed lobes, often difficult to distinguish from those of
Black Oak. PITH — 5-pointed, star-shaped.

BUDS — Oval to ovate, 4-8 mm. long, with widest part typically
% to % above base suggesting appearance of a short stalk to the bud;
sharp pointed with more or less distinct development of rusty hairs at
the extreme apex, otherwise smooth or sometimes slightly pale-woolly
on upper half. BUD-SCALES — numerous, light chestnut brown seen
to be longitudinally striate with darker lines when viewed toward
light with a hand-lens, margins slightly hairy.

FRUIT — Maturing in autumn of second season, singly or in pairs,
sessile or on a short, thick stalk. NUT — ovate to cylindrical with broad
base and narrowed, rounded apex; dark chestnut brown, large. 2-3 cm.
long. CUP — flat, shallow, thick, saucer-shaped (rarely somewhat
top-shaped), rim somewhat constricted, enclosing about % of the nut,
2-3.5 cm. across. Scales thin, reddish-brown, shining, not at all or
but slightly hairy, closely overlapping. Meat pale yellow, slightly
bitter. Immature acorns generally divergent or but slightly appressed.
with basal scales reaching about half way up, giving appearance of 3
rows of scales.

COMPARISONS — If the acorns are obtainable the Red Oak is not
to be confused with any of our other species, the large flat cup being
distinctive. The flat flutings of the bark and the fat, basally con-
stricted, sharp-pointed buds are further characteristic. See Black
Oak for comparison with Red and Black and Scarlet Oak, and Chestnut
Oak for comparison with latter species.

DISTRIBUTION — Woods, widely adapted to various conditions of soil
and situation except distinctly wet lands, ranges further north than
our other Oaks and is most planted of the American Oaks in Europe.
Nova Scotia and New Brunswick to divide west of Lake Superior; south
to Tennessee, Virginia and along mountain ranges to Georgia; reported
from Florida; west to Minnesota, Nebraska, Kansas and Texas.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — common, at least south of the central
portions; New Hampshire — extending into Coos County, far north of the
White Mountains; Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode
Island — common; probably in most parts of New England the most com-
mon of the genus; found higher up the slopes of mountains than the
White Oak.

WOOD— Heavy, hard, strong, coarse-grained, light reddish-brown, with
thin lighter colored sapwood; used in construction, for the interior
finish cf houses, and in furniture. Timber of this species, as also of
Black and Scarlet Oak, is relatively poor but is more used than for-
merly on account of scarcity of better.

stiff! /

m

RED OAK

TREES IN WINTER

PIN OAK
Swarnp Oak, Water Oak.

Quercus palustris Muench.

HABIT — A medium sized tree 40-50 ft. high with trunk diameter of 1-2
ft., reaching a maximum height of over 100 ft. in the lower Ohio
basin; trunk tall, straight, continuous up through th3 pyramidal head;
limbs numerous, slender; lower limbs short, drooping, upper limbs longer
horizontal or ascending, generally studded with short lateral shoots
which give rise to the common name. The habit of this tree is very
characteristic and is well shown in the two specimens in the illus-
tration. In older trees the head is more open and irregular.

BARK — Of young trunks and limbs, smooth, shiny, light brown; on
older trunks darker, furrowed with close, narrow, firm, low ridges.

TAVIGS — Slender, reddish-brown to orange, shining. LENTICELS — pale,
scattered, inconspicuous. LEAVES — small, obovate or oblong; lobes
bristle-tipped, separated by deep, rounded indentations, resembling
leaves of Scarlet Oak but smaller. PITH — 5-pointed, star-shaped.

BUDS — Conical to ovate, generally sharp-pointed, small, 2-4 mm. long.
BUD-SCALES — light chestnut brown, sometimes slightly hairy on the
thin margins.

FRUIT — Maturing the second season, abundant, sessile or short-
stalked, solitary or in pairs or clusters. NUT — light brown, often striate,
nearly hemispherical, 10-15 mm. long, wider than long, and generally
wider than the cup. CUP — thin, saucer-shaped, 10-15 mm. across, enclos-
ing only the base of the nut; scales thin, slightly downy, closely over-
lapping. Meat pale yellow, slightly bitter.

COMPARISONS — When young the Pin Oak is one of the most easily
recognized of any of our trees in winter from its general habit of
growth. Its continuous trunk, fringed with slender branches, and its
comparatively smooth bark roughened only slightly by narrow, low
ridges are alone distinctive. Further characteristics are the small
sharp-pointed buds and the small acorns with saucer-shaped cup.

DISTRIBUTION — Borders of swamps and river bottoms in deep moist
rich soil. Ontario; south to the valley of the lower Potomac in
Virginia; west to Minnesota, east Kansas, Missouri, Arkansas, and
Oklahoma.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Massachusetts — Amherst; bpringfield, south to.
Connecticut, rare; Connecticut — common in the Connecticut river valley
and near the coast in southwestern Connecticut; occasional or local
elsewhere; Rhode Island — southern portions, bordering the great Kings-
ton swamp and on the margin of the Pawcatuck River.

WOOD — Heavy, hard, coarse-grained, but liable to warp and check in
drying; light brown, with thin rather darker colored sapwood; some-
times used in construction and for shingles and clapboards.

OAK

316 TREES IN WINTER

SCARLET OAK

Quercus coccinea Muench.

HABIT— A tree of medium size, 30-50 ft. high with trunk diametei
of 1-3 ft., larger further south; trunk tends to be continuous into the
crown, narrowed and giving' off ascending branches above and
horizontal, often terminally declined branches below; limbs long and
comparatively slender for an Oak, forming a rather narrow, open head.

BARK — Of young trunks and limbs smooth, light brown, on older
trunks and limbs up to 2.5 cm. thick, divided by shallow furrows into
irregular ridges which in general are neither so regularly flat-topped
as the ridges of the Red Oak nor so roughly broken up as those of the
Black Oak. The bark therefore may be considered as intermediate in
character between these two species. Inner bark, reddish not bitter.

TWIGS — Mediumly stout to slender, light red to orange red. LENTI-

CELS — numerous, minute, pale, inconspicuous. LEAVES — broadly

oval or obovate, with bristle-tipped lobes separated by deep rounded
indentations. PITH — 5-pointed, star-shaped.

BUDS — Broadly oval to ovate, narrowed above to a typically rather
blunt apex, widest at or slightly below middle, dark reddish-brown, 4-8
mm. long, pale woolly above middle, lower half mostly free from wool.
BUD-SCALES — numerous, free from distinct longitudinal striations.

FRUIT — Maturing in autumn of second season, sessile or short-stalked,
singly or in pairs. NUT — oval to oblong, variable in shape, 1 to 2.5
cm. long, light reddish brown, occasionally striate. CUP — thin, top-
shaped or cup-shaped, constricted at base, enclosing % to Vz of nut.
Scales, light reddish-brown, thin, closely overlapping, slightly downy,
tips of scales at rim typically appressed against the nut — not spread-
ing. Meat pale yellow, slightly bitter. Immature acorns appressed,
vather smooth and shiny, light brown, main basal scales generally
reaching less than halfway up giving appearance of 2 rows of scales.

COMPARISONS — The size and shape of the acorn cup as well as the
greater woolliness of the upper part of the buds distinguish this species
from the Red Oak. From the Black Oak it is distinguished by the
appressed scales of acorn cup, by the fatter buds which are less wolly,
and that only above the middle and by the pale inner bark. See also
under Black Oak.

DISTRIBUTION — Most common on dry, sandy soil. Ontario; south to
the middle states and along the mountains to North Carolina and Ten-
nessee; reported from Florida; west to Minnesota, Nebraska and Mis-
souri.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — valley of the Androscoggin, southward;
New Hampshire — common about Manchester; Vermont — not authori-
tatively reported by recent observers; Massachusetts — more common in
the eastern than western sections, sometimes covering considerable
areas; Connecticut and Rhode Island — common.

WOOD — Heavy, hard, strong, coarse-grained, light or reddish-brown,
with thick darker colored sapwood, less valuable than wood of Red Oak
but used for the same purposes.

SCARLET OAK

318 TREES IX WINTER

BLACK OAK
Yellow-barked Oak, Quercitron, Yellow Oak.

Quercus velutina Lam.
Q. cocclnea, var. tinctoria A.DC. ; Q. tinctoria Bartr.

HABIT — One of our largest oaks 50-75 ft. high with a trunk diameter
of 2-4 ft., reaching its greatest development in Ohio basin with a
maximum height of 150 ft.; somewhat similar in general habit to the
Scarlet Oak; limbs generally somewhat stouter; head may be wide
spreading- or narrowed oblong.

BARK — Dark gray to blackish, often lighter near the seashore, up to
4 cm. thick, very rough, broken by deep furrows into thick ridges which
are further divided by cross fissures giving an appearance of irregular
block-like strips. The bark is roughened especially at the base of
trunk even in quite young trees. The young bark in beginning to
fissure for a time may have flattened ridges resembling those of Red
Oak, but they are soon transversely roughened. Inner bark orange-
yellow, intensely bitter; this with the buds forms the most distinctive
character.

TWIGS — Stout, reddish-brown or reddish, mottled with gray; tasting
bitter if chewed and coloring saliva yellowish. LENTICELS — scattered,
generally large, conspicuous. LEAVES — obovate to oblong with broad
bristle-pointed lobes sometimes indistinguishable from those of Scarlet
Oak. Large, thin-walled, spherical insect galls formed on leaves seem
to be most common on the Black Oak. (See plate.) PITH — 5-pointed,
star-shaped.

BUDS — Ovate to conical, large 6-12 mm. long, narrowed above to a
rather sharp point, generally 5-sided, strongly angled, covered except
basal row of scales with dense, pale yellowish-gray to dirty-white wool.
BUD-SCALES — numerous, not distinctly longitudinally striate.

FRUIT — Maturing in autumn of second year, singly or in pairs, sessile
or short-stalked, deep cup-shaped to top-shaped. NUT — ovate-oblong,
variable in shape, 1-2 cm. long, light reddish-brown, frequently
coated with soft down, often striate. CUP — thin, deeply cup to top-
shaped, more or less constricted at base; scales of cup thin, light
reddish-brown, finely woolly, closely overlapping at base, loosely
overlapping above with free tips horizontally wrinkled and forming a
loose more or less spreading fringe-like border to cup. Meat yellower
and more bitter than that of the Scarlet Oak. Immature acorns appressed
or recurved toward twig, slightly woolly; main scales extending nearly
to the top giving the appearance of a single row of scales.

COMPARISONS — The three most common trees of the Black Oak group
(the Red, the Black and the Scarlet) are readily distinguished by their
bud characters. Those of the Black Oak are densely pale woolly over
whole surface, those of Scarlet Oak are less densely pale woolly, and
the woolliness is confined to upper half. They are more nearly oval
than those of the Black Oak, the widest part being toward the middle.
The Red Oak Buds are generally free from pale woolliness
though having1 often rusty hairs at extreme apex; in dis-
tinction from the Scarlet Oak the widest part is nearer
the base. The yellow bitter inner bark and the yellow discol-
oration of the saliva when the twigs are chewed distinguish the Black
Oak from the other two. The Red Oak has flat-topped ridges, these in
the Black Oak are broken into rough blocks, while the bark of the
Scarlet Oak is intermediate between the two types. The acorns of
the Red Oak are large with large shallow saucer-shaped cups, those
of the Scarlet and Black are smaller, and have deeper cups. The cup
scales of the Black Oak form a loose fringe at the rim and are wrinkled,
those of the Scarlet are closely over-lapping and form no fringe. The
acorn characters are distinctive for the Red Oak but are not so good
quite in separating the Black and Scarlet Oaks from each other,
although when typically developed the acorns of the two trees can be
readily distinguished. The bark characters can be used when typically
developed in separating the Red from the Black Oak but are not as
decisive as bud or inner bark characters.

DISTRIBUTION — In poor soils; on dry gravelly plains and ridges.
Southern and western Ontario; south to the Gulf states; west to Min-
nesota, Kansas, Oklahoma and Texas.

IN NEW ENGLAND Maine — York county; New Hampshire — valley

of the lower Merrimac and eastward, absent on the highlands, reappear-
ing within three or four miles of the Connecticut, ceasing at North
Charlestown; Vermont — western and southwester sections; Massachu-
setts— abundant eastward; Connecticut and Rhode Island — frequent.

WOOD — Heavy, hard, strong though not tough, coarse-grained and
liable to check in drying, bright brown tinged with red. with thin lighter
colored sap wood; of little value except as fuel. The bark abounds in
tannic acid and is largely used In tanning, as a yellow dye and an
astringent in medicine.

BLACK OAK

320 TEEES IN WINTER

BEAR OAK
Black Scrub Oak.

Quercus ilicifolia Wang.
Q. nana Sarg. ; Q. pumila Sudw.

HABIT— Usually a shrub 3-10 ft. high, though frequently becoming
tree-like and reaching a maximum height of 25 ft. with a trunk
diameter of V2 to 1 ft.; trunk short, branches stiff, contorted, slender,
'jpreading and forming a wide flat or round-topped head.

BARK — Thin, dark brown, smooth, except for small, close, thin scales
on older trunks, never however breaking into large, flaky scales.

TWIGS — Slender, yellowish-green to reddish-brown, covered with
greenish-yellowish to reddish down which often disappears from expos-
ed parts of the twig during the winter but which can generally be found
in protected parts at the tips, bases or between the ridges of the season's
shoots. LENTICELS — minute, pale, inconspicuous on shoots of season.
Leaves often breaking off above place of attachment leaving base of leaf-
stalk projecting throughout winter (see illustration). LEAVES — small,
obovate, nearly entire or with 3-7 bristle-tipped lobes, downy beneath.
PITH — 5-pointed, star-shaped.

BUDS — Ovate to conical, sharp or blunt pointed, small, generally not
over 3 mm. long. BUD-SCALES — dark chestnut brown, generally
minutely hairy on the margins.

FRUIT — Maturing in second season, produced in great abundance,
clustered along the stem, generally in pairs or rarely singly, sessile
or generally short-stalked. NUT — varying in shape, ovate to spheri-
cal, 10-15 mm. long, light brown, shining, generally more or less
longitudinally striate. Cup — top-shaped to rather deeply saucer-
shaped, more or less constricted at base, thick, enclosing about y2 the
nut; scales of cup reddish-brown, slightly downy, thin, closely over-
lapping with free tips of upper scales forming a fringe-like border
to cup.

COMPARISONS — The Dwarf Chinquapin Oak is the only one likely
to be confused with the Bear Oak. The points of difference between
the two species may be found in Comparisons under Dwarf Chinquapin
Oak.

DISTRIBUTION — Dry sandy or rocky sterile ground. Maine; south
to Ohio and the mountain regions of North Carolina and Kentucky;
west to the Alleghany mountains.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — frequent in eastern and southern sec-
tions and upon Mount Desert Island; New Hampshire — as far north as
Conway, more common near the lower Connecticut; Vermont — in the
eastern and southern sections as far north as Bellows Falls; Connecti-
cut— rare in northwestern part of the state, local, frequent or common
elsewhere; Massachusetts and Rhode Island — abundant, forming, in fa-
vorable situations, dense thickets, sometimes covering several acres.

WOOD— Too scant to be of an economic value.

BEAR OAK

322 TREES IN WINTER

SLIPPERY ELM

Red Elm, Moose Elm.

Ulmus fulva Michx.

U. pubescens Walt.

HABIT — A small to medium.sized tree, 40-60 ft. in height with a
trunk diameter of 1-2% ft.; forming a broad open rather flat-topped
head, resembling- the White Elm but with less drooping branches.

BARK — Grayish-brown, more or less deeply furrowed, the ridges
tending rather more than in the White Elm to lift along one edge, inter-
nally reddish-brown without conspicuously whitish layers (see bark sec-
tion in plate); inner bark next the wood, whitish, strongly mucilagi-
nous, giving the name Slippery Elm.

TWIGS — Light, grayish, hairy, roughened by numerous raised lenti-
cels, strongly and characteristically mucilaginous if chewed.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, 2-ranked, with generally 3 sunken bundle-
scars, resembling those of the White Elm.

BUDS — Terminal bud absent; lateral buds about 6 mm. long, dark
brown, covered especially at their tips with long rusty hairs; flower
buds more or less spherical. BUD-SCALES — in 2 ranks of a nearly
uniform color.

FRUIT — A flat round entire-winged fruit without hairy fringe, ripen-
ing in spring.

COMPARISONS — The Slippery Elm is easily distinguished from the
common White Elm and the rarer Cork Elm by its rough gray twigs,
its dark buds covered with long rusty hairs and by the strongly
mucilaginous character of the inner bark of the trunk and even, though
to a somewhat less extent, of the twigs, and further from the White
Elm by the absence of distinct white layers in the outer bark.

DISTRIBUTION — Rich, low grounds; low, rocky woods and hillsides.
Valley of the St. Lawrence, apparently not abundant; south to Florida;
west to North Dakota and Texas.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — District of Maine, rare; Waterborough,
(York county); New Hampshire — valley of the Connecticut, usually
disappearing within ten miles of the river; ranges as far north as the
mouth of the Passumpsic; Vermont — frequent; Massachusetts — rare in
the eastern sections, frequent westward; Connecticut — rare to frequent;
Rhode Island — infrequent.

WOOD — Heavy, hard, strong, very coarse-grained, durable, easy to
split, dark brown or red, with thin lighter colored sapwood; largely
used for fence posts, railroad ties, the sills of buildings, the hubs oi
wheels and in agricultural implements. The thick fragrant mucil-
aginous inner bark is used in medicine as a demulcent and is some-
what nutritious.

SLIPPERY ELM

324 TREES IN WINTER

ENGLISH ELM

Ulmus campestris L.
U. glabra Mill.

HABIT — A large tree reaching- 100 ft. in height; trunk erect, gen-
erally continuous well into the crown, with branches given off at a
broad angle and continued horizontally or inclined upward, not drooping
at the ends in the graceful curves characteristic of the American White
Elm, producing rather an Oak-like appearance with an oblong round-
popped head.

BARK — Dark, with ridges broken transversely into firm oblong blocks.

TWIGS — Similar to the White Elm but generally a darker reddish-
brown, usually smooth or somewhat downy.

LEAR-SCARS — Similar to the White Elm, bundle-scars frequentlj
more than 3.

BUDS — Similar to the White Elm but of a dark smoky brown color
or almost black, smooth or more or less hairy. BUD-SCALES — nearly
uniform in color.

FRUIT — A flat, ovate, smooth, entire-winged fruit, ripening in spring,

COMPARISONS — The erect Oak-like habit, the firm blocked ridges
of the bark, and the smoky smoothish buds will serve to distinguish
the English Elm from its American cousins. There are a number of
varieties of the English Elm differing in habit of growth, one form
having corky ridges. We have described the most familiar type.

DISTRIBUTION — The English Elm is not confined to England but
like the English sparrow occurs through Europe. It is mt native to
America but was considerably planted formerly in the eastern sections
especially in Boston and vicinity, where some fine old specimens are to
be found. The trees in the plate were taken from Boston Common, the
two at the right being English Elms, while the smaller one, indistinctly
outlined at the left, is an American White Elm. They have all been
rather severely pruned on account of insect depredations.

WOOD — Heavy, hard, fine-grained, durable in water, not liable to
crack when exposed to sun or weather; used in Europe for ships' blocks
and other wooden parts of rigging, for the keels of ships, for pumps
and water pipes, piles and other construction under water and for the
hubs of wheels.

EN(;LISII ELJ

326 TREES IN WINTER

WHITE ELM
American or Water Elm.

Ulmus americana L.

HABIT— A large tree 50-110 ft. in height with a trunk diameter of
1-8 ft.; trunk more or less widely buttressed, dividing high up into
a number of large limbs which grow upward, and bend gradually and
gracefully outward, dividing repeatedly to form a broad, round or
flat-topped inversely conical head with drooping branchlets. In respect
to its general outline various types of the Elm have been distinguished
as the "Vase Form" shown in the photograph; the "Umbrella Form"
with trunk undivided to near the top with abruptly spreading branches
forming a broad shallow arch; the "Plume Form" with a one-sided
development of drooping branches from a tall trunk; the "Oak Form"
with more tortuous and less arching limbs forming a wide rounded
head; the "Feathered Form," a modification of any of the other types
with the trunk fringed with short branches.

BARK — Dark gray, divided by irregular longitudinal fissures into
broad flat-topped ridges, rather firm though sometimes in very old
trees coming off in flakes; the bark is internally stratified by thick
conspicuously whitish layers alternating with layers of a dark brown
(see plate for section of a ridge of bark).

TWIGS — Slender, smooth or slightly or sometimes densely downy,
light reddish-brown, often tinged with yellow, very slightly mucilagin-
ous if chewed. LENTICELS — pale, scattered, more or less inconspicuous.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, 2-ranked, semi-circular, raised, small but
conspicuous because of contrast in color between the light corky surface
of the scar and the darker brown of the twig. STIPULE-SCARS —
narrow, minute, sometimes indistinct. BUNDLE-SCARS — relatively large,
conspicuous, typically 3 in number though often more by compound-
ing of single scars, generally sunken in depressions of the leaf-scar.

BUDS — Terminal bud absent; lateral buds small, often placed at one
side of leaf-scar, ovate-conical, pointed, about 4 mm. long, slightly
flattened and more or less appressed against the twig, light reddish-
brown, smooth and shining or slightly pale-downy; flower buds stouter,
obovate, appearing as if stalked. BUD-SCALES — about 6-9 to a leaf-
bud in 2 ranks, increasing in size from without inward, generally
with darker and more or less hairy-edged margins.

FRUIT — A flat, oval, terminally deeply notched, winged fruit, hairy-
fringed on edges, ripening in spring and scarcely to be found in winter.

COMPARISONS — The White Elm differs from the Slippery Elm in the
whitish layers of the bark, the absence of rusty hairs on the buds
and the brownish color of its relatively smooth twigs. From the Cork
Elm it may be separated by its habit of growth and by the absence
of corky ridges on the twigs. The graceful drooping habit of growth
of its branches and the light reddish brown of its buds are sufficient
to distinguish the American from the English Elm.

DISTRIBUTION — Low, moist ground, thrives especially on rich inter-
vales. Frequently planted as a street and shade tree. From Cape Breton
to Saskatchewan, as far north as 54° 30'; south to Florida; west to
Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas and Texas.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — common, most abundant in central and
southern portions; New Hampshire — common from the southern base of
the White Mountains to the sea; in the remaining New England states —
very common, attaining its highest development in the rich alluvium
of the Connecticut river valley.

AVOOD — Heavy, hard, strong, tough, difficult to split, coarse-grained,
light brown, with thick somewhat lighter colored sapwood. largely
used for the hubs of wheels, saddle-trees, in flooring and cooperage,
and in boat and ship building.

WHITE ELM

828 TREES IN WINTER

CORK ELM

Rock Elm, Hickory Elm, Northern Cork Elm.

Ulmus racemosa Thomas.

U. Thomasi Sarg.

HABIT— A large tree 50-75 ft. in height, with a trunk diameter of
2-3 ft., in southern Michigan reaching 100 ft. in height with a trunk
diameter of 5 ft.; trunk slender, erect, generally continuous into the
crown, developing numerous slender rigid branches arising at a wide
angle, those below generally strongly drooping near the point of origin,
forming a narrow, oblong, round-topped head having somewhat the
aspect of a Hickory with short twiggy, generally corky-ridged branches
in the interior of the tree. A young tree showing corky-ridged
branchlets and an old tree showing a more characteristic habit, though
with rather long trunk for the open, are shown in the plate.

BARK — On young trunks more deeply furrowed than in the White
Elm, becoming with age flat-ridged, resembling the latter species.

TWIGS — More or less downy, resembling twigs of White Elm but
generally developing several irregular thick corky ridges not inter-
rupted at the nodes.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, 2-ranked, resembling those of White Elm
but with bundle-scars generally more than 3 (4-6).

BUDS — Terminal bud absent; lateral buds similar to those of White
Elm but longer (about 5 mm. long) narrower, sharp-pointed, scarcely
flattened, generally downy. BUD-SCALES — with darker and hairy-edged
margins.

FRUIT — A flat, oval, downy, shallow-notched, winged fruit, with
hairy-fringed margins ripening in spring.

COMPARISONS — In Hickory-like habit the Cork Elm differs from
all our other Elms. The corky ridges on the twigs, moreover, occur
on no other native New England Elm. The Winged Elm [Ulmns alata
Michx.], a native of the south, is rarely cultivated in southern New
England but is not hardy north. It h.',3 two opposite thin corky ridges
which are abruptly interrupted at the nodes. A variety of the English
Elm has several corky ridges to the twig which are interrupted at
the nodes. The Cork Elm differs further from the White and especially
from the Slippery Elm in its narrower buds.

DISTRIBUTION — Dry, gravelly soils, rich soils, river banks. Quebec
through Ontario; south to Tennessee; west to Minnesota, Iowa,
Nebraska, and Missouri. Occasionally planted as an ornamental shade
tree.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — not reported; New Hampshire — rare and
extremely local; Meriden and one or two other places; Vermont — rare,
Bennington, Pownal, Knowlton, Highgate, comparatively abundant in
Champlain valley and westward; Massachusetts — rare; Connecticut anc
Rhode Island — not reported native.

WOOD — Heavy, hard, very strong and tough, close-grained and dif-
ficult to split, light clear brown, often tinged with red with thick,
lighter colored sapwood; largely used in the manufacture of many
agricultural implements, for the framework of chairs, hubs of wheels,
railroad ties, the sills of buildings and other purposes demanding
toughness, solidity and flexibility.

CORK ELM

330 TREES IN WINTER

HACKBERRY

Sugar Berry, Nettle Tree, False Elm, Hoop Ash.
Celtis occidentalis L.

HABIT — A small to medium sized tree 20-45 ft. in height with a trunk
diameter up to 2 ft., reaching over 100 ft. in height further south;
rather variable in habit, generally forming a flattish to round-topped
wide-spreading, oblong head with somewhat the aspect of an Elm;
oranches numerous, horizontal or slightly drooping, more or less zigzag;
spray slender; berry-like fruit generally persistent throughout the
winter.

BARK — Grayish-brown, on trunk and older limbs roughened with
narrow projecting ridges which are sometimes reduced to warts or are
almost entirely lacking.

TWIGS — Slender, somewhat zigzag, brownish, more or less shining,
more or less downy; wood of twigs light greenish yellow when
moistened. LENTICELS — scattered, raised and more or less elongated
longitudinally. PITH — white, finely chambered.

LEAP-SCARS — Alternate, 2-ranked, small, semi-oval, placed at right
angles to the twig on a projecting cushion. STIPULE-SCARS — present,
elongated, inconspicuous. BUNDLE-SCARS — appearing as a single con-
fluent scar, evidently 3 in surface section.

BUDS — Small, 6mm. or generally under in length, downy, chestnut
brown, ovate, sharp-pointed, flattened, appressed; terminal bud absent.
Buds frequently transformed into insect galls (swellings on left hand
twig). BUD-SCALES — 3-4 visible, closely overlapping in two ranks in-
creasing in size from without inward, longitudinally striate if viewed
toward light, generally dark margined.

FRUIT — A small purplish, more or less spherical stone-fruit on long,
slender stems, 7-10 mm. in diameter, often remaining on tree throughout
winter. Flesh edible, sweet as is also the seed inside the stone.

COMPARISONS — The Hackberry is often taken for an Elm. The warts
or narrow ridges on its bark, however, and its chambered pith readily
distinguish it from the Elm if the berry-like fruit which is generally
present fails to be found. The twigs are so frequently disfigured by
insect galls that their presence might almost be given as a distinguishing
character.

DISTRIBUTION — In divers situations and soils; woods, river banks,
near salt marshes. Province of Quebec to Lake of the Woods, occa-
sional; south to the Gulf states; west to Minnesota and Missouri.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — not reported; New Hampshire — sparingly
along the Connecticut valley, as far as Wells river; Vermont — along
Lake Champlain, not common; Norwich and Windsor on the Connecti-
cut; Massachusetts — occasional throughout the state; Connecticut — Oc-
casional to frequent, especially in river valleys and along the coast;
Rhode Island — common.

WOOD — Heavy, rather soft, not strong, coarse-grained, clear light
ypllow, Avith thick lighter colored sapwood; largely used for fencing
and the manufacture of cheap furniture.

HACKBERRY

332 TREES IN WINTER

RED MULBERRY

Morus rubra L.

HABIT — A small tree 15-25 ft. in height with trunk diameter of 8-15
inches, of larger size in the Ohio and Mississippi basins; trunk short,
dividing into a number of stout spreading limbs developing a compact,
broad, rounded head with numerous small branches, in aspect resembl-
ing an Apple tree.

BARK — Dark brown, divided into irregular longitudinal plates which
tend to lift at the ends and flake off, sometimes, however, not con-
spicuously flaky.

TWIGS — Slender though rather stouter than those of the White Mul-
berry; somewhat zigzag, reddisli to greenish-brown, with rather
sweetish taste, cut twig showing milky juice. LENTICELS — small,
scattered, inconspicuous.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, 2-ranked, raised, nearly circular, slightly
hollowed in the center. STIPULE-SCARS — narrow. BUNDLE-SCARS —
raised but generally less distinctly so than in the White Mulberry,
forming a closed ring or irregularly scattered in the center.

BUDS — Terminal bud absent, lateral buds ovate, pointed, about 6 mm.
long, stout but longer than broad, not at all or but slightly flattened,
divergent, shining, greenish to chestnut brown. BUD-SCALES — 2-
ranked, with thin, distinctly darker margins, 4-8 scales visible.

FRUIT — Red, not to be found in winter.

COMPARISONS — The Red is most readily separated from the White
Mulberry by its darker twigs, its larger shining, greenish to chestnut
brown buds with dark-margined bud-scales.

DISTRIBUTION — Banks of rivers, rich woods. Canadian shore of
Lake Erie; south to Florida; west to Michigan, South Dakota, and
Texas.

IN NEW ENGLAND — A rare tree; Maine — doubtfully reported; New
Hampshire — Pemigewasset valley, White Mountains; Vermont — northern
extremity of Lake Champlain, banks of the Connecticut, Pownal, North
Pownal; Massachusetts — rare; Connecticut — rare or occasional; Bristol,
Plainville, North Guilford, East Rock and Norwich; Rhode Island — no
station reported.

WOOD — Light, soft, not strong, rather tough, coarse-grained, very
durable, light orange color with thick lighter colored sapwood, used
largely for fencing, in cooperage and in ship and boat building.

RED MULBERRY

334 TREES IN WINTER

WHITE MULBERRY
Silkworm Mulberry.
Moms alba L.

HABIT — A small tree with a maximum height of 30-40 ft., and with a
trunk diameter of less than 3 ft.; branching low with wide-spreading
limbs forming a low rounded head resembling an Apple tree somewhat
in habit, but with a characteristic scraggly twigginess to the more slen-
der branchlets.

BARK — Deeply furrowed into long more or less wavy light yellowish
brown ridges.

TWIGS — Slender, yellowish-green to brownish-gray, for the most part
smooth, round, more or less shining, generally zigzag, swollen at the
nodes, short branches numerous, often arising at right angles to ranks
of previous years and producing a characteristic scraggly complex of
branchlets. Twigs slightly sweetish if chewed; bark exuding a white
milk if cut on warm days or after being brought into a warm room.
LENTICELS — scattered, similar in color to the twigs and hence incon-
spicuous. PITH — light, rounded in cross-section.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, in 2 ranks, small, projecting, oval to de-
pressed circular. STIPULE-SCARS — narrow, inconspicuous. BUNDLE
SCARS — conspicuous, 3-10 projecting above leaf-scar, irregularly
scattered. If leaf-scar is surface-sectioned leaf-traces are reduced
to 3 in number.

BUDS — Terminal bud absent; lateral buds small, about 3 mm. long,
bright reddish-brown, roundish, generally about as broad as long, sharp
or blunt pointed, somewhat flattended against twigs, often set oblique
to the leaf-scar, 1 to 2 small collateral accessory buds sometimes
present. BUD-SCALES — in 2 ranks, about 5 scales visible, increasing
in size from below upward, margins somewhat finely hairy.

FRUIT — A white, juicy, multiple fruit not to be found in winter.

COMPARISONS — The projecting bundle-scars are characteristic of
the Mulberries; for points of distinction from the Red Mulberry see
under this species.

DISTRIBUTION — Probably a native of China where its leaves have
from time immemorial furnished food for silkworms, introduced into
to the United States and Canada from Ontario to Florida and naturalized
more or less throughout New England appearing by roadsides or along
fences and in waste places, being spread by birds which are very
fond of its fruit. Connecticut — occasional; early h. last century exten-
sively planted to furnish food for silkworms and many large trees re-
main about farm houses.

AVOOD — Moderately hard, close-grained, light yellowish-brown.

WHITE MULBERRY

336 TREES IN WINTER

CUCUMBER TREE
Mountain Magnolia.
Magnolia acuminata L.

HABIT — When fully developed a tall tree up to 90 ft. in height with
a trunk diameter of 3-4 ft. with comparatively slender branches widely
spreading at the base, ascending above, forming a broadly conical head;
>vhen young having somewhat the aspect of a Pear Tree.

BARK — Grayish-brown ridged and flaky.

TWIGS — Slender, brown, shining, smooth or at times slightly downy,
aromatic. LENTICELS — scattered, inconspicuous, orange colored. PITH
• — white.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked, crescent to U-shaped,
elevated. STIPULE-SCARS — distinct, arising from upper margins of
leaf-scar and encircling twig. BUNDLE-SCARS — large, few to numer-
ous, scattered in an imperfectly double row, more or less raised.

BUDS — Thickly covered with pale silky hairs; lateral buds blunt,
nearly surrounded by leaf-scars, about % the size of terminal bud;
terminal bud oblong, blunt, 10-20 mm. long. BUD-SCALES — valvate and
adhering in pairs, with rudimentary leaf-scar and decurrent ridge at
side of bud.

FRUIT — An ovate to oblong cone, often curved, generally under 6 cm.
long; in the young condition supposedly resembling a cucumber; seed
flattish about 1 cm. in diameter.

COMPARISONS — The Cucumber Tree belongs to the same genus as
the Umbrella Tree, but differs from it in its smaller, blunt, downy buds,
its narrow leaf-scars and its scaly ridged bark; from the Large-leaved
Magnolia by the smaller size of its buds, its narrow leaf-scars and its
scaly ridged bark; from the Sweet Bay by its larger size, the color
of its twigs and the character of its bark. For character of the Sweet
Bay see p. 206. The Chinese Magnolia [Magnolia conspicua Salisb.] is of-
ten culitivated and has downy buds resembling those of the Cucumber
Tree. The buds, however, are stouter, the bark is smooth and the
species is more shrubby than tree-like.

DISTRIBUTION — Not native to New England; the hardiest of the
Magnolias and extensively planted as an ornamental shade tree. It
grows wild from western New York to southern Illinois and southward
along the Appalachian mountains to southern Alabama.

WOOD — Light, soft, not strong, close-grained and durable, light
yellow brown, with thin lighter colored often nearly white sapwood of
usually 25-30 layers of annual growth; occasionally manufactured into
lumber used for flooring and cabinet making.

CUCUMBER TREE

338 TEEES IN WINTER

UMBRELLA TREE

Elkwood.

Magnolia tripetala L.

M. Umbrella Lam.

HABIT— A small tree with a maximum height of about 40 ft. and a
trunk diameter of iy2 feet, in New England generally much smaller;
trunk erect or inclined with wide-spreading branches which generally
bend up at their tips forming a wide-spreading irregular open head;
at times with several stems springing from near the base of the trunk,
forming a bushy growth around the main stem.

BARK — Light gray, smooth, marked with small excrescences, fre-
quently wrinkled and lumpy at the scars of branches.

TWIGS — Stout, reddish to greenish-brown, shining, swollen at the
base of each year's growth, aromatic. LENTICELS — -conspicuous, scat-
tered pale dots. PITH — white, with minute pink dots.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked, large, conspicuous,
oval, slightly raised, mainly clustered at swellings along the twig.
STIPULE-SCARS — distinct, arising from the side of leaf-scar and en-
circling twig. BUNDLE-SCARS — numerous, irregularly scattered, often
slightly raised.

BUDS — Lateral buds at best small, conical, divergent, frequently
undeveloped or showing as mere bulges of the bark; terminal buds
large up to 5 cm. long, conical, with curved pointed apex, purple,
with a bloom, with minute pale dots, smooth with patch of rusty hairs
at base of leaf ridge. BUD-SCALES — valvate and adhering in pairs
corresponding to stipules, each pair enclosing in succession an erect
folded downy leaf, the stalk of which is united with the next inner pair
of scales; the leaf connected with the outer pair of scales falls off
before maturing, leaving a rudimentary scar on the bud with a decur-
rent ridge corresponding to its leaf-stalk.

FRUIT — Ovate to oblong cone, 6-10 cm. long, made up of numerous
follicles which split open in the fall and let out the red flattish seeds,
which are about 1 cm. in diameter.

COMPARISONS — For comparisons with the Tulip Tree see this species.
The Umbrella Tree differs from the Cucumber Tree, the Large-leaved
Magnolia and the Chinese Magnolia by its smooth buds and from the
Sweet Bay by the size and color of its twigs and buds.

DISTRIBUTION — Not native to New England but extensively culti-
vated as an ornamental tree. It grows wild in the Appalachian
mountain region from the valley of the Susquehanna river, Pennsyl-
vania to southern Alabama.

WOOD — Light, soft, close-grained, not strong, light brown, with
creamy white sapwood of 35-40 layers of annual growth.

UMBRELLA TREE

340 TREES IN WINTER

TULIP TREE
Whitewood, Yellow Poplar.

Liriodendron Tulipifera L.

HABIT — A good sized tree 50-70 ft. in height with a trunk diameter
of 2-3 ft., in the Ohio basin reaching an exceptional height of nearly
200 ft.; trunk tall, straight, continuous into the crown and giving
off comparatively short, horizontal, declined or slightly ascending
branches with upcurved tips, forming in young trees a pyramidal and in
older trees an oblong head. Light yellow fruiting cones or at least
their axes conspicuous at ends of twigs.

BARK — Somewhat resembling bark of White Ash but generally
lighter, with ridges longer and furrows shallower and more rounded
and less inclined to form diamond-shaped patches; inner bark bitter;
young bark ashy-gray and smooth, becoming dark with light colored
seams.

TWIGS — Slender to somewhat stout, reddish-brown, smooth and shin-
ing with more or less evident bloom, with an agreeable aromatic
smell when broken but with an intensely bitter taste, not mucilaginous;
on vigorous shoots often branching the first season. LENTICELS — con-
spicuous pale dots. PITH — white with rather inconspicuous transverse
woody partitions through the ground-mass.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked, large, conspicuous,
elevated, circular or slightly flattened at the top. STIPULE-SCARS—
conspicuous, arising from top of leaf-scar, encircling twig. BUNDLE-
SCARS — small, numerous, scattered like perforations in a sieve.

BUDS — Dark reddish-brown, covered with a bloom, white-dotted,
blunt, flattish; lateral buds small, on vigorous twigs superposed acces-
sory buds sometimes present which may be stalked or develop into
branches the first season; terminal buds large 5-20 mm. long, oblong,
blunt. BUD-SCALES — spoon-shaped, smooth, valvate in pairs corre-
sponding to stipules, each pair enclosing in succession a long-stalked,
smooth, reflexed and folded leaf with its 2 scale-like stipules; leaf-
stalk attached only at its base, hence scar of rudimentary leaf when
present located at base of bud.

FRUIT — A light brown cone made up of winged seed-like portions,
20-40 mm. long which remain aggregated together into the winter but
which are gradually dropped leaving the persistent terminal ax%is.

COMPARISONS — The Magnolias to which the Tulip Tree is botani-
cally related have likewise aromatic twigs with circular stipule-scars.
Their leaf-scars, however, are not circular; their buds are pointed or
hairy and the scar of the rudimentary leaf is considerably above base
of bud. The light brown fruiting cones from which the winged seed-
like bodies have partially fallen are generally to be found on the Tulip
Tree and are distinctive for this species.

DISTRIBUTION — Prefers a rich, loamy, moist soil. Is sometimes
planted as an ornamental tree. From New England south to the Gulf
states; west to Wisconsin; occasional in the eastern sections of Missouri
and Arkansas.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Vermont — valley of the Hoosac River in the
southwestern corner of the state; Massachusetts — frequent in the Con-
necticut river valley and westward; reported as far east as Douglas,
southeastern corner of Worcester county; Connecticut — occasional, local
or frequent; Rhode Island — frequent.

WOOD — Light, soft, brittle not strong, easily worked, light yellow or
brown, with thin creamy white sapwood; largely manufactured into
lumber generally under the name of "Whitewood"; used in construction,
the interior finish of houses, boat building and for shingles, brooms and
woodenware. The intensely acrid bitter inner bark, especially of the
root, is used domestically as a tonic and stimulant and hydrochlorate
of tulipiferine, an alkaloid, separated from the bark, possesses the
property of stimulating the heart.

TITLTP TREE

342 TREES IN WINTER

SASSAFRAS

Sassafras variifolium (Salisb.) Kuntze.
S. officinale Nees & Eberm. ; S. Sassafras Karst.

HABIT — A small tree at times reaching 40-50 ft. in height, with
a trunk diameter of 2-4 ft.; at the north smaller and often shrubby;
in the southern states reaching a height of 100 ft.; branches numerous,
stout, more or less contorted, often distinctly in yearly whorls, horizontal
or forming a broad angle with the trunk, subdividing to produce a
dense bushy spray and forming a flat-topped or slightly rounded
oblong head (upper photograph). Limbs brittle and frequently lost
through ice storms or other injuries, giving the tree a battered appear-
ance as shown in lower photograph. The tree sprouts abundantly
from the roots, often surrounding itself with a thicket of saplings (see
those at right in lower picture).

BARK — Reddish brown, deeply furrowed even in comparatively young
trees into broad flat ridges with narrow horizontal cracks running part
way around the trunk and dividing the ridges into short blocks, which
are oblong or in the form of erect or inverted Y's and Vs.

TWIGS — Slender to stout, bright yellowish-green, often reddish where
exposed to light, smooth and shining or somewhat downy; internodes
very unequal; rapidly grown shoots freely branching the first season,
the branches exceeding the main axis; twigs spicy-aromatic to both
smell and taste, mucilaginous if chewed. LENTICELS — scattered, very
inconspicuous.

I..EAF-SCARS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked, small, raised, semi-
elliptical, with elevated margins. STIPULE-SCARS — absent. BUNDLE-
SCARS — single, forming horizontal line.

BUDS — Green, more or less tinged with red toward tip; lateral buds
small, divergent; terminal buds large, 5-10 mm. long, ovate, pointed;
flower buds terminal. BUD-SCALES — with thickened veins; generally
3 narrower, thicker, shorter scales surrounding terminal bud.

FRUIT — Generally scanty, a blue drupe falling early. The Sassafras
is generally dioecious.

COMPARISONS — Its bright green aromatic mucilaginous twigs which
form branches the first season surpassing the main axis, its single
bundle-scar and the transverse cracking of the ridges of the bark
render the Sassafras one of the most interesting of our native trees in
winter. It is scarcely to be confused with any other form.

DISTRIBUTION — In various soils and situations; sandy or rich woods,
along the borders of peaty swamps, thickets and fence rows. Provinces
of Quebec and Ontario; south to Florida; west to Michigan, Iowa,
Kansas, and Texas.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — this tree grows not beyond Black Point
(Scarboro, Cumberland county) eastward; (Josselyn's New England
Rarities, 1672); not reported again by botanists for more than two
hundred years; rediscovered at Wells" in 1895 and North Berwick in
1896; New Hampshire — lower Merrimac valley, eastward to the coast
and along the Connecticut valley to Bellows Falls: Vermont — -occasional
south of the center; Pownal; Hartland and Brattleboro; Vernon; Massa-
chusetts— common especially in the eastern sections; Connecticut and
Rhode Island — common.

WOOD — Soft, weak, brittle, coarse-grained, very durable in the soil,
aromatic, dull orange-brown, with thin light yellow sapwood of 7-8
layers of annual growth; largely used for fence-posts and rails and in
the construction of light boats, ox-yokes, and in cooperage. The roots
and especially their bark are a mild aromatic stimulant, and oil of
sassafras used to perfume soaps, flavor candy, etc., and as an ingredient
in liniment is distilled from them.

SASSAFRAS

344 TREES IN WINTER

WITCH HAZEL

Hamamelis virginiana L.

HABIT — A large shrub or small tree occasionally 25-30 ft. in height
yith a trunk diameter of 10-14 inches, with short trunk, spreading
crooked branches with conspicuous persistent fruiting capsules, form-
ing a broad open head.

BARK — Light brown, more or less mottled, generally smooth or
minutely scaly.

TWIGS — Rather slender, light orange brown, smooth and shining, or
downy especially toward apex, more or less zigzag. LENTICELS — few,
scattered, whitish dots.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, 2-ranked, small, inversely triangular. STI-
PULE-SCARS— distinct, narrow, oblong, somewhat separate from leaf-
scar. BUNDLE-SCARS — Whitish in conspicuous contrast to dark brown
surface of leaf-scar, generally 3 and separate or these may be com-
pounded or more or less confluent.

BUDS — Stalked, flattish, slightly curved, densely downy with short,
fine light to dark olive brown hairs; terminal bud larger than laterals,
5-12 mm. long. BUD-SCALES — an outer pair of relatively thin scales
corresponding to stipules and often represented by only a scar accom-
panying the outermost thick downy laterally folded undeveloped leaf,
which with smaller leaves within serves the function of bud scales. The
bud is therefore essentially naked.

FRUIT — Produced in abundance, a downy 2-chambered capsule about
15 mm. long, surrounded by the persistent calyx, discharging in autumn
4 shining, brown, oblong seeds and remaining widely gaping on the
tree throughout winter (see lower part of twig picture). The plant
produces flowers in the autumn at the same time with the ripening of
the fruit, and the remains of the flowers, showing the 4 downy sepals
with their enclosing bracts, are to be found in clusters on the recent
twigs (upper part of twig picture).

COMPARISONS — In habitat and in its stalked buds the Witch Hazel
resembles the Alders. The buds of the latter, however, are essentially
smooth or at most fine-downy, not hairy and their fruit is a woody
cone not a capsule.

DISTRIBUTION — In moist or wet often rocky places. Nova Scotia to
Ontario and Minnesota; south to Florida and Texas; west to eastern

Nebraska.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Common throughout.

WOOD — Heavy, hard, very close-grained, light brown tinged with red,
with thick nearly white sapwood of 30-40 layers of annual growth. The
bark is slightly astringent and though not known to have essential
properties is largely used in the form of fluid extracts and decoctions
as a popular application for sprains and bruises, Pond's Extract being
made by distilling the bark in dilute alcohol. Probably equally
efficacious is the use of the twigs as divining rods to locate water and
minerals.

-

WITCH HAZEL

346 TREES IN WINTER

SWEET GUM
Bilsted, Red Gum, Alligator-wood, Liquidambar.

Liquidambar Styraciflua L.

HABIT — A tree 40-60 ft. in height with a trunk diameter up to 2 ft.,
reaching 150 ft. in height and a trunk diameter of 3-5 ft. in the Missis-
sippi and Ohio valleys; branches slender, regular and spreading, form-
ing a very symmetrical tree, when young (right hand tree in plate)
narrowly oblong-conical, with age (left hand tree in plate) becoming
broader and rounded ovate, generally showing persistent stalked
spherical fruits.

BARK — Grayish brown, deeply furrowed into broad more or less
flaky ridges.

TWIGS — Mediumly stout to slender, light to dark reddish to yellowish-
brown, rounded or often somewhat angled, smooth and shiny or seldom
slightly hairy; generally developing the second season 3-4 parallel
corky ridges on the upper side of horizontal branchlets and on all
sides of vertical branchlets (lower twig figure). LENTICELS — scat-
tered, dark. PITH — wide, more or less 5-pointed, star-shaped.

LEAP-SCARS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked, broadly crescent-shaped
to inversely triangular, raised. STIPULE-SCARS — absent. BUNDLE-
SCARS — 3, each a circular white ring with dark center conspicuous
against the dark surface of leaf-scar.

BUDS — Ovate to conical, pointed, shiny, reddish-brown, more or less
fragrant when crushed, lateral buds divergent, on rapidly grown shoots
sometimes stalked or developing into branches the first season and
then frequently with a pair of collateral accessory buds at a node;
terminal buds exceeding the laterals, 5-10 mm. long. BUD-SCALES —
ovate, fine-downy on the margins, rounded on the back, generally with
a short abrupt point at the apex.

FRUIT — A long-stalked spherical spiny aggregate of ovaries, 2-4 cm.
in diameter hanging on the tree through the winter; the mature seeds
falling in autumn leaving many minute abortive seeds in the ovaries.

COMPARISONS — The corky ridges on the twigs of the Sweet Gum are
striking distinctive characters which are found also in the Cork Elm
and the Bur Oak. The Elm, however, has 2-ranked leaf-scars and
the buds of the Oak are bunched at the twig ends; neither are shiny
reddish-brown between the ridges. The corky ridges may be but
sparingly developed upon some trees and may even fail entirely. The
spiny fruits which persist through winter form the best single dis-
tinctive character.

DISTRIBUTION — Low, wet soils, swamps, moist woods, somewhat
cultivated as an ornamental tree. Connecticut; south to Florida; west
to Missouri and Texas.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Growing native only in Connecticut, south Nor-
walk and occasional or frequent westward near the shores of the
Sound.

WOOD — Heavy, hard, straight, close-grained, not strong, bright brown
tinged with red, with thin almost white sapwood of 60-70 layers of
annual growth, inclined to warp and shrink badly; used for the outside
finish of houses, in cabinet making, for street pavement, wooden dishes
and fruit boxes. The resinous exudation from the stems (liquidambar),
which is more marked in trees grown in the south, is used in the
preparation of chewing gum.

SWEET GUM

348 TREES IN W1NTEK

SYCAMORE

Buttonwood, Buttonball, Plane Tree.
Platanus occidentalis L.

HABIT — A large tree 50-100 ft. in height with a trunk diameter of
3-8 ft., in the bottom fands of the lower Ohio and Mississippi valleys
reaching- occasionally a height of 170 ft. with a trunk diameter of
10-11 ft., the largest tree of the New England forest; with an erect
or often declined trunk very gradually tapering and continuous into
the top (see habit picture) or branched near the base into two or
three secondary trunks (see bark picture) forming an open, irregular
or rounded wide-spreading head; branchlets scraggly, often in tufts
with dead twigs not infrequent. (See low cross-branch in bark picture).

BARK — Dark brown, at the base of older trunks shallowly furrowed
into broad ridges which are broken into small oblong thick plate-like
scales; higher up on the trunk peeling off in large thin plates, exposing
conspicuous areas of the whitish, yellowish or greenish inner bark.

TWIGS — Slender, rather shiny, smooth, yellowish-brown, generally
zigzag, swollen at {he nodes, rounded or with decurrent ridges from
the bundle-scars; medullary rays conspicuous in sectioned twig.
LENTICELS — pale, minute. PITH — thick.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, generally 2-ranked, sometimes appearing
more ranked; narrow, projecting, nearly surrounding the bud. more or
less swollen at the bundle-scars. STIPULE-SCARS — encircling twig.
BUNDLE-SCARS — conspicuous, dark, generally raised, 5-10 or more In
single curved line.

BUDS — Terminal bud absent; lateral buds generally large, conical.
5-10 mm. long, occasionally shorter, blunt-pointed, smooth, dark reddish-
brown, divergent. BUD-SCALES — a single scale visible, forming a cap
to the bud, second scale green, gummy, innermost scale covered with
long rusty hairs.

FRUIT — Spherical heads 2.5-4 cm. in diameter, on long stalks mostly
solitary or seldom in 2's, composed of small hairy 1-seeded nutlets.
The heads hang on the tree till spring.

COMPARISONS — The native Sycamore [Platanus occidentalis] is closely
related to the Oriental Sycamore [Platanus orientalis L. ] which is
extensively planted as an ornamental tree. It bears its fruiting heads
singly or rarely in 2's, while the Oriental Sycamore has its fruiting
heads in clusters of 2-4. The whitewashed appearance of the upper
limbs, the single cap-like scale of its bud, which is nearly surrounded
by the leaf-scar, present characters which prevent the Sycamores from
being confused with any other trees.

DISTRIBUTION — Near streams, river bottoms, and low, damp woods;
sometimes in dryer places. Ontario; south to Florida; west to Min-
nesota, Nebraska, Kansas and Texas.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — apparently restricted to York county;
New Hampshire — Merrimac valley towards the coast; along the Con-
necticut as far as Walpole; Vermont — scattering along the river shores,
quite abundant along the Hoosac in Pownal; Massachusetts — occa-
sional; Connecticut and Rhode Island — rather common.

WOOD — Reddish-brown with light somewhat yellowish sapwood,
heavy, tough, hard, not very strong, coarse-grained, difficult to split and
work; is used in manufacture of tobacco boxes, crates, butchers' blocks,
ox-yokes and when cut quartering is used for Inside finishing of
buildings and for furnture.

SYCAMORE

350 TREES IN WINTER

PEAR

Pyrus communis L.

HABIT — A' tree sometimes 75 ft. in height with a trunk diameter of
2 ft. or more, dimensions generally smaller; trunk erect, more or less
continuous into the head, with ascending branches and numerous stubby
branchlets forming an upright pyramidal head.

BARK — Grayish-brown, on young trunks and branches smooth, becom-
ing with age longitudinally fissured into flat-topped ridges which are
further broken by transverse fissures into oblong scales.

TWIGS — Stout, smooth or but slightly downy, yellawish-green or
.sometimes with tinge of brown, without characteristic taste; short
sharp-pointed branches not infrequently present; stubby, branched
slow-growing fruit spurs abundant, with prominent fruit-scars. LEN-
TICELS — scattered, pale, more or less conspicuous.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked, crescent-shaped,
raised, narrow, generally several times as broad as high. STIPULE-
SCARS — absent. BUNDLE-SCARS — 3, often indistinct.

BUDS — Conical, sharp-pointed, smooth or but slightly hairy; terminal
bud about 8 mm. or less in length, lateral buds smaller, generally
divergent and not flattened or at times on vigorous shoots both flattened
and appressed. BUD-SCALES — ovate, generally with conspicuous gray-
ish skin on surface, generally 4 or more visible scales to lateral buds,
more to terminal bud.

FRUIT — A large fleshy pome.

COMPARISONS — The Pear Tree may be distinguished from the Apple
by its erect habit of growth. The twig characters vary somewhat
among the different varieties but in general the twigs of the Pear
differ from those of the Apple in being smooth, generally of a yellow-
ish-green color, devoid of a licorice-like taste and in having pointed,
mostly divergent buds, the scales of which are more or less covered
with a grayish skin.

DISTRIBUTION — A native of the Old World cultivated in this country
for its fruit and escaped from cultivation in waste places.

WOOD — Hard, close-grained, reddish-brown; used for drawing instru-
ments, for tools, in imitation of ebony and by the wood engraver.

PEAR

352 TREES IN WINTER

APPLE

Pyrus Malus L.
Mains Mains (L.) Britton.

HABIT — A tree reaching 30-50 ft. in height and a trunk diameter of
2-3 ft.; trunk short with wide-spreading limbs forming a broad round-
topped head of familiar and very characteristic habit.

BARK — Grayish-brown, scaling off in thin, brittle, flaky plates.

TWIGS — Stout, pale-woolly, at least toward the apex, mostly. reddish-
brown, rarely yellowish, shining where free from wool, with character-
istically slightly bitter and licorice-like taste when chewed; short,
stubby, contorted fruit-spurs abundantly present. LENTICELS — scat-
tered, pale, more or less conspicuous. PITH — whitish.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked, narrow, crescent-
shaped, raised. STIPULE-SCARS — absent. BUNDLE-SCARS — 3, often
indistinct.

BUDS — Ovate, blunt, bright, reddish-brown, more or less densely
covered with pale wool; terminal bud 8 mm. or less long, lateral buds
smaller, often triangular, flattened and appressed against twig. BUD-
SCALES — ovate, about 3 scales visible to lateral bud, more to terminal
bud.

FRUIT — A large fleshy pome.

COMPARISONS — The Apple Tree resembles the Pear but is readily
distinguished from this species by its low spreading habit of growth.
The numerous varieties differ somewhat in the twig characters, some
with twigs and buds nearly smooth, others with yellowish rather than
reddish-brown twigs. The licorice-like taste of the twigs seems to be
a constant character for the Apple. Among its distinguishing characters
which in the main hold good, may be mentioned the pale wool on the
twigs and buds, the flat appressed lateral buds and the reddish-brown
color of the twigs.

DISTRIBUTION — A native of the Old World, cultivated in this
country for its fruit and frequently escaped from cultivation in waste
places when it assumes a bushier habit of growth, with smaller twigs
frequently beset with short sharp-pointed thorn-like branches.

WOOD — Hard, tough, close-grained, reddish-brown, used for tool
handles, shoemakers' lasts, by the cabinet maker and esteemed as
a fuel in open grate fires.

APPLE

354 TREES IN WINTER

AMERICAN MOUNTAIN ASH

Rowan or Service Tree.

Pyrus americana (Marsh.) DC.

Sorbus americana Marsh.

HABIT — A shrub or small tree 15-20 ft. high or in northern New
England reaching a height of 25-30 ft. with a trunk diameter of 12-15
inches, with slender spreading branches forming a rather narrow
round-topped head.

BARK — Grayish-brown, smooth or on older trees somewhat roughish,

TWIGS — Stout, smooth, reddish to grayish-brown. LENTICELS — con-
spicuous, large, pale, oblong, remotely scattered. PITH — broad, slightly
reddish-brown.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked, large, crescent to
broadly U or V-shaped, raised on a projection darker than the twig.
STIPULE-SCARS — absent. BUNDLE-SCARS — regularly 5, often raised,
arranged in a single curved line.

BUDS — Terminal buds large, about 13 mm. long, ovate to broadly
conical, with a curved pointed apex, dark purplish-red, gummy and
smooth or with few hairs on the surface, densely woolly within; lateral
buds smaller, flattened and appressed. BUD-SCALES — 2-3 visible to
terminal bud, 1-2 to lateral bud.

FRUIT — Berry-like, bright red, strongly acid, round, about the size
of a pea, in flat-topped clusters persistent through the winter.

COMPARISONS — A larger fruited form, the Western Mountain Ash
[Pyrus sitchensis (Roem.) Piper], is considered by some a distinct
species but by others only a variety of the type described. It is more
northerly and westerly in its distribution. The European Mountain
Ash [Pyrus Aucuparia (L.) Ehrh.] with many horticultural forms is
more frequently cultivated than the American species and has escaped
from cultivation in some places. It may be distinguished by the white
hairy down present especially on the upper half of the terminal bud
and by the larger fruits (about 10 mm. broad) arranged in a rather
round-topped cluster. The habit, bark, fruit and lower twig photo-
graphs are of the European species.

DISTRIBUTION — River banks, cool woods, swamps and mountains,
Newfoundland to Manitoba; south, in cold swamps and along the moun-
tains to North Carolina; west to Michigan and Minnesota.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — common; New Hampshire — common
along the watersheds of the Connecticut and Merrimac rivers and on
the slopes of the White Mountains; Vermont — abundant far up the
slopes of the Green mountains; Massachusetts — Graylock, Wachusett,
Watatic, and other mountainous regions; rare eastward; Connecticut —
rare or local; swamps and about ponds or sometimes on dry ledges or
in rocky woods; Stafford, Durham and Meriden, Granby, Winchester, Nor-
folk, Canaan, Salisbury, Kent; Rhode Island — occasional in the north-
ern sections.

The variety (Pyrus sitchensis) the Western Mountain Ash, has the fol-
lowing distribution — Mountain slopes, cool woods, along the shores of
rivers and ponds, often associated with Pyrus americana, but climbing
higher up the mountains. From Labrador and Nova Scotia west to the
Rocky mountains, then northward along the mountain ranges to Alaska.
In New England, confined to Maine, New Hampshire and Vermont.

•WOOD — Close-grained, light, soft and weak, pale brown with light-
'er colored sapwood o\ 15-20 layers of annual growth; of little economic
value. The very astringent bark and berries are employed medicinally.

MOUNTAIN ASK

356 TREES IN WINTER

QUINCE

Cydonia vulgaris Pers.
Pyrus Cydonia L.

HABIT— A low bushy straggling rounded shrub or small tree rarely
exceeding 15 ft. in height with crooked distorted branches.

BARK — Dark gray, finely streaked, becoming with age more or less
roughened with large flaky scales.

TAA'IGS — Slender, dark reddish-brown, often with tinge of green; in
protected places and especially toward the tip of the twig generally
more or less densely covered with pale wool, bright-shining where
smooth; mostly tasteless. LENTICELS — small, numerous, becoming con-
spicuous brownish dots on older growth. PITH — narrow, greenish.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked, small, crescent-shaped
to inversely triangular, raised on a somewhat shrivelled projection
slightly darker than the twig and containing at its outer edges the
roundish, rather inconspicuous stipule-scars at either side of the leaf-
scar. BUNDLE-SCARS — 3.

BUDS — Terminal bud absent; lateral buds minute, about 3 mm. or
often less in length, ovate, blunt, flattened and appressed against
twig; smoothish or somewhat hairy at base, with dense pale-rusty hairs
within showing through at apex. BUD-SCALES— not easily distin-
guished, about 2 visible, reddish-brown to light reddish, breaking away
at the tip.

FRUIT — A large, firm, fleshy, downy pome.

COMPARISONS — The twigs and buds of the Quince resemble some-
what those of the Apple but the twigs are much more slender and
the buds show a distinctive tuft of rusty hairs. The bushy habit of
growth further will distinguish the Quince from the other cultivated
fruit trees.

DISTRIBUTION — A tree native of Europe, cultivated for the fruit and
escaped to a slight extent in some localities.

WOOD — The wood is of no commercial importance. The fruit is
valued for preserving. The raw fruit and mucilaginous seed are used
in domestic medicinal practice.

QUINCE

358 TREES IN WINTER

SHAD BUSH
Service Berry, Shadblow, Juneberry.

Amelanchier canadensis (L.) Medic.

HABIT— A shrub or small tree 10-25 ft. in height with a trunk
diameter of 6-10 inches, sometimes reaching a height of 40 ft. with a
trunk diameter of iy2 ft.: of variable habit, at times a shrub with many
stems in a clump (see plate, picture at right) or again a symmetrical
tree with a single trunk with many small limbs and fine branchlets
forming an oblong or rather wide-spreading round-topped head (see
plate).

BARK — Essentially smooth, grayish-brown, older trunks with narrow
longitudinal fissures separating off shallow flat ridges which are some-
what scaly at base of trunk; younger trunks and branches smooth, often
characteristically streaked with darker longitudinal lines (see plate).

TWIGS — Slender, grayish, olive-green to reddish-brown often covered
with a gray skin, generally smooth, with slight taste of bitter almonds.
LENTICELS — scattered or numerous, pale, minute dots. PITH —
greenish with irregular edges.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, 2-ranked or at times appearing more than
2-ranked, a raised very narrow flattened V-shaped line swollen at the
bundle-scars, often with short somewhat decurrent ridges at outer
edges. STIPULE-SCARS — absent. BUNDLE-SCARS — 3, rather large.

BUDS — Terminal buds present, long, narrow, 7-12 mm. long and 3-4
times as long as broad, narrowly ovate to conical, sharp-pointed, green-
ish-yellowish more or less tinged with reddish-purple, smooth or with
white silky hairs at apex and edges of scales, mostly appressed; lateral
buds on rapidly grown shoots normal, on slowly grown spurs, undevel-
oped or rudimentary; generally a small lateral bud just below terminal
bud. BUD-SCALES — increasing from below upward, the two lowest
about Va length of the bud, more or less keeled and 3-nerved, dark-
margined and with a single short dark spiny tip, lower scales often 3-
tipped, edges from slightly downy on outermost scales to densely silky-
hairy on inner scales; on terminal buds about 5 scales visible, more or
less imperfectly 2-ranked; lateral buds on vigorous shoots often with
pair of extra lateral scales basally united giving short-stalked appear-
ance to bud.

FRUIT — Berry-like, sometimes if infected by a rust fungus remaining
dried on the tree through the winter.

COMPARISONS — The long narrow buds of the Shad Bush bear a super-
ficial resemblance to those of the Beech. The Beech buds, however, are
divergent, narrower, with 10-20 scales regularly arranged in four
rows and have stipule-scars nearly encircling the twig. The Shad
Bush is subject to the attacks of a fungus \_Dimerosporium Collinsii]
which blackens the leaves and causes a profuse branching at the
point of infection. The "witches' brooms" thus formed with the
persistentent blackened leaves often enables the tree to be recognized at
& distance. It is probable that the Shad Bush, as here described in-
cludes a number of forms or distinct species.

DISTRIBUTION — Dry, open woods, hillsides. Newfoundland and Nova
Scotia to Lake Superior; south to the Gulf of Mexico; west to Minne-
sota, Kansas, and Louisiana.

IN NEW ENGLAND— Throughout.

WOOD — Heavy, exceedingly hard, strong, close-grained, dark brown
often tinged with red, with thick lighter colored sapwood of 40-50
layers of annual growth; occasionally used for the handles of tools and
other small implements; under the name of "Lancewood" it is used in
the manufacture of fish rods.

SHAD BUSH

360 TREES IN WINTER

THE HAWTHORNS
Thorns, Haws, Thorn Apples, White Thorns.

Crataegus L.

NOTE — The Hawthorns form one of the most perplexing genera
among flowering plants. Some 600 species have been described and
Sargent in his Manual gives descriptions of 132 tree-like forms for
North America. The distinctions used are based largely upon flower and
fruit characters. They are at best often difficult of application and
entirely unavailable in the winter. It seems, therefore, most advisable
to give a description which will hold good for the whole group rather
than a detailed account of any single species. The twig photographed
was taken from the Cockspur Thorn [Crataegus Crus-gulli L.]; the habit
photograph from an undetermined specimen belonging to the
Prninosa group growing in a deserted pasture.

HABIT — Generally low wide spreading trees or shrubs.
BARK — Generally dark, scaly.

TWIGS — Rigid, round in section, more or less zigzag, rarely unarmed,
generally armed with axillary thorns which are almost always un-
branched- — not infrequently branched when arising from the trunk and
larger branches — generally similar in color to branches from which they
grow; thorns generally absent from many of the nodes. LENTICELS —
oblong, generally pale.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked, small, narrow, cres-
cent-shaped, slightly raised. STIPULE-SCARS — absent. BUNDLE-
SCARS— 3.

BUDS — Small, spherical or nearly so; terminal bud generally present,
scarcely larger than lateral buds; a lateral accessory bud on each side
of the axillary thorn, frequently only one of the two developed. BUD-
SCALES — numerous, overlapping, thick, rounded, blunt, bright chestnut
brown, shining.

FRUIT— Berry-like, botanically a small drupe-like pome with 1-5
nutlets.

COMPARISONS — The Hawthorns may be distinguished from other
genera by the unbranched axillary thorns usually present on their
twigs, and by the bright, shining, chestnut brown, generally spherical
buds. The thorns of the Honey Locust are branched and situated some
distance above the axillary buds. The Osage Orange [Madura pomifera
,'Raf.) Schneider], sometimes grown in hedges, has unbranched thorns
generally present at all the nodes, decreasing regularly toward the
tip of the greenish-gray twigs, without terminal buds but with buds
lateral to the thorns and in the broad leaf-scar a single more or
less ring-shaped bundle-scar or a number of nearly confluent bundle-
scars.

DISTRIBUTION — The Hawthorns are most abundant in eastern North
America occurring here from Newfoundland to the mountains of north-
ern Mexico. A few species occur in the Rocky mountains and Pacflic
coast regions and in China, Japan, Siberia, central and southern Asia
and in Europe.

WOOD — Heavy, hard, tough, close-grained, reddish-brown, with thick
lighter colored usually pale sapwood; useful for the handles of tools
mallets and other small articles.

HAWTHORN

362 TREES IN WINTER

WILD BLACK CHERRY

Rum, Cabinet or Black Cherry.

Prunus serotina Ehrh.
Padus serotina (Ehrh.) Agardh.

HABIT — A medium sized tree 30-50 ft. in height with a trunk diameter
from 8 or 10 inches to 2 feet, becoming1 much larger in the
middle and southern states; branches spreading often more or less
zigzag forming1 an irregular oblong head.

BARK — On young trunks and branches smooth reddish-brown with
conspicuous oblong whitish horizontal lenticels, easly peeled off in thin
dark papery layers exposing the bright green bark below, becoming
with age very much roughened by irregular, close, dark, scaly plates
with upturned edges.

TWIGS — Rather slender, smooth, reddish-brown, more or less covered
with a grayish skin easily rubbed off: crushed twigs with odor and taste
of bitter almonds. LENTICELS — numerous, pale, minute, rounded dots,
becoming horizontally elongated and more conspicuous on later growth.
PITH — whitish or brownish.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked, small, semi-oval to
inversely triangular, raised. STIPULE-SCARS — inconspicuous or appar-
ently absent. BUNDLE-SCARS — 3, often inconspicuous.

BUDS — Medium sized, ovate, blunt to sharp-pointed, about 4 mm.
long, smooth, bright reddish-brown, divergent or sometimes somewhat
flattened and appressed; terminal bud slightly larger than lateral buds.
BUD-SCALES — about 4 visible, broadly ovate, more or less rounded
and keeled on the back, of nearly uniform color or with darker edges,
sometimes partially covered with a grayish skin, similar to that usual on
the twigs.

FRUIT — A drupe about the size of a pea, ripening in summer in
drooping elongated clusters.

COMPARISONS — The Wild Black Cherry in its young growth
resembles the Choke Cherry but grows to be a good sized tree and
develops a very rough scaly bark. Further the lenticels tend to be
whitish and elongate horizontally with age, the buds are smaller and
redder and their scales are not white-margined. From the cultivated
Sweet and Sour Cherries the Black Cherry is distinguished by absence
of fruiting spurs, by smaller buds and by the character of its bark.

DISTRIBUTION — In all sorts of soils and exposures; open places and
rich woods. Nova Scotia to Lake Superior; south to Florida; west to
North Dakota, Kansas, and Texas, extending through Mexico, along the
Pacific coast of Central America to Peru.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — not reported north of Oldtown (Penob-
scot county), frequent throughout the other New England states.

WOOD — Light, strong, rather hard, close straight-grained, with a
satiny surface, light brown or red, with thin yellow sapwood of 10-12
layers of annual growth; largely used in cabinet-making and the
interior finish of houses. The bark, especially that of the branches and
roots, yields hydrocyanic acid used in medicine as a tonic and sedative.
The ripe fruit is used to flavor alcoholic liquors whence one of the
common names.

WILD BLACK

364 TREES IN WINTER

CHOKE CHERRY

Prunus virginiana L.
Padus virginiana ( L. ) Roemer.

HABIT — Generally a tall shrub or a small tree rarely reaching 20-30
ft. in height with a trunk diameter of 6-8 inches.

BARK — Dull grayish-brown, smoothish but slightly roughened with
raised buff-orange rounded dots formed by the enlarged lenticels, not
becoming rough-scaly with age; on young trunks and branches easily
peeled off in thin, dark papery layers exposing the bright green bark
below.

TWIGS — Slender to rather stout, averaging stouter than those of the
Wild Black Cherry, smooth, reddish to grayish-brown, without grayish
skin easily rubbed off, crushed twigs with a rank odor and taste in
addition to that of bitter almonds. LENTICELS — numerous, rather con-
spicuous, buff-orange dots, slightly elongated longitudinally the first
year and not becoming distinctly elongated horizontally on later
growth. PITH — of recent growth white.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked, elliptical, raised.
STIPULE-SCARS — inconspicuous or absent. BUNDLE-SCARS — 3, fre-
quently sunken.

BUDS — Rather large, narrow, ovate to conical, about 6 mm. or more
long, smooth, pale brown, sharp-pointed, generally divergent with more
or less strongly curved apex; terminal bud frequently slightly smaller
than lateral buds. BUD-SCALES — a half dozen or more scales visible,
broadly ovate, more or less rounded and keeled on the back with thin
grayish- margins.

FRUIT — A drupe about the size of a pea, ripening in summer in droop-
ing elongated clusters.

COMPARISONS — The Choke Cherry may be distinguished from the
Wild Black Cherry with which it is frequently confused by its smaller
size, smoothish bark even in old age, its buff colored lenticels which
do not elongate horizontally, the rank odor of its twigs and by its
larger and paler buds with whitsh-margined bud-scales. From the
cultivated Sweet and Sour Cherries the Choke Cherry is distinguished
by the absence of short fruit spurs and by its gray-margined bud-scales.
The lower twig in the plate is infected by a fungus disease — Black Knot
(Plowrightia morbosa) — which occurs less abundantly upon the Wild
Black and Wild Red Cherries and also upon our cultivated Cherries as
well as upon the Plums.

DISTRIBUTION — In varying soils; along river banks, on dry plains, In
woods, common along walls and often in thickets. From Newfoundland
across the continent, as far north on the Mackenzie river as 62 degrees;
south to Georgia; west to Minnesota and Texas.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Common throughout; at an altitude of 4,500 feet
upon Mt. Katahdin. In Connecticut, rare near the coast in the south-
eastern part of the state but frequent or common elsewhere.

WOOD — Hard, close-grained, weak, light brown; of insufficient size
to be of value commercially.

CHOKE CHERRY

366 TREES IN WINTER

WILD RED CHERRY
Bird, Fire, Pin or Pigeon Cherry

Prunus pennsylvanica L. f.

HABIT — A shrub or small tree generally under 30 ft. in height with
trunk diameter of 8-10 inches; trunk erect generally continuous into
crown with slender branches arising at a rather sharp angle, forming a
rather narrow oblong open head. The trees growing in the open about
3torrs have in general a narrower outline than the tree photographed.

BARK — Bright reddish-brown, for the most part smooth, often slight-
ly peeling in transverse strips especially toward the base of the trunk
and in old trees somewhat roughened; inner bark on young branches
bright green. LENTICELS — conspicuous, horizontally elongated, lens-
shaped, orange colored and powdery on the surface.

TWIGS — Slender, generally less than 2 mm. thick, often less than
1.5 mm. thick, smooth, bright red and shining, more or less covered with
a gray skin easily rubbed off; bitter aromatic. LENTICELS — scattered,
pale to bright orange colored, becoming slightly elongated horizontally
and more conspicuous on older growth. PITH — brown, narrow.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked, semi-oval, raised.
STIPULE-SCARS — back of leaf-scars, generally indistinct or absent.
BUNDLE-SCARS — 3, the central larger one often alone distinct.

BUDS — Minute, generally under 3 mm. long, blunt-pointed, ovate,
reddish-brown, smooth, often partially covered with a grayish skin,
divergent, on rapidly grown shoots characteristically clustered at the
tips as well as scattered, with the terminal bud present but generally
smaller than those in the cluster around it; also clustered buds at ends
of short fruiting spurs; collateral accessory buds sometimes present.
BUD-SCALES — ovate, often notched and short-pointed, not readily dis-
tinguished as separate scales with the naked eye.

FRUIT — A drupe about the size of a pea, ripening in summer in short
clusters or with stalks arising from a common point on the stem.

COMPARISONS — The appearance of the bark and the taste of the
twigs show the Wild Red Cherry to belong to the Cherry group. It
differs from the other cherries in its very slender twigs and small buds
which are constantly clustered at the tips even of rapidly grown shoots.
The Wild Black Cherry when tree-like is further distinguished by its
scaly bark. The powdery bright reddish-orange lenticels on young
and even old trunks form a striking character but a similar color
may occur in the lenticels of the other Cherries especially if the outer
surface is rubbed off.

DISTRIBUTION — Roadsides, clearings, burnt lands, hill slopes, occa-
sional in rather low grounds. From Labrador to the Rocky mountains,
through British Columbia to the Coast Range; south to North Carolina;
west to Minnesota and Missouri.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Throughout; very common in the northern
portions, as high up as 4,500 ft. upon Katahdin, less common southward
and near the seacoast.

WOOD — Light, soft, close-grained, light brown, with thin yellow sap-
\rood of little commercial importance.

RED CHEKUY

368 TEEES IN WINTER

SWEET CHERRY

Mazzard Cherry, European Bird Cherry.
Prunus avium L.

HABIT — A good sized tree reaching 50-75 ft. in height with a trunk
diameter of 2-3 ft.; trunk erect continuous into the crown with slender
ascending branches forming a narrow pyramidal head; with age becom-
'ng broad-spreading.

BARK — Characteristically reddish-brown with horizontally elongated
buff colored lenticels, tardily peeling off in transverse strips which
curl back and expose the lighter bark below which on very old trunks
may be roughened by scaly ridges; on young branches bark easily
peeled off in a thin dark papery layer exposing the bright green bark
below.

TWIGS — Stout, bright reddish-brown, smooth and shining, more or
less covered with a grayish skin easily rubbed off; crushed twigs with
bitter taste. In addition to long rapidly grown shoots, stubby slowly
grown fruit spurs with terminally clustered buds are abundant. LEN-
TICELS— rather numerous, pale, becoming horizontally elongated.
PITH — brown.

LEAP-SCARS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked. rather broad, semi-
oval to inversely triangular, raised. STIPULE-SCARS — slightly behind
leaf-scars, oblique, often indistinct or absent. BUNDLE-SCARS — 3.

BUDS — Clustered at ends of fruiting spurs or scattered on rapidly
grown shoots; terminal bud scarcely larger than lateral buds;
lateral buds divergent, stout, ovate, pointed, constricted at base, about
7 mm. long, reddish-brown, smooth, often partially covered with a
grayish skin. BUD-SCALES — broadly ovate, with edges often lighter
colored and more or less frayed and ragged.

FRUIT — A drupe with edible flesh, generally sweet though in some
varieties tart, with hard stone or pit enclosing the seed, ripening in
summer, with stalks generally several in a cluster arising from a
common point on the stem.

COMPARISONS — The two types of cultivated cherries, the Sweet and
the Sour, are to be distinguished chiefly by habit of growth and relative
size of twigs and buds, the Sweet Cherry having a pyramidal outline
generally with a central leader and with relatively stout twigs and
larger buds. These differences are well shown in the plates. (See
Comparisons under Sour Cherry.)

DISTRIBUTION — A native of Europe, in this country cultivated for
Us fruit in several improved varieties such as the Black Tartarian,
May Duke, Windsor, Napoleon, etc., and in some places escaped from
cultivation.

WOOD — Strong, rather soft, close-grained, yellowish-red, taking a
fine polish; largely used in Europe for fine furniture, inside finishing
and for musical and other instruments.

SWEET CHERRY

370 TREES IN WINTER

SOUR CHERRY

Pie or Morello Cherry.

Primus Cerasus L.

HABIT — A small tree 20-30 ft. or less in height with a trunk diameter
of 10 or 12 inches; with stout spreading branches and more or less
drooping branchlets forming a broad, low, rounded head.

BARK — Similar to that of the Sweet Cherry, but the outer smooth
bark sooner peeling back and exposing the roughened inner bark.

TWIGS — Slender, otherwise resembling twigs of Sweet Cherry.
LEAF-SCARS — Similar to those of the Sweet Cherry.

BUDS — Similar to those of the Sweet Cherry but smaller and appa-
rently more frequently clustered toward the ends of long shoots.
Compare the twig photographs of the two species.

FRUIT — Similar to that of Sweet Cherry but flesh tart.

COMPARISONS — The Sour Cherry differs from the Sweet Cherry in its
spreading habit of growth, its more slender twigs and smaller buds.
Compare plates of the two species. From the native Wild Black and
Choke Cherries the cultivated Sweet and Sour Cherries are distinguished
by the short fruit spurs; from the Wild Red Cherry by their stouter
twigs and buds and absence of a bud cluster at the tip of long shoots.

DISTRIBUTION — A native of Europe, in this country cultivated for its
fruit in several improved varieties such as the Amarelles. Early Rich-
mond, Montmorency, etc., and the Morellos, Louis Philippe, etc., and in
some places escaped from cultivation.

WOOD — Similar in appearance and uses to that of the Sweet Cherry
from which it is not distinguished by wood workers.

Soru CIIKIJKY

372 TEEES IN WINTER

CANADA PLUM
Red, Horse or Wild Plum.

Primus nigra Ait.
P. americana, var. nigra Waugh

HABIT — A shrub or small tree 20-25 ft. in height with a trunk
diameter of 5-8 inches; with contorted branches and more or less zigzag
branchlets forming a low spreading head. It tends to sucker freely
forming low thickets.

BARK — On young trunks and branches dark brown with prominent
raised lenticels which are horizontally slightly elongated; at first
smooth but soon splitting and curling back in thick grayish-brown
layered plates exposing the rough scaly bark below.

TAVIGS — Slender, smooth, reddish-brown, often more or less covered
with a grayish skin, bitter aromatic, lateral spiny spurs generally
present. LENTICELS — scattered, large and rather conspicuous pale
dots.

LEAP-SCARS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked, broadly crescent-
shaped. STIPULE-SCARS — indistinct or absent. BUNDLE-SCARS—
3, often inconspicuous.

Bt'DS — Terminal bud absent, lateral buds about 4-8 mm. long, conical,
narrow-pointed, grayish-brown; collateral buds sometimes present.
BUD-SCALES — triangular, pale and thin on the margins, generally hairy
at the apex.

FRUIT — A smooth-skinned drupe with smooth stone.

COMPARISONS — The Plums are distinguished from the other members
of the genus Prunus by the absence of a terminal bud. The Canada
Plum so far as one can judge from the material investigated is
distinguishable by its larger buds from the American Plum, of which
it is considered by some only as a variety.

DISTRIBUTION — Native along streams and in thickets, often spon-
taneous around dwellings and along fences. From Newfoundland
through the valley of the St. Lawrence to Lake Manitoba; rare south
of New England; west to Wisconsin. Has given rise to some valuable
fruit-bearing1 varieties in cultivation.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — abundant in the northern sections and
common throughout; New Hampshire and Vermont — frequent, especially
in the northern sections; Massachusetts — occasional; Connecticut — rare,
Norfolk, a few trees about an abandoned garden; Oxford; Rhode Island —
not reported.

WOOD — Heavy, hard, strong, close-grained, rich, bright reddish-
brown with thin lighter colored sapwood.

• ••<&>.

CANADA PLUM

374 TREES IN WINTER

CULTIVATED PLUMS

NOTE — The Cultivated Plums are either improved forms of originally
wild species or have been derived by hybridization from a number of
such forms. The types most cultivated in the United States are the
American (derived from Prunus americana), the European (derived
from Prunus domestica) and the Japanese (derived from Prunus
triflora). Although the varieties of a given type differ considerably so
that without further study it does not seem desirable to try to offer
a detailed winter classification of the cultivated plums, still the general
characteristics of the unmixed types are recognizable in winter.
Certain varieties, the Gold, the Lombard and the Red June have been
chosen for the photographs to illustrate respectively the American, the
European and the Japanese types.

THE AMERICAN PLUM. VARIETY— GOLD

Prunus americana Marsh.
Illustrations on page 375.

The American cultivated type of Plum has very slender grayish-
brown twigs and branches which have a decidedly drooping habit of
growth. The bark is brown; on young trunks and branches smooth,
shining, with prominent, light-colored, horizontally elongated lenticels
(see upper part of bark picture). The habit photograph was taken
from a specimen of the native form, grown in the Arnold Aboretum.
The American Plum, as growing wild, closely resembles the Canada
Plum and by some this latter species is considered merely a variety
of the former. The material examined shows smaller twigs than the
Canada Plum with buds generally under 4 mm. long. The most northern
station has been reported to be along the slopes of Graylock, Mass.
In Connecticut it is reported as rare in the southern district, becoming
occasional northward.

THE EUROPEAN PLUM. VARIETY— LOMBARD

Prunus domestica L.
Illustrations on page 376.

The European Plum . has a lighter bark than the other two types
without conspicuous horizontal lenticels, with stout, upright, long
shoots and an upright habit of growth.

THE JAPANESE PLUM. VARIETY— RED JUNE

Prunus triflora Roxbg.
Illustrations on page 377.

The Japanese Plum has a very dark deeply ridged bark without
conspicuous lenticels. The long shoots are rather slender and bright
colored and stout fruit spurs are numerous

AMERICAN PLUM

EUROPEAN PLUM

JAPANESE PLI M

378 TREES IN WINTER

PEACH

Prunus Persica (L.) Stokes.
Amygdalus Persica L.

HABIT — A small tree generally under 20 ft. in height with a trunk
diameter of about 6 inches; trunk low with spreading limbs and ascend-
ing branchlets forming a low broad rounded head.

BARK — Dark reddish-brown, smooth, with prominent horizontally
elongated lenticels, becoming roughened and scaly at base.

TWIGS — Of medium thickness, smooth and very shiny, greenish to
bright reddish-purple, often green below and red above toward the light,
becoming redder as spring approaches; on rapidly grown shoots branches
sometimes produced the same season; crushed twigs with odor and taste
of bitter almonds. LENTICELS — very numerous and very minute pale
dots, in reality stomata, best seen with hand-lens and on reddish
portions of twigs, only part of them elongating with age. PITH — rather
wide, often somewhat 5-pointed, whitish or tinged with brown.

L.EAF-SCARS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked, elliptical to semi-
oval, strongly raised, often more or less decurrent. STIPULE-SCARS —
behind and above leaf-scars or raised on persistent bases of stipules,
often indistinct and readily confused with broken bud-scales; often
a small raised leaf-scar above and on either side of the main leaf-scar
in connection with the collateral buds when these are present. BUNDLE-
SCARS — 3, often inconspicuous.

BUDS — Ovate, rounded at apex or blunt-pointed, generally under 5
mm. long, densely pale-woolly at least toward apex and within, more
or less appressed, 1 or 2 collateral buds often present at a node —
these generally stout flower buds in sharp contrast to the narrower
leaf bud between (in the group of three buds on twig in plate all are
flower buds); terminal bud present often with one or more lateral
buds adjacent. BUD-SCALES — reddish-brown, often with ragged edges
and generally indistinct and covered with grayish wool.

FRUIT — A large downy drupe with an irregularly pitted stone.

COMPARISONS — The dense woolliness of its stout buds and the very
numerous and extremely minute pale dots on its highly colored and
polished twigs readily distinguish the Peach from its near relatives.

DISTRIBUTION — A native of Asia, cultivated in this country for its
fruit, naturalized throughout the greater portion of the northern states
and spontaneous in waste places and on road-sides in the northern
states.

"WOOD — Rather soft, close-grained and light brown. The seeds
develop considerable hydrocyanic acid and are used in the manufacture
of a substitute for oil of bitter almonds.

PKACH

380 TREES IN WINTER

KENTUCKY COFFEE TREE
Coffee Nut, Coffee Bean, Nicker Tree, Mahogany.

Gymnocladus dioica (L.) Koch.
G. canadensis Lam.

HABIT — A medium sized tree 30-60 ft. in height, trunk generally soon
dividing into 3 or 4 slightly spreading limbs or less frequently with a
continuous trunk, forming a narrow obovate head with thick branchlets
devoid of spray; the large stout pods often remaining on tree through-
out the winter.

BARK — Dark brown, characteristically roughened with thin tortuous
recurved scale-like ridges which are distinct even upon comparatively
young branches.

TWIGS — Very stout, more or less contorted, blunt, brown or slightly
greenish, generally white-crusted, smooth or often velvety-downy.
LENTICELS — rather numerous, large, generally more conspicuous on
second year's growth. PITH — wide, salmon-pink to brown.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked, large, pale, raised,
broadly heart-shaped. STIPULE-SCARS — absent. BUNDLE-SCARS—
large, raised, generally 3-5.

BUDS — Terminal bud absent, lateral buds small, bronze, silky, downy,
partially sunken, scarcely projecting beyond the surface of the twig,
surrounded by an incurved downy rim of the bark; axillary bud in the
depression at top of leaf-scar, one or sometimes 2 superposed buds pres-
ent. BUD-SCALES — sometimes 2 lateral scales visible.

FRUIT — A reddish-brown, large, broad, flat, oblong, abruptly pointed
pod, 4-10 inches long by 1^-2 inches wide, frequently remaining un-
opened on tree during winter, generally somewhat larger than shown
in the photograph. Seed, dark brown, flattish.

COMPARISONS — A superficial glance at the habit of the Kentucky
Coffee Tree might lead one to mistake its stout branchlets for those of
the Ailanthus. Its curious narrow ridged bark, however, should at
once prevent any confusion between the two trees. The silky bronze
superposed buds partially sunken in downy dimples of the bark in
connection with the stout twigs and salmon-colored pith are sufficient
characters to distinguish this tree from all other forms.

DISTRIBUTION — Not native in New England but frequently cultivated
as an ornamental tree; grows wild in rich deep soil from central New
York and southern Minnesota southward to Tennessee and Oklahoma.

WOOD — Heavy, though not hard, strong, coarse-grained, very durable
in contact with soil, rich light brown tinged with red, with thin lighter
colored sapwood of 5-6 layers of annual growth; it takes a fine polish
and is occasionally used in cabinet-making and for fence-posts, rails
and in construction. Its seeds were formerly used as a substitute
for coffee.

KENTUCKY COFFEE TREE

382 TREES IN WINTER

HONEY LOCUST

Three-thorned Acacia, Honey Shucks, Sweet Locust, Thorn

Tree.

Gleditsia triacanthus L. (Sometimes called Gleditschia.)

HABIT — A medium sized tree 40-60 ft. intheight. with a trunk diameter
of 1-3 ft.; trunk commonly short dividing- into a number of slightly
spreading limbs, with somewhat drooping lateral branches, forming
a broad rounded obovate or flat-topped head. Seen against the sky
the smaller branches appear zigzag with characteristic swellings at
the nodes often surmounted with thorns and rudimentary branchlets
developed from the extra buds. (See branches at side of trunk in
bark picture.)

BARK — Grayish-brown darkening with age, on young trunks and
branches smooth, with raised oblong lenticels, on older trunks more
or less roughened into broad ridges with firm, persistent recurved edges.
Some trunks have bark practically smooth except for a few deep fissures;
some trunks are thickly fringed with dense masses of long branched
spines, while others are free from them.

TWIGS — Slender, shining, smooth, reddish to greenish-brown, often
light mottled or streaked, zigzag with enlarged nodes; a large branched
thorn with pale reddish-brown pith, discontinuous with that of the
stem, generally present above node. LENTICELS — minute, scattered,
becoming conspicuous brown raised dots on older growth. PITH —
thick, whitish.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, generally more than 2-ranked, V-shaped
with upper margins and apex generally swollen. STIPULE-SCARS
— absent or inconspicuous. BUNDLE-SCARS — 3, rather inconspicuous.

BUDS — Terminal bud absent, the lateral buds small, generally about
5 more or less distinct at a node, separated one above the other,
decreasing in size from above downward, the uppermost a superposed
smooth scaly bud breaking through the bark, the next also scaly
covered by or breaking through the leaf-scar, the lower buds without
scales, covered by bark and seen as minute green dots in a longitudinal
section of twig; buds often continue to be produced at the nodes for
several years especially when the twigs are trimmed as in hedges and
give rise to a bunch of more or less rudimentary branches.

FRUIT — A long, flat, reddish-brown, more or less twisted, indehiscent
pod 10 to 18 inches long, containing numerous flat oval seeds about
10 mm. long. The photograph of the fruit is reduced to about % nat-
ural size.

COMPARISONS — The Honey Locust is at once distinguished from the
various other thorny species such as the Hawthorn and Common Locust
by its large branched thorns situated above the leaf-scar. When the
thorns are absent, as is sometimes the case, the vertical row of separated
smooth buds, the upper scaly and superposed, the lower hidden by
the bark, are sufficient points of distinction.

DISTRIBUTION — In its native habitat growing in a variety of soils;
rich woods, mountain sides, sterile plains. Southern Ontario; spreading
by seed southward; indigenous along the western slopes of the Al-
leghanies in Pennsylvania; south to Georgia and Alabama; west from
western New York through southern Ontario and Michigan to Nebraska,
Kansas, Oklahoma and Texas.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Not native, but frequently planted as an orna-
mental tree or for hedges and escaped from cultivation; Maine — young
trees in the southern sections said to have been produced from self-
sown seed; New Hampshire and Vermont — introduced; Massachusetts — •
occasional; Connecticut — rare, occasional or local; Rhode Island — intro-
duced and fully at home. Probably sparingly naturalized in many other
places in New England.

WOOD — Hard, strong, coarse-grained, very durable in contact wit*>
soils, red or bright red-brown, with thin, pale sapwood of 10-12 layers
of annual growth; largely used for fence posts and rails, for tho hubs
of wheels and in construction.

HOXEY LOCUST

384 TREES IN WINTER

REDBUD
Judas Tree.

Cercis canadensis L.

HABIT — A small tree up to 40 ft. in height though generally smaller,
developing an upright or a low, broad, irregular head.

BARK — Reddish-brown to almost black, somewhat ridged and scaly.

TAVIGS — Slender, dark reddish-brown, smooth, more or less zigzig.
LENTICELS — very numerous, minute. PITH — especially of older growth,
generally with reddish longitudinal streaks.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, 2-ranked, small, slightly raised, inversely
triangular, with short, decurrent, spreading, more or less evident ridge
from outer edges. STIPULE-SCARS— absent. BUNDLE-SCARS— 3,
large.

BUDS — Terminal bud absent, lateral buds small, 3 mm. long, or
generally much smaller, blunt, dark purplish red, somewhat flattened
and appressed, one or more superposed buds often present the upper-
most the largest; flower buds conspicuously present on older wood
often at the base of a branch (see plate) or even on the trunk itself.
BUD-SCALES — overlapping, somewhat hairy on the edges, about 2
visible to a leaf bud, several to a flower bud.

FRUIT — A flat pod about 3 inches long, with small compressed
seeds.

COMPARISONS — The stout purplish flower buds below the insertion
of the branches on the old wood will serve to identify this small tree.
The reddish streaks in the older pith seem to be a constant character
so far as investigated and if so will be a useful mark of distinction.

DISTRIBUTION — Not native to New England but frequently planted
as an ornamental tree. It grows native along the borders of streams
and rich bottom land from Ontario to New Jersey south to Florida and
west to Minnesota and Arkansas.

WOOD — Heavy, hard, not strong, close-grained, rich dark brown
tinged with red, with thin lighter colored sapwood of 8-10 layers of
annual growth; of little commercial importance.

EEDBUD

386 TREES IN WINTER

YELLOW WOOD
Virgilia, Gopher Wood.

Cladrastis lutea (Mx. f.) Koch.

HABIT — A small tree under 50 ft. in height with trunk diameter of
1-2 ft.; trunk generally dividing low down into several slightly
spreading limbs with numerous slender more or less zigzag branches,
the lower often strongly declined, forming a broad rounded head.

BARK — Thin, gray to light brown, in general smooth, resembling
bark of the Beech with slight protuberances or ridges and horizontal
wrinkles.

TWIGS — Rather slender, more or less zigzag, brittle, smooth bright
reddish-brown, covered often'by a grayish skin, odor and taste resembl-
ing that of a raw dried pea or bean. LENTICELS — pale, scattered,
generally conspicuous. PITH — wide, white, round in section.

LEAP-SCARS — Alternate, 2-ranked, or more than 2-ranked, raised,
pale yellow, forming a V-shaped collar of almost uniform diameter
nearly encircling the bud. STIPULE-SCARS — absent. BUNDLE-SCARS
— typically 5 (4-9) generally regularly spaced and raised or at times
some of the five indistinct or lacking.

1ATDS — Terminal bud absent, lateral buds naked, superposed, 3-4,
the uppermost the largest and generally alone developing, flattened,
closely packed together to form a pointed bud-like hairy cone generally
under 5 mm. long, nearly surrounded by the leaf-scar. BUD-SCALES —
absent, their place taken by the densely hairy immature leaves.

FRUIT — A smooth flat margined pod 5-10 cm. long, containing a few
small oblong compressed seeds.

COMPARISONS — The Yellow Wood is well characterized by its
beech-like bark, its slender twigs, and its superposed hairy buds closely
clustered into a bud-like cone and practically surrounded by the leaf-
scar and is therefore scarcely to be confused with any other tree.

DISTRIBUTION — In rich soil, limestone ridges and often along
mountain streams, rare and local. Western North Carolina, Kentucky,
Tennessee, Alabama, Missouri; often cultivated in New England as an
ornamental tree.

WOOD — Heavy, very hard, strong and close-grained, with a smooth,
satiny surface, bright, clear yellow changing to light brown on ex-
posure, with thin nearly white sapwood; used for fuel, occasionally for
gun stocks and yielding a clear yellow dye.

YELLOW WOOD

3S8 TREES IN WINTER

COMMON LOCUST
Black, Yellow or White Locust, Locust, Acacia.

Robinia Pseudo-Acacia L.

HABIT — Generally a small tree 20-35 ft. or occasionally 50-75 ft. In
height with a trunk diameter of eight inches to 2V2 ft.; trunk erect or
inclined, frequently dividing into a number of ascending limbs with
slender scraggly branches forming a narrow oblong open head; often
spreading by underground stems and forming thickets of small trees
A rapidly growing tree but short lived and subject to the attacks of
borers.

BARK — Rough even on young trunks, dark reddish to yellowish-
brown, becoming deeply furrowed into rounded ridges, not flaky.

TWIGS — Rather slender, brittle, often zigzag, light reddish to green-
ish-brown, smooth or nearly so, more or less angled with decurrent
ridges from base and outer angles of leaf-scars, generally spiny with
paired stipular prickles at nodes. LENTICELS — pale, scattered. PITH
— wide, more or less angled.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked, generally large and
conspicuous, inversely triangular to pentagonal, raised, covering the
buds. STIPULES — in the form of prickles, sometimes poorly developed
or entirely lacking. BUNDLE-SCARS— 3.

BUDS — Terminal bud absent; lateral buds minute, rusty-downy, 3-4
superposed, generally close together, enclosed in a rusty-downy cavity
below the leaf-scar, which cracks between the bundle-scars at the
development of a branch usually from the uppermost bud exposing the
long rusty hairs attached to under side of the three persistent lobes
of the leaf-scar; on rapidly grown shoots, the uppermost bud often
develops into a branch the first season, which may be rudimentary and
deciduous, leaving a small scar above leaf-scar.

FRUIT — A dark brown flat pod, 5-10 cm. long, containing 4-8 small
brown mottled flattish seeds, persistent on the tree throughout the
winter.

COMPARISONS — The paired prickles at the nodes form the most
striking character of the Common Locust but since they are absent on
some twigs and entirely lacking on certain varieties, the hidden, closely-
packed downy buds must be taken as the chief distinguishing features.
They separate the Common Locust from the Honey Locust when the
characteristic branched thorns are not present on the latter species. The
Clammy Locust [Robinia viscosa Vent.] is a small southern tree fre-
quently cultivated and established at many points throughout New
England. It has the general characters of the Common Locust but
the stipular prickles are less well developed and its twigs are covered
with a sticky glandular coating. The Bristly Locust [Robinia hispida
L.] is a mere shrub with twigs beset with bristly hairs but generally
without stipular prickles. The Prickly Ash or Toothache Tree
\_Zanthoxylon americanum L.], a shrub occurring throughout New Eng-
land, resembles the Locust in its stipular prickles (lower twig in plate).
It is readily distinguished from the Locusts, however, by the red downy
exposed clustered buds, the presence of a terminal bud and the pun-
gent flavor of its twigs.

DISTRIBUTION — In its native habitat growing upon mountain slopes,
along the borders of forests, in rich soils. Naturalized from Nova
Scotia to Ontario. Native from southern Pennsylvania along the
mountains to Georgia; west to Iowa and southward. Formerly much
planted as an ornamental and timber tree; more cultivated in Europe
than any other American tree.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — thoroughly at home, forming wooded
banks along streams; New Hampshire — abundant enough to be reckoned
among the valuable timber trees; Vermont — escaped from cultivation in
many places; Massachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island — common in
patches and thickets and along the roadsides and fences.

\VOOD — Heavy, exceedingly hard and strong, close-grained, very
durable in contact with the soil, brown or rarely light green, with
pale yellow sapwood of two or three layers of annual growth; exten-
sively used in shipbuilding for all sorts of posts, in construction and
turnery: oreferred for tree nails and valued as fuel.

COMMON LOCUST
PRICKLY ASH (lower twig only)

390 TREES IN WINTER

AILANTHUS
Tree of Heaven, Chinese Sumach.

Ailanthus glandulosa Desf.

HABIT — A small to good sized tree 50-75 ft. in height with a trunk
diameter of 2-3 ft.; forming a wide flat-topped head with stout branch-
lets devoid of spray; freely sprouting from the roots; the female trees
which are more frequently planted than the male often retaining the
clusters of winged fruit throughout the winter.

BARK — Grayish, slightly roughened with fine light colored longitu-
dinal streaks in striking contrast to the darker background.

TWIGS — Stout, yellowish to reddish-brown covered with very short
fine velvety down, or smooth, rather rank-smelling when crushed, older
twigs often shedding the down in the form of a thin skin and exposing
very fine light longitudinal striations below. LENTICELS — scattered,
pale, somewhat longitudinally elongated becoming on older growth con-
spicuous more or less diamond-shaped cracks. PITH — wide, chocolate
brown.

L.EAF-SCARS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked, large, conspicuous
heart-shaped. STIPULE-SCARS— absent. BUNDLE-SCARS— conspicu-
ous, often compound or curved, generally under a dozen in number,
forming a curved line.

BUDS — Terminal bud absent, lateral buds relatively small, generally
under 4 mm. long, half-spherical, reddish-brown, downy. BUD-SCALES
— thick, the 2 opposite lateral scales generally alone showing.

FRUIT — About 4 cm. long, winged, spirally twisted, the seed in the
center borne in conspicuous clusters which frequently remain on tree
during winter. The species is dioecious, there being male trees bear-
ing only staminate flowers and hence producing no fruit and female
trees bearing only pistillate flowers and producing fruit. Owing to
the vile smelling character of the staminate flowers, the male trees are
now seldom planted.

COMPARISONS — The Ailanthus in its stout twigs resembles somewhat
the Kentucky Coffee Tree but its buds are solitary and not sunken, its
pith is brown rather than salmon-colored and its bark is not ridged as
is the bark of the Kentucky Coffee Tree. From the stout-twigged
Black Walnut and Butternut it is distinguished by its solitary buds
and continuous pith; from the Staghorn and Smooth Sumachs by its
broad leaf-scars.

DISTRIBUTION — A native of China sparsely and locally naturalized
in southern Ontario, New England and southward; a very rapid grower,
thriving under the most unfavorable conditions of city existence.

WOOD — Light, brownish-yellow, with lighter sapwood, soft, weak,
rather open-grained; in Europe used in the manufacture of woodeaware
and charcoal, little used in this country.

A.ILANTHTT?

392 TREES IN WINTER.

STAGHORN SUMACH

Rhus typhina L.

R. hirta (L.) Sudw.

(Left hand twig and lower habit picture in plate)

HABIT — A shrub or small tree rarely over 25 ft. in height with a
trunk diameter less than a foot; making a straggling growth with
forked branching forming a flat head with conspicuous red fruit clusters
generally present and stout velvety branchlets; sprouting abundantly
!rom the roots and thus forming broad thickets.

BARK — Thin, dark brown, smooth or in older trees more or less
rough-scaly.

TWIGS — Stout, conspicuously covered with long velvety olive brown
io almost black hairs, whence the common name from resemblance to
a stag's antlers in the "velvet"; the tips often killed back several
inches by the frost; cut twig exuding a copious white milky Juice
LENTICELS — conspicuous except as covered by the hairs, orange
colored, becoming laterally enlarged rough dots on older growth. PITH
—wide, yellowish brown.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked, deeply V-shaped,
almost encircling the bud. STIPULE-SCARS — absent. BUNDLE-SCARS
— scattered or frequently arranged in 3 groups, generally not con-
spicuous.

BUDS — Terminal buds absent, lateral buds conical, densely coated
with long rusty hairs.

FRUIT — In rather compact, erect, cone-like clusters; individual fruits,
drupes about 4 mm. in diameter, coated with acid-tasting red hairs and
enclosing a small bony-covered seed. It is said that a good lemonade or
"sumachade" may be made by extracting the acid from the drupes
with water and sweetening to taste. The conspicuous red fruiting
clusters are persistent throughout the winter but, since the species
tends to be dioecious, are not borne by all trees.

COMPARISONS — A somewhat smaller form, the Smooth Sumach
[Rhus glabra L.], closely resembles the Staghorn Sumach in habit, twig
and fruit characters, but the twigs are smooth (except the fruit stalks
which may be downy) and generally are covered with a bloom. (See
twig on right and upper habit picture in plate.) The Dwarf Sumach
[Rhus copallina L.~\ is generally smaller in New England than the
other Sumachs. It has red fruit clusters like the Smooth and the
Staghorn Sumachs but is distinguished from these two forms by the
watery instead of white milky juice, by the leaf-scars which do not
surround the bud and by the turpentine flavor to the young twigs. For
comparison with the Poison Sumach see latter species.

DISTRIBUTION — In widely varying soils and localities, river banks,
rocky slopes to an altitude of 2,000 ft., cellar holes and waste places
generally, often forming copses. From Nova Scotia to Lake Huron;
south to Georgia; west to Minnesota and Missouri.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Common throughout.

WOOD — Light, brittle, soft, coarse-grained, orange-colored, streaked
with green, with thick nearly white sapwood. Pipes for drawing the
sap of the Sugar Maple are made from the young shoots. The bark
especially of the roots is rich in tannin.

STAGHORN AND SMOOTH SUMACH

394 TREES IN WINTER

POISON SUMACH
Poison Dogwood, Poison Elder, Swamp Sumach.

Rhus Vernix L.
R. venenata DC.

HABIT — A shrub or small tree 5-20 ft. in height with a trunk
diameter reaching 8-10 inches; trunk generally forking near the ground
producing an open, rounded, bushy head.

BARK — Thin, light gray, smooth or slightly roughened with more or
less conspicuous horizontally elongated lenticels.

TWIGS — Stout, brown to orange brown, older growth light gray,
smooth with watery resinous juice turning black on exposure. LEN,-
TICELS — numerous, minute, raised dots. PITH — yellowish-brown.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked, comparatively large,
conspicuous, inversely triangular, raised, upper margin straight,
slightly depressed or elevated, pointed and projecting. STIPULE-SCARS
— absent. BUNDLE-SCARS — conspicuous, irregularly scattered in ft
closed ring or a single curved line.

BUDS — Terminal buds present, small but larger than laterals; short-
conical, 3-20 mm. long, purplish. BUD-SCALES — finely downy on the
back and margins.

FRUIT — A globular, slightly compressed, striate drupe about 5 mm.
in diameter, very shiny, ivory white or yellowish-white, generally per-
sistent through the winter in long pendant clusters. The species is
dioecious, however, and therefore some trees do not fruit.

COMPARISONS — From the other Sumachs the Poison Sumach is dis-
tinguished by the presence of a terminal bud, its broad leaf-scars not
encircling the bud, with conspicuous generally scattered bundle-scars.
The loose clusters of white fruit are distinctive when present. The
Poison Sumach is almost entirely confined to swamps or wet places
while the other Sumachs grow for the most part in dryer situations.
The Poison Sumach resembles its climbing relative the Poison Ivy [Rhus
Toxicodendron L.] in that all parts of the plant at all times of the year
contain an oil poisonous to the touch, only more actively so. Some
individuals are more and others less susceptible. A preventive
against the poison is thoroughly to wash as soon as possible in strong
alcohol or strong soap suds the parts of the body that have come in
contact with the plant.

DISTRIBUTION — Low grounds and swamps; occasional on the moist
slopes of hills. Infrequent in Ontario; south to northern Florida; west
to Minnesota and Louisiana.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — local and apparently restricted to the
southwestern sections; as far north as Chesterville, Franklin county;
Vermont — infrequent; common throughout the other New England
states, especially near the seacoast.

WOOD — Light, soft, coarse-grained, light yellow, streaked with
brown, with lighter colored sapwood. The juice can be used as a
black lustrous durable varnish.

POISON SUMACH

396 TREES IN WINTER

HOLLY

American Holly, White Holly.

Ilex opaca Ait.

HABIT — A shrub or small tree, rarely reaching- 30 ft. in height, with
a trunk diameter of 15-18 inches; larger south and west; with slender
horizontal drooping1 or slightly ascending branches forming a compact
conical head with spiny evergreen leaves.

BARK — Light gray, smooth becoming- somewhat roughened with age.

TWIGS — Rather slender, grayish to yellowish brown, smooth or more
or less downy. LENTICELS — inconspicuous.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, more than 2-ranked, semi-oval. BUNDLE-
SCARS — solitary.

LEAVES — Thick, evergreen, elliptical to obovate, spiny-tipped and
with few spiny teeth or rarely entire, dull yellowish-green above, pale
and yellower beneath; midrib prominent beneath, with short, stout
slig-htly fine-downy leaf-stalks, groove above. STIPULES — minute,
awl-shaped, persistent.

BUDS — Short, blunt, roundish, more or less downy, terminal bud
pointed.

FRUIT — Persistent through the winter, about the size of a pea, dull
red or rarely yellow, berry-like, with four ribbed nutlets. Some trees
bear only sterile flowers and therefore never produce fruit.

COMPARISONS — The American Holly closely resembles the cultivated
European Holly [Ilex Aquifolium L.] but the leaves of this latter
species are described as glossier, of a deeper green color, more wavy-
margined with whitish translucent edges, and the berries as of a
deeper red color.

DISTRIBUTION — Generally found in somewhat sheltered situations in
sandy loam or in low, moist soil in the vicinity of water. Massachusetts,
southward to Florida; westward to Missouri and the bottom-lands of
eastern Texas.

IN NEW ENGLAND- — Maine — reported on the authority of Gray's
Manual, sixth edition, in various botanical works but no station is
known; New Hampshire and Vermont — no station reported; Massachu-
setts— occasional from Quincy southward upon the mainland and the
Island of Naushon; rare in the peat swamps of Nantucket; Connecticut
—rare; roadsides and thickets; escaped from cultivation or possibly na-
tive; Rhode Island — common in South Kingston and Little Compton and
sparingly found upon Prudence and Conanicut islands in Narragansett
Bay.

WOOD — Light, tough, not strong-, close-grained, nea'rly white when
first cut, turning brown with age and exposure, with thick rather light-
er colored sapwood, valued and much used in cabinet making, in the
interior finish of houses and in turnery; the branches are much used in
Christmas decorations.

j
HOLLY

398 TREES IN WINTER

STRIPED MAPLE
Moosewood, Whistlewood.

Acer pennsylvanicum L.

HABIT — A shrub or small tree 15-30 ft. high with a short trunk 5-10
inches in diameter and slender straight branches, forming in northern
New England a large part of the underbrush and a favorite food of
moose and deer whence the name of Moosewood.

BARK — Rather thin, smooth, reddish-brown or dark green, conspicu-
ously streaked longitudinally with narrow white lines, at length dark
gray, often transversely warty.

TWIGS — Stout, smooth, red or green; year's growth marked by two
circles formed by scars of the two outer pairs of bud-scales. LENTI-
CELS — inconspicuous. PITH — brownish.

LEAP-SCARS — Opposite; wide, broadly V-shaped; their adjacent edges
nearly meeting and forming a pair of short stubby teeth separated by
a more or less well developed decurrent ridge. BUNDLE-SCARS — 3,
generally more or less compounded forming often 5 to 7 separate
bundle-scars.

BUDS — Distinctly stalked, 6-10 mm. long exclusive of the rather long
stalk, tapering to a blunt tip, red, shining, more or less 4-sided; terminal
bud larger than appressed lateral buds. BUD-SCALES — the thick, red,
single, outer pair only visible, enclosing an inner pair of thick pale-
hairy scales, within which are enclosed one or more pairs of thin green
scales.

FRUIT — In long drooping terminal racemes with thin widely spread-
ing wings; 2-2.5 cm. long, seed-like portion rather long with a pit-like
depression on one side; the elongated racemes from which the fruit
has fallen often remaining on tree throughout winter.

COMPARISONS — Easily distinguishable at all times from all other
Maples by the striking white streaks in the young bark which appear
often as early as the second year (see photograph of twig), and persist
even on comparatively old trunks. The large stalked buds are also
characteristic. The brown pith of the twig and the one-sided pitting
of the seed-like portion of the fruit are characters which distinguish
the Bush Maples (i.e. the Mountain and the Striped) from our other spe-
cies of the genus. Forms of the genus Viburnum, which are for the most
part shrubs, resemble somewhat the Bush Maples, but, aside from
having drupe-like fruits, may generally be easily distinguished by
bud characters — some having naked, others scurfy buds, some with
the first pair of scales shorter than the bud and some with the second
pair of scales smooth.

DISTRIBUTION — Cool, rocky or sandy woods, usually in the shade
of other trees. Nova Scotia to Lake Superior; south on shaded moun-
tain slopes and in deep ravines to Georgia; west to Minnesota.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — abundant, especially northward in the
forests; New Hampshire and Vermont — common in highland woods;
Massachusetts — common in the western and central sections, rare
towards the coast; Connecticut — occasional in the northwestern part of
the state, becoming rare eastward and southward, reaching Ashford, East
Haddam, Huntington and Redding; Rhode Island — frequent northward.

WOOD — Light, soft, close-grained, light brown with thick lighter
colored sapwood of 30-40 layers of annual growth.

STRIPKD ^J

400 TEEES IN WINTER

MOUNTAIN MAPLE

Acer spicatum Lam.

HABIT — Shrub or small bushy tree up to 25 ft. in height with a
trunk diameter of 6-8 inches; trunk short, straight, with slender upright
branches.

BARK — Very thin, reddish-brown to dingy-gray, smooth or slightly
furrowed or warty.

TWIGS — Slender, bright red to purple on upper side where exposed
to the light, yellowish to greenish on shaded under side, color per-
sisting for several years; covered especially toward tip with short
appressed grayish hairs, which may persist in scant amount for several
years toward upper part of each year's growth. Year's growth marked
by 2-3 circles formed by scars of bud-scales. LENTICELS — few,
inconspicuous. PITH — brownish.

LEAF-SCARS — Opposite, narrow, V-shaped, margined by a lighter
colored and more or less raised rim, nearly meeting. BUNDLE-SCARS —
3, undivided.

BUD— Stalked, small, slender, pointed; generally under 6 mm. in
length including stalk, red or greenish, covered, especially the terminal
buds, with short appressed grayish hairs; terminal bud larger than
appressed lateral buds. BUD-SCALES — thick, 2-3 pairs, one or at most
2 pairs visible, the second pair hairy.

FRUIT — In drooping racemes with wide more or less spreading wings
about 2 cm. or less long, seed-like portion short, with pit-like depres-
sion on one side.

COMPARISONS — Resembles the Striped Maple (which see) in habit,
distribution, color of twigs and few scales to the stalked buds. It
differs from the Striped Maple in absence of white streaks on young
bark and by pale down on twigs and especially on the smaller buds.

DISTRIBUTION — Moist rocky hillsides usually in the shade of other
trees. From Nova Scotia and Newfoundland to Saskatchewan, along
mountain ranges to Georgia.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — common, especially northward in the
forests; New Hampshire and Vermont — common; Massachusetts — rather
common in western and central sections, occasional eastward; Connecti-
cut— occasional in the northern part of the state, becoming rare south-
ward, reaching East Haddam, Guilford at Bluff Head, Meriden and
Redding; Rhode Island — occasional northward.

WOOD — Light, soft, close-grained, light brown tinged with red. with
thick lighter colored sapwood.

M&'W3Sii ;

MOUNTAIN MAPLE

402

TREES IN WINTER

SUGAR MAPLE
Rock Maple, Hard Maple.

Acer saccharum Marsh.
A. saccharinum Wang1., not L. ; A. barbatum Michx.

HABIT — A large tree 50-90 ft. in height, with trunk diameter of 2-5
ft.; trunk more or less continuous, in the open developing at 8-10 ft.
from the ground stout, erect branches which form in young trees a
oroad or narrow egg-shaped head, becoming frequently a broad, round-
topped head when older. Leaves sometimes persistent into winter
especially on lower branches of young trees.

BARK — On young trunks and limbs dark gray, with tinge of buff,
close and firm, smooth or slightly fissured, becoming deeply furrowed
into long, thick, irregular plates which often curve back along one
edge, giving ploughed appearance to the trunk. Some trees are to be
found with yellowish-gray, more or less flaky bark. (See upper bark
picture.)

TWIGS — Slender, shining, reddish-brown to buff tinged with orange,
smooth. LENTICELS — numerous, pale, conspicuous. PITH — whitish.

L.EAF-SCARS — Opposite, narrow V-shaped; outer margins of a pair
nearly meeting; often pale downiness within leaf-scar. BUNDLE-
SCARS — 3, sometimes compound.

BUDS — Conical to ovate, sharp-pointed, reddish-brown, rather downy
especially toward tip; terminal bud 4-6 mm. long; about twice as long
as appressed lateral buds. BUD-SCALES — overlapping, 4-8 pairs visible,
their margins finely hairy.

FRUIT — 3-5 cm. long, in short terminal clusters, wings broad, paral-
lel or slightly spreading.

COMPARISONS — The Sugar Maple is readily distinguished from other
Maples by its narrow, conical, sharp-pointed, brown buds and by the
large number of scales to the bud. The fruit clusters of the Sugar
Maple are from terminal buds, those of the Red and the Silver Maple
are from lateral buds. The fruiting of the Sugar Maple in consequence
causes a noticeable forking of the twigs while it d.oes not interrupt
the growth in the Red and the Silver Maple. Further, fruit stalks
and sometimes even the fruits themselves are persistent into winter
on the Sugar Maple and are not persistent on the Red and the Silver.
The Black Maple [Acer saccharum, var. nigrum (Michx. f. ) Britton] is
found in the northern part of New England but is too closely related
to the Sugar Maple to be considered a distinct species. It has darker
buds and bark than the type form.

DISTRIBUTION — Rich woods and rocky slopes, frequently planted by
roadsides. Nova Scotia and Newfoundland; westward to Lake of the
Woods; south to the Gulf States; west to Minnesota, Nebraska, Kansas
and Texas.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Abundant, distributed throughout the woods,
often forming in the northern portions extensive upland forests; attain-
ing great size in the mountainous portions of New Hampshire and
Vermont, and in the Connecticut river valley; less frequent toward the
seacoast.

"WOOD — Heavy, hard, strong, close-grained, tough, with a fine satiny
surface, susceptible of receiving a good polish, light brown tinged with
red, with thin sapwood of 30-40 layers of annual growth; largely used
for the interior finish of buildings, especially for floors, in the manu-
facture of furniture and in turnery, in shipbuilding, shoe-lasts and pegs
and largely as fuel. Accidental forms with the grain curled and
contorted, known as Curly Maple and Bird's Eye Maple are common
and highly prized in cabinet making. Maple sugar is principally mad*
from the sap of this tree.

SUGAR MAPLE

404 TREES IN WINTER

SILVER MAPLE

White, River, or Soft Maple.

Acer saccharinum L.

A. dasycarpum Ehrh.

HABIT — A good sized tree 50-60 ft. high with trunk diameter of
2-5 ft.; dividing near the ground into several slightly spreading limbs
which branch further up, forming a very wide, broad-topped head.
Lateral branchlets strongly tend to grow downward and then curve
sharply upward at their tips.

BARK — Smooth, gray, with reddish tinge on young trunks and
branches; on older trunks reddish-brown more or less furrowed; the
surface separating into long thin flakes which become free at the ends
and flake off exposing the redder inner layers.

TWIGS — Similar to those of Red Maple but with a distinct rank odor
when freshly cut or broken.

LEAF-SCARS — Similar to those of Red Maple.

BUDS — Similar to those of the Red Maple but generally somewhat
larger, the flower buds more densely clustered with a larger number of
buds in a cluster.

FRUIT — Large, 4-7 cm. long, wings spreading, in lateral clusters,
ripening in early spring and therefore difficult to find in winter.

COMPARISONS — The Silver Maple closely resembles the Red Maple in
twig characters but can be readily distinguished from the latter by
the rank odor of the fresh twigs when broken. The flakiness of the
bark of the Silver Maple is also distinctive. The bending down of the
branchlets with a sharp upward curve at their tips while much more
marked in the Silver Maple occurs to a certain extent in the Red and
therefore cannot be depended upon alone as a distinctive character. If
the flower buds be dissected out and examined with a hand-lens the
immature flowers of the Silver Maple will be found to be surrounded by
a cup-like calyx which in the Red Maple is made up of separate
divisions. See under Red Maple for Comparisons with other species.

DISTRIBUTION — Along river banks and in moist, deep-soiled woods,
not typically in swamps; often planted for ornament under the name
of White Maple. Infrequent from New Brunswick to Ottawa, abundant
from Ottawa throughout Ontario; south to the Gulf states; west to
Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas and Oklahoma; attaining its maximum
size in the basins of the Ohio and its tributaries; rare towards the
seacoast throughout the whole range.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Occasional throughout; most common and best
developed upon the banks of rivers and lakes at low altitudes.

WOOD — Hard, strong, close-grained, easily worked, rather brittle, pale
brown with thick sapwood of 40-50 layers of annual growth; now some-
times used for flooring and in the manufacture of furniture. Sugar
occasionally made from the sap.

SILVER MAPLE

406 TREES IN WINTER

RED MAPLE
Swamp, Soft or White Maple.

Acer rubrum L.

HABIT — A medium sized tree, 40-50 ft. high, occasionally in swamps
reaching 75 ft. in height, with trunk diameter of 2-4 ft.; branching low
down and forming an oblong rather compact head, frequently largest at
the top but sometimes broad at the base. Branches slender as well
as branchlets, the latter showing slight tendency to turn up at their
tips; horizontal or even declined limbs common at base; upper branches
appearing decidedly gray and often resembling those of the Beech if
viewed with the light.

BARK — Smooth, light gray on young trunks and branches; on older
trunks very dark gray, roughened into long ridges, sometimes some-
what shaggy and separating in long plates (see right hand bark
photograph); in some localities remaining smooth till a foot or more in
diameter.

TWIGS — Rather slender, bright or dark red, shining; odorless when
cut. LENTICELS — numerous, conspicuous. PITH — pinkish toward upper
part, at least of each year's growth beyond the second.

LEAF-SCARS — Broad, U to V-shaped, adjacent edges not meeting.
BUNDLE-SCARS — 3.

BUDS — Red, blunt-pointed, broadly oval-ovate to spherical in flower
buds, generally under 5 mm. long, short-stalked; flower buds numerous,
stout, collateral (one on either side of smaller axillary bud). BUD-
SCALES — 4 pairs or generally fewer visible with pale hairs on margins,
outer pair of scales not over half covering the bud.

FRUIT — Small, generally under 3 cm. long, wings spreading, in lateral
clusters, ripening in spring and therefore difficult to find in winter.

COMPARISONS — The Red Maple closely resembles the Silver Maple
in the winter condition. See Silver Maple under Comparisons for
differences. The Red and the Silver Maple are distinguishable from our
other Maples except the Box Elder by presence of collateral buds, and
the numerous clusters of these flower buds give a characteristic beaded
appearance to the twigs against the sky; from the Striped and Mountain
Maples by the larger number of scales exposed in the bud; from the
Striped and the Norway and Sycamore Maples by much smaller buds;
from the Mountain Maple and the Box Elder by their smooth outer bud-
scales; from the Sugar Maple by their red twigs and by their red, blunt
buds with few scales. See under Sugar Maple.

DISTRIBUTION — Borders of streams, in low lands, wet woods and
swamps or sometimes in dry ground, of rapid growth and a favorite
for park planting but usually not adapted to city streets. Nova Scotia
to the Lake of the Woods; south to southern Florida; west to Dakota,
Nebraska and Texas.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Common throughout from the sea to an altitude
of 3,000 ft. on Katahdin.

WOOD — Very heavy, close-grained, not strong, light brown often
slightly tinged with red, with thick, rather lighter colored sapwood;
used in large quantities in the manufacture of chairs and other furni-
ture, in turnery, for woodenware and gun-stocks.

]\[APLE

408 TREES IN WINTER

NORWAY MAPLE

Acer platanoides L.

HABIT— A mediumly large tree reaching in Europe 100 ft. in height.
With round spreading head.

BARK — Dark, broken into firm, close, narrow ridges which run
together and enclose small diamond-shaped spaces, somewhat resembling
hark of White Ash but the ridges and diamond-shaped spaces are finer.

TAVIGS — Stout, generally smooth and shining, brown to greenish or
yellowish-brown, branchlets of two or more years growth and even
vigorous season's shoots plainly streaked with fine, irregular, longitu-
dinal cracks in bark.

LEAF-SCARS — Opposite, narrow V-shaped, half encircling the twig,
the adjacent edges of opposite leaf-scars meeting and continued upward
into a short tooth. BUNDLE-SCARS — 3.

BUDS — Completely red or yellowish-green toward the base, sometimes
whole bud strongly tinged with yellowish-green; terminal bud larger
than lateral buds, 5-8 mm. long, more than Y2 as broad as long,
oval to ovate; generally with a pair of comparatively large lateral buds
below terminal bud; lateral buds small, appressed. BUD-SCALES —
thick, more or less keeled, margin very finely hairy; scales to terminal
bud generally 5 pairs — only 2, or at most 3 pairs showing, smooth but
enclosing 2 pairs which are thickly covered with dark rusty-brown
hairs; in small buds sometimes 4 pairs smooth and 1 pair hairy.

FRUIT — Generally over 5 cm. long, seed-like portion flattish, with
wings diverging in a straight line.

COMPARISONS — The Norway Maple is easily distinguished from the
Sycamore Maple by the redness of its buds, the brown hairiness of the
inner scales, the ridging of the bark and the divergence of the wings
of the fruit; from the native Maples by the large buds and the character-
istically ridged bark.

DISTRIBUTION — A European form extensively cultivated as a shade
tree being more tolerant of unfavorable city conditions than most
Other forms. Its low head, however, is a disadvantage for city street
planting.

WOOD — Moderately heavy, hard, close-grained, white or yellowish-
white, fairly durable under cover but of short duration in the open; used
in Europe by joiners, for finer wheelwrights' work, for carving, for
mathematical instruments and for various other purposes.

NORWAY MAPLE

410 TREES IN WINTEB

SYCAMORE MAPLE

Acer Pseudo-Platanus L.

HABIT — A rather large tree of vigorous growth, reaching in Europe
120 ft. in height, with large spreading head.

BARK — Dark reddish-brown, flaking off in squarish or short oblong
scales.

TWIGS — Stout, smooth, shining, yellowish-greenish to brown.

LEAF-SCARS — Opposite, shallow V-shaped; adjacent edges of opposite
leaf-scars not meeting. BUNDLE-SCARS — 3, elongated lengthwise with
the leaf-scar or compound.

BUDS — Green, sometimes slightly reddish, terminal bud larger than
lateral buds, 7-12 mm. long, broadly oval to ovate to nearly spherical,
much more than V2 as wide as long; lateral buds divergent. BUD-
SCALES — more or less keeled, with dark brown edging, dark pointed
apex and finely hairy margin; scales to terminal bud, 6-7 pairs, 3 pairs
at least generally visible, the outer scales smooth, the 2 inner scales
thickly covered with silvery white hairs.

FRUIT — Generally less than 5 cm. long, seed-like portion nearly
spherical, wings making about a right angle resembling fruit of the
Sugar Maple.

COMPARISONS — Distinguished from the Norway Maple by the green
buds, having outer scales with dark margins and white-hairy inner
scales, and by the flaky bark; from the native Maples by the larger
buds and the peculiar bark.

DISTRIBUTION — A European form, cultivated in the United States
as a shade tree but less extensively than the Norway Maple.

WOOD — Similar in character to that of the Norway Maple and used
for the same purposes.

-

SYCAMORE MAPLE

412 TBEES IN WINTER

BOX ELDER
Ash-leaved Maple, Manitoba Maple.

Acer Negundo L.
Negundo aceroides Moench ; Negundo Negundo Karst.

HABIT — A medium sized tree 40-50 ft. high with a trunk diameter
of 1-2 ft.; dividing low down, sometimes only a few feet from the
ground, into a number of stout spreading branches, forming a wide
head.

BARK — Pale gray or light brown, broken by rather shallow furrows

nto narrow, firm, close, irregular flat-topped ridges which are further

cracked horizontally; bark of young trunks and branches smooth, with

raised buff lenticels, which are horizontally more or less elongated.

TWIGS — Stout, reddish-purple or green, smooth, polished or often with
a whitish bloom which readily rubs off. LENTICELS — conspicuous,
forming somewhat longitudinally elongated, scattered, raised buff dots.

LEAF-SCABS — Opposite, narrow V-shaped, margined by a lighter
colored outer rim, half encircling the twig, the adjacent edges of
opposite leaf-scars meeting and prolonged upward into a conspicuous
narrow tooth, the inner margin often hairy. BUNDLE-SCARS — large,
3 in number, generally undivided.

BUDS — Short-stalked, red, more or less white-woolly, the terminal
buds 6 mm. or less long, rather longer than the appressed lateral buds.
BUD-SCALES — outer pair less densely woolly than inner pairs, grown
together at base, entirely enclosing the bud or slightly gaping and
exposing next inner pair; outer scales of lateral buds often distended
by formation in their axils of stout collateral buds.

FRUIT — 3.5-5 cm. long in drooping racemes, wings spreading at a
sharp angle, seed-like portion long, flattish; fruit stalks remaining on
tree throughout winter. The Box Elder Is strictly dioecious, therefore
fruit is not borne by all individuals.

COMPARISONS — The stout brightly colored red or green twigs and
branchlets often covered with a bloom the first year and the downy
buds with generally collateral buds present on some of the twigs, as
well as the narrow tooth formed at the junction of adjacent deeply
V-shaped leaf-scars render the Box Elder easily distinguishable in
the winter condition.

DISTRIBUTION — Banks of streams, lakes and borders of swamps; a
rapid grower and often planted as a shade tree, thrives best in moist
soil but is tolerant of dry situations. Infrequent from eastern Ontario
to Lake of the Woods; abundant from Manitoba westward to the Rocky
mountains south of 55 degrees north latitude; south to Florida; west
to the Rocky and Wahsatch mountains, reaching its greatest size in the
river bottoms of the Ohio and its tributaries.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — along the St. John and its tributaries,
especially in the French villages, the commonest roadside tree, brought
in from the wild state according to the people there; thoroughly estab-
lished young trees, originating from planted specimens, in various parts
of the state; New Hampshire — occasional along the Connecticut, abun-
dant at Walpole; extending northward as far as South Charlestown;
Vermont — shores of the Winooski river and of Lake Champlain; Con-
necticut— rare or local; apparently native along the Housatonic river
from Oxford to Salisbury; escaped from cultivation at Putnam, Groton,
Southing! on, Wethersfield and Norwalk.

WOOD — Light, soft, close-grained, not strong, creamy white with
thick hardly distinguishable sapwood; occasionally manufactured into
cheap furniture and sometimes used for the interior finish of houses,
for woodenware, cooperage and paper pulp. Small quantities of
maple sugar are occasionally made from this tree.

Box ELDER

414 TREES IN AVINTER.

HORSE-CHESTNUT

Aesculus Hippocastanum L.

HABIT — A good sized tree reaching 70 ft. in height with a trunk
diameter of 2-3 ft.; sometimes with trunk continuous into top of tree
but more frequently dividing soon into a number of large slightly
spreading limbs forming an oblong or broadly conical head, in old
age with drooping lower branches with upturned tips; spray stiff and
coarse with conspicuous terminal buds.

BARK — Dull brown becoming shallowly fissured into irregular plate-
like scales somewhat resembling bark of Apple Tree.

TWIGS — Stout, reddish-yellowish to grayish-brown, smooth or slightly
fine-downy. SCALE-SCARS — marking annual growth, distinct. LEN-
TICELS — large, conspicuous, scattered. PITH — wide.

LEAF-SCARS — Opposite, large, inversely triangular. STIPULE-
SCARS — absent. BUNDLE-SCARS — 3-9, generally 7, large conspicuous,
in a single curved line.

BUDS — Large, dark reddish-brown, varnished with sticky gum;
terminal buds often flower buds, larger than laterals, 1.5 to 3 cm.
long; when a flower bud, a terminal scar is left and the twig forks from
growth of bud pair below. BUD-SCALES — opposite in 4 rows, about
5 pairs visible in terminal bud, thick with thin margins, the lower
pairs more- or less keeled and often with abrupt sharp points.

FRUIT — A weak-spined bur, containing the large seeds marked with
a large conspicuous scar; not remaining on the tree during winter.

COMPARISONS — Two western trees with buds free from resinous
coating, i.e. the Fetid or Ohio Buckeye [Aesculus c/labra Willd.] and the
Sweet Buckeye [Aesculus octandra Marsh.], are sometimes planted in
New England. They belong with the Horse-chestnut to the genus
Aesculus which is readily distinguished from other New England genera
by the large size of the twigs, buds, opposite leaf-scars and bundle-
scars.

DISTRIBUTION — A native of southern Asia much planted as an
ornamental shade tree in this country and in Europe and naturalized
in many places.

WOOD — Light, soft, very close-grained, whitish, slightly tinged with
yellow; in Europe used by carvers and turners.

HORSE-CHESTNUT

416 TREES IN WINTER

LINDEN
Basswood, Lime, Whitewood, Beetree.

Tilia americana L.

HABIT — A large tree 50-75 ft., to 100 ft. in height in the upper
valley of the Connecticut river, with a trunk diameter of 2-4 ft.; with
a straight trunk generally continuous into the top, beset with numerous
slender branches, those at the base often strongly drooping, forming a
narrow pyramidal head as shown in habit picture or more commonly
becoming broadly ovate or round-topped and oblong. [Habit picture
is taken from the European Linden, which resembles the American
species in habit.]

BARK— Dark gray, firm but easily cut, in young steins smooth
(upper part of smaller trunk in photograph), becoming fissured into long-
rather narrow flat-topped ridges, divided by characteristically trans-
verse cracks into short blocks (lower bark picture), becoming with age
deeply furrowed with broader more rounded ridges (older trunk).

TWIGS — Rather slender, smooth, shining, bright red or greenish
or covered with a gray skin; generally zigzag, somewhat mucilaginous
when chewed; fibres in inner bark long, tough, appearing as blunt
conical masses in cross section of older twig, and in surface sections
of the bark as whitish wavy lines enclosing lens-shaped darker masses
which show externally as wrinkled depressions of the bark. LENTICELS
— scattered, dark, oblong.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, 2-ranked; large, elevated, semi-oval to ellip-
tical. STIPULE-SCARS — generally narrow, often showing bundle-scars
BUNDLE-SCARS — few to many, scattered or in a ring or forming a
single curved line, showing as 3 in deep surface section.

BUDS — Terminal bud absent; lateral buds large to medium, ovate,
3-10 mm. long, somewhat flattened, often lopsided, divergent, dark red
or sometimes green, smooth or slightly downy at apex; mucilaginous
when chewed. BUD-SCALES — rarely more than 2-3 visible, thick,
rounded at the back, not 2-ranked nor in pairs.

FRUIT — About the size of a pea, woody, spherical, singly or in clus-
ters of several with a common stalk attached midway to a leafy
bract, sometimes remaining on the tree into the winter.

COMPARISONS — The American Linden, more commonly known among
lumbermen as Basswood, differs but slightly in winter or summer
condition from the European species [Tilia vulgaris Hayne] which is
much cultivated as a street tree. Another Basswood [Tilia Michauxii
Nutt.] has been reported in New England only from Connecticut, but
is rare in this state. The Lindens are sometimes confused with the
Elms, but aside from the different habit of growth the Linden has
larger, bright colored buds with 2-3 scales only showing, while the Elms
have many scales visible and their bundle-scars are depressed. From
the Chestnut, the Linden is best distinguished by its twigs and buds
which are mucilaginous when chewed.

DISTRIBUTION — In rich woods and loamy soils and often cultivated.
Southern Canada from New Brunswick to Lake Winnipeg; south along
the mountains to Georgia; west to Kansas, Nebraska and Texas.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Throughout, frequent from the sea coast to
altitudes of 1,000 ft., rare from 1,000 to 2,000 ft.

WOOD — Soft, straight-grained, light brown faintly tinged with red,
with thick hardly distinguishable sapwood of 55-65 layers of annual
growth, employed in the manufacture of paper-pulp; under the name
of Whitewood largely used for woodenware, cheap furniture, the panels
of carriages, and for inner soles of shoes. The tough inner bark
furnishes fibres for mats, cordage, etc.

LINDEN

418 TREES IN WINTER

FLOWERING DOGWOOD

Boxwood, Dogwood, Flowering Cornel.

Cornus florida L.

HABIT — A small tree 15-30 ft. in height, with a trunk diameter of
6-10 inches; developing a low spreading- bushy head with slender up-
right or spreading branches and divergent sinously curved branchlets
turning upward near the end and bearing on their upper sides clusters
of fruiting twigs terminated by large conspicuous erect flower buds.

BARK — Dark brown to blackish, ridged and broken into small 4-sided
or rounded plate-like scales, resembling alligator leather in appear-
ance.

TWIGS — Slender, bright red or yellowish-green, smooth or generally
appearing more or less mealy from minute closely appressed gray
hairs; with bitter taste. LENTICELS — inconspicuous. PITH — gritty,
granular.

LEAF-SCARS — Opposite, on twigs of the season raised on bases of
leaf-stalks with deep V-shaped notch between, on older growth
practically encircling twig. STIPULE-SCARS — absent. BUNDLE-
SCARS — 3, in leaf-scars of the season often confluent and first seen in
section through persistent base of leaf-stalk.

BUDS — Lateral buds minute, covered by persistent bases of leaf-
stalks; terminal leaf-buds flattened-conical, red, generally downy at
least at apex, covered by a single pair of opposite pointed scales
rounded at back and joined below for % their length; flowering
buds very abundant, terminal, large, spherical to inverted flat turnip-
shaped, 4-8 mm. broad, covered by two opposite pairs of bud-scales,
the first 2-3 pairs of leaves below the flower buds generally reduced to
narrow-pointed persistent scales.

FRUIT — Scarlet, oblong, about 1.5 cm. long, fleshy, with a grooved
stone, clustered, ripening in October and generally not remaining on
the tree during winter.

COMPARISONS — The Flowering Dogwood differs from its relative the
Alternate-leaved Dogwood [Cornus alternifolia L.] by its opposite leaf-
scars, from the Bush Maples, — the Striped and the Mountain — which it
somewhat resembles in twig characters, by its alligator bark, the
presence of but a single pair of scales to terminal leaf-bud, by the
persistent bases of leaf-stalks covering the lateral buds and by the
generally abundant large flower buds.

DISTRIBUTION — Woodlands, rocky hillsides, moist, gravelly ridges,
frequently cultivated as an ornamental tree. Provinces of Quebec and
Ontario; south to Florida; west to Minnesota and Texas.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — Fayette Ridge, Kenebec county; New
Hampshire — along the Atlantic coast and very near the Connecticut
river, rarely farther north than its junction with the West river;
Vermont — southern and southwestern sections, rare; Massachusetts —
occasional throughout the state, common in the Connecticut river
valley, frequent eastward; Connecticut — occasional, local or frequent;
Rhode Island — common.

WOOD — Heavy, hard, strong1, close-grained, brown sometimes chang-
ing to shades of green and red, with lighter colored sapwood of 30-40
layers of annual growth; largely used in turnery, for the bearings of
machinery, the hubs of small "wheels, barrel hoops, the handles of
tools and occasionally for engravers' blocks.

FLOWERING DOGWOOD

420 TREES. IN WINTER

TUPELO

Pepperidge, Sour or Black Gum.

Nyssa sylvatica Marsh.
TV. multi-flora Wang.

HABIT — A tree 20-50 ft. in height with trunk diameter of 1-2 ft.
or in the forest 60-80 ft. high, reaching greater dimensions further
south; generally easily recognized from the manner of branching alone,
though extremely variable in outline. The trunk is erect, generally
continuous well into the top, lower branches developed low down on
trunk, horizontal or declined often to the ground, upper branches
horizontal or slightly ascending, with numerous lateral branches and
stubby branchlets forming horizontal layers. The branches are slender
and exceedingly numerous, more so than in any other of our trees. The
head may be short, cylindrical and flat-topped, or low and broader than
tall (see plate lower habit picture), or more commonly as when crowded
in the forest, narrow, pyramidal or conical (see plate upper habit
picture) or inversely conical and broad and flat at top.

BARK — On young tree, grayish, flaky, on older trunks darker with
deeper furrows and ridges broken into somewhat regular hexagonal
blocks.

TWIGS — Slender, smooth or nearly so, grayish to light reddish-brown,
producing numerous short slow-growing spurs crowded with leaf-scars
on the sides of more rapidly grown shoots. LENTICELS — scattered,
inconspicuous. PITH — with thin transverse woody partitions through
the ground-mass, best seen with aid of a hand-lens.

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate, generally more than 2-ranked, distinct,
broadly crescent-shaped. STIPULE-SCARS — absent. BUNDLE-SCARS—
conspicuous, 3, simple or slightly compound but in 3 distinct groups,
generally depressed, whitish in contrast to reddish-brown of leaf-scar.

BUDS — Ovate, dark reddish-brown, smooth or slightly downy at tip,
the lateral buds generally blunt-pointed, divergent, on vigorous shoots
slightly raised on a cushion of the bark, sometimes on vigorous shoots
developing a superposed accessory bud larger than the axillary one;
terminal bud slightly larger than laterals, about 5 mm. long, generally
sharper pointed, w'th slightly curved apex. BUD-SCALES — 3-4 visible,
broadly ovate, rounded, terminally somewhat keeled and pointed.

FRUIT — A small bluish drupe ripening in autumn.

COMPARISONS — Although the outline of the crown differs widely,
the numerous slender horizontally layered branches generally render
the Tupelo distinguishable at a distance. Its stubby branchlets remind
one somewhat of the Pear Tree. Its broad leaf-sca,rs and 3 conspicuous
bundle-scars in connection with the woody partitions in the pith will
prevent its being confused with any other tree.

DISTRIBUTION — In rich, moist soil, in swamps and on the borders
of rivers and ponds. Ontario; south to Florida; west to Michigan,
Missouri, and Texas.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — Waterville on the Kennebec, the most
northern station yet reported; New Hampshire — most common in the
Merrimac valley, seldom seen north of the White Mountains; Vermont-
occasional; Massachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island — rather com-
mon.

WOOD — Heavy, soft, strong, fine-grained, very tough, difficult to split,
not durable, light yellow or nearly white, with thick lighter colored
sapwood of 80-100 layers of annual growth; used for the hubs of wheels,
rollers in glass factories, ox-yokes, wharf piles and sometimes for the
soles of shoes.

TUPELO

422 TEEES IN WINTER

WHITE ASH

Fraxinus americana L.

HABIT — In the forests a large tree with straight, tall trunk, free
from branches to near the narrow crown, 50-75 ft. in height with trunk
diameter of 2-3 ft., reaching over 100 ft. in height in the Ohio basin; in
the open a broader tree with ovate, round-topped or pyramidal to oblong
outline, the trunk at times continuous into the crown but generally
dividing comparatively low down into a number of slightly spreading
limbs with slender spreading branches, the lower more or less drooping
and recurved. The coarse twigs are formed at a broad angle approach-
ing a right angle with the branch and this cross-shaped branching
seen against the sky is an easy means of identification.

BARK — Grayish-brown, characteristically furrowed with narrow, flat-
topped, firm, irregular, longitudinal ridges which are transversely
broken, more or less confluent and enclose diamond-shaped hollows;
old trunks becoming smoother by scaling off of the ridges.

TAA'IGS — Stout, smooth and shining, grayish or greenish-brown often
with a slight bloom, very brittle, flattened at nodes at right angles to
leaf-scars. LENTICELS — large, pale, scattered dots.

LEAF-SCARS — Opposite, large, conspicuous, raised, crescent-shaped to
nearly semi-circular but always notched at the top. STIPULE-SCARS—
absent. BUNDLE-SCARS — numerous, minute, in a curved line, often
indistinct, sometimes more or less confluent.

BUDS — Stout, semi-spherical to broadly ovate, scurfy, and more or
less slightly downy, rusty to dark brown to sometimes almost black;
on rapidly growing shoots, superposed buds often present; terminal
bud larger than the laterals, about 5 mm. or less long, blunt, generally
decidedly broader than long. A pair of lateral buds generally present at
end of twig nearly on level with terminal bud, their leaf-scars causing
terminal swelling of twig. BUD-SCALES — generally broadly ovate,
opposite in pairs, 2-3 pairs visible, those of terminal bud with sharp,
abrupt, sometimes deciduous points.

FRUIT — Winged, 2-5 cm. long, the seed-bearing portion round in
section, marginless below with much longer wing dilating from near
the tip, hanging on the tree in clusters into the winter. The Ash
is dioecious and consequently only the female trees ever bear fruit.
Since further these do not bear every season, the fruit does not form
a very usable winter character for any of the Ashes. The staminate
flowers on the male trees are frequently infected by mites and persist
through the winter in blackish distorted clusters.

COMPARISONS — The White Ash is hardly to be confused with Ihe
few other genera of trees that have opposite leaf-scars. It is dis-
tinguished from the other Ashes figured here in that its leaf-scar is
generally narrow and deeply concave, further from the Black Ash by its
rough ridged bark and generally rusty and blunter bud-scales and from
the Red Ash by its smooth, generally shiny twigs.

DISTRIBUTION — Rich or moist woods, fields and pastures near
streams. Newfoundland and Nova Scotia to Ontario; south to Florida;
west to Minnesota, Nebraska, Kansas and Texas.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — very common, often forming large forest
areas; in the other New England states, widely distributed, but seldom
occurring in large masses.

WOOD — Heavy, hard, strong, close-grained, tough and brown with
thick lighter colored sapwood; used in large quantity in the manufacture
of agricultural implements for the handles of tools, in carriage building,
for oars and furniture, and in the interior finish of buildings; the most
valuable of the American species as a timber tree.

Asir

424 TREES IN WINTER

RED ASH
Brown, or River Ash.

Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh.
F. pubescens Lam. ; F. Darlingtonii Britton.

HABIT— A medium to large-sized tree, 30-70 ft. in height with a
trunk diameter of 1-3 ft.; in general appearance resembling the White
Ash.

BARK — Similar to that of White Ash but with somewhat shallower
furrows.

TWIGS — More slender than those of White Ash, densely velvety-
downy in typical condition but often without down especially in the
Green Ash [Fraxinus pennsylvanica, var. lanceolata (Bork.) Sarg. ].

LEAF-SCARS — Semi-circular, upper margin rarely somewhat de-
pressed.

BUDS — Dark rusty brown, smaller and narrower than those of the
White Ash, about 2 pairs of scales visible to terminal bud.

FRUIT — Seed-bearing portion round in section, marginless below with
wing extending down its sides.

COMPARISONS — The Red Ash is not distinguished by most people
from the White Ash which it closely resembles. The downiness of its
twigs which is considered its chief specific character is not constant.
The shape of its leaf-scar, in general semi-circular with upper margin
not concave, is perhaps its best distinguishing character. Further its
terminal buds are narrower, showing fewer scales and the twigs are
more slender. The smooth-twigged Green Ash [Fraxinus pennsylvanica,
var. lanceolata (Bork.) Sarg.] is considered by the best authorities only
a variety of the Red. The Black Ash is best separated by its char-
acteristic scaly bark and generally black buds.

The European Ash [Fraxinus excelsior L.] is frequently cultivated. It
has a bark resembling that of the White Ash and has a pair of lateral
buds nearly on level with terminal buds; but its leaf-scars are semi-
circular and its buds jet black.

DISTRIBUTION — River banks, swampy lowlands, margins of streams
and ponds. New Brunswick to Manitoba; south to Florida and Alabama;
west to Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, and Missouri.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — infrequent; New Hampshire — occasional,
extending as far north as Boscawen in the Merrimac valley; Vermont —
common along Lake Champlain and its tributaries; occasional in other
sections; Connecticut — frequent; Massachusetts and Rhode Island —
sparingly scattered throughout.

WOOD — Heavy, hard, rather strong, brittle, coarse-grained, light
brown with thick, lighter brown sapwood streaked with yellow; some-
times confounded commercially with the more valuable wood of the
White Ash.

mm

I.KD ASH

426

TREES IN WINTER

BLACK ASH
Hoop, Swamp, Basket or Brown Ash.

Fraxinus nigra Marsh.
F. sambucifolia Lam.

HABIT — A tall tree 60-80 ft. In height with trunk diameter of 1-2 ft.,
larger further south; in swamps in company with other trees with tall
slender trunk of nearly uniform diameter to point of branching sup-
porting a narrow head; in the open, where it is seldom found, said to
have a habit similar to that of the White Ash.

BARK — Ash-gray, slightly tinged with buff, somewhat furrowed but
generally without deep ridges, forming thin scales smoothish on the
outside and edges, easily rubbed off and exposing a surface rather soft
to the touch suggesting somewhat the feel of asbestos or talcum powder;
trunk frequently with knobby excrescences.

TWIGS — Very stout, similar to those of White Ash but lighter gray
and not shiny.

LEAF-SCARS — Opposite, large, conspicuous, circular to semi-circular;
the upper margin not concave, often extending upward as a thin flap
partially hiding the bud; otherwise resembling the White Ash.

BUDS — Resembling those of White Ash but generally decidedly black
though occasionally rusty, terminal bud ovate, pointed, as long as or
longer than broad, more or less flattened at right angles to outer pair of
scales, last pair of lateral buds generally at some distance from the
end giving terminal bud a stalked appearance. BUD-SCALES — of
terminal bud broadly keeled and narrower than in White Ash, generally
only 1-2 pairs visible.

FRUIT — With broad wing, distinctly notched at apex, surrounding
the flattened seed-bearing portion.

COMPARISONS — The Black Ash is easily distinguished from the
White by its soft, scaly bark, the even or raised upper margin of its
leaf-scars, its narrower and generally black buds, and the stalked ap-
pearance of its terminal bud. When growing in the swamps beside the
White Ash its twigs can be seen to be much stouter and fewer than
those of the latter species.

DISTRIBUTION — Wet woods, river bottoms, and swamps. Anticosti
through Ontario; south to Delaware and Virginia; west to Arkansas and
Missouri.

IN NEW ENGLAND — Maine — common; New Hampshire — south of the
White Mountains; Vermont — common; Massachusetts — more common in
central and western sections; Connecticut — occasional; Rhode Island —
infrequent.

WOOD — Heavy, rather soft, not strong, tough, coarse-grained, durable,
easily separable into thin layers, dark brown with thin light brown
often nearly white sapwood; largely used for the interior finish of
houses and cabinet-making, and for fences, barrel hoops and in the
manufacture of baskets.

BLACK ASH

428 TREES IN WINTER.

HARDY CATALPA
Cigar Tree, Indian Bean, Western Catalpa.

Catalpa speciosa Warder.

HABIT— A tall tree reaching 100 ft. in height and 4 ft. in trunk
diameter in the Ohio basin, of smaller dimensions in New England,
with slender branches, forming a comparatively narrow round-topped
head.

BARK — Reddish to grayish brown, with longitudinal scaly ridges.

TWIGS — Stout, smooth or slightly short-downy, reddish to yellowish-
brown, the tips of twigs generally winter-killed. LENTICELS — con-
spicuous, rather large and numerous. PITH — white, wide, occasionally
chambered at the nodes.

LEAF-SCARS — Opposite or more frequently 3 at a node, large and
conspicuous, round to elliptical, with depressed center. STIPULE-SCARS
— absent. BUNDLE-SCARS — conspicuous, often raised, forming a closed
ring.

BUDS — Terminal bud absent, lateral buds small, semi-spherical, gener-
ally under 2 mm. high. BUD-SCALES — brown, loosely overlapping,
about 5 or 6 visible.

FRUIT — A long cylindrical capsule, 8-20 inches in length, with nu-
merous flattened, winged, white-hairy, fringed seeds, persistent on
the tree through winter. The photograph of the capsule is reduced to
about % natural size.

COMPARISONS — The 3 large circular leaf-scars at a node with com-
plete ring of bundle-scars render the Catalpa twig easily recognizable.
The long cigar-like fruits that hang on the tree supply a distinctive
habit character. A very closely related southern and less hardy species,
the Common Catalpa [Catalya bif/nonioides Walt.], was formerly more
planted than the Hardy Catalpa. It is a smaller tree with a rather
more spreading habit but is most readily distinguished from the western
species at the time of flowering.

DISTRIBUTION — Not native in New England but planted as an orna-
mental shade tree and for timber. It grows native along borders of
streams and ponds and rich often inundated bottom-land; southern
Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri south into Kentucky, Tennessee and
Arkansas.

WOOD — Light, soft, not strong, coarse-grained, very durable in contact
with the soil, light brown with thin nearly white sapwood of 1 or 2
layers of annual growth; largely used for railroad ties, fence posts
and rails and occasionally for furniture and the interior finish of
houses.

HARDY CATALPA

430 TREES IN WINTER.

GLOSSARY

Accessory buds. Buds at or near the nodes but not in the axil. Of two
kinds, collateral and superposed.

Acorn. The complete fruit of an Oak consisting of a nut partially enclosed
by an involucrate cup.

Adjacent. Situated in close proximity.

Alternate. Scattered along the stem ; said of leaves and scales in distinction
from opposite.

Apex. The top, as the tip of the bud.

Appressed. Lying close against the twig, as the buds of the Shad Bush
(p. 359).

Awn. A long hair-like point.

Aivl- shaped. Small and Capering to a slender point.

Axil. The angle formed at the upper side of the attachment of the leaf
to the stem.

Axillary. In an axil. An axillary bud is the first bud above the leaf or

leaf-scar.

Bark. The outer covering of the trunk or branch. Unless otherwise speci-
fied, the heading "Bark" in the descriptions refers to the bark of the
trunk.

Berry. A fruit fleshy throughout.

Bloom. The powdery waxy substance easily rubbed off, as the bloom on
the twigs of the Box Elder and cabbage.

Bract. A more or less modified leaf.
Branch. A secondary division of a trunk.
Branchlet. A small branch.

Bud. An undeveloped branch or fruit cluster with or without a protective
covering of scales.

Bud-scales. Reduced leaves covering a bud.

Bundle-scars. Scars of the fibro-vascular bundles which ran up through the
leaf-stalk and connected with the veins of the leaf, seen as dots in the
leaf-scar (fig1. 20).

Bur. A spiny fruit, as the bur of the Chestnut (p. 297).

Buttressed. Said of the trunk when enlarged at the base as frequently is
the case in the White Elm (p. 327).

Calyx. The outer portion of a flower consisting of a circle of modified
leaves usually green in color.

Capsule. A dry fruit which splits at maturity to let out the seeds.

Catkin. A unisexual, elongated, compact cluster of flowers with scaly
bracts visually falling away in one piece, as in the Alders (p. 293),
Birches (p. 281-291), etc.

Cell. One of the chambers of the ovary. One of the microscopic structural
elements out of which plant tissues are built up.

Chambered. Said of the pith when interrupted by hollow spaces, as in tht
Butternut (fig-. 101).

Clustered. Said of buds when several are produced near together as in the
Oaks (p. 317).

IDENTIFICATION OF TREES. 481

Collateral buds. Accessory buds at the side of the axillary bud as in the
Red Maple (fig-. 102).

Concave. Curved with the upper margin depressed.

Cone. A fruit such as of the Pines with woody closely overlapping scales.

Confluent. Said of bundle-scars, when the separate scars are so close to-
gether that they appear to form a single scar.

Conical. Cone-shaped, largest at the base and tapering to the apex.

Crown. The upper mass of branches.

Clip-shaped. Shaped like a cup ; deeper than saucer-shaped.

Deciduous. Falling away ; said of trees that drop their leaves before winter.

Decurrent. Said of ridges that run down from the leaf-scar.

Deliquescent. Said of a tree with broad spreading habit as the Apple

( p. >>•>••).

Dioecious. Said of plants such as the Willows and Poplars that have separ-
ate male and female individuals.

Divergent. Said of buds that point away from the twig as in the Carolina
Poplar (fig. 100).

Downy. Covered with fine hairs.

Drupe. A stone-fruit as in the Cherries with the seed enclosed in a stone
or pit which is surrounded by a fleshy portion.

Egg-shaped. Shaped like an egg with the broadest part below the middle.

Elliptical. Oblong with regularly rounded ends.

Entire. Margin without indentations.

Epidermis. The outermost layer of cells.

Escape. A plant originally cultivated but now growing like a wild plant.

Evergreen. With green leaves in winter, as the Pines and Holly.

Excurrent. Said of a tree of erect habit of growth, such as the Spruce
(p. 225) or Poplar (p. 261).

Fan-shaped. Shaped like an expanded fan.

Fibro-vascular bundles. The strands containing the elements for the trans-
portation of fluids through the plant. They ultimately connect with the
veins of the leaves.

Flaky (bark). With loose scales easily rubbed off.

Flower bud. A bud containing an undeveloped flower or flower cluster.

Fluted. With rounded ridges.

Follicle. A pod which opens along one side only.

Fruit. The part of a plant containing the seeds.

Gland. A small protuberance, as on the leaves of the Arbor Vltae (p. 243).

Glandular. Provided with glands.

Habit. The general appearance of the tree as seen at a distance.

Habitat. The place where the tree naturally grows, such as swamps, sandy
plains, etc.

Hairy. With long hairs.

Head. The upper portion of a tree.

432 TREES IN WINTER.

Heartwood. The dead central portion of the trunk.
Hoary. Grayish-white with a fine close down.
Hybrid. A cross between two species or varieties.
Internode. The portion of the stem between two nodes.
Inversely triangular. Inverted triangular with the apex below.
Involucre. The bracts surrounding the flower cluster.

Juvenile. Youthful, said of the leaves formed in the early stages of devel-
opment.

Keeled. With a central ridge like the keel of a boat.
Key. A winged fruit.

Lanceolate. Lance-shaped ; similar to ovate but narrower with outline
tapering gradually to the apex.

Lateral bud. A bud produced on the side of a twig.
Leaf bud. A bud containing undeveloped leaves but not flowers.
Leaf-scar. The scar left by the fall of the leaf (fig. 20).
Leaf-stalk. The stem of a leaf.

Lenticels. Corky spots on the surface which admit air to the interior of the
twig.

Limbs. The larger branches.

Linear. Long and narrow, several times as long as broad with parallel
edges, as the leaves of the Pines.

Lobed. With rounded indentations running Vz to % the way from the margin
inward.

Longitudinal. Lengthwise.

Medullary rays. Rays of tissue extending from the pith toward the bark,
best seen in cross section.

Midrib. The central vein of a leaf.
Mucilaginous. Slimy when chewed.

*

Naked bud. A bud without bud-scales.
Needle. A narrow leaf as in the Pines.

Node. The place on the twig at which one or more leaves were produced
(fig. 20).

Nut. A large hard fruit as in Hickory, Oak and Chestnut.

Nutlet. A small nut.

Oblanceolate. Inverted lanceolate.

Oblong. Two or three times longer than broad with about uniform diameter.

Obovate. Inverted ovate.

Opposite (leaves and leaf-scars). With two leaves or leaf-scars oppose:!
at a node.

Oval. Broadly elliptical.

Ovary. The part of the pistil producing the seeds.

Ovate. Egg-shaped, with the broadest part below the middle.

Persistent. Remaining on the tree.

IDENTIFICATION OF TREES. 433

Peripheral. Situated near the margin.

Pistil. The seed-bearing portion of the flower.

I'ith. The softer central portion of a twig.

Pod. A dry fruit which splits open at maturity.

Pome. A fruit like the Apple or Pear.

Pungent. Sharp to the taste.

Pyramidal. Shaped like a pyramid with broadest portion at the base.

Raceme. A simple cluster of stalked flowers arranged along an elongated
axis.

Resin-duct. A tube for the conduction of resin seen in the leaves of the
Pines.

Sapwood. The young living wood outside the heartwood.
Saucer-shaped. Shaped like a saucer, shallower than cup-shaped.

Scale. A small modified leaf seen in buds and cones. One of the flakes
into which the outer bark often divides.

Scarious. Thin, dry and membranaceous, not green.
Scurfy. Covered with small bran-like scales.
Sepal. One of the divisions of the calyx.
Sessile. Without a stalk.

Shrub. A low woody growth, smaller than a tree and generally branching
near the base.

Smooth. Not rough nor hairy.

Spray. The aggregate of smaller branches and branchlets.

Spine. A sharp rigid outgrowth from the stem.

Spur. A short, slowly-grown branchlet.

Stamens. The pollen-bearing portions of a flower.

Staminate. Having stamens ; said of trees bearing only male flowers.

Sterile. Not producing seed.

Stipular. Similar in form or position to stipules.

Stipules. Two small leaf-like bodies located at the base of the leaf-stalk
in some species.

Stipule-scar. The scar left by the fall of a stipule (fig. 100).

Stomata. Breathing pores in leaves.

Stone-fruit. A fruit like that of the Cherry. The same as drupe.

Strengthening cells. Thick walled cells present in the leaves of some of vhe
Pines.

Striate. Longitudinally streaked.
Submerged. Covered, as by the bark.
Sucker. A shoot arising from below ground.

Superposed buds. Accessory buds above the axillary bud, as in the Butter-
nut (fig. 101).

Surface-sectioned, Cut parallel to and near the surface.

434 TREES IN WINTER.

Teeth. Small projections along the margin,
Terminal bud. The bud formed at the tip of a twig.
Thorn. A stiff woody sharp-pointed projection.
Top-shaped. Shaped like a top with the broadest part above.

Tree. A woody plant, larger than a shrub, from which it cannot always be
distinguished. Usually defined as a woody growth, unbranched near the
base and reaching a height of at least fifteen feet.

Triangular. Shaped like a triangle with the base below.
Trunk. The main stem of a tree.

Twig. A young shoot. Unless otherwise specified, used in the descriptions
to denote the growth of the past season only.

Type. A term used to designate the characteristic form of a species in
distinction from its varieties.

Valvate. Said of buds in which the scales meet without overlapping.
Whorl. A cluster of three or more leaves or leaf-scars at a single node.
(Ving. A thin flat appendage.
Woolly. Covered with tangled or matted hairs resembling wooL

TREES IN WINTER

435

INDEX

Where the species receives its most extended description, the
page number appears in boldface type. Where the species is other-
wise mentioned, the page number is printed in ordinary type.
Synonyms of both common and scientific names are printed in
italics and their page numbers in ordinary type.

Abele 252

Abies balsamea 236

Acacia 388

Three-thorned 382

Acer 208

barbatum 402

dasycarpitm 404

Key to Species 208

Negundo 412

pennsylvanicum 398

platanoides 4O8

Pseudo-Platanus 410

rubrum 406

saccharinum 402

saccharinum 404

saccharum 402

var. nigrum 402

spicatum 400

Aesculus :

glabra 414

Hippocastanum 414

octandra 414

Ailanthus

46, 53, 79, 80, 81. 96, 153, 380, 390
glandulosa 390

Alder 292, 344

European Black 292

Hoary 292

Smooth 292

Speckled 292

Alligator-wood 346

Alnus :

incana 292

rugosa 292

vulgaris 292

Alternate-leaved Dogwood . . . .418

Amelanchier canadensis 358

American :

Aspen 254

Beech 294

Elm 89, 96, 172, 326

Holly 39C

Hornbeam 100, 1S6, 191, 276, 278

Larch 222

Mountain Ash M.-.4

Plum 372, 374

var. Gold 374

Amygdalus Persica 378

Aphis 166

Apple 20, 53, 55, 58.

93, 135, 136, 157, 163, 170, 184.
187, 332, 334. 350, 352, 356, 414

Apple, Thorn 360

Arbor Vitae 54, 242

Art:

Tree study in relation to .... 13

Ash 13, 33, 43, 45, 47, 48,

49, 51, 132, 190, 192, 193, 209, 422

American Mountain 354

Basket 426

Black 188, 422, 424, 426

Brown 424, 426

European 13, 424

European Mountain 354

Green 424

Hoop 330, 426

Key to Species 209

Mountain 46. 53, 170, 354

Prickly 388

Red 424

River 424

Swamp 426

Western Mountain 354

White 66. 79, 81, 110, 186, 188, 192
193, 272, 340, 408, 422, 424, 426

Ash-leaved Maple 412

Aspen 254

American 254

Large-toothed 252, 254, 256

Quaking 254

Small-toothed

190, 252. 254, 256, 258

Austrian Pine 218

Back-yard planting 93

Baer Worm 155

Bald Cypress 133

Balm of Gilead 258

Fir 236

Balsam 236, 258

Fir 101, 234, 236, 238

Poplar 100, 254, 256, 258

Banding 151

Bark 185

Bark-beetles 15*

Basket Ash 426

Basswood 47, 110, 153, 416

Bay:

Swamp 207

Sweet 207, 336, 338

436

TREES IN WINTER

Bean, Indian 428

Bear Oak 308, 320

Beaver Tree 207

Beech 36, 41

48, 186, 278, 294, 358, 386, 406

American 294

jjiae 278

European 294

Water 278

Beetree 416

Betula 203

alba 290

var. papyrifera 288

Key to Species 203

lenta 280

lutea 282

nigra 284

papyrifera 288

populifolia 280

Biff Bud Hickory 270

Big Tree 133

Bilsted .346

Birch 33, 36, 46, 47

48, 50, 72, 134, 186, 187, 203
Black 184, 186, 187, 280, 282, 284

Canoe 288

Cherry 280

European Paper 290

European White 29O

Gray 282

Gray 72, 92, 280, 288

Key to Species 203

Old Field 286

Paper 186, 282, 286, 288. 290'

Poplar .286

Poverty 286

Red 282, 284

River 50, 284

Silver 282

Small White 286

Sweet 280

White 72, 92, 286, 288

Yellow 186, 280, 282, 284, 288

Bird Cherry 366

Bird's Eye Maple 402

Bitternut 264, 266, 274

Black :

Ash 188, 422, 424, 426

Birch 184, 186, 187, 280, 282, 284

Cherry 362

Gum 183, 420

Knot 364

Larch 222

Locust 388

Maple 402

Oak 186, 312, 316, 318

Oak Group 186, 191, 204, 318

Pine 218

Scrub Oak ,320

Spruce 101, 166

216. 222, 224. 226. 228, 236, 242

Black (Continued)

Walnut 49, 51, 264, 266, 390

Willow 250

Black-spot disease 147

Block of Oak wood 42, 43

Blue:

Beech 278

Oak 304

Spruce 166, 224, 226, 230

Bog Spruce 228

Bolting 143

Borer 80, 150, 151, 170, 176

Maple 150, 170

Maple Leaf-stem 162

Box Elder ..48, 80, 157, 406, 412

Box White Oak 300

Boxwood 418

Bridge grafting- 138

Bristly Locust 388

'Broom Hickory 272

Brown Ash 424, 426

Brown-tail Moth 151, 154, 155, 156

Buckeye :

Fetid 414

Ohio 414

Sweet 414

Budding 58

Buds 189

Bud-scales 41

Bur Oak 33, 302. 346

Bush Maple 398, 418

Butternut 7, 48, 49, 51

187, 189, 190, 2(64, 266, 274, 390

Buttonball 348

Buttonwood 348

Cabinet Cherry 362

Caliper 21

Canada Plum 372, 374

Canker Worm 152, 157

Fall 157

Spring 157

Canoe Birch 288

Care of

Seedlings 51

Trees 31, 114

Carolina Poplar

9, 41, 46, 79, 80, 96, 153, 188

189, 190, 193, 254, 256, 260, 262

Carpinus caroliniana 278

Carya 203

alba 268

alba 270

amara 274

cordiformis 274

glabra 272

Key to Species 203

microcarpa 272

ovata 268

porcina 272

tomentosa 270

TREES IN WINTER

437

Castanea :

dentata 296

sativa, var. americana 296

Vesca 133

var. americana 296

Cat Spruce 224

Catalpa 7, 9

45, 46, 47, 48, 51, 81, 110, 428

bignonioides 428

Common 428

Hardy 79, 80, 428

speciosa 428

Western 428

Cavities:

Filling of 139

Cedar 46, 52, 240, 242, 246

Coast White ..191, 240, 242, 246

Red 240, 244, 246

White 240, 242

Celtis occidentalis 330

Cercis canadensis 384

Chaining 143

Chamaecyparis :

sphaeroidea 240

thyoides 240

Cherry 46

49, 53, 55, 93, 186, 187, 207, 280

Amarelles 370

Birch 280

Bird 366

Black 362

Black Tartarian 368

Cabinet 362

Choke 362, 364, 370

Early Richmond 370

European Bird 368

Fire 366

Key to Species 207

Louis Philippe 370

May Duke 368

Mazzard 368

Montmorency 370

Morello 370

Napoleon 368

Pie 370

Pin 366

Pigeon 366

Rum 362

Sour 184, 362, 364, 368, 370

Sweet 69, 184, 362, 364, 368, 370
Wild Black . . .362, 364, 366, 370

Wild Red 364, 366, 370

Windsor 368

Chestnut 9, 37

41, 48, 66, 69, 81, 133, 147, 148
149, 157, 186, 188, 193, 296, 306
Bark disease ...69, 147, 148, 149

Oak 306

Oak 79, 93, 306, 308, 310, 312

Chinese :

Magnolia 336, 338

Sumach 390

Chinquapin Oak ..9, 298, 306, 308

Chinquapin Oak 308

Choke Cherry 362, 364, 370

Cigar Tree 428

City Homes :

Suggestions for 89

Types of 89

Cladrastis lutea 386

Clammy Locust 388

Coast White Cedar

191, 340, 242, 246

Cockspur Thorn 360

Coffee :

Bean 380

Nut 380

Coffee Tree, Kentucky

48, 79, 99, 187, 38O, 390

Collecting seeds 47

Collections :

Of trees 24

Students' 28

Colleges, tree study in 25

Colorado Blue Spruce 230

Combatting insects, method of 150
Common :

Catalpa 428

Juniper 244, 246

Locust 48, 79, 81, 190, 382, 388

Comparisons 191

Conservation of scenery 61

Control of Parasites 146

Cork Elm ...99, 322, 326, 328, 346

Cornel, Flowering 418

Cornus :

alternifolia 418

florida 418

Cottomvood 260

Cottony Maple-scale 167, 168, 169
Country Roads :

Location of 64

Problem of 64

Crataegus 360

Crus-galli 360

pruinosa 360

Cucumber Tree 81, 336, 338

Large-leaved 207

Cultivated Plums 374

Cultivation 115

Cupressus thyoides 240

Curly Maple 402

Cuttings, propagation by 53

Cydonia vulgaris 356

Deerwood 276

Dehorning trees 134

Dimerosporium Collinsii 358

Distribution .19]

438

TREES IN WINTER

Dogwood 46, 418

Alternate-leaved 418

Flowering 418

Poison 394

Double Spruce 228

Douglas :

Fir 133, 234, 236

Spruce 234

Downy Poplar 202

Dracaena Draco 133

Dragon Tree 133

Dwarf :

Chinquapin Oak 298, 306, 308, 320

Juniper 244

Pear 55

Sumach 392

Ecology of Tree 19

Elder:

Box 48, 80, 157, 412

Poison 394

Elkwood 338

Elm 17, 34, 35, 46, 48

50, 51, 53, 69, 110, 125, 134, 143
145, 153, 155, 157, 158, 162, 163,
171, 179, 188, 206, 304, 330, 416

American 80, 96, 172, 326

Cork 99, 322, 326, 328, 346

English 184, 324, 326, 328

False 330

Hickory 328

Key to Species 206

Moose 322

Northern Cork 328

Red 322

Rock 328

Scale 168

Slippery 322, 326, 328

Water 326

White 66, 78, 80, 81

96, 172, 184, 322, 324, 326, 328
Winged 328

Elm-leaf Beetle

151, 154, 158, 159, 163

English :

Elm 184. 324, 326, 328

Oak 133

Eucalyptus 133

European :

Ash 13, 424

Beech 294

Bird Cherry 368

Black Alder 202

Holly 396

Larch 222

Linden 80, 416

Mountain Ash 354

Paper Birch 290

Plum 374

var. Lombard ..374

European (Continued)

Weeping Willow 250

White Birch 290

White Willow 250

Evergreens 36, 41, 47, 48, 49, 72, 88
92, 103, 132, 155, 163, 184, 195
Fagus :

americana 294

atropunicea 294

ferruginia 294

grandifolia 294

sylvatica 294

Fall:

Canker Worm 157

Web Worm 151, 163

False Elm 330

Fertilizers for Trees 115

Fetid Buckeye 414

Field Work 26

Filling Cavities 139

Fir 54, 99, 236

Balm of Gilead 236

Balsam 101, 234, 236, 238

Douglas 133, 234, 236

Red 234

Scotch 220

White 98

Fire Cherry 366

Flowering :

Cornel 418

Dogwood 418

Forest :

Nursery 47

Tent-caterpillar 163

Fraxinus 209

americana 193, 422

Darlingtonii 424

excelsior 424

Key to Species 209

nigra 426

pennsylvanica 424

var. lanceolata 424

pubescens 424

sambucifolia 426

Fruit 190

Trees, varieties for home plant-
ing 101

Fungicides 174, 176

Fungus troubles 146

Ginkgo 79, 80, 103, 153, 248

biloba 248

Gleditsia triacanthus 382

Golden Osier 250

Gopher Wood 386

Graded Schools, tree study in . . 29

Grafting 55, 56

Bridge 138

Cleft 56

Whip 58

TREES IN WINTER

439

Gray:

Birch 72, 92, 286, 288

Birch 282

Pine 214

Green Ash 424

Grills 112

Growth of Tree 31

Grubs 150

Guarding young trees 110

Guards 112

Gum :

Black 183, 420

Red 346

Sour 183, 420

Sweet 79, 80, 153, 34«

Gymnocladus :

canadensis 380

dioica 380

Gypsy Moth

151, 154, 158, 160, 161, 166

Habit of Tree 183

Hackberry

46, 79, SO, 81, 153, 187, 33O

Hackmatack 222

Hamamelis virginiana 344

Hard :

Maple 402

Pine 212

Hardy Catalpa 79, 80, 428

Haw 360

Hawthorn 46, 49, 53, 170, 360, 382

Hazel, Witch 344

Heeling in 102

Height measurer 22, 23, 24

Hemlock 36, 72, 236, 238

Spruce 238

Hickoria :

alba 270

glabrn 272

minima 274

ovata 268

Hickory 33, 46

48, 49, 51, 66, 110, 157, 203, 328

Big Bud 270

Broom 272

Elm 328

Key to Species 203

Pignut 272

Shag-bark 186, 268, 270, 272

Shell-bark 268

Small-fruited 272

Swamp 274

White-heart 270

High Schools, Tree Study in . . 25

Hoary Alder 292

Holly 36,' 46, 396

American 396

European 306

White ..396

Home, location and adaptation 70

Honey Locust

9, 48, 79, 81, 173, 360, 382, 388

Shucks 382

Hoop Ash 330, 426

Hop Hornbeam ..46, 191, 276, 278

Hornbeam 278

American 100, 186, 191, 276, 278

Hop 46, 191, 276. 278

Seedling of 33

Horse Plum 372

Horse-chestnut ..38, 39, 41, 45, 79
80, 81, 96, 110, 153, 187, 188, 414

Hypsometer 21, 22

Identification of Trees ....11, 183
Ilex :

Aquifolium 396

Opaca 396

Imported Elm-tree Borer 171

Indian Bean 428

Injuries, care of 136

Caused by gas and smoke ..124
Common to shade trees ....124

from careless driving 129

from horse bites 129

from improper pruning ....128
from improper soil conditions 132

from overhead wires 125

from regrading street 127

from wind and ice 132

Sources of 124

Insects :

Combatting, method of 150

Control, preventive measures

for 153

Enemies of 154

Handpicking of 151

Leaf-eating 155, 177

Shade tree 154

Spraying for 151

Sucking 166, 178

Trapping 151

Troubles 149

Insecticides 174, 177

Contact 175

Iron Oak 300

Ironwood 276, 278

Ivy, Poison 394

Jack Pine 191, 214

Japanese Plum 374

var. Red June 374

Judas Tree 384

Juglans :

cinerea 264

nigra 266

Juneberry 358

Juniper 46, 54, 222

Common 244, 246

Dwarf 244

Red ..246

440

TREES IN WINTER

Juniperus :

communis 244

var. alpina 244

var. canadensis 244

var. depressa 244

nana 244

virginiana 246

Kentucky Coffee Tree

48, 79, 99, 187, 380, 390

Key, use of 192

to Genera and Species 195

Labrador Spruce 224

Lance wood 358

Landscape Picture 74

Larch 38, 48, 162, 201, 248

American 222

Black 222

European 222

Key to Species 201

Large-leaved :

Magnolia 2O7, 336, 338

Cucumber Tree 207

Umbrella Tree 207

Large-toothed Aspen 252, 254, 256

Larix 201

americana 222

decidua 222

europaea 222

Key to Species 201

laricini 222

Laurel Magnolia 207

Leaf Beetle 69, 80, 163

Leaf, Function of 35

Leaf-eating Insects 155, 177

Leaf -scars 187

Leopard Moth

153, 154, 171, 172, 173

Leverwood 276

Life of Tree 31

Lime 13, 416

Linden 66, 79, 80, 81, 296, 416

European 80, 416

Liquidambar 346

Styraciflua 346

Liriodendron Tulipifera 340

Location of the Home 70

Locust 45, 49, 51, 80, 153, 171, 388

Black 388

Bristly 388

Clammy 388

Common 48, 79, 81, 190, 382, 388

Honey

9, 48, 79, 81, 173, 360, 382, 388

Sweet 382

White 388

Yellow 388

Lombardy Poplar

...45, 79, 193, 254, 256, 260, 262
Maclura pomifera 360

Magnolia 38, 45, 107, 110, 2O7, 340

acuminata 336

Chinese 336,, 338

conspicua 336

glauca 207

Key to Species 207

Laurel 207

Large-leaved 207, 336, 338

macrophylla 207

Mountain 336

tripetala 338

Umbrella 338

virginiana 207

Mahogany 380

Maidenhair Tree 248

Mains Mains 352

Maple 27, 33, 46, 48, 66, 110

147, 153, 155, 158, 169, 171, 208

Ash-leaved 412

Bird's Eye 402

Black 402

borer 150, 170

Bush 398, 418

Curly 402

Hard 402

Key to Species 208

Leaf-stem Borer 162

Mountain 398, 400, 406, 418

Norway

78, 80, 93, 162, 406, 408, 410

Red 27, 50, 78, 80, 81

93, 189, 190, 191, 402, 404, 406

River 404

Rock 402

Silver 50, 78, 80, 81, 96

132, 143, 145, 191, 402, 404, 406

Soft 51, 404, 406

Striped 398, 400, 406, 418

Sugar 14, 15

16, 17, 27, 36, 48, 50, 78, 81, 122
125, 147, ]62, 392, 402, 406, 410

Swamp 406

Sycamore

78, 80, 81, 162, 406, 408, 410

White 404, 406

Mazzard Cherry 368

Measurement of Tree 20

Mockernut 268, 270, 272

Moose Elm 322

Moosewood 398

Morello Cherry 370

Morus 206

alba 334

Key to Species 206

rubra 332

Mossy-cup Oak 302

Mountain :

Ash 46, 53, 170, 354

Magnolia 336

Maole 398, 400, 406, 418

TREES IN WINTER

441

Mourning Cloak Butterfly ....162

Moving Large Trees 108

Mulberry

46, 47, 49, 188, 189, 191, 2O6, 334

Key to Species 206

Red 9, 332, 334

Silkworm 334

White 332, 334

Municipal Control of Shade Trees. .

81

Name of Tree 183

Necklace Poplar 260

Negundo :

aceroides 412

Negundo 412

Nettle Tree 330

Nicker Tree 380

Northern Cork Elm 328

Northern Scrub Pine 214

Norway :

Maple

..78, 80, 93, 162, 406, 408, 410

Pine 216

Spruce 166, 226, 232

Nursery, Forest 47

Nyssa :

multiflora 420

sylvatica 420

Oak 36, 43, 48, 51

66, 110, 134, 153, 155, 161, 173
186, 187, 191, 193, 204, 294, 296

Bear 308, 320

Black 186, 312, 316, 318

Black Scrub 320

Blue 304

Box White 300

Bur 33, 302, 346

Chestnut 306

Chestnut 79, 93, 306, 308, 310, 312

Chinquapin 308

Chinquapin ....9, 298, 306, 308
Dwarf Chinquapin

298, 306, 308, 320

English 133

Iron 300

Key to Species 204

Mossy-cup 302

Over-cup 302

Pin ..79, 80, 81, 93, 103, 110, 314

Post 36, 298, 300

Red 79, 80

81, 146, 296, 310, 312, 316, 318

Rock 310

Rock Chestnut 310

Scarlet

78, 80, 81, 312, 314, 316, 318

Scrub 308

Scrub Chestnut 308

Swamp 314

Oak (Continued)

Swamp White

9, 184, 298, 304, 308

White 33, 48, 78,

81, 122, 186, 208, 300, 302, 304

Wood Block 42, 43

Yellow 306, 318

Yellow-barked 318

Ohio Buckeye 414

Oilnut 264

Old-field Birch 286

Oriental Sycamore 133, 348

Osage Orange 360

Osier :

Golden 250

Ostrya virginiana 276

Over-cup Oak 302

Oyster-shell Scale 167, 168

Padus :

serotina 362

virginiana 364

Paper Birch 186, 282, 286, 288, 290

Parasites, control of 146

Parking strips 78

Parks 87

Artificial style 89

Natural type 87

Peach 55, 170, 177, 207, 378

Pear 53, 55, 58, 93, 157, 162

170, 184, 187, 188, 336, 350, 352

Dwarf 55

Standard 55

Pepperidge 183, 420

Permanent planting 79

Photography 18

Picea 201

Abies 232

alba 224

brevifolia 228

canadensis 224

excelsa 232

Key to Species 201

mariana 228

var. semiprostrata 228

menziessii 230

nigra 228

var. rubra 226

Parryana 230

pungens 230

rubens 226

rubra 226

Pie Cherry 370

Pigeon Cherry 366

Pignut 268, 2.72

Hickory '21 '2

Pin Cherry 366

Oak 79, 80, 81, 93, 103, 110, 314

Pine 72, 191, 201, 248

Austrian 216, 218

Black . .218

442

TREES IN WINTER

Pine (Continued)

Gray 214

Hard 212

Jack 191, 214

Key to Species 201

Northern Scrub 214

Norway 216

Pitch 210, 212, 216

Red 210, 212, 216, 218

Scotch 214, 220

Soft 210

Spruce 214

Weymouth 210

White 36, 45, 48, 66, 67,

74, 134, 210, 212, 216, 220, 236

Yellow 212

Pinus 201

Banksiana 214

divaricata 214

Key to Species 201

Laricio, var. austriaca ..>... 218

resinosa 216

riglda 212

Strobus 210

sylvestris 220

Pitch Pine 210, 212, 216

Plane Tree 348

Planting of Trees 31, 102, 105

Back yard 93

Board 107, 108

Conservaton of scenery .... 61

Filling in 107

For winter effect 72

In cities 75

In rural districts 61

In towns 75

Making the hole 107

Park system 62

Permanent 79

Plan 72, 90, 94

Roadside 68

Seeds 50

Street trees 105

Suggestions for city home ... 89

Temporary 79

Time of 106

Plant Lice 150, 166, 175

Platanus :

occidentalis 348

orientalis 348

Plowrightia morbosa 364

Plum 49, 53, 55, 170, 207, 364

American 372, 374

var. Gold 374

Canada 372, 374

Cultivated 374

European 374

var. Lombard 374

Horse , ..372

PlumContin ued )

Japanese 374

var. Red June 374

Key to Species 207

Red 372

Wild 372

Poetry, tree study in relation to 13

Poison :

Dogwood 394

Elder 394

Ivy 394

Sumach 186, 392, 394

Poplar 36, 41, 45, 47, 48, 50, 53

103, 110, 122, 132, 134, 162, 171
184, 187, 188, 191, 202, 254, 256

Balsam 100, 254, 256, 258

Birch 286

Carolina

9, 41, 46, 79, 80, 96, 153, 188

189, 190, 193, 254, 256, 260, 262

Downy Poplar 202

Key to Species 202

Lombardy

45, 79, 193, 254, 256, 260. 262

Necklace 260

Silver 252, 254, 256

Silver-leaf 252

White ?c,2

Yellow 340

Popple 254, 256

Populus 202

alba 2f>2

balsamifera 258

canadensis 260

candicans 258

deltoides 260

dilatata 262

fastigiata 262

grandidentata 256

heterophylla 202

Key to Species 202

monilifera 260

nigra, var. italica 262

pyramidalis 262

tremuloides 254

Post Oak 36, 298, 300

Poverty Birch 286

Propagation 46

by budding 58

by cuttings 53

by graftage 55, 56

from seeds 46

nature's way 46

Pruning :

Before planting 103

Shade trees 116

Time of 118

Tools 121

Prunus 186, 207, 372

americana 374

TREES IN WINTER

443

Prunus (Continued)

rrtr. nigra 372

avium 368

Cerasus 370

domestica 374

Key to Species 207

nigra 372

pennsylvanica 366

Persica 378

serotina 36U

triflora 374

virginiana 364

Pseudotsuga :

Douglasii 234

mucronata 234

taxifolia 234

Public Squares 87

Artificial Style 89

Puddling 102

Pyrus :

americana 354

Aucuparia 354

communis 350

cydonia 356

Malus 352

sitchensis 354

Quaking Aspen 254

Quercitron 318

Quercus 204

acuminata 306

alba 208

bicolor 304

coccinea 316

var. tinctoria 318

ilicifolia 320

Key to Species 204

macrocarpa 302

minor 300

Muhlenbergii 306

nana 320

obtusiloba 300

palustris 314

pedunculata 133

platanoides 304

prinoides 308

var. rufescens 308

Prinus 310

pumila 320

rubra 312

stellata 300

tinctoria 318

velutina 318

Quince 55, 356

Red:

Ash 424

Birch 282, 284

Cedar 240, 244, 246

Elm 322

Fir 234

Gum 346

Juniper 246

Red (Continued)

Maple 27, 50, 78, 80, 81

93, 189, 190, 191, 402, 404, 406

Mulberry 9, 332, 334

Oak 79, 80

81, 146, 296, 310, 312, 316, 318

Pine 210, 212, 216, 218

Plum 372

Spruce 224, 226, 228, 236

Redbud 384

Redwood 133

Renovation of trees 133

Reproduction 45

Rhus 208

copallina 302

glabra 302

hirta 392

Key to Species 208

Toxicodendron 304

typhina 302

venenata 394

Vernix 304

River :

Ash 424

Birch 50, 284

Maple 404

Robinia :

hispida 388

Pseudo- Acacia 388

viscosa 388

Rock:

Chestnut Oak 310

Elm 328

Maple 402

Oak 310

Root 33

Rowan Tree 354

Rum Cherry 362

Salisburia adiantifolia 248

Salix :

alba 250

var. vitellina 250

babylonica 250

nigra 250

vitellina 250

San Jose Scale

150, 154, 167, 168, 170

Sassafras 9, 46, 186, 342

officinale 342

Sassafras 342

variifolium 342

Savin 246

Saw-flies 162

Scale insects 150, 167, 168, 176, 177

Scarlet Oak

78, 80, 81, 312. 314, 316, 318

Scenery, conservation of 61

Scotch :

Fir 220

Pine 214, 220

444

TREES IN WINTER

Scrub :

Oak 308

Chestnut Oak 308

Scurfy scale 167

Seed:

Collecting 47

Planting 50

Propagation from 46

Storing 48

Testing 49

Vitality of 49

Seedlings, care of 51

Sequoia gigantea 133

Service :

Berry 358

Tree 354

Setting the tree 106

Shad Bush 46, 358

Shadbloiv 358

Shade Tree:

Insects 154

Municipal control of 81

Shag-Bark Hickory

186, 268, 270, 272

Shell-bark Hickory 268

Shrubs 71

Sign-boards 63

Silkworm Mulberry 334

Silver:

Birch 282

Maple 50, 78, 80, 81, 96,

132, 143, 145, 191, 402, 404, 406

Poplar 252, 254, 256

Spruce 230

Silver-leaf Poplar 252

Skunk Spruce 224

Slippery Elm 322, 326, 328

Slugs 162

Small White Birch 286

Small-fruited Hickory 272

Small-toothed Aspen

190, 252, 254, 256, 258

Smooth :

Alder 202

Sumach 390, 302

Soft:

Maple 51, 404, 406

Pine 210

Soil:

Improving condition of 114

Injuries from improper condi-
tions 132

Need of humus in 114

Sorbus americana 354

Sour:

Cherry ..184, 362, 364, 368, 370

Gum 183, 420

Speckled Alder 202

Spiney Elm Caterpillar 162

Spraying 174, 177

for insects 151

machinery 178

Spring Canker Worm 157

Spruce

33, 54, 72, 2,01, 214, 236, 238, 248

Black 101, 166

216, 222, 224, 226, 228, 236, 242

Blue 166, 224, 226, 230

Bog 228

Cat 224

Colorado Blue 230

Double 228

Douglas 234

Gall Louse 166, 167

Hemlock .238

Key to Species 201

Labrador 224

Norway 166, 226, 232

Pine 214

Hed 224, 226, 228, 236

Silver 230

Skunk 224

Swamp 228

Water 228

White 166, 224, 226

Staghorn Sumach 390, 392

Stakes 110

Staking the ground for trees ..106

young trees 110

Standard Pear 55

Stem of Tree 38

Stomach poisons 174

Storing seeds 48

Street planting suggestions .... 76
Striped Maple . .308, 400, 406, 418

Structure of tree 31

Study of tree 11

Suburban lot 92

Sucking-insects 166, 178

Sugar :

Berry 330

Maple' 14, 15

16, 17. 27, 36, 48, 50, 78, 81, 122
125, 147, 162, 392, 402, 406, 410

Sumach 208, 392, 394

Chinese 390

Dwarf 302

Key to Species 208

Poison 186, 392394

Smooth 390, 392

Staghorn 390, 392

Swamp 394

Surgery, Tree 134, 140

Swamp :

Ash 426

Bay 207

Hickory 274

Maple 406

TREES IN WINTER

445

Swamp (Continued)

Oak 314

Spruce 228

Sumach 394

White Oak 9, 184, 298, 304, 308
Sweet :

Bay 207, 336, 338

Birch 280

Buckeye 414

Cherry

69, 184, 362, 364, 368, 370

Gum 79, 80, 153, 346

Locust 382

,'iycamore . .46, 47, 48, 66, 78, 80, 81
133, 134, 153, 173, 186, 188, 348

Maple

78, 80, 81, 162, 406, 408, 410

Oriental 133, 348

Tacamahac 258

Tamarack 222

Tar-spot disease 147

Taxodium mucronatum 133

Temporary planting 79

Tent-caterpillar 151, 163, 164

Forest 163

Thorn 360

Apple 360

Cockspur 360

Tree 382

White 360

Three-thorned Acacia 382

Thuja occidentalis 242

Tilia:

americana 416

Michauxii 416

vulgaris 416

Toothache Tree 388

Transplanting 52

Trapping insects 151

Tree of Heaven 390

Trees :

Adaptation to home 70

Age limit 133

Around the home 70

Arrangement on street 77

Avenue 100

Bark of 185

Care of 31, 114

Collections 24

Columnar 99

Comparisons 191

Cultivation for 115

Dehorning 134

Distance between 78

Distribution of 191

Ecology of 19

Fertilizers for 115

For calcareous soils 101

For dry conditions 100

For limestone soils 101

Trees (Continued)

For seaside planting 100

For special purposes 96

For wet soils 101

Fruit 190

Function of 71

Growth of 31

Guarding young 110

Habit of 183

Heeling in 102

Identification 11, 183

In home decoration 71

Leaf-scars 187

Life of 31

Measurement of 20

Moring of 108

Names of 183

Of rapid growth 80

Ordering of 102

Parts, description of 31

Photography 18

Planting of 31, 102, lOi

In cities 75

In rural districts 61

In towns 75

Making the holes for 107

Parking strips 78

Puddling 102

Pyramidal 99

Renovation of 133

Reproduction of 45

Resistant to smoke 100

Setting of 106

Shade 100

Species for city streets .... 80

Stem of 38

Structure of 31

Study 11

Study in colleges 26

Study in graded schools .... 29

Study in high schools 25

Study in relation to art .... 13
Study in relation to poetry 13

Surgery 134, 140

Tall 99

Twigs 187

Valued for winter effect 98

Weeping 99

With brilliant autumnal tints 98

With showy flowers 9*

With showy fruits 97

With striking colored foliage 98
Wood of 191

Tsuga canadensis 238

Tulip Tree 27, 45

66, 79, 81, 110, 133, 153. 338, 340

Scale 167, 168, 169

Tupelo 183, 184, 187, 420

Tussock Moth . 151, 163

446

TREES IN WINTER

Twigs of Tree 187

Ulmus 206

alata 328

americana 326

campestris 324

fulva 322

glabra 324

Key to Species 206

pubescens 322

racemosa 328

Thomasi 328

Umbrella Tree 336, 338

Large-leaved 207

Viburnum 398

Virgilia 386

Vitality of seeds 49

Walnut 48, 268

Black 49, 51, 264, 266, 390

White 264

Water :

Beech 278

Elm 326

Oak 314

Spruce 228

Western :

Catalpa 428

Mountain Ash 354

Weymouth Pine 210

Whistlewood 398

White:

Ash 66, 79, 81, 110, 186, 188 192.
193. 272, 340, 408, 422, 424, 426

Birch 72, 92, 286, 288

Cedar 240. 242

Elm 66, 78, 80, 81

96, 172, 184, 322, 324, 326, 328

Fir 98

Holly 396

Locust 388

Maple 404, 406

White (Continued)

Mulberry 332, 334

Oak 33, 48, 78, 81, 122

186, 298, 300, 302, 304, 310, 312
Oak Group 186, 204, 298, 308, 310

Pine 36, 45, 48, 66, 67

74, 134, 210, 212, 216, 220, 236

Poplar 252

Spruce 166, 224, 226

Thorn 360

Walnut 264

White-heart Hickory 270

White-marked Tussock Moth . . .165

Whitewood 340, 416

Wild:

Black Cherry . .362, 364, 366, 370

Plum 376

Red Cherry 364, 366, 370

Willow 41, 45, 48, 50, 53

110, 122, 131, 132, 134, 162, 250

Black 250

European Weeping 25O

European White 250

Yellow 250

Winged Elm 328

Witch Hazel 344

Witches' Brooms 358

Wood of Trees 191

Woolly Maple Scale 167, 169

Work in Field 26

Wounds, care of 122

Yellow :

Birch 186, 280, 282, 284, 288

Locust 388

Oak 306. 318

Pine 212

Poplar 340

Willow 250

Yellow Wood 38«

Yellow-barked Oak 318

Zanthoxylon americanum 388

Printed in the United States of Amerisr.