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~The Tropical Agriculturist 


AND 


Magazine af ihe Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


FOUNDED BY JOHN FERGUSON, C.M.G., 1881. 


EDITED BY 
J. G. WILLIS. Sc.D., F.L.S., 


Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya. 


Vol. XXVIII. 


Containing Numbers | io VI, : July to December, 1906. 


Bacien2 
A. M. & J. FERGUSON, 


COLOMBO, CEYLON. 


1907. 


*F 


THE CEYLON BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. 


President: 
HIS EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOB. 


Viee-Presidents: 


The Hon’ble Mr. H.C. Nicortin, Colonial |} Sir Winn1am TwyNam, K.C.M.G. 


Treasurer Mr H.T. S. Warp, Director of Irrigation 
The Hon'ble Mr. Jonn FERGUSON, C.M.G. Mr. W. ForsyTHe 
The Hon’ble Mr. S. C. OBEYESEKERE Mr. W. D. Gipson 
The Hon’ble Mr. Francis BEVEN Mr. C. P. Hayury 


Dr. W. G. Rockwoop, M.D. 


Members of the Board: 

Ex-Officio.—Members of the Executive and Legislative Councils 

The Government Agents of Provinces 

The Director, Royal Botanic Gardens 

The Controller, Experiment Station, Peradeniya 

The Government Entomologist 

The Government Mycologist 

The Director of the Museum 

The Director of Public Instruction 

The Government Veterinary Surgeon 

The Superintendent of School Gardens 

The Conservator of Forests 


Nominated Members: 


Western Provinces Eastern Provinee. 
Mr, R. Morison Mr. Varitambi Kurunathapillai 
» M. Kelway Bamber , OC. A. Lienard 
» a. W. Booth, c.c.s. 
,» &, B. Denham, c.c.s. North-Western Province. 
», Solomon Seneviratne, Atapattu Muda- Mr. E, Scott 
liyar and J.P. » J. Clovis de Silva 
, Don Solomon Dias Bandaranaike,c.m.a. ;, G. W Dodanwela 
Maha Mudaliyan ,» S.N. W. Hulugalle, Adigar 
Dr. H. M. Fernando, M.D, 
Mr. W. N.S. Aserappa North-Central Province. 
» W. Jardine Mr, C. J.C. Mee 
Central Province. » §S. Sampander 


C. Valoopillai 


Mr. R. E, Paranagama, R.M. ” 
% Daniel Tou Ie aay G.W.I ayawardene, _Mudaliyar and J.P, 
» W. Dunuwille, Disava cusaaa ee: eo Taldena, R.M, 

Dr. Valentine de 8S. Duke Sebaeeance a ae 

«Northern Esgeitce. o/c g aarti bit Reais 

Mr, V. Casipillai Sa oe Ps eae Feeney Duncan 


V. Vraspillai, Adigar and 3.p. 
K. U. Tampaiya, District Mudaliyar. 


Southern Province. 


,, H.O. Hoseason, J.P. 
» -L. B. Katugaha, p.m. . 


” 


Mr. C. G. Simmonds Province of Sabaragamuwa, 
, . R. Gooneratne, Gate Mudaliyar Mr, W. Forsythe 

|, D. A. Gooneratne, Gate Mudaliyar » Dan. J. Jayatileke 
» B.T. Doole, Gate Mudaliyar » J. H. Meedeniya, 2m, 


Seeretary : 
Mr. A, N. GALBRAITH, C,0.8- 


ans 


Poel 
Writes 


Wir and 


INDEX. 


PAGE. 
Editorials, Lectures, Original 
Articles, etc :— 
Agricultural Banks for Ceylon _ ...268, 525 


53 Society Progress Re- 
port, 116, 198, 351, 434, fe 
16 


‘ Societies, Use and 


Objects of 500 

Agriculture, Possibilities of Improve- 
ment in Village ot THO 
Agri-Horticultural Show, ‘Kegalle... 339 


” 9 Kelani Valley 337 
» Kurunegala 335 


Area under Rubber in Ceylon a 121 

Board of Agriculture, Ceylon 115, 197, 390, 

433, 436, 518 

' Botany, Lessonsin Elementary 97, 191, "O77, 

340, 413, 505 

Brand Marks on Kandyan Cattle .. 253 

Cacao, CultivationinCeylon, 73, 144, 31), 

380, 480 

Camphor Industry, Ceylon 475 
Castilloa Elastica, Introduction to 

the East of ... Ky 206 

Coconut Germination of the oe 232 

.3 Cultivation of the nae 318 

i Diseases of the.. ie 489 

Cotton in Ceylon 231 

Crushing of Cattle by the Kandyans 407 

Dry Grains of Ceylon ... 486 
Encouragement of Arts and Crafts 

in Ceylon .. 497 


Entomological Notes 82, 193, 248, 394, 492 
Improvement of Local Varieties of 
Plants : ae 203 
Irrigation in Arizona, Notes on . 271, 323 
Lemongrass and Citronella in Ceylon 140 
Lessons in Elementary Botany 97, 191, 277, 
340, 413, 505 
Literature of Economic Botany and 
Agriculture... 98, 179, 276, 342, 422, 50 
Market Gardening in Nuwara Eliya ae 
Mycological Notes 86 
Nature of the Para Rubber Tree and 


Latex Extraction & 214 
Poultry Notes.. Veo Op\ 250, “406, 495 
Rubber and Cotton in Ceylon’ 299 

FS Cultivation and Manufacture, 

Notes on 22 

Fe Cultivation and the Future 

Production... 442 

ie Cultivation, The Science of 3 

ve Exhibition, Ceylon Hes 280 

es in London Hes 367 

Ae Overproduction in os 441 

a Preparation of Block Ai 469 

ee Price of ery) aa! 

ie Shipment to London oie 358 

" ‘Tapping Peronsteation at 

Henaratgoda .. Le 460 
Vulcanisation .., ae 281 
Sanitation on Hstates ..- 506 


Termes Gestroi, the Hevea Rubber 
Termite oo aoe aay 83 


Tobacco Cultivation in Jafina 
Village Agriculture, Possibilities of 
Improvementin 3 Pi 


Pace, 


..245, B15 


119 


Gums, Resins, Saps and Exudations:—- 


Achres or ChicleGum_.. 
Camphor Cultivation in ‘Southern 


Tndia 
ay Ceylon Industry a 
a Cultural Directions ne 
i Industry, 1905, ‘The 
Chinese... 


Chicle Gum, Tapping and Preparing 
Zapote Tree (Achres sapota) in Mexico 


RUBBER :— 


Castilloa Elastica: 
Black Water of Castilloa 


Coagulation of Latex by Chemicals 
Be al 


Cultivation in Nicaragua 
Fungi on Trees 
Introduction to the East. 
Latex Coagulating 

53 Manipulation of .. 


a Treatment after Coagulation 
Belly 


Nicaragua, Cultivation in 
Resin in Young Trees 
Tapping Methods 
Yields in Mexico 

» otf Castilloa 
Cultivation in Colombia 


Guayule, Use of .. 
Hevea Brasiliensis or Para: 


Bark Renewal 

»  Warieties of 
Block Para, Preparation of 
Canker Fungus 
Caoutchouc in Brazil Rubber 

a in Latex, Proportions of 
Characters of Hevea ; ae 
Cultivation in Malay Peninsula ... 
Science of ay 
Disease, Spread of 
Drying Rubber, Points i in 
Foliage, Development of 
Effect of Incr eased 

Forking, Effect of ne 
Fungi on Rubber Bee 
Inter- -crops v. Clean- weeding ea 
Irrigation, Cultivation under 
Latex, Chemical Composition of . 

oe Coagulation of .. 

‘8 Effect of Removing 


ae Extraction 

Bs from Seed ate 
ne Manuring for 

. Trees without 


», Tubes Drying up.. 
without Rubber ... 
Laticiferous Cells, Origin and For. 
mation of .. ae kA 


229 


PAGE. 
Manuring for Latex as il 216 
Hevea Trees . 449 
Nature of Para Tree and Latex. 
Extraction ... Ap er 214 
Pest, White Ant Ais 85 
Planting Close, Advantages of Ae 5 
Distance in ay ae 3 
Pruning Young Trees sh 6 
Root Disease .. we . 10,86 
» Growth. n6i3 4 
Rubber and Cotton, Ceylon a 299 
Seed, Exports from Malaya - sais 129 
',, Packing and Exporting cae 24 
Tapping Demonstration at Henarat- 
goda 460 
BA During Flowering Period 1] 
- Frequency of ... ...218, 466 
He High... . 461, 465 
Termes Gestroi, the Hevea Termite 85 
Weeding Clean v. Inter- oECee pe 
Yields at Henaratgoda.. Vs 462 
General :— 
Acid in Rubber Coagulation nee 209 
Ammonia on Latex, Action of .. 291 
Area in Ceylon under Cultivation... 121 
Burgess on the Industry in 
Britain As 131, 209, 292 
Boom, The Rubber bt s 213 
Caoutchouc Contents of Brazil 
Rubber... é 281 
Formation in Bark . 215 
Comparative Value of Plantation 
Rubbers Ms - 444 
Consumption in America ER 137 
Crépe in London Market fy 33 
» Rubber 371 
Cultivation and Future ‘Production 442 
Culture, Truth about Rubber a 121 
Dock Labourer and Rubber in 
London st : wa 363 
Drying Rubber ate 210 
Extracting Rubber, Methods of ... 445 
Extraction, New Era in Kubber . 135 
Formalin on Latex, Action of : 291 
Grades of Rubber, Qualities of Dit: 
ferent 367 
Industrial Demand, The ai 29 
Industry in Ceylon and America, 
at Piantation .. 26 
Me in Great Britain, Burgess 
on % 1st, 209, 292 
In Malay Peninsula a6 . 27, 873 
In Samoa i 375 


Land in the Tr: opies, Rubber 0 446 
Latex, Action of Ammonia and For- 


malin on ; 291 
5,  Obemical Composition of . 281 
», _ Sulpburising and Colouring 285 
London, Kubber in ae 367 
Malaya, Rubber in aN (27 373 
Manuring Rubber 449 
Market, London Rubber.. 31, 137, 2277, 304, 
376, 471 
Masticating Rubber .. a) 212 
Mixing Rubber Mi 213 
Nerve in Rubber, Lack of ae 373 
Olsson-Seffer on Rubber at 2 
Overproduction in Rubber 441 


Physical Properties and Chemical 
ee repesition of Rubber, Relation 


PlantaCion Industry in Ceylon and 
America eve et ABs 26 


Plantation Rubber, Preferred 4 
Forms of ... ~ 369 
nA 5 Smoking ‘208 


Price "of Rubber 2 357 
Pure Rubber, Value of Chemically 454 
Ratnapara, Suitability for Rubber 


Growing of.. st 225 
Raw Rubber, Preparation of ave 209 
Rubber Formation in Bark BS, 215 

MA in Malaya He see Db, BID 

Ms Samoa oe cat 375 

» Manufacture. 292 ~ 
Sabaragamuwa, Suitability for 

Rubber Growing of ... we 225 
Samoa, Rubber in Bae ae 375 
Sampling i in London .. As 361 
Seed-bearing and Overtapping ... 224 

», Parents, Selection of Me 226 
Separating Strong and Wee 

Rubber AG us 363 
Shipment to London _ ... os 358 
Smoking Plantation Rubber -- 208 
Solution Making ale 293 
Sulpburising Rubber in ‘Ceylon 4 285 

Tapping Methods 5 260, 345 
Vulcanising Method and Ingre- 

dients ve 282 
Vulcanisation.. St He 281 
Washing Raw Rubber 211 
Yields in 1905, Company of Plan- 

tation 445 

o of Plantations, | Future an 448 

Oils and Fats :— 
Citronella in Ceylon ... wy 140 
a Oil, Ceylon .. Ais 142 
A Test, Schimmel’s is 142 
Lemongrass in Ceylon.. wie 140 
BA Oil, Ceylon ... 142 


Refined in Cey lon 140 
Schimmel’s Citronella Test, sags and 142 
Schleichera or Kusam Qil and Fat... 309 


Fibres :— 

Bamboo for Paper-making ade 379 
Bark Fibre from Calotropis bee 42 
Calotropis or Madar Floss aM 44 
Cotton Deterioration in Ceylon ... 204 

.y Growing Notes. 41 

We Improvement by Seed Selection 171 

A in Ceylon re 231 
SeedSelection ... 171, 208, 479 

Madar Fibre Plant Abie he 2 


Dye Stuffs and Tanning Substances :— 
Mangrove Bark, Collection and Ex- 


port of : 
ie », Leather Pr oduced 
from ve 39 
vy » rade 39 
a »; Utilisation of 36 
a Barks, Varieties of ees 36 
Extract, Manufacture of 38 
A in Africa * es 36 
Ys », Hast Indies .. a 37 
Drugs and Medicinal Plants :— 
Cinchona Barks and Cultivation.. 46 
iy Formation of Alkaloid in 47 
y Growth of Bark in fan 47 
Drugs, Cultivation in German East 
Africa of Me 50 
Quinine in Cinchona Bark it 47 


INDEX, 


D PAGE, 
Edible Products :— 

‘Cacao Characters of Varieties 144 
a Cultivation in Ceylon 73, 144 

311, 380, 480, 

ah in Gold Coast... 146 

Hi Expor tations from Ceylon, 

(1875-1905) 73 
ef Fermentation A 380 
p es Length of 5 385 
ot Be Object of Nie 380 
a Fermenting Chambers 381 
“40 v4 in Africa 384 
a sf in Java 382 
$y 55 in Surinam 382 
Ae bs in Trinidad 384 
ee if in Venezuela .. 382 
Ke in West Indies" 383 
- Flower Periodicity 480 


»  Klowers ona Tree, Number of 483 
af Foliar Periodicity cee 480 
a Fruit Characters 145 
3 » Colours of Varieties... 145 
” » Wall, Differences in. 145 
ag in Gold Coast .. ene L4G 
“ Root Periodicity 480 
3 Seed Characteristics 311 
ih Seeds in Fruit, Number of... 313 
Tree, Periodicity of : 480 
Varieties, Classification of... 144 
Cardamoms i in the pecs 322 
Citrate of Lime : 386 
Coconut Bud Rot of... 491 
BS Cultivation in Trinidad... 155 
5 Germination of the 232 
Ny Industry of Trinidad 155 
oe Notes on oe 318 
a Oil Manufacture in Tri- 
nida Ne 157 
Coconuts, Diseases of nee 489 
Pests of »-. 83, 492 
Coffee Cultivation in Brazil als 74 
‘ Industry in Brazil ate 154 
Cola in Gold Coast 4 148 
Copra Drying in Trinidad 157 
ore Seed Meal and Oil as Human | 
388 
ey, Grains Cultivated i in a Geylvn a 391, 486 
Ginger Cultivation 80 
Guava Fruit Pulp 168 
Maté or Paraguay Tea ... 234. 
Shamshu (Chinese Spirit) from 
Sorghum .. 169 
Spices in London Market 170 
Sugar Cane Growing in Trinidad... 167 
» Industry of Philippines 166 
Making in South India 78 
Tea, Oeylon Import Duty on 4 153 
% > ‘“‘Thirty Committee ” 68 
», Resumé 
of Work of ne 69 
» in Ceylon, The Oldest Ac 150 
», industry, China pe 485 
ie Hs in Foochow, 1905 .. 386 
,, Deteriorated, Renovation of 57 
He Deterioration, Causes of ais 60 
As Signs of 59 
» Green Manures for oe 63 
», Maté or Paraguay... 34. 
» Pests On 0 194, 394, oe 
», Pruning Deteriorated 
Renovation of Deteriorated.. 2B 
Teas, Indian Varieties of -.160 483 
», weading, The World’s 1150, 482 


Cattle Manure, Conservation OLjired 


ili 


Pace. 
Tobacco Cultivation and Curing 
51, 158, 236 
7 ‘a in Jaffna, 
Ceylon 245, 315 
iA Curing 58, 161, 236, 239 
a a Bxperiments in 
Madras.. 56 
” House ... 158 
” Growing in West Indies .. 51 
. in Jamaica oe 7,242 
yY Pressing and pusing 158 
»* KRatoons : 56 
vs Shade-Grown .. 236 
a Soils.. 243 
Topping Young ‘Plants 55 
Vanilla Industry in Seychelles .. 320 
Scientific Agriculture :— 
Carbonate of Lime in Soil, iat ik 
of Manures on 178 


344. 
Cotton Improvement by Seed Selection 171 


Seed Selection, Umportance and 


Necessity of a 171 
Horticulture :— 
Cabbage Club-root in Ceylon : 91 
_ Crop Diseases in Ceylon, Vegetable 92 
Cut Flowers, How to Keep 400 
Manures for Nuwara Eliya Gardens 90 
Market Gardening in Nuware BlNa, 
Ceylon 88 
Rotation of Crops ee os 113 
Plant Sanitation :— 
yoconut Palm, Bud Kot of 491 
is 3 Diseases of the... 489 
Rhinoceros Beetleon 492 
Jungle Stumps, Uprooting ae 491 
Entomology : 
Bees Boring in Rubber .. oe 193 
Black Beetle on Coconuts 83 
Black-headed Caterpillar on Coco-| 

nuts 83 
Brown Moth (Oxyodes scrobisculata) 

in Flight 2 404. 
Cacao abrips (Physopus rubrocincta) 248 
Camphor Wood attacked by Beetle 492 
Case Worms on Tea... 195 
Cinnamon Pest (Ewproctis fraterna) 248 
Cockchafer Grub, Cure for 249 
Coconut Pests in Ceylon 83 
Cotton Worn, The Egyptian 396 
Cucumber Fly (Dacus sp.) ah 493 
Entomological Notes 82, 193, 248 pes 

4 
Flea Beetle, to Destroy the . is 195 
Lac Insect on Amherstia a 195. 
Lamp Traps for Insect Pests ibe 82 
Longicorn Beetle 193 
Mealy Bug (Phenacoccus or reas), 

A New af 82 
Mosquitoes in Batticaloa, Ceylon. ie 84 
Nettie Grubs (Thosea) in Ceylon ... 82 
Pyralid Moth on Millet... 195 
Rubber, Boring Bees and Wasps in 193, 

_ Cockchafer (enatinta 4 pin- 
guis) Attacking 194 

is Fungus Parasite (Botr yodi- 
plodia elasticae) 193 
Horned Teciite Attacking 194 
Red Weevil on Coconuts eS 83 


Pace 
Rhinoceros Beetle on Coconuts... 492 
Sand Fly, Remedy for the a 85 
Scale Bugs on Coconuts Be 84 
» Insects on Coconuts as 83 
Shot Hole Borer (Xyleborus forni- 
catus) in Tea ...394,492 


5 on Shade Trees 194 


Sparrow Pest in Ceylon 85 

Termes Gestroi, the Hevea Rubber 
Termite 

Termite on Rubber, The Horned 
(Termes inanis) ste 194 

Tobacco Pest (Prodenia ‘liltor ‘alis)... 493 

Wasps Boring in Rubber aa 193 

Mycology : 


Botryodiplodia Elastica on Rubber 86 
“Canker ” Fungus on Rubber (Coftc- 


ium javanicum) 30 86 
Fungi on Rubber Trees.. A 86 
Fusarium on Rubber _... ae 87 
Javanese Fungi on Castilloa ee 86 
Mycological Notes apt as 86 
Root Disease of Rubber 86 
Rubber Fungus Parasite (Botryo- 

diplodia elasticac) sit ; 193 

Live Stock :— 
Cattle : 
Brandmarks on Kandyan Cattle ... 253 
Cattle Crushing by Kandyans _... 407 

HA Cure for ‘licks in.. a 258 

Crushing of Cattle by Kandyans. Me 407 

vs. Castration in Ceylon 496 
Kandyan Cattle Brandmarks ay 253 
Live Stock Shows, Value of zn 408 
Mulling or Crushing of Cattle dh 407 
Ticks in Cattle, Cure for dee 258 

Poultry : 

Consumption in Poultry ws 95 
Cramp in Chickens oe Jas 95 
Crop Bound Fowls oe aie 95 
Debility in Poultry de) Ve 250 
Diarrhoeain Poultry .. on 250 


Diphtheria in Poultry ig 406 


Diseases of Poultry 


Dropsy in Poultry Pa 495 

Dysentery, Fowl ot a 250 

Eggs and Overfeeding .. ee 252 

» Study on Fowls’ .. 251 

Soft or Pendulous Crop in 1 Fowls .. 96 

» Shelled Eggs , Se 495 

SERICULTURE—in Ceylon 1905-6 Da 409 
Education: 


Agricultural Education in Jamaica 401 


Miscellaneous :— 


Agricultural Banks for Ceylon.. 181, 
268, 325 
Society Progress Re- 
port 116, 198, 351, 434, 
437, 516 
Societies, Use and 
Objects of eae 500 
Agriculture, Literature of Economic 
Botany and, 98, 179, 276, 342, 
423, 504 
in the Kadawatta and 
Meda Korles co 


99 


39 


Pace, | 
Agri-Horticultural Show, Kegalle 339 
%3 ” »  Kelani Valley 337 


»  Kurunegala 335 
ATCO for Running Estate Engines 425 
Arts and Crafts in aon To En- 
courage 50 ey, 497 
Board of Apnedibaren Ceylon 
115, 197, 359, 483, 436, 513 
Botany, Lessons in Hlementary 
97, 191, 277, 340, 4183, 505 
x) Literature of Economic 98, 179, 
276, 342, 422, 504 
Co-operative Credit in Bengal _... 419 
% a in the United 
Provinces, India .. 830, 415 
Cotton Meal and Seed as Fertilizers 425 
Education in America, Industrial 423 


Hindoo Labour in British Guiana 423 
Irrigation Methods in Arizona __ ...271,323 
Literature of Economic Botany and 


Agriculture 98, 179, 276 342, 422, 504 
Mosquitoes and Anti-Malaria Cam- 

paign He ae 274. 
Sanitatiun on Estates |. aa) 506 


j 


Correspondence :— 


pouatods Vasica as a Green Mags 


Ac : 266 
ee Hill Karth ise "BAT, 510 
Beekeeping in Ceylon ... abs 114 
Capillary Tubes 4 30 510 
Cotton in India, * Spence” a0 346 
Datura Stramonium in Assam .. 113 
Kucalyptus, Swamp Gum oe 196 
Febrifuge Plants aN onal 266 
Ginseng Seed . “ 431 
Honey Production in Europe won OTE 
Interesting Trees of North Ceylon 508 
Tpecacuanha ... ate 113 
Lemongrass Oil Extraction ait 266 
Mosquitoes and Anti-malaria Oam- 
paigns ats 503 
Mosquito Nettings and Muslins .. 267 
Noria Pump, The Bo ors 5U7 
Paddy Reaping Machine on 513 
Peas, Improved Ceylon Native .. 431 
Plantain Growing in S. India ... 511 
Pruning Hevea and Cacao Trees... 507 
Rotation of Crops % ee 113 
Rubber Growing og 265 
be Tapping } Methods 260, 345 
Sarsaparilla ... 46 Bb 196 
Swamp Gum .. ne 196 
Tea Planting Industry i in Natal ... 263 
Current Literature :— 
Economic Resources of Ueende. 15 349 
Le Cocotier ... ane 196 
Lift Irrigation 349 
Memoirs of Depar tment of Agri- 
culture in India ies 349 


Pepper, Varieties of Cultivated .. 432 
Helsing to the Sugar Industry in 


Per 
Wy epatable Growing i in Porto Rico .. 432 
Year Book, U.S. A. Department of 
Agriculture, 1905 dn wie Wea 


i 


" 
Bie 


RULES 


OF THE 


Agricultural Society of Ceylon. 


1. The Society shall be called “Tax AcricunruraL Society or Crynon,” 
2, The business of the General Society shal! be conducted through the Board of 


Agriculture of Ceylon. 
3, The Board shall meet for despatch of business on the first Monday of each 


month at 9-30 p.m. Seven members shall form a quorum. 

4, Notices of motions or questions shall be sent to the Secretary at least one 
week before the meeting of the Board. 

5. All motions will require to be seconded and will be circulated before the 
Board meets. 

6, A General Meeting of the Society may be called by the President at any time 
and may be held at any place to be fixed by him. 

7, All Members of the Board will be nominated by the President, 

&, Candidates for Membership of the Society must be proposed by a Member of 
the Board for the district in which the Candidate resides or owns landed property. 

9, Members of the Society shall pay a subscription of Rs. 5 per annum, 

10. Payment of the subscription in advance will entitle a Member to receive all 
publications of the Society. All subscriptions shall be paid to the Secretary of the Board. 

11, Lists of Members will be published annually in the Government Guzette and in 
the Journal of the Society. 

12. Local Societies may be formed with a Membership of not less than twelve 
Members. 

13. Each Local Society should be represented by a Secretary, through whom 


correspondence with the Board can be conducted. 
14, All Local Societies will be registered at the Local Kachcheri and by the 


_ Secretary of the Board. 


15. The Revenue Officers of the Province and District shall be ex-oficoo Members 
of the Local Societies within the Province. 

16. Local Societies are empowered to make their own rules. 

17. All Local Societies will be entitled to receive all publications of the Society 
on payment of an individual subseription. 

18. The funds of the Agricultural Socicty will be lodged in the Bank of Madras 
in the name of the Agricultural Society of Cevion. The Secretary will be responsible for 
the accounts, and all cheques will be signed by him and the President or Vice-President 
of the Board of Agriculture 

19. A statement of Expenditure incurred, &c., shall be tabled at each meeting of 
the Board. 

20. All grants-in-aid of Local Societies or special experimant must be approved 
by the Board. 

21. All accounts will be audited annually, 


TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST 


MAGAZINE OF THE 


CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 


Vou. XXVII. COLOMBO, JULY 15rx, 1906. No. 1. 


Some Possibilities of Improvement in Village Agriculture. 
LIL. | 


The next point to be considered is the possibility of improving native 
methods in agriculture. There can be no reasonable doubt that such improve- 
ment is possible, but here above all it is very important to know exactly what 
we are doing, and to be very careful to test things thoroughly and to be quite 
sure of their advantages before recommending or attempting to introduce them 
among the natives. Agriculture is a complicated art, and a change in any one 
item of a cultivation-process may bring entirely unforeseen and perhaps disastrous 
changes in other items in its train. To take a concrete illustration. <A planter 
living near Peradeniya suggested to the neighbouring villagers that a little 
manure would greatly improve their paddy-field, and offered, as they could not 
afford to buy it, to provide them with it free of cost. This was accepted 
the manure was applied, the crop grew magnificently, the planter was delighted. 
But when harvest approached, it was found that the ears had been completely 
destroyed by the paddy-fly, the more rapid growth having perhaps rendered 
them a trifle less resistant. There is very little doubt that suitable manuring, 
with improved precautions against fly, might be attended by good results, but 
the whole matter should have been tested thoroughly on an Experiment Station 


‘first; as it is the villagersin the district in question have acquired a prejudice 


against manuring which may last a century. 


Another formidable obstacle to any change in methods is custom. The 
native is very conservative, and objects to any interference with his time- 
honoured ways. Thus, fur instance, among the Javanese and the Malays, one 
sees side by side the comparatively advanced method of transplanting the rice 
(as opposed to the broadcasting of Ceylon and some other places) and the 
inefficient method of harvesting it by cutting each ear separately with a knife. 
Yet even in Java the latter is tenaciously adhered to, on account of the fact 
that the harvesting time is the great festive season, when all the young folk 
turn out into the fields, and engagements are mostly contracted. In some parts 
of Southern India the ryots plant their cotton with a drill, in rows; in others 
they sow it broadcast, getting a less result from more seed and labour, °}{ a 


a 
Coc 


we 


€ 
ano 
Se 


2 
ryot in the latter districts be questioned, he will often admit that the former 
method is the better, but ‘it is not the custom”. is his reply to the natural 
inquiry why he does not adopt it. 


‘Another great obstacle is the indolence of the villager. He may know 
quite well that a particular method is better than his own, and that it will 
cost him nothing to adopt it, but if it involve more labour than the existing 
system, or an unaccustomed form of labour, then he will have none of it. Against 
this rock all attempts to introduce transplanting in place of broadcasting rice 
have hitherto been shattered in Ceylon. Though the yield is so much better in 
proportion to the seed and the labour used, the villager objects to the labour 
of stooping to do the transplanting work. Of course custom has a great deal 
to do with this result also. 


Yet another obstacle, and perhaps the greatest of all, is the poverty of 
the small village cultivator. This has been fully dealt with elsewhere, and only 
needs mention here. 


There are many other obstacles in the way of progress in village agricul- 
tural methods, but the last that need be specially dealt with here is ignorance. 
There can be little doubt that simple want of knowledge is at the bottom of 
much that is bad, wasteful, or inefficient. But to remove this ignorance is more 
easily said than done. It is often suggested that agriculture and horticulture should 
be definitely taught as such in the schools, and probably some good may be 
effected in this way, but there is one very great difficulty in this work, that 
of getting the teachers. The ordinary school teacher is incapable of teaching 
practical agriculture, knowing less about it than the villagers around him. The 
teacher who has been to an Agricultural College has usually the characteristic 
faults of the college-trained native of Southern Asia. He has learnt a great 
deal of book-knowledge on many topics connected with agriculture, but has 
little or no notion of how to apply any of it practically or suit it to local 
needs. If he is sent to teach, he is often dogmatic in the lecture room, anda 
failure in the field. If he is provided with an Experimental Garden for actual 
demonstration purposes, he is liable to make a still worse exhibition of incom- 
petence, or to fall under temptation to misappropriate the produce. A scheme 
of this kind was tried some years ago in Ceylon, and its epitaph was written 
by Mr. F. R. Ellis in 1899 in the words ‘“‘Government has not very long ago 
got rid of the last of a happy band of youths who for a series of years received 
a good salary for cultivating Crown land with cattle supplied by Government, 
and appropriating the produce to their own use.” 


The system of School Gardens is free from many of the objections and 
difficulties attaching to definite teaching of agriculture in the villages. The 
masters teach the general principles of agriculture and horticulture by means 
of plants which are in general unfamiliar to the villagers, and in which, consequently, 
they do not at once invite comparison and contrast with work going on 
elsewhere in the Village. And there is no doubt that the general principles 
can be equally as well taught with such plants as with rice, coconuts, or cassava. 
At the same time, the School Garden practically forms an Experimental Garden 
for the village, in which the villager can see various ‘‘new products,” and from 
which he can get samples for trial, or seeds to cultivate. 

There are innumerable directions in which native agricultural methods 
can be improved, and wecan only give a few suggestions here. Thus the tillage 
of the ground is by rude implements and by a great expenditure of physical 
labour in proportion to the result achieved. Vast improvements are possible, 
hist ave have already dealt with this subject. (See number of “7. A.” for eae 


ne 3906, ‘page 199,) 


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GUMS, RESINS, SAPS AND EXUDATIONS. 


The Science of Para Rubber Cultivation, 


A L&EcTURE BY HERBERT WRIGHT. 
(ILLUSTRATED. | 

Mr. Herbert Wright, A.R.C.S., F.L.S., Controller of the Government Experi- 
mental Station at Peradeniya and author of Hevea Brasiliensis, delivered a lecture 
on the Science of Para Rubber Cultivation in the Public Hall, at Kegalle, on 
June 9th, under the auspices of the Kegalle Planters’ Association. [een interest 
was evinced in the event, and the local planters mustered in force, some riding as 
much as 16 and 20 miles to be present. This is the first lecture on Para Rubber 
that has been delivered in Ceylon, and is in all probability the commencement of 
aseries. Mr. Wright confined his remarks to ‘‘ Distance and Pruning,” the initial 
operations; and under these heads discussed exhaustively the principles of planting 
and the treatment of young plants. He allowed himself half-an-hour and stopped 
precisely to the minute; but he was able to compress into 80 minutes an amazing 
amount of useful information. At the close of the lecture Mr. Wright invited 
questions, and of these there was no lack. Information was adduced which will 
be read with interest and be found useful to rubber planters all over the island. 
Mr. Edgar Smith, Chairman of the Kegalle Planters’ Association, presided, and there 
were also present :—Messrs. B. H. Jenkyns, Hon. Secretary, Kegalle P.A., P. T. L. 
Weatherall, T. R. Walker, A. A. Franklin, C. D. Hunt, Kdward Hawkins, G. 
Hawkins, J. M. Power, A. HK. Barrs, A. H. C. Luschwitz, Philip F. Ondaatje, G. 
Harries and R. Tait, a young Scotch botanist from Hdinburgh on his way to Christ- 
mas Island to enquire into the agricultural resources and possibilities of the island 
which is in the hands of the Christmas Island Phosphates Company. 


THE LECTURE. 


The CHAIRMAN :—I have much pleasure, gentlemen, in introducing Mr. 
Herbert Wright, who has come to give us a lecture on the Science of Para Rubber. 


Mr. WRIGHT was received with applause on rising to speak. He said :— 


Mr. Chairman and Gentlemen.—When I yielded to the fourth “dun” from 
your persevering Secretary and promised to lecture on the subject of Para Rubber, 
Ifound myself in an awkward position and wondered what subject to take up which 
would be of importance to youas practical men. There are so many details con- 
nected with the development of rubber plants from the nursery to maturity, and 
such an abundance of schemes regarding the collection of latex and its conversion 
into rubber, that I found it most difficult to make a selection which would, without 
doubt, prove interesting to your Association. I finally resolved, as this is our first 
lecture on Para Rubber, to begin at the beginning and to discuss with you some of 
the principles of ordinary planting operations and the treatment of the young 
plants. If we have time to touch on matters of interest to planters with mature 
rubber, we will do so, but these can perhaps be brought forward in the form of 
questions. 

DISTANCE IN PLANTING. 

The first subject for discussion is the distance at which Para rubber trees 
should be planted. At the present time, Para rubber is planted at distances varying 
from 10 to 25 feet apart, and it is obvious that such a variation speaks volumes for 
- our ignorance of the principles of this subject. I donot profess to understand the 
principles better than anyone else, but I think you will agree with me that the 
distance adopted should be one which will allow free development of all parts of 


Gums, Resins, 4 


the plant, and such as to allow one to collect the latex with ease and to successfully | 


operate against diseases when they arise. Generally speaking, close planting is 
associated with interference of root growth, production of tall trees, and with the 


rapid spread of disease; to counterbalance these, we have the protection against — 


exposure and wash, and an increased tapping area. Now let us take each of these 
questions and see what understanding we can arrive at. 


ROOT GROWTH. f 


We all know how rapidly the superficial roots of Para rubber trees grow, and 
what a compact mass they form when mature. The lateral roots grow at varying 
rates according to the conditions prevailing, but if grown on moderately good land, 
an incremental yearly increase in radius of about 10 to 12 inches may be allowed 
for. In some districts where the soil and climatic conditions are very favourable, 
the root growth is more rapid than this, and in others, particularly at high eleva- 
tions, the growth is not as fast. If sucha rate obtains for your estates, it means 
that it will take five years for the roots of trees planted ten feet apart to completely 
ramity the whole of the soil, anda proportionately longer period if the trees are 
more widely planted. If the trees are distanced more than ten feet from one 
another, there is ample soil in the middle of the lines for the roots of shade trees 
green manures or catch crops, during the first few years—though ultimately these 
should be uprooted and only the rubber roots allowed to remain in possession of the 
soil. If, therefore, you are prepared to tap some of your trees to death at the end of 
the fourth or fifth year, there is no very serious objection to originally planting the 
trees ten feet apart, as far as root development is concerned. 


DEVELOPMENT OF FOLIAGE, 


Naturally one must also consider the rate of development of the foliage as 
well as the roots. The lateral spread of the foliage depends upon whether the tree 
is allowed to form a straight stem, as it will doif left alone, or whether it is made 
to fork and to develop lateral branches instead. Under normal conditions one may 
expect that the lateral branches of trees planted ten feet apart will have met by 
the end of the fifth year, and if pruning has been carried out there is generally a 
considerable overlapping of the foliage from adjacent trees, and the soil is partly 
covered by that time. The advantages of quickly covering the soil in the tropics 
are only too well-known and the protection of the soil by any means should be 
seriously considered. The disadvantages of overlapping foliage are that disease 
might spread more rapidly and that the functions of the leaves may be impaired, 


As far as the theory of the interference of foliar functions is concerned, I think it 


can be dismissed. The leaves are the organs wherein the food of the tree is 
manufactured ; and in order to accomplish this they must, of course, have some 
light. Butitisa very disputed question as to whether the leaves of Para Rubber 
require all the light which they can get in the tropics, and we all know the 
beneficial results obtained by growing other plants under shade in Ceylon. The 
overlapping of foliage consequent on close planting constitutes a self-shade and 
from considerations regarding the increase in the flow of latex when light is less 
intense, we may yet find that a moderate amount of overlapping of foliage may be 
very beneficial for Para Rubber. From the results of experiments, I am convinced 
that many plants, even in Europe where the light is never intense, do not require 
constant strong light, but are able to carry on their work when supplied with 
light intermittently. Intermittent light has been as effective as continuous light, 
With certain plants, and from these considerations and remembering that light 
often retards growth, I do not apprehend much interference in the functions of 
the leaves of Para Rubber trees by a moderate amount of overlapping. 


7 SOS Se 
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5 | Saps and Exudations. 


We may, therefore, conclude that as far as the root and foliar developments 
are concerned, there are no serious objections to the original planting of Para 
rubber trees ten feet apart. But such a distance is far too close for mature trees 
and can only be recommended on the understanding that the estates will be thinned- 
out after the fourth or fifth year. I must, however, remind you that many of our 
80-year-old trees are growing well, though they are only eight to ten teet apart. 


SPREADING OF DISHASKES. 


When, however, we come to the question of the spreading of diseases, a 
subject on which I would prefer the entomologist or mycologist to inform you, 
I think we are all prepared to admit that an epidemic would spread much more 
rapidly on a densely planted estate than on one with fewer trees; no matter 
whether the disease was on the leaves, stems, fruits or roots. Furthermore, the 
close planting of trees is only possible when thinning-out is intended ; this means 
killing the trees; and if dead stumps are left behind, perhaps assisting in the spread 
of root disease. The Para root disease, as most of you already know, commences 
as a fungus on the stumps of trees in your clearings, and by means of slender threads 
spreads along dead roots, through the soil, to the living roots of the rubber trees. 
It may be argued that the differences in distance between trees planted ten and 
twenty feet apart are so insignificant when one considers the vitality of the diseases 
and their power to spread, that it may be disregarded as an objection to close 
planting ; while I am prepared to admit that there seems some reason in this, I 
cannot omit to emphasise the necessity to uproot all dead stumps, whenever 
possible, on estates where closely planted trees have been purposely killed by 
tapping. It should be remembered that no matter how far apart your trees are 
planted, the same root disease may appear on stumps left during clearing operations 
and even widely-planted estates be seriously affected. The disease appears on most 
rubber properties which have been planted on virgin land on account of the 
abundance of large tree stumps, and is therefore not confined to closely-planted 
estates. 

ADVANTAGES OF CLOSE PLANTING. 

So much then for the arguments against close planting. Now let us consider 
the other side. The advantages of preventing wash and exposure of our Ceylon 
soils are only too fully recognised, and I propose to consider a more serious point, 
ie. the available tapping area. Every tree, having a circumference of twenty 
inches at five feet from the base, presents an available tapping area of 1,200 square 
inches. If you work out this point in connection with the number of trees per acre, 
when planted from ten to twenty feet apart, you will find that at the end of the 
fourth or fifth year, an estate planted 10410 feet has an available tapping area of 
522,000 square inches, per acre, whereas one planted 2020 feet apart has only 180,800 
square inches, or approximately only one-quarter of the closely-planted one. This 
is the great outstanding advantage of close planting, and I would ask you to fully 
consider what it means during the fourth, fifth, and sixth years. Itis, as you know 
with tea and coconuts, much easier to thin out a closely-planted area than to 
subsequently interplant a widely-planted one; and when one considers the results 
obtained with other plants, I do not see why the remaining Para rubber trees 
should not ultimately make satisfactory progress on closely planted estates which 
have been systematically thinned out. On any rubber property there is always 
a proportion of the trees which do not thrive as well as the others, and this is the 
more serious the fewer the trees on the estate. Onan estate closely-planted, the 
intermediate trees could be killed out in a definite manner until 200 or 250 trees 
per acre remain after the 8th year. Itis almost certain that the yield of rubber 
obtained by making rubber its own catch crop will pay for the complete removal 
of all dead stumps and leave a balance of profit worth considering. 


Gums, Resins, 6 


PRUNING AND HASTENING MATURITY. 

Another subject which is of importance to planters with young clearings, 
and directly connected with distance in planting, is pruning. We all know how 
Para rubber plants, closely or widely planted, tend to produce long whippy stems 
with single whorls of leaves, and that when thirty years old they may consist of 
gigantic forest trees, nearly 100 feet in height, such as can be seen at Henaratgoda. 
We also know, from our experience on estates with large acreages of rubber in 
bearing, that the labour supply necessary for tapping the trees from the base to a 
height of six to ten feet is very considerable. It must also be remembered that 
the complete removal of the bark tissues from the base to 6 or 10 feet is an operation 
which will tax the powers of the tree, and if repeated too frequently may be the 
cause of premature death. From these considerations, ever though I have obtained 


tremendous yields from the upper parts of the giantsat our Henaratgoda gardeus 


I cannot help but think that it would be unwise for planters to speculate on the 
rubber they are going to obtain, ten years hence, from the long stems of their 
Para trees. The production of 3, 5, 10 and 25 lbs. of rubber per year from individual 
trees tapped mainly from the base to ten feet will more than satisfy most planter, 
when they have to find the coolies to tap the clearings they are now planting, 
In my opinion—and I do hope you will correct me today if I am wrong—the question 
for planters to consider is how soon can tapping operations be commenced in order 
to shorten the long years of waiting, and to place the rubber on the market while 
the price is high. Remember that by the time the pet clearings you have just 
planted are in bearing, Ceylon will have 60,000 acres of such trees on the tap, the 
Straits considerably more, and that India, Java, Africa, Borneo, Sumatra, Samoa, 
Brazil, and the West Indies are also in the race. I mention this merely to draw 
attention to the fact that the supplies for the future are rapidly increasing, and 
it is just as well that every effort should be made to bring the trees to a tappable 
size and to obtain and sell your rubber while the price is over 5s. per lb. When the 
price drops to what it was ten years ago, viz., about 3s. per lb., then you can perhaps 
give your trees a rest and let them grow, uninterrupted, as nature may determine. 


WHEN TO TAP, AND PRUNING. 

Our subject is closely associated with the production of trees of a tappable 
size, and we must, therefore, discuss this question. Opinion seems divided as to 
whether age or size should form the criterion in deciding when trees should first be 
tapped ; but I am of the opinion that, given a minimum age of four years, size is the 
consideration of most importance. Trees younger than four years can usually be 
disregarded because the rubber from them is invariably poor in quality and 
quantity, and the removal of bark from them would probably appreciably affect 
their health and future vigour. Trees, when four years of age or more, vary 
considerably in size ; but if they have a circumference of much less than 20 inches 
a yard from the ground, systematic tapping cannot be confidently recommended. 
If the trees have this circumference, tapping can be commenced, and we have now 
to consider what means are at hand which will affect the acquiring of the required 
dimensions. Of course, good tillage and manuring will always be a great help, but 
I propose today to discuss another question, namely, the production of increased 
foliage by careful pruning. 

EFFECT OF FORKING. 

You have been previously treated to a general discussion on this subject by 
correspondents to the Press; but as most of the points have been inadequately 
touched upon, and my original suggestions more often than not grossly misinter- 
preted, I think it will be as well if we can clear the air at this meeting. Since I first 
suggested the experiment of pruning whippy Para trees, I have obtained numerous 
letters quoting the dimensions of straight-stemmed and forked trees of the same 


PLATE A. 


Photo by Ivor Etherington. 


i PRUNING YOUNG PARA RUBBER PLANTS. a 
SrnaIGHtT-STEMMED, Turer Monrus \FTER PRUNING, 


STRAIGHT-STEMMED AND ForKED PLuants 20 Monvrus OLp, 


ges 


7 Saps and FRuudations, 


age, and the results from Monaragala, Dumbara, Kalutara, and Matale do, I am 
glad to say, support the original idea, In the first place I want to remind you of 
the tendency of Para rubber plants to produce tall, woody stems with whorls of 
foliage one above the other and to impress upon you the fact, known to all horti- 
culturists, that growth in height may be checked and that in girth increased. The 
energy of the plant, used in the production of high, bulky, woody tissues, may be 
directed to the production of the same matexial in the base of the stem and to that 
of branches bearing foliage. The success of the pruning experiment depends upon 
checking the formation of high wood and increasing the foliage. The leaves ofa 
plant are of vital importance and are the organs wherein the food supplies are 
elaborated. If you repeatedly remove the leaves or diminish their numbers the 
production of food supplies is seriously affected and the increase in circumference of 
the stem is reduced. We have some cuttings of Dadap, planted two years ago, 
which, on account of the leaves having been hand-pruned every month, are of 
the same thickness today as when they were first planted. In the same way one 
may state that an increase in foliage increases the rate of food manufacture and 
therefore provides the materials necessary for the stem to grow at a quicker rate. 


FORKING AND FOLIAGE. 


It is necessary to first prove what happens when the terminal bud is 
removed by the thumb-nail or the knife. If you examine a Para rubber plant, ten to 
fifteen feet high, you will notice that the upper part of thestem is green ; thisis the 
part which will throw out numerous lateral branches if the growth in height is 
stopped by removal of the terminal bud. If, as has often been done in the Straits 
and Ceylon, the whole of the green wood and foliage is cut away, the probability is 
that the remaining stump will only throw out asingle shoot and you will be no 
better off. The result which follows careful removal of the terminal bud is best seen 
in the photograph I have here. (See plate A.) This photograph shows two plants of 
exactly the same age, grown from seeds from the same parent. In one case the 
plant has been allowed to grow into the usual long and slender stem, and, when I left 
Peradeniya, had only three whorls of foliage. The other tree, about four months 
ago, had its terminal bud removed by thumb-nail pruning, and being unable to grow 
in height, has thrown out ten lateral branches. The result is the straight-stemmed 
tree has still only one growing point at the apex of the stem, whereas the pruned 
one has ten, and from each are produced whorls of foliage. Though the pruning 
was only done recently, the plant so treated has no less than 200 fully-developed 
leaves, whereas the one which has been allowed to grow in its own way has only 
about 50 leaves. That, gentlemen, is within four months. The food-producing 
capacity of the pruned tree, as far as the foliage alone is concerned, is now four 
times as great as that of the straight-stemmed one, and it stands to reason that 
the basal part of the pruned tree will grow at a quicker rate. The operation itself 
isa gentle one and does not partake of anything so drastic as the cutting away 
of the upper part of young or old trees. The lateral branches each produce their 
own whorls of foliage as though they were members of separate trees, and as they 
tend to grow more or less upwards may themselves require pruning at intervals of 
three or six months. If there is anyone who doubts the effect of pruning the 
terminal bud, I need only ask him to consider what happens when he prunes his 
tea bushes for the first time. Asan example of a system of pruning the following 
will serve our purpose ; the tree may be thumb-nail pruned when twelve feet high 
and two branches allowed to develop, one on either side ; in about one-and-a-half 
month’s time those two lateral shoots will be a little over a foot each in length, 
and can be again pruned and half-a-dozen shoots allowed to grow from each; in 
four or five months’ time these shoots will be from four to six feet in length and 
may be finally pruned at the apex and allowed to develop as many branches as they 


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Gums, Resins, 8 


care to. The result of this will be that the tree, which has been pruned three 
times in a period extending a little over six months possesses a main stem ten feet 
in height, and twelve branches ; each of the dozen branches have their own growing 


point and produce as many leaves as the single growing point at the apex of the 


stem of the unbranched tree. By this means the food-producing power of the tree 
which has been pruned will be about twelve times that of the single-stemmed one. 
If such conditions do not result in aneincreased rate of growth for the basal ten 
feet of stem, I shall have no hesitation in throwing up the sponge. 


EFFECT OF INCREASED FOLIAGE. 


[ think you will now all admit that it is possible to lead to the production 
of a large number of branches, and we have next to enquire how soon the effect 
is obvious in the girth of the stem. The two plants in the photograph I have here 
(see plate A.) are over one-and-a-half years old from stumps, and the forked 
one shows a circumference of 4 4-5th inches as against 4 inches for the straight- 
stemmed tree; this means an increase of over half-an-inch within six months of the 
pruning operation. The young trees on various estates in Ceylon and the old trees at 
Henaratgoda (see plate B.) indicate that an average increase of about one inch per 
year may be obtained by making them fork at the proper height. I cannot guarantee 
to convert your young clearings into ‘‘ baobab” plantations, but if you will measure 
your forked and straight trees which are of the same age, and which have been 
grown under identical conditions; I think you will soon have sufficient figures 
to convince you of the increased circumferential rate of growth, which is likely to 
follow careful pruning. If you can obtain an average increase of one inch per 
year, it means that you gain a year in the first four or five years and the minimum 
tapping size of 20 inches will be attained in the fourth year. The only disadvantage 
which I have heard urged against this system is that it may be followed by too much 
overlapping of the foliage, necessitating that the trees be planted at greater 
distances. This, in my opinion, may be an advantage instead of a disadvantage ° 


during the first few years, and I cannot think that it constitutes a serious argument | 


against the experiments I have placed before you. Now, gentlemen, I have had 
my say, and as I am here today more to promote or aggravate discussion than 
to give information, I hope your remarks will not lack in eloquence or vitality, 
and that you may at least be induced to try your own experiments on the rubber 
clearings you are now planting. (Applause.) 


THE DISCUSSION. 
CLEAN WEDDING v. INTER-CROPS. 
On questions being invited, 
Mr. EpGar SMITH asked :—What is your opinion about clean weeding on 
rubber estates? 


Mr. WRIGHT :—Ceylon is unique in so far as that most of the estates are 
clean weeded ; but providing the roots of the weeds or whatever plants are grown 
in addition to the rubber, do not interfere with the root development of the Parar 


rubber trees, there is no disadvantage, but a great advantage in having the ground ~~ 


covered. 

Mr. SmitH :—What about ordinary grass? 

Mr. WriGut :—I recently heard of an experiment which had been carried out 
by a prominent member of the planting community whom you all know. Heassured 
me that purely as an experiment he had the ground under Para rubber trees covered 
- with ordinary turf. The rubber trees, protected in this way by the grass, did 
wonderfully. 


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9 Saps and Rxeudations, 
Mr. SmitH :—I tried grass. 


Mr. WricHt:—The gentleman refered to had the ground under certain trees 
turfed, and he said that if it was practicable to turf an estate it would bea very 
good thing. There is one advantage about grass; the root system is not as pene- 
trating as the root system of many other plants. If you grow plants which throw 
out their roots at sucha rate and insuch a manner as to interfere with the root 
development of the rubber, then harm may be done. 


Mr. WALKER :—The trees at Henaratgoda are planted through grass. They 
are unweeded ? 


Mr. WricHt :—I understand that they were attended to for the first few 
years ; when a rubber estate is 5 years old, weeding is negligible. 


Mr. SmitH :—Coconut estates have grass and cattle are put in to feed on it. 
Why should not the same be the case inrubber? Why not let the grass grow and 
keep cattle ? 


Mr. WRIGHT :—Once a rubber estate is matured you cannot grow anything 
under the rubber. 


Mr. SmitH :—The estate I am thinking of is three years old. 


Mr. WRiaeutT :—I think that encouraging cattle on rubber places is not a very 
commendable thing. The cattle will probably do more damage than anything else. 
At the same time the protection of the soil by any means isa consideration which 
should not be lost sight of. I cannot say I think grass as good as some plants that 
might be used. What I should like to see growing is some plant of low habit 
that would give a lot of organic matter. 


Mr. FRANKLAND :—Would the sensitive plant do ? 


Mr. WRIGHT :—It would be beneficial, although my opinion on this question 
of growing crops of any kind in rubber is that they must either be considered as 
crops or green manures, or you must make up your mind to let the estate be clean 
weeded. The former is often a difficult system to work. | 


Mr. FRANKLAND :—But for protection of the soil ? 


Mr. WRIGHT :—On some estates, where Albizzias have been used and lopped 
when less than two years old, you can see the two-year-old Para rubber trees 
quite 10 feet above the level of the Albizzia plants, protecting the soil, all over 
the place. 

‘THE FIRST PINCH.” 

Mr. WALKER :—What height would you recommend for the first pinch of the 
plant ? 

Mr. WriaGuHt :—I think planters will be content to tap plants from the base 
to 10 feet. Ido not think they will ever want to tap to 380 feet as we huve done at 


Henaratgoda. Therefore, if they prune soas to leavea stem 10 feet from the base 
and allow it to remain I think it will be quite sufficient. 


Mr. WALKER :—Then you prune again at 15 feet? 


Mr. WRiGHT:—Then let the branches grow out, one on either side; when a 
foot-and-a-half long prune again and let the next shoots grow until they are 5 feet 
long and make your final pruning and leave the tree to itself. 


Mr. WALKER :—The branches will be very thick if you prune over 10 feet. 
Mr. Wrigut :—No:Ido not think so. I do not really see your objection. 


2 


Gums, Resins, 10 


THE QUESLION OF WIND. 
Mr. Uv. D. Hunt :—How does the question of wind enter into the argument ? 
If you increase the foliage of the tree, it is liable to be blown over. 
Mr. WricuHtT :—Do you think a properly established rubber tree would be 
easily blown over ? 
Mr. C. D. Hunt :—I have seen a good many. 


Mr. WRIGHT :—A good many Para trees have been blown over, but that was 
not due to wind alone. On one estate, I believe, about 200 went down ina day, but that 
was due to diseases affecting the roots. The manager did not know what was wrong 
until he pushed one of the erect trees, and down it went. However, that is an 
interesting question as to the effect of wind raised by Mr. Hunt. 

Mr. Hunt :—We do not, of course, admit we have wind here. (Laughter.) 

Mr. Wricut:—Would you consider that the increased foliage would tend 
to make the tree liable to be blown down on an average estate ? 

Mr. Hunt :—I have seen young trees blown over, and especially young trees 
grown in paddy lands. They seem not to be able to grow down as fast as they do 
above. 

Mr. Wricut :—The Para rubber tree has a well-developed and magnificent 
system of lateral roots and also along taproot. I should say that if a well-deve- 
loped Para rubber tree on good soil could be blown over many strong trees of other 
kinds might be blown over. 

ROOT DISEASE. 

Mr. Hunt :—Does this root disease not affect tea ? 

Mr. Wricut:—Of course that is a thing for Mr. Petch to reply to. It 
behaves to a certain extent in the same way and the treatment is somewhat similar. 
In the one case itis usually due to Rosselinia and in the other to a fungus called 
Fomes semitostus—a different fungus altogether. Mr. Petch can give you some 
interesting information on that point. 

Mr. Hunt was understood to say that he had seen rubber planted among 
tea become absolutely black and die from disease beginning at the top. The rubber 
was five years old. The tea was perfectly healthy, but the rubber tree was dead. 

Mr. Wriaut :—If it died from a disease beginning at the top, the cause may 
be different from root disease. 

Mr. Hunt:—Well, if you scraped away the earth, you would find a lot of 
greasy matter about the roots. 

Mr. WRIGHT :—In root disease the decay would tend to be from below 
upwards. 

Mr. Hunt :—The tree was practically dead all the way up. There were some 
good branches 10 feet high, but over that the main branches had lost the leaves and 
branches too. 

THE PERIODICITY OF THE PLANT. 

Mr. Smitu :—Have you noticed in your travels that on some places the trees 
are flowering now? 

Mr. WRIGHT :—On estates which have been tapped rather severely the 
periodicity of the plant is all upside down, I mean to say there is a tremendous 
variation. On some estates you will find the trees just putting on their new foliage, 
on others the trees are leafless, and others have not shed their leaves ; you will find 
flowers on those which have recently regained new foliage. 

Mr. SmitH :—I have seena tree in flower with ripe seed. Does that not 
mean death ? 


11 Saps and Exudationss 
Mr. W :—If you attempt to kill most trees you usually get a copious 


blossom which does not usually seed ; it is the last effort to reproduce seed, and there 


is no doubt that the removal of the bark, very frequently, upsets the natural 
periodicity of the plant. The bark is the means whereby the materials in the leaves 
are conducted from above downwards and on which the tree feeds ; if you cut that 
away, it may become a very serious matter if done too often. 


SHOULD A FLOWERING TREE BE TAPPED ? 
Mr. SmitH:—Is it right to tap a tree when it is flowering ? 


Mr. WricHut:—That is a difficult question to decide as far as the yield 
obtainable during that season is concerned. 


Mr. SmirH :—Does it affect the seed? 

Mr. Wricur:—Any treatment will affect the seed in some way or other 
if it is severe enough. The effect of tapping upon seed is a rather complicated 
one. Itis possible to imagine, should you tap trees, you may induce favourable 
characteristics in the seed; if youtrain a tree up to give plenty of bark and 
produce distended latex tubes, it may lead to a similar formation in the seed 
and it may be an advantage to have seeds from tapped trees. But on the 
other hand if the ordinary tapping operation is conducted in a manner which 
threatens the life of the tree, it may lead to deterioration of the seed. It brings 
up the whole subject of whether you can induce characters which can be trans- 
mitted by seed, a difficult question to settle off-hand. 


Mr. Harries:—During February and March I noticed flowers on 4-year-old 
trees, but they never came to anything. They all fell off. 


Mr. WriGuHT :—I think trees have been known to flower and seed when 
24 years old in the Straits; when they are 4 to 5 years old in Ceylon, flowering 
frequently occurs. 


Mr. HARRIES :—But why February and March? 


Mr. WRIGHT :—That is to some extent irregular if it occurs in February 
in Ceylon. The flowers usually come out a month or so after the new leaves 
on a young tree. 


Mr. Harrigs :—But this was a 4-year-old tree. 
Mr. WEATHERALL :—Are you sure it was a rubber tree? (Laughter.) 
INCREASE OF GIRTH AND BARK. 


Mr. B. H. JENKYNS:—Does this increase in the circumference of a tree 
lead to an increased thickness in the bark of the younger tree? It is a physical 
impossibility to tap a young tree. The bark is not thick enough and you go 
into the cambium every time. What I want to know is whether, by increasing 
the girth of the tree as you suggest, you increase the thickness of the bark ? 

Mr.. WRIGHT :—It is rather a complicated and technical point. The cambium 
produces wood internally and bark externally; these tissues are formed in a 
regular manner, so many wood cells being produced for a definite number of bark 
cells. If the cambium produces more wood, it must necessarily produce more 
bark, because the two tissues are produced in definite proportions. That is why— 
in valuing different estates—you can approximately judge the thickness of the 
bark by examining the rings in the wood of the stem, The broader the rings 
of growth in the wood, the thicker the bark. Any increase in growth almost 
invariably means an increase in wood and bark; it is unusual to get one growth 
without the other. 


Mr. JENKyNS:—In a pruned tree of four years old, you would have a 
sufficiently great thickness of bark to get a cut into it, while in an unpruned tree 
of the same age you probably would not. 


f 


Gums, Resins, 12 


Mr. Wricut:—A tree having a circumference of 20 inches would have a 
bark representing to some extent the development of other parts of the tree; 
and if you tap trees much under 20 inches, although many estates are doing 
this, it is hard on the bark and the rest of the tree and must affect its future 
health. 

Mr. SmitH:—And bring on disease? 

Mr. WricHt:—That is a disputed question. 

Mr. SmitH :—But it is more liable to it? 

Mr. WriGHT;:—That is so in some cases. 

THE AGE FOR PRUNING. 


Mr. FRANKLIN:—At what age would you recommend pruning ? 


Mr. Wricut:—I would rather not consider age. The size of trees of the 
same age varies so much. I would first prune at 10 to 15 feet—prune to such a 


level that it will allow you 10 feet to tap. I do not believe that high tapping 


can be considered in the future. 


VARIETIES OF BARK ON PARA TREES. 


Mr. Hunrt:—What accounts for the absolutely different bark on the trees ? 
Some have a polished plain and pink colour and others have a very sawdusty 
and very crumbly bark. They seem to be distinct trees to cut. Is there any 
particular reason for this? 

Mr. WriGuHT :—It is only what occurs in most plants. You are dealing 
with one species, and when you have two million plants it is only natural to 
expect that there should be some variation. 


Mr. Hunt:—The pink bark is a very thin and a high-yielding one? 


Mr. WricHt:—Jumelle, Ule and other botanists have made or recorded 
observations conducted in the forests of the Amazon valley. Like others they 
concluded that the seedlings from five hundred seeds from the same tree might 
produce more varieties than can be detected in the average forest. Itisa natural 
variation and nothing more. Two species of Hevea have been introduced to 
Ceylon, but only Hevea brasiliensis has survived. 

Mr. Hunr:—A gentleman was visiting me, and as far as the growth and 
yield of my rubber was concerned, it comvared very favourably with other places, 
but the characteristic that struck him was the smallness of the leaves compared 
with the trees on other estates. Even on big trees as well as on saplings the 
leaves were all very small. 


Mr. WriGcHT:—You did not think you had got the wrong variety did you ? 

Mr. Hunt:—My yield compared very favourably. i 

Mr. WricHT:— With a tree it is very difficult to make selection experi- 
ments. You have to let it grow into a tree. and by the time you find out its 
real value it is 8 years old, and it is then time to take a rest. 


TAPPING ALL THE YEAR ROUND. 
Mr. SmitH:—Do you believe in tapping all the year round? 


Mr. WricHT:—That is a difficult question to answer right away. We 
have been conducting experiments to determine the best frequency for tapping, 
and it is rather curious that tapping every day has given less rubber than 
tapping every alternate day from trees tapped at Henaratgoda from 26th September 
up to date. The trees tapped every alternate day gave something over 10 Ib. 


13 Saps and Exudations. 


per tree; those tapped every day gave far less. But the worst feature of this 
is that the trees tapped every day have hardly any bark left, and even if such 
frequent tapping had given as muchrubber as tapping every alternate day, the 
loss of bark alorie would have been against tapping every day. 


THE PRICKING SYSTEM. 


Mr. Hunt:—Don’t you think the pricking system is the best thing 
in cutting open the wounds? 


Mr. WriGuHt :—It is a difficult question. I ama strong believer in incision 
instead of excision. The extraction of latex has very little effect on the trees. 
In fact the majority of the plants grow well without any latex. It is the paring 
away of the bark that does the damage. It is only when we cannot get more 
milk by pricking that we pare away the bark. 


Mr. Hunt:—The question of cost per lb. comes in with us. 


Mr. Wricut :—That may be so; but I think the consideration should be how 
much you can get per square foot from the bark. 


Mr. Hunt :—Three lb. in 6 months would be better than 6 lb. in9 months 
to us. 


Mr. WRIGHT :—In some of the experiments we have got approximately one 
ounce of rubber per square inch of bark removed, but we only get such high yields 
when the bark is removed slowly. We getit by incision not excision. By paring 
instead of pricking we have got in some cases yields nearer one ounce per square 
foot instead of one ounce per square inch. It is better to allow the bark to remain 
on the tree for as long a period as possible rather than manufacture large yields 
of rubber from shavings. 


PRICKING versus PARING. 


Mr. WRiGHT—replying to Mr. Jenkyns:—You are the persons to decide 
whether a system of pricking or paring is best. 

Mr. Situ :—If I do not pare, when I put on the pricker, it simply sticks. 

Mr. WriauHT :—I was over an estate last week where they have these drip 
tins. he Superintendent tapped some trees without using the tins, and nearly the 
whole of the rubber coagulated in the cuts. Where the tins were used at the end 
of two hours the water coming out was milky showing ‘that the latex had not 
stopped. There was no scrap in the cut and I was interested, in speaking to the 
gentleman, to hear that he had reduced his scrap 75 per cent by using them. 

Mr. SMITH :—It is a very big order to put them on. 


THE LEFT-HAND AND RIGHT-HAND CUT. 


Mr. Hunt :—Can you tell me if there is any difference between the left-hand 
and the right-hand cut? 


Mr. WRIGHT :—I have recognised no difference whatever, so far as the yield 
of rubber per square inch of bark is concerned. I think most people said they got 
less by the left than by the right. 


Mr. Hunt :—Yes. 


Mr. WRIGHT :—It is perhaps more difficult to cut that way. There is a 
tremendous variation per square inch over every tree. 
THE VARIETIES OF PARA RUBBER TREES, 


Mr. Hunt :—Did not the man, who introduced Para rubber to Ceylon, bring 
six different varieties ? 


Gums, Resins, 14 ) 


Mr. WRIGHT :—I have never seen correspondence to that effect. The plants 
were sent on to Peradeniya. Some were Hevea Brasiliensis and others Hevea 
Spruciana. The latter was tried and proved to bea failure at that time. I hear 
that sometimes in the Amazon district they tap both and mix the two of them 
with Sapium aucuparium. 

CLOVER GRASS IN PLANTATIONS. 

Mr. FRANKLIN :—Can you tell us whether the small native clover grass 

would do any harm if it was allowed to grow ? 


Mr. WRiGuHT :—The clover you mention, if it is the same as I am thinking of, 
is really a useful manure and is moderately rich ia nitrogen. 

Mr. FRANKLIN :—If the rubber is clean weeded and it is allowed to grow in 
lines, would it be a good thing? 

Mr, HarRizs :—I think it is the same weed as grows in the Kurunegala 
district coconut estates. 

Mr. WRIGHT :—As long as it does not get round the rubber trees and make 
a mess, it is all right. 

Mr. JENKYNS :—Is it not more like a violet than a clover leaf ? 

Mr. HARRIES :—It grows along the ground. 

WHAT IS THE BEST SYSTEM OF TAPPING? 


Mr. Hunt :—Can you tell us which is the best system of tapping as regards 
the future vitality of the tree; the herring bone, spiral, semi-spiral or V systems 
of tapping—which do you think the best to do? 


Mr. WRIGHT :—Presuming that each system is carried out properly? It is 
rather an interesting point. If you work out the rubber obtained by tapping, you 
find the maximum yield in the same period of time is given by the full spiral. You 
get more rubber in a given period of time from the full spiral than from the herring 
bone or by the half-spiral ; but when you come to work out the weight of rubber 
obtained per unit of bark excised you find the full spiral gives you the minimum 
of rubber per square inch of bark cut away, and it may be considered the best 
system for places requiring thinning out. The half-spiral, though it gives a low 
yield in a given time, gives the maximum per unit of bark cut away. 


THE BEST PART TO PRACTISE TAPPING ON. 

Mr. Hunt :—Suppose you are going to do bad tapping—everyone must do a 
certain amount in teaching coolies and so on--is it better that the cambium should 
be cut near the ground or further up; or would it be better to erect staging and 
let them cut further up ? 

Mr. WRIGHT :—I am inclined to think that where you think there is very 
much risk you should give them a branch—the first branch you can get—-rather 
than give them any part of the main stem. After all is said and done, the tree 
itself is a moderately hardy one. 

Mr. Hunt :—You would get no rubber there, the bark is so small. 


Mr. WRIGHT :—If anything I would put them on the upper part above 6 or 10 
feet. I think you will have quite enough to do to attend to the first 6 feet when 
you have a few thousand acres going. I do not think it matters very much what 
part of the tree you damage; itis so hardy. We have rather 


AN INTERESTING TREE IN HENARATGODA. 


In January, 1908, it was killed by some means or other and was cut off, about four 
feet from the ground. It is waterlogged and seems quite rotten, but if you tap 
that bark which has shown no signs of life for three solid years you will get rubber. 


15 Saps and Hxudations. 


We are tapping that apparently dead stem every alternate day and preparing 
biscuits from the latex. It is a very hardy tree and I would recommend putting 
the cooly on the top part of it. Of course, the cooly can practise on jak trees until 
he gets into the habit of feeling the wood. 


A MEMBER :—They use an axe in the Amazon. 

Mr. WRIGHT :—That is the native method. They don’t cover the same parts 
every day. They go to a group of trees and work that and then go to another 
group, for three months at a time, and then go back. 


Mr. Hunt :—I do not see how we are going to be able in the future to do 
more than work patches for six months at a time. 


Mr. Wricut :—I am glad to hear you say that. People think it is going to 
be an advantage to let their trees grow up toa huge height, but you will never be 
able to tap above six feet when you have got 60,000 acres in bearing in Ceylon. That 
is one of the greatest points to consider. Ten feet at the outside will be quite 
enough. 


Mr Hunt :—-That would be a stunted tree. 
Mr. WRiGHT:—AIl the branches tend to grow upwards and not horizontally. 
THE MOST EVEN RENEWAL OF THE BARK. 

Mr. JENKYNS :—Which system of tapping will give the most even renewal of 
bark without any pits or hollows ? 

Mr. Wricut :—Naturally the full spiral will give the most even stem, but I 
do not think there is such a great advantage in having an even stem except from an 
artistic standpoint. 

Mr. JENKYNS :—For instance in the herring-bone system there must be some 
of the original bark left and you cannot get a perfectly even bark. 

Mr. WriGHT :—I wound not recommend the spiral system simply because it 
gives an even bark. . 

Mr. JENKYNS :—But you want an even bark for the second tapping. 

Mr. WRIGHT:—You want to get a system which allows you to cut in a 
definite system from above downwards through all parts of the trunk. The half 
spiral does that; so does the herring-bone and the full spiral, but, of course, in all 
other systems except the full spiral you are apt to get one side cut and the other 
side not cut. 

‘“WARTY ” TRUNKS. 

Mr. JENKYNS :—I have seen old rubber trees so knotted with lumps as big 
as your fist that you could not get any surface to cut on. 

Mr. WRIGHT :—Once these are produced, it is difficult to do anything, 

Mr. JENKYNS :—The idea in my mind was what is the best system to avoid 
that and produce an even renewal of bark. 

Mr. WRIGHT :—The best thing where the tree is knotted or warty is to leave 
it alone and tap a higher part. These knots often work themselves out. 

Mr. HARRiES—referring to the illustration in Mr. Wright’s book of 
Tapping on Arampola estate, Kurunegala—asked if after the Vs had been healed 
over they could not extract more latex by pricking them ? 

Mr. WriGcaT:—If you allow too long a period between the paring and the 
pricking to elapse, you lose all the value. After the first cut the wound response 
is developed and the milk flows to heal up the wound, and when you prick you cut 
the inflated laticiferous tubes and get a larger flow. 


.Gums, Resins, 16 


Mr. HARRIES :—You get a second lot by pricking ? 

Mr. WRIGHT :—Yes. 

Mr. Hunt :—What is the actual function of latex in rubber ? 

Mr. WricHt :—Ask me another. (Laughter.) 

Mr. Hunt :—Why does it rush to the wound ? 

Mr. WRriGHT :—It has been suggested that it may prevent insects getting in. 
It is, however, a minor point. Think how many plants at home and abroad grow 
without laticiferous tubes? Most people have concluded that latex acts more as 
a water storehouse than anything else. If it had any important functions, you 
would expect that after you had taken 25 lb. of rubber from one tree, it would show 
some bad signs. 

THE QUALITY OF RUBBER. 


Mr. Hunt—asked if they tapred every third day, although ines might not 
get the same quantity, did he think they |would get a better quality? Did not the 
extra time allow the latex to mature ? 

Mr. WricurT :—It would not be sufficiently prominent to influence the present 
market value of rubber. I do not think any difference would occur which would 
be capable of being detected by the man who buys the rubber. 

Mr. Hunt :—The injured rubber would travel up slower through the bark 
than if you were tapping every day. You would get a bigger percentage of rubbea 
than water ? 

Mr. WIRGHT :—We have been working out the quantity of rubber per known 
volume of latex from trees tapped for the first time, and more often than not the 
first tapping gives 50 per cent of water. In some case tapping the renewed bark we 
have got 90 per cent of water. and in most places—in the areas most frequently 
tapped—the percentage of water increased. You would expect that the water 
simply filters through one cell to another. Our experiments prove, as far as we have 
gone—they may be entirely contradicted afterwards—that we have got better 
results in weight of rubber for a given time and for a unit of excision by tapping 
every alternate day. 

Mr. Hunt :—By tapping, you mean any method of extracting rubber: 

Mr. WRIGHT :—It is merely a question of opening the milk tubes. We have 
up to the present got the best results from tapping every alternate day. 


A POINT ON PRUNING. ; 
The CHAIRMAN :—How would you prune a tree 18 months old and 20 feet high ? 
Mr. WRIGHT :—We are using American pruners. The length of the pruner 
is about the same as the wall of this building. The cooly reaches to the top of the 
20 feet and he just cuts off the top. You cannot do the real true thumb-nail pruning 
in that way. 
Mr. SmitTH :— Would you cut it down to 15 feet? 


Mr. WRicHT :—No. You want to leave plenty of green stem so that lateral 
branches may arise. It is too late to prune if you let the trees grow to a certain 
height without sacrificing the whole principle. In your case I should be inclined 
to cut the terminal part away with just a few leaves. 

Mr. SmrirH :—I have pleasure in proposing a hearty vote of thanks to Mr. 
Wright for the most interesting lecture he has givenus today. Mr. Wright is, 
unfortunately, unable to come round our estates this visit; but I hope he will be 
down again shortly and spend two or three days in the district. We will be able 
to show him some very fine properties, I think. (Applause.) 


The vote of thanks was accorded with much heartiness.—Ceylon Obsenuer: 


as. 4 Ke ia 


17 Saps and Exudations. 
The Cultivation of the Castilloa Rubber Tree. 


THE METHODS EMPLOYED ON A NICARAGUA PLANTATION, II. 


Another point in the number of cuts is the time and labour in making the 
cuts. Six cuts to a tree is twice as much labour as three cuts, but if it does not give 
twice as much rubber it would be cheaper to make three cuts and tap a large number 
of treesina day. The tapping is now being done with only three cuts per tree: one 
at the base, one at five feet from the ground, and one half-way between these. 
Tapping above five feet necessitates the use of ladders, and this would mean more 
labour and would hardly pay with young trees. I believe the making of four cuts, 
the top one six feet from the ground, would give enough more than three cuts to 
pay if it is not too great an injury to the tree. 


Three methods of tapping have been used by planters around here. The 
first is the native method of tapping with a machete. Many wild trees have been 
killed by this method, and for that reason it was condemned at the beginning. 
I do not think the method is as bad as it has been considered. I believe the 
wild trees died because of the number of cuts, the short distance between them, 
the tapping of roots and spurs, etc., rather than owing to the depth of single cuts. 
Of course, the cuts are crude, and often expose too much wood, but the method is 
not so bad asit has been considered, and if in the future when the trees are large 
and the bark very thick and tough, it is found that the tapping tool cannot be used, 
there would be no great danger in using the machete. 


The second method is the single incision method. This method isfounded on 
the belief that it is dangerous to remove any bark from the tree. In order not to 
dig out a channel for the latex to run in, the cuts are made short enough to collect 
all the latex from each cut in one cup. The tapping is done witha chisel a little 
over an inch long, and a ring of cuts of this length is made around the tree in place 
of one cut. This method has a number of disadvantages, It involves a lot of labour 
to make the cuts and place the cups on the tree, etc. It requiresa large number 
of cups, and these cups must afterwards be washed. The number of cups which 
must be placed on the trees is so great that the men cannot place them carefully, 
therefore they frequently do not fit on the trees, and the chink between must be 
filled with a bit of mud, which gets into the latex and makes it much harder 
to manipulate. This last objection can be remedied by a different form of cup. 


The third method of tapping is with a tool. This method makes the same 
sort of incision as the machete, but makes it much more neatly, and no particular 
skill is necessary to do it. The tool cuts outa V-shaped piece of bark, leaving a 
grove in which the latex can flow. The cut is made somewhat obliquely, and 
the latex runs vut at the lower end where the cups are placed. Generally two cuts 
overlapping at their lower end, and each passing halfway round the tree are made. 
The cuts have been generally made nearly halfway round, but a small space between 
the two left at the upper ends, so as to be sure that the tree would not be greatly 
injured. I donot think this is necessary, as the trees are apparently not injured 
if the cuts overlap at each end. Idonotthink that the herringbone method is 
necessary or advisable for Castilloa. The vertical channel leading all of the latex 
into one cup at the base I should imagine would be injurious,. and the yield of 
Castilloa is so great that a very large cup would be necessary. The cups now being 


used are filled, or nearly filled, by the two cuts. The cups at the bottom cuts 
sometimes run over. 


The healing of the cut is another matter which must be considered. 


The general idea has been that the cut must not be made too deeply, and this 


is true to a certain extent. Trees here show, also, that it must, not be made 
3 


Gums, Resins, 18 


too shallow. Between the bark and the wood is the growing part of the tree known 
ascambium. This part alone has the power of forming new bast and new wood. 
If a cut is made which does not go into the cambium, the cut will not heal 
over with new material. Of course it will dry up and turn black, and in this way 
protect the tissue under it, but the piece of bark taken out is gone for ever. On the 
other hand a cut made just to the cambium will heal quickly. The first signs of 
healing appear between one and two weeks after the cut is made. and in two months 
at the latest the cut is well healed. In time the whole cut will fill with new 
material which contains latex, and can be tapped again if necessary. 


Another strong reason why the tool should cut to the cambium is that not 
only does the shallow cut miss cutting some “milk tubes,” but it misses a very 
large proportion of the ‘“‘milk tubes.” The “milk tubes” are formed by the 
cambium in layers. The ones closest to the outside bark were formed when the 
tree was very young, and small in circumference, say eighteen or twenty inches. 
The spaces between these tubes are filled by medullary rays which run from the 
pith outward through the wood to the outside bark. Therefore the outermost 
layers contain very few milk tubes, the next more, ete., until the innermost layer 
has the most, since it was formed when the circumference was greatest. This is 
borne out by facts. A much larger yield is actually obtained by cutting into the 
cambium than by cutting almost into it. 


Another thing to be avoided is cutting too deeply. When a cut goes through 
the cambium into the wood, the healing commences at the edges of the cut cambium 
and has to spread slowly, making new cambium before it can make new bark or 
wood. If too much wood is exposed in this case it will often dry up before the 
cambium can heal over, and in that case it never heals. I have seen an old machete 
cut with half-an-inch of wood exposed, the bark thoroughly healed all around it. 
I was told that it had been that way without healing for two years. 


The shape of the groove cut in the tree is a caseforinvestigation. Whether 


the V-shape should be wide or narrow is under dispute. Those who do not believe 
in taking away bark would argue that it should be as narrow as possible, and 
yet hold the milk. At least one planter here thinks that the wider cuts yield 
better. I see no reason why they should except that possibly the flow would 
be checked in a narrower cut by its becoming blocked with rubber. I am 
inclined to think that the narrower the cut the better, and that it might be 
possible to have such a tool that the groove would be cut entirely in the outer 
half of the bark, the inner tubes being cut by a single blade cutting to the 
cambium. Such a blade could hardly cut the wood, but could cut all milk 
tubes. A pocket knife cut heals more quickly than any other, but of course makes 
no groove for the milk to flow in. 


WHEN TO TAP, 


The time to tap is another point. There appears to be no reason why 
the trees should not be tapped at any time during the rainy season. I should 
imagine that the driest season, in March and April, would be a poor time, but 
I have not been here during that season. Rain generally makes the milk rather 
watery, and makes it flow more freely, but I have never seen it so watery that 
it would not pay to tap, except in a tree which had been recently tapped. 
Tapping in heavy rain would not do, as it would wash the latex, which does 
not flow into the cups, and might fill up the cups and spill the latex in them. 

Temperature affects the flow of latex very noticeably. The yield of rubber 
ismuch greater in the early morning than at any other time of the day, and 
always decreases towards noon and increases towards night. This is not so notice- 
able on cool cloudy days. It would probably not be so noticeable in a shady 


Mis), 


19 Saps and Exudations. 


plantation, and for this reason some people have claimed that shade-grown trees 
yield more. I believe that the reason temperature affects the flow is because a 
large amount of the water is evaporated, and the latex is more solid and does not 
flow so freely. 

COLLECTING CUPS. 


In gathering the latex the first consideration is the cups. The cups now used 
are made of sheet-tin cut to the right shape, bent round, and soldered on one edge. 
The side which goes against the tree is cut in a curve which can be made to fit any 
sized tree by slightly changing the angle against the tree. On each side of the 
curve isa pin which is driven into the tree to hold it. These cups are cone shaped, 
and on this account poor, as the latex coagulates in the point, and is hard to wash 
out. A round base would be an improvement. A second improvement would be 
to do away with the pins, make the cup of somewhat stiffer material, sharpen the 
curved edge, and fasten it to the tree by pushing the edge under tlie bark. This 
leaves no space between cup and tree for the latex to run through. The cups now 
employed can be used this way when the pins come off, as they frequently do, and 
if they were somewhat stiffer would be all right in that respect. The cups now 
in use are rather small. Their capacity is about sixty cc., or half a gill. 


A cup with a capacity of one gill should be sufficient for trees up to nine or 


ten years old unless the yield increases unexpectedly. 


COLLECTING THE ScRAP.—Gathering of latex consists not only of taking 
what runs into the cup, but also what remains on the tree. The first latex to flow is 
rather watery, and runs into the cups. This flows only a short time, giving nearly 
a cupful with the best-yielding six-years-old trees sometimes giving more at the base 
of thetree. This latex flows slowly and for some time, but has ceased in about fifteen 
minutes after tapping. This latex can be removed with a spoon or with the fingers. 
A small amount is always left in the cut which cannot be removed as latex, and 
when coagulated there is too little of it to be worth removing. The only way to get 
this latex is not to do any spooning, but to allow the latex to coagulate in the cuts 
and remove itin a fewdays. Rubber coagulated in this way is very clean it the 
trees have not too much moss on them. The objection to this is that if a heavy rain 
comes before the latex is coagulated it is all lost. It might bea good plan to gather 
in this manner in the dryer times. 


THE MANIPULATION OF THE LATEX OF CASTILLOA. 


WASHING.—When the latex is brought in from the field it contains small 
pieces of bark and moss (also mud in the single incision method) which must be got 
rid of. The bark and moss can be strained away. A certain amount of the bark, 
however, is very small and will go through a fine sieve. This bark can be taken out 
by straining through cheese-cloth, but the cloth does not last long and often breaks 
through the straining. Practically all the fine bark can be removed in the washing, 
and soit is not necessary to strain it out. It is hard tostrain pure latex, and 
generally water must be added to it first. It can be strained pure by working it 
through the sieve with the fingers, but this breaks up the bark, and much more goes 
through than ordinarily would do so. It might prove desirable not to add any water 
to the latex during its manipulation, as a small amount of latex is unavoidably lost 
by washing, but this would not make much difference in only one washing. 


Washing when mud is inthe latex and whenit is not are two different 
things. The globules of rubber will not rise to the top nearly as quickly when mud 
isin it as when thereis no mud. The first washing takes two or three hours with 
mud, and about fifteen minutes without. In either case a black water forms and 
must be run off. There seems to be no limit to the number of times which the latex 
can be washed and still give a dark-coloured water, but there is a limit to the rising 


Gums, Resins, 20 


of the rubber globules. When the latex comes from the tree the rubber globules are 
in masses. These masses get broken up by the straining, and still further broken up 
by the washing until by the third washing nearly all the globules are separated. 
These single globules become water-soaked and get heavier. Each washing settles 
more slowly. The single globule, being microscopic, cannot be seen, and is lost if 
widely separated. Sometimes the third washing refuses to settle at all. Besides all 
these, there is a danger of coagulation if latex is washed too much. The latex 
behaves very irregularly in this respect. Apparently the temperature affects it as 
much as anything else. Ona warm day it sometimes coagulates at the first washing. 
The rubber coagulated in this manner forms in a large cake at the top of the wash- 
ing can, and must be cut up and the water squeezed out by aclothes wringer or 
rolling pin. This rubber is strong, clean and fairly dry, but is not uniform, and 
never can be as dry as thinner strips coagulated regularly by the blotter method. 


Coagulation can be avoided by washing the latex carefully stirring it pretty 
often, and not letting it stand long after it has settled. It also might be prevented 
by the addition of some chemical, such as formaldehyde or ammonia. Formaldehyde 
is placed in the latex in the field to keep it from coagulating. I have never observed 
anything which proved that it did this, and I have sometimes seen latex brought in 
with small pieces of rubber floating init. All these things go to show that too much 
washing is bad. Whether the black water is harmful to rubber or not, I cannot 
determine. Pieces of rubber washed once, twice, and three times all have the same 
strength, elasticity, and cleanliness from bark. There is a difference in the colour ; 
that washed most being lightest, the unwashed rubber being almost black. There is 
also a difference in stickiness. Unwashed rubber loses its stickiness if dried long 
enough. Rubber which is unwashed or washed very slightly resembles most nearly 
in colour a piece of Ceylon Para. 

As stated before, the fine bark can nearly all be got rid of by washing. This 
is due to the fact that the bark is heavy, and settles in the bottom of the washing 
can and runs out with the first rush of black water. The latex may be stirred and 
allowed to settle for a few minutes, and then the first black water be run off, carry- 
ing the bark that has settled withit. Itis then stirred again, etc., each stirring 
loosening more bark from the latex and allowing it to settle, until practically all 
is gone. 

COAGULATION—WET AND DRY METHODS. 

There appear to me to be two general classes of coagulation, which I call wet 
coagulation and dry coagulation. Dry coagulation is the taking away of water 
in some manner, leaving the solid parts of the latex globules, which are nothing 
more or less than rubber. Wet coagulation is the process, of addition of some 
chemical, or of boiling or some similar method which causes the albumin to coagu- 
late, drawing the latex globules together while still wet. The rubber formed by dry 
coagulation should be free from moisture, and generally is so, because the rubber is 
formed when still wet. Unless it is in a thin sheet, however, moisture is shut 
inside of it where it cannot be easily got out, Wet coagulation has not always this 
objection, for the methods used in Ceylon would be classed as wet coagulation, and 
yet they make very good dry rubber. 


Of dry coagulation the simplest method is to allow the latex to remain 
on the tree until coagulated. This makes good rubber, which is pretty clean 
unless trees have made moss on them. This rubber is not always dry if it rains 
between the time of coagulation and time of gathering. If allowed to stay on 
the tree very long it becomes very sticky, which I believe is due to getting 
wet and drying out again many times. I think this is the reason why people 
state that sun-dried rubber is sticky. It has been my experience that rubber 
dried in the sun is not stickier than other rubber if it is not in the sun too 


21 Saps and Hxudations. 


long, when it is likely to be in the rain also. I believe that rubber could be 
easily sun-dried through glass without its becoming sticky. Another way is to 
drain off the surplus water and to dry the latex globules remaining until they 
coagulate. Thisis the blotting paper method. Blotting paper hastens the draining 
by soaking up a good deal of water, but there is no reason why this method 
could not be employed with any other paper through which water would drain, 
such as chemical filter paper. The question of durability and cost of the papers 
would come in here. Some objections have been made to the blotting paper 
on the ground of expense. It is thought that every sheet of rubber means a 
sheet of blotting paper of the same size. This is not so, as every sheet of 
blotter will coagulate, eight, ten, or even more sheets of rubber before it is 
used up. It must be remembered that there are two processes in dry coagulation. 
First the surplus water drains off and the globules are left; each globule con- 
tains water which must be got rid of before coagulation takes place unless the 
albumins are coagulated, when it becomes a wet coagulation. The blotter will 
not soak up this water in the globule, but it can be got rid of by slow drying 
in the air or by artificial heat of the sun’s rays. In the case of a porous tile 
the water is apparently soaked out of the globule immediately the rubber 
coagulates. I have not examined this*rubber microscopically, and cannot be 
sure that the globules are free from water. Pressure will also take away the 
water from the globules. Pressing between two blotters makes good rubber, 
and pressing between two porcelain tiles still better, because the tile is more 
durable. Another pressure method is to hang the latex up in a cloth bag, 
allowing all the surplus water to drain off, and then to exert pressure on the 
outside of the bag. This would not make uniform rubber, and it would be 
likely to be thick. The objection to blotting paper has been that the paper 
adheres to the rubber. Most of this can be scrubbed off with a brush, but 
this necessitates a good deal of labour. However, very little rubber will come off 
on the paper if it is watched carefully and taken off at the right moment. 


COAGULATION BY CHEMICALS AND HEAT. 


Wet coagulations are of two sorts: coagulation by chemicals, and coagu- 
lation by physical forces, such as heat. In the last category there is only one 
certain way that I know of, that of boiling. Coagulation by the boiling 
takes place differently at different times. Sometimes the latex coagulates before 
reaching the boiling point, and at other times not until the water is half boiled 
away. What makes this differenceI do not know. Boiled rubber is full of 
moisture, is irregular in shape, and appears to me to be weaker than other 
rubbers. It appears that the more boiling necessary, the weaker the rubber. I 
have not been able to coagulate by simply adding boiling water to the latex 
and leaving it to stand, as Dr. Weber recommended. The coagulation of latex 
before it is thoroughly washed is probably a heat coagulation. It is possible 
that cold, vacuum, electricity, etc., might be outside influences that could affect 
coagulation. 

COAGULATION BY CHEMICALS has some drawbacks. Most chemicals 
appear to weaken rubber. Chemicals are likely to be costly, and many chemical 
coagulations are uncertain, and depend on other conditions, such as temperature, 
age of latex, etc. Latex which has been a day or two out of the trees will 
coagulate by chemicals much more more quickly than fresh latex. 

ALCOHOL, of all chemicals I have used, makes the strongest rubber, and 
coagulates the most quickly, It appears to have no other action, and to produce 
no colour change on the latex or black water. The objection to alcohol is the 
expense, as the duty on itis heavy. The preparation known as sulpho-naphthol 
isa quick coagulant, but it takes some quantity of it to coagulate, and it makes 


Gums, Resins, 22, 


a very weak rubber. The coal-tar which is in it seems to enter into some sort 
of union with the rubber, making it sticky and destroying its strength and 
elasticity. If an excess of strong sulpho-naphthol is used, a black pitchy substance 
with the consistency of chewing-gum is formed. 


Acip will coagulate toa certain extent. Sulphuric acid when strong will 
coagulate immediately; when weak it does not coagulate at all. Rubber coagu- 
lated by it is generally weak in proportion to the strength of the acid. Even 
the strongest rubber formed by this means! is eaten on the surface. Limejuice 
will coagulate under certain conditions, but just what these conditions are I do 
not know. I have not been able to coagulate by any other acids. No other 
chemicals that I know of give certain coagulations. 


Sodium carbonate and calcium chloride have coagulated on certain occasions, 
but this could not be repeated. There appears to be sometimes a sort of half-coagu- 
lation. The latex rises to the surface, forming a thick sheet which cannot be blown 
apart like ordinary latex, but whichis not sufficiently solid to pick up. This half- 
coagulation is affected by weak solutions of acid ; sulphuric, hydrochloric, nitric and 
lime juice; by calcium chloride, sodium hydroxide, and sodium carbonate. No 
matter how long such latex stands, it will not become rubber until something 
further is done to it. On the whole, dry coagulation is better than wet. I am of 
opinion that the best coagulation will be found to be pressure between porous 
tiles. This would make dry uniform rubber. It could be done mechanically, 
and the tile could be made so as to print a plantation name or letter on the rubber. 
—The Quarterly Journal, Liverpool. Institute of Tropical Research. 


(To be concluded.) 


Notes on the Cultivation and Manufacture of Rubber. 
OBSERVATIONS IN I'HE MALAY PENINSULA. 


PLANTING.—EHven taking into consideration the increased expense, baskets 
are distinctly preferable to stumps. 


DISTANCES FOR PLANTING.—Opinion still varies greatly as to what is the best 
distance to plant. Observations made on some of the principal estates on the Malay 
Peninsula lead to the belief that anything less than 100 trees to the acre is an extra- 
vagance, which present experience does not warrant. Anything more than 400 to 
the acre has not been attempted so far as is known, though the gardens at Singapore 
may be quoted as an exception. 


It remains to be proved whether or no close planting will ultimately give a 


larger yield per acre than wide. That the yield will be largely in favour of close 
planting during the first two or three years of tapping there can be no doubt, but 


how long this advantage will last has yet to be ascertained. It has been advocated — 


that the trees should be planted close at first and subsequently thinned ; though it is 
open to doubt if in the case of a field planted, say 10 x 10 ft., and thinned to 
20 x 20 ft., the yield after the thinning will ever be as good as that from a field 
planted at the wider distance. 


In view of the percentage of trees of comparatively poor growth that occurs 
under all systems of planting, it seems advisable to plant at first such a number as 
will provide a margin sufficient to maintain the number of trees to the acre at not 
less than that desired when tkese failures have been cut out. In cases where wide 
planting has been supplemented at a later date by intermediate rows of trees, these 
appear to have universally failed. 


Everything considered it would seem 30 x 10ft., representing about 144 trees 


to the acre, is the distance which offers the greatest advantages, giving as it does a 
sufficient margin for cutting out afew weak trees, while the 30 feet between the 


i 


‘a ipsa 


Mad wy 


23 Saps and Hxudations. 


rows should give them all the space they are likely to need, and when the trees are 
tapped is a more convenient arrangement than one where they are further apart in 
the rows. 


Soi, AND DRAINAGE.—Experience has not as yet taught us what soil or 
situation best suits the Hevea Brasiliensis both with respect to growth and yield of 
latex. Undoubtedly the most rapid growth of young trees is to be found on the 
alluvial lands of the Peninsula. That this advantage will be permanently main- 
tained we have no proof. On the other hand, it may be found that the higher land 
where the roots can go down to a greater depth—a tap-root being the Hevea’s most 
characteristic point—will compensate the tree for the poorer quality of the soil by 
affording it a much larger cubic space to draw upon. Since in the alluvial land the 
tree frequently reaches water at a depth of two or three feet, while in the higher 
land unlimited depth is available, every foot by which the mean water level is 
lowered gives 400 additional cubic feet of feeding space to each tree, supposing them 
planted 20 x 20 feet. 


CULTIVATION.—There is a very wide difference of opinion with regard to the 
mode of cultivation, many people preferring to have no other crop on the ground 
with the rubber, while others consider that sucha sacrifice, where a catch crop is 
remunerative is not warranted by the advantage that may possibly accrue to the 
rubber. 


Coffee, tapioca and sugar represent the three principal catch crops in use 
in the peninsula ; and in almost all cases where they occur, the land has been under 
that cultivation before the rubber was planted. The two latter have been made the 
object of much undeserved abuse, chiefly at the hands of people who have had no 
experience of them. Any damage the trees may suffer may with certainty be attri- 
buted to want of care in the methods of cultivation required by these crops, rather 
than to any loss the soil may suffer by their presence, while the thorough tillage 
incidental to their cultivation must be of great benefit to the soil. Numerous other 
catch crops are to be seen, but only on a small scale, and in no instance do the rubker 
trees appear to be harmed by their presence. 


Where there is no catch crop, there is alsoa difference of opinion as to the 
advisability of keeping the ground absolutely clean or otherwise. Where junglehas 
been felled for planting rubber, itis no doubtan economy never to let weeds or grass 
take firm hold; but in the case of land already under grass, no harm can be done 
—provided that a space near the root of the tree be kept clear and the whole 
occasionally mown down by the scythe, and in this way even Lalang will die out 
when the trees shade the ground. 


PRUNING, &C.—As yet very little has been done in this direction, but it 
would seem from experiments made recently that trees topped at the age of about 
nine months show a marked advantage over trees that have not been so treated. 

TaPpPinG.—There is still a lack of knowledge and diversity of practice with 
regard to tapping throughout the day as against morning and evening only. It 
may be found that the loss that is undoubtedly sustained by the former practice is 
counterbalanced by its convenience. 


As regards the methods of tapping there seems to be a consensus of opinion, 
and rightly so, that the half herring-bone is best for the tree and most convenient 
for the tapper, and in all probability this method will be generally adopted. 


As to the age when tapping should begin there is no hard-and-fast rule, but 
when the trees have a girth of 20 inches at 3 feet from the ground there is not the 
slighest reason to delay the extraction of whatever latex they will yield by 
judicious tapping. Itis a fallacy to delay tapping after trees have attained that 
girth, on the score of their being too young, and much valuable rubber throughout 


Gums, Resins, 24 


the Malay Peninsula is being left ungathered for that reason, as also in many instances 
for want of experienced labourfor tapping. This loss will inno way be compen- 
sated for by any superiority in yield in the future of the trees left untapped; rather 
the contrary. 

MANUFACTURE.—As in everything connected with the cultivation of the 
rubber tree there is still much to be learned in the conversion of latex into dry 
rubber. Much has been done during the last two years in this direction, but there is 
no doubt thatas yet plantation rubber does not attain the standard of strength set 
by the wild product. This may be entirely accounted for by the youth of the trees ; 
but, on the other hand, the method of curing may be partially to blame and no 
way has as yet been found of in any way impregnating the latex with an antiseptic 
agent to obtain the results attained in the case of the wild Para by the use of the 
smoke of the manioc nut. 


DryiInG.—It seems certain that with an atmosphere which, as arule, so 
nearly approaches saturation, drying without artificial aid can never be satisfactory 
—on the other hand, anything much over 110 Fahrenheit must be regarded as 
dangerous to the rubber—which leaves us very small scope for increasing the 
moisture-absorbing power of the air by heating it. Drying the rubber by means of 
Calcium Chloride does not seem a satisfactory solution. What is wanted, it would 
seem, is some process—both continuous and efficient—of drying the rubber at a 
moderate temperature. 


Another point, wherein the planters are at a great advantage, is that there 
isno standard or test for their product which they can apply. The buyers are 
understood to price the rubber simply by its appearance and feel, and to pay 
no attention to any test or analysis that may be put before them. If there was 
some standard of strength or elasticity for the rubber, the planters would 
have something to which they could work. 

J. F. R. 
Penang, 15th May, 1906. 


THE EXPORTATION AND PACKING OF HEVEA SEEDS. 


Under this heading some notes have been published in the ‘Journal 
d’ Agriculture Tropicale” by Monsieur Ulysse Bernard. On account of the fine 
quality of the rubber from Hevea brasiliensis it is not surprising, he remarks, 
that those countries owning colonies sufficiently hot and moist for the cultiva- 
tion of the tree have made numerous efforts to take away Brazil’s monopoly 
of the production which that country has held up to the present. 

Two factors, however, prevent the rapid extension of Hevea cultivation 
in the colonies; one is the difficulty foreign countries have in procuring Hevea — 
seeds (Brazil having interdicted the export of plants and seeds from the country) ; 
the other is the ease with which the seeds lose their germinating powers when 
long distance transport is necessary. 


PROHIBITIVE DUTY ON CEYLON SEED. 


The writer then refers to the suggested prohibitive export duty on rubber 
seeds in Ceylon and the Malay States, which happily was not carried through, 
and proceeds :— 

This project is now a dead letter, the Government not approving of the 
proposition of the planters. We know that the English Government in general 
has a certain repugnance to such prohibitive taxes which never succeed in 
preventing the propagation of any cultivation while constituting a very great 
inconvenience to the commercial transactions of the country. Besides, it seems 


25 Saps and Exudations. 


—according to Berkhout—that Brazil is thinking of withdrawing the prohibitive 
export duties which were levied on Para seed; which indeed have only succeeded 
in losing for them the price of the seed sold by the English while the culti- 
vation has developed just the same. Further, by the mere fact of this exaggerated 
protection a dangerous illusion of a non-existent security has been given to the 
people, while in reality the Far East has become a terrible menace to the future 
rubber export industry of Brazil. There may well be in Brazil a repetition of what 
occurred in the South America Republics in connection with quinine; the formal 
prohibition did not prevent the secret export of seeds which were the origin 
of the magnificent cultivations in Java, which, after a short time, have ruined 
the exploitation of the tree in its native countries. 


DIFFICULTIES IN SEED TRANSPORT. 


We have said that the germination of Hevea seeds, after a long voyage, 
presents numerous deceptions. The Dutch East Indies have had experience of 
this. In September, 1904, 50,000 Hevea seeds were ordered from Ceylon by the 
Forest Department; not a single seed germinated. An identical result followed 
an order for 25,000 seeds made on a plantation in the island of Malacca by Dr. 
Treub, of the Buitenzorg garden, now Director of Agriculture of the Dutch Indies. 

During last year M. Van Den Bussche was commissioned by the Dutch 
Government to proceed to the Malay States for the purpose of studying the 
cultivation of the Hevea. Previous to his departure M. Berkhout had asked 
him to send him Hevea seed packed in different ways and to try, besides, the 
effect of an anesthetic such as ether on preserving the germinative faculty. 
To obtain the same results benzine was substituted for ether, and this had the 
effect of burning the seeds; none of those which came in contact with the 
benzine germinated. 


A package despatched from Penang on September 18, 1905, arrived on 
November Ist at Wageningen (Holland) the seat of the Colonial School of 
Agriculture at which M. Berkhout occupies one of the principal chairs. The 
seeds were packed as follows :— 

Nos. 1 and 2, wood charcoal soaked with benzine. 

No. 3. wood charcoal not soaked with benzine. 

No. 4, dried leaves. 

No. 5, seeds dried very carefully and packed in sand. 

No. 6, wood sawdust. 

No. 7, wood sawdust soaked with benzine. 

The seeds were sown, on arrival, in a small bed traversed by the pipes 
which heated the green-house, which produced a uniform and sustained degree of 
heat; the seeds were covered with lem 5, of sand to give them sufficient moisture. 

They were examined every two days, and as they germinated were 
transplanted into small pots. The following table shows the observations made 
during the course of the germination, from 1st to 27th November. The result 
was a total of 63 germinations out of 189 seeds sown, making 33 per cent; the 
rates of partial success given by each kind of packing were :— 


No. 1 and 2 nil No. 5 46% 
No. 3 66% No. 6 25% 
No. 4 46% No. 7 nil 


This indicates that packing in dry layers may give satisfactory results 
if the transport does not exceed a longer period than 6 weeks. For a voyage 
of much longer duration packing in a moist medium will be preferable; in thiscase » 
the seeds must not be too tightly packed so that the rootlets may not get 
interlaced and so be broken when taken out for the seed bed. 

4 


Gums, Resins, 26 


The price of Hevea seed has gone up considerably during late years, 
and in Ceylon last year went up to R35 per 1,000. On the other hand accord- 
ing to Mr. Van Den Bussche, the price in the F.M.S. was 11.5 florins (24 frances) 
per 1,000, that is much less than in Ceylon. When it is realised that one rubber 
plantation in the Malay States has sold 1,000,000 seeds to a single German 
Company it can be calculated of what great importance to the English planters 
the sale of their seed is, and the economic danger that would be offered them 
if a prohibitive export duty were levied.—Translated from the French. 


Kinds of Rubber, 


PLANTATION RUBBER IN CEYLON AND AMERICA. 


Ceylon, thanks to the excellence of the work of its Scientific Department 
and the character and enterprise of the planters, is held as an example for tropical 
planting throughout the world. In the latest planting product, rubber, the Ceylon 
industry is the world’s criterion, and yet there is much that Ceylon may learn 
from other countries in connection with the industry, and information of what 
men in other lands are doing is always of service to planters of this Colony. We 
need, therefore, put forth no other reason for having accorded considerable space 
during the past week to the subject of Castilloa rubber cultivation in Nicaragua. 
The writer of that article put forth a number of original views and had evidently 
studied the subject carefully ; and not the least interesting paragraphs were those 
in which he compared the Castiloa elastica with Hevea Minit preferring the 
former, at all events for cultivation in Central America. 


In Mexico considerable planting is going on as we have pointed out on 
several occasions. Today, by courtesy of a Colombo gentleman, we have before us 
a report on the La Junta plantation of the Mexican Mutual Planters’ Co. This is 
the report on the estate to the shareholders by Dr. Henkel and Mr. Augustus 
Curtis, who were elected at a meeting of the shareholders to visit the place and 
report. The report is a handsomely got up booklet, 10 by 8 in., containing a number 
of plates from photographs taken on the property, which seems to be. a flourishing 
and very promising concern. Castilloa elastica is the cultivated tree, and the 
conditions of growth and cultivation there are utterly different from the East. 
From figures given they have some 700 trees per acre. In 1905 the seed for planting 
was thought to be poor, and over the 741 acres then planted ‘‘ as an extra precaution 
six seeds were planted at each stake instead of the usual four..... The vast 
surplusage of plants is available for us elsewhere on the property or for sale.” The 
Company started planting in 1901 when 455 acres were planted, and they have gone 
on each year, 85l acres being put out in 1904 and 741 in 1905, and now the total 
acreage under rubber is 3,298 acres! Besides this the Company has. over 450 acres in 
coffee and 249 in cacao. The growth of the rubber seems excellent, although the 
girth is not so great as might be expected; this is owing probably to the close 
planting adopted. Trees 44 years old, of an average height of 20 ft., girth 11 6-10 
inches ; and ten trees near the road averaged 14 inches ; while ten others along a road 
averaged 137-10 inches in girth. Young seedlings seem to grow rapidly, those of 7 
months being as high as a man’s shoulder and well covered with foliage. But when 
it comes to cost of labour, we notice an immense difference between Mexico and 
Ceylon. There they pay 14 dollar Mexican per day, or the equivalent of 75 cts. 
gold American, whichis over Rs. 2:20; and even at thishigh rate they only work 
for a task which takes the best men from 1to8 o’clock in the afternoon. This is 
not mentioned in the report under notice, but the information is given to us, and 


; 
q 


ue 


27 Saps and Exudations, 


our correspondent remarks :—‘‘ Yet they expect, as you will see, to pay £25 an acre 


profit”! Nothing like this elegant report is produced by Ceylon Planting Companies, 
for no extra enticement is needed to draw capital to Ceylon and the Kast; and if 
these expectations come to pass, the assurance for Ceylon is all the greater. 


As regards up-to-date information of Ceylon methods we need only 
refer the reader to the important interview with Mr. Herbert Wright recorded in 
our columns yesterday ; where the latest details are given of the use of single and— 
for the first time—of multiple drip tins, economic tapping, and the quality and 
yield of rubber from high parts of trees. 

Today we publish an interesting article* giving an epitome of rubber cultiva- 
tion in the Malay Peninsula. The writer takes a very keen interest in everything 
‘connected with rubber, and he has a larger interest in the industry than perhaps 
any individual proprietor in the Malay Peninsula. His remarks are concise and to 
the point, and will be read with interest by planters.—Ceylon Observer. 


The World’s Rubber. 


RUBBER IN THE MALAY PENINSULA. 
Mr. A. O. Devitt, who is known to the majority of rubber planters in Ceylon, 


_through his lengthy visit to the Colony recently, has put in a couple of days here 


on his return from the Malay Peninsula homeward bound. From what he had 
heard preyious to his visit Mr. Devitt had expected great things of the F. M. S., 
and was a little disappointed. Rubber, he says, is grown there to a larger extent 
than in Ceylon ; that is, you see greater continuous blocks of rubber trees and larger 
clearings, but Ceylon need not fear competition ; there are certain advantages over 
there, but these are counter-balanced by certain disadvantages; certainly in the 
Peninsula things are being done on a large scale. 


Large individual estates are able to turn out big lots of rubber of the same 
quality and grade and similar in appearance; whereas, in dealing with Ceylon 
rubber, to get a large stock together of similar rubber it has to be made up with 


samples from all over the place. This, of course, is merely a matter for time to 
make good for Ceylon. 


On the majority of plantations washing machines are employed and ecrépe 
rubber turned out. One of the specially interesting observation Mr. Devitt made 
was that on so many estates the parings or shavings taken off in tapping are 
collected and put through the rollers of the washing machine, and that this 
operation pays for the tapping ! 


“On a great many estates they pay for the entire tapping by putting the 
parings through the crépe machine rollers,” he says. Even on the best tapped trees, 
Mr. Devitt remarks, some rubber will be found on the shavings, not in the shavings, 
but sticking to them either as small scrap or drops which have oozed out, after the 
latex has ceased to run, and all these should be saved, passed through the machine 
and turned out ascrépe. It is quite unnecessary, says Mr. Devitt, when shipping 
the rubber to mention that it is scrap from shavings; but the erépe should be piled 


in lots according to colour as pale, dark or darkish, and black crépe. Mr. Devitt 


highly recommends this method of treating the shavings from the tapping over- 
ations to all Ceylon planters as an economic operation. Sheet rubber is, however, 
still the more attractive form in which to make it. It looks’ very strong and well 


- coloured and is very attractive to buyers; and run through the rollers with water 


-playing on it, as is done on Lowlands and some other estates, the sheet turned out 
is excellent. 


* See 7.4.” this month, vage 22. 


Gums, Resins, 28 


““The growth of the trees out there is in many cases a year ahead of Ceylon; 
but in my opinion,” Mr. Devitt remarks, ‘after the first year of tapping there is 
very little difference in the yield of the trees, but I have no statistics to go upon. 
It isin getting the trees into bearing a year younger that they have the pull over 
there. But I saw many instances of backward trees (in girth) giving more rubber 
than surrounding trees that had gone ahead.” 


Herring-bone tapping seemed to be the favourite method of extracting 
latex. While talking on this subject of tapping mention was made of the Seremban 
estate, which has been under a bit of a cloud lately. The estate is now evidently 
under the right man in Mr. Mansergh, and we are pleased to hear that he will no 
doubt give the directors a different story to tell at the next annual meeting. 
‘“Under great difficulties,” Mr. Devitt remarks, ‘through mutilation of the trees 
in tapping, he has put the first series of new cuts on most successfully ; and I think 
that after the first two or three months of tapping they will get into order and 
the trees give as good yields as any others prorerly tapped from the beginning. 
The rubber turned out is of excellent quality and should hold its own with the best 
marks on the market. Mr. Mansergh has a tight hand on the coolies who are 
shaping well under him and the labour difficulty should now be at an end.” 


Mr. Devitt went through a large part of the Malay Peninsula, but unfortu- 
nately was prevented by the quaratine regulations, owing to the cholera outbreak, 
from visiting certain estates he would like to have seen in Perak, Province 
Wellesley, ete: 


The Bukit Asahan estate was among those he visited. The estate was 
somewhat famous recently on account of the bad report on it published in its 
prospectus ; that report, Mr. Devitt thinks, was very hard on the estate. Mr. P. J. 
Burgess in now pulling the place round, and under European control a very appreci- 
able difference is already seen in the working of the estate, and it should prove a 
fine paying property. 


Johore State pleased Mr. Devitt greatly. He thinks it a most promising 
district with a beautiful soil. Lavadron estate is a very good example of what 
can be done there. 


At Singapore Mr. Devitt visited the Botanical Gardens but was disappointed 
to miss Mr. H. N. Ridley there. On Jugra estate he saw a plantation of the finest 
coconuts he has seen, showing immense growth, and the success is encouraging 
further planting of this product, which from all accounts should pay well. 


MOISTURE IN RUBBER. 


Regarding the recent letter to the Ceylon Observer on the marketing of Ceylon 
rubber in a moist condition from Messrs. Lewis & Peat, (see T.A., May, 1905, page 272) 
Mr. Devitt says the opinions in that letter were given as those of a private individual 
—not those of the firm. Messrs. Lewis & Peat’s desire was to have the matter 
brought to the notice of planters and discussed, with a view to finding out the 
best method of curing the rubber and marketing it; and in this their letter was very 
successful. 


‘We know,” says Mr. Devitt, ‘“‘that Brazil Para Rubber will keep good for 
60 years, whereas Ceylon will not keep like that; and we want to find out why 
it is, and how its qualities can be improved upon, and to get the planters to adopt 
the best method of curing and packing.” 


29 Saps and Exudations. 


THE INDUSTRIAL DEMAND. 
POSSIBLE EFFECTS UPON THE RUBBER PLANTING BUSINESS. 


The question as to whether plantation rubber companies are likely to suffer 
from the evils attendant on the over-production of the commodity is one which has 
been incidental referred to in these columns during the past few moaths. It has 
been pointed out that so long as the world’s consumption of rubber is more than 
equal to the available supply there is very little danger of any material falling off 
in the market prices which the commodity consistently commands in London and 
other centres. But this very demand and the consequent high price of the better- 
grade rubber make it possible for the wild rubber collector to compete, and 
compete successfully, with the plantation owner. As our readers are by this time 
aware, the present margin of prefit to the planter is a very considerable one, and 
even when an extravagant allowance for working expenses and interest upon 
capital has been made, this profit is anything between 3s. and 4s. per pound. The 
wild rubber collectors or middlemen agencies, on the other hand, can never hope 
to keep their expenses down to the same equal level as the planter. The latter, 
asa matter of fact, can reasonably hope to make considerable reductions under 
this heading as years go on, and the use of machinery adapted to the rapid curing of 
the latex becomes more general. Those interested in the collection of wild rubber, 
on the other hand, have to face the fact that year after year greater distances 
have to be travelled to obtain sufficient supplies to make their industry a profitable 
one, while they also know that the manufacturer who must use rubber in his 
business prefers (other things being equal) to pay a slightly higher price for 
plantation rubber owing to its greater purity. The best grade Para, from the 
Middle East, may be said to average over 95 per cent. pure rubber; the best grades 
from the Amazon work out at something like 83 per cent. of pure rubber. The 
difference in these percentages is practically represented by the difference between 
the prices in the world’s markets, and goes far to confirm the contention that the 
manufacturer prefers and will naturally support the product of the plantations, 
provided he can be reasonably sure of obtaining fairly continuous supplies. 


This, as we all know, will be the casein a very few years’ time. But 
provided something resembling the present prices obtain it will still pay to collect 
wild rubber, so that the manufacturer will be able at least to await the most 
favourable markets (from his standpoint), and not be compelled, as he is at 
present, to buy inan almost hand-to-mouth fashion. But there is no reason to 


believe that the market will be glutted with rubber in the not far distant 
future. 


For not only are the recognised rubber industries using more and more of 
the commodity every year, but there are many others which, apart altogether from 
the selling price of rubber, are languishing or are being neglected simply on account 
of the uncertainty of the supply. There are also still further industries which are 
at the moment non-existent, but which, were rubber to cheapenu in price, would 
speedily become large and steady consumers. This is a point which those about to 
embark in rubber plantation exploitation might do well to bear in mind. For 
although there is no reason to anticipate any marked decline in the market price for 
years to come, yet the period must arrive when the price will react in obedience to 
the law of supply and demand. At the present moment, were plantation rubber 
fetching only, say, 4s. per lb., and the supply from such sources fairly large, much 
of the wild rubber which is now being marketed at a profit would not be collected 
at all, or, if so, at very little profit. 


No one anticipates that the six-shilling level for plantation rubber will be 
maintained for an indefinite period, but, on the other hand, when the supply 


Gums, Resins, 30 


from such sources has materially increased the price is bound to react. If a planter 
only obtained 2s. per lb. for his rubber he would still be making a very respectable 
profit, while, with the exception of some very low grades, wild rubber would not 
pay to collect at such a selling price. It will be seen, therefore, that whatever 
happens, the planter will be practically master of the situation, and that even 
if the world’s output were to be increased to say, 100,000 tons per annum. For he 
has not only the certainty of a sure market for as much as he and his neighbours 
can produce each year, but he can, by agreeing to acceptalow, though to him 
still profitable, price for his product, squeeze the wild rubber out of competition 
with himself. 


It has not been necessary for the planter, as yet, to look so far ahead and 
to study the possibilities of the market, say ten years hence. But the manu- 
facturers and users of the material are, it would seem, quite alive to these 
possibilities, and as many of the articles they produce are more or less necessities 
for the richer section of the community, they fancy that they will always be ina 
position to prevent anything resembling a corner inrubber. In other words, they 
can, by bidding prices for wild rubber of the better grades which enables that 
commodity to be collected at a profit, practically guarantee themselves with 
assured supplies, equal at least to their ordinary requirements—and the actual 
consumers of the products of their factories will have to pay the price. That it will 
ever be necessary to face such a contingency is deciedly questionable. For one - 
thing, the danger of any combine among the world’s rubber plantation owners to 
squeeze out the wild rubber collectors by reducing the price of the commodity 
is quite outside the range of practical commercial politics. 


At the same time, in the years to come the supply from the rubber planta- 
tions might easily equal, and possibly overtake, the world’s consumption, and then 
prices for this commodity would inevitably fall, and possibly fall to the level when 
it would be impossible to market wild rubber ata profit. But the manufacturers 
would not suffer—iadeed, they would be the gainers, since they would obtain what 
is admittedly a better article than the wild product at a figure possibly much 
below that which obtains at the moment for low-grade wild rubber, and at the same 
time the plantations would not be worked at a loss. 


One or two manufacturers of rubber seem to incline to the belief that in 
the comparatively near future rubber will be selling in the market at considerably 
below current quotations. But there is nothing to warrant such an assumption, 
any more than there is anything to lead to the belief that the price will go higher 
either from natural causes or from the operations of any corner. Well-informed 
-men inthis business incline to the opinion that for some years to come, even with 
materially increased supplies, the price will fluctuate within narrow limits round 
the current quotations, and that unless marked improvements take place in the 
preparation of wild rubber for the market, this article will be gradually ousted 
by the better and purer qualities obtainable from the plantations. It would seem, 
then, that while the manufacturers of rubber are not likely to suffer any hardships 
through scarcity of supplies or dearness in price, neither are the planters to toil 
without a sufficient reward for their labours. The folk who may suffer—and even 
this, be it noted, is by no means more than a mere possibility—are those interested 
in the collection of wild rubber, especially when great distances have to be travelled, 
in the first instance, and the entrepots are far removed from the manufacturing 
centres of the world.— Financier. 


Peruano te ye 
igi) , 


3l Saps and Kxudations. 
THE LONDON RUBBER MARKET. 


Lonpon, May llth, 1906.—At to-day’s auction, 342 packages of Ceylon and 
Straits Settlements Plantation grown rubber were under offer. The total weight 
amounted to about 15 tons, Ceylon contributing 38and Straits Settlements 12. 
Though this was a large offering which included several attractive parcels of fine 
quality sheet and biscuits, orders were rather scarce, and consequently prices 
marked some irregularity. Where sales were effected, the price generally realised 
for fine biscuits and sheet was 6s. 13d., but several parcels were withdrawn from sale 
for lack of support. For scrap grades also competition was less animated than at 
the last auction, though for the finer qualities about last rates were obtained. 
There was a large consignment of fine sheet and other grades from Bukit Rajah 
amounting to 2} tons, and the finer qualities met with good attention, realising up 
to 6s, 2}d. per lb. Owing to the increase in the size of the sales lately, it has been 
decided in the interests of the trade generally, that the auctions shall in future be 
held at the Commercial Sale Rooms, and this new arrangement was inaugurated 
to-day. Quotations for Plantation Biscuits and Sheet to-day.—6s. 1}d. to 6s. 2td., 
same period last year, 6s. 63d. to 6s. 83d. Plantation Scrap.—4s. to 5s, 33d., same 
period last year, 4s. 6d. to 5s. Fine Hard Para (South American).—5s. 3$d., same 
period last year, 5s. 7?d. Average price of Ceylon and Straits Settlements Planta- 
tion Rubber.—212 packages at 5s. 9td. per lb., against 227 packages at 5s. 114d. per lb. 
at last auction. 


Particulars and prices as follows :— 


CEYLON. 
MARK. QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB, 
Culloden 6 cases darkish pressed crépe, 6s. 14d.; 2 cases dark, 5s. 
FE.B. 1 do serap and pieces, 4s, 6d. 
Tallagalla 1 do fine darkish biscuits, 6s. 1jd.; 1 case fine scrap, 5s. 34d.; 


2 cases dark low scrap, 2s. 


Warriapolla 4 do fine very pale to darkish biscuits, 6s. 14d.; 1 case darker, 
6s. 14d.; 1 case good scrap 5s. 34d. 

Gikiyanakande 2 do fine pale worm, 6s. 2d.; 2 cases fine darkish crépe, 5s. 11d.; 
1 case dark, 5s. 

Densworth 8 do fine darkish biscuits, 6s. 14d.; 1 case darker, 6s. 14d.; 1 case 
fine palish scrap, 5s. 3éd. 

Doranakande 2 do dark cloudy biscuits, 6s. 1jd.; 1 case rough sheet, 5s. 10d.; 
Fi rapes fine palish scrap, 5s. 3¢d.; 1 case good dark scrap, 

s. 9d. 

Ambatenne 2 do fine palish biscuits, 6s. 1jd.; 2 cases dark biscuits, 6s. 13d.; 
1 case dark biscuits (mouldy), 6s.; 2 cases pieces, 5s. 6d.; 
1 do good pale scrap, 5s. 33d.; 1 case darker, 5s. 3}d.; 1 bag 
dark 5s. 34d.; 1 case dark pressed, 4s. 

Duckwari 1 do fine pale to dark biscuits, 6s. 13d.; 1 bag fine pale scrap, 4s. 
8d.; 1 package good rejected biscuits, 4s. 8d. 

Halgolle 1 do palish mixed scrap, 4s. 6d. 

STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. 

Jebong 1 case scrappy sheet, 5s. Ofd.; 1 case fine scrap, 5s. 34d. 

G.M. S.B. 1 ae Sha pale scrap, 5s. 23d.; 1 case pressed scrappy sheet, 
gs. Skd. 

K.K, 1 do _ fine pale sheet, 6s. 13d.; 1 case fine Rambong ball, 4s. 33d.; 
1 box scrap, ete., 4s. 9d. 

Beverlac 4 do fine dark biscuits, 6s. 14d. bid.; 8 cases fine dark sheet, 6s. 


13d. bid.; 1 case sheet, 6s. 14d. bid.; 14 cases fine palish to 
darkish sheet, 6s, 13d. bid.; 6 cases darkish cloudy biscuits, 
6s. 14d. bid. 


Gums, Resins, 82 


MARK. QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. 
PS. TERI Ry 12 cases fine pale crépe, 6s. 2d.; 1 case fine palish crépe, 6s. 
Highland ‘ do fine palish crépe, 5s. 11}d.; 8 cases darkish, 5s. 13d.; 4 cases 
dark, brownish, 5s. 33d. 4 
B. (in diamond) 1 do good rejections, 4s. 10}d.; 9 cases scrappy sheet, etc., 5s 


ld.; 4 cases sheet, 5s. 14d. 


ites i ue pus pale crépe, 6s, 24d. 

.E.B. do fine scrap, 5s. 03d,; 1 case rejected biscuits, ., ds. 13d. 

L. E. (Muar in tri- : nite, GUC. aaa 

angle) Straits 8 do ne pale ribbon, 6s. 2d.; 1 case dark, 5s. 3d.; 1 case darker, 

5s. 5d. 

4 do fine amber sheet, 6s. 13d.; 2 cases darker, 6s. Ld.; 2 cases 
fine palish scrap, 5s. 83d. 

Tiger Asahan 4 do fine amber biscuits, 6s. 1$d.; 4 cases dark biscuits, 6s. 14d. 

Bukit Lintang 4 do fine palish biscuits, 6s. 1éd. ; : 

D.W.H.S. 2 do fine darkish washed sheet, 6s. 14d.; 1 case good palish to 

dark washed sheet, 6s. 1$d. 


B.R.R. Co., Ltd. 29 do very fine large amber sheet, 6s. 2d. to 6s. 2}d.; 6 cases little 
darker, 6s. 13d. to 6s. 1jd.; 7 cases paler bubbled, 6s. 1d.; 
5 cases good darkish scrappy sheet, 5s. 3$d.; 9 cases good 
scrap, 5s. Id. to 5s. 33d.; 1 case good rejections, 5s. 34d.; 
3cases good cuttings, 5s. 43d.; 4 cases fine sheet rejections, 
5s. 10d.; 2 cases good scrap, 5s. 2d. 


W. P.M. 


Lonpon, May 25th.— At to-days auction, 159 packages of Ceylon and Straits 
Settlements Plantation grown rubber were under offer. The total weight amounted 
to nearly 10 tons, Ceylon contributing nearly 1 and Straits Settlements 83. Since 
the last auction the market has maintained the quiet tone then prevailing, and 
except for fine biscuit and sheet qualities. demand was not very keen, and conse- 
quently the scrap grades were in many cases somewhat neglected, and here and 
there showed a decline on last rates. The bulk of the offerings was from the Straits 
and included one or two large invoices. Amogst these were several parcels of crépe, 
and the darker lots proved difficult to quit, buyers being prejudiced against the 
darker colours. For fine pale crépe, however, there is a strong demand, and a 
parcel of this to-day realised $d. per lb. more than fine sheet. A small lot of very 
fine pressed worm rubber was also keenly competed for and sold at 6s. 2}d. per lb. 
Quotations for Plantation Biscuits and Sheet to-day.—6s. 1d. to 6s. 13d., same period 
last year, 6s. 5d. to 6s. 9¢d. Plantation Scrap.—4s. to 5s. 3d., same period last year, 
4s. 6d. to 5s. 5d. Fine Hard Para (South American).—5s. 3jd., same period last year, 
5s. 84d. Average price of Ceylon and Straits Settlements Plantation Rubber.—106 
packages at 5s. 93d. per lb., against 212 packages at 5s. 9jd. per Ib. at last auction. 


Particulars and prices as follows :— 


CEYLON. 
MARK. QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. 
Gikiyanakande 2 cases fine palish rolled crépe, 5s. 62d. 
Ambatenne 2 do good dark cloudy biscuits, 6s. 1d.; 1 bag rougher, 6s. 1d. 
S. A. (M. M. in es- 
tate mark) 1 do small palish Ceara biscuits, 6s. 1d. 
Rangbodde 1 do exceptionally fine very pale biscuits, 6s. 14d. 
F.J.W 2 do fine pale pressed worm, 6s. 24d 


O. B. B.C. (in dia- 
mond) Kondegalla 4 do fine amber sheet, 6s. 1d.; 1 case scrappy sheet, 5s. 
New Rasagalla 1 do fine large palish to dark biscuits, 6s. 1d. : 
Hapugastenne 2 do good palish to dark biscuits, 6s. ld.; 1 case good pale to 
darkish serap, 5s. 23d. 


D. (in diamond) 1 do small palish biscuits, heated, 5s. 6d.; 1 bag small lumps, 4s 


= 


hilt Saps and Hxudations. 
STRAITS SHTTLEMENTS. 


MARK. QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB, 

P.R. (in triangle) H, 2 cases scrappy sheet, 5s.1d.; 1 bag pale scrappy sheet, 5s. 0{d.; 
1 esase palish scrap, 4s 

M.I. (in diamond) 2 do fine large palish to dark biscuits, 6s. 1d.; 1 case fine pale 

serap, 5s. 34d 
B.L.C. 1 do rough palish to dark crépe, 5s. 
L. E. (Muar in tri- 
angle) Straits 8 do fine pale GEene, 6s. 1$d.; 1 case good darkish crépe, 5s. 3d.; 

1 case dark, : 

P.S.E. (in diamond) a do good ee Ghat 6s. 1d. 

T.O.P. 1 do good rough sheet, 6s. 1d. 

C. R. (R. W. and Co. 


in triangle) E. | 12 do fine amber sheet, 6s. 1d.; 2 cases good darkish scrap, 4s. 
8id.; 1 case dark scrap and pieces, 5s. 
V.R.Co.Ltd. Kiang 


F.M.S. (in triangle)21 do fine washed scored sheet, 6s. 1d. 
Gula (in diamond) 1 do good rough sheet, 6s. ld.; 1 case pressed scrappy sheet 


5s. 2id. 

S. R. 4 an triangle) 4 do good palish to darkish crépe, 5s. 63d. 

P.R.S 6 do fine large amber sheet, 6s. 1d.; F cases darkish scrap, 4s. 
8d.; 1 case pressed scrappy sheet, 43.7 4d. 

G.M. S.B. 4 do scrappy sheet and scrap, 4s. 10d.; 1 case fine amber sheet, 


6s. 1d.; 1 case fine palish scrap, 5s. 3d. 
K. M. (in diamond) 
. P.R, 1 case rough sheet, part uncured, 5s. 4d. 

S. (in diamond) S.R. 1 do low scrap, 3s. 


W. J. & H. THOMPSON. 


CREPE RUBBER IN THE LONDON MARKKET. 

Lonpown, May 25th.—Since our last there has been a fair demand for Plantation 
sorts and sales have been made at 6s. 1d.. to 6s. 2d. for both pancakes and crépe. We 
are glad to notice more inclination on the part of buyers to take crépe and lace, and 
there is no doubt plantation biscuits and sheets, as well as crépe are being taken, 
although in small lots, by fresh buyers who have not tried it before, as well as by 
those who have already tried it and are now using it regularly for various and sun- 
dry purposes, which is decidedly enacouraging. Parcels were offered at auctions 
today, amounting to about 8} tons Straits and Malay States ; and only about 18 ewts, 
of Ceylon. LEWIS & PEAT. 


Lonpon, 25th May, 1906.—Plantation Ceylon—25 cases (1 ton) offered and sold, 
fine biscuits 6s. 1d. to 6s. 13d., fine pale worms 6s. 27d., fine scrap 5s. 1d. to 5s. 23d., 
good 5s. Ojd., ordinary 4s., fair crepe 5s. 6;d., common dark 4s. Straits—134 cases (84 
tons) offered and 78 sold, fine biscuit and sheet 6s. ld., fine crepe 6s. 14d., fair 5s. 8d., 
ordinary dark 5s., common 4s., fine scrap 5s. 2id. to 5s. 3id., good 4s. 8d. to5s., common 
dark 8s. Next Public Auction will be held on 8th June. 


CEYLON. 


Ambatenne 3 cases fine biscuits, 6s. Id. 
Gikiyanakande 5 do_ offered and 3 sold, light roll crépe, ee 6id.; dark 4s. 
P.R. (in triangle) H. 4 packages fair to good scrap 4s. to 5s. 1d. 
M.M.(inestatemark)2 do offered and 1 sold, fine biscuits, 6s. 1d. 
Rangbodde 1 case fine biscuits, 6s. 1a. 

J. W. 2 do fine pale pressed worms, 6s. 24d. 
New Rasagalla 2 do offered and 1 sold, fine biscuits, 6s. 1d. 
Hapugastenne 3 do fine biscuits, 6s. Id.; fine scrap, 5s. 23d. 


STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. 
M.I. a diamond) — 3 do fine biscuits, 6s. 1d.; fine scrap 5s. 3}d. 
L. E. (Muar in tri- 
angle) 10 do fine pale crépe 6s. 13d. ; dark 5s. to 5s. 3d. 
5 


Gums, Reins, 34 


MARK. QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. 


P.S.E. (in diamond) 2 cases fine sheet, 6s. 1d. 
C. R. (BR. W. & Cin 
triangle) 15 do fine sheet, 6s. 1d.; good scrap 4s. 84d. to 5s. 
V.R.C. Ltd. Klang 
F.M.S. (in triangle)32 do offered and 21 sold, fine sheet, 6s. Id. 
Gula (indiamond) 2 do fine sheet 6s, 1d.; fine scrap 5s, 27d. 
S. R.C. (in triangle) 25 do offered and 10 sold, mixed crépe, 5s. 6?d.; poor erépe, 4s. 
P.R. S.B. 8 do fine sheet 6s. 1d.; good scrap 4s. 8d. 
G.M. S.B. 6 do fine sheet 6s. Id.; fair to fine scrap 4s. 6d. 
to 5s. 3d. 
OBEC. (in diamond) 5 do fine sheet 6s. 1d.; good scrap, 5s. 
S. (in diamond) S.R. 1 do poor scrap, 3s. 


SHIPMENTS OF PLANTATION RUBBER. 
FROM COLOMBO AND GALLE. FROM SINGAPORE. 


wee ... First three months ... to tons. 1906 ... First three months ... 47. tons. 
19 \5 eee $9 Bw ag 9° 


1904... hy Bat) 2H FROM PENANG. 
19082 4: 5 eae GuOaT Lies, 1906... First three months... 9 __,, 
Total Exports from Ceylon and the Straits Settlements for first three 
months, 1906, 87 tons. 


SHIPMENTS OF PLANTATION RUBBER, 
Total Exports from Colombo and Galle from 1st January to 28rd April: 


1906... He ... do tons. | 1904 ... Ase ... 102 tons. 
1904 Ae ance, || LOOS te: $n 5 


Total Exports from Singapore from Ist January to 6th Amel 1906, 48} tons. 
GOW, WILSON: & STANTON, LTD. 


be) 


We much regret that by an inadvertence, the rubber report given in the April 
number (page 204), was credited to the ‘‘ India Rubber Journal.” It should have been 
entered as due to Messrs S. Figgis & Co., who prepared it at considerable trouble. 


Cultural Directions for Camphor. 
INSTRUCTIONS BY A JAPANESE SUPPLY CO. 


The Yokohama Nursery Co., Ltd., of Yokohama, publishes the following 
cultural directions for camphor :—Plants are quoted at the following rates :—Height 
1—13 ft. : per 10 $1°30 (gold) ; per 100 $11°50 ; per 1,000 $100. 

SEED-BED.—Prepare in well fertilized and rich soil. Plow 18 inches deep. 
break the lumps finely, make dikes two feet apart for drainage and press the surface, 
smoothly. Mid-spring is the time of the sowing season or when the temperature 
ranges above 50 degrees Fahrenheit. The seeds being sown, cover them up by 
means of a sieve through which soil is allowed to fall to about half-an-inch and press 
the top lightly. Straw or hay should be spread over the bed so as to protect the 
seeds from being washed or blown away by storms, and also to prevent its getting 
too dry until they sprout, care being taken to keep the straw in place by sticks 
fixed into the ground. ; 

For one pound of seeds, a space of six square yards is usually allotted, but 
the more sparsely sown the better for the growth. One pound produces 2,000 plants 
on the average, but much naturally depends upon the state of a crop. 


MANURE should be given in summer and autumn. In Japan decomposed 
ordure mixed with oil cake is used in fluid form, but bone-dust or any similar manures 
will answer the purpose. No shading is required against the sun except on very hot 
days; water should be given in the evening. Clear off the weeds as they appear, 


35 Saps and Ha«udations, 


TRANSPLANTING.—Next spring after a year the plants should be removed. 
Prepare the plantation in the same manner as the seed-bed, but the stems should 
be cut off at one or two inches from the base and also the ends of the roots. About 
20 plants are to be planted on one square yard for another year’s culture. Manure 
in spring, summer and autumn as in the first season, tilling the ground and weeding 
occasionally. 


SECOND TRANSPLANTING.—In spring of the third year the plants are ready 
to be removed to permanent quarters. Treat the plant in the same way as in the 
first transplanting by cutting off the top and roots. If they are to be planted on 
hills or moorlands provide a space of four square yards for a tree, otherwise 7 or 8 
feet apart from each other, 

_ The second transplanting may sound useless waste, but it is « method 
widely practised in a certain province. This may not be absolutely necessary to 
follow, and the plants can be left two or three years before being removed to tho 
permanent quarters, but its nature is that it does not easily get acclimatized, so 
the double precaution may save much in the end. Camphor can be extracted from 
the stems as well as the leaves. 


The wood of the camphor-tree is much employed in Japan for the manu- 
facture of cabinets, chests of drawers, wardrobes, boxes, ete. Old ones have a fine 
close ring grain, a cleaf yellow-brown, silky sheen, and a beautiful appearance, 
so that it is well adapted for veneering. Not being subject to the attacks of insects, 
it is very useful for such works, besides the odour of the wood imparts a delightful 
fresh scent to the articles stowed in the receptacles. 


Apart from its economic value the plant has an occult hygienic property. 
Giant camphor-trees of several centuries old are invariably to be met with in the 
precincts of temple and shrines of the southern section of Japan, and the people 
feel from traditional instinct a sacred sentiment towards the tree, but science has 
revealed the truth that it serves as a natural purifying agency against any 
pestilential atmosphere. Its evergreen nature, lustrous dense foliage, mighty form, 
extraordinary longivity and aromatic property are the features highly recommend- 
able wherever climatic and topographical conditions agreeable as a garden plant, 
especially on large estates. 


36 


DYE STUFFS AND TANNING SUBSTANCES. 


UTILISATION OF MANGROVE BARK. 


” 


The name “mangrove” was applied by Lindley to the trees belonging to 
the natural order Rhizophoracese. These trees or shrubs inhabit the muddy swamps 
close to the seashore in tropical climates, where they frequently form forests of 
vast extent. The mangroves are of particular interest, owing to their peculiar 
habit of growth, which is described by Hamilton as follows :—‘In the economy of 
nature the mangrove performs a most important part, wresting annually fresh 
portions of land from the dominion of the sea. This is effected in a twofold manner, 
by the progressive advance of their roots and the aerial germination of their seeds, 
which do not quit their lofty cradle until they have assumed the form of actual 
trees, and drop into the water with their roots prepared to take possession of the 
mud, in advance of their parent stems. The progression by means of the roots is 
effected by fresh roots, which issue from the trunks at some distance above the 
surface of the water, and arching downwards, enter the mud. In this manner, the 
plants, after their descent from the parent trees, continue during their early years 
to advance steadily forward till they have attained a height of about fifteen feet, 
and gained a position considerably in advance of their parent trunks. After this 
fewer additions are made to the roots, but the head begins to expand in every 
direction, spreading its branches on all sides. These branches in turn send down 
long slender roots like those of the banyan tree (Ficus indica), which, rapidly 
elongating, descend from all varieties of height, and, reaching the water, penetrate 
the mud, becoming in time independent trees; thus a complicated Jabyrinth 
is formed.” 

It has long been known that all parts of the mangroves, and especially 
their barks, contain tannin, but it is only comparatively recently that mangrove 
bark has been systematically collected and imported into Europe for the use 
of tanners. 


MANGROVE BARKS SUITABLE FOR TANNING PURPOSES. 


The mangroves best known as yielding barks suitable for tanning purposes 
are Rhizophora mucronata, Rhizophora Mangle, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Ceriops 
Candolleana and Roxburghiana, and Kandelia Rheedii. 

Mangroves yielding barks rich in tannin are fairly widely distributed in 
tropical countries, and in recent years a good deal of attention has been paid to the 
exploitation of these materials in various countries, notably Germany and Belgium. 
The best-known mangrove barks in European commerce are probably those of 


GERMAN EAST AFRICA, 


which have<been made the subject of special study by Dr. Busse (Chem. Ventr. 
1899. I. (4), p. 315), and by Professor Kérner, whose analyses are recorded in 
Jahresberichte Gerbschule, Freiberg, 1899-1900. 


These results show that the richest mangrove barks obtainable from German 
East Africa are the ‘‘Mkaka,” derived from Rhizophora mucronata, which may 
contain as muchas 48.0 per cent. of tannin, though samples containing only 21°3 
per cent. were examined. The “ Msinzi” bark, derived from Bruguiera gymnor- 
rhiza, contained from 44 to 53 per cent. of tannin, whilst the ‘“‘Mkandaa” and 
“Mkamavi” barks, obtained from Ceriops candolleana and Xylocarpus granatum 
respectively, contained 42°3 and 40°5 per cent. of tannin. Quite recently a similar 
series of barks from 


) 
: 


cea ae aie hd | a 


37 Tanning Substances. 


ZANZIBAR 


was examined at the Imperial Institute, and the results, which were given 
fully in the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, 1904, Vol. ii., p. 165, showed that 
the “Msinzi” bark of Zanzibar contained 35°8 per cent, of tannin, and the 
“Magomi” and ‘‘Mkomafi” barks of Pemba, 82°8 and 23°38 per cent. of tannin 
respectively. These East African barks seem, on the whole, to be richer than 
those of / 


INDIA AND THE EAST INDIES. 


A series of mangrove barks and extracts prepared in India was examined 
at the Imperial Institute in 1899, and the results are given in Technical Reports 
and Scientific Papers, Part 1, p. 186. For the present purpose it is, perhaps, 
sufficient to recapitulate briefly the amounts of tannin found in the various barks 
—Rhizophora mucronata, 4 to 27:29 per cent.; Brugwera gymnorrhiza, 1277 per 
cent. ; Ceriops Candolleana, 13°23 to 21:54 per cent.; Ceriops Roxburghiana, 23°54 
per cent. ; and Kandelia Rheedit, 11°99 per cent. 


CEYLON, BORNEO AND THE STRAITS. 


Some attention has also from time to time been paid to the utilisation of 
mangrove barks in Ceylon, Borneo and the Straits Settlements, and recently a 
considerable export trade in mangrove barks, and so-called ‘‘ mangrove cutch,” 
has arisen in Sarawak and British North Borneo. In the Federated Malay States 
considerable quantities of mangrove timber are used at present, but the bark seems 
generally to be thrown away, though in the Dingdings, according: to the District 
Officer, some ‘“‘Tengah bark” (Ceriops candolleana) and ‘‘bukan bark,” derived 
from a Rhizophora or Bruguiera, is uséd locally, and exported for tanning purposes 
(Agricultural Bulletin, Straits Settlements, Vol. iv., pp. 3 and 124). Barks derived 
from a Bruguiera or Rhizophora species, and containing from 19 to 24°3 per cent. 
of tannin, are also used locally in Indo-China (Feuille de Renseignments, 1904, 58, 


p. 2). Perhaps the most recent addition to the countries exploiting the mangrove 
for bark is 


QUEENSLAND. 


A short description of the conditions under which it is collected in this 
Colony is given in the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, 1904, Vol. ii., p. 276, where 
it is shown that the Queensland bark contains 39°5 per cent. of tannin. A region 
celebrated for the extent of its mangrove swamps is 


WEST AFRICA, 


but so far no serious attempt seems to have been made to collect this product for 
export in any of the West African Colonies. Possibly the reason of this is that 
the oil palm (Hlaeis guineensis) is so plentiful and its products are in such demand 
at remunerative prices, that there is no incentive to collect less valuable products 
such as mangrove barks. 


Some years ago this industry was started in Senegal by a French firm, but 
after a short time the collection of the bark was prohibited by the Government, 
for the reason that the mangrove trees were cut down with the result that rapid 
erosion of the foreshore took place. Recently, however, M. E. Baillaud bas again 
directed attention to this subject (Journal d’Agriculture Tropicale, 1904, Vol. ii. | 
p. 200) and has given an account of some preliminary experiments made in the 
collection of the bark by natives in French Guinea. 


COLLECTION AND EXPORT OF MANGROVE BARK. 


In German and Portuguese East Africa, where mangrove bark has, perhaps, 
been more systematically worked than elsewhere, the mangroves were at first 


Dye Stuffs and 38 


cut down for timber, and the bark was wasted until its value as a tanning agent 
was discovered. In the German protectorate the bark is now stripped from the 
stems and branches of the living trees, conveyed to convenient centres, broken up, 
and dried in the sun (or by artificial heat produced usually by the combustion of 
mangrove timber), and exported. 


The industry is under the control of the Forest Department, which insists 
on the bark being carefully stripped, so that the trees are not destroyed (stripped 
trees are said to renew their bark in from four to six months), and the authorities 
also prohibit the export of bark containing less than 45 per cent. of tannin. 


In M. Baillaud’s experiments much the same plan was followed, and it was - 


tound that natives working piece-work could collect about 200 lb. of bark per day, 
and it was estimated that to place a ton of the bark in Europe would cost fr. 124 
c. 50, which seems to be an unnecessarily high figure. It was noticed that if the 
bark is exposed to the rain after collection, a considerable loss of tannin occurs, 
so that it is desirable that the drying be conducted under cover when wet weather 
prevails. In the Hast Indies the bark is stripped, then dried, and roughly ground 
and packed in small bales, sometimes under pressure. In this way the cost of 
transport to Europe is reduced somewhat. Allusion has also been made to the fact 
that the authorities in German East Africa prohibit the export of bark containing 
less than 45 per cent of tannin, and where such regulations are not officially in force, 
it would be well for exporters to adhere to this rule, since tanning materials are now 
almost universally bought on their actual content of tannin, and mangrove bark 
containing less than 45 per cent. of tannin is scarcely saleable, and the inclusion of 
such material with good bark might lead to losses. 


But little attention has as yet been paid to the utilisation of mangrove 
timber. M. Baillaud states that it is, as would be expected, peculiarly resistent to 
the action of water, and is therefore suitable for the construction of piles, railway 
sleepers, and similar articles where hardness and great resistence to the action of 
water are of importance. It has also been used for street paving in Paris, but 
apparently the price obtainable for it for this purpose did not prove remunerative. 


MANUFACTURE OF MANGROVE EXTRACT. 


In the countries where mangrove bark is principally produced at the present 
time, skilled labour is not usually available, and consequently the manufacture of 
mangrove extract from the bark is difficult if not impossible. There can be no doubt, 
however, that if the extract could be made in these countries much of the poorer 
bark at present discarded could be utilised, and as the export of extract would mean 
that only the really useful portion of the bark would be sent to Kurope, a great 
saving in the cost of transport would be effected. It may be worth while, 
therefore, to give here a short account of the modern process of preparing tanning 
extracts from mangrove bark and similar products. 


The bark, after being thoroughly air-dried, is ground ina bark mill or 
disintegrator so as to form a powder, through which water will percolate slowly. 
This is then packed into ‘“‘leaches” or extractors, which usually consist of round 
pine-wood tubs, strengthened by iron hoops and provided with perforated false 
bottoms, below which the extracting liquor may collect. A series of these 
“‘leaches” is employed, a connection by means of a copper or leaden pipe running 
from the chamber below the false bottom of each to the mouth of the next. 
Each is also provided with a pipe, whereby steam can be introduced, so that 
the extracting liquid may be heated to any desired temperature. Water is allowed 
to flow into the first extractor of the series, which is then heated by means of its 
steam jet. The warm water percolating downwards through the ground bark, 
extracts the tannin and other soluble matters, and the liquor so produced gradually 


39 Tanning Substances. 


accumulates below the false bottom, and as this fills the liquor is forced by the 
pressure of the water, which is continually supplied to the first extractor, over into 
the second extractor, and so on throughout the series, until from the last a com- 
paratively strong liquid is obtained. This is then run into a vacuum-evaporator 
of the Yarian or similar type, in which it is exposed in thin layers for a short time 
toatemperature of about 80° C., whereby itis converted intoa thick liquid of 
specific gravity 1:2. Thence it is run into an ordinary vacuum-pan, and evaporated 
in vacuo to a satisfactory consistence. The process thus briefly outlined yields 
a satisfactory extract (cutch) for dyeing purposes, but one of the greatest 
objections to the use of mangrove bark or extract for tanning purposes is, that 
it produces a leather having an objectionable red eolour, and consequently it is 
necessary in manufacturing extracts for tanning purposes to decolorise the liquor 
at one stage in the process. This is necessary not only because of the colouring 
matter naturally present, but also because in the process of manufacture the 
application of heat to the tannin and extractive matters leads to the production 
of dark-coloured substances by their partial decomposition. The decolorising 
process is usually carried out with the liquor as it comes from the extractors, and 
consists in the addition of small quantities of albumen, alum (or aluminium sulphate) 
or similar material, which forms an insoluble compound with a small portion 
of the tannin, and as this settles out it carries with it a great part of the objection- 
able colouring matters. Bleaching agents such as sulphur dioxide or salts yielding 
this have also been used for the decolorisation of mangrove and other extracts 
to be employed for tanning purposes, but none of these methods have so far 
succeeded in completely and permanently eliminating the red colour. This is 
the most serious difficulty in the way of an extension of the use of mangrove bark 
as a tanning agent, and recently the German Colonial Society has offered a prize of 
3,000 marks for a satisfactory and permanent method of decolorisation. The 
conditions under which this prize is offered are given in Der Tropenpflanzer, 1905, 
pp. 475—6. 


The total cost of a small plant arranged on modern lines for the manufacture 
of mangrove extract, and with a sufficiently large capacity to be remunerative in 
working, would probably be from £450 to £500. 


QUALITY OF LEATHER PRODUCED BY MANGROVE BARK. 


Reference has already been made to the dark-red colour of the leather 
tanned by mangrove bark or extract, and the fact that this colour depreciates its 


value. Apart from this defect, mangrove-tanned leather when properly made 


seems to be of fair quality and suitable for shoe leather and similar purposes. On 
this point Professor Proctor, of the Leather Industries Laboratories of the Leeds 
University, says that ‘‘ mangrove bark is now largely used in conjunction with pine, 
oak and mimosa barks, and that extract prepared from Ceriops Candolleana 
makes a good but dark-red leather”; and Professor Korner, of the Freiberg Tannin 
School, as the result of his experiments onthe value of mangrove extract as a 
tanning agent, states that ‘‘it yields a soft and pliant, workable leather, which, 
however, possesses an objectionable red colour, which can only be modified suffi- 
ciently for commercial purposes by using it in conjunction with myrobalans, 
valonia, sumach or similar light-coloured tanning materials.” 

EXTENT OF TRADE IN MANGROVE BARK. 

It is impossible to give any exact figures showing the total amounts of 
mangrove bark and extracts imported into the principal EHuropean countries, since 
these are not separately shown in the returns, but the following statements and 
statistics seem to show that the demand for mangrove bark and cutch in Europe 
has in recent years reached a considerable total. 


Dye Stuffs. 40 


H. M. Consul at Mozambique, in a dispatch in 1904 tothe Foreign Office, 
states that the quantities of mangrove bark exported from the principal ports 
of Portuguese East Africa during 1904 amounted to 12,105 tons. These exports 
seem to have been sent principally to Germany, the United States and Russia, 
small quantities only being sent to the United Kingdom. In addition to these 
large exports it is further stated that a large amount of mangrove bark was, at the 
end of 1904, lying in the various ports awaiting collection, and it was understood 
that two sailing vessels were being chartered to convey it to Europe owing to 
the uncertainty of steamship facilities for the transport of the bark. The value 
of the bark in European markets at the end of 1904 is stated by the Consul to have 
been from £4 10s to £6 10s. per ton, and he goes on to say that while the demand in 
Germany was slack, that in the United States and Russia was firm. The cost of 
collecting, drying and packing the bark in Portuguese Hast Africa is estimated at 
from 20s. to 30s. per ton, including the export duty of 2s. per ton. The freight to 
Hamburg at that time was about 82s. per ton. 


The Diplomatic and Consular Report on the British Hast Africa Protectorate 


for 1902 No. 2903, p. 183 gives the following statistics of the exports of mangrove bark, 
known locally as ‘‘ boriti bark,” from that country :— 


Value. 
1900-1 ae Li Ai £998 14s. 8d. 
1901-2 he es £908 14s. 8d. 


The export duty on the bark from British Hast Africa was then 10 per 
cent. ad-valorem. 

The Diplomatic and Consular Reports for Sarawak, Brunei and British 
North Borneo, for the period 1898—1903, give the following figures for the exports 
of mangrove cutch made there. These exports went principally to the United 
Kingdom :— 


EXPORTS FROM SARAWAK. 


Piculs. Value. 
1899 ais sas G 1,612°5 £1,197 
1900 ae ys ve 1,260°0 £1,039 
1902 a Sb ey 8,488°75 == 
EXPORTS FROM BRITISH NORTH BORNEO. 
cwt. 
1903 We vat 18,000 (estimated) 


These figures may be supplemented to some extent by the import returns 
tor cutch in the United Kingdom, which show that in 1903, 269 tons of cutch, 
valued at £7,149, and 1904, 254 tons, valued at £5,299, were imported into the 
United Kingdom from British North Borneo. It may be assumed that this was 
entirely mangrove cutch. Mangrove cutch, as already explained, is principally 
used by dyers, and it seems to have taken the place to some extent of the 
true cutch largely produced in North-West India and in Burma, from the wood 
of Acacia catechu.—Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, Vol. III, No. 4, 1906. 


§ does 
—* ee 


73 


41 


FIBRES. 


COTTON-GROWING. 


When the highly remunerative result of the cotton crop of 1905 is con- 
sidered, it seems extraordinary that cotton-growing should this year once more 
have to be reckoned amongst the neglected industries. If all the men on the 
land were dairy farmers, we could easily understand that fodder crops would 
claim all the available arable land. Those who are now devoting their energies 
to raising lambs forexport would also not be likely to touch cotton. But there 
are hundreds of farmers who devote their land to the ordinary farm crops, 
some of which, according to meteorologists, will continue for a cycle of years 
to searcely pay for the labour of cultivation, preparation, and marketing. Tosuch 
men the business of cotton-growing should appeal with much more force. They 
appear to fear that the price of cotton will fall to a non-paying point about 
the time when their crop would be ready for market. But what are the facts? 
What prospect is there of a fall? The cotton-growers of the United States 
have again had a short crop. The estimated 12,000,000 bales for 1905-6 will not 
be realised by at least 3,000,000 bales, and of a 9,000,000 bale crop an immense 
proportion is used in the American cotton mills, which are yearly increasing 
in numbers. England must have cotton, so must Germany and France. If 
America cannot supply it, it must be got elsewhere. But from what country ? 
From India? From Africa? From the West Indies? From Egypt? 


Let us take India. Large quantities of cotton are produced there certainly, 
but, although thousands of pounds sterling have been expended in attempts to 
produce a cotton such as any Queensland farmer can produce, failure has con- 
stantly been recorded, and lately India has had recourse to Queensland to obtain 
seed of a variety which in this State succeeds well in the North, whilst in all 
probability it will share the fate of all other imported varieties in India. We 
allude to the two Caravonica varieties grown by Dr, Thomatis, at Cairns. That 
gentleman has lately sent large quantities of seed to India—we cannot say at 
what price, but rumour has it the doctor’s cotton seed is proving a mine of 
wealth to him. As a rule, Indian cotton is short in staple and rather coarse, 
and consequently does not fetch a high price in the English market. The annual 
output of Indian cotton is about 3,000,000 bales of 5001b. each. As to Africa, 
good cotton can be grown there, but, in spite of the supposed cheapness of 
native labour, late accounts state that owing to labour troubles cotton-growing 
in some parts has had to be abandoned. In the West Indies practically only 
one kind of cotton is grown—Sea Island, which always brings a high price. 
But the range of Sea Island cotton is limited, and the demand for it can scarcely 
be supplied by the West Indies and the American Sea Islands together. The 
total world’s production of Sea Island cotton is only 110,000 bales, of a value of 
£100,000. In Queensland, Sea Island cotton can only be grown successfully on 
the coast, particularly in the Northern districts. Inland from Brisbane, Mary- 
borough, Rockhampton, and 'lownsville westwards, the Upland cotton must be 
grown. Hgyptian cotton has always been famous for its excellence, both of 
colour, length of staple, and fineness; but of late the value of Egyptian cotton 
has much deteriorated owing to carelessness on the part of the growers about 
the seed. Different varieties have been grown in the same field, with the result 
that produce is mixed and therefore not so valuable as it used to be. Egypt 

6 


Fibres. 49, 


exports about 290,000 tons of cotton annually and 17,000,000 bushels of cotton 
seed. Exclusive of these—America, Egypt, and India—the rest of the world produces 
about 1,000,000 bales of 500 lb. each. The present annual production of cotton 
all over the world is about 16,000,000 bales, whilst the present demand far exceeds 
this, and in two or three years it is estimated that the demand will reach 
19,000,000 bales. 

All this goes to show that there is no present prospect of a low price 
for the raw material, and that an excellent market is awaiting all the cotton 
that can be grown in Queensland. To produce an acre of cotton entails far less 
labour than to produce an acre of maize. The value of the produce of an acre 
of maize is about £6, from which has to be deducted the cost of cultivation, 
husking, threshing, and bags. An acre of well-grown Uplands cotton is worth 
at Idd. (£6 10s.) to 2d. (£8. 16s. 8d.) per lb., from which has to be deducted the 
cost of cultivation and picking. An acre of Sea Island cotton is worth double 
this. If farmers would ponder this matter and plant a few acres of cotton 
every year, it would not be long before a large export trade would arise, and 
like sugar, cotton would become one of the chief staple products of the State.— 
Queensland Agricultural Journal, April, 1906. 


MADAR: A FIBRE PLANT. 


(CALOTROPIS GIGANTEA, R. BR.) 


Calotropis gigantea and C. procera are easily distinguished, though from a 
practical point of view, their properties are identical. Both flowered under cultiva- 
tion simultaneously at Kew, and are figured in the Botanical Magazine for 1886 (tt. 
6862 and 6859). 

©. gigantea is a much larger, coarser plant than C. procera. Both are widely 
spread in India. But outside it their distribution, as Sir Joseph Hooker points out, 
is contrasted. C. gigantea reaches eastwards to China, while C. procera extends 
westwards and reaches the Cape de Verd Islands. The present notice deals with the 
former species, though most of what is to be stated would apply equally to the latter, 


It is an erect spreading perennial bush which chiefly frequents waste lands 
in the warm moist tracts of most tropical countries, in India being especially 
abundant in Bengal, Assam, South India, and distributed to Ceylon, Singapore, 
the Malay Peninsula, and China. Both the species are known by the following 
names :—Madar (sometimes written by Europeans as mudar or even muder), ak, 
akanda, arka, yercum, &c. 


One of the earliest European writers to describe this plant was Prosper 
Alpinus (De Plant. Aegypti, 1592, Ch. XXV.). He tells us that itis the ‘beidelsar’ 
of Alexandria, where it grows in damp places. Rheede was the earliest Indian 
botanist to narrate its properties (Hort. Mal. 1679, II., t. 31), and he furnished a most 
accurate drawing of the plant. Hecalls it ericu. Rumphius (Hort. Amb. 1755, VIL, 
t. 14, f. 1) gives a poor illustration, but describes the plant in great detail under the 
name of mador. Sir W. Jones (As. Res. IV. 1798, p. 267) describes it under the name 
areca. Roxburgh placed it in the genus Asclepias, and Robert Brown, a little later, 
assigned to it a separate position under Calotropis. It isa sacred plant with certain 
Hindus, and is associated with the observances of the maruts or winds, the demigods 
of Rudra. The ancient Arabs also appear to have had superstitious beliefs regarding 
it, since they associated it with sun-worship. It is the ushar of the Arabs and the 
khark of the Persians, but the former seems to be a generic word for milk-yielding 


plants, and was probably restricted to Calotropis at a comparatively late date. Abu 


Hanifeh was perhaps the first Arab writer to give an explicit account of it, but much 
useful information will be found in the writtings of Ebn Baithar (Transl, by 
Southeimer, II. 193). ¥ 


48 Fibres 


This, plant may be said to yield Gutta-Percha from the milky sap; a 
strong fibre from the bark; a useful floss from the seeds; and a medicine 
from the root-bark. Space cannot, however, be afforded todo more than review 
even these properties very briefly, and there are many minor ones, 


THE GUTTA-PERCHA. 


The inspissated and sun-dried sap (milk) drawn from the stems constitutes the 
madar gutta often mentioned by writers on India. It is, in fact, the most hopeful of 
the many gutta-yielding plants that do not belong to Sapotaceze, the family which 
affords the true gutta-percha of commerce. There are large tracts of the sandy deserts 
of Rajputana and Central India, as also of Sind in which this plant is not only the 
most prevalent but almost the only form of vegetation met with. In many instances 
also it has been observed to be the pioneer in the reclamation of sterile tvacts. If, 
therefore, 1 demand could be originated for any one or all collectively cf the pro- 
ducts of this plant, much good might result to India. Its production could be fos- 
tered, and by selection and cultivation the quality and quantity of the produce 
improved, until the plant assumed the condition of a regular crop for poor soils. 
But unless some method could be designed for extracting the milk from shoots cut 
on account of their fibre, it is feared that it would not pay to tap this plant specially 
for its gutta. The stems and twigs are too small, and the yield from each too little, 
to justify the opinion that methodic tapping would prove remunerative as an indus- 
try by itself. Moreover, it has been found by chemical experiments that Calotropis 
gutta, being a fairly good conductor of electricity, it is not suited for electric pur- 
poses, and is thus very possibly debarred from one of the most profitable markets 
for this class of product. 


BaRK FIBRE. 


The bark fibre has attracted considerable attention and been spoken of as one 
of the best of Indian fibres. The great difficulty appears to consist in the inability 
to separate it rapidly and cheaply. Unfortunately the fibre cannot be prepared by 
retting the stems, since it is reported to rot when so treated, and yet the clean fibre 
when made into fishing lines and nets (as is the case in Karachi) seems quite durable 
and very strong, especially when used in sea-water, Mr. Liotard, after many experi- 
ments performed in Calcutta with fibre-extracting machinery generally, arrived at 
the unfortunate conclusion that the hopes formerly entertained by himself and 
others regarding this particular fibre were never likely to be realised :—lst, because 
of the small percentage of fibre (1:56) to weight of stems, and 2nd, the shortness of the 
ultimate fibre. But in recent experiments conducted at the Imperial Institute witha 
sample procured from Madras, Professor Wyndham R. Dunstan found that the staple 
measured fully 12 inches (Agr. Ledger No. 2 of 1899, p.3). Charles Richards Dodge 
(Useful Fibre Plants of the World, 104) says that an acre of ground planted 4 by 4 feet 
with this plant will yield ten tons of green stems and 582 lbs. of fibre; this would mean 
a yield of roughly 2:6 per cent. He then adds that the fibre possesses many of the 
_ qualities of flax, though somewhat finer. Its fineness, tenacity, lustre, and softness in 
fact fit it for many industrial purposes. Cross and Bevan found that when nitrated 
it could hardly be distinguished from silk, and long years ago Wight showed that a 
rope of this fibre broke with a weight of 407 lbs., when a similar rope of cotton gave 
way with 346 lbs., and coir with 224 lbs. It is, however, quite incorrect to affirm as 
has been done by Wiesner (Rohst. d. Pflanz. Reh. II. 317), Dodge, and others, that 
this fibre is widely used in India. Although prepared toa small extent by certain 
persons for very special purposes, the greatest possible difficulty was experienced in 
procuring the few pounds required by the Imperial Institute for the experiment just 
mentioned. 


Fibres. 44. 


Mr. G. W. Strettell (New Source of Revenue to India) advocates the value of 
this plant as a paper material. It may thus be fittingly concluded that, were it 
found possible to utilize the gutta as an additional source of revenue, the fibre, 
either for textile purposes or paper-making, might, in spite of all that has been said 
to the contrary, prove worthy of special consideration.—(The Agri. Ledger, 
No. 2 of 1899.) 

FLOSS. 


The coma of hairs or floss from the seeds constitutes one of the so-called vege- 
table silks or silk-cottons. This was chemically examined by Mr. Cross (see The Agri- 
cultural Ledger, No. 17 of 1897, p. 3) and found to possess an abnormally high percentage 
of furfurol. It was further believed to give evidence of being unsuited for some of 
the purposes of the textile industries. Jn practical experiments it has been found 
that the staple was too short and too light for existing machinery, the latter pro- 
perty allowing the fibre to be blown away. It is, however, a soft, very white floss, 
with a beautiful silky gloss, has been repeatedly spun experimentally in Kurope, and 
the textile produced much admired. Reporting on a sample of the floss submitted to 
him by the Imperial Institute, in 1897, Mr. C. E. Collyer observed that some years 
previously the floss had been in demand for fancy textile purposes, but that it had 
dropped out of use owing to the difficulties arising from variation in the quality of 
the parcels sent and the intermittency of the supply when requirements arose. He 
thought that the trade might be revived if a moderate but continuous supply could 
be guaranteed. Good quality floss might realise 4d. to 5d. perlb. The pods and 
seeds should be removed. but the floss left in its natural condition, unopened and 
discoloured portions removed. Notwithstanding all this, no progress has been made 
in the utilization of the fibre. In India it is largely employed for stuffing quilts, its 
lightness being of great advantage, and in upholstery it holds a recognised position, 
since pillows and cushions stuffed with it are held to be very cool and refreshing. It 
is also, to some extent, regularly spun and made into fishing lines and nets. 


Such then is all that can be said of the utilization of this floss at the present 
day. Butthere would appear to be little doubt that a few centuries ago this fibre 
was regularly spun and woven into some of the most beautiful textiles for which 
India was then famed. Human labour was of much less value than at the present 
time. Modern advances, coupled with the import of cheap European goods, seem to 
have destroyed the old industry. It would appear fairly certain that the madar 
floss was the “grass,” the ‘cloth of herbes,”’ ‘‘herba,” &c., of early European 
travellers and traders in Bengal, more especially Orissa. Further, that the traffic 
they allude to gave to the English language the expression ‘‘ Grass-cloth,” which 
later on became associated with a textile derived from China. Thus Caesar 
Frederike (1563-7) speaks of ‘‘ Cloth of herbes,”—‘‘a kind of silke which groweth 
amongst the woodes without any labour of man. And when the bole thereof is 
growen round as bigge as an orenge then they take care onely to gather them,” 
Rhea never could have been found as a wild plant in Orissa, and the allusion to the 
“bole” or fruit, from which the fibre was obtained, precludes rhea from consider- 
ation altogether. The passage most unquestionably denotes Calotropis gigantea. 
This view is confirmed by Fitch (1585) who gave an account of his exploration of the 
Ganges, including Orissa (Orixa as he calls it) where there was “ great store of the 
cloth which is made from the Grasse which they call yerua.” That vernacular name 
is clearly a form of the word that denotes Calotropis throughout Orissa and the 
Canartic to this day. Doubtless, also, Linschoten’s ‘‘ Herbe Bengalen” was the same 
textile. I have purposely made reference to Linschoten, under Boehmeria 
nivea, because all modern writers, whom I have been able to consult, quote the 
above passages, and several others to the same effect under Rhea, in plaze of Calo- 
tropis, to which they® most undoubtedly belong. Coming to more recent dates, 


45 Fibres. 


Capt. A. Hamilton (New Account of E. Indies, pub, 1744) who in 1627, visited Bengal, 
and passed up the Ganges to Benares and Patna, describes Balasore as producing 
manutactures of cotton, silk, mixed silk and cotton, and of “‘herba (a sort of tough 
grass) of which they make gighams, pinaseos, and several other goods for export- 
ation.” Even so late as 1813 Milburn mentions, among his Bengal piece goods, ‘‘ herba 
taffaties.” 


Though it is certainly most surprising that this ancient industry in silk- 
cotton textiles should have died out completely, and been all but forgotten, it is a use- 
ful object lesson of the possibilities of the future, which manufacturers would do 
well to consider. 

MEDICINE. 

It would take many pages to indicate even a tithe of the information that 
exists on the varied medicinal properties of the milk, the flowers, the leaves, and the 
root-bark. The late Dr. Kanny Lall Dey, C.I.H., regarded madar as a useful medi- 
cine when given during remission of intermittent fevers, and especially if these were 
associated with eczema. The majority of Indian medical writers extol the merits of 
the root-bark in the treatment of dysentry. In order to verify these opinions, the 
study of madar was taken up by the Central Indigenous Drugs Committee of India. 
Authentic parcels of the root-bark were procured and made up in the form of both a 
powder and liquid extract. These preparations were issued to a selected number of 
Hospitals and Dispensaries throughout India, with the suggestion that they should 
be used as alteratives and alterative tonics. By chemical tests it had been previously 
ascertained that the bark of mature plants was preferable to that of immature ones, 
since they contained a higher percentage of the acid and bitter resinous matter on 
which the property depended. As asubstitute for ipecacuanha it is not so satisfac- 
tory as its reputation would seem toimply. In fact, in acute dysentery and chronic 
diarrhoea, it is found undesirable, and certainly less efficacious than ipecacuanha. 
When given in large doses it frequently occasioned nausea and vomiting, so persis- 
tent and severe as to make the drug objectionable if not dangerous. In small doses 
of, say, 3 to 5 grains of the powder (preferably), its action on the stomachjwas that of 
a mild stimulant, hence the opinion was often expressed that it might, with advant- 
age be combined with cinchona in the treatment of certain fevers. As an emetic 
the powder, in doses of 30 to 40 grains, was found very effectual.—George Watt 


in the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information 
Nos. 157-168, 1900. 


46 


DRUGS AND MEDICINAL PLANTS. 


CINCHONA BARKS AND THEIR CULTIVATION.* 


I propose to give a brief sketch of some of the results of the cultivation 
of cinchona bark, and before doing so, will only venture on a mere reference to 
the previous history of the cinchona barks and to the chemistry of their alkaloids ; 
for the former I would refer anyone interested in the subject to the admirable 
work by Sir Clements Markham, entitled ‘‘ Peruvian Bark,” and for the latter to 
Leger’s admirable monograph, ‘‘ Les alcaloids des Quinquinas.” 


Quinine and its cognate alkaloids have hitherto only been found in the barks 
of the genus cinchona and the allied genus remgia. These are only found in a 
limited zone of the eastern slopes of the Andes, and nothing was known to 
Europeans of their medicinal properties till some time after the Spanish conquest. 
It is not certain whether the Indians were aware of them, but if they were, they 
concealed their knowledge from their conquerors. In 1638, the wife of the governor, 
the Count of Chinchon, being very ill with malarial fever was cured by the 
administration of a hitherto unknown remedy, and she took great pains to introduce 
its use in Kurope, and hence the name of the genus which purists spell Chinchona. 


The chemistry of these barks was investigated by Dr. Gomes, a Portuguese, 
who isolated cinchonine in 1816, and in 1820 Pelletier and Caventou isolated quinine, 
and the alkaloid has since then taken the place of the bulky powdered bark that 
was formerly employed in medicine. The later investigations into the properties 
and relations of the various cinchona alkaloids opens up so wide a subject that I 
will not attempt to go intoit, especially as I have very little that is unpublished 
to add to the stock of knowledge. 


From that time the use of cinchona bark and quinine in medicine steadily 
increased, and as the collection of the bark was in the hands of ignorant Indians 
who never thought of planting trees to replace those cut down, district after 
district was denuded of the trees, and there was every prospect of most inefficient 
supplies if not of extinction of the genus. 


In British India there was not only a great demand for quinine, but climatic 
conditions very similar to those on the Andes, and the government wisely deter- 
mined to set about the introduction of the cinchona into the country. It was no 
easy matter, the bark collectors arguing rightly enough that if the bark was culti- 
vated elsewhere their occupation would be gone, and any one who was even 
suspected of an attempt to carry off plants or seeds went in peril of his life. Unde- 
terred by these difficulties, Sir Clements Markham and his coadjutors arranged 
expeditions into the districts from which the most valuable species were procured, 
and after adventures, far more interesting than those of a novel, succeeded in 
bringing home plants in Wardian cans and seeds of various species, specially of 
the succirubra and officinalis. 


It all sounds very easy, but to get the plants alive to the coast, to keep 
them alive on the voyage to England, and again through the Red Sea was a triumph 
of skill and patience. When they reached India, they were cultivated with infinite 
care and skill at Darjiling and on the Himalayas. At the former place the govern- 


ment were fortunate in securing the services of a Scotchman named Maclvor, who. 


nursed them as only a Scotch gardener can. The cultivation prospered and spread 
to other districts of India and Ceylon, and for 10 or 15 years the greater se of 
the quinine supply of the world was obtained from India and Ceylon. 


*A paper read ata recent meeting of the London Section of the Society of Chemical 
Industry, by David Howard. 


47 Medicinal Plants. 


The cultivation of these barks under such skillful management has thrown 
light on many questions as to the formation of alkaloids in these barks. Samples 
of wood and leaves of the trees were carefully examined for the alkaloid, but none 
was found in either ; it seems, therefore, that the elaboration of the alkaloids takes 
place solely in the downward course of the sap. Further, that the percentage of 
alkaloid constantly increases in the bark from the twigs to the ground, and certainly 
in the less flourishing tree the root bark is richer still. Another curious point is 
shown by such analyses, namely, that the root alkaloid invariably contains more 
of the dextogyrate alkaloids, quinidin and cinchonine, than the bark of the same 
tree above the ground. 


Another point of great interest that has been made very clear is, that the 
more flourshing a tree is the more alkaloid it will produce, and the result of culti- 
vation has been to produce bark yielding 10 per cent. or even more of alkaloid; 
this is three or four times as much as was foundin the average wild barks of 
commerce. I remember that the first 5 per cent. bark I tested, astonished me so 
much that I at once repeated the analysis, thinking that my weighings must have 
been wrong. To obtain such results as these, however, it is necessary to have the 
best varieties as well as healthy trees. The yield from trees growing side by side, 
all from the same cultivation, of the same seed, in the same soil differs very widely, 
and a great number of analyses of individual trees showed by the irregular 
incidence of good and bad tests that the variation must be in the trees and not in 
the conditions of growth. 


* * * By the application of various manures to these trees, it was shown 
that such manures as increased the apparent vigour of the trees increased their 
alkaloid yield, and that for this purpose nitrogenous manures were the best. 


I may mention that for the purpose of these analyses, the trees were not cut 
down, but strips taken from them at the same height above the ground. 


As the wood of the trees is of little or no use, a system of bark collection 
was adopted in India and Ceylon, similar to that by which cork is obtained. In this 
country, if a portion of the bark is taken from a tree, nature makes an attempt to 
heal over the wound, but the process is capricious and often fails, but in hot climates 
it takes place much more freely, provided always that the cambium is not 
damaged. Of course, the partial removal of the bark must be longitudinal, ringing 
a tree will kill it even in the tropics. 


The plan successfully introduced by Maclvor was as follows :—Incisions 
were made down the trees about an inch apart and of any convenient length, 


‘the enclosed strip being carefully cut across at the top and bottom, the strip 


was pulled off and dried, a strip of bark was then left untouched, and then 
another strip taken and so on all around the tree, which was then wrapped 
round with moss to keep off the sun and air, and in an amazingly short space 
of time the cambium poured out sap which formed bark all over the wound, 
not only at the side as we so often see in this country. The next year the 
strips left on the tree, or a portion of them, could be similarly treated, and 
the second or third year the renewed bark could be taken off and the same 
process of healing would take place. A similar process has also been treated 
by cutting shavings off the trees with a spokeshave, but though involving much 
less labor, it is less effectual, as it is most difficult to cut deeply enough into 
the bark to ensure the process of renewal without damaging the cambium. 


The renewed bark gives very interesting results, it is in the first place richer 
in alkaloid; this is not surprising, as it has always been found that the alkaloids 


-were chiefly contained in the cellular tissue of the bark, not in the fibrous 


Drugs and 48 


portion. In some barks these two structures are very distinct, and there is 
no difficulty in cutting them apart. The renewed bark shows little or no sign 
of fibrous growth, and is almost entirely cellular. 


But not only is the quantity of alkaloid greater, but the quality is very 
different. The species which lend themselves best to this treatment are the 
succirubra and officinalis; both these and especially the succirubra yield, 
from the natural bark, large percentages of cinchonidine. In the renewed bark 
the proportion of cinchonidine is very much diminished as compared with the 
quinine, sometimes almost disappearing. This result is curiously different from 
the changes in the relative proportion of alkaloid found in the root; there the 
dextrogyrate alkaloids increase as against the levogyrate, here the less oxydized 
levogyrate alkaloid increases as against the more oxydized. It is difficult to 
imagine that one changes into the other, if Pasteur’s formula were correct, and 
the difference were only in the oxygen, that might be, but it is evident that 
the difference is much more fundamental. 


Another point of interest was the study of hybrids. The inflorescence 
of the cinchonas lends itself greatly to hybridization owing to the fact that 
the flowers, though having both stamina and petals are of two forms, some- 
times the one, sometimes the other of the organs being prominent, and thus 
fertilization must take place from another flower by the help of insects. 


Many hybrids were produced, but it is unfortunate that no accurate 
records are available of the exact circumstances of the crossing. It was difficult 
if not impossible to learn which species was the seed bearer. One hybrid, known 
as “robusta,” was specially interesting, its growth was even more luxuriant 
than that of the parent succirubra, while the yield and purity of the quinine 
approximated to fine calisaya. 


A great deal more would doubtless have been learned but for the 
fact, disastrous for British India and Ceylon, that the cultivation of cinchona 
in these regions ceased to be profitable. In old days the unit price, 1.e., 
the cost of each percentage of quinine in a pound of bark varied from 8d. 
to 2s. At 6d. the cultivation in the British plantations was splendidly profitable, 
but the Indian Government was not the only one that perceived this impor- 
tance of cinchona cultivation. 


The Dutch had, early on, rightly guessed that Java afforded an ideal 
home for the cultivation of cinchona, and great efforts were made to obtain plants 
or seed. At first, though the plants were obtained they were, either by accident 
or on purpose, a collection of species very interesting no doubt to the quinologist, 
but utterly valueless as a source of valuable alkaloid. 


At last, an English merchant named Ledger, living on the West Coast 
of America, obtained, by the help of an Indian named Manuel, a packet of seeds, 
largely from one magnificent tree; when Manuel went home again the Casceril- 
leros found out what he had dene and murdered him. 


These seeds were sold by Ledger, half to British India and half to the 
Dutch Government; he received, I think, £50 from each, all of which he gave 
to the widow of poor Manuel. The British half was somehow or other. mismanaged, 
and at any rate no success was obtained in the cultivation. The Java portion 
gave very different results. 


In the skilful hands of the managers of the government gardens the plants 
throve wonderfully, and were managed with most admirable skill. The barks of 
individual trees were analyzed, and only those which gave high tests were 
allowed to flower; the seed from these were cultivated in spots far away from 


49 Medicinal Plants. 


other plantations, and the same weeding out of the inferior plants repeated. 
The result has been wonderful. The richest bark from South America, such as 
no doubt Ledger’s seed came from, yielded up to 4 per cent. of quinine alkaloid ; 
we now find in the Amsterdam sales, whole parcels of bark giving 10 per 
cent. of quinine alkaloid. Where the plant finds room for it, it is hard to 
guess. It is a curious question—what use if any, the alkaloid is to the life of the 
tree. The alkaloid is only produced in favourable soil and environments, and at 
high elevations. The trees may apparently flourish at low elevations or in hot 
houses, but in those circumstances the yield of alkaloid is very small. It is clear 
that the fault is in the circumstances not in the trees, for some of the richest 
officinalis bark in the Nilgiris was obtained from trees which were the offsprings 
of trees grown from the cuttings sent out by my uncle, J. E. Howard, F.R.8., from 
plants grown in England. These mother plants out-grew his hot houses, and had 
to be cut down ; their bark contained but little quinine. 


The wonderful strain of calisaya, called after Ledger ledgeriana, was eagerly 
cultivated with all the Dutch skillin gardening, and now the yield of ledgeriana 
bark from Java is about 12,000,000 pounds per annum. I hear of dividends of 60 
per cent. from plantations in Java, and Ledger got nothing! 


In the rich deep soil of Java the trees flourish marvellously and sprout so 
freely from the root that coppicing, instead of the laborious process of renew- 
ing, is universally adopted. In six years the plantation begins to yield, and 
may go on for many years. 


Now, as it is cheaper to grow 6 to 10 per cent. bark in Java than 2 to 
5 per cent. bark in British India, it is not wonderful that the English planters were 
beaten out of the field, and the Dutch planters, by growing more than the market 
could possibly stand, and recklessly competing in their efforts to sell, got the price 
down to 04 of a penny per unit. They were profoundly convinced of the wicked- 
ness of the quinine manufacturers of the world, but learned their lesson, and by 
allowing the demand to overtake the supplies, got the unit up to 2d. 


Over 
production again followed, and the price is down to 1d. and falling still. 


A good deal of ‘“‘ hybrid” bark is sent from Java without very clear inti- 
-mation of its origin, it gives a sporting interest to the analysis, as one never 
knows if it will turn out as ecalisaya or succirubra, and bark is also sent as 
succirubra which from its test must be robusta. Another very interesting 
study is given us by the grafted bark of which a good deal has been grown, 
ledgeriana being grafted on a succirubra stock; this ‘“‘enten baast” generally 
gives excellent tests, but lately some of the plantations seem to have worn 
out and the root bark has been sent over;it is most interesting to find that 
this gives exactly the test of succirubra root, and ‘‘enten wortel” and ‘“ enten 
baast” are as different as the bark of the stock and the bark of the graft 
originally were. This shows that there is no transference of the alkaloid from 
the above downwards; that the descending sap cannot carry the alkaloid as 
such, but that the stem and the root each elaborate after their own kind. 


The success of the Dutch in knocking out all their rivals, and it must 
have required the doggedness of a Hollander to hold on, even in Java at 2} cents, 
has prevented other plantations of cultivated bark having the success they deserve. 


We receive, however, cultivated calisaya from the Andes, and some 
wonderful cultivated ‘‘ soft Colombian bark” has lately been brought to London, 
The cultivation in Jamaica is only a question of price, and we get the very richest 
succirubra bark from West Africa, but as people do not take quinine for enjoy- 
ment because it is cheap, but only when they want it, the supply now seems to 

7 


Drugs. 50 


have but little to do with the demand. * * * It is true that the reduction in 
price from 10s to 10d. has increased the consumption to ten times what it was 
40 years ago, but now it is difficult to imagine that anyone now goes without 
quinine on account of its price. 

he synthesis of quinine has always been hitherto an unattainable aim. It 
has been frequently attempted, and I believe that to one such attempt we owe 
the invention of aniline dyes; even the change from one alkaloid to another 
has only been effected in one case. It used to have a pecuniary as well as 
scientific attraction, but, from the commercial standpoint, can we hope to beat 
nature with her synthesis of 10 per cent. ledgeriana ? : 


CULTIVATION OF DRUGS IN GERMAN EAST AFRICA. 

A recent issue of the ‘Berichte tiber Land und Forstwirtschaft in 
Deutsch Ost Africa” contains an interesting account of the work done during the 
year 1905 at the Biological-Agricultural Institute founded some years ago at 
Amani in this German colony. Perhaps the most interesting development of 
the Institute during the year was the inauguration of the new chemical 
laboratory in which the various natural products of the Colony are to be systematic- 
ally investigated. Among the plants now being grown in the experimental 
plantations are Cola vera, Areca Catechu, Ilex paraguayensis, Cinchona robusta ; 
C. succirubra and C. Ledgeriana, Erythroxylon Coca, Strophanthus gratus, and 
the Javanese febrifuges Picus ribes and Jasminum glabriusculum, all of which 
are stated to be doing well. The cinchonas have indeed been planted in con- 
siderable quantities, and an attempt is to be made at commercial production, 
though the climate of the country is said to be rather unsuitable for successful bark- 
growing. Black pepper, camphor, sandalwood, and Andropogon Schenanthus and 
A. squarrosus are also being tried. 

The first experiments with sandalwood have been failures, but further 
attempts to grow it are being made. Balsams are also being grown, but the 
dryness of the climate does not suit either the tolu or Peruvian balsam plants, 
though one of the storax-yielding trees—Liquidambar styraciflwa—is said to be 
doing well. Fifty-eight different species of Hucalyptus have been planted, and 
1,000 plants have been raised so far. 

Attention is also being directed to the cultivation of casuarinas. Both 
these classes of plants are of great importance as wind-breakers and as sources 
of cheap fuel. The energies of the Institute chemist (Dr. Schellmann) seem to have 
been devoted principally to the study of manures for coffee and cotton, though 
he has also investigated, among other subjects, methods of preparing alcohol from 
sweet potatoes, the preparation of cardamoms for the market, and the tanning 
values of the barks of various. species of Acacia. 

A still for the preparation of essential oils has recently been fitted up, and 
about a kilo. of oil has been distilled from Andropogon citratus and samples 
distributed to merchants in Germany for valuation. This, however, proved not to be 
of very good quality. Essential oils from Piper Volkensw and wild cardamoms 
(Amomum mala) have also been prepared. 

The most interesting mineral examined during the year was a uranium 
ore containing no less than 89 per cent. of uranous-uranic oxide, which proved to 
be highly radio-active. As its name implies, the Institute devotes special 
attention to applied entomology, and thirty pages of the Report are devoted 
to the results of the examination of the various insect-pests of economic plants 
and the disease-carrying insects, such as the various species of Glossinia, which 
have been dealt with during the year. At the close of the Report an interesting 
account is given of the bee and silkworm culture experiments, which appear to be 
making satisfactory progress.—Chemist and Druggist. 


51 
EDIBLE PRODUCTS. 


The Cultivation and Curing of Tobacco. 


PREFACE. 


One of the most promising of the new industries of Jamaica is the cultivation 
of tobacco. Jamaica cigars and cigarettes have now become so widely known thai 
the industry deserves to be taken up on thoroughly enterprising lines, for the cultiva- 
tion of tobacco in Jamaica appears to be likely to repay the judicious outlay of 
capital in suitable localities. 


Jamaica tobacco and cigars were well represented at the recent Colonial and 
Indian Exhibition at the Crystal Palace and secured four awards, including a ‘ Grand 
Prize.’ Trinidad also secured an award for manufactured tobacco and cigarettes. 
Experiments in tobacco growing have been conducted at the Botanic Station at St. 
Kitt’s since 1901, and some measure of success has been attained. 


With the view of generally encouraging the cultivation of tobacco in the 
West Indies, the present pamphlet has been prepared. It is mainly based on infor- 
mation reprinted from the Bulletin of the Department of Agriculture, Jamaica. 


The notes on the cultivation and curing of tobacco were written by Mr. T. J. 
Harris, formerly Assistant Superintendent of Hope Gardens and now Superinten- 
dent of the Botanic Station at Bermuda. Mr. Harris was for some years in charge 
of the experiments in tobacco production at the Hope Experiment Station. and his 
notes, based on this experience, are likely to be useful to planters who may desire to 
take up the cultivation. They form a simple and reliable guide to the various 
details of cultivation of the tobacco plant and the curing of the leaves for the 
market. 


For some time an interesting experiment has been carried out at the Hope 
Experiment Station in connection with the cultivation of Sumatra tobacco for cigar 
wrappers under shade. This experiment has so far been successful, and it may lead 
to this class of tobacco cultivation being taken up on a fairly large scale. 


The notes on growing tobacco under shade in Jamaica were written by Mr. 
W.N. Cunningham, who succeeded Mr. Harris as Assistant Superintendent of the 
Hope Experiment Station. The notes are supplemented by information on similar 
work in the United States, Cuba, and Sumatra. 


The cost of producing Sumatra leaf in Jamaica has been placed at 2s. to 
2s. 23d. per lb. Samples of this leaf were estimated by an expert to be worth 6s. per 
lb. These figures are, however, liable to revision with wider experience in Jamaica 
and elsewhere. 


The experiment has demonstrated that cigar wrapper tobacco equal, if not 
superior, to Sumatra can be grown in Jamaica, and that its cultivation would 
probably leave a guod margin for profit. c 


Appended to the notes on the cultivation and curing of tobacco is the report 
of Mr. F. V. Chalmers, who visited Jamaica last year for the purpose of reporting on 
the prospects of the Jamaica tobacco industry. The matter has also received atten- 
tion from the Director of the Imperial Institute, who advises that expert assistance 
be obtained from Cuba, or from Sumatra, or from Florida. 


Mr, Chalmers expresses the hope that the production of cigar leaf wrapper 
will be largely taken up, as he is confident that ‘there isa large fortune waiting for 
somebody who will only produce this tobacco as herein indicated,’ 


Pi Bab i: 
. ee 


Edible Products. 52 ne 


Particular interest attaches to the announcement made in Appendix II to 
the effect that an attempt is being made to introduce the use of Jamaica tobacco in 
the navy. Should this tobacco find favour with the sailors, it is probable that a 
considerable impetus will be given to the tobacco industry in this part of the world. 
Every effort will have to be made so that a regular and constant supply be forth- 
coming to meet the demand that would arise from this source. This is a matter to 
which careful attention must be paid by both tobacco growers and merchants in 
order to establish the industry on successful lines. 


D. MORRIS, 
Commissioner of Agriculture for 
Barbados, November 29, 1908. the West Indies. 


Tue Topacco NURSERY. 


SELECTION OF SiTE.—Select an open space quite devoid of shade of any 
description, and with a south or south-eastern aspect if possible; bill off the 
bush and spread same out to dry ; when dry, rake up and put on one side. 


PREPARATION OF BEDS.—Hoe off and clear away the grass, roots, ete. from 
the space thus cleared, and then proceed lightly to fork up the land, taking care not 
to turn up the sub-soil; when this is done peg out and line off the beds, allowing 
3 feet for the bed and 4 feet for the path; now with a spade or shovel lift the 
loose soil from the 2 feet of the middle of the path, to the depth of four or five 
inches, and place it upon the bed and level down with a rake; the paths will then be 
2 feet wide and 3-feet beds will have a long slope on either side. : 

Burnina.—If the soil be light (sandy or loamy) and not likely to cake down 
after rain, it will be necessary only to burn, say, 5 or 6 inches of rubbish over the 
bed, just sufficient burning to destroy caterpillars, etc.; but if the soil is of a heavy, 
clayey nature the beds must be burned twice, each time spreading about 2 feet 
of rubbish on the beds; the ashes to be mixed with the surface soil after the 
first burning, and in either case before the seeds are sown. A seed bed ten 
yards long will yield ampie seedlings for one acre of land. 

TIME OF SowinG.—The best time to sow is about the middle of August ; 
the suckers would then be ready for planting out during October. After this 
main sowing it is, however, very necessary to sow afew beds every fortnight, 
for the purpose of keeping up a supply of plants in the event of .continued 
heavy rains interfering with the planting out of those that are just the size for 
planting ; in which case they overgrow and become useless. 


SowinG.—Mix the seeds with twice their bulk of fine sand or wood ashes 
and seatter evenly over the bed (including the long sloping sides) when the air is 
still; water with a fine-rose watering can, and keep the bed moist until the 
‘seedlings’ are ready for hardening off before planting. 

SHADING.—Immediately after sowing, cut some forked sticks and rig up 
a skeleton arbour about 4or5 feet high and lay some long Guinea grass or coconut 
leaves over it, with the stalks pointing to the north; this will secure the points of 
the grass or coconut leaves trailing over on the southern or sunny side. This 
covering serves two purposes—it protects the germinating seeds from the sun, and 
breaks the force of the rain during a heavy shower. 

As soon as sufficient seedlines have made their appearance, remove most of 
the shade from the arbour; this stops the germination of seeds that can very well 
wait for a time; the visible seedlings should now be an inch or so apart. When 
these have begun to develop their third leaf, remove the whole of the shade. 


53 Kdible Products. 


WEEDING.—Pick all weeds as they appear, as, if allowed to get big before 
they are pulled out, the tobacco seedlings come out with them. 


HARDENING Orr.—Four weeks after germination the seeds will begin to pack 
up together, covering the soil; they should now be gradually hardened off by keep- 
ing them onthe dry side, watering them only when there is danger of the leaves 
drooping. In seven weeks from sowing they will be ready for planting out. 


DAMPING.—Sometimes a shower of rain will bruise the young plants, inducing 
‘damping’ in some places ; to prevent the spread of the ‘damping-off’ fungus, apply 
a dusting of slaked lime to the affected parts of the bed. 


SUMMARY OF NURSERY WORK. 


Select a southern aspect for nursery. Secure the destruction of caterpillars 
and a loose, uncakable soil by burning. Sow the seeds thinly and evenly. Keep 
them moist and protected from sharp sunlight and heavy rain during germination. 


Remove the shade gradually as soon as sufficient seeds have been germinated, 
é.g., an inch apart. Keep down weeds and continue the watering until the plants 
pack up together. Gradually withhold the water to ensure the seedlings being hard 
when planted out. Look out for damp after a shower of rain. 


PLANTING. 


TIME FOR PLANTING.—There is a certain short period towards the end of the 
year in which tobacco plants, whether in the beds or in the field, grow and develop 
at an exceedingly rapid rate; namely, from the last week in October to the middle 
of December ; the success of a crop depends very largely on whether the main lot of 
plants is set out before this period or not; if not, then the plants will not be full 
developed by the time the dry ripening weather comes on. The main pointis to 
make the best possible use of the latter half of the October ‘seasons’ with a view to 


growing large plants and leaves that will be ready for the dry weather when it 
arrives. 


Soit.—The best soil for tobacco is a rich vegetable mould containing just 
sufficient clay to enable it to hold moisture for a good length of time; it can be taken 
as a maxim that the richer the soil is and the quicker the tobacco grows the better will 
be the quality of the cured product. Tobacco grown in a poor, gravelly soil at a hot, 
dry time of the year is so rank and heavy with narcotic gum that it is almost un- 
smokable; it makes, however, a first-class insecticide. 


SITUATION OF PLANTATION.—Tobacco should not be planted in districts where 
there are no well defined wet and dry seasons; it matters not how well the plants are 
grown, how carefully they are tended, if the two or three weeks’ continuous sun- 
shine and dry atmosphere be not forthcoming when the plants reach the ripening 
stage. 


PREPARATION OF LAND.—The land on which it is intended to grow tobacco 
should be cleared of all-trees and other objects that are likely to shade the plants ; it 
is not necessary to grub the stumps out except for convenience in ploughing; the 
rubbish should be burned in heaps and the ashes scattered over the soil to be ploughed 
in. Where tobacco is grown every year on the same land the growth of cow peas or 
other leguminous plants between the crops is highly beneficial; the velvet bean 
seems to be the best for this purpose, for besides storing nitrogen in the soil, it climbs 
over and kills out any weeds that attempt to grow, and goes down itself quite easily 
before the disc harrow at ploughing time, reducing the cost of preparation very con- 
siderably. The seeds may be sown at any time during June and July, two or three 
in shallow holes 3 feet apart, more or less. Tobacco land should be broken up and 


Edible Products. 54. 


cultivated as thoroughly as possible; the least that can de done is to plough, cross- 
plough, harrow, and cross-harrow ; as the rows have to run north and south, it is as 
well to plough in this direction first, finishing up with the cross-harrowing from east 
to west; this small matter makes it more convenient to arrange the lines when 
planting out. 


PLANTING.—Two days before planting is to be commenced the nursery beds 
should receive a thorough soaking with water; the plants can then be got out with- 
out damaging the roots. Planting boxes, each capable of holding about 1,000 plants, 
should be prepared beforehand ; these may be made out of any light wood, the most 
convenient shape being that of a square coal-scuttle or sugar scoop, 15 inches by 2 ft. 
3 inches on the longest side; the seedlings are stacked into the boxes just as they 
come from the bed and are not disturbed until they are planted in the field ; each 
planter should have a box, and there should be several spare ones so that the 
planters may be kept supplied with newly filled boxes from the nursery as the others 
get empty; the idea is to prevent the roots being exposed or damaged in any way. 


The seedlings are ready for planting out when they have three or four leaves 
about four inches long and a hard stem from two to three inches long; care should be 
taken when lifting them from the beds not to break off the tap root as such a seedling 
often results in acurly-leaved plant. The best time of the day for planting is from 
three o’clock in the afternoon until dark; but this is because the plants are enabled 
to lay hold of the soil before they have to face the strong sunlight; so that advan- 
tage should be taken of cloudy days to push ahead with the planting as rapidly as 
possible. If the plants loose their first leaves by exposure to bright sun, they 
usually take some time to recover and make fresh ones before they can start into 
rapid growth; whereas if these leaves get safely through the transplanting, the plant 
starts into vigorous growth immediately. 

In the actual planting out.great care should be exercised in organising the work 
in such a way as to prevent a hitch occurring, to cause loss of time. After repeated 
trials of various methods I have found the following to be the best and quickest :— 
Procure eight stout pegs and two rough mallets; put four pegs into the ground on 
each side of the field at a distance of three feet apart and stretch lines between the 
first two pairs; start one man with a six-pointed dibbler from each end to make the 
holes, with one man following each to fill the holes with water as they are made, 
whether the soil be moist or dry ; three planters may follow each waterer. 


Care should be taken to see that the roots are put into the mud formed by 
throwing in the water; to secure this, thrust two fingers in the centre of the smal] 
puddle and draw half on one side; insert the roots, then press the moved half back 
again to the plant and smooth down the surrounding soil; no water will be required 
after this. 


As soon as one line is holed and planted it can be moved to the next pair of 
pegs over the one on which the planters are working; the pegs may be moved in the 
odd moments whilst the planters are changing over from the finished line to the one 
newly holed and watered. 


This is a brief outline of a plan that may be modified to suit varying condi- 
ions; for instance, the water may be some distance off, necessitating more hands in 
this part of the work; and again, women can apply the water just as wellas men. 
A dibbler, capable of making six holes at once, can be very easily made out of two 
inches by three inches pitch pine scantling:—six 3-feet lengths planed smooth and 
pointed with iron held fifteen inches apart by a hand bar at the top and a foot bar one 
foot from‘the points; the lengths should be fifteen inches from centre to centre, that 
is, from point to point. Anacre of tobacco planted three feet by fifteen inches should 
eontain}11,600 plants; these ina fair season will yield about ten quintals of cured 
tobacco, equal to 1,000 lb. 


55 Ndible Products. 


AFTER CULTIVATION. —About two or three weeks after planting, according to 
fhe state of the weather, the young plants will have put out some fresh leaves; and 
it will be noticed that each new leaf will be larger, when developed, than the one 
immediately below. 


If the weather has been dry, suckers will very quickly make their appear- 
ance at the junction of the stem with the leaves. These should be removed at once. 
If, on the other hand, nice moist growing weather has prevailed, suckers will not 
become troublesome until the plant reaches a height of two feet to three feet; until, 
in fact, itis topped. Care should be taken from the first to keep down weeds, but 
avoid, if possible, trampling on the soil when it is wet; it is better by far to allow 
the weeds to remain until the surface of the soil is dry than to trample it into mud. 
During dry weather the surface of the soil should be kept loose by the use of the hoe, 
or a small cultivator drawn by a steer, to prevent the escape of the soil moisture. 


Movu.pinc.—When the plants are about a foot high, there issome danger 
of their falling over; advantage should be taken of the first spell of dry weather 
to give them a light moulding; this will also cover up the roots that come 
out during wet weather on the surface near the base of the plant, and protect them 
from the sun and dry wind. The easiest aud best way to mould is to hoe a little 
soil out from the centre of the three feet space between the rows and scatter it evenly 
over the distance from there up to the plants; the workman walking in the 
3-feet space and using the hoe left-and right-handed alternately. This method 
should be insisted upon, as, by moulding each row of plants separately, 
there is danger of breaking the leaves and of cutting the roots that are extending 
towards the middle of the 3-feet space. 


Avoid making a high, sharp ridge when moulding, for it is a veritable 
death trap to the plants; they will grow well only as long as there is a large amount 
of moisture in the atmosphere, but will stop suddenly as soon as the air gets dry. 
The fact is that the plant has been encouraged to put out roots high up the stem, 
and on that account has discarded the deeply-laid roots. In such a case, a few day’s 
dry wind is sufficient to absorb all the moisture out of the ridge that is so 
much above the. surrounding level, with the result that the roots contained 
therein, on which the plant has been depending for its sustenance, very quickly 
become useless through lack of moisture. The ridge should be low and broad, 
extending from the centre of one interval to the centre of the next. To enable 
the workman to place the mould right up to the stem of the plant the small 
leaves at the base are removed. A No.1 hoe is the best size for moulding tobacco. 


Toppine.—Hach successive leaf is larger than the one just below, up to the 
eighth or ninth ; the next four or five are about the same size, and those developed 
afterwards get gradually less until those near the infloresence are nothing more 
than small scales. One object in topping is to ensure all the leaves ripening at 
the same time, so that the whole plant may be cut; this only happens when the 
plants are topped down to the last developed large leaf, e.g., the top one of the 
four or five that are the same size as each other. 


Some practice is required to be able to judge just where to top the plant as 
these leaves have not yet developed; the best way at first is to top down to the 
twelfth leaf from the bottom those plants in which the flower bud is just discernible, 
not counting those leaves that were removed in the moulding, 

In poor, sandy soil, planted late, only eight or nine good leaves per plant 
will be obtained, but in rich soil under the best conditions as many as fifteen good 
leaves have been secured per plant. 


SUCKERING.—The topping is the signal for a sudden burst of suckers from 
the axils of the leaves, those at the top being the quickest to develop. These 


Hdible Products. 56 


suckers must be removed as soon as it is possible to lay hold of them conveniently, 
care being taken not to leave a single one on any part of the plant; remove every 
vestige of a sucker right down to the ground. If one is left it will be benefited 
by the removal of the others and grow at a prodigious rate. 

If the weather is moist the suckering can be done at any time of the day, 
but if dry, hot days obtain, the suckering is best done in the morning, as the 
suckers are brittle and snap off easily; whereas in the afternoon they become 
leathery and difficult to remove without injuring the good leaves. 


About ten or fourteen days after the first suckering another lot of suckers 
will appear; these must be removed in the same way leaving two only that are 
growing out of the stem below the surface of the soil, these are called the first 
‘ratoons,’ to distinguish them from the plant which is called the ‘ principal.’ 


RIPENING.—Seven or eight days after the second suckering the leaves will 
begin to ripen; the first todo so will be, of course, the bottom or oldest leaves 
and the last the top ones. The first sign of ripening will be a crimpled appear- 
ance in the leaf, somewhat like a savoy cabbage but not so pronounced; the 
next is that the leaves turn a light green; which on closer examination will 
be found to be caused by a yellow shading at the summit of each little bump 
or crimp. The leaves then become thick and leathery, and the minute hairs 
lose their glistening appearance and in some cases the edges turn down. 


If the plant is topped properly, it will be ready to cut when the lower 
middle of the top leaf is ripe, this being the last spot on the whole plant to 
ripen. It will thus be seen that it is possible to judge a day when the plant 
is fit to cut. 


RaToons.—There is a saying among the Cubans that the price obtained 
for the ‘ principals’ covers the cost of the cultivation and curing of the whole crop 
the ‘ratoons’ representing net profit. The former are sold as ‘capa’ (wrapper) 
but are used for ‘capoti’ (binder) in the best cigars, for which Sumatra wrappers 
are used, and as wrappers for cheap cigars; the ratoons are used for ‘tripa’ 
(filler). 


By good management is is, however, possible to obtain excellent capa 
leaves from the first ratoons; more especially when the principal ripens up 
quickly and is cut in time to allow the ratoon leaves to develop in the full light. 
The ratoons require the same attention as the principals with regard to weed- 
ing, moulding, tapping, and suckering, again leaving one or two ratoons, according 
to the strength of the plant, to take the place of the ripe ratoons when cut. 

The cutting may go on in this way until the leaves produced are so 
small as not to be worth the expense of cutting and hanging. 

Whilst the planting operations are proceeding, some attention should be 
given to the curing house in the way of preparing it for the reception of the 
crop; if no curing house exists it will be necessary to build one, and if this is 
contemplated the following simple directions may be found useful. 

(To be Continued.) 


EXPERIMENTS IN CURING TOBACCO IN MADRAS. 


Madras is justifiably proud of her cheroots, but nobody would venture 
to say that the local tobacco industry is incapable of improvement, The 
Government of Madras, in their anxiety to improve the quality of the tobacco 
produced in this Presidency, more especially as regards the operation of curing, 
have had under consideration two schemes (1) the employment of a curer from 
Jamaica, and (2) the careful curing, under Messrs. Spencer and Co.’s supervision, 


_—— oe 


wt, SIDA Bs 


57 Edible Products, 


of leaf specially selected in the field. As regards the first, it was postponed on 
the Deputy Director of Agriculture pointing out that no good purpose would 
be served by obtaining a curer from Jamaica, ‘‘as the curing, etc., of tobacco 
must be so very specially worked out according to local conditions,” and moreover 
it would be better to await the arrival of the Tobacco Expert for India, the 
employment of whom the Government of India have already sanctioned. The 
experiments under Messrs. Spencer and Co.’s supervision were, however, proceeded 
with during the year 1904-05. But the season, owing to scarcity of water, was so 
unpropitious and the consequent quality of the leaf so unsatisfactory that Messrs. 
Spencer and Co.’s Manager considered that there was no reasonable hope of 
successful curing experiments being carried out during the year. Notwithstanding 
those drawbacks Messrs. Spencer and Co. secured from the tobacco leaf purchased 
from selected gardens by the Agricultural Department a high quality of cured 
leaf by paying careful attention to detail in fermentation ; and the leaf so cured was 
allowed to mature for more than the usual period with a view to determine whether 
any improvement in flavour and burning quality could be attained thereby. 


The experiments resulted in three small boxes of cheroots, which were 
forwarded for inspection to the Board of Revenue. The latter have asked for 
a report from Messrs. Spencer and Co. on their quality, and also intend obtaining 
an opinion thereon from other local experts. Mr. Benson believes that whilst great 
success has been obtained with regard to the appearance of the leaf, it has not been 
attained with regard to flavour and burning quality. On these last two points, 
however, he thinks that it will be well to wait some time to allow the leaf to mature 
further. Considering all the circumstances, we are glad to note that the experi- 
ments are to be continued, and thatif success is attained a full account of the 
method of curing adopted is to be made available for the information of the 
public.—Madras Mail. 


THE RENOVATION OF DETERIORATED TEA. 


‘By H. M. Mann, D.Sc. 


At any moment during the past twenty years the question of the treatment 
of old and deteriorated tea has been an anxious and much-discussed problem 
over almost the entire extent of tea districts of. North-East India. In fact it 
is no new observation that under the conditions of tea culture in India, the 
bushes rapidly lose the vigour of their early days and, after a time varying 
from ten to twenty years from planting, may be said to have passed their prime, 
and can only be kept from deteriorating by very careful treatment. 


HISTORY OF THE SUBJECT. 


This fact, due in part to the unnatural conditions under which the tea 
plant is cultivated, became very obvious in the very early days of the industry. 
Though the first gardens only date back at the most to the late thirties (1835. 
1840), yet before ten years were past, as the records of the Assam Company 
show, complaints were made that the older planted areas had begun to yield 
less than they had done when younger, and less than was expected. Of course, 
we now know that deterioration such as this was largely, if not entirely, due 
to a vicious system of managing the bushes and collecting the crop, but the 
fact remains. By the later sixties (1865-1870), some of the planters had commenced 
to talk about the necessity for manures, but the question was not taken up, 
and a few tests with fertilisers not having been very successful, their use as 


a method of dealing with deteriorated tea was put. almost entirely on one side 
for over thirty years, 


Adible Products. 58 


Owing to the very expensive character of manuring and to its very partial 
success at that time, it became the rule in many districts to make up for the annual 
deterioration of the older tea by planting new areas every year. Thus it was 
often the case that five or even ten per cent of the existing area was put out 
in new plant each year, with the idea that as soon as the new tea came into 
bearing, a corresponding area of old cultivation should be abandoned and allowed 
to revert to its original jungle. Sometimes the abandonment was carried out; 
sometimes, and often, the old cultivation was still retained.in the area of 
bearing tea. The former, while agriculturally a disgraceful process resembling 
the jhuming system of the Indian hill tribes, was commercially sound; the 
latter, in constantly increasing the area under cultivation while the yield did 
not increase or only increased in a smaller ratio, was both agriculturally and 
commercially unsound. That this is the case is sufficiently obvious with the 
least thought. There is a constantly increasing area, demanding a constantly 
augmenting labour force both for cultivating the land and plucking the crop, 
and a crop not increasing in the same proportion, and hence costing more per 
pound each year. The result has been, ultimately, a crisis in many gardens, 
and the method is now almost entirely a discredited one. 


While such methods of counteracting the deteriorating effect of age in 
tea gardens and tea bushes were being used, the discovery was made that bushes, 
which had gone very far below their original condition could be brought again 
into vigorous yielding condition by ‘heavy pruning.’ By this type of pruning 
is meant any system which involves cutting out entirely the growth of shoots 
made in the current year, and so leaving on the bush only wood more than one year 
old. The tea bush has a marvellous power of throwing out new shoots at apparently 
almost any voint of the old wood on the plant, so that when all the younger 
wood is cut out, new shoots make their appearance from the older growth, 
and provided the soil is in a satisfactory condition and not exhausted this 
growth arising from the older wood shows greater size and vigour than that 
produced on the younger shoots only grown during the previous season. The 
advantage of this was quickly seen. By periodical ‘heavy prunings’ it seemed 
as if it would be possible to keep old bushes in full vigour indefinitely. The 
‘heavy pruning’ conducted under the influence of this idea became, ‘year by year” 
heavier and heavier, and until in the early nineties (1890-1895) it became 
fashionable in Upper Assam actually to cut down to the ground any tea which 
had deteriorated in yield, and allow new shoots to come from the ‘collar’ of the 
plant or even below. This was called ‘collar pruning.’ Advantageous and even 
necessary as such treatment was in many cases, the system just described took 
a far too great extension. Hundreds of acres were collar-pruned when the tea 
was suffering from causes for which collar pruning was no remedy, and it was 
hardly recognised enough that such drastic treatment should only be adopted as an 


extreme, and then only when quite evident that the deterioration was due to 
something for which collar pruning is a remedy. 


The present state of the subject is then somewhat as follows. The old tea 
throughout the Indian tea districts in North-HKast India has mostly declined or is 
declining in value. There is comparatively little plant more than thirty years old 
which does not show this decline;:and much, the age of which only little exceeds 
twenty years, is in the same case. The older system of abandonment of the old 
areas and planting out new to correspond, cannotin many cases now go on owing 
to the lack of available land, and the essentially wasteful character of the method 
is becoming more and more realised. The planting of additional areas ina garden 
to make up for the decline of the old tea has been generally recognised as being 


leslie 


59 Edible Products. 


commercially unsound. The renovation of old areas by heavy and collar-pruning, 
though still adopted, and rightly adopted in many cases, has been proved not to 
apply under all conditions. Manuring is, as yet, in its infancy as a practicable 
and regular method. The time is therefore opportune for a discussion of the whole 
question as to the special cause of deterioration, the signs by which each of them 
may be recognised, and the methods which have hitherto proved, both in experi- 
ment and in practice, most competent to stay the decline in the yield and quality 
of older tea, and of thus maintaining the value of our older areas, 


SIGNS OF DETERIORATION. 

It is not always, however, that the decline in value of a block of tea is 
recognised until it has already got intoa very bad condition. Until recently the 
keeping of records for each section of a garden was the exception rather than the 
rule, and, without this, it is almost impossible to recognise the first drop from the 


» original yield. I well remember visiting a garden in one of the districts of Assam 


some years ago, which had been making brilliantly successful years, and was looked 
upon as one of the show places of the district in which it lay. The yield had been 
keeping up, or rather its decline had not been noticed owing to the exceptionally 
fine returns which were being given by young tea newly in bearing. And yet the 
bulk of the older tea was undoubtedly rapidly deteriorating. Luckily, the matter 
was recognised in time, but I quote this. as an example of how brilliant results may 
sometimes hide the commencement of serious mischief. 


But what are the first indications by means of which deterioration in tea 
may be at once recognised? The resultant loss in yield is usually by no means 
the first sign, for this can be often maintained by harder or closer plucking or 
other means for some years after deterioration has set in. Probably the first point 
noticeable in most cases is the change in colour of the bushes. Thoroughly vigorous 
tea even if of the light coloured jats, has a darker appearance than unhealthy 
plant, and the leaves have an oily appearance very difficult to describe but which 
can hardly be mistaken. Then, too, the whole surface of the tea, at the beginning 
of the season, seems to be growing; the outer parts of each bush show that each 
shoot is throwing out new growth which is itself vigorous and with the oily 
appearance already stated. On the other hand, if the general colour of the tea 
in the season is an unhealthy yellow, if the difference between the vigour of the 
growth (in March or April) at the outside of the bushes and in their centres is 
great, if the shoots, which do appear quickly cease growing and turn banjhi, then 
it is time to consider the cause of the decline which has maifestly commenced. In 
nine cases out of ten tea which presents these signs will, if examined in May 
or June, be found to be attacked by Red Rust (Cephaleuros virescens), a sure 
indication of weakness in the bushes all over tea districts. If this is the case, the 
yellowish colour of the bushes will, at that time of year, be interpersed with many 
shoots bearing variegated leaves. These shoots are practically always ‘ banjhi,’ and 
if the second year’s wood from which they rise be examined, it will be found almost 
always to bear the characteristic fruiting organs of the alga which is known as 
‘red rust.’ 


Tea, which has the unhealthy colour just described, and has red rust in 
any large amount, is evidently beginning to ‘ go off,’ and the result will sooner or later 
be seen in thin flushes and loss in yield. And in thisconnection may I enter a plea 
for the universal adoption of a system of records of the yield of each block at every 
plucking on all gardens? I know such records are being increasingly adopted, but 
until this system is universal there is always the chance of a planter or a tea 
company living in a fool’s paradise until a crisis occurs and several unprofitable 
years follow before the tea is brought into a yielding condition again, Loss in yield 


Edible Products. 60 


should be capable of immediate check, and the cause ascertained at nee and 
remedied, if a garden is to be kept up to the mark under the high pressure 
conditions of modern tea planting. 


Accompanying the decline in yield the appearance of the wood on a bush 
usually changes. There are grey lichens on the stems of nearly all tea bushes, 
but they culy oceapy part of the surface;in unhealthy plants these lichens seem 
quickly to spread over the whole, giving the wood a peculiar greyish appearance 
which is generally described by the term ‘hide bound.’ Though this term has no 
definite scientific meaning, yet in a ‘hide bound’ bush the bark always seems 
distinctly harder than on a thoroughly healthy plant. The most character- 
istic feature is, however, the fact that leaf growth seems to cease in large measure 
except from the younger wood onthe top of the bushes. The result is that a 
‘hide bound’ bush always looks hollow, and while it may appear fairly vigorous 
on the top, an examination below indicates the unhealthy condition in which it 
really is. The usual and often the right prescription for such bushes would be 
heavy pruning. This is not, however, always the case as will be realised later. 


CAUSES OF DETERIORATION. 


We have described the most obvious signs of an unhealthy deteriorating 
bush, and the special causes which produce such unhealthiness must next be 
considered. Deterioration in tea, apart from incorrect management, must be due 
either to exhaustion of the land, or exhaustion of the bush, and it has been 
a common subject of discussion among planters as to which is usually first 
noticeable. It seems now clearly proved that the question does not admit of a 
definite and generally applicable answer. In many cases, and in my experience 
notably in the Duars, the bushes show signs of being worn out long before the soil 
could be considered exhausted. In others, the marvellous results obtained by 
adding manure to the land, without any further treatment, show beyond cavil 
that the bushes would yield and continue in good health if only the soil was rich 
enough, or the plant fuod present in an available condition. Iam strongly of 
Opinion that in by far the greater proportion of cases it is the exhaustion of the 
soil, coupled with incorrect treatment of one sort or another, which brings about 
the first decline in the value of areas of tea. At any rate it is no use touching the 
bush until one is certain that the soil is in good enough condition to enable the 
bushes to respond to the treatment. But how to ascertain whether there is 
anything wrong with the soil ? 


DRAINAGE. 


In the first place, it should be made certain that the drainage of the land 
is satisfactory. This, I think, can be done on the spot by three or four tests. These 
tests concern (1) the moisture in the subsoil in the cold weather, (2) the depth of the 
subsoil water in the drains, (8) the rapidity with which the heavy rains disappear 
through (not over) the soil on a piece of flat land. With regard to the first of these 
matters, it can easily be tested by digging a hole two feet deep, weighing say, 
ten pounds of the damp soil at the bottom of the hole, drying it in a warm place near 
the boiler for say two days, and reweighing. Now the maximum amount of water 
which ten pounds of different classes of dried soil can take up when saturated 
is approximately as follows :— 


Sandy soil Nee id te 2°25 pounds. 
Light loam ae ie ae 3°04 Ne 
Medium loam af AK es 3°22 i 
Heavy loam one et uN 3°32 3 


Clay soil ee 5! bs 3°85 


Ma Ri ey ce 


61 Edible Products. 


If, in the cold weather, the subsoil between two and three feet deep contains 
more than one-third of this amount (or perhaps one-half with a sandy or light soil) 
calculated on the dried soil, it will be most probably waterlogged in the rains, and 
needs subsoil drainage badly. The next test can be still more easily applied by 
digging a hole in the land after rain has been steadily falling for some days at the 
height of the monsoon. If, at this time, the water is within three or even four feet 
of the surface, a case for immediate deep drainage has been made out. A still 
further test depends on the rapidity with which the water falling on the surface 
disappears into the land. Observation on this point is only valuable after there has 
been much rain for some days, and the soil is thoroughly wet. In any case two 
hours after the rain ceases, the surface should be free from standing water. 


If the land answers satisfactorily the tests above set down, I think that it 
may be concluded that the cause of the deterioration lies elsewhere than in the 
drainage; if not, systematic drainage must be undertaken. It would lead us too 
far to go here into the methods by which the drainage must be done, and for this 
I must refer the reader to the chapter on the drainage of tea gardens in “The 
Pests and Blights of the Tea Plant” (second edition,} by Sir George Watt and 
the writer, published in 1903. 


PHYSICAL CONDITION OF THE SOIL. 


But if the drainage is satisfactory, is the physical condition of the soil and 
subsoil as it should be? In other words, is the soil in good ‘ tilth’ not merely on the 
surface, but for some distance into the land as well? If not, is the nature of the 
soil to blame, or is the condition solely due to lack of adequate cultivation? The 
first test to be applied in this connection is pressing of a stick down into the land. 
It will most likely be easily forced into the depth of four to six inches ia any 
garden, but in one where the soil conditions are good there should be no trouble 
in driving it by pressure of the hands alone to eight or ten inches, and sometimes 
even to fifteen inches deep. If such a stick shows evidence of a hard layer (other- 
wise ‘hard-pan’) at a depth of less than ten to twelve inches, it is evident that the 
condition of the soil needs improvement. A second test is furnished by the 
condition of the roots themselves. If they are flattened out, if all the rootlets which 
tend downward become rapidly small and stunted, if the whole rootlet develop- 
ment is a surface one, this affords a strong reason for supposing that the subsoil 
conditions need improvement in a physical sense. 


The soil improvement needed may be merely more and better light hoeing 
In quite a number of tea estates, in the Duars for instance, which have come under 
my notice, and where the tea is said to be ‘ going back,’ this is almost certainly 
the case. The precise cause of the effect which this light cultivation produces 
on the bushes has never been entirely explained. Its primary object is, of course, 
always held to be the burial and destruction of jungle growth. But it must do 
more than this, for, in places as we have noted above, where jungle growth is 
very small, the effect of lack of cultivation is equally obvious in a rapid yellowing 
of the bushes and a speedy increase in disease. In a large measure, no doubt, the 
cultivation is useful because it keeps the surface soil loose, and allows the tea 
rootlets thus easily to push through it. There is, we fancy, something even beyond 
this. In heavy soils, at any rate, there is always a large amount of plant food in 
the soil that no plant can use, as it is not in a condition in which it is absorbable by 
vegetable growth, This becomes only gradually available in the soil when it is 
exposed to atmospheric influences. A large quantity of the phosphoric avid and 
potash in heavy soils is usually in this unavailable condition, and it needs the 
exposure caused by the regular hoeing to make them ready to be absorbed by plant 
life. ‘his is the more probable because as land gets older and longer under tea, 


Edible Products. 62 


cultivation becomes more and more necessary to maintain vigour in the bushes, 
and a garden which will in its early days do well with four light hoes per annum, 
will ten years later need six or seven to give anything like equal results. 


While on this point I cannot refrain from referring to a controversy which 
has recently arisen, as to the value of hoeing a garden in the latter part of a season, 
say from August onwards. My own idea is that such cultivation is extremely 
valuable, and this largely from considerations not of the results for the season in 
which it is done, but rather of the following one. It may generally, I think, be 
said that any lack of hoeing in the latter part of one year is likely to be felt in poor 
thin weedy growth at the beginning of the following season. 

Quite as often as it is the result of deficient light hoeing the deterioration 
in the tea is directly caused by poor shallow cold weather cultivation, or by this 
cultivation being done very late. One can hardly too strongly insist on the 
importance of the cold weather deep hoeing. If done deep enough, it makes the 
lower layers of the soil friable, and hence penetrable by the delicate tea roots. It 
causes the retention of a large quantity of moisture during the dry season in the 
subsoil for the use of the plant, which would otherwise be lost. Very frequently 
indeed the non-luxuriance of a tea estate can be traced to scamping of the cold 
weather deep hoe or to its being left too late. 


While adequate cultivation can be obtained by hoeing of various kinds, 
this does not make the deeper subsoil friable and penetrable for the tea roots as it 
should be. This can only be done by growing deep-rooted trees and plants in 
among the tea. To this subject we will return a little later in dealing with green 
manuring. 


EXHAUSTION OF PLANT FOOD. 


But the land may be well drained and cultivated, it may bein good physical 
condition to a sufficient depth, yet if it is exhausted of plant tood, these will count 
for little, and manuring in one form or another will be essential. This state has 
been reached in many Assam gardens, and can be judged on the spot fairly 
well by several indications. The first of these is the character of the green 
herbage. Wherever, for instance, ‘ilami’ ‘cold weather weed’ (Ageratum sp.) 
grows vigorously, the soil is not exhausted; and the same may be said of quite a 
number of the common weeds of tea. A short, stunted herbage, principally of small 
grasses, on the other hand always looks bad, and seems to indicate exhausted land. 
A little examination of the jungle on good land and on the old areas of a garden 
will very quickly show the difference in the character of the weeds on which I 
wish to insist. A second and excellent test of the exhaustion or otherwise of a tea 
soil is obtained by trying to grow mati kalai (Phaseolus mungo) upon it. If this be 
put into well hoed, slightly moist land, at the end of April or the early part of May, 
and itis not ruined by very heavy rain, the vigour of its growth may be taken 
as a very fair measure of the condition of the soil in this respect. If it flourishes 
and grows two feet high or more in six or seven weeks, the soil is good enough for 
the time being; if not, it is probable that manure is required before the tea will 
reach what it ought to be. A third indication of the exhaustion of the surface soil 
is given by a gradually increasing difficulty in retaining good tilth on the surface 
of the land. The condition of the soil largely depends on the amount of organic 
matter present, and when this disappears through long growth of a crop, the tilth 
suffers, and the surface after hoeing often quickly forms a hard-baked layer of 
soil again. 

The last and ultimate test of exhaustion is analysis of the soil. It is 
necessary to urge tea growers, however, not to depend too much on the indications 
which this gives, for soil analysis even in its most modern developments is essentially 


ae eta 


ad 
> i 


63 .  Rdible Prcducts. 


a very clumsy means of finding out the real richness of the land. But if all the 
indications above named give results tending to show that the soil is exhausted, it 
will probably be wise to have the soil examined by a chemist, in order to 
determine the most economical way of applying the manures which they have 
shown to be necessary. 


Limits of space do not allow me here to 20 into the question of the manures 
adapted to special soils and special conditions. Suffice it tosay that where the 
principal deterioration is in luxuriance, there the most important manure con- 
stituents will usually be organic matter and nitrogen, and these can best be supplied 
by top-dressing with good bheel soil, if available, by cattle manure, by oil cake, 
or by green manure. If deterioration in quality is chiefly to be treated, manure 
containing phosphates appear of the greatest importance. There is one class of 
manure whose effect has proved very great under many conditions, and the appli- 
cation of which costs very little—I mean green manures. 


GREEN MANURES. 


First and foremost of these in the Indian districts come the leguminous 
trees, of which the Albizzia stipulata is the chief. They not only manure the 
soil by their leaves and roots, but also improve the condition of the land in which 
they grow. Their effect is little seen during the first three years or so of their 
life, but as they become mature they produce a dark healthy colour on the tea 
all round them which is quite different from the remainder of the blocks in which 
they are planted. The best practice places them sixty feet apart throughout the 
tea and keeps them well lopped so that they do not overhang the tea bushes. 


In the second order come the leguminous bushes, of which the only one 
hitherto tried on an extended scale is the boga medeloa (Tephrosia candida) which 
has given excellent results both in Assam and Sylhet. A few seeds, generally three 
or four, are planted on a small heap between alternate bushes in alternate rows in 
April or May, and protected from the hoeing coolies by a tripod of three sticks, 
By the end of the season the bushes are seven or eight feet high, and from this 
time the whole should be kept trimmed to a narrow shape, and everything that 
is pruned off buried with the hoeing. This trimming should be done four or five 
times every year, and may well de done before every round of hoeing, and the 
material be buried with the hoe. The bush should be kept so that it does not 
interfere with the pluckers, nor materially shade the tea. At the end of three 
years the whole plants are pulled up, and buried in trenches between the rows of 
tea. This method has, as has already been said, given good results on light land, 
and the increased vigour in old and deteriorated tea has quickly shown itself in 
the yield, as well as in the appearance of the bushes, The boga medeloa has the 
special advantage of growing in very poor light soils, such as would not grow any 
erop of almost all the other green manures which have been tried. 


In the third rank of green manures stand the annual crops which are grown 
for a short time on the land and then hoed in asa whole. In India, very great 
results have already been obtained by the use of mati kalai (Phaseolus mungo), 
which is sown broadcast on the land at the end of April or the early part of May, 
and hoed in at the latter part of June or the early part of July. It is found unwise 
to allow it to remain on the land more than about eight weeks. During 1905, 
equally good results have been obtained on an experimental scale with the other 
plants, Crotolaria striata (the crop principally used for this purpose in Ceylon) 
dhaincha (Sesbania cannabina), a common crop of Lower Bengal. Each of these 
remains on the land eight to ten weeks, and is then hoed into the soil. The effect 
seems partially due to the considerable improvement which they always effect in 
the texture of the land, and partly to the very large amount of nitrogen which 


Edible Products, 64. 


they take up from the air by means of their root nodules, and so make it available 
as plant food for the tea. The trouble with each of them is that they will not grow 
on very highly exhausted soils, and in such cases demand a small quantity of 
cattle manure (say two tons per acre) to give them a start, after which they will 
grow luxuriantly. 

DETERIORATION OF THE TEA PLANTS. 

We have dealt with the methods by which deterioration of tea due to 
defective soil conditions or to soil exhaustion may be treated. We cannot too 
much insist that in any case of manifest decline the soil should be the first thing 
looked to, and heavy or collar pruning of the bush only adopted after becoming 
sure that the fundamental mischief does not lie in the exhaustion of the land. 
But if this is certain then the bush itself should be examined, and the cause of the 
decline most probably will be found there. The causes of the deterioration of a tea 
bush seem to be inseparable from the methods of culture. When a tree, usually 
eighteen to twenty feet high, is kept to four feetas a limit; when every green 
shoot which it throws is nipped off more or less closely; when the annual pruning 
of the youngest grown wood renders the course of the sap in the plant continually 
longer and more circuitous ; it is only natural that sooner or later (the time depend- 
ing on the vigour of the bush, and this on the richness of the land), the plant will 
begin to decline in yield, that the younger shoots will become less energetic in 
throwing out new leaves, and that the tea will begin to deteriorate. 


The result obtained is in accordance with this expectation, but there are 
methods of culture which hasten the day of decline, and which have made many 
gardens begin to ‘go off’ before the time they need have done. The earliest and 
still the most frequent of these is probably too hard plucking in the early part of 
the season. It is well known and well recognised that if a bush is to continue 
healthy and yielding, great care must be taken with the first and second series 
of shoots in the year, but, even yet, I am confident that anxiety to make tea in 
May and June is at the bottom of the rapid decline of many a good garden. The 
growth which is allowed to remain on the bush immediately after pruning is left 
for three reasons. First, in order to provide wood for pruning, in the next year; 
second, to give the bush enough leaf growth to keep it well supplied with breathing 
organs during the season; third, to afford plenty of leaf axils from which the 
secondary shoots or ‘‘flushes” may arise. To provide for the second of these 
purposes far more growth is necessary than would be required to supply the first 
and third, and it is due to the non-recognition of this fact that the early pluckings 
have often been too close, and numerous evil results have followed and are follow- 
ing. In the latter part of the season when there is amply sufficient leaf growth 
to feed the bush, the young shoots may be plucked absolutely close as they grow, 
but to do so (in North East India) even under the most favourable conditions of 
growth till the beginning of July, is a policy which, though it may apparently 
do well on a young and flourishing garden for some years, will quickly bring about 
a serious decline in the value of the bushes. 


The second principal hastening cause in the deterioration of tea bushes 
is incorrect pruning. The subject is too long a one to deal with here in full, 
It may be said, however, that in the past damage has been done by cutting 
too little out of the bushes, and in a less measure by cutting too much. The 
following points should, however, be noticed in pruning, and even if the process 
then costs more than it has usually been the habit to spend, the extra amount 
is well invested if the decline of the bushes is, by this means, delayed :— 

(a) All dead branches should be removed. 

(6) All gnarled twigs and ‘crow’s—foot’ clumps of imperfectly formed 
shoots (otherwise, the previous year’s banjhi flushing) should be taken out, 


65 Edible Products; 


(c) All snags, which are seen to have little chance of healing over, 
might well be pruned off. 

(d) All ‘‘trailing” branches at the outside of the bush are better away. 

(e) All the previous year’s horizontal shoots at the outside of the bushes 
should be headed back to induce them to throw out vertical shoots. 

(f) All small twiggy shoots throughout the bushes, which will never 
give strong healthy wood for the next year, should be cut right back to the 
stem from which they arise. 

(g) The amount of new wood left on each shoot should be as little as 
possible (generally not more than one and a half inches), consistent with this 
containing one bud, dormant or otherwise. 

(hk) The same length of new wood should be left on each pruned shoot 
throughout the bush. 

Where deterioration of the bush has commenced, either in the normal 
course or hastened by incorrect pruning or plucking, there is one method of 
bringing it back to a healthy condition, provided always that the soil and the 
roots are in a thoroughly satisfactory condition. This is by ‘heavy pruning.’ 
Though more rational methods of annual light pruning will make heavy prun- 
ing necessary less often than it would be otherwise, and less often than it has 
been in the past, yet just as pruning at all is necessary to remove the refuse 
mass of twigs which plucking say, twenty or thirty times in the season, leaves 
in the bush, so heavy pruning is necessary to remove the refuse of several 
light prunings, But it is not merely a method of removing the refuse non- 
yielding wood from a bush; it also has an effect in directly stimulating the 
plant to greater exertions, and this is evidenced, if by nothing else, by the 
greater development of small-feeding rootlets after heavy cutting of the plant, 
provided the soil is such as to allow of their formation. This is probably one 
of the principal reasons in some cases why heavy and especially collar pruning 
has been such a great success. The bushes are a mass of useless wood, inade- 
quate feeding of the root energies occurs, and little new root growth takes place. 
The bush is heavily pruned or collar pruned, and allowed to rest, when the 
whole of the new growth spends its time in feeding roots innumerable; new 
and valuable rootlets make their appearance, and the result is a magnificent 
bush, which, if dealt with properly, gives as good a plant probably as has 
ever been in the place before. 


The amount of pruning required to stay deterioration is a matter which 
can only be settled by a practical man on the spot. There are, however, several 
guiding principles. In the first place, heavy pruning should not disturb, if 
possible, the shape and framework of the bush, and ifit is necessary to cut so 
low down that this is destroyed, collar pruning is indicated. Secondly, as few 
knots as possible should be left below the cutting. Again, grey lichenous growths 
on a bush are a sign that the wood on which they are taking place must be 
cut out if it cannot be made vigorous by heavy manuring. Fourthly, it seems that 
in almost every case manure should be applied either before or at the time of heavy 
pruning, at any rate if the pruning is really low. It will stimulate the bush ata 
time when it has suffered a great shock and so should usually be given even on a 
good soil. Finally, the bush must be nursed and easily treated tor a long time after 
the heavy or collar pruning is carried out, and in very low cutting it requires 
very careful cultivation, especially immediately round the stem of the bush. 

TREATMENT OF VERY BAD TRA. 


There may come a time in any garden, and it has already come in a 
few gardens in the older portions of Assam, where the methods hitherto mentioned 


seem insufficient to bring deteriorated tea back to a profitable and yielding 
9 


Hdible Products. 66 


basis. The bushes have been collar pruned and heavy pruned until there is 
no opportunity for further work in this direction. Manure has been applied, 
but the result has not been profitable. Under these conditions what is to be 
done? Until recently the only answer has been to abandon the tea altogether, 
Objectionable as this may be, in some eases it is perhaps still the only policy, 
but experiments have been initiated in another direction during the last three 
or four years which will perhaps result in bringing back tea to a profitable 
condition which would otherwise fall out altogether. 


Kssentially the process is this. The bush is heavy pruned again, cutting 
wherever reasonably good wood can be obtained, the block is manured with 
say fifteen maunds of oil cake per acre or an equivalent amouvt of cattle manure, 
and then the whole is left absolutely unplucked either throughout the whole 
season or until August, September or even October, receiving its full share of 
cultivation, however, the whole time. 


Under these circumstances bushes often produce thicker wood than they 
have done for many years, which can forma basis for future growth. Whether 
the rejuvenation of the bushes will be permanent is a matter of time to decide. 
The whole question is still in the experimental stage, but there seems a likeli- 
hood that by this means tea, which would otherwise have to be abandoned, may 
be again made useful and profitable. 


CONCLUSION. 


We have now dealt with the signs of deterioration, its causes, and the 
methods which seem best adapted for bringing back to a profitable condition 
much of the teain India which has now declined from its former value. While 
much of the deterioration which has taken place in the past has been natural 
and ‘the result of age, very much more has been the result of unwise treat- 
ment of either the soil or the plants. In conclusion it must be urged very 
strongly that in the matter of dealing with tea, prevention of deterioration is 
very much better than any cure. A little money spent in draining, in manuring, 
in cultivation, in more careful pruning or a little less feverish anxiety to take 
the last farthing out of the bushes in the way of yield (more especially in 
the earlier part of the season), will often prevent a crisis such as has frequently 
occurred in the: history of so many tea concerns, To this aspect of the question 
I would most earnestly draw the attention of those gardens now ina flourish- 
ing condition, while the methods I have here suggested may well be applied 
by those in*Sthe less happy position of holding in their properties already 
deteriorated tea.—Agricultural Journal of India, April 12th. 


THE CEYLON IMPORT DUTY ON TEA. 


OFFICIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 
Kandy, May 16. 


Sir,—I hereto annex copy of correspondence with Government regarding the 
Ceylon Import Duty on Tea, and would ask you to kindly give it a place in 
the columns of your Journal for the information of those interested. 


EDGAR TURNER, 


Secretary, Planters’ Association of Ceylon. 


67 Edible Products. 


(Correspondence referred to.) 
COLONIAL SECRETARY'S OFFICE, 
Colombo, 8rd May, 1906. 


Sir,—With reference to my letter of 23rd September, 1905, and previous 
correspondence regarding the Import Duty levied in Ceylon upon Jndian Tea, I 
am directed by His Excellency the Governor to forward for your information copy 
of a Despatch received from the Secretary of State for the Colonies enclosing a copy 
of a Question and Answer in the House of Commons on the subject. 


2. I amto observe that the object of the Ceylon Planters is, it is under- 
stood, to ensure, that no tea other than that grown in Ceylon is exported from 
the Colony as pure Ceylon Tea, and in this desire His Excellency considers that 
the Planters are justified. But His Excellency regards it as worthy of the 
consideration of the tea producers whether the object referred to could not be 
secured without prohibiting the blending of tea in Uolombo in bond. Colombo is 
the natural centre of the world for tea blending, and if precaution be taken that 
all tea leaving the bonded stores is marked as blended tea in an unmistakable 
manner, it is not clear how the Ceylon grower can be injured. If Java or China teas 
are required for the market, they will go to Europe to be blended there as easily as 
they could be sent to Colombo, and in preventing the blending of tea here in bond 
the Ceylon growers seem to prevent the creation of an additional market, while 
Colombo is losing what would probably be a lucrative business. 


3. His Excellency will therefore be glad if the Planters’ Association will 
consider the points raised and inform him of their views on the matter. 


Tam, &c., 
(Signed) F. J. SMITH, 
for Colonial Secretary. 
The Secretary, Planters’ Association of Ceylon, Kandy. 


Downing Street, 4th April, 1906. 


Sir,—With reference to your Despatch No. 118 of the 16th of May, 1905, I 
have the honour to enclose for your consideration a copy of a Question and Answer 
in the House of Commons on the subject of the Import Duty levied in Ceylon 
upon Indian Tea. 


2. I would be glad to know whether your Government remains of the same 
Opinion as a year ago, and still considers that the present restriction should not 
be relaxed, or whether the conditions of the case have been altered in any way. 


3. As I understand, the object of maintaining the duty is to safeguard the 
purity of Ceylon tea, and the Ceylon tea growers seem to think that the encourage- 
ment to the blending of Indian and Ceylon Teas, which would be the result of 
removing or modifying the present restrictions, might benefit India at the expense 
of Ceylon, although some additional trade would be attracted to Colombo. 


4. It isa matter on which local opinion must prevail, no Imperial interest 
being involved; but the present policy seems to be of somewhat doubtful value, 
and you may be of opinion that the time has come to reconsider it. 


I have, ete., 


(Signed) ELGIN. 
Governor Sir H. A, Blake, G.c.M.G., ete. etc. ete. 


Kandy, 15th May, 1906. 
Sir,—I am in receipt of your letter of the 2#rd instant, covering a Despatch 
from the Secretary of State for the Colonies, on the subject of the Import Duty on 
Tea in Ceylon. 


Edible Products. 68 


The subject has been before the Planters’ Association and the Chamber of 
Commerce many times during the last few years. ‘Che majority of both bodies are 
of the opinion that the advantage to be gained by allowing the blending of all teas 
in Colombo is problematical, and the possibility of damage to the Producers’ interest 
probable. 


What precautions are the Government of Ceylon prepared to adopt to 
prevent inferior teas being imported tor blending purposes, and what precautions to 
prevent blends being exported from Ceylon as pure Ceylon Tea? This in the 
opinion of my Committee would entail the establishment of a new department. 


I am, ete., 
(Signed) HE. TURNER, 


Secretary, P. A. of Ceylon. 
The Hon’ble the Colonial Secretary, Colombo. 


THE CEYLON “THIRTY COMMITTEE” MEETING. 

Minutes of a Meeting of the Thirty Committee at Victoria Commemoration 
Buildings, Kandy, on Saturday, (12th), at 7-30 a.m. Present :—Messrs. Jas. R. 
Martin, (Chairman), Hon. Mr. Edward Rosling, Messrs. Jas. Westland, G. H. Alston, 
Geo. Greig, R. Morison, D. Kerr, Herbert W. Unwin, W. L. Strachan, W. S. T. 
Saunders, Alex. Wardrop, G. C. Bliss, J. B. Coles, Alex. Fairlie, Joseph C. Dunbar, 
R. Huyshe Eliot, J. S. Patterson, N. W. Davies, W.Shakspeare, W. D. Gibbon, 
R. A. Galton, E. Turner, (Secretary). 22 Members. 

MISCELLANEOUS.—Laid on the Table Petition from Messrs. McMeekin & Co. 
and memorial signed by A. Brooke and others representing 40,000 acres, to the 
Secretary of State for the Colonies. Resolved :—‘‘ That the Chairman and Secretary 
reply on the lines as drafted.” 

Laid on the Table Resumé of the work done by the Thirty Committee 
(printed). Submitted letters from Government dated 12th March and 2nd April, 
1906, re Export Duty on Tea. Submitted formal correspondence. 


MEMBERS OF COMMITTEE.—Read_ letters of regret from members unable to 
be present. Read letters from Mr. W. Forsythe, the Hon. Mr. J. N. Campbell, 
and Mr. W. J. Smith resigning membership of the Committee. Resolved :—That 
Capt. Gordon, (Passara), W. G. Sinclair, (Dimbula), and Mr. Wm. Sinclair, (Rangala), 


be asked to serve on the Committee in place of the above members who have 
resigned. 


CARDAMOM CEss.—Discussed means of advertising cardamoms. Resolved :— 
“That the Secretary write to the Department of Commercial Intelligence, India, 
and to the Consuls in Japan, China, Formosa and Zanzibar.” Intimated that the 
total collections to date amounted to Rs. 5,304-89. 


FINANCES.—Submitted correspondence with the Hon. the Treasurer of the 
Colony and following statements of Thirty Committee Accounts :— 
MEmo. oF THIRTY COMMITTEE ACCOUNTS. 
From Ist January to 30th April, 1906. 


To balance unexpended 81st December, 1905... Rs. 155,486°46 
To Cess payments Jan-April, 1906 ... », 167,652°06 
To Bank Interest 


‘ 791°67 
By Expenditure Ist January to 30th April, 1906, Rs. 189,994-70 
By balance in National Bank : $ 5, 183,466°47 
By balance of cash in hand Ka nme 469,02 


Rs. 328,9380°19 Rs. 323,9380°19 


69 Edible Products. 


CEss PAYMENTS. 


January, 1906 AR: Rs. 44,731°88 April, 1906 ar Rs. 48,658'28 
February, ,, ay », 48,086°55 Ra SS Ea 
March, a xe 3, 91,175°40 Rs. 167,652°06 
STATEMENT OF THIRTY COMMITTEE ACCOUNTS. 

Unexpended balance, 31st December, 1905 Rs. 155,486:46 
Estimated Income, 1906 (170,000,000 Ib. at 30s. per 100 Ib). 5, 510,000°00 

Rs. 665,486°46 
Estimated Expenditure, 1906 (present amount allotted) Rs. 540,000°00 
Probable unexpended balance 31st December, 1906 Re! “125,486°46 


Estimated Income 1907, (175,000,000 at 20s. per 100 Ib). », 300,000°00 


Rs. 475,486°46 
EXPENDITURE, 1907. 
America £20,000 Rs. 300,000 
Europe £10,000 », 150,000 
Administration Contingencies » 10,000 Rs. 400,000-00 
Kandy, Ist May, 1906. 


CEYLON ASSOCIATION IN LoNDoN.—-Submitted correspondence. 


CEYLON TEA ON THE CONTINENT OF EuROPE.—Submitted correspondence 
with Mr. J. H. Renton. It was intimated that, as Mr. Renton had repeatedly 
pointed out that a vote for one year certain only, prevented good business houses 
being interested in Ceylon teas, the grant for 1907 would be the same as 1906.— 
Submitted pamphlet by Mr. J. J. Marcel re the Ceylon Tea Cess and the Continental 
Campaign. 

CEYLON TEA IN AMERICA.—Submitted correspondence with Sir Stanley Bois 
and Mr. Walter Courtney. Read letter from Mr. Walter Courtney, in which he 
proposes using the P. A. stamp on all advertisements and all packet Ceylon teas 
in America. Read letter from Mr. Westland, objecting to the use of the P. A. 
stamp in the manner he has been contemplating. Resolved :—‘‘ That a cable be 
forwarded to Mr. Courtney requesting him to alter his intentions re the 
P. A. stamp.” 

Submitted correspondence with Mr. Wm. Mackenzie and laid on the table 
Mr. Mackenzie’s accounts for 1905. 


InDIAN TEA CESS CoMMITTEE.—Submitted correspondence.—The Thirty 
Committee then adjourned.—EDGAR TURNER, Secretary, “‘ Thirty Committee.” 


WORK DONE BY THE CEYLON “THIRTY COMMITTEE.” 
A RESUME. 

In 1887 when the export of Ceylon tea had reached 18,834,057 lbs., of which 
13,282,980 went to the United Kingdom, the Planters of Ceylon foresaw the time 
when the supply of tea for the world would exceed the demand, and at a 
General Meeting, held on the 15th October, 1887, Mr. H. K Rutherford brought 
forward the following motion :— 


“That this Association recognising the importance and advantages to the 
Tea Industry of the Island by taking more vigorous and systematic steps to 
make Ceylon tea known throughout the world, strongly recommends the follow- 
ing project to the District Associations and to tea Planters for their support.” 
“That Proprietors or Agents of Estates agree (on the condition that no less 
than 500 estates enrol their names) to pay into the Planters’ Association of 
Ceylon every six months beginning from Ist January, 1888, 25 cents for every 


Edible Products. 70 


1,000 lbs. of tea leaf plucked on their estate for the preceding six months, and 
that such monies so collected be used for the advertising and pushing of Ceylon 
tea in such manner as the Association may from time to time see fit, and in 
the first instance (should funds permit) that the Association do support the 
Glasgow, Melbourne and Brussels Hxhbibitions of 1888.” 


In his preamble he says:—‘‘I come to ask you to ‘invest’ your money, 
and I use the word advisedly.” The Resolution was seconded by Mr. Wm. Mackenzie 
and carried unanimously, and a second Resolution asking for the Chamber of 
Commerce to appoint a Committee to confer with the Committee of the Planters’ 
Association was also carried. This was practically the origin of the present 
“Thirty Committee,” though a Tea Syndicate Fund met with failure in 1886. 

The Ceylon Tea Fund thus inaugurated supported the various Exhibi- 
tions all over the world and closed in 1894, but previous to that—in view of 
the Chicago Exhibition of 1892—it was felt that to enable Ceylon to make a 
good show, it was absolutely necessary to raise a large sum, so that tea should 
be well advertised, and this Resolution passed in September, 1892, unanimously :— 


“That in view of the great importance not only to the Planting Industry 
but to the Colony generally, of Ceylon being adequately represented at the 
Chicago Exhibition, Government be requested in the first instance to levy a 
royalty upon tea at the Customs of 10 cents per 100 Ibs. from 1st January, 
1893, and until such date as shall be agreed upon between the Government and 
this Association, and in the meantime from Ist October next to continue the 
present Railway rates on tea and to get the sum so received, namely, the 
royalty on Tea and the difference between the old and new railway rates as 
a Planters’ contribution towards the cost of the Ceylon Court at the Chicago 
Exhibition and the subsequent furthering of the tea enterprise in America, and 
further to supplement these contributions by equal amounts from the Revenue.” 

After the Chicago Exhibition had been paid for, the Planting commu- 
nity, seeing the necessity of continuing the advertising of tea in all parts of 
the world, the Ceylon Government agreed to continue the royalty or cess on 
all tea exported from the Island, and Ordinance 4 of 1894 was passed. 


In 1894 Ceylon exported 85,876,322 lb. of tea :— 


lbs. 

United Kingdom .. +e 76,434,117 
Australia and New Zealand ... ag 7,218,838 
Other British Colonies ae one 184,017 
British India ss ae ae 952,751 
Other Countries (Asia) — ase 178,084 
Africa Bc Sch 57,087 
United States of America ... a: 46,873 
Canada soe co 22,858 
Kurope, 11 Countries cr 281,697 

(Germany :—170, 818 lb.) —_——___——_ 

Russia :— 43, 152 |b. 85,376,822 


The Ceylon Tea Fund had spent Rs. 140,000 during the seven years of its 
existence, during which time it had spent money in advertising Ceylon tea at 
Glasgow, Brussels, Melbourne, New Zealand, South Seas and Paris Exhibitions, 
and in Russia, Austria, Germany, America, and elsewhere, and the Tea Kiosk 
in Colombo, 


The “Thirty Committee” has now been in existence eleven years. 


The satisfactory increase of deliveries in Great Britain and the annually 
increasing amounts shipped to Australia showed that where Black Tea was 
drunk Ceylon would win its way on its own merits, and all advertising at 


71 Edible Products. 


Exhibitions was stopped in Great Britain, and, with the exception of the 
Coolgardie Exhibition in Australia, as our geographical position helped us 
there with weekly boats running between Colombo and Australia. 

Russia was a country we looked to, and the Tea Fund assisted Mr. 
Rogivue in 1890 by tea and funds to start a campaign there. Ceylon tea met 
with great opposition at first, owing partly to the Tea Trade of Russia being 
in the hands of a few very wealthy large Houses; but Mr. Rogivue’s business 
grew, and the result was that when he had made a good business for himself, 
the Russian dealers in self-defence had to handle Ceylon Teas, and in 1898 
Russian Tea buyers supported the Colombo market by their presence. 

The necessity of any advertising of Ceylon Tea in Russia was done 
away with and the Trade left to itself; but should the Russian Government lower 
their very heavy duty on Tea to a reasonable amount, it may be necessary to again 
bring Ceylon Tea before the Russian public, as we have there a large population of 
Black Tea drinkers; but owing to the heavy cost of Tea the poorer classes are 
not able to purchase any large amount, as the consumption per head is but a little 
over 1lb. against Great Britain’s 6 lb. per head. The Duty in Russia is about 1/8$d. 
perlb. America is the country in whizh we have expended most money. The Chicago 
Exhibition cost a Jot of money, but any goud it might have done was not followed 
up until 1895, when Mr. Mackenzie started work there. He met with great oppo- 
sition from the old established firms, but by adopting the system of supporting 
men who would push Ceylon Teas, he has seen the direct shipments of Ceylon Tea 
from Ceylon rise from 46,873 Ib. in 1904 to 12,465,219 lb. in 1905. 


How much is due to the money expended—it is impossible to say, in the 
words of Mr. A. M. White, the Chairman in 1894, at a General Meeting held in 14th 
April, when speaking of the Ceylon Tea Fund: ‘‘ With a Fund of that nature it was 
impossible (demonstration was impossible) that they could say they had spent Rs. 5 
here and had got back Rs. 5 or Rs. 10.” 


The same remark applies now; but when we consider that during the 
eleven years the ‘“‘ Thirty Committee” has been in existence some one hundred promi- 
nent Plantersand Members of the Chamber of Commerce have given their time and 
money to carry on the work, it seems reasonable to suppose that a large amount of the 
exports to other countries is due to the advertising of these teas; and certainly no 
member has ever in any way attempted to benefit himself. In fact it is esti- 
mated that it cost the ‘Thirty Committee” members at least Rs. 10,000 a year to 
attend the Meetings for which they receive nothing. 


Early in 1895 Mr. Mackenzie advised the Ceylon Planters to turn their 
attention to green teas if they wished to capture the American market. Little was 
done until 1898, when to encourage Planters the ‘“‘ Thirty Committee ” gavea bonus 
of 10 cents per lb., and some 90,000lb. were made from October, 1898, to the end of 
1899 ; in 1900 some 600,000 lb. were made, and in 1901 1,800,000 lb. 


1902 me As em ... 2,796,000 Ib. 
1908 a a # ... 3,647,000 ,, 
1904 i = - ... 5,107,000 ,, 
1905 oe Sa ae ... 3,169,000 ,, 


Owing to a bonus given, the manufacture of Green Tea went ahead fast 
from 1900 to 1903, with the result that the end of 1903 and during 1904 saw a large 
stock of green teas in stock in America and Colombo, with the result that green 
tea fell to a very low figure. They have recovered since, and there is a steady 
trade in them for good desirable marks. The bonus was done away with at the 
end of 1904; but as Sir Stanley Bois pointed out in one of his communications from 
St. Louis (when he represented the Ceylon Government as Ceylon Commissioner), 


Edible Products. 72 


Ceylon Green Tea had paved the way for an increased consumption of B!ack Teas 
as the Americans now know that there are other tea-producing countries besides 
China and Japan and—having tried our Greens—were trying the Black Teas; and 
he anticipated that once having drunk good black tea, they would not go back to 
Green Teas. 

A new Commissioner has been appointed to America to live in the country. 
His appointment is for two years, and we hope to see some tangible results from 
his appointment before then. 

Spasmodic attempts were made to advertise Ceylon Teas on the Continent of 
Europe, but until the Paris Exhibition of 1900 no sustained effort was made; 
but apart from Russia, no nation drank any appreciable quantity per head, and 
before we started the campaign we might have counted the cost, as it isa costly 
business trying to change the taste of a nation. It seems to be changing, though 
very slowly. The ‘‘ Thirty Committee” have voted £10,000 to Mr. Renton for 1906, 
and have intimated to him that they hope to vote the same amount in 1907; and if 
by that time no appreciable increase is shown, it seems advisable to shut down 
expenditure. 

It is, as mentioned before, impossible to prove the good done by advertising 
Ceylon tea in Foreign countries; but it is evident that the other tea-producing 
countries consider that the expansion of our Tea Trade to countries other than 
Great Britain is due to the work of the ‘ Thirty Committee.” The Indian tea 
producers, who had tried a voluntary subscription for some years to advertise 
their tea, approached the Indian Government on the question of a Tea Cess, 
and it came into force on Ist April, 1903. 


——— 


— 


a 


‘SAGVHS GaquHYWvW110d YAaGNN OVOVO 


‘upyymany “J “H fg 004g 


73 Hdible Products. 
The Cultivation of Cacao in Ceylon. I. 


By HERBERT WRIGHT. 


(ILLUSTRATED.) 


It isa matter of common knowledge that the value of Ceylon cacao has, 
during the last few years, fallen considerably, and had it not been found that this 
product could be profitably cultivated as a permanent intercrop with Para and 
Castilloa rubber, the industry would in all probability have remained stationary. 
While the value of Ceylon cacao has recently shown a decline, that of many 
other countries has not done so, and judging from the numerous local applications 
regarding the varieties to be selected, the suitability of each kind in conjunction 
with rubber, and other matters, it appears necessary to consider our position and 
see what improvements are possible. In the Matale, Kurunegala, Dumbara and 
other districts the combined cultivation—cacao and rubber—is rapidly extending, 
and seems likely to prove a very remunerative one. 


The output and value of cacao from Ceylon are obvious from a consideration 
of the following supplied by the Principal Collector of Customs, Colombo :— 


Statement showing the quantity and value of Cacao exported from the 
Island of Ceylon during the years 1875 to 1905 :— 


: Total Value Soan : Total Value 

Year. Quantity. Value.’ per ews. Year. Quantity. Value. per cwt. 
Cwt. qr. lb, Rs. Rs. cts. Cwt. qr. lb. Rs. Rs. cts. 

1875 No heading in Returns. 
1876 do 1891 20,015 2 19 1,200,940 60 00 
1877 do 1892 19,176, 3), 2 1,342,378 70 00 
1878 10 0 O 100 10. 00 1898 29,775 3 38 2,121,524 71 25 
187 4200 2,290 54 52 | 1894 22,791 3 il 1,139,592 50 U0 
1880 121 1 24 3,500 28.92 | 1895 27,522 3 20 1,128,440 41 00 
1881 28213 518 15,405 54 62 | 1896 33,890 3 5 1,101,450 32 50 
1882 864 0 15 46,488 53 80 | 1897 35,121 0 24 1,299,484 37 00 
1883 3,076 38 20 151,961 45 Ol 1898 38,098 3 21 1,676,353 44 00 
1884 9,241 1 26 323,451 85' §00' | °1899' + 42,527 2 26 1,875,047 44 00 
1885 7,466 1 22 298,657 40 00 1900 =. 88,696 3 12 1,651,146 49 00 
1886 13,056 0 24 548,361 2 00 1901 47,471 0 O — 2,321,381 48 89 
1887 17,460 1 12 888,097 48 00 1902. 61,476 0 O 2,587,764 41 27 
1888 12,281 0 6 580,975 47 50 19038 59,098 0 O 2,248,145 88 04 
1889 18,849 0 18 999,005 58 00 1904 67,855 0 O 2,448,354 86 34 
1890 815,942 2 1 797,125 50 00 1905. 69,431 0 O 2,488,556 35 04 


The price of Rs. 70 per ewt. obtained in 1892, as against that of Rs. 385 per ewt. 
in 1905, takes us back to the most vital consideration, %.e., the variety or quality of 
the cacao grown and exported during these periods. Since the ravages of the disease 
or diseases affecting the stems and pods first became prominent in Ceylon, there has 
been a tendency to replace the old Criollo or Caracas variety with the more 
prolific varieties of Forastero and Amelonado, in the belief that the latter was 
not as liable to the ravages of parasitic fungi. Now, however, the planters are 
beginning to realise that all varieties of cacao at present cultivated in Ceylon are 
liable to be affected by the same diseases, and when the latter appear in the fluted 
and high stems of the Forastero variety are very difficult to effectively excise. 
There has been, during the last two or three years, a distinct tendency to plant 
the old Caracas type in preference to the Forastero; the change of variety can 
be shown to be one of the factors responsible for the varying value placed upon 
the cacao exported from Ceylon. 

10 


Edible Products. 74 


During recent years the cultivation of shade trees for cacao has also 
undergone considerable change, and whereas the original plantations contained 
mixed species of forest types, or a preponderance of Hrythrina umbrosa, they are 
now giving way to Hevea brasiliensis, Hrythrina lithosperma, Castilloa elastica 
ete.; furthermore, the results of experiments indicate that the shade of Hrythrina 
lithosperma need not be permanent throughout the whole year, but may be treated 
so as to form a shade of varying intensity according to the seasons. 

In all the species mentioned above there is observable one important and 
common agreement, t.e., they all change their foliage annually and return large 
quantities of organic matter, in the form of leaves, to the soil. Methods of manur- 
ing have also changed, to some extent, during the period under consideration, and 
the effect of the change in modes of cultivation can be shown to affect the quantity 
or quality of the article produced. The Ceylon methods of cultivation, particularly 
with regard to pruning, weeding, and manuring, are almost unique, and the 
differences observable in Surinam, Trinidad, Samoa, Cameroon, etc., provide 
interesting material for our consideration. 

In Ceylon the methods of fermenting, washing, and curing are often quite 
different and sometimes quite in contradiction to those of other countries, and the 
effect of these processes on the quality of the article is only too fully recognised. 
In the opinion of many, the condition of the trees, whether they are free or suffering 
from disease, is of importance in determining quality and quantity. 

It is therefore obvious that there are several factors which need to be 
considered in connection with the present and past condition of the cacao industry 
in Ceylon. 

The factor which is perhaps more responsible for the range in value of the 
cured beans than any other is the variety of cacao selected, and with this we will deal, 

(To be continued.) 


COFFEE CULTIVATION IN BRAZIL. 

The coffee planters of Southern India, wishing to know exactly how 
their industry stood in relation to that of Brazil, the Government of India in 
April, 1905, at the instance of the Government of Madras, sent a Despatch to 
the India Office asking for information regarding the Brazilian coffee industry. 
Very detailed questions were asked regarding labour and wages, cultivation, 
area, soiland forests; the system of cultivation; the type of trees; the raising 
of bye-products, shade on estates, abandonment of old and opening up of new 
estates, etc.; crops and the curing of coffee; diseases, and pests; finance, and 
cost of production; climate, and physical features of the coffee districts; 
transport and duties. This Despatch was transferred through the Foreign Office 
to the British Minister in Brazil, who distributed the lists of questions to the 
various Consuls, inorder that they might make personal enquiry into the subject. 
The answers to these questions have now been collected and issued as a white 
paper by the India Office. 

Transmitting the replies from the Consuls, the British Minister in Brazil, 
in his Despatch dated the 6th February, 1906, says :— 

“The difficulty of obtaining trustworthy information of a statistical nature 
in this country is sufficiently recognised to render all explanation of the inability 
to furnish full and exhaustive reports from the various Consular districts 
unnecessary. The enormous area of the country, the difficulties of communica- 
tion and the expense of travelling preclude the possibility of acquiring minute 
information which could only be obtained by a personal visit to the numerous 
coffee planters scattered throughout a large portion of Brazil, except by experts 
specially appointed for the purpose, without other occupations to attend to and 
with considerable funds at their disposal for travelling purposes.” 


75 Edible Products. 


RIO DE JANEIRO. 

The British Consul-General at Rio de Janeiro writes of his district :— 

“Coffee planting is the principal industry of Brazil and coffee is the 
principal article of export. The consumption of the world is estimated at 
16,000,000 bags, the bulk of which is produced in Brazil which yields some 
9,000,000 to 15,000,000 bags. The limited demand for the quantity produced caused 
a crisis in recent years owing to bumper crops and over-production. Since 
then there have been schemes to restrict production, but these have only 
taken effect in the State of Sa6 Paulo, in which State alone can any official 
statistics on this subject be obtained. 

Sad Paulo is the principal coffee district. 

Lapour.—The conditions of labour are different in each locality. It may, 
however, be calculated that men earn about 26 a day and women 1%, beside 
food. ‘‘Colonials” or those labourers established on the estate receive land and 
a certain number of trees in lieu of wages; others have an interest in the 
crop. The labour is chiefly Italian and Negro, and is bad and scarce, Immi- 
gration is required, but has been so badly treated that it is discouraged. Owing 
to extravagance the planters are mostly in difficulties and do not pay wages 
when due, or the men are fleeced by the truck system. It is possible for the 
labourers to live by the cultivation of their own plots. The work on the 
estate takes some nine months of the year. 

Note.—1 melries=2s. 2'934d. formerly, now 1s. 5d. say Re. 1 cts. 6. 

CULTIVATION.—It is only the principal coffee districts which are comprised 
in the newspaper reports; and there are large tracts of land unplanted and 
suitable for coffee, and these lands are likely to remain unplanted until the 
demand for coffee increases. It would probably not be practicable to obtain 
land for coffee-planting where restriction is in force, nor under the circumstances 
would it be likely to be profitable. There are extensive railways through the 
principal coffee districts, the rates vary but are high. 

Old fazendas are abandoned and not cultivated, but coffee is picked when 
the trees happen to yield. When the trees no longer bear the plantation is 
abandoned, and as the land is privately owned it does not revert to Govern- 
ment, nor is it taxed. Coffee trees yield berries up to 80 years. After bumper 
crops the next crop or two is smaller. Land in Sad Paulo in some districts 
produces 3 or 4 times as much as that in Rio de Janeiro, There does not seem 
to be any extension of planting, and that planting is to replace those trees 
that go out of bearing. There is not much planted that has yet to come into 
bearing. Trees begin to bear three years after planting. In Rio the land is 
hilly, and in Sado Paulo undulating and flat, with a red soil. There is some 
heavy forest and much scrub, and the undergrowth is very thick, with creepers, 
thorns, and grass; heavy timber is found in the forests. 

SystemM.—The cost of production and placing at local railway stations 
may be estimated at 4:300$ a bag of 60 kilos (or 132} lbs.). 

There are two kinds of trees cultivated in Brazil, the “‘ Bourbon” and 
* Criola.” 

The land is not manured, only weeded. No pruning, trees allowed to 
grow free. No artificial or other shade used. The branches of the “Bourbon” 
grow up, those of the “Criola” grow out and bend down. 

The trees grow to about eight feet high and are planted two metres 
apart. <A full grown tree is about one inch in diameter, one foot from the 
ground. When planting out one plant is put in each pit. Bye-crops are the 


Edible Products. 16 


exception, and then generally consist of maize. No manure is used. No Gov- 
ernment scientific help is given to planters. Abandoned plantations have become 
so from old age and want of cultivation, and are hopelessly gone. The only 
cultivation bestowed on coffee is keeping the trees free of weeds. Coffee trees 
ten years old are in their prime. 


CROPS AND CURING.—A tree takes three years to come into bearing, 
and continues for 30 years. There are three blossomings a year—in August, 
September and October—and if these fail and there is rain there will probably 
be a fourth. 

The crops are picked carelessly, the branches or twigs being stripped 
by running the hand down. Coffee is cured either by drying on a drying 
ground or is pulped. The yield in Sad Paulo is calculated at 200 arobas (the 
aroba being 32} lbs.) the alqueire of land. Euil grown trees are affected to a 
certain extent after a heavy crop. Ants damage the trees. 


FINANCIAL.—The system is by advances on crops and mortgage at 12 per 
cent. The present low prices leave a profit. The lower the exchange the more 
milreis are received as the price of coffee, so these crops represent gold. The 
higher the exchange the less profit is made, as expenses are paid in milreis 
and have not altered. 


The financial condition of the majority of the estates is bad, and the 
general opinion as to the future of the industry is gloomy. No Government 
financial help is yet given. It is not likely that India can compete with Brazil 
in the production of coffee whilst the supply exceeds the demand. 

CLIMATE AND PuHysicaAL FEATURES.—-Tropical, steamy, relaxing, but the 
climate depends on the attitude. No proper record of the rainfall in the different 
districts. The country is hilly, broken and overgrown. 


TRANSPORT.—Extensive railroads run through coffee districts and connect 
with principal ports. F. O. B. expenses come to about 8 per bag including 
price of sack. Sea freights to London about 50 shillings and 23 per cent. primage. 
A ton consists of 17 bags. 


Dutiges.—Expurt duties in Rio de Janeiro 8} per cent., in Minas Geraes 
9 per cent. Information obtained is often conflicting owing to the lack of reliable 
official returns, and it is difficult to ascertain the lowest price at which the 
production of coffee would leave a profit, as so much depends on the financial 
position of the planter and the condition to which the plantation may have 
been reduced by neglect or through lack of means. As a rule the planter has 
to calculate a profit after paying off the interest on borrowed capital. 


PERNAMBUCO. 

The report from Pernambuco states that the industry there is comparatively 
new and on a small scale. Labour is, however, very scarce. The rate of wages 
is from 0-800 to 1:000 for ten hours’ labour. About six hands are employed to the 
acre, and they receive no supplements to their wages. They work, on an average, 
265 days in the year for the planters, and can help themselves very little by subsi- 
diary cultivation on their own account. In the district there are enormous 
uncultivated tracts suitable for the growing of coffee. These tracts are untouched 
owing to want of capital, communications, and transport. The land could be leased 
for 0:040 (about 4d.) per square metre. It is impossible, however, to say when 
communications will be improved. The soil of the district is good, consisting of 
black vegetable earth, clayey, loose, flat, loamy and retentive. No plantations have 
been abandoned, but no new plantations are being opened up. The country is rich 


in forest, both heavy timber and scrub, and the timber is often of great value. The 
undergrowth consists of dense grass, 


77 Edible Protucts. 
It was only recently that planters in the district have taken to pruning 
their coffee, and not many of them do this. The ordinary height of the coffee 
tree is from 6to9 feet. The trees are never topped. They are grown unshaded, 
though when very young they are sheltered by the castor oil plants which are 
grown between the rows. This plant gives fairly dense shade, and the leaves later 
on form excellent manure. The coffee grown in the district is of the Arabian variety. 
The trees are planted, onein each pit, at intervals of 10 to 12 feet. Bye-products are 
cultivated between the rows of coffee trees when these are young. These by- 
products consist of mandioca, maize and castor oil. No artificial manure is used in 
the district, the only manure the plants get consisting of the coffee husks and 
decomposed vegetable matter left on the ground after weeding and cleaning. The 
condition of ten-year old trees is satisfactory, in spite of the fact that all the 
cultivation they receive consists of weeding. The trees come into bearing at the 
age of from 2 to 3 years. 


There are usually three flushes of bloom, and blossoms and small green 
berries are often seen on the same tree. Only the ripe berries are picked. The 
yield is about 1,100 Ibs. per acre. The trees after a heavy crop usually take two 
years to recover. The coffee is dried in the husk, stored for two or three months 
and then hulled. The only disease known in the district is the leaf-blight. This 
appears first as a small yellowish spot upon the leaves, which gradually get darker, 
till eventually the whole foliage is affected and the tree is killed. 


The estates are managed by their owners, and being here fairly free from 
mortage, cultivation is still found to be profitable. The cost of production is 
from 148000, to 17$500 per cwt. (1$000=17d.). The reason given for the fact that 
coffee cultivation is still found to pay, in spite of low prices, rising exchange and 
dear labour, is that, estates being managed by their owners, there is a saving in 
salaries to agents and middlemen, whilst efficient supervision is secured; freights 
from Brazil are low, the heavy Suez Canal dues are avoided, and land is more fertile 
in Brazil than in India. Nevertheless the outlook for the coffee industry in Brazil 
is not considered brilliant. In reply to the question as to what, in his opinion, 
was the outlook for South Indian coffee planters, the Consul, could hold out little 
hope for future prosperity. The cost of F. O. B. is given at 100 reis per bag of 75 
kilos, and the freight to London as 30s. plus 5 per cent. per ton of 1,000 kilos. There 
is an export duty of 200 reis per 15 kilos. 


SANTOS. 

In his Report on the industry in Santos, His Majesty’s Consul writing on 
the state of labour, the class of labour employed, and the wage rates obtaining 
says :—Brazilian planters are always short-handed. This is due to inability to pay 
the wages in many cases, consequent upon the crisis produced by low prices. 
Generally speaking, the great ‘bulk of labour is Italian: probably 95 per cent. The 
Wages average about Rs. 708000 per year for taking care of 1,000 trees ; one average 
family of say, five, man, woman, and three children, can take care of 5,000 trees per 
year=Rs. 350000. Besides which they make for picking during the harvest say 
anaverage for the above-named family 20 alqueires (50 letros) per day for say 70 
days=1,400 alqueires at 350 reis=Rs. 490,$000. They are allowed also to plant between 
the rows of coffee trees maize, beans, etc., and to keep pigs, goats, poultry, 
etc. In this way I calculate they would gain further about Rs. 5008000 per 


year or : A : F : : Rs. 3508000 
5, 490$000 

5008000 

Total... 1,840$000 


at 16d. exchange=£89-6-8. 


Edible Products. 78 


This I estimate a family of five persons would make ina year. They save it 
almost entirely, as their food is practically raised by themselves on the land between 
the trees. 

There are about 70 persons, labourers and dependents, employed to the 100 
acres. The labourers work about 150 days for the planter and 150 on their own crops. 


There is very little suitable coffee land left unclaimed, except in the far 
interior, where it is left untouched on account of unremunerative prices, the want 
of railways and the incident of the Government planting tax. All estates are owned 
by individuals. It is intended to extend the railways to the interior as soon as the 
growing of coffee becomes profitable. The estates in Santos were mostly opened 
from 10 to 12 years ago. The. trees have recently come into full bearing and 
there has been much over-production, chiefly in the State of Saé Paulo. Some of 
the estates show signs of exhaustion, owing to heavy cropsand to lack of fertilisers. 
The virgin soil gives enormous crops for the first year, but as nothing is put back 
into the soil its powers become exhausted, The cultivation of bye-products, maize 
and beans between the trees tends to still more exhaust the ground. The average 
production has fallen off, and future crops promise to be smaller than former yields. 
Owing to the planting tax no extension is going on, and there is some abandonment 
of exhausted plantations. No new planting has taken place for three years. In Sa6 
Paulo the yield from the new vigorous lands has been very great. The best lands 
yield 80 to 100 cwt. of clean coffee per 1,000 trees. (700 trees go to the acre.) 


The average yield for the whole country is, however, calculated to be not 
more than about 15 cwt. The ground is only weeded, no digging being done: 
neither is there any manuring. Pruning is done in a very primitive way. Topping 
is not practised. Coffee is grown unshaded. The trees are about 12 to 16 feet high, 
very thick and bushy. They are planted, three to a pit, at intervals of 4 yards. 
They are nearly all of the Bourbon and what is known as café commun; the 
former gives a large bean. Brazilian trees have all been imported from other 
coffee-producing countries, but have lost all their distinguishing characteristics. 
The trees come into bearing at from 3 to 4 years old, and are at their best between 
the ages of 10 and 15. When the coffee is being gathered the trees are stripped 
of everything, ripe and unripe. A great dealof ripe coffee falls on the ground 
and is gathered therefrom. The coffee is sometimes pulped, but is mostly sun- 
dried on brick platforms. There is no disease, the trees being too new, and 
pests are unknown. The estates, which are mainly owned by private individuals, 
are financed by Commission Agents in the port, who’make loans for one year 
against which they are secured by mortage on the crop and also by mortage on 
the estate. The interest is high, 12 per cent. being therule. The financial condition 
of most of the estates is unsound, 95 per cent. of them being mortaged to above 
their present value. The Government affords the planters no financial help. 
The opinion is expressed that the coffee planters of India cannot compete with 
Brazil, owing chiefly to the large yield of Sad Paulo. There are good railways to 
the coffee districts, but owing to excessively high railway rates, the cost of trans- 
port is enormous. Exclusive of export duty, the cost of carriage from plantation 
to steamers averages about 10s. per cwt. The export duty on coffee from Santos 
is 11 percent. ad valorem. There are heavy import duties exceeding sometimes 100 
per cent. ad valorem. The freight to London is 30s. plus 5 per cent. per ton 
of 1,000 kilos.—Madras Mail. 


SUGAR-MAKING IN SOUTH INDIA. 
The attached letter should prove most interesting to everyone, be he native 
or European, engaged in agricultural work. In fitty days of sixteen hours each Mr. 
Krishna Iyengar, of Ooraghally Estate, Mysore, crushed by means of a small 


79 Edible Products. 


12’ 18” mill, 700 tons of sugarcane, and produced 118 tons of jaggery which he sold 
at Rs. 12C per ton, equivalent to a total value of Rs. 14,160, and if he had had the 
additional plant for making white sugar direct from the cane, his product would 
have been 85 tons of white crystals, and 33 tons of molasses, which would have 
had a value of at least Rs. 200 and Rs. 40 per ton, respectively, in all Rs. 18,3820, 
and produced without a single pound of fuel being purchased except that required 
to make a start with :— 


DeAR Sir,—As promised in my last letter I herewith send you a short 
account of the working of the cane mill supplied by you, The steamer which 
brought out the mill arrived at Madras on the 16th February, and after a delay 
of twenty days caused in landing and transhipping the mill arrived at my estate 
on the 8th March. By that time I had the oil engine, a 6} B. H. P. one, fixed in 
position and in working order, and got ready the foundation for fixing the mill, 
besides having the boiling pans, pumps, water tanks, taps, ete., in fact the whole 
show, in order. So I lost no time in mounting the mill on the foundation and 
fixing it in position. The plan of the mill supplied by you beforehand enabled 
me to do this to a nicety without the help of any professional fitter. I started work 
on the 14th March, and closed it on the 2nd May crushing 25 acres of cane within 
that period working at the rate of 16 hours a day. 1 could have worked more hours, 
of course, but as I had no prior experience of oil engines, [ had not provided for 
two water tanks for keeping the engine cylinder cool and had consequently to 
suspend work at the end of every eight hours, for by that time the water in the 
tank would very nearly get to the boiling point. Next season I shall provide 
against this. 


Dr. Lehmann, the Agricultural Chemist in this State, kindly visited my 
estate and made experiments as regards the crushing capacity of the mill, the 
extraction, the quality of the juice and the jaggery produced. Your mill, I am 
glad, successfully stood the test, and as the last minute of the hour expired the 
last cane of the ton experimented upon came out of the mill crushed. The extent 
of my cane fields was 25 acres and contained 8,000 shoots to the acre, giving an 
average of 28 tons of cane to the acre. 


A ton of cane yielded 33 pansful of juice of 180 seers each, which on boiling 
yielded 14 maunds of 27 lb. of jaggery. I sold the jaggery at Rs. 120 per ton 
exclusive of commission, etc. My expenses for the conversion of cane to jaggery 
came up to 4 as. per maund or Rs. 100 per acre, including cost of establishment, 
cutting and carting of cane to mill, oil, fuel, ete. I did not use the pith as fuel but 
used nearly 200 tons of good firewood. The cost of fuel could be cut short by using 
the pith, and I wish you will kindly suggest the use of some machinery for evaporat- 
ing the juice using the pith as fuel. 

The news had spread far and wide that a cane crushing mill driven by an 
engine was for the first time to be brought to Ooraghally and worked there, so 
on the day the machinery actually arrived and was transhipped from Bidadi 
Railway Station, quite a crowd of people followed the carts carrying the machinery 
all the way from Bidadi to my estate, and very good naturedly rendered me not a 
little assistance. The noise caused by the lamp used for heating the vaporiser 
created not a little surprise, as no steam issued out as when asteam engine blows 
out, and many questioned me why the engine did not whistle. Most of them 
studied intently the different parts of the engine and the mill and their working. 

Every day brought hundreds of persons from all the country round, and | 
many came from distances of 30 and 40 miles. The ryots were not at all apathetic 
in this matter, as it is usual with them to be in other matters. More than the 
Sudras I found the Pariahs were eager to learn all about the machine. Some whom 


Edible Products. 80 


I employed to help me very intelligently and readily picked up all about cleaning, 
oiling, starting and stopping the engine. I have four of them now with me well 
trained. Two of the goldsmith caste volunteered to learn the work. They were 
given an opportunity to do so, and have learned all about the engine and the 
mill. So, at the end of the season, I used to leave the machinery entirely in 
their charge. 


Sometime ago when you mentioned in the Madras Mail that I made 400 
maunds of jaggery per acre, and that I sold it last year at Rs. 2-8-0 a maund, Mr. 
B. K. Garudachar. of Bangalore, contradicted the statement and said that it was 
not possible to get 400 maunds of jaggery per acre on large plots of 30 or 40 acres, 
and thatif Iat all had sold my jaggery at Rs. 2-8-0 it must have been to some of 
my tenants during a festival. Now I have milled a plot of 25 acres, and on this 
IT have managed to make very nearly 400 maunds, although the canes had dried 
up to some extent and had also deteriorated in sugar value by being over-ripe. 
This yield under these adverse conditions is mainly due to the higher extraction 
your mill gave over the ordinary cattle mill. 


I have a quarter acre plot for experimental purposes, and on this plot and 
with the cattle mill I used to make 100 maunds when the canes were quite ripe. 
This year on the same plot I have got 120 maunds, using your power mill, although 
the canes were over-ripe. 


As regards the price at which I sold my jaggery last year I wish to tell you 
that Mr. B. K. Garudachar himself bought two-thirds of my crop at Rs. 2 per 
maund, and after incurring the expense of carting from my estate to Bangalore, 
warehotising and other expenses, and loss in weight due to keeping for two months, 
made a good profit, and moreover asked me to sell the remaining third also to him. 
But as I had sold the jaggery at Rs. 2-8-0 toa merchant prior to his request I could 
mot oblige him. 


In conclusion I may mention that the loss [ have sustained by the late 
arrival of the mill has been more than compensated by the satisfactory way in 
which the mill worked and the higher extraction it gave, the considerable time 
and labour it saved, not to speak of the advantage I derived by being able thereby 
to convert within a short time a large extent of cane into jaggery, and place the 
same within the time stipulated in the hands of the merchants with whom I had 
contracted to supply a large quantity. 

—Madras Mail. N. K. IYENGAR. 


THE CULTIVATION OF GINGER. 


Here we have another article which is in universal demand, and for which 
good prices can be obtained. Ginger grows to perfection in any suitable soil on all 
the coastal lands of the State. There is no more difficulty in growing ginger than in 
growing arrowroot, peanuts, castor oil, or sunflowers. There is, to be sure, a con- 
siderable amount of light labour required to prepare the rhizomes for market, but 
the preparation is so easy that it can be done by girls and boys. 


Two essential requirements for the growth of the plant are—sunshine and 
moisture. These conditions are found in Eastern Queensland. The process of plant- 
ing differs little from potato-planting. ‘ Fingers,” containing an eye or embryo, are 
‘planted in holes or trenches a few inches beneath the surface, about one foot apart. 
All that is needed is to keep the ground clean, and the young plants well watered, 
the soil being, of course, well drained, because stagnant water gives rise to black rot, 
and in this condition the root fills with water, swells, has a bad smell, and is then 
attacked by insects and worms. 


§1 ‘Edible Products. 


The very highest quality of ginger is produced on deep, rich, black scrub or 
virgin forest soil. _ It can be grown year after year on the same ground, and when 
the soil becomes too poor to grow ‘‘ white ginger ” an inferior variety—the blue— 
will yield good crops. 


More depends on the curing of the ginger than on the soil, and regularly 
shaped ‘‘ hands,” as the roots are called, command the highest price in the market. 


- Planted in October, itis ready for digging in July or August. When the 
stalk withers it is ready for harvesting. In digging out the roots they must be care 
fully turned out with a fork without bruising or breaking the hands. These hands 
are divested of fibrous roots and of all adhering soil, and this must be done as soon as 
they are dug, for, if allowed to dry with soil, &c., adhering to them, the ginger will 
never be white. After cleaning, the roots are thrown at once into water,.and are 
ready for peeling. 


The peeling is an art easily learned. As the oil cells on which the aroma of 
ginger depends are close to the surface of the root, the peel must be very thinly 
taken off with a narrow-bladed knife. As fast as the roots are peeled they are 
thrown into water and washed. A very little water will serve to wash a great deal 
of ginger. The roots remain in the water all night. Lime-juice in the water will give 
a whiter root. By using boiling water the peel comes off easily, and what is known 

_as black ginger commercially is produced. 


After washing, the roots are dried in the sun on mats or boards laid on the 
ground. They are exposed at sunrise and turned over at midday. At sunset they 
are taken in or carefully covered, as rain or dew causes mildew. It takes about six 
.or eight days to thoroughly dry them. When dry they are graded or sorted. The 
highest grades are large-sized hands of light, uniform colour, free from evidence of 
mildew. This grade is very brittle and cracks easily, but they must not be broken, 
or the value is depreciated. There are generally four or five grades, that which is 
shrivelled and small being in the lowest. The dark varieties form another; the 
heavy, tough, and flinty, a third. These four are finally assorted by placing hands 
which are small but of good texture and colour as one grade; the larger-sized, well- 
bleached hands are placed in the highest grades. The finest hands will range in 
weight from 4 to 8 0z. Ginger is always packed in barrels for shipment. 


As to yield and profit of the ginger crop, these depend, like all other soil pro- 
ducts, on soil, rainfall, sunshine, planting, care, and curing. Anaverage yield can be 
estimated at from 1,000 to 1,500 1b. dried ginger per acre; 2,000 lb. have often been 
obtained. 


Prices for ginger vary. As muchas £10 per ewt. is often paid in the London 
market for the very highest class of white ginger, but the usual market price to-day 
averages all round from £2 2s. to £310s. per ewt. for Jamaica ginger, the same for 
Cochin, and 18s. to 18s 6d. per ewt. for Japanese. 


Now in all this there does not exist a single reason why ginger should not be 
grown by any farmer who has suitable soil in a suitable locality, and especially by 
those who, like the Hatton Vale farmer, are blessed with a family of fourteen boys 
and girls. Think what a lot of ginger they could prepare of an evening sitting round 
the fire on an August night, in the same way as forty-five years ago the farmers’ 
wives and children and the farm hands used to prepare arrowroot, grating the roots 
into tubs and buckets on graters made of kerosene tins. Arrowroot was worth form 
1s. 6d. to 2s. per lb., and it paid to prepare it by hand. How much better would it pay 
toprepare ginger, so easily grown, so prolific, so easily cured, due care being exercised, 
and for which, in the United States alone, there is an annual demand for over 
3,000,000 1b., leaving Great Britain and other European countries out of calewlation.— 
Queensland Agricultural Journal, April, 19906, 

11 


82 
PLANT SANITATION. 


Entomological Notes. 
By E. ERNeST GREEN, Government Entomologist. 


(ILLUSTRATED.) 


Amongst the various species of ‘Nettle Grubs’ that frequent the tea-bush 
the larva of Thosea cervina seldom attracts much attention in Ceylon, though-- 
under the name of the ‘Assam Nettle Grub” it is recognised as an important 
tea-pest in parts of India (vide ‘Pests and Blight of the Tea Plant,” 2nd Edition, 
p. 203). I did not include this species in my account of the caterpillars affect- 
ing the tea plant in Ceylon (R. B.G. Circular, Ser. I, No.19) as it had not then 
qualified for a place amongst serious tea pests; and it was not until May of 
the present year that I received notice of widespread damage by this caterpillar. 
Specimens were then received from the Haputale district with the report that 
they were present in millions and were attacking the best flushing tea on the 
estate. 


This particular nettle grub is fully twice the size of either Thosea cervina 
or Thosea recta (the Morawak-korle nettle grub). It is of the usual form and is 
amply provided with stinging hairs. It is of an apple green colour with an irregular 
saddle-shaped patch on the middle of the back which varies considerably in 
both size and colour. In some individuals the patch may be bright orange red; 
in others, of a brilliant violet tint; or it may be variegated with red and white. 
The younger individuals are usually the more brightly coloured. Specimens of 
all ages were present at the same time. Some were full grown and commenced 
to pupate on the 16th of May, others are still feeding. The moths commenced 
to hatch out a fortnight after pupation. The cocoon is dark brown and smooth 
and has been likened to a tea seed. Watt and Mann state that--in India—the 
cocoon is constructed underground. Ia my breeding cases many of the cocoons 
were attached to the leaves of the plant. To distinguish it from its allies the 
species might be called the ‘saddle-backed nettle grub.’ 


As with all serious caterpillar pests of the tea plant, the most effective 
way to check the attack is to prune heavily and burn the prunings together 
with all fallen leaves and rubbish from below the bushes. But where—owing 
to the condition of the bushes—this treatment is considered too heroic, nothing 
remains but to collect the caterpillars and cocoons by hand as thoroughly as 
possible. 


I have another report of an attack of Morawak-korle ‘Nettle Grub’ 
(Thosea recta) from the Kelani Valley. In this instance the cateepillars first 
appeared upon the Albizzia trees and from thence spread on to the tea. 


Thave received from the Haldummulla district a hitherto unrecorded tea- 
pest.Itis one of the ‘Mealy bugs’ characterized by a fringe of very long waxy 
Processes which give the insect a star-like appearance. My correspondent reports 
that “four or five tea bushes near the edge of the jungle are covered with 
the insects.” I have previously taken this species in lower Haputale and Koslanda 
upon & species of wild Jasmine. It will be described in my Monograph of the 
Ceylon Coccidae under the name of Phenacoecus ornatus. It is probable that 


these tea bushes have been infected from a Jasmine plant in the neighbouring 
jungle. 


SS Plant Sanitation. 


During the latter half of May I madea tour through the coconut districts 
of Batticaloa to study the pests of the Coconut palm. The following is a list, 
in the order of their importance, of the insect enemies observed during my visit :— 


Black-headed Caterpillar (Nephantis serinopa, Meyer.) 
Red Weevil (Rhynchophorus signaticollis, Chev.) 
Black Beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros, L.) 

Scurfy Seale-bug (Aspidiotus destructor, Sign.) 
White scale (Hemichionaspis minor, Mask.) 


Ihave given the ‘black-headed caterpillar’ the first place, because, though 
not so widely distributed as are the two species of beetle, the attack was very 
acute at the time of my visit. On two adjoining estates—to the north of Batticaloa 
town—every single coconut tree was more or less involved, and in the worst 
parts the fronds were completely skeletonized (see Plate A.). On one of these estates 
the moths were on the wing and were resting on the trees in thousands. They 
seem to prefer the older drooping fronds. It was remarkable that no moths 
could be found on the adjoining estate, though the caterpillar was present 
there in full force. It is evident, from this, that the broods are not synchrc- 
nous, but appear irregularly. Lamp traps were being employed at night with 
considerable success. Two kinds of lamps were in use: one—a powerful acetylene 
burner projecting from the centre of alarge tray containing water with a film 
of kerosene, and others—small kerosene lamps supported on a brick in the middle 
of a basin of kerosene and water. The more powerful light naturally attracted 
the larger number of moths, but the smaller lamps could be distributed more 
evenly through the fields, and the sum total of their catch was considerably 
greater than that of the single acetylene lamp. The result of one night’s work 
was 169 moths in the tray of the acetylene lamp, and from 20 to 60 to each of 
the smaller oil lamps. The size of the tray containing the water and kerosere 
would seem to be a more important factor than the brightness of the lamp. 
If of insufficient diameter many of the moths circling round the light escape 
capture. For practical work a tray of not less than 30 inches diameter should 
be employed. I am convinced that a large number of small kerosene lamps 
distributed through the infested area will be more effective than a few more 
powerful lights. 


A certain amount of discredit has been thrown upon the use of lamp 
traps, it being stated that the resulting catch consists principally of spent males 
and females that have already deposited their eggs. Thisis undoubtedly the care 
with some insects; but it varies with individual species. With regard to moths of 
this coconut caterpillar, I was able to satisfy myself fully that fertile females 
were attracted and captured in large numbers, Disection of the captured females 
showed the ovaries to be densely packed with eggsin different stages of develop- 
ment. The result of such disection suggested that the eggs are not all laid 
at one time, but in many small batches. Later experiments with living moths 
proved that normal batches consisted of from 12 to 20 eggs. The eggs while 
still in the body of the female are of a greenish tint; but after deposition they 
are pinkish. It was only after a long search that the natural habitat of the 
eggs was discovered. They are deposited amongst the frass and debris of 
the larval galleries, and are more or less masked by a covering of down 
from the body of the parent moth. The discovery of the position of the 
eggs is of importance, as it shows that a removal of affected fronds or parts 
of fronds—besides resulting in the destruction of the existing larvae and pupae— 
will get rid of a very large number of eggs that would have given rise to the 
succeeding generation. There must, however, be other localities for the 


Plant Sanitation. 84 


eggs, as it is clear that, on the first invasion, there would be no larval galleries 
in which to oviposit. It is possible that the fibrous matter at the base of the 
young fronds may form a nidus for the eggs. Palmyrah palms suffer equally with 
the coconut. There are many stunted palmyrahs in the neighbouring serub, and 
these are thickly infested by the caterpillars. Such useless palms should be 
destroyed as they will harbour the pest after it has been eradicated from the 
coconut estates. It is. intended to issue a circular given the fullest particulars 
about this pest and the best means of combating it. 


The Red Weevil and Black Beetle may be considered together as, in Ceylon, 
they appear to be very largely interdependent upon each other. There seem to 
be good grounds for believing that the reduction of the Black Coconut Beetle 
results in a corresponding diminution in the numbers of the Red Weevil. The 
smell of the fermenting sap that exudes from the holes excavated by the former 
attracts the latter and affords an easy entrance for it. On the other hand, the 
decayed stems of palms that have been killed by the Red Weevil form a favourite 
breeding place for the Black Beetle. The importance of the destruction of such 
breeding places is not sufficiently realized. Cases have occurred where the estates 
have been fenced with dead palm stems within which the beetles were breeding 
in thousands. It will be necessary when the Pest Ordinance comes into force, to 
insist upon the destruction (preferably by fire) of all dead palms and decaying 
rubbish. 


To the south of Batticaloa several abandoned coconut estates were observed, 
upon which hundreds of dead palm stems are left standing. The remaining trees 
are dying fast, probably being killed out by beetle (see Plate B). The dead stems 
must be breeding enormous numbers of the beetles. Government should be 
petitioned to take over these places—under the Waste Land Ordinance—and put 
them into a sanitary condition. At present they are a standing menace to the 
neighbouring estates. 


Of the two species of scale bugs (Coccidae) frequenting the Coconut Palm 
the ‘scurfy scale’ (Aspidiotus destructor) is the more sevious. It occurs in large 
colonies covering the undersurface of the fronds. Such fronds may be recognized 
by their sickly yellow colour, and should be cut off and destroyed. . This species 
is reported to be extremely destructive to Coconut Palms in the Laccadive Islands. 
The other species (Hemichionaspis minor) is of little importance and is unlikely 
to cause any appreciable injury. 


Mosquitoes are a serious inconvenience in the Batticaloa district. I have 
never encountered Anopheles mosquitoes in such enormous numbers as during my 
two visits to Batticaloa. Each morning the outside of my mosquito net was 
thickly sprinkled with disappointed applicants for my blood. Anopheles rossi was 
the principal species, and is probably responsible for the occasional outbreaks of 
malarial fever. In Batticaloa town itself, the sole breeding place appears to be 
the margins of the brackish lake. Any remedial measures will be very difficult 
in such situations. On the estates I found the larvae abundant in the small water 
holes scattered throughout the properties and used for watering the young 
coconut plants. On some estates earthenware chatties are sunk at the base of the 
young palms and frequently replenished with water. These also afford breeding 
places for various mosquitoes. The destruction of the larvae in the water holes 
and chatties would be comparatively simple. A bunch of rags, fastened on a stick, 
should be soaked in kerosene and stirred into the holes, leaving the merest film 
of oil on the surface. This should be repeated at intervals of three or four days. 
The small amount of oil on the water would have no prejudicial effect upon the 
plants to which it was applied. 


. rN) 


if 


Plate A. COCONUT PALM, WITH FRONDS SKELETONIZED BY CATERPILLAR OF 
Nephantis Serinopa. 


Plate B. ABANDONED COCONUT ESTATE, WITH NUMEROUS DEAD TREES IN 
WHICH COCONUT BEETLES ARE BREEDING. 


From Photographs by R. P. Doudney. 


85 Plant Sanitation. 


The small biting fly (Phlebotomus sp.)—locally known as ‘Sand Fly ’—is 
sometimes very troublesome in bungalows, especially in bathrooms and lavatories. 
Though of very minute size, its bite is quite as painful as that of the largest 
mosquito. To clear these pests from a room, place a chatty of burning charcoal 
on the floor, throw on a handful of powdered sulphur, and close the doors (and 
every possible aperture) for an hour or two. If this treatment is employed in a 
dwelling room, all brass and metal ornaments (which would be tarnished by the 
sulphur fumes) should be removed. 

Though not strictly appertaining to Entomology, I think that it is within 
my province to draw attention to what I consider an alarming increase in the 
numbers of the common European sparrow in parts of the Island. On a recent 
journey by coach from Bandarawella to Badulla I noticed quite large flocks of 
these birds. They seem to have increased very rapidly during the last few years. 
If nothing is done now to check their further increase, there will be serious trouble 
later, when they begin to devastate the rice fields. I am of opinion that organised 
efforts should be made at once to keep them in check or even to exterminate them. 
The sparrow has proved an unmitigated curse in every country to which it has 
been introduced. Their nests should be ruthlessly destroyed on every opportunity. 
This should be no difficult task as they almost invariably make their nests in easily 
accessible places in buildings. The thatch of a native house is a very favourite 
situation. 


Termes Gestroi: The Hevea Rubber Termite. 


By E. ERNEST GREEN. 
“On the Life History of Termes gestroi, Wasm. The Hevea Rubber 
Termite.” E. P. Stebbing—(The Indian Forester, Vol. XXXII, No. 3.) 
The author quotes reports from various observers in the Malay Archipelago 
and draws his own deductions therefrom. One of these deductions is of such a 
startling nature that it should receive careful investigation and indisputable corrob 
oration before acceptance. On page 111 appears the following paragraph :— 


“It would appear that Termes gestroi attacks the tree for the purpose of 
obtaining the rubber from it, for, on applying pressure to the bodies of the termites, 
it was found that the majority of them were full of fresh latex. They apparently 
collect and store the rubber, masses of rubber being found as arule in the nests 
which are usually situated at the crown of the root. From one of these nests, 
situated at the base ofa three-foot girth tree, as much as 2 lbs. of rubber: was 
collected.” 


This seems to me a most improbable explanation of the facts, though, of 
course, there is nothing inherently impossible in it. Being—myself—equally (with 
the author of the paper in question) unacquainted with this particular termite in 
a state of nature, it is with diffidence that 1 venture to put forward what appears 
to me a more probable interpretation of the observed conditions, namely, that the 
accumulations of rubber found occasionally in the nests is the result either of 
a natural flow of latex following upon the wounding of the tree by the termites, 
or of the abnormal exudation due to a previously diseased condition of the tree. 
jt would be interesting, to know whether the supposed latex found in the bodies 
of the living insects was tested and proved to be rubber latex. It seems possible 
that this statement may result from an error of observation. It is well known that 
the ‘ soldiers’ (the class most in evidence when a nest: is disturbed) of all termites, 
upon whatever they may have been feeding, secrete a viscid milky fluid which they 
eject from their mouths upon the least provocation. This fluid appears to have 


Plant Sanitation. 26 


some offensive properties to other insects and is certainly a protective device. 
When ejected on to the human skin it produces a reddish brown stain that defies 
soap and water for many days. I would suggest the following additions to 
Mr. Stebbing’s ‘points requiring further observations and elucidations.’ 

(a) What proportion of the nests contain accumulations of rubber ? 

(b) What is the condition of such rubber? Does it appear to have coagu 
lated in mass (such as would occur from a natural flow), or to have 
been built up—bit by bit,—as would be expected if resulting from the 
individual collections of numerous insects ? 


(c) Does the milky fluid found in the bodies of the insects have the same 
reaction as true rubber ? 


Mycological Notes. 


By T. PEtcH, Government Mycologist. 


The fungi hitherto recorded as parasitic on Castilloa elastica are not very 
numerous, and in most cases are negligible from an economic point of view. The 
most important is Corticium javanicum, Zimm., which grows on the branches and 
apparently kills them. It isa common fungus in Java and attacks all kinds of trees, 
covering the’stems and branches witha flesh-coloured or yellow sheet of fungus 
tissue, and producing the open wounds commonly known as ‘‘canker.” Up to the 
present there is no record of its occurrence in Ceylon. 


Other Javanese fungi ou Castilloa include Antennaria castilloae, Zimm., which 
forms a black covering on the leaves attacked by scale insects; Aschersonia 
sclerotioides, Henn., which probably is not parasitic on the leaf, but on a scale insect; 
and Diplopeltis Zimmermanniana, Henn., also on leaves. These apparently do prac- 
tically no damage to the tree. 


With the extension of Castilloa cultivation the number of parasitic fungi 
will no doubt increase, though it is rather remarkable that recent accounts of 
Castilloa plantations, while referring to injurious insects, make no mention of fungi. 
Already three can be added to the list from Ceylon. 


The first of these is a root fungus which attacks all cultivated plants from 
Caravonica cotton to Hevea. It covers the root with a brown felt which cements to 
itself soil and stones and forms a mass sometimes double the original diameter of the 
root. When far advanced this covering acquires a black, uniform, external layer. 
It passes from one root to another when they are in contact, but apparently it does 
not’spread through the soil unless there is a continuous path of living or dead wood. 
Many instances have been recorded of its occurrence on various plants, but in every 
case the disease seems to have been got rid of by removing the affected tree and 
liming the soil. The fructification of this fungus has not yet been found or eulti- 
vated; apparently it occurs in other countries on cacao and coffee, etc., and the 
same difficulty is experienced in determining to what species the mycelium belongs. 


The second fungus is, according to our present knowledge, a wound parasite 
only. It occurred on the Experiment Station, Peradeniya, where it attacked two 
trees which had been injured by fires. A strip of bark about three feet long and 
four inches broad on each tree was converted into a black, soft rotting mass contain- 
ing fungi and insects of various kinds. The most abundant species, and the only one 
found near the sound bark, was a Botryodipludia which has been named Sotryodi- 
plodia elastice. The mycelium of this extended into the wood and discoloured it, and 
the black coloration of the decaying mass was due to the mycelium and fructi- 


87 Plant Sanitation. 


fication of the fungus, All the diseased tissue on one tree was cut away, and the 
wound healed in a few months. The diseased bark was stripped off the other, but no 
attempt was made to cut out all the affected parts; indeed, even this treatment was 
contrary to instructions, as we wished to ascertain what effect the fungus Onl 
have on the tree if unchecked. During the ensuing dry weather a healthy callus 
was formed round the wound, but with a renewal of the rains, the fungus ae 
menced active growth and spread in all directions, almost completely destroying all 
the bark. At the same time, white ants attacked the diseased wood and reduced 
the tree to a narrow stick about an inch in diameter with a strip of sound bark on 
one side. 


This fungus has not been found elsewhere on Castilloa, but it attacks and 
kills young Hevea brasiliensis, especially stumps. It has also been found sapro- 
phytic on dead Hevea. Its effect on young Hevea will be dealt with later, 


A third fungus was found on a specimen submitted for examination a short 
time ago, The affected trees show an open wound at the collar, extending up the 
stem in a long triangular patch and at the same time spreading more extensively on 
the roots, Itis similar to the ‘foot rot” of orange trees, and, like that disease, is 
caused by a species of Fusarium. The fungus appears through small cracks in the 
apparently sound bark in the form of white tufts which at first sight may be mis- 
taken for drops of coagulated latex. Diseases of this class are favoured by bad 
‘drainage or excessive shade, anything, in fact, which causes an abundance of 
moisture at the foot of the tree. In one instance, the affected trees are in an area 
which cannot be properly drained, and in another, though the drainage is good, the 
trees have made such remarkable growth that there is probably too much shade. It 
has been recommended that the measures adopted against “foot rot” in orange 
trees should be tried in this case, but it is as yet too early to say whether they are 
successful. The earth is removed from about the tree so as to expose the collar and 
part of the roots. The diseased tissue is then cut away, and the wood painted with 
a mixture of crude carbolic acid and water in equal parts. All the wood and bark 
removed must be burnt. The hole should not be filled up until the tree has 
recovered, and, if possible, the shade should be thinned out so that the sun may reach 
the affected parts. 

In other investigations, two interesting results have recently been obtained 
by cultivations at Peradeniya. The white root rot of tea, which has hitherto been 
confused with Rosellinia, and which seems never to produce any fructification in the 
field, has in four cases developed a sporophore which proves it to bea species of 
Polyporus, one which, judging from a brief visit to Hakgala, jis common in the 
jungle on dead wood. The other result concerns the ‘‘ Thread Blight” dealt with in 
the Tropical Agriculturist for April, 1906; this, at least on nutmeg trees at Pera- 
deniya, is the mycelium of a small stemless agaric (mushroom), a_ species. of 
Crepidotus, which is only fully developed on twigs etc. after they have fallen and 
commenced to decay. 


STAB of te 88 


HORTICULTURE. ie 


Market Gardening in Nuwara Eliya. 


By C. W. BARTHOLOMEUSZ. 


Before entering into the immediate subject which I have attempted to deal 
with, I propose giving a short sketch of the history of market gardening in Nuwara 
Eliya. I need not mention that the materials from which I have had an opportunity 
of gathering some facts for this purpose have been few, and that I had more or less 
to depend on isolated passages in books and district manuals touching on Nuwara 
Eliya in general, and on what I have heard. 


Nuwara Eliya, as far as I can gather, owes the introduction of the Enylish 
vegetables now grown, to the enterprise of Sir Samuel Baker, the great traveller 
and sportsman whose books “ Hight Years in Ceylon,” and ‘“ The Rifle and Hound 
in Ceylon,” we are more or less familiar with. In the year 1848, the late Sir Samuel 
Baker and his brother resolved to establish a real English farm and village on the 
estate which still bears their name, now better known as Mahagastota estate—big 
tree estate--evidently from the large blue gum trees planted there. It is hard now 
to realise the difficulties and disappointments Sir Samuel had to face and conquer. 
We read in his “ Eight Years in Ceylon,” that when with infinite trouble the soil 
had been prepared, the first crop of oats was enjoyed by elk and wild pig, who held 
grand midnight festivals. In like manner we read that the first crop of potatoes 
was entirely consumed by black grubs, a pest which still does an immense amount of 
harm in our gardens. However, prtience and perseverance were rewarded in due 
time, and after careful treatment and generous mvnuring the soil was found fertile 
enough for all purposes, and we read of his obtaining four crops of potatoes in the 
year. From this time we can safely assume that English vegetables were grown 
more or less in Nuwara Kliya, probably at first for the use of the few settlers, 

followers of Sir Samuel Biker, and the other pioneers of Nuwara Eliya, and as time 
went on, for supplying the other towns. 


The virgin soil of the new clearing seems to have been specially adapted for 
the growth of potatoes, and the early settlers always speak of the enormous crops of 
this tuber which were a source of income to a great many of them, they carrying ona 
trade with Colomboand Kandy. Tubers each weighing from 13 to 21b. were not uncom- 
mon, and the large crops gathered allowed of an easy profit on the outlay. But one 
mistake seems to have been made, and that was that the potato crop was for a long 
time the only crop put on to lands, and, as a natural result, as soon as the soil was 
exhausted of its potash and other chemical elements suitable for its growth, the 

- potato crop failed and Nuwara Eliya had a potato blight which started early in the 
eighties. I donot mean tosay that potatoes have not been grown since, but the 
crops, if successful, are poor and not to be compared with the crops obtained in the 
past. The last few years have seen afew good crops, and more may be expected with 
careful manuring and good management. 


On the failure of the growth of potatoes greater attention was paid to the 
other English ‘vegetables; cabbages, cauliflower and knolkohl were largely 
planted. Here, too, it should be noted thit carrots, turnips, beet, and other root crops 
were not grown so much at the start as they are at present. The gardens replete 
with the chemical substances favourable for the growth of cabbages, etc., which 
were not touched by the repeated crops of potatoes taken o!f tuem gave good 
crops, and the cabbages grown were enormous. It made one’s heart rejoice to 


89 Horticulture, 


gee the giant drum head cabbages in those days which could in point of size and 
weight easily compare with, or even outclass some of Messrs. Sutton & Company’s 
“Giant Drum-head” prize cabbages, or Messrs, Carter’s Mammoth Beef Heart 
cabbages. It was not unusual then to have six, seven or eight continued and 
repeated crops of cabbages or cauliflowers from off the same plot. 


Within the last four years the failure of the suecessful growth of cabbages 
and cauliflowers in the gardens in the town, for causes to be dealt with later on, has 
in turn led to a greater attention being prid to the growth of root crops such az 
carrots, beetroots, parsnips, etc., and has seen the introduction of the more useful 
English garden herbs which grow to some perfection; the gardens in the town 
now mostly grow these crops. 


Market gardening in Nuwara Eliya has greatly developed, and the supply 
to-day is inadequate to meet the demand. The great demand there is for fresh 
English vegetables and the necessity there is, therefore, that a better method of 
cultivation should be adopted, and that our gardens should keep pace with the 
horticultural progress of the day, can be gathered from the fact that Messrs. Paul 
Soris & Company, who supply the German line of steamers calling at Colombo send 
monthly on this order alone an average of 3,000 cabbages, 20 to 30 thousand carrets, 
15 thousand turnips, beside large quantities of other vegetables. 


In attempting therefore to lay before this meeting a few of the difficulties 
tobe met with in market gardening at present in Nuwara Eliya. with the causes of 
these difficulties and the remedies which could be suggested, I only hope that the 
subject will be of interest to those who not only gain a living, but supply a great 
want, and at the same time ,induce others, whose greater experience and more 
practical knowledge of the subject better qualifies them, te express their opinions 
and suggestions thereon. 


For the last five or six years the growth of cabbages, cauliflower and 
knolkhol has met with no success, and at present it is hard to get a single cabbage 
to grow sucessfully in any of the gardens in the town. In fact, it is very hard to get 
a crop to come to any perfection owt of seed, and this difficulty is partly avoided 
by many of our gardeners by getting sprouts (called ‘* Rikili”) from healthy cabbages 
from Ragalla and Kandapolla, which come to some perfection in carefully prepared 
soils. Local suppliers have been forced to get their cabbages from Palugama, 
(Wilson Plains), Kandapollaand Ragalla, where the cabbage still seems to thrive. This 
must be attributed largely to a soil exhausted in sulphates, phosphates and potash. 
A cabbage according to Sutton wants a soil containing 8 per cent. sulphuric acid, 
16 per cent. of phosphoric acid, 4 per cent. of soda, 48 per cent. of potash, and 15 per 
cent of lime, and it is evident that we cannot expect to grow a cabbage ona soil 
which is destitute of these ingredients, to say nothing of others. The repeated 
planting of cabbages in the present gardens with no change in the erop had 
undoubtedly exhausted the soil of these ingredients, and it is only after great care 
in the selection of soils, manure, and probably after the ground has been treated 
with a rotation of crops on some scientific plan that one can expect to grow a 
cabbage with success. 


In dealing with this difficulty it ought to be borne in mind that to make 
our gardening successful great attention should be paid to the rotation or alter- 
nation of crops, for this will enable one not only to get the largest possible 
production, but the highest possible quality of every kind of crop. We have noticed 
the evil effects of our gardeners in Nuwara Eliya limiting their first crops mostly 
to the potato, and we have then seen how the repeated planting of cabbages and 
cauliflower without any alternate crop of any other kind on the same plot of 
ground, one crop following the other for a long series of years, ended in a complet 


Harticulture. 90 


exhaustion of the soil. naturally exhausted of its sulphates phosphates, lime and 
potash. There are soils which will take a long time to be exhausted, and will not 
cease to yield a good return, but such soils are an exception, and the present garden 
soil of Nuwara Eliya is too exhausted to give any return without careful preparation, 
The science of the rotation of crops or “the science,” as it has been defined,—“ of the 
ordering of a succession of crops in such a manner that the crops will tax the soil 
for minerai elements in a different manner,” known to the horticultural world ages 
ago,” seems to have been sadly neglected by our market gardeners in Nuwara Hliya. 
The science is based one may say on the trite maxim ‘nature abhors a waste,” or 
in other words is founded on the dogma of the economy of nature. 

Two principles underlie it, which, if rightly understood and kept in mind, 
will appeal to any lay mind—(1) It must be remembered that each plant seeks 
its own food and assimilates, from the ground through its roots, only such 
chemicals and other food stuffs as are absolutely required for its welfare. 
(2) On the other hand it sends out and disperses from its system what is 
considered as waste matter to it, but which is food for and to some other 
plant. Bearing this in mind one sees the necessity of changing the crops on 
the same plot, so that when one crop has taxed the soil in one class of food- 
stuffs a different crop takes its place which requires quite different foodstuffs. 

I shall not encumber you with technical details of the food stuffs suitable 
to most of the garden vegetables. A text-book on the subject will supply any 
one interested with the different requirements of our common garden vegetables, 
and one will also find that with all that has been said and written oun the rotation 
of crops, there is yet a great deal to be learnt by individual experiments, 
careful management, and observation, and that each gardener must learn by 
experience to treat his plot of ground in the best manner possible. But I do 
not think it out of place to summarise a few practical hints for your guidance, 
which, I hope, will be of use to some of you. 

(1.) A good rotation will include both chemical and mechanical differences, 
and place tap roots in a course between surface roots, as for example, after cabbages 
and cauliflower it will be found that a crop of carrots and parsnips will thrive 
very well, simply because their roots go down into the soil that the cabbage 
or cauliflower never reached, though potash, lime sulphates and phosphates are 
as much needed for the cabbage as for carrots and parsnips. 

(2.) Plants of the same natural families should never immediately succeed 
each other, e.g. cauliflower should never succeed cabbages or knolkhol, but should 
follow crops of potato, peas and beans, 

(3.) Lastly, it is very important that a garden should be divided into plots 
or blocks, and a systematic diary kept of the different crops planted with notes 
regarding each, for this will enable each gardener to choose a rotation of crops 
best suited to his land. 

The following has been considered by Messrs. Sutton and Compauy a 
good cycle of crops for some of the common garden vegetables :—(1) Cabbages; 
(2) Carrots and Beet, (3) Peas. (4) Celery. (5) Potatoes. 

Secondly, great care should be paid to the manuring of the soil. Large 
quantities of cattle manure or what we may classify as a general manure are 
used in the gardens in Nuwara Eliya, sometimes very indiscreetly. In the use 
of cattle manure a great mistake is made in not collecting the fluid excrements 
of the animal which constitutes an important part of the manure. Great benefit 
could also be done if our gardeners used special and corrective manures to meet 
the particular conditions of their soil. Lime has been used successfully, as from 
chemical experiments tried it has been found very suitable to the soil of Nuwara 


9] Horticriltuie, 


Eliya, which is particularly sour and acid in its condition at present Besides; 
there are many artificial manures which recommend themselves and Siave heen 
tried with more or less success, such as basic slag, kainit and nitrate of potash. 
Too much attention also cannot be paid to obtaining a proper humus—that is 
to say, the black earthy substance resulting from the decay of vegetation in 
the soil—as it contains several ingredients necessary to plant life which cannot 
be obtained in any other way. This can always be obtained by burying the 
garden refuse, taking care not to bury or turn in any deceased plants or weeds. 

It is also important to bear in mind the use of geen aaiures, and the 
planting of catch crops to serve this purpose ought to be experimented on. It 
will always be found that cabbages planted between rows of peas or any other 
leguminous plant thrive well, just as in the west of England it is customary 
to plant celery and peas in alternate lines. This custom is evidently based on 
the fact that plants belonging to the Natural Order Leguminosae have the power 
of taking in various amounts of atmospheric nitrogen and building this up into 
complex compounds in the plant, which pass into the soil thus increasing the 
percentage of nitrogen in the soil; and it will be very interesting to watch 
experiments on different crops planted in between these “ nitrogen collectors” as 
they have been called. The famous green mavure which is being used to some 
extent among tea is the ‘Crotalaria striata” which ought to grow in Nuwara 
Eliya, and some experiments may be made with the ‘ Crotalaria Walkeri,” an allied 
species, which grows wild in Nuwara Eliya. 

Thirdly, it should be deemed essential if possible to let your land or even a 
portion of your land lie fallow for some time. For this purpose the land should be 
dug and trenched, and if necessary sown with some fallow crop suitable for the 
purpose. It has been found by a well-known gardener in Nuwara Eliya that 
eabbages thrive on land which has lain fallow for some time, and that this is 
one of the most efficient methods of getting rid of Club-root. There is nothing that 
promotes the fertility of the soil so much as affording the natural influences of 
rain and sun full opportunity in liberating the constituents that are locked up in 
it. If a block of land is left fallow during a south-west monsoon it ought to be 
greatly benefitted and givea much better crop. But one difficulty offers itself 
to our gardeners in Nuwara Eliya in this respect, and that is the want of space 
to carry out anything like a proper system of rotation of crops or even of allow- 
ing their land to lie fallow fora short time. The gardens in Nuwara Hliya except 
a few, consist of a few roods, and it will not pay the cultivator to allow them to lie 
fallow even for a short time. In this connection it may be mentioned that there 
is suitable Government land which may be taken up by enterprising cultivators 
shoulu Government be ready to offer any encouragement to them. 


The last four or five years have also seen the growth of club root in cabbage, 
eauliflowers and turnips, which has practically prevented the successful growth 
of cabbages and cauliflower in the town where special care and other preventive 
measures have not been taken. This disease has been known in Europe for over 
a century, where it has various names besides club root, evidently given to it 
from the clubbed or club-like appearance of the roots, suchas ‘‘anbury,” ‘‘ botch,” 
‘finger and toe,” ‘‘ hernia or rupture.” 

A general lack of vigour in the plant showing itself by its parched yellow 
drooping leaves and stunted growth, and subsequently the death of the plant 
itself indicates the disease. On pulling the plant one generally finds that instead 
of having a good well-developed main root with a good number of rootlets, we have 
a swollen mass, Which is either compact or broken up into numerous irregular 
swellings of a whitish or dirty white appearance. These swellings sometimes attain 
to the size of one’s fist, becoming larger on the main root than on the side rovts. 


Aprigsutiture. 92 


Ni ifferent causes were assigned for this disease. At first farmers thought that 
tre Gisease was caused by some insect depositing its larvee in the root, which 
produce a swelling which was then called a root gall, but this theory was eventually 
discarded. Then it was generally accepted that the ‘‘clubbing” or swelling of the roots 
was due to a degeneration of the plant affected, what was knownas a ‘sporting ” 
condition when the plant reverted to a considerable extent to its original wild form. 

But this theory would not apply to every case, as the disease was found sometimes 
where the most approved system of cultivation had been adopted and observed 
so as to prevent any degeneracy or reversion to an original type. To a Russian 
Botanist, Woronin, we owe the discovery of the true cause of clubbing. In 1876 he 
found out that the disease is due to a parasitic fungus belonging to the group of 
Myxomycetes, or slime fungi, so called because they differ essentially from ordinary 
fungi in consisting of a naked moving mass of protoplasm or cell matter technically 
known asa plasmodium, hence its discoverer gave it the name of ‘ Plasmodiphora 
brassice.” But let us remember itas club root. It is interesting and very useful 
to know something of the nature and life history of this fungus, especially as it 
will better enable us to take measures to prevent the disease. The jelly-like 
substance or mass of protoplasm, which is a living substance, takes possession of 
the root cells of the plant, makes its way from cell to cell absorbing the contents 
of each cell and naturally feeding on the nourishment of the plant itself, and 
causing the cells of the root to enlarge and present the club-like appearance so 
eommon in the disease. Subsequently this mass breaks up into a number of spores 
which are all reproductive bodies, on which the propagation of the fungus depends, 
and which spores are let out into the soil in myriads on the decaying of the root 
in which they have been contained to germinate in the pext crop sown. These 
spores want moisture for their germination, which when present enables the 
contents to burst through, leaving the seed case behind. The living sporeis able 
to move about by means of a delicate thread-like piece called a ‘‘cilium” or hair, 
and then gets the name of a “ zoospore.” Coming in contact with a tender root of 
a suitable host plant or a plant on which it can feed, it finds its way inside most 
probably through the root hairs, and there the process of enlargement at the 
expense of the plant is repeated with its dire results. The plasmodium or club root 
fungus thrives on the food of its host plant. It isa real parasite andin the end 
kills its host. All parasitic fungi live at the expense of certain other plants which 
are known as host plants, and it is important to recognise the host plants of this 
parasite, as we could by keeping a garden clear of the host plants which are weeds 
and of no use to us but are needful for the support of this parasite, ina great way 
prevent the spread of this disease. As far as is known, this fungus only attacks or 
uses as its host, plants belonging to the Natural Order Crucifers, such as cabbage, 
cauliflower and knol-khol among cultivated plants, and the shepherd’s purse and 
hedge mustard among the common garden weeds. 

It only remains for us now to see what remedies have been suggested and 
could be offered for the prevention and cure for this disease. 

. 1.) From the easy manner in which the spores are propagated it is but 
evident that the first preventative is to get rid of all diseased plants, a source of 
future infection. The diseased stumps of infected plants should never be left to rot 
in the soil or be ploughed or turned into the soil as manure, or added to the manure 
heap, but should be removed and burnt, or at least taken away as far as possible 
from the garden. 

(2.) We should starve out the fungus by not giving it its host plants to feed 
on. Ona plot of ground affected by the disease alternate crops should be tried and 
plants introduced on which the fungus does not grow, such as potatoes, beans, lettuce, 
peas, etc., and on a plot on which the disease has been very severe it is best to plant 
¢rops other than cruciferous for two or more seasons. 


93 Horticutture. 


(3.) We should pay attention to the proper rotation of crops, as it has been 
found that planting the same crop too often encourages the disease, the disease being 
spread by means of spores in the soil. 


(4.) We should be careful to weed and keep our crops clean, especially from 
cruciferous weeds which will only help to propagate the disease. 


(5.) Try if possible to let the infected plot lie fallow but clear of weeds; this 
remedy seldom fails to put an end to the disease. 


(6.) Isolate the plot affected with the disease as it is very easily spread. In 
fact, treat the plot infected like some spot infected with some infectious disease. The 
infected soil can be easily carried to uninfected Jand by tools, cart wheels and in 
numerous other ways. 


(7.) Be careful to pay great attention to the seed bed. Watch the young 
plants, removing any infected soas to get healthy plants. Some fungicide may be 
used preparatory to sowing, as sulphate of copper or Bordeaux mixture. 


Among particular remedies found suitable, dressing the soil with recently 
slaked lime at the rate of 35 to 75 bushels per acre, considerably reduces if not pre- 
vents the disease, as it has been found that club root seldom take place in a soil rich 
in lime. This has been proved a useful remedy in Nuwara Eliya. 


In passing I do not think it out of place to mention a few other diseases due to 
fungi which attack cabbages and cauliflower in Australia and Europe, and which 
happily so far have not been known to our gardeners in Nuwara Hliya. Among root 
diseases should be noted ** Black Leg or Foot-rot” (Phoma brassica). A plant attacked 
-by this disease is readily recognised. The leaves have a sickly withered look, the 
stem is shrivelled and the roots become rotten. On being pulled up the under- 
ground parts show numerous little black points visible to the naked eye which con- 
stitute the fructification of the fungus. 


Among leaf diseases should be noted White Rust ‘‘albugo candida,” a sort of 
mould in the leaves which Jooks as if the leaves have been sprinkled with white wash, 
(2) Ring Spot (Spherella brassicicola) is shown by circular patches of about ? of an 
inch in diameter, greenish towards the margin and dirty from towards the centre, 
covered with minute densely crowded black points; and lastly Putrefactive Mildew 
(Peronospora parasitica) is found on cabbages, cauliflower, turnips, radish and cress, 
and is seen commonly on the nasturtuim showing itself as a delicate white or greyish 
mould on the under surface of the leaves, the affected parts usually appearing 
yellowish and soon becoming dried and withered. This disease is formed by a fungus 
belonging to the same division as tke “potatoe disease fungus.” Gardeners in Nuwara 
Eliya should be on the look out for these diseases, which are sure to appear in time, 
and promptly send any infected specimens to the Government Mycologist to report 
on. Lastly, among insect pests the Black Grub, or ‘ Cut-Worm” as it is known in 
America has been and is a source of great annoyance to our gardeners. The grub is 
itself the caterpillar of several different kinds of night flying moths. They carry on 
their ravages in the night playing havoc among young plants, especially in the seed 
beds where three-quarters of the plants are very often killed in a single night. 


To the Government Entomologist we are indebted for the following remedies 
and precautions against this pest :— 

(1.) Mechanical means of prevention are the surest. These consist of placing 
a tin cylinder round each young plant until it has outgrown its liability to be attacked. 
We can make good use of empty jam and condensed-milk tins for this purpose. The 


cheaper plan is to tie a roll of stout paper loosely round the stem of each plant before 
placing it in the soil. 


Horticulture. 94 


(2.) In America destructive poisoned baits are employed. Small bunches of 
green clover are dipped ina solution of Paris Green and placed among the plants. 
When the baits are examined each morning many cut worms are found sheltering 
beneath the clover. Poisoned bran has also been found very effective. Paris Green 
is well-mixed with bran ina proportion of 1 lb. to a bushel, the bran is then mois- 
tened with water and small handfuls placed among the plants. It is found that 
the cutworm often prefers the bran to the growing plant. Poisoned leaves (mullein) 
have been found a good bait in America. The common English Mullein (Aaron’s Rod) 
Verbascum thapsus, which is thoroughly naturalised in Nuwara Eliya may be tried. 


(8.) A heavy dressing of kainit or other alkaline manure is a recognised 
deterrent against all subterranean grubs. 


(4.) Smooth conical holes sunk in beds are sometimesfound successful as traps. 
Caterpillars wandering about at night falling into these pits are unable to climb out. 
Empty jam tins sunk level with the soil will form good pitfalls. 


Among local precautions and remedies which have been tried with success it 
has been found a good plan to sow your seed with a large quantity of seed of the 
common mustard. The mustard sprouts up first and the grubs have been found to 
prefer the mustard and not to attack the good plants so much. After some time 
when the good plants have outgrown liability to be attacked the mustard is pulled 
out. Carrots planted in this manner are ina great way saved from this pest. A large 
dressing of lime on the surface has also been found useful, and our gardeners have for 
along time used the chopped up leaves of a wild lobelia (Lobelia Nocotianifolia) 
known to the Sinhalese as “kiribamboo,” owing to the acrid juice given out of its 
cylindrical stem, and to the Tamilsas ‘‘ poila colla,” in that it has a strong smell 
of tobacco, and which grows abundantly along our streams and our patnas as asuc- 
cessful bait. 


95 
LIVE STOCK. 


Poultry Notes, 


By G. W. STURGESS, M.R.C.V.S. 


DISEASES OF POULTRY. 


(Continued.) 


Consumption.—or Avian Tuberculosis, commonly known as ‘Going Light” 
amongst fanciers. This disease is closely related to the tuberculosis or consumption 
in man, and is caused by the Bacillus Tuberculosis. [tis common in poultry and 
attacks all kinds of birds. 


The digestive tract is generally affected, probably due to picking up infective 
material, such as food or water soiled by the dung of diseased birds, or the sputum 
of human beings. On postmortem examination the liver, spleen and intestines are 
generally found to be the seat of the principal lesions. 


Small white or greyish yellow spots or tubercles like seeds are seen spread 
over the surface of the organ affected. These may be cheesy or gritty if cut through. 
They may be found on all the organs and membranes in the abdominal cavity includ- 
ing the oviduct and ovaries. The lymph glands and joints may also be diseased. 


Symptoms.—Feebleness, debility, emaciation, loss of appetite, or on the 
contrary a voracious appetite, the bird eating a great deal which does not seem to 
do it any good. Usually there is liver derangement and diarrhoea—paleness of the 
comb and wattles—in general a gradual wasting away. 


Treatment is useless and a waste of money. Diseased fowls are unfit for 
breeding or for food, and the best plan is to destroy them. 


Fresh stock should be given better food and healthy surroundings and pure 
water ; close confinement and bad hygienic surroundings are powerful predisposing 
causes of the disease. 


Cramp is more commonly seen in chickens than in older fowls. It is prinei- 
pally due to cold or damp; keeping chickens on a cold cement floor may cause it. 
It sometimes occurs where chickens are kept too warm and over fed. 


Symptoms.—Stiffness and weakness of the legs, which may become so stiff 
that the bird cannot stand up on its feet and moves along on the hocks. Hens 
occasionally get cramp in the back and cannot stand. 


Treatment.—Hot flannels to the limbs and gentle rubbing and the application 
of a little turpentine and camphor liniment. Dry earth or dust should be given the 
birds to stand upon. Internally salicylic acid and Epsom salts may be given twice 
a day. 

The food should be soft with plenty of green food. Attention should be 
directed to the remainder of the birds and proper air, light, exercise and food given. 
Runs should be dry. If the attack is at all severe recovery seldom take place. 


Crop Bound.—This term indicates a condition in which the crop is over- 
gorged and distended to such an extent as to be incapable of passing on the food it 
contains. 


It may be due to overeating dry grain which swells, but is usually due to 
irregular feeding and giving a lot of food at one time, or it may be due to some 
obstruction to the outlet of the crop, 


Live Stock. 96 


Symptoms.—-The condition is easily noticed by the swollen and distended 
crop and the lassitude of the fowl. There is usually great thirst. 


Treatment.—At first a teaspoonful of salad oil may be given and the crop 
gently manipulated to try and get the food passed on. The bird should be starved 
a day or two. If it is suceessful the diet must be carefully regulated for a few days 
and a tonic may be given with advantage. 


If this fails, an operation can be performed and the crop opened and the con- 
tents removed. Ata point towards the upper part of the crop the feathers should be 
plucked out and an incision about one inch long made into the crop and the contents 
gently removed with a small spoon. After removal the little finger well oiled should 
be passed into the crop and the outlet examined for any obstraction. The crop may 
then be washed out with warm weak boracie acid solution, and the wound closed by 
several small independent sutures, using a small curved needle and fine silk. [f 
possible, the lining membrane should be sutured first and the skin afterwards, or the 
wound may be closed at once, bringing the inner edges of the wound together. 
Benzoated lard may then be smeared on and the wound left to heal. The fowl 
should be put intoa box and the diet for3or 4 days must be soft and limited in 
quantity, bread damped with milk or soup will answer the purpose. No water 
should be given until the wound has closed. 

Soft or Pendulous Srop.—In this condition instead of being hard and full 
of food the crop is soft and full of dirty fluid. If the head is held downwards and 
the crop gently pressed it will flow out through the mouth. This should be done 
two or three times a day, or the fluid drawn off by a trocar and canula or by a 
hypodermic syringe and needle. 


For some days the bird should be sparingly fed on soft food and very little 
water given. 
Pills composed of gentian, asafoetida garlic, and camphor with small doses 
of Sulphate of Iron may be given. 
Care should be taken that the bird when liberated does not eat or drink too 
much at once. 
(To be continued.) 


97 
MISCELLANEOUS. 


Lessons in Elementary Botany. II. 
By J. C. WILLIs. 


THE SHOOT. 


This can usually be distinguished from the root in the sprouting seed, the 
shoot going upwards, the root downwards. The shoot is usually made up of stem 
and leaves, and the leaves are borne upon the stem at definite points called the 
nodes. (Pl. I., June 7.A.) The stem usually branches in the awils (or armpits) of 
the leaves, #.e., the angles between them and the stem; and the branches repeat 
the structure of the stem, themselves bearing leaves, and branching in their axils. 
Of course there ave also many stems, ¢.g., those of palms, which do not branch. 

Nhe leaves want plenty of light andair, and the object of the stem is to 
support and spread them out to get these, and to carry water to them from the 
roots. The average stem grows straight upwards, this being directly towards the 
brightest light. That light is the main factor in this direction of growth may be 
seen by placing a plant with the light to one side of it, for instance by putting it in 
a window, when it will be found that the stem will grow towards the side from 
which the light comes. The leaves on the other hand tend to place themselves 
at right angles to the light, as may also be illustrated by putting a plant for some 
days in a window, when the younger leaves will all arrange themselves to suit the 
new direction of light. 

It will be noticed in this experiment that the old parts of stem and older 
leaves, which have quite finished growing will not move into new positions—only 
the still growing portions are able to move. 


If a stem be examined it will be found that while on the old parts the 
leaves are usually at about equal distances apart, as we approach the growing end 
the leaves get closer and closer together, till at last they are all crowded up in a 
bud\(P1.1., June 7.A.) at the tip. Every stem and branch ends in a bud, composed 
of younger and younger leaves folded closely over one another, with shorter and 
shorter gaps between them. 

The bud must obviously be tender, and requires some protection, otherwise 
it will be damaged by heat causing excessive evaporation and shrivelling, or by 
other causes. As arule the outer sides of the outer leaves of the bud are covered 
with hairs, or sometimes with wax, or the outer leaves, as in Rhododendron, are 
mere scales for the sole purpose of protecting the young bud. Sometimes the bud is 
protected by its position in the shelter of the mature leaves, or by lying close 
between the stalk of the leaf in whose axil it arises and the main stem, or in other 
ways. Examinea lotof buds, and see if you can find one which really has no 
protection to the delicate young inner leaves. 

The stems of most plants elongate and must consequently grow in thickness 
to carry more water that is now rerjuired by the increased number of leaves, and 
to carry the extra weight involved. As it grows, the old green outer skin or bark 
gets stretched, and presently begins to crack off, being replaced from below by a 
brown bark, the bark to which the name is usually given. This bark in turn 
stretches and cracks off, but is continually renewed from below like the skin of the 
hand. This brown bark as a matter of tact consists of cork (the cork of commerce 
is simply the bark of a Mediterranean species of oak), and as every one knows cork 
is water-and air-proof. Now the stem, being alive, requires, like all other living 

13 


Miscellaneous. 98 


things, to breathe, and cannot do this directly through the cork. Consequently 
special openings, called lenticels (Pi. L., June 7.A.) appear in the bark. Any young 
twig with brown bark on it will show these organs; they appear as little 
pits, usually longer than broad, so far filled up with a brown powder that they 
project above the general surface. The cork in them, instead of being in a solid mass, 
is formed in a loose aggregate of fine particles, and the air for respiration can pass 
between. 

The storage of reserve materials is common in stems; these are stored, as in 
the roots, to enable the plant to grow again after a period of rest. Tall woody stems, 
as of trees, only store as a rule within themselves, and there is consequently nothing 


visible to show that they are storing. But small stems often store, and thenas a 
rule swell up. 


Sometimes the reserve materials are all stored in the leaves, and we get the 
peculiar kind of stem called a bulb(PILI., June 7.4.) in which all the leaves are 
swollen out and have ceased to be green. They are generally folded one over 
another, asin an onion, but sometimes, as in lilies, merely overlap like tiles on the 
roof of ahouse. Plants with bulbs usually rest at some period of the year— 
generally in the drier weather—and vegetate again later. Sometimes the reserves 
are stored, as in the potato, in twbers (Pl. I., June 7.A.) or swollen portions of 
the stem, sometimes there is a fleshy creeping underground stem or rhizome 
Pl. L., June 7.A.). We shall have tospeak of these again later. 


Literature of Economic Botany and Agriculture. VI. 


By J. C. WILLIs. 
Coconuts.—See Gardening Circular I, 5, p. 49. 
Considerations sur le caractére halophyte du Cocotier, Rev. Cult. Col. 
June 1900, p. 75. 
Le Cocotier. Do. pp. 182, 362. 
Die Oxydasen und Peroxydasen in der Cocos-milch. Bull. Buitenz. VIII. 
Coconut Butter. Gard. Chron., Dec. ’01, p. 449. 
Creation de Cocoteries sur la céte est de Madagascar. Rev. Cult. Col., Feb, 
02, p. 65. 
Coconuts. Straits Bull., 1902, pp. 226, 227. 
Draining Land for Coconut Plantation. Do. 261. 
A Coconut Pest. Do. March 1904, 
Usages Economiques du Cocotier. Rev. Cult. Col., June 1904, p. 358. 
Spraying Coconuts. ‘* 7.A.,” Sept. 1904, p. 148. 
Coconuts in India, on the West Coast. ‘‘7.A.,” Dec. 1904, p. 373. 
The Coconut Industry of Trinidad. W. I. Bull., June 1905, p. 149. 
Bud Rot of the Coconut Palm. Cire. and A. J., R.B.G. Perad. 1906. 
Cocos, other Species.—C. eriospatha and C. odorata. Tropenpflanzer, 4, 1900, p. 197. 
Coffee: General.—Coffee in Coorg: Cameron in Planting Opin., Mar. 1899, p. 189. 
Fertilisation of the Coffee Flower. Queensl. Agr. J., May 1899, p, 376. 
Koffiecultuur in Guatemala, F, W. Morren, Amsterdam 1899. 
Le Café. Lecomte. Paris 1899, 
Fecondation Artificielle des fleurs de Café pour obtenir les hybrides. Rev. 
Cult. Col., Nov. 1899, p. 278. 
Liberian—Arabian hybrid. Ind, Gard. and Pl., Jan, 1900, p. 32. 
Coffee Hybrids. Planting Opin., Feb. 1900, p. 108. 


Die Produktions Kosten und die Ertrag der Koffie in Sudbrasilien, Prager 
in Tropenpflanzer, IV. 1900, p. 76. 


99 Miscellaneous. 


Le Café, sa Production et sa consommation. Rev. Cult. Col., VI. 1900, p. 107. 

In het wild groeiende Koffie boomen op Java. Koorders in Ind. Merc., Apr, 
1900, p. 235. 

Kaffee. Tropenpflanzer, 4, 1900, p. 181. 

La sterilité de certains hybrides des Caféiers. Rev. Cult. Col., VI. 1900, p, 2, 

Le eaféier d’Arabie aux Antilles. Do. p. 18. 

Le Café de Liberia. Do. p. 129. 

II Verslag omtrent de Proeftuinen &c. Buitenz. Meded, 38. 

La question du café de Nicaragua. Rev. d. Cult. Col., 1900, p, 578. 

Die Gattung Coffea und ihre Arten. Frobner. See Just’s Jahresbericht 1898, 
Tip: 18: 

See also Just for every year. 

Sur un hybride de Café de Libérie et de café d’ Arabie obtenu a la Reunion. 
Rev. d. Cult. Col., 1901, p.1. Planting Op. 1901, p. 214. 

Die Arten der Gattung Coffea. Buitenzorg Bull. p. 8. 

Coffea stenophylla. Rev. d. Cult. Col., July 1901, p. 86. 

Reports on Experiments &c. Meded. Buitenzorg, p. 51. 

Hine neue Kaffee-art aus Deutsch ost-Afrika (C. Schumanniana). Tropenp- 
flanzer, 1902, p. 142. 

Lagriculture sur la cdte est de Madagascar, Prud’homme, 1901. 

Notes préliminaires sur quelques cafés sauvages nouvelles ou peu connus de 
l'Afrique centrale. Rev. d. Cult. Col., Mai 1903, p, 257. 

Nouvelles Cafés de la céte occidentale d’ Afrique. Bull. Jard. Col., July 1904, 
p. 118. 

Coffea canephora. Do. p. 117. 

In der brasilianischer Kaffee-region. Tropenpflanzer 1904, p. 119. 

Eenige Mededeelingen over Coffea robusta. Ind. Mere., Nov. 1905, p. 805. 


The Colombo Agri-Horticultural Show. 


I have the honour to state that the entries in class VII. (special vegetables) 
included a good number of specimens, nearly all shown by one or two market 
gardeners at Nuwara Eliya who got medals at nearly all the shows. There 
were no specimens of outstanding merit, but most were good. 

2. I enclose Mr. Nock’s report. 


J. C. WILLIS, 
Director, Royal Botanic Gardens. 


REPORT ON CuLAss V. FRuits, Nos. 1 To 16. 

** All were of excellent quality, especially the mangoes, pineapples, oranges, 
limes, mangosteens, rambutans, and sapodillas; papaws and jambus were somewhat 
disappointing. The general opinion seemed to be that there has never before 
been such a fine display, and the pineapples were much admired. Competition 
was keen all through, but the Hon’ble Mr, Obeyesekere informed me that it 
would have been keener still but for the prevalence of illness in the villages 
throughout the low-country. Among the limes there were three exhibits of 
good lemons, and I would suggest a separate prize for these at future shows.” 


J. K. NOCK, 
Act. Curator, R. B. G., 


Miscellaneous. 100 
FRUITS AND VEGETABLES: CLASSES V. AND VI. 


I have the honour to forward herewith my report on the Classes judged 
by me at the recent Agri-Horticultural Society’s Show :— 

At this show I arranged the exhibits under Classes V. and VI. (Fruits 
and Vegetables), and judged the latter in connection with Mr. Henry Perera, 
Colombo Mudaliyar. 

1. Ash pumpkins were good in number and quality. 

2. Bottle gourds were below the average. 

3. Pumpkins made a satisfactory show. 

4. & 5. Snake gourds and bitter gourds were well represented and the 
specimens really good. 

6. Luffas were only fair and should have been much better. They were 
allof the ‘‘acutangula” variety. 

7 & 8 Beans, “dwarf” and ‘‘long,” were very satisfactory. 

9. Princess beans, also called four-winged beans and asparagus peas 
(Psophocarpus) were not shown at all. The variety is one of which the culti- 
vation deserves to be encouraged. 

10, 11 & 12. Tomatoes, lettuce, and celery were also wanting, proving 
that exhibitors had not been growing specially for the show, or they would 
not have failed to raise these crops. 

13. Sweet potatoes included some excellent specimens. 

18a & 14. Chillies made a very satisfactory exhibit both in number of 
entries as well as in size and quality. Some very large-sized specimens were 
disqualified owing to the required number not having been sent in. 

15. Cucumbers. Though out of season some fine fruits were shown. 

16. Onions, very few entries, but the specimens sent in were good. 

17. Yams. The ‘‘ collections” were few, but decidedly goud. 

18. Bread-fruits, satisfactory. 

19. Brinjals, very satisfactory. 

20. Bandakkai, fair; the fault being that the exhibits consisted chiefly 
of mature fruits unfit for consumption. 

21. Ash plantain were disappointing. 

22. Best collection from a School Garden. A good collection came from 
the Hunumulla School, and another from Palugama. 

23. Best cooking plantains, very disappointing. 

24. Dehiala (Coco yams). There was a satisfactory show of these and 
good competition. 

C. DRIEBERG, 
Superintendent of School Gardens, 
LivE Stock SECTION CoLomMBoO SHOW, 1906. 

1. This section was much better than last yeai when there was little 
competition. 

2. Thirty-two cattle competed in the various classes this year and eleven 
country-bred horses and ponies. 

3. For the Championship classes 10 bulls and 8 horses competed. 

G. W. STURGKSS, 
Govt. Veterinary Surgeon. 


101 Miscellaneous. 


Gampola Agri-Horticultural Show. 


Though the show, the first held at Gampola was intended principally for 
the districts of Udapalata, Uda Bulatgama and Kotmale, exhibits from other 
districts were accepted, Classes VIII, IX, XI and XIII being alone reserved for the 
above three districts. No exhibits were brought from Kotmale, the villagers of 
this district preferring to compete at the show at Nuwara Eliya in April. 


ATTENDANCE.—The Show was opened by His Excellency the Governor on 
March 30th at 3 p.m. The weather was dry and favourable. A large number of 
town residents, as wellas a fair number of villagers attended, 112 on the first day 
and 145 on the second, in addition to the headmen and holders of free passes. 


BuiLpines.—A large maduwa decorated in the Kandyan style was erected 
by the Ratemahatmeyas of the two divisions for His Excellency the Governor. 
The two portable iron sheds of the Ceylon Agricultural Society were utilised, and 
in addition separate sheds were erected for poultry, dairy produce, artsand manu- 
facture, as well as stalls for cattle by the Ratemahatmeya and the minor 
headmen of Udapalata who worked with commendable zeal. 


A noticeable feature of the show was the revival of the ancient game 
of ankeliya. 


Cuass I. FLOWERING PLANTS IN Pors. 


EXHIBITS.—It was sad to find that this class was almost empty. There 
were only three entries, although there were nineteen items for competition. 
Considering the number of residents in and around Gampola, it is strange that 
there was no competition in this class. Exhibitors were principally inhabitants 
of Gampola town. 


Cuass II. Cur FLOWERS. 


This class, too, was disappointing, though it was not so bad as Class 1. 
There were seventeen exhibitors, thirty-seven items for competition, and only eleven 
prizes were awarded. Exhibitors were mainly inhabitants of Gampola. 


Cuass TI. Ferns anp FOLIAGE PLANTS IN Pots. 


The competition in this class was extremely poor. There were only ten 
exhibitors and six prizes were awarded, although there were nineteen items for 
competition. With the exception of three villagers all the exhibitors were from 
Gampola. 


Cuass IV. Fruits, AND CLASS V. VEGETABLES. 


These classes were not so disappointing as the previous ones, but they were 
certainly not what they might have been. There were only sixty-three exhibits in 
Class IV and forty-two in Class V. The exhibits of fruit and vegetables were not 
of any high order, but the continued drought of the preceding months naturally 
affected prejudicially exhibits for this class. In addition to the town people a 
considerable number of villagers exhibited. 


CLASS VI. VEGETABLE AND ESTATE PRODUCTS. 


This class was better represented and the competition was more encouraging 
than that in the previous classes. Some of the items were, however, not competed 
for. There were only six competitors under item No. 15—Rubber. The competition 
in this class should have been very much greater as Gampola is in the heart of 
planting districts and is so advantageously situated as regards transport. Some 
exhibits in this class were shown by the estates, but the greater portion by the 
villagers. 


Miecellaneous. 102 


Cuass VII. Native PRODUCE. 


Although there was some competition in this class, the exhibits did not 
come up to a high standard, and only fourteen prizes were awarded. There were 
thirty items for competition, chiefly from the villagers. 

Cuass VIII. Darry PRODUCE. 
Exhibits by estates and villagers, but principally by the townspeople. 


Cuass IX. Pouurry. 
The competition in this class was poor and only seven prizes were awarded in 
Class VIII and three in Class IX. The chief exhibits were from the adjacent estates, 
very few villagers competing. 
CLass X. PRESERVED FRUITS. 
The items in this class were fairly competed for. Five prizes were awarded. 
There were six items for competition, almost all from the town of Gampola. 


Cihass XI. MINERALS. 

The entries in this class were as might be expected meagre and only one 
prize was awarded, being for plumbago at Nawalapitiya. A few gems from 
Pussellawa were shown. 

CLass XII. Catriun, SHEEP, BUFFALOES AND PIGés. 

This was a satisfactory class both in competition and in quality. The 
exhibits were however all of section B—Native. No horses were exhibited. A gold 
medal has been given by the Committee for a fine exhibit of a native bull, the 
medal of the Agricultural Society not being awarded. A large proportion of the 
exhibits were from the ‘ Lantern Hill’ Hstate. 


Cuass XIII. ARTS AND MANUFACTURE. 

Exhibits in this class were restricted to Udapalata, Uda Bulatgama and 
Kotmale, in the hope that the craftsmen of these districts would compete. The 
result was very disappointing, the only silver exhibits shown being of ancient 
workmanship and very little Udapalata pottery was shown. It appears well nigh 
impossible in the absence of stimulus from the walauwas for the craftsmen of 
Udapalata, many of whom are of families renowned in Kandyan times, to shake of 
their apathy. This class was as usual crowded with the rubbish now in vogue 
among Kandyans and Lowcountry Sinhalese. 

SUMMARY. 

On the whole, considering the time of the year—dry weather—it must be 
admitted that the show was a success, though both in quality and quantity the 
exhibits of flowers, fruits and vegetables fell far short of what was desired (the 
paucity of exhibits in these classes being very noticeable). It should also be borne 
in mind that this was the first show in Gampola. Success in future shows will 
greatly depend on the interest and competition aroused among producers and 
cultivators by holding shows at regular and recognised periods and dates. 


The wish to exhibit curiosities and abnormal specimens of plants, fruits, 
manufacture, etc. at public shows is a noticeable feature among the villagers. 
They cannot be too often told that what is required is the exhibition of the best 
produce of their gardens, fields, ete. 

The bulk of the exhibits came from cultivators and traders. Among the 
villagers the headmen were conspicuous in their exhibits, but competition would 
certainly be greater and more general if sufficient interest were aroused, and the 
villagers gradually made to recognise the advantages of bestirring themselves and 
taking more personal trouble to grow and exhibit produce from their lands and 
their cattle. 

H. WACH, 
H. W. CODRINGTON, Chairman. 
Honorary Secretary. 


1038 Miscellaneous, 


Uva Agri-Horticultural Show. 


I have the honour to forward the following report on the Classes I judged 
in at the Uva Agri-Horticultural Show held at Badulla on 8th instant. 

GENERAL.—I regret to state that the show was poor compared with the one 
held last year, which could have been classed as second only to that held in Nuwara 
Eliya. This is not at all satisfactory, and I trust a few remarks, now that they are 
to be published in the “T.A. and Magazine of the C.A.S.,” will result in an improve- 
mentin the future. The space allotted to each class was quite inadequate ; conse- 
quently no proper arrangement—so very important in the classes under review—could 
be undertaken, and exhibits were jumbled together, and not to advantage. 
Many people, known to be keen gardeners, were asked why they had not exhibited, but 
had only the feeble reply ‘I thought someone would be sure to have better.” This 
is not the way to make a show a success, and to a large extent accounts for the poor 
quality of the exhibits. Quite different to Nuwara Hliya when the usual remark was, 
“T sent mine just to fill up, and never expected to get a prize.” Huropeans could 
help a great deal by sending in anything they have worth exhibiting. A show 
should not be regarded as a money-grabbing opportunity, but one to demostrate 
what can be done in each district. 


The remarks in my report on the last year’s show were apparently unheeded, 
for there was no improvement in the arrangement of the cut flowers, state of the 
pot plants, &c. The former were bundled together ina very native way, and the 
material was not made half as much of as could have been possible. If one quarter 
of the flowers had occupied the space of the whole, the appearance would have been 
very different. Little relief was afforded in the way of greenery. Proper show 
boxes, such as those sent from Hakgala Gardens, cost little and should be used. It 
seems impossible to convince competitors that arrangement counts for points in 
judging. The pots staged were mostly very dirty and only three-quarters full of soil. 
Drainage appeared to be entirely neglected or very poor, and no attempts 
seem to have been made in most cases to trim the plants up, stake them neatly, &e. 
One exhibit was disqualified for having apparently been only potted a day or two 
previously. Most of these matters were pointed out before, and are worthy of 
attention. The recent drought followed by heavy rains was made much of as an 
excuse, but cannot account for such defects as these. 


To take the classes individually, Class I. FRUITS AND VEGETABLES.— 
Plantains were scarcely up to standard; the winner showed a good number of 
varieties. Papaws were good. The gold medal for the best collection of ripe 
and edible fruit was won my Mr. D. H. Kotalawela for a nicely arranged exhibit. 
Oranges in this class were not up to the usual Badulla quality. It was very dis- 
appointing to find no entries for English vegetables, especially as Weligama even 
was able to make a fair display of these. Tomatoes were fair and of good varieties. 


Class IT. FRuits, VEGETABLES AND GRAINS (open only to villagers).—In this 
class Mr. EK. B. Denham assisted in the judging. Of thirty-eight exhibits of oranges, 
some were very fine, and it was interesting to learn of natives in the district now 
being able to realise a profit after buying all of good quality and sending them to 
Colombo for sale. There is no doubt Badulla is one of the best districts in the 
Island for this fruit, but it is said that the real good kinds are less plentiful than 
formerly ; if this is so, steps should be taken by the local branch of the Society 
to increase only good varieties by grafting &c. PINEAPPLES.—Only three exhibits 
against a fine lot last year. The general opinion then was that they would have 
been better had the show been held in May. 


Miscellaneous. 104 


Class IV. GROWING PLANTS.—Nearly all in this class had an uncared for 
appearance. The fine specimen of Nephrolepis exhibited by Mr. Grant was the best 
exhibit in the show, and an excellent example of how a fern should be grown, 
For flowering plants no award was made. Mr. J. B. Bandaranayaka staged a large 
collection of jungle ferns which were named, but incorrectly. Before improved 
methods are adopted it would be inadvisable to offer more prizes in this class. 


Class V. Cur FiowimrRs.—In future more space should be given to make this 
class the attraction it should be. In all the exhibits of wild flowers cultivated 
garden varieties were noticed. Some of the roses were very fair, but would have 
been much improved if shown in proper boxes, one or two blooms of each, and 
named. Dahlias were poor, and there was practically no competition in chrysan- 
themums and cannas. In this class I would respectfully suggest that more 
prizes be offered, such as for roses (1) best blooms of yellow, (2) white, (8) red 
(4) best roses, six different varieties, (5) do. more than six varieties, (6) hest 
gaillardias, (7) best cactus dahlias, (8) best zinnias, (9) best violets, (10) best cut flowers 
in a box not exceeding 18” square. This would cause greater competition and insure 
a better display. 

Class 1X. ScHooL GARDEN Exuipits.—R. M. Ukkubanda of Welimada took 
the prize for a good exhibit which included splendid parsnips, cabbages, leeks, carrots, 
and beetroot. Celery and capsicum should have been better. Attampettia School 
was rather a poor second. 

The following exhibits were staged fromthe Royal Botanic Gardens, not for 
competition :—A complete set of the “Circulars and Agricultural Journal of the 
Royal Botanic Gardens,” and a box of dry grains from the Director. Silk-worm 
cocoons &e. from the Government Entomologist, and seven boxes of cut flowers from 
the Hakgala Gardens. 

A meeting of the Badulla branch of the Agricultural Society was held in 
the Town Hall on the 9th instant, at which I read a paper on ‘“ Propagation 
of Plants.” 

J. K. NOCK, 


Act. Curator, Peradeniya Gardens. 


THE LIVE STOCK SECTION. 


Excepting the Native Bull Class, this section was not so good as last year. 
The following is a comparison of the Entries in 1905 and 1906 :— 


1905. 1906. 
Entries. Entries. 
Best pony bred in Uva a 19 6 
», pair of buffaloes bred in Uva = 5 3 
» native bull ee 14 15 
- re cow (in or out of milk) a 15 8 
» pair of cart bullocks (native) . fa 3 
a , of Nellore cart bullocks ; — — 
5, cattle of any other bred . ae 8 5 
,», Hackery turn out 2 B} 
,, Poultry bred in Uva (cock &2 hens) 9 9 
», Ducks (2) 5 5 
», Geese (2) a an dh 1 2 
» Turkeys (2) a = Ane 2, = 
, Pigeons (2) ies 6 6 
» Village Poultry ‘(cock &2 hens) an 10 a 


G. W. STURGESS, 
Government Veterinary Surgeon. 


| 105 Miscellaneous. 
THE MINUWANGODA MARKET SHOW. 


It was resolved at a meeting of the local Agricultural Society neld at Minu- 
wangoda, on 14th January, 1906, under the Presidency of Mr. EK. B. Denham, Seerctary 
of the Ceylon Agricultural Society, to hold an exhibition, on 7th April, 1906, of 
vegetables, yams, fruits, groundnuts, ete., grown in Alut-Kuru Korale North, in the 
district of Negombo. 

The following prizes were offered by the members of the local society :— 

(l.) Mr. Walter Dias Bandaranayaka, Mudaliyar, Rs. 20 for the best eollec- 
tion of vegetables. (2.) Mr. J. E. de Silva Suriyabandara, J.P., Rs. 20 for the best 
collection of vegetables. (8.) Mr. J. FE. Jayawardena Vidana Arachchy of Godakaha 
Palata, Rs. 10 for the 2nd best collection of vegetables. (4.) Mr. Henry Thomas 
Perera Seneviratna, Notary Public, Rs. 10 for new vegetables which were not grown 
before in the Korale. (5.) Mr. Abilinu Silva Gunawardena, Notary Public, Rs. 10 for a 
bushel of groundnuts. (6.) Mr. J. M. P. Samarasekara, Registrar of Marriages, Rs. 5 
for the best collection of fruits. (7). Mr. 8S. D. Lianduru, Inquirer into Crimes, Rs. 10 
for the best collection of yams. (8.) Mv. N. H. Dinadasa, Rs. 10 for best mikiri. 
(9.) Mr. James de Silva Siriwardena, Rs. 5 second prize for mikiri. (10.) Mr. G. D. 
Valentine Rs, 5 for five pounds of cocoons. 


In pursuance of a notice issued by the local society, the show was held on 
7th April, 1906, in the King’s Coronation Market, at Minuwangoda. From early morn- 
ing a large number of cultivators of vegetables in the Korale preduced different 
kinds of vegetables, ete., grown by them. Mr. C. Drieberg, the Superintendent of 
School Gardens, who arrived at Minuwangoda very early in the morning arranged 
the exhibits with the heip of Mr. A. C. Nawaswayam, Secretary of the local society. 
It was first thought by the Society that it wouid be a very poor show owing to the 
continued drought. However, that did not prevent the cultivators from competing 
for the prizes offered by the local society as an encouragement for vegetable culti- 
vation. By 12a.m. the market was almost full with fresh vegetable exhibits, which 
were certified to by the Secretary of the Society as grown in the district. He had 
examined each exhibit at the request of the Society before removing them from the 
places where they were grown. As there were a large number of exhibitors, the 
Society was obliged to divide the prizes, in order to give a prize to each of the best 
cultivators. 


Judging for the prizes commenced at 2 p.m. by Messrs. C. Drieberg, Arnold 
F. Karunaratna, Inquirer into Crimes, and Wagiswara, Pandit. In the unavoidable 
absence of Mr. E. B. Denham, whom the local society expected to distribute 
prizes, Mr. Drieberg was proposed to the chair by Mr. J. E. de Silva Suriya- 
bandara, J. P., President, V.T. At the request of Mr. Drieberg the prizes 
were distributed by Miss Lilian Suriyabandara, the eldest daughter of the President. 
The prizes ranging from Rs. 2 to Rs. 20, including gold and silver coins in small well- 
designed silk bags, were givenaway to the best cultivators of vegetables, fruits, yams 
and groundnuts. An artistic certificate with the photograph of the Governor, 
founder of the Ceylon Agricultural Society, accomvanied each prize. Mr. Drieberg 
addressed the cultivators at length on the advantages and benefits of cultivation. 


The Hon’ble Mr. F. R. Ellis, c.m.a., Auditor-General, accompanied by the 
Atapattu Mudaliyar, Mr. Solomon Seneviratne, J. P., unexpectedly visited the show. 
The Auditor-General was very satisfied with the vegetable exhibits. It is the inten- 
tion of the local society to hold a similar exhibition of vegetables, ete., about the 
beginning of November next, and the Society expects contributions for the prizes 
from some gentlemen who own extensive coconut estates in the district. Weare 
glad to certify to the fact that this show has encouraged the people of the Korale to 

14 


Miscellaneous. 106 


such an extent, that most of them have taken up vegetable cultivation, and the sales 
of fruits, fresh and good vegetables are daily increasing in the Coronation Market at 
Minuwangoda, The local society is making arrangementes to hold a Saturday fair 
in “Ellis Court” at Minuwangoda, which will be opened tothe sale of live stock 
and all commodities of trade on every Saturday from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. 
A list of prize winners at the show is annexed. 
WALTER DIAS, Chairman. 
JOHN EK. D’SILVA, Vice-President. 


A. C. NAMASWAYAN, Hon. Secretary. 
Minuwangoda, 4th May, 1906. 


List OF PRIZE WINNERS. 


Prizes. Hxhibits. Names. Amounts. 
Rs. Cts. 

1 Vegetables P. C. Weerasekara 290 00 
Zi Do. D. C. Perera 10 00 
3 Do. Arnolis Perera 7 50 
4 Do P. Migel Perera 5 00 
5 Do. Samuel Perera 3 00 
6 Do. D. P. Wijayasuriya 2 50 
7 DO: M. C. Kura Rajakaruna 2 00 
1 New Vegetables P. C, Weerasekara 5 00 
2 Do. D. C. Perera 5 00 
1 Yams P. C. Weeresekara 5 00 
2, Do. D. C. Perera 5 00 
1 Ground Nuts S. Abilinu Silva 10 00 
1 Fruits P. C. Weerasekara 5 00 
i Me-Kiri D. P. R. Jayatunge 10 00 
2 Do. D. C. Perera 5 00 


(Signed) C. DRIEBERG, 
ns A. F. KARUNARATNE, 
.; WAGISW ARA, 
Judges. 


MALAYA DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE: REPORT FOR 1905. 


By J. B. CARRUTHERS. 


The first report of the Department of Agriculture of the Federated Malay 
States, which was initiated in June of last year, must necessarily be of a more 
prophetic than historical character. Some useful work, however, has been done, 
and preparations made for future work when the department is fully equipped. My 
official appointment as Director of Agriculture and Government Botanist, Federated 
Malay States, began on Ist February, when I was in England, and my time was 
occupied in visiting the chief rubber manufactories and in getting information from 
agriculturists, manufacturers and buyers in England and on the Continent. I also 
purchased such books as are essential in the work of such a department, one of the 
chief duties of which is to act as a bureau of information on things agricultural and 
botanical. 

SCOPE OF DEPARTMENT. 


In the first report of the Agricultural Department of the Federated Malay 
States, the objects for which such a department exists may be definitely formulated. 
The programme is a large one, but none of the items should be left out of the acti- 
vities of such a department, and though the staff of the Department of Agriculture, 
Federated Malay States, isnot at present large enough to fully overtake all the 


107 Miscellaneous. 


work lying to hand, yet as far as is possible this is done, and, when an Agricultural 
Chemist and Entomologist are appointed, still more can be done. Briefly, the 
functions of the Department are— 

(1) The study of various physiological, and pathological botanical questions 
bearing on the economic plants of the Malay States. 

(2) The care of the health of ail cultivated plants and constant watch for the 
earliest signs of any disease, that steps may be at once taken to eradicate it ; 

(3) The carrying on of experiments in agriculture and horticulture ; 

(4) The introduction and trial of new economic plants suitable for profitable 
cultivation and the distribution of seeds and plants of these to those wishing to 
begin the cultivation ; 

(5) Thegiving of advice and information on agricultural, botanical and 
horticultural questions. 


I arrived in Malaya in June and proceeded at once to form plans for the 
organisation and equipment of the department. Temporary accommodation was 
found for my offices and laboratory in the Institute for Medical Research, where, 
by the kindness of the Director, I got a room and laboratory. The distance 
from Kuala Lumpur unfortunately necessitates loss of some time daily, and 
hinders planters from making use of the information to be afforded by the depart- 
ment by personal visits. 170 letters of enquiries for advice on matters agricultural 
and botanical were received during the last six months of the year—135 from planters 
and others in the Federated Malay States, and 35 from other tropical countries and 
from Europe and America. Reports on these letters were furnished, and where 
relating: to cases of diseases in plants these were investigated in the field and 
laboratory and remedial measures recommended. Except in the case of coconut 
palm diseases, which are energetically looked after by the Inspector of Coconut 
Trees, Mr. L. C. Brown, all these diseases had to be investigated and reported on by 
myself, and with various official duties to perform in connection with land applica- 
tions for planting purposes, and the organisation and supervision of the depart- 

.ment, I have been unable to give to this most important part of the work of 
the department as much time as was needful, and the investigating had necessarily 
to be curtailed. 

CONDITION OF CROPS. 

A large proportion of my time has been spent in visiting estates in Perak, 
Selangor and Negri Zembilan, and inspecting the rubber and other cultivations with 
a view to prevalence of disease and of investigating the conditions under which they 
are cultivated. These conditions do not vary in the Federated Malay States to the 
extent that they do in other tropical agricultural countries, because only the plains 
and small hills on the plains are at present used for agricultural purposes, and 
the conditions of rainfall and temperature are approximately the same. Having 
been engaged during the last six years in investigating the diseases of plants ina 
tropical country, and devising and carrying out methods of prevention and cure, 
I am satisfied that the staple cultivations of the Federated Malay States—coconuts, 
rice, rubber, sugar, tapioca, nipah, ete,—are in a satisfactory condition as regards 
health and sanitation. Noone whois acquainted with plant life expects that any 
species can be free from parasitic and environmental diseases, and with an increased 
number of individual plants in any cultivation the danger of infection and con- 
tagion is increased. 

DISEASE AND ITS PREVENTION: PROTECTIVE JUNGLE BELTS. 

The prevention of the spread of disease in large areas of one species of culti- 
vation is of the first importance. At the outset of planting up of rubber in the 
Federated Malay States steps must be taken to guard as far as can be done by 
planting or leaving jungle and thus make barriers against the too easy distribution 


Miscellaneous. 108 


of parasitic insects and of the spores of fungi which attack living plants. That each 
estate should itself plant protective belts is, when large yields per acre are so much 
desired, perbaps too much to expect. Districts, however, can be to some extent 
divided off. so that the outbreak of disease in one locality may be confined within 
limits, and plantations in other parts may either be preserved from the evil orat any 
rate protected for a time, so that the preparations may be made to prevent or 
combat the attack on its first appearance. I selected an area of about 16 miles long 
by two wide running from the Buloh river in a south-east direction to the Klang 
river and adjoining the Sungei Buloh forest reserve. The direction of the prevalent 
winds is not sufficiently constant in Selangor to make the position of the protective 
belt in regard to points of the compass important. So much land had already been 
taken in Klang and Kuala Selangor districts that it was important to at once 
reserve the belt, and I selected this area chiefly because it included a series of 
bukits—i.e., small hills—and thus add to the height of the barrier, also because it 
included the water catchment area for Klang, which will remain in jungle, and 
adjoined the large forest reserve of Sungei Buloh, which thus forms a continuation 
eastward of the barrier. I hope to be able to record in future reports the continu- 
ation of this policy in other States, where immediate action is not so necessary as 
comparatively small areas have as yet been alienated for rubber. The value of such 
protective belts in tropical countries is not sufficiently recognised. In temperate 
climates the spread of fungus and insect pests is checked by the advent of winter, 
and even in the warmer months the rate of increase of diseases due to fungus or 
insect attack is much slower than in tropical countries. Ina climate like the Malay 
Peninsula the conditions for the spread of fungi are almost perfect. Moisture and 
heat are the essential factors necessary to the gevmination and growth of spores of 
fungi, and in Malaya these conditions are present practically all the year round. 
During the last six years in Ceylon I have been carrying out experiments as to the 
wind distribution of spores, and had at various elevations and aspects in the plant- 
ing districts of that island erected experimental ‘“ tabernacles”—#.e., jute hessian 
screens enclosing a space 48 feet by 8 feet broad 9 feet high and open to the sky. 
These screens were placed at right angles to the prevalent winds and erected on tea 
fields just after the bushes had been pruned, and before any leaves were produced on 
any bushesin the field. In Ceylon the winds are approximately north-west and 
south-east, respectively, during half the year. The appearance of the leaf spot 
fungi on the leaves of bushes inside the tabernacle and on the windward and leeward 
sides, respectively, were carefully observed. These experiments showed clearly the 
value of a mechanical protection from the attacks of wind-borne spores. Other proof 
of the efficacy of such protective belts can be got from observations of tea, coffeeand 
other crops near to jungle. A case clearly demonstrating this point was given in my 
annual report in Ceylon for 1901. On the windward side of a narrow strip of 
jungle at the brow of a hill a field was badly blighted with leaf disease 
(Pestalozzia guepini Desm). A road 25 feet wide had been cut through the jungle, 
and on the leeward side was a field of tea which, during the south-west mon- 
soon when the wind blew from the unattacked to the blighted field, showed 
no sign of disease. A short time after the north-east monsoon began to blow 
the healthy field began to show signs of leaf blight, but only on the bushes 
near the road through the jungle. On burning a bonfire on the windward side 
of the jungle the smoke covered, during the half hour it was watched, practically 
the whole area that contained bushes attacked by leaf disease. 

That such a protective jungle belt is a certain safeguard is not claimed, 
but that it must prevent a large amount of infection is certain. To insects 
the barrier of jungle would be equally deterrent, and unless the insects acquired 
a liking for jungle foliage the interposition of a sufficiently thick belt would 
effectively prevent their reaching rubber or other cultivations on the far side. 


109 Miscellaneous. 


ADVICE ON PLANTING MATTERS. 


A good deal of work which cannot be detailed in a report has been 
done in the direction of advising Government as to letting of land, schemes 
for drainage and roads in planting districts, and other matters in which Govern- 
ment can help the quickly growing rubber industry. Numerous letters of enquiry 
as to prospects of rubber show that capitalists in England are beginning to 
be aware of an agricultural industry which promises considerable profit. The 
planting community have used the department as a bureau of advice both by 
correspondence and by personal interviews: by this means the knowledge gained 
both by the failures and successes of the planter is obtained and recorded, and 
the department is kept in touch with the progress of planting. 


FUMES FROM TIN ORE FURNACES, 


A matter which has been occupying the attention of the Department 
of Mines and myself has been the deleterious effects of the fumes caused by 
roasting of certain tin ores on vegetation and chiefly the injuries caused to 
cultivated plants. The question has also been considered by the Health Officer 
in relation to its bearing on the health of men and animals in the vicinity of 
the furnaces, but that is outside the scope of this report. Some of the ores 
more recently mined contain large quantities of sulphur and arsenic, and these 
being driven off in the form of dense white fumes are injurious to a very 
large number of leaves, Like most poisons in both the animal and vegetable 
kingdom, these fumes affect different plants variably. Among trees found in 
the vicinity of furnaces smelting ores with high sulphur and arsenic percentages, 
the “rain-tree” (Pithecolobium saman) is by far the most markedly affected. 
These trees are entirely defoliated, and though, owing to a change in the direction 
of the wind, new leaves may be able to exist for a short time, they are soon 
destroyed, and in the course of time this continual defoliation kills the tree, 
The roots are unaffected and the tree goes on struggling against the destruction 
of its leaves, The plants which seem least affected by these fumes are the 
palms, and some of these can be seen growing and retaining their leaves, though 
not very vigorous, while the neighgbouring Pithecolobium saman and other 
trees have been killed. In order to gain definite information as to the damage 
done to cultivated, plants and the conditions necessary to kill the leaves, I have 
built a model furnace in the grounds of the Medical Institute where the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture is temporarily housed. Tin ores with a high arsenical 
percentage will be used in this furnace in the first instance to experiment with 
plants of Ficus elastica, ‘* Rambong,” Hevea brasiliensis, *‘ Para,” and other culti- 
vated plants. Directly sufficient accurate data has been obtained, a simple 
system of pipes will be placed between the furnace and the chimney, and experiments 
made as to the cubic space needful to condense the arsenic and sulphur. It may 
not be necessary to extract all the arsenious acid and sulphur from the fumes, 
if a sufficient proportion is taken away to render the vapours emitted non-injurious 
to foliage. 


ERADICATION OF LALANG. 


The question of the most practicable and economical methods of eradicating 
Imperata arundinaceae, “‘lalang grass,” was one of the first things to occupy 
my attention, and in July I began a series of experiments as to the value of spraying 
for destroying this weed. A field near the Laboratory was selected, and part of 
it Civided into seven plots, each 1-800th part of an acre. The grass on six of these 
seven plots, A to F was burnt off; on the seventh, G, it was ‘‘ chunkled ”—i.e., dug 
over about 6 inches deep. C,a plot in the centre, was taken as a “control” and not 
in any way treated, the others were sprayed with varying proportions of copper 


Miscellaneous. 110 


sulphate or arsenious acid. The results of these experiments show that this method 
can be used in eradicating the grass at a very much smaller cost than by digging, 
ploughing or other purely mechanical method. They will be carried on on an 
extended scale. and figures of cost and results published. 


RUBBER. 
The acreage alieuated for the planting of Hevea brasiliensis (Para), and Ficus 
elastica (Rambong), is now about 1C0,000 acres, practically all Para, only a few acres 
being the latter tree. Of this 38,000 is alr ay planted, the figures being :— 


Under one : re 16,000 acres. 

1 year old oes a Se 6,000 4 

2 As ane cae 4,500 __,, 

3 or) 3,000 ” 

4 ie Re fe th 2,500, 

5 . and over eee ee 6,000 ,, 
38,000, 


Most of the Para plantations over five years old are planted at 200 trees or 
more to the acre, some estates having more than 300, but on the more recent clearings, 
the distance apart is greater, and the average is probably about 175 per acre. 
The number of rubber trees of all ages in the Federated Malay States is approxi- 
mately between 6,000,000 and 7,000,000. The cultivation of Para rubber is in its 
childhood, and though much has already been learnt as to methods of planting, 
harvesting, and curing, yet still more remains to be discovered before the industry 
can be considered to be past the experimental stage as regards its methods. The 
department has made arrangements to take over trom the Conservator of Forests 
an excellent plantation of Hevea trees seven years old adjoining the Public Gardens, 
and this will be used to carry on a continuous and exhaustive series of investigations 
and experiments into various questions, physiological and economic, in regard to 
latex and the best methods for its extraction and preparation. 


LABOUR. 

One of the most vital points in connection with the progress of the rubber 
industry is the provision of an adequate supply of labour. Nearly all the land is 
cleared and drained by Malays or Chinese on contract, the regular service of Tamils 
or Javanese day labourers is not used until the land is prepared. Land is thus 
opened and trees planted without the estate having even a tithe of the labour force 
which will be required when these trees are tapped. At the present time there is 
an average of one cooly to every two acres planted, and at least double this number 
will be required when these estates are yielding rubber. The policy of Govern- 
ment helping the introduction of labour into the country from Southern India is 
@ wise one, and has been of great value to the rubber-planting industry, but the need 
for such a policy is as great if not greater now than previously. The rates of pay 
for estates coolies are much higher in Malay than in its rival, Ceylon. This is due 
to various reasons, a chief one being the high wages paid in mines. Taking 
the value of the dollar and rupee at 2s. 4d, and Is. 4d. respectively, the Malay 
pay is on an average 75 per cent. higher than in Ceylon. Coolies on rubber 
sstates are healthy and contented. The lines on nearly allestates are sanitary 
and well built, and the daily tasks are lighter than in Ceylon. The general 
health and physique of the Tamil coolies on rubber estates in the Federated 
Malay States compare favourably with the labour forces on low country estates 
in Ceylon. There seems to be no reason why when this country is better known in 
the recruiting districts in Southern India coolies will not be easily induced to come 
to Malaya in considerable numbers. Any legislation which helps the planter to get 
a sufficient supply of labour and to keep them healthy and contented is a great gain 
to the country. 


111 Miscellaneous. 
THE FUTURE OF THE RUBBER MARKET, 


The last year’s production in the Federated Malay States may be estimated 
at 300,000 lb, The total world’s consumption as found in the official statistics of net 
imports of the seven great rubber-consuming countries,—viz., United States, 
Germany, Great Britain, France, Belgium, Austria-Hungary and_ Italy—-was 
137,530,458 lb., or 61,397 tons. These official figures fall short of the total world’s con- 
sumption probably as much as 15 or 20 per cent. but if we take these approximate 
figures we find that the Federated Malay States in 1905 produced 1-200th part of the 
world’s consumption. Taking the area planted in the Federated Malay States on Ist 
Jan., 1906, at 40,000 acres, this will give us at 100 Ib. per acre in 1912 a yield of 4,000,000 
lbs., or 1,785 tons, that will be if the consumption remains stationary 1-34th of the 
total consumption. But the world’s consumption, by official statistics, is : 


Year. lb. tons. 
1903 Jes a 112,860,478 me ... 90,884 
1904 ee Af 123,817,903 ~ .. 55,275 
1905 ae Be 187,330,458 ~ Ole OT 


an increase of 10 per cent. roughly per year, so that in 1912 we may expect at the 
same rate of increased consumption 70 per cent. more than in 1905—i.e., a demand 
for and perhaps a supply of 232,288,000 lbs, or 103,700 tons, and of that we could only 
supply 1-58th part. Thus as far as statistics show the price of rubber is not likely to 
seriously decrease owing to over-production, and very much larger areas will have 
to be planted before the production is in excess of the demand. 


SUGAR, 


Sugar cultivation is the only agricultural industry, with perhaps the excep- 
tion of tapioca, that is decreasing. This is due to various causes. The price of sugar 
does not give, except ta the most enterprising and modern planter, a sufficient profit. 
The rise of rubber has led a good many sugar planters to transfer portions of their 
land to the rubber planter or to plant rubber themselves. The ease with which the 
planting can be done on sugar estates after the sugar canes are cut, and the saving 
of time in comparison with felling, clearing, draining and planting jungle land, has 
proved attractive to the rubber planter, whose chief desire with the present market 
prices of rubber and high values for rubber trees even recently planted is to find the 
quickest methods of getting plants into the land. 


COCONUTS. 


This important cultivation with an acreage nearly three times as great as 
that of rubber, is dealt with fully in the report of the Inspector of Coconut Planta- 
tions, Mr. L. C. Brown, whose energetic crusade against the enemies of the coconut 
palms have been of great value to the States. By personal instruction and 
encouragement of sanitary cultivation he has raised the standard of cultivation, and 
native coconut planters are now beginning to see for themselves the value of such 
methods as the Inspector of Coconut Plantations preaches. The policy of such an 
appointment with a staff to take care of the health of a staple cultivation is wise and 
far-seeing, and is in fact an insurance against the failure of an important source of 
wealth tothe country. Though the acreage of coconuts is three times that of rubber, 
yet, calculating on the high values placed on land already planted in rubber, the total 
capital value of the latter cultivation in the Federated Malay States is probably a 
little greater than that of the coconut plantations. Last year the capital value of 
coconut plantations was greater than any other industry, but rubber planting has 
increased so rapidly that even though the area of coconuts shows the creditable 
increase of 10 per cent, i.e., 10,000 acres, the younger industry is in regard to total 
value the greater. 


Miscellaneous. 112 


PADI. 


The cultivation of rice in Perak and other rice-growing districts is capable of 
improvement in methods and results, the rice is healthy and the land suited for its 
cultivation. The irrigation works when completed will improve the cultivation to a 
great extent by making it possible to apply water in proper quantities and at the 
most advantageous times for the growth of the plant. There is good reason to 
suppose that without extra labour a much larger crop could be obtained per acre by 
improved methods of selection of seed, sowing, cultivation and harvesting. Future 
reports of my department will, I hope, be able to record progress in this direction. 


OTHER CULTIVATIONS. 


Tapioca, nipah palms and sago have had no serious disease, and cultivation 
of these products has been carried on succesfully and with profit. The two latter 
cultivations can with advantage be increased, as there are large areas of land which 
cannot even by the best drainage-schemes become available for rubber, coconuts or 
other crop that will not grow in swampy land, and are specially suitable for such 
plants as the nipah and sago palms. 


AGRI-HORTICULTURAL SHOWS. 


An agricultural show, the third of the annual Agri-Horticultural Shows of 
the Colony and Federated Malay States, was held in the end of August. A most 
representative collection of agricultural and horticultural products and native manu- 
factures was the result, and great interest was shown in all the exhibits by numerous 
visitors. The rubber classes were exceptionally good, and some samples of rubber, 
as good quality as has ever been produced, were exhibited and judged. The 
Superintendent, Government Plantations, Perak. showed a fine series of fruit and 
vegetables from the Hill Gardens, which demonstrated how well many European 
vegetables will grow at higher elevations if properly cultivated. He also exhibited 
an interesting collection of rubber samples of both Ficus (Rambong) and Hevea (Para) 
from Kuala Kangsar. That such shows are of value as instructors of the methods and 
results of agriculture and horticulture was evident by the care with which many of 
the exhibits were examined, and by the questions asked of exhibitors and others as 
to methods of preparation, culture, ete. 


EXPERIMENTAL PLANTATIONS, BATU TIGA. 


The report of the Superintendent, Experimental Plantations, Batu Tiga, is 
annexed, and gives an account of the various plants cultivated there. The Para trees, 
now three year's old, have been rather handicapped by the attacks of Termes gestroi 
and a fungus—a species of Fomes—on their roots. The Camphor plot is interesting 
and shows that this plant can be grown successfully at low elevations. It is hoped 
that when the European planter has time to turn his attention away for a short 
time from rubber, that camphor may become a useful secondary cultivation. The 
price of camphor is high, and plants three or four years old should yield a very con- 
siderable profit. 


GOVERNMENT PLANTATIONS, PERAK. 


The report of the Superintendent, Government Plantations, Perak, is also 
annexed. This is a record of excellent work, both in regard to horticulture and flori- 
culture at the Hill Garden where temperate climate plants are reared, and the 
control of the gardens at Taiping and Kuala Kangsar, where tropical plants are 
cultivated. The Taiping garden has very greatly improved under the care of Mr. 
Campbell, and is now one of the most picturesque ornamental gardens in the East. 


J. B. CARRUTHERS, 
Director of Agriculture and Government Botanist, F.MLS. 


114 


Correspondence. 


DATURA STRAMGNIUM IN ASSAM. 


DkaR Sir,—I note your remarks ve ‘‘Stramonium” in the ‘ Tropical Agri- 
eulturist ” of August, 1995 (page 358). Datura grows in Assam wild and in large 
quantities, but its cultivation is forbidden by law; it is an excisable article. This was 
forbidden, I understand, on account of the abuses of the plant by the natives. 
Can you tell me what the values of the seed and leaves are ? 


Yours faithfully, 


R. C. WHITE. 
Silghat, Assam, June 2nd, 1906. 


[They contain a virulent poison and are one of the favourite poisons with 
Jastern natives. The drug is said to be of use in asthma, rheumatism, d&c.—ED. | 


IPECACUANHA. 


Sir,—Alan Walters in his ‘“‘ Palms and Pearls of Ceylon” says :—Of oranges 
and lemons there is no lack, and equally common is the Ipecacuanha (I. Cephaelis 
from Greek Cephaele, a head, because its leaves are disposed in heads), a native of 
Brazil, with a bright-orange flower. I have in vain tried to find what this is, 
which according to Mr. Walters is so common. 

Is it then the Binkohomba (sans) Kirata or Bhfnimba used asa febrifuge ? 
It is said to contain all the properties of Ipecacuanha. 


Tam informed that large quantities of it are gathered in the Moragala and 
other districts for exportation. 
GEO. E. WEERAKOON, 
Talangama, 28th June, 1906. 


[Perhaps our readers can throw some light on this.—ED. | 


THE ROTATION OF CROPS. 


DeEAR Sir,—The question of a proper rotation of crops in market gardening 
was lately discussed at a meeting of one of the branches of the Society. As a 
further contribution to this important subject, I annex a cutting from The 
Garden, (May 19th, 1906) which may prove useful to local market gardeners. 


Yours truly, 
C. DRIEBERG. 


‘“This is a most important matter for consideration, and a proper system of 
rotation in cropping should be strictly carried out. Never allow the same kind 
of vegetable to occupy the same piece of ground two years in succession, except 
in such cases as asparagus, rhubarb, seakale, &c., which occupy the ground tor 
several seasons. Although the same plot may produce for several years in succes- 
sion good crops of the same kind, such as onions for instance, by being well and 
judiciously manured, yet it is not by any meansa good practice. In the end the 
land would become so exhausted that no system of manuring would again fit 
it fora similar crop untila rigid system of rotation had been practised. Crops, 
such as cabbages and potatoes, which are of an exhaustive nature, should be 
relegated to different soil each year. Tap-rooted plants should be succeeded by 
those having fibrous roots; thus beet, carrots, and parsnips may be followed by 


the cabbage tribe, which may also succeed beans and peas, 
15 


114 


A systematic arrangement of rotation may be easily carried out by making 
a plan of the garden, dividing it into plots us follows :— 

(1.) Potatoes, Onions, Leeks and Celery. 

(2.) Beans, Peas, and other quick-growing crops, followed by Cabbage 
and Turnips. 

(3.) Beet, Carrots, and Parsnips, or other tap-rooted plants. 

(4.) Asparagus, Seakale, Rhubarb, &c. 

(5.) Melon frames, Cucumber frames, and herb beds. 

This shows how the garden is cropped the first year. In the following year 


No. lis cropped as No.2; No.2 as No.3; No.3 as No.1; and so on, year by year, 
each crop being located in a different plot annually. 


BEEKEEPING IN CEYLON. 


Str,—Since I read my paper on Beekeeping before the Board of Agriculture, 
much interest has been aroused in the subject both up-country and in and about 
Colombo, and I can count more than a dozen new recruits to the ranks of local 
apiarists. The time is, I think, therefore ripe for the Society to take some definite 
action with a view to encouraging this very important branch—for it is really a 
branch--of Agriculture, and helping those who have so long helped themselves. 


In Colombo we have one gentleman who has expended quite a large sum on 
his own account, and evenhe, witha fairly extensive experience, feels that if any 
appreciable progress is to be looked for in the near future, we must have expert 
advice and assistance. 


As to the advantages of establishing this industry in Ceylon there should 
be no two opinions, but unfortunately this is not the case, and the majority 
of members of the Board have not yet come to understand the advantage of 
bees either to the agriculturist or of beekeeping to the apiarist. Not long ago the 
Board appointed a Bee Committee to report on the possibilities of developing apicul- 
ture in Ceylon. This Committee recommended the introduction of foreign strains of 
bees (as it was not thought worth while making further efforts to improve 
our common indigenous honey bee Apis indica), and also that the services of 
an expert should be engaged for a time to start beekeeping on modern lines. 

I do not exactly know the fate of this report, which I believe was 
referred to the Finance Committee, but it is to be presumed that the recom- 
mendations were not approved of, owing possibly to the estimated cost of 
carrying them out being considered too high. In the meantime, one amateur 
beekeeper in Colombo, and another up-country, have imported bees. The former 
spared himself no expense, and now has quite a small apiary of foreign bees, 
chiefly Italians. He is so far very pleased with the results of his enterprise, and 
co-operating as I have done with him, 1 share his preference for the trained 
bees of the West, and his hopes of establishing them here as successfully as has 
been done in the West Indies. What is now wanted is the practical advice 
and assistance of a working apiarist (not a lecture or interview with a passing 
authority on the subject)—a man who can give a few months of his time not 
only to the study of our indigenous bees, but to instructing amateurs in the handling 


of bees and in the 101 details, small but essential, with which a successful beeleeees 
should be familiar. 


In the course of correspondence it was found that such a man was available 
at what may be considered as the minimum cost, owing to the circumstance that he 
himself is anxious to study the bees of the East. The opportunity is one not to be 


115 


missed as a means of developing an industry which, I think, deserves as much recogni- 
tion and financial support as the attempt to establish silkworm culture. Indeed, 
looking at the suitability of beekeeping as a home industry for the natives, and the 
possibilities of making it a remunerative employment, I am inclined to place the 
former before the latter. 
Yours truly, 
C. DRIEBERG, 
Superintendent of School Gardens. 
18th June, 1906. 


The Ceylon Board of Agriculture. 


The Twentieth Meeting of the Board of Agriculture was held in the Council 
Chamber on Monday, June 11th, at 12 noon. 

His Excellency the Governor presided. 

There were present the Hon’ble Messrs. H. L. Crawford, C. T. D. Vigors, P. 
Arunachalam, 8. C. Obeyesekere and Francis Beven, Doctors H. M. Fernando and 
J. C. Willis, Messrs. Lushington, Gibbon, Sturgess, Herbert Wright, C. Drieberg, 
Strickland and W. Dunuwille, the Maha Mudaliyar and the Secretary. 

As Visitors :—Messrs. J. Whitehead, E.S. W. Senathi Rajah, Walter de Soysa, 
L. Vaid, W. H. de Silva, Doctors Banaarjee, Sinnetamby, Solomon Fernando, Hal- 
lock, Mylvaganam. 

BUSINESS DONE. 

1. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. 

The Progress Report No. XIX was circulated. 


w 


3. A list of new members was read, and they were declared duly elected 

4. The Hon'ble Mr. F. Beven vroposed . ‘* That this Board desires to place ou 
record its deep sense of the loss which the Ceylon Agricultural Society has sustained 
by the untimely death of one of its most distinguished members, the Hon’ble Mr. 
Herbert Wace, C.M.G., who had always willingly placed at its service his varied and 
valuable experience and shown his generous sympathy with all classes of agricul- 
turists. That a copy of this resolution be sent to Mrs. Wace as an expression of the 
heartfelt sympathy of the Board with the family in their sore bereavement.” Mr. 
W.D. Gibbon seconded the motion. His Excellency spoke to the motion, which 
was carried unanimously,—all standing. 

5. Mr. E.S. W. Senathi Rajah read a paper entitled ‘‘ Agricultural Banks 
for Ceylon.” His Excellency the Governor. Mr. Dunuwille, the Hon’ble Mr. P. 
Arunachalam and Dr. Willis spoke in the discussion which followed. 

6. Mr. Drieberg moved to withdraw the motion standing in his name “that 
the Society invite Mr. John Sutton, Bee-Expert and Adviser to the Department of 
Agriculture, West Australia, to visit Ceylon and give demonstrations in bee-keeping 
—the cost of the visit to be met by the Ceylon Agricultural Society—a vote of 
Rs. 600 to be taken.” This was allowed. 

7. Mr.Sturgess, Government Veterinary Surgeon, moved that a further vote 
of Rs. 1,500 be taken by the Society for the continuance of the work of castration of 
cattle. The Maha Mudaliyar seconded the motion, which was carried unanimously. 

8. His Excellency referred to the retirement of Mr. Denham from the post 
of Secretary. 

The meeting adjourned at 1-45 p.m. 


116 
Agricultural Society Progress Report. XX. 


There are now 1,108 members of the Ceylon Agricultural Society, and 47 
Branch Societies. Steps are being taken to form new Societies in Udunuwara 
and Harispattu of the Central Province. 

The following are the dates fixed for Agri-Horticultural Shows:— 


Kurunegala * Pic August 28, 24,and 25. 
Avisawella Be ie September 7 and 8, 
Kegalle_... is September 21 and 22. 
Wellaboda Pattu ( Galle) ies November 16 and 17. 
Three Korales and Lower Bulat- 

gama (Market Show) in End of August (probably). 
Batticaloa... - Early in 1907. 


The Hon. Mr. C. T. D. Wcors ee been nominated to act as Chairman 
of the Live Stock Committee of the Board of Agriculture in succession to the 
late Hon. Mr. H. Wace. o.M.G..; and Mr. L. W. Booth as Member of the Finance 
Committee in succession to Mr. H. T. S. Ward. 

Mr. A. N, Galbraith, c.c.8., was appointed to succeed Mr. E. B. Denham, c.c.s., 
as Secretary of the Society, with effect from the 25th June. 


Mr. Denham has been nominated a Member of the Board, and of the 
Live Stock and Agricultural Education and Publications Committees. 


A meeting of the Welimada Branch Society was held on the 9th June. 
There are now 42 members on the roll of this Society. It was decided at the 
meeting to send aa exhibit of beans to the Colombo Agri-Horticultural Show. 
Papers were read by Mr. D. A. M. Fernando on ‘ Niyanda Fibre,” and by 
Mr. N. P. R. Coorey on “ Cotton.” 

Rotation of Crops on Chena Lands.—The Mullaitiivw Branch proposes to 
experiment in the cultivation of chena lands on scientific principles. It is proposed 
that every applicant for a chena permit for an acre of land be allowed an additional 
half acre, on the understanding that the latter is cultivated entirely with cotton. 
A further condition attached to all permits issued this year by the Assistant 
Government Agent is that the permit-holder shaJl plant an area of at least 30 
feet each way with manioca. Application has also been made by this Society 
for suggestions as to rotations of crops which might be tried on chena lands. 

The Kegalle Branch has applied for sixteen of the model Cawnpore ploughs 
to be imported from India, in addition to the thirty-seven already ordered. 


The Kandy Branch has been asked to supply two bushels of Hatial seed 
paddy to the Galle district Agricultural Association, for the Wellaboda Pattu 
Mudaliyar, who is to experiment with this variety in that pattu. 


A meeting of the Nuwara Eliya Agricultural Society was held on the 
l1ith June, when an interesting paper on ‘‘ Market Gardening in Nuwara Eliya 
and some of its Difficulties” was contributed by Mr. C. W. Bartholomeusz. A 
report received from the Assistant Superintendent of School Gardens regarding 
a caterpillar pest affecting paddy at Padiyapelella, near Maturata, was read, and 
it was resolved to adopt the measures suggested by the Government Entomo- 
logist as ameans of combating the pest. Mr. H. D. Martin has promised to give 
demonstrations in castration and in ploughing by improved methods at Nildanda- 
hena or Harasbedda. 


At a Committee Meeting of the Batticaloa Branch Society it was decided~ 
to appoint one of the trained men for the castration of cattle, It was also 
resolved to call a general meeting for the 80th June to make preliminary 
arrangements for an Agri-Horticultural Show to be held early next year. 


117 


An Agri-Horticultural Show held under the auspices of the Colombo 
Agri-Horticultural Society in the Victoria Park was opened by His Excellency 
the Governor on the 22nd June. The reports of the scientific advisers of the 
Ceylon Agricultural Society, who acted as judges in the various classes of 
exhibits, are tabled at to-day’s meeting. The following side-shows attracted 
much attention :— 


Exhibit of Forest Produce timber. 
Demonstrations in Bee-handling. 
5 in Lace-making. 
" in Ginning of Cotton by Machinery. 
~ in Manure: Photos showing growth of trees manur- 
ed and unmanured, &ec. 
The thanks of the Society are due to the Conservator of Forests for 
having at their request arranged sc complete an exhibit of forest timbers at 
short notice. 


A special feature of the Show was the exhibits of paddy, dry grains, 
and other native products sent in by Local Societies throughout the Island to 
compete for the special prize of Rs. 100 or Gold Medal offered by the Ceylon 
Agricultural Society. Many of the exhibits attained a very high standard of 
excellence—the collection of paddies sent in by Mr. P. B, Nugawela, Ratemahat- 
maya of Harispattu, on behalf of the Kandy Branch, being in the opinion of one 
of the judges the finest he had ever seen. So good were the exhibits that the 
judges recommended that two Gold Medals be awarded to the Katunayka and the 
Matale collections ; and two Silver Medals to those from Kandy and Jaffna; while 
the following were Highly Commended :— 


Exhibit by Vidane Arachchi of Werakeve, Salpiti Korale. 
Do. Mr. Harry Jayawardene, Mudaliyar of Pasdun Korale East, 
Kalutara District. 


Do. Vidane Arachchi of Kamburugamuwa, in the Weligam Korale. 


Do. Mr. P. B. Alawatugoda, Ratemahatmaya of Kotmale, repre- 
senting the Nuwara Eliya Branch. 


Exhibit of Bowstring Hemp by Mr. H. J. Perera, junior, of Uda Pussellawa. 

Other competitors were :—-Kegalla (through Mapitigama Ratemahatmeya), 

Vavuniya, Telijjawila, Ratnapura, Trincomalee, Gampola, Chilaw, Kurunegala 

(through Mr. W. D. A. Gunaratne, Muhandiram), Kandaboda Pattu (Matara), 
Welimada, Nawalapitiya, Kudagama. 


Several of the exhibits included more or less complete collections of native 
agricultural implements. A similar collection of improved Indian implements was 
received from the Agricultural Munshi of Vizianagram too late for the Colombo 
Show, but will be exhibited at the Kurunegala Show in August. 


A selection from the best of these exhibits has now been handed over to Sir 
Stanley Bois, Chairman of the Ceylon Committee at the World’s Fair, St. Louis, to 
be despatched to the Imperial Institute to supplement the collection of Ceylon 
produce on exhibition there. 


Experimental Garden.—The garden attached to the Ruwanwella school is 
now being prepared, anda supply of seeds, forwarded by the Superintendent of 
School Gardens, was handed to the teacher at the last meeting of the Three 
Korles and Lower Bulatgama Local Society. 


A quantity of Sea Island cotton seed is being imported by the Director, 
Royal Botanic Gardens, to plant 50 acres in September at Maha-iluppalama. 


118 

Seed Paddy.—The Society applied to the Indian authorities fora supply 
of seed paddy of the variety known in India as the Narikkuruvai. A communi- 
cation has just been received to the effect that this seed paddy is not available at 
present, but that it will be possible for the Tanjore District Agricultural Association 
to arrange to send the seeds next year, if required. Applications will be received 
from those intending to experiment—to ascertain the probable requirements before 
ordering a supply for next year. This paddy is reported to be really a sixty-days 
variety, while the variety known as ‘sixty days” really takes between 80 and 
90 days. 

Kapok Cotton.—Messrs. J, Whitehead & Co,.. Maradana, are buying tree 
(kapok) cotton in any quantities up to 100 tons at ruling prices. Any other kinds of 
cotton will also be bought by them in any quantity. 

Castration of Cattle.—Since the last report the following demonstrations 
have been given in castration of cattle :— 

Southern Province—Bentota, Bogahagoda, Induruwa, Deniyaya; North- 
Western Province—Pellandeniya, Malawapitiya; Kastern Province—Trincomalee, 
Muttur, Toppur, Kilivetti, Tamapalakamam; Province of Sabaragamuwa— 
Ratnapura. 

Demonstrations will be heid in the Central Province, Province of Sabara- 
gamuwa, Province of Uva. and Southern Province. 

Mr. Chas. H. Bagot, of St. Leonard’s, Halgran-oya, writes under date 27th 
June, to thank the Society on behalf of himself and others for having arranged the 
demonstration held at Halgran-oya by Mr. E.T. Hoole, Assistant Veterinary 
Surgeon. Some 20 pigs and cattle were successfully castrated on this occasion. 

Publications—The Society has obtained two copies of ‘‘ The Organization of 
Agriculture” by Pratt. Copies can be secured from Messrs. Cave & Co. A copy 
is tabled for reference. 

The Kditors of the ‘ Sihala Samaya” and ‘‘ Dinakaraprakasa” have kindly 
sent in 100 copies of two editions, and 50 copies of two editions, respectively, of their 
papers containing translations of the proceedings uf the last meeting of the Board. 
Copies have been distributed among the Local Branches. 

A. N. GALBRAITH, 


2nd July, 1906. Secretary, Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


EMS Diet 


TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST 


AND 


MAGAZINE OF THE 


CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 


Vou. XXVII. COLOMBO, AUGUST 15rx, 1906. No. 2. 


Some Possibilities of Improvement in Village Agriculture. IV. 


Weeding is another direction in which native agriculture appears capable 
of improvement. The native usually knows well enough that weeding gives a 
better crop, but he does not always consider the result worth the labour. If some 
simpler and easier method of weeding could be introduced, say by the use of a 
tool like the American roller-hoe, or like the ‘‘ cultivator,” it might be possible 
to encourage weeding, and thus get an increased crop inmany cultivations. It is 
idle to tell the native to weed, or to teach him theoretically that weeding is good; 
he must be shown that it pays, without costing more money or labour than he 
ean afford, or than he is willing to give. 

A conspicuous feature in native agriculture throughout Southern Asia, 
which often offends the eye of those who have a superficial acquaintance with 
European agriculture, is the wild jungle-like mixture of fruit trees, bamboos, 
vegetables, etc., which forms the average native compound. It is highly probable 
that this arrangement gives many of the advantages which have elsewhere to be 
attained by rotation of crops, and the villager is thus able to grow his familiar 
foods, etc., on the same ground for an indefinite number of years. Mixture of 
crops, as well as rotation, requires very careful study in detail before any hasty 
attempt is made to change immemorial custom. 


The treatment of the individual trees, or of the crop plants, on the other 
hand, is probably capable of a good deal of improvement without such great 
difficulty. If the villager knew how to graft and bud, he might have his fruit 
trees improved by introducing new varieties. His methods of sowing broadcast 
are probably often capable of being improved to the saving of seed. He might 
very well learn the advantages of regular pruning of fruit trees on definite 
principles, of selection of good parents for seed, of better methods of propagation, 
of sound systems of manuring and other such matters. But the motto must be 
“‘festina lente,” or perhaps still better ‘ca’ canny,” and every step proposed 
must first be carefully tested. 


The next point in native agriculture to be considered is improvement in 
cleanliness of cultivation and freedom from disease. The mixed cultivation above 
mentioned is, of course, a considerable safeguard against disease spreading rapidly 
over a large area, or getting out of hand, as it has so frequently done in cases of 
“pure” cultivations of single products. The villager, however, has a lot to learn 


120 


as to the need for cleanliness as a preventive against disease. Kor instance, in 
the Malay States a few years ago it looked as if he were about to lose his favourite 
cultivation, that of coconuts, through the attacks of the beetle pest. It is doubt- 
ful if any amount of teaching would have availed to save this cultivation, but a 
little compulsion has worked wonders, and has done much for the education of 
the villager in the need for cleanliness in cultivation. It therefore seems highly 
probable that a judicious extension of this system to other crops than coconuts, 
when the opportunity is afforded by some outbreak of disease. might be attended 
with good results, and afford the opportunity of improving methods as well. 


The fifth point mentioned above for consideration was the possibility of 
improving native methods of preparing produce for market. As a rule, native 
produce is of inferior grade to that prepared by European planters. This is partly, 
of course, the result of bad cultivation, especially of want of proper feeding of 
the plants, but it is also due to ignorance, indolence, or carelessness in treating 
the product after it is harvested. The question of improvement is thus on all fours 
with that of improvement of methods of cultivation dealt with above. The fact 
that even with the object lessons of European estates before them, and with the 
practical lesson of lower market prices obtained, natives do not improve their 
methods, shows how difficult it is to do much in this direction. 


There is also the possibility of improving native stock, whether of cattle, 
horses, goats, sheep, poultry, or pigs. But here again we must go slowly, and 
remember that the villager is very limited in capacity for supplying food, &c. Ifa 
sudden increase were made, for example, in the size and strength of the draught- 
cattle, the villager would be unable to feed the new beasts properly, and they in 
turn would be too large or strong for the agricultural implements in use. Improve- 
ment on the other hand can at once be put in hand in regard to methods of castration 
and many other points. 


121 
GUMS, RESINS, SAPS AND EXUDATIONS. 


Area under Rubber in Ceylon. 


A very good answer to those who are claiming that Malaya is the premier 
rubber-planting country is supplied by the statistics just to hand for the new 
Edition of Ferguson’s ‘* Ceylon Handbook and Directory,” which show that the 
Ceylon area in rubber, or to be planted during this present south-west monsoon 
(and consequently probably nearly all planted by now), is no less than 104,000 
acres, besides which there are probably 15,000 or 16,000 in native hands, amounting 
in all to 120,000 acres. Mr. Carruthers’ report on the Federated Malay States 
for 1905 shows that at the end of that year they had only 38,000 acres planted 
in rubber with about 100,000 acres alienated for this product, and it is hwrdly likely 
that they can have planted the difference since. Even allowing that the Ceylon 
estimate is too much by 25,000 acres and the Malayan too small by the same amount, 
and allowing another 25,000 acres for the rubber in the Straits Settlements and 
Johore, will not make the figures meet. 


It must be pointed out also, that if planting is to go on at this rate, 
it will not be long before the time of overproduction and low prices arrives. 
Already Ceylon alone contains perhaps enough for nearly one-quarter of the 
world’s consumption. 


J. C. WILLIS. 


The Truth about Rubber Culture. 


By, Dr. PEHR OLSSON-SEFFER. 


USES OF RUBBER. 

There are at present about one hundred rubber plantations in Mexico 
alone representing over $50,000,000, most of it American capital. It has been feared 
that when all these plantations are in full bearing there will be an excess of rubber 
in the market. If weestimate that these plantations have 20,000,000 trees, they 
would produce at ten years of age according to usual expectations twenty million 
pounds of crude rubber. Today the manufacturers of the United States use no less 
than 60,000,000 pounds annually. The Mexican plantations thus would supply only 
one third of the needs of this country, provided ten years old trees yield one pound 
of rubber, which they do not. [t is much safer to estimate a 50 per cent lower yield. 


Another objection raised against the safe future of rubber cultivation is 
the possibility of the discovery of a substitute for rubber, manufactured synthet- 
ically. It can be assumed that some chemist will succeed in developing some kind 
of substitute, or in discovering a process of synthetically producing rubber. But 
would this ruin the industry of rubber culture? Has diamond mining suffered from 
the discovery of making artificial diamonds? Has sugar cultivation become 
unnecessary because substitutes for sugar can be produced in the chemical laboratory 
or in the factory ? Is wheat growing a hazardous enterprise because some scientists 
may discover a process for artificial production of the foodstuffs obtained from 
grains of wheat? Let us suppose that somebody succeeded in producing rubber 
from turpentine or from some other organic raw material. It is not likely that 
turpentine or any other similar raw material could be produced much cheaper 
than crude rubber, which is a natural product of tropical plants cultivated with 
the cheap labour of tropical countries, and extracted and prepared with modern 
machinery under super vision of modern science. 


Gums, Resins, 122 


Any new rubber substitute should be hatled with delight by the rubber 
planter. As the substitutes can only be used as adulterants, as ingredients for 
mixing with the pure rubber goods, the more rubber articles will be used, and the 
greater will be the demand for pure rubber. 

CULTIVATION POSSIBLE. 

Is rubber culture a possibility? Can the rubber producing plants be 
cultivated ? This has been answered in the negative by a number of persons who 
sit in their chamber and speculate, who write ‘*expert” reports without knowing 
anything about the subject. Is there a plant which man has not been able to 
cultivate? Is there a cultivated plant which man has not been able to improve ? 

It has cost immense amounts of capital to ascertain the right methods of 
cultivation, but man has succeeded in making any plant he wauted, to grow 
for his benefit. He has also succeeded with the rubber plants. 


We havea great number of plants that produce rubber, but there are only 
half a dozen which can be cultivated profitably for commercial purposes. Of these 
there are only two that really need to be considered, the Para rubber (Hevea) and 
the Central American rubber (Castilloa). The former is now cultivated to some 
extent in Ceylon and India, and has in places proved a success. In Mexico it is not 
likely that the Para tree will be extensively cultivated. In Brazil, its native 
country, very little cultivation has, as yet, been commenced, all the Para rubber 
coming from wild trees. Rubber planting is now done on a large scale in Southern 
Mexico, and this is at present the principal rubber culture country inthe world. 
The cultivation is here confined exclusively to the native tree Castilloa. 


INEXPERIENCE AND FRAUD. 


In view of the fact that so much ignorance prevails and so little real 
knowledge exists in regard to methods of cultivation it is astonishing that the 
industry has reached its present state. It is in such ignorance we have to look for 
the greatest danger to the rubber planting business, because it has given opportu- 
nity forso much fraud. Numerous fake companies have been promoted in the United 
States for the purpose of developing rubber plantations that do not exist, and 
other companies have been greatly over-capitalised. The public has naturally 
become suspicious toward all rubber planting companies and many legitimate 
concerns have. suffered. 


It is, however, wrong to presume that, because fraud has been practised 
in many cases, every rubber plantation is more or less of a swindle. Banks have 
failed because of dishonesty; in every kind of business mismanagement, stealing 
and other similar proceedings have resulted in ruin and scandal. Stillnobody would 
maintain that every bank wasa very uncertain and risky enterprise. In every 
case we have to inquire into the integrity of the men standing behind the 
concern in question. 


CAUSE OF FAILURES. 


If we investigate the causes that have produced some of the most disastrous 
and sensational failures of rubber plantations we shall find that in every case such a 
company was not promoted asa “bona fide” and legitimate enterprise for the pur- 
pose of building up a successful plantation, but that the whole scheme was intended 
to benefit the promoters. In some cases the home office expenses have exhausted the 
entire capital, and little or pothing has been left for the development of the plan- 
tation. Some of these plantations have been started on soil which is in every way 
unsuitable for the cultivation of rubber. On others they have had no idea about 
the correct way of planting the rubber tree, and the plantations do not show a 
result corresponding to the outlay. Sometimes the development work has been 


j 


128 Saps and Fxudations. 


greatly overpaid to the benefit of one or another interested party. Very often the 
management has lacked all experience of tropical agriculture. Even at present it 
would, in many cases, be well if the companies realized that there is a little differ- 
ence between growing cabbages or potatoes and rubber trees. Most of the plantation 
managers are good, all-round business men, and would no doubt succeed in almost 
any venture in their home country. But in the tropics, where climatic and _ soil 
conditions are entirely different from those in the United States, where labour has 
to be handled in a way peculiar to the country, where another language than English 
is necessary in order to communicate with the people, aman with however wide 
agricultural or business experience, fresh from home, is sure to be expensive to his 
employers. The first requirement in establishing a tropical plantation is the right 
kind of soil and climate for the plant to be cultivated. Next comes an honest and 
competent manager. If the home end of the proposition is in good hands, there is 
not the slightest doubt but that rubber planting is a very profitable business. 


RUBBER CULTURE DEMONSTRATED A SUCCESS. 


It is by no means a mere assumption that the cultivation of rubber may prove 
asuccess. It has been fully demonstrated that the Castilloa tree can be grown profit- 
ably on a commercial scale, that it produces under cultivation a sufficient quan- 
tity of rubber to more than amply repay expenses, and that plantation 
rubber can be produced cheaper and better than the product from wild trees. 
Although none of the Mexican plantations are, as yet, in full bearing, we could 
enumerate several plantations where tapping is now regularly carried on, and where 
the returns show that rubber planting is no more an experiment than the growing of 
oranges. In each case we have to presuppose the existence of right conditions. 


THE YIELD EXAGGERATED. 


Lack of experience has in most cases led to over-sanguine expectations in 
regard tothe yield of rubber froma plantation. Usually afew picked trees are 
tapped for the benefit of the inspecting shareholder and from the results a total 
yield is estimated by means of a simple arithmetical calculation. Such a proceeding 
is, however, of no value in obtaining an average yield of an agricultural crop. If 
one acre of corn yields 50 bushels, it need not necessarily follow that 10,000 acres 
would produce 500,000 bushels. If one rubber tree of a certain age gives one pound 
of crude rubber it is not proved that a million trees would produce so many pounds. 
Any one conversant with agriculture knows that estimates made on such a basis are 
without value. 


There are companies who state in their literature that three to five pounds 
of rubber is obtained from trees ten years old. Whether such statements are due to 
ignorance or deliberate misrepresentation they do not inany way promote the 
interest of the rubber industry. The public cannot but remain doubtful before such 
exaggeration of facts. To imagine that any kind of legitimate enterprise in agri- 
culture would give from 500 to 700 per cent. annually on millions of dollars invested 
is simply ridiculous. 


The experience of the results of tapping is yet limited, but from actual tests 
we know the following averages are certain:—A plantation of seven year old trees 
will give two ounces to the tree, eight year old trees four ounces, nine year old 
trees six ounces, ten year old trees seven ounces, eleven year old trees 
eight ounces, and twelve year old trees ten ounces. It is possible thata larger 
return will be obtained, but so far we have no reliable evidence to show that such 
would be the case. 


The average yield of ten ounces per tree from a twelve year old plantation 
means at least 30 per cent interest on the investment, and this ought to be sufficient 
for any shareholder. 


Gums, Resins, 124 


SCIENTIFIC METHODS NEEDED. 


During investigations of the rubber industry in Ceylon and in Mexico 
the writer was impressed by the difference of interest manifested by the rubber 
planters in these countries. 


In Ceylon, although rubber planting is only a very subordinate industry, the 
planters frequently turn to the experiment gardens for scientific advice in regard 
to methods of cultivation. In Mexico, where such an immense amount of capital is 
invested in rubber plantations, the vlanters go on experimenting, each on his own 
account and according to his own notions, not with a small number of trees, but 
with the whole plantation representing hundreds of thousands in value. The share- 
holders have in many instances had to pay dearly for the experience of their 
manager. It would have been more economical and more according to modern 
American methods to employ scientific assistance for discovering the right methods 
and for investigating the various problems that confront the practical planter. 
There are a few planters who devote their spare moments to the solution of one or 
more of the numerous problems connected with rubber culture. But there is no 
co-operation and progress is slow. What the rabber planters need is a number of 
trained persons who can devote all their time to this purpose, who can visit all the 
plantations in the country, make a thorough study of the different problems, and 
make the results known to the general benefit of all the planters. 


EXPERIMENT STATIONS IN OTHER COUNTRIES. 


Where would, for instance, the sugar industry of the Hawaiian Islands stand 
at the present day had not the planters of that country co-operated and established 
asugar experiment station. It is an acknowledged fact that the output of sugar 
from the Hawaiian Islands has increased many times as a result of the investigations 
in the field and laboratories by the scientific staff of the Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ 
Association. 


Similar instances can be given from different countries, and especially from 
the United States, where growers of fruit, corn, wheat, cotton, sugar and other 
agricultural products have associated and employed scientists to assist them in per- 
fecting methods of culture, in fighting diseases, in improving varieties, in studying 
the questions of harvesting, preparing and marketing the crops. There can be no 
doubt of the necessity of similar organization for the American rubber planters of 
Mexico. 

PRACTICAL BENEFIT OF STATIONS. 

It is satisfying for those interested in rubber culture to know that the 
planters have generally recognized the importance of the immediate establishment 
of a rubber experiment station and laboratory in Southern Mexico. Only afew 
months ago action was taken in approaching all the companies with a proposal 
for co-operation to that end, and it has met with a ready response. There is, besides 
the wish for improvements in culture of the rubber tree, also a desire on the part of 
all the legitimate rubber concerns to organize and thus to prevent fraudulent enter- 
prises from appearing. The public will soon recognize the standing of such com- 
panies which have been refused membership in the Planters’ Association, and which 
are not visited by the scientists employed by this society. 

The methods of gathering and handling the yield are still practically on the | 
same level, where they have been since the Indian ‘“‘ulero” began to roam through 
the forests in quest of rubber from the wild trees. 

Experiments conducted by the writer during a three months’ stay in Southern 
Mexico last summer have made it evident that by improvements in the methods of. 
preparing crude rubber large sums can be saved. But it also became clear that 
whatever experiments are commenced they must be done on the spot where fresh 


125 Saps and FHxudations. 


° 
material is always at hand. A product such as the milk of the rubber tree, which 
changes its character ina very short time, in less than an hour, cannot be trans- 
ported, say, to Mexico City or the United States for laboratory experiments. 

Experiments for the purpose of improving the quality of the rubber tree 
can naturally be conducted only on the place where the trees grow. And the possi- 
bilities of improvement of Castilloa by modern methods of plant-breeding are very 
promising. The eminent plant experimenter, Luther Burbank, in a recent letter to 
the writer says in regard to this matter: ‘ido not know of any other plant in the 
world which promises better results.” 

SOME PROBLEMS THAT NEED INVESTIGATING. 

Matters that are now puzzling the rubber pianters would be taken up and 
studied by the scientific experts, and the knowledge acquired would be of inestim- 
able benefit to the planters. Such problems as the quality of soil best adapted to 
rubber culture, methods of planting, amount of shade necessary, care of the plants 
while growing, best mode of tapping, preservation of the trees after the tapping 
operation, transportation of latex, coagulation methods, aud a variety of other ques- 
tions which are of the greatest practical importance would be taken up. 


These problems require immediate attention because the time is very near 
when wholesale tapping is to be commenced, and it means a considerable loss to 
the planters if these questions are not solved before that time. 


To handle the immense amount of latex which is produced, say from 
several million trees on a single plantation, itis necessary to introduce machinery, 
and for extracting and preparing the rubber on a large scale many different 
devices have to be worked out. 


{t is evident that the better quality of rubber a plantation can place on the 
market the higher price will be obtained. The more rubber extracted from the 
milk the greater the profit. At present several per cent. of rubber is lost in the 
coagulation process, and where simply drying of the milk is employed, the product 
is of inferior quality and commands only a low price. 


GOVERNMENT AID TO RUBBER PLANTERS. 


In some of the Central American countries the government has stepped 
in and is in every way encouraging rubber planting, even by paying a bonus to 
the planters. The Mexican government has so far not done anything toward 
assisting the rubber planters of their country. The publications on rubber culture 
published by that government are unreliable and more of the character of the 
prospectuses issued by private companies, zealously avoiding anything that might 
be interpreted as unfavourable, but not hesitating to paint the future in the most 
vivid colours. 


A very creditable position in this matter has been taken by the United 
States Government. Although the rubber planting is done outside of U. S. 
territory, the government has been investigating this industry in the interests of 
the American investor. A few years ago a scientist of the Department of Agri- 
culture was commissioned to study the matter and a report was issued. Recently 
the late U. S. Consul General in Mexico City, the Hon. James R. Parsons, Jr., 
who was devoting much time to this question, personally visited a number of 
plantations in districts, and subsequently furnished the Washington Government 
with exhaustive reports, only a few of which have so far been published. 

This official was alsoup to the time of his lamented death endeavoring 
to show the government the necessity of sending an expert to Mexico to visit every 
rubber plantation in the country and to supply the government with detailed 
reports upon these plantations. The many disclosures of recent date of mis manage- 


Gums, Resins, 126 


ment of rubber plantations has caused the government to issue fraud orders 
prohibiting fraudulent concerns from using the U. S. mail, and in order to be 
prepared the government wished to have expert opinion upon each plantation so 
that no injustice should be done. 


RUBBER PLANTING AS AN INVESTMENT, 


In conclusion we wish to state that after a thorough, impartial investigation 
of the various sides of rubber planting, we feel confident that this industry offers 
a safe and profitable investment, provided the conditions indicated above are 
present, that is, ‘if soil and climate are good, and the management honest and 
competent.” With the establishment of rubber experiment stations in the hands 
of American scientists and co-operating with the Governments of the United States 
and the Republic of Mexico an additional safeguard for the investors will be 
provided.—The Mexican Investor, March 1906. 


(Dr. Olsson-Seffer is the head of the new Rubber Experiment Station in 
Mexico, and has had much experience in rubber culture. This report, therefore, 
may be taken as authoritative.—ED). 


The Cultivation of the Castilloa Rubber Tree, 


THE METHODS EMPLOYED ON A NICARAGUA PLANTATION, If. 
TREATMENT OF RUBBER AFTER COAGULATION. 


After coagulation rubber is not thoroughly dry. It loses a large amount 
of its weight the first day or so. The amount lost varies with the method by 
which it has been coagulated, but is less in dry coagulation. It also varies 
with the thickness of the rubber. ‘Thin rubber loses the greater part of its 
weight immediately, while thick rubber loses a little at a time over a long 
period. Asit dries it loses stickiness and becomes translucent. I do not believe 
it is thoroughly dry until it is entirely translucent—of course rubber with dirt 
and bark in it can never be entirely so—and has lost the greater part of its 
stickiness. I have seen no rubber which had no stickiness, but it can be so tar 
reduced as to allow it to be folded on itself without cohering, Some chemicals 
such as ammonia, will so affect latex that the rubber becomes black and does 
not become translucent. I believe that rubber, to be atits best, should be kept 
at the plantation in a room with artificial heat until showing signs of being 
thoroughly dry. 


Most chemicals have peculiar effects on black water, and some on latex. I 
do not understand these actions, but as they might lead to some discovery later, I 
think they should be recorded. 

SuLpHuRiIc AciIpD:—This acid acts differently according to the strength of 
the solution. Weak solutions of acid effect the peculiar half-coagulation of latex, 
and turn black water pale yellowish, forming a precipitate slowly. This precipitate 
is very fine and goes through filter paper. It settles at the bottom of the tube after 
afew days, when it can be separated by decantation, :The precipitate is pale 
yellow, like the black water. Very strong or concentrated sulphuric acid acts 
differently when in greater quantity than the black water. A mixture of 80 per 
cent black water and 20 per cent concentrated acid is pale yellow, while a mixture 
of 80 per cent concentrated acid and 20 per cent black water turns deep black. 
Such a proportion of acid and latex does not coagulate the latex. A mixture of 
50 per cent of each is of a deep reddish colour, and it is only when mixed in such 
proportion.that sulphuric acid causes coagulation. 


127 Saps and Fxudations, 


HyprocHioric Actip has at all times the same action as weak sulphur acid. 
The pale yellow colour cannot be distinguished from that given by sulphuric acid, 
Concentrated acid acts in the same way as a weak solution. 


Nirric Acip acts like hydrochloric acid, except that the colour of both black 
water and the precipitate formed are deep orange. Concentrated nitric acid acts 
in the same way on black water, but oxidises the latex forming a brittle orange 
substance which becomes powdery when dry. 


LIME JUICE acts like hydrochloric acid ‘on the black water, but when in the 
right proportion and under suitable conditions, it coagulates the latex. 


Sopium HyDROXIDE makes a very white latex, but turns the black water a 
deep brownish red. Ammonia turns pure latex to a yellowish colour, which on the 
surface when exposed to the air becomes green. Latex to which water has been 
added turns greenish, and the black water becomes a very deep black on addition 
of ammonia. Ammonia is a good substance to use in keeping latex from coagu- 
lating. Latex may be kept pure for a long time without coagulating if ammonia is 
init. The actions are the same in concentrated and very weak ammonia. A 
solution of ammonia, ‘001 per cent, will show these actions nearly as strongly as 
concentrated ammonia. 


SopIuM CARBONATE acts practically in the same way as sodium hydroxide, 
except that on one occasion it effected coagulation. Sodium Chloride has no 
action on black water, but gives half-coagulation with latex. Calcium Chloride 
causes no colcur change in black water, but forms a dark-coloured precipitate. It 
half-coagulates latex. Copper Sulphate, Zine Chloride, and such salts act like weak 
acid. Black water boils down to a black solid substance which might be found of 
some commercial value, and could in that case be sold as a by-product. Sugar 
has a slow action on black water which is not noticeable for two or three 
days, but after that begins to take away the black colour and leave a pale 
liquid. Black water treated with acid or other chemical substance and boiled 
down, turns black just before dryness and forms apparently the same _ black 
substance as is formed by pure black water, 


ARGUMENTS REGARDING LATEX, 


What value latex is to the tree is still an open question. I think that it is 
simply a protection against insects and evaporation whenever the tree is wounded. 
Anything striking against the outside bark, if it hits hard enough, will bruise the 
inner bark so that the latex flows. An examination of the place a day or two 
later will show a thin coat of rubber entirely covering the bruise. Tropical 
trees do not have the thick outer cork bark of nothern trees. Anything striking 
them is liable to bruise the inner bark. This sheet of rubber would protect the 
bruise from too much evaporation and from insect attacks, Leaf-cutter ants do not 
attack the leaves of Castilloa and cattle do not seem to be fond of them, but I 
believe this is not due to the latex but to the thick coat of epidermal hairs, a thing 
which few tropical trees seem to possess. It is noticeable that ants do attack Hevea 
which has not a hairy leaf. 


The study of the stucture of the latex shows that it has two distinct parts ; 
watery solutions and solid substance in minute globules. The watery contain 
no rubber. They contain the substance which forms the residue of the black 
water, though this substance is apparently changed by oxidation before becoming 
black water. They may also contain sugars and proteids, as these substances are 
evidently there, but it is more than likely that these substauces are notin the 
original latex, but come from some other bark tissue than the ‘‘ milk tubes.” 

17 


Gums, Resins, 128 


BLACK WATRR. 


Latex which is quickly gathered and quickly corked up away from the air 
forms no black water. Black water gets blacker from longer standing in the air 
until about five days after gathering. Fresh black water can immediately be 
turned to its deepest black by ammonia, but ammonia will not affect black water 
five days old. I believe that the action of ammonia is the same as the oxidation 
in the air. Contact with metals will make black water blacker. Sugar slowly 
takes the black colour away, and latex which has been allowed to oxidise has water 
which resembles that formed by sugar. I believe that sugar reduces it to its 
former state. [do notsee any reason to think that rubber itself is an oxidation 
product ; it is possible, but if so, it can be further oxidised by the use of nitric acid. 


YIELD OF CASTILLOA. 


I believe that accounts of the yield of the Castilloa tree have been greatly 
exaggerated, either by intention or by mistake. Great care must be taken in trying 
to estimate the yield. Natives will not count half the trees they tap, and in that 
case the yield will appear to be more than double what it really is. Here, owing to 
poor soil, wrong methods of tapping ete., the trees are irregular in their growth. It 
does not pay to tap only big trees, and the little ones bring down the average. The 
average yield for trees eighteen or twenty inches in circumference should be 
between one and two ounces per tapping. I think it would be safe to calculate on 
half-a-pound a year from good six year old trees. 


In calculating yields it makes a difference whether the rubber is weighed 
immediately, or after drying some time. Rubber made wet by coagulation and 
apparently dry will lose sometimes as much as 20 per cent of its weight in the first 
day’s drying. What the trees will yield in the future cannot be definitely deter- 
mined. Two wild trees gave between one and two pounds each toa tapping, using 
ladders. These trees were both afew inches over three feet in circumference. At 
the present rate of growth the tree should reach that size when about fifteen years 
old. It is probable that the wild trees were older, as they were growing in the shade 
until the land was cleared. 


THE OCCURRENCE OF RESIN IN YOUNG TREES, AND GROWING PARTS OF TREES, 

Experiments of others have shown that young trees and younger parts of 
old trees contain a lar ge percentage of resin in their rubber. I have made one obser- 
vation which suggests a reason for this. In cutting a temporary branch of leafy 
stem it is noticeable that the latex comes very close to the outside bark, and that 
there appears to be a second ring of tubes, in the inner bark. Microscopic examina- 
tion of these parts shows a large number of collenchyma cells close to the outside 
bark. These cells are similar to bast fibres, but the thick part of the walls is not 
uniform. Collenchyma cells are never formed by older trees except in their young 
parts. I think it possible that these collenchyma cells carry latex which is richer 
in resins than ordinary latex, and which may possibly be entirely resin.* Of course 
these collenchyma cells remain in the plant as it grows older, but form a very small 
proportion of its tissue at that time. It is possible that rubber or resin may have 
some chemical relation to the cellulose of which the thick walls of both collenchyma 
and bast fibres are tormed. 


CASTILLOA VERSUS HEVEA. 


The Para rubber tree shows some important differences in its latex from the 
Castilloa. Of course, all that I have noted in this tree is done here in SIREERE AEE and 
it may behave differently in Brazil or Ceylon. 


* Collenchymatous cells contain neither latex nor resin. 


129 Saps and Fxudations, 


The first noticeable thing in cutting the Para tree is the small yield. A 
Castilloa tree when first. tapped fills the cut with latex immediately, and the latex 
runs ina small stream from the lower end. A Hevea when first cut shows no latex. 
In a few seconds it begins to appear in drops on the cut surface, and after three or 
five minutes begins to drip from the end otf the cut. The small yield at the first 
tapping seems to be balanced by the fact that more can be got by multiple 
tapping. In Ceylon, according to report, the yield increases each day, but here 
I have noticed no increased yield. L tapped one tree nine days in succession, 
and though it yielded every day (a thing which Castilloa would not do) the 
yield decreased instead of increasing. The Hevea tree will not do here because 
there is too much labour involved in multiple tapping. I think the trees here if 
tapped rightly would yield as much as those in Ceylon, but as labour here costs 60 
cents a day, and there tenpence, it would not pay. Lam confident from comparing 
yields printed in the India Rubber World, that Castilloa will yield as muc’: with four 
operations a year as Hevea will with ten or twenty when the trees are the same 
age. Hevea latex is superior to Castilloa without doubt in all points but one. It 
coagulates very easily, and is therefore harder to bring from the field than Castilloa. 
Hevea latex is finer than Castilloa. It has no black water. All that is necessary to 
coagulate it into good rubber is to setitina shallow dish and leave it twenty-four 
hours. The piece of rubber can then be rolled to squeeze the water out, and then 
be dried. The Hevea globules are finer than Castilloa, and they are not in masses. 
For this reason Hevea latex cannot be coagulated by the blotter method, as the glo- 
bules soak right through. It might work on porous tiles. 


Hevea vubberI do not consider superior to Castilloa. In point of strength 
and elasticity my observations have seemed to show thatitis inferior. Pieces of 
Castilloa and Hevea rubber coagulated at the same time showed that Castilloa could 
not be broken by stretching, while Hevea would break square across. The only 
piece of Hevea I have seen which was stronger than Castilloa was a piece from 
Ceylon, which was fully three times as thick as the Castilloa it was compared with. 
It may be that there are some manufacturers’ differences between Hevea and 
Castilloa that may make Hevea superior, but in point of strength and elasticity it 
is not so. 


THE CEARA RUBBER TREE (MANIHOT GLAZIOVIL.) 


The Ceara rubber trees here are only two years of age, and are yet to be 
tapped. They are very fast growers, and are nearly as large as four-year old 
Castilloa trees. Their bark is not as thick in proportion, however, as Castilloa, and 
for that reason they yield less. The latex runs as freely as Castilloa, but is finer, 
and like Hevea has no black water. It is rather watery. The rubber has a pecu- 
liar unpleasant odour. T have not seen enough of it to judge its qualities, 

The Ceara rubber trees are not doing well. They die from nu apparent cause, 
The very healthiest looking and fastest growers will suddenly begin to wilt. Some 
of them are attacked by insects, but these appeared to come only after the tree had 
begun to die. I believe that they are sensitive to lightening, though I am not sure 
of this.—Quarterly Journal, Liverpool Institute of Tropical Research. 


EXPORTING SEED OF PARA RUBBER. 


As it is well known the seed of the Para rubber tree deteriorates very 
rapidly after it is ripe and soon loses its germinating power; it is not always easy 
to send seed long distances without a very large percentage of losses, atthe same 
time the demand for the seed in distant parts of the world is very considerable 
and a good many experiments have been tried in the Botanic Gardens in various 


Gums, Resins, 130 


methods of packing to ensure their arrival in good condition. The reports received 
from the recipients of these seeds have been remarkably good, as the following 
records will show :— 


Of 7,500 seeds sent to Jamaica on August 31st, were received on November 
21st, and Mr. Fawcett writes: ‘‘ The 7,500 seeds sent in biscuit-tins are all germinat- 
ing very well, and we shall scarcely lose 500 of them.” 

One hundred were sent in a similar manner to Calabar on the date July 6th, 
and arrived on September 20th. 


The acting Secretary writes in reply: ‘‘ The seeds were soaked in water 
for two days on their arrival and were then planted with the upper portion left 
above the soil. Ninety of the hundred seeds have already germinated (November 
7th), and appear healthy young plants. 


The Royal Gardens, Kew; 135 seeds were sent on July 6th, packed in 
charcoal, in a biscuit-tin. They arrived in a month, and 128 germinated. 


On February 12th, 1903; 20 seeds were sent to Mr. J. C. Harvey, Vera Cruz, 
Mexico, who writes, May 19th, 1903, that ‘‘ out of the 20 seeds of Hevea Brasiliensis 
I have 14 young plants. They came up in a few days, and possibly afew more 
may germinate, though three seeds were decayed.” 

These were all sent in biscuit-tins. Those sent to Jamaica were packed in 
slightly damped incinerator earth, but it was necessary to replace the upper 
part of the packing with sawdust to reduce the weight, as incinerator earth is 
very heavy and the box, a two-pound tin, which contained 150 seeds, would have 
been over parcel post weight. 

The other tins were filled with damp charcoal finely powdered. In packing, 
a certain amount of care is required in damping the charcoal so as to get it equally 
moistened all through, and not over wet or over dry. This is best done by damp- 
ing the charcoal thoroughly and then drying it in the sun, constantly stirring and 
turning it over, till it is uniformly slightly damp. 

The incinerator earth which had been exposed to the elements was damp 
when received and only wanted partial drying to fit it for packing. Its weight is 
against its use, but both it and the powdered charcoal have the great advantage 
of preventing any attacks of mould or bacteria likely to cause decomposition. 


Other experiments with powdered coir fibre, and coir dust, saw dust and 
variously prepared soils have been tried, but the results do not seem to have ever 
been as successful. One experiment was made in putting the seeds in water for a 
month, but though that might be effective for a fortnight or so, they had all 
perished by the end of the month.—-Agricultural Bulletin of the Straits and 
Federated Malay States, January, 1906, 


131 Saps and Hxudations. 


REPORT UPON A VISIT TO GREAT BRITAIN TO INVESTIGATE THE 
INDIA-RUBBER INDUSTRY IN ITS RELATION TO THE GROWTH 
AND PREPARATION OF RAW INDIA-RUBBER IN THE 
MALAY PENINSULA. 


By P. J. BurGgsss. 


Early in 1905, at the request of the United Planters’ Association of the 
Federated Malay States, supported by the Federated Malay States Government, 
the Government of the Straits Settlements seconded me on special duty for six 
months, and I travelled to EKurope to investigate the condition there of the 
India-rubber industry with the object of enabling the India-rubber planters and 
the producers of the raw material in the Kast to supply their rubber in the 
form most suited to the needs of the manufacturers, and by bringing the Hast 
and West into touch to stimulate the growth of the rubber planting industry. 
I left Singapore on March 2nd, and arrived in London on March 26th. 


2. My first action on reaching London was to set about obtaining official 
introductions to various India-rubber manufacturers through the Colonial Office, 
the War Office and the Admiralty, and to amplify those private introductions 
with which I had been supplied in the East. 


CREPE RUBBER. 


3. Until the spring of 1905 all fine plantation rubber had been shipped 
in the form of flat sheets or ‘‘ biscuits” prepared from the rubber latex by 
simple coagulation in pans with the addition of acid, squeezing the coagulated 
Sheet under a hand roller and then drying with or without the aid of heat. 
A new method of preparation had been introduced in the Malay States involv- 
ing the washing of the coagulated rubber on a power-driven machine between 
metal rollers, and the resulting rubber was produced in the form of crépe or 
washed sheet. Small samples of this rubber had been submitted to various 
manufacturers for report, but the first large shipment with which to test the 
London market arrived in London towards the middle of April. In order that 
this should be fully brought to the notice of the buyers and manufacturers, I 
wrote and published an account of its history and preparation in the “ India- 
Rubber Journal,” whose Editor had always taken great interest in all attempts 
to improve plantation rubber. An offer of samples was also made in the Journal, 
and samples of the rubber were subsequently sent by me to a number of the 
principal rubber manufacturers. An analysis of the rubber was made by 
Mr. Ballantyne, of Chancery Lane, a copy of which was shown with the sample 
of the rubber at the sale rooms. 


BUYERS’ VIEWS OF CREPE RUBBER. 


4. The sale took place on Friday, May 12th, in Messrs. Figgis’ sale-rooms, 
the market was firm and prices were high. Much interest in the crépe rubber 
had been shown by the buyers, but the majority of the opinions openly expressed 
were adverse and critical, since the samples were of a kind new to the buyers. 
When the first lot of the crépe was put up there arose from the head of the 
room a cry of “ We don’t want washed rubber, we want to wash our own,” 
which plainly showed the nature of the opposition, However, in spite of this 
open disapproval on the part of some, the rubber sold at 6/8 and 6/8} per Ib. 
which was 1d.—l$d. above the price on the same day, and in the same sale, of 
fine plantation ‘‘biscuits” clean and dry and with which no fault could be 
found. 


Gums, Resins, 132 


5. The cause of this action on the part of the buyers was not easy to 
determine. No pretence was made that the rubber after washing was injured 
or made inferior to “biscuit,” or that it would be less readily accepted by 
users of plantation ruvber, and no explanation other than the statement that 
washed rubber was not wanted could be obtained from the objectors themselves. 
An explanation of the disapproval which seems reasonable, supplying as it does 
a personal motive, was obtained later from indirect sources. Raw rubber is 
not bought direct by the manufacturers at auction, but from the “buyers.” 
The latter buy in bulk and divide their purchases into lots of different qualities 
(usually into three) and sell this regraded rubber at different rates, making a 
substantial profit on this transaction. A rubber of standard quality, uniform, 
clean and pure such as crépe or plantation-washed rubber offers no opportu- 
nity for this sorting and grading process, and the profit derived from dealing 
in it would be less. A further possible explanation is that with a pure rubber 
of uniform quality an opportunity for direct buying on the part of the users 
of the material would be afforded. 


MANUFACTURERS’ VIEWS OF PLANTATION RUBBER. 


6. By all the manufacturers a keen and lively interest isshown in plantation 
rubber and in the prospect of being able to obtain rubber of fine quality from 
the East. The immediate need is for quantity, and exaggerated views of the 
amount that is to be expected in the near future from plantations were prevalent. 
No inclination to deal directly with the producer in small lots of a few tons 
was shown by any of the larger manufacturers, the difficulty being that the 
supply would be too smailand irregular to justify any departure from methods 
of buying already in practice, and added to this is the fact that plantation 
rubber is of a different quality and grade from any other in the market, and 
it requires treatment different in detail in practical working; that the rubber 
should be clean, dry, and free from mechanical impurity is essential, and in 
these respects plantation rubber has already gained a considerable reputation. 
That it should be free from any trace of softening or stickiness is still more 
important, rubber which is “tacky” in the slightest degree cannot be relied 
upon in practical use. Unfortunately there has been a considerable amount of 
rubber shuwing this defect of softness with a sticky and tacky surface, produced 
on plantations, and these samples have tended to injure materially the reputa- 
tion of plantation rubber. 


7. The form in which the rubber is exported—whether in sheets, biscuits, 
crépe (washed rubber), or worms, as produced in Ceylon—is not a matter on which 
the manufacturers expressed any very decided opinions. As long as the rubber is 
evidently dry and clear enough to show by inspection the absence of any mechanical 
impurity, the precise shape and form of the rubber is considered of comparatively 
small importance, although preference for rubber in the form of crépe was shown 
by some, and all with one exception were agreed that it was as good a condition for 
packing and exporting rubberas any. The fact that crépe rubber has been sub- 
jected to a washing process is not at present regarded by the manufacturers as of 
much advantage. Plantation washed rubber for ordinary purposes need not be 
re-washed and re-sheeted, but this same advantage applies also to clean biscuit, 
sheet, or worm rubber. For special purposes all forms of raw rubber would be 
re-washed in the factory. The advantage of crépe rubber would be felt when larger 
bulk of it is put upon the market, because greater uniformity of quality and appear- 
ance could be maintained. Up tothe present this has not been of practical import- 
ance in dealing with small parcels of a few tons or fractions of tons, but it would be 
a distinct advantage to have perfect uniformity when dealing with large bulk and 
regular shipments, and this is secured by the mechanical washing and mixing in 


188 Saps and Rxudations. 


bulk which results in the production of crépe rubber. Although at present neither 
clean biscuit, sheet, worm, nor crépe rubber need be washed for ordinary use, yet if 
washing and sheeting plantation rubber is to be dispensed with in the manufactory, 
it would bea great advantage when dealing with the larger quantities to have it 
ready in the washed and sheeted form, and the advantage of crépe over other forms 
would be most marked when dealing with many tons at atime. 4 


ADULTERATION OF WASHED RUBBER. 


8. There is one danger connected with the use of a washing machine on a 
plantation. By its means adulteration with inferior rubber, rubber substitutes, 
and recovered rubber, could be carried out without possible detection by eye or 
and inspection, although chemical analysis or practical use of the rubber would, 
reveal the sophistication. In unprincipled and fraudulent hands such adulteration 
might be carried to a considerable pitch before detection occurred, and this possi- 
bility of misuse should not be lost sight of by those who are responsible for the purity 
of the rubber produced. 

ANALYSIS OF RUBBER. 


9. The chemical composition cf rubber has no consideration either from the 
buyers or the manufacturers—the former base their valuation entirely upon the 
appearance, feel, smell, and apparent strength of the rubber when pulled about in 
their hands, the latter rely chiefly upon the way the rubber works upon their 
machines during manufacture, though ina few instances properly controlled and 
systematically carried out tests of tensile strength and elasticity are made with 
samples of the rubber prepared and vuleanised. The percentage amount of the 
impurity which is inherent in the rubber, and which cannot be removed by washing 
—that is, the oily, resinous, and nitrogenous, or proteid, impurity—is practically 
never determined in the factory. and a statement of these values with the rubber 
for sale would neither be understood nor attended to. In the present state of 
ignorance as to the influence of these ingredients upon the working qualities of the 
rubber during manufacture, the apathy with which variations in their amounts in 
the raw material are regarded is natural and quite intelligible. 


PACKING. 


10. There are several points which must be remembered in packing rubber 
Rubber at temperatures above 65°F. is naturally adhesive, and clean surfaces 
pressed into contact tend to stick to one another, though the rubber be dry and 
show no vestige of tackiness. Rubber during transit invariably shrinks in bulk 
owing chiefly to the action of its own weight in compacting the mass, and partly 
perhaps to a natural shrinkage of the rubber substance with the ageing of the 
rubber. Dust and grit which find way inside the cases adhere to the rubber, 
The care requisite in packing, therefore, depends upon the form in which 
the rubber is shipped. If in clean washed crépe, which it is hoped will be used 
without further washing and sheeting, every care should be taken to prevent the 
layers adhering to one another, and to avoid the use of any packing material which 
can make a dust out of itself, or which will admit dust and grit from outside. This 
can be effected by the use of clean, well made and fitted cases, which should not 
contain more than 80-100 lbs., of rubber, and which might with advantage be parti- 
tioned to prevent the whole of the rubber resting with full weight upon itself. No 
inner lining of common paper or other friable material should be used--such wrap- 
ping is bound to get broken in transport, and particles of it work their way between 
the layers of rubber, and obstinately adhere to the rubber. The first shipment of 
erێpe rubber which [ saw unpacked had been in wooden cases with paper lining. 
When the folds of separate layers of rubber were pulled apart, a shower of fine grit 
particles of paper, and dust, was then thrown out from the rabber. This rubber 


Gums, Resins, 134 


though well cleaned and washed on the estate, would for fine work have required 
re-washing. The separate sheets of crépe had adhered firmly into one solid mass which 
required a crowbar to separate into the original layers, and the whole had shrunk 
leaving a space of about aninch between the rubber and the sides of the case. If any 
wrapping to prevent the intrusion of dust and grit be used, it should be either smooth 
and strong such as sheet zinc lining or else made adherent to the sides of the cases— 
as, for instance, strips of smooth paper pasted over the joints in the wood inside the 
eases. With less perfectly prepared rubber in biscuit, or worm form, which wil] re- 
quire washing before use, a less carefui form of packing might be adopted. It must be, 
of course, always remembered that the rubber is valued by its appearance very largely, 
and uniformity in size and colour of the sheets will have some influence in determining 
the price, though really being no guide to the actual quality of the rubber. 


QUALITY OF PLANTATION RUBBER. 


li. On this subject I met with a perfect uniformity of opinion among those 
who had practically made trial of Straits and Ceylon rubbers. All were agreed that 
the rubber was good and very serviceable, but that it was by no means as good as 
South American fine Para, either hard or soft cure. The plantation rubber is lacking 
in nerve, it works soft between the masticating rollers, and its keeping qualities are 
inferior to South American Para. After vulcanisation the tensile strength is less and 
the elastic recovery of shape after deformation by stretching or compression is less 
perfect than shown by South American Para under precisely similar conditions. 
This result is disappointing and quite contrary to the report which the late Dr. 
Weber made on plantation rubber, when he stated that he found the tensile strength 
to be superior to that of South American hard-cure Para. 


12. That the result of practical experience of the rubber manufacturers 
must be accepted there can be no question. There was no hestitation on their part 
in demonstrating to me the difference in working of the two classes of rubber, and 
in several cases— notably at Silvertown, where accurate tests of all rubbers used are 
carried out, the recorded figures were submitted to my inspection, and an inferiority 
of from 8 per cent. to 15 per eant. with different samples were shown. The inferior- 
ity of plantation rubber is not only confined to those physical properties which are 
capable of immediate measurement, but is also shown in the keeping qualities of the 
rubber. [ was shown samples from different estates in Ceylon and the Straits which 
had been sent home in 1902 and 1903, and which had been preserved in air-tight jars 
side by side and in the same room with samples of jungle rubbers from South America 
and Africa. One sample prepared in 1902 was quite perished and rotten, its elasti- 
city was entirely lost, and it was more like a sheet of dough than rubber. Other 
samples of plantation rubber had all shown marked deterioration in the three years. 
To compare with these were samples of South American Para of ages up to and over 
forty years which had preserved perfectly their tough and elastic qualities. This 
feature of plantation rubber is one which is now beginning to be realised, and though 
it probably is dus to errors committed in preparation of the samples in question two 
or three years ago, it confirms practical users of rubber in their opinion that planta- 
tion rubbber is not reliable, and certainly not the equal of South American Para. 

13. The cause of the interiority of plantation rubber when compared with 
pure South American Para rubber is not known. Some of the manufacturers believe 
it to be due to differences in the locality, climate, and conditions under which the 
trees are grown; others incline to the belief that the difference in quality is the 
result of difference in mode of curing and exporting, and again the difference in age 
of tree from which the rubber is gathered may very probably be the actual reason 
for the difference in quality of the rubber. There is a further suggestion which has, 
I believe, never yet been made. The rubber trees of South America which are tipped 


135 Saps and Kxudations. 


are selected both by natural and by artificial selection. The condition in South 
America is, I understand, one of jungle in which the trees affect, and compete with, 
one another, and this leads to the survival, by natural selection, of the finest and 
most sturdy only of the seedlings. The native in tapping selects the best of the trees 
he conveniently can, and here the influence at work is one leading to the rejection of 
weak and badly developed trees. On the plantation after the first selection of the 
stumps and seedlings, no further selective progress is actively at work. To deter- 
mine whether this has any influence on the quality of the rubber, tapping should be 
done on specially selected trees, and the quality of the rubber extracted compared 
with the average rubber of that plot of trees. All opinions at present must be looked 
upon as guesses at the solution of this question, the only thing certain is that plant- 
ation rubber is inferior, and this certain knowledge is one of the most important 
results of my visit to England. I propose to endeavour to find out in Singapore, and 
on the plantations themselves, the actual reasons of this inferiority by experimental 
work ; and to this end I have had made in Manchester, by a firm of manufacturers of 
rubber machinery, at the expense of the Colonial Government, machines for practi- 
eally working up and vulcanising rubber, and I intend with the aid of these machines 
to manufacture test pieces of vulcanised rubber from raw rubber taken from trees 
grown in various localities of different age and cured in different ways. With these 
samples of vuleanised rubber physical tests of elasticity and tensile strength will be 
carried out, and a just comparison of the samples among themselves, and with true 
South American Para can be made, There are special difficulties in carrying out 
physical tests on india-rubber, and there is at present no uniform method of stating 
results; comparisons between tests made by different places are therefore of little 
value, and it is essential that all the work be done in the same manner on the same 
type of apparatus, to eliminate the personal equation and correctly ascribe to each 
variant factor in the production of the raw rubber its consequent variation in the 
quality of the product. When this is done I shall be able to say with certainty 
which method of preparation gives the best results, and to ascribe correctly to each 
and every one of the variable conditions under which the rubber is produced its true 
influence on the quality of the rubber. This work I look upon as being important, 
and it will, I trust, settle decisively many of the problems which now are controver- 
sial. To see clearly the necessity for the work, and to have gained the insight into 
the methods of treating and vulcanising rubber necessary for carrying it out, are the 
direct results of my visit to England, and the time spent in the works of the rubber 


manufacturers there. 
(To be continued.) 


A NEW ERA IN RUBBER EXTRACTION. 


There has been developed, principally in connection with the Mexican shrub 
known as “‘Guayule,” avery considerable interest in the extraction of commercial 
rubber from plants not adapted to any method of tapping. Many processes have 
beer utilized, all based in part upon the maceration of the plant as a whole, and 
the ultimate separation from the mass of all the rubber contained. 


As is well known, very much of the world’s present supply of rubber is 
obtained by methods other than the tapping of the trees. A vast amount of 
rubber—including the South American grades marketed as ‘‘Caucho,” or Peruvian 
—has always been collected by felling the trees and “ringing” trunks at frequent 
intervals, to allow the latex to escape. Gutta-percha and Balata are obtained in 
the same way- The Landolphia climbers in Africa are torn down from the forest 
trees, and cut into small pieces, from each end of which the latex exudes. Some 
millions of pounds more of rubber are gained in Africa from plants which contain 
the material only in the roots, the bark of which is beaten off with stones, the 
gocay mass resulting being boiled by the natives to separate the rubber. 


Gums, Resins. 136. 


It is these various practices that have so rapidly narrowed the native 
sources of rubber. They are all due to the fact that so much more rubber is 
available from certain trees and plants by other means than tapping; the “root 
rubber” could not be obtained at all by tapping. Before cultivation was intro- 
duced it seemed likely that in time only the Hevea species would be left as the 
world’s ultimate dependence, as these are invariably tapped, even in the most 
remote forests. Under cultivation, however, the Castilloa, Kickxia, and some 
other species are capable of being tapped successfully, but there remain a number 
of other plants, valuable for rubber, which are not likely to yield at a profit 
without the destruction of the plants. 


There is thus suggested a much wider field for the scientific processes lately 
introduced in Mexico than in merely exploiting Guayule rubber. If the Landolphia 
climbers, for example, must be sacrificed, their yield ought to be largely increased, 
by scientific methods, over what is now obtained by the rude practices of the 
Congolese. It may be that some of the species not capable of being tapped will 
yet be cultivated extensively, with a view to destroying the plants and the final 
systematic extraction of all the rubber they contain. It would not be surprising 
if the owners of some of these processes, in the hunger for rubber, should even 
acquire plantations of trees capable of being tapped, in order to gain an immediate 
large return. No doubt the widespread success of the new scientific treatment here 
referred to will temporarily increase the output of rubber from certain sections, 
but it will only hasten the destruction of existing rubber-yielding plants. In any 
event the rubber planting interest of to-day has nothing to fear from the new 
condition ; it may yet be the means of opening anew field for profitable planting. 


It has been asserted, though of course accurate data are lacking, that more 
rubber can be obtained from a five-year old tree by cutting it down and extracting 
all the latex than by tapping it for five consecutive years. The question may 
occur to some people, therefore: Why not do it, and replant ? 


There has been much condemnation of the wholesale destruction of wild 
rubber trees in Central and South America, whereby the unlettered natives have 
gained so much rubber. What will be said if scientific rubber hunters in the near 
future sweep over those countries, buying rubber plantations only to grind up 
the trees, and scouring forests for other latex bearers, every shred of which will 
disappear in the capacious maw of an extracting machine? But such a proceeding 
need not be viewed with horror. The main thing is to get rubber, and to get it 
quickly. The trees are not sacred, but only the rubber in them. Why not get it 
out, and in use, and replant fast enough to more than make up for what are 
destroyed ?—India Rubber World, June, 1906. 


137 Saps ant Hxudations, 


CONSUMPTION OF INDIA-RUBBER BY THE UNITED STATES 
AND CANADA. (In Tons.) 


[From the Annual Statistical Summary of Albert T, Morse & Co., Brokers, New York.] 


Details. 1891. | 1892. | 1898. | 1894. | 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898, 


Imports to United States ... | 16,152| 15,347 | 16,420 | 14,643 | 16,182 | 14,333 | 17,671 | 18,620 
Exports to Europe ... ae 982 49] 714 391 324 500 250 150 
Net Imports... «.. (| 15,170 | 14,836 | 15,706 | 14,252 | 15,858 | 13,833 | 17,421 | 18,470 
Add Stock January 1 Me 1,260} 1,086, 1,217} 1,087] 1,420 558 641 744 
Aggregating ... «| 16,430} 15,942 | 16,928 | 15,280 | 17,278] 14,381 | 18,062| 19,214 
Less Stock end of year... 1,086] 1,217} 1,087) 1,420 558 641 744. 591 


’ rs ia = = asi | a a — ae 
Deliveries to Manufacturers 15,544 | 14,725 | 15,886 | 18,869 | 16,720'18,750| 17,318 | 18,628 


Details. 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. 1904. | 1905. 

| 
Imports to United States ... | 23,095 20,468 23,208 21,812 24,760 | 27,628 ) 28,635 
Exports to Hurope .. ... | 800 | 450 | 680 | 430; 490 | 274 | 357 
| = — ——— — — — ———— eee 
Net Imports Ae ong 22,795 | 20,018 | 22,528 | 21,412 | 24,270 | 27,349 28,278 
Add Stock January 1 Ate 5901 | 712 | 1,198 | 1,899} 3831 | 256 305 
|=} | | ——- 
Aggregating ass oe 23,886 | 20,780 | 23,726 | 22,811 | 24,601 | 27,605 | 28,588 
Less Stock end of year... =| 712 | 1,198 | 1,899 381 | 256 305 537 


ae eee | is ee = 
Deliveries to Manufacturers | 22,674 | 19,532 | 22,327 Is 2,480 | 24,845 | 27,300 | 28.046 


—India Rubber World, February, 1906. 


THE LONDON RUBBER MARKET. 


Lonpon, June 8th.—At to-day’s auction, 184 packages of Ceylon and Straits 
Settlements plantation grown rubber were under offer, of which 123 were sold. The 
total weight amounted to about 8 tons, Ceylon contributing 3} and Straits Settle- 
ments 44. The quiet tone ruling before the holidays was again in evidence. Demand, 
as at last auction, ran chiefly on the finer kinds, and one or two parcels showing 
particularly fine quality were well competed for up to 6s. 12d. per lb., a price which 
was paid for some Ceylon biscuits from the Ingoya estate. The figure generally paid 
for fine biscuits was 6s. 0¢d., being a decline of about ?d. per Ib. on last rates. There 
were some parcels of crépe of the darker qualities offering, the darkish of which 
were again rather neglected. For fine scrap competition was good, but the 
lower kinds lacked attention. Plantation biscuits and sheet to-day. .6s. to 6s, 
13d., same period last year, 6s. 5d. to 6s. 9d. Plantation scrap. 4s. 6d. to 5s. 2d., 
same period last year, 4s. 6d. to 5s. 7¢d. Hine hard Para (South American). 5s. 3d., 
same period last year, 5s. 83d. Average price of Ceylon and Straits Settlements 
plantation rubber.—123 packages at 5s. 8d. per lb., against 106 packages at 5s. 93d, 
per Ib, at last auction. 


Gums, Resins, 138 


Particulars and prices as follows :— 


CEYLON. 

MARK. QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. 
Langsland 2 cases fine amber biscuits, 6s. Ojd.; 1 case darker, 6s. 0+d. 
Arapolakande 38 do fine darkish and dark biscuits, 6s. 0jd.; 3 cases black, 6s. 

Oid.; 2 cases darkish scrap, 5s. 1d 
Ingoya 2 do very fine palish amber biscuits, 6s. 1jd.; 3 cases slightly 
darker, 6s. 13d.; 2 cases fine palish scrap, 5s. 1d. 
Galatura 1 do darkish dull biscuits, 6s. 0}d. 
Halwatura 1 do palish to darkish scrap, etc., 5s. 1¢d. 


H.L.K. (in diamond) 2 do small cloudy Ceara biscuits, 6s.; 1 case darker, 6s. 

D. C. Gin diamond) 18 do pale to dark biscuits (part Ceara), 6s. 0}d.; 1 case darkish 
biscuits, 5s. I1d.; 1 case scrap, 5s.; 1 case heated scrap, 
part loaded, 3s. 6d.; 1 case rejections, 5s.; 1 case scrappy 
rejections, 4s. 93d. 


STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. 
S. (in diamond) R.R. 5 cases fine amber sheet, 6s. 0¢d.; 1 case darkish pressed scrap, 


s. 63d. 
P.S.E. (in diamond) 5 do fine amber sheet, 6s. (id. 
Jebong 4 do good darkish scrap, 5s. 2d. 
D.W.H.S. 3 do palish to darkish crépe, thick, 5s, 54d. to 5s. 93d.; 5 cases 


dark, 4s. 9d. to 4s. 11d. 


- ) 
B.R.R.'Co., Ltd. 17 do fine palish to darkish amber sheet, 6s. 03d. to 6s. 03d.; 8 cases 
same, 6s. O¢d.; 8 cases palish to darkish mottled sheet, 6s.; 
5 cases darkish pressed scrap, 5s. 1d.; 8 cases dark scrap, 4s. 
6d.; 3 cases pressed Rambong scrap (red), 4s. 103d. 


W. P.M. 6 do fine amber sheet, 6s. 0id. 


LONDON, June 22nd —At to-day’s auction, 278 packages of Ceylon and Straits 
Settlements plantation grown rubber were under offer, of which only 92 changed 
hands in the room. The total weight amounted to about 15} tons, Ceylon contri- 
buting 3} and Straits Settlements 117. The market has maintained the quiet tone 
recently ruling, and orders being scarce, few of the large buyers were inclined to 
operate to any great extent. As aresult competition was restricted, and a large 
proportion of the offerings had to be retired for lack of support. Where sales were 
effected some concession had to be given on last prices, but for the most part 
sellers preferred to have recourse to the private market. Plantation bis- 
cuits and sheet to-day 5s. 9d. to 5s. Ild., same period last year, 6s. 5d. to 6s. 7}d. 
Plantation scrap. 4s. 6d. to 5s., same period last year, 4s. 3$d. to 5s. 5¢d. Fine hard 
Para (South American) 5s. 2id., same period last year, 5s. 8d. Average price of 
Ceylon and Straits Settlements plantation rubber.—92 packages at 5s. 38id. per lb., 
against 123 packages at 5s, 8d. per Ib. at last auction. 

Particulars and prices as follows :— 


CEYLON. 
MARK. QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. 
Kumaradola 3 cases palish biscuits (damp), 5s. 74d. 
Tudugalla 3 do dark biscuits, 5d. 8$d.; 1 case goodscrap, 4s. 38d.; 1 case 
loaded scrap, 2s. 6d. 
M. (in diamond) 1 do very fine Ceara biscuits, 5s. 11d.; 2 cases little darker, 5s. 
d. 
Doranakande 2 do fine palish to dark scrap, 5s. 
Halwatura 2 do fine pale scrap, 4s. 10d. 
Okanda 1 do loaded scrap, 2s. 23d. 
Katugastota 1 do very fine pale scrap, 5s. 
Maddagedera 1 do good palish to darkish scrap, 4s. 114d. 


139 Saps and Eaudations. 
STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. 
MARK. QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. 
C.M.R.E. Ltd. 2 cases darkish to dark, 5s. 2d. 


"M.S. (in triangle) 42 do fine dark washed scored sheet, 5s. 9d. to 5s. 93d.; 7 cases 
fine pressed palish crépe, 5s. 44d. to 5s. 4$d.; 7 cases darkish 
to dark, 3s. 6d. to 4s.; 2 cases dark soft, 3s. 6d. 

L.& P. F.M.S. K. 14 do fine pale ribbon, 5s. 113d. bid for part. 


S. R. C. Ltd. 9 do fine palish to darkish crépe, 5s. 34d. 
J. HK. Ltd 4 do pressed scrap, part sold 3s. 6d. 
S.C. 4 bags serap, etc., 4s. 6d. 


Lonpon, July 6th.—At to-day’s auction, 222 packages of Ceylon and Straits 
Settlements plantation grown rubber were under offer, of which only 22 changed 
hands in the room. The total weight amounted to about 103 tons, Ceylon contri- 
buting 2? and Straits Settlements nearly 8. In sympathy with the Para market, 
demand was again weak for plantation grades, few orders being in evidence. In 
consequence, most of the offerings were retired for want of support, but where sales 
were effected, prices marked from about ld. to 2d. per lb. decline on last rates for 
the finer qualities, and no business was done in scrap at the auction. Plantation 
fine to-day 5s. 8d. to 5s. 9}d., same period last year, 6s. 3d. to 6s. 44d. Plantation 
scrap value about 4s. 6d. to 5s., same period last year, 4s. 34d. to 5s. 54d. Fine hard 
Para (South American) 5s., same period last year, 5s. 63d. Average price of Ceylon 
and Straits Settlements plantation rubber.—22 packages at 5s. 8d. per lb., against 
92 packages at 5s. 3td per lb. at last auction. 


Particulars and prices as follows :— 


CEYLON. 
MARK. QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. 
K. M. (in diamond) 1 case good Ceara biscuits, 5s. 6d. bid. 
Culloden 8 do very fine pale biscuits, 5s. 8#d. bid. 


STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. 
L. E. (Muar in tri- 


angle) 6 cases fine pale crépe, 5s. 9d. 
Semba 10 do fine pale crépe, 5s. 94d. bid. 
pigelend 7 do fine palish to darkish crépe, 5s. 53d. 
P.R. S.B. 5 do fine amber sheet, ds. 8id. 
G.M. S.B. 4 do fine amber sheet, 5s. 8id. 
Jebong 17 do fine large amber sheet, 5s. 84d. bid. 


SHIPMENTS OF PLANTATION RUBBER, 
Exports from Colombo and Galie from 1st January to 28th May. 


1906... 5 ... 48 tons. | 1904 ... oh ... 125 tons. 
1905... = ... 18 » | 1908 ee < 
Exports from Singapore from Ist January to 15th May, 1906, 72 tons. 

x . a Ist four months 1906 __... Ole. 2. 

oo) ” ” Ist 39 39 1905 SA ae 


9° 


GOW, WILSON & STANTON, LTD. 


140 


OILS AND FATS. 


Lemongrass and Citronella in Ceylon. 


By Ivor ETHERINGTON, 


During the last three years the export of Ceylon citronella oil has gradually 
advanced in quantity, although the total export has not reached the figures of 1902, 
when 1,294,750 lbs. were shipped from Colombo and Galle, The total output for the 
last four years has been 


1902 Bs ms a yt 1,294,750 Ibs, 
1903 - i By, i 1,027,486 ,, 
1904 = s is he 1,133,068 ,, 
1905 a: 


= oc aes 1,282,471 ,, 
The chief purchasing countries are the United States, which leads easily, the 
United Kingdom, Germany and Australia. and 1905 exports to these countries were :— 


U.S. America Er ae he 601,706 Ib. 
United Kingdom ae mee pes 398,700 ,, 
Germany vA Are ae 193,381 ,, 
Australia : 60,288 ,, 


France took 11,925 lbs. and China 10,499 Ibs. 


Curiously enough there was a small export of 216 lbs. to the Straits Settle- 
ments. In this connection we may state that planters in the Malay Peninsula are 
turning their attention to lemongrass as a suitable catch crop for rubber planta 
tions. Over there they seem more desirous of intercropping young rubber than 
Ceylon men as a rule are, and lemongrass answers requirements very well. But 
lately quite a number of Ceylon planters have been enquiring for roots of lemon- 
grass for propagation purposes to try it as a catch crop in young rubber clearings. 

It is useful as a catch crop as it gives the first harvest after six months, being 
propagated from cuttings. It has been found at Peradeniya that the lateral root 
system of Hevea rubber spreads one foot each year on the average ; that is a circle 
2 feet in diameter round the tree is occupied the second year, one 3 feet in diameter 
the third year, and so on, so that in rubber planted 10 410 feet the root systems meet 
and occupy the ground in five years. Lemongrass can be grown down the rows 
between lines of rubber trees without interfering with the rubber roots, and as 
the plant dies down in three years, and has then to be freshly propagated for further 
growing and extensions, it is very suitable as an early catch crop in the plantation. 

Interest has been aroused in lemongrass and citronella at one or two of the 
monthly meetings of the Ceylon Board of Agriculture, when papers on the subject 
have been read by Mr. Wright and Mr. Samaraweera. At Peradeniya further 
work has been done with lemongrass oil, and the results may be of importance. 


Acting on suggestions thrown out by the London chemists, Messrs. Sage 
and Harrison, Mr. Herbert Wright has been preparing lemongrass and citronella 
oil according to their requirements. Samples of these oils will be prepared, as 
stated recently before the Board of Agriculture, and sent to London, each sample 
bearing a lahel stating the guaranteed percentage of essential ingredients—citral, 
geraniol, and citronellal—and their physical properties. The oils have been 
subjected at the Experiment Station to refining processes. The refined oil is of an 
exceeding pale yellow green colour, and never partakes vf that deep claret-like 
eolour of the crude oil. Samples of this refined oil were exhibited at the recent show 
of the Colombo Agri-Horticultural Society side by side with unrefined lemongrass 
oil for purposes of comparison. 


141 . Oils and Fats. 


The refining process gives a remarkable residue, a dark resinous mass 
which has a low melting point. This material on cooling when exposed to the air 
solidifies. Just prior to solidifying it is very sticky; and in the unrefined oil 
existed in a state of solution. What the value of this residue is, and to what 
uses it may be put, Mr. Wright is as yet unable to say. The oil when the manu- 
facturers refine it must leave some such residue, and it will be of interest to learn 
what economic use is made of it. 


Refining of the oils has in some cases resulted in a loss of 20—30 per cent in 
weight. As pointed out at a recent meeting of the Board of Agriculture, 8d. 
per oz. was obtained for unrefined lemongrass oil, so that to make the refining 
process a paying one,something near one shilling per oz. will be required as the 
price. It will have to be ascertained what the London and New York buyers are 
willing to pay for the refined oil before its worth can be stated, and whether 
the refining process will be worth the extra labour, ete. 


Lemongrass cultivation is spreading in Ceylon and Malaya. At present the 
acreage under it is very small, but plants are being distributed every week to 
parts of Ceylon, especially the Southern Province, and to the Straits and India. 
A rival to lemongrass has recently appeared, and may become a serious competitor. 
This plant is the Backhousia citriodora, a myrtle-like shrub with fragrant foliage 
which grows plentifully in Queensland. Its oil is stated to contain 933 per cent. of 
citral, against 70—-80 per cent. in lemongrass. Gildmeister and Hoffmann state 
that Backhousia oil “‘appears to consist almost entirely of citral.”. The Imperial 
Institute analysed samples and valued the oil commercially at 7d per oz. ¢.i.f. London, 
and by another London authority it was valued at 9d. to 93d. per oz. in London. 
It remains to be seen if the plant can be commercially worked; with Australia’s 
present labour policy it is unlikely that this essential oil product can be profitably 
worked any more than profitable cultivation on any large scale can be carried on 
of rubber, cotton or coffee. 


LEMONGRASS OIL. 


IN JAVA AND CEYLON. 


It would appear that Java will in the immediate future make competition 
to the Cochin distillate. Samples have already been approved many a long 
day since, and the first consignments may possibly make their appearance very 
soon. Since in the oil of Backhousia citriodora a new and very rich source of 
citral has also been discovered, which it may soon be possible to make use of 
in practice, the time for the exaggerated prices of lemongrass oil appears to 
be now past, and producers will do well to meet the trade with concessions. 


A lemongrass oil originating from Ceylon examined by Saye which had 
been distilled at the Government Experiment Station at Peradeniya, had the 
following properties :—d15,5° 0.899, _D—O, 2°, citral-content 66,5%. In alcohol the 
oil dissolves badly, it only forms a clear solution with 1 vol. absolute alcohol, 
which, however, becomes cloudy when more solvent is added, 


The oil shares this deficient solubility with the West Indian and African 
distillates which have frequently been referred to in these Reports, Both 
on account of the inferior solubility, and of the low citral-content, the oil 
must be characterised, in spite of the opposite view held by Mr. Sage, as 
an inferior product which cannot compete with a good East Indian commercial 
oil.—Semi-Annual Report of Schimmel & Co, 


Oils and Fats. 142 
CEYLON CITRONELLA OIL. 


EXPORTS FOR 1905: REPORT ON A PERADENIYA SAMPLE. 


This important article has undergone fairly large improvements during 
the last six months, and it would appear to us as if it had acquired now, 
more than before, the character of an object for speculation, for the fact that 
the production has not fallen off is proved by the high figures of the export- 
statistics which closely approach those of the year 1902, but greatly exceed those 
of the last two years. 


The shipments in 1905 from Colombo and Galle were :— 


To the United States of America ... Hee 601,706 lbs. 
» 5, United Kingdom ... ae .. 898,700 ,, 
5 Germany 308 ait eae ee 193,331 ,, 
» Australia tes ose one vee 60,288 ,, 
» HKrance see oes ae ane 11,925 ,, 
, China 3 ace oa Scie 10,499 ,, 
» India ane ees oes be 3,645 ,, 
» Belgium Bac do Goo 80 2,161 _,, 
», the Straits Settlements... ae ae 216 de 
as against: Total in 1905 ... 1,282,471 lbs. 


vs 1904 ... 1,148,068 ,, 
ff 1903 ... 1,027,486 7” 
3 1902 ... 1,294,750 ,, 

On the other hand, the January shipments of a total of only 19,618 lbs. show 
such an enormous falling off, as compared with a monthly average export of 
about 100,000 lbs., that this fact appears to explain completely the lack of avail- 
able goods and the high price of the same. It is only natural that this should 
influence forward deliveries, and the general situation will probably not become 
normal again until supply and demand have adjusted themselves to some extent. 
As already indicated above, speculators have agravated the situation by buying 
up the available stock in Europe, a step which could be carried out with a 
small amount of capital in view of the comparatively small quantities of oil. 


In Ceylon, the distilling already came to an end in December, and as all 
the labourers are employed in the rice-fields in January, the work on the citro- 
nella grass-fields came for the time being completely to an end. Stocks are 
already cleared out, oil for early delivery is all contracted for, so that only 
later deliveries come under consideration. It is therefore possible that the 
position may become even more acute, and that the adjustment between supply 
and demand will only take place when stocks have again accumulated in the 
principal consuming countries. 


We have been able, by placing our contracts in good time, to supply 
our clients fully, and we have also contracts running for April shipment which 
are shortly due. 


Under these circumstances it is for the present out of the question that 
prices will go back, much less that the values formerly considered normal will 
again be reached. 


C. E. Sage reports on a Ceylon citronella oil distilled at the Experi- 
ment Station established by Government at Peradeniya. 


The examination of the dark orange-coloured oil gave the following 
results: d15,5° 0,884, *#D—3,3° citronellal 36%, geraniol 41%; Schimmel’s test: the 
oil gives with 80 per cent. alcohol only a cloudy solution. This inferior solubility 
of a guaranteed pure oil, induces Sage to attack Schimmel’s test which, as is 
well known, consists of this, that citronella oil must form a clear solution with 


148 Oils and Fats, 


1 to 2 vol. 80 per cent. alcohol at+20°, vemaining clear or showing at most 
feeble opalescence when up to 10 vol. solvent are added, from which even on 
prolonged standing no drops of oilmust separate off. Sage designates this test 
an arbitrary determination, which no doubt may be useful in some cases, but 
which cannot give information on the quality of the oil; for the latter, only 
the content of geraniol and citronellal are decisive. For this reason it does not 
appear desirable, according to Sage, to retain Schimmel’s test as a criterion for the 
purity of the oils. 

In reply to this we would point out that we also have always supported and 
still support the view that for the quality of citronella oil the content of total 
geraniol (geraniol+citronellal) is above all decisive. But such determinations 
frequently take up too much time for commercial practice, and for this reason 
an easy and quickly completed method of testing was desirable, which should 
at least give general data as to the quality of the oils. Such a method Schimmel’s 
test has proved to be; experience has shown that oils can be tested by it with 
good results, and it has been thoroughly acknowledged and recommended by 
leading experts. Mr. Sage’s protest will affect it all the less, as the oil examined 
by him also differs so widely in its specific gravity and content of 
geraniol+citronellal from commercial Ceylon citronella oil, that a comparison 
with the latter appears out of place. To what cause these differences must be 
attributed is a matter which cannot be settled without further inquiry. What 
ealls for particular attention is the fact that in spite of its high content of 
geraniol+citronellal (77%) the oil dissolves so badly. In the numerous commercial 
oils examined by us, we have always observed that the solubility of citronella 
oils increases with the content of total geraniol, and that consequently the 
solubility is most intimately related to the quality of the commercial oils. This 
fact has even induced us to introduce a ‘“‘raised Schimmel’s test,” according to 
which citronella oil mixed with 5% Russian petroleum must show approximately 
the same solubility in 80 per cent alcohol as the original oil. We have in no 
single instance observed that oils of superior quality have not stood this test, 
and we can with full confidence recommend it to every one interested in the 
honest trade in Ceylon citronella oil, notwithstanding the opposite view taken 
by Mr. Sage. We hoped that in this way it may be accomplished that in course 
of time only the best quality Ceylon citronella oil is placed on the market.— 
Semi-Annual Report of Schimmel & Co. 


19 


144 


EDIBLE PRODUCTS. 


Cacao Cultivation in Ceylon. JI. 


By HERBERT WRIGHT. 


(ILLUSTRATED. ) 


GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF VARIETIES. 


Weshall first briefly outline the general characters of the numerous varieties 
of cacao grown in Ceylon and other countries and see what features can be relied 
upon as indicating the value of the different forms of cacao. It has been shown, 
when dealing with the history of cacao in Ceylon, that most of our seed supplies 
have been obtained from Trinidad, and the systems of classification drawn up by 
Morris and Hart for the identification of the varieties in that island are, in most 
features, applicable to Ceylon. These classifications do not, however, apply to all the 
varieties at present recognised in Ceylon, Java, Surinam, etc., and according to Preuss 
do not always strictly apply to the cacao in Trinidad itself; in several countries it has 
become customary to attach the name of the country to the variety of cacao 
exported, hence we learn of the Trinitario, Java-Criollo,* Java-Porcelaine, Nicaragua- 
Criollo, Surinam-cacao, Brussel-cacao, Moderboorn ete., and a classification or key to 
the varieties is required for separate countries. The following are the systems 
drawn up by Morris and Hart and the characters of the varieties in Ceylon 
as deseribed by Lock +t :— 


Hart. Lock. 


Key to varieties. 


All the varieties here mentioned include 
both red and yellow sub-varieties as well 
as many other minor types :— 


Morris. 


1I.—Cacao Criollo 


Class I. Criollo, or fine thin 
skinned. 


Beans plump, majority white or pale in 
section ; Shell soft and relatively thin 
I. Criollo. 

somewhat flattened 
a. Nicaragua. 
Beans half as large as 1, more rounded, 


6. Old Red. 


1. Var, a. Amarillo Beans very large, 


2. ,, b. Colorado ats 


II.—Cacao Forastero .. | Class II. Forastero, or thick 
skinned cacao. 
Var. a. Cundeamor verrugosa 


amarillo. 


(a) Cundeamor verrugosa 
amarillo (yellow). 


(6) Cundeamor verrugosa », 6. Cundeamor verrugosa 
colorado (red). colorado 
c) Liso amarillo AG », ¢. Ordinary amarillo. 
) Liso colorado Fy. es A colorado, 
(e) Amelonado amarillo. . ., € Amelonado amarillo. 
(f) Amelonado colorado apoafa a colorado, 
Class. IIIT Calabacillo, or small 


podded, thick smooth- 
skinned, flat-beaned. 
Var. a. Amarillo. p00 


(q) Calabacillo amarila 
b Colorado. 


(h) Calabacil.o colorado 0 


* Mededeelingen omtrent de op Java aangeplante Cacaovarieteiten; L. Zehntner, Proefstation 


voor Cacao to Salatiga, 1905. 


+ Varieties of cacao in Ceylon, Circular, .BG., Vol: 2.. No, 24, 1904, 


Majority of beans purple in colour, shell 

relatively hard and thick. II. Forastero. 

Pods acuminate and“ bottle-necked,’ rough, 
beans of high quality, pale and rounded. , 
a, Cundeamor, , 


Pods various, usually not “bottle: necked”; 


beans of fair to good quality. 6. Liso 
Pods ovate, nearly smooth, usually 
‘‘bottle-necked ’’; beans of lower quale 


ity, usually flat and all purple. 
c. Amelanado, 
Pods ovate, smooth, small, not ‘“‘ bottle- 
necked ’’; beans small, flat, and all dee 
purple. d. Calabacillo, 


vor Etherington. 


Photo by 


THE NICARAGUAN TYPE OF CACAO. 


Photo by Ivor Etherington. 


TYPICAL AMELONADO CACAO. 


145 Edible Products. 
FRUIT CHARACTERS. 


Most of the varieties of cacao grown in Ceylon are roughly divisible into the 
Old Red or Caracas, the Forastero or Hybrid and the Amelonado types. The 
classification given by Morris is simple, and that by Hart more detailed, though the 
latter does not, in my opinion, give a sufficiently minute sub-division to make it of 
every-day use on cacao estates outside Trinidad. 'The ease with which new strains of 
cacao arise has resultedin confusion, andit isa very difficult task to formulate a key 
to include the distinetive characteristics of the varieties existing inany one country 
where cacao has been cultivated for twenty or thirty years. As far as fruit charac- 
ters alone are concerned it would be no difficult matter to collect specimens which in 
point of size, shape, and colour form a more or less continuous series connecting the 
Nicaragua, Criollo, and Forastero types with one another; even the same tree in a 
single year or in successive years may produce fruits differing widely in extcrnal 
characteristics, and when one considers the characters of the rest of the vegetative 


system and those of the seeds, the mixed nature ol the varieties now cultivated 
is manifest. 


The classification of the cacao varieties into three groups by Hart is, accord- 
ing to that gentleman, necessary, in order to distinguish between the Calabacillo 
and Forastero types. It is equally necessary to adopt a similar classification for the 
varieties in Ceylon and to perhaps omit the Calabacillo group (which is very rarely 
if ever, met with in this island) and give the Amelonado variety a separate class, as it 
is on all estates so markedly different in its shape, green-yellow colour and flat pur- 
ple seeds from any other Forastero type. 


In order to enable one to select the various types it will be necessary to deal 
very fully with the characters of the fruit wall and seeds. 


FRUIT WALL. 


Thickness.—The thinnest walls are found in the Nicaraguan and Caracas types 
and the thickest in the Forastero forms. The following figures show the thickness, 


lengths, circumferences and weights of several fruit walls of cacao pods grown at 
Peradeniya :— 


Thickness . Circumference Average 

Variety. of Teng th of cnumrdaieor weight of 

wall. ea fruit. 100 fresh 

fruit walls. 

lb. oz. 

Nicaragua... a 12mm, 19-1 em. 28:0 em. 

Caracas 0 oe UY erg LEA a 23:7 ,, 48 4. 
Forastero-Cundeamor ... IBS gp 20-6 ,, 26°5 ., 84 14 
Amelonado ... ae IBY «ep 18-5 ,, 26:7 ,, m4 19 


It is obvious from these records that the most wasteful variety of cacao, as far 
as the thickness and weight of fruit wall are concerned, is the Forastero-Cundeamor 
and the most economical the Caracas or Nicaraguan type. 


Colour.—The outer surface of the fruit wall is, in unripe specimens, red or 
green, these changing during ripening to reddish-yellow or yellow respectively. In 
the Forastero group the fruits show all proportions of red and green inter-mingled 
with one another and even the Criollo fruits may be yellow or red. In Ceylon, the 
Amelonado variety is distinct in always having a green wall changing to pale 
yellow on ripening. Usually all the fruits on the same tree have a similar colour or 
distribution of colours. 


~ 


Edible Products. 146 


In Trinidad, as indicated by the classifications of Morris and Hart, each 
variety is subdivided into red and yellow forms, and the same applies generally to 
the varieties in other cacao-growing countries. 


COLOUR OF OUTER SURFACE OF FRUIT WALL. 


Variety. When Unripe. When Ripe. 
Caracas . Usually red; frequently green. Usually reddish-yellow ; 
frequently yellow. 
Nicaragua . Red or green. Reddish-yellow or yellow. 
Cundeamor..._ Red and green. Reddish-yellow. 
Amelonado .. Green. Yellow. 
Calabacillo .» Usually red. Usually reddish-yellow. 


Shape and size.—In shape and size there is every variation between the long 
pod with acuminate apex—as in some forms of Nicaragua and Cundeamor,—to the 
short, ovate, broad base and blunt apex of Amelonado. Some forms are constricted 
at the base—Cundeamor and Liso—others are wide at the base—Sambito and Amelo- 
nado—and others intermediate between these. 


(To be continued.) 


REPORT ON COCOA AND COLA INDUSTRIES IN THE GOLD COAST. 


InTtRopucTORY Note.—Doctor Gruner, District Commissioner, Togoland, 
West Africa, visited the Gold Coast in August 1903 on behalf of the German 
Agricultural Committee, by permission of the Governor of the Gold Coast, for 
the purpose of acquiring information relative to the cocoa and cola industries 
in that Colony. The report on his visit, written in German, appeared in the 
August, September and October, 1904, numbers of ‘Der Tropenpflanzer” and the 
following remarks are a precis of this report compiled by W. H. Johnson, 
Director of Agriculture, Gold Coast Colony, West Africa. 


I. Tour IN THE COCOA AND CoLa DISTRICTS. 


During the first two hours march after leaving Aburi few cocoa trees 
were seen but they were much more numerous during the 8rd hour’s march, at 
the end of which Apasare was reached. This town is pleasantly situated between 
wooded hills and surrounded by cocoa plantations. 


The natural sources of rubber in Akwapem have been destroyed and 
many farmers have now commenced to cultivate plants distributed from the 


Aburi Botanic Gardens. Previous to the cultivation of cocoa the oi] palm was 


carefully looked after in this district and oil prepared from its fruits for export, 
but now only sufficient is manufactured for culinary purposes. 


Along the road from Apasare to Akroase, a distance of about ten miles, 
cocoa plantations intermixed with oil palms were very abundant, the time taken 
to cover the distance between the end of one plantation and the beginning of 
the next not exceeding five minutes in any one instance. One enterprising native 
planter at Akroase had planted 5,000 cocoa trees as well as several hundred 
rubber trees. Practically the whole five miles of road between Akroase and 
Kofrodua runs through cocoa farms, but in the new Juaben districts, of which 
Kofrodua is the capital, they were not so numerous. 


site ee 


therington. 


Photo by Ivor E 


TYPICAL FORASTERO CACAO 


7 _ - 7. 
e iu - a 
5 a 
i x "4 7 
‘e , 7 ins 
- e Poa 
+ 
. s 3 
. = 
4 
+ 
' 
« 
7 ‘ 
H 
a { 
+ 
% 
+2 om ® 
J ‘ 
- se 


147 Edible Products. 


A few years ago coffee was largely cultivated in Akim; this has now 
been abandoned, and} cocoa farms, principally of young trees, and cocoa drying 
platforms were seen all along the route. Carriers conveying cocoa were even met 
coming from Okwawu where this cultivation has also extended. 


Cola trees were first observed at Tafu, and occured at intervals until 
Kwaben was reached, their distribution being similar to the unplanted oil-palms, 
in some instances numerous, in others scarce. Those growing in the forest had 
long slender trunks whereas those found in cleared areas were sturdy branch- 
ing trees. * Occasionally cocoa was observed planted around the cola trees, appearing 
as though the latter had been planted as shade for the former. Numerous 
natives from German Togoland were met with in the cocoa districts, some stated 
they had been working in the cocoa plantations as hired labourers for several 
years and understood the cultivation of this product; they expressed their 
willingness to return to their homes and start cocoa plantations provided they 
were confident of the support of the German Government, and assurance of this 
support was given them. 


II. Cocoa CULTIVATION BY THE NATIVES. 


The usual native method of establishing a cocoa farm is as follows :— 
The bush is cut down and burnt, only surface roots and weeds are cleared away 
and yams are then planted, cocoa not being planted until the yams have been 
harvested. Inthe case of large plantations the clearing and weeding is carried out by 
hired Togo or Krobo labourers who are paid 20s. per acre for each of the following 
works, viz:—cutting down bush, felling trees, and clearing. For succeeding weed- 
ings which occur quarterly, 10s. per acre is paid, but sowing and planting is done by 
the owner. Cocoa is principally propagated by seeds which are either sown thickly 
in seed-beds prepared in moist situations, often by the side of a brook, or directly 
out in the plantation, two in each hole, when if both germinate the weaker is 
eut away. 


The reason given for this latter method being that the plants transferred 
from the seed-beds die if a period of dry weather follows their trans-planting, 
for neither the seeds nor plants are watered; but this is seldom necessary as 
this operation’ takes place during the two rainy seasons (March—June and Sep- 
tember—October.) Hach land-owner has from 3,000 to 4,000 trees and some are 
snid to have as may as 10,C00, while every school boy has his own cocoa farm 
which he tends himself. The trees in many plantations are planted closely 
together, usually only 8 or 9 feet apart, but the owners of old plantations 
hive observed that when trees are planted in this manner, the branches interlace 
and the yield decreases; consequently in new farms the trees are being planted 
at from 11 to 12 feet apart. 


Tania is cultivated between the cocoa, but shade trees are not planted 
although when the forest is cleared economic trees such as Funtumia rubber, 
oil-palms, and cola are left standing and slight shade is unintentionally provided. 
Small farms do not usually require shade trees as they are generally situated 
near the edge of the forest which furnishes shade during a great part of the 
day, and while the cocoa is young it receives shade from the tania. Little attention 
is given to the young plantation beyond just clearing away weeds immediately 
around the plants, and cutting away suckers. No steps are taken to destroy 
pests; the borer is the only one which has proved really troublesome and this 
is present in nearly every plantation. Farmers have been cautioned to exterminate 
it by the Botanic Department and by printed notices, but with no visible result. 
The amount of cocoa produced is not appreciably affected by its attacks because 
of the large number of new trees planted. 


Edible Products. 148 


III. MoprE oF PREPARING CocoA FOR MARKET. 


The old plan of preparing the beans for market by simply drying them 
in the sun has been abandoned everywhere in favour of the fermenting method 
introduced by the Government Botanic Department. The beans are placed in 
heaps upon mats and then covered up with mats weighed down with stones, 
and left for four days if this takes place upon the same day the pods are 
plucked, but for three days if upon the following day; 


after which they are 
washed in baskets. 


In order to facilitate the latter operation fermentation takes place on that 
portion of the farm nearest a brook. Washing completed, the cocoais taken home 
to be dried in the sun either upon specially built wooden platforms or mats made 
of plaited palm leaves. Properly fermented cocoa tastes sweet, is mahogany colour 
inside, and the outside shell is a clear light red. 


IV. REASONS FOR THE DEPRECIATION IN THE MARKET VALUE OF COCOA. 


The native farmers consider they are being cheated when prices fall, and 
complained bitterly with regard to the prices paid by the merchants for their 
cocoa; they had even petitioned Government in this matter, who learned from 
inquiries addressed to the merchants that this was due to the falling off in the 
quality of cocoa, and printed notices were distributed by Government warning 
the planters to take more pains in the preparation of this product. In reply the 
farmers accused the middlemen of mixing good and bad cocoa, and suggested this 
asa reason for the deterioration, The advances made by the merchants to farmers 
is one of the causes for the depreciation of cocoa; previous to or at the beginning 
of the cocoa harvest cash is advanced which the receiver binds himself to pay 
back in cocoa, and when pressed to fulfil his contract he either buys or borrows 
cocoa, irrespective of quality, to furnish the promised supply. This pernicious 
system, although not so much in vogue as hitherto, both encourages the native 
to get into debt and to adulterate his produce. Another cause is the method of 
transport; cocoa is placed in casks and rolled from the principle buying centres 
to the port of shipment, dust gets into the cask and renders it unsightly. 


V. THE CoLa INDUSTRY. 


The cola tree is very seldom planted and the tending of those trees produced 
by natural agency is limited to the clearing away of bush and weeds; but every 
such tree has an owner, who claims this right in virtue of having affected the first 
clearing. Cola trees raised from seed commence to fruit whea 6 or 7 years old; the 
produce is small at this period but increases yearly until the tree is mature when 
it will yield from 40 to 50 fruits. 

Two crops are produced annually, in December and April, of which the 
former is the principal. Fruits which fall off the trees are not collected as they 
spoil rapidly ; those plucked from the trees are stored in the shade as the hot sun 
turns them black. When the nuts are freshly gathered some difficulty is ex- 
perienced in skinning them, but if they are stored for a short time the skin can be 
readily removed with the fingers. If the nuts harvested exceed the demand the 
surplus is skinned and packed with the leaves of a particular plant (Thaumatococcus 
Danielli, Benth ;) in broad baskets made of palm leaves and stored. 

The Hausas, who are the principal consumers, convey salt to the cola 
districts and barter it for cola; lL lb. of salt valued at 6d. being exchanged for 100 
cola nuts. The price of cola, in the districts where it is produced, fluctuates 
between 3d. and 1s. per 100 nuts, but in Accra cost of transport raises it to 1s. 6d. 
per 100. Cola is principally exported by sea to Lagos; the value of the exports 
in 1900 and 1901 were £45,183 and £35,024 respectively ; while the estimated annual 
value of the exports overland to the hinterland is £75,000, The principal cola 


149 Edible Products. 


markets in Akim are Insuaim, Hssamang, Kwaben, Tumfa, and Kankan. In 
Kwaben or Tuimfa, it is possible to purchase froma single person 10 loads contain- 
ing 2,000 nuts each. Previously the cola produced in Ashanti was only purchased 
by Hausas and transported by them northwards to the Hausa States, but the 
restoration of order in Ashanti and the completion of the railway to Kumasi has 
facilitated the transport of this crop to the coast. 


VI. THe Botanic GARDENS, ABURI—AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE 
Cocoa INDUSTRY. 


The Agricultural Experiment Gardens formed at Aburi in 1890 conducted 
cultural experiments with cocoa in order to draw the attention of the natives and 
especially the chiefs to the advantages likely to accrue from the cultivation of 
this product. The oldest trees in the Gardens are 15 to 16 years old (7e. in August 
1903), and a large area is planted with trees 12 to 16 years old. This healthy and 
productive plantation is the origin of the great cocoa industry of the Gold Coast 
‘as the fruits produced by it have been continuously distributed to the natives. 
The trees are planted (I) 12«12 feet apart, and the first shade trees employed were 
Frythrina; but as this tree is deciduous during the dry season and therefore of 
little value a more satisfactory substitute (IT) has been found. 


In 1898 the Curator commenced travelling in the neighbouring districts 
with the view of instructing the native farmers in the cultivation and preparation 
of cocoa. During each of his tours large quantities of cocoa seeds were offered to 
the natives without charge; many were, however, loath to accept them being 
suspicious of the objects for which this free distribution was being effected ; but 
when the seeds were offered for sale at a ridiculously low price they were eagerly 
purchased. The following year the same officer prepared a brief treatise on the 
cultivation and preparation of cocoa which was first printed in English and later 
in the vernacular for free distribution. Opportunities were also afforded to the 
chiefs and other influential natives to send one of their family to the Gardens to 
learn agricultural work, but this excellent arrangement met with little success as the 
parents and guardians in each case failed in their compact to supply their protege 
with subsistence money. A second attempt which consists of receiving young lads 
who have received a slight education as paid agricultural apprentices, has proved 
more successful; again from the regular labourers in the Gardens, some are selected 
to teach native farmers and others ace employed to lay out their cocoa plantations, 


When cocoa was first produced the merchants were disinclined to purchase 
this product and the Botanic Gardens undertook its shipment, but naturally 
abandoned this work when the merchants had overcome their first reserve. The 
development of the industry is still, however, kept in view and experiments are 
now progressing in the fermentation of cocoa. 


VII. FurRTHER DEVELOPMENT OF COCOA CULTIVATION. 


In order to encourage cocoa growing in the Western portion of the Colony, 
the Government has established an experimental garden at Tarkwa where experi- 
ments are in progress with the cultivation of this product with a view to determine 
the best distances to plant the cocoa trees apart and the most suitable shade trees. 
Large quantities of seed are being sent from Aburi for distribution in Ashanti, 
and the Basel Mission Society is also encouraging its members to form cocoa 
plantations in the latter district. ° 

There is little doubt that the export of cocoa will considerably increase 
within the next few years, for thanks to the sporadical method of laying out cocoa 
farms previously described, neither epidemics nor exhaustion of the soil will effect 
it, and nothing but a further heavy fall in prices will check it. In short here is an 
industry developed which one can only admire and regret that Togoland lacks 
such a beneficial institution. 


Edible Products. 150 
THE OLDEST TEA IN CEYLON. 


It is our custom annually to record the condition and progress of the 
oldest regularly cultivated tea field in Ceylon—that of 20 acres on Loolecondera 
planted by Mr. James Taylor (for Messrs. Harrison and Leake of Keir Dundas & 
Co.) in 1868-9. Mr. G. F. Deane, who has been Manager now for 14 years and has 
courteously informed us at intervals as to its condition, wrote us as follows on July 
7th (a letter which was lost in the post—but of which he has sent us a copy dated July 
14th) as follows :— 

‘“In reply to your enquiry as to the condition of the old tea on Loolecondera, 
the oldest field, some 20 acres planted in 1868-9 Assam-Hybrid and which is very 
wind-blown and has never been manured, has given last season a yield of 536 Ib. 
made tea per acre in the 37th or 88th year from planting, and has averaged over 
400 lb. made tea per acre for last six years. 

“The next older field planted in 1875 (84 acres), also wind-blown and never 
manured, gave 428 lb. made tea per acre last year. Both fields are looking well and 
the China tea planted out along the roadside in 1866 is still flourishing.” 

Vhe yield of 536 lb. made tea is particularly good—considering that last year 
we recorded the fact that after the last pruning in 1901 the yield had ranged from 
350 only up to 425 1b. We congratulate Mr. Deane on the result.—Ceylon Observer. 


THE LEADING TEAS OF THE WORLD. 
INDIA. 


The remarkable revolution which has taken place in the source of the 
tea supply of the world may be gathered from the fact that, in dealing with 
the tea-producing countries, there is no hesitation in placing British-grown teas 
first on the list. Fifty years ago, ‘‘ tea” and ‘‘China” were almost synonymous 
terms; to-day, tea is a cosmopolitan product obtained from a variety of countries 
each of which is predominant in its own particular market. Moreover, it is beyond 
doubt that China tea is on the down grade, while that of British India continues 
to make the most extraordinary advance, its exports having trebled during the 
last twenty years. In the same period, the exports of Ceylon tea have expanded 
from two toa hundred and fifty million pounds a year; and there has been a heavy 
increase in the exports of Japan and Java. These developments will be more easily 
grasped by areference to the following tabulated list of the exports of tea from 
the latest official statistics :— 


EXPoRTS OF TEA FROM THE PRINCIPLE TEA-PRODUCING COUNTRIES OF THE 
WORLD, IN 1884 AND 1904. 


Country. 1884 1904 
Lbs. Exported. Lbs. Exported. 
British India ae a ... 60,478,000 218,808,000 
Ceylon ee nee as at 2,398,000 149,227,000 
Total British-grown tea i: ... 62,866,000 363,035,000 
China ae Be Pr ... 268,800,000 193,466,000 
Japan a ee Oi: «. 35,716,000 67,162,000 
Java aA oe: = ne 5,075,000 21,287,000 


From these figures it will be readily seen that the exports of British-grown 
Indian and Ceylon teas tothe markets of the world are not far from double those 
of China. Whereas twenty years ago they did not export a quarter of the 
amount sent out from Flowery Land. 


151 Edible Products. 


Although the countries scheduled are the principal tea producing ones, 
there are others where the plant is cultivated, for, contrary to the general 
impression, tea can be grown almost anywhere under temperate or tropical 
climatic conditions. I myself have grown tea in the Himalaya mountains at an 
altidude of over 6,000 feet over sea level—and seen it buried yearly under two feet 
of snow! It is the growing of tea profitably that is ‘‘ another pair of shoes.” Apart 
from the countries named, tea is grownin Burmah, the Andaman Islands, Natal 
(where they turn out nearly two million pounds annually), Central Africa, Fiji, the 
Kabbaz (Caucasus), Jamaica, (experimentally) the Southern States of America—all 
with commercial intention; and there are countless other places where it exists 
experimentally, in the botanical gardens, and so forth. But for the profitable 
production of tea, there must be a forcing climate, with ample rainfall, and an 
abundant supply of cheap labour for gathering the harvest, or “ plucking” the leaf 
as it is technically called. In the most favoured districts, where the ‘ flushes” of 
leaf are thickest. the outside average capacity of a labourer will not supply daily 
more leaf than can make 5 pounds of tea; and in less-favoured districts, the most 
skilful and diligent hand will fail to obtain even half that amount, and this at two 
cents a pound (which is the recognized scale of payment for the work), imposes a 
limitation that cannot be overcome except in those particular countries where tea 
is grown at present. On these economic grounds, the production of tea must remain 
the monopoly of the Far East, where labour and living are cheap; and _ the 
rainfall of regular ‘‘ monsoons” supply those climatic conditions which are necessary 
to a luxuriant growth of leaf. 


Itis estimated that the amount of tea available for export from the tea- 
producing countries is 600,000,000 pounds. How much tea remains in the countries 
of production it is impossible to say, owing to theentire absence of any Chinese 
statistics on this point. It is, however, a curious fact that, except in China and 
Japan, the consumption of tea in the countries of their production is extremely 
small, and may almost be said to be a negligible quantity. The crops of India, 
Ceylon and Java are grown purely for export, the general population of those 
countries being too poor to afford tea. Of the six hundred million pounds exported 
from the countries of production, five-twelfths is taken by Great Britain, whose 
total consumption equals that of all the other European countries and the United 
States put together. The five-principal tea-consuming countries in the world, and 
the amount they consumed in 1903, are given as follows :— 


Consumption 
Country. Lbs. Imported. Per Head. 
Lbs. oz 
United Kingdom hie ee ae 255,498,000 6.03 
Russia see sea oe sae 132,264,000 0.94 
United States... wee — ae 104,632,000 1.30 
Australasia (1901) wee aor one 28,380,000 7.05 
Canada Hee : 


aa i 23,969,000 4,34 
The Cape of Good Hope and Holland are the only other countries where 


there is a substantial per capita consumption, and thus, excluding China and Japan, 


the tea-drinking communities of the world may be reckoned as consisting of the 
above seven. 


The fact that stands out from these figures is that the English are the 
greatest tea consumers of the civilized world, and it may therefore be interesting 
to see what teas they prefer. Since the introduction of India tea fifty years ago 
and of Ceylon tea twenty-five years later, they have practically discarded the use 
of the China herb. It may be urged that this only shows natural preference for the 


product of their own empire, but against this fact there remains the solid argument 
20 


Edible Products. 152 


that British-grown teas are far more expensive than China teas, and have won 
their way into the market on their merits. Imperialism may explain a sudden 
quixotic action, but that sentiment has no room in weekly domestic bills ; and the 
conversion of the tea-drinking Englishman from the China to the Indian and Ceylon 
herb, at an extra expense to his pocket, has resulted from economic conviction that 
he is getting the best value for his money. Therefore, not merely on the grounds 
that the exports of the British-grown teas are the largest, but also because the 
article is the best, do I place it first on the list. 


The secret of the superiority of Indian and Ceylon teas is very simple—they 
are made from a better variety of plant than the China teas, and one producing a 
leaf with better ‘‘ liquoring ” qualities. Assam is the home of the tea plant; and it 
was from its steamimg valleys ages ago that the seed was taken to China. In the 
process of centuries from change of soil and climate and other causes, the plant 
deteriorated. Compared to the indigenous variety in Assam, the modern China-tea- 
bush is asa wild strawberry to acultivated one. By the irony of circumstances 
when the Government of India first started the cultivation of tea, it sent to China 
for tea seeds and seedlings! All the earlier tea plantations in India were planted 
out with the China variety, and they proved a terrible handicap to the industry. 
I, myself, was in charge of an old Government plantation for many years, and no 
one knows better the hopelessness of trying to make “ quality” from the miserable 

af at my disposal; and as I manufactured some five million pounds of it, I may 
claim to speak with experience. It was not untill rooted out the old ‘‘ China” 
bushes, and replanted the area with seed obtained from Assam—as has been done 
all over India, where the original China-plant gardens may be said to have been 
eradicted, that I was able to line up my tea with those for which India had acquired 
its reputation. Ceylon, starting later in the race, was able to avoid this fatal 
initial error, and all its plantations are laid down with the Assam variety. But 
perhaps the greatest tribute to the superiority of the India plant was paid by 
Java, when the Dutch tea planters there imported seed from Assam, with the result 
that the production of that island has gone right ahead, and is taking its place 
side by side with that of India and Ceylon. Such is the real explanation of the 
superiority of Indian and Ceylon teas—they are made from an altogether superior 
variety of plant. 

With these preliminary observations, I will turn now to more detailed 
examination of the tea districts of India, which are far more widely scattered than 
many readers may be aware of. The great bulk of cultivation clusters around 
Assam, which lies to the north-east of Calcutta, but the cosmopolitan nature of the 
industry in India—which is a cosmopolitan country, peopled with many races of 
men—imay be gathered from the fact that tea is grown in Kasmir, two thousand 
miles to the west of Assam, and in Travancore, which is nearly two thousand miles 
to the south. Moreover, there are’several districts between these extremes, as the 
following list of them will show :— 

THE TBA Districts oF INDIA. 


1. Assam. 6. The Terai. 11. Kumaon. | 
2. Kachar. 7. Chitagong. 12. The Nilghiris. 
3. Sylhet. 8. Chota Nagpor. 13. Travancore. 
4. Darjilling. 9. Kangra Valley. 14. The Wynaad. 
5. Doars. 10. Dehra Doon. 


There are also plantations at Simla, Loharduga and in Kashmir. 

Of the above districts, the first three may be regarded as the principal home 
of the tea plant. Assam is situated in the Bramaputra Valley, while Kachar and 
Sylhet belong to the district known as the Surma Valley. They lie on the 
north eastern boundaries of India, being divided from Burma by a belt of 


native states peopled by aborigines. 


153 edible Products. 


Darjilling, Doars and the Terai lie considerably nearer to and almost due 
north of Calcutta, while Chitagong is near the sea coast to the south-east of 
that city. Chota-Nagpur, which is the driest and least prosperous district, is 
situated in the centre of Bengal, and so far from the Himalayas that itis not 
blessed with the heavy rainfall that is poured over the other districts. 


The Kangra Valley, Dehra Doon and Kumaon are three small districts lying 
on the slopes of the Himalaya Mountains, on the north-western extremity of India. 
They were three of the localities originally selected by the Government of India 
as particularly suitable for the cultivation of tea, when the idea was held that the 
steeper the ground the better the plant—one long since exploded. 


The Nilghiris, Travancore and the Wynaad are all in the southern part 
of the peninsula; the latter two places enjoy aclimate very like that of Ceylon. 
They are the latest districts opened out in India, and were there any prospects 
for the further expansion of cultivation, they could supply countless acves of the 
richest forest land. 


The tea plantation in Kashmir belongs to the Maharaja of the Province, and 
was started about the same time as he established vineyards for the production of 
wine; but the exquisite climate of the land of Lalla-Rookh is not suitable for the 
profitable cultivation of tea.—Herbert Compton in Tea & Coffee Journal, New York, 


CEYLON’S IMPORT DUTY ON INDIAN TEA. 


For some time past the Ceylon papers have made mysterious references 
to a Despatch from the Secretary of State for the Colonies regarding Ceylon’s 
import duty on Indian tea, Our readers know that the Calcutta I. T. A. have 
transferred the matter to the London Committee to bring pressure to bear on 
the authorities at that end. The Despatch to the Ceylon Government, however, 
is now published, and is as tollows:—‘‘I would be glad to know whether your 
Government remains of the same opinion as a year ago, and still considers 
that the present restriction should not be relaxed, or whether‘ the conditions 
of the case have been altered in any way. As I understand, the object of 
maintaining the duty is to safeguard the purity of Ceylon tea, and the Ceylon 
tea growers seem to think that the encouragement to the blending of Indian 
and Ceylon teas, which would be the result of removing or modifying the 
present restrictions, might benefit India at the expense of Ceylon, although some 
additional trade would be attracted to Colombo. It is a matter on which local 
opinion must prevail, no Imperial interest being involved; but the present 
policy seems to be of somewhat doubtful value, and you may be of opinion 
that the time has come to reconsider it.” The Governor of Ceylon, in forwarding 
the Despatch to the Planters’ Association, takes a very broad and statesman- 
like view of the question. He says: ‘‘The object of the Ceylon Planters is, 
it is understood, to ensure that no tea other than that grown in Ceylon is 
exported from the Colony as pure Ceylon tea, and in this desire His Excellency 
considers that the planters are justified. But His Excellency regards it as worthy 
of the condsideration of the tea producers whether the object referred to could 
not be secured without prohibiting the blending of tea in Colombo in _ bond. 
Colombo is the natural centre of the world for tea blending, and if precaution 
be taken that all tea leaving the bonded stores is marked as blended tea in 
unmistakable manner, it is not clear how the Ceylon grower can be injured. 
If Java or China teas are required for the market, they will go to HKurope to 
be blended there as easily as they could be sent to Colombo, and in prevent- 
ing the blending of tea here in bond the Ceylon growers seem to prevent the 
creation of an additional market, while Colombo is losing what would probably 
be a lucrative business,” 


Edible Products. 154. 


The Planters’ Association, however, seems to be impervious to all arguments, 
and inits reply to the foregoing letter, makes the following rather lame enquiry: 
“The majority of both bodies are of the opinion that the advantage to be gained 
by allowing the blending of all teas in Colombo is problematical, and the possibility 
of damage to the producers’ interest probable. What precautions are the Govern- 
ment of Ceylon prepared to adopt to prevent inferior teas being imported for 
blending purposes, and what precautions to prevent blends being exported from 
Ceylon as pure Ceylon tea? This, in the opinion of my Committee, would entail the 
establishment of a new department.” The Ceylon Observer, as the oldest and most 
representative journal in Ceylon, is of Sir Henry Blake’s opinions. Our contemporary 
has grasped the full significance of the advantages Ceylon is giving up, and writes: 
‘We are glad to see that on being referred to by Lord Elgin, H.K. Sir Henry Blake 
has pointed out very clearly the fallacy of the ‘pure Ceylon’ tea theory—adhered to 
so closely (and rightly. so in the earlier stages of the industry by the planting 
community). Planters, like the trade, know very well that very little pure Ceylon 
tea goes into consumption as such, or unblended with other tea. If the blending 
were done here, there is no reason to suppose less Ceylon tea would be used; and it 
is known that directly Colombo became a blending centre, there would be more 
buyers and business drawn to this port and greater competition attracted to the 
local market, with increased prompt cash returns. The P. A, Committee, in reply, 
once again ask Government what precautions they will take to prevent blends being 
exported as ‘pure Ceylon.’ The Committee surely know very well by this time that 
this could be secured by expert inspection at the Customs and special warehouses for 
blending in bond, from which all tea exported would be officially stamped and sealed 
as ‘blended.’ Expert inspection at the Customs will also ensure ‘pure Ceylon tea’ 
being exported—-though when %lended with fine Indian it might pass muster! 
The prejudice is too stronz, perhaps, for the present against China and Java teas; 
but surely an experiment could be made by admitting Indian teas free for blending 
in bond. And from how this plan worked could be judged the advisability of 
either reverting to the old (the present) order, or of extending the privilege to 
China, Java and Japan, and of thereby making of Colombo the great central 
tea blending mart for the whole world.” However, the objection against admitting 
Indian tea duty-free is too shadowy, and the advantages of the port of Colombo so 


great, that we need not labour the question any further.—Indian Planting and 
Gardening. 


THE COFFEE INDUSTRY IN BRAZIL. 


LABOUR AND OVER-DEVELOPMENT. 

The State of Sao Paulo, Brazil, has 1,908,000 acres planted in coffee. There 
are 545,000,000 bearing trees and 140,000,000 trees that will come into bearing within 
three years. Sao Paulo has 4,585,000 acres of land suitable for coffee. Four hundred 
and twenty thousand labourers are employed during the picking season. The 
coffee trees are worth $312,000,000. The average yield per 1,000 trees is 2,300 pounds. 


The methods iv use are entirely unlike the Hawaiian practice in coffee 
growing. The picking is deferred until the whole crop of cherries has ripened. 
The labourers then strip the cherry off the branches, allowing fruit, leaves and 
twigs to fall on the ground. When the trees have been stripped, the fruit, with 
dirt, sticks and stones is rakedl into heaps, shovelled into wagons or cars on portable 
track, and transported to a river, stream or flume, to be washed in sluice-boxes. 
These deliver the cherry free from sticks, stones, dirt and rubbish. The cherry is 
then transported to huge, open-air drying floors of cement or clay. The sun-dried 
cherry is run through hulling machinery, graded and polished, and, when bagged, 
is ready for market. Santos coffee may, therefore, be produced and marketed at 
a profit at prices which would drive our Hawaiian growers out of the business. 


155 Edible Products. 


Labour, during the picking season, commands high prices, and there is 
always a shortage during that period. Even paying the higher prices that labour 
commands during the busy season, the Brazilian growers can produce coffee at a 
lower price and still make a profit, because their methods of picking and handling 
the crop are cheaper than ours. The Sao Paulo method is also better adapted to 
the needs of the small individual planter who can market his coffee to the large 
planters and mill owners in the dried cherry, practically the only investment of 
capital, other than his own labour, that is required, being the comparatively small 
cost of a drying floor. 


This simplification of methods is responsible for the enormous over-develop- 
ment of the coffee industry of Brazil. Hundreds of thousands of Kuropean immi- 
grants, German, Italian and Portuguese, have poured into this salubrious, rich and 
well-watered region. As large an area as has been already planted is still available 
for the development of this industry in Sao Paulo alone. Extraordinary induce- 
ments have heen offered by this and other Brazilian States in the way of lands, 
prepaid ocean-transportation, loans to settlers, and in some instances guarantees 
of at least $400 wages per annum. Road and railroad development have kept pace 
with the settlement of the land. 


The price of labour is approaching a parity in all civilized countries within 
the tropics. A land or an industry which has an advantage over other lands and 
industries, through the possession of cheaper labour, more fertile soils, more stable 
government or legislative, and hence artificial protection, can be depended on to 
rapidly bring itself up to the general average because of the universal desire to 
take abnormal profits. Sooner or later and, now-a-days, sooner, the endeavour to 
get out of an industry all there is in it, consequent upon this phase of human nature, 
will bring about over-production. Sometimes there is actual over-production of 
crops resulting in readjustment of prices in the world’s markets, and widespread 
ruin in far distant lands. The synthetic over-production of indigo in Germany 
became a famine factor in India. But modifications in indigo manufacture in 
India have again placed the Indian ryot on a place of fair competition with 
German synthetic manufacturers. 


Again, over-development takes the form of planting a larger area of land 
than can possibly be cultivated by the visible supply of labourers. This was the 
secondary cause of over-production of coffee in Brazil, and is somewhat of a factor 
in Hawaii to-day, affecting the cost of production of sugar. The world-wide 
remedy for this latter phase is to substitute small landowners for the plantation 
system of corporate ownership of land and the employment of labourers in masses. 
This remedy is being applied to relieve the coffee situation in Brazil.—Hawaiian 
Forester, January, 1906. 


THE COCONUT INDUSTRY OF TRINIDAD. 


The important place this industry holds in the resources of Trinidad cannot 
be gauged directly by any official publication of trade statistics. Its products of 
nuts and oil are largely consumed in many different ways locally, and the industry 
being under no legislative restrictions, by which its products would be definitely 
known, it is somewhat difficult to estimate its importance, 


The usual practice in planting coconuts here is to clear and burn the land, 
which is then lined and staked, the stakes being 25 feet apart; holes are dug at 
each stake into which the seed-nut is placed and barely covered with earth. In 
some cases the seed-nuts are imported nuts of known quality, and in others they 
are selected from heaps on the plantation, but these are exceptional cases, and [ 


do not think it is too much to say that sufficient attention is not paid to the 
selection of seed-nuts. 


Edible Products. 156 


{In Ceylon seed-nuts are selected from trees of strong and robust growth, 
and of {middle age, producing large nuts with thick and heavy kernels; the nuts 
ave allowed to mature on the tree, and when picked are lowered by hand and not 
thrown down as is usual here. Nurseries are prepared in good land, in or near to 
the field to be planted, by trenching 18 inches deep and dividing into beds 3 feet 
wide. The seed-nuts are laid side by side onthe beds, and the spaces between 
filled in with earth, after which the beds are covered with grass or straw to the 
depth of 3 inches, and water is applied frequently, especially during dry weather. 
After six months the young plants are removed to other nurseries where they 
are planted 3 feet apart and where high cultivation is concentrated upon them. 
When the plants are from two and a half to three years of age, the whole field 
is cleared, lined, and holed, and the plants from the nurseries are transplanted 
to the positions they will permanently occupy. All nuts which are slow in spring- 
ing in the first nursery are rejected and not replanted into the second, and any 
plants in the second nursery which do not show vigorous growth arealso rejected ; 
so this method gives opportunities for an exceptionally good selection of seed, and 
it is claimed that fields planted in this way are most regular and yield the largest 
number of nuts peracre. The saving effected by not having to keep the whole 
field clean for the three years during which the plants are growing in the nurseries, 
is claimed more than to cover the cost of the nurseries and transplanting three 
year-old plants. 


After planting, the young trees should be kept free from grass and weeds 
until they come into bearing ; here it is usual to keep only such land as is occupied 
by the young trees clean, and this practice has its advantages as it keeps the 
unoccupied land under cover and economises labour. Fields come into general 
bearing here between the ages of from 12 to 20 years, depending upon the quality 
of the land and mode of cultivation, but from the fact that many individual trees 
begin to bear at eight years of age it may be inferred that, with a more careful 
selection of seed and a more liberal system of cultivation, this long period might 
be considerably reduced. 


From the time crops are reaped there is a constant drain of plant food from 
the land, which must be made good somehow, or the ultimately inevitable exhaus- 
tion of this plant food must bring about failure of crops. This exhaustion depends 
upon what part of the produce is removed and not returned to the land, as the husk, 
shell, oil, and meal contain the more important plant foods of the soil in different 
quantities and proportions. Thus, if only oil is shipped from the plantation and the 
meal and ashes of the husks and shells used as fuel are returned to the land, the loss 
will be of little consequence, especially if the meal is fed to stock whose manure 


is utilised. If, on the other hand, the unpeeled nut is shipped the loss 
is great. 


Analysis of the different parts of the coconut show -that 1,000 husked or 
peeled nuts remove from the soil 5:22 lbs. of potash, 4°95 lbs. of nitrogen, 1°60 lbs. of 
phosphoric acid, 1°18 lbs. of sodium chloride, and 0°48 1b. of lime, which suggests 
kainit, basic slag meal, and green soiling with a leguminous plant as a cheap and 
effective system of maintaining the fertility of a coconut plantation. 


Little tillage or manuring has been done hitherte on Trinidad plantations, 
which is probably accounted for by the fertility and suitability of our soils at pre- 
sent under coconuts, and the shortness of time the best plantations and those 
under most intelligent management have been in cultivation; but one has but to 


compare them with some of the older plantations to see what they may come to if 
this is neglected. 


157 Edible Products 


The coconut palm bears all the year, the flowers and mature nuts being seen 
on the same palm at all times, but, as a matter of con venience, generally only two 
pickings per year are made, when only the mature nuts are supposed to be thrown 
down. In Sumatra the Malays have trained baboons to this work so effectively that 
only fully matured nuts are picked, but in Trinidad our more intelligent picker 
knows that the more nuts per tree he picks the fewer will be the number of trees he 
will have to climb, with the result that even under constant supervision a consider- 
able number of immature nuts are picked. As such nuts are inferior for copra or oil 
making, andif shipped depreciate the value of our nuts in the markets, this has 
become a serious problem and one which the highest authorities in Trinidad think 
can be solved only by allowing the trees to drop their nuts, and employing men only 
to free the crowns of the trees once annually of dry spathes, stalks, leaves, and ants’ 
nests. 

The nuts having been picked, they are collected into convenient heaps where 
they are either opened and the kernel removed when copra or oil is to be made, 
or husked and selected if nuts are to be shipped, the kernels being conveyed to the 
drying house or the nuts to the shipping plaee. 


The copra-drying house is similar to the ordinary cacao drying house, and 
the only manipulation required in drying copra is frequently to stir and turn over 
the pieces so that all parts may be exposed to the drying influence of the sun and 
wind. From five to ten days may be required to dry copra thoroughly, the time 
depending upon the sunshine and atmospheric conditions. The problem of arti- 
ficially drying copra is simple compared with that of drying cacao, but from the 
design of some of the artificial drying houses one sees in Trinidad it is aparent that 
it has been misunderstood by many. Heat is of secondary importance, being only 
useful in enabling the large volume of dry air, which is essential, to absorb more 
moisture than it otherwise would in its passage through the copra : whereas, usually, 
heat takes the first place, and ventilation or the means of circulating dry air and 
removing the moist air has been omitted or given a secondary place. 


The process of manufacturing oil from copra is simple, it being necessary 
only to disintegrate the copra soas torupture the oil cells, the meal being then 
placed in bags and subjected to a pressure of about 2 tons to the square inch in 
hydraulic presses until the flow of oil ceases. A high extraction depends upon the 
degree of fineness to which the copra can be reduced, or, in other words, the com- 
plete rupture of all oil cells. Froma plantation’s own copra an extraction of 56 
gallons of oil per ton of copra may be expected, and from ordinary commercial copra 
a fair average extraction would be 158 gallons per ton, and in most plantation oil 
factories the value of the residual meal as a stock food covers the cost of manufac- 
turing oil. 

As a very large proportion of the oil manufactured is sold locally, where the 
demand does not call for a high quality, little attention has been given to refining, 
simple filtration or subsiding being resorted to; but the time will come when 
higher prices will be obtained for oil of high quality, and it would be well for coco- 
nut planters to be prepared to take advantage of them. High-class oil can be made 
cheaply by the use of Fuller’s earth in the filtration of oil made from good copra, 
but good’copra can be made with certainty only by artificial drying, and although 
sun-drying houses will always be useful, an artificial drier can always be run 
economically as an adjunct to an oil factory, and every factory should be equipped 
with one. 


There are good reasons why many of the items exported under the head 
“eoconuts” from other coconut producing countries cannot be so exported here; 
for example, dessicated nut, the manufacture of which requires much cheap labour ; 


Edible Products. 158 


poonac or coconut meal, which is locally consumed: arrack or coconut toddy, 
about which the less said the better, owing to its pernicious effects; but why no use 
has been made of the husk to produce fibre, which is shipped from Ceylon under five 
heads, itis hard tosay. The necessary machinery is simple, as is also that for 
converting the fibre into yarn, rope and mats.—W. Greig, in Colonial Reports 
(West Indies) No 36: 1906. 


Cultivation and Curing of Tobacco. II. 


THE CURING HOUSE. 


A tobacco curing house should be constructed in such a way as will enable 
the operator to shut out very dry and very damp air, when either of the two 
extremes occurs, as it is most essential when tobacco is drying that the atmosphere 
be at all times warm and dry but not of a parching dryness. The non-conducting 
thatched roof, and shutters constructed as in drawing No. 2, with the assistance of 
the door as a means of ventilation, will ensure this. Hach ‘room’ should be 14 feet 
long, with aspace of 3 feet between to enable the workmen to move the bars of 
tobacco from one ‘ barradera’ to the other, and for ventilation. The posts should be 
so arranged that each room of tobacco is supported by four of the stoutest, the latter 
being about 3 feet in the ground. These should be of good durable wood and not less 
than 8 inches in diameter at the top; the two smaller posts support the shutters and, 
to some extent, the roof. The posts that form the central passage (fig. 1) may be 
3 inches to 4 inches in diameter, perfectly straight and smooth. 


A Tospacco CURING House. (Fig. 1.) 


A house of three rooms of the dimensions shown should be capable of drying 
a crop of two acres of tobacco. Having decided how many rooms will be required, the 
first operation in the building is to line off, peg, and dig the holes for the posts; 
when this has been properly started, the barraderas and frames should be made and 


159 Edible Pro-cucts., 


stacked ready for putting into position. The posts are then set up, plumbed and 
lined, half filled in and rammed, then sawn level at the top to a line stretched from 
one end of the house to the other; they are then plumbed again and filled in and 
rammed firm. The next to go up is the 4 inches by 4inches plate; this will have 
been constructed and lightly put together on the ground, so that it can be put up in 
sections ; the splices should always be at the top of a post, and a main one if possible. 
The next to be fixed are the 8 inches by 4inches barraderas (fig. 1) joining the 
4 inches by 4 inches plate at both sides of the house and the main posts; after these 
the barradera frames braced, as shown in fig. 2, the 3 inches by 3 inches scantling at 
the top, then the ends and shutters; after these the roof rafters, the 2 inches by 3 
inches movable barraderas (fig. 1), and then the thatch; and lastly ‘ wattle and clay’ 
the walls. 


A Topacco CuRING HoUsE. (Fig. 2. 


For two acres of tobacco about 350 bamboo bars, 15 feet long and 3 inches in 
diameter, will be required on which to hang the green tobacco, and a good quantity 
of dry ‘“‘Jippi-jappa” thatch heart should be procured for tying the plants in pairs 
preparatory to hanging on the bars. 


CuTtine.—If a careful watch be kept on the field, it will be noticed that some 
few of the plants will begin to ripen; these may not be cut yet until a sufficient 
number has ripened to fill at least ten bars; then go through the whole field and cut 
out all that are quite ripe and those that have not quite finished ripening the top leaf. 


The best time to commence to cut is about three o’clock in the afternoon, and 
continue until dark. The leaves then contain very little moisture, and are, on that 
account, less brittle and less liable to break, and they also dry much quicker than 
when cut in the morning. This, however, may be done only when there is no danger 
of rain falling in the night, as the plants have to remain on the ground until the 
next morning; a light shower will not affect them and heavy rains only do so by 
splashing them with dirt. 

2 


Edible Products. 160 


The best method of cutting is to lay hold of the top of the stem with the left 
hand, bend the plant over a little, and cut it off at the level of the ground, taking 
care not to injure the young ratoons that are springing from below the surface. 
The cut plant may then be turned upside down, and the base of the stem, as far as 
the first good leaf, cut off (at the base of the ripe plant there are usually one or two 
small leaves that are over-ripe, spotted and blistered, and of very little value com- 
mercially). They are then laid on the ground in heaps of three or four plants in 
the interval next to that in which the workman is cutting, each man taking two 
rows, oneach side of him. Whilst it is much better if the plants are allowed to 
remain on the ground all the night, it is more advisable to cut in the morning 
if the weather is at all unsettled; the only difference is that great care is necessary 
to prevent the plants getting scorched when lying on the ground to ‘ quail’; they 
must remain in that position until the leaves have lost their brittleness and have 
become pliable, and as soon as they have reached that state they must be removed 
into the curing house, or some other shady place. If the plants are cut in the after- 
noon, there is no danger of their getting scorched, and they are as pliable as kid skin 
the following morning. There is an idea among the Cubans that the tobacco burns 
better if a heavy dew falls on the leaves after the plants are cut. If the cutting 
is done in the afternoon, do not take the plants from the ground to the house until 
the dew has dried off them, and if it is decided to cut in the morning do not com- 
mence until the dew has disappeared. 


To secure sufficient tobacco for the three days’ cold sweating a cutting right 
through the field should be made every five or six days rather than every day, cutting 
out, of course, only the ripe tobacco; should there be indications of continued rain 
storms, every effort should be made to cut as much ripe and nearly ripe or ‘full’ 
tobacco as possible; if rain happens to fall without due warning, the ripe tobacco 
may be cut during the following day anda half, but if it is not cut by that time it 
must be left, as the moisture has then got up into the plant and turned it green again 
or unripe; in this case the plants must remain in the field until they ripen again. 


When the plants are carried to the house preparatory to tying and hanging, 
they must be spread out as thinly as possible, say, three or four plants deep; for if 
allowed to remain in heaps for more than half an hour, they will ferment, get hot, 
and spoil. It is hardly necessary to point out that the greatest care should be exer- 
cised in the handling of the plants from first to last so as not to break the leaves. 


TYING AND HANGING. 


When all the cut plants have been transferred to the tobacco house, the work 
of tying and hanging should be commenced and continued until the whole has been 
safely hung in pairs upon the bars; the tying material must be passed around the 
stem and under the leaf that is nearest the base and then drawn tight to prevent the 
plant slipping out of the tie. The pairs of plants must be placed at a distance of 
4 inches to 6 inches from each other, so that they just touch without pressure ; a 14-feet 
bar will usually hold from thirty-four to forty pairs of plants. As the bars are filled 
they are packed close together on the lowest barradera and are allowed to remain so 
for three days and nights or seventy-two hours; at the end of this time the bars are 
spread out to a distance of one foot or 15 inches apart; giving the bars a shake to 
separate any leaves that may be sticking together, filling up the top barraderas first, 
one foot avart when the atmosphere is very dry, and 15 inches when moist. In re- 
arranging the bars care should be taken to open out the plants at each end that are 
liable to slide towards the middle of the bar during removal, for if several pairs are 
allowed to remain packed together, fungus will make its appearance and cause what 
is known as ‘sweated’ tobacco. 


161 Ndible Products. 


This is easily recognized when it appears by the black spots that it makes 
on the still half-green leaves, though the really first indication of ‘sweat’ is the 
swelling or thickening of the leaves, their cold, wet feel, and the appearance of mois- 
ture on the surface; these spots increase in size until the whole of the leaf is covered, 
and once this fungus gets a start it will extend its operations into the tobacco that is 
not too closely packed and eventually go through the whole house, The fungus 
breaks down the tissues of the leaves and renders them absolutely useless as cigar 
tobacco, and the very best leaves can in this way be reduced to the status of ‘ fonque.’ 
The fungus will also make its appearance on partially dried tobacco if the weather 
suddenly changes to cold and wet after a fairly long dry spell; if the cold wet weather 
continues for more than a day it will be necessary to procure several old zine buckets, 
knock some holes in them, make charcoal fires and keep moving them about from 
place to place under the tobacce ; but to ensure no smoke reaching the drying tobacco, 
the fires should be started at a distance away from the house and not taken in until 
there is a nice glow. 


If the fungus has been overlooked and has had a good start, it can be stopped 
by removing the affected bars to temporary barraderas erected outside the house, on 
the side that gets the morning sun; three hours’ sharp sun, say, from nine to twelve, 
will be quite sufficient to check it effectually. If bright sun be not forthcoming the 
charcoal fires must be kept going until the atmosphere in the house is too warm and 
dry for the tungus to live. The tobacco that is put out to sun should be taken in on 
the least indication of rain, as the lightest shower will spoil it; on the whole, it is 
much the best to be on the safe side by burning charcoal fires inside the house when- 
ever partially dried tobacco issubjected toacold, damp atmosphere. It must be 
berne in mind, however, that whilst, obviously, it is possible for the atmosphere 
in the house to be too cold and damp, there is also the danger of going to the other 
extreme; whenever hot drying winds prevail all the shutters and doors should be 
closed to prevent the tobacco drying too quickly ; and, on the other hand, they should 
be closed when warm, dry, calm weather changes to cold and wet. 
¢ The last part of the leaf to dry is the base of the midrib, and when it is 
observed that this part of every leaf is dry and shrivelled, the bars may be double 
packed, that is, the pairs of plant may be closed up, so that each bar may carry the 
tobacco that was dried on two bars. The double packed bars can then be placed at a 
distance of 6 inches or 8 inches apart in the room nearest the press. and allowed to 
remain there until taken down to ferment. This rearrangement is best done when the 
leaves are not crisp, but soft and pliable ; dry tobacco becomes crisp when the air is 
very dry and mild after a day’s rain, and sometimes before rain; indeed the softening 
of the leaves isa reliable indication of an approaching storm. 


The closing up of the dry tobacco is necessary for prolonging the final drying 
stages and rendering it less liable to be affected by atmospheric changes, and also 
provides more room and bars for the tobacco that is being brought in from the field 
as the plants ripen. 


PRESSING AND CURING. 


The word ‘press’ conveys to the lay mind an instrument constructed with 
humerous screws for the purpose of exerting pressure upon any substance placed 
under it; in reality the tobacco press is nothing of the kind, but is merely a pile 
(Cuban pilon) of tobacco stacked together to ferment in the same way as a mixture 
of manure and leaves is prepared in England for making hot beds for cucumbers and 
melons. In fact, it may be said that any one who has had experience in the work of 
the forcing department of an English garden could with safety undertake the curing 
of tobacco after seeing one crop cured by a Cuban; or, I may be allowed to hope, by 
following carefully the directions set forth in these notes. For the benefit, however, 


Edible Products. 162 


of the large majority who have not been fortunate enough to have had opportunities 
for observing the changes that occur during vegetable fermentation, it will be neves- 
sary to set down all the details concerning the actual curing of tobacco. 


The press, then, is simply the pile of tobacco; the term, however, is also 
applied by the Anglo-Cuban to the receptacle in which the tobacco is stacked; and 
when he wishes to convey the information that he is about to ferment a ‘pilon’ of 
tobacco, he states that he is going to ‘put press’—to an outsider a most mysterious 
phrase. This receptacle may be made of ordinary deal boards (though cedar is the 
best), lined sides and floor with ‘ jagua,’ the skin or bark stripped from the inner sur- 
face of the broad leaf-sheath or petiole base of the matured and fallen leaves of the 
royal palm (Oreodoxa regia): if a sufficient quantity of this material is not obtain- 
able, a lining of dry banana leaves (trash), some 8 inches thick, will answer almost 
as well. 


A perfectly round press is undoubtedly the best, though a hexagonal or six- 
sided does almost as well and is much easier to construct; if the tobacco house has a 
wooden floor, the sides of the press may be built upon it; if an earth floor, the wooden 
floor of the press must be raised about 6 inches from the ground. It is most conve 
nient to build the press in one of the rooms of the curing house in a part not exposed 
to the wind. It is best under any circumstances to have sufficient banana trash in 
the bottom of the press to cover it to the depth of at least 6 inches when pressed 
down by the weight of the tobacco that is put upon it. The heat that is evolved by 
the fermentation has a tendency to rise towards the top, and, as a consequence, the 
bottom is liable to become chilled, if it is not snugly packed and almost air-tight. 
Whenever tobacco is being fermented and it becomes chilled, fungus is sure to grow. 
The dimensions of the press should be 9 feet in diameter by 5 feet in depth; no ‘ pilon’ 
should be less than 9 feet nor more than 10 feet in diameter, if nicely fermented 
tobacco is required ; about 200 double-packed bars will fill a press of this size. 


The tobacco having come safely through the drying process and the press 
being ready, advantage should be taken of the first opportunity to ‘ put press.’ This 
occurs after a day’s rain, when the leaves lose their crispness and become ‘ mild,’ t.e., 
as soft and elastic as kid skin. The early morning is the best time to begin the work 
of transferring the tobacco from the bars to the press, as everything must be finished 
before the atmosphere is hot and dry enough to make the leaves crisp again. On the 
night following a rainy day all the shutters and doors must be left open to allow the 
moist, dew-laden air to circulate among the plants, and before daybreak in the morn- 
ing all hands should be at work. In preparing the tobacco for the press the pairs of 
plants should be tied into bundles of about twenty (four bundles to a double-packed 
bar) by passing a strand of thatch-leaf along the bar under the strings and tying — 
them together not quite as tightly as it is possible to tie them ; this will allow a loop 
to lay hold of when handling the bundle, and is also convenient in other ways. The 
bundles are then lifted off the bar and handed toa man armed with a mallet-like 
piece of wood with which he gently taps the ends of the stalks, whilst holding the 
bundle under the left arm, until they are quite even; after which he hands the 
bundle to the man who is in the press to stack the tobacco ; the latter gives the bundle 
a good squeeze, and lays it down in the press with the tips of the leaves pointing 
towards the centre and the stalks pressed tight against the wall. When he has filled 
up all round the inside of the wall of the press, he must commence the next layer 
about 18 inches from the wall, and the next about 23 feet or 3 feet from the wall, 
according to the length of the plant, so that the whole of the bottom of the press 
may be covered. When this is done, he is to commence at the wall again and con- 
tinue in the same way as he began, until the press is filled, kneeling on and drawing 
the bundles tightly together as they are put in. A halt, however, must be cried 
when the press is half full for the purpose of inserting the thermometer, or rather 


163 Edible Products. 


the bamboo that is to hold it. The latter should be about an inch in diameter 
(inside), perfectly straight, and should have the partitions between the hollow joints 
cut out with the chisel, after making small window-like apertures on alternate sides 
at the nodes. The bamboo should be long enough to reach the centre of the 
press and should be placed thin end in, with the windows at the sides, for 
if the apertures are turned up and down the tobacco will press into them and 
interfere with the passage of the thermometer when it is taken out to observe the 
temperature. A hole, about 12 inches long and 2 inches in width, should be made in 
the wall of the press through which the bamboo is thrust; the hole is to allow the 
bamboo to sink with the tobacco as the fermentation proceeds. When the press is 
full, the tobacco is to be covered snugly with mats made of corn bags opened up and 
sown together ; one thickness being sufficient in damp weather, two when the air is 
dry. Weights must now be put on to start the heat as quickly as possible; straight, 
smooth logs, about 9 inches in diameter laid closely together all over the top of the 
pilon is the usual method of applying pressure. 


The last thing to be done is to insert the thermometer into the bamboo that 
was placed in the centre of the pilon ; the bulb of the instrument should be packed 
neatly in cotton wool or some such non-conducting material to prevent the mercury 
running down before the temperature has been read. The thermometer may be 
attached to a piece of wire just long enough to reach the end of the bamboo which 
is, of course, the centre of the pilon, care being taken to keep the outer end of the 
bamboo plugged tightly with dry moss or a piece of rag. 


In dry weather, as soon as the thermometer reveals a temperature of 118 F., 
the logs of wood should be removed ; if the atmosphere is damp, they should be 
taken off when 108 F. is reached. The temperature rises much more rapidly during 
wet, thundery weather registering 120 in two days, whilst in dry weather from 
three to seven days are required to secure the same degree of heat. Whilst the 
tobacco is fermenting, small boxes skould be got ready for the purposes of moulding 


the bund of leaves, when stripped from the stalks, into matulas, they should be of 
cedar and constructed as follows :—-: 


Cut three pieces, 2 feet long by 7 inches deep, two for the sides and one for 
the bottom ; cut one piece, 7 inches deep by 7 inches long at the top and 5 inches at 
the bottom, for the one end; these are put together, and when finished the box is 
trough-like and open at one end, the bottom being 5 inches wide inside. Three ordin- 
ary fencing staples are hammered into each side at about 5 inches apart for holding 
the strings of the matula while the box is being filled with the fermented leaves as 
they are stripped. When the thermometer in the press shows temperature of 120 KK. 
stripping should be commenced. The shutters must be closed and all sources of 
draught plugged; banana or bag mats spread over the floor, low rough seats 
arranged around the room, with plenty of spare bag matting for covering the 
matulas when made ; two-thirds of the men should have a box each, and all a supply 
of ‘‘thatch-heart” strings. 


When everything isin readiness, the first few bundles are taken out and 
handed tothe men without boxes who cutall the strings and pick the ‘fonque’ 
leaves from each plant; the plant is then passed along to the man who is to pick 
‘carpa, then on to the ‘tripa’ picker. The carpa man uses three strings to his 
matula, the tripa matulas have two, whilst the fonque is known in future manipula- 
tions by its being tied in small round bundles about one-third the size of a matula. 
As the leaves are stripped they should be laid in the box over the strings with the 
base (the end nearest the stem) against the close end and the tips towards the open 
end. When the box is full, they should be pressed firmly with the open hand and 
the strings tied ; the matula is then turned out, stacked with the others ina warm 


Edible Products. 164 


corner and covered up with big mats. The tobacco in the press must also be kept 
elosely covered when bundles are not beinggot out. The fonque leaves are those, 
one or two, nearest the base of the plant that were overipe and had become badly 
spotted and broken in the tying and hanging; it always follows that the better the 
cultivation and handling the smaller will be the proportion of fonque to the rest of 
the crop; this proportion must, however small, be kept out of the good tobacco. 
The carpa are the perfect leaves and are known by their kid-like texture. 
The workman who picks carpa draws every leaf from end to end between thumb 
and fingers, taking off the soft and perfect leaves and leaving on those that have a 
dryish, stiff feel, which are the tripa leaves. It may here be stated that another 
receptacle will be required of the same dimensions as the first for the accommodation 
of the matulas, another press in fact. The second press should be square, as it is 
more convenient for the neat and close stacking of the square, brick-shaped 
matulas. The two presses Nus. 1 and 2 will be needed for a crop of 3 acres, and for 
each additional 3 acres a matula press must be provided, reserving No. 1 for the first 
fermentation. All the presses must be of the dimensions shown, as, to a large 
extent, the quality of the tobacco depends on the quantity put together to ferment ; 
it may be too much or too little. 

The stripping of the leaves and making into matulas must be done as quickly 
as possible, for if the temperature of the press rises to 130 F., before a quarter of the 
tobacco has been striped, the work is going too slowly, and there is danger 
of the remaining bulk getting too hot, causing what is known as wet tobacco. 
If nearly half the press has been striped when the thermometer shows 1380 the work 
is going right. It should be borne in mind that from the first the tobacco should be 
kept warm and bulked together tightly, never allowing it to remain spread out any 
longer than necessary. It is desirable, therefore, that stripping should be done 
quickly, and the leaves packed into the matula box before they lose their natural 
heat, and that the matulas are packed closely together into No. 2 press and covered. 


Occasionally, a wet leaf will be discovered, and these must never be allowed 
to go into the matulas until after they have been laid out in the shade to dry; this 
is most important as the wet leaves unfailingly cause the growth of fungus, and 
this will spread through all the adjacent leaves and spoil the lot. 


When the whole of the pilon has been picked it will be seen that the 
resulting matulas occupy about a third of the space that the bundles took up, 
and if then the matulas are spread over the bottom of press No. 2, there will not be 
sufficient depth to retain the existing heat, much less generate more; in other 
words, fermentation will cease. It therefore becomes necessary to re-arrange the 
matulas and make them up into a neat cube in the snuggest corner of the press. This 
may be done by the aid of boards kept in position by props from the sides of the 
press, remembering to put a layer of banana trash between the tobacco and the 
boards, and to do the work quickly. The fonque may be packed on the top or kept 
separate until it is sold, no more attention being given itin the way of curing. As 
soon as there is sufficient tobacco dry. another pilon should be fermented and the 
matulas packed firmly into the space between the wall and the cube of matulas in 
No. 2'press, taking away the boards andtrash; the next lot that is fermented jus 
about filling the press. A thermometer should be placed at the centre, as in No. 1 
press, and should be read once aday; it will then be observed that heat is not 
generated as quickly as in press No. 1, requiring some two and a half or three weeks 
before the temperature arrives at 123 or 130 F. When the latter figure is reached, 
the whole pilon must be taken out and repacked, turning the bulk upside down and 
inside out. The room must be closed, mats spread over the floor, and the work done 
quickly. Four heaps should be made, one of the top matulas, one of the outside, one 
of the middle, and one of the bottom; this ensures accuracy in repacking. The 


165 Edible Products. 


matulas are then stacked as closely as possible in the press again (remembering the 
thermometer) and carefully covered as before with the corn-bag mats. This time the 
temperature will rise even more slowly, but will eventually reach 120 to 130 and go 
as gradually down again; if, however, wet weather prevails for some time the 
temperature will rise quickly, and, if the tobacco is not taken down and re-stacked, 
would probably go over the mark, 7.¢., 130, and spoil; andif left long enough would 
catch fire. When the temperature of press No. 2 has risen and fallen as described, 
the tobacco must be allowed to remain undisturbed until the whole crop has 
been through the same processes when the classing is commenced; beginning, in 
a large plantation, with press No. 2, No.8, and soon. The ‘classing’ of the crop 
is for the guidance of the manufacturer who buys it. 


CLASSING. 

This operation isa very important one, and requires considerable practice 
before it can be done at profitable speed; it entails the handling and inspec- 
tion of every leaf. Six classes are made, three of carpa and three of tripa:— 
carpa larga, carpa mediana, and carpa courta; tripa larga, tripa mediana, and tripa 
courta; meaning respectively long, medium, and short wrappers, and ditto fillers. 

As before mentioned, the tobacco is classed roughly when taken out 
of the first press and made up into matulas, square bundles some five inches 
or six inches thick; now, after the last slow fermentation, the matulas are 
opened up and the leaves made up into ‘manitas’—small, neat bundles that 
can easily be encircled by the thumb and forefinger (about forty leaves) at the 
place in which it is tied, 7.e., about one and a half inches from the base end; this time 
exercising greater care in the selection of the leaves. It will then be found that, 
owing to the rapidity with which the stripping had to be done after the first 
fermentation, some tripa leaves had crept into the carpa matulas and carpa into the 
tripa matulas. It might appear that the first rough classing is unnecessary, 
since the leaves have to be carefully gone through a second time; in practice, 
however, it is not so. If it were not that, a carpa matula contained mostly 
carpa, or that a tripa matula could not be depended on to yield 90 per cent. of tripa, 
a large number of leaves would be exposed to the air unnecessarily, and this 
exposure means loss of aroma. The work of classing and making manitas must, 
therefore, be so arranged that the leaves are exposed as little as possible. 


A broad table is erected in one of the rooms around which the workmen 
are seated; those on one side take each a tripa matula and those on the other take 
the carpa; the former when classing and making up, put out the carpa, and 
the latter the tripa, these being gathered every few minutes by the man at 
the end of the table who makes them up. A few fonque leaves will also turn 
up and must be relegated to that despised pilon at the other end of the house. In 
making up the manitas all the leaves must be placed, so that the bases are even 
and that the surface or face of each leaf is turned in towards thecentre; they should 
be neatly rounded off and tied with a strip of thatch-heart. As they are finished 
they are quickly packed away closely ina small improvised pilon, carpa on one side 
and tripa on the other; and at the end of the day, carpa and tripa are weighed off 
separately and stacked neatly side by side in rows, with the heads of the second 
row of manitas covering about one-fourth of the width of the first, in press No. 
‘1, which is now empty, as the whole of the dry tobacco has been fermented. 

If the matulas, after having undergone the long, slow fermentation, have 
become somewhat dry on the press being opened for classing, they should be 
treated in the following manner :— 

Without disturbing a leaf, the surface of the tobacco in the press should 
‘be lightly sprayed witha mixture made up of loz. of essence of peppermint to 


Edible Products. 166 


1 gallon of water, then covered with one thickness of corn-bag mat, and over this 
guinea grass (that has lain spread out in the shade for one day) packed closely 
to the depth of about 3 inches or 4 inches. Two days after, on the remova 
of the grass, the tobacco will be in excellent condition for handling and _ class- 
ing. The peppermint counteracts the smell of the grass, and if, as the tohacco 
is taken out and a fresh surface exposed it is found to be dry, it will be necessary to 
allow the grass to remain, spraying as lightly as before with the mixture at the end 
of each day, until the whole is classed. Some cigar manufacturers who use 
native wrappers in preference to Sumatra insist on the carpa leaves being classed 
according to their various colours :— 


Claro sae light yellow 
Colorado claro oe brownish yellow 
Colorado ee brown 

Colorado maduro ae dark brown 
Maduro a dark 


but as the use of the Sumatra wrapper is rapidly gaining ground, the classing by 
colour will soon be unknown in Jamaica, the native wrapper being used as the 
binder’ (Cuban ‘capoti’) which is the layer of tobacco between the ‘filler’ of 
the cigar and the wrapper.—Imperial Department of Agriculture, W.TI. 


(To be continued.) 


THE SUGAR INDUSTRY OF THE PHILIPPINES. 


There has been a general disposition to ridicule the Philippine sugar 
industry and to consider it impossible of development, excepting by the intro- 
duction of American capital and American methods. We think this is hardly fair 
when we consider that in Cuba, under the domination of Spain, the sugar crop 
was brought up to a total of about a million tons before the Spanish war, and that 
in 1893 the Philippines exported 261,537 tons, while Louisiana, in the same year, 
made about 265,836 tons. 


We give below in parallel columns the respective sugar crops of Louisiana 
and of the Philippines for three decades, beginning with 1868, directly after the 
civil war, and ending with 1898, the year of the Spanish war. The Louisiana 
crops are taken from Bouchereau’s Report, which gives the total crop in Louisiana 
in long tons for the years enumerated. The data for the Philippine crops is from 
the evidence given in by Mr. Willett of Willett & Gray, in the tariff hearings in 
Washington, and is the record of the sugar exported from the Philippines, the 
total crop for the years named being probably 5 to 10 per cent. greater than this 
record. It will be noticed that there is considerable parallelism between the crops 
of the Philippines and Louisiana for the years given, and that it was only in the 
year 1893 that Louisiana began to surpass the Philippines in sugar production. It 
will also be noted that the total production for the thirty-one years under con- 
sideration, 1868 to 1898, inclusive, was 673,000 long tons greater for the Philippines 
than the production in Louisiana during the same period. If we add 6 per cent. 
to the production of the Philippines for home consumption, the record of these 
three decades would show that the production of the Philippine Islands was 
a million tons greater than the sugar production of Louisiana during the same time. 


The Philippine sugar industry had attained as great progress as had that of 
Cuba. It was well organized, as such tropical industries were then organized, 
and the Philippine sugar product was one of the important factors in the markets 
of the world. The American exploiters of the Philippines endeavoured to deride 
this industry and to refer to the quaint little mills and queer old-fashioned 
devices in use among the smaller sugar producers as though they were typical, 


167 Hdible Products. 


whereas the sugar industry of the Philippines has for 75 years been well organized 
and always progressive. The maple sugar industry in the Philippines seems to 
exist there in a miniature sort of way, but to have no particular status as a 
factor in the sugar world, and is to be regarded rather as an agricultural curio, 
a reminiscence of the old Spanish days in the far interior, just as some of us can 
recall now our boyhood experiences in equally quaint maple sugar establishments 
in the Northern States of the Union. 

The sugar crop of Louisiana has become an important factor in the sugar 
world, opening as it does the cane sugar markets of the western world every 
autumn, and setting the pace in the way of prices. That the Philippine sugar 
industry should be a larger one than that of Louisiana will be a surprise to many 
of our readers, and when we reflect that from the data brought out in Washington 
during the recent Philippine tariff discussions, it was shown that the islands 
were capable of producing many millions of tons of sugar per annum, we can 
readily perceive the disastrous results that the free admission of Philippine 
sugar into the United States, or any material abatement in the present tariff 
on Philippine sugar, would bring to our domestic sugar industry. 

The tabular statement of the product of Louisiana and of the exports of the 
Philippines from 1868 to 1898, inclusive, is given below in long tons :— 


Year. Louisiana. The Philippines. Year. Louisiana. The Philippines. 
1868 ses 42,617 dot 74,080 1884 sae 94,372 vee = 122,925 
1869 fe 44,382 ue 68,827 1885 ss» 127,058 so | ae OL 
1870 a 75,369 Sie 78,212 1886 as 80,858 .. —: 182,185 
1871 ee 65,635 on 87,465 1887 .. 157,970 -. 159,146 
1872 ou 55,891 dpe 95,526 1888 we: 144,878 «» 181,256 
1873 se 46,078 ac 89,338 1889 vw» 128,348 «218,925 
1874 abt 60,100 .. 108,862 1890 w. = 215,848 we =: 147,521 
1875 on 72,958 w. =: 126,188 1891 .. 160,937 .. 166,410 
1876 a 85,102 .. 180,480 1892 .. 201,816 .. 246,141 
1877 a 65,835 ». 122,411 1893 ... 265,836 «» 261,537 
1878 ... 106,909 -- 117,926 1804 .» 317,306 ... 192,409 
1879 e3 88,836 ... 134,804 1895 ree 370) .. 226,168 
1880 .« 121,886 ..» 180,748 1896 .. 282,009 ae 224,775 
1881 50 71,804 we = 211,417 1897 w» 310,447 «-- 202,078 
1882 .. 186,167 1.  150;998 1898 . 245,511 » 178,347 
1883 sn 123,318 ... 215,236 —— 


Total ... 4,234,191... 4,907,077 
—The Louisiana Planter, April 21, 1906. 


SUGAR-CANE GROWING IN TRINIDAD. 


Cane farming in Trinidad seems to be prospering, notwithstanding the 
incidental difficulties that come in the way of the development of any new industry. 
And when we note that the beet sugar factories won’t go into the business unless 
they can secure a pledge of a beet supply, we are led to wonder why cane sugar 
factories should ever be reluctant about contracting for the farmers’ supply of 
canes, always provided the prices are reasonable and that the cane is offered under 
practicable conditions, 


A recent issue of the Port of Spain Gazette, referring to the cane harvest 
in Trinidad, says that the farmers’ canes flow in abundance to the factories, and 
so much so, that some of them have had to check the supply. At one particular 
factory 300 carts, heavily laden, were there at one time awaiting discharge. This 
delay in taking the canes had led some of the farmers to go to more distant 
factories, seeking a market, they being entirely unwilling to wait their turn at 
other factories nearer home, 

22 


Hdible Products. 168 


Our confréres in Trinidad will hardly ever get this matter satisfactorily 
settled until they adopt some plan of percentage delivery. For instance, if the 
prospective campaign should be one of a hundred working days, then the cane 
farmers, to be placed upon an equality with the planter’s own supply of cane, 
should be allowed to deliver one per cent. of his crop on each working day. A 
party with 100 tons from this point of view could only deliver one ton per day. 
When the deliveries are made very small they may become unremunerative to the 
farmer, owing to the difficulty that he would have in organizing his domestic force 
for so small a delivery, In that case local farmers could be taught to club together 
and work for each other, exchanging in kind or for price. In this way, a farmer 
restricted to but one ton delivery per day, joining with four others, they 
unitedly could deliver five tons from one of the party each day, and in five days 
complete the circle of deliveries and giving the same results to the factory. 


We have been led to infer that some of the opposition that has developed 
in Trinidad to the cane farming industry has been from the fact that the cane 
farming diverted a considerable amount of good labour from the planting industry 
over into the cane farming industry, andthe interference was so great as to be 
considered actually injurious. This may be the case in Trinidad, but, as referred 
to above in the instance of the beet sugar factories, so it is with most factories. 
They won’t go into business unless they have assurances of a competent supply of 
the raw material to handle. The margin in the production of sugar to-day is so 
small that an immense supply of cane is required, and experience in Louisiana and 
in Cuba has shown that the development of the cane farming industry is an 
essential feature of the central factory idea in sugar production.—The Louisiana 
Planter, 


GUAVA FRUIT PULP. 


Although the remarkable fecundity and capacity for reproduction of the 
guava has earned for this plant an unenviable reputation almost equal to that 
bestowed upon the less useful lantana, for taking possession of pasture land, yet 
there is very little doubt that if properly attended to, a very profitable return might 
be derived from the fruit. In many of the outlying districts of the islands, upon 
land which has either been abandoned to this plant and those of similar capacity for 
encroachment, or upon tracts which have heretofore been uncultivated on account of 
their sterility, enormous quantities of wholesome fruits are allowed to go waste. This 
might all be used to profitable advantage if a system of fruit-pulping were intro- 
duced similar to that which is employed in many of the agricultural districts of 
France. The general scope of the method suggested is for the local growers or pickers 
to preserve the guava pulp in large containers, by an inexpensive and simple plan, 
and in this form to send it to a central jelly factory for future use. 


The pulping is in France usually conducted on a large scale, but it should also 
be as easily and advantageously carried on with smaller quantities of fruit. The 
apparatus used consists merely of a copper panand a metal tank. The fruit to be 
pulped should, after removal of the rind, be placed in the copper pan and heated to 
boiling, during which process it should be continually stirred with a wooden spoon. 
After boiling for a sufficient time it should then be emptied into tin containers which 
are soldered up. The tins are then removed to the metal tank in which they are 
immersed in boiling water for about twenty minutes. During this process, if any of 
the tins are not sufficiently soldered it will be detected, and in this case they must be 
removed, The quality of the product depends on the degree of cleanliness observed, 
in the care which is exercised to prevent burning during the process of boiling, in the 
kind of tins employed and in the manner of soldering. If thoroughly cleansed kero- 


t 


169 Edible Products, 


sene tins could be employed, the cost of producing the fruit, to which must be added 
the freight toa central factory, should not be more than from $1:75 to $2:15 per 
hundred pounds. The best quality of pulp is obtained in France by steam heating 
instead of fire directly applied to the pans. This method is desirable in the more 
delicate kinds of fruit, such as the apricot and peach, but it should not be necessary 
in the guava if sufficient care is taken. Asa rule a small tjuantity of water, varying 
with the kind of fruit used and which may be easily determined, is added to the 
pulp to assist in preventing burning. There seems in this proposed industry to be a 
splendid field for a man of small capital to establish a central jelly factory in Hono- 
lulu, and to supply it with fruit pulp from a few pulping plants situated in favourable 
districts.—The Hawaiian Agriculturist. 


THE MANUFACTURE OF SAMSHU (CHINESE SPIRIT) FROM 
SORGHUM VULGARE. 


This industry is largely carried on in North China and Manchuria, and 
in a lesser degree all over China. The process, though intricate in detail and not 
easily described, is really very simple. Briefly, the main points are as follows :—The 
sorghum grain is first crushed, then moistened, and a quantity of the ferment agent 
ground fineis thoroughly mixed withit. The mixture is then put into concrete 
pits, and trampled firmly layer upon layer. When the pit is full it is covered 
over with boiling husks or chaff, and a layer of adhesive clay is spread 
over all, (These pits are usually 10 feet deep, 7 feet long, and 2} feet broad, and 
capable of holding 1,680 1b. of grain.) The clay forms an air-proof cover, beneath 
which the chemical changes antecedent to distillation proceed. Great heat is gener- 
ated, and from time to time an opening is madein the clay cover and aniron bar 
thrust to the bottom of the pit to test the state of the mixture, and to allow of the 
escape of superfluous gases. 


After 18 days the mixture has undergone sufficient chemical change, and is 
ready for the first distillation; the grain is partially decomposed, and has a sweet 
spirituous taste. The grain is now moved from the pit, and placed in a wooden 
steamer fitted with a lid having a round opening in the top, whereon rests a conden- 
ser with its overflow pipe and draining-tube. This steamer is fixed to a grating rest- 
ing over the top of an iron pan filled to within a foot of the steamer with water. A 
fire is then started beneath the iron pan, and, as the water boils, the steam passes up 
through the spirit-laden grain, vaporising and carrying with it the spirit to the 
bottom of the condenser, whence it trickles down the draining tube to the receiver. 
The condenser is filled with cold water, and as this gets heated and escapes through 
the overflow pipes a fresh supply is added. After two hours the whole of the spirit 
has passed over, and the contents of the steamer are removed and re-packed in an 
empty pit for a further period of 18 days, when they are ready for a second distil- 
lation. Four or five distillations are made ere the grains are finally flung to the pigs, 
a certain quantity of fresh grain being added for the second and third distillations. 
The quantity of spirit yielded by one stilling, in which 1,680 Ib., of grain are used, 
averages about 650 Ib. 

The spirit is tested by adding water, and watching the quantity of froth 
which forms when the mixture is shaken; if one-fifth of its weight can be added 
to the liquor without considerable froth forming it is considered ‘ proof spirit. 
Rectification is unknown in the distilleries, but a more palatable and stronger 
liquor may be procured in medicine shops, where re-distillation on a small scale 
is practised. 


The Samshu is packed in earthenware jars carefully stoppered with clay 
and also in wicker baskets lined with tough paper. The ferment used is made in 
summer by mixing barley and peas in the proportion of three of barley to one of 


Edible Products. 170 


peas. The mixture is coarsely ground, and water added until a consistency of 
putty is reached. It is then pressed firmly into wooden moulds in size and shape 
like brick-moulds. The ‘bricks’ are then piled 4 to5 feet high. ina room just as 
are bricks in a kiln, with interstices for the free passage of air. The room is kept 
at an equable temperature, and draughts are rigorously excluded. Fungoid growth 
soon appears, and the correct temperature being maintained, gradually permeates 
the whole brick. About forty days are necessary to complete the culture. When 
properly dried and stored, these ferment-bricks retain their active properties tor 
four to five years. 

The above methods are those employed in North China and Manchuria, and 
I would refer those in search of further detail to ‘‘ Manchuria; Its People, Resources, 
and Recent History,” by Alex. Hosie, published by Methuen & Co. 

In Western China, especially Szechuan, considerable quantities of Samshu 
are manufactured, but here, unkusked barley, maize, and sorghum in equal 
proportions and all mixed together are used. Rice-husks are added in the propor- 
tion of one part to twenty of the mixture. This mixture is first well steamed for 
an hour; then piled in heaps on aclean concrete floov, and boiling water added 
liberally. It is allowed to remain in these heaps until fairly dry, when it is 
spread over the floor, and pulverised ferment is thoroughly mixed with it. The 
whole mixture is next put into a concrete pit and covered over with clay. 
In this pit it remains for a month (being occasionally examined by aid of an iron 
bar) and is then ready for distillation. 

The process of distillation is similar to that detailed above. Four distil- 
lations are made, at intervals of a month, a small quantity of fresh grain and rice- 
husks being added for the second and third stillings. The quantity of spirit yielded 
by this mixture is much less than is obtained from the pure Sorghum in Manchuria, 
but of a stronger nature. The ferment used in the West of China is prepared from 
wheaten flour.—Uardeners’ Chronicle. 


EXTRACTS FROM TRADE REPORT, LONDON, JUNH, 1906. 
CAMPHOR.—Firmer for Japanese refined tablets, sales at from 3s. 7d. to 3s. 9d. 
CHILLIES.—Lower at auction: 200 bales of ordinary dark mixed Mombasa were 

offered without reserve, of which only 20 bales sold at 16s. 6d. 


CLOVES.—At auction 55 bales Zanzibar were offered and bought in at 74d. per. lb for 
fair; 5 boxes Ceylon offered and solid at 103d. for good picked and 9id. 
for dark. 

PEPPER.—Fair white Singapore at auction was bought in at 734d, and a few bags 
good Ceylon realised 63d. to 7d.—Chemist and Druggist, June, 1906. 


171 


SCIENTIFIC AGRIGULTURE. 


THE IMPORTANCE AND NECESSITY OF SEKED SELECTION. 


Many and varied are the conditions under which agricultural practice is 
carried on. Plants are as dependent on food and air for existence as animals, and 
the more highly specialised the plant, the greater the need for care and attention. 
Never should we forget that by subjecting plants to high cultivation for our own 
ends, we have made them constitutionally more delicate. Besides, we have upset 
the balance of nature by establishing hundreds of thousands of plants, of the same 
order, at the same stage of growth in close proximity. Therefore when insect pests 
and fungoid diseases begin to work in our midst, they have every chance to play 
havoe. All crops as at present cultivated have undergone great development under 
the guidance of man, so that there is ever present the tendency to degenerate or 
revert to their original condition. This inclination is counteracted by growing 
the plants in a suitable soil and climate under good cultivation, but most of all, 
by careful selection of the seed. This fact should be firmly impressed upon the 
minds of all those interested in economic plant life, as it cannot possibly be 
overestimated. 


In many countries we have large numbers of trustworthy seed-merchants 
whose very existence depends upon being able to supply customers with proved 
seeds for every kind of crop. Very often something really excellent is brought out. 
This is named and put on the market ata fancy price. In this country seedsmen 
in the ordinary way are non-existent, so that each planter is thrown more or less 
on his own resources for the supply of seed for the various crops. This in itself is 
a blessing in disguise, provided the present indifference and inaction gives place to 
strenuous efforts being made by each and all for the production of good seed. 
The older agriculturists talked loud and continually about the desirability of often 
chinging the seed. This undoubtedly had many advantages, and under the old 
orler usually increased returns were obtained by its adoption. The reason, 
however, is not far to seek. These farmers of olden times grew crops year after 
year without any idea of saving the best of the crop for the following season. 
They expected the yield to dwindle, unless plenty of cultivation was put into the 
soil, and this supplemented by ample dressings of manure. But the remedy was 
at hand. They could purchase approved seed for their whole area at almost a 
moment’s notice. They understood thoroughly what they were doing, and were 
far-seeing enough to take into full consideration the conditions under which the 
p:uwehased seed had been grown. A later generation of farmers, whilst convinced 
of the advisability of changing the seed, did not do it quite so often, and they 
worked under a different system. They bought the best seed obtainable in suffi- 
cient quantity to sow an area, the crop from which would give seed to plant up 
what was required in the following year. This newly-introduced seed was grown 
on the best land and given every chance. It isan excellent practice in many ways. ° 
The outlay for seed is relatively small, whilst one year’s growth in the district 
accustoms the plant to that particular soil and climate. Also, if the yield isin any 
way unsatisfactory, that variety can be discarded, and a fresh one substituted 
at a minimum of loss. When the live-stock question was under discussion, every 
one acceded that the introduction of new blood of the best kind into the herd was 
absolutely essential if vigour and stamina were to be maintained. But then it 
was acknowledged that the best animals were bred on the spot, and could not be 
purchased at any price. This was because care had been taken in the selection and 
mating of the animals. 


Scientific Agriculture. 172 


This idea ought to be carried into the domain of plant life. A frequent 
change of seed may be highly desirable and profitable under some conditions, but it 
is ridiculous and unsatisfactory in every way fora grower to change his seed year 
by year. Ample proof has been given over and over again that in any particular 
district seed can be produced by selection, which for vitality, immunity from 
disease, and crop producing qualities, far excels that of any variety suddenly 
dumped down from outside sources. The older growers exercised no care whatever 
regarding their seeds, so that the manifold advantages of changing the seed were, 
in their particular case, very evident. 


Cotton is the crop in which we are at present most interested, but the 
methods to be described are applicable to every crop under cultivation. For the 
production of high quality and big yields, failure can be the only result if the best 
seed be not sown, no matter how good the cultivation or liberal the manuring. We 
are all cognisant of the methods adopted to improve, or even to keep up to standard, 
any herd of animals. The weak and puny are eliminated, and quality is the one 
aim kept in view. The advantages are evident, even to theman in the street. 
Carry this conception into the plant world, and it will be seen that if any variety 
of plant is to be kept vigorous, we must try to keep the scraggy weaklings from 
propagation. This is our only hope if we wish paying crops. Below are some of 
the methods at present adopted for improving crops, many of which can be carried 
out by the ordinary farmer. 


(1.) Reserve the best part of the crop for seed. (2.) Wewmay keep back for 
seed purposes the biggest and best developed seed from the whole crop. (3.) Sponta- 
neous types or sports may be found differing completely from the other plants. 
If these have superior qualities the seed should be treasured and carefully planted 
out next growing season. (4.) By raising plants from seedsinstead of from buds. 
(5.) By raising plants from seeds instead of wnderground stems. (6.) By cross- 
fertilisation or hybridisation. 


(Il.) THE SAVING OF THE BEST PART OF THE CROP FOR SEED. 


The commonest way adopted is to reserve a certain area for seed purposes. 
This is given full opportunities for good development, and the resulting crop is 
kept back entirely for next season’s sowing. Another method, and no less com- 
mendable, is to go over the growing crop and note any particular areas of great 
promise. The seed from the selected portions is carefully set apart for next year’s 
crop. But neither of the above is sufficient if we wish to progress on the right lines. 
For example, we wish to develop varieties of cotton which, above all its other 
qualities, must be an early ripener. What system should we adopt to attain that 
end? We must collect the early ripening bolls, and after ginning this cotton by 
itself, reserve the seed for the propagation of the crop. That this is sound and 
efficacious has been demonstrated times without number. Perhaps the best object 
lesson in this respect is to be found in a careful study of Sea Island cotton which 
to-day stands pre-eminent. Long ago when cotton seed was first introduced into 
that district it failed to give a crop in its first season. Whe plants died down, but 
in the spring of the next year grew up and managed to ripen a few bolls before the 
end of the second season. The seeds from these were again planted with great care. 
The method was assiduously followed up until to-day we find the Sea Island cotton 
ripening its crop in one season. And not enly so, but, in the meantime, the length, 
strength and fineness of the product have been enormously improved, so that now-a- 
days it is unequalled on the market. Perhaps a more homely illustration will add 
weight to what has preceded. The progenitor of such diverse plants as the turnip, 
cabbage, cauliflower, kohl-rabi, etc., was one and the same, growing in its natural 
habitat on the sea-shore. But man stepped in and by persistent and continued 


173 Scientific Agriculture. 


guidance has evolved totally different plants. Root development has given us the 
turnip, a collection of flowers the cauliflower, whilst the cabbage is merely an 
accumulation of leaves. It needs no epicure to distinguish them when cooked for 
the table, or one deeply versed in horticulture to label them whilst growing in the 
garden. Their characteristics are so definite and distinct. But take the seeds of 
the above plants, and an expert would come to grief in his attempt at classification. 
The reason for this being that the efforts of cultivators have been directed to 
making modifications in the plants themselves, and have overlooked or neglected 
the seed entirely. 


If we wish to select seed from our cotton crop let us be certain that the 
plants now growing are from pure seed and not mixed in any way. Egyptian seed 
at the present time is far from pure. You cannot buy pure Affifi seed and be 
certain that no other varieties are present. This is easily accounted for. In Egypt 
large ginning factories have been established where different varieties of cotton are 
dealt with. Mixing of seed can easily take place, either at the gins, or in the riddles 
where the seed is separated if required for sowing purposes, the small and broken 
seeds being rejected. Thus after one variety of cotton has been through the 
machinery, unless great care is taken to clean up all the seed, mixing follows when 
the next kind is being dealt with. 


It must also be remembered that much mixing takes place on the farm, 
where two or even more varieties are often grown. This mixing may take place 
in picking or by being put in the same store. In resowing for blanks mistakes 
are also prevalent, a different variety being used to the one originally sown. Also 
a certain amount of crossing takes place when different varieties are grown near 
each other. Can we wonder then that seed is often badly mixed, because, if 
growers take no pains to keep the varieties separate, no amount of care at the 
ginning factories can produce pure seed. 


For seed purposes the ideal condition is for each grower to gin his own seed. 
In Egypt this system has not been followed, with the result that mixed seed is 
found everywhere. Even to-day a big percentage of seeds belonging to an old 
native variety, called Hindi, is found in every consignment of Egyptian seed. Both 
‘plant, seed, and fibre are readily recognised. Needless to say, it was found in all 
the British Central Africa plantations, and its true value and significance have 
been pointed out to all cotton growers. The plant is hardy, grows like a bush, 
with plenty of promise as regards fruit. Its leaves are smoother and more circular 
than the other varieties. The bolls are divided in four sections. Egyptian and 
Sea Island cottons have three only. Its fibre is white, very short, and the lint is 
practically filled with seeds. This can easily be demonstrated by taking a ripe 
boll and pressing it between the fingers. The seeds are black, rather triangular 
and are provided with a sharp point. The lint leaves the seed entirely, whilst a 
tuft always remains on true Egyptian seed. The plants should always be uprooted 
when recognised. If it matures, the cotton should be ginned and sold separately, 
and none should ever be kept for seed purposes. This is very essential, or otherwise 
with its prolific and hardy qualities in a few years plantations would be filled 
with this rubbish, and growers would be happy under the mistaken assurance 
that they were growing Egyptian cotton. 


In America some years ago whole fields of young cotton were destroyed by the 
wilt disease. Some observant planters noticed that occasionally a plant remained. 
These they reared and preserved with until now disease resisting varieties are 
on the market, and what promised to be dire calamity to the planting interest 
has been averted. Perhaps, if the coffee plant had been taken in hand in the 
same way, different results would now be seen in the Highlands. Everything 


Scientific Agriculture. 174 


points to the fact that coffee with careful selection could be made to flourish on 
the heavily impregnated iron soils, which are so abundant in this country. Investi- 
gators at the present time are devoting their energies in many directions. Many 
are working to establish and fix a type of cotton plant which will ripen its bolls at 
the same time. This is to lessen the expense of picking, which in many places 
constricts the area and diminishes profits. If this object is successful, it is hoped 
to bring forward machinery to take the place of the slow and laborious drudgery 
of hand-picking. 

It is well known that the seed of American cotton as a rule is covered with 
short lint. This occasions great difficulty in ginning by the roller gin, in fact, 
in that country the saw gin isin universal use. This gin breaks and twists the fibre 
so that its value is very much lessened. They are selecting lint-free seed from 
ordinary plants and even crossing the existing varieties with smooth-seeded 
varieties like Egyptian. In this way they hope to develop an Upland cotton which 
can be easily ginned by the roller gin and so increase its market value. Strenuous 
efforts are also being made to develop early ripening varieties of cotton. These are 
for cultivation in the northern districts where the growing season is_ short. 
It has also been found that to counteract the ravages of the boll-weevil, early 
ripening varieties are the planters’ only hope, where the pest is troublesome. 


A comparatively simple method of selection, which could be undertaken by 
everyone, is as follows:—Train six or eight men to distinguish healthy well- 
developed trees from the others. Before the general area is picked, send these 
men to gather the crop from the trees thus fitted for seed production. Well-branched 
and not spindly or leggy trees should be chosen. If possible, the pickers should 
know something about quality, yield and early ripening. If under careful super- 
vision, the seed from the cotton thus gathered will give results far superior to 
that from the general crop. Another way is to purchase a small quantity of 
the best seed and give it every care, reserving the resulting seed for the general area 
under cotton the next year. 


(2.) THe KEEPING BACK FOR SEED PURPOSES OF THE BIGGEST AND 
Brst DEVELOPED SEEDS. 


The keeping back for seed purposes of the biggest and best developed seeds 
from the whole crop is a step in the right direction. But it does not go far enough. 
It, however, ensures that the seed contains a supply of nourishment sufficient 
to give the young plant a good start in life, and to tide it over any early 
struggles for existence. 


(8.) SPONTANEOUS TYPES OR SPORTS. 


Spontaneous types or sports frequently occur in plant life. These differ 
greatly from the surrounding plants, and if the qualities of the product are in 
any way superior, the type should be propagated and tended until it becomes 
fixed. Sports result chiefly from natural crossing in the field or from the influence 
of soil, climate, and cultivation on that particular plant. Most of the Egyptian 
varieties of cotton have been developed from plants such as those found by observant 
cultivators. It is said that a single oat plant found growing in a potato field 
in Scotland was the original of the popular potato oat which at one time had 
such a wide vogue. 

METHODS 4 AND 5. 


Methods (4) and (5) may be taken together. They are of great use to 
the scientist and horticulturist. New varieties of potatoes are raised from seed 
instead of planting the tuber, whilst date palms are raised also from seed instead 
of planting the suckers. In grafting we take the bud from one tree to another 
to work out our own ends in the improvement of the produce. 


175 Scientific Agriculture. 
(6.) By Cross-HERTILISATION OR HYBRIDISATION. 

Our greatest hopes in plant development are focussed on this method. An 
ordinary planter could not be expected to carry it out, so little space will be devoted 
to it. Just as breeders of live-stock wil) cross a Shorthorn bull with a native 
cow, so plant breeders develop hybrids from two different plants. In this way 
they hope to combine and fix the best qualities of both plants in a single specimen. 
In every part of the world much work is being done on this method of plant 
improvement as its possibilities are so great. Hven the good properties of some 
weeds are being utilised, and it needs little imagination to picture what might be 
accomplished by systematic and judicious plant breeding. In America crosses are 
being tried between Sea Island and the Upland cottons, and also with the Egyptian 
varieties, whilst in India the native varieties of cotton are being crossed with the 
better exotic varieties. 


In Great Britain a wonderful work has been done on this subject with 
grasses and cereal crops. It has been thought advisable to include an abstract 
of an article which gave full details of the methods adopted by the best growers 
of Sea Island Cotton. This description was from the able pen of Professor Herbert 
J. Webber, the Physiologist in charge of the Laboratory of Plant Breeding, U.S.A. 
Department of Agriculture, and the summary printed below is taken from the 
Khedivial Agricultural Society's Journal, and was written by George P. Foaden, Esq., 
Secretary of the Society. 


‘In the selection of seed for cotton we have two primary objects in 
view, viz., to obtain the greatest yield and the best quality. To select for both 
objects at the same time is quite possible, though we think that the main 
object in view can be accomplished by growing in the first place the very best 
seed obtainable, and then selecting seed from the heaviest yielding plants, provided 
the quality of those plants is equal to the best standard of that variety. In the 
system of selection adopted by Sea Island planters most distinctive results have 
been obtained. For example, one grower’s ideal has been to obtain heavy yields 
with but asecondary regard for quality, and this has been quite successful, the 
grower’s cotton being known in the market as that from heavy yielding plants but 
whose quality is not ‘“‘extra.” Another planter again has selected for quality 
only, and though yield has been to a certain extent sacrificed, yet his cotton 
is sold for a much higher price. Thus starting with the same seed, two different 
ideals may be reached according to the wish of the particular grower. As a 
rule, however, our primary object is to increase the yield, and while striving to 
obtain this we have tosee that wedo not sacrifice quality and other desirable 
characteristics, but keep them at least up to the best standard. An area of 
the variety under consideration is planted with the best seed obtainable, and 
should possess a good soil and be thoroughly cultivated and manured in order 
to obtain a good development of the plants, and consequently ideal conditions 
for making selections. Just before the first picking, when some of the lower 
bolls are well open on all of the plants, the field should be gone over and every 
plant examined with reference to the productiveness, number and size of bolls, 
vigour and shape of plant, earliness, etc. 


It is desirable to mark more plants than are expected to be used, because, 
in going over and comparing the plants the first time, it is ordinarily found 
difficult tocarry the characters desired in mind with sufficient accuracy to enable 
a careful judgment to be made, Therefore some fifty of the plants should be 
first marked and numbered, so that these can be more carefully examined a 
second time and the number reduced possibly one-half or more. The permanent 
numbers should be placed only on the plants which are finally selected. Before 

23 


Scientific Agriculture. 176 


each picking, a careful man should go over the field and pick the cotton from 
each plant in sacks numbered to correspond with the numbers on the plants, 
in order that the different pickings from the same plant may be kept together. 
Later on, after the close of the picking season, the seed cotton from each individual 
plant can be more carefully compared and weighed, and any of the plants 
which are found to have fallen below the standard in production or in any 
other important feature should be rejected. The remainder should be ginned, 
care being taken to have the gin thoroughly cleaned out before beginning the 
process, so that the seed from the selections will not become mixed with ordinary 
seed. After ginning each individual plant, the seed should be carefully picked 
up and replaced in the numbered sack, so that all of the seed from the same 
select individual will be retained by itself. In describing the method of procedure, 
it is much clearer to base the explanation on the assumption that only one plant is 
chosen which will make our explanation more clear, and what can be done with one 
plant can be done with any number. Twenty-five or more are selected in practice. 


SECOND YEAR’S SELECTION.—The seed of the individual plant selected the 
first year is planted the second year. Each cotton plant yields from 500 to 2000 seeds, 
and therefore 500 or more seedlings will probably be produced from each plant. When 
these plants reach the proper stage of maturity, the entire progeny should be 
examined to see whether the plant selected the first year has shown strong trans- 
mitting power. Ifa large percentage of the progeny possesses the desired qualities 
ina marked degree, showing that the transmitting power is fairly strong, several 
selections of the best plants should be made from among them. If, on the other 
hand, the transmitting power has been weak, the qualities for which the plants were 
selected not having been transmitted, the entire progeny should be discarded. The 
possibility of having to discard the entire offspring of a select individual is the 
principal reason for urging that a number of selections be made the first year instead 
of only one or two. The specially selected plants of this second generation should be 
carefully examined with reference to the particular qualities desired, and a single 
plant finally selected which is superior to all of the others. The seed of this indivi- 
dual should be preserved separately, and handled exactly in the same way as the 
selection made the first year. The seed from the remaining plants produced by the 
single individual selected the first year should be ginned separately in order to avoid 
mixing, and retained to plant a seed patch of about 5 acres the third year, in order 
to obtain sufficient seed of a select strain to plant a large area the fouth year. That 
is to say from each plant selected the first year sufficient seed will be obtained to 
plant five acres the third year. 


“THIRD YEAR'S SELECTION.—The seed from the plant selected the second 
year is planted by itself the third year. Just before the first picking, all of the 
progeny should be examined, as in the second generation, to determine the strength 
of the transmitting power. If the progeny asa whole are found to have inherited 
the characters of the plant selected the second year, a few of the very best plants 
should again be selected and marked as previously. These should be more carefully 
examined, asin the above instances, and a single superior plant finally selected. 
The seed of the remaining individuals from the same number as the one selected, 
which will be about 500 in number, should be retained to plant aseed patch the 
fourth year to give sufficient seed to plant a general crop the fifth year. The seed 
obtained in the third year from the seed patch of five acres planted from the progeny 
of the selection of the first year will this year furnish sufficient seed for the general 
crop the fourth year. 

FoURTH YEAR’S SELECTION.—The seed from the specially selected plant of 
the third year is planted by itself and marked plainly to distinguish it from other 
selections, as in the previous year. From the 500 or more seedlings resulting, a parti- 


177 Scientific Agriculture. 


cularly fine individual is again selected for further breeding, as in the preceding 
years, the same care being taken to determine the transmitting power to see that 
this is up to the standard. The other plants grown from the individual specially 
selected in the third year will this year give sufficient seed to plant a five acres seed 
patch the fifth year. The seed used to plant the general crop of the fourth year is that 
from the seed patch of the third year, grown from the unselected plants of the 
second year, and thus the general crop the fourth year is derived directly from the 
plant selected the first year, and so on through succeeding generations. The diagram 
illustrates the above method of selection. 


Ist YEAR. 2nd YEAR. 3rd YRAR. 4th YEAR 5th YHAR. 
500 A 
Select Plant (1) aunties 5 ACRES eps 
a et 50 ACRES 
A 
SELECT PLANT (1) | a a GENERAL 
P 
ee 50 ACRES 
SELECT PLANT (1) 
PLANTS i 5 ACRES 
SELECT PLANT (1) 
500 
PLANTS 


SELECT PLANT (1) 


NECESSITY OF SELECTING MORE THAN ONE PLANT.—It is highly import- 
ant in practice to select more than one excellent plant, as it not infrequently 
happens that a very fine plant is found having poor transmitting power, so that the 
progeny will be even below the general crop of the year preceding. It is impossible 
in a short article to lay out a general plan which will fit all cases. If the plantation 
is of moderate size, a sufficient number of individual plants could be selected each 

- year, so that instead of the five acres seed patch represented in the diagram, the entire 
plantation could be planted the third year, According to this scheme, five plants 
selected the first year would in the third year plant 25 acres, and if 20 plants were 
selected the first year, they would plant 100 acres. It is thus within possibilities, on 
a moderate sized plantation, to select enough plants each year to plant the general 
crop from select seed the third year. The diagram illustrates the method of selec- 
tion pursued by planters of Sea Island Cotton on James and Edisto Islands. 


This description and diagram show that after the selection work has com- 
menced, special selections are made each year from the small areas of very select 
seed, and that the main area is continually grown from seed descending from a 
single selected individual plant. Consequently in this system, the selection of the 
individual plant each year is considered. In practice, however, a grower selects 
several plants each year from which to breed. It is seen therefore that the quality 
must improve year by year, and this has gone on with Sea Island planters until a 
very high standard of excellence has been reached. The writer in fact was informed 
that 40 or 50 dollars per 100 lbs. were sometimes obtained for the finest grades of 


Scientific Agriculture. 178 


cotton from such selected plants when ordinary Sea Island was selling for half this 
price. We are quite aware that such a system of selection is entirely beyond what 
can be expected in Egypt, but it has been given here to indicate to Egyptian culti- 
vators what steps are taken not only to keep up, but to improve the staple of Sea 
Island cotton. If such a system cannot be realised in this country by individual 
growers it should be put into practise on their behalf, that is to say seed areas should 
be set apart for the purpose and the grain placed at the disposal of careful cultiva- 
tors who would in their turn produce seed for general use.”—B. C. African Gazette. 
EFFECT OF PLANT-GROWTH, AND OF MANURES, UPON 
CARBONATE OF LIME IN THE SOIL. 


An interesting paper upon the changes which take place in the amount of 
carbonate of lime (chalk), which are brought about by natural agencies, by manur- 
ing, and particularly by the growth of plants, has been contributed to the Royal 
Society’s Proceedings by Messrs. A. D. Hall, M.A., and Dr. N. H. J. Miller, of the 
Rothamsted Experiment Station. Since Cavendish discovered that carbonate of 
lime dissolves in rain-water charged with carbonic acid, and ascertained the 
presence of bicarbonate of lime in many natural waters, it has Seen recognised that 
the carbonate of lime (chalk) present in most soils must be subject to regular loss. 


As the soils of the Rothamsted experimental plots and the drainage waters 
collected from the plots afford peculiar facilities for the study of this important 
question, they have naturally formed the foundation of the investigations by the 
authors. The natural surface soil on the Rothamsted EKstate, and in Hertfordshire 
generally, contains little or no carbonate of lime, but during the eighteenth century 
and earlier very large quantities were applied artificially until it formed 5 per cent. 
or so of the surface soil. The method adopted wasto sink pits through the clay to 
the chalk, which was then lifted and spread in considerable quantities. And the 
most experienced Hertfordshire farmers agree that chalking of lands so circumstanced 
is the best mode of culture they are capable of receiving. This carbonate of lime is 
being gradually dissolved out by the rain water percolating through the soil, ang 
the loss will amount to about 800 lbs. to 1,000 lbs. per acre per annum. 


The rate of loss is increased by the use of sulphate of ammonia, and is 
diminished by the use of nitrate of soda or organic debris like farmyard manure. 
The normal growth of crops tends to restore a certain amount of carbonate of 
lime and other bases to the soil, because the plant in feeding upon the neutral salts 
dissolved in the soil water takes more of their acids than of their bases, leaving 
behind a basic residue combined with carbonic acid excreted from the plant roots. 

With ordinary agricultural and horticultural crops the restoration of bases 
must be considerable, probably supplying sufficient base for the nitrification process 
which is always going on. This explains why many soils containing little or no 
carbonate of lime (chalk) remain healthy under ordinary cultivation, provided that 
acid manures like sulphate of ammonia or superphosphate (especially the lower 
grades) are not used on them. 

These researches also explain one or two other points which have been 
observed in connection with the use of nitrate of sodaas a manure. It has long been 
noticed that the continued use of nitrate of soda is very destructive to the texture 
of a clay soil, intensifying all the clay properties, rendering the soil persistently 
unworkable when wet, and forming hard and intractable clods when dry. The 
ultimate cause of such an effect is the ‘‘deflocculation” of the fine particles compo- 
sing the soil; they are no longer bound together in loose aggregates, but are 
separated so as to give the soil its most finely grained character. The defloceulation 
is much diminished where superphosphate (an acid manure) is used in conjuction with 
the nitrate of soda.—The Gardenrs’ Chronicle. 


179 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


Literature of Economic Botany and Agriculture VII. 


By J. C. WILLIs. 
Coffee Cultivation &c¢c.— 
Manuring of Coffee. Queensl. Agr. Jl., Feb. 1899, p, 125. 
Die Arbeiten auf einer Kaffee Plantage. Beih. z Tropenpfi., I. 2, March 
1900. 


« &y 


Cotfee the poor man’s crop. Newport in Queensl. Agr. J]., Mar. 1900, p. 210. 
The root growth of Coffee plants. Do. p. 214. 
Les arbres d’abri pour les plantations de Café. Rev. Cult. Col. V1. 1900, p. 4. 


Hine neue Pflanzenmethode der Kaffees ohne Schattenbiumen. Tropenpfl. 
1900, p. 495. 


Lehmann on Manuring of Coffee. Planting Opin. 24. 11. 1900, p. 796. 
Schuurman, Koffiecultuur in Brazilie. 

Comptes de Culture du Café a Java. Bull. Ke. de 1’Indo-Ch., 1901, p. 316. 
Graines de Caféier pour terrains bas et secs. Rev. d. Cult. Col. 1901, p. 241. 
Culture du Café. Fumures. do. 198, 294. 

The Leeming system of Coffee cultivation. Planting Opin. 1901, p. 638. 


Over het enten van Coffie, volg. d. methode Butin Schaap. Meded. Buiten- 
zorg, 49, 


Butin Schaap’s Kaffee-pfropfung. Tropenpfl. 5, 1901, 220. 

See Buitenzorg Meded, 51. 
Kaffeediingungsversuche in Guatemala. Tropenpfl. 5, 1901, p. 565. 
Sur le greffage du Caféier. Rev. Cult. Col. 1901, 305. 
Grafting Coffee. Trinidad Bull. Jan. 1902, p. 418 
Kaffeediingungsversuche in Brasilien. Tropenpfl. 1902, p. 65. 
Grafting Coffee. Rev. d. Cult. Col. 1899, p. 201. 


Coffee Culture in Queensland—Seed Selection &c. Queensl. Agr. Jl., Dee, 
1899, p. 584. 


Coffee Shade Trees. Ind. Gardening 4. 1. 1900, p. 14. 


Bepdsement oe Krythrina lithosperma shade. Nelson in Planting Opin. 6 
. 1900, p. 8. 


Verslag omtrent de bemestingsproeven genomen onder leiding van het- 
proefstation voor de Koffiecultuur. Ind. Mere, 28. 12. 1899, p. 885. 
Shade for Coffee. Planting Opin. 18. 1. 1900, p. 34, 


The Leer system of Coffee Cultivation. Queensl. Agr. Jl., May 1902, 
p. 870. 


La taille du Caféier. Rev. Cult. Col. June 1902, p. 382. 
Culture du C. liberica. pp. 364. 
Kaffeebau im Agome-Gebirge. Tropenpfl. 4. 1900, p. 177. 
Lehmann on the Leeming system. Planting Opin. June 1903, p. 422. 
Die Kaffeekultur im Staate Oaxaca. Tropenpfl. 1905, p. 511, 
Cult. pratique et rationelle du Caféier. Bull. Jard. Col. 1905. 
Coffee Harvesting and Preparation.— 
Preparation of Liberian Coffee. Ind. Merce. 11. 11. 1899, p. 782. 
Liberiakoffie—pulper ‘‘ Graafland.” Do. 27. 2. 1900, p. 111. 


Het drogen van Koffie (onder gebruikmaking van brandstoffen). Do. 20. 3. 
1900, p. 164. 


Peaberry and male Coffee plants. Queensl. Agr. JI., Dec. 1899, p. 382. 
Liberian coffee (washing to improve flavour). Ind. Gard. 12. 7. 1900, p, 82. 


Miscellaneous. 180 


Das Fermentieren und Waschen des Kaffees. Tropenpfi. 1900, p. 485. 

Peaberry et Cafés males. Rev. Cult. Col. 1900, p. 603. 

La meilleure maniére de secher le Café arabien. Rev. Cult. Col. 1901, p, 120. 

Das Trocknen des Kaffees. Tropenpfl. 1901, 2738. 

La bonne maniére de preparer le Café de Liberia. Journ. d’Agr. Trop. 11. 
1902, p. 109. 

Depulpage du Café de Liberia. Do. 1901, 163. 

Preparation de Café Liberien a l’aide d’eau bouillante. Rev. Cult. Col. 
Juin, 1904, 364. 


Coffee: Diseases &c.—- 

Diseases &e. (congress). Ind. Merc. 14 and 21 Jan. 1899, 

Ziekten van den Koffieboom. Do. 28. 10. 99, p. 742. 

Coffee Leaf Disease (Stilbum). Kew Bull. July 1899, p. 91. 

Cameron on Hemileia in Coorg. Plant. Opin. 18. 3. 1809, p. 189. 

Nitrogen Hunger and Coffee Disease. Do. p. 1009. 
Do. do. 20. 1. 1900, p. 46. 

Les Ennemis du Café du Nouvelle Caledonie. Rev. d. Cult. Col. 1899, p. 315 

Het Koffiecongress te Djokja. Ind. Merc, 16. 12. 1899, py 868. 

Nematodes, and Rostrella Canker. Buitenz. Meded. 37, 1900. 

Fungus on Coffee Roots. Planting Opin. 12. 5. 1900, p. 331. 

La maladie des racines ou maladie vermiculaire du Caféier. Rev. Cult. Col. 
VI. 1900, p. 78. 

Une maladie des Caféiers aux Philippines. Do. 289. 

Nitrogen and Coffee Disease. Planting Opin. 19. 5. 1900, p. 347. 

Nematode Disease. Zimmermann in Bull. Buitenz. IV. 1900. 

Rostrella Canker. Do. 

Traitement de 1’Hemileia du Caféier. Rev. Cult. Col. 1900, p. 475. 

De la Croix ; les Maladies et les Hnnemis des Cafés. Paris. 1900. 

Parasites & la Réunion. Rev. d. Cult. Col. 1900, p. 207. 

Une Nouvelle Maladie du Caféier. Do. p. 146. 

Eene Wortelschimmel van C. arabica. Ind. Mere. 1901, p. 688. 

Canker (Rostrella) of C. Arabica. Planting Opin. 1901, p. 666. 

Une maladie vermiculaire du Café a Madagascar. Rev. Cult. Col. 1902, p. 10, 
p. 266. 

Ueber die von Stilbella flavida hervorgerufene Koffee—Krankbeit. Beih. 
Z. Tropenpfi. IV. 1903, No. 2. 


Coix.—Job’s Tears Seeds. Jamaica Bull. Sept. 1904, p. 202. 
Job’s Tears. Ind. Pl. and Gard. 17. 12. 1904, p. 891. 
Coix spp. or Joh’s Tears; a review of all available information. Agr. 
Ledger, Veg. Prod. Series, No. 88, 1904. 


Coleus.—Sur les tubercules de C. Coppini. Rev. Cult. Col. 5. 3. 1902, p. 129. 
(Experiments on yield &c.) Bull. Ee. de 1’Indo-Chine, June 1908, p. 154. 


Copaiba,—British Guiana Copaiba. Chem. and Drug. 28. 7. 1900, p. 166. 
Copaiba ; its assay and tests. Do. 
Foreign Office Report on Amazonas, p. 20. 


Cork.—The Cork-oak and its future. Agr. Gaz. N. S. W., May 1900, p. 352. 
Miller, Uleber die Kork-eiche. See Bot. Centr. 86, p. 314. 
Maiden, The Cork Oak. Agr. Gaz. N.S.W. 1902, 187. 
Malayan Substitutes for Cork. Str. Bull. 1903, p. 114. 
The utilization of light woods as Cork Substitutes. Bull. Imp. Inst., Jan. 
1905, p. 225. 


181 Miscellaneous. 
AGRICULTURAL BANKS FOR CEYLON. 
By E. S. W. SENATHI-RAJA. 


It is a common complaint against young Ceylonese of the present day, 
that while most of our educated youth are anxious to get admission into the ranks of 
the learned professions which are already overcrowded, or to secure Government 
appointments which are, of necessity, very limited in number, few, if any, turn 
their attention to agriculture. The complaint is not groundless, for the fact is 
quite patent to all who have studied the progress of the native communities of 
Ceylon. But a mere superficial observer is apt to run away with the idea that it is 
simply due to native indolence or disinclination to engage in any employment 
involving physical labour, or to some supposed lack of dignity in the occupation 
itself. But such a conclusion, however, is erroneous. Agriculture has been the 
chief business of our people from time immemorial, and there is, so farasI am 
aware, no prejudice against the cultivation of the soil. But the causes which have 
led the educated youth of Ceylon to hanker after Government service or rush to 
the learned professions are not far to seek. From the day of the British occupation 
of Ceylon until about 20 years ago, the learned professions were to the average young 
men of the country, considering the paucity of the means at their command, far 
more lucrative than the cultivation of the ground. The form of agriculture which 
their means permitted, and which the tradition of centuries had familiarised them 
with, was chiefly the cultivation of rice, and that, as practised in Ceylon was seldom 
remunerative. The learned professions gave until recently a much larger income 
than the cultivation of rice, and even minor appointments under Government were 
far more profitable. It is no wonder then that our youth sought the more lucrative 
employments in preference to the old form of agriculture. But the pressure of 
competition, however, is making itself felt now more than ever, and there are 
scores of young men at the present day who will devote their energies willingly to 
the cultivation of the soil with the new products which are said to be remunerative, 
if there are reasonable prospects of earning a competence by that means. Even 
the villager seems to be stirred up by the enthusiasm shown by His Excellency the 
Governor and the Agricultural Society, to turn his attention from the time- 
honoured rice and chena cultivation, to the more tempting enterprise of planting 
new products. But there is one serious obstacle in their way, and that is the want 
of capital. Thanks to the present policy of the Government aided by the extension 
of railways through the waste and uncultivated tracts of the Northern, North- 
Central and North-Western Provinces, land fit for the cultivation of such 
products as rubber, cotton, ground-nut, tobacco, etc., may be said to be within the 
reach of every young man of energy, pluck and perseverance. But the cultivation 
of the earth, especially when it happens to be covered with primeval forest or 
jungle, requires a considerable outlay of capital, in the first place, to prepare the 
ground for cultivation, and secondly, to support the labourers engaged in the 
cultivation till the soil yields its return. In some cases, one has to wait for an 
income for several years, which are not merely a period of waiting but also of 
spending money. Whereis the capital to be found? 


The problem of native agriculture in Ceylon where new products are 
concerned, and indeed even for the better cultivation of old products, may be said 
to be substantially a problem of finding the capital to work with. Of the three 
economic elements of wealth, Land is at hand, and Labour is available, but the 
third element, Capital, is wanting. Until that problem is solved, it need hardly 
be said, the agricultural progress of Ceylon must be slow and _ unsatisfactory, 
and cannot be considered to be on a sound basis. Some men who have been lucky 
enough to make a fortune by arrack renting or plumbago mining or gem digging, 
may now and then indulge in the luxury of cultivating new products, but the 


Miscellaneous. 182 


people generally will continue as heretofore sunk in ignorance and debt, and 
follow the primitive methods of their forefathers; and educated young 
men will neglect agriculture, and turn their attention to something more practi- 
cable, until the problem of Capital is solved for them once for all. 


Leaving aside the case of educated young men, let us look into the condition 
of the ordinary farmers and landlords of the country, men who are the backbone 
of society, men, without whom no Government can exist. Isolated from the rest 
of the world, ignorant alike of business-methods and modern systems of cultivation, 
exploited by usurers and fieeced by native headmen, their lot is indeed a pitiable 
one. The great majority of them are heavily indebted, and indeed it seems a solemn 
mockery to preach to them the manifold benefits of Western agriculture, to 
recommend to them the introduction of new ploughs and other implements of 
agriculture, the employment of artificial manures to fertilize their lands, and 
superior class of cattle to improve their existing breed, or to insist on the 
necessity of adopting proper methods of drainage and cultivation, without first 
helping them to obtain the indispensable Capital at cheap rates of interest. 


According to statistics supplied by the Registrar-General the total value of 
registered mortgages for the year 1903 is more than Rs. 23,000,000, and it may 
be safely assumed that the unregistered mortgages are of equal value, and 
their sum total gives a fair idea of the indebtedness of landlords and farmers, 
who have lands to give as security. What debt there is on the security of movables 
and promissory notes it is impossible to say in the absence of statistics, but there is 
every reason to believe that indebtedness on those securities isan equally large 
amount. So then the total indebtedness of people who own movable or immovable 
property in Ceylon may be laid at the lowest calculation at about Rs. 80,000,000. 
From enquiry in different parts of the country and from the cases that come before 
the Courts, I have ascertained that the rate of interest on loans given on the security 
of movables and promissory notes is between 18 and 60 per cent, according to the 
status and credit of the borrowers. What industry or cultivation is there capable 
of leaving a margin of profit after paying such usurious rates of interest ? 


I have been induced to prepare this paper in the hope that the Agricultural 
Society of Ceylon which has come into existence under the auspicious patronage of 
His Excellency the Governor, will devise some method of solving this problem, 
—the rock on which many a promising association has stranded before this. If the 
present Agricultural Society of Ceylon is to go on in its career of usefulness, if there 
is to be permanence and continuity in its efforts to improve the methods of cultiva- 
tion, if it is to be hereafter something more than a debating society, experience has 
shewn that it should tackle the problem at once and place it on a firm footing for 
ever. The native, though proverbially a conservative man, is yet a shrewd man, 
and he is eminently practical. Once shew him that tangible and profitable results 
can be obtained by the methods advocated by the Agricultural Association, and 
that this Society will help him to get money necessary for the improved methods 
of cultivation on easy terms and at cheap rates of interest, his faith will be 
quickened, and agriculture in Ceylon will receive an impetus which it never had 
since the days of the ancient Kings of Ceylon. The problem is, however, not an 
insoluble one, for there are other countries which were situated in a position 
similar to ours at some period of their national progress, but which have worked 
out the matter for themselves with conspicuous success. There is no reason, there- 
fore, why the Agricultural Society which enjoys such exalted patronage, and 
which counts among its members almost all the high officers of the Government— 
the pick of the Civil Service—and a considerable number of the leading inhabitants 
of the Island interested in agriculture, should not solve the problem for Ceylon with 
equal success. It will be interesting therefore to see how this problem has been 
solved in other countries. 


183 Miscellaneous, 
AGRICULTURAL BANKS IN SCOTLAND. 


The country which affords the greatest parallel to Ceylon of the present day 
economically is Scotland in the latter part of the 18th century. Scotland was in 
those days a poor country, and the people were illiterate and ignorant. The labour- 
ing classes were poverty striken and miserable. Lawlessness was rampant every- 
where, and the Scotch were as notorious in those days as cattle-lifters as the 
Sinhalese are at the present day. Large tracts of land in every part of the country 
lay waste and uncultivated. There was not enough money in the country either to 
open up the lands for agriculture or to construct public works. But the present state 
of Seotland is a marvellous transformation from what it was 150 years ago, and this 
wonderful progress was entirely due to the system of cash credit introduced by the 
Scotch Banks. A ‘cash credit’ is adrawing account created by the Bank in favour of 
a customer, upon which he may operate in the same manner as an ordinary banking 
account. A person who applies to a bank for a cash credit is called upon to produce 
two or more competent sureties who are jointly bound, and after a full enquiry into 
the character of the applicant, the nature of his business, and the sufficiency of his 
securities, he is allowed to open a credit, and to draw upon the bank for the whole 
of its amount or for such part as his daily transactions may require. To the credit 
of the account he pays such sums as he may not have occasion to use, and the 
interest is charged or credited as the case may be. 


‘Cash credits’ are of two sorts, viz., (1) those given to private persons to help 
them in their business, and (2) those given to promote agriculture or public works. 
As regards the first kind of cash credit, it is said that almost every young man 
commencing business in Scotland begins even now by means of a cash credit. 
Solicitors. Writers to the Signet, and other professional men are, it seems, given 
small advances to start them in business on the guarantee of two or more sureties. 
All classes of society, rich as well as poor, are freely given cash credits, provided they 
are men of high character. In the evidence given before a Committee of the House 
of Commous, Mr. Monteith, M.P., stated that he was a manufacturer employing at 
that time 4,000 hands, and that he began the world with nothing but a cash credit. 


When the Scotch first turned their energies to agriculture about the middle 
of the 18th century, the banks in Scotland had the right of issuing notes of their 
own, and they had habituated the people to receive their notes as money. Finding 
that there was much scope for agriculture in all parts of Scotland, the banks 
opened branches in every important centre and sent everywhere cartloads of 
their pound notes. The landholders anxious to improve their lands gave long 
leases to farmers. Upon the security of those leases and upon that of personal 
sureties, the banks granted cash credits to farmers. The advances were made 
entirely in the pound notes of the banks, and as the banks were very strongly 
constituted, their notes were universally received as cash. With these notes the 
farmers employed labourers to reclaim the land, and in a few years ‘bleak and 
barren moors were everywhere changed into fields of waving corn.” With the 
produce of the fields, the farmers gradually repaid the loans, and reaped large 
profits themselves. 


As for public works in Scotland, money for every description of them has 
been raised by the system of cash eredit. Canals, docks, harbours, roads and 
railways have alj been made in the same manner, and the debts were discharged by 
the profits arising from the public works. The Forth and Clyde Canal was, it is stated, 
constructed by means of a cash credit of £40,000 granted by the Royal Bank. 

These cash credits are, it is to be remembered, not meant to lie idle, but 
they are constantly operated upon by paying in and drawing out. It was. stated 
in the evidence given before a Committe of the House of Common (in 1826) that 

24. 


Miscellaneous. 184 


ona eash credit of a thousand pounds, operations to the extent of fifty thousand 
pounds took place in a week. It was also elicited that on a eash credit of five 
hundred pounds operations to the extent of seventy thousand pounds took place 
ina year. One witness stated that in a small country bank operations had taken 
place to the amount of ninety millions during a period of 21 years, and that the 
whole loss of the bank during that period did not exceed twelve hundred pounds. 
It was declared that at that time, there were twelve thousand cash credits 
guaranteed to persons in Scotland, and that there were 40,000 persons bound as 
sureties—persons who were interested in the integrity, prudence, and success of 
the others, for the sureties (cautioners as they are called in Scotland) keep a 
watchful eye on the proceedings of those for whom they stood security, and have 
always the right of inspecting their accounts with the bank, and of stopping it at 
any time if irregular. The witnesses before the Parliamentary Committee declared 
that the effects were most remarkable on the morals of the people. 


‘** All these marvellous results,” says an eminent Scotch writer, ‘‘ which have 
raised Scotland from the lowest depths of barbarism up to her present proud 
position in the space of 150 years are the children of pure credit.” It is no exaggera- 
tion but a melancholy truth that at the period of the revolution in 1688 and the 
establishment of the Bank of Scotland, that country, partly owing to a series of 
disasters as cannot be paralleled in the history of any other independent nation, 
and partly owing to its position at the very outskirts of civilisation, and far 
removed from the humanising influence of commerce, divided into two nations 
aliens in blood and language, was the most utterly barbarous and lawless country 
in Europe. And it is equally undeniable that the two great causes of her rapid 
rise in civilisation and wealth have been her systems of national education 
and banking.” 


““Her system of banking has been of infinitely greater service to her than 
mines of gold and silver. Her banking system has tended immensely to call forth 
every manly virtue ; mines of the precious metal would probably Lave demoralised 
her people. In the character of her own people, in their steadiness, their industry 
and their honour, Scotland has found wealth infinitely more beneficial to her than 
all the mines of Mexico and Peru. The express purpose of these banks was to 
create credit, incorporeal entities, created out of nothing for a transitory existence, 
and when they had performed their functions, vanishing again into nothing from 
whence they sprang.” 


LAND BANKS IN GERMANY. 


The method in which the continental nations have solved this problem of 
finding capital to improve agriculture is quite different to the cash credit system 
of Scotland. The first attempt at creating a land bank was made in Prussia, 
and the inventor was a German merchant cailed Buring. At the close of the 
seven years war in 1756, the land owners of Silesia found themselves in a great 
strait. The ruin and desolation caused by the war gave rise to general distress 
among landed proprietors. Interest and commission rose so high that they were 
unable to meet their engagements, and Frederick the Great issued a decree 
suspending the payment of all interest on estate debts for three years, and a 
subsequent decree extended it to a further period. It was at this time that Buring 
came forward with his system of raising money on land credit. The system of 
Government Funds, suggested to Buring the idea of creating a similar species 
of land stock. Governments, as we all know, can always borrow much cheaper 
than landlords, because the title is indisputable and the securities are far more 
valuable than those of private individuals. So there is no impediment to the 
negotiability of Government paper. Buring therefore conceived the idea of sub- 


185 Miscellaneous. 


stituting the joint guarantee of all the proprietors of land for that of individuals, 
and establishing a book in which the Land Stock should be registered, and be 
made transferable, and have the dividends paid, exactly inthe same way as in the 
Public Funds. The credit of the Association was therefore always interposed between 
the lenders and the borrowers. Those who bought the stock looked only to the 
Association for the payment of their dividends, and the borrowers paid all interest 
to the Association which took upon itself all questions of title and security. The 
whole of the obligations were turned into stock transferable in all respects like the 
Public Funds. The first land bank (Landschaften) on the model suggested by 
Buring was established in Silesia in 1756 by the fiat of King Frederick the Great. 
The usefulness of these banks became so great and so universally recognised that 
they were introduced in quick succession into other countries. According to 
Monsieur Josseau, they were introduced into Brandenberg in 1777, Pomerania in 
1781, Hamburg in 1782, West Prussia in 1787, Kast Prussia in 1788, Luneberg in 1791, 
Esthonia and Livonia in 1808, Schleswick-Holstein in 1811, Mecklenberg in 1818, Posen 
in 1822, Poland in 1825, Kalenberg, Grubenhagen and Hildsheim in 1826, Wurtemberg 
in 1827, Hesse Cassel in 1882, Westphalia in 1835, Gallicia in 1841, Hanover in 1842, 
Saxony in 1844 and France in 1852. 

All these banks do nothing more than convert mortages into stock, and 
none of them is said to issue paper money. They make advances from one-half to 
two-thirds of the estimated value of a property, in small bonds varying from £5 to 
£100 bearing interest from 3} to 4 per cent. The bonds are transferable by endorse- 
ment or delivery. Every six months the fixed dues which include interest and 
sinking fund are paid in by the borrowers. The sinking fund, which reduces the 
principal debt by small instalments, begins at half per cent and gradually increases 
each half year as the principal is paid off and as the charge for interest therefore 
decreases. Every proprictor has a right to a loan according to the value of his 
property. The holder of the bonds has as security for their payment the whole 
capital of the bank plus the lands specially mortaged to the bank. The borrowers 
may pay either in money or in the bonds of the company which they may purchase 
from the public. These land banks have had the most marvellous effects in 
developing the agriculture of the countries in which they have been formed, 
exactly similar to the cash credits of Scotland. What is most remarkable about 
the bonds of the land banks is, that in times of panic caused through war, 
revolution, or monetary crisis, they have maintained a steadiness of value beyond all 
other securities, not excepting Goverment Stocks. Monsieur Josseau, to whose 
book I am indebted for much of the above inormation, says that in the revolutionary 
period of 1848, while the Prussian funds fell to 69, shares of the Bank of Prussia to 
63, and the shares in railroads from 30 to 90 per cent, the bonds of the land banks 
producing 3} per cent interest stood at 93 in Silesia and Pomerania, at 83 in West 
Prussia and at 96 in Kast Prussia! The reason is not far to seek, for in times of 
revolution or war, Governments may disappear or States may become bankrupt, but 
the lands, the stock in trade of the land banksare there always as immovable as ever. 

(To be continued.) 


AGRICULTURE IN THE KADAWATA AND MEDA KORLES. 


By S. D. MAHAWALATENNE. 

The Balangoda district, comprising Kadawata and the Meda Korles, a chief 
Headman’s division, is about 800 sq. miles in area with a population of about 22,536 
Sinhalese and 5,891 immigrant Tamils, distributed about 25 to the sq. mile. In 1901 
when the last census was taken we had 7,988 employed in agriculture, 500 in com- 
merce, 46 in the manufacture of earthenware, 61 working in metal, 23 in jewellery 
and 118 in other manufactories. These figures exclude the Tamil coolies 


Miscellaneous. 186 


11,940 acres of paddy fields and 3,210 acres of high land for dry grain were 
cultivated, which yielded a gross produce of 157,839 bushels of paddy and 16,650 
bushels of other grain. The average was 5-fold and 12-fold respectively. When 
this gross produce was converted into food stuff it was about 94,919 bushels. The 
quantity of food required for the resident population is about 261,360 bushels and 
111,120 bushels for the immigrants, totalling up to 372,480, and itis estimated that 
the deficiency of food produce locally grown is about 277,561 bushels. At the rate of 
Rs. 5 per bushel the district consumes about Rs. 832,205 worth of imported rice and 
Rs. 555,600 worth of rice for the Tamil coolies. In all Rs. 1.387,805 worth of imported 
rice per annum, and this inacountry eminently suited for agriculture, with a resi- 
dent population who are agriculturists by birth, by habits and training, as well as 
by caste and religion. The cause for this deplorable deficiency in the production of 
food deserves to be carefully investigated, and that early. I will not presume to say 
what the causes are. I think the Agricultural Society can and will investigate the 
causes, and lay before Government a scheme to remedy them. The rainfall 
has annually decreased since 1896, in which year it was 108°61, which was an increase of 
11:22 on that of the previous year. In 1897 it was 8404; in 1898, 60°19, in 1899, 73°44 
and in 1900, 72°34. Ever since then it has not gone up, and to-day of the vast extent of 
paddy lands in the district nearly three-fourths of those annually cultivated for the 
‘yala’ cultivation are lying dry and bare for want of rain. The tate of the people 
depending on the produce of these fields can better be imagined than described. 
The scarcity of rain alone is responsible for the non-cultivation of the paddy fields 
and if scientists are to be believed it is the destruction of forests that has caused a 
decrease in rainfall. The rubber boom will destroy many more forests than the tea 
boom did and render the country drier. It would, I think, be to the interest of 
Government and every individualin general to let the forests alone and carry on 
operations in lowlying chenas alone. It would be as well to acquire all forests at 
high elevations and preserve them for the conservancy of the rainfall. The decrease 
in food produce is telling fearfully on the people. Those who are present at the 
meeting to-day may appear to be healthy with no sign of starvation on them, I admit, 
but what is the proportion of those present to-day to the total population of the 
district ? One must go toa village and live there for a rumber of days to know the 
actual misery prevailing there. The state ofa few ina community is no criterion 
of the state of that community. If Government were actually fully aware of the 
general condition of the villager, how he is suffering from diseases and from want, 
there is not the least doubt that a great deal more would be doue for him than what 
is being done to-day ; for it will be the height of ingratitude to say that nothing is 
being done. A great deal has been done, anda great deal is being done, but what I 
say is that a very great deal more has to be done before we can say that we have 
arrested the steady course of the extinction of a very interesting race of men. We 
are fully aware of the fact that a benevolent Government like the British Govern- 
ment would do anything and everything to ameliorate the condition of its subjects, 
but from past history it would appear that there have been periods often recurring 
during which nothing has been done either to improve or extend agriculture. 
Perhaps more unrestricted expenditure on irrigation works, the quick settlement of 
land claims, unstinted help and encouragement to the goiya, and above all protec- 
tion against the merciless usurer might improve the condition of the masses 
depending on cultivation. 


I have often heard it said that the Sinhalese are a lazy lot—apathetic, indo- 
lent, unenterprising and unindustrious; I take leave to differ from that view. If 
the laboura Kandyan goiya spends on his paddy field and on_his chena is fairly 
estimated, I think that false impression will at once be removed. He is neither lazy 
nor indolent, but he is toa certain extent unenterprising. He has to be led, he has 
to be educated. He knows exactly what amount of labour will supply him with 


187 Miscellaneous. 


food for the ensuing year, and he is content if he can raise that. By nature he has 
no trade instincts, and he raises food for consumption, and not for sale. He has to 
be taught that that state of things, although it answered well in the past, will not 
do to-day. He has not only to be taught but he has to be forced to suit himself to 
the times. He has been used to be thus forced to dv things good for himself in the 
long past, anda habit thus inherited will not disappear fora long time to come. 
Therefore it would not be an unjustifiable act if Government were to adopt 
measures to make the villager work more in his own interest in extending and 
improving his cultivations. The maxim—*‘ Interference with the liberty of the 
subject” will not apply in the treatment of a people like the Kandyan peasant. He 
is so simple, so ignorant, and so conservative, that he would not do anything that 
would bring him a fair amount of remuneration until he has seen for about the 
hundreth time that others have done the same thing and have been fairly remu- 
aerated. With these few prefatory remarks I will proceed to givea brief descrip- 
tion of our school gardens and experimental gardens, and what success they have 
achieved in the past. 


MAHAWALATENNE EXPERIMENTAL GARDEN. 


In the year 1891 when I went on circuit in the district of Kadawataand Meda 
Korles as the R.M. for the first time, I visited the very few schools it then had. The 
plots of land attached to the schools were bare, and on my suggesting to the teachers 
to plant them up, they pleaded all sorts of difficulties such as want of tools and objec 
tions on the parts of the parents of the boys to allow the latter to work. I saw 
numbers of boys who had left school idling in the villages not doing any work, prob- 
ably thinking that ‘ govitena’ was a humiliating work after a school career. This 
is the villager’s boy—the hope of the future of the village—the strength of the 
country. Of an evening these youths with handkerchiefs thrown hanging over 
their shoulders, cigar in mouth, promenade the village paths admired by the 
village lasses, no doubt, while their strong sturdy fathers plough the fields, or 
gather in the harvest silently sighing at the demoralization of the sons owing 
to the school education given them under compulsion. They would not have 
willingly sent them to school, but their Chief and their Government Agent told them 
under pain of punishment that the boys must be sent to school which would 
make them good men. In blind faith they obeyed, and the result was that instead of 
good men the schools turned out a lot of lazy good-for-nothings living on the hard 
earnings of the fathers. Besides, the boys being a tax on the fathers, the latter even 
had to pay the road tax and the Gansabhawa tax to Government for the for- 
mer—for school education has made the boys unfit for manual labour. That 
was the state of things here in 1891. I approached the prominent men among 
the villagers, and persuaded them to consent to the boys working in the gardens for 
a short time daily, and obtained the permission of the Government Agent to supply 
garden implements out of Gansabhawa funds, and started a few school gardens. 
In 1892 I opened up a garden myself near my residence, in which I used to get all the 
village boys and children of my tenantry to work, and to encourage them, and to show 
them that manual labour was in no way a mean occupation, I used to work 
with them myself for a short time. The garden was a success which encouraged me 
to approach the then Government Agent, the Hon’ble Mr. Wace, the friend of 
Sabaragamuwa, with a request for an experimental garden and for a school for 
Mahawalatenne. Readily he granted my application, and soon after an Agricul- 
tural Instructor was appointed to the Balangoda school and a boys’ school opened 
at Mahawalatenne. The Teacher as well as the Instructor were industrious useful 
practical men. Neither of them are now alive I regret to say. At once I opened 
up a garden attached to the Mahawalatenne school at my own expense simultaneously 
with the experimental garden at Balangoda. The Government Agent a year after 


Miscellaneous. 188 


visited these on tour, and was so pleased at the success of the school garden 
that he on my application sanctioned the removal of the experimental garden to 
Mahawalatenne. The Government Agent, at his own expense, procured seeds for us, 
and I did the same. We distributed large quantities of seeds and plants of many 
varieties among the villagers, and our work was steadily progressing when the 
Instructor died. From that time we began to decline. We were given as the 
late Instructor’s successor a sort of dandy and a sportsman, who would not 
budge an inch out of his cottage without his boots and gaiters and rifle. His 
successor was a madcap-preacher who was never happy unless he was engaged 
in open-air preaching. I believe he is in the lunatic asylum now. He was succeeded 
by the present Instructor, Mr. Silva, who, I am glad to say, takes a deal of trouble 
and works the garden well. We tried cinnamon and citronella which are flourishing 
indeed, The growth shows that in this country the soil and the climate are far better 
for cinnamon and citronella than in the low country. We tried cotton which, too 
was successful. We got out tobacco seed from America and grew a crop, but the 
leaves did not come all right. There were yellowish spots all over the leaf, and these 
spots were so thin that on drying they became so many rents, rendering the 
leaf perfectly useless. This was a failure. Then we tried ratatora, ground 
nuts and American maize. These were successful. The Instructor was made to visit 
the School Gardens periodically, and we supplied him with seeds and plants for dis- 
tribution. The number of schools increased rapidly, and every one of them had a 
garden. The reluctance on the part of the boys to work and the parents to allow 
them to work disappeared, and it was pleasing to see that the majority of the boys 
actually had tiny plantations of their own in their fathers’ residing gardens. The 
villagers themselves took to planting, and large quantities of vegetables were 
daily brought to town for sale. This is a result of the garden and the school 
gardens, and itis a satisfaction indeed. The only disadvantage is that during vacation 
when the teachers go to their villages there is no one to take care of the gardens. 
The Government Agent says the arachchi must look after the garden; but I know 
the difficulty and the expense the arachchi will have to undergo to do that, so these 
gardens will never be the success they will otherwise be. About the time I was 
agitating for more schools and experimental gardens, and for Agricultural Banks, 
for the repurchase of alienated villagers’ lands, for introducing a system to regulate 
their cultivation on economic and profitable principles, for partition of lands held in 
undivided shares or under the Tattu Maru Tenure, introduction of new stock witha 
view to the improvement of the country breed, introduction of seed paddy from 
foreign countries, free distribution of praedial products, introduction of pasture 
lands, planting up communal gardens, the introduction of provincial agricultural 
shows and other improvements, I was informed of the Government’s decision to 
close all the experimental gardens. I pleaded the case of our garden so earnestly, 
that Mr. W. E. Davidson, the then Government Agent, fought hard and secured the 
retention of the garden. It is the only one that was not closed, and I believe is the 
only survival of the gardens under Mr. Green’s scheme. Now that we have the 
Agricultural Society and a Governor who isso keenly and greatly interested in the 
agriculture of the country, there is no fear but that in the near future we will be 
able to see vast and rapid progress. Speaking of the wants of this district only, I can 
say without fear of being contradicted that up to date although much has been 
attempted, we have done nothing to materially improve agriculture or the condition 
of the agricultural classes, or to remove the great disadvantages under which the 
peasant carries on his agricultural work. The villager now works asit were not for 
himself, but for the boutique-keeper or moneylender. All the profits from the 
fields go to pay the usurious interest at which seed paddy and other things are 
borrowed during the cultivation time, and at the end the land goes to repay th 
capital. 


189 Miscellaneous. 


Lands belonging to 1,170 families have been sold up to 1891. Among 
these there are 1,43 paddy fields, 13t gardens and 5 houses. 115 of the original 
owners of these Jands were in 1891 working as coolies under the new proprietors, 
583 became common coolies and 97 became paupers. I submitted a proposal to 
the Government Agent, Mr. Fowler, to repurchase these lands and place the 
original owners on them as Government tenants on the ancient Indian 
ryot system. I then thought my proposal had his sympathy, but after 
he left the Province the matter was shelved. I beg to refer in this connection 
to the information given in the last Census Report. If the national character and 
conditions of the native peasantry is to be maintained, it is of paramount importance 
that their paddy fields should be prevented from changing hands. Even special 
legislation for the purpose will be justifiable. Knowing the great simplicity of the 
villager, his proneness to get into debt and to be caught in the meshes of designing 
land-grabbing villains, his incapacity to detect deception, and the ease with which 
he could be launched into litigation, Ican with some authority say that in my 
opinion State interference to protect his paddy fields will be quite justifiable. 
Agricultural Banks which I have often advocated would to a certain extent free 
the “goiya.” To stimulate the agricultural progress of a country, societies such as 
we have now, and experimental gardens here and there, and agricultural shows 
alone will not do. We must take up every question that has any bearing on 
agriculture, every question that would even in the least tend to render agricultural 
pursuits easy and remunerative. We must help the goiya and encourage him 
just as Government helps and encourages the merchants and the planters. Against 
this it may be said that the villager is not taxed. I admit he is not directly taxed, 
and I do, as I always did, deplore the abolition of the paddy tax. Theday that step 
was decided on was the villagers’ evil day. Partition of lands held in undivided 
shares and under the Tattu Maru tenure is alsoa question touching the agricultural 
development of the country. This tenure isa great drawback to the improvement 
oflands. Introduction of live stock, free distribution of seed of praedial products, and 
their enforced plantation deserves to be considered. There is no reason why people 
should not plant more coconuts and arecanuts. I think the Gansabhawa could 
make some arrangement to supply a good number of nuts annually for free distri- 
bution. There is no excuse why every village garden should not be fully stocked 
with fruit trees and other economic trees. The price of rubber seeds has gone down 
so much, and the rubber boom has almost reached its zenith, I do not see why 
Government with its overflowing coffers should not distribute a few dozen seeds 
to each villager to plant in his own garden, Unlike tea, rubber would suit the 
villager very well as coffee did in the happy past. Whatever may have been said, and 
whatever may be said about the unremunerativeness of paddy cultivation, paddy 
cultivation alone would keep up the Kandyan Sinhalese, and nothing else would 
suit the Kandyan more than this cultivation. Therefore it is to the improvement of 
paddy cultivation that the Societies should first direct their attention, and next 
to other cultivations. It should be the aim of the Society to see that every district 
turns out so much paddy sufficient for the consumption of its resident population. 
What district can boast of such a thing to-day ? Kadawata and Meda had in 1901 
a Sinhalese population of 22,149, out of which 7,988 were engaged in agriculture. 
11,940 acres of paddy land and 3,210 acres of high land were cultivated which brought 
in 157,839 bushels of paddy and 166,500 bushels of other grain. These when reduced 
to food stuff would give 288,769 bushels or about 10 bushels per head per annum 
for a population of 22,149. Another 50,000 bushels per annum would render the 
supply sufficient for consumption only. But to render the supply sufficient for all 
the necessaries of life of the people it should at least be 25 bushels per head per 
annum, which would be 553,725 bushels, and the deficiency after deducting the 
present yield is 264,956. 


Miscellaneous. 190 


7,988 persons cultivated only 15,150 acres or about 1} acre each which is 
very unsatisfactory. This is because we have not a sufficient acreage of paddy 
land, and because the irrigation policy has for some time past not been pushed 
on as vigorously and as boldly as it should have been. We want more irrigable 
lands. We have the lands and we have the water, but we want Government to 
step in and build the irrigation works. We cannot do it ourselves. The next 
most important thing is the cultivation of chena lands. The villagers have com- 
paratively a smallarea, and in the past Government used to allow villagers to 
euJtivate chena lands on tythe. Since of late for some reason or other this concession 
has been withheld. I have made a number of representations to Government, and 
I was told that chena cultivation was not profitable. Justa glance at the relative 
food producing powers of mud laud for paddy and chenas will show that the 
cultivation of the latter is not so unprofitable. An adult requires about 3 lb. of 
food a day such as cereals and other vegetables. A bushel of rice is 64 1b. in weight 
or 2 lb. a measure. <A bushel of kurakkan—chena produce—is 56 lb. in weight. For 
a wonth—30 days—an adult will require 90 lb. of food equal to one bushel and 
13 measures of rice or & bushels and 19 measures of kurakkan. Besides the food 
a householder requires about 73°50 per annum for other expenses. On this calcu- 
lation a family of one man, one woman and one child will require about 38 
bushels of rice or 42 bushels of kurakkan and in cash about Rs. 148°50 per annum. 
Therefore, the total expenses of such afamily of three persons will be Rs. 300 if it 
lives on rice and Rs. 203 if it liveson kurakkan, valuing a bushel of rice at Rs. 4 
and a bushel of kurakkan at Rs. 1. The sustaining power of rice and kurakkan differs 
but slightly as will beseen from the above figures, and the analysis of kurakan does 
not condemn it as a food. Now with regard to the food producing power. An 
acre of paddy land will yield about 24 bushels of paddy. The cost of cultivating 
an acre of paddy land will be about Rs. 29, and the produce 24 bushels valued at 
Rs. 38°40. In the cost of cultivating I included the cost of labour. An acre of chena 
for kurakkan cultivation would cost about a fourth of what an acre of paddy land 
would cost, and the yield will be about 10 bushels of kurakkan, and other grains and 
vegetables equal in quantity as food stuff to about five bushels. Thatis, an acre 
will yield 15 bushels of food stuff at a cost of about Rs. 7. Therefore it is 
not correct to say that chena cultivation is not remunerative. I was 
astonished to hear that. Who is the judge who pronounced that decision sentenc- 
ing chena cultivation to the scaffold ? Iam unable to find out, but whoever he is I 
do differ from him in that most erroneous opinion of his, arrived at perhaps on a 
basis of calculation made under most arbitrary rules. No man who knows anything 
of the Kandyan and his mode of living, his habits, and his system of work and 
cultivation, can correctly and conscientiously say that chena cultivation is not of 
profit or use to the Kandyan. I would challenge anyone to prove that it is not 
profitable. The great decrease in food stuff I attribute to the policy of Government 
in withholding the concession hitherto enjoyed by the people. But I was always 
for regulating chena cultivation, and if the concession were to be renewed it should, 
I say. in the interest of agriculture in general, be on improved lines. It is to be 
earnestly hoped that these agricultural societies and gardens will not only improve 
the methods of cultivation, but be instrumental in inducing Government to open 
up more irrigable lands, and in general induce it to take up every question having 
the least bearing on agriculture and deal with these quickly but liberally. 


In 1904 the Balangoda societies were established—the first meeting was held 
in March, but beyond that I could not do anything owing to the severance of my 
official connection with Government in June of that year. But from what I could 
see, I think there is a great future for these societies and gardens. They are now 


191 Miscellaneous. 


in younger and abler hands, and I do hope that progress and success are not far 
distant. The district feels thankful to the late Secretary of the Parent Association 
for his visit, for such visits at much personal inconvenience are indeed a great 
encouragement. Owing tothe absence of the Agricultural Instructor I could not 
get at the papers relating to the garden, and Iam unable to give more definite 
information regarding it. Last year and this year we have had unusual dry 
weather and our cultivations are practically nil. We grew some Italian potatoes 
very successfully and a few cabbages. The ‘“Sixty-days” paddy is thriving well. 
I distributed the five bushels among villagers and I sowed some myself. 


We wanta well tor the experimental Garden as wellas quarters for the 
Instructor and the coolies. I think the Gansabhawa with some help from Govern- 
ment would be able to do these works. What I have to say more on the subject 
of agriculture in this district I shall reserve for a future paper. 


Lessons in Elementary Botany. III. 


By J. C. WILLIs. 


We must now consider the ways in which the leaves are arranged upon the 
plant, or their phyllotaxy, as it is often called. This is by no means haphazard, as it 
may perhaps appear to be at the first glance, but follows definite rules, which for 
any one plant are practically always the same. 


In a good many plants the leaves are what are still termed, in the language 
of the botanists of 150 years ago, radical, or spreading out simply at the ground 
(Plate II) as if from the top of the root. This may be seen in the common weeds of 
grass lawns and many other plants. In reality the root is crowned by a very short 
stem from which the leaves spring, but they look almost as if they came from the 
root. In most other plants the leaves are borne upon the stem above the ground, 
sometimes evenly spread out along it or along the part which has lately grown, 
sometimes crowded together at the end. They may bein pairs at each node (as the 
points where they are borne are termed), in which case one usually faces say North, 
the other South, and they are called opposite (Plate II), or there may be only one at 
each node (alternate, Plate Il), or there may be more than two, arranged in a ring or 
whorl (Plate II). 


Generally speaking the leaves are arranged to spread themselves out to the 
very best advantage in regard to sun and air, in such a way as to overlap and shade 
one another as little as possible. It is found by actual measurement that there is a 
constant angle (supposing there to be no twisting of the stem) between each leaf and 
the one next above. For instance, in grasses or bamboos this angle is 180° or half the 
circumference, so that the leaves are in two rows, one on either side of the stem. In 
many sedges the angle is 120° and the leaves get into three rows. But in most plants 
the angle is less simple and the number of rows in which the leaves stand may be 
5, 8,18, or any of the numbers obtained by adding together the two last written 
down (e.g., the next number is 21, the next 34, and soon). The angles do not matter 
tous; the important thing is that the leaves are spread out in sucha way as to 
shade one another as little as possible. In many trees and shrubs the arrangement 
on the twigs or branches standing more or less horizontally is different from that 
on the main stem standing more or less vertically, and the leaves on the former tend 
to get into two ranks, facing upwards. 

25 


Miscelbaneous. 192 


In very shady places, as for example along the streams in most up-country 
jungles, the leaves can often be seen beautifully arranged in what is sometimes 
called a leaf-mosaic (Plate II) spread out so as to occupy every bit of space without 
overlapping. In many cases they will also be seen to be unequal (Plate I1), usually 
those on the lower side of the stem larger than those on the upper side, but not 
always. The reason of this phenomenon has not yet been satisfactorily made out, 
but it is very common. 


Leaves may have stalks or petioles, or have none (1.e., be sessile), and these 
stalks, by being of greater or less length as needed, help very much in the construc- 
tion of leaf mosaics. 


The leaf itself is a thin green expanded organ in most cases, and is ina 
sense the most important part of the plant, as it prepares, trom the materials 
coming to it from the roots (water and many substances dissolved in it) and 
from what it gets from the air, the actual food upon which the growing parts 
of the plant feed. The great bulk of a plant is made up of material derived 
from the almost infinitesimal amount of carbon dioxide gas in the air (the gas given 
out by animals and plants in breathing) by means of the leaves, and of water taken 
from the soil. The plant, in the enormous majority of cases, is absolutely unable to 
get water from rain by means of its leaves, or to get carbon from the soil even if the 
latter contain a good deal of it. 


In order to absorb carbon freely from the air, the leaf in places where it is 
not too dry for such construction is very thin and spread out flat by means of 
stronger veins or nerves running through the green tissue. These veins run down to 
the base of the leaf and enter thestem. They are the channels by which the water 
from the root enters and spreads out in the leaves, and are very much ramified 
through the latter, so that every part shall easily get its water. 

If the leaves are to be exposed to much sunshine, the very thin and delicate 
structure Seen in so many leaves will not suit, and they are more leathery, as is seen - 
for example in jak leaves. 


Leaves when young can still move to some extent, and they in general take 
up what it is often called their fixed light position, arranging themselves so as to be 
at right angles to the brightest diffused light (not, as a rule, direct sunlight) falling 
upon them. In other words, they tend to be horizontal, but if, for example, the 
plant is placed ina window they will all grow to face the light, and stand ata 
considerable angle with the vertical. 


What we have said refers to ordinary leaves, which are what is called 
dorsiventral, having a dorsal or lower surface and a ventral or upper, which differ 
in internal structure and usually in external appearance. Some plants however have 
their leaves the same on both sides, and these isobilateral leaves stand with their 
points or edges to the light, as may be seenin the Gladiolus, &c. In the Acacias and 
some kinds of Eucalyptus, e.g., the blue gum, the leaf is replaced by an organ standing 
edgewise to the light and called a phyllode, which is really the flattened leaf stalk. 
Often intermediate stages (Plate II) can be found onthe plant, the phyllode not 
being quite so large, and the leaf blade not having entirely disappeared. 


Many leaves, especially in the plants of the family Leguminosae, to which 
peas and beans belong, sleep at night or ina hot sun. The sensitive plant, socommon 
in the low country, also sleeps when touched, but few are so sensitive as this. Most 
of them, however, bend down their leaflets in various ways at night (Plate II), soas to 
turn their edges to the sky instead of their flat surfaces. The common species of 
Oxalis also show this very well. 

(To be continued.) 


SERS 


radical 
leaves 


Jeat 


Mosaic 


ye a 


ie ca 


' On yr 


a 


ke 


obovate 
Jeuminate 
Sub-acufe 


ee 


oy | 
Pea 26 See Seyrale 
i a Aacurminale SANS dentale, 


EN 


Sheathine 
Sfall< 


deulea 
Crenate. 


undulate 
balmale. ee ae 
Ie obtuse pee 
! € 
oa ran aut : 


LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY BOTANY--PHYLLOTAXY. PLATE II. 


: “- - 
a, 
: 
BA 
c= 


195 


PLANT SANITATION. 


Entomological Notes. 


By KE. ERNEST GREEN, Government Entomologist. 

Specimens of a Longicorn beetle (Mvechotypa verrucicollis, Gahan.) have 
been sent in from the Matale district, together with examples of young rubber 
stumps said to have been killed by them. The bark of these plants has 
been nibbled off, in large irregular patches, exposing the bare wood. Similar 
specimens, under identical conditions, were received from the same _ district 
exactly a year ago. Examination of the roots prove that they have previously 
been attacked by the parasitic fungus, Botryodiplodia elasticae, Petch. This 
fungus attacks the collar of the plant; kills the upper parts by cutting off the 
supply of nourishment; and works down into the root. It has always 
seemed to me extremely doubtful that a healthy rubber plant, protected by the 
natural flow of latex, could be successfully invaded by bark-eating and boring 
insects, and the following experiments have strongly corroborated my theory, 
Several of the living beetles were confined in a large cage together with a healthy 
living plant of Hevea of the sameage and stage of growth as those which were 
the objects of attack in the Matale district. The beetles crawled up the stem and 
presently tried their jaws on the bark. The puncture resulted in an instantaneous 
exudation of latex which adhered to the mouth parts of the beetles and was 
evidently very distasteful to them. They immediately abandoned the attack and 
spent some time in endeavouring to remove the sticky fluid. After the first 
rebuff no further attempt was made, even under stress of starvation. After 
seven days’ confinement, with no other food, I then removed the beetles to another 
cage and provided them with some small branches of Cassia and tea. They com- 
menced to feed greedily upon the bark of the Cassia, but the tea branches are not 
altogether to their taste. They have fed only sparingly upon the outer layers 
of the bark. These experiments clearly show that a healthy rubber plant is immune 
from attack. But should the latex tubes become dry, from disease or any other 
cause, the plants will fall an easy prey to boring and bark-eating insects. Stumped 
plants that have been despatched by rail for long distances and have become 
withered during transit, will be especially liable to attack. 


Further specimens of young rubber stumps, the ends of which have been 
tunnelled to forma receptacle for the nests of a small Hymenopteron, have been 
received. (See note in February number of this journal.) The present specimens 
come from the Badulla district, and contain_the nests of a tiny bee (Ceratina sp.). A 
considerable number of small wasps and bees have this habit of boring into the pith 
of dead parts of plants. The wasps usually store their nests with insects, while the 
bees provision theirs with ‘ bee-bread’ (a mixture of pollen and honey). The follow- 
ing species have been observed to infest young rubber plants :—Trypoxylon intrudens 
and T. pileatum (provisioning their nests with spiders), Stigmus niger (with Aphides), 
Odynurus sichelii (with small caterpillars), Ceratina simillima, C. viridissima, 
and C. propinqua (with ‘bee-breed’). Though none of these insects will attack 
the living parts of the plant, itis possible that the tunnel in the dried ends of the 
stump may form a lodgement for water and subsequently for injurious fungi. It is 
advisable therefore to cut off the dead ends of the plants, care being taken that the 
cut should be just above nodes (or knots) of the plant. If the cut is made 
through or just below the node, it is probable that a further section of the stem will 
die back. 


Plant Sanitation. 194 


A case of infestation of the stem of a Hevea tree by the ‘horned Termite’ 
(Termes inanis) has been brought to my notice. This species of termite takes 
advantage of any hollow in a tree for the construction of its nest, but does not ~ 
apparently feed upon the wood itself. My observations lead me to believe that it 
subsists principally upon lichens growing upon the stems of trees and rocks. In 
the present instance the tree is still alive, the termites occupying a large cavity in 
the bole where the oviginal stem had been broken off by the wind. I have recom- 
mended the removal of as much of the nest as can be reached without further 
damaging the tree. The more inaccessible portions can be treated with naphthaline 
dissolved in petrol which will drive out the remainder of the insects. The cavity 
should then be tightly plugged with dry earth. 


The grub of the large Cockchafer (Lepidiota pingwis) continues to give 
trouble by feeding upon the roots of rubber plants. In some cases the tap 
root has been eaten right through. Kainit, and nitrate of soda are the recognized 
deterrents for this pest; but they must be employed carefully and not allowed 
to come into direct contact with the tender roots of the plants, or their caustic 
properties will cause further injury. The best method of application is to mix 
the substance with earth and spread it upon the surface round the plants. The 
first shower of rain will dissolve the salts and carry them down into the soil. 
For very young plants, one ounce cf the nitrate or three ounces of the kainit will 
be sufficient per plant. For larger plants from one and a half to twice this 
dose may be safely employed. When the adult cockchafers are on the wing, 
they may be trapped by placing small kerosene lamps, in trays containing water 
and kerosene, in the field at night. During the daytime, the beetles may be 
found resting upon the stems and branches of plants and should be collected 
and destroyed. (For figures of the grub and adult beetle see T.4., Oct. 1905, p. 520.) 


I have made an interesting examination of samples of various shade trees 
containing galleries of the ‘shot-hole-borer’ (Xyleborus fornicatus). Young 
branches of Albizzia moluccana had been tunnelled by the insect, but the galleries 
were deserted and showed no signs of having produced a brood. The insect had 
evidently found this wood unsuitable for breeding purposes. The galleries were 
more or less filled by an exudation of gum. The same remarks apply to Grevillea 
branches, in which only a single living beetle (evidently a recent arrival) was found. 
Several dead beetles were found, enveloped in gum. Loquat branches had also 
been tunnelled; but here again there was no present occupation. A single dead 
beetle was found in one of the galleries. Under these circumstances, it would 
appear that though ‘shot-hole-borer’ may attack and—to a certain extent—damage 
these shade trees, it cannot successfully breed in them; and that such trees are not 
therefore of any real danger to the tea amongst which they may be growing. On 
the other hand, a section (4 inches in diameter) of the stem of an old castor-oil plant, 
from the same estate, was found to be badly infested by the borer. The numerous 
galleries penetrated deep into the wood, and contained living insects in all stages 
of development. It is evident that we have here a prolific breeding place of the 
borer, and that such plants would constitute a source of infection to the surround- 
ing tea. Young castor plants will not be so liable to attack. It is only when they 
have been allowed to grow old and woody that they harbour the pest to any 
serious extent. 


A correspondent asks if tar, applied to the stems and branches of tea plants, 
would prevent the invasion of ‘Shot-hole Borer’ (Xyleborus fornicatus) from 
neighbouring infected estates. He writes, ‘“‘I have shot-hole borer all round me, 
but not—as far as I can see—actually on the estate.” I have found a complete 
coating of tar very injurious to the tea plant. It burns the bark badly and—in 


195 Plant Sanitation. 


some cases—has resulted in the death of the tree. Any application that is of the 
nature of an airtight coating must be injurious to such a plant as tea, in which the 
bark is live right to the surface. Under the circumstances detailed above, I should 
recommend the isolation of the estate—from its infected neighbours—by a thick 
sereen of ‘ Dadaps’ (Hrythrina lithosperma) which are of rapid growth and do not 
harbour shot-hole borer. If, from the commencement of the planting industry, 
estates and individual tields had been separated from each other by effective 
screens of jungle or introduced trees, we should have had little trouble in confining 
and combating the pests which are now able to spread without let or hindrance. 
It is to be hoped that rubber planters will take warning from the difficulties 
experienced first with coffee and now on the large undivided areas of tea 
plantations. 


Two species of ‘Case-worms,’ (Chalia doubledayi) and (Acanthopsyche 
hypoleuca) (see figs. 2 and 10 on plate facing p. 801in the May number of this 
journal) are reported to have caused serious injury to a field of tea in the Gampola 
district. This same field was badly attacked last year also, and the trees so 
weakened that they have never properly recovered after, pruning. Such weakened 
trees should be assisted with suitable manure. Paris Green would be the best 
treatment for this pest ; but there are evident objections against the use of minera] 
poisons upon tea that is in plucking. I have suggested that lime and sulphur 
(dusted over the bushes) might act as a deterrent against the spread of the pest, 
but this cannot be relied upon to kill the caterpillars upon bushes already attacked. 
Collecting by hand, when theinsects are in force, is almost useless. The newly- 
hatched caterpillars are very minute and inconspicuous. They are carried from 
field to field on the coolies’ clothing. Case-worms have been unusually abundant, 
during the last two years, probably owing to the comparative failure of the 
usual rains. 


Specimens of the Pyralid moth (Dichocrocis punctiferalis) have been bred 
from caterpillars infesting the seed heads of the Indian millet (Sorghum vulgare). 
The caterpillars were feeding upon the ripe seed, amongst which they had spun 
silken galleries. This species is the well-known ‘pod-borer’ of Cacao in Ceylon, 
It has also been bred from the seed-heads of the Castor oil plant (Ricinus). 


I have received branches of the handsome flowering tree (Amherstia) thickly 
encrusted with a lac-insect (Tachardia albizzie). The pest may be kept in check 
by the application of kerosene emulsion. 


A correspondent sends me specimens of a small ‘ Flea-beetle’ (Hypnophila 
flavipennis), and reports that they are destroying Adiantum and other cultivated 
ferns in a green-house. They will also attack Begonia plants. These beetles 
acquire their popular name from their leaping powers, a habit which greatly 
adds to the difficulty of capturing and destroying them. I have found the best 
means of circumventing their activity to be to lift each pot gently and stand it 
in alarge tray or bath containing water with a film of kerosene. Then shake and 
disturb the leaves of the plant, when the beetle will hop out and fall into the water. 
This should be done day after day until all the beetles have been captured. The 
larvae of the beetles are probably feeding upon the roots of the plants and will be 
hatching out from time to time. But if this treatment is repeated whenever the 
beetles appear, they will be unable to lay any eggs and the brood will be exter. 
minated. Some weak Phenyle—or Jeye’s Fluid—and water, poured on to the earth 
round the roots will kill the larvae; but this must be done carefully or the plant 
will be injured. A more radical cure, if the building can be rendered practically 
airtight, is to fumigate it with hydocyanic acid gas; but this is a dangerous 
operation and can be recommended only when expert supervision is available. 


196 


Correspondence, 


SARSAPARILLA. 


DEAR SirR,—With reference to Mr. Geo. Weerakoon’s letter in the July 
number of the ‘Tropical Agriculturist and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural 
Society,” I might mention that the author of ‘Palms and Pearls of Ceylon’ 
has unfortunately perpetrated a number of errors regarding our Ceylon Flora 
in his otherwise very entertaining and instructive book. 


As pointed out in my letter which appeared in the April number of the 
Magazine, true sarsaparilla is neither found wild nor cultivated in Ceylon. 
Mr. Walters, like many others, is confusing the officinal Sarsaparilla (Smilax offici- 
nalis) with Indian Sarsaparilla (Sinhalese Jramusu) Hemidesmus Indicus. The 
only local congeners of the true Sarsaparilla (Smilax) genus are the plants known 
to the Sinhalese by the name of Kabaressa. also used medicinally. 


Bonkohonba referred to by Mr. Geo. Weerakoon is Munronia pumila, a 
well-known Sinhalese drug which has the same properties as the officinal Chiretta 
(Ophelia Chirata). 

Yours faithfully, 


C. DRIEB : 
Government Stock Garden, Colombo, 81st July, 1906. aie 


—— 


THE SWAMP GUM. 


Sir,—Will you kindly inform me what is the scientific name of the 
‘‘Swamp Gum”; and if it does, as its name seems to imply, grow in swampy 
land. Also, if there are any other trees, useful for fuel, which will grow in 
swamps at an elevation of 38,500 feet. 

Yours faithfully, 
S. 
Peermaad, 29th July. 

[Eucalyptus viminalis, Gunnii, and pauciflora are all known as Swamp Gum 
in Australia. These and other species of Hucalyptus would probably grow in 
swamps at the elevation mentioned.—ED. | 


Current Literature. 


“* Le Cocotier.—Culture, Industrie et Commerce dans les principaux pays de 
production, by EK. Prudhomme, Director of Agriculture, Madagascar. Published 
by Augustin Challamel, Paris; pp. 491, with photos and diagrams. In this fairly 
exhaustive work on the coconut palm (Cocos nucifera), its cultivation and products, 
Mons. Prudhomme has given an account of the coconut planting industry in all 
the countries where it is carried on, with special attention to his own colony 
of Madagascar, Ceylon, Cochin, Malaya, and the Netherland Indies. In the early 
chapters he deals with the varieties of coconut in different countries, and very 
useful are the plates, showing 20 varieties of nuts in section, and the drawings 
of sections of other nuts. These show at a glance the relative shapes and sizes 
of different varieties and the proportion in each of husk and kernel. The 
propagation of the plant is fully dealt with, and here also the aid of photography 
is sought to show the results of seed planting in different ways. Excellent results 
have been obtained in Madagascar on private plantations by placing the seed nuts 


197 


vertically in the soil with the point downwards, but official ex, riments in 
Madagascar show that the best ways are(1) placing the nut obliqu y with the 
point downwards, (2) placing the nut horizontally. The manuring of the plantation 
occupies considerable space in the book, and the work and experiments of Lepine, 
Bachoffen, Miintz and Gerard, and Cochrane are referred to; while for the genera 
cultivation of the estate the methods of several well-known Ceylon plantations 
are given as good examples. Pests and diseases occupy one chapter; the Black 
Beetle (Oryctes Rhinoceros) and the Red Beetle (Rhynchophorus ferrugineus) being 
the chief mentioned. Part II. deals with coconut products; copra, oil, poonac, 
desiccated coconut, fibre, juggery and arrack, and coconut butter. Part IIL. 
deals individually with the various coconut growing countries, and the trade in the 
different coconut products. Mons. Prudhomme has already made a name for himself 
in connection with tropical agriculture, and this work on the coconut will enhance 
his reputation—I. E. 


Relating to the Sugar Industry in Peru.—By T. F. Sedgwick: published 
by Haya, Verjel and Cia, Trujillo, Peru. Although not a great planting country 
Peru seems to have done fairly well with sugar. In the planting districts the soils 
as a whole are deep and their physical composition renders them very retentive of 
moisture, while the drainage in the valleys is excellent. The soils are of the 
alkali type. Sugar was first planted in Peru in 1570, but the modern industry 
dates back only 30 or 40 years. The early modern factories were elaborately put 
up and equipped; ‘‘sugar was at a good price, money was easily made and liberally 
spent in appliances then in vogue. Some factories had all the appliances that 
could be, made of copper. This desire to have the best regardless of expense extended 
to all departments of the estate. Sugar then took a turn and went down, and many 
of the estates had to go out of business.” The tendency now is to group the estates 
by purchasing or leasing, working with a central factory ; so that the larger places 
control upwards of 15,000 acres each. As regards labour, the labourers are well 
treated in every way, and the usual shortage of sugar growing countries is not 
felt; in this respect Peru may have accomplished what many other countries have 
failed in. Good modern machinery is used for cultivating, and irrigation is ex. 
tensively practised. Methods of manufacture vary considerably, but in most 
factories the work is excellent and up-to-date. Manures, fertilizers, and the 
methods of reclaiming alkali soils are treated, and the work gives a good insight 
into the sugar industry of Peru.—I. E. 


The Ceylon Board of Agriculture. 


The Twenty-first meeting of the Board of Agriculture was held in the 
Council Chamber on Monday, the 2nd July, at 12 noon. 


His Excellency the Governor presided. 


There were present the Hon’ble Messrs. H. L. Crawford, c.mM.c., S. C. 
Obeyesekere, P. Arunachalam and F’. Beven, Messrs. L. W. Booth, R. B. Strickland, 
M. Kelway Bamber, Daniel Joseph, G. W. Sturgess, R. Morison, Dr. J. C. Willis, 
the Maha Mudaliyar, and the Secretary. 


Mr. M. Suppramaniam was present as a visitor. 
BUSINESS DONE. 


1. Minutes of last meeting were read and confirmed. 
2. List of new members was read, and they were declared duly elected. 


198 


3. Progress Report No. XX. was circulated. In connection with the Report 
His Excellency the Governor referred briefly to the subject of rotation of crops 
on chena lands. 


4. A paper was read by Dr. Willis on ‘*The Improvement of local Races 
of Plants.” At the desire of H. E. the Governor, Dr. Willis promised to have the 
paper printed in the form of a leaflet. 


5. The recommendation of the Finance Committee—“‘ That the Agricultural 
Instructors should be paid subsistence allowance at Rs. 4 per diem when travelling 
on duty, and the second clerk Rs. 2 per diem unless when travelling in out-of-the- 
way districts and using a cart, when he should be paid Rs. 4” was approved. 


6. The Secretary submitted a precis of suggestions received from Local 
Societies with regard to the proposed Ordinance for the Destruction of Agricultural 
Pests and the Sanitation of Plants. The following members of the Board were 
nominated by H. E. the Governor as a Sub-Committee to consider the suggestions 
made and draft a final recommendation to Government :—The Hon’ble Mr. S. C. 
Obeyesekere, Hon. Mr. Beven, Dr. Willis, and Mr. Bamber. 


fod 


7, A report was submitted from the Sub-Committee appointed to consider 
the offer of Mr. M. Simon Fernando Sri Chandrasekara, Mudaliyar of Moratuwa, 
to hand over to the Society two blocks of land at Horetuduwa, and a site for an 
Industrial School, together with a sum of Rs. 2,500 towards the cost of initial 
operations and maintenance. 


The Sub-Committee recommended that the offer be accepted as regardsl 
the land offered for a flower and stock garden and the cost of opening them, but 
that the offer of an industrial school was a matter for the consideration of the 
Director of Public Instruction rather than of this Society. 


The following resolution was proposed by the Hon. Mr. Crawford, seconded 
by the Hon. Mr. Obeyesekere, and unanimously carried :— 


‘“That the Society accept the most generous offer of Mudaliyar Simon 
Fernando Sri Chandrasekara to convey to the Society two blocks of land for 
experimental purposes, and to expend Rs. 2,500 in the preparation of the lots for 
the cultivation of fruit, vegetables, and flowers ; and that the thanks of the Society 
be conveyed to the Mudaliyar.” 


Agricultural Society Progress Report. XXI. 


The membership of the Ceylon Agricultural Society is now 1,110. The 
Madura Agricultural and Industrial Association has been affiliated to the Ceylon 
Agricultural Society as a life member. 


The following are the dates fixed for Agri-Horticultural Shows :— 


Kurunegala oF cer ae Poe August 23, 24, and 25 
Avisawella ses ie a Be September 7 and 8 
Kegalla Bes September 21 and 22 
Telijjawila (Verctalle and Fruit Show) ae September (about end) 
Wellaboda Pattu (Galle) .. 5c November 16 and 17 
Three Korales and Lower Bulateame 

(Market Show) see 528 ees October 21 
Batticaloa des ne 0 a00 Early in 1907 


Telijjawila das an 8 «» March 15, 1907 


199 


1. Harispattu Local Branch.—At a meeting held at Katugastota on 30th 
June last under the presidency of Mr. P. B. Nugawela, Ratemahatmaya, it was 
decided to form a Local Branch for Harispattu. Over 300 were present at the 
meeting, and 190 joined as members. Mr. Nugawela, Ratemahatmaya, offered a 
prize of Rs. 10 for the best school vegetable garden in the district. Mr. N. 
Wickremeratne, Agricultural Instructor, was present and addressed the meeting. 
Voluntary donations of Rs. 243 were subscribed by supporters of the movement. 
It was agreed to apply for land to open an Experimental Garden = and 
Cattle Farm. 


2. Mullaittivu Local Branch.—At a meeting ot the Local Branch at 
Mullaittivu held on the 24th July it was decided to enrol experimenting members, 
waiving the subscription in the case of villagers who cannot afford to pay, on their 
undertaking to carefully carry out experiments and report results to the 
Society. Such members will be selected from lists of those recommended by 
the headmen, 


8. Telijjawila Local Branch.—A. Show of Agricultural and Industrial 
Products of the Weligam korale will be held on the 15th March, 1907, at Weligama ; 
and an Interim Fair has been arranged to be held at Telijjawila towards the end of 
September, with the object of its serving as arehearsal of the bigger Show in 
March. The exhibits at the Interim Fair will consist of grains, vegetables, 
and fruit. 


4. Market Show at Yatiyantota.—The Market Show has been postponed 
for 21st October on account of the fever epidemic prevailing in the district. 


5. Dumbara Local Branch.—The members of this Branch have started a 
Co-operative Credit Society for the purpose of supplying seed grain to villagers 
at alow rate of interest. Over Rs. 1,000 has been subscribed by 66 shareholders. 
Rules have been framed on the basis of those adopted in Bengal for the conduct 
of such Societies, and four centres have been selected for the erection of seed paddy 
stores. The progress of this movement will be watched with interest, and it is 
hoped that its success may be such as to lead to the formation of similar Societies 
in other parts of the Island. 


6. Wellaboda Pattu (Galle) Braunch.—A progress report on the Experimental 
Garden in Wellaboda pattu (Galle) was submitted at the meeting of the Local 
Branch held on the 10th July. It was agreed at the meeting to offer an additional 
prize for the best plot of vegetables grown in the pattu at the Show to be held in 
November next. 


7. Experimental Garden, Ruanwella.—The Experimental Garden at Ruan- 
wella has been fenced off, and preparations are being made for planting it with 
cotton seed, vegetables, pineapples, mangosteens, and fruit trees. 


8. Hxperimental Garden, Kegalla.—A site at Pitihune, within the town 
of Kegalla, has been selected for the Experimental Garden. 


9. Hxperimental Garden at Katana.—A start has been made by the Local 
Society in planting the Experimental Garden. Thirteen members agreed at the 
meeting held on the 6th July to contribute towards the cost of engaging a man 
with experience on Rs. 10 per month. Three other members undertook to plant 
portions of the garden at their own expense, 


10. Soy Beans.—The Honorary Secretary, Telijjawila Local Agricultural 
Society, reports :—‘‘I have the honour to report with regret that not one of the 
soy bean seeds germinated. The seeds were more or less rotten.” 


200 


1l. Seed Supply.—In May last 36 varieties of vegetable seeds were imported 
from Germany, Sarampur Gardens, Calcutta, Madras, and Bangalore Botanic 
Gardens. Ninety-five applicants were supplied with 1,885 packets of seeds; seeds 
for Provincial Road Committees and Irrigation Stations were supplied at half price. 
Twenty-five applicants did not get seeds, the supply being insufficient to meet 
the "demand. 


12. Kiushu Paddy.—Mr. Jacob de Mel reports :—‘‘The report from my 
conductor states that after the 20th May the flood water from Ja-ela canal, 
coming into the fields at Muturajawela at an unseasonable time, killed the paddy 
bushes, which were not more than 12 inches in height.” 


The Honorary Secretary, Telijjawila Local Society, writes under date the 
16th July :—‘‘I have to report that the paddy did not grow. It germinated at 
about the same time as other varieties sown for yala. It was sown in a part of 
a field near the Telijjawila Experimental Garden, and grew to a height of about 
8 inches and then withered away. Every care was taken in its cultivation under 
my? personal supervision; and, all the conditions having been favourable, its 
failure can only be attributed to its being unsuitable to this country.” 


Mr. W. R. Bibile of Badulla reports :—‘‘ The half bushel of Kiushu paddy 
was sown on a piece of unfertile field. The soil of the land is sandy. The paddy 
was sown on the 24th April last, and a portion was transplanted on the 19th May 
last. The plants began to blossom on the 4th June last and were reaped on the 
Ith July. The yield was only 3 bushels of paddy. This poor crop is owing to the 
unfertility of the soil and the scarcity of water. The plants did not grow more 
than 2 feet in height. In my opinion this paddy is not suitable for transplanting, 
as the plants do not grow toa sufficient height to transplant within fifteen days, 
This paddy ought to succeed on fertile fields, and must be sown before April. : 


The Secretary, Badulla Branch, reports :—“‘I have just visited a field where 
a bushel of Kiushu paddy was sown. In the same field on the same day as the 
Kiushu paddy was sown native paddy was also sown in parallel ridges. The field 
is a good one, and there was no lack of water. The Kiushu crop can be harvested 
about six weeks earlier than the native crop. But, on the other hand, there will 
not be half as mueh straw from the former. Neither will there be half as much 
grain. The ears of the Kiushu plants are very short, and worse still the grain 
promises to be very small. If similar experiments produced similar results else- 
where, I beg to think that the cultivation of Kiushu paddy is not very profitable, 
except where water cannot be procured for about four months at a time. 


The Society willbe glad to receive reports of results of their experiments 
from other members who tried this paddy. 


13. Honduras Paddy.—Mr. W. R. Bibile, in the course of a report to the 
Superintendent of School Gardens, writes:—‘‘The handful of Honduras paddy 
which you sent me was sown onthe 17th January last, and the yield was seven 
measures. This was sown ona piece of very fertile land. The crop was damaged 
by flies, and if not for this the yield would have been more. This paddy takes 
two and a half months to blossom and four and a half months to reap.” 


. 14. Seed paddy from India.—A consignment of about 475 bushels of sia- 
months seed paddy has been received from India. The paddy is being distributed 
among the applicants from the Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya. A small con- 
signment of Banku paddy, which takes four and a half months to harvest, is 
expected in a day or two. The quantity available at present is only 22% bushels. 


201 


15. Fruit Trees.—The Telijjawila Local Society has been sent a supply 
of fruit trees free of charge from the Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya, viz,, 
2 loquats, 2 rata-karapinchas, 38 coco plum, 3 star apple, 4 Avocado pear, and 
§ China guava. 


16. Manures,—Mauure for experiments in fertilization has been supplied by 
Messrs. Freudenberg & Co. to— 


Mr. H. Amarasuriya for coconuts. 

Mudaliyar, Wellaboda Pattu (Galle), for orange trees and vegetables at 
Weregoda Experimental Garden. 

Anuradhapura Local Society for tobacco. 

Mr. P. B. Nugawela, Ratemahatmaya, for vegetables. 


17. Local Soap.—Samples of soap, manufactured by Mr. D. Chandrawarnam 
of Kotahena and exhibited at the Colombo Agri-Horticultural Show, have been 
forwarded to the Imperial Institute to ascertain their value in England. The 
Government Chemist has also been asked to report on the soap. 


18. Castration.—The following demonstrations have been given during 
the mouth :— 


North-Central Province: Alukaranda, Imbulgaswewa, Hiripitiyagama, 
Nelbegama. 

Central Province: Ragalla. 

North-Western Province: Padeniya. 

Province of Sabaragamuwa: Kegalla, Mawanella, Pinnawala, Ambepussa, 


Up to date 2,002 cattle have been operated upon this year, brought by 
1,604 owners at 90 demonstrations. 113 men have been taught the operation, Three 
men each at Mawanella, Kegalla, and Pinnawala have been trained in the new 
method of castration of cattle, and fifty animals were castrated in these districts 
by these men, 


19, Prickly Pear.—The Jaffna Branch proposes to try an experiment in 
exterminating prickly pear, which has grown very thick on the Delft Island. The 
method to be adopted consists in spraying the plants with a solution of sodium 
arsenic, which has been used with good results in West Australia, 


20. Caterpillar Pest in Paddy.—A caterpillar pest in paddy fields was 
reported by the Assistant Superintendent of School Gardens from Karandawala 
in Maturata district. The Government Entomologist reported on the specimen 
sent him as follows :— 


‘““The insects concerned are the larvee of a minute pyralid moth belonging 
to the genus Nymphula (family Pyralidz). These larvee are aquatic, and are 
provided with a series of filamentous gills on each side of the body enabling 
them to breathe water instead of air. They are consequently not amenable to 
treatment by flooding. On the other hand, if the water, could be entirely 
withdrawn from the affected fields for twenty-four hours or more without 
serious injury to the plants, it is probable jthat exposure to the heat of the sun 
would destroy the delicate caterpillars. An experiment should first be tried on 
one or two small sections of the field. If that prove successful, the remaining 
area should be similarly treated-—the whole field at one time. If treated in sections, 
the larvee will merely migrate to adjoining sections.” 


The pest has now disappeared, but the Ratemahatmaya of the district has 
heen instructed to make the experiment suggested should the caterpillars reappear. 


202 


21. Publications.—The Editor, “‘ Sihala Samaya,” sent 50 copies of his paper 
containing translations of minutes of the proceedings of the Board of Agriculture 
held on the 2nd July, 1906, for distribution to Local Societies. 


The Kditor, ‘‘ Dinakaraprakasa,” sent 50 copies of his paper with similar 
contents, which were distributed among the Local Societies, 


22. Leaflets on ‘‘ Tobacco Cultivation in Dumbara,” in English and Sinhalese, 
have been distributed; Tamil copies will be ready shortly. Leaflets on the “‘ Bud 
Rot of the Coconut Palm” by Mr. Petch, and the ‘‘ Improvement of Local Races 
of Plants” by the Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, are with the Government 
Printer—with translations in the vernaculars. 

A, N. GALBRAITH, 
Secretary, Ceylon Agricultural Society. 
August 6, 1906. 


TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST 


AND 


MAGAZINE OF THE 


CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY, 


Vou. XXVII. COLOMBO, SEPTEMBER 15rtu, 1906. No. 3. 


The Improvement of Local Varieties of Plants. 


A few erroneous notions seem to be abroad again, with regard to the keeping 
up of the high standard of local races of plants, and it may be well to correct them. 
The Agricultural Society is importing many valuable kinds of seed, and people 
are saving the seed from these, expecting to get an equally good result in the next 
generation. They find they do not get this result, and they wonder why, or say it is 
the ‘‘Ceylon climate,” though it is the simple expression of a natural law, which 
cannot be altered by all the agricultural societies in the world. The majority of 
improved races are due to continual selection of the seed, and unless this selection 
is carried out in every generation, or unless the Society buys good (t.e., selected) seed 
for every generation, the result must be disappointment. Deterioration is in 
general about three or four times as rapid as improvement, and supposing, for 
instance, in cotton, beginning with a staple of 1 { inch, we have in a hundred gener- 
ations improved this length to 2 inches, it will fall away in about ten generations or 
less to 1} inch again, unless selection be practised. [These numbers are, of course, 
purely hypothetical. | 


Improvement of races is carried on in two ways, and we must carefully 
distinguish between these. It may be by the continual selection of the better, in 
the almost infinitesimal differences which always mark any crop or character, or it 
may be by the picking out of absolutely new characters, which appear as what are 
called sports at long intervals; these do not go back to the race from which they 
sprang, but may themselves be improved by selection, and the improved race 
will go back again to their starting point if left alone. Thus, for instance, in the 
carnation, a new pink variety suddenly appears as a single, or asa very few, 
individuals, among a lot of red ones. This pink form may be cultivated, and its 
offspring, if not crossed with the reds, will remain pink for any number of 
generations. Mr. Lock, lately Scientific Assistant at Peradeniya, has produced 
an excellent race of “native” peas by crossing on scientific principles, that will 
not ‘go back,” and we are now busy multiplying these with a view to putting 
them on the local market. 


Speaking generally, these sports only appear among the offspring of crosses, 
i.e.. mainly among garden plants, and if we start to look for them ina field crop, 
we may be grey-headed before one appears. The improved races in field crops, be 
they of rice, potatoes, cotton, or what not, are practically always due to selection, 
and we must either practice selection ourselves to keep up the quality, or buy 
selected seed from elsewhere at considerable expense. Nothing in this world that 
is worth having, can, as a rule, be got without considerable labour or expense. 


204 [SEPT. 1906. 


To illustrate roughly what is meant, we give here the lengths of some samples 
taken absolutely at random, from the best sample of cotton that has yet been 
sent in to my office, by anyonein Ceylon, and which is not grown from seed imported 
last year from the West Indies. This cotton is Sea Island; the original parents had 
a staple of 2; inches, and these plants are so far as we can find, from the third 
generation only from these parents, yet see the difference in the staple, the longest 
of these being under 1} inches. Now in cotton, every trace of length beyond 
13 inches tells rapidly on the price, and instead of these being worth 13-2} of the price 
of the original cotton, or about 1s. 2d. they are only worth at most about 93d. In 
two or three more generations, the length of staple of these cottons, without selec- 
tion, would have shrunk to perhaps 1} inches, and the price to 73d. 


COTTONS FROM THIRD GENERATION OF 2} INCH SHA ISLAND IN CEYLON. 


13 in, 


14 in. 


1 in. 


The space between the vertical lines is 2; inches. The horizontal lines repre- 
sent the lengths of staple found. Note also different lengths of staple. 


Value of 2} inch Sea Island ae ls. 8d. per lb. 
s of the longest of these ay 93d. ve 


Not only does the quality deteriorate, but it does not remain constant 
throughout the lot, some of the plants deteriorating faster than others. A buyer 
of this cotton, finding in it a large proportion of staple with the length of only one 
inch—that of the sample at the foot, would, of course, as every planter in Ceylon 
knows by experience or conversation, only give for it the price of this short staple, 
i.e., 7d., so that cotton that might, by care, have sold for 1s. 6d. will only fetch a 
good deal less than half that amount. 

Weare using cotton asan illustration, because the success of the experi- 
ments at Maha-iluppalama, and those of Dr. Fernando, with Sea Island and other 
cottons, is already causing signs of these cultivations being taken up, and if the 
standard is to be kept up to really high figures, something will have to be done, for to 
get selected seed every year from the West Indies will be difficult, as they have none 
too much for themselves, and will cost a high price. The West Indian cottons all 
come from one lot of seed originally, obtained from the Sea Islands of Carolina, but 
already the different islands show very different prices. and we see from the last 
market report that West Indian Sea Island cotton has sold at all prices from 1s. to 
1s. 8d. ina very short time. Doubtless, there will be a profit to the villager in 
even the lowest price, but it is much better, both for himself and for the reputation 
of the island, that he should get the highest price, and this only means care in selec- 


SEPT. 1906.] 205 


tion. India, time after time, has imported the best cottons from abroad, and yet she 
gets far the lowest price on the market, though her native cotton is the same cotton 
as the common American, which sells for 6d. against India’s 34d. 


To deal in brief with the way of selecting cotton: what we mainly want are 
length, big yield, strength, freedom from disease and silkiness, the first two being 
the most important. When the cotton bolls begin to burst all over the field, we 
must go through it with a three inch measure, and pick out 175 bushes with the very 
longest staple and with over 20 bolls on a bush, and free of disease; then reject any 
that have not the requisite strength or silkiness, and in this way, we shall probably 
have about 150 bushes left, which should be marked with red rags, and have their 
cotton separately collected and ginned, and will give enough seed for one acre in the 
following year. Similar methods must be employed with rice, or any other field 
crop, if we mean to keep up their standard. 


Asa good local illustration of what may be done by selection, look at the 
way the Java planters, by continually improving their cinchona barks, have killed 
the Ceylon industry. Good Java barks now contain more than twice as much 
quinine as good Ceylon barks, and the seed of good varieties was sold the other day 
at £45 an ounce. 


206 [Sepr. 1906. 


GUMS, RESINS, SAPS AND EXUDATIONS. 


The Introduction of Castilloa Elastica to the East. 


By Ivor ETHERINGTON. 


While first place is given by planters in the Hast to the Para rubber, 
Hevea brasiliensis, the Central American rubber tree, Castilloa elastica, cannot be 
altogether ignored. In Southern India it seems to have found favour more 
than in Ceylon, although in the island it is doing well in the Matale and Passara 
districts, but does not appear to thrive at low elevations not far inland from 
the sea. 

In the West Indies, according to reports published by the Botanical Depart- 
ments of the various islands, Castilloa is favoured as a shade tree for cacao; 
and in Venezuela it has been successfully used in such mixed plantations. In Mexico, 
where planting is going on extensively, it is the Castilloa tree that is almost 
entirely cultivated. So that asa plantation product Castilloa is second favourite. 

The introduction of this rubber tree to the East is an interesting and some 
what romantic history, rivalling the story of the introduction of the Hevea, which 
Wickham successfully accomplished after many difficulties had been overcome. 
The tree is indigenous to most of the countries of Central America, and in 
Mexico is called ulé by the natives. It received its botanical name after a Spanish 
botanist, Don Juan Del Castillo, who died in Mexico in 1795, It was due to the 
initiative of Sir Clements Markham in the first place that rubber was at all tried as 
a plantation product, and in 1870 this explorer, civil servant and botanist, ‘‘ came to 
the conclusion that it was necessary to do for the India rubber or caoutchouc- 
yielding trees what had already been done with such happy results for the cinchona 
tree.” Markham regarded India as the most suitable part of the British Empire for 
commencing operations in rubber planting; anda detailed report on the subject 
drawn up by the Curator of the Pharmaceutical Society’s Museum, Mr. J. Collins, 
stated that the Heveas and Castilloa of America being superior to Ficus elastica 
(Rambong) these trees should be introduced to the East. 


“The collection of Castilloa plants for introduction into India was a very 
difficult service, for the trees grow in wild and unhealthy forests, with no means of 
transport and no facilities of any kind. In Mr. Cross I found aman with all the 
requisite qualifications for undertaking it. He is an excellent gardener, possessed of 
great energy and determination, is acquainted with the language, and has had much 
experience in South American travelling.” * 


Robert Cross left England on May 2nd, 1875 and arrived at Panama on the 
26th, for he was instructed to obtain his plants on the isthmus. He journeyed by 
canoe up the River Chagres, and in his account of his expedition mentions innumer- 
able hardships he had to endure and obstacles to be overcome in this pioneering 
forest work. 

“The district investigated by me and where the plants were collected,” he 
wrote, ‘was reached by ascending for some distance the River Chagres and then 
travelling for several miles through a stately forest into the heart of the isthmus. 
The trees seen exceeded in height and dimensions those met within the wooded 
districts of the Amazon. An undergrowth of a thorny wild pine-apple (Bromelia), 
10 feet in height, everywhere formed extensive thickets. Large powerful snakes 


* ©. Markham’s Peruvian Bark. 


Sept, 1906.] 207 Saps and Exudations. 


were numerous, and so audacious that they deliberately rose up to strike at any one 
that approached. The young rubber saplings were found growing most abundantly 
on the banks of cool clear running streams and little dribbling rivulets. The roots 
could easily be traced over the surface of the ground running down to the very 
margin of the water. But the tree grew also on eminences, steep declivities and 
varied elevations, and in such abundance that the first explorers gave the name 
““Caoutchoue Hill” to a height which they found crowned with a forest almost 
entirely composed of rubber trees. It was not seen growing anywhere on swamp or 
marsh land. Although the rubber districts are proverbially rainy, yet the tree was 
seen by me growing beside a stream on the border of a desert tract of country bounding 
the Gulf of Guayaquil, where only a few light showers of rain fell during the year. 
On both sides of the stream there was a strip of good forest, but beyond, thickets of 
cactaceae and low spreading legumes formed the characteristic vegetation. I 
mention this fact to show that the tree will probably succeed well in regularly 
irrigated districts, evenif the atmosphere be dry and dusty. The temperature in 
the woods of the isthmus ranged from 75 degrees to 88 degrees Fahrenheit. Rain 
water, examined the moment it fell, was never found to be below 74 degrees.” 


After some time he came across a large rubber tree laden with unripe fruit, 
and he watched this for a fortnight while the seed ripened. The seed was at 
once packed and despatched, and then Cross turned his attention to securing 
young plants. These were obtained after infinite trouble, brought to the coast 
and embarked on the ss. ‘‘Shannon,” on September 6th, 1875. Two days later the 
vessel ran on a reef off Jamaica. All the passengers were taken off by boats, but Cross 
remained on board seeing to his priceless rubber plants. H.M.S. ‘‘Dryad” came to 
the rescue of the ‘‘Shannon,” and Cross was taken on to the warship with the 
plants. He arrived in England on October 2nd in the the ss. ‘‘ Nile,” and shortly 
afterwards his Caséilloa plants were thriving in the Kew hot houses. 


In 1876 the first plants arrived in Ceylon, sent out from Kew in wardian 
cases. These were planted at Peradeniya and Henaratgoda. At first they were 
increased by cuttings, but in 1881-2 seeds were produced and large numbers of young 
Castilloas were despatched to India and various parts of Ceylon. 


In a letter to the Conservator of Forests, Madras, written in 1881, Cross says, 
“A Castilloa tree if carefully and judiciously tapped, with a diameter of 15 to 2 feet, 
may be expected to yield about 12 1b. of rubber per annum.” This seems, in the 
light of the present limited experience with the tree in the East, and of Mexican 
experience, to be greatly exaggerated for trees 54 to 72 inches in girth. But Cross 
was a firm believer in this species of rubber tree for cultivation in India and Ceylon. 

He further says, ‘In India there are many districts which possess all the cli- 
matic conditions necessary for the successful cultivation of Central American rubber. 
In Ceylon and Southern Burmah and the Malay Peninsula, the tree is likely to thrive 
in all proper situations.......... Of all the different rubber producing trees, the Castilloa 
should prove under cultivation the most remunerative.” Although this was written 
by a man who knew South India and who had studied the Para, Castilloa, and Ceara 
trees in their native habitats, yet actual practice up to the present shows that for 
Ceylon at any rate the Hevea is the most suitable. 


Gums, Resins, 208 [Sepr, 1906. 


SMOKING PLANTATION RUBBER. 
By HERBERT WRIGHT. 


In a recent communication to the press, Messrs. Lewis and Peat point out 
that consignments of biscuits have arrived in London in a heated and sticky 
condition, and raise the query as to whether the present mode of preparing biscuits 
is the best. It is pointed out that Amazon-grown smoke-cured is still the standard 

tp . . . . a p 
and has for a record of 50 years maintained its reputation for elasticity, strength 
and durability. One of their advisers is inclined to believe that ‘“‘ Ceylon and Straits 
biscuits and sheets are at present made too pure, too much moisture being taken 
out of the rubber, with the result that the elasticity and strength are reduced ; 
such rubber, it is stated, will not keep, but inevitably becomes soft and treacly 
if stored for any time or subjected to pressure and a raised temperature.” It is 
finally suggested that the plantation rubber should be smoked and made up into 
large balls, bottles, or cakes, asin Para. The same firm in their circular, dated 
December, 1905, state that ‘‘the very greatest care should be taken that all rubber 
is absolutely dry before being packed.” Obviously, in the opinion of Messrs. Lewis 
and Peat, the question of how to prepare the rubber for the market is a vexed 
one and deserving of much experiment. I have pointed out elsewhere, how Para 
rubber is smoked in Brazil, and that in addition to the nuts of specified palms and 
branches of certain tropical trees, certain antiseptic reagents such as creosote, dilute 
hydrofluoric acid, and corrosive sublimate have been proved tobe usefulin the 
preparation of rubber. It has also been shown that rubber prepared from trees 
30 years old may, if not properly dried become quite as ‘‘ heated” or ‘‘ tacky” as 
that from young trees. If a larger proportion of moisture is left in plantation 
rubber, I am of the opinion that putrefactive changes will be more apt to occur, 
and the use of antiseptics either by direct application to the latex or by smoking 
or coating the rubber will be imperative. In any case, the coating of the rubber 
particles or smoking the freshly-prepared rubber biscuits or sheets with any 
antiseptic is always an advantage as far as the keeping properties of the rubber 
are concerned; most of the ‘‘ heating” or **tackiness” in plantation rubber is due 
to bacteria, which can be prevented from spreading by the use of antiseptics; if 
not destroyed they will lead to putrefactive changes in any rubber with which 
they are brought into contact. Tackiness is really a disease which in unsmoked 
rubber can be spread by contact, but whether it is more likely to develop on rubber 
from young or old trees is stil] a point to be determined. If the consumers will 
accept the plantation rubber prepared by the use of antiseptics as described. the 
producers will find no difficulty in meeting their requirements; in fact several 
Ceylon estates have, for some time past, sent their rubber to Europe in the smoked 
condition, but whether better average prices for large quantities have been obtained 
is not known to the public. A little extra labour and money would be required, and 
the non-smokers naturally wish to see some promise of better prices before discarding 
a method of preparation which has hitherto been sufficiently remunerative. 

Whatever the causes predisposing Para plantation rubber to tackiness 
may be, 1 certainly believe that the absence of moisture is not one of them; the 
necessary bacteria cannot thrive in the absence of water or in the presence of 
suitable antiseptics. Too rapid drying produces a softening of rubber, but this is 
a change fundamentally different from tackiness. 

Plantation rubber is never entirely free from moisture, and is not usually 
dried too rapidly ; it often becomes quite tacky, and for a complete determination 
of the causes leading to predisposition to this undesirable change it is necessary to 
take into consideration, in addition to the above, a varied series of factors such 
as the drying of the rubber in rooms too freely lighted, the imperfect internal and 
superficial washing of the rubber, the age of the tree or the part from which the 
latex is obtained, the selection of trees of varying vigour for tapping and the 


variation in the percentage of objectionable ingredients in latex from trees during 
certain seasons or from trees tapped injudiciously.—The India Rubber Journal. 


a 


Smpr. 1906. | 209 Saps and Exudations. 


REPORT UPON A VISIT TO GREAT BRITAIN TO INVESTIGATE THER 
INDIA RUBBER INDUSTRY IN [TS RELATION TO THE GROWTH 
AND PREPARATION OF RAW INDIA-RUBBER IN THE 
MALAY PENINSULA. II. 


By P. J. BuRGEss. 


PREPARATION OF RAW RUBBER. 


14. I have already stated I am not at present in a position to say decisively 
how the rubber should be best coagulated and prepared for export, but I am 
inclined to recommend that as little as possible in the way of acids or drugs should 
be added to the milk or latex. Where a washing machine is used, the milk might, I 
think, with advantage be allowed to coagulate by simply standing for 24 or 26 hours 
and allowing the natural fermentation, or souring, which takes place, to produce 
coagulation. This, of course, will preclude any possible additions of preservative, 
such as formalin or dilute ammonia, to the latex in the cups, and it will be desirable to 
keep the latex as concentrated as possible. This natural method is of course only 
possible where a washing machine is used, and it involves more time be taken in the 
actual coagulation process. There is among the manufacturers an objection to the 
use of any acid or addition of any drug at all to the rubber during coagulation, from 
fear that traces of it might be left in the rubber, even after washing. If there were 
an appreciable amount remaining, it is highly probable that it would give trouble 
during working and vulcanisation of the rubber by acting chemically on some of the 
ingredients with which the rubber is mixed and perhaps producing gases which 
would form blow holes in the finished goods. These bubbles and blow holes do 
sometimes occur after vulcanisation, and care has always to be exercised to prevent 
their occurrence, and anything which might lead to their formation has to be 
carefully avoided. Whether this objection to the use of a volatile acid in curing the 
rubber is really sound, can only be decided by practical experience in working with 
rubbers so cured, but the objection is actually held, and the fear entertained, by some 
of the most prominent of the rubber manufacturers in England, and the knowledge 
of the fact that acids have been used in the curing of plantation rubber makes the 
manufacturer less inclined to use crépe or plantation washed rubber without a 
further re-washing in the factory, Another objection to the use of acid preservative, 
and the addition of any drug at all to the latex, liesin the possible action of such 
drug on the rubber itself. Speaking % priori and considering the mild character 
of acetic acid, and the preservative action of formalin, together with the singularly 
inert nature of rubber, [ should not expect any harmful action whatever to 
occur. I have, however, seen samples of rubber made from latex to which 
small amounts of various aniline dyes had been added. Some of the dyes (the 
reds especially) had produced most marked effect, making the rubber hard and 
brittle, and as readily torn as thick paper. Other dyes appeared to have had 
little deleterious effects. This perishing of the rubber had certainly been brought 
about by the action of quite trifling amounts of what are regarded as harmless 
and inactive chemicals. I have already mentioned cases of plantation rubber 
perishing utterly in a few years from unknown causes. With these instances 
before me I feel less inclined to treat the possibillty of acetic acid or formalin 
causing rubber to perish as absurd or fanciful, and until the question has been 
experimentally investigated I should recommend that, wherever possible, the 
use of any chemical be avoided. The position is therefore this—some of the users of 
rubber object to the rubber being cured with acid, and in the absence of experimental 
evidence we are not justified in assuming acids, even vegetable ones such as acetic, to 
be harmless. To avoid using any coagulant is only practically possible where a 
mechanical treatment of the rubber by a washing machine is in use, and then it isa 
matter for consideration whether the use of acid, which has been extremely con- 


Gums, Resins, 210 [SEPT. 1906. 


venient in assisting and controlling coagulation, should be discontinued from fear 
that such use will produce a rubber which will not stand the test of time, and which 
will perhaps injure in the future the reputation of plantation grown and cured 
rubber. 


DRYING RUBBER. 


15. Until the introduction of mechanical washing of coagulated rubber and 
the formation of crépe, drying had been a troublesome operation in the preparation 
of rubber for export. Artificial heat almost always led to the softening of the 
rubber, and often through inefficient control of the temperature caused it to become 
distinctly tacky. Crépe rubber dried easily and well if simply hung up in a dark but 
airy shed, and the preparation of rubber iu this form appeared to have solved the old 
difficulties associated with drying. There had been, however, suggestions and 
proposals to introduce vacuum drying on estates, and consequently I paid special 
attention to the modes of drying washed rubber in use in Great Britain. In afew 
manufactories only I found vacuum had been introduced, but the great bulk of 
washed rubber is still dried by hanging it up in dark warm rooms. A vacuum 
drying chamber isa large iron box, of from 100 to 200 cubic feet capacity, fitted 
inside with shallow iron trays with perforated bottoms, and heated with steam 
pipes. The interior is connected by an iron pipe with an exhaust pump. Wet 
rubber is placed in the iron trays, the doors are closed, and the temperature raised 
to 120 to 130 degrees F., and the pump started. The air and water vapour that are 
drawn out of the chamber are passed through a condensing cylinder, fitted with a 
glass front, and the condensed vapour is seen falling as a stream of drops of water- 
After two or three hours this stream of drops of water ceases, and the rubber or 
whatever material is being operated upon is then regarded as dry and ready for 
removal. Rubber dried in this way is always softened by the heating which is 
necessary if the drying is to be rapid, and in the opinion of manufacturers who have 
not adopted the process the nerve and quality of the rubber are injured, though 
with those who have adopted vacuum drying this is not regarded as very important, 
chiefly because the cause of softening is known, and it is regarded as only an 
anticipation of the softening which always occurs in mastication of the rubber, the 
next step in the process of manufacture. On the other hand, some forms of 
rubber—such as very soft African rubbers—cannot be dried in this way at all 
because the softening in their case proceeds too far. The sheets of rubber dried in 
this way adhere to one another when packed and stored away, this is of no im- 
portance in the factory, because the rubber is known to be clean and dry and ready 
for use, but if the plantation rubber were offered in the same soft and adhesive 
masses, objection, and serious objection. would naturally be made. It would be 
necessary to maintain a lower temperature in the vacuum chamber than is in 
common use if this softening of the rubber is to be entirely avoided, and this would 
seriously interfere with the efficiency of the machine. The rate of the evaporation 
of the water and drying of the contents depends upon the difference between the 
temperature of the vacuum chamber and the temperature of the condensing 
chamber, as well as upon the absolute temperature of the vacuum chamber. In the 
tropics it will not be possible to maintain the condenser below 80 deg. F., which is 
20 degrees above the temperature of the condenser in England. This diminished 
difference, together with the necessary lowering of the temperature of the vacuum 
chamber itself, will seriously impair the efficiency of the vacuum drier, the only 
advantage of which is the rapidity of drying. Taking into consideration the 
further fact that plantation rubber is always inclined to be soft, I should certainly 
not recommend any form of drying in which artificial heat is necessary, and which 
involves the elaboration of machinery and increase in power in doing what, with 
washed rubber, can be done in a more simple, safe and natural manner. 


SEPT. 1906. | 211 Saps and Rxudations. 


MANUFACTURE OF RUBBER, 


16. Preliminary Processes—The various processes through which raw 
rubber passes in conversion to rubber goods were, asa whole, very freely shown 
tome by the British rubber manufacturers. Introductions to the leading firms 
from the Wat Office and Admiralty, who are large consumers of rubber goods, were 
obtained through the Colonial Office, and these, together with sundry personal and 
private introductions, proved to be all that was necessary, and I met with great 
consideration, kindness and courtesy from all with whom I came into contact. Ina 
few cases there were special and particular processes which were guarded as trade 
secrets, but this tendency to secrecy was in inverse proportion to the size and 
importance of the works. The greatest interest was shown in plantation rubber 
and the prospect of a future easing of the rubber market by supplies from the 
East, and the manufacturers realise that there can be no antagonism between them 
and the planters, and appreciate the efforts being made to bring the producer and 
consumer into closer touch. 


17. The raw rubber used is of all kinds and qualities, from clean pure fine 
Para to the lowest grades of African rubbers, which are sticky, black, full of 
wood, stones and dirt, and all possible adulterations. Fine Para is delivered in 
balls weighing from five or six to a hundred pounds; when cut open the mass is 
seen to be made up of concentric shells from {to 4 inch in thickness, the rubber is 
grey and wet and the successive laminae are marked by dark surfaces, showing 
the stages of successive smoking and accumulation of the rubber into balls. This 
rubber is never dry, but contains water—the amount usually being about 15 per 
cent., but varying from 10 to 20 per cent., and the loss of weight of fine Para in 
washing and drying is due to this water contained in it. In the best qualities there 
is little or no mechanical impurity, at most a little surface dirt and grit. 


WASHING RAW RUBBER. 


18. The first thing to be done is to cut these large balls open and reduce 
the largest masses to blocks of five to ten pounds in weight. The rubber is then 
softened by boiling in water, this is done to enable the washing machines to deal 
with the lumps. 


Vhe rubber is then broken and washed on machines which are simple in 
construction and action, and exactly similar in essentials to the rubber-washing 
machines in use in the Malay Peninsula on plantations. 


Each machine consists of a pair of steel rollers with roughened faces, 
revolving at different speeds on horizontal axes, the faces of the rollers being in 
contact or slightly separated from one another. The rollers are from one to 
two feet in length, and usually one foot in diameter. The surfaces are roughened 
with grooves cut spirally, or diamond shaped, and of different angles and depths 
according to the nature of the work. Cold water is always playing over the surfaces 
of the rollers in use, and it is directed usually above the rollers on to the rubber in 
the hopper, but in some cases at the sides, with the object of washing the dirt 
away from the rubber as the rubber emerges from between the rollers. The rubber 
usually goes through two sets of rolls, the first two break down the big lumps 
and roughly sheet the rubber, the second pair of rolls is smoother and in closer 
contact, and the final washing and working into a fine-grain uniform sheet is 
performed on these. In preparing rubber for the very finest work, such as cut 
sheet, a third set of rollers with smooth chilled steel surfaces is used. The object 
of these is to crush any particles of sand or grit which might otherwise be left in 
the rubber and damage the knives and spoil the sheet rubber when being cut 
The rollers are always provided with metallic guides to keep the rubber away from 

28 


Gums. Resins. 212 [SEPT, 1906 


the ends of the rolls and prevent contamination with grease and oil from the 
bearings. There is great uniformity of pattern and general arrangement of these 
washing mills in all the factories, the differences are in the form of grooving and 
roughening of the surfaces. The rollers which produce the smoothest and most 
uniform sheets are those in which the grooves are nearly obliterated, and in which 
the surface has become rough with the natural wear of the metal; rolls in this 
condition would, I think, be most effective with freshly coagulated latex on 
an estate, 


DRYING. 


19. The rubber in the washed or crepe form is wet not only with surface 
moisture but with water held in the substance of the rubber itself. It is usually 
dried by hanging up the strips in dark rooms warmed to about 90° F., an operation 
taking about a week or ten days. Inno case did I notice any artificial circulation 
of the air to accelerate the drying. A few manufactories have adopted vacuum 
drying, which I have already described and discussed. There is no sign, however, 
of this process ousting the older fashioned method of simple air drying. 


MASTICATING RUBBER. 


20. The next process through which the washed and dried rubber passes 
is that of mastication, during which the rubber is torn, stretched, heated, and 
generally kneaded about until the toughness and elasticity, so characteristic of it 
hitherto, are destroyed, and the rubber becomes plastic. 


The masticating machine consists of two steel rollers with smooth polished 
faces, which revolve on horizontal axes in the same horizontal plane. The distance 
between the two rolls can be adjusted until they are brought into contact with one 
another. The rolls may be any convenient size, and are usually about 3 feet in 
length and 12 to 18 inchesin diameter. They are hollow and heated by injected 
steam, and may be driven at even or differential speeds. The machine, in fact, is in 
many respects similar to a rubber-washing machine, but differs in the rollers 
being smooth and being worked hot and dry and revolving more slowly. The 
action on the raw rubber is curious, with the rolls separated about 1} of an inch 
a mass of washed rubber is thrown upon the machine, it is squeezed into a uniform 
sheet which is folded over on itself by the workman, andaslab of rubber produced 
4 to # of an inch thick, to be fed again into the machine. 


The rubber, softened by the heat of the rolls, behaves like so much putty, 
accumulating on the inturning faces of the rollers, heaving and seething as it is 
made to flow over itself, and gradually being worked through into a thin sheet, 
which adheres to the more slowly moving roll, the one next the workman. As this 
sheet comes round, wound on the roll, the workman with a stumpy knife slices it 
through, and peels it off, folding it over upon itself to repeat the operation of being 
sucked through the roll over and over again. In its passage reports as of saloon 
pistols are heard, as the air imprisoned in the folds of rubber is compressed, and 
finally bursts through the writhing mass of distended and owing rubber, reluctant 
to pass through the narrow cleft to freedom. In this torturing process the fine 
hard cure South American Para rubber shows its superior quality and remains 
tougher and harder than plantation rubber when perfectly masticated. But even 
with South American Para the elasticity and nerve are lost, the rubber has no 
spring and can be bent and torn, indented and cut, and is compliant to any shape 
which is impressed upon it. The colour has changed, in the case of plantation 
rubber from the pale yellow or brown to a dirty grey, and the whole nature of the 
material has undergone a metamorphosis; but what this change really consists 
of no one.can now tell. 


Sept. 1906.] 218 Saps and Exudations. 


MIXING. 


21. The masticated rubber is ready now to be mixed with the hundred and 
one ingredients with which it is to be compounded. The requisite amount of 
sulphur in fine powder is added, with zinc oxide, red lead, plumbago, asbestos, 
powdered pumice, recovered rubber, rubber substitutes, rubber of other grades and 
qualities, sulphide of antimony, lime, vermilion or any of all those substances which 
the knowledge and experience of the manufacturer indicate as necessary for the 
particular class of goods which the rubber is destined to become. This mixing is 
done on rollers of exactly the same type as used in masticating, but the rolls are 
kept cooler. The rubber is put on the machine and the ingredients sprinkled on 
it as it passes through the rolls, they are folded between layers of the rubber, and, 
after repeated working through the rollers, become thoroughly incorporated and 
most intimately mixed into ‘“‘dough” of which each factory has many types and 
the precise compositions of which are the secrets of each firm. The dough thus 
compounded is rolled up and stored for future use. 


VULCANISATION. 


22. Vulcanisation is the name given to the act of combining India-rubber 
and sulphur chemically into a new substance. There are two methods of producing 
the desired result, known as the heat cure and cold cure, respectively. 

(To be Continued.) 


. THE RUBBER BOOM. 

Whether you explore the wilds of the Cornhill or Leadenhall neighbourhoods, 
or merely tour the less dangerous districts of agricultural fame in the tropics, you 
will find that the rubber ‘‘ boom” seems to be the pivot of commercial conversation: 
And hearing the high talk of planters and company promoters, you will be 
something more than human if you are not bitten with the desire for wealth 
‘* beyond the dreams of avarice” which those who dwell in lands where the rubber 
tree flourishes assure themselves is well within their grasp. 


A few days ago I returned from visits to Ceylon, Burmah, the Dutch Indies 
and British Malaya, and in the Clubs of Colombo, Rangoon, Medan and Singapore 
every one witha few dollars to invest proclaimed that there was ‘“ nothing like 

-rubber.” In Ceylon the interest displayed in the boom amounted to a passion; in 
the Federated Malay States the hotels and rest-houses were agog with option- 
grabbers and “experts;”’ and on the very day I found myself back in the old 
country the postman brought the prospectus of the Straits Settlements (Bertram) 
Rubber Company, Limited, who have acquired a considerable (and costly) concession 
on the hinterland of Penang. It is a world-wide boom indeed.—India Rubber Journal. 


Gums, Resins, 214 [SEpr. 1906. 


The Nature of the Para Rubber Tree and 
Latex Extraction. 


By HERBERT WRIGHT. 


The second of the series of lectures on the science of rubber cultivation being 
delivered by Mr. Herbert Wright, Controller of the Government Experimental Station 
at Peradeniya, was given under the auspices of the Sabaragamuwa Planters’ Associ, 
ation in the Wace Memorial Hall, Ratnapura, on Saturday, Aug. 25th the subject being 
“The Nature of the Para Rubber Tree and Latex Extraction.” The interest evinced 
may be gauged by the fact that in this remote and widely scattered district no less 
than 50 people, nearly all planters, were present. Mr. Wright spoke for thirty minutes 
only, his special aim apparently being to stimulate discussion on very debatable 
questions among the planters present. The lecturer on this occasion used a black- 
board a good deal and illustrated his points with sketches. Afeature of the lecture 
was a number of slides prepared by Mr. Wright ten years ago shown under 
a powerful microscope. Mr. John Hill presided, and there were present :— 
Mr. R. B. Hellings, G.a., Mr. G. F. Plant, p.s., Mrs. Plant, Mrs. Bartrum, 
Miss Laing, Messrs. P. D. G. Clark, G. M. Crabbe, B. A. Thornhill, P.S. Bridge, 
D. Robertson, L. F. Watkins-Baker, C. Watkins-Baker, Albert Eck, J. VanDenberg, 
D. J. Jayatileke, H. Molyneux-Seel, Arthur Watt, F. W. Bridge, J. Jeffery, 
C. F. Emerson, R. Gordon-Forbes, L. Victor Neligan, J. William Robertson 
S. A. Rolland, A. G. Balsillie, Harold North, W. Ferguson, P. H. Bird, C. E. Clarke, 
A. J. Ingram, F. Lecky Watson, G. H. Danvers Davy, H. A. Dambawinne, P. C. 
Phillips, John Paterson, Charles Goodbrand, William Ingram, G. W. Greenshields, 
H. H. Low, D. T. Gurunada, A, A. de Alwis, J. F. Martinus, D. L. Dharmawardhana, 
F. R. de Alwis, J. P. Jayawardene. A. H. Abeyratne, D. M. Seneviratne, E. J. 
Wijesinghe, and F. T. Hllawala, R.M. 


The Chairman briefly introduced the lecturer. 


THE LECTURE. 


Mr. Wright said—Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen, most of you will 
probably remember that the subjects of distance in planting and the pruning of young 
Para rubber trees have already been previously reviewed and discussed at Kegallaa 
I intend to go into other matters to-day, but Ishall be only too glad to hear any 
questions or suggestions relative to my previous remarks, if any one in this audience 
desires to bring such forward after to-day’s lecture. The more we discuss such 
points the better, since it will assist us to form definite ideas on these very debatable 
subjects. I know that in your districts there are small acreages of rubber in bearing, 
and that there is every prospect of a much larger number of trees being brought toa 
tappable age and size at an early date. It is therefore desirable that we should all 
closely study the constitution of a Para rubber tree and try to understand the 
nature of the parts that. can be tapped; we must know exactly what we are going to 
do to our trees, and take into account the probable effects of the methods employed. 
As with most other subjects connected with rubber plants, our knowledge of the 
points to be discussed to-day is very limited ; but we must make a start sometime in 
the hope that information of a reliable kind will ultimately be in our possession. 


THE SCIENTIFIC STANDPOINT. 


I do not deliberately wish to weary you with a dry technical discourse on 
the anatomy of the Para rubber tree or the physiology of its many parts, but I do 
think it is necessary to fully describe the constitution and formation of the 
channels from which the rubber liquid is obtained, Enquiries from, and interviews 


, 


SEpr. 1906, ] 215 Saps and Exudations. 


with, planters of an inventive frame of mind have convinced 'me that. still better 
results will accrue if a sound knowledge of the latex tubes has been obtained, and, 
believing as I do that the permanent and most successful modes of cultivation and 
latex extraction will be evolved by those in possession of such information, I am 
going to run the risk of boring you to-day with a few details. 


WHERE DOES THE RUBBER COME FROM ? 


We will first consider the seeds of the Para rubber tree and see whether, in 
their build, there is any clue to be obtained as to the source and nature of the 
rubber after which we are all so eagerly searching. There are, under the micros- 
cope here, some ten years old sections showing the components of Para rubber seeds. 
I well remember how, in 1896, one out of every six students received one, and one 
only, of those precious seedlings of Hevea brasiliensis, which you are now distri 
buting by the thousand to all parts of the tropical world. The sections under the 
microscope, though made in London some ten years ago, are still in a good state of 
preservation, but I must confess that had I been able to forecast events and to 
imagine myself before you to-day, much better sections would have been submitted 
to your critical scrutiny. In the sections before you can be seen the embryonic 
parts of your giant trees, and in them the origin of the milk tubes can be traced 
out in a satisfactory manner. There you can observe a mass of minute and more 
or less regular boxes or cells, the material from which the future latex tubes arise ; 
running irregularly throughout that beautiful network one can discern long 
irregular stands of deeply-stained tissues, connected here and there with cross-bands 
to form a much contorted ladder-like structure—that is the laticiferous system—a 
system only in so far that it is irregularly connected at various points, and composed 
of latex cells or tubes in all their stages. 


An examination under a higher power of the microscope will reveal to you 
how the latex tubes arise and become filled with the globules of the different 
substances which ultimately give you the rubber of commerce, for here and there 
can be seen the breaking-down of the regular cells and the production of a single tube 
by the disappearance of partition walls. [Blackboard demonstration followed here.] 
This decomposition, essential for the production of the latex tubes in Para and Ceara 
rubber trees, commences in the germinating seeds and continues until death, and even 
when the trees are to all appearances dead, they may, three years after throwing out 
their last leaf, still maintain the milk tubes in a good condition and yield latex 
of fair quality. This phenomenon adds one more to the perplexing points requir- 
ing solution, and we are left to explain why latex tubes occur in only a small 
number of plants, are never required by many species, and even when present 
appear to have no vital functions to perform, and remain turgid and full of latex 
when most other parts of the plant are dead. The abundance of latex in dead 
stumps was mentioned at Kegalla, and since then you will have read of a similar 
condition having been observed by Mr. Ridley at Singapore. 


HOW RUBBER FORMS IN THE BARK. 


The processes which you can see going on in the seedling take place in the 
stem-bark of mature trees in exactly the same manner. What are perfectly normal 
and regular cells in the bark to-day may begin to show perforations to-morrow and 
within a few days or a week, a system of milk tubes may arise in an area which, had 
it been tapped too early, would never have yielded a drop of latex. I leave it to you 
to frame the moral to be drawn from a study of this curious development. The 
formation of latex tubes from aseries of single cells may be illustrated by knocking 
out the cross-walls of an ordinary bamboo; from a series of separate chambers a 
single tube with the remnants of the cross-walls may be obtained. [Blackboard demon- 
strations here fullowed.] The main points [ wish toimpress upon youare, first, that the 


Gums, Resins, 216 [Smpr. 1906. 


latex tubes of Para trees arise by the perforation and decomposition of ordinary cells 
of the bark (cortex); secondly, that the processes involved require an interval of time 
for their completion which the constitution of the plant determines ; and lastly that 
in tapping operations we are dealing with a series of channels which have no very 
vital association with other parts of the bark. 


FEEDING THE LATEX TUBES: THE CONVERSION OF MANURE INTO RUBBER, 


There is one very interesting section here which reveals a condition of 
considerable importance, in so far that it shows contact, but not open communication 
of a milk tube with what is called a ‘‘ vessel” of the young wood; the vessels 
of the wood are mainly concerned in storing the water which has been absorbed 
by the roots, and, if direct communication could be proved between a_ vessel 
and a latex tube, we should be very near solving the great problem of how to feed 
the milk tubes and make them more productive. (Demonstration). I think you 
will all see how, so long as the vessels holding the water, and some of the Colombo 
manure absorbed by the roots, are in contact and not in open communication with 
the milk tube, the direct feeding of the latter in twenty-four hours’ notice will be 
very difficult and perhaps impossible. But if direct communication can be shown to 
exist our knowledge of the functions of the latex and our power to influence its 
accumulation may perhaps be appreciably increased. It is a point observed long 
before my arrival in Ceylon, but I have not yet been able to follow it up; it is not 
generally known, andis well worth studying by anyone who can find the time to 
work it out. Perhaps the first effect of very soluble manures on the composition of 
the latex will throw some light on the subject? Anyhow, I think records of the 
first and subsequent effect of manures on the latex should be recorded by all who 
have the opportunity to make such observations; the man who discovers the condi- 
tions under which the latex tubes may become more completely charged with the 
required ingredients will gain for himself a substantial reward. 


LATEX TUBES DRYING UP. 


Sufficient has been said to give you an idea of the nature of the origin of the 
latex tubes in the bark or cortex and their associations with other parts of the tree. 
It only remains to point out that in a well-grown tree the latex tubes run more or less 
vertically, up and down the stem, and are irregularly connected by means of channels 
running horizontally or in an oblique direction. If you examine the growing 
parts of the stem you will find that the bark, or—as it is better termed—the cortex, 
is formed from within outwards ; new cells are continually being formed which push 
the older ones outwards. Now all these cells, at some time or other, are liable to 
undergo decomposition and to assist in the production of well-defined tubes which 
become filled with latex ; it is obvious that the material now constituting part of the 
dead dry bark of your untapped trees was originally part of the cortex and at one 
time probably contained latex, but is now dry and all signs of latex in it are gone for 
ever. It is quite correct that this occurs originally, but it is as well to point out that 
much of the dry bark of old stems or even renewed bark arises in another way—from 
the cork cambium—and never contains any signs of milk tubes or latex. The fear of 
the milk tubes drying up and peeling away and the anxiety for preventing loss in 
any way are, however, no excuse for extracting the latex at too early an age. 


MOST LATEX INNERMOST, 

The bark of mature trees usually possesses a good proportion of milk tubes, 
most of which occur in the innermost part of the cortex, very near the cambium, It 
is a pity the higher proportion of laticiferous tubes are so near the vital cambium, 
but with the advent of two pricking knives already brought forward by Ceylon 
planters, the extraction of the latex from the treacherous and deeply-hidden area 


SEPT. 1906. | 217 Saps and Reudations. 


hould soon be possible without doing much damage to the healing layer of the stem. 
At the present time the methods adopted to extract the latex from the innermost 
tubes are somewhat dangerous, as in nearly all instances the cambium is more or less 
damaged by the implements used. 


Ican imagine that most of you have heard quite sufficient about the dry 
revelations of the botanist and his tubular spectacles, and I therefore propose to 
conclude this brief survey of the laticiferous system with a few practical deductions 
to be drawn therefrom. Let us discuss the probable effects of extracting the latex 
by those methods which are in operation at the pres2nt time, and also touch upon 
other points of similar importance. 


HFFECT OF REMOVING LATEX. 


The questions to ask ourselves are: What will happen if we remove 
large quantities of latex from Para rubber trees? What will happen if 
the latex is not extracted, but allowed to remain in the laticiferous system ? 
Will it increase in quantity or quality? To reply to these questions pro- 
perly would take too much of your time; they open up a very wide field of 
thought regarding the possible functions of the latex, the time, frequency, and 
methods of tapping, and other subjects. To put matters briefly, the extraction 
of the latex, and nothing more, means the removal of what is considered to be 
mainly a waste or excretory substance, useful in times of drought or when the plants 
are punctured by various pests; it rarely contains appreciable quantities of material 
which can be used as food by the plant. Latex is not known in the majority of 
plants with which you are surrounded in Ceylon, and even whenas muchas fifty 
pounds or more are taken from one Para rubber tree in twelve months, and the bark 
terribly mutilated in the operation, the tree appears to flourish as if it had never 
been roughly handled. It is ridiculous to compare the laticiferous system of the 
rubber trees with the circulatory system of human beings, as it has no similarly vital 
associations with other parts of the tree; itis almost useless during the life of the 
tree, and persists when the tree is apparently dead. I would much prefer to compare 
its importance with the hair of human beings which can be regularly removed, and 
which usually as regularly reappears, than to that of our circulatory system, though 
even this comparison is probably misleading. If the latex is not removed from the 
tree, it may undergo chemical and physical changes and be finally cast off with the 
dry bark. Other trees, instead of casting off useless ingredients by means 
of the bark, deposit them in the old and functionless wood of the tree, and thus 
give us our ebony, calamander, and logwood of commerce. 


INFERIOR RUBBER FROM THIRTY-YEAR-OLD TREES. 


Many might reasonably expect that if the latex was not extracted it would 
become more concentrated and more rubber would be contained in a given volume 
of latex ; this no doubt does occur to some extent, but it isa concentration which 
seems to be often accompanied by other complex changes which influence the pro- 
perties of the rubber and finally give a larger percentage of ingredients other than 
caoutchouc. We have recently had an experience, which illustrates this point at 
Henaratgoda and Peradeniya. There we tapped for the first time some trees thirty 
years old, and in almost every case the first tappings, which drew out what might 
have been considered the concentrated caoutchouc emulsion of many years, gave us 
rubber of inferior quality ; the same feature has often been observed in rubber from 
younger trees when tapped for the first time, and whatever may have been the 
causes at work, the results do not encourage one to leave mature trees alone 
for too long an interval, with the idea of getting a higher quality of latex at a subse- 
quent date. No, Gentlemen, Iam inclined to think, though I may be absolutely 


Gums, Resins, 218 [SmPr. 1906, , 


wrong, that if we could extract the latex by some method which would not destroy 
the cambium or the bark (cortex), we might be able to almost drain the tree dry and 
still leave it standing. Some Para rubber trees have been known to be incapable of 
yielding latex during certain years ; subsequently they gave latex in quantity. The 
milkless state did not appear to seriously affect the trees. 


SPARE THE BARK, BUT GET THE LATEX. 


In my opinion, it is not in the extraction of latex that the harm is done so 
much as in the removal of the bark containing that substance. The bark or cortical 
tissue, which is removed in tapping operations, contains organised systems of 
elements which are of vital importance to the plant, and on their health and con- 
tinuity depends the perfect distribution, mainly from above downwards, of the food 
materials elaborated in the leaves. Asa store house and conducting channel the 
cortex is of vital importance to the plant, and if it is removed too quickly the life of 
the tree may be endangered. The rapid stripping of the bark isan unnatural pro- 
cess, analagous, perhaps, to the treatment meted out to cinchona trees—though they 
did not flourish long—but not comparable with the natural peeling away of dry bark. 
During ordinary tapping vperations the cortical cells are excised while they are 
in a living condition, and are entirely removed at a time when they contain reserve 
food intended for the use of the plant; it also differs from the natural peeling of 
the bark, in so far as the average operator exposes the inner and more delicate and 
vital components of the cortex and cambium to atmospheric influences. Such treat- 
ment does affect the vigour of the trees, and if cortical stripping is effected much 
more frequently than once in three or four years, I anticipate trouble in the future. 


TOO FREQUENT TAPPING LOWERS THE YIELD. 


Apart from the consideration of the after effects, there are others of very 
great importance to every planter who has to get the best yield posssible. The 
discovery, if so it can be named, is the outcome of observations made at Heuarat- 
goda, where the trees have been tapped at all intervals ranging from once per day 
to once per month, on definite but different systems, andI have brought with me 
some photographs to illustrate what I wish to say. The results of experiments 
outlined to determine quite different points have shown a common agreement in so 
far that, when tapping has been done too frequently or too extensively, the yield 
of rubber has been seriously reduced, and the bark or source of future latex has gone. 
Many experiences have been already recorded in which surprise is evinced that 
well-developed trees in one country have not given the same yield of rubber as Jess 
vigorous specimens in Ceylon;in some of these cases the poorer yield from the 
better developed trees can be associated with the too rapid excising of the bark, 
and the sooner weall realise that the bark is really the ‘‘ mother of rubber,” and 
that its removal means a reduction in subsequent yields, the better for all concerned. 
It is, no doubt, encouraging to kaow that rubber can be extracted from the usual 
bark shavings, but a high yield therefrom is not what rubber planters should 
specially search for. 

TAPPING EVERY DAY AND ALTERNATE DAYS. 


One might at first conclude that, since the Para rubber trees rarely ever run 
absolutely dry, and most of them (no matter how roughly they have been handled) 
appear to contain an inexhaustible store of latex, the more frequently the trees are 
tapped the larger the quantity of latex obtainable. But curiously enough the series 
of experiments which I have in mind show the very opposite result, and though they 
may or may not be exceptions, they deserve consideration. The trees in one area 
have been tapped every day from September, 1905, and those in another group every 
alternate day from the same date, The trees which have been tapped every day (on 
264 occasions) have given about 9 lbs. of dry rubber each, and all the original bark has 


Photo by Ivor Etherington. 


HEVEA BRASILIENSIS TAPPED EVERY DAY: 
PaRING AND PricKInG METHOD. 


9 tB, Dry RUBBER FROM 264 TAPPINGS. 


Photo by Ivor Etherington. 


HEVEA BRASILIENSIS TAPPED EVERY ALTERNATE DAY 
PaRING AND Prickinc Mernop. 


11 uB, Dry RuBBER FROM 131 Tapprnas. 


Sept. 1906. | 219 Saps and Heudations. 


been cutaway; those trees which have been tapped every alternate day (on 131 occa- 
sions) have given about I1 lbs. of dry rubber each and only half of the original bark 
has been removed. 


These photographs show what I mean, very clearly. Tapping at less fre- 
quent intervals has not only given a higher yield of rubber per tree, within exactly 
the same period, but there is original bark remaining which will last for another 
nine months on each tree. We have saved in labour expenses, the yield has been 
increased, and the trees have been less drastically treated by tapping every alternate 
day instead of every day. There is some ground for believing that, when incision 
of the latex tubes is made more perfect than at present, the interval between 
each tapping operation may, with advantage, hecome still longer and yet be accom- 
panied with a further increase in yield and saving of labour. While this is fresh in 
your minds, let me discuss with you another result which points in the same 
direction. 

HALF-SPIRAL AND FULL SPIRAL TAPPING, 

You are aware that all the systems of tapping have been tried, experimen- 
tally, at Henaratgoda. The results are too numerous to be placed before you in a 
single lecture; but I wish to point out that those systems of tapping, suchas the 
half-herring-bone or half-spiral, which only allow the operator to tap one side of the 
tree at a time, though, in our experiments, they have given a lower yield per tree 
than the full herring-bone or the full spiral methods, yet the yield per unit of excised 
bark has been higher in the former than in the latter series, and there is plenty of 
the original bark stilltappable. Reluctant as I am to give any appearance of finality 
to the available results of fragmentary experiments with Para rubber, I cannot pass 
over those just enumerated without asking you to consider them seriously, as they 
point to a common agreement explicable from our present knowledge of the origin 
and construction of the latex tubes in Hevea brasiliensis. If we could only obtain 
good series of results in different parts of Ceylon, we should soon be able to settle 
these important questions. 

IMPORTANT POINTS TO CONSIDER. 


To put the explanation ina nutshell, it is, I think, simply this: the latex 
tubes and their contents require an interval of time to form or accumulate; if they 
are tapped too frequently they are less turgid and the yield therefrom is reduced; 
if the bark is removed too quickly either by too frequent or too extensive tapping, 
the material wherein latex tubes might have subsequently developed is com- 
pletely severed. If you leave the bark on the tree, for a certain interval, probably 
more latex tubes will be formed, and the yield per unit of excised bark increased. I 
am sorry to see that my time is up andI must stop. Now, Gentlemen, your turn has 
come. Your Secretary, Mr. Thornhill, who has taken a great deal of trouble over 
this lecture, has guaranteed that question time shall be animated and instructive, 
and having for my main object the stimulating of free, healthy discussion, I trust 
that you will not hesitate to bring forward many subjects of public importance. 
We can subsequently consider the microscopic slides which I have brought with me, 
if any of you care to probe alittle deeper into the mysteries of the origin and con- 
struction of this interesting and important product. (Applause.) 


DISCUSSION. 


The CHAIRMAN :—Willany one who wishes to ask a question kindly stand up 
and ask Mr. Wright. 
TAPPING SYSTEM AND YIELDS COMPARED. 
Mr. THORNHILL:—May we ask what where the results from the trees you 


tapped twice a week in comparison with the trees which gave eleven lb. tapping on 
alternate days ? 


29 


Gums, Resins, 220 [SEPT, 1906. 


Mr. WRIGHT :—The results up to date are as follows :—Tapping every day 
has given an average yield of 9 lb. per tree, tapping every alternate day 11 Ib. 
per tree, and from twenty-five trees tapped twice per week 91 lb. 2} oz., or little less 
than 4 lb. per tree; in the latter group, the remaining bark will last 8 or 
4 years. Tapping every alternate day has, up to the present, given the kest yield of 
rubber. There is a rather peculiar feature observable in connection with Para 
rubber which is not always the case with other rubber trees. I refer to the wound 
response which takes place on tapping. It has been proved to occur in the Straits 
by Mr. Arden, and by Dr. Tromp de Haas in Java, and also by Parkin in Ceylon. 
The time required for this wound response to take place is from 24 to 48 hours. Itis 
rather curious that that discovery should hit off the result we have obtained by 
tapping on alternate days, or every 48 hours, compared with those of tapping twice 
a week. 


Mr. THORNHILL:—Then tapping every alternate day has given better 
results ? 


Mr. WRIGHT :—Yes, but Ido not wish to give any appearance of finality to 
these fragmentary results we have obtained so far. They are interesting, 
and may some day be useful, but we may have to contradict them later. At 
present all that can be said is that tapping on alternate days seems to be better 
than tapping every day at Henaratgoda. 


LATEX MORE ABUNDANT IN WET WEATHER. 


Mr. THORNHILL asked the reason for there being more latex during wet 
than dry weather. 


Mr. WRIGHT :—The reason you get more latex in wet weather is probably 
because there is more water absorbed by the roots. The more water absorbed by 
the roots, the more turgid the cells and the laticiferous system will become ; usually 
there is less caoutchoue in the latex collected in wet than in dry weather, 


THICKNESS OF BARK AT DIFFERENT ELEVATIONS. 


Mr. CLARKE :—Have you any data with regard to the thickness of bark 
at different elevations? For instance, at 2,000 teet is the bark thinner than at, 
say, fifty-six feet or the normal low-country elevation? 


Mr. Wricut:—I have no figures giving exact measurements, but I have 
made observations on trees at various elevations to find out the different rate 
of growth of the whole of the stem. You usually find that the bark at high 
elevations is thinner than at low elevations in trees of the same age. If 
you work out the production of bark tissue and the wood, you will 
find these tissues are formed at a definite rate in a definite mathematical 
proportion, so many wood cells to so many bark cells. You cannot 
alter the proportion. If the tree grows at a slow rate it means that not only the 
wood, but all other parts, including the bark, grow at a proportionately similar 
rate. At high elevations the bark is usually thinner than at the low elevations in 
trees of the same age. 


Mr. CLARK :—It might be interesting to state that that clearly corroborates 
what I experienced in South America ; I found the bark at 2,000 feet elevation very 
thin, and there we seldom met with the trees growing in a healthy way. 


Mr. WRIGHT :—In Brazil ? 


Mr. CLARK :—No, tropical Peru. We found the bark there much thinner 
than at 56 feet, which was the lowest point we went down in the upper reaches 
of the Amazon. 


Sept. 1906.] 221 Saps and Exudations. 


THE MOST DRASTIC SYSTEM OF TAPPING. 


Mr. THORNHILL :—There are one or two points in your previous lecture I 
should like to have explained. Mr. Thornhill then read the following extract from 
Mr. Wright’s lecture :— 


“You get more rubber in a given period of time from the full-spiral than 
from the herring-bone or by the half-spiral cut. When you come to work out the 
weight of rubber obtained per unit of bark excised, you find the full-spiral gives 
you the maximum rubber per square inch of bark cut away, and it may be con- 
sidered the best system for places requiring thinning out.” 


Mr. WRIGHT :—Several people have brought this subject forward, and many 
seemed to wonder whether my statement meant that the full-spiral system, since 
it gives the maximum yield in a given period, was to be recommended on those 
grounds alone, or whether it was only to be recommended for estates which have 
to be thinned out. In my opinion there can be no questioning the statement for a 
single moment that the full-spiral system is the most drastic one that can ever be 
adopted in tapping. At the same time, if it is carried out properly, it is not the 
species of ringing which many people seem to think it is. At Henaratgoda we have 
been tapping for nearly a whole year, but, as you can see from these photographs, 
we have only worked through two or three inches of bark, though the tapping 
lines are above twelve inches apart, so that, even with the spiral system, we can 
go on tapping the original bark for three years. We can commence to tap the 
renewed bark when it is three to four years old. We know that the average Para 
rubber tree does not produce mature bark, fit for tapping, under four years. 
Renewed bark is a new creation, and the process of decomposition leading to the 
formation of latex tubes goes on in the same way as in the original bark; for the 
completion of these changes much time is required. The full-spiral system strips 
the whole of the bark; it givesa larger yield than some other methods, though 
it is probably less economical. As I pointed out, any method which is of such an 
extensive character as the full herring-bone, or full-spiral gives you alow yield 
per unit of bark excised. The photographs illustrate this point. 


THE USE OF THE PRICKER. 


Mr. THORNHILL :—Might I ask whether in these photographs the Northway- 
Bowman tapping knife was used? Did it cut through the cambium ? 

Mr. WRIGHT :—You can see where the pricker has been used ; the impressions 
are visible on the photograph. Without a shadow ofa doubt, the pricker reaches 
the cambium; the use of the pricker is to be recommended, but at the same time 
it should be remembered that it is disadvantageous in so far that it touches the 
cambium. I have examined such areas, but have not seen any very bad effects. 
Of course, the greater number of the latex tubes are disposed internally; they 
are found in largest proportion near the cambium, and you require the pricks to 
get atthem. You can, with advantage, leave a good thickness of bark over this 
inner layer, and reach the latex tubes by means of a pricker. 


TAPPING THE CAMBIUM. 


Mr. THORNHILL :—Many of us have experienced that if you don’t tap into 
the cambium you don’t get good results. 


Mr. WRIGHT :—Quite so, but it is not necessary to cut down right into the 
cambium to get the latex. The laticiferous system is outside the cambium or 
the wood. 


Mr. THORNHILL remarked that very often rubber was found coagulated 
inside the bark, and when they pulled the bark off, they found pieces of rubber 
in the woody portion of the tree, 


Gums, Resins, 222 (Szpr. 1906. 


Mr. WriGuT :— It does not originate from latex tubes in the wood. It may 
have accumulated in a depression in the wood, made by some implement, borer, ete. 


Mr. THORNHILL: —It leaves a little hole. 


Mr. WRriGuHT :—It cannot have originated in the wood. There is nothing in 
the wood of Hevea brasiliensis to give it. It may have got into a depression in the 
wood, and accumulated there. 


WHEN CAN NEW BARK BE MOST PROFITABLY TAPPED. 


Mr. CLARK :—It would be interesting to know how old you consider the 
renewed bark—at what stage, or when you consider the renewed bark can most 
profitably be tapped. 

Mr. WricuHT :—I cannot reply as to the age at which renewed bark could 
be most profitably tapped from any figures of exact yields, but I feel convinced 
that if the renewed bark is tapped when under three or four years, and repeatedly 
treated in the same manner, there will be some discouraging results. Consider 
the ordinary natural development of the plant; it takes three to four years 
for mature bark to be formed. Youcan never tap a tree under four years old. 
You see you are dealing with newly-formed material, and it probably takes, 
approximately, the same period of time tor the laticiferous system to form in the 
new bark as it does to form in the original bark. Personally I would not recom 
mend the tapping of the renewed bark, formed after complete cortical stripping 
until it was three or four years old. On some estates it is found convenient to 
arrange the tapping areas according to the points of the compass—Hast, West, 
North, and South. The East side is tapped in the evening and the West in the 
morning; this is carried on for two years. Then they tap the North and South 
sides during the next two years, and finally come back to the original side 
which has renewed its bark at the end of four years. Of course, that is perhaps 
only necessary when cortical stripping is intended; with the small V system it 
might not be necessary. 


7 


THE “*V” METHOD OF TAPPING. 

Mr, SEEL :—May I ask whether experiments are still being carried out with 
the V system of tapping ? 

Mr. WRIGHT :—We have not done very much in the way of V tapping. We 
came to the conclusion that it was not a systematic method of tapping. Itis far 
less systematic than, say, the herring-bone or spiral methods, where you can start 
above and work downwards through the whole of the bark. On the V system 
you cannot easily tap the triangular piece of bark enclosed by the sides of 
the V; you must tap on the lower or under surface. Very often with the 
V tapping the apex turns up and exposes the wood beneath. The V method is 
not a systematic one, though it has led to very good results in some cases. I don’t 
see any special advantage in it over other methods. 


TO PREVENT COAGULATION ON THE TREE. 

Mr. ARTHUR WATT :—What is the best means of inducing latex to run— 
to prevent coagulation on the tree ? 

Mr. WricHt :—The only means available are of an artificial class. You can 
either use an old bitters bottle or a can—a drip tin—at the top of each cut. You 
fill the tins with water only or water with alittle ammonia, or tormalin. It is 
certainly a very great advantage; there is a saving of labour, and the cuts do not 
fill with scrap. You have a more or less clean cut to start with next morning, I 
went round an estate on Saturday last and was rather struck with the fact that 
they had nine boys taking up the scrap for twenty-seven tappers at work. That is 


Sept. 1906.] 2238 Saps and Exudations. 


all very well so long as you have only a few hundred trees; but when you have 
thousands of acres, there must be some system which will ensure that the cuts 
can as far as possible be clear for the tapping next morning. I mentioned at 
Kegalla that one prominent V. A. told me he had reduced his scrap 75 per cent. by 
using these tins. I prefer not to use chemicals with the water though they will 
keep the latex liquid. Ihave kept latex liquid for four weeks by using formalin, 
but I prefer not to use chemicals at all for this. Ordinary water is good enough, 
if you have a good tin with a heavy drip. 


‘* SPOTTY ” BISCUITS. 

Mr. Watt :—When we have too much water we get spotty biscuits ? 

Mr. Wriaut :—I do not see why the rubber should be spotty because the 
latex is mixed with water. Of course, if you make bubbles, you must get rid 
of them. Bubbles are easily pricked or skimmed off. Perhaps you took two or 
more thin biscuits and put them together and got the air bubbles in between ? 
That is often done when the latex is very watery and the biscuits very thin. 


TRANSPORT OF UNCOAGULATED LATEX. 


Mr. TaHornatLL:—In the sweet future when we have got these thousands 
of acres you speak of in bearing, is it possible we may be able to send our uncoagulated 
latex down to Colombo to a central factory several miles off ? 


Mr. WriGuHT :—Some of you, Gentlemen, have got to send your latex every 
day to the Rubber Exhibition in a liquid condition, We look towards you for it. 
It is certainly possible to send the latex in a liquid condition though there are 
great difficulties in the way. It may appear an easy matter, but I recommend you 
to try it with an ordinary kerosene or rectangular tin provided with one hole in 
acorner, I should like you to make a trial and see how long you can keep the 
latex in a liquid state in such a receptacle. It is not always very easy to send the 
latex in a liquid condition over along distance. Latex can be kept liquid; it has 
been kept in that state for four weeks and at the end good commercial rubber 
prepared from it. I once read of an account to the effect that latex had been sent 
from the Amazon district to France. 


LATEX FROM RUBBER SEED. 
Mr. P. D. G. CLARK :—In the case of young fruit or mature fruit, has it been 
ascertained what proportion of latex can be obtained from it at certain stages of 
its development? 


Mr. WRIGHT :—From the fruit ? 


Mr. CLARK :—Yes, I ask the question in view of the glut in the seed product, 
Seed will no longer be required, perhaps, in a couple of years hence, and I consider 
avery large quantity of latex can be got from the young fruit at a certain stage, 
What the best stage is I am not quite sure. 


Mr. WriaguHT:—I think that, as Mr. Clark says, you can obtain a certain 
amount of latex from the fruit wall and the substance of the seeds ; you can see that 
it is possible, from the slides which I have brought with me; there are little rubber 
globules accumulating in the young latex tubes. Butif you take a large quantity 
of seeds and crush them, you will obtain a disappointing result. There is only a 
very low percentage of caoutchouc in the latex of the seeds although the latex 
is abundant enough. There is a lot of latex in the leaves and twigs of the tree, but 
it is very difficult to make proper rubber from it. I think the oil from the vege 
will come forward very soon, seeing that London firms are keen on it. They are 
making experiments with it, I understand. 


Mr. THORNHILL :—What will it be used for ? 


Ghuins, Resins, 224 [Supr. 1906. 


Mr. WRiguT :—After expressing the oil there is a residual cake which can 
be used as food for cattle. 
THE EFFECT OF OVERTAPPING ON SEED BEARING. 


Mr. WartT :—If a tree is tapped to the fullest extent, would it not prevent 
the seed from forming at a later period ? 

Mr. WricHt :—Will over-tapping affect the seed? That is what your 
question really amounts to. There are some people who believe it will, and others 
believe it will not, and consequently they are always disputing whether they should 
select seeds from trees which have or have not been tapped; or whether tapping 
operations should be suspended while the fruits are forming. I do not know any 
one whocan give a definite opinion on the matter. My private opinion is that 
provided the trees are not harshly dealt with, the tapping operation has very little 
effect on the seeds. If, on the other hand, you badly damage the tree, the 
effects will naturally be obvious on other parts including the seeds. Personally I 
should like to select my seeds from trees that had been tapped and proved 
to yield latex. There are some Para trees which, when tapped, did not give 
latex; if you select seeds from trees that have not been tapped, you may be select- 
ign seed from trees that will never give you the required quantity and quality of 
latex. Itis avery complicated matter. Provided the trees have not been roughly 
handled, I see no reason why we should not have the seed taken from big trees that 
have been tapped and have given a fair quantity of latex. 

VARIATIONS IN THE QUANTITY OF SEED PRODUCED, 

Mr. THORNHILL :—Last year we got 80,000 seeds from tapped trees. This year 
we did not tap and we got 280,000. 

Mr. WriGHT :—Do you ascribe that to not having tapped? 

Mr. THORNHILL :—I do ascribe it to that, They only gave 60,000 before, and 
they never had been tapped then. 

Mr. Wricut :—You can tap in a way to threaten the life of the tree; and if 
you do that, the tree immediately shows a disposition to produce a large quantity of 
flowers and seeds. Take a cacao tree and ring it; the upper parts will simul- 
taneously burst into blossom. There are other plants which behave in a similar 
way; check or cut off their water-supply and seed-like structures will appear 
in an interval of a day or so, as a last effort to propagate their kind. Inthe 
same way if you overtap a tree you may lead to the production of a large blossom 
and seed crop. I hope that was not the case here? 

Mr. THORNHILL:—I do not think that was the reason here. It certainly 
was not over-tapped. The bark was renewed and we had started to tap again. 

Mr. WRiGHT :— What was the average yield per tree each year ? 

Mr. THORNHILL :—300 seeds per tree I got, but there is a vast difference 
between this year and last. 

Mr. WrRicGHT:—There is nothing abnormal in that. The trees ought to 
mature and give alarger number until they yield an average of about 500 seeds 
per year, judging from the number of seeds we have distributed from Henaratgoda. 


RUBBER SUBSTITUTES. 


Mr. JoHN HiILu :—With reference to Mr. Thornhill’s “ sweet future ” and Mr. 
Clark’s “‘ glut,” can you tell us if they are likely to get a substitute for rubber in the 


future. 

Mr. WRIGHT :—Ask an easier one, please. It is necessary to distinguish 
between substitutes and artificial rubber produced synthetically by the chemist, 
(Laughter.) We are trying to arrange for an exhibition of rubber substitutes 


SEPT. 1906. | 225 Saps and Hxudations. 


at Peradeniya next month, and to show, if possible, the proportion of substitutes 
which are being used in the manufacture of different goods. So long as the price of 
pure rubber is high, people will use paper, &c., in preference if they can make a 
good article. Tobacco pouches and similar goods have a high percentage of 
caoutchoue, but even then there are fatty and other substitutes used. There is 
hardly a single article made of pure rubber. There is a large percentage—25 to 50 
per cent or even more—of fatty and other substitutes used in most things. 


ROOT DISHASE: THE REMOVAL OF STUMPS. 


-Mr. THORNAILL :—We should like to hear something about root disease, which 
is supposed to spread along forest trees. We should like to know if all stumps 
should be removed in clearings. 


Mr. Wricut:—Mr. Crabbe tried to draw me ont on that point. It is, of 
course, really a question for the Mycologist to answer. I have nothing to do with 
diseases. The particular subject mentioned has been studied by Mr. Petch, and a 
circular has been issued by him, giving the results. You should certainly all get it 
at once from the Director. Several planters are. I believe, going to the expense of 
up-rooting stumps. It is for that reason, we tried to draw on your inventive facul- 
tiesin connection with the Rubber Exhibition. We put down a prize for the best 
method of destroying—or implement for extracting—stumps in rubber clearings. I 
have heard of people up-rooting stumps and getting a part return in root firewood. 
They make outa fairly good case. 


SUITABILITY OF RATNAPURA AND SABARAGAMUWA FOR PARA RUBBER. 
RAINFALL AT HIGH ELEVATIONS IN CEYLON, 


Mr. Wright’s labours did not end with the proceedings at the lecture and 
the number of questions put and answered after the formal proceedings had 
closed was probably far greater than those asked at the lecture itself. Much 
valuable information was imparted in this way. For instance one planter asked: 


What do you think about our district for Para Rubber ? 


Mr. WRIGHT replied—We know that Para rubber does very well indeed 
in this district, and that its cultivation has long ago passed the experimental 
stage. Nevertheless, this is not a district to come to without a raincoat and 
umbrella, is it? Ihave hada fair experience in this and the districts close by, and 
shall never forget how, in searching for ebony and guttapercha trees around Hewesse, 
Eratna, Hiniduma and the Peak Wilderness, I had frequently to be carried on coolies’ 
backs over large tracts of flooded low land. There is no questioning the point that 
you have, in some parts of this district, more than the required quantity of rain for 
Para rubber ; the effect of a heavy rainfall can to some extent be mitigated, of course, 


Will a very heavy rainfall do much harm to the rubber. 


Mr. WRIGHT :—The evil effects of a too abundant rainfall, as far as the soil is 
concerned, can tu some extent be probably overcome by deep draining. Deep drains 
would allow anyone, on land with a slight slope, to more quickly dry tke superficia] 
layers of soil; it would prevent water-logging and would ensure a better-circulation 
of air through the soil and the temperature of the latter would certainly not be 
lowered by such work. A swampy water-logged soil contains the equivalent of a 
rainfall much heavier than has ever been recorded in Ceylon, but, nevertheless, when 
properly drained it grows excellent rubber. Itis surprising to see what has been 
accomplished in the Udugama, Bentota, Ambalangoda and other districts, where 
waste swampy patches have, by means of very deep and wide drains, been converted 
into decent rubber 


Gums, Resins, 226 (SEPT. 1906. 


Is the climate unfavourable ?—persisted the planter. 


Mr. Wrieut :—When [I said that you had, in some parts a heavy rainfall at 
high elevations which might be undesirable, I had in mind the vegetation on, and the 
damp climate at, Hinidumkande; the hill is only, if I remember correctly, a little 
over 2,200 feet at its hignest point. On the lower part of that hill, and the district 
around it, the vegetation is very similar to what one finds in the Ratnapura district. 
But as soonas you get 2,000 feet up the hill the arborescent vegetation is com- 
pletely changed; instead of the stalwart lofty trees of Vateria, Diospyros, 
Dipterocarpus, Palaquium and Canarium species so comimon in the lower part, 
you find the tree forms all stunted in growth, the foliage is poorly developed and 
the trees are all covered with mosses, lichens, liverworts and even saprophytic 
fungi. The change in the whole typeof the vegetation is remarkable and the air 
isdamp and cold throughout a great part of the year. I do not fora moment 
say that Hevea brasiliensis would not grow, even at the top of Hinidumkande, but 
the trees in such aclimate would not mature as quickly as under more favourable 
conditions. 

Is it the elevation or the rainfall ? 


Mr. Wricat:—The rainfall is, perhaps, the more important factor. On 
Passara Group Estate, Passara, with a relatively small rainfall, but at an elevation 
of 2.600 feet, Mr. Stewart Taylor has obtained over 2 1b. of rubber per tree for 1905. 
Again, many places in South India, though over 3,000 feet above sea-level, but with a 
meagre rainfall, grow Para rubber satisfactorily. An estate at an high elevation 
with a low rainfall is very often more suitable than one at a similar elevation with a 
heavy rainfall; for instance, I should prefer Passara to the top of Hinidumkande, 
A high rainfall at a high elevation is bad for Para Rubber. 


TREES WITHOUT LATEX. 


But is it correct that severaltrees at high elevations give very watery latex 
and some none at all ?—queried another. 


Mr. WRIGHT :—Yes, occasionally. 
What is the reason for such behaviour; it surely cannot be general ? 


Mr. WrRicGHT:—You must make up your mind to expect great variations in 
the nature and yield of latex from trees at all elevations, for the simple reason that 
the laticiferous system, from which the milk is obtained, is not a vital part of the 
tree. There is, of course, a general constancy and the majority of the trees of 
Hevea brasiliensis possess latex throughout their lives ; but in some cases the trees 
do not yield normal latex during certain periods, though subsequently they contain 
this mixture in large quantities. Generally speaking, one may say that there is less 
constancy in parts of the plant which are not of vital importance, than in those 
upon which the continuity of the tree’s life depends; for instance, the peculiar cells 
which are of vital importance and conduct and store food materials from the leaves 
—phloem tubes and companion cells—are much more constant in the cortex of Hevea 
brasiliensis than are the non-vital latex tubes. There is no need to get alarmed at 
the fact that the latex is occasionally almost absent or possesses a low percentage of 
rubber globules; it isa natual variation which must be expected, considering the 
non-vital functions of the latex and the hundreds of thousands of trees there are of 


the same species—already there are planted in Ceylon about 20,000,000 Para rubber 
trees, I understand. 


SELECTION OF SEED PARENTS. 


A third planter wished to know, What should be done tosuch trees. Should 
seeds be used from such trees for planting ? 


Sept. 1906. ] 227 Saps and Rxeudations. 


Mr. Wricut —Seeds, from trees which show irregularity in quality er quan- 
tity of latex, should perhaps not be used for planting. It is difficult to give advice 
on the subject of selecting seed parents when all the trees are healthy. Personally, 
I think I should select my seeds from the best developed trees on the estate,—-those 
which showed the best growth of foliage and girth and a corresponding laticiferous 
system. It seems to me, though I may be quite wrong, rather dangerous to select 
seeds from trees which have never been tapped, though many applicants for Hena. 
ratgoda seeds specify such desires very frequently ; you may be selecting seeds from 
trees which, had they been tapped, would have given you the minimum quantity of 
latex, or perhaps none at all. Then where will you be? Provided the trees have 
not been roughly handled in tapping operations, I do not really see that there 
isany great mistake in selecting, as seed parents, those trees which are best deve- 
loped and have given fair yields of latex. There is a theory abroad that you can 
induce characteristics in the vegetative parts of plants which can be fixed and trans- 
mitted from generation to generation, in which case the selection of seeds from the 
best yielding trees might ultimately give very good types of rubber trees. But the 
theory of transmission of characters acquired in successive generations is hotly 
contested by many botanists, and it has not yet been proved that it occurs with the 
latex tubes of Hevea brasiliensis. It is a complicated subject and one requiring 
much experiment. Of course, in this, asin other matters am expressing my own 
private opinion, which may be quite wrong. The subject is very interesting, and it 
is just as well that you raised it, but I have to impress upon you that it is only my 
opinion and you should not accept it as gospel, without consulting others. 


THE LONDON RUBBER MARKET. 
LONDON, July 20.—At the auctions to-day the following lots, comprising 
about 2 tons of Ceylon and about 6 tons Straits and Malay States were offered, 
and Ceylon sold as follows :— 


MARK. QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. 
Wiharagama 6 cases Biscuits mixed colours very greasy surface at 5s. 9d. 


M in estate mark 2 do Fine pale Ceara biscuits at 5s. 94d. 
do Good Ceara scrap at 4s. 9d. 


Waharaka 1 do Biscuits mixed colours at 5s. 9d. 
2 do Fair scrap at 4s. 9d. 
Ballacadua 1 do Black heated chip crépe at 2s. 6d. 
Dolahena 1 do Common serap at 4s. 
Baddegama 1 bag do do at 4s. 
HLKinestatemark 1 do do do at 4s. 
Langsland 5 eases Fine biscuits mixed colours at 5s, 9d. 
1 do Good scrap at 4s. 9d. 
Culloden 5 do Fine pale but mouldy biscuits at 5s. 9d. 


Para.—The market has been firm during the week and prices are rather 
higher. Business has been done in Hard Fine at 5s. 1d. to 53. 21. on the spot and 
at 5s. 2d. to 5s. 25d. for forward delivery. Soft fine 5s. $d. per lb. 

PLANTATION PARA.—In better demand for sheets and biscuits at about 4d. 
to ld. perlb., higher prices. Cvrépe slow at sale. Serapin demand at 43. 9d. for 
fair. 203 packages offered and 75 sold. Biscuits and sheets 5s. 8d. to 53. 9d.; 
2 cases very pale 5s. 9¢d. Crépe all retired; scrap 4s. to 4s. 9d. according to 
quality. 

COLONIAL RUBBER. 

NYASSALAND.—4 packages offered and sold. Good red ball 4s. 33d. per lb. 

ASsAM.—71 packages offered and 14 sold. Livery 3s. 43d. per lb. 

PeNnANG.—18 bags offered and 15 sold, reddish and white mixed pirt stained 
black 2s. 114d. soft sticky 1s. 4s. per lb, 

LEWIS AND PEAT, 
30 


Gums, Resins, 228 [SHpr. 1906. 


LONDON, July 27.—The market closes rather quieter with sellers of forward 
delivery Hard Fine at 5s. 2}d., after business at 5s. 2d. and 5s. 23d. Soft fine, 
sales at 5s. I?d. and 5s. 13d. afloat, closing with sellers scrappy Negroheads firm, 
value about 3s. 10d. Cametas svles at 33. 05d. Island Negroheals, buyers 2s. 93d. 
Caucho Ball, considerable business hvs been done, sales of Upriver Ball, August 
to September delivery at 3s. 95d. and spot at 3s. 9d. For medium kinds demand 
continues rather slow, but crépe plantation has met a better demand. 


S. FIGGIS & Co. 


Lonpon, August 3rd.—At to-day’s auction, 202 packages of Ceylon and Straits 
Settlements Plantation grown rubber were under offer, of which about 162 were sold, 
The total weight amounted to about 11} tons, Ceylon contributing about 3} and 
Straits Settlements nearly 8}. Considering the near approach of the holidays and 
the consequently small attendance, the demand for the fine quality cultivated rubber 
was fairly satisfactory, though prices were sometimes fractionally lower than rates 
ruling at the last auction. 


A few parcels of very fine pale bright biscuits and erépe from Ceylon 
were well competed for and realised up to 5s. 94d. per lb., the highest price of the 
Auction. 


Orders for serapand the lower kinds of crépe were again wanting, but for 
the better qualities of the latter grade there was more enquiry than at the last 
Auction. PLANTATION FINE To-nay.—5s. 8d. to 5s, 9¢d., same period last year, 
6s. Id. to 6s. 3d. 


PLANTATION ScRAP.—About 4s. to 4s. 8d., same period last year, 4s. to ds. 1d. 
FINE Harp Para (South American).—5s. 2d., same period last year, 5s. 64d. 


Average price of Ceylon and Straits Settlements Plantation rubber.—161 
packages at 5s. 6d. per lb., against 77 packages at 5s. 36d. per lb. at last auction. 
Particulars and prices as follows :— 


CEYLON. 
MARK. QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. 
Talagalla 1 case fine darkish biscuits, 5s. 8?d,; 1 case fine pressed scrap , 
4s. 6d. bid. ; 
Warriapolla 7 do fine pale to darkish biscuits, 5s. 89d. 
Syston 1 do fine amber sheet, 5s. 8id; 2 bags darker, 5s. 83d.; 1 bag 


good pale biscuits, 5s. 8d.; 2 packages darker, 5s. 8td.; 
1 case barky scrap, 3s. 6d. 

Doranakande 4 do dark biscuits, 5d. 8¢d.; 1 case dark rough sheet, 5s.; 4 
cases fine palish to darkish serap, 4s. 4d.; 2 cases dark 
scrap, 4s. 

Palli 3 do fine palish Ceara biscuits, 5s. 8d.; 2 cases little cloudy, 
5s. 8d.; 1 case rougher, 5s. 7d. 

V.S. (in Estate 


Mark) K. M. 1 do rejected biscuits, 5s.; 2 cases mixed scrap, 3s. 6d.; 1 bag 
rough Ceara biscuits and rejections, 4s. 3d. 

Wiharagama 1 do ball scrap, 3s. 6d. 

Culloden 5 do very fine pale biscuits, 5s. 9¢d.; 2 cases very fine pale block 
crépe, 5s. 83d.; 2 cases fine pale pressed crépe, 5s. S}d.; 1 
case darkish, 5s. 6d.; 5 cases darker, 4s. 10d. bid. 

Ellakande 2 do fine dark biscuits, 5s. 9d. 

Heatherley 2 do fine Palo p ecu: 5s. 9¢d.; 2cases darkish pressed crépe, 
4s. 9d. bid. 

Ingoya 1 do fine pale biscuits, part heated, 5s. 73d.; 9 cases little 


be 5s. 8id.; 3 cases fine palish pressed scrap, 4s, 6d. 
1 ° 


SEPT. 1906.] 229 Saps and Heudations. 
STRAITS SHTTLEMENTS. 


MARK. QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. 
S.P. (in circle) 1 bag pressed scrap, 3s. 6d. bid; 1 case fine amber sheet, 5s. 8td 
bid; 1 case paler 5s. 8d. bid. 
W.P.M. 5 cases good darkish amber sheet, 5s. 8$d.; 1 case thick black 
crépe, 2s. 8d. 
P.R. S.B. 7 do fine darkish sheet, 5s. 84d.; 6 cases good dark serap, 4s. 03d. 
G.M. S.B. 4 do fine amber sheet, 5s. 84d. 


(V-R.Co.Ltd. Kiang 
F.M.S. in triangle) 20 cases fine scored sheet, 5s. 8fd.; 4 cases good palish pressed 
crépe, 5s. 44d.; 2 cases darkish, 4s. 24d. 
C.R, (R.W. & Co. 


in triangle) 1 bag good rough sheet, 5s. 
-R. & Co. lease thick palish pressed crépe, 5s. 1d.; 2 cases thin, 3s. 6d.; 
5 cases darker, 5s. 14d. 

G.U.L.A.(indiamond)4 do fine thin pressed sheet, 5s. 8{d.; 1 case good pressed 
serappy sheet, 4s. 3d. 

P.S.E. (in diamond) 5 do fine palish amber sheet, 5s. 84d. 

B.R.R. & Co., Ltd. 4 do fine darkish and dark amber sheet, 5s. 8}d.; 5 bags good 
cuttings, 5s. 1?d.; 9 cases fine scored amber sheet, 5s. 8d. 
to 5s. 84d.; 1 case paler, 5s. 8d.; 3 cases good pale and 
darkish crepey sheet, 5s. 6d.; 3 bags good cuttings, 5s. 03d.; 
6 cases good darkish amber sheet, 5s. 8}d.; 2 cases palish 
to darkish scored sheet, 5s. 8d. 


SHIPMENTS OF PLANTATION RUBBER. 
Exports from Colombo and Galle from Ist January to 9th July. 


1906... te ... 645 tons. | 1904 ... ae .. 17 tons. 
1905 Be . 28 » | 1908 =. 10 


a9 


GOW, WILSON & STANTON, LTD. 


THE ZAPOTE TREE AND CHICLE GUM (ACHRAS SAPOTA). 
By A. J. LESPINASSE. 


Among the numerous natural products abounding in this fertile region 
(the Mexican canton of Tuxpam) the Zapote tree stands pre-eminent, its gum and 
wood during many decades having formed a source of wealth toalarge number 
of individuals and corporations, native and foreign, which have obtained from the 
State Government proprietary rights or concessions to extract chicle gum. 


The wood of the zapote tree is dark purplish red, and although exceedingly 
hard when first cut it is easily worked until thoroughly seasoned, when only the 
finest edged tools have any effect on its flint-like surface. Sharp pointed nails can 
be driven into the wood only about an inch. The fibre is so dense that the wood 
sinks rapidly in water, and will remain immersed for years without being affected 
in the least. Zapote door frames in the ruins of Uxmal are as perfect to-day as when 
first placed in position. The wood is susceptible of a beautiful polish. The average 
zapote will square 5to8 inches and occasionally 2 feet. It is claimed that the 
bark is employed to great advantage in tanning processes, and that leather so 
treated is superior to other kinds. 


The magnificent trees are rapidly disappearing, as the operators are taking 
no precautions to protect them from the destructive methods of the chicleros, who, 
in their greed to obtain all the sap possible, cut the trees so deep that they do not 
recover from the effects of the incisions, but gradually decay. Before the trees 
reach this stage, and while easy to work, they are cut down and shaped into 
building material. 


The chicle industry extends from this section as far as the extreme southern 
portion of Yucatan, which produces the largest yield, but in quality the gum is 


Gums, Resins. 230 [Sept. 1906. 


inferior to that obtained from this section, especially in the Tuxpam district. The 


latter gum commands a higher price in the United States, to whichit is almost 
exclusively shipped. 


Zapote trees thrive best on high, rolling land, and although trees are found 
on the lowlands, they are inferior in both sap and wood. Continuous tapping does 
not appear to have a seriously detrimental effect, provided the incisions are not 
too deep. Trees are known to have been tapped for 25 years, but after that time 
produced only from half pound to two pounds of sap. If allowed to rest five or six 
years they will produce from three to five pounds. The average height of the trees is 
about 30 feet. Zapotes are exceedingly slow in growth, and require from 40 to 50 
years to attain full height. 


The chicle season opens early in September, though the yield at this period 
is limited, and, owing to still copious rains, the chicleros (labourers) are retarded 
in their work; but this is to a great extenta benefit, as rains are favourable to 
an abundant flow of sap, provided the rainy season is not prolonged beyond October, 
in which case sap would contain a larger proportion of water, and the loss in 
condensation would be heavy and the product inferior. New trees will produce 
from 15 to 25 pounds of sap, according to size. In order to produce 25 pounds a 
tree would have to square about 2 feet and be from 25 to 30 feet high. 


The process of extracting the sap is extremely primitive. Open V shaped 
incisions are made in the tree trunks, permitting the sap to flowin a continuous 
stream. At the foot of each tree a palm or other appropriate leaf is fastened, which 
acts as a leader or gutter from which the chicle drips into the receptacle placed to 
receive it. The sap as it flows into the incisions is beautifully white, has the consis- 
tency of light cream, but as it rans down it gradually becomes more viscous, until, as 
it drips into the receiving receptacle, it is of the density of heavy treacle. It is very 
adhesive, and is extensively employed for repairing broken articles and fastening 
leather tips to billiard cues. When the receptacle is filled it is emptied into a large 
iron kettle mounted on a temporary stone foundation, with a small opening for 
wood, the fuel used in the boiling process to evaporate the water, which amounts 
to about 25 per cent. of the sap. As the boiling progresses the chicle thickens, and 
when it has reached the proper consistency it is allowed to settle until a trifle more 
than lukewarm, when it is kneaded to extract more of the water content, and 
is then shaped by hand into rough, uneven loaves weighing 5 to 30 pounds. If 
carefully cooked it is of a whitish gray shade; if carelessly handled and improperly 
boiled it is a dirty dark gray. When prepared with extra care it is ofa light 
pinkish colour. Much deception is practiced by the chicleros, who, in order to 
increase the weight, insert stones, bark, sand, or wood in the boiling chicle before 
it is formed into loaves. The sap freshly extracted will weigh about 7 to 8 
pounds to the gallon. 


Prices in this market range from $8 to $15 Mexican currency [l5s. 10d. to 
29s. 10d.] per 25 pounds; last season the average was about $14 [26s. 9d.] per 25 
pounds. | 


Ita good worker, achiclero can obtain from 50 to 75 pounds of chicle a | 
week, for which he receives 20 cents Mexican [4/d.] a pound. As a rule, 
arrangements to extract the chicle are made with capataces (evontractors), who 
have charge of the men. They receive about 40 cents Mexican [93d.] per pound, 
and from this price they must feed and pay their employees.—India Rubber 
World. 

[This tree, the Sapodilla plum, is cultivated to some extent in Ceylon for 
its fruit. The latex does not yield rubber, but a substance more like that which 
dries from jak milk. There is a considerable industry in it in America for making 
little statuettes, and other purposes.—ED. | 


Srpr. 1906.] 231 


FIBRES. 


Cotton in Ceylon. 
By J. C. WILLIS. 


As soon asthe North country of Ceylon began to be opened up by the new 
railway, the question came up of what products might be commercially cultivated 
in it, and among these cotton, which was already grown in small quantities on 
chenas, naturally took the first place. Going on leave in 19021 interviewed the 
chief officials of the newly-founded British Cotton Growing Association, and went 
over the cotton districts cf Texas, ete.. to get all possible information, and on 
my return Government agreed to open an Experiment Station in the North- 
Central Province. After some consideration this was done at Maha-iluppalama, 
and cotton seed from America (West Indian Sea Island and Uplands cotton) 
and Egypt (Egyptian) were sown there in the North-Hast monsoon of 1904. 


The crop was gathered during the first six months of last year and ginned, 
and was baled and despatched to Lancashire early this year. The results were that 
two bales Sea Islands sold at 1s. two at 10d. a lb., while of the 13 bales of Egyptian 
cotton, 7 sold at 9d. to 94d. per lb., 2 at 8$d. per 1b., 2at 8d. per lb., and 2 at 73d. per lb. 


Leaving out of account the salary of Superintendent, and cost of opening the 
land, the return shows a fair profit, being for Sea Island Rs. 87 peracre, for Egyptian 
Rs. 71°25, while the cost (weeding for 8 months at Rs. 5, planting Rs. 3, picking and 
ginning Rs. 2) was about Rs. 45. The profit may thus be about Rs. 40 per acre, or 
even more on land not requiring so much or so expensive weeding, so that 100 acres 
should provide a fair salary for a Superintendent and anything over that should 
yield a profit beside, even in the very expensive North-Central Province. 


The great thing to be attended to, however, if the quality of the crop is to 
be kept up, is selection of seed, which is dealt with in this month’s leading article. 


It is impossible to buy selected seed of Sea Island cotton, and this crop was 
grown from ordinary West Indian seed, the crop from which it was obtained having 
sold for 1s. 2d. or more, so that deterioration is evident in the very first generation. 
Thanks to continual selection, the quality of the West Indian Sea Islands cotton 
is rising, and has even reached Is. 8d. a pound, so that now almost uny seed from 


there is comparatively good, but its offspring will not remain so without regular 
selection. 


232 [SmPT. 1906. 
EDIBLE PRODUCTS. 


The Germination of the Coconut. 
By Ivor ETHERINGTON. 


The seeds of most plants grown as agricultural crops are so small that no 
attention need be given to the position of the seed in the germinating bed, parti- 
cularly in the case of minute seeds scattered broadcast or sown by means of a seed- 
drill. Even with much larger seeds of the planting products of the tropics, such as 
tea, cacao, and the species of rubber plants, Ceara, Castilloa and Hevea, there is no 
necessity to take precautions that the seed may lie in any particular way in the 
soil. However placed the seeds seem to germinate equally well, and the young 
seedling plants grow up equally straight and sturdy. The coconut, however, has 
such a very large seed and the aperture in the kernel, through which the 
embryo plant has to push its way up through the surrounding husk, is so placed 
that the position of the coconut on the seed bed is of some importance in its 
germination. 


If the nut is laid on its side, horizontally, or nearly so, the plumule and 
radicle grow vertically up and down in a straight line through a minimum of the 
surrounding husk, and the water in the kernel reaches the germ and keeps it moist 
during germination. This the native Sinhalese practice from their empiric 
knowledge. 


An extensive series of experiments in the germination of coconuts has 
lately been brought to a conclusion in Madagascar, and the results have been 
published by Mons. E. Prudhomme, Director of Agriculture of Madagascar, in his 
book *‘Le Cocotier.” In order to ascertain what are really the advantages or 
disadvantages of the different positions which can be given to a nut at the time of 
sowing, he compares the results given by the germination of five plots of fifty nuts 
placed in the following five positions :— 


(1) Nuts placed vertically, point downwards. 
(2) Nuts ,, a point upwards. 
(3) Nuts placed obliquely, point downwards. 
(4) Nuts ,, - point upwards. 
(5) Nuts placed horizontally. 
The point of the nut is understood to be the end opposite the stalk. 


The nuts germinated in all five positions, but not with the same facility in 
every case, and Mons. Prudhomme makes interesting remarks on the result. In 
position (1) the germ has to makea fairly long passage through the surrounding 
husk (fibre) before breaking through it, especially in those nuts which are 
characterised by a great thickness of fibre on the peduncle end of the nut, such as 
the long shaped green coconut, the Seychelles coconut, and the long pointed 
* Pondicherry red,” and others. In this position the plumule grows quite vertically 
just to the spot where the stalk of the nut is, or just beside it. Germination then 
takes place under good conditions; besides, in this position the nuts occupy very 
little room in the first seed bed ; but against thisit can be argued that it furnishes 
plants less able to resist wind and not holding in their places so well when planted 
out in the field. ‘‘ However that may be, I have seen this method employed ona 
large scale, in the north-west of Madagascar, by a planter who has assured me 
that it is very satisfactory.” I cannot say much, continues the writer ip the 
French, for the 2nd position; (nuts vertically, point upwards) which seems altogether 
illogical, because the future stem is obliged to curve on itself and to follow round 


‘Sept. 1906, | 238 HRdible Products. 


the wall of the nut proper to the surface of the enveloping fibre. In this case the 
germinating point first shows itself on the side of the coconut, downwards from 
the point. The issue of the plumule is in this case much slower; this is easily 
understood on account of the deformution undergone by the young growing 
stem and the long way it has to grow from the interior of the mesocarp. 
Nuts placed in this position, according to the trials of the Madagascar Agricultural 
Department, gave a smaller percentage of successes than any of the other four 
positions. Further, plants of this sort are transported with difficulty, for there 
is risk of damaging the young stems in placing them side by side ina box or case, 
for instance when taking them to the field for planting. 

The last three positions have given almost identical results. This is under- 
stood since, in the three cases, the growing stem has almost the same passage to 
make in growing from the kernel. Position No. 3, (nut placed obliquely, point down) 
which is the most logical as it corresponds with that which the nuts naturally 
take when they fall to the earth, seems to be the best. The horizontal position and 
that iv which the part next the peduncle is slightly raised, are according to 
Mons. Keating, who carried out the experiments, the two best. In the horizontal 
and oblique positions the germinations seem apparently better than those in which 
the nuts are placed vertically. 


The following table, drawn up by Mons. Keating (Madagasear Agricultural 
Department) shows the results of his experiments with 250 nuts. 


Nut vertical. Nut oblique. Nut horizontal. 
Point down. |} Point up. | Point down. Point up. 


Germination 66 % 48 % 86 % (4 Fe 84 % 


In Ceylon experience bears out the results of Mons. Prudhomme’s experi- 
ments. To enquiries made of several coconut planters of long experience in the 
island, the answer has in nearly every case been the same, viz., in favour of 
horizontal planting. Mr. Gerald Nicholas, of the well-known Golua Pokuna estate 
(whom, by the way, Mons. Prudhomme refers to several times in his work) says:— 
“Tam of opinion that the best way to plant seed coconuts ina nursery is to place 
them horizontally--exactly in the actual position they lie on the ground when they 
fall from the tree. I should say a somewhat oblique position, with the point or 
stalk end of the nut upwards, would certainly be preferable to planting it vertically.” 
In “The Tropical Agriculturist,” April, 1895, Mr. Nicholas gave his reasons for 
objecting to the vertical position as follows:—‘‘When the capsule at the stalk end 
drops off, it lays bare a depression in the husk directly above the ‘eye’ of the nut 
through which the young shoot issues. This depression is comparatively a tender 
spot in the husk and moisture would enter throuzh it more easily than elsewhere, 
Therefore, if the nuts be placed vertically with ouly the spaces between them filled 
with soil, water would be caught in the depression, and, if superabundant as in the 
long-continued wet weather, the germ would be endangered.” Mr. A. W, Beven, 
of Horekelly, says:—‘‘I have always advocated their being placed in the same 
position they occupy when they fall from the tree, i.e., sideways. I argue that 
the water in the nut is intended by nature to keep the germ supplied with 
moisture during the period of germination. If placed in this position, the nursery 
will to a very great extent be independent of watering, as was conclusively 
proved recently on an estate in the Rajabadalawa district, adjoining Toynbee. 
During a period of drought no water was available for the nursery within half a 
mile, yet almost every seed nut grew. Besides, it sometimes becomes necessary 


Rdible Products. 254 [Sppr. 1906. | 


to stake the young plant to prevent it floating when the hole becomes filled 
up with water during heavy rains immediately after planting, or to prevent 
it being blown down. Then the advantage of planting the nuts on their side 
becomes apparent.” 

The depth to which the seed nut should be buried has also been the object 
of experiments at Madagascar. Mons. Prudhomme writes as follows on this point :— 


Nuts buried to a depth of 10 centimetres (4 inches) placed in tne soil just up 
to the middle, or sunk just tothe level of their tops, have given appreciably the 
same results. The rate of germination was almost the same in each of the three 
eases, and also the percentage of results has only given insignificant differences. It 
has not been the same in the case of nuts simply placed on the soil; the germination 
of these was much later and very obviously inferior to that of nuts more or less 
buried. It is certain that this method is not to be recommended. The other three 
methods gave good results, but as burying to the depth of 10 centimetres (4 inches) 
certainly costs much more, and, according to Mons. Keating’s observations, requires 
at least twice-as much labour as the others, superficial burying should be recom- 
mended. According to Keating, a man on an average can place 500 nuts a day in the 
nursery if they are planted just about level to their tops, and only 200 if buried to a 
depth of 10 centimetres (4 inches). 

Prudhomme reccommends the nursery system as practised in Ceylon. He 
says, the Ceylon planters asarule place the nuts at first side by side, first ina 
sheltered shady location, and transplant them toa temporary nursery protected 
against the sun’s rays, 40 to 50 ems. (4 to 5 inches) apart, until the young growths 
attain to a length of 5 or6 cms. “This method is certainly the most rational and, 
in my opinion, most to be recommended, for it allows the shade to be regu. 
lated according to the state of development of the young plants and diminishes 
the space occupied by the nuts. It is posssible in these conditions, to reduce 
to a minimum the work of looking after the young plants.” 


PARAGUAY THA. 


When speaking of Paraguay or Jesuit’s tea it must be understood that what 
is referred to is not strictly speaking a tea at all, except in so far as the infusion 
thereof may be socalled. The plant from which it is commonly obtained is “ Zlex 
paraguariensis.” How many other plants yield Paraguay tea and their exact 
botanical designations are still matters of debate among botanists. In an article 
which appeared some years ago upon the subject, in addition to several species of 
Ilex, a species of Symplocos and one of Llaeodendron were stated to yield the tea. 
The native name for the tea in its raw state is yerba, but as that is simply a word 
meaning herb, it does not convey very much; as manufactured ready for use 
it is known as yerba maté. The latter word is apparently an arbitrary word 
peculiar to South American Spanish, and it is also used to denote the gourd or 
cup from which the tea is taken. Although belonging to the same genus as 
does the common English holly, there is very little resemblance to this in the yerba 
plant; the leaves are lance shaped, of a deep glossy green and soft, almost oily 
to the touch when fully grown; when young there is a flush of scarlet in the green, 
The flowers are inconspicuous. The trees attain a height of 40 feet or perhaps more 
when full grown, and the trunk is 12 inches in diameter, although 6 inches to 
8 inches is nearer the average. The wood is soft and pithy and is useless as a timber, 

The plant grows in forests, principally in the north-east of the Republic on 
the upper waters of the Rio Alto Parana. The torests are kuown as yerbales 
and they are a great source of wealth to the country. Itis estimated that at the 
present time there are about 700 square leagues of yerbales in existence, and 


Sept. 1906. | 235 Ndable Products. 


most of this area is in the hands of private firms, the government owning but 
comparatively little. The yerbales are natural forests, and so far little effort 
has been put forth towards extending them by cultivation. Inthe days of the 
Jesuit missionaries in South America the plant was cultivated in the Argentine 
Provinee of Missiones and also to some extent in Paraguay, but on the expul- 
sion of the Order their plantations fell into decay. 


The yerbiles are worked by native labour under European supervision, and 
the method adopted is that of contract work ;in other words, the company agrees 
to supply all stores and plant required, and to take as much of the produce as can 
be sent down to taem at a certain fixed price per 1,000 kilos. The young branches 
are cut from the trees and taken to a place where a drying hut has been erected. 
Here, under cover of a roof, they are placed on a species of wooden grid and a fire 
of aromatic woods kindled under them. The leaves and twigs are constantly 
turned over and over above this fire until they are dried and crisped. They are 
then thrown on to a green hide covered floor and broken up into small pieces, 
after which the product is very tightly rammed into bags. The next stage is the 
carting of the bags in bullock eurts to the numerous sinall creeks that flow through 
the country, and here they are pwcked into rative boats, which gradually find 
their way down tothe River Paraguay and eventually into the port of Asuncion, 
where the grinding mill is situated. 


At the factory the machinery resembles a sort of gigantic coffee mill ; the 
bags of yerba are emptied into a large iron pan which is revolved at high speed, 
and the herb is groundinto a more or less fine powder and falls into a chamber 
underneath. There then remains nothing else to be done except to pack it for the 
market. For the wholesale market bags are used, but for the retail trade it is 
put up in tins, in packets, and in other forms. 


From Paraguay it is exported to almost every country in South America, 
but the Argentine Republic seems to take by far the greater portion of the surplus 
available for export. Someidea of the importance of the trade will be gained 
when it is stated that this surplus reaches the enormous total of five million 
pounds annually. 


The habit of taking maté is common to the continent. In the early morning 
both in town and in the camp it is taken in much the same way as we take tea; 
in the afternoon it is the same, and often ten or a dozen times during the day the 
kettle is boiled to make the decoction. The method of making and taking it is as 
follows: A small gourd is taken and a spoonful of the herb placed in it; the gourd 
is then filled with water as hot asit is possible to obtain it, sugar may be added 
if itis desired or if it beavailable, but in the majority of cases itis voluntarily 
dispensed with; the mixture is then sucked up through a small tybe called a 
bombilla. The cremony of taking maté is rather an ordeal, whether it be taken in a 
house in town or in an Indian encampment;it is the greatest compliment that 
can be offered to a visitor, and to refuse is to cast a slight upon your hostess. The 
maté is called for, and the infusion being made, the hostess first takes a sip through 
the bombilla, it is then passed to the guest, and he in turn after his sip passes it 
on to his neighdour. This may be repeated at intervals as long as the call lasts. 
The great art in making it is to have the water boiling and to sip it whilst very hot. 
It may also be infused in the same way as ordinary tea and drunk from a tea cup, 
but this is not the usual method nor does it improve the flavour, in fact it spoils 
it to many peoples’ taste. The flavour of the decoction is at once bitter and 
astringent, but not, even at first, disagreeably so, yet no one taking it for the first 
time could avoid making a grimace over it. The taste is easy of acquisition, and 
once acquired hard indeed to get rid of. It is more seductive even than tobacco, 

31 


Edible Products. 236 (SEPT. 1906. 


more alluring than strong drink, and infinitely better at once asa stimulant and a 
sedative than either, or both combined. And in the majority of cases it leaves | 
no after effects to be accounted for. The peons and the gauchos employed in the 
country live almost entirely on meat and maté; I refer here to the natives of the 
Argentine Republic. If they can get their maté. even though meat be scarce or 
non-existent, they can carry on for a surprisingly long time and do hard laborious 
work onit. Without it they are simply lost. The Indians can make long journeys 
through desert country absolutely without food for days together, so long as their 
maté holds out. 


Very few Europeans whose vocation calls them to South America escape 
the habit, and once they have mastered the flavour they prefer maté to tea or 
coffee. They say that they can work on it better than on tea or on anything else. 
The first thing in the morning the decoction is at its best; taken before daylight 
on acold morning when the rain is descending in torrents and the whole world 
looks miserable, it imparts a sort of ruby colour to everything and forces one to 
take the brightest view of things. It must be understood that there is not the 
smallest suspicion of alcohol about it; it is simply a powerful tonic and revivifier. 


I doubt if it would be possible to gain for yerba maté any measure of 
popularity in England. Although China tea in its early days did not spring at 
once into general use, this was due more to its high price than to prejudice. If the 
latter could be got over as regards the Paraguay tea, I am sure that there would 
be a great demand for it in the course of a comparatively short time. It is cheap 
here and could be put on the market in London at a price below that of 
ordinary tea. 

(On the face of it the introduction of Paraguay tea into Europe looks to 
have the makings of a “ good thing” init, andas ‘ good things” generally have 
been tried, so has this one. Up to the present, however, nothing has been achieved 
but failure. We have seen proof of suchan attempt in this country in the shape 
of a tastefully got up packet of Paraguay tea, and we recollect reading of a new 
endeavour to popularise this article in Europe, ina journal devoted to Indian tea, 
some little while ago. The opinion expressed was that no headway would be 
made unless the financial backing for advertising, &c., was very considerable indeed.) 
—The Field. 

[Every now and then attempts are made to introduce Paraguay tea, or 
Mate, into Europe, but so far have not met with success. The plant grows well 
_ enough at Peradeniya, but we have only one.—ED.] 


The Cultivation and Curing of Tobacco. III. 


SHADE-GROWN TOBACCO. 


For the purpose of testing the possibility of producing in Jamaica the 
expensive imported wrapper tobacco, experiments have been conducted with 
Sumatra tobacco under tent cloth on the lines practised in the Connecticut Valley 
in America. A quarter of an acre was laid out on a site occupied by Havana 
tobacco last year, the tent being erected over two distinct kinds of soil; one-half 
a very heavy soil, and the other the result of an outcrop of sandy loam or gritty 
jyoam. The plants grew equally well on both soils, reaching a height of 9 feet in 
forty-nine days after planting. 


The results of the experiment to date show that a very fine grade of wrapper 
can be grown in Jamaica, equal, if not superior, to that imported from America, 
but to ensure correct curing, the crop must be grown in a locality a great deal 


Sept. 1906.] 237 Edible Products 


more humid than Hope. The leaves should take from sixteen to twenty days to 
dry, turning yellow first at the tip and upwards to the midrib, closely followed by 
the brown; whereas at Hope some of the pickings dried in two days, the leaves 
remaining a green colour. Mr. T. G. Harris thinks that it is safe to advocate the 
cultivation of this valuable crop only in such districts as upper Clarendon and 
Temple Hall. Sumatra tobacco should be grown in the ordinary tobacco season— 
August and September to March and April. At Hope the seeds were sown at the end 
ot August in seed boxes under shade; the seedlings planted out under the tent 
from the middle to the end of Octi ber; were weeded and moulded in the middle 
of November, and the first ripe leaves picked on December 12—three and a half 
months from the date of sowing. The tent proved to be the most expensive part 
of the experiment, costing £39 9s. 7d. The labour bill came to £3 8s. 3d. 


Mr. T. G. Harris says that it must be remembered that in conducting an 
experiment of this kind, a great many difficulties have to be overcome, and in this 
ease the only one that was beyond us was the controlling of the atmospheric 
conditions in the curing house during the drying of the tobacco; it was thought 
that adequate measures had been taken to cope with this contingent by daubing 
the walls of the house and fixing shutters; but the dryness of the climate was 
all pervading; if it is proposed to grow another crop at Hope next season, the 
house will have to be close-boarded and fitted with a steaming apparatus. I¢ is 
my opinion, however, that nothing further is required to demonstrate that Sumatra- 
wrapper can be successfully grown and cured in Jamaica, provided the work be 
undertaken in the localities named. 


JAMAICA SHADE-GROWN TOBACCO FROM SUMATRA SEED. 


The experiment in the growing and curing of wrapper tobacco from 
Sumatra seed under shade cloth, at the Hope Experiment Station, has been 
successfully carried out. The texture and the elasticity of the leaf are all that 
can be desired, while the colour is perfect. 


The cigar manufacturers who have examined the leaf pronounce it of a 
high quality, and the colour equal to that of imported Sumatra. The local value 
of the product, after being classed in the proper sizes and colours, pressed and 
baled, is from 4s. to 6s. perlb. A very lucrative industry is thus open for Jamaica, 
even although the initial cost is high. 


A quarter of an acre was laid out ona site previously occupied by Havana 
tobacco, the tent being erected over two distinct kinds of soil; one a heavy, black 
loam, and the other, a sandy loam, is of a thinner and of a finer texture than that 
from the black loam ; from the latter the leaf is heavier, and cured with a gummy 
substance on the surface. 


In the progress of the experiment many methods were tried, and much 
experience has been gained, and it is uot supposed that improvements cannot be 
made in the future. There will naturally be many ideas developed as to improve- 
ments that can be made, e.g., that the plants should have been topped, the picking 
should have been done a little earlier or a little later to get the best results. 


It is well known by all tobacco growers that different soils and different 
districts require different treatment. The production of the leaf, and the relation 
of the different soils to the character of the leaf, and the necessities of cutiva- 
tion must be further studied, and this knowledge will unquestionably be 
beneficial, 


Edible Products 238 [SEPT. 1906: 


PREPARA OF THE SEED BEDS. 

No special plan was adopted in the preparation of the seed beds, the 
methods in common use being udopiel. It is very important that in the preparation 
of the seed beds an ample supply of seed shouid be sown, provision being made 
by successive sowings every seven or ten days, sothat when the planting season 
comes round the supply of plants suitable for transplanting will be ample for 
the purpose, and the supply should be maintained throughout the period in 
which the planting is to be done. Atter the seeds are sown, the beds should 
be watered, and kept continuously moist, but not too wet, until the seedlings are 
planted out. 


On a commercial scale an ounce of seed is used for an acre of land. 
This ensures an abundance of plants, and in favourable seasons there will be more 
than enough. But it is poor economy to have scant seed beds and to wait 
for plants. 


LAND BEST ADAPTED FOR WRAPPER LEAF. 


There is no longer any question but that a sandy loam is the best, the 
subsoil, either clay or sand, the latter being preferable for growing leaf of the finest 
texture; also the climate must be warm aud humid, for wrapper leaf requires a 
humid atmosphere from the seed to the cigar, and the reverse is deleterious. With- 
out a proper soil, suitable climatic conditions and environments, the best results 
need not be expected ;_ fine, thin wrapper leaf only is desirable, climate is essential 
to the growing of wrapper leaf, and as this cannot be modified by artificial means, 
we must seek a district where the temperature and moisture are similar to that of 
Sumatra—warm and humid. Wehave such districts in Jamaica, in Temple Hall and 
Upper Clarendon, where it is safe to advocate the cultivation of this valuable crop. 


TIME FOR PLANTING. 


Sumatra wrapper tobacco should be grown in the ordinary tobacco season, 
November and December to March and April. At Hope the seeds were sown 
on September 2, 1903, under cloth, the seedlings planted out under the tent from 
November 1, were moulded from November 18, and reached a height of 9 feet in fifty- 
eight days. The first ripe leaves were picked on January 11, 1905, 131 days from 
date of sowing, the average maximum temperature in the tent during the growth of 
the plants was 90, taken daily at 3 p.m., the minimum temperature taken at7 a.m. 
daily was 66. Planting should commence not earlier than 30’clock in the afternoon on 
sunny days, but on a cloudy, light-showery day, planting should be carried on during 
the whole day. If there is no rain when planting begins, sufficient water must 
be poured into each hole, and the newly-planted seedlings should be watered every 
day after sunset. The plants are set out at a distance of 15 inches apart in 
rows 3 feet apart, running from north to south. At distances of 3 feet by 15 inches, 
an acre should contain 11,060 plants. 


CULTIVATION. 


Plants require five or six days to take root, after which cultivation should 
be begun and continued frequently until the plants get so large that further culti- 
vation is liable to damage the leaves. In order to ensure rapid growth, the 
ground should be constantly stirred. Cultivation will stop about the time the 
plants begin to button. At this stage the soil isso shaded that it will not become 
baked and hinder the feeding of the surface roots. 

HARVESTING. 
When the plants are not topped they grow to the height of the tent, and the 


blossoms often push up the shade cloth at a height of 9 feet from the ground; 
suckers should be removed so as to throw the strength into the main plant. Wrapper 


— 


Sept. 1906.] 239 Edible Products. 


leaf tobacco should be primed, i.e., the leaves gathered as they ripen; this needs 
considerable judgment and practice on the part of the grower ; the leaves ought to 
be pulled when slight indications of a brownish colour appear round the edge of the 
leaf and on the tip; occasional spots will appear at other places on the surface. The 
ordinary indications of ripeuess which govern tobacco grown in the open fields, 
such as yellow blotches, curling of the leaf, and the snapping of the midrib when 
bent, will not apply to shade-grown tobacco. By experiment at Hope it is advised to 
harvest the leaf at an early stage of ripeness. By going over the field in this way 
and picking the leaves as they ripen, the leaves are of a uniform degree of ripeness, 
and this is a very desirable object. At the same time there is danger in harvesting 
too green, as in such cases the leaf has an uneveu colour when cured. If allowed to 
ripen fully, its texture aud toughness and its delicate, pea-green hue will be spoiled. 

Three or four leaves are generally taken off in the first priming; then an 
interval of several days will elapse before another priming can be made. It is usua 
to make five or six primings of a crop, which occupies a period of from five to six 
weeks. As the leaves are picked off the stalk they should be kept straight, placing 
them back to face, and laying them in baskets 36 inches by 18 inches and 12 inches 
deep, lined with shade cloth, with the butts to the ends of the basket, and the tips to 
the centre; they are carried in these baskets to the curing house. Never pick the 
leaves while the dew or rain-drops remain on them as spots will result. It is 
preferable to cut in the afternoon as the sun is getting weaker ; in the forenoon unless 
cloudy there is a danger of sunburn. 

CURING. 


When the leaves are taken to the curing house thirty or forty are threaded 
on a string, each end of which is fastened to a lath, 4 feet to 6 inches long by ? inch 
thick. The leaves are placed on the string face to face and back to back to prevent 
curling; the laths are put closely in the bottom barraderas, where they may remain 
from forty-eight to seventy-two hours according to the moisture in the house, then 
carried up and adjusted on the upper barraderas, the laths put about 6 inches apart. 
The drying of the leaf in the curing house is entirely governed by the conditions of 
the weather. However, in a general way, if the house be filled with green tobacco, 
and the weather be hot and dry, the house should be tightly closed for about three 
days, by which time the tobacco will turn yellow; the house should then be opened 
at night and kept closed during the day; this is done to prevent rapid curing which 
gives a green and uneven colour. To obtain the best results, the tobacco should 
become fairly moist and fairly dried out once in every twenty-four hours. The 
opening and closing of the house require to be done with judgment, because it is by 
the process of allowing the tobacco to become alternately soft and dry that the leaf 
is properly cured. If the season during which the tobacco is being cured is exces- 
sively hot and dry, as was the case in curing this crop, means must be found to keep 
the house moist. In this case it was found necessary to hang cloth round the 
inside of the house to retain moisture; also instead of threading the leaves on string 
and fastening to the laths immediately on being brought into the house, the leaves 
were partly sweated on the floor of the curing house, spread in lots of twelve leaves 
one above the other, back to back, and face to face, covered with green banana 
leaves. If the floor of the house is made of earth, it is necessary to spread ola 
shade cloth or bags beneath the leaves to keep them off the damp floor, otherwise 
the bottom leaves will get black and discoloured. Particular care must be taken 
not to sweat the leaves when damp with wet or moisture. Allow them to remain 
jo this position for forty-eight hours, or until the edges of the leaves turn a yellow 
colour, the remainder of the leaf will also be of a slightly yellow shade; when this 
colour is attained, thread as previously described ; put the laths on the bottom 
barraderas for twenty-for hours, allowing the leaves on each lath to touch one 
another ; shut the house during the day and open at night. 


Baible: Products: 240 [Smpr. 1906. 1 


Great care must be taken to prevent excessive moisture, as pole sweat, mould, 
or other damage tothe leaf arises in that case, which must be prevented. The 
curing of the tobacco is completed when the midribs of the leaves are brown and 
soft. The time for curing the tobacco that has been primed is from twenty to 
twenty-two days, at which timeit is ready to be fermented, or the laths may be 
adjusted on the top barraderas of the house, and there remain until such time as 
sufficient dry tobacco is ready for fermenting. To get the tobacco in condition to 
handle, all the doors and ventilators must be kept open during the night previous to 
putting into the press. The next morning the tobacco will be in what is called ‘ good 
case,’ that is, it should have taken up sufficient moisture to become soft and pliable. 
The tobacco should contain at least 25 per cent. of moisture before being put in the 
bulk (press), then the process of fermentation gives the leaf a light-brown colour. If 
the tobacco contained 25 per cent of moisture when bulked, and the curing house be 
kept at a temperature of from 75 to 85 F., the tobacco will generate sufficient heat to 
cause a daily rise in temperature of from 8to10F. For determining the temper- 
ature of the bulk of tobacco, during the process of fermentation, a thermometer was 
placed in the centre of the bulk. The following record of temperature (in degrees 
Fahrenheit) during the first fermentation process is given as follows:—April 12, 
tobacco put in bulk (press); 183 at 7 a.m., 80, at 3 p.m., 89; 14 at 7 a.m., 96, at 3 p.m., 
102; 1Ibat7a.m., 110, at3 p.m., 114; 16at7a.m., 119, at 3 p.m., 122; 17at7 a.m., 125 
tobacco taken out of bulk and put in a second bulk (press). The second bulk should 
be allowed to remain fifteen or twenty days, by which time the tobacco will have 
warmed up considerably, though it will not reach as high a temperature as in the first 
bulk. If the tobacco did not contain an overabundance of moisture when first bulked, 
it will be dried off by this time and the temperature will fall to about 96 or 100 F. 
The tobacco will now be thoroughly cured and ready for assorting and baling. 


SIZING AND ASSORTING. 


When the tobacco has been thoroughly cured it is ready to be sized, assorted, 
and baled or boxed. The sizing is the first work. The various lengths of the tobacco 
represent its various characteristics ard types of the leaf, making five lengths from 
10 to 12 inches, 11 to 14inches, 14 to 16 inches, 16 to 18 inches, and over 18 inches. 
After this work is completed the assortirng or shading is completed, making claro or 
very light-brown; colorado claro, light-brown; colorado maduro, brown, and 
dark-brown; and light and dark broken leaves. With the last named all leaves 
of uneven colour, or those which arein any way imperfect, are included. The tobacco 
is tied in ‘hands’ fanshaped of from thirty to forty leaves each ; these are tied with 
fibre and the tobacco is ready to be baled. 

COST OF GROWING TOBACCO UNDER SHADE. 

Calculating on the wovod-work lasting for five years, putting on new cloth 
each year, and including cultivation and curing, the cost of the tobacco to the 
grower varies from 2s. to 2s. 23d. per |b. 

SUN GROWN TOBACCO FROM SUMATRA SEED, 

A small experiment plot was planted in the open field to test the quality 
of cigar wrapper leaf from out-door cultivation. A local cigar expert who examined 
the cured crop thinks highly of it, aud was so favourably impressed by the 
quality that he intends growing it on a large seale. He valued the best-grade 
leaf at from 5s. per lb. About 10 per cent. could safely be relied on as being 
of first-grade leaf. The plot was planted on November 16, 1904, the first ripe 
leaves were picked on February 7, 1905, 159 days from date of sowing; the 
average maximum temperature in the shade during the growth of the plants 
was 86 F. taken daily at 38 p.m.; the minimum average temperature taken at 
7 am. was 67 F. The crop was cultivated. harvested, and cured in the same 
manner as that grown under shade. 


SEPT. 1906. | 211 Edible Products. 


KRFFECT OF PRIMING SUN-GROWN WRAPPER LEAF. 


It was noticed in connection with this experiment that priming had a 
marked effect on the growth of the upper leaves, removal of the lower leaves 
causing an increased growth and thickness in the upper leaves, and with it an 
increased percentage of nicotine. The quality of the product is thus somewhat 
lowered, hence the small percentage of first-grade wrapper leaf. The priming 
of tobacco is more expensive than cutting the stalks, as more labour is required, 
but the improvement in quality and the percentage of high-grade wrapper leaf 
fully warrant this additional cost. It has the advantage that the leaves are 
uniformly matured when they are hung in the curing house, and the finished 
crop is therefore of a more uniform character. 


INFLUENCE OF DISTANCE OF PLANTING ON THE YIELD AND THICKNESS OF THE LEAF. 


A small experiment plot, to study the relation of distance in planting 
to yield and thickness of the leaf, was planted on November 16, 1904, harvested 
and cured in the same manner as the previous experiment. Close planting increases 
the yield per acre, and plants nearest together in the row produced a thinner 
leaf than the plants set farther apart; the size of the leaf, thickness, elasticity 
and size of the veins may all be more or less modified by close planting. On 
heavy soils, efforts shouid be directed to the production of a highly-flavoured 
leaf. These are qualities which can be sensibly affected by the distance of planting, 
and the time and manner of growing. 


SHADE GROWN TOBACCO IN UNITED STATES AND CUBA, AND TOBACCO IN SUMATRA, 


Letter from Messrs. Amory, Brown & Uo., New York, to the Director 
of Public Gardens and Plantations, Jamaica :—The writer has been requested by 
Mr. R. W_ Lees to write you with regard to the comparative yields per acre 
between tobaccc grown in the sun and tobacco grown under cloth in the respective 
cigar leaf di-tricts. In reply I would say that I should be glad to assist you 
in any pcs-ible way to get at such exact information as you may desire, and 
shall in this letter only discuss the question in general terms. It may be laid 
down in a general way that the culture of tobacco under cloth makes a greater 
yield than sun-grown in the southern tobacco districts, and makes a smaller 
yield per acre than the sun-grown in the northern districts. This is due in the 
norta to the fact that different varieties of tobacco, of less yield, are preferred 
for use under cloth, the product being much finer than the outdoor types that 
are common in these regions. In Connecticut, for instance, the outdoor tobaccos, 
called Connecticut Havana seed and Connecticut broad-leaf, produce from 1,600 
to 2,000 lb. per acre, while Sumatra and Cuban seed, which are there preferred 
for planting under cloth, do not yield more than from 800 to 1,100 for Cuban 
and from 1,000 to 1,850 for Sumatra. This deficiency in weight is made up by 
the thinness and fine quality of the leaf as compared with the sun-grown. 


It is due to say, however, that where the outdoor-grown seed of Connecticut 
tobaccos (Havana seed and broad-leaf) is grown in Connecticut under cloth, the 
yield per acre is usually reduced from 1,600 and 2,000 Ib. to 1,250 and 1,600 lb., owing 
to the fact that the leaf is thinner. The capacity for covering cigars, by the pound 
of leaf, is, however, increased, These native tobaccos have not, as yet, been largely 
grown under cloth in Connecticut, the smaller-ieafed types of Sumatra and Cuban 
being preferred. Perhaps the best comparison in Connecticut as to respective 
weights is shown in the case of Sumatra tobacco; small plots of this have been 
planted in the sun, near the clo: h-covered field, and the yield per acre in the sun 
is much less than that under eloth, the plants not gevting anything like the growth 
that those under cloth attain. In Florida the acreage of sun-grown is decreasing, 
so that it is not so much of a factor in the trade there, but there is an increase of 


Hdible Products. 242 [SrpPr. 1906. ’ 


about 60 per cent. in the yield per acre when the same seed is planted under shade. 
In Cuba there is the greatest increase in the amount of wrapper obtained by the 
use of cloth, but as the yields are there figured in carrots and bales, the comparison 
is not readily obtained. Wrapper in the sun is largely dependent upon the freedom 
of the field from the attacks of insects. The actual weight of tobacco under cloth 
is there probably twice that obtained in the sun, as the plants of the same seed 
grow toa height of sixteen to eighteen good wrapper leaves, where outdoors they 
are limited to eight ur ten. The same holds true of Porto Rico. 

Regarding the acreage of sun-grown tobacco in these districts, concerning 
which, I believe, you also made inquiry, the acreage under shade has had no effect 
upon the acreage of sun-grown in the places named, except that in Florida there 
is less sun-grown than formerly. The Connecticut Valley has about 16,000 acres of 
cigar wrapper tobacco in the sun; Cuba, lam told, 60,000 acres or more; and Porto 
Rico, perhaps 10,000 acres. 

As to the curing of Sumatra tobacco, the practice in the States is to prime 
the leaves one by oneand string them upon lath, about thirty-six leaves to the 
lath, and the lath placed in the shed about 5 or 6 inches apart on each tier. The 
ventilation of the sheds depends entirely upon the weather, the idea being to get 
enough alternate dryness and dampeuing so that the cure will not be too rapid; 
about four to six weeks is acommon period for primed Sumatra tobacco. This 
primed tobacco does not get the brown colour in the shed that other tobacco, 
harvested on the stalk, does, but many of the leaves remain a sea-green. This 
colour comes out in the fermentation, which is done in the bulks of about 4,000 lb., 
the pile being built up ona little platform, 6 feet wide by 12 feet long. The tem- 
perature in the middle of the pile is allowed to go up to about 124 F., and the tobacco 
is then changed around; that which was on the top and the bottom being placed 
in the middle, that which was on the outside being placed in the inside of the pile, 
which is now made up onan adjoining plaiform. About six to eight weeks, with 
a turning each week, are usually required. Assorting should be done as soon as 
possible, so that the tobacco, after it is sweated, will not dry out by standing 
before assorting; the application of water being thought not beneficial. I should 
be glad to answer any specific inquiries for you. The weights above discussed are 
of shed-cured tobacco. 


It may interest you to know that information just arriving from Sumatra 
is to the effect that several plantations are changing from priming to curing on 
the stalk. This is Sumatra sun-grown tobacco. 


APPENDIX I. 


JAMAICA 'TORACCO. 


Upon the suggestion of the Imperial Commissioner of Agriculture, Mr. F. V. 
Chalmers visited Jamaica last year to report upon the position of the tobacco 
industry. The following is Mr. Chalmers’ report to the Colonial Secretary :— ee 

Generally speaking, I find the tobacco of good quality and flavour, but the.xv 
majority of the leaves are of a heavy nature; consequently, from a commerciai-~' 
point of view, such tobacco cannot compete with other productions for the purposes 
of cigar wrapper in particular, and for cigar purposes generally, because, when 
tobacco is of a heavy nature, it is obvious that the weight of a given number of 
leaves is greater than when the tobacco is of a finer texture. This is a most 
important point when competing with a country like Great Britain, where the duty 
is very high. The quality of the tobacco, that is to say, the flavour of aroma,, :in 
nearly every instance excellent. 


Supt. 1906. ] 243 Edible Products. 


TOBACCO SOILS. 


The foregoing remarks apply to the great proportion of the tobacco now 
being produced, but I think if more attention were given to the soils upon which 
this tobacco is grown, so that it was made of lighter nature, a finer and a lighter 
tobacco from every point of view might be produced. It must always be remembered 
that tobacco cannot be produced or determined by a chemical analysis. The quality 
of some vegetable productions is largely decided by a determination of its starch, 
such as the potato or maize, and other percentages, but the quality of tobacco 
appears to be determined only by the senses of man; colour, texture, aroma, and 
combustibility are the points by which the quality of tobacco is estimated. Organic 
and inorganic salts seem to have considerable effect on these qualities. The 
organic compounds seem to bear a closer relation to the aroma of the tobacco, while 
on the inorganic salts depends largely the combustibility. A large proportion 
of potash in the tobacco improves the Surning, and when potash is present in the 
form of a carbonate, the best results are obtained. The growers of bright tobacco 
find that the tobacco grown on land immediately after the ploughing under a 
leguminous crop is deficient in texture and colour. The bright tobacco planters 
frequently allow their land to grow up to grass and weeds fora year, and plough 
this under that they may have the land in the best condition for a fine crop ; but this 
is a system applied to the production of American tobacco, namely, Virginia, which 
is of a strong nature and might not apply for the production of a fine cigar leaf, but 
the value of wood-ashes as a rule can be safely relied upon as a good expedient. 

SHADE-GROWN TOBACCO. 
I now come to the shade-grown tobacco which has been produced at Hope 
Gardens, and I am pleased to be able to report that, with oneor two objections in 

the leaf, the product has every appearance when perfected of being a type of tobacco 
which is hardly likely for the purpose of cigar manufacturing, principally from a 
wrapper point of view, to be excelled by any other tobacco of the world, and from 
the estimate prepared by the Hon. W. Fawcett of the cost of such production, in my 
opinion a very lucrative industry should arise in Jamaica. But let me clearly say 
that the tobacco must be produced ina thin, good colour, that is to say, a light, 
level colour, free from spots and of a strong texture; and last, but by no means least, 
a positive knowledge as to fermentation must be applied, or the whole proceeding 
will be a failure, because two fatal conditions will arise, viz., the flavour or aroma 
of the tobacco will not be perfect, and the tobacco will be tender, and, on account 


of its extreme thinness, very liable to break and consequently would be useless 
as a cigar wrapper. 


Tobacco that is essentially grown for the purpose of wrapper is in nearly 
every instance the least good for any other part of a cigar; and, furthermore, to 
produce a fine cigar wrapper, such as I firmly believe can be produced in 
Jamaica, would present a competitive quality only to be found in the very picked of 
Cuk»n productions, viz., it will contain a delicious flavour, which should make it very 

~ laable indeed, more especially as it is universally admitted that at the present 


time there was never so much tobacco, and it was never so bad. This remark applies 
in particular to the whole product of Havana. 


PIPE TOBACCO. 

Hitherto, as far as my experience goes, the tobacco of Jamaica has never 
‘been used as a pipe tobacco, but, having regard to the great depreciation of Ameri- 
can tobaccos generally, and the general desire of smokers for a mixture or blend of 
tobac?’s of varying flavours, I see no reason why this excellent tobacco, though of a 
thick nature, should not form one of the ingredients in such mixtures for the pipe. 
With that end in view itis my intention to bring the matter before some of the 
manufacturers of Great Britain. 

32 ; 


Edible Products. 244 [Sepr. 1906. 


Extract from a letter from the Director of the Imperial Institute to the 
Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies, dated December 20, 1904 :— 


The trade report made by Mr. Chalmers on the tobacco of Jamaica is of 
considerable interest. The fact is already appreciated in this country that Jamaica 
is able to produce cigars of excellent quality. The quality does not, however, appear 
to be uniform. The subject is so important that no effort should be spared to take 
whatever steps are needed for the development of the industry. If the recommend- 
ations made by Mr. Chalmers in his report are to be followed, it would seem highly 
desirable to obtain expert advice with reference to the cultivation, picking, 
fermentation, and curing of tobacco suitable for the manufacture of cigars. This 
assistance could best be obtained from Cuba, or from Sumatra or Florida, where 
suitable varieties of tobacco are successfully produced. 


This step has been recently taken in connection with the development of the 
tobacco industry in South Africa and also in Ireland. 


Extract from a letter from the Board of Trade, Commercial Department 
(Intelligence Branch) to the Colonial Secretary, Jamaica, dated December 7, 1904 :— 

In the report from the expert, referred to above, interesting information 
is (as you are aware) given, embodying the results of his inquiries and 
investigations into the growing of tobacco in your coloay, and the possibility 
of the establishment of a very lucrative industry in connection therewith ; 
and there is no doubt that the particulars contained in this report would be of 
considerable interest to the representatives of the tobacco trade in this country. 
The value, however, of the information given would be materially enhanced if the 
report itself were accompanied by samples of the various grades of tobacco produced, 
and such samples (if produced) could be exhibited at the offices of this branch in 
illustration of Mr. Chalmers’ report, and could be retained here for examination by 
tobacco importers in this country, and afterwards sent to the Imperial Institute, or 
otherwise disposed of as might be directed. I should be glad, therefore, if arrange- 
ments could be made for samples of such tobacco to be forwarded to this branch for 
the purpose indicated. 


Extract from a Minute from the Director of Public Gardens and 
Plantations to the Colonial Secretary, Jamaica :—Professor Dunstan states that 
Jamaica cigars are of uniform quality. This fact is due to the trade being at 
present of only small dimensions, and there is no doubt that the quality will 
gradually become uniform as larger stocks of tobacco are used for an increased 
trade. Expert advice would be of great assistance, as Professor Dunstan suggests, 
especially as to Sumatra tobacco, when itis possible for the Government to spare 
the necessary money. The Department has, however, studied the problems of 
cultivation and curing with the help of trained Cubans, and has a practical school at 
Hope Gardens, where any one is welcome to come and learn, and where the appren- 
tices are taught during their time of service. 


I have sent samples of tobacco to Mr. Worthington, of the Intelligence 
Branch of the Board of Trade, but Ido not think that itis possible to do much at 
present in an export trade of leaf tobacco. The samples should not, therefore, be 
put forward as soliciting orders, but only as indicating what Jamaica can produce. 
All that is now grown is required for the cigar business, which is gradually growing, 
but large orders might lend again to a catastrophe in our trade. We should aim 
rather at quality than quantity. 

Extract from a letter from the Director of the Imperial Institute to 
the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Jamaica, dated March 30, 1905 :— 
Il have received through the Colonial Office a copy of a memorandum prepared 
by you with reference to certain suggestions made by me in a letter, dated 


: 


| 


Sppr. 1006. | 245 VWible Products. 


December 20, 1904, to the Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies, as to the steps 
to be taken to improve the quality of the tobacco produced in Jamaica. I also 
venture to suggest that it would be well if typical samples of the tobacco grown in 
Jamaica, and of products such as cigars or pipe tobaccos manufactured from them, 
could be sent here for exhibition in the Jamaica Court of the Imperial Institute. 


The samples should be accompanied by statistics of production and export, 
and information as to the prices at which products of similar quality could be 
delivered in this country, so that descriptive labels for the exhibits may be 
prepared, and that we may be in a position to answer any inquiries received 
from merchants and others to whose notice the exhibits will be brought. The 
Imperial Institute has paid special attention to the question of tobacco cultivation 
and examination, and would be ready to give any assistance in connection with 
this industry in Jamaica. 


APPENDIX II. 
JAMAICA TOBACCO FOR THE NAVY. 


In a letter addressed to the Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies, dated 
October 21, 1905, the Secretary to the Admiralty states that, with the assistance of 
Mr. F. V. Chalmers, the Admiralty obtained a supply (1,508 Ib.) of leaf tobacco from 
Jamaica, but, as it transpired that this tobacco by itself was not suitable for pipe 
smoking, and that there is not, at the present time, any colonial-grown tobacco 
suitable for blending with it, arrangements were made for it to be blended and 
manufactured with a quantity of Virginian-grown tobacco, the proportion being 
1,508 lb. of Jamaican to 5,075 lb, of Virginian. This preparation is now undergoing 
trial in the fleet, and the results of the experiment will be communicated in due 
course. It is hoped that, should this preparation meet with the approval of the 
sailors, a great impetus will be given to tobacco growing in the West Indies.— 
Imperial Department of Agriculture for the West Indies; Issued by the Commie- 
sioner. 


Tobacco Cultivation in Jaffna. 


By A, CHARAVANAMUTTU. 


I purpose in this paper to describe the process of cultivation of tobacco 
in Jaffna with a view to ascertain what improvements can be effected in it 
and in what manner the Agricultural Society can help the cultivators. Tobacco is 
extensively cultivated in almost all parts of Jaffna in what are known as “ garden 
lands” or high lands, and also in low lying paddy fields immediately after the 
harvest. Next to paddy cultivation, tobacco cultivation is the main industry of 
the people of Jaffna, and it is worth careful stady. 

The cultivation of tobacco begins about the end of October and continues 
till the end of April. First, tobacco seeds are sown in nurseries. <A‘ nursery’ 
consists of a small plot of grouad, a warm sunny spot chosen in the garden and 
raised a foot high from the surrounding earth. Leaves are buried init a foot deep, 
and over it cattle or goats’ dung is spread in abundance and the soil turned with 
the hoe and with the hand, and the process repeated several times until the soil 
is reduced to a fine powdery condition, so that when it is taken in the hand and 
squeezed will readily fall down loose like sand. The ground is then levelled and 
beds marked in it 3 to 4 feet wide, and of the same or of greater lengths according to 
the quantity of seeds that may be sown. 


Edible Products. 246 [Sepr. 1906. 


The seeds are very small, smaller than the mustard. They are usually 
mixed with ashes or fine sand, one part of seeds to two parts of sand being a good 
proportion, and are sown thinly scattered over the beds. hey are then mixed 
with the upper layer of the soil and pressed down with the hand. Water is gently 
sprinkled over the beds, which are then covered with coconut or other leaves 
to protect them from the hot sun. If the weather is very dry, the beds are 
carefully sprinkled with water twice and thricea day for 8or 10 days until the 
seeds spring forth. Now the cultivators take good care to let the seedlings have 
as much light and airas possible. They remove the leaves spread over the beds 
and erect what is called a ‘ pandal’ which consists of small sticks or posts planted 
4 feet apart all round the edges and 2 or 3 feet high to which light sticks are 
fastened along and across. Over this palmyrah olas or cadjans are spread and 
thatched in order to protect the seedlings from the hot sun and heavy rains. 
During dull weather and slight drizzling rain the ‘ pandal’ or shelter is removed, 
as the cultivators consider it more beneficial to the seedlings than artificial watering. 


if the seedlings be too numerous or too close to one another, new beds are 
prepared as before close by, to which some of the crowded seedlings are removed and 
temporarily transplanted and sheltered as before. In about two months they will 
be fit for transplanting into gardens which are prepared for the purpose. 


The seedlings are sometimes affected with a kind of disease commonly called 
‘“‘karuntadi.” The disease manifests itself in the stem of the young plant 
near the root. The stem looks black at the bottom and the root decays 
underground, but the freshness and greenness of the tender leaves remain 
unchanged until the whole root decays and the young plant withers and dies. 
There is so far no known remedy to prevent or arrest the progress of this disease, 
and Iam not aware that any scientific investigation has ever been made regarding it. 

GARDENS.—In Jaffna, except lands where tobacco is annually grown, all land 
newly brought under cultivation is more or less stony soil. Huge blocks of 
hard stone are dug out of the earth at considerable expense of time and labour. 
A well is sunk 30 to 40 feet deep at acost of from Rs. 300 to Rs. 500. The land 
is then tilled, manured and prepared in the same manner as other garden lands are 
prepared annually. Unlike lands in the Vanni, lands in Jaffna have almost 
exhausted their fertility by continuous production of different crops on the same 
soil all the year round. They therefore require careful manuring every time 
products are cultivated. 


In October the cultivator begins to pen his cattle in the gardens. Generally 
four animals are joined by means of ropes to the four legs or posts of a ‘ toddil’ 
ora movable wooden hut with a ‘kudil’ or round roof like a large umbrella. The 
‘toddil’ contains fodder for the cattle and the ‘kudil’ shelters them from sun and 
rain. They are moved from place to place until the whole garden is manured. 
Breeding of cattle is an important factor in cultivation. They supply the best manure 
procurable. The cultivator prefers tethering and penning cattle to manuring his 
gardens merely with their dung. If he owns no cattle, he borrows them from other 
persons who do no cultivation. 

When the garden has been manured in this manner, the land is hoed and 
ploughed three or four times and green leaves are buried a foot deep. Punku, 
Pannai, Pavaddai, Naval, Guava, Manchavanna, Margosa, and Puvarasu leaves are 
employed for the purpose, several cartloads and boatloads being brought over from 
the Pachchilapaly and Punaryn divisions during the cultivation season. The Kévilai, 
Bot. Tephrosia purpurea, a leguminous plant commonly grown in gardens and 
compounds, and the ‘Sivanar-Vémbu,’ Bot. Indigofera aspalathoides, another 
plant growing wild in the high chempadu lands of the peninsula, are both accepted 


SHpT. 1906, | 247 Edible Produets. 


as the best manure for tobacco, as are the leaves of the tamarind, margosa and 
palmyrah found to be best suited for paddy, and arukkalai, avarai and pavaddai 
leaves for onions. After the leaves have been buried cattle are penned a 
second time, or goats and sheep similarly employed, or merely cattle dung is 
spread over the soil, which is then turned with the hoe and levelled and made 
ready for transplanting the seedlings. The above process of preparation com- 
mences about the end of October and continues till the end of December. Early 
in January the seedlings are removed from the nursery and planted in the garden 
in small holes three feet apart. The young plants are covered with small 
boughs of trees containing clusters of leaves as a protection against the hot sun. 
The plants are watered once and twice a day as may be necessary. After two or 
three weeks the shelters of leaves are removed and furrows or channels are made 
at convenient distances between the plants with smaller furrows leading to the 
root of the plant, by means of which water is led to the plant froma channel 
starting from the mouth of the well, without wetting the intervening spaces 
between the plants. Cattle dung is again spread over the ground, or goats arid sheap 
penned among the young plants for manuring. Two young palmyrah olas are tied 
round each plant which is within the sheep pen to protect it from injury during 
night. The olas are removed next morning soon after the goats or sheep have been, 
let out in the plains to graze Every day the manured portion is tilled and weeded, 
and earth raised round each plant forming small squares enclosing four plants in 
each, so as toform small reservoirs into which water is conveyed every other day. 
The means of irrigation in Jaffna is entirely from wells at depths varying 
between 20 and 40 feet, from which water is raised by means of ola baskets worked 
with a well sweep. One person is at the mouth of the well letting down the basket 
and lifting water in it, a second person, and not infrequently a third man also, on the 
well sweep helping the first to raise the water, while a fourth person conducts the 
water to each reservoir and plant. Inthe manner plantations are watered in the 
Jaffna peninsula, the work cannot be done by a less number. Three persons at least 
should furm a company to work. But in some villages of Punaryn, Pachchilapaly 
and Vadamaradchi Hast, whose sandy soil is not suited for irrigation by means of 
channels, there are water holes dug, called ‘thuravus’ in which men take their 
vessels, fill them with water and empty it at the root of the plant. By this mode of 
irrigation one or two men may carry on the cultivation of tobacco, but it isona 
limited scale. The young plants are stunted in growth and their leaves are 
smaller than those grown in other divisions where the plants have an abundant 
supply of water by means of channels. Nothing better can be done in a sandy 
soil, and the cultivator toils hard and does his best to get anything he can 
from it. The young plants begin to blossom in March, and then the top 
portion is lopped off leaving about twelve leaves on the stem. Any off-shoots 
which appear on the stem are carefully removed at once. If the top is not 
lopped and the blossom allowed to mature and form seeds, the leaves at the bottom 
will wither and fall, the middle leaves will not lay out well but get smaller and 
thinner. If the top is lopped off, in about 60 or 70 days the leaves will have grown 
to their full size and maturity. According to their quality the leaves when cut are 
separated into four kinds, viz., Ist called ‘Thiram’ or best kind which consists 
generally of the fully matured middle leaves, five in number; second sort called 
*Kochchi’ next below in quality ; two or three leaves to a third sort called ‘Idai’ or 
middling sort, also two or three leaves to a plant; fourth and the last sort called 
‘Sachchu’ which consists of the two leaves at the bottom of the plant. These are of 
inferior quality to all others. There are some persons who separate the leaves into 
three classes only called ‘ Kali,’ Galle sort; ‘Kochchi,’ Cochin sort; ‘ Gampolai,’ 
Gampola sort, named after the places to which the leaves are transported for sale. 
(To be continued.) 


248 [Sepr. 1906. 


PLANT SANITATION. 


Entomological Notes. 


By K. ERNEST GREEN, Government Itntomologist. 


Specimens of tea leaves, attacked by the ‘ Ribbed Mite’ (Phytoptus carinatus) 
and the ‘ Yellow Mite’ (Tarsonymus translucens) have been received from several 
correspondents. Both these pestis are readily amenable to the sulphur treatment. 

Another small outbreak of the ‘Morawak-korale Nettle Grub’ (Thosea recta) 
has been reported from tea in the Yatiyantota district, but the pest has been kept 
in hand by prompt measures (the collection and destruction of the caterpillars). 

The ‘Red Slug’ (Heterusia cingala) has put in an appearance on tea in the 
Norwood district. 

Signs of ‘ Tortrix’ (Capua coffearia) have been observed in the Yatiyantota 
district, but this pest does not seem to thrive at low elevations. 


I have reports of injury to the foliage of Cacao plants, in the Kurunegala 
district, by a small species of Thrips (Physopus rubrocincta, Giard) which infests 
the under surface of the leaves. The consequent fall of leaf interferes with the 
proper ripening of the crop. Sulphur (as recommended for tea mites) will be found 
a useful application. 

Examples of the large caterpillar of the ‘ Death’s Head Moth’ (Acherontia 
lachesis) have attracted attention by defoliating young plants of ‘Dadap’ 
(Lrythrina). The caterpillars can be easily collected and destroyed by hand. 

The annual invasion of bungalows by the small hairy caterpillars of Azura 
(Nepita) conferta has commenced. They have an inconvenient habit of concealing 
themselves in hats, clothing and towels hung up to air. Such articles should be 
examined and well shaken before being used. The resulting moths may now be 
observed on the wing. They are of a dull orange colour, the wings barred 
with black. 

A somewhat alarming caterpillar pest of cinnamon is reported from the 
Moratuwa district. About 40 acres are infested. A similar outbreak is said to have 
occurred about two years ago when slaked lime was applied without success. It 
was subsequently found necessary to cut dowpv and burn the whole of the infected 
cinnamon. If Paris Green had been mixed with the lime, in the proportion of 
one part to six by weight (equal to about one to ten by measure), the loss of the 
cinnamon might have been avoided. Arsenical preparations are the only effective 
remedy for leaf-eating caterpillars. 

The caterpillar in question proves to be that of a common moth (Luproctis 
fraterna, Moore). It is of a dull brown colour, with a crimson head; there are 
short tufts of ochreous brown hair on the back, and longer greyish hairs on the 
side of the body. The resulting moth measures from one to one-and-a-half inches 
across the expanded wings which are of a bright yellow colour with some indistinet 
darker bars and three small black spots on the outer margin. The caterpillar is 
practically omnivorons and is widely spread, but does not usually appear in trouble- 
some numbers. It is probably kept in check by Ichneumon flies, under ordinary 
circumstances. 

I have been experimenting with a patent insecticide brought out by the 
well-known Strawson’s Co, (and supplied by their local agents in Colombo). It is 
sold under the name of ‘ Vaporite,’ and is designed for use against all subterrancan 


Sept. 1906. | 249 Plant Sanitation. 


insects. It can be ploughed into the soil, mixed with the earth in holes prepared 
for planting, or dibbled into the soil around growing plants. It is said to slowly 
give off a noxious gas which kills the insects without injuring the plants. That it 
will kill subterranean insects, I have proved to my satisfaction, but my experiments 
are too recent to show its effect upon the plants. 


We have—in the Cockchafer grub—a very troublesome pest of young rubber 
plants. I havea report of over 3,000 plants being killed by this pest in a single small 
clearing. I procured a number of healthy living specimens of the grubs for the 
purpose of experiment. <A few of these grubs were introduced into a series of pots 
containing growing Hevea plants. The soil in half the number was treated with 
‘Vaporite’ (1 oz. to each pot), the remainder being left untreated as a control. 
Within a few hours the grubs in the treated pots had come to the surface, showing 
signs of distress. Twenty-four hours later, these grubs were all dead, while those 
in the untreated pots remained below the soil—presumably in good condition. A 
number of the grubs were placed in each of two biscuit tins filled with loose soil. 
An ounce of ‘ Vaporite’ was mixed with the soil in one of the tins while the other 
was untreated, Examination after forty-eight hours showed the grubs in the 
one tin to be quite dead, those in the other tin remaining healthy and active. This 
mixture therefore would seem to be of real value against cockchater grub and other 
subterranean insects. It should be particularly useful for preventing the attacks 
of cut-worms in vegetable gardens, and might be tried in cases of gall-worms 
(Nematodes) on the roots of plants. Its employment is suggested against wire- 
worms, millepedes, and against the bulb-borer of the cardamom plant. 


250 (Supr. 1906. 


LIVE STOCK. 


Poultry Notes. 


By G. W. STURGESS, M.R.C.V.S. 


DISEASES OF POULTRY. 


Debility or Weakness.— Weakness and anaewia are usually due to close con- 
finement, want of proper food, air, and exercise. 


Proper attention to these points usually puts matters right. Such tonics 
as Parrish’s food, Sulphate of Iron and a small allowance of raw lean meat or 
blood mixed with meal will cause the birds to improve. 


Diarrhoea.—Diarrhoea may be due to sudden changes of food, or too much 
of a particular kind of food, or to impure drinking water, or exposure to cold and wet. 


Symptoms.—Frequent passing of liquid faeces which may be mixed with 
mucus and smell badly. The feathers around the vent are wetand dirty. When 
in this state flies frequently deposit eggs, and maggots form, causing nasty sores. 


Treatment.—The cause should be looked for and removed. The food must 
be given fairly dry and in moderate quantity. It isimportant to provide a proper 
supply of green food. Fresh pure water is absolutely necessary in limited quantity. 
At first a dose of salad oil or Butter or Epsom salts may be given followed by pills 
composed of small doses of Camphor, Opium, Chalk and Dover's Powder. Five or 
ten drops of Chlorodyne in alittle water may be given twoor three times a day. 
If the diarrhoea persists two or three grains of Bismuth Subnitrate may be added 
to the pills. The native remedy is powdered chalk and saffron. 


After the purging ceases the food must be carefully regulated for some 
days, and should be soft and easily digested with a fair allowance of green food. 


Dysentery.—Cases of ordinary diarrhoea may develop into dysentery. and 
blood and mucus is passed in the faeces. 


Treatment.— A dose of Epsom salts should he given followed by the treat- 
ment mentioned for diarrhoea. Great care must be taken with the food for some 
days. It may consist of a little boiled rice and bread damped with milk or arrow- 


root or soup and green food. A few spoonfuls of arrowroot jelly to which is added a 
few drops of Chlorodyne may be given daily. 


Diptheria.—(Avian.) There is probably two forms of diphtheritic inflamma- 
tion in fowls, one caused by bacteria, a much dreaded and contagious form; the 
second caused by parasites (Gregarines) which is probably the most common in 
Ceylon. The disease in poultry is not thought to have any connection with human 
diphtheria. Advanced eases of “ Roup” are most likely of adiphtheritic nature. 
“Canker” is also commonly used in connection with diphtheritic diseases in poultry. 


Symptoms.— At first the general health is not much disturbed. If the mouth 
is opened and the throat examined there may be well developed patches of disease 


recognised by a yellowish white membranous growth on the mucus membrane of 
the throat before the bird seems very ill. 


As the disease advances the bird is off its feed-feathers ruffed, wings drooped 
and is feverish. If the beak is opened the yellowish white patches are easily seen 
on the palate and palatial cleft. 


SEPT. 1906. | 251 Live Stock. 


The disease may spread to the angles of the mouth, nostrils, face, and eyes 
_ There may be a swelling at the base of the beak which. if pressed, causes discharge 
from the nostrils. When the eyes become diseased there is a discharge, the eyelids 
stick togetherand areswollen. If pulled open a serous or mucopurulent fluid escapes. 
The eye may become ulcerated and completely destroyed. 


The intestines may become affected, when foetid diarrhoea, dullness and 
stupor follow. The disease may assume an acute or chronic form, the former 
killing in 5 or 10 days and the latter in several weeks. 


In acute cases the symptoms mentioned are present ina very aggravated 
orm, and there is diarrhoea and collapse. In chronic cases the membranous growths 
are presentin the mouth, and there is gradual emaciation, anaemic diarrhoea and 
death. 


(To be continued.) 


POULTRY KEEPING: A PRACTICAL STUDY OF KGGS. 


Although eggs are a common article of food there is not a general knowledge 
amongst poultrymen as to their formation. Thus the shell is composed of carbonate 
of lime, phospate of lime, and animal gluten; salts of lime causing the particles 
toadhere. Soft eggs are either eggs without a shell, or the shell may be so thin 
as to feel soft through the deficiency of salts of lime. Itisa matter of surprise 
where the hen finds all the lime necessary, for if she lays 150 normal-sized eggs 
in the year, she will have produced two pounds of pure carbonate of lime. 


Hens are wonderful chalk makers. Mr. P. L. Simmands, on_ this 
subject in the Journal of the Society of Arts, says:—“If a farmer has a flock 
of 100 hens, they produce in egg shells about 187 pounds of chalk annually, and 
yet not a pound of the substance, or perhaps not even an ounce, may be found 
on the farm. The materials for the manufacture are found in the food consumed, 
and in sand, pebbles, brickdust, pieces of bone, etc., which hens and other birds 
are continually picking from the earth. Their instinct is keen for these apparently 
innutritious and refractory substances, and they are ra with as eager a 
relish as the cereal grains or insects.” 


If hens are confined to barns or outbuildings, it is obvious that the egg- 
producing machinery cannot be kept long in action, unless materials for the 
shell are supplied in ample abundance. If fowls are confined in a room and fed 
with any of the cereal grains, excluding all sand, dust or earthy matter, they 
will go on for a time, and lay eggs, each one having a perfect shell made up of 
the same calcareous elements, but only for a time. 


The shell is a ‘‘sieve.” The shell is porous to such an extent that 
when examined by a microscope it has quite a sieve-like appearance, and is 
permeable by the air, otherwise the chicken could not live during the incubating 
period. This porosity of the shell, although absolutely necessary when the eggs 
are to be incubated, is detrimental when such have to be used as an article 
of food, from the fact that by means of these minute perforations there is a 
- continual evaporation, so that from the time the eggs are laid until consumed 
there is a wasting and deterioration of the contents, the extent of which is 
dependent on the temperature and other conditions under which they are 


kept, it being very well known that eggs deteriorate much quicker in summer 
than in winter. 


FORMATION AND PRODUCTION OF AN EGG.— Anyone, upon opening after death 
the body of a hen, will find a cluster of eggs in formation much like a bunch 
of grapes, and called the ovarium. These, however, are but rudimentary eggs 

33 


° 


Live Stock. 252 [SEPT. 1906. 


and I have counted as many as seventy in one bunch, and are in size from a 
pin’s head to the full-sized yolk of anegg. Hach of these eggs is contained within 
a thin transparent sac and attached by a narrow pipe or stem to the ovary, 
and during the laying period of the hen these eggs are maturing and thus keeping 
up the supply which she lays. These rudimentary eggs have neither shell nor- 
white, consisting wholly of yolk, in which floats the germ of the future chicken; 
and as they become larger and larger they arrive at a certain stage when, by 
their own volition, weight, or other cause, they become individually detached 
from the bunch and fall into a sort of funnel leading into a pipe or passage called 
the oviduct--this organ in the hen being from 22 to 26 inches long. 

THE COATING OF ALBUMEN.— During the passage of this egg or ovum to the 
outer world it becomes coated with successive layers of albumen—the white— 
which is secreted from the blood-vessels of the oviduct in the torm of a thick — 
glairy fluid, and is prevented from mixing with the yolk by the membrane or 
sac which surrounded it before it became detached from the cluster. It is also 
strengthened by a second and stronger membrane, formed around the first 
immediately after falling into the funnel, and having what is like two twisted 
cords of a more dense albuminous character, called by anatomists chalazes, which 
pass quite through the white at the ends, and being, as it were, embedded therein, 
thus preventing the yolk and germ from rolling about when the egg is moved, 
and serving to keep the germ uppermost, so that it may best receive the heat 
imparted during incubation. 

It is during the passage of the egg through the lower part of the oviduct 
that it gets covered with the two skins which are found inside the shell. These 
although lying close around the egg, at the thick end become separate, and form 
what is called the air-bubble or chamber. This, in newly-laid eggs, is a mere 
speck, and is that portion which shows the result of the evaporation previously 
referred to. This speck of air space becomes daily larger as the egg gets older, 
and is frequently equal to one-fourth of the entire egg. The egg-chamber, if 
perforated with the finest needle, will prevent the egg hatching. When the egg 
has advanced more than half-way down the oviduct, it is still destitute of shell, 
which begins to be formed by a process of secretion, and when about completed 
the various shades of brown and tinted coloring matter are imparted in those 
breeds in which colored eggs are peculiar; sometimes in very brown eggs white 
spots appear, but which can readily be rubbed off. When the shell and 
coloring are complete the egg continues to advance along the oviduct till the 
hen goes to the nest and lays it. 

Crooked eggs are no uncommon thing in the poultry yard, and are 
attributable as follows :—T wenty-four hours are usually sufficient for the formation 
of a perfect shell, but when by stimulation a second ovum falls close on its 
predecessor, reaching it before laid, the second egg, which is up to this time soft 
and islying against the hard one, becomes covered with a shell, and when laid 
presents a flat or grooved side, the result of its position against the hard one. 


Eggs are produced from the surplus food, which is that over and above 
what is required for the sustenance of the hen, and, if suchis too stimulating, or 
given in excessive quantities, the result is that in the former case the ova are 
produced so rapidly that sometimes two of themdrop into the oviduct together, 
which results in the eccentricities which frequently puzzle the poultry keeper. 
These ova travel together along the passage and receive separately, but become 
enveloped in one shell, and when laid are commonly known as double-yolked eggs, 
but more properly it isa double egg, the white being duplicated as well as the yolk. 
Should these yolks be fertilized and the egg hatched, we get the occasional four- 
legged or other chicken monstrosities. 


Sept. 1906. | 258 Live Stock. 


A further result of stimulating food is varied from the above when the 
ova mature in excess of one aday. In place of falling into the passage in pairs, 
as above, the two drop in separately but on the same day, This results in soft eggs, 
not from the want of shell-forming material, but rather because the shells cannot 
be formed as fast as the mature egg is ready for such covering. 

To over-feeding is also attributable the further irregularity of one perfect 
egg being found within another, and caused by irritation of the oviduct, which 
contracting in front’ of the perfectly-formed egg instead of behind it, forces it 
back until it meets another yolk, when the two join and again become coated with 
the white and the shell, thus producing another wonder. Other abnormalities are 
occasionally seen, and particularly in the smaller poultry yards. Sometimes when 
the ova are nearly exhausted by continuous laying, the secreting organs may be 
most active, which results in small marble-sized but perfect-looking eggs, which 
are merely a shell covering a portion of albumen. Such ‘‘ eggs” when laid have 
the peculiarity of not having been at any stage attached to the ovary, bit are a . 
product only of the oviduct. 


To the internal fatness of the hen are due other eccentricities than those 
mentioned, including the apparently paradoxical feat of laying rotten new-laid 
eggs, this being a not infrequent occurrence. The egg, being unable to force its way 

* through the fatty oviduct, is retained two ov three days near the mouth of this 
organ, and, if a fertilized one, the heat of the hen’s body tends to putrefy it, and 
when ultimately laid it is in an addled condition. To other causes, but principally 
diseased organs, is due a departure from the normal in the way of colour. A hen 
which lays white or brown eggs, on rare occasions produces one almost black, while 
at other times these vagaries much resemble the dark green of the emu’s eggs, and, 
in most instances, the shells are rough, wavy, corrugated, or otherwise irregular. 
Then there are instances of foreign matter being found in eggs. clots of blood 
beingnothing unusual. This is the result of the breaking of a blood-vessel internally. 

Fowls from whatever cause producing any of the above misshappen or 

> otherwise faulty eggs should at one be got rid of, for although in some cases a 
reduced diet may bring them back to their normal production, still the slightest 
cause will frequently prompt the organs to their previous irregularities, the fowls 
thus becoming unprofitable members of the flock. As has been seen the majority of 
troubles mentioned are preventable ones, and largely due to the poultry keeper's 
mistaken kindness of over feeding.— Garden and Field. 


Brahaniatke ° on Kandy sit Cattle, 


By T. B. PoHATH-KEHELPANNALA. 
The ancient brandmarks of the cattle* belonging to the Kandyans were 


. generally symbolical of the distinctive caste, village, or family to which the owner 


belonged. With respect to caste, the mark usually took the shape of some instru- 
ment or article characteristic of the profession or occupation followed Lg the people 
of the caste to which the owner of the cattle belonged.t 


In regard to village, there were certain especial marks which indicated that 
the owner of the cattle belonged to a particular village. Some villages had their 
peculiar distinguishing marks. All residents of a particular village were entitled 
to brand their cattle with the mark indicative of that village, irrespective of caste 
Tn older days, in addition to the village mark, the initia] letter of the name of the 

’ owner was also branded. 


* This includes buffaloes also. 
+ In Gangaboda Pattu, Galle, the brand for ane GoWiguma- i Sinhalese is an ear of paddy. 


Live Stock. 254 [Smpr. 1906. 


In the case of families, some Kandyan Chiefs, as will be instanced later, 
generally had their own private marks indicative of a particular family, and the 
cattle belonging to any member of a particular family were branded with the mark 
of that family. Even at the present day, the branding of cattle according to the 
old system is carried on to a great extent in some districts, but in others it is 
gradually dying out. Where cattle are now branded with the caste or village 
marks, one generally finds in addition the initial letters of the names of the village, 
gename, and the owner. It is obvious that the combination. of all these marks is 
highly desirable, so far as identification of cattle are concerned, as it also reduces 
to a minimum the possibility of cattle thefts so prevalent now in the country. The 
use of the caste-mark would effectually prevent cattle belonging to one caste from 
being stolen by another, At first glance anybody will be able to identify cattle 
belonging toa particular class or village by the brands, and nobody would venture 
to brand his cattle with a different brand than that of his own. 


The Kandyans, I may say, do not in the least bit view the matter of 
“ Jamma Nivarana” caste brands, as they are called in Matale, in the light of any 
invidious distinctions of caste, but they welcome it, in every way, as an effective 
precaution. Cattle, among the Kandyans, constitute a very valuable portion of 
their possessions. They play an important part in agriculture, and even form a 
dowry-share in Kandyan matrimony. This being so, the advisability of encourag- 
ing and preserving the old custom established from time immemorial of branding’ 
cattle according to distinctive marks needs no argument in its favour. 


The brandmarks are made by impressing them with a redhot iron ealled a 
*Suttukole,”’* which is a piece of iron about one and a half inches in length, bent 
into a curve at theend. The branding is done in the fore or afternoon at some 
hour which is considered auspicious. <A dilution of salt, ashes, cowdung or turmeric, 
or an oleagenous mixture of ant-hill clay and burnt straw ashes or oil, are generally 
rubbed over the hot impressions in order to prevent suppuration and to allay the 
pain which may be caused by the application of the hot iron. Sometimes the 
impressions made by the hot iron delay healing and generate pus-forming sores, 
A general remedy insuch acase is the application of a mixture of burnt domba 
(Calophyllum inophyllum) fruits, ground with Kekuna (Canarium. balsaivi- 
ferum) oil. 


The brandingt of cattle is considered to cause very little pain to the animal. 
On the other hand, it is thought by those competent to express an opinion, that the 
branding of cattle with a red-hot iron, tends to improve the condition and preserve 
the health of the animals, hence the practice of some low-country Sinhalese people 
branding their cart-bulls with elaborate ornamental marks.t 


CASTE BRANDS. 

In Matale North, for the Haquros (jaggery caste people) the Totiya 
Pahimbuwa; the Porokarayo (wood-cutters) the axe; the Etolayo (elephant- 
keepers) the Henduwa, the elephant’s crook; the Oliyo,7 (dancers) the sieve 
(kulla); the Hannali (tailors) the Buletpaiya, the betel-bag; the Patti Wala 
Aya, (people who belong to the royal palanquin department) the Kunamyate ; 
the Kinnarayo,** the Nadawa; the Embettayo, the scissors. 


* Also called Angurukokka. 

+ Called in Sinhalese Nivaranakaranawa or Hanvadu Tiyanawa. . 

{ In addition to the administration of internal decoctions, different symbols representing peculiar 
diagrams of a mystical or astrological character are branded on the animals in order to cure various 
diseases. 

§ Sometimes they brand the Mauné a cutting instrument. 

q These people in some villages of Matale brand the Ada Taliya. 

** This class brand also the Peduva, the mat. . 


SEPT, 1906. | 255 Lave Stock. 


In Matale district, for the Paduwo, the brand is the Bo-Kole (Bo-leaf); 
the Hunno (chunam-burners), the Hunupatta; the Veddho, the bow; the 
Rodiyo, the Varapota, a string; the Pannayo, the sickle. 

In Gampola and other districts, forthe Achari (Blacksmiths), the Abarana 
Aduwa; the Henayo, (the dhoby), gala the-stone; the Paduwo the Batgam Alla; 
the Badalo (the Goldsmiths), the Aduwa; the Berawayo (Tom-tom-beaters), the 
Daul-Kadippuwa, or the Taliya, the gong; the Paliyo, the Kanda, a log of wood. 


DISTRICT OR VILLAGE MARKS. 


For Galboda Korle, Kegalle, the Tanirohotiya; for the village Kanan- 
gomuwa in Matale, the Koku Pahimbuwa; for Kotmale, the kota, the spire at 
the top of buildings; the Four Korles, (Kegalle district) for Korale villages, 
the Irattipure; Three Korles, for Kandyans of rank, the Pahimbu; the Kandyan 
Moors, the Gamajadiya. 

For the Gabadagan (royal villages of Gampola) the Nelun Mal Pahimbuwa ; 
villages of Unambuwa, Kirinda and Udowite in Gampola, the Kerallama; the 
villages of a Devale, the Sulama; the villages in a Vihare, Agultattuwa; 
Dolosbage District, the Bopate Pahimbuwa; village of Angammana, the Tamil 
letter, Ayanna royal village of Naranwita, the Jlratti Nelun Malpahimbuwa ; 
Tumpane the Nelum Mala, lotus flowers ; Alutnuwara* the dunna (bow) and Nelum 
Mala (lotus flower.) 


BRANDS OF SOME KANDYAN CHIEFS. 


For the Dullweve, Veragama, Hulangomwe families, the Hra-Handa Sun 
and Moon; the Alutgama family in Matale, the Nelum-Mala (lotus flower) and 
Ada-Handa; the Dorakumbure family, the Torana pahimbuwa; the Aluwihares, 
Mediyama; the Pata Bulutgama, the Binduwa, a drop. 


With regard to the brand-marks on cattle, the Hon’ble F. R. Elllis, c.M.e., 
late Auditor-General, wrote me the following on May 7th, 1906:— 


“Under the new branding system the only brand that will be compulsory 
will be the communal brand. It will be left optional withthe owners of cattle 
to put what private brands they like or caste-marks on their cattle. I quite 
agree with you that caste-marks are useful, enabiing one at once to distinguish 
between an animal which belongs to Punchirala and one which belongs to Puncha, 
and thus preventing false claims and disputes.” 


This saying is only too true. In a recent cattle-theft case in a police court, 
the real owner of the buffalo lost the animal, and the thief was decreed the owner, 
because the initial letters of the names of the village and the owner, exactly corre- 
sponded to those of the fortunate thief. But the distinctive ‘Caste Marks” were 
different. Though this was the best evidence in favour of the owner, yet the 
magistrate lost sight of the fact. 


KANDYAN BRAND-MARKS. 
Kuplanation of Plates. 


we 
0g 


Sun and Moon (Chiefs) Matale 

Stone (Dobies) 

Manne, Knife, (Wahunpurayo) (Jaggery-caste Kandyans) 
Half moon (Chiefs) 

Daulkaduppuwa (Berawayo ; tom-tom beaters) 
Pahimbuwa (Three Korale Kandyans of rank) 

Winnow (Oliyo ; dancers) 


SSA gestalt 


“ For Kinigoda Korle the Wahumhunudaluwa and Ada Handa. For some low-country Sinhalese 
Gowigama people in Gangaboda Korle Galle District, I have seen the brand mark an ear of 
paddy, (VzKarala) on their cattle. 


Ltwe Stock. 256 [SEPT. 1906 


KANDYAN CATTLE BRAND MARKS. 


SEPT. 1906. | 257 Live Stock. 


KANDYAN CATTLE BRAND MARKS. 


Live Stock. 258 SEPT, 1906, 


8. Letter Bhayanu (also for Berawayo) 

9. Aduwa (Achari, Blacksmiths) 
10. Jamajadiya (Kandyan moors of Kahatapitiya, Ilawatura, &c.) 

11. Betel-bag (Hannali; tailors) 
12. Mat (Kinnaro; weavers) 
13. ket a (Goldsmiths) 
14. rinanyate (Pattiwalayo, belonging to the royal palanquin p 
15. Batgam-alla (Paduvo); the palm of fhe hand ek quin depertaeay 
16. Porawa, axe, (Porokarayo ; wood-cutters) 
17. Walanpatta (Badahelayo ; potters) 
18. Hunupatta (Hunno; chunam-burners) 
19. Henduwa, Etwalayo (Klepbhant-keepers) 
20. Irattipure (Kegalle District Gowigama Kandyans) 
21. Tamil letter A for Angammana, Gampola 
92, Sickle (Pannayo) grass-cutters 
93. Sulama (Devale villagers) 
24. Kota (Kotmalie) 
25. Jamajadiya (Four korale Kandyan Moors) 
96. Tanirohotiya (Galbode korale) + 
27. Mediyama (Aluwihare, &e. Matale) 
28, Bera-etie (also for Berawayo) 
99, Dunna, bow, (Veddhas) 
30. Bopata-Pahimbuwa (Dolosbage) 
31. Kanda, Log of wood) Paliyo 
22, Waramanda (Rodiyas) rope made of hide 
33. Irattinelunmal Pahimbuwa (Naranwita, &c.) 
34, Kerallama (Unambuwa, Kirinda, Udowite villages) 
35. Kokuwan Pahimbuwa (Gowigama Kandyans, some parts of Matale) 
36. Nelun-mal-pahim buwa (Gampvla) 
37. Agul-Tattuwa (Vihare villages) 

38. Scissors, Embattayo (Barbers) 
39. Torana Pahimbuwa (Dorakumbure village, &c.) 
40. Ematikaiya (some Pattiwala Kandyans of Matale) 
41. Jamajadiya Keerapone Kandyan-moors) 
42, Wahunkuludaluwa (some parts of Kegalle) 
43. Pata Bulatgama, the Binduwa, a drop. 


A SUCCESSFUL CURE FOR TICKS IN CATTLE. 


As the result of a brief statement recently made public by the Department 
of Agriculture (United States) concerning the use of crude Beaumont petroleum as a 
dip for cattle, especially those infected with Texas fever, a great many communi- 
cations have been received, both from oil men and from stock raisers, inquiring as to 
the vharacter of the oil and the method of its utilization for dipping purposes. A 
bulletin has, therefore, been prepared describing the treatment of Texas fever and 
the manner of using Beaumont oil for this purpose. The department says in part :— 


‘““Many efforts have been made to discover a practical method for dipping 
cattle to destroy ticks without injury to the cattle, and the bureau has experimented 
for years with this object in view. Numerous kinds of dips have been used and many 
failures have been recorded, but apparently a successful one has been found in the 
crude oil—so called Beaumont oil—obtained from certain Texas wells. This oil has 
now been used on a rather largescale, and it has been very successful in killing ticks, 
without at the same time materially affecting the health of the cattle, when the. 
proper precautions have been observed. In fact, itis distinctly superior to any of 
the other dips that have been tested. In these experiments it was found that a light 
oil heavily charged with sulphur is the most desirable for dipping cattle, as the 
heavy oils injure the animals dipped in them. An oil with 40 per cent. of its bulk 
capable of boiling between 200 degrees and 300 degrees C., having a specific gravity 
between 224 degrees and 244 degrees Beaume, and containing 14 to 1} per cent. 
of sulphur is most desirable, and these requirements, should be stipulated before 
purchase. Ina recent dipping of 57,000 head of cattle on the Kansas and Osage 
Indian reservations. the results were very highly satisfactory, both as regards the 


SEPT. 1906. | 259 Live Stock. 


eradication of the cattle tick and the after results of the dipping, since the loss from 
all causes was less than 0°75 per cent. This loss represented in dollars and cents 
would amount to a very small portion (about one-twelfth) of the loss incurred by the 
sale of these animals as ‘ticky’ eattle in the stock yards of the North. Other cattle 
dipped in the same oil, but under conditions that cannot be considered parallel, 
suffered more severely. In order to obtain the best results, the animals, after 
dipping, should not be unduly exposed to the hot sun nor driven any considerable 
distance, but should receive plenty of food and good water. They should be allowed 
to stand for four or more days after dipping and prior to shipment. Dipping should 
not be attempted until after they shall have shed their winter coats, asa large 
percentage of all cattle dipped before the heavy coat is lost suffer from a severe 
irritation of the skin. 

“The method usually adopted in dipping cattle is to construct a narrow 
swimming tank with a chute at one end for the entrance of the cattle and a sloping 
exit at the other end where the cattle emerge after getting a uniform coating of oil 
in passing through tne vat. A drip chute or floor is connected with the exit where 
the excess of oil is allowed to drip off the animals and to drain into the vat. Plans 
and specifications for installing a dipping plant suitable for either small farms or 
large ranges are published in Farmers’ Bulletin No. 152, which may be obtained 
from this department. It is relatively more expensive to dip cattle in the South 
where the farms and plantations contain a small number of cattle than in the range 
country of the southwest. where this method of eradicating ticks becomes not only 
plausible and practicable, but also economical. When cattle have been properly 
dipped in Beaumont crude petroleum or any other approved petroleum under the 
supervision of a veterinary inspector, and by him found free of infection, they may 
be shipped to any point above the quarantine line subject only to such restrictions 
as may be imposed atthe point of destination. Such cattle must be shipped in clean, 
disinfected cars, and must not be driven through the quarantined area or be unloaded 
therein, except at those points designated by the Secretary of Agriculture. It is 
earnestly recommended that such shipments shall not occur earlier than four to 
eight days after the dipping is performed. 


‘‘Greasing the legs and sides of cattle with cottonseed oil, fish oil. or Beau- 
mont crude petroleum will assist in preventing the ticks from crawling up cn the 
body. In small herds, smearing the cattle with a mixture of one gallon of kerosene, 
one gallon of cottonseed oil and one pound of sulphur, or witha mixture composed 
of equal parts of cottonseed oil and crude petroleum, or with Beaumont erude oil 
alone, has proved efficacious when applied to the skin two or three times weekly 
during the tick season. For this purpose sponges, syringes, brushes, mops, or 
brooms may be used. This method not only kills the older ticks on the cattle by 
mechanically plugging up their breathing pores, but also makes the legs so slippery, 
that the seed ticks are unable to get a foothold in order to crawl up on the cattle. 


‘“ Where a large number of animals are to be treated, but not sufficient to make 
it advisable to construct a dipping vat, spraying the infested animals has given very 
favorable results. The animals should be placed in a chute or a stall or tied to a tree, 
and then sprayed with Beaumont oil or a 5 ver cent. solution of any of the standard 
coal tar dips. The solution may be applied by means of a force pump, such as is used 
by orchardists to spray fruit trees, or by placing the solution ina barrel upon a 
wagon oron a platform above the animals, and allowing the fluid to gravitate 
through a hose, to the end of which is attached an ordinary sprinkling nozzle. The 
solution is then allowed to flow over the skin of the animal, especially upon the legs 
and under portions of the body. If the cattle are on tick-infested pastures, this 
treatment—either smearing or spraying—must be continued through the whole 
season, and if thoroughly done it will leave the fields free from ticks the following 
year.”—Oil Reporter (New York.) 

34 


260) [SEprT. 1906 


Correspondence. 


RUBBER TAPPING METHODS. 
A COMPARISON OF THE SPIRAL, HALF-SPIRAL, AND HERRING-BONE METHODS. 


Sir,—‘‘ One cannot have omelettes without breaking eggs.” There is an 
egg that wants breaking badly; and I trust the omelette will not prove indiges- 
tible! I refer to the mystery which enshrouds the question of ‘The Unit of Bark 
to Yield of Rubber.” 

Many rubber planters, even among those who no longer hold the crude 
idea that full spiral tapping, even when carefully done, is a species of ringing the 
tree, still hesitate to adopt this method, obviously the easiest and cheapest of the 
three, because the dictum has gone forth, with good authority, that the Peradeniya 
and Henaratgoda experiments prove that the greatest yield per unit of bark 
excised has been given by the herring-bone system, though the greatest yield per 
tree has been given by the full spiral. They, therefore, imagine that there is a 
desideratum in herring-bone tapping, in spite of all its disabilities of left, as well as 
right, hand cutting, of many drip-tins or expensive manual application of water to 
the various cuts, and of untappable areas which is not to be tound in spiral tapping ; 
and that while prices rule high, the extra expense of these disabilities will be 
more than covered by the bark lasting longer. 

[tis my purpose to show where the fallacy has crept in, unavoidable and 
accidental though it be. 

As it is an accepted fact that the latex cells lie in series in the 
line of the stem, and that the greater and freer drainage and inter-drainage 
of these series of cells takes place in that line, it follows that many 
more cells will be drained by a cut across that line than by one in its 
length; in effect that a level cut across the bark gives the greatest 
possible yield of latex and the perpendicular cut the least—the cuts being of 
equal length. We also know that these cells, after drainage, have the power of 
sealing themselves up and again becoming full of latex inabout two days, whena 
thin paring cut will re-open them and give another full flow; and soon while the 
bark lasts. Now, in the case of the perpendicular cut a whole series of cells is 
entirely removed which would otherwise have filled upagain with latex; whereas 
in the level cut only the ends of the series are removed, and the same area of cells is 
drained over and over again. It, therefore, follows that :—(1) the nearer the level 
the cut is made, the greater the yield and the less the excision of bark; (2) the nearer 
the perpendicular the less the flow and the greater the excision of bark. And 
since we have the choice of any angle between level and perpendicular, or zero and 
90°, it follows that the man who taps at an angle of 75°, 80° or 8°, is little 
better off in yield and loss of bark than the man who taps perpendicularly. 
While he who taps at 20°, 15’, or 10°, has nearly as good a return as the level tapper. 
But these low angles suffer from the disability that latex will not run in channels 
on such gradients and so becomes scrap, which for cogent reasons does not suit the 
practical planter. He, therefore, sets about to find the lowest angle at which 
natural latex would flow, and by some strange fate 45° was fixed on for the spiral 
method especially. (I suppose because it was soeasily made by cutting a square 
sheet of tin diagonally across and using each half as a guide for his line on the tree.) 
But there it has stuck—at 45°! Even in the Botanic Gardens mentioned above, no 
other angle than 45° for the spiral has been used, to the best of my knowledge; and 
certainly no other augle on the various estates I have visited. For the herring-bone, 
on the other hand, both in the Botanic Gardens and on these estates, exceedingly flat 
angles have entirely been used, in some instances so flat and irregular that the latex 
had to be coaxed into the runnel by an attendant who could look after only a few 
trees at a time, 


SEPT. 1906.] 261 Correspondence. 


Those who have followed the argument will see that it is manifestly unfair 
to compare tapping done on flat angles with that at 45°, in which latter the channel 
has to be probably 25 per cent. longer, in order to cut across the same number of 
cells, and therefore, with greater waste of bark—the paring being the same in 
thickness in both cases. And it was just at this point, unavoidable though it may 
have been, that the flaw occurred and the deduction was wrongly drawn as to the 
merits of these two systems. Given the same angle, I maintain that the spiral will 
beat the herring-bone in yield per unit of bark excised; for it can easily tap all the 
basal portions of the tree, where the latex isin greater quantity and richness, which 
are only reached by the herring-bone and half-spiral with difficulty and inconveni- 
ence, owing to their peculiar construction. 


And with the advent of water flotation 
and the drip-tin especially—which is an 
unalloyed blessing in its prevention of 
serap and of manual labour, watering the 
cuts—the necessity to tap at 45° for the 
spiral has disappeared, and a much 
smaller angle,say 30° or 35°, can be taken. 
This will be a matter for experiment to 
those interested. 


At any rate, the day is passing away 
when the practical planter will tolerate 
the expenditure of attendants watering 
the cuts by hand when it can be done by 
mechanical means. 


It stands to reason then that, at what- 
ever angle a herring-bone can be cut for 
self-acting water flotation, at that angle 
also can the spiral be cut, and also the 
half-spiral which, however, exceeds the 
herring-bone in amount of untappable 
and inconveniently tanpableareas. These 
amount to, at least, one-fifth of the 
whole in the half-spiral and one-tenth 
of the whole in the herring-bone, as 
compared with what can be done on 
the spiral method within the reach of 
the average tapping cooly—that is, five 
feet. 


ad 
x 
S 
a 
e 
rs 
= 
< 


H 


RUNNEL OF 


* Perhaps a sketch, which any one can 
easily make for himself, will not be out 
of place here. Let us take the case of a 
tree averaging 24 inches in girth (never 
mind the tapering shape, for it affects 
all three systems in the same way) the 
tapping area as five feet above the level 
of collecting vessel, and the spacing as 
one foot, and the scale as one inch toa 
foot. 


Draw the line A. B.=two inches. 


Correspondence. 262 (SEPT. 1906. 


At A. erect A. C. andat B. erect B. D. pependiculars 5 inches. Join C. D. 
A. C. D. B. is the tapping area for the spiral. 


Bisect A. B. at E. and raise perpendicular to F.; E. F. D. B. is the tapping 
area for half-spiral and herring-bone. 


Divide these perpendiculars into foot lengths. From E. draw E. G. at 45°, to 
1 foot above B., and parallel to this draw the rest of the lines from the 1 foot 
spacing points. These are the haif-spiral channels, F. E. is the runnel. A glance 
shows that above the topmost channel is a triangle of untapped bark whose 
base is F. D., and below the lowest channel is a triangle whose cuts gradually run 
out, away from the runnel and disappear at B. 


For the herring-bone bisect E. B. at H, runa_ perpendicular up till it meets 
the top channel at I. H.I. isthe runnel. Join I. F. I. D. I. F. are the top channels. 
Parallel to I. F. from the one foot points draw the other four lines to the central 
runnel, At the top a triangle F. I. D. is left untapped, and it will be seen that, when 
the lowest channel reaches the foot of the runnel, two small triangles will be left, 
the cuts on which will gradually run out at E. and B. 


Comparing these two systems, it will be seen that—with its disability of loss 
of tapping area—the half-spiral requires, after the cut has begun to run out at the 
bottom, only one extra spout and collecting cup to the herring-bone’s extra two, and 
only five applications of water, or five drip-tins to the herring-bone’s ten ! 

Even pretty Karrupaie, deftly watering the cuts from a sort of bitters-bottle 
and buzzing around from tree to tree in her little group of five or six trees at a time, 
would prove far too expensive a luxury, however picturesque; so let us hasten to 
the spiral. 


For the spiral: from A. draw A. K. at 45°, t.e., to the 2nd foot spacing above 
B. This line has completely encircled the tree, so go level across the figure from K. 
to its coinciding point K2, draw K2 L. at 45°, go across again to L2and draw L2 Y. 
at 45°. The spiral has reached the top of the tapping area and encircled the tree 
two-and-a-half times, and as will be seen at a glance is of precisely the same length, 
viz., 84 inches (7 inches on the scale) as the sum of the lines in each of the other two 
systems. It requires one drip tin, one spout, and one collecting vessel; cut after 
cut will be the same all round the tree, there is no untapped or untappable area. 
Nay, more than that; it will reach further down any inequality of root or base of 
the stem even where the others cannot go. Further, it is seen that the spacing is 
two feet, sothat an intermediate channel cculd be putin, but this would finish the 
bark in half the time. But if—as seems to be the idea just now with the improve- 
ments of modern paring and pricking —one foot is held to be enough bark to go over, 
in the time it requires for the originally cut bark to have grown thick enough 
again, to cut a new channel in and start over again, its superiority is at once assured. 
The two spirals, being at all times on opposite sides of the tree, the yield is at each 
time, early or late, at any period, monsoon or fine, in any aspect, to the dark side or 
the open, an averaye of the productivity of the tree for the time being, which 
is more than can be said of the other two, or of ‘compass tapping.” 


All this is of spiral tapping on the angle of 45°. What of the lower tapping 
angles of 30° or 35° which are now available through the use of water, which will go 
a few more times round the tree and give a much larger yield? On suitably large 
trees, say 36 inches in average girth, they will enable the planter to tap a large 
and fertile area at the base of his tree, say only 3 ft. 6 in. or 4 ft. up, and then 
with a low platform to tap a second story, the top of whicn need only be 
8 ft. up, if this procedure is found to be necessary, which some men maintain 
is the case. 


SEPT. 1906. | 263 Correspondence: 


I do not pose, Sir, as an authority on these matters, but merely make 
an appeal to practical common-sense, on the facts regardiag these three systems 
of tapping, which are available to us at the present moment. 

If I am wrong at any point, I hope to be corrected. 


Yours, &ec., 
ALEX. CAMERON. 
(The full spiral leaves L. F. C. untapped. We do not know that the cells 
can seal themselves up after tapping; it would be a most remarkable fact if 
they did. The latex accumulates in other cells near by. The whole question 
of the best way to tap is as yet in its infancy, and will probably be made 
the subject of careful research in the Botanic Gardens during the next year.—ED. | 


TEA PLANTING INDUSTRY IN NATAL. 


NOTES ON COFFEE, COTTON AND RUBBER. 
Natal, July 7th. 
DEAR SirR,—Some time ago [ addressed you, requesting you to obtain for 
me an expert opinion upon some samples of teas I sent you. This you very kindly 
got for me. 


Messrs. Forbes & Walker, who were consulted, very kindly pointed out 
a peculiarity in the ferment, which they said was either an error in withering, or 
a peculiarity resulting from the soil. Since then I have been, in various ways, 
trying to overcome this fault and have, I believe, at last succeeded in producing 
a tea as nearly perfect as local conditions allow. Iam now anxious to have samples 
of these teas tested by the same firm, and with this object send you a complete set 
by even mail with the anticipation that you willagain be good enough to ask 
Messrs. Forbes & Walker to kindly report upon them and have the result published 
in the Tropical Agriculturist. 


The samples are numbered and arranged as follows :—A. consisting of five 
samples, represent my better class of teas. B.is one of my ordinary pekoes. C. 
consists of four samples representing the highest grade manufactured by four of 
the leading Natal estates, whose names for obvious reasons I refrain from giving. 

The teas A. and B. are made on this estate, the roller being employed is a 
Jackson’s new ** Rapid” with teak facing and the drier a ‘‘72” Venetian. Both these 
machines are in my opinion hard to beat, if they can be beaten at all. 


It isa good long while since I have contributed in any way to your very 
interesting paper, the perusal of which affords me each month many pleasant hours. 
With the present and all-absorbing native trouble, trade is absolutely at a standstill 
here, and a depression such as has never been experienced,;is fast spreading over the 
entire Colony, making the outlook more and more gloomy, Weall hope for better 
times, but they still seem as far off as ever. 


Expansions in tea acreage, however, in spite of all this, are encouraging 
and one estate in my immediate neighbourhood comes into bearing next season ° 
the factory is now under erection. The owners area go-ahead lot, and, it is to be 
hoped, they will help to improve the deplorable name Natal has lately got for its 
coarse teas. The Manager has hada year or two's training in India and Ceylon in 
tea, and with experience of local conditions as well, he ought to be ina position 
to add his charge to the list of very few places where quality is studied. 


CoFFEE IN NATAL.—I am experimenting with a small patch of coffee. Coffee 
was tried years ago onrather a large scale, and for a while paid well. Then the 
dreaded Hemileia vastatrix appeared and the industry collapsed altogether, and, 


Correspondence. 264 (Sept. 1906. 


so far as I know, no real effort was made to fight it. The style of cultivation was 
extremely crude. Trees were just left to grow up—like Indian and Ceylon ‘‘native 
coffee”—and no attention, save an occasional weeding or manuring given; while 
a pruning knife was an unknown factor. The trees, naturally weakened with 
neglect, soon succumbed to disease. 


When I took charge ot this estate, there existed a small area oviginally 
planted with coffee, but entirely submerged in scrub. Anxious to prove for myself 
the questionable unsuitableness of the country for coffee, I had the field cleaned 
up, and all the existing trees some over 20 feet high cut level with the ground, 
I then grew from each stem a single sucker which I topped at 4 feet, and put the 
field under artificial shade (Grevillea robusta). The coffee I carefully pruned and 
handled each year, and manured once with cattle and stable manure. The result 
has quite overstepped all expectations, and this season, in spite of very scanty 
rainfall, I have gathered 15 cwt. per acre. The trees have just been pruned, and 
although showing slight traces of leaf disease, for this time of the year (the middle 
of our winter) are remarkably healthy and carry fine red wood. I am very sanguine 
about it, and am pretty certain, if coffee is grown as it ought to be, it will not be 
the failure it is generally called. 

To give you a fair idea of how things are conducted here, the following 
would not be out of place. A farmer in the Colony, who shall be nameless, thought, 
after his coftee had not yielded for 2 or 3 years, he would try pruning, and his 
method was to cut away one side of the tree clean to the stem, including primaries, 
the other side being subjected to the operation the following year. Needles to add, 
the field is now extinct! 

COTTON promises to be a future industry here. Two years ago a syndicate 
was formed to test the practicability of growing cotton on prying lines, and Mr. John 
Kirkman (of Bever-stove-Equeefa), an old and experienced colonist undertook the 
management. He has proved beyond the experimental stage that the industry 
well repays itself, and prices he has obtained are highly encouraging. The seed 
used was mainly Sea Island and also a good deal of German East African, the fibre 
produced being of intense whiteness and a very long staple. 

RUBBER IN NATAL.—Some correspondence appeared in the local newspapers 
as to Natal being suitable for rubber—one gentleman, from Ceylon I believe, being 
quite emphatic as to its being made a paying industry. He must have been a new- 
comer evidently, for the insufficient rainfall is in itself an insurmountable obstacle, 
and rubber can never be made to produce a yield that will be profitable. It grows 
here well enough, as evinced by some trees I have on the place of the Para variety 
planted by a former owner, but there is little or no sap in the trees. We have also 
a wild rubber, producing a gum of very superior quality. Here again the quantities 
that can be got are so little, that with the expensive labour we have to employ 
here, it would not pay to try to collect it. 

Ceylon seems to have gone crazy on rubber-growing, and from all accounts 
in the “ 7.A.” the industry seems to be highly remunerative. It is amusing what 
a little time ago was almost exclusively a tea paper, deals now with rubber, and 
almost nothing but rubber! 

I hope to hear from you in due course and, when I can, I shall not forget 


to write again. a: 
Yours faithfully, 


W. A. GILBERT. 
[Somewhat over a year ago Mr. W. A. Gilbert sent us some samples of his 


teas which Messrs. Forbes & Walker kindly reported on for us. This firm has 
again given us their opinion on his teas, and this time it isa much improved report 


SEPT. 1906. | 265 Correspondence. 


that they are able to make. The Natal teas from Mr, Gilbert’s estate are excellently 
made and finished ; that is the A. samples. The B. samples are not nearly as good, 
some of them being little better than rubbish. The flavour of the teas is much 
like China tea, but in appearance the A. samples resemble Cachar teas. We append 
Messrs. Forbes & Walker’s report, for which we thank them; and we congratulate 
Mr. Gilbert on his progress in spite of the difficulties to be contended with in a 
country like Natal.—KD. | 


REPORT ON SAMPLES OF NATAL TEAS. 


(A) Samples 1—5 representing Broken Orange Pekoe, Broken Pekoe, Pekoe 
No.1, Pekoe No. 7, and Pekoe Souchong. 


These samples in appearance are satisfactory, being well made, clean and 
well graded. The liquors are plain with fair quality and strength. The infusions 
are somewhat dull. 

(B)' Sample.—This is Broken Pekoe of fair appearance and tips. The liquor 
is the same character as ‘‘ A” but of inferior quality. 


(B) Samples 1—4.—These are all flaky broken teas rather stalky and 
reddish. The liquors are common and unattractive. Infusions are dark. 


‘*A” Samples are useful teas and might be described as ordinary, fair 
medium teas. 
“B” Sample is a common to medium tea. 


“©” Samples would rank amongst common China red leaf siftings. 
(Signed) ForRBES & WALKER, 


RUBBER GROWING. 


DEAR Sir,—I am interested ina rubber proposition, ina country which has 
not yet reached the stage of production ona large scale, though trees have been 
‘sucessfully grown experimentally and on a small scale, and I shall be much indebted 
if you will be good enough to give me the benefit of your views on the following 
points, viz :— 


(1.) What is the lowest rainfall necessary for the successful cultivation of 
rubber, on land which is not periodically flooded, as for instance some of the 
Brazilian forests ? 

(2.) Isa planter, with general and wide experience in the cultivation of 
tropical plants but with none as to rubber, likely to be successful in growing it, with 
Herbert Wright’s book as his main guide, supplemented by such information as he 
can gather from planters in his country, who may or may not have had actual 
experience of the successful production of rubber ? 

Yours faithfully, 
T. S. TURNBULL. 


Manchester, 8rd August, 1906. 

[ (1) If this refers to Para rubber, we should say the lowest rainfall is usually 
from 65 to 75 inches, well distributed. The tree will not stand long droughts. 

(2.) It depends on the plants. Rubber cultivation is as yet so absolutely in 
its infancy, and we know so little about methods of tapping, yield, &c., that any 
man with common sense and adaptability shouid be able to get on well enough with 
it. Mr. Wright’s book will give him most of whatis already known upon the 
subject, but probably within 5 years will be hopelessly out-of-date.—ED. | 


Correspondence. 266 [SEPT. 1906 


FEBRIFUGE PLANTS. 


Sir,— With reference to the enquiry by your correspondent—Mr. G, E. 
Weerakoon—in your issue for July, 1906, p. 113, I have the pleasure to inform him 
through the medium of your esteemed journal as follows :— 


I would premise by calling Mr. Weerakoon’s attention to the well-known 
aphorism that where the identification of a plant is concerned, it is quite unsafe to 
entirely rely upon its vernacular names, as it is not seldom the case, that in India 
one and the same vernacular name is applied to more than one plant. In this con- 
nection, for example, we have both Andrographis paniculata, Nees., and Swertia 
chirata, Ham., called by the same Sanskrit name Chunimba. 


Your correspondent by the said vernacular name (Chu-nimba) presumably 
refers to Andrographis paniculata—which is a shrub of the Natural order 
Acanthacese, very bitter in taste, and used not only as a febrifuge, but also asa 
stomachie, tonic, alterative, &c. Itis well-known in Bengal asa very useful medicine 
for infants to remove constipation, bring appetite and to help the liver to perform 
its functions. Whereas Cephelis Ipecacuanha, Rich., which your correspondent 
seems to have confused with Andrographis paniculata, belongs to the Natural order 
Rubiacee, the roots of which yield medicines used as an emetic, expectorant, 
diaphoretic, alterative, &c. 

There is no vernacular name for Cephelis I[pecacuanha known to me, which 
could even approximately serve as a guide to Mr. Weerakoon in identifying the 
plant. However, I think I cannot do better than refer your correspondent to 
Hooker’s Flora of British India, Vol. LiI., p. 178, for the description of the plant. 


Yours faithfully, 
K. BANERJEE, 
Office of the Director of Agriculture, Punjab, 


Lahore, India. 
16th August, 1906. 


LEMONGRASS OIL EXTRACTION. 


DEAR S1R,—I shall be glad to have the benefit of your advice as tothe 
extraction of Lemongrass oil. I have, no doubt, derived much useful knowledge 
on the subject from the back issues of the Tropical Agriculturist ; but I am sorry 


to say that the extraction of the oil by aqueous distillation in copper stills has 
not been properly understood by me. 


A detailed account of the copper still, and the method of extraction thereby, 
will greatly oblige. 
Yours faithfully, 


A. PAUDE. 
Zeyawadi, Burma, August 12th, 1906. 


[A Circular will very shortly be published from the Botanic Gardens on this 
subject.—ED. | 


ADHATODA VASICA AS A GREEN MANURE. 


DEAR SiR,—On a recent visit to the North I was greatly struck with the 
value placed by cultivators on Adhatoda vasica as a green manure for tobacco, 
onions, etc. A man’s load fetches 75 cents and upwards, and the plants, which 


(as its Tamil name “Adathodai” implies) ‘goats will not touch,’ are carefully 
conserved for fertilizing purposes. 


SEPT, 1906. | 267 Correspondence. 


Adhatoda is a very common weed in the Western Province, but so far as I 
am aware its value as a manure is not appreciated by cultivators there. The use of 
the leaves for green manure is not confined to Ceylon, for the practice is pretty 
common in India. It may be mentioned that in India the plant is as much used for 
fertilizing as for its property of destroying aquatic weeds, such as Lemnae in flooded 
rice-fields. Mr. Hooper of the Indian Museum, who has made a number of analyses 
of Adhatoda, is of opinion that they fully bear out the high reputation in which the 
plant is held, containing as it does from 3 to 4% of Nitrogen, and considers it a most 
valuable fertilizer when ploughed or forked into the soil. 

Altogether Adhatoda vasica is a most interesting plant, combining the 
properties of a fertilizer, medicine (both in human and veterinary practice), 
insecticide, poison (for fish and aquatic plants) and antiseptic ; but its most valuable 
property is undoubtedly as a fertilizer, supplying not only a high percentage of 
nitrogen, but also an appreciable amount of mineral matter. I would suggest that 
its properties as such should be brought prominently to the notice of native 


cultivators. 
Yours truly, 


C. DRIEBERG, 
Superintendent of School Gardens. 
Government Stock Garden, 


Colombo, 8ist August, 1906. 


HONEY PRODUCTION IN EUROPE. 


DEAR Si1r,—The following paragraph will be of interest to apiarists, and 
might be published in the Tropical Agriculturist. 
Yours faithfully, 
W. H. M. DAVIKS. 
Colombo, 29th August, 1906. 

“According to statistics in the Handel’s Museum, Germany leads in the 
production of honey among European countries with 1,910,000 beehives, furnishing 
20,000 tons of honey. Spain is next with 1,690,000 hives and 19,000 tons of honey. 
Austria-Hungary is third with 1,550,000 hives and 18,000 tons of honey. The other 
European States are far behind. France produces 10,000 tons, Holland 2,500, 
Belgium 2,000, Greece 1,400, Russia and Denmark 900 tons each. In these statistics 
the effect of climatic conditions is noteworthy, especially when comparing Russia 
and Greece. The latter has only 30,000 beehives, yielding 1,400 tons of honey, while 
the former with 110,000 hives, produces only 900 tons.” 


MOSQUITO NETTINGS AND MUSLINS. 

DEAR SirR,—We beg to forward you a few samples of our Untearable 
Mosquito Nettings and Muslins, which, as they will stand indefinite washing 
without tearing, will, we believe, prove very valuable protection from malaria. 

The ‘“ British Medical Journal” and the ‘“‘ Lancet” have already reported 
very favourably on them, and in view of the hygienic value of these fabrics, we 
trust you will think well to notice them in the columns of your valuable paper 

Yours faithfully, 
A. M. HART, LTD. 


[These samples are wonderfully strong, but the threads are so stout that there 
cannot be good ventilation, especially in the finer one. How they compare in cost 
with cotton we are not told, and it must always be remembered thatj the 
people who are willing to give a good deal higher prices for better articles are 
but few.—ED. 

35 


268 |[SePr. 1906. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


AGRICULTURAL BANKS FOR CEYLON. 
By E, S. W. SENATHI-RAJAH. 

“THE CREDIT FONCIER DE FRANCE.”—The results obtained in Germany by the 
Land Banks (Landschaften) were first brought to the notice of the French Govern- 
ment by Monsieur Wolowski, one of the most eminent of French economists and 
financiers, in a luminous treatise which he published in 1835. Ten years afterwards, 
M. Royer, Inspector of Agriculture, was commissioned by the Government of France 
to repair to Germany and study the system of land banks which were then in 
operation there, and he made an elaborate report describing minutely the mechanism 
and operations of the chief landschaften, and the system of debentures which 
formed the pivot of the German land banks. The Government took the matter up 
in 1851, and an enquiry was held in which a number of distinguished financiers, 
economists, lawyers and officials were examined, and as a result of the enquiry a law 
was passed on the 28th of February, 1852, which laid the foundation of Land Credit 
Societies. In March, 1852, a powerful society was formed at Paris, another at 
Marseilles, and a third at Beners. It was, however, thought that a single society 
having branches in various parts of France would better command credit for its 
debentures than a number of small isolated societies. The three societies were 
therefore merged in one and received the name of ‘‘ Credit Foncier de France,” 
and received a monopoly for 25 years. Various errors were committed at first, but 
gradually by means of great prudence in administration, by steady payment of its 
dues to debenture-holders even in years of war and famine, and also by its 
connection with and supervision by Government, it obtained the confidence of the 
public. Its first heavy loan of eight million pounds in debentures was gradually 
taken up by the public. It rose steadily in public confidence, and in 1858 at the 
instance of Government it assumed the responsibility of issuing a loan of four million 
pounds for drainage works which the Government itself had previously attempted 
without success. At the instance of Government it established an affiliated society 
for the purpose of credit agricole, that is for granting short term loans without 
mortgage to farmers. In 1860 a new law authorised this new development and 
granted the Society a special guarantee. In the same year another law authorised 
it to grant loans to departments, communes and agricultural associations. Its 
privileges were also extended to the French Colony of Algeria. These extensions 
were all carried out at the instance of Government, and to meet the new liabilities 
its share capital was raised in 1870 to £3,600,000. The most remarkable proof of its 
stability was afforded by the terrible Franco-German war of 1880, which had no 
effect whatever on its credit, while the whole loss due to the depreciation of property 
at that critical period was only £160,000. Since the war of 1870, the Credit Foncier 
de France has attained enormous development in various directions, such as the 
extension of its business throughout various rural districts, formation of the Credit 
Foncier of Algeria, and the Compagnie Fonciere de France and Algeria, the latter of 
which was intended to facilitate works of improvement and construction. In 1878 it 
issued an enormous loan of £36,000,000. in mortgage debentures of £20, bearing 
interest at 3%. 5 

The success of the Credit Foncier was at first mistrusted by many in 
France. They said it was a novel experiment, not in consonance with the 
manners and customs of the people, or with the social or economic conditions 
of France. Errors were committed no doubt, but what ensured its success and 
popularity was the principle of sinking fund and land mortgage debentures, an 


SEPT. 1906. | 269 Miscellaneous. 


account of which will be given later on. The success of the Credit Koncier was 
so signal, that it was at once copied by Russia, Austria and Italy. Even 
Germany, which had furnished the original prototype, now founded associations 
in imitation of the French model. The Credit Foncier de France differs from 
the old German land banks (landschaften) in several important’ points. The 
Credit Foncier has a share capital, while the German banks had neither share 
capital nor dividends, but simply aimed at providing cheap loans by the united 
guarantee of the principal land-owners. The German banks have unlimited 
liability, while the Credit Foncier isa joint stock company with limited liability. 
In the German banks the debentures are secured by the mass of mortgages held by 
the bank and by the unlimited liability of all members, while the security of the 
Credit Foncier are the share capital and reserve. The loans of the Credit Foncier 
are given in cash, whereas the old landschaften granted the loan on debentures to 
the borrower. The landschaften banks are comparatively local, operating in 
moderate areas; whereas the Credit Foncier is a vast centralised institution 
extending over the whole of France by means of agencies. The Credit Foncier 
acts in certain respects as an ordinary bank receiving deposits and employing part 
of its capital in short term loans. Loans are probably cheaper in the landschaften, 
since their credit is unlimited, no share capital to absorb profits as dividends. and 
all profits return to the members in the shape of cheap loans. 


Most of the other countries of continental Kurope have introduced agricul- 
tural and land banks founded on the model of the German landschaften or the 
French ‘‘ Credit Foncier,” or on a partial adaptation from each. A brief description 
of the Constitution and working of the land banks in continental Kurope will be not 
without interest to us, particularly as the continental nations are governed as we 
are by highly bureaucratic methods, and they afford therefore apt models for 
our imitation. 


ORIGIN. —Their origin in almost every instance is due to the impulse given by 
the state. The old landschaften of Prussia came into being by the fiat of 
Frederick the Great of Prussia, who wanted to give relief to his noble 
proprietors, who were crushed down by war and usury. He _ ordered 
that not merely all members of the bank, but every noble owning lands 
within the province wherea (landschaften) bank was situated, should be wholly 
responsible for the operations of the bank. He also granted financial aid to the best 
five old landschaften in the form of subvention by the state, partly to supply the 
first instalment of funds and partly asa reserve against contingencies. Tzar 
Alexander of Russia gave all the funds necessary for starting the Land Credit Bank 
of Russia in 1818. The Credit Foncier de France, whichis a joint stock company, 
received a subvention of £400,000 from the state in addition toa guarantee that the 
state and the district councils would purchase a quantity of its debentures, not ouly 
to provide the first funds necessary to set it afloat, but chiefly to create public 
confidence in its stability. So all the land banks of Europe without exception have 
come into being by the efforts of governments of their respective countries, and have 
been subsidized by such Governments and watched over by them with fostering 
care. The Government connection and support were found to be essential, 
inasmuch as banks, being institutions of credit, the advertisement to the public 
that the Government has an interest in the bank, believes in its usefulness and 
desires its success, acts as an incentive to the shareholders and establishes public 
confidence in the stability of the undertaking. There are, however, no land banks 
in Europe which are directly owned and managed by the state except in Russia 
and in some of the small German states and the cantons of Switzerland. 


ADMINISTRATION.—When once the Banks had been started by the impulse 
given by the state, the governments of the different Kuropean states appear to have 
watched the growth of these institutions with jealous cave, and to have had a large 


Miscellaneous. 270 [Szpt. 1906. 


control over them. The most striking feature in the administration of the land- 
schaften is the manner in which all members, not merely office-bearers, are compelled 
to work almost gratuitously on behalf of the bank. Every member is bound to 
take office under penalties which may amount to the calling in of his loan or the 
sale of his estates, and against such decisions he has no appeal outside of the bank. 
The co-operative principle is carried out with rigorous uniformity, and this enables 
the landschaften to work at considerable distances from their centres without 
much cost or risk. The bank is considered a quasi-public institution, and its officers 
come therefore under the law relating to the discipline of public officials. The 
bank is placed under the general supervision of the Minister of Agriculture and the 
immediate and special supervision of a Royal Commissioner, who is appointed by 
the King of Prussia. The chairman and the two councillors of the bank are elected 
by the deputies of the four districts, but the election is subject to royal confirma- 
tion. In the Credit Foncier de France there is a Board of Directors elected by the 
general assembly, but three out of twenty of them must be public officers of finance. 
The Governor and sub-Governor are appointed by government, and are removable 
only by the government. The Governor has great power and responsibility and 
is the executive head of the bank. In all the other land banks of continental 
Europe the state has in every instance assumed powers of supervision direct 
or indirect. 

PRIVILEGES.—With the strict supervision exercised by the Governments 
ot Europe, the land banks also have certain privileges granted to them. The Credit 
Foneier, for instance, has the privilege of using the government treasuries for the 
receipt of its dues and the deposit of its surplus funds. It enjoys a reduction 
of stamp duties in registration and the transfer of its debentures. Its debentures 
are payable to the holder, and the Courts cannot take cognizance of any claim by 
a third party unless the bonds have been lost or stolen. Trust moneys and public 
funds may be invested in the debentures of the Bank. It has a special and 
summary procedure for the recovery of its dues. The mortgaged property can be 
speedily attached by order summarily obtained from the local court. Its mortgages 
have precedence over all others except those of the state. The government at the 
start gave ita monopoly over the whole of France for 25 years from 1852, that is 
to say, no other Society was entitled to carry on business under this special law 
till after 1877. 


The German landschaften have also various privileges, especially in the 
matter of the prompt recovery of their debts. Attachment of property of de- 
faulters is prompt, and movables may be distrained in the first instance. This may 
be done by the bank’s own agent or by demand of process from the local court 
through its bailiff, and the court is bound to issue process accordingly. In East 
Prussia and Silesia it is expressly provided that the banks may collect its dues 
on mortgages by any coercive process open to them without any proceedings in 
court, including distraint of movables, and attachment of debts due to the 
defaulters by third parties and attachment and management of the mortgaged estate. 


(To be continued.) 


————— 


Sept. 1906,] 271 Miscellaneous. 


Notes on Methods of Irrigation in Arizona. 
By J. H. W. Park. 


Although a good deal has been written concerning irrigation in the 
Magazine of the Agricultural Society, nothing so far has appeared to indicate that 
better methods of Irrigation than those now practisedin Ceylon exist elsewhere. 
As the writer believes that with proper methods of distribution of the water from 
Irrigation Works and proper use of the distributed water in the fields, the 
areas cultivated in the Island might easily be doubled without any great extension 
of the works themselves, he trusts the following notes made in the course of a couple 
of years’ residence near Phoenix, Arizona, in the United States, may be of interest. 
For the actual figures of results obtained he is indebted to the publications of the 
United States Department of Agriculture. 


CLIMATE.—The driest zone of the United States is practically represented 
by the territory of Arizona. The average rainfall within the zone does not exceed 
ten inches per annum, and the rainfall at Phoenix, which lies almost in its centre, 
averages little over six inches per annum. The temperature is subject to extreme 
variations. Frost is not uncommon in December and January, and temperatures 
of between 100° F. and 120° F. in the shade are the rule rather than the exception 
in the summer months. Under such circumstances the evaporation is very great 
and averages close on 80 inches per annum, and excepting in bottom lands near the 
streams or for a brief season after rain, or where irrigation is practised, nothing 
except cactus and salt bush grows. 

The accompanying diagrams show the rainfall, relative humidity, evapor- 
ation from a water surface and the mean temperature of Phoenix for each month of 
the year. For comparison the same factors for the driest district in Ceylon— 
Hambantota—are also shown. The evaporation from a water surface in Hambantota 
I have not been able to ascertain, but I give that for the district near Giant's Tank 
(as calculated by Mr. Parker) which probably is not very different from it. 


The want of rain, dryness of the atmosphere and rate of evaporation all 
militate against the success of irrigation near Phoenix, but the variation in temper- 
ature makes a great diversification of crops possible. The soilis a gravelly loam 
underlaid by gravel and not specially retentive of moisture. 


In spite of these apparently unfavourable conditions, the town has become 
the centre of a thriving agricultural district. This it owes to the waters of the 
salt river, a perennial stream which, taking its rise on the western slopes of 
the Southern Rockies, and fed partly by rain and more particularly by melted 
snow, flows close to the town and joins the Gila River on its way to the Rio 
Colorado and the Gulf of California a few miles below it. 


THE IRRIGATION WorkKsS.—The waters of the salt river are diverted above 
Phoenix, along both banks by a series of dams and canals, one of the chief of 
which the ‘“‘salt river canal” runs directly through the heart of the town. 
During summer the bed of the river is entirely dry, the whole of the water being 
taken for irrigation by the canals above, but below the town the river begins 
again with the surplus water from the farms, and this is again diverted by 
other canals and used for the production of further crops. The engineering 
features of these works do not call for any special remark ; they are more or less of 
the type used elsewhere, modified by American ingenuity to suit their surroundings. 
The capacity of the works, the methods by which the water is distributed to the 


various users, and the means by which the channels are maintained are of 
more interest. 


Miscellaneo us. 272 [Srpr. 1906. 


As much as 1,250 cu. secs havejbeen diverted into the various canals during the 
month of March, when the flow is usually most plentiful, and the supply fell as low as 
120 cu. secs in the month of July, 1900, during the whole of which year, one of unusual 
drought, it did not average more than 400 cu. secs. In spite of this deficiency no less 
than 118,000 acres of crops were raisedin that year, while the greatest area irrigable 
may be taken as 150,000 acres. The actual quantity of water used per acre of crops 
was 2°78 acre feet in 1902 (including canal losses and rainfall), while the amount 
usually taken is between 3and4acre feet per acre of crops raised. These figures 
may be compared with the consumption per acre of not less than 12°75 acre feet (not 
including rainfall) used under the Walawe Channels near Hambantota in 1904. 


The water from the salt river is distributed to each of the main channels 
according to priority of right, the oldest channel being entitled to full supply while it 
is available, and the most recently constructed channel being the first to be deprived 
of water in times of tight supply. The actual quantity of water distributed to each 
of the various main channels is apportioned from day to day by a Commissioner 
specially appointed, and the quantity so apportioned is taken charge of below the 
gauge at the head of each canal by the various canal officers who attend to its 
further distribution. 


The water is distributed from the main canals to the various users in propor- 
tion to the ‘‘ water tight” or share of it actually owned by the user. In some cases 
the shares carry priority of right, but asa broad rule they entitle the holder toa 
certain proportion of the water only. 

The actual division of the water from the main channels is effected by smaller 
channels known as laterals, near the beginning of which there is—sometimes at least— 
a gauge for the measurement of the water. Where these laterals supply the land of 
one owner they are constructed and maintained by the owner. Where they supply 
several owners they may have been constructed and maintained by the canal 


company, but are more generally constructed and maintained by the several owners 
in common. 


Each owner is assessed for the maintenance of that portion of the main canal 
above his head gate only, and to this has to be added his share of the maintenance of 
his lateral if he owns it in common with others, or if it was cunstructed by the canal 


company. Asa result of these arrangements the actual cost of water is greater near 
the tail than at the head of a canal. 


Recently the plan has been adopted of discharging the full supply of the 
main canal, ora definite proportion of it, into each lateral for a definite period of 
time. Where the lateral is the property of several parties the further distribution 
of the water is left to the parties themselves. 


As an example of this method a certain farmer was entitled to all the water 
passed into the lateral from which he obtained his supply for 60 hours from 6 p.m. 
on each of the following days:—15th and 26th July, 6th, 17th and 28th August, 8th, 19th, 
and 30th September, 11th and 22nd October. The area irrigated was 50 acres, and 
from the figures he got water for 24 days out of every eleven. 

METHOD OF IRRIGATION.—Now with regard to the actual distribution of the 
water in the fields themselves. It is here that excessive waste of water takes place 


in all irrigation systems, and it is just here that the system in use round Phcenix ~ 


appears to be most efficient. 


From his lateral, or from another smaller lateral, if he holds his main lateral 
in common with others. the farmer distributes the water to his fields by a system of 
field laterals or small ditches taking off from the larger lateral more or less at right 
angles to it at distances of from 75 to 150 feet apart in grain and 150 to 200 feet 
apart in pasture land. These field laterals are frequently set off with an Engineer's 
level to a gradient of from 4 to 14 inches per rood, or say from 1 in 300 to 1 in 100. 


ficou 


Miscellaneous. 


3 


27 


SEPT. 1906. | 


“XINDHG 


AUALVUTKNAY, AIHLINOTL Nya] AOVAGAY 


Se Gs ae 


YNVLS.INVID” 


crs | 


‘MOVEUAG WALVYAA WOUM NOILVAOAVAT 


‘sul 


Oy 
7 ACTA LTET LEY Za AREY 110) ae So SPITE 08 
‘VLOINVAIRVHT| _| ES ee eae %06 


ALIGINAY AAILVIAY NVAW 


“TIVANIVY IVONNY NVA 


Miscellaneous. 274 [Sepr. 1906. 


From the field laterals there diverges a system of parallel furrows on the 
areas between which crops are grown. These furrows are generally from 6 to 9 
nches in depth, while the distance between them varies from twenty-four inches 
to as many feet according to the crops to be watered. The length and gradient 
of the furrow varies with the distance apart of the field laterals, and to some extent 
with the soil, the object being to cause all the water in the furrow to sink into the 
soil and to allow none to escape. If the furrow is too short and too steep water 
will flow away and be lost; if on the other hand itis too long and flat it will be 
absorbed before the end is reached and part of the land will remain unwatered. 
The best length and gradient is found by experiment, and where the actual fall on 
the land is excessive, the furrows run at an angle tothe greatest slope so as to 
reduce the gradient on them. 


The depth of the furrow is also a matter of experiment, but the tendency 
during recent years has been to increase the depth, as by so doing the area through 
which soakage into the ground takes place is increased and the risk of flooding the 
land between the furrows is diminished. 


The water is diverted from the field lateral to the furrows by damming the 
former with earth below the mouth of the furrow, but more recently the plan 
has been adopted of inserting small pipes varying from #” diameter to about 
2’ diameter through the side of the field lateral into the furrow, as by so doing 
a more regular distribution of water is obtained. 

Flow from the lateral to the furrow is permitted for a period of time 
varying with the crops to be watered and the supply available, but in all 
cases after the flow has ceased and after the water has sunk into the ground; but 
before the surface has become entirely dry, the surface soil in the furrow is eculti- 
vated, that is the top to a depth of two or three inches is turned over. By this 
means the capillary tubes by which the water passed into the soil are broken up 
and the re-evaporation of water through them is prevented. 


(To be continued.) 


Mosquitoes and Anti-Malaria Campaigns. 


The following letter from the ‘‘London Times” is worthy of attention in 
Ceylon, as showing the results of conscientious work directed against the propa- 
gation of Malaria by mosquitoes. Nothing of the kind has so far been attempted 
in the Island, chiefly owing to a feeling of helplessness in a country where 
the possible breeding places of the Anopheline mosquitoes are so multifarious. 
But with the example of work successfully accomplished at Klang and Port 
Swettenham, under circumstances comparable with those prevailing in Ceylon, 
we have—as pointed out by Dr. Ronald Ross—no excuse for neglecting similar 
measures here. At any rate, until the attempt has been made and failed we have 
no right to complain of the mortality and widespread sickness credited to this 
disease (malarial fever). Even should these measures fail in some of the wetter 
districts, the country along the Northern line—notorious for the prevalence of 
malaria—would lend itself more hopefully to successful treatment. 

It must be remembered that infection is principally carried by mosquitoes 
bred in the immediate vicinity of any settlement, so that, to greatly reduce the 
danger of infection, it is not essential to operate upon a large tract of country. 
Each breeding place that is suppressed or rendered harmless will have an 


appreciable effect in the reduction of the disease. 
EK. ERNEST GREEN. 


SmpPT. 1906. | 275 Miscellaneous. 
CAMPAIGNS AGAINST MALARIA. 


Srr,—On several occasions you have kindly permitted me to draw the atten- 
tion of your readers to the progress of the anti-malaria campaigns at Ismailia and 
in the Federated Malay States, and [ have heard that the information so given has 
more than once encouraged the commencement of similar work elsewhere. Will you 
allow me to add some further notes? I hope it will not be necessary to trouble you 
again on the matter, as the success of the campaigus referred to seems to be now 


completely assured. 


With regard to Ismailia, I wish to call attention to a brief but effective 
official report just issued by the Suez Canal Company. It is entitled “ Suppression 
du Paludisme & Ismailia,” and can be obtained by writing to M. le Sécrétaire-Genéral, 
Compagnie Universelle du Canal Maritime de Suez, 9, Rue Charras, Paris. It gives 
the whole history of the campaign in the town, with an account of the expenses and 
of the results. Since 1903 no new case of malaria has been observed at Ismailia. The 
ordinary mosquitoes (by which is meant the Culicina) have disappeared, and all the 
inhabitants have been able to discontinue the use of mosquito nets. Although afew 
Anophelines enter the town from the environs during the autumn, they do so in 
very small numbers—so smallas not to constitute any danger, as shown by the 
complete disappearance of the fever. Doubts have frequently been thrown on the 
reality of the success obtained by the Suez Canal Company, but I think that a perusal 
of this report will convince any impartial reader. It must be remembered that up 
to 2,000 cases of malaria used to occur annually in this town. 


The work done at Klang and Port Swettenham in Selangor, Federated Malay 
States, will be set forth ina report by Dr. Travers, State Surgeon, Selangor, and 
Dr. Maleolm Watson, District Surgeon, Klang, which will appear in the Journal of 
Tropical Medicine, Messrs. Bale, Son, and Daniellson, July 1 next. In this report, 
also, details of the history of the campaign, of its cost, and of its success are given, 
and will prove no less convincing. The statistics for 1905 are even more favourable 
than those of 1902 and subsequent years, while the disease is, if anything, increased 
in the surrounding areas which have not been treated. Dr. Watson saysin a letter 


to me :— 


“The work has been an absolute success, infinitely more so than I ever 
imagined possible. . , I hope for a decided diminution in the amount of malaria. 
The absolute sweeping away of the disease seems to come asa reproach to me for 
lack of faith. , . . I wonder how many Government officers are deterred from 
making and carrying out anti-malaria works because the work seems so enormous, 
because they feel they will never be able to make any appreciable improvement, and 
because they fear they may have failure cast back at them. If there are such, 


I wish they could take a lesson from Klang.” 


Idonot think that Dr. Watson will object to my quoting these important 
passages. 


People have said that the success at Ismailia was due to the arid nature of 
the country, but I am sure that the same thing cannot be said of such a climate as 
that of the Federated Malay States, and it is clear that such striking successes 
obtained in such diverse parts of the globe leave no excuse open for neglecting 


similar measures elsewhere. 


We may, therefore, hope that a few years will see the general adoption of 
such measures. A great incentive to this will be the new Malaria Return which has 
been promised by the Colonial Office, in response to action taken by Major 
Seely, D.S.O., M.P., in Parliament, consequent upon representations by Mr. Hahne- 
man Stuart of this city. This return will, I hope, give full details of the actual 

36 


Miscellaneous. 276 [SEPT. 1906. 


work done against malaria every year in tropical colonies. If the India Office and 
the War Office order a similar return, matters ought speedily to be in full train for a 
general advance in this important direction. 


I am, Sir, your Obedient Servant, 
RONALD ROSS, 
Professor of Tropical Medicine. 
The Incorporated Liverpool School of ‘tropical Medicine, June 27.—London 
Times, July 6. 


Literature of Economic Botany and Agriculture. VIII. 


By J. C. WILLIS. 


Cotton: General.—Cotton: Brooks ; London 1898, 

Colouring Matter of Cotton Flowers. Perkin in Trans. Chem. Soe. 

Zur Baumwollfrage, &e. Tropenpfi., 4, 1900, p. 263. 

Le Coton; Lecomte; Paris. 

A Chemical Study of the Sea Island Cotton Plant. FKxp-. Sta. Ree. XI., p. 918. 

The Cotton Industry (and Markets in Japan). Queensland Agr. Journ., May 
1902, p. 376. 

The Cotton Fields of India. Ind. Agr., May 1903, p. 144. 

Cotton Cultivation Experiments in India, do. p. 146. 

Cotton Cultivation in St. Lucia. Agr. News IT. 1903, p. 120. 

The West Indian Bulletin and Agr. News of recent years contain much 
information on Cotton, not usually indexed here. 

Cotton-growing in the West Indies. W. I. Bull., 4, 1908, p. 28. 

Le Cotton aux Etats-Uins. Bull. Jard. Col., 2, 1908. 

Hilbeck, Bericht iiber pernanische Baumwoll. Tropenpfl., 7, 1903, p. 153. 

The Cotton Industry. Queensland Agr. JI., July 1908, p. 43. 

Recherches sur le sterilisation des graines du coton. Rev. Cult. Col., Oct. 
1903, p. 213. 

Cotton Improvement by Seed Selection. Agr. News, 1903, p, 277. 

Mollison: Improvement of Indian Cotton. Ind. Agr., Nov. 1903, p. 342. 

Cotton-growing in India, a proposed scheme. Do. Mar. 1904, p. 88. 

Cotton Experiments in Behar. Jnd. Pl. and Gard., Mar. 1904, p. 195. 

Cotton in the Federated Malay States. Str. Bull., Mar. 1904. 

Caravonica Cotton. Agr. Mag., Colombo, Apr. 1904. 

Cotton-growing in Hast Africa. ‘‘ 7.A.,” May 1904, 

Cotton Seed Selection. Agr. News, Apr. 1904. 

Cotton Cultivation. Jamaica Bull., Mar. 1904. 


Serr. 1906. | 277 Miscellaneous. 


Lessons in Elementary Botany. IV. 


By J. C. WILLIs. 


For those who wish to use a Flora, or list of the plants growing ina given 
country, with descriptions—the first step towards finding out all about them—it is 
necessary to give a few, at any rate, of the technical terms used in describing 
leaves, as upon these a good deal depends the discrimination of plants. Those who 
are not desirous of using a Flora—let us say Trimen’s Flora of Ceylon—may 
omit these. 


The few technical terms given here are sufficiently illustrated by the figures 
in the Plate issued last month, to which reference should be made. 


Leaves are inserted upon the stem in various ways: they may be all at the 
base (radical) or opposite, alternate, or in whorls. A complete leaf is made up of 
leaf base (the swollen part adjoining the stem), stalk or petiole, and blade (or lamina, 
as it is called in some older books). To the base are often attached a pair of out- 
growths or stipules, one on either side, sometimes green and leaf-like, sometimes 
represented by thorns, tendrils, scaly outgrowths, and so on. 


The leaf may be petiolate (stalked) or sessile (not stalked), stipulate (with) 
exstipulate (without, stipules). The base or stalk may be sheathing. If the base 
of the leaf is continued in a leafy outgrowth down the side of the stem the leaf 
is decurrent. 


Leaves may be sinuple (with one blade, as in tea or cacao) or convpound 
(with more than one, as in many brambles, &c.), and if the latter, either pinnate 
(with leaflets arranged featherwise) or palmate (leaflets like the fingers of a hand). 

Leaves in shape (taking the general outline, regardless of notches) may be 
needle-shaped, linear, , anceolate (about three or four times as long as broad, taper 
ing mainly to tip), ovate (about 15 to 2 times as long as broad, tapering to tip (cordate 
(heart shaped), kidney-shaped, and so on. If the tapering is more towards the base, 
i.¢e., if the stalk in the figures were at the right instead of the left, the leaves would 
be ob-ovate, ob-cordate, &c. 


The tip of the leaf may be acute (sharp pointed), obtuse (blunt ended), acr- 
minate (tapering in curves to a point; water runs easily olf leaves of this kind, and 
a pronounced acuminate point is sometimes called a drip-tip) An apex like a 
(bottom right hand corner of plate) is called mucronate, like b apiculate, like c retuse. 

As regards notching: an absolutely un-notched leat is entire; if the edge 
of the leaf be divided not more than half way down, the leaf is termed -fid, if $ to 

-partite, if more than 3, -sect. The prefixes palmati- or pinnati- are put before 
these terms to indicate which sort of notching occurs. If the leaves are simply 
notched to less than } of the depth, other terms are used, indicated by the figures, 
viz., serrate, dentate, crenate, undulate. 


The surface of the leaf may be glabrous (without any hairs), downy or 
pubescent (fine, soft hairs), hairy (coarser hairs), hispid (rough bristly hairs) 
tomentose (with a cottony felt of hairs), prickly, &c. 

The texture of the leaf may be thin, coriaceous (leathery) membranous. 
succulent, &c. 

Leaves may be evergreen or deciduous (falling), &e. 

When a character comes between two of the terms used here, both are 


employed, e.g., lanceolate-ovate. When itis nearly like one, sub- is placed in front 
it, e.g., subacute, 


s 


TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST 


MAGAZINE OF THE 
CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 


Vou. XXVII. COLOMBO, OCTOBER 15x, 1906. No. 4. 


The Ceylon Rubber Exhibition, 


Speaking generally, the Rubber Exhibition may be called an unqualified 
success, and we have learnt many lessons from it, which should indirectly repay its 
cost many times over. To take only a few of these, we may assume for example that 
the days of the biscuits are numbered. This was the original form in which Mr. 
Parkin made up his samples in the laboratory, and has survived in Ceylon, though 
abandoned in Malaya. Noone whosaw the businesslike appearance of the Malayan 
and other samples of block and sheet as compared with the amateur look of the 
biscuits can doubt that the latter are doomed to disappearance. 


We have also learnt that the area available for rubber-planting is more 
extended, both as to altitude and as to extension, than had hitherto been supposed, 
and that there will soon be some danger of over-production, as planting is going on so 
rapidly, not only in Ceylon and the Federated Malay States, but in other tropical 
countries. 


_ As regards methods of preparation, there is evidently much yet to learn, and 
experiments will at once be put in hand by the Botanical Department on several 
lines suggested by the Exhibition. For instance, is it really the case, as the awards 
of prizes would at first glance suggest, that high-grown rubber is better than that of 
the low country, or is it that the prize winners have older trees or have adopted 
more careful methods of preparation? In one case at least, and that the best Para 
rubber in the Exhibition, the rubber was coagulated with a chemical not hitherto 
used, so far as we know, by any one else for the purpose. 


The tapping knives for Para rubber were very good, but for Castilloa, and 
still more for Ceara, were but poor, little ingenuity being shown in adapting 
them to the changed conditions. 


Another important question is ‘‘do we wash and dry our rubber too much ?” 
The Malayan rubbers were mostly more washed than those of Ceylon, and were on 
the whole inferior to them in quality, and there was other evidence pointing the 
same way. The South American rubbers exhibited are much stronger than any of 
the plantation rubbers, and spring back when stretched toa much greater extent, 
and they are practically unwashed, and, what few if any persons in Ceylon had 
previously realised, are also undried and quite whitish and opaque. It is consequently 
quite possible that our rubbers are too much dried. It was specially noticeable 


SO Sy ae 
’ 


280 [Ocr, 1906 
that the block rubber from Lanadron Estate in Johore was particularly springy, 
and it is possible that the mere blocking of rubber may produce a good effect, as the 


Lanadron blocks were made from crépe. The use of creosote, again, as reeommended 
in 1899 by Mr. Parkin, is evidently to be recommended. 


It would be well worth while trying an experiment in the production 
of rubber for market by preparing creosoted biscuits, and blocking them while 
still damp or partially dried. If for rubber containing a proportion of moisture 
we could obtain a price even approaching that now paid for biscuits, it would 
pay us well. Very few people realise that fine Para really gets a better price 
than plantation. If the price of plantation rubber be 6s. 8d., while that of fine 
Para is 5s. 8d. then, as the latter contains 18 per cent of moisture, its price 
is really better than that of the plantation rubber in the proportion of 83 to 
76, or nearly 10 per cent. 


It is evident that now is the time to try experiments in methods of coagula- 
tion, ways of preparation, forms or shapes of preparation, ways of packing, and 
many other things, before the London market has become firmly wedded to one 
particular mode. Many planters think that the biscuit is good enough, but this 
obviously cannot last, and now is the time to experiment. 


With regard to pests of rubber, again, one simple lesson, among others, that 
we have learnt is that each estate should keep asupply of apparatus and materials 
for dealing with them, and not have to hastily borrow ata time of need, or find them 
unprocurable. Belts of shelter trees again should be left or planted through large 
areas of rubber. 


The machinery, while giving promise of great things in the future, was in 
general not very good, and capable of much improvement. 


In reference to the future of rubber, one of the most interesting and 
important exhibits of the whole show is that of Mr. Bamber, illustrating his methods 
of vulcanising and colouring rubber in the milk. This probably means the 
ultimate extinction of present methods of vulcanising and colouring (except for 
wild rubbers) and opens up many new lines of work which may prove of great 
value and importance. 


oe 
rh 
78 

aay 


aa ee ok ee ae 


‘Oct. 1906.] 281 


GUMS, RESINS, SAPS AND EXUDATIONS. 


Rubber Vulcanisation. 


By M. Ketway BAMBER. 


A Lecture delivered at the Ceylon Rubber Exhibition, Royal Botanic Gardens, 
Peradeniya, on September 18th, 

Dr. J.C. Willis, Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, presided at this lecture, and 
there were also present :—Mrs. J. C. Willis, Mr. and Mrs. Jas. Ryan, Mr. and Mrs. S. P. 
Jeffery, Mr. and Mrs. W. H. Biddulph, Messrs. R. D. Tipping (S. Coorg), HK. S. Campbell 
(Lanadron Estate, Johore), I. Etherington, A. de Zilva, R, Hugh Pereira, A. M. 
Fernando, C. J. Bayley, G. Graham Clarke, A. C. Mathew, D.G. Brebner, A. J. Dawson, 
R. L. Proudlock (Mysore), J. Cameron (Mysore), G. N. Fairhurst, J. P. Ireson, A. W. 
Greig, G. A. Greig, F. W. de Hoedt, J. B. Carruthers (I*.M.S.), P. H. Aste, R. K. Clark, 
J. H. S. Rogers, H. F. Macmillan, EK. Ernest Green, C. O.iMacadam, |Thos.'Petch, J. H. 
Betts, Dr. A. Lehmann (Mysore), J. Coryton Roberts, Herbert Wright, C. M. 
Buckworth, Dr. Cuthbert Christy, Mr. A. N. Galbraith, Mrs. H. F. Tomalin, Messrs. 
Edgar Turner, A. T. Rettie, C. H. EK. Zacharias (F.M.S.), C. K, Smithett, H. M. Devitt, 
C. L. Devitt, C. G. Devitt, G. Bruce Foote, W. A. Horn, W. A. Goodman and several 
others. 


THE LECTURE. 


Mr. BAMBER, who was received with applause, said :—Ladies and gentlemen, 
before describing the vulcanisation of rubber it may be advisable to describe the 
actual latex. Raw caoutchouc may be defined as the thickened or dried-up latex of 
certain species of plants. Taking the latex of Hevea Brasiliensis as typical of 
most latices, itis as it leaves the tree a white-looking milk-like fluid containing 
variable quantities of minute globular particles, the diameters of which average 3°5 
micro-millimetres, though the range is great. (One micro-millimetre is the one- 
thousandth part of a millimetre.) The specific weight of latex containing 32 per 
cent of caoutchouc is 1°018 at 60° Fahr. Itis these microscopic globules that consti- 
tute the real caoutchouc when caused to agglomerate into a mass, either by drying 
and smoking, the addition of acids, or certain other chemicals, or by bacterial 
decomposition of proteid matter, &c., in the latex with production of a free acid 
causing coagulation somewhat analagous to the curdling of milk. The chemical 
composition of the fresh latex from mature trees and for the first tappings during 
more or less dry weather is as follows :— 


Caoutchoue 5 na af 32°00 . per cent. 
Nitrogenous matter net 2°03 ob 
Mineral aa ses A 9:07 ie 
Resinous as; is is 2°03 ue 
Water (faintly alkaline) ... Me 55°56 


I noticed that in the lecture yesterday a question was raised as to 
THE AMOUNT OF CAOUTCHOUC IN BRAZILIAN RUBBER, 


and I now find from old analyses that Professor Faraday gives it as 37-7 per cent, 
which is higher than anything we have had here. It is however liable to great 
variation under different climatic conditions, age of tree, soil and numerous other 
causes, which it is needless to enumerate here. When latex is coagulated in a vessel 
by means of acid, the globules do not first rise to the surface like cream and then 
amalgamate, but coagulation takes place throughout the mass of liquid, the rubber 
at the moment of formation having the shape of the containing vessel. As soon as 
coagulation has set in, the rubber instantly acquires its elastic property, and being 
specifically lighter than water contracts on itself upwards, at first slowly, but with 


Gums, Resins, 282 —— (Ocr. 1906. ae 
increasing rapidity, squeezing out from the interior of the mass the bulk of the water e 
and soluble constituents of the latex, until it formsa fairly compact white mass 
floating on the surface of the clear water. This, when washed, pressed and dried, 
constitutes rubber and contains 95 to 96 per cent of pure caoutchoue with a specific 
gravity of ‘92 to ‘96. Raw rubber so prepared has a characteristic odour, but when 
produced by the fermentation process and imperfectly washed is highly offensive. 
It is insoluble in water, but its bulk increases by absorption when immersed in that 
fluid, and it adds 25 per cent to its weight, while its toughness, adhesiveness and 
elasticity are greatly reduced. Raw caoutchouc is very elastic at normal tempera- 
tures; but if the temperature is reduced to zero, it becomes hard and brittle, but 
regains its elastic property on being warmed. If heated to 80° Centigrade, or more, 
it becomes soft and sticky and does not regain its normal properties on being cooled. 
Exposed for a long time to warm air and light, it becomes less elastic on the surface 
and more or less sticky or tacky. This condition may also be caused by bacteria or 
fungi, with probably the production of an oxidising enzyme. 


Spiller states that the affected caoutchouc consists of :-- 


Affected. Unaltered Caoutchouc. 
Carbon 64:0 Aye wigs Lereeitsatay ek 
Hydrogen 8°5 ot va week LesO 
Oxygen 275 i de Me 75 


Heated to 360°-Fahr. caoutchouc begins to melt, and between 400 and 400°-Fahr, it 
becomes a dark brown oil, Owing to the above properties of rubber at different 
temperatures, crude caoutchouc would be of little general use had not the curious 
reaction of caoutchouc and sulphur known as “ vulcanisation” been discovered. 


The only uses for raw rubber are the cubes employed by artists, strips for 
billiard cushions and square cut unvulcanized threads. 


The treatment of rubber with either Sulphur or Sulphur Chloride are the only methods 
at present employed for vulcanisation, though Gerard’s process of treating the India- 
rubber for three hoursina solution of calcium pentasulphide (1'205 sp. gr.) under 
a pressure of 60 1b. (140° C) yields very satisfactory results. The chief vulcanisers 
and sulphur-carriers are sulphur, which occurs in two crystalline and one amorphous 
forms and various metallic sulphides, The chiefly-used commercial varieties are 
sulphur sticks, flowers of sulphur, milk of sulphur and precipitated sulphur, the 
latter being undoubtedly the best form of sulphur for vulcanising purposes, It is 
prepared by the precipitation of sulphur from the solutions of polysulphides with 
acid, when it separates in an exceedingly fine state of division, and sois capable of 
more intimate mixture with the Indiarubber. Lead thiosulphate (Pb S2 O3) and 
oxide, antimony pentasulphide, (SbzS;) and zinc sulphide are among the chief 
sulphur carriers. All the above generally require what is knownas hot vulcanisa- 
tion, Chloride of sulphur (Sz C12.) on the other hand is extensively used for the 
process of vulcanisation in the cold, but at present can only be employed for vul- 
canising dry goods, as contact with water causes immediate decomposition. Besides 
the ordinary sulphuring agents, various colouring matters are frequently 
incorporated, when the rubber is to be used for decorative or ornamental purposes ; 
but for technical purposes the colour is more or less confined to grey, black 
and red. 
VULCANISING COLOURING INGREDIENTS. 


Examples of sueh colouring ingredients are zinc white, lithopone (Zns. Ba SO; ) 
and green pigments, golden sulphide (Sbz Ss ), vermilion, red and brown iron oxides, 
and various yellows and blues. 


Rubber may be looked upon asa colloid body, a class which have a high 
molecular weight and are non-electrolytic. In colloids only one molecule out of 


WF es, = ns 


Oc, 1906.] 283 Saps and Exudations. 


many is supposed to be capable of acting chemically : hence their great chemical 
indifference. They have the property of gelatinizing or pectising ; but the latter is 
quite distinct from the former in that it isnon-reversible, while the gelatinized state 
can be reversed by heating or other means. Colloid solutions can be pectised or 
converted into insoluble colloids at much less concentration than is required for 
gelatinization ; but the influences that induce pectisation are varied, Some colloidal 
solutions pectise spontaneously on standing, some by boiling and many by freezing, 
while most inorganic colloids pectise on adding to their solutions minute quantities 
of electrolytes. The question of the change involved in the pectisation of a colloid 
is still obscure, but it will probably be ultimately proved to be partly physical, but 
mostly chemical— the changes in the molecules resulting in the fixation of the rela- 
tive positions of the colloidal molecules. It is possible that the Brownian movement 
of the rubber particles, increased by the change in reaction or the addition of an elec- 
trolyte, may tend to induce coagulation by increasing the attraction of the various 
molecules for one another, and by their friction produce amalgamation or cemen- 
tation. Indiarubber is very sensitive to changes of temperature, becoming soft 
and sticky or tacky at high temperatures, and hard and brittle at low temperatures, 
2.e., 10° C. or 50° Fahr. These properties render it quite unsuitable for most economic 
uses both in hot and cold countries; and had it not been for Goodyear’s and 
Hancock’s discoveries regarding the effect of heating mixtures of rubber and 
sulphur together to a temperature above the melting point of the latter, the 
demand for rubber would have been very limited. This process is now commonly 
known as vulcanisation, and consists in the formation of a continuous series of 
addition products involving the chemical combination of these two substances— 
polyprene and sulphur. When heated (under pressure or otherwise) to a temper- 
ature of 120° C. or over (the melting point of sulphur being 113°5° C.) the resulting 
addition compound is a polyprene sulphide of the probable formula (C109 Hygo S) 
for soft goods and (Cio His S2) for ebonite, the highest vuleanised product. The 
rate at which sulphur enters into combination with the Indiarubber hydrocarbon 
‘“‘polyprene” (Cio His) varies with each brand of rubber and the temperature and 
time employed in the vulcanisation, but in most instances there is a steady 
increase corresponding with the higher temperature and longer period employed, 
and in the finished product a gradual reduction in elasticity with increase of 


hardness. 
METHODS OF VULCANISING. 


In the ordinary vulcanisation there is only from 2 to 2°5% of combined 
sulphur, but a much Jarger proportion is usually added in the mixing, and some of 
this uncombined sulphur frequently appears on the surface of rubber goods 
in the form of a fine efflorescence. There are three or four methods by 
which this is accomplished. The first is to introduce the articles into 
a boiler, and after closing the end hermetically to admit steam from another 
boiler until the pressure amounts to 52 or 60 1b. per sq. inch, corresponding to a 
temperature of 142° C. to 144°C. The length of time this has to be maintained 
depends on the quality of the rubber, Para vulcanising more slowly than the soft 
and more sticky varieties ; it also depends on the cross-action of the rubber to be 
vulcanised—thin objects being completed within the first hour, and thicker objects 
requiring two to three hours. 

The boilers employed for this purpose are frequently of enormous size, the 
largest being about 65 feet long by 16 feet to 20 feet in diameter. They are con- 
structed of strong wrought ironina similar manner to an ordinary steam boiler 
except that one end is removable for putting in on a tramway the trays or trollies 
on which the various articles are placed. The object of the great length is to 
vulcanise tubes in a straight line, and so preserve their shape, the tube being 
mounted on an iron mandrel, the diameter of which corresponds to the inner bore. 


€. 


Gums, Resims, 284. [Ocr ne 1906. n 


Toys and other small objects are vulcanised in moulds, hollow articles 
usually having a little water or ammonia placed inside them in the mould, so that 
when heated the elastic force of the vapour compresses the rubber against the walls 
of the mould. Another method of vulcanising employed for flat objects such as shoe- 
soles, belting sheet, &c., is by the employment of screw or hydraulic presses some- 
what similar to a letter-press, the two plates of which are hollow and can be steam- 
heated from an ordinary boiler. The lower plate is fixed in the screw-presses, but 
movable in those worked by hydraulic power. Objects made of mixed rubber are 
placed in moulds between the two plates of the press, which are strongly compressed 
and steam admitted to a pressure of 25 to 4 atmospheres, corresponding to 
a temperature of 128 to 144 C. The length of time required varies according 
to the proportion of sulphur, the steam-pressure in the plates and the kind 
of mixture, but rarely exceeds two hours, and this is often reduced to one or 


even half-an-hour, In the case of vulcanising by S2 ClL2, this is dissolved in carbon 
bisulphide and the objects are immersed in itin the cold. The next process to 


mastication is the incorporation of sulphur or the solid sulphides required for 
vulcanisation, and if necessary the various colouring and mineral or other ingre- 
dients employed for modifying the rubber according to the uses to which it is to be 
put. For the operation to be successful the mixing must be perfect, and the mass 
must form one homogeneous whole. The masticated and dried rubber is put 
through the mixer with 7 to 10 per cent. of sublimed sulphur, though the range is 
sometimes from 23 to 25 per cent. In the latter case the excess can only be con- 
sidered as an inert addition giving a fictitious weight to the manufactured article. 
9 to 11 1b. of the rubber are passed repeatedly through the hot rolls, diminishing the 
space between them as the operation proceeds. As the sheet issues from the roll, 
it is dusted for the first time with sublimed sulphur and rolled upon itself, and 
again passed through the mixer. This is repeated until the requisite amount of 
sulphur, &e., has been added and thoroughly incorporated into a homogeneous 
mass. In this state, the mass which is still nothing but a simple mixture, is 
wrought in the ordinary way for its conversion into threads, sheets, tubes, shoes 
or any other object of definite shape. It is only now that vulcanisation is 
effected. 


TREATMENT OF RAW RUBBER. 


The rubber as imported into England in the various forms now to be seen in 
the Exhibition first undergoes a process of softening, washing and mastication to 
remove solid and other impurities. This is effected by immersing in hot water in 
wooden vats for 12 to 24 hours, and then by passing it in small quantities at a time 
through very powerful rollers revolving at different speeds, which tear and com- 
press the rubber, while a stream of water from above washes away all the impurities 
in the form of wood, bark, stone, &c. The rollers are made of hardened cast iron 
and are usually grooved spirally or in the form of lozenges so as to facilitate the 
shredding and mastication. Their distance apart can be adjusted by tightening 
screws, and beneath them is a wrought-iron collecting tank covered by a perforated 
plate. The rubber after being passed through several times appears in the form of 
a long strip of lace-work similar to that so largely manufactured in the Malay 
States. This process requires much power—a machine capable of working 20 to 30 
lb. of rubber at a time, requiring at least 15 to 20 H.P. actual. Rubbers vary 
as to the ease with which they can be washed, but Para is the best in this repect, 
as it contains fewest impurities. The rubber has now to be dried, which is effected 
by spreading on iron wires or in stoves capable of being heated to 50° or60°C. — 
12°-140° Fahr.), care being taken to dry the greasy and pitchy rubbers atas lowa — 
temperature as possible. In many cases the sheets soften and fall to the ground 
in lumps, trom which the moisture can only be evaporated with great difficulty. — 


Oct. 1906:] 285 Saps and Exudations. 


The drying room should have a free circulation of air, and the darker it is 
maintained, the more valuable is the resultant dried rubber. The rubber is then 
stored until required for industrial purposes. 


THE MASTICATION PROCESS, 


The loss in weight in washing and drying of raw rubber is very variable, 
sometimes rising as high as 60 per cent in inferior kinds, while hard Para loses 10 
to 16 per cent, and plantation Para only 1 to 4 per cent. When required for manu- 
facture, the rubber has to undergo a further process of mastication or kneading 
by frequent passing between massive, hollow steam-heated rollers over 4 feet long 
and 19 inches in diameter. One roll is usually smooth, the other grooved, and they 
revolve at unequal speed, the latter twice as rapidly as the former. The distance 
apart is capable of regulation, and the rubber is forced through again and again 
until it becomes perfectly homogeneous in character. Great care is necessary in 
the process, which, if the rubber is not perfectly dry, takes from 40 to 50 minutes, 
according to the amount of moisture that has to be evaporated. In most factories, 
rubbers from different sources are masticated separately—some African varieties, 
which become tacky under the action of the hot rolls, taking a much longer time, 
and their sticky character necessitating the addition of a little talc (hydrous silicate 
of magnesia). 

THE VULCANISER. 


I would here like to briefly describe the form of vuleaniser. This is a small 
vertical boiler witha small copper cylinder into which the objects you wish to 
vuleanise would be placed. Water is placed in the cylinder and the whole 
apparatus is closed and heated until the steam pressure reaches 3 to 4 atmospheres. 
With a low proportion of sulphur in the rubber, vulcanisation can take place in 
about half-an-hour. With a high proportion you want 3 to4 hours to vulcanise. 
The actual time required for vulcanisation is one of the most important points, 
and it is very easy to spoil a whole batch of goods by a half, or even a quarter of 
an houc’s over-vuleanisation, so that when you have perhaps a ton or more of manu- 
factured articles in these large cylinders being subjected to the vulcanisation 
process, it requires a large amount of experience to know exactly when the articles 
are likely to be over-vulcanised; otherwise a little over-heating might spoil 
them entirely. You have all seenin the Exhibition the various kinds of rubber 
which have to be vulcanised, including large blocks which have to be torn and 
macerated and mixed with sulphur or other powders until the mixture becomes 
perfectly homogenous—that is to say, that if you cut a section and put it under the 
microscope the whole section is perfectly uniform. From the description I have 
given, you can see an enormous amount of time and power is employed in this 
process. 


TO SULPHURISE RUBBER IN CEYLON. 


What we propose todo out here is tosave that time and power by adding 
sulphur or sulphur compounds tothe latex direct from the tree. I have herea 
sample of latex. I do not know the exact proportion of rubber in this latex, but it 
is very easy to ascertain the amount. You then would add a measured quantity of 
this sulphur solution, of which you know the exact proportion of sulphur, and you 
will see that it is capable of instantaneously mixing with the latex, so that a per- 
fectly intimate mixture is obtainable. This would be done in huge vats, and it 
would mean that the latex from various estates could be amalgamated and a very 
uniform product obtained.: By aslight stirring you geta perfect admixture. On 
the addition of the acid to this rubber—in the usual way you coagulate rubber in 
Ceylon—the sulphur would be thrown out of solution, but as the sulphur is in an 
extremely fine state of division, you will find no sedimentation and it is thrown out 


Gums, Resins, 286 [ Oct. 1906. 


through the whole mass of the latex. The acid while throwing out the sulphur, © 


causes coagulation of the rubber particles throughout the mass with the result that 
the sulphur is thrown in contact with every molecule of rubber. You can tell the 
end of the reaction by the ordinary litmus test which will turn red on the slightest 
excess of acid. It is advisable not to add a great excess of acid either in 
the vuleanisation process or in the ordinary process, as there is no doubt 
an excess of acid has some effect on rendering the rubber more liable to become 
soft and tacky. I believe the original idea of coagulation with acetic acid was 
that the rubber particles rose to the surface and then set toasolid mass. That 
is not the ease. Rubber sets throughout the whole body of the liquid, and being 
lighter that the water it contracts on itself and rises to form a layer on the surface, 


COLOURING OF LATEX. 


|The colouring of latex by organic dyes was then demonstrated, and Mr. Bam- 
ber went on to say this would be useful for the manufacture of children’s toys as 
there will be no necessity for poisonous colours being put on the outside, as the’ 
colour will be mixed throughout the rubber. | 


You will see that this process will mean an enormous saving of time 
and labour, and I think myself we will ultimately obtain stronger rubber, 
and instead of using 8 to 10 per cent of sulphur, we will only have to 
add one or 2 per cent. I have here some samples of rubber produced 
in this way, the strength of which compares very favourably with rubber 
as ordinarily produced, At the same time that I was making this sample, 
I made a biscuit from the same latex without any admixture of sulphur 
or any ingredient. This was dried and treated exactly in the same way as the 
other biscuit—under the same _ conditions and on the same bench—but 
within a week it ran into a soft tacky condition, whereas in none of the sulphured 
samples was the slightest tackiness shown. I think this antimony solution 
and the sulphur itself hasa very strong antiseptic effect on the rubber. I should 
like, if possible later on, to show how vulcanisation actually takes place, as small 
articles can be done here. Unfortunately the vulcanising press I expected has not 
arrived, and will not be here for another fortnight. (Applause.) 


DISCUSSION. 


Mr. JAMES RYAN said he had to thank Mr. Bamber for much valuable 
information, but at the same time he noticed Mr, Bamber had used the Centigrade 
scale in making his calculations, and he would like to give the figures mentioned in 
Fahrenheit, as follows :— 


112? Fahr. = 50 Centigrade, 
140° ry) aa 60 ” 
262° 3 = 112 % 
291° ~~ Ad: % 


They would notice that the lower scale was below the boling point of water, and the 
higher scale was considerably above it. 


Mr. BAMBER :—I am sorry I did not give the three figures. I had them here, 
but I did not think it was necessary. (Laughter.) 


Dr. WILLIS remarked that the future would be in the possibility 
which Mr. Bamber had briefly indicated of the vulcanisation, colouring and other- 
wise treating of rubber in the state of latex instead of allowing it first of all to be vi 
coagulated in block or biscuit, whichever it might be, and then breaking it up and 
practically reconstructing it, as a great many did into sheet, containing sulphur and 
other compounds intimately intermixed with it. It appeared to him there 
must be a loss of strength in the rubber by that method of treating it, 


Gen 1906. | : mit 287 Saps and Exudations, 


and it seemed to him that they should first of all sulphurise the latex and then work 
it straight off into any manufactured form they desired, Whether thereby they 
would be able to count upon a considerable gain in strength, of course, was a matter 
for future determination. No one knew much about it at present, but the manufac- 
tured article did not appear to be equal in strength to the raw rubber as it came 
from the grower or collector in the jungle; but one had to remember that the 
manutactured article mainly consisted of adulteration if he might use the term. 
(Laughter.) He recently saw in the first page of a standard work on rubber manu- 
facture Jean Jacques Rousseau’s remark, that adulteration was used to such an extent 
as almost to lose all the properties of the raw rubber. It was by that process of 
adulteration that we were able to get rubber goods comparatively cheaply. One 
paid very little more for the manufactured rubber than for the raw product. It 
seemed to him that we should be able to make these additions out here instead of 
leaving it to the home manufacturers. 


“PLYING AT THE THROATS OF THE MANUFACTURERS.” 


Mr. SmitHEeTT (LONDON) :—There is one thing, I think, that planters should con- 
sider in regard. to this question of vuleanisation, and that is, that) they are flying at 
the throats of the manufacturers. The rubber output from Ceylon and the Straits 
Settlements and the Malay States is a very small thing at present, and it will be 
some years, even taking Mr. Wright’s figures yesterday, before it will be equal to, or 
at any rate, supplant the wild rubber. The wild rubber comes in the natural state 
to England and the manufacturers know how to deal with it, and there is nothing 
that the manufacturers object to so much as having the article partially prepared 
for them. We saw this, as the other judges and people present from London will 
bear me out, in the manufacturers’ objection to crépe; they are getting over that 
objection gradually now, but they objected to it because it was washed rubber. 
Anyhow fora good many years, it will be advisable, until Ceylon and the Malay 
Archipelago can control the rubber market, that they should send as pure an article 
as possible, and not to try, if I may say so, the experiments in sending the manufac- 
tured article or even partially manufactured article, which would simply annoy and 
worry the ordinary manufacturers. I think the lecture has been very interesting, 
and while I think Mr. Bamber has earned our best thanks for it, I should like to give 
this word of warning. (Hear, hear.) 


Mr. RyAn:—As a wholesale producer I coincide with what Mr, Smithett has 
said. It never pays the wholesale man to go behind the retail trade. That is the 
one lesson which all Exhibitions have taught us; that is—give every man his little 
bit of jam. (Laughter.) If you try to take away the jam, you make him your 
enemy instead of your friend. Our business is growing rubber. At the same time 


there is no harm in our making experiments calculated to improve our manufacture. 
(Hear, hear.) 


Mr. BAMBER said he wished it to be clearly understood that he did not think 
planters would ever go in for this individually on their estates. What he did think 
- might happen was that some manufacturers from England or America, or possibly 
Germany, might buy the latex up out here and make their sulphured rubber. 
He did not think it was a process for the planter but for the manufacturer, who if 


he saw a saving in labour, time or money would undobtedly take it upin the 
near future. 


Mr. ZACHARIAS said he was sure they were all very much indebted to 
Mr. Bamber for his illuminating lecture that day. He quite agreed with Mr. 
Smithett that until the supplies of rubber produced in Ceylon and Straits 


were ey. much larger than they were at present, the vulcanisation process 


Gums, Resins. 288 [ Oct. 1906. 


would hardly be advisable out there. But there was another point to which 
Mr. Bamber called their attention, and that was the question of tackiness. Tacki- 
ness, as they all knew, was their great enemy, and Mr. Bamber had told them that he 
had reason for believing that it was due to oxidising enzymes and bacteria or fungus 
of sorts. He did not know whether that had been found out before, or whether the 
honour rested with Mr. Bamber of having discovered it, but at any rate it would 
be one of the most important results that they would take away with them from 
that Exhibition. (Hear, hear.) If tackiness was due to fungus, he took it all rubber 
would be dealt with in some such way as inthe Amazon, either by aseptics or 
antiseptics. Mr. Bamber had already told them that great cleanliness would prevent 
tackiness. Another poiat was the use of antiseptics, and he would like to know 
whether it is possible to prevent tackiness by adding some creosote. A few 
days ago he hada talk with Dr. Willis, and he was of opinion that it would be 
quite possible to use creosote. He (the speaker) would be very glad to hear whether 
it was possible to do that, and whether any experiment that had been made showed 
that rubber thus treated was inferior or superior to the ordinary article. At the 
same time they all knew that the rubber as got from Brazil was smoked, and the 
smoke contained creosote and acetic acid, and this would tend to show that drying 
rubber with a very fine solution of creosote would be the right thing. At the same 
time Mr. Bamber had told them that morning that acetic acid, if addedin any 
surplus quantity, had just the opposite effect, and he was sure they would all be 
obliged if Mr. Bamber would further elucidate these few points. 


FACTORY RUBBER. 


Mr. BAMBER said, as regards the question of bacteria and fungi in tacky 
rubber, he worked that out about a year ago. He sterilised some rubber and 
inoculated it under very careful conditions with slight traces of tacky rubber. He 
was by this means able to inoculate a piece of sterilised rubber and the tackiness 
spread rapidly through it. He also got Dr. Castellani to work with him, and he 
found certain bacteria, one or two varieties of fungus, growing on the new tacky 
rubber. He also found, as he had said before, there was an oxidising enzyme present 
in most cases where the tacky rubber was very bad. As regard the use of 
antiseptics he has always pointed out that, in his opinion, the rubber factory 
ought to be as perfectly clean and pure as the best dairy. In going through some 
of the estates one saw tins and buckets—at least he saw them some time ago, for 
he had not been recently—soiled, and with putrefying rubber from previous 
collections coagulated round the sides. He knew from his own experience that the 
sap in the latex encourages the growth of bacteria. With regard to the use 
of creosote he thought it would be quite possible, and he would be glad to try 
it by the addition of alcohol or an admixture with some oil which would 
not affect the rubber. He did not think it was necessry if there was 
was perfect cleanliness in the factory ; but one had always to remember in tapping, 
when new trees were coming in day after day, that in the first tapping they cut 
through the sap vessels as well as the laticiferous tubes, and thereby got an 
admixture of sap in the latex with its sugar and other constituents prone to 


VF 


it 


decomposition. He did not think it was absolutely essential to add any creosote — 


or any other antiseptic, though it was not always possible to keep a factory as 
clean as one would wish. He had seen rubber treated with creosote, and there was 
no doubt that it was rather stronger, and it possibly had an effect of increasing the 
toughness. In any case he would be glad to make experiments in that direction. 
TREATING LATEX WITH SULPHUR. 

Mr. HERBERT WRIGHT :—There are one or two questions I should like to 
ask Mr. Bamber. With regard to the subject of treating the latex with sulphur 
compounds, I should like to ask one or two questions. I presume it is essential to 


e 


Oct, 1906.] 289 Saps and Exudations. 


treat the latex while in a liquidfcondition with these compounds. Is it possible to 
carry on such work on an ordinary estate, or must the whole of that latex be sent 
down to some central factory in Colombo or Kandy, or wherever the most convenient 
centre may be? If itis necessary to send down the whole of the latex toa central 
factory, I am rather afraid there may be some difficulty in fixing its real value. 
From day to day on different trees, on different estates, and on different days, we 
know that the composition of latex varies considerably. Itis not enough to say here 
are a few gallons of undiluted latex, because the samples even from different trees 
on different days may possess anything you like from 40 to 90 per cent. of water ; 
so it seems rather difficult if you have a central factory to really arrive ata satis- 
factory arrangement; but if it could be carried out on the estates then I think 
the idea would be more congenial. 


Mr. BAMBER, replying to Mr. Wright, said it was quite possible to add solid 
sulphur compounds to the freshly coagulated rubber and mix it in the ordinary 
machines, but he did not think himself there would be any difficulty in ascertaining 
the correct amount of rubber in the latex. If the rubber was sent down in casks 
to a central factory, it would be well mixed before it reached the factory, and 
it would be easy to ‘accurately ascertain the amount of actual rubber in it 
from a proportionate part. They could take outa sample, cure it in a few minutes 
compress it between drying sheets, and then weigh the rubber, and they could 
calculate how much there was in the total bulk of latex of actual rubber. It 
would be quite simple if they did not wish to wait until the rubber dried to 
make out a table with the corresponding weights of wet and dried rubber. As 
regards the specific gravity, the readings were far too uncertain to draw correct 
deductions from as to the amount of rubber in the latex, because it varied so much 
with the matter in solution either from the latex itself or sap. 


Mr. WRIGHT:—Then I take it that the planter would not really know the 
value of the latex he sent until it had been determined at the factory. He could, 
of course, take counter readings. 


Mr. BAMBER :—It would be possible for the planter to do it himself before 
sending it away. 

Mr. WricuHt :—In association with that it might be possible to accumulate 
latex in large quantities and keep it in a liquid condition by the addition of 
ammonia. We have been making experiments here with the different latices, 
and our idea has been to find out how long the latex can be kept in a liquid condition 
by the addition of formalin or ammonia, and I should rather like to ask Mr. Bamber 
whether, in the event of its being necessary to keep latex in a liquid condition for 
several weeks, it is likely certain chemical changes might not take place. I have 
samples of rubber prepared from latex kept for six weeks, and I am sorry to say 
they are inferior ; while one might have expected them to be perfect. I am speak- 
ing with reference to Para rubber, and Mr. Bamber will perhaps teli us whether 
any chemical change does take place. 

Mr. BAMBER said that he did not think when formalin is used there was 
much chemical change, but in the case of ammonia he thought it was quite possible, 
there would be some change. He had kept latex in his laboratory for two 
or three weeks without any deterioration whatever. 

Mr. WRIGHT :—Two or three weeks! 

Mr. BAMBER :—I think I could have kept it six or ten weeks. The only thing 
he saw was that when he worked it into biscuits it coagulated a little more rapidly 
than when it was fresh. The moment the acetic acid was added, the whole at once 
set into a solid mass which was in a way rather a nuisance as they did not want 
it to set too quickly. He did not think there was any fear so long as there was 
no excess of formalin—more than sufficient to prevent bacteria forming. 


Gums, Resins, 290 nm) [Ocr. 


Mr. CARRUTHERS said he should like to be allowed to say that among the 
interesting lectures and conferences there, that lecture was one of if not the most 
interesting, and he thought there was no doubt they could say, almost without 
exaggeration, that that might be an epoch-making paper read to them by Mr. 
Bamber, and it was possible in the future it might cause great changes in the 
rubber-producing industry. At the same time he was very glad Mr. Smithett told 
them quite plainly the position of the men at home, and it was well the matter 
should be looked at from a practical point of view. The subject might have come 
better if it had been brought before them by a home manufacturer and not by 
their friend, Mr. Bamber ; but at the same time he was rather glad that Mr. Bamber 
should have been the man who should have discovered and originated this possibly 
entire:y revolutionary notion with regard to rubber. (Applause). When the 
producer in the Federated Malay States began to manufacture crépe, as Mr, 
Smithett had told them, and after visiting the manufacturers at home, he had 
come to the conclusion that they were fighting shy of crépe simply because they 
were treading on their corns and trespassing on their grounds in regard to the 
manufacture—he had no doubt directly they began to syspect any rivalry they 
would have difficulty with them. He thought that with due caution they should 
keep that matter in the back of their heads at present. That process of Mr, 
Bamber’s would help them in the future, but he thought they ought to 
‘ca, cany” at present, There could be no doubt, as Mr. Bamber’s arguments 
showed, that the proper time to mix any substances with their rubber was when it 
was inthe form of latex, He thought it was an important original idea, They 
were there hearing a most interesting paper, and he was not sure but that it would 
be better to treat it at this stage as an interesting paper and not one that planters 
can actually accomplish. (Applause.) 


Dr. CUTHBERT CHRISTY said he could not talk of the vulcanisation of rubber 
as he knew nothing about it, but there was one point with regard to the 
keeping of latex to which he would like to refer. There was little doubt but that 
could be kept for a long time. He had had experience in London with samples that 
were over two months old with the addition of a little formalin. They were 
perfectly good and formed excellent biscuits. The only chemical action that had 
gone on was the formation of sulphuretted hydrogen. The latex was perfectly good 
and produced perfectly good rubber although one or two months old. 


Mr. RYAN said in corroboration of what had been said by Dr. Christy 
and Mr. Bamber, he might mention that for many years from Nigeria and 
the French Congo they had been in the habit of exporting latex in casks 
which apparently reached the market, and presumably, as it was still going on, they 
found it paid todo so, They had river transport. Some four or five months ago he 
had exported two hogsheads of latex to London, and the commercial report on the 
resultant rubber was favourable. It arrived in perfect condition. The time in 
transit was 28 days. There was adelay of seven days inthe London docks, and 
before it was actually treated it was about six weeks’ time from the date it was 
despatched from Colombo. The remarks made by the manufacturers were to the 
effect there was a slight generation of sulphuretted hydrogen. That was the only 
change made in the rubver. (Hear, hear.) 


Mr. BAMBER said there was one other point which he wished to mention. 
Not very long ago, he saw a notice in the papers that they were exporting latex 
from Brazil to France with the view of making the rubber there, and he could not 
see himself why they should not be first in the field in that sort of work, though 
he quite realised it was premature at present. There was not a sufficient supply 
of rubber to make it worth the while of manufacturers coming out here to buy 


VMN TREN ee ee 


Oct. 1906.] 291 Saps and Exudations. 


latex, but he thought in the future they would come to this. It seemed to him 


rather absurd to make your rubber and then unnerve it again by various processes 
which he had described, mix it with sulphur, which was as they might imagine, 
one of the most difficult processes out, and re-form it in sheet. If they could make 
it on the spot—not themselves, but the manufacturers who could come out and 
make it—it would be a very decided step in advance and possibly make the demand 
for rubber greater. 

Mr. Brett (LONpDON).—I am quite sure Mr. Bamber’s description of vulcanisa- 
tion must have been extremely interesting to all who have been present, and valuable 
in that way ; but I think the difference between the part of the lecture which is merely 
informing, and that part which is to be applied in Ceylon ought to be emphasised. I 
understand that Mr. Bamber does not suggest that the actual vulcanisation should 
take place in Ceylon, but merely the process of combining the latex with 
sulphur. I mention this because it struck me that otherwise much opposition 
might be brought forward which might be avoided if this were clearly understood. 
There is one other point I should like to mention. Your Eastern rubber is being 
very largely used for experimental purposes at present, and every day the methods 
of preparation are being perfected. I have often heard it said that your rubber 
has a high standard of purity, and possibly in the future it will be possible to 
use it straightaway in the factories for solution purposes and so on, without any 
mastication or washing. (Applause.) 


Mr. BAMBER :—I quite agree with Mr. Brett. There is no intention to vul- 
canise, but the idea is merely to mix sulphur and various compounds out here with 
the latex and send it home to the manufacturers assheet; but that would be done 


not by the planters, but by the firms of manufacturers coming out and doing it 
themselves, 


Mr, Devitt (Lonpon) :—I should like to ask, if the market is bad and a planter 
has two or three thousand gallons of latex on his hands, how is he to storeit? He 
might have to hold it two or three months, Each planter would have to have a place 
to store itin; if not, he might have to sacrifice it at whatever price he could get. 


Mr. WRIGHT :—You would still have scrap rubber to deal with. 


Mr, RYAN :— We could manufacture in the ordinary method. In that form 
rubber does not deteriorate quickly. 


ACTION OF AMMONIA AND FORMALIN ON LATEX. 


Mr. WRIGHT said in regard to the maintaining of latex in the liquid condi- 
tion for a long period, there were persons who were afraid to add any chemical agent 
whatever to the latex, and he wished Mr. Bamber would definitely explain the 
action of ammonia and formalin. He estimated, though he might be quite 
wrong, that the addition of ammonia did not prevent decomposition, but it 
simply neutralised the acids formed in decomposition. On the other hand 
he took it that formalin acted in a quite different manner and prevented 
the original decomposition, so that formalin would have preference over 
ammonia, while it could be driven off easily by the application of heat. 

Mr. BAMBER said the action of ammonia and formalin was exactly as 
described by Mr. Wright. The ammonia combined with the acid produced by decom- 
position by the action of bacteria, whereas formalin prevented the development of 
bacteria at all; and, therefore, there was no chemical change except possibly 
the production of sulphuretted hydrogen, which he had not heard of before it was 
mentioned that day. He did not say that no chemical change at all would take 
place. Changes might take place owing to variations of climate and temperature, 


- but they would not be due to formalin. 


~ anbid 


by Ss pee es 
Gums, Resins, 292 [Ocr. 1906. 7 
Mr. RYAN :—To put it briefly, ammonia is anti-acid and formalin is antiseptic. 


This concluded the discussion ; and a vote of thanks having been passed to 
Mr. Bamber for his lecture, those present separated. 


REPORT UPON A VISIT TO GREAT BRITAIN TO INVESTIGATE THE 
INDIA RUBBER INDUSTRY IN ITS RELATION TO THE GROWTH 
AND PREPARATION OF RAW INDIA-RUBBER IN THE 
MALAY PENINSULA. III. 


By P. J. BURGESS. 


ee 


IN THE HEAT CURE. 


23. The raw rubber and finely-powdered sulphur are mixed together inti- 
mately on a mixing or a masticating machine. If other ingredients are to be added 
to the rubber, it is done at the same time that the sulphur is incorporated. Chemical 
union between the sulphur and the rubber takes place neither during this mixing 
nor afterwards, as long as the mixture is kept cold. If, however, it be heated to 
about 300° F. chemical union takes place slowly, and the new product, vulcanised 
rubber, is formed. By far the greater bulk of rubber is vulcanised in this way. 
The hot chambers in which the actual heating and vuleanisation are carried out are of 
several types, and differ in the way in which the heat is applied. Where pressure has 
to be exerted on the rubber during vulcanisation the goods are vulcanised in moulds, 
between large plates of iron, which are hollow and heated by steam. In other cases, 
large chambers heated by steam are used, and into these the rubber goods, placed on 
trays and smothered in French chalk, are taken. Fabrics coated with rubber —such as 
sheeting and mackintosh cloth—are wound round a large iron drum and immersed in 
water, which under pressure is heated to the required temperature, Long tunnels, 50 
or 60 feet long, dry heated by steam, are used for vulcanising hose pipe and lengths of 
tubing which cannot be coiled. The temperature is regulated so as to slowly rise to 
about 300° F., and after maintenance at that point for a period varying from half to 
three hours, it is slowly allowed to drop again. During vulcanisation a portion of the 
sulphur combines with the rubber and forms the new addition compound, which is 
quite distinct from raw India-rubber, and from which the sulphur cannot be removed 
by any known process. Although the whole of the rubber is acted upon by the 
sulphur to a greater or lesser degree, the action is slow and the whole of the sulphur 
present is not used up during the short period that the vulcanisation lasts, and 
free uncombined sulphur remains disseminated throughout the vulcanised product. 
A prolonged period of heating during vulcanisation diminishes the excess of sulphur, 
and leads to the production of more highly vulecanised rubber. The more sulphur 
which vulecanised rubber has used and actually combined with, the darker and 
harder the product until the extremes of vulcanite and ebonite are reached. From 
partially vulcanised goods the excess of free sulphur can be chemically extracted, 
and this is one of the operations in ‘‘ recovered” vulcanised rubber; the combined 
sulphur, however, remains always in the recovered rubber. The recovery of rubber, 
therefore, is an operation by which the mechanically mixed substances, such as the 
excess of sulphur and the fillings with which the rubber was mixed in manufacture, 
are wholly or partially removed, and the residue resulting is worked up into a 
form in which it can be blended with new rubber, and act as a substitute for 
a portion. 

COLD CURE. 

24, Although pure sulphur does not combine with india-rubber ata tem- 
perature below 270° F., yet a compound of sulphur with chlorine—namely, mono- 
chloride of sulphur—does react on rubber, and the sulphur is transferred from the 


_: 
aay 


Oct. 1906. } 293 Saps and Hxudations. 


chloride of sulphur to the rubber, and yulcanisation takes place rapidly and 
completely at ordinary temperatures. This action with pure chloride of sulphur 
is too violent; this agent is therefore diluted and a solution of 2—3% of chloride 
of sulphur in carbon bisulphide is used. The article to be vulcanised is immersed 
in this solution, and left fora few minutes, the time varying with the thickness 
of the rubber ; it is removed, drained, and finally washed with water. The chamber 
in which this dipping takes place must be specially arranged to prevent the 
fumes of the solution, which are poisonous and corrosive, coming into contact 
with the workmen. This cold cure is used for goods which from their nature would 
be damaged by exposure tu the temperature required for heat vulcanisation, and 
also for goods in which the presence of uncombined or free sulphur is objectionable, 
or which have been made by accumulation of rubber by dipping in rubber solution, 
as is the case with teats for infants’ bottles, and in some surgical goods. 


SOLUTION MAKING. 


25. In dissolving rubber for making solution or pastes for spreading on 
fabrics, benzole is the solvent generally used. The process is simple, the washed dry 
rubber is soaked in the solvent and then ground up with the solvent.in enclosed 
boxes, in which are several pairs of small rollers which thoroughly mix the rubber 
and solvent, and according to the relative amounts of rubber and solvent produce 
asolution free from lumps. [If a solution of plantation rubber be made by 
shaking rubber and benzole ina glass bottle, a turbid instead of a transparent 
solution results. This is due toa small quantity of a resinous body which is always 
normally present in all Para Rubber, and which is not soluble in benzole. The 
effect of the mechanical rolling in solution making in the factory, is to largely 
break up and incorporate the flakes of this resin and render the whole homogenous 
and transparent. Thorough mastication of the rubber also tends to produce this 
same result, and rubber after complete mastication is far more inclined to dissolve 
to a clear solution in rubber solvents than simple sheet, biscuit, or crépe rubber. 
This point I mention because the solution of samples of rubber in solvents is 
one test of the purity of rubber, and the presence of this insoluble resin, which 
appears large in bulk, but which is in reality only a small fraction of a per cent., is 
apt to prove disconcerting to the person making the test. 


FINAL MECHANICAL PROCESSES. 


26. The detailed mechanical manufacture of the actual rubber goods of 
commerce can only have an indirect interest to the rubber grower; but though 
indirect, it is, I consider, sufficiently great to justify the inclusion of an account of 
some of these processes in this report. Much of my time was spent in acquiring 
‘knowledge of these details in the various factories I visited. These facts must be 
remembered in order to properly understand the final manufacture of rubber goods. 
The dough of masticated rubber, mixed with sulphur and other ingredients, is 
plastic and has lost the original elasticity of rubber. It can be cut and moulded, 
stamped into shapes, bent and twisted, just as putty, clay, or a dough of flour 
and water may. Rubber dough and masticated rubber are self-adhesive, and cut 
surfaces can be joined firmly together by simple pressure, and if the surfaces be 
brushed over with benzole the pressure required to forma very fine junction is of 
the slightest. On heating the dough and masticated rubber which contains sulphur, 
a chemical change takes place and a chemical compound of rubber and sulphur is 
formed which possesses the original elasticity and toughness of the raw rubber, 
but ina great and more perfect degree. This chemical change is called vulcani- 
sation of the rubber, and it is the final process to which practically all manufactured 
rubber goods are put. It must never be forgotten that raw rubber and vulecanised 
rubber are quite different and distinct substances, their chemical compositions are 


Gums, Resins, 294 [Ocr. 190 


different, their properties both physical and chemical are quite distinct, and 
moreover though the change from raw rubber to the sulphur compound of rubber— 
that is, vuleanised rubber—can be easily effected by simple mixing and heating 
to 300° F,, the reverse process of removing the sulphur and reforming raw rubber 
has never yet been done. 


27. The vulcanised rubber goods which the manufacturer turns out may be 
divided into three main classes—I, stamped and moulded goods; II, goods built up 
of rubber dough and other material ; and ITI, sheeted and spread rubber goods. 


STAMPED GOODS. 


28. All solid rubber articles—such as heel pads, soles for shoes, vulcanite 
stoppers, rubber rings, washers, mats. buffer and rubber pads, billiard cushions 
rubber tube, etc.,—are prepared direct from the dough by stamping them out by 
hand or by machines, coating them with French chalk to prevent adhesion, and 
then vulcanising simply by heating on trays or in iron moulds. The variety of 
goods of this kind is enormous and without limit, and doughs of most diverse 
composition from pure rubber and sulphur to mixtures where rubber is present 
in very small proportion, are used for this kind of work. This branch of the 
manufacture of rubber goods is as simple to understand as the art of the pastry 
cook, who stamps out fancifully shaped little cakes, or twists up curly bread, 
dredges with flour and bakes inan oven. The secrets are in the recipés for the 
dough, and the art in the manner of making the shapes and regulating the baking. 
There are many ingenious and complicated machines used to save labour, but some 
of the simplest articles no machine can yet produce, and hand labour has to be 
employed. Rubber rings of circular cross section, commonly called “ umbrella 
rings,” have all to be made up by hand. If stamped or moulded the strength is not 
to be relied upon. The mode of making isingenious. A long strip is cut froma 
thin sheet of dough, and this is cut into lengths of a few inches, not by simple cross 
diversions but by oblique cuts. These lozenge-shaped strips are then wrapped round 
a smooth circular rod and the sloping ends pressed together, A band is thus formed 
round the rod and the line of junction of the two original ends of the strip passes 
obliquely across the band. The workman, or rather workwoman, then rolls up into a 
ring with her fingers this flat band, still upon the rod, and by rolling it backwards 
and forwards upon the rod makes a smooth ring of it. The object of cutting 
the strip with oblique ends—or ‘‘ on the cross ”—is now evident, because the line of 
original junction which naturally would be the weakest place in the ring, is spread 
out over a considerable length of the ring, and it is everywhere wrapped round and 
supported by whole and unjointed layers of rubber, becoming thus nowhere more 
than a small portion of any part of the cross section of the ring. Screw stoppers for 
bottles are mechanically stamped out of a dough which contains a high proportion 
of sulphur, and which gives a kard product on vuleanisation, the dough is stamped in 
two stages, first a simple cylindrical rod is made and cut lengths of this are then 
fed into a powerful press which produces the final shape. For large and awkwardly 
shaped goods, such as the outer covers for pneumatic tyres, specially devised iron 
moulds to completely encase the tyre and exert pressure upon it during vuleani- 
sation are prepared. These moulds are in several portions and have to be fitted round 
each tyre separately and the portions keyed into contact. Flexible rubber tubing 


where the rubber is solid and not, asin piping associated with canvas, is squirted a 


out of a machine provided with compound nozzles, the apertures in which are ring- 
shaped. The rubber dough‘is ejected through this annular orifice as a hollow tube 
which only requires heat vulcanisation for completion. 


A‘detailed account of the mechanical difficulties encountered in this part of 
the work, and the way they are surmounted, would be of little use and certainly — 


WA 


ie ; Oct. 1906.] 295 Saps and Exudatons. 


tedious; the principal underlying all processes is the same—namely, moulding 
plastic dough and then reproducing the elasticity'‘and tenacity of the rubber goods 
by heat and vulcanisation. 


29. Rubber goods that are “built up” fall naturally into two classes, 
according to their being pure dough or compounded with other materials, as in 
the case of outer covers for tyres, hose piping, rubber belting, etc. The general 
mode of treatment is the same in all cases, and it is a mixture of joinery and 
tailoring. The dough is soft and plastic and so can be rolled to any thickness, 
cut to any shape, and applied to the goodsin any manner. The dough contains 
raw rubber and therefore is adhesive; cut edges of it can be pressed into 
contact, and that with the greatest ease, if the edges or surfaces are previously 
moistened with any rubber solvent. The tools necessary for use in this 
work are consequently of the simplest—a keen knife or stamps for cutting 
shapes, a squeejee for pressing surfaces into contact, and a pot of benzine witha 
piece of cloth as a sponge for moistening, with this solvent, edges to be stuck 
together. The goods built up in this way are, as would be expected, of extremely 
diverse character, and in some instances most ingenious methods to overcome 
special difficulties are practised. The process of making Indiarubber balls is a case 
in point. Rubber dough in the form of sheets is cut into oval pieces of precise size 
witha knife and ametal shape, the edges being cut bevelled. Three of these ova 
pieces are applied together by their edges which are firmly cemented with the 
assistance of a little benzole, forming very roughly a hollow ball. An aperture of 
about an inch in length is left between the edges of two of the pieces, a small lump 
of pure masticated rubber is stuck to the inside of one of the pieces, and the position 
of this indicated on the outside with a spot of paint. A pinch of ammonium carbon- 
ate is then put inside the ball, and after examining the joints inside the ball with 
the aid of alittle electric glow lamp the aperture is sealed up. The ballsare then put 
into moulds and vulcanised by heat. The object of the ammonium carbonate is here 
seen. This substance on heating to the temperature used in vulcanisation is com- 
pletely vapourised, and this vapour exerts some pressure inside the balls, blowing 
them out tightly against the spherical moulds in which they are being heated, 
rendering the shape exact to the mould and assisting in ensuring perfection of the 
joints ; on cooling the solid ammonium carbonate is again reformed and the balls are 
limp and under no pressure when removed from the moulds. A hypodermic needle 
connected with air under pressure is then thrust into the ball at the point where 
the lump of raw rubber was stuck inside. The compressed air is turned on and the 
ball inflated to its proper size, as shown bya gauge. On withdrawing the needle 
the aperture left in the lump of rubber inside, which contained no sulphur and 
which is therefore unvulcanised and sticky, at once closes and seals up the hole, a 
dab of solution is pricked into the hole in the outer cover to close this upalso, and 
the ball is ready for use, ready to be painted and enamelled in gaudy colours and 
sold as a toy, or to be covered with cloth and become a tennis ball for men. Most 
hollow air-tight rubber goods in one piece are prepared in this way, the presence of 
a lump inside may be taken as a certain indication of it. Hose pipes are constructed 
by being built up round iron tubes, 60-100 feet in length. Strips of canvas, coated 
with a film of rubber, layers of dough on canvas, and again canvas coated 
with a film of rubber are wrapped simply, without any spiral twisting, in layers 
over the inner core: the layers are all stuck together and squeejeed into a firm 
union, and then vuleanised. To extract the inner iron tube from the vulcanised pipe 
air is forced in between this tube and the outer hose pipe, which can then be easily 


slipped off the iron tube, 
SPREAD AND SHEETED GOODS. 


/ 30. This class includes all the waterproof fabrics from the coarse and heavy 


waterproof sheet of which the basis is a canvas, to the lightest and thinnest cloth 
j 39 


Gums, Resins, 206 {Ocr. 1906. oo 


for wearing apparel. This is one of the very important uses of rubber and is respon- 
sible for the consumption of a great part of the fine Para imported. Here probably 
plantation rubber would be of great use, being pale in colour, clean and free from 
offensive odour, provided that the lasting properties of the rubber are not injured 
in the preparation. 


Fabrics are coated with rubber in two ways. The rubber may be made into 
dough by masticating and mixing with sulphur and other ingredients and spread 
in this condition on the fabric by means of heated rollers; or the rubber, sulphur 
and mixings are made into a paste with a rubber solvent, and this paste is spread on 
the fabric by the aid of rollers, and the solvent dried off by passing the fabric over 
plates heated by steam. 

For vulcanisation, the heat cure, using steam or water, is usually adopted. 
The machinery necessary for spreading rubber is heavy and costly, the rolls are 
of polished steel about 2 feet in diameter, and each machine has at least three, 
and may have four, rollers arranged vertically above each other on horizontal 
axes. The fabric is rolled over the top roller, round between this and the second, 
an even tension being thus given to the cloth, and finally it emerges between 
the second and third. The rubber as dough or paste is spread on to the fabric 
from the face of the third roller, as the cloth passes between it and the second. 
There are machines for spreading simultaneously on both surfaces of the cloth, 
and many different details in the actual mechanism of the spreading. The rolls 
are called calanders, and the machines are very similar to the calandering machines 
used in paper manufacture. 


31. There are many forms of India-rubber goods which cannot justly be 
placed under any of the three previous clauses, but which deserve some mention 
here, especially as they are made for the great part from rubber of the finest 
quality, and for which plantation-grown rubber is at present never used. 


CUT-THREAD AND SHEET. 


82. Cut-thread is the name given to rubber in the form of thread, or strands 
of square cross section cut from solid sheets of rubber already vulcanised. This 
rubber thread which when fine is woven into elastic webbing, is all of the best 
possible quality, and special nerve, elastic and keeping properties are demanded, 
The amount of labour which is actually spent on the rubber would make ita false 
economy to use untried cheap rubber, and makers of cut-thread will not use at 
present plantation rubber for this process. Each manufactory has its own special 
methods for actually cutting the thread, and details of the machines are jealously 
guarded as secrets. I was, however, admitted in several instances and saw rubber 
being actually cut into threads by multiple scissors and knives, the thread after- 
wards being powdered and spooled and wound into hanks. The details of the 
cutting I shall not attempt to describe. 


Cut-sheet is made from large blecks or cylinders weighing about half a ton, 
the cutting being done by a blade four to six feet long, which is rapidly oscillating _ 
with a saw-like movement, and which is well lubricated with water or soap and 
water. Sheets cut in this way show a fine striation due to the little ridges which 
mark the progress of the knife at each stroke along the block or cylinder. A good 
tobacco pouch is usually made from this cut-sheet and shows the appearance 
described. The most interesting feature in making cut-thread or sheet to the man 
interested in rubber is the process of preparation of the rubber into blocks ready 
for the knife. The utmost care must be taken in the preliminary washing, and if 
any grit be in the raw rubber the washed sheet is subjected to a final cleaning 
between smooth and hardened steel rollers which crush the grains of sand which 
are then washed out, The rubber is then well masticated and mixed with sulphur 


a 
= 


Oct. 1906.] 297 Saps and Exudations, 


and whatever other ingredients may be required. The rubber is then forced by 
hydraulic pressure into huge iron moulds which will contain sometimes as much 
asa ton of rubber, and which are rectangular or cylindrical according to the type 
of machine which is to cut sheet from them, Special care has to be taken to prevent 
the inclusion of air bubbles in this block of prepared rubber. When rubber is 
compressed in this way into cylindrical moulds for manufacture of cut sheet an 
axle of steel is forced through the centre of the mass while still in the iron mould. 
The moulded mass has then to be annealed by gentle heating and maintaining 
it at a moderate temperature for some little while. The next process is to harden 
the block by freezing for a week in a refrigerating room, where it remains after 
removal of the mould until wanted for use. The cutting edge of the knife, and 
the surface of the rubber, are plentifully lubricated with water during cutting, 
this also fulfils the further purpose of thawing the immediate surface of the rubber 
and bringing the rubber to a suitable condition of hardness for the operation. ‘The 
sheets when cut must be carefully handled, being still soft and self-adherent, 
unvulcanised, though perhaps containing mixed sulphur. 


DIPPED GOODS. 


33. There is still another mode of manufacture of hollow rubber goods 
which may be called the dipping process; it is simple in principle and very similar 
to the way in which the old-fashioned tallow dip candles were made. A thick rubber 
solution is prepared, usually of pure rubber and solvent, though pigments may be 
mixed with it: A mould representing the internal shape of the required article 
is dipped into this liquid and withdrawn. The solvent evaporates leaving a film 
of rubber on the moulds, the operation is repeated until the required thickness 
of rubber is accumulated. Any manipulation or cleaning of the edges is now 
carried out and the rubber still on the mould is vuleanised. Here the ‘‘ cold cure” 
has to be adopted, since the rubber contains no sulphur already mixed, and the 
customary solution of 3 per cent. of sulphur chloride in carbon bisulphide is em- . 
ployed, as previously described under the head of vuleanisation. Certain classes 
of surgical rubber goods are made in this fashion, and india-rubber teats for feeding 
bottles are turned out by the thousand. A final dressing of rubber enamel is often 
given to goods prepared in other ways, such as enemas and india-rubber balls, by 
painting with or dipping in a rubber solution heavily loaded with pigments. 

ELECTRICAL USE. 

34, Rubber as an insulator of wires for cable use is being rapidly discon- 
tinued, owing primarily to the high price of raw rubber. For sea cables rubber has 
never been much used, gutta percha of course being superior, but land cable carry- 
ing telephone wires, and which at one time were insulated with rubberare now 
being largely insulated with dry paper. Heavy cables for electric light supply are 
demanding for use in their manufacture less and less rubber every year, its place 
being taken by papier-mache and cellulose pulp. For the flexible Wiring containing 
a single or a few strands of wire, such as are used in houses for electric bells, lights 
and telephone communication, rubber is still employed, paper here is inadmissable 
because it is less flexible, and also when exposed to the air becomes dampand an 
inefficient insulator. The wire is coated with raw unvuleanised rubber by wrapping 
a narrow strip, cut from thin sheet round the wire and pressing the adhesive edges 
together. This is done by a machine which feeds the rubber slip from a spool on to 
a travelling wire, the pressing together of the edge is done by running the wire 
coated with the strip through guides and between wheels. Paper when used as 
an insulator is wound round the wire spirally. The use of rubber for electrical 
purposes in the form of ebonite fittings is considerable, but a great extension of the 
electrical application of rubber consequent on any reduction in the price of the 
raw material must not be expected. 


Te ae ae 
4 Ae i 
; Tepiy ep a 
Gums, Resins, 298 [Oct. 1906. 
THE INDIA-RUBBER MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION. ' 


35. This Association, which was formed seven years ago to promote the 
interest of the rubber trade, and “especially with reference to legislation and to 
difficulties in the general conduct of the business,” is one exclusively of firms possess- 
ing india-rubber works, and includes twenty-five of the india-rubber manufactur- 
ing firms of Great Britain. General meetings take place once a month in Manchester, 
and on June 21st and again on July 20th I attended the meetings and gave addresses on 
Plantation Rubber and the Progress of Rubber Planting in the Hast. Samples of 
washed plantation rubber and of rubber latex, both from Hevea brasiliensis and 
from Ficus elastica were shown, and the photographs to illustrate modes of tapping 
and the growth of the trees were exhibited and described. This opportunity of 
meeting the heads and representatives of large manufacturing interests, and of 
putting the problems of rubber cultivation and preparation before them from the 
planters’ point of view, was of the greatest value, and the views which I had been 
gradually ascertaining were perfectly confirmed. At the same time, the interest 
taken in England in rubber growing was stimulated by having the conditions under 
which that work is done expounded. I should recommend that communication be 
established between the United Planters’ Association and the Association of 
India-Rubber Manufacturers, and that questions which may arise from time 
to time be freely discussed between the two Associations, and I am confident 
that any help which the India-Rubber Manufacturers’ Association could give, 
in this way, to rubber planting would be freely at the disposal of the United 


Planters’ Association. The following is the name and address of the Secretary 
of the Association. 


F. B. KNOTT, HEsq., A.S.A.A,, 


2, Cooper Street, Manchester. 


INFORMATION ABOUT THE MALAY PENINSULA IN LONDON. 


36. At present there is considerable activity shown in London amongst 
controllers of capital in rubber planting in Ceylon and the Malay Peninsula, and 
every sign of still further advance in this direction. From the point of view of 
the future interests of the industry and the permanent welfare of this country, 
the greatest encouragement should be shown to capitalists who intend to actually 
open up country and plant, rather than make profit by company promotion. In 
this connection there is an unexpected difficulty in obtaining information in London 
about the Malay States, and the conditions under which land can be acquired, held, 
and utilised, for planting. This acts as a distinct check to that class of investor 
which is most to be encouraged. Cases of this came under my personal notice; 


copies of the Land Acts and Ordinances of the Malay States and of therules under 


these Acts could only be obtained as a favour from the Colonial Office ; conditions 
of labour supply and all details connected with the manner and cost of openin 

and development of an estate at the present date, are difficult to obtain by the 
investing public, and steps might with advantage to this country be taken towards 
supplying the want, by the establishment of an office in London supplied with quite 


recent and reliable information on all matters relating to planting and agriculture 
in the Malay Peninsula. i | ‘ 


P. J. BURGESS, M.A., F.C.S., 
Government Analyst, 


SINGAPORE. 


Ocr. 1906] 299 Saps and Exudations. 
Rubber and Cotton in Ceylon. 
By J. C. WILLIS. 


A Lecture delivered at the Ceylon Rubber Exhibition Royal Botanic Gardens, 
Peradeniya, on September 14th. 


DISCUSSION ON THE PREVALENCE OF MALARIA IN LABOUR FORCEs. 


i This lecture inaugurated the series of daily lectures which were given during 
the Exhibition. H.E.the Governor took the chair. The lecture was held in the 
Governor’s Pavilion, and there was a large attendance, amongst whom were the 
following :—Mr. J. R. Martin, Hon. Mr. HE. Rosling, Mr. W. D. Gibbon, Mr. and Mrs, 
H. Glynn Eccles, Mrs. Willis, Mr. and Mrs. F’. C. Roles, Dr. Cuthbert Christy, Mr. J. B. 
Carruthers, Messrs. T. J. Campbell, G. O. Trevaldwyn, M, Bremer, C. M. B. Wilkins, 
C. M. Buckworth, S. K. Dickon, R. Huyshe Eliot, J. B. Coles, M. Kelway Bamber, 
J. S. Patterson, H. de Saram, James Fernando, E. Wilson Dias, F. W. de Hoedt, 
W. P. H. Dias, R. D. Tipping, J. M. Urquhart, G. N. Thompson, A. H. Cameron, J. K, 
Nock, Dr. A. J. Cuntze, Messrs. J. B. Tennant, M. H. Lushington, W. Lyall, Mr. and 
Mrs. M. L. Wilkins, Mr. and Mrs. C. Northway, Messrs. G. A. Krumbiegle, W. A. 
Tytler, H. M. Alwis, E. D. Bowman, EH. G. Windle, Dadabhoy Nusserwanjie, H. A. 
Webb, Dr. A, Lehmann, J. Cameron, R. L. Proudlock, C. Symons, L. Piachaud, A. N. 
Galbraith, H. M. Smith, Thos. Gidden, James Ryan, A. L. French, W.S. T. Saunders, 
R. Anderson and KF. Hadden. 

THE LECTURE. 


Dr. WILLIS—who was cordially received—said that the title of his lecture 
showed that he was going to deal with the North country as suitable for rubber and 
cotton; and he would just like at the outset to make one explanation. Some people 
were under the impression that they could grow cotton successfully in ‘‘ wet Ceylon,” 
if he might use that phrase; but though in exceptional years it might be possible, as 
a rule it was not possible—and he was entirely against recommending anyone to try 
to grow cotton in wet Ceylon, [This he demonstrated by making a rough sketch of 
Ceylon on the blackboard. The mountains of Ceylon lay in a block. He drewa 
square by lines from the coast inland, one running from Negombo in the direction of 
Trincomalee and the other a little Hast of Matara, which, if continued, would come 
out about Batticaloa.] This was the wet region which got the rain of both the 
South-West and North-East monsoons. The remaining part had only rainfall in 
the last three months of the year, and for the rest of the year was compara- 


' tively dry. 


They sowed cotton in September or October, and the first crop came in March, 
and if they got rain from March to the end of June their cotton crop would be more 
or less a failure. If it rained when the cotton was in the boll, that is when the pods 
fluff out, the cotton all crumpled up and no amount of drying would make it really 
good. They might dry it and get for it 2d. or 3d. less than they would otherwise, 
but by no amount of drying could they get a really first-class result. They now 
came to the subject of his lecture 


RUBBER AND COTTON. 


When the Northern country was opened by the extension of the railway, 
the question immediately arose as to whether some product suitable to the country 
could not be introduced, and naturally the first thing to be thought of was cotton. 
Government agreed to open an Experiment Station at Maha-iluppalama, 12 miles 
from Talawa station, and on the road which in the future would be the main 
road through the North-Central Province. The object of that experiment was to try 
cotton, and as soon as they got the cotton into shape they also tried rubber—that 


aid as 


Gums, Resins, 300 [Ocr. 1506, 


> -* 


being a fairly promising industry forthe North country. For the first 9 to 12 months 
they had nothing there but cotton. They had enough difficulty with that. It was 
an extremely difficult country in which to get labour, and the coolies took life very 
easily and did not over-exert themselves ; and demanded 50 cents a day for doing it. 
It took a great deal of time and trouble and expense before they got things square 
and the cotton in. They got the land fairly clear, and rubber put out in October, 
1904, and at intervals up till April, 1905. That was only about 16 months ago, and ' 
the trees were now from 8 to 15 ft. high—varying in height according to the time 
they were putin. The girth was anything from 3 to 6inches, and the trees were 
growing very satisfactorily. Mr. Mee, who was in charge of the station, had had . 
experience of rubber in Kalutara, and he thought that on the whole the trees were 
growing better than they did at Kalutara. Of course, they had not reached the 
tapping stage; and until they had reached that stage, he would not like to make any 
definite statement that rubber would succeed. Butif it succeeded. as it promised 
to do, it would open up a large area for cultivation when the lands in the South 
‘and South-East had been taken up. They had there a very good soil. A false 
impression had been publicly created about the soil in the North. It came out 
a great deal during the opening of the Northern railway, and it was described 
as a desert and nothing but gravel and sand. That was by no means the case; and 
if anyone cared to go down to the station, they would see soil which could 
not be seen anywhere whatsoever in South Ceylon. Anyone who had visited the 
Experiment Station at Peradeniya knew they had very good soil there; but the 
soil at Maha-iluppalama beat the Experiment Station there hollow and was 
really very good indeed. Of course, going down the North country people went 
by the North Road, and travelled along the highest ridge of the lowcountry, : 
but if they came into the valleys there they would find a deep alluvial : 
soil which ran 10 to 15 feet deep in the centre of the valley and tapered off to 
from 14 feet to 5 feet deep on the sides. The depth of soil in the centre was ; 
at least 17 feet; they had dug that depth and still there was no stone to be seen, 5 
It was a perfectly soft blackish soil like an English garden soil, and its quality é 
was extremely good. It was on the whole better than any soil they could see iy 
in the Central, South-Hast, or Uva Province, except some very fine soil on the 

eastern side of the range near Lunugala. } 


To return to the cotton crop, they sowed it in September and October 
according to the rains, and the first crop came in March. They must have fine » 
weather from the beginning of February. The flowers came out in February: the 
first crop was in March, and the second six weeks later, and the third crop, which 
was a small one and hardly worth waiting for, came about the end of June. 


They had had considerable difficulty with labour which cost them a good 
deal more trouble than it need have done. Of course they were pioneers, and he 
thought any one following after them would be able to bring coolies on advances 
and do it much cheaper. Since the railway had heen opened, they had reduced their 
rates from 50 cents a day to 41:25 cents, a drop of 8 or 9 cents, and they seemed 
inclined to do a little more work than formerly. He would not trouble them with 
returns, but for their Sea Island crop, which was got off a field of 20 acres, they got 
R87 an acre; and the return from the Egyptian crop, of which they had 30 acres at the 
end of 1904 and the beginning of 1905, was R71:25 an acre. The Sea Island cotton is, 
of course, the best grown in the world. It owed its quality entirely to selection of 
the seed, and if this were not very carefully selected the quality dropped imme- 
diately. Their seed was taken from a West Indian crop that sold for 1s. 2d., and 
they sold their crop for a shilling. Their seed had not been selected. The only 
people who could have selected it were the West Indian Agricultural Department; 
and they had their work cut out for them in selecting seed for themselves. They : 


ee eS ee ae ee ee 


wwe, 


Ocr. 1906.) 301 Saps and Hxudations. 


were getting in the West Indies Is. and 1s. 1d., but he saw in the last sale list that 


one or two got Is. 8d. The price had steadily gone up by careful selection of seed. 
Their seed was not selected, and the price dropped from Is. 2d. to 1s. in one crop. 


Now, to take cotton and rubber together. He thought that in the North 
country there was quite a prospect, as far as they could tell at present, of a profit- 
able industry in a species of cotton as a catch crop between rubber. They could vot 
grow it in every district as a catch crop; but in the North country where it was dry 
it was quite feasible. [He drew a sketch on the blackboard illustrating how rubber 
and cotton should be planted together.] They planted the rubber 20 feet apart with 
irrigation channels running down midway between the trees, so that each tree had 
an irrigation channel running down 10 feet on either side of it. The black soil held 
water very well, and that channel was only turned on a few hours a day, according 
to the weather, and a little trickle was quite enough to keep trees growing well. The 
cotton was planted 5 feet apart in the 20feet clearing between the rows of rubber. 
They might put in three rows of cotton approximately by moving the irrigation 
channel a little on one side of the middle, and during the first year they might have 
three rows of cotton perfectly straight. In the second year the rubber trees would 


have grown to a height of 10 or 12 feet and would shade the cotton. The trees would 


be—as most people knew, unless they were thumb-nail pruned or were ofa spreading 
variety—thin tall trees, and a considerable amount of sunshine would be allowed to 
the crop. In the second year, therefore, they would have two rows of cotton. In 
the third year they would have one row, and after that the rubber trees would be 
too large to make it worth while growing cotton, But there was still room for other 
catch crops. They could grow almost anything there. Although the country was 
dry, the air—on the whole— was damper in the North than in the Western Province. 
Mannar had, for instance, an average saturation of 82. At Peradeniya, which was a 
rainy district, the average saturation was 78. Provided they supplied the roots with 
water by irrigating channels, they would do well. The air was not too dry to 
prevent their growth. That was the positive side of the picture. 


A MALARIA DISTRICT. 


The negative side was that malaria was exceedingly bad in the North-Central 
Province, and any one taking up land must be prepared to face a good deal of fever 
himself and amongst his coolies. They were in hopes that by means of that new oil 
method explained by Messrs. Bamber and Green, they might be able to treat the 
coolies in such a way as to largely prevent their getting fever. It was idle to think 
that the cooly would stay in a mosquito-proof house, even if they made one. The 
probability was he would close the curtain with care and then sit on the verandah. 
One must adopt something more practical to keep him clear of the mosquitoes, and 
he thought there might be some hope in that method of Messrs. Bamber and Green. 


THE DISCUSSION. 


THE NEW OIL PREVENTIVE FOR MOSQUITO MALARIA. 


His EXCELLENCY :—Have you any specimens of the oil to-day ?—because it 


would be interesting to the gentlemen present to see them. The kerosine is entirely 
concealed. 


Dr. WILLIS :—Yes, I should like to call public attention to this oil method. 
The oil is a mixture—I forget the exact proportions—but they were given at the 
meeting of the Board of Agriculture a month ago. I think there were equal 
proportions of coconut oil and kerosene and two or three per cent of citronella 
with a little carbolic. 


His EXCELLENCY :—Citronella ? 


4 J f ie : 
Gums, Resins, 302 [001 Bn 


Dr. Winuis:—Yes, and a little carbolic acid. The resultant m ixture Hae men 
no smell of kerosene. Citronella hasa very penetrating smell, and the mixture smells 
like weak citronella. but it does not evaporate so quickly as citronella does. It - 
leaves no smart like citronella, and will not evaporate for at least six or seven hours. 
If a cooly oils himself at five o'clock in the evening he ought not to be bitten by any 
anopheles that night, and I think the coolies would very likely be benefited. I see 
Dr. Christy is present, and he will be able to speak as to that. 


DR. CHRISTY ON THE SITUATION OF COOLY LINES. 


Dr. Curisty :—I think itis a very good plan indeed, but there are many 
other things which may be carried out very successfully. Still, the oil method is a 
very good one and ought to succeed. I have noticed on some of the plantations in 
Ceylon the cooly lines are very much at fault. They might be built on the high 
ridges with a hundred yards clear all round and away from the water. The coolies 
might be made to carry the water from down below. One might make the lines in 
fifty different ways so as to minimise the chances of getting malaria. 


His ExcELLENCY :—What part of the country, Dr. Christy, have you 
visited ? 


Dr. CuHristy :—I have been to the Kepitigalla Valley district. 


His ExcrELLEenNcy :—I think the Public Works, asa matter of fact, have not 
suffered so much as they have at Maha-iluppalama with the coolies, and they attribute 
it to the position of their lines and tothe excellence of the lines built by them. 
Have you heard anything about that ? 


Dr. WILLIS :—No, Sir. The coolies could have had their lines close to the 
bungalow, which is a mile from the Experimental Station, but every cooly is said to 
have preferred to go on at the Experimental Station-which is six or ten feet lower 
than Mr. Mee’s laboratory. There they can have little gardens around the house 
owing to the fertility of the soil. There is a good deal of malaria among the coolies 
down there, but on the other hand Mr. Mee suffers for several days in a month, sol am 
not sure that his bungalow is very much more proof against fever than the 
cooly lines. Of course, the fever varies with the season. Just now there is no 
malaria and there are no mosquitoes. 

His ExcELLENcY :—Is Mr. Mee’s house protected ? 

Dr, WILLIs :—No. 


His EXceLLEeNcy :—I thought an arrangement had been made to protect it. 


Dr. WILLIS said it was not put through, but there was a scheme for 
building an upstair bungalow. 


MOSQUITOES AND UPSTAIR BUNGALOWS. 


His EXcCELLENCY :—One of the fallacies that exist is that mosquitoes will 
not go upstairs. (Laughter.) I am in a position to say that they do. 


Mr. CARRUTHERS :—We, in the Straits, believe that fallacy, and our lines 
are built on brick pillars six feet from the ground. One of the resultsis thatthe — 
cooly uses the place underneath for his cooking, and the smoke passes through the 
cracks in the boards. I believe, speaking with due deference to Dr. Christy, that a3 
this has a certain effect in preventing insect pests by the smoke trickling throu 
the room and driving the mosquitoes away. 

His EXcELLENCY :—Yes, there is a good deal in that. 


Dr. WILLIS said that in Cuba, where the coolies, though very black, dressed 
like white men and were of a higher class and more intelligent than the coolies: a 
in Ceylon, they lived inside protected lines. 


/ “igs q 
+e 


Oct, 1906. | 303 Saps and EHxudations. 
ADMINISTRATION OF QUININE. 


His ExcELLENCY :—Have you tried administering quinine ? 


Dr. WILLIS :—We use it by the hundredweight I was going to say, but 
at least by the 20 lb. lots. 


His EXceELLeENcY :—Do you find a good effect ? 


Dr. WILLIS :—It has a certain amount of good effect. Some coolies cannot 
stand the country. We find two kinds of coolies stand the country best—of out- 
side coolies. The Batticaloa Moors and the Kurunegala Sinhalese stand it best. 
Of course, they have a fever of a very malignant type at Kurunegala. Of the local 
people, the women, for some reason that Ido not in the least understand, are very 
much better than the men. We have much of our work done by women coolies. The 
men are emaciated and listless, but the women work fairly hard. I do not know 
the reason for that. 


Mr. F. C. Routes :—Might it not be because the women sleep inside and the 
men on the verandahs ? 


Dr. Wix.is :—Possibly, 


His ExcELLENcY :—Yes, that might be the cause. I think the idea of the 
Medical Department at the present moment would be to combine these experiments 
—the administration of quinine with this anointing with oil. It will be very inter- 
esting to find that between the two the amount of sickness in the labour is materially 
decreased. Talking about rubber, you tell us, Dr, Willis, that the saturation of the 
air is greater in the Northern Province than here. 


Dr. WILLIS assented. 
WATER IN THE NORTH. 


His EXCELLENCY :—Well, we have all remarked that in that dry section of 
the country before you come to Elephant Pass you have jungle, which, even at the end 
of a long drought, is perfectly green. That argues to my mind that there is a certain 
amount of moisture in the soil at a certain depth; and for the purpose of discovering 
whether that is so, a water survey is being carried out by the Survey Department. 
_ Granting that you have at a certain depth—8 to 10 feet—soil which retains the 
moisture, would it be sufficient to ensure the growth of rubber and its continuance 
through the dry weather? 


Dr. WILLIS :—If the rubber got its roots down, they would be all right. Of 
course our experience is very limited in this district. We had rubber trees at 
Anuradhapura which we planted in 1894, and they grew very well up to 1898. In 1898 
they would be 4 inches in diameter. Then we had a recorddrought. There was no 
water in any of the tanks, and thingscame to such straits that we had to lend garden 
coolies to help to dig wells to get drinking water for Anuradhapura, and the result 
was the absolute death of every rubber tree in the gardens. I imagine that, being 
near the ela, the roots remained near the surface. [I would not recommend anybody 
to try rubber there without a guaranteed supply of irrigation water, and that is a bit 
of a difficulty at present. 

His EXCELLENCY :—There is a large quantity of land available at Minneriya, 
Dr, WILLIS :—About 15,000 acres, but it is so far away; and that is, I think, 

the most malarious place in the island. However, I think that difficulty, can be 
removed. The district could be cleared of malaria, because the mosquitoes breed in 
the tank. Dr. Willis explained that owing to the sloping character of the bund 
there was a great deal of shallow water, which was saturated with mosquito larvee ; 
and if the bund was taken straight down, this could be obviated. There were 10,000 
acres of land in that district—all of it dead flat, with good soil, reaching down to the 

40 


Gums, Resins, 304 


Mahaweliganga. He thought this was the finest piece of irrigable land in Ceylon 
The tank was made and water was plentiful, and it only needed the malaria to be 
taken in hand. 


4 


THE NEW ANTI-MOSQUITO OIL PREPARATION. 


His EXcCELLENCY having asked whether there were any specimens of the 
oil mentioned by Dr. Willis, 


Mr. BAMBER said _ he had sent for some. 


His EXCELLENCY :—It would be interesting because a large number of gentle- 
men, who axe interested in that question, are present; and it would be well if they 
saw the oil and found out for themselves how agreeable the perfume of it is. When 
you mention coconut and kerosene, it does not sound very nice. I think this is the 
line upon which you will find the most effective defence against malaria. . 

Mr. Ketway BamBer ;—I think it has to be combined with everything else 
that can be done. 


His EXCELLENCY :—Quite so, there is another question in connection with 
this matter which it may be interesting to mention. Malaria is not the only thing 
from which coolies suffer. You know perfectly well that there has been a great deal 
of dysentery among coolies here and elsewhere and in other countries, and I may tell 
you that Mr. Martin— I was in hopes he would be here—informed me a short time 
ago that he had given his coolies tea. He gave them this tea morning and evening, 
and with most excellent effect. The reason is this. Coming lately as I have come 
from China, I may tell you there is hardly any dysentery there or any complaints of 
that kind, and it is because the people never drink cold water, They drink nothing 
but tea—or at least they call it tea. As you go along the roads in China, you see 
men sitting with a number of small tea cups before them and a kettle of boiling 
water. The tea leaves, as far as one can see, are not even withered. The man takes 
a few of these leaves, puts them into the kettle, fills it with boiling water, and that is 
what he drinks. They never drink water, and the consequence is that they never 
suffer from the complaints we hear so much about in Ceylon. If gentlemen, who are 
here so largely engaged in the production of tea, can induce their coolies to drink 
tea, it may have a very considerable effect, It might be worth trying. If you get 
four million people to drink the tea you are now sending down to the harbour, it 
would give you a market at your doors. (Laughter.) I mention it because it is 
a simple thing, and might be worth trying, 


Mr. JowittT :—It is a question of caste. A great number of coolies will not 
drink tea. The lowest castes will drink it, but not the high castes, A 


His EXCELLENCY :—That may be so. I would save the low caste coolies 
if I could. 


After a vote of thanks to Dr. Willis the proceedings terminated. 


THE LONDON RUBBER MARKET. 


Lonpon, August 17.—At to-day’s auction, 293 packages of Ceylon and Straits _ 
Settlements Plantation grown rubber were under offer, of which about 189 were sold. _ 
The total weight amounted to 14 tons, Ceylon contributing about 3 dnd Straits — 
Settlements nearly 11. For the finer qualities generally the market was steady with — 
a rather better tone. <A particularly fiue lot of large pressed Block Rubber from the _ 
Straits Settlements realised the highest price of the auction, viz., 5s. 103d. perlb., or _ 
13d. over the highest price paid for Sheet or Crépe. The lower grades again lacked _ 
attention, and the highest price paid for fine scrap was 4s. 63d., most of this quality 
realising about 4s. 6d. per lb. Plantation fine to-day 5s. 9d. to 5s. 103d., same period = 
last year, 6s. to 6s. 3d, Plantation scrap 3s, to 4s. 6d., same period last year, 3s, 3d. to 


L Oct. 1906. ] 305 Saps and Exudations, 


5s. 5d. Fine hard Para (South American) 5s. 2d., same period last year, 5s. 7d. 


Average price of Ceylon and Straits Settlements plantation rubber.—189 packages 
at 5s. 8id. per lb., against 161 packages at 5s. 6d, per lb. at last auction. Particulars 
and prices as follows :— 


CEYLON. 
MARK. QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. 
Arapolakande 6 cases fine darkish and dark biscuits, 5s. 9d.;1 case good darkish 
biscuits, 5s. 83d.; 2 cases good serap, 4s. 3d. 
Ellakande 1 do fine dark pressed crépe, 3s. 44d-; 1 case darkish pressed 


crépe, 4s. 3id. 


Heatherley 8 do dark pressed crépe 4s. 33d. 
Culloden 2 do dark pressed crépe, 3s. 2d. 
S. A. M.M. (in 
square) 1 do rough cloudy biscuits, 5s. 6d.; 1 case lump and scrap, 


4s. 13d. 
M.A.K. (in diamond 
G, D.) 1 do good pale Ceara biscuits, 5s. 7d.; 1 case dark heated 
biscuits, 5s. 6d. 
H. & C. (in diamond 
J. & Co.) 1 do good darkish biscuits, 5s. 8d. 
Tallagalla 1 do fine dark biscuits, 5s. 9d.; 1 case fine pressed crépe, 4s. 5d.; 
1 ease fine darkish biscuits, 5s. 9d.; 1 case fine pressed 
serap, 4s. 6d.; 1 case barky scrap, 3s. 
T.R.R. 4 do good to fine biscuits and sheet, 5s. 9d.; 1 pkge, good scrap 
and rejections, 4s. 


_ Ambatenne 3 do fine palish biscuits, 5s. 9d.; 3 cases darkish, 5s. 8d.; 1 case 


good rejections 4s.; 1 case fine scrap, 4s. 6d.; 1 case dark, 
4s. 1d.; 1 case dark barky, 3s. 3d. 


Densworth 1 do good palish biscuits, 5s. 9d.; 1 bag fine to darkish biscuits, 
aS ae 1 case fine pale scrap, 4s. 6d.; 1 bag low scrap, 
s. 6d. 
Waharaka 2 do good palish biscuits, 5s. 9d.; 1 case good serap 4s. 5d. 
Ballacadua 8 do good palish biscuits, 5s. 9d.; 1 case darker, 5s. 8d. 
Rangbodde 1 do very fine strong pale biscuits, scrap and cuttings 5s. 4d. 
Duckwari 1 do fine darkish biscuits, 5s. 9d.; 1 bag fine pressed scrap, 


4s, 64d. 


STRAITS SHTTLEMENTS. 


MARK. QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. 


Gula (indiamond) 2 cases fine amber sheet, 5s. 9d. 
V.R.Co.Ltd. Klang 
F.M.S. (in triangle) 19 do fine scored sheet, 5s. 9d.; 25 cases darker, 5s. 9d.; 7 cases 
fine palish pressed ecrépe, part sold, 5s. 1fd.; 14 cases good 
darkish, 4s. 33d.; 9 cases dark, 8s. 7d. 

T.A.P, 1 do g6od thick amber sheet, 5s. 6d. 

K.P.C. Ltd. 2 do good lace, 5s. 33d. 

B.R.R. & Co., Ltd. 7 do good scored sheet, 5s. 9d.; 1 case pale amber sheet, 5s. 9d,; 
14 cases fine thick palish crépe, 5s, 9d.; 3 cases darkish and 
dark, 3s. 93d.; 1 case dark, 3s. 5d.; 1 case fine amber sheet, 
5s. 9d.; 1 case fine darkish biscuit and sheet 5s. 8d. 


O.M.R.E. Ltd. 2 cases palish crépe, 5s. 54d.; 1 case very dark 3s. 63d.; 1 case fine 
amber sheet, 5s. 9d. 
Beverlac 5 do fine amber sheet, 5s. 9d.; 3 cases pale to dark, 5s. 84d.; 


i 1 case pale to darkish biscuits, 5s. 7d. 
L. E. (Muar in tri- 
angle) Straits 4 do very fine large washed pressed blocks, 5s. 10}d.; 8 eases 
fine pale ribbon, 5s. 9d.; 2 cases good darkish, 5s.; 2 cases 
‘ dark, 4s. 3d. 
M.P.R.Ltd.(in cross) 6 do fine red Rambong crépe, 4s. 14d. 


Gums, Resins, 306 [Ocr. 1906. 
(Continued.) . 
MARK. QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. 


M.C.I. (in diamond 
am 'D) 1 case good darkish biscuits, 5s. 9d.; 1 bag thick rejected biscuits, 
4s 


oe s 


S.P. (in circle) 1 do fine amber sheet, 5s. 9d.; 1 case small, 5s. 9d. 
JAVA. 
MARK. QUANTITY. DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. 
Tjidjerock 5 eases fine thick pressed sheet, 4s. 1d. bid. 


Lonpon, August 3lst.—At to-day’s auction, 312 packages of Ceylon and 
Straits Settlements Plantation grown rubber were under offer, of which about 152 
were sold. The total weight amounted to 15 tons, Ceylon contributing about 4 and 
Straits Settlements nearly 11. The finest qualities met with fair attention, though 
the prices offered were frequently below sellers’ limits. 5s. 8d. was the ruling price 
for the best biscuits and sheet, and for finest crépe about 3d. less was, the current 
idea. Some excellently prepared rubber was shown by the Landron (Muar) Estate, 
and comprised 7 cases of strong pressed blocks of very pure quality. The Bukit 
Rajah Rubber Co. also had 16 full sized cases of choice amber crépe, and for these 
5s. 8d. was refused. Warriapolla headed the Ceylon list with a price of 5s. 8d. for a 
small case of well prepared pale biscuits of excellent quality. Plantation fine to-day 
5s. 8d. to 5s. 9d., same period last year, 6s. to 6s. 3d. Plantation scrap 3s. to 4s. 6d., 
same period last year, 3s. 3d. to 5s. 5d. Fine hard Para (South American) 5s. 2d., 
same period last year. 5s. 7d. Average price of Ceylon and Straits Settlements, 
Plantation Rubber 152 packages at 5s. 1jd. per lb., against 189 packages at 5s. 
dfd. per lb. at last auction. Particulars and prices as follows :— 


CEYLON. 


MARK. QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. 


K. M. (ina square) 1 case good palish to darkish sheet, 5s. 7d.; 1 case good darkish 
biscuits, 5s. 7d.; 1 case good smali biscuits, some pale, 
5s. 2d.; 1 bag good clean scrap, 4s. 5d. 

do fine palish mixed biscuits, 5s. 7d.; 2 cases fine pale 
biscuits, 5s. 6d. 

Warriapolla 1 do well prepared choice pale biscuits, 5s. 8d.; 1 bag darker, 

5s. 73d.; 1 case similar, 5s. 7#d.; 1 case little darker, 5s. 73d.; 
1 bag darker, 5s. 7d.; 1 case fine pressed scrap, 4s. 5d. 


Palli 


~] 


Wakaraka 2 do pressed scrap, 3s. 9d. 

Tallagalla 2 do purone dark biscuits, 5s. 7d.; 2 cases good pressed scrap, 
S. 09d. 

Nikakotua 38 do darkish pressed crépe, 4s. 8id-; 1 case little darker, 3s. 8d. 

Culloden 3 do good quality mixed colour biscuits, 5s. 74d.; 3 cases darkish 
pressed crépe, 4s. 10d.; 1 case ditto dark, 3s. 6d.; 1 case 
tightly pressed dark crépe, 3s. 5d. 

Ellakande 1 do good darkish biscuits, 5s. 7id.; 2 cases good darkish to 
dark biscuits, 5s. 7d. . 

Tudugalla 4 do good mixed scrap, 4s. 5$d.; 2 cases black rather heated — 
crépe, 3s. 3d. 

F. B. 1 do pressed scrap 4s. 2d.; 1 case mixed scrap and rejections, 
3s. 9d.; 1 case mixed rather gritty scrap, 3s. 6d.; 1 case 
mixed biscuits, uneven size and colour, 5s. 6d.; 1 bag 
mixed rejections, 3s. 113d. 

Clontarf 2 do fine palish to darkish biscuits, 5s. 74d.; 2 cases darkish to 
dark crépe, 4s. 23d. 

Glanrhos 4 do good darkish to dark biscuits, 5s. 74d. 


Rangalla 1 bag mixed rejections, 3s. 


ail ti 
9 
fs 1 


y 
: 


nee 


Oct. 1906.]} 


MARK. 


307 Saps and Exudations. 


STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. 
QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. 


B. M. P. L. (in cross) 3 cases good palish and darkish crépe, 5s. 6d. 


L. E. (Muar in tri- 
angla) Straits 
B. R. R. Co., Ltd. 


1 do 
1 do 


R.R.(S.in triangle) 10 do 
S.R. (S. in triangle) 9 do 


P. R.S. B. 


Gula (in triangle) 3 do 


S. R. & Co. 1 do 


S.S.B.R. & Co., Ltd. 


(in triangle) 4 do 
Sungei Krudda 2 do 
areal tee Krudda 

» KS. 3 do 


dark crépe, 4s. 83d. 

darkish crépe, 4s. 4d.; 6 cases similar, 4s. 3d.; 1 case very 
dark heated crépe, 2s. 6d. 

good strong palish sheet, 5s. 74d. 

mixed pressed scrap, 4s. 5d.; 3 cases darkish pressed scrap 
4s. 1d.; 2 cases mixed gritty pressed scrap, 3s. 2d, 

5 cases good quality strong darkish sheet 5s. 73d.; 4 cases 
very mixed scrap, 4s. 03d.; 1 case mixed rejections, 3s. 8d. 
1 case mixed scrap and rejections, 3s. 9d. 

fine mixed amber sheet. 5s. 7¢d.;_ 1 case darkish, 4s. 03d.; 
1 case mixed pressed scrap and sheet, 3s. 103d. 

good mixed lightish crépe, 5s, 3d.; 4 cases darkish pressed 
crépe, 4s. 10d.; 1 case little darker, 4s. 10d.; 3 cases good 
darkish pressed crépe, 4s. 10d.; 1 case ditto dark, 3s. 74d.; 
4 cases mixed palish and darkish pressed crépe, 5s. 14d.; 
3 cases good darkish pressed crépe, 4s. 10d.; 1 case very 
dark ditto, slightly heated, 3s. 6d.; 7 cases darkish pressed 
crépe, 4s. 103d. 


mixed pressed scrap, 4s. 53d. 
good darkish sheet, 5s. 74d,; 3 cases fair quality pressed 
scrap 4s. 5d. 


good darkish sheet, 5s. 7$d.; 1 case mixed rather heated 
scrap, 4s, 4d 


GOW, WILSON & STANTON, LTD. 


Lonpon, September 14th.—At auctions the following lots comprising about 
53 tons Ceylon and about 14 tons Straits and Malay States were offered and sold 


as follows :— 
MARK 
Rosebury 

Ambatenne 
Sorana 1 do 
Waharaka 1 do 
Hattangalla 1 do 
Ellakande 1 do 
Arapolakande 2 do 
- Culloden 3 do 
Nikakotua 1 do 
Hapugastenne 1 do 
Halgolle 1 do 
Maddegedera 1 do 


C.L. (in diamond) 8 
Kumbukkan 2 


CEYLON. 
QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. 


1 bag biscuits, mixed colours rather rough, 5s. 7d.; 1 bag tair 


scrap, 4s. 5$d.; 1 case barky scrap, part heated, 2s. 6d. 


2 cases biscuits, fair to darkish quality, 5s. 7d.; 1 case dull un- 


sightly biscuits, 4s. 8$d.; 1 case dark scrap, part heated, 
4s. 24d. 

fine palish biscuits, well prepared, little weak, 5s. 7d. 
dark biscuits, very mixed, 5s. 7d.; 1 case fair brown, 
rather barky scrap, 4s. 3id. 

brown crépe, 4s. 9d. 

palish biscuits, heated, 5s. 74d.; 1 case scrap crépe, 4s. 84d, 
fair, rather mouldy, 5s. 7d.; 2 cases fair dark scrap, 4s. 6d. 
very fine pale crépe, 5s. 7$d.; 8 cases brown crépe, 4s. 9d.; 
1 case dark crépe, 4s. 5d.; 3 cases black chip crépe, 3s. 9d. 
to 3s. 10id.; 2 cases brown crépe, 4s. 9d. 

dark biscuits, 5s. 7d, 

small darkish biscuits, 5s. 7d.; 2 cases fair brown scrap 
and pieces, 4s. 4d.; 1 case heated, 3s. 

pale and darkish barky scrap, 4s. 34d.; 1 case pieces and 
brown scrap, 4s. 03d, 

darkish scrap, 4s. 2d. 

fair palish scrap, 4s. 5id.; 1 case nuggets 
9 cases Rambong thin sheets, 4s. 53d. 

biscuits, mixed colours, 5s. 7d. 


3s. 8d. ; 


Gums, Resins, 


MARK. 

B.N.S.S. 

C.K.C. (in diamond) 2 
G.M. S.B. 1 
K.P.C. Ltd. 11 
P.R. S.B. 10 
C.M.R.E. Ltd. 10 
Beverlac 4 
H.E.A. 1 
K.M.S. 1 
B.R.R.C. Ltd. 9 
Jebong 2 


Highland Estate 5 


STRAITS AND MALAY STATES. 


1 case fair pale scrap, 4s. 54d.; 1 case pieces, 3s. 10d. 


do 
do 


do 1 


308 : y 1 4 mM T. 
& 


QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. 


biscuits, small amber cut rather short, 5s. 6$d.; 1 case dull 
scrap in cakes, 3s. 9d. 
serap, 3s. 103d. 

arge biscuits, fine amber (4 cases) 5s. 7jd.; 1 case pieces 
and rolled lace scrap, 4s. 6$d.; 3 cases fair palish ser 
rather barky, 4s. 33d.; 3 cases rolled lace scrap, 4s. Gid.t 
2 cases fair to good pale scrap, 4s. 54d. 


pieces and scrap, 4s. 3d. f 

eas crépe, mixed darkish, 5s. 6d.; 1 case ditto, inferior, 
B ‘ 

fair brown scrap, 4s. 3d. 


piceey) 4s. 5$d.; 2 packages fair palish scrap, 4s. Aad. to 


palish scrap and virgin pieces. 4s. 1zd. 
scrap crépe (6 cases sold) 4s. 33d. 

good pressed nuggety scrap, “4s. 6d.; 3 cases fair serap, 4s. 
5d.; 1 case mixed sheets, ds. 5d.; 1 case heated and run 
together crépe, 3s. 73d. 


brown and black crépe, 4s. 83d., 7 cases serap and chip 
crépe, 4s. 53d. hy 


. LEWIS & PHAT. 


hy 


wees 


Ocr. 1906.] | 309 


OILS AND FATS. 


SCHLEICHERA OR KUSAM OIL AND FAT. 


The Schleichera trijuga, ‘‘Kusam,” or ‘‘ Kusumbha,” a deciduous species 
of the order Sapindacex, is a moderate-sized tree of the plains of India. It occurs 
throughout the dry open forests, and is sometimes met with asan avenue tree. 


With its thickset stem, often buttressed at the base or fluted from below the 


lowermost branches, and its rounded dark-green crown of leaves it is conspic- 
uous in the midst of its many associates. On account of its tough, heavy 
and close-grained timber the species has been classed with the hard woods of 
India, the same technical properties of the product evidently also earning for the 
species its well-known popular name of ‘Ceylon Oak.” So hard, indeed, is the 


_heartwood of the kusam, that it is preferred by the natives above that of many 


other species for the construction of cart-wheels, plows and harrows, the handles 
of tools, the teeth of rakes, cogwheels for water lifts, mortars, pestles and other 
agricultural and domestic implements. It is usually employed in situations in 
which transverse pressure, shearing strain, torsion and the like have to be borne, 
and, were we to pronounce from its extreme durability when employed for the 
various purposes indicated, would appear to be eminently suited to them all. 
The soft yellow resin which exudes from incisions made in the bark and sapwood 
of the tree as well as the dye obtained from its flowers are other economic products 
of the kusam. Again, the lac produced by the insect known as the Coccus lacca, 
Kerr, when fed on its twigs is esteemed the finest obtainable in India. 


But, perhaps, the most valuable product of the kusam is the gray vegetable 
fat which is deposited in abundance from its dark brown viscid oil. This oil is 
obtained from the kernels of the seeds that are annually yielded in large quantities. 
The kusam is a deciduous tree; its old leaves are shed almost all together at the 
approach of the hot weather toward the end of March. But early in April it 
again puts forth a crowded flush of new leaves which, on their elongation, are 
seen to be accompanied by the red tasselated flowers. These are borne upon 
short delicate racemes that spring from the axils of the leaves, or moce usually, 
fasciculate in lax clusters at the terminals of the twigs and branchlets. Toward the 
close of the hot weather the fruits will have set, and in the middle of the rains 
ripen and drop. They are globular berries about half an inch in diameter of a 
yellowish-brown color, and are invested with a thick soft glabrous rind. On 
removing this rind, the smooth light-brown seed is seen enveloped in a white 
artistic pulp. 

The latter is pleasantly sub-acid and edible and is eagerly sought after 
by birds and animals. It is also largely eaten by the villagers who reside within or 
in the vicinity of the forests in which the kusam grows. On the Malabar Coasts 
where it is plentiful the comminuted seeds are boiled in water, and the oil which 
floats on the surface of the liquid skimmed off by means of coconut shell ladles. 


But in the elimination of oil from the seeds of the kusam, warm expression is 
neither essential nor necessary, because simple cold expression itself subserves the 


purposes of its extraction. On crushing the kernels in an ordinary mill, a clear 
dark-brown oil exudes from them. It has a nutty odor and a peculiar flavor which, 
however, is not unpleasant, This oil, which turns thick in a few hours after 
keeping, deposits a dense gray butterine precipitate which remains a soft solid at 
ordinary temperatures. The precipitate is either stearin or palmitin, and consti- 
tutes the most valuable part of the product. Though sparingly employed in 


beth er 


Oils and Fats. 310 [Ocr. 1 908. ' 


cooking and medicine, its chief use in Malabar is for lighting purposes. Although pb? 
the kusam is one of the commonest of our trees, and its oil has been known for ages” | 
in India, no endeavour seems to have been made as yet to eliminate the fat contained 
in it. 

The species being a profuse seed bearer, thousands of tons of the fruit must 
now lie annually rotting upon the ground; whereas, under {proper conservancy and 
technical manipulation much of this wastage could not only be retrieved but also 
made a source of wealth. During the season of mature fructescence, portable 
mills, if set up and worked in the localities in which the tree abounds are likely 
to express large quantities of the product which until recent years was believed 
to be the source of the Macassar oil of commerce. This famous product of the 
Sunda Islands is now known to be yielded by the Cupania sideroxylon, and though 
kusam fat is in consequence at present divested of the halo of romance that 
surrounded it. it has nevertheless to be still regarded as one of the most valuable 
oils of the country. As a lubricant for machinery, in the manufacture of soft soaps, 
but above all for lighting and candle making, the fat would appear to be deserving 
of application ; and, although the medicinal virtues with which it is reputed to be 
possessed in Malabar and elsewhere await scientific inquiry and determination, its 
adaptability for utilization in the industrial arts is its chief recommendation to 
our present consideration. 


[The tree is common in Ceylon, where it is known as the Ceylon Oak.— Ep.] 


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€ Or. 1906. | 311 


EDIBLE PRODUCTS. 


Cacao Cultivation in Ceylon, IIf. 


By HERBERT WRIGHT. 
(ILLUSTRATED.) 


- Cacao SEEDs. 
In shape, size, and colour the seeds vary considerably. Theshape is some- 
times flat as in Amelonado, Calabacillo and some forms of Nicaraguan, round and 


4 plump in forms of Caracas and Nicaraguan, long and more or less rownded in 


Cundeamor and other Forastero types. The size varies according to the part of 
the fruit occupied by the seeds, those at the ends usually being smaller—-and also 
flatter—than those in the middle; the largest size is seen in the Nicaraguan and 
Caracas fruits, and the smallest in the Forastero types. 

The colour of the seeds varies from white to deep purple in the same fruit 
‘or in: fruits from different varieties. Generally the seeds of the Nicaraguan 
and Caracas varieties are white, those of the Forastero types white or purple, 
in varying intensity, and those of Amelonado and Calabacillo all deep purple. 
There is, however, a great variation in the number of white seeds in the first 
mentioned varieties, and more often than not the cacao trees on plantations in 
Ceylon possess fruits with white and purple seeds, or with all the seeds purple. 
Itis very rare that all the seeds in the fruits from one tree are white, even with 
the Caracas and the more recently introduced Nicaraguan forms, and much of the 
unevenness in the finished product is to be attributed to this unfortunate variation. 


It has been shown by Lock* that out of nearly seven hundred fruits of the 

Caracas variety about 58 per cent. of them possessed white seeds only, 40 per cent. 

possessed white and purple seeds, and 1°8 per cent. possessed purple seeds only. In 

the particular set of fruits referred to 84:7 per cent. of the seeds were white and 14:2 

per cent. distinctly purple, thus showing that though the reputed original character 

still predominates, the mixed seeds are becoming very prominent. In most cacace 

growing countries the Cacaras or Criollo type is supposed to possess white seeds 

ouly. Similarly a large percentage of the seeds of the Nicaraguan, which are 

commonly supposed to be white, were found to be mixed, but the white remains 

predominant in some types of this group. The Forastero types always possess 

coloured seeds, and though as many as 18°8 per cent. of the fruits contained purple 

seeds only, none were seen with white seeds only; the seeds of 180 fruits of this 
group possessed 61°8 per cent. of purple seeds and 37°4 percent. of white ones, 

thus proving the existence of a definite quantitative difference between the 
Forastero and the preceding Criollo types. The Amelonado and Calabacillo 

fruits possess 100 per cent. of purple seeds, white ones being unknown in Ceylon, 


COLOUR OF SEEDS. 


Fruits with Percentage Percentage number 
NWaristy of Fruits with Fruits with | mixed seeds number of of distinctly 
Bones white seeds | purple seeds purple and white seeds purple seeds 
, _ only. only. white. in fruits. in fruits. 
Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 
Nicaraguan be 48°2 188 33°0 64 86 
Caracas i 57°9 18 40°3 84°7 14°2 
Forastero - Jp 00-0 18-4 816 37°4 61°38 
Amelonado ee 00°0 100°0 00°0 00°0 100-0 


*R. H. Lock, Circular, R,B.G. 
4] 


a ee 


[Ocr. 1906 


According to Hart, the Criollo or Caracas variety in Trinidad possesses 
white or nearly colourless seeds, a feature associated with the seeds of the same 
variety in Java, Ceylon, and Central America, and also by the produce of Theobroma 
pentagona ; reference to the percentage number of purple seeds is not made, though 
it may be assumed that on most estates cultivating many varieties they 
occur. Regarding Nicaraguan, Hart states that though the Criollo is the predo- | 
minant type and the seeds are usually white in section, there appears to bea per- 
ceptible increase in the colour of the seeds and this he associates with the proximity 
of the Criollo with the Forastero types. The Venezuelan* cacao is mainly white- 
seeded and produces a cured cacao of good colour and distinct high-class flavour 
without any bitter taste. 

The variation in thickness and weight of the seed integuments has been 
dealt with elsewhere, and it is only necessary to mention that the thinnest integu- 
ments are found around seeds from Nicaraguan and Caracas fruits, and the thickest 
in the Amelonado and Forastero types. 

THE PARTS OF A CACAO BEAN, AND SEED SELECTION. 

The fresh cacao seed consists of a watery white pulp on the outer surface of 
a tough integument, the latter enclosing two stout cotyledons which form the 
greater part of the embryo and are usually known as the kernel. Roughly the 
kernel is only responsible for half the total weight of the fresh seed, the pulp of the 
latter often being considerable, The weight of the seeds varies with the variety and 
other factors, the large plump ones being much heavier than the others. The weight 
of the cured seeds of different varieties is not constant, but the following table shows 
the average weight of several thousands of seeds of four varieties grown at the 
Experiment Station, Peradeniya :— 


Edible Products. 312 


TABLE I. 

Variety. WV ciEDe in Cr 
Forastero-Cundeamor a ice 1:01 to 1:26 
Caracas ash Da Ho . L119 to 1°35 
Amelonado ae a He Bish . 1°00 to 1:10 
Nicaraguan ... 131 to 1:80 


According to Semler the follomaeeien are the weights of 100 cacao beans from 
various countries :— 


TABLE II, 

Kind. Weight in Grams. 
Trinidad ordinary... ss as dos 98 

iS fine Ree ed ak bees 123°2 

a extra-fine a as oe 178°7 
Grenada fine ae ot As BAS 131°0 
Caracas hiss HAG ae at 130°3 
Dominique aes Bob Ban oot 110°0 
Surinam fine ACH a AG wud 122°0 
Bahia - bu ABA be ae 118-0 
Mexican ate ake ae Hee 186°5 
Africa ae ie wee 128°5 


Semler concludes that the average ae of a cacao bean is about 1:2 grams; 
a comparison of the weight of the seeds from varieties grown in any country 
should always be made. Regarding weight only, the Caracas and Nicaraguan 
varieties in Ceylon compare favourably, but the inferiority of the Amelonado and 
Forastero types is equally pronounced. ~ 

PROPORTION OF INTEGUMENTS AND KERNELS. 

This is an important subject in connection with seed selection and ‘ 
is well worthy of consideration. The integuments of beans of the Caracas — 
or Nicaraguan varieties are usually, but not always, thinner than those — 
of the Amelonado or Forastero types, and the proportionate weight of — 

* Annual Report, Botanic Department, Trinidad, 1904. 

+ Le Cacaoyer, H. Jumelie, p, 40. 


Ocr. 1906.] | 313 Edible Products. 


integument to kernel is usually lowest in the round plump samples. Actual 
weighings show very contradictory results owing to the variable amount 
of pulp, absorbed moisture, and dirt attached to the outer surface of the 
integument. 


The following table shows the average proportionate weight of the integu- 
ments and kernels of different varieties of 100 cured cacao beans at Peradeniya :— 


TABLE III. 
: : Percentage 
Weight of Weight of Total : 8 
kernels only. | integuments. weight. nice, 
Caracas Ac ..| 116-2 grams. 10°8 gers. 127 grs. 8'°5 
Forastero-Cundeamor 103:0 iS 10:3; 1133s 30 


Amelonado ... 94°7 5S 103, 105 5 


The integuments on badly washed or dirty beans vary considerably in weight, 
and in many such samples the proportionate weight of the integuments around 
Caracas beans is higher than that around clean beans of the Amelonado type. 


According to the researches of Girard, Heisch, and Zipperer, the ratio of the 
weight of integuments to that of the beans from different countries is as given in 
the following table; the figures by Heisch are for the final product and the others 
for the raw beans :— 


TABLE IV. 
Girard. Zipperer. Heisch. 
Trinidad ee 9°82 aa 14°68 ae 15°50 
Caracas 15°85 wa 15:00 ae 13°80 
Puerto-Cabello .. 13°21 Nes 12-28 oe = 
Guayaquil Ne 10°32 te — Bi 11:50 
Surinam a — La 14°60 BS 15°50 
Para aS. 10°39 Bik _ ae 8°50 
Bahia an — a = ae 9°60 
Ariba iy — ie 18°68 mn = 
Haiti nae 8:93 he — eon oe 
Martinique nae 8:97 sie == ri — 
Cuba bdo = ee — a 12:00 
Grenada aus == — 14°60 


The Ceylon beans have been well washed and the Tate rege having the 
minimum pulp and dirt, weigh less than other kinds; the integuments of Ceylon 
beans constitute from 8 to 10 % of the total weight of the cured bean. 


It is obvious from the foregoing figures that in Ceylon there is a wide vari- 
ation in the average weight of cured beans from fruits of different varieties, hence 
those with the minimum weight must either bear better cacao, be more suitable for 
cultivation, or give larger crops of fruit; otherwise they should be eliminated in 
the selection of seed parents. Ithas also been shown that the different varieties 
have constant characters iu the thickness or weight of theskin, cuticle, or integu- 
ment surrounding the seeds; those varieties having the larger proportion of 
integument are obviously inferior. 


NUMBER OF SEEDS IN FRUITS. 


It is now necessary for us to determine the average number of seeds 
per fruit and the average number of fruits borne by the different varieties. 

The number of seeds per fruit varies considerably, but the following table 
indicates possible averages :— 


Edible Products. 314 


TABLE V. 
Nay, Range in number Average number 
Variet ues of of seeds per of seeds per — 
y: aeh'y ET fruit. fruit. 
Amelonado ... 100 16 to 52 40°87 — 
Caracas LAs 100 16 to 42 31°45 
Nicaraguan... 175 24 to 36 , 28 
Cundeamor ... 100 z 21 to 50 36°26 


If the figures on tables I, ILI, and V- be compared, it will be noticed — 
that the Nicaraguan and Caracas types have the heaviest seeds and lightest integu- 
ments respectively, but produce a lower average number of seeds, per fruit, than the 
Amelonado or Forastero-Cundeamor types. The Amelonado fruits contain the 
maximum number of seeds, but the latter are very light in weight and. have 
comparatively heavy integuments. These results prove that in weight of — 
cured cacao from 100 fruits, integuments and kernels together, the Amelonado often 
comes first. 

TABLE VI. 


Average number Pi AWNER aUtuhe Average total weight of 
sy t of seeds per 100 AER Bee\wolght of one cured cacao from 
y: fruits. VIERMRES eat 3 100 fruits, 
Nicaraguan... 2,800 1°55 grs. 4,340°00 grs. 
Caracas A 3,145 eT 8,994:15 ,, 
Cundeamor _... 3,626 tS aes 4,097°38  ,, 
Amelonado _... 4,087 IOs ss 4,291°35 ,, 


To complete the comparison it would be necessary to give figures illustrative 
of the average number of fruits annually produced on trees of the four varieties, of 
known age, and when cultivated under identical conditions. Unfortunately no 
such figures, of a reliable nature, are at present available, and we are compelled to 
consider only general observations on this subject. Observed trees of the Nicaraguan 
variety, planted in 1895, zave averages of 25, 50, and 70 fruits each in the year's 1903-04 ; 
Cundeamor trees have given from 50 to nearly 200 fruits during the same period ; 
Amelonado 80 to 90; and some trees of Caracas 30 to 50 during one year. Such 
figures, however, are of very little value, and our purpose can best be served by 
determining oe many cacao fruits must be produced, per tree, to give the same 
weight of cacao obtainable from 100 fruits of— say, the Cundeamor type. 


TaBLE VII. 
LTE ISLET CS ERT SIRE IE ETAT AE AE SDPO E IE rn 
Average total weight of Number of fruits required to produce 
Vv, : cured cacao, from cacao of weight equal to that from 
Arch. 100 fruits. 100 Cundeamor fruits. — 
Amelonado ... et 4,291°35 grs. ’ 95 
Cundeamor ... a 4,097°38 ,, 100 
Caracas i is 3,904°15 _,, 102 
Nicaraguan ,.. « 4,340: Bh 94 


Tila MA ERS ANAS Ae Te ses Sag 51 NL aN IR Le BO 
It may be stated that, as faras the number of fruits per tree, per year, from . 

each of the above varieties is concerned, the Cundeamor and Amelonado come first, — 

and sgn and Nicara guan second 5 this is er an parte and a , 


therington., 


E 


Photo by Ivor 


CACAO TREE FROM SUCKERS. 


cee Le | 
hy 


Ocr. 1906. } 315 Edible Products. 


brought very near to that of the Cundeamor by good cultivation. The highest 
valued cacao, by weight, is undoubtedly the large plump beans of Nicaraguan and 
Caracas, then the Cundeamor, and lowest the Amelonado. Judging from current 
values, the Nicaraguan, Caracas, Cundeamor, and Amelonado cacao may be stated to 
have approximate values in the ratio of 70, 65, 60, and 50. The Amelonado variety, 
though it is easily cultivated and gives a good crop, produces thin, flat, bitter, and 
deep-purple seeds, and seems to be the least desirable to cultivate. 


‘ 


Tobacco Cultivation in Jaffna. II. 


By A. CHARAVANAMUTTU, 


DISEASES OF ToBACCO PLANTS.—The plants are sometimes subject to what 
is known in Jaffna as the ‘fence’ or excess of heat. It may be due to want of 
sufficient water to the plants and their exposure to the hot sun or tothe particular 
condition of the soil which becomes at times overheated. The leaves of the diseased 
plants dry and are immediately cut and removed. There is no means of arresting 
the progress of it, and there is no danger also of its infection. 

The leaves of tobacco plants are sometimes affected with worms called 
‘ Alukkanavan,’ ‘Kottiyan,’ and ‘EHripulu.’ They occur in all tobacco gardens in the 
peninsula. They appear in the early morning dew, and before this goes the culti- 
vatorsare busy in searching for and killing them. Every leaf of every suspected plant 
will be searched in this manner. They, however, appear again and again, and the 
cultivators are engaged for several days in searching for and killing these worms. 
If not so done daily, in a fortnight a whole garden would be devastated in 
the manner in which large extents of paddy fields were devastated the year 
before last by the ‘ Arakkoddian’ or caterpillar pest. 

The ‘ Alukkanavan’ and ‘ Kottiyan,’ are commonly called worms by the 
people, but they appear to me to be merely a fungus or excrescence on the leaf of 


the plant. The matter is worth investigation. 


CuRING OF ToBacco.—The leaves are cut each separately with a portion of 
the stem and are scattered in the garden to wither in the sun. After a few hours’ 
withering before the leaves are dried, they are collected and heaped in a shady 
place. After three or four days, in which sufficient warmth is caused to the 
let\Ves, they are taken out of the heap and tied at the ends—generally five leaves 
““Sother—and are hung in the ceiling of a ‘kudil’ to be smoked, The term ‘kudil’ 
again is applied toa mud hut with round mud walls, whose top is entirely covered 
with mud over the ceiling. It is protected from sunand rain by an outer roof 
thatched with cadjans or palmyra olas. -In this hut there is a small aperture, 2x24 
feet or 2x3 feet in some cases, through which the tobacco leaves are taken 
in and hung under the eceiling. Through this aperture, coconut husks and 
‘similar combustibles are thrown in and burnt in order to raise a con- 
tinuous smoke without creating large flames. After the leaves have been 
smoked in this manner, they are untied and removed and heaped together. 
After three or four days again the leaves are hung in the ‘kudil’ and smoked 
as before. The smoking is usually done three times, and each time the leaves 
are subjected to as much smoke as can be raised in a whole day. The leaves 
are finally hung under shelter to dry in the cool air. This is one process of 
curing tobacco, and is generally adopted by almost all cultivators in Jaffna. 

A second process consists in merely burying the heap of withered leaves 
in cowdung or in pits dug for the purpose. Atter three or four days the leaves are 
removed and hung in the open air to dry. The Chutumalai and Achchelu tobacco 


leaves cured in this manner are considered the best for smoking. 


> 
aw 


te a ee ee ee ee at 


poet 


ee SS 


Edible Products. 316 [Ocr, 1906. 


MANUFACTURE. 


C1icaRs.—The only manufacture is that of cigars. The process consists some- 
times in rolling pieces of tobacco in a good leaf and tying the end with a thread. 
It is usually done by first softening the leaves with fresh water and using 
the first kind of leaves for the outer coating, and the second kind and pieces 
inside. The cigars are tied together in small bundles of ten each, and a decoction, 
termed (k6da), prepared by boiling tobacco fibres in arrack toddy or young coconut 
water, is sprinkled over them and then they are packed in boxes. Instead of fresh 
water for softening the leaves first, this decoction—of a light kind—is also employed, 
the strong kind of it being sprinkled on cigars to impart flavour or increase the 
aroma which is peculiar to the Jaffna tobacco. It also serves the additional purpose 
of preserving the cigars from decay and damage by insects and worms. 


SnuFr.—A kind of snuff is also prepared by roasting tobacco leaf of the 
first sort and reducing it to fine powder, adding to itchunam or other substances 
and scents. This is used for local consumption only. 


The manufactured cigars are sent to Colombo and Galle principally and are 
sold at varying rates, viz., Rs. 2°50, Rs. 5 and Rs. 7°50 per 1,000 according to the 
quality of the cigars. The best kind now in the market is Mr. M. B. Swampillai’s 
‘Gold Medal’ Jaffna cigars, which are sold at three different prices according to 
the size of each: Small size Rs. 10 per 1,000, medium size Rs. 15 per{1,000, large 
size Rs. 30 per 1,000. 

The largest trade is in tobacco leaves which are exported to Travancore and 
Cochin in South India. The price of leaves of the first sort is between Rs. 300 and Rs. 
400 per candy weighing about 600 lb., and the second kind between Rs, 150 and Rs, 200 
per candy. The quantity of tobacco leaves exported during last year was 41,230 cwt. 
beyond sea, and 41,596 cwt. coastwise, t.e., to Colombo, Galle and other places. 


I give belowa statement of the cost of cultivating one acre of land with 
tobacco and the income derivable by sale of tobacco leaves. An acre could be 
planted with 4,000 plants, and the cost of cultivation from start to finish, including 
cost of smoking and rent of land, would at a moderate rate be Rs. 384. If the 
crop proves the best, the leaves of the 4,000 plants would sell about Rs, 510, but an 
average crop may bring about Rs. 350 to Rs. 450 only. 


COST OF CULTIVATION. 


An acre of land can be planted with 4,000 plants :— R. «¢. 
40 coolies for hoeing atlicentseach .. id 4) 23 6 00 
Penning cattle for 250 days at 16 cents per day ... = -. 40 00 
(or at 1 cent for a plant for mannure.) 
2 pairs of bulls ploughing for 4 days at 30 cents each per day Nemes 3) 
10 cartloads of leaves at Rs. 12°50 each ... ... 125 00 
40 coolies for burying the leaves and arranging and d transplanting 
at 15 cents oan sts 6 00 
4,000 plants value at Rs. 2:50 per 1,000... Ai -- 10 00 
Watering for 60 days—2 men at 15 cents each per day .- 18 00 
Penning sheep among plants for manure at 1 cent a plant .. -. 40 00 
Hoeing—40 coolies at 15 cents each » 6 00 
Tilling, weeding and making reservoirs- ~60 coolies at 15 cents each .. 9 00 
Lopping off top of plants for a month in alternate days, 1 person for 
16 days at 10 cents 1 60 
Watering 4,000 plants, 7.e., irr igating from well—4 men at Rs. 2°50 per. 
1,000 plants till the leaves are cut ... 40 00° 
304 00 
Rent of land Ser ah 40-000 
Coconut husks &c. for smoking three times ae x ./ 20 00h 
Cooly lines and other contingent expenses ae ae .. 20 00m 


Total Expenditure ... Rs. 384 00 5 
—ee SSS 


Oct. 1906.) 317 Edible Products. 


Generally 12 leaves are cut in a plant, and the 4,000 plants give leaves of the 


Ist Sort 20,000 leaves sold generally at Rs. 17°50 per 1,000 «. Rs, 350 
2nd _ ,, 12,000 ie HG nee eee CORO LO) Maal: 2 2 tee ee ALO 
3rd LB) 8,000 23 a9 ro 99 be) 3°75 99 39 see 99 30 
4th 99 8,000 ” 39 ore ” 9 1°25 ” 9 see ” 10 

Total Rs, 510 


Which can be realised if the crop is successful. 


CONCLUSION. 


It may well be considered now in what manner the cultivator could 
improve his cultivation and make it a profitable concern. [ have described in 
detail the process of cultivation, which I think can hardly be improved upon. 
There is little to be taught to the Jaffna cultivator, who bestows the greatest 
care and attention on this cultivation. But the Agricultural Society can render 
him assistance in other directions in which he badly needs advice and help, 


First,—In the matter of Irrigation. This is a large question affecting not 
only tobacco plants but paddy plants and other plantations. There are 
in Jaffna no large tanks as in the Vanni for storage of water and 
for distribution when required. The entire supply of water is from wells, 
and considerable time and labour are spent in, raising water. It may be good 
to introduce some machinery for this purpose. The ‘Nona’ pump tried last 
year at Vasarilan was found to lift too great a quantity of water at one time so 
as to make it useless to the cultivator, and the well ran short of its supply in a 
short time. 


Secondly.—The Diseases to which the tobacco plants are occasionally 
‘subject have never been investigated, and I think it will do a deal of good to 
invite scientific opinion and suggestions to prevent or remedy them. 


Thirdly.—As regards Curing of Tobacco much remains to be done in this 
direction, The present mode of curing is not at all satisfactory. In August 
last year when H. EK, the Governor was in our midst, he undertook to send us 
a tobacco expert who would be able to instruct the cultivators how to cure 
their tobacco well, We have heard nothing more of it. It is perhaps our own 
fault, The tobacco curing season is already passing away, and we have not asked 
Government for the expert assistance we were most in need of, 


Fourthly.—Markets tor Jaffna Tobacco.—At present the sale of tobacco is 
almost confined to South India. It is known from existing records that Jaffna 
tobacco was sold in Penang, Singapore, Malacca, Java and Sumatra as long 
ago as the early Dutch times. If the highly pungent aroma peculiar to the Jaffna 
tobacco leaf were overcome by scientific curing and the leaf rendered thinner and 
of better flavour, I think it may fetch higher prices in markets other than Travan- 
core and Cochin. If the product could be sent to better markets, tobacco 
cultivation would be found to be a very remunerative concern, At present it 
eannot be said to be a remunerative occupation. 


Fifthly,—and the most important in my opinion, is to devise measures to 
save the poor cultivator from the ravages of the local money-lender. In Jaffna 
the majority of the cultivators are poor people, They get lands for cultivation on a 
rental of Rs. 40 per acre per annum, which they pay soon after their tobacco leaves 
have been sold. They want money for buying cowdung, green leaves, coconut 
husks, and further expenses. They usually go to the local money-lender whose trade 
it is to get the money immediately from the Cheddi at the usual 12 per cent interest 
and give to the cultivators the small sums they want, the latter agreeing to repay 
the money with interest at 20 per cent as soonas their tobacco leaves are sold, 
Oftener than not, it is the money-lender who is also the trader in tobacco. He goes to 


Edible Products. 318 | (Ocr. 1906. 


his debtor and purchases the latter’s tobacco leaves fixing his own price in many ~ 
cases, and the debtor does not like to offend his creditor in the least, I merely 
describe what occurs in the villages, A cultivator applies for a loan of say R100 from 
his money-lender, The latter readily gives the money and gets a promissory note for 
R120 payable on demand, understanding that the amount shall be paid soon after the 
tobacco leaves are sold, t.e.,in 8 months at the most. So then the interest payable 
on R100 for 8 months is R20, 2.e., at 30 per cent per annum. 


It sometimes happens that the interest is deducted from the principal, and 
the balance only is paid obtaining a promisory note for R100, 7.e., the interest 
payable on R80 for 8 months is R20, which is at 374 per cent per annum, 

In the first case the interest paid was at 30 per cent, and in the second case at 
374 per cent on a small capital. 


This is a sad state of things which, if allowed to continue, will sap the very 
vitality of the poor cultivator in course of time, and the Agricultural Society should 
immediately undertake to prevent it as far as possible. The assistant local 
Secretary, Mr. Sabaratnam, once before suggested that an agricultural credit 
bank should be started and worked on a small scale as is done in other 
agricultural countries. Nothing has as yet been done in that direction. If such a 
bank is considered too large an undertaking, I would suggest, to begin with, at 
least a credit fund be raised immediately, for the present condition of the 
cultivators in Jaffna necessitates such a step being undertaken, and I am confident 
that the miserable lot of the cultivators will be improved by it. 


These are merely a few suggestions which I have endeavoured to put forward 
in the hope that they may receive sympathetic consideration and attention, ; 


ps 


Cultivation of the Coconut. 


A NOTE ON THE PAPERS DEALING WITH THE COCONUT PALM IN THE / 
JANUARY ISSUE OF ‘‘ THE PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE,” 


By C, DRIEBERG. 


These papers on the Coconut palm are essentially studies in biology, and the 
details of minute experiments which are described are not such as will appeal to the 
mind of the practical planter. For these reasons I do not recommend that the papers 
should be quoted locally, at least in their entirety. There are, however, a few 
practical facts and deductions which I give below with a view to their being brought 
to the notice of coconut cultivators :— 


It may almost be said that the physical character of soil is of greater 
importance than the chemical composition. The coconut requires a porous soil with 
water within easy reach of it (though, of course, not in a stagnant condition); in the 
absence of water the tree protects itself against injurious desiccation by a partial 
suspension of vitality, with a consequently reduced yield of crop. Given such a 
condition as is above referred to, the tree will thrive even though according to 
chemical analysis there is apparently not sufficient fertility in the soil to enable it 
to do so. 


But it must be borne in mind that the roots of the coconut draw nutriment i 
from a depth of at least 2 metres, (64 feet) and a distance round the tree of from 34 to 
64 metres (say an average of 5 metres, 164 feet nearly). They, therefore, come in oa 
contact with an enormous mass of soil material and appropriate the available plant 


Ocr. 1906.] 


319 ‘ Edible Products, 


Ff food scattered (very sparsely it may be) through it. It thus happens that even in poor 


sandy soils, which are, however, porous and provided with water, there is quite 
enough nourishment for the tree. 

Much of the food available to palms growing along the seashore is traceable 
to the “‘wash”—chiefly under ground—which comes from the land side and flows 
seaward. Such underground wash keeps the plants found along the seaboard in a 


- flourishing condition, while in inland and higher situations, where the soil is less 


permeable, plants suffer from a lack of moisture and therefore of nourishment, 
Irrigation is thus to be recommended for the latter descriptions of soils in 


_dry-seasons ; and the use of manures, particularly those furnishing mineral food, are 


likely to be repaid in an increased yield. 


To put tke matter shortly: ona loose soil where water is at hand, the roots 
travel about freely and find plant food which is then absorbed in the form of very 
dilute solutions. In higher and drier land where the soil is of a firmer texture the 
tree is less able to forage for itself owing to soil resistance and paucity of water. 
The proportion of mineral food taken up may be said to be proportional to the 
amount of water absorbed, 


It will thus be seen that it would be a manifest advantage to increase 
the transpiration in the plant, and so also increase the absorption of water and 
mineral food. 


This may be done in two ways— 


(1) by increasing the amount of water at the disposal of the roots. 

(2) by improving the conditions for evaporation through the leaves. 
Judicious irrigation will bring about the first, but the soil must not be allowed 
to become ‘‘ logged.” 


For the second there should be ample sunlight and ‘ wind.” Provided the 
roots are not too dry, the more the tree is exposed to these forces the better for it. 
To this end avoid close planting. It may be generally stated that the further apart 
the trees are planted the better they will thrive. Certainly up to 15 metres (50 feet 
nearly) any increase will appreciably increase the yield. It is the interlacing of 
roots and leaves, and the competition among trees for air and water that reduces 
their yield. The best ordinary distance is 9 metres (30 feet nearly). Itis only in 
exposed situations, or where intensive cultivation can be economically carried on 
that this distance may be reduced. 


The reason why trees thrive along the seaboard is attributable to the fact 
that their roots are able to stand the action of concentrated solutions (e.g., sea 
water) and the leaves delight in sunlight and wind. As with other plants it is 
possible to create artificial conditions as favourable, if not more so, to crop produc- 
tion. But the conditions referred to above must be provided even in the richest soils 
for the best results, viz., sunlight, water, and wind; for a lack of light, a restricted 
supply of water, and a still atmosphere, are unfavourable to the coconut. 


In selecting nuts, they should be taken from a tree in which the productive 
power is great in proportion to its opportunities, i.e., one that bears a proportion- 
ately larger number of nuts than its neighbours. It is a mistake to select nuts from 


_ trees which are equally prolific in a given area. Heredity (individual character) 


rather than environment should be looked at in this matter. 


Though we would not expect to find itso, both chlorine and common salt 
may be said, from the insignificant quantities in which they are found, to be negligible 
elements in the food of the palm. According to analytical results it is Fate that 
there is a gradual increase in the proportion of meat (kernel), copra, and oil (with a 


decrease of milk, indicating that the meat becomes firmer, loses water and gains oil) 
42 


q 
q 
4 
. 
4 


Edible Products. 320 [Ocr. 1906. 
as the nut increases in age up to three months of storing, 7.e., when they are 
beginning to sprout. In nuts kept for six months, though the meat is practically 
the same, there is a marked decrease in the proportion of copra and oil, due to 
decomposition or other causes. Thus both in very fresh and in over-ripe nuts there 
is a considerable deficiency in oil. 

In planting in the nursery the practice in the Philippines appears to be to cut 
asmall section of the husk off the top of the nut to afford more easy egress for the 
sprout. 

Asa protection against wild pig, a pit 4 or 5 feet deep is dug and the nuts 
planted at the bottom. 

“Grill-dried” copra is not so liable to be attacked by insects and monde: 
though it is considered inferior owing to its dark colour and smoky flavour. 


VANILLA INDUSTRY IN THE SEYCHELLES. 


A British Colonial Office report for 1905 on the trade of the Seychelles 
Islands gives the following particulars of the vanilla industry :— 


EXPORTS OF VANILLA. 


1904. 1905. 

Rs. Rs. 
United Kingdom es 130,592 187,185 
France Aa 148,446 136,462 
Mauritius vs te 8,987 64 
Switzerland... ee 8,400 8,400 
Germany ae — "765 


The ‘striking feature in the fone e aint statement is the continued collapse 
of vanilla, the staple export of the Colony for many years. Vanilla may have 
a future; in no place are the conditions of nature more favourable than in 
Seychelles, but for the present it is of little value, and the crop of 1906 is so 
small that it cannot be expected to exceed 20,000 kilos. Vanilla has long held the 
pride of place at the head of the products of Seychelles. In 1905, it has been 
displaced by coconut products, which have been exported to the value of Rs. 413,951, 
whereas vanilla has fallen in value to Rs. 282,876. The quantity exported was 
more than anticipated, being 48,208 kilos., or over 100,000 lbs., but the actual crop 
did not exceed 36,000 kilos., the surplus consisting of the balance of thé crops of 
1903 and 1904, which had been held up for better prices. The crop for 1906 will not 
exceed 20,000 kilos., and there is only a very small stock of old vanilla held locally. 
The cause of the falling-off in crops in 1904, 1905, and 1906 is the period of 
drought in 1904, which destroyed one-third of the vines and reduced the vitality of 
the remainder. The crop of 1904 had been expected, judging from the flowering 
season of 1903, to be normal, viz., 60,000 kilos., but in consequence of the drought 
it reached 45,000 kilos only. The drought of 1904 checked the flowering for 1905, 
and a crop of 36,000 kilos. was the result. A repetition of the period of drought 
in 1905 led toan almost complete failure of the flowering season for the crop of 
1906, when the total amount cured will not exceed one-third ‘of an average crop, 
and will be as small as that for 1900, without the saving grace of high prices. 
Favourable weather in 1906 promises a good flowering season for the crop of 1907; 


the vines are in good heart, and it is probable that—as far as a forecast is — 


possible—the crop should be up to 50,000 kilos. 


What the failure of the vanilla means to Seychelles may be illustrated by 


the fact that, for the term of ten years before 1904, the average crop represented 
an output of 38,476 kilos., valued at Rs. 714,096, and selling atan average price of 
Rs. 17°95 per kilo. In 1905, the export of vanilla was valued at Rs. 282,876, with an 


average price of Rs. 5°87 per kilo. And the failure means more than this, for ~ 
planters had been living on a scale commensurate with their recent good fortune, — 


ee 


ee ee | 


eg a ee ee eee eee ee ition 


Lt gs 


Ocr. 1906.] 321 Edible Products. 


and traders had been accorded credit ona similar scale. Credit ceased suddenly, 
and advances on crops and on mortage were called in, and no banking institution 
existed to help those planters who held valuable properties, but lacked, for the 
moment, means to keep them in cultivation or to supplement their resources 
by the introduction of new products. At this juncture the Government, being 
supported on the authority of the Secretary of State by a credit with the Crown 
agents, was enabled, under the provisions of Ordinance No. 4 of 1904, to advance 
to approved planters, on the security of first mortgage, sums not to exceed 
Rs. 100,000 in the aggregate. These loans have saved many planters from bank- 
ruptey, and staved off the abandonment of cultivation on several valuable 
properties. The amount actually lent at the close of 1905 was Rs. 67,800, when the 
further operation of the Ordinance had to be suspended. Although the vanilla crop 
for 1906 is again a failure, there has been a resolute effort on all sides to improve 
coconut cultivation, and to develop new industries, especially rubber cultivation; so 
the prospects for 1907 are more generally hopeful than for three years past. 

A statement showing the value, quantity, and average price of Seychelles 
vanilla for the last 11 years is attached :— 


Mica Quantity of Declared value of Average price per 
eats vanilla exported, vanilla. kilo. of vanilla. . 
Kilos. Rupees. Rs. ets. 

1895 Be 4,553 60,344 IB} Bs 
1896 es 81,227 936,000 29 97 
1897 30,691 920,730 30 00 
1898 25,177 748,810 29 74 
1899 41,835 1,388,720 32 00 
1900 17,569 580,877 33 06 
1901 71,899 1,108,792 15 42 
1902 60,862 642,381 10 55 
1903 59,784 503.994 8 48 
1904 aN 41,072 300,026 | a 30 
1905 As 48,208 282,876 | 5 87 


The quantity of vanilla cleared for London in 1905 was 22,566 kilos., valued 
at Rs, 187,185 ; the proportion of the crop and the total value being much asin 
1904. London is looked upon as the better market when prices are good, but Paris 
sales are steadier when demand is dull; that conclusion is based on the fact 
that there are regular monthly sales in London where parcels are sometimes put 
up for forced sale; whereas in Paris there is no open market, but the principal 
buyers, having standing contracts with the wholesale consumers, are ready to 
buy at a figure which is not subject to market fluctuations, As the price ruled 
uniformly low during 1905, the proportion sent to London was no more than 46 per 
cent. of the total;in prosperous years the proportion sent to London has been as 
high as two-thirds. The exports of vanilla to Paris included more than half the 
erop (24,757 kilos.), valued at Rs. 186,462. 


The report by the Curator of the Botanic Station for the year 1905 states that 
the rainfall during 1905 was unfortunately distributed and the vanilla crop, for 
1906 will be considerably reduced. The weather was very promising until! the end 
of July, but the rain fell abundantly in August and September, and the vanilla 
vines put forth new growth instead of flowering. Orange and lime trees should 
be planted ona much greater scale than they are at present for exportation as 
fruits, and for the production of citrate of lime. In short, the climate of Seychelles 
is highly benefical to the growth of citrus trees, and better attention should be 
paid to them. Citrate of lime isimported into the United Kingdom to the amount 
of 1,400 tons annually, and a Seychelles planter has succeeded in making a 
sample of citrate containing 65 per cent. citric acid. The lime industries are 


EDIE SE rodiinis! 399 tia 0c 


specially adapted to Seychelles labour and to the shipping difficulties of the 
Colony, and there is also a certain amount of profit to be derived from them by the 
production of hand-press oils (worth 3s. 6d. on the London market). The future 
of this Colony lies in tree planting on a greater scale than it is at present, 
and not in cultivating herbaceous plants which are so susceptible to climatic 
variations. 


Owing to the fall in the price of vanilla, the Curator was asked to prepare 
an extract from inferior vanilla in order to try to avoid exporting low-grade beans 
as such. The experiments are not yet completed, and the extracts will soon be 
forwarded to the Imperial Institute for valuation. A simple maceration of 400 
grammes of vanilla in four litres of alcohol is not sufficient, and the modus operandi 
which has given the best results is the following :—The vases containing vanilla 
arranged in the form of a battery and alcohol at 80° to 85° allowed to remain one 
week in one vase before being transferred to the next containing fresh vanilla. 
A sort of diffusion is then practised until the four or six vases have received the 
alcoholic solution four or six times each, 


CARDAMOMS IN THE SEYCHELLES. 


In July a lecture was given in the Council Chamber of the Seychelles 
Government, and presided over by His Excellency the Governor, the subject being 
the Culture and Preparation of Cardamoms. This meeting was attended by forty 
persons, including the leading members of the community. 


The great analogy between Ceylon cardamoms and. the Seychelles “long- 
ouze” (Amomum Daniellii, Hook.) was pointed out, and specimens exhibited. The 
numerous ravines in which the ‘‘longouze” grows wild, and many other similar 
localities were described as being very suitable to Ceylon cardamoms on account 
of the protection from the wind andthe presence of proper shade trees. Shade 
and protection from the wind were shown to be the only factors worth considering, 
all the other climatic and agrologic conditions of the Seychelles mountains being ~ 
identical with those of Ceylon. 


The numerous uses to which cardamoms are put in India and Kurope were 
enumerated, and the methods of cultivation and preparation were treated in detail. 
The analogy between vanilla and cardamom preparation was insisted upon, and 
the fact emphasised that the crop of one plant followed that of the other. The 
cardamom seeds brought from Ceylon in February, 1903, were sown at the Botanic 
Station, the seedlings nursed until November, and then planted out at Capucin 
Crown Land. The plants were grown in poor laterite soil under shade of erioden- 
dron and ‘spathodea. The first flowers appeared in July, 1905, and the first ripe 
fruits were gathered in December, 1905. The Malabar variety ripened a few weeks 
earlier than the Mysore variety. Three planters applied after the meeting for 
cardamom plants, and all the suckers that could be disposed of, viz., 1,000 were 
sold during 1905. It was aseertained that Indian cardamoms were sold at Rs. 2°50 
a lb. on the local market, and that the whole Seychelles crop could be consumed 
locally or exported to Mauritius and South Africa, thus ensuring the possibility of — 
establishing a secondary industry of some value in this Colony, The ravines where — 
cardamoms should be planted are not occupied by other plants, and those planters 
who have gone infor the new product have reported favourably on the growth 
of the suckers which they had purchased. aa 


The cardamom plant makes good growth in the highlands of Seychelles, and ia 
in the experimental plantations at Capucin the first crop was obtained twenty-six a 
months after planting. As statedin other parts of this report, this spice, if produced | se 
in this Colony, can be consumed locally and exported to Mauritius and to those ” 


parts of Africa near Seychelles, where Indians bulk considerably in the population, 


ie 
ae 
{ 


3823 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


Notes on Methods of Irrigation in Arizona. II. 


By J. H. W. Park. 


| The object of the whole method of irrigation is to get as much water to pass 
through the plants as'possible, and to let as little of it as possible escape by seepage 
and evaporation. The distribution of the water through the furrows only, and not 
over the surface of the land, and the cultivation of the soil close the latter means of 
escape, and itis assumed that the water so caught in the soil is retained there to be 
extracted by the plants as they require it. 


There does not appear to be much doubt of the efficiency of the 
method. The retention of the water in the soil is shown by the following 
table taken from a report by the Professor of Agriculture in the University 
of Arizona, which gives the percentage of water present in the upper five 
feet of the soil of two fields eighty days after irrigation, the surface of one field 
having been cultivated and the surface of the other having been left to dry without 


‘eultivation :— 


Cultivated. Uncultivated. 
First foot, moisture % G3 ys 3'8 
Second ,, es 12°6 Sh 81 
AMenteeh a 156 ae 10°5 
Fourth ,, a 15'0 oe 11°6 
But Glaieeavee a 12:1 ey 11°7 
Total ut 62°6 45°7 


In this case the cultivated portion contained some thirty-three per cent 
more water than the uncultivated portion, or roughly some two and one-half inches 


- of water over the whole area, and when it is remembered that the whole of the 


moisture stored in the soil is not available for the support of plants, the advantages 
of cultivation in retaining water in the soil which is so available becomes very 
evident. 


As noted in the case given abovea particular farmer received water for 23 
days out of every eleven. It must not, however, be supposed that he watered the 


- whole of his crops once every eleven days; on the contrary he turned the supply to 


a portion of his crops only, and the remainder went without water for a much longer 


_ period, although the length of the period depended upon the nature of the crops. 


Crops Raised.—The whole method of irrigation may be illustrated by the 


following notes on some of the different kinds of crops raised and on the irrigation 


of them. 

Egyptian Cotton.—Seven-tenths of a foot of water applied to land before 
planting, planted in rows with furrows three feet apart, irrigated thirteen times 
in 186 days with a total depth of water of five feet. Yield 400 lbs, per acre. 

- Melons.—Seven-tenths of a foot of water applied before planting. Planted 
in rows on the edge of the furrows which were eight feet apart, so that the roots 
are watered from the furrows and the plants grow on the ground between them. 


Irrigated twelve times in 114 days, total depth of water used 3°3 feet. Yield 27,000 lbs, 


per acre. 

Wheat,—Sixth-tenths of a foot of water applied before planting. Seed sown 
broadcast and the field furrowed two feet apart, the soil from the furrows being 
turned over on the seed-forming plots of about 15 inches wide. No irrigation is 


Miscellaneous. 324 [Oct. 1906, 


necessary for the first two months, by which time the crop is well up and protects 
the soil from the sun and reduces evaporation from it. Three irrigations given in 


the last thirty days of the growth of the crops and the total water used was 2'2 feet 
deep with a yield of 2,150 lb. per acre. 


Peaches and Apricots,—These are planted in rows of about 15 feet apart with 
furrows between from which the water is run to the root of the tree. Water is given 
while the tree is dormant above ground, ten irrigations being given in 75 days, 
and then the supply of water is stopped until the fruit forms when water is again 
occasionally given. The total depth of water used was 3° ‘8 feet for peaches and 
5 feet for apricots, and the yield 4,400 lbs. and 7,600 lbs, per acre respectively. 


Tomatoes.—For these the furrows were 4 feet apart. The seed was planted 
along the edges of the furrows. Six-tenths of afoot of water were given before 
sowing. The seeds were irrigated two days after planting, twenty-seven irrigations 
were given in 244 days, the total water used was 4°3 feet per acre, and the yield 
12,3800 lbs. per acre. 


Indian Corn.—Six-tenths of a foot of water was applied previous to plant- 
ing, which was done in rows along furrows previously moistened. Five irrigations 
were given in thirty days, the total depth of water used being 1°5 feet. Water was 
used while the corn was growing and not after the ear had begun to form. 


General Remarks.—From the above it will be seen that ina country much 
drier than Ceylon it has been found possible to raise crops of an extremely varied 
character by the use of a quantity of water seldom exceeding one acre foot per acre 
of crops raised per month of their growth. 


As already pointed out, the evaporation from a water surface in the district 
is 80 inches per annum, or over six inches per month, and it must be clear that by the 
use of furrows which present only a small surface in comparison to the area culti- 
vated, the loss by evaporation must be reduced far below the loss which would occur 
if cultivation by flooding were practised. 


Anomalous as it may seem, the efficiency is to some extent also due to the 
extreme dryness of the climate. Rainis infrequent with the result that the soil 
once cultivated remains dry on the surface, and the water once caught beneath that 
surface is not easily evaporated. 


The writer does not think it can be doubted that the main reason for the 


efficiency of the system lies in the use of the furrows, and the extra attention which 
their use demands in the distribution of the water passed into them from p»int to 
point of the fields under cultivation, and that the cultivation of the ground in the 
furrow is important as a means of increasing the efficiency. 


Possibility of Applying the Method to Ceylon.—The writer thinks the 
system should be applicable to various crops in many parts of Ceylon, in spite of the 
fact that the rainfall is much heavier and the necessary dryness of the surface soil 
more difficult to obtain. 


It will probably be stated that the only known crop grown under irrigation 
in Ceylon is rice, and that for this crop the furrow method of irrigation is not suit- 
able. This may be true, at least the writer is not aware that any attempt to grow 
rice by the furrow method has ever been tried, although the growth of crops such as 
wheat and alfalfa would point to the possibility of doing so. 


With the abundant rainfall of the N. E. Monsoon, the writer sees no reason 
why the method of growing rice by flooding should be abandoned but that crop should 
be grown during the N. E. Monsoon only, and due care should be taken to use the 
irrigation water to supplement and not to replace the rainfall. For this purpose the 
land should be ploughed dry at the commencement of the Monsoon, and then sown 


— Ocr. 1906.] 325 Miscellaneous. 


and watered heavily by irrigation only after the seed has sprouted and is well up. 
This is the system practised largely in Texas, and it is not altogether unknown in 
Ceylon, as in the Jaffna Peninsula the land is often ploughed dry and sown and the 
crop is grown under rainfall alone. 


It is during the dry weather of the S. W. Monsoon that the writer believes 
the method of furrow irrigation could be adopted, possibly in the paddy fields 
themselves, for the production of those crops which are now usually grown in 
chenas, of which, so far as he can discover, all would be much better raised under 
properly regulated irrigation than on high lands under an uncertain rainfall. Quite 
recently he saw an excellent chena crop sown on land which had been cleared for 
aswedumization, and which would have perished owing to lack of rainfall, saved by 
irrigation, and the only reason the owners were able to give for not regularly 
growing such crops in this manner was that they preferred to grow paddy on the 
land by irrigation after the rains had practically ceased. 


With the saving of water which would follow in the N. E. Monsoon by dry 
ploughing and proper utilization of rainfall, and the further saving due to furrow 
irrigation in the S. W., it should be an easy matter to double the area of crops 
grown while the change in the nature of the crops, if the same land was cultivated 
twice yearly, should be of advantage to the land. 


In support of the contention that furrow irrigation can be used in Ceylon, 
the writer would point to the extreme dryness of certain months of the year 
in certain parts of the Northern, North-Central, North-Western, Uva and 
Southern Provinces. Thus the average rainfall of June, July and August 
has been at Mannar 1°33’, Anuradhapura 4:28’, Puttalam 3°07’ all for 34 years, at 
Alutnuwara it has been 2°68 for 6 years, and at Tissa, S. P., 2°87 for 31 years, and many 
other examples can be found. The losses by evaporation are not so well known, but 


‘Mr. Parker made it 68’, at Giant’s Tank, the writer founda loss of 58 inches had 


occurred at Horabora in 1904, and he has been informed the loss was 72 inches last 
year at Kalawewa. 


Under these circumstances he cannot but think that furrow irrigation and 
cultivation of the land thereafter is possible, and that the question of the method of 
irrigation used in Ceylon with the proper time for sowing paddy is one worthy of 
more attention than it has received. 


Agricultural Banks for Ceylon.—IIl, 


| 


By E. S. W. SENATHI-RAJA. 


Funps.—The great success of the Scotch Banks, as we have seen, depended 
on their issue of bank notes. Several schemes were started in France, inspired 
by the remarkable success of the Scotch banks, to issue paper money, but they 
ended in disastrous failures. It was soon perceived, however, that the success of 
the Scotch banks was chiefly due to prudence of administration and to the suit- 
ability of the system to the conditions of Scotland and the national characteristics 
of its people. The issue of bank notes, it was found, was a convenience and an 
economy rather than a source of funds. Hence the issue of bank notes has not 
been received with favour on the European continent, and only a few land banks 
have the right to issue paper money. In France there is none entitled to do that. 
The rarity of this privilege shows that it is not generally feasible. There is, however, 
another great and unfailing source of funds in all the continental land banks, 
and that is the interest bearing mortgage-debentures (Pfandorief, obligation 
fonciére). Inits original form, when it was brought into use in the 18th Century, 
the debenture was merely a bond for an amount from four to twenty pounds, 


Miscellanevus. 326 , [Ocr. 1906. — Bi 


given by a bank to a borrower on payment of a mortgage bond executed by him. 


It expressly indicated the property mortgaged, and the property alone was the 
material guarantee for the specific bond. The bank was only an intermediary 
between a borrowerand lender, who were in direct relation with each other, and 
the bank merely gave its guarantee that the mortgage was a good one, and that 
payments would be duly made. The lender received the debentures from the 
bank, sold them in the market and converted them to money. The lender looked 
to the borrower for principal and interest, and not to the bank which only took 
proceedings against the borrower in case of non-payment. This, of course, was a 
great advance from the mere private system of mortgage. The man whu had money 
to invest, had only to buy the bonds in the market, without making any enquiry as 
to the value of the property mortgaged or the validity of its title. He had the 
guarantee of the Land Bank which was liable in the property of all its members for 
the guarantee. If the mortgager failed to pay up, the lender was paid by the bank. 
If the lender wanted the money at any particular time or for any emergency he 
could sell his bonds in the market, thus transferring his debt to another creditor. 
This took place without any expense save brokerage, ifany. If it was acase of 
private mortgage, where the mortgagee wanted money immediately, the mortgager 
must make a diligent search for another mortgagee and transfer his mortgage to himx 
provided he succeeded in finding one. Even then he had to incur further heavy 
expenses for notarial fees, stamps and registration. Moreover, the holder of bank 
debentures need only sell somany only as he finds necessary to do—the debentures 
being usually bonds for small sums—-whereas a mortgagee must transfer the whole 
debt or nothing. 


Hence the debentures of Landschaften became current stock which very soon 
rose to its par value and maintained its value even in the worst times. The borrower 
himself had loans for long terms without fear of foreclosure so long as he paid his 
dues. He could get as large a loan as he wished on a primary mortgage to the land 
bank instead of giving to two or three lenders, and borrowing money on secondary 
and tertiary mortgages and incurring heavy expenses. In course of time, however, 
a further modification was made in the form of debentures—a modification which 
has greatly enhanced the usefulness of debentures. The modification is this, viz., 
the bank issued its debentures in its own name without specifying any particular 
property as security. There were two advantages in this change. First, the 
buyers of the new bonds became creditors not of any particular individual but 
of the bank, and their security was not any particular property, but the whole 
mass of the security held by the bank, plus the dYank itself. Secondly, the 
debtors found it possible to reduce their capital liability, by payment of a small 
percentage in the shape of asinking fund. Under the old system of debentures 
this was impossible, as the debtors made their periodic payments of interest not 


to the bank itself but directly to their creditors, and no creditor would receive 


his principal by petty sums spread over many years. These new debentures, 
generally payable to bearer or to order, are those now in universal use on the 
Continent, and funds to any required extent could be raised by this issue. Indeed, 
under this system of debentures all immovable property may now be said to 
be capable of being mobilized. The landed property of a whole country may 


thus circulate in the market in the form of debenture bonds. The Credit Fon- 
cier de France issues its debentures in masses of ten millions to thirty-six millions — 


of pounds sterling, the plan adopted being to divide them into numerous series, 
and issue them by series as soon as loans have been effected to the value of a 
series. For example, in 1879 a loan of thirty-six million pounds was sanctioned and 


divided into 180 series, each consisting of 10,000 bonds and making a total of 1,800,000 a; % 
bonds. Each of the series of 10,000 bonds was of the nominal value of £200,000. In 


Ss 


RN Ie RN ee Se 


ge mea 


Bh Ee at i a ar as sea 


i as ce 


Ocr. 1906. 1 327 Miscellaneous. 


most cases these debentures, though issued for sums from twenty pounds and up- 
wards, are subdivided into detachable cowpure (or slips) of £4 or £5, so that/even poor 
persons may invest their savings in them. 


All debentures are repayable as the mortgages are redeemed. The capital 
repaid by borrowers is followed by a redemption of the debentures of that series. 
These are not repaid according to their consecutive numbers, but the numbers to be 
paid off are determined by lot. By this means bonds are kept up to their par yalue, 
and each bond is payable at par. Thus, if a three per cent is issued at £85, its market 
value immediately rises, for there is a chance of its being drawn at once and the 
holder will get repayment at par, that is, he will receive £100 for the £85 that he 
paid. There is the further advantage that a certain number of these bonds get large 
lottery prizes at the periodic drawings. Thus in the loan of £36,000,000 raised by the 
Credit Foncier in 1879, the 1,800,000 bonds which were issued were repayable within 


60 years by six annual drawings, On anaverage therefore thirty thousand bonds 


worth £600,000 are repaid every year at par, and of these 600 bonds get prizes worth 
£86,000, every year. 


The debenture-holders cannot demand payment until their bonds are drawn, 
but they may sell themin the market at the current price. The bank pays its 
debts by these ordinary drawings, and sometimes when mortgages are paid in 
advance by special drawings. The rule which is strictly observed in regard to 
all debentures is that there must be an equilibrium between the debentures and the 
mortgaye-securities. The reason is that if the debentures are not paid off, as 
the mortgages are redeemed, then some of the bonds would not be covered by 
mortgage securities, and therefore there would not be that double guarantee of the 
mortgages and of the shareholders which makes the position of these banks so 
exceptionally strong, Certain legal privileges are attached to these debenture 
bonds. In France holders in due course are entitled to payment of their value 
or interest as the case may be, and no court can attach those sums. They are also 
authorised to be admitted as securities in which trust moneys may be invested. 
They have also certain fiscal privileges in regard to stamps, registration and 
transfer duties. The debentures it will be seen are an invention which is at once 
most ingenious and fruitful in results, and it is pregnant with vast possibilities for 
our country. The system, of issuing debentures makes it possible even fora poor 
country like Ceylon to find within its own limits all the capital necessary for its 
development. A land bank in Ceylon founded under the most favourable con- 


-ditions, that is to say under the auspices of the Agricultural Society with 


the guarantee and supervision of Government, will at once raise the confidence of 
the public, and its debenture-bonds will draw all the petty hoards from every part 
of the country into the coffers of the land bank. They will afford the best 
and safest investments for savings, and by the adoption of the French method of 
sub-dividing the bonds into cowpures, they may be brought within the reach of 
all who have any savings large or small to invest. They will add to the currency 
of the country, for these bonds will pass by delivery or endorsement. There will 
be neither legal nor fiscal expenses in the transfers. Money is placed with the 
bank which gives in return an interest-bearing receipt. The holder of the receipt 
gets the interest periodically, and his capital at the time when the bond may 
fall due or at the periodic drawings. But it is easily convertible into ready 
money by delivery or endorsement, For borrowers these debentures offer 
advantages which no other system can do. As the debentures are issued at the 
same time as the loans are contracted, the loans may be granted for as long a 
time as is necessary for the borrower without fear of unduly locking up capital. 
By the method of a sinking fund, it affords an easy method of paying off almost 


mperceptibly the capital debt. The sinking fund consists of small annual pay- 
43 


a) Be 


“ t C s if i 
Miscellaneous. 328. [Octr. 1906. 


ments included in the fixed annuity. The annuity remains fixed, and as the 
portion due to interest gradually decreases, the one allotted to sinking fund 
increases. Here lies the great advantage to a borrower of borrowing from 
a land bank, instead of borrowing from private lenders. A private lender cannot 
and will not receive his loan back in small payments spread over many years. 
When the term of the mortgage is over the whole loan must be repaid. This 
can only be done by further borrowing which will lead to more debt. It isa well- 
known fact that capital sunk in the purchase or improvement of land can only 
be replaced by setting apart annually a portion of the income. The founders of 
the Credit Foncier de France seem to have clearly apprehended this fact. The 
reports show that one-half of all the loans granted by the Bank bear annuities 
in which the payment for the sinking fund is so small as to be hardly distinguish- 
able. For instance, if a man borrows a sum of ten thousand rupees from the Bank 
for fifty years, he pays an annuity of Rs. 5°72 per cent. to the Bank of which 
Rs. 5°30 goes for interest and only 42 cents for the sinking fund. He will pay 
annually Rs. 572, and at the end of fifty years Rs. 28,600, and the annual payment 
of Rs. 572 0n which compound interest is calculated for fifty years wipes off both 
principal and interest. If he borrowed the sum from a private lender at the same 
rate of interest for fifty years, he would pay during the fifty years Rs. 26,500 as 
interest alone, and still owe him the capital of ten thousand rupees. Thisis due 
to the fact that as the sinking fund accumulates at compound interest, the principal 
debt gradually decreases, while the annuity remains constant. The result is that 
the portion of the annuity due to interest decreases and the portion credited to 
the sinking fund increases, so that at the end of the payment the sinking fund 
becomes 5°15 per cent. and at the end of forty years 3°28 per cent. It may be added 
that on the continent of Europe in almost every country all loans on the security 
of land are repayable only by annuity. 


The foregoing summary of facts collected from various sources will be 
sufficient, it is believed, to give one an idea of how land banks have been found 
necessary for the advancement of agriculture in different countries of Europe at 
certain periods of their economic progress, and how the problem has been solved 
by them. It has been suggested in some quarters that voluntary societies and 
popular banks like the Schulze Delitzsch in Germany and Raiffeisen in 
Wurtemburg will answer our purpose in Ceylon. But the condition of our society 
is not advanced enough for the formation and working of such voluntary societies, 
Even on the European continent where they have been founded, they are institu. 
tions of but recent growth, whereas the land banks have been in existence for 
more than 150 years. State aided land banks must precede, and their utility and 
success serve as an object lesson to the natives, before any popular banks either 
urban or rural can be started with any advantage to the public. The foundation 
of such institutions which cannot but be ephemeral in the present state of our 
economic progress, will, instead of helping the people, prove to be a national 
disaster by utterly ruining the organisation of credit. Co-operative credit 
societies have been in existence in India for nearly ten years, and whatis the 
result? Mushroom societies have come into existence by hundreds, and have 
perished with equal rapidity, and there are others which are eking out a miserable 
existence and are on the verge of extinction. And yet India is far more advanced 
than Ceylon in the organisation of credit, for there are classes and castes of : 
bankers like the Gomutte Chetties, Bamas and Natucotta Chetties, who for gener- 
ations have been engaged in banking, while in Ceylon we have no such organisation. 
The co-operative credit societies which seem to be fairly successful are very small 
ones witha capital of Rs. 300 or Rs. 400 established in villages where people are known 
toeach other. It is hardly necessary to add that it will be impossible to develop — 
the agricultural resources of Ceylon with the aid of such miniature societies alone. 


5 


Oct. 1906.] 329 Miscellaneous. 


The most remarkable feature in the land banks, on the continent of Europe, 
it is to be observed, is the impulse given to them by the governments of the different 
States of Europe, almost every land bank having been founded by the initiative of 
the Government, and placed under its direct control and supervision, In Ceylon, too, 
it cannot be denied that we have arrived at such a state of economic progress, that 
for the further development of agriculture, some institution in the nature of those 
land banks has become absolutely necessary. More than a hundred years have 
passed since the British occupation of the island, and more than three-fourths of the 
country is yet in a condition of waste or uncultivated land. Even in districts where 
forests have been cut down and lands opened up for coconut cultivation most of the 
native agriculturists are in great straits. By the time the coconut estates come into 
bearing the proprietor gets into the clutches of the Natucotta Chetty or other money 
lender, and not infrequently the estates pass into the hands of strangers. 


The cultivation of coffee, tea, cocoa and other new products by Europeans 
in the higher altitudes of Ceylon has only been found possible with imported 
eapital. If not for the introduction of that capital, it need scarcely be added that 
agriculture in Ceylon would bein the most backward condition. But the native 
agriculturists and land-owners have not the same advantage of invoking the aid of 
European capital in time of pressure, except on rare occasions with the help of 
middle men and under onerous conditions. The time is ripe therefore, it is sub- 
mitted, that the Government of Ceylon should come tothe aid of the people, by 
founding land banks under the auspices of the Agricultural Society. Unlike 
European States, many of which are getting more and more dependent on their 
manufactures and industries, Ceylon is a purely agricultural country, which for 
years to come must have agriculture for its mainstay. If Government initiative and 
assistance were found indispensable to give birth and stability to the land banks of 
the great, independent and highly civilised states of Europe, it needs no argument 
to prove that it would be impossible to establish such institutions in Ceylon or to 
ensure their success, without the support, encouragement and control of the Govern 
ment. The land banks, it isto be remembered, should be dependent for their 
success on the confidence which they inspire, so that their bonds may circulate in the 
market with the same facility as currency notes of the Government, and such a 
result can never be achieved without Government connection. 


As for the funds, there is every reason to believe that all the monies requisite 
for founding a land bank in Ceylon with branches in various districts can be raised 
in Ceylon by means of that most valuable instrument known to European land 
banks as debentures. When it is once known to the local public that the deben- 
tures of a land bank are issued under the control and supervision of the Govern- 
ment of Ceylon, and that they may be bought and sold and readily converted into 
money in the open market, there can be no doubt that most of those who have 
savings, even small savings, will invest their monies in them. That there are con- 
siderable savings in the country available for aland bank may be inferred to a 
certain extent from the funds that are invested in mortgages in Ceylon. According 
to the statistics furnished by the Registrar General, the amount of money secured by, 
registered mortgages in 1897 was Rs. 45,948,796 ; in 1898 Rs. 40,376,729, and in 1903 
Rs. 23,097,180, 


As for the means to carry on the work of the land banks in Ceylon, 
we have a ready made machinery in each province in the Government Agents 
and their Assistants, with all their subordinate staff formerly employed in the 
collection of paddy and grain taxes. The various Kachcheries may be utilized for 
keeping the funds, and the revenue officers of the Government may be trusted for 
investigating the title and appraising the value of the lands to be mortgaged as 
security for the loans. Some special legislation will be necessary for the prompt 


one V bist 


Miscellaneous, 330 


and speedy recovery of interest from debtors, and even there we have a precedent in — 
the summary methods employed for recovering grain taxes before they were 
abolished. Asin the case of the German Landschaften and the Credit Foncier de 
France, special privileges should be granted to the land banks, enabling them, for 
instance, to recover all dues as first charge on the property of the debtor. The 
provisions nevessary to protect the land banks and to establish public confidence in 
their stability are mere matters of detail which may be embodied in an Ordinance. 


In connection with the land banks, and as an auxilliary to them, it will be 
easy enough to establish, and there ought to be established, co-operative credit 
societies in each large village as those founded in India. The Government of India 
has enacted a special law in Act X of 1904, to facilitate the formation of such socie- 
ties, and the Ceylon Government may follow in the wake of its big neighbour by 
introducing similar legislation. Those societies will help the small village farmers, 
artisans and labourers. Thus with a central bank in Colombo, and branches in each 
province under the control and supervision of the Government, and with village 
co-operative credit societies the organisation of credit in Ceylon will be complete, 
and then there will be no reason why agriculture in Ceylon should not make as 
rapid progress and on modern scientific lines as it has done in Kurope and America. 
Without such a comprehensive system of land banks and co-operative credit 
societies including the entire organisation of credit, the mere foundation of petty 
co-operative credit societies alone will be impracticable, and can never effectually 
advance the progress of agriculture in Ceylon. 


Finally, the present, it is submitted, is the most opportune time for laying 
the foundation of a central land bank in Colombo, with branches in other 
important centres. The Ceylon Agricultural Society has opened the eyes of the 
people to the great advantages offered by agriculture in Ceylon on scientific lines, 
and has given a strong impetus to the cultivation of new products. Even villagers 
who had hitherto moved in ancient groves are awakening toa new life. An ever 
increasing number of educated youth of the country are looking out for fresh fields 
in which their energies might profitably be employed. And not the least important 
factor to be reckoned inthis matter is that inthe natural course of events, His 
Excellency the Governor may give up the veins of Government and retire, and his 
successor may not have the same enthusiasm for agricultnre. The Agricultural 
Society may then slacken its efforts, perhaps become purely academic in its 
proceedings, and finally go the way of many a similar association in the past. 
Native agriculture may then relapse into its usual condition of torpor. To avoid 
such a calamity, to enable agriculture in Ceylon to stand on a basis as firm and 
-unshakable as the pyramids, it is to be hoped that His Excellency the Governor who 
has signalised his administration by founding the Ceylon Agricultural Society, 
will complete the good work he has begun by inaugurating a system of agricultural 
banks which the Colony stands in urgent need of. 


CO-OPERATIVE CREDIT IN THE UNITED PROVINCES, INDIA. 


In the accumulation of practical experience of co-operative village banking, 
the United Provinces have been peculiarly fortunate. Numerous co-operative banks 
of this type were founded in 1901, as an immediate result to Mr. Dupernex’s labours, 
and the record of their success or failure has proved of the greatest advantage at the © 
present time, when work has been commenced on broader and more methodical 


lines. 


The village banks were constituted on the Raiffeisen model slightly 


modified, and were governed by a committee punchayat), which was assisted i in the a ‘ 


[Ocr. ive? iy: ia ee 


SS ee ae 


=e 


SOS eee ae 


eS Pe 


i 


ee Par 


i 


SS Fa 


re 


nF ee sere: 


| 


Oct. 1906.) | 331 Miscellaneous, 


duty of supervision by Supervisors (girdawars) and with powers strictly limited by 
rule. The rules provided for the details of working and prescribed (inter alia) the 
terms for and on which loans might be granted, the purposes for which they might 
be taken, the rate of interest which they should carry, and the rate which the bank 
should pay on the money borrowed by it. 


Of the banks then constituted, about one-third have survived as working 
bodies, the remainder being either moribund or dead. It is the purpose of this 
article to examine the causes which have led to the failure of so many of the institu- 
tions, and to describe the steps which have been taken to avoid these causes in the 
societies which have been reconstituted, and in those new ones which have sprung 
up during the course of the last twelve months. 


The majority of the societies had no chance of success from the outset, and 
it is a testimony to the soundness of co-operative principles that so many successful 
societies are now at work. The inception of the co-operative movement in these 
provinces lay not with the people but with Government, and the formation of village 
banks was a direct consequence of Government orders. Neither the officials nor the 
landlords by whose action the banks were opened, nor the members of whom they 
were composed, had any intimate knowledge or any practical experience of the 
principles of co-operative effort. It is a first essential to the success of co-operation 
that the members of a society should act voluntarily, and that each member should 
have confidence in the rectitude and honesty of those with whom he associates and 
for whose debts he takes upon himself the responsibility. At the outset of the 
movement there was in most cases no question of voluntary membership. Cultivators 
became members, not with any intention of contributing toa joint fund and enjoying 
the benefits which such a fund would confer, —not with any idea of combination in 
order to obtain credit at more favourable rates than are usually granted to the 
individual cultivator,—but partly on account of pressure brought to bear by the 
official or the landlord, and partly in the hope that, in virtue of the payment of a 
four-anna entrance fee, each member would be entitled to unlimited credit at a 
favourable rate of interest. The capital provided was not sufficient for the needs of 
all the members, and the majority of the societies contained a number of high-caste 
cultivators who obtained favourable consideration at the hands of the punchayat, 
and being held more reliable than their low-caste fellow-members, were granted 
loans out of proportion to their number. These loans there was every temptation 
not to repay, as common justice demanded that on repayment the money should be 
lent to some other member, who had not in the first instance received any benefit. 
The punchayat, consisting of members of various castes, and the members themselves 
in many cases recruited from almost every caste in the village to which the oper- 
ations of the society extended, were unable to bring effective pressure to bear, loans 
were not recovered, interest was allowed to run on, and'finally the bank died a not 
unnatural death. Such is the life history of many of the societies which were 
founded in 1901. 


A further cause of failure has lain in the rules and accounts, which were 
framed for the assistance and guidance of the banks. It has to be borne in mind 
that in the majority of cases the banks were founded in villages were no professional 
assistance in account-keeping could be obtained. The person, to whom this duty was 
confided was as a rule the sub-agent of a zamindar, or the clerk of a Court of Wards’ 
Estate. They did not understand the method laid down for account keeping, and in 
many cases were most unwilling servants of the Society. Their labours were 
gratuitous, and from the existence of the Society they personally could draw no profit. 
It was consequently to their advantage that the Society should cease its operations. 
Where semi-professional assistance of this description was not available, and a 


Miscellaneous: 332 [Ocr. 1906. 


literate cultivator was appointed to keep the accounts, the result has usually been — 


confusion. With the best of good will, the accountant-agriculturist has not been 
a success. 


In the rules, again, the village societies have found a stumbling-block. The 
ordinary village member looks upon them in much the same light as the Penal Code, 
and lives in constant dread of trouble in case of breach of their conditions. The 
experience gained goes to show that rules should be reduced to the minimum 
consistent with statutory requirements, and that much, which was originally 
provided for by rule, should be left either to the by-laws or to the discretion of the 
punchayat. This view has been accepted by the Government of India. 


Besides the difficulties mentioned in connection with the recruitment of 
members, and the rules and forms of account, there has been in the raising of capital 
afurther serious impediment to the success of the banks. The working capital of 
the societies was raised in three ways. Commonly it was collected by subscription at 
rates of interest very much below the market rate, from interested landholders and 
other native gentlemen. It was in certain instances advanced by Government, also 
at low rates of interest. In some cases a portion was raised from deposits by the 
members of the Society. In almost all cases the amount of capital supplied was 
insufficient for the requirements of the members, It has also been inelastic. There 
was no method in vogue whereby the capital of a village society could be readily 
expanded or contracted in accordance with the fluctuating requirements of the 
members. If more capital than that at present in the hands of a village society is 
necessary, it can only be obtained at the same rate of interest as that paid on the 
initial capital by the exercise of official pressure, express or implied, and this, as may 
be readily understood, forms a serious obstacle to expansion. At the same time the 
local societies, having enjoyed the advantage of the capital at a very low rate, are 
not willing to pay the increased rate necessary to attract the money of the ordinary 
investor. It would entail payment by the members of a higher rate of interest than 
that which they now pay on loans from the Society, and they feel, unreasonably, no 
doubt, but still naturally, that it is a breach of faith on the part of the punchayat to 
charge them two pies in the rupee for accommodation which has hitherto been 
provided at one pie and a half. 

It is, of course, highly Mesieaule that, as far as possible, the village societies 
should work on capital provided in the village from the members’ hoards. That 
this will in time be the main source of capital cannot be doubted. Experience 
in certain districts leads to this inevitable conclusion. In most districts, however, 
there is a distinct aversion to making deposits. The societies are looked upon as 
a freak of Government, and are not generally regarded as in any sense permanent, 
or as suitable places in which to deposit money. The investor of the towns has 
not been attracted. It is not possible that under present conditions he should be. 
The security of the village societies is not known to him; of their very existence 
he is probably in ignorance. It is, however, eminently necessary that the village 
societies should be brought into touch with the world of finance, if they are to be 
of general utility. Whatever scheme is adopted must contain, as essential features, 
the existence of a headquarters organisation which is ina position to deal with 
the large capitalists and the joint-stock banks upon a business-like method, in 
which it is realized that elemosynary contributions at low rates of interest must, 
in the nature of the case, be strictly limited in amount, and that practically un- 
limited capital can be obtained if the business of the societies issound and they 
are willing to pay a fair rate of interest for the capital required. The existing 
organisation societies do not meet the needs of the case. They consist of landlords 
and others, who have subscribed certain amounts in order to finance the existing 
societies. They look upon these subscriptions as of a semi-charitable nature, 


EER 


Oct. 1906. | 338 Miscellaneous. 


and in many cases consider that their duty in connection with co-operative societies 
has ceased, when they have paid the amount expected of them. They are, as a rule, 
not men of business, and their interest in the societies is purely ephemeral and 
dependent on the interest taken in those institutions by the District Officer. 


Such is a brief account of the initial difficulties under which the village banks 
in the United Provinces have laboured, and under which they provably labour 
elsewhere. They are of three descriptions, inasmuch as they relate to the personnel 
of the society, its rules and accounts, and the raising of its capital. It remains to 
describe the steps that have been taken to remove them. 


In the case of the first of these difficulties the remedial measure is obvious. 
Of the burdens and hardships entailed by the caste system there can be no doubt, 
nor is it disputed that the tendency of the system is as a rule hostile to 
progress and reform. Its existence and its power are, however, a very distinct 
indication of a method of extension of co-operative effort along the line of least 
resistance. If members of caste of widely varying social status are enlisted in the 
ranks of the same society, it is clear that the whole force of: the caste system is 
arrayed against successful effort. It is impossible to believe that a Brahman will 
become jointly responsible for the debts of a Chamar, or that the influence of a 
dhobi will suffice to induce a thakur to up a loan, when the latter has preferred 
the smiling path of recusancy. Itis also impossible to expect satisfactory combin- 
ation between two persons, one of whom enters the village meeting house in 
order to attend a general meeting of the society's members, while the other is 
bidden to sit in the street below. Where castes of widely varying social standing 
are enlisted in the same society, it is obvious that equality, which is the main 
spring of all co-operative effort, inevitably disappears, and that success cannot 
result. Itistrue that there are apparently successful banks in existence where 
the members are drawn from many and varying castes. Success is in such cases 
due to the exertions of one or more leading men, who have kept things going in 
practical independence of the opinions or wishes of the ordinary members. 


The classes for whom co-operation holds out the greatest hopes of improve- 
ment, both material and educational, are the lower castes. They are at present 
unable to command the same rates of accommodation as the high-caste agriculturist 
not because their honesty is less or they are more recusant, but because their 
individual requirements are smaller in amount. Unless they can be included in 
the operations of the movement it must so far be held to bea failure. They cannot 
be included in societies in which high-easte members are enlisted. They must have 
societies of their own, restricted to members of the lower castes. It seems, there- 
fore, on all grounds desirable that, in the absence of strong reasons to the 
contrary, the unit of recruitment should be not the village but the caste within 
the village. This will, of course, not always be possible or advisable, but where 
it is possible, it will probably also be advisable. 


The adoption of a system of caste-societies will result in the multiplication 
of the number of societies required to serve any given area. It will also render it 
impossible to demand from the village society the standard of account-keeping 


which is at present demanded. In the case of low-caste societies, it is improbable 


that account-keeping of any standard can be required. These are difficulties which 


have to be faced, and which will be considered later, when the Central system is 
described. 


The problem of accounts in village societies of the existing type has been 
met by the abolition of standard forms of account, and by empowering the 
punchayat to keep the accounts in any form which in their opinion best suits the 
requirements of the institution. This hascommonly resulted in the imuaintenance 


Miscellaneous. 334 [Ocr. 1506. 
of the ordinary forms of account of the country, the zokar bahi, the katz bahi and 
the zoznamcha. All that is required on the part of the Registration Department is 
to see that in the accounts kept up in the village, every item of receipt and 
every item of expenditure shall find a place, The system is not acceptable to 
the inspecting staff. It is urged that audit is a difficulty, and the simplicity 

of audit which was a noticeabbe feature of the model accounts prepared 

by Mr. Dupernex is regretted. The difficulty of audit is one which must 

be faced, but which must also be overcome. If work is to be continued 

on existing lines and the movement is to be widespread, and it must be to 

prove of any practical value, the accounts must be of a nature which the villager 

can understand. They are kept, not for the auditor, nor for the Collector, nor for 

the Registrar, but for the people. The society is theirs—they are responsible for its 

liabilities. It is only just that they should be permitted to keep the accounts in the 

manner which they prefer, with the one condition that every item of receipt and 

expenditure shall find a place, and that each man’s separate account shall be 

separately maintained. The remedy for the audit difficulty lies with the auditor. 

He will have to learn the village systemand the vernacular script. Until he has 

done so he is not fit for his duties. 


For the detailed rules by which the original societies were guided and 
governed, by-laws have been substituted. In the model by-laws which have been 
prepared for the guidance of the punchayat, the greatest latitude has intentionally 
been left to those bodies. The problem to be faced is not one of principle but one 
of method; and the method suited to co-operation in the Provinces can only be ' 
discovered by experiment. Consequently, every point, which could well be left to 
the punchayat for determination, has been left to that body. The terms on 
which a loan is granted, as to interest and repayment, the objects on which such a 
loan may be expended, the power to grant extensions, whether on payment of 


interest or not, all these are matters which are left to the judgment of the local 
committee. 


This at once raises the thorny question of unreproductive expenditure. In 
considering this question it is necessary to bear in mind that the circumstances of 
this country are very different from those of the countries where co-operative 
credit had its birth. The prohlem is unique. The agriculturists of these Provinces 
has from time immemorial pursued the same rocky financial path. He takes 
advances from the village money lender for seed, for cattle, for food between 
harvests, for the clothing of himself and his family, for the marriage of his 
son or his daughter, and for the disposal of his dead. His bania or village money 
lender has as much right in him according to all the cannons of village custom, 
as he himself has in his occupancy holding. Any departure from this custom of 
centuries at once creates a suspicion of faithlessness on the part of the borrower, 
not only in the breast of the money lender whom he deserts, but in the opinion of his 
co-villagers. Under normal circumstances and in the absence of pressure, it is 
incredible that one of the clientele of the village money lender will go elsewhere 
than to that money lender for any of his financial requirements; andit must be 
said that as long as he remains faithful to the money lender, the money lender also 
remains faithful to him. The bania does not refuse accommodation to his hereditary 
clients, except under stress of the most abnormal circumstances. Though rejoicing 
in the name of the village Shylock, the local money lender is in fact indispensable, 
and on the whole reasonable. The bond which he takes for advances made is more 
in the nature of an insurance than an instrument to be used to prove a case in 
Court. It very seldom actually represents the amount of the loan, and as long as the 
borrower makes no attempt to remove his custom elsewhere, no suit on the basis of 
the bond need be anticipated. If any of his debtors are, for reasons other than 


} 
4 


\ 


hs ey 1906.] S857 Miscellaneous. 


recusancy, unable to pay, they are not pressed, and of the profits of the business, 
probably the greater portion exist only on paper. In obedience to village custom, 
the money lender is bound to advance money in many cases in which he knows that 
a bad debt is a moral certainty. 


If co-operation is to be of any benefit, the society must for its members 
replace the bania not only with advances for seed grain, bullocks and manure, 
but also in their thousand and one other financial requirements. No one will 
willingly join a society where the benefits are confined to these minor matters, for 
by so doing he at once cuts his hereditary connection with his mon2zy lender, and 
cannot, consequently, raise elsewhere than from the society absolutely necessary 
accommodation for other expenditure. Until co-operative societies are prepared to 
replace the bania, not only with loans for reproductive, but also for legitimate and 
necessary, but unreproductive, expenditure, they will fail of their ultimate object, 
which is to extricate the agriculturist from the burden of ancestral and perpetual 
indebtedness. 


It is very generally assumed that this course will result in risky business, 
and that the cheapness of loans will induce even greater extravagance than at 
present on festivities connected with marriages, funeral and other domestic and 
social events. The opposite may be expected to be the case where the loans are 
granted by co-operative societies to their members. In these societies each and 
every member of the institution, including the members of the punchayat, is 
responsible for allloans granted to members. The punchayat will, therefore, exercise 
peculiar care in making loans for unreproductive purposes. It may be that a culti- 
vator will come to the punchayat and ask for a loan of Rs. 200 wherewith to 
marry his daughter. The punchayat knows his social position and his circumstances, 
and decides that Rs. 50 is an appropriate sum to advance for the purpose, and 
grants that sum. The cultivator accepts it, goes to his fellow caste-men, and 
though in his heart rejoicing at the curtailment of his expenditure, he explains 
that he was prepared to spend the larger sum, but that the punchayat refused to 
allow him the accommodation. He thus saves his pocket and his izzat at the same 
time. Had the society been debarred from advancing loans for purposes of marriage 
expenditure, the cultivator would probably have obtained the money from the local 
money lender at the expense of his connection with co-operative credit and at an 
exorbitant rate of interest. He would probably also have carried the burden of 
debt for the rest of his life, and handed it asa legacy to his successor. On the 
principle, therefore, that as much as possible should be left to the local committee of 
management, the objects for which loans may be granted have been left to its deter- 
mination. The result will be carefully watched, though there is at present no sign 
that the latitude left to that body will be abused._(By J. H. Simpson, Registrar of 
Co-Operative Credit Societies, U. P. India.) 

(To be continued.) 


The Kurunegaa Agri-Horticultural Show, 1906. 


REPORT ON CLassES A, B, C, AND D. 


Class A, Flowering Plants in Pots.—It was very disappointing to find that 
out of twenty prizes offered only three were competed for, and only one entry for 
each of these. The drought can hardly account for this. 


Class B, Cut Flowers.—The space allotted to this class was insufficient, 
and the exhibits were somewhat cramped. Most of the flowers were good, but 
there was practically no competition, and only six prizes out of the fifteen were 
awarded. A good bloom of Maréchal Niel Rose was awarded a special prize. 
Show boxes should be used. 

44 


Miseellaneous. 336 


Class C, Foliage Plants in Pots.—The exhibits in this class were very 
pleasing, and much credit is due to the exhibitors, for evidently care was taken 
to stage clean, well-grown plants. Taking the class as a whole I was agreeably 
surprised, and have not seen a better grown lot at any low-country show. 

Class D, Ferns in Pots.—This class was very good indeed, and special 
mention should be made of Mr. Goonewardene’s Adiantum farleyense, which was 
deservedly awarded two prizes, viz., for the best A. farleyense and the best 


fern of any kind. 


J. K. NOCK, 


Acting Curator, Royal Botanic Gardens. 


REPORT ON SECTIONS FE. AND F. 
EK.—FRvItTs. 


1to7, Plantains: not satisfactorily 
represented, and only one bunch was fit 
for eating. 
8to10. Not many exhibits, but the 
prize oranges were specially fine. 
11. Coconuts: an excellent exhibit 
and good competition. 


12, 18, 14. Pines: nothing good. 
15. Durians: none. 

16. Melons: a good show. 

17. Grapes: none. 

18. Limes: only fair. 

19. Guavas: poor. 

20. Soursops: none. 

21. Custard apples : fair. 


22. Bullock’s heart: none. 
23. Rambutans: nothing worth men- 


tioning. 

24. Lovi-lovi: nothing worth men- 
tioning. 

25. Papaws: only fair; fruit not 
mature. 

26. Nam-nams:-good. 


27. Jak fruits: none. 

28. Breadfruit : none. 

29. Best collections of fruits: one 
good exhibit. 

30. Bilings: fair. 

31. Kamerungas: good. 

382. Jambus: none. 

33. Nelly: only one exhibit. 


F.— VEGETABLES. 


j. Ash-pumpkins: very fine speci- 
mens and good competition. 
2. Bottle gourds: poor. 
8. Pumpkins: very largely and well 
represented. 
4. Snake gourds: excellent. 
5.and 6. Sugar-cane: only fair. 
8. Turnips: only one exhibit. 
9. Carrots : only one exhibit. 
10. Vetakolu (luffa): very good speci- 
mens. 
11, Beet root: two good exhibits. 
12. Brinjals: good. 
13. Bandakais: good specimens but 
too few. : hes 
14. Ash-plantains: only one exhibit. 
15, 16,17. Beans: very poor. 
18. Princess bean : none. 
19. Tomatoes: fair. 
90, Lettuce: only one exhibit. 
21. Sweet Potatoes: good. 


August 23, 1906. 


22. Chilies: should have been better 


represented. 


23. Capsicum : one excellent exhibit. 

24. Cucumbers: very good. 

25. Onions: good. 

26. Cabbages: only one exhibit. 

27. Jerusalem artichoke : none, except 
among the school garden collections. 

28. Murungas: good. 

29. Spinach: fair. 

380. School garden collections: two 
good exhibits from Nakkawatta and 
Nikaweratiya. 

Yams: disappointing, except in the 
case of manioc. 

Two special prizes were recommended 
or— 
(1) A collection of fruits. 


(2) A collection of wild edible 
products. 


C. DRIEBERG. 


REPORT ON SECTION G. 


The native drugs were but a poor show—very little variety. 
The prize sample of coconut oil was particularly good ; the others rather poor. 


The tobacco was not very good, the leaves mostly being very full of holes, 
and it was also very damp, but this was due to the rainy weather. 


: 
4 
4 
y 
Pl 
re 
be 

a 


Oct. 1906.] 337 Miscellaneous, 


The coconut poonac was good, the gingili poonac poor. 


The oils were mostly of fair quality, but the show was but scantily provided 
with them. 


The tree (Caravonica) cotton shown was clean and well ginned, but the staple 
varied much in length, as perhaps is usually the case with hybrid cottons, some of it 
was 14 inch, some only ? inch. The sample of Sea Island beside it was really better 
as regards staple, but it was dirty and discoloured. 


The rubber was good, and the choice between the two lots was somewhat 
| difficult. Neither lot was properly resilient. 
f JOHN C. WILLIS 


Kurunegala, August 23, 1906. Director. 


fs ee 


: REPORT ON SEcTIoNS J, L, M, AND R. 

J. Dairy Produce.—All classes poor in numbers and little competition, 
except for cow and buffalo ghee. The exhibit of butter by Mr. OC. A. Andree 
deserved special mention. It was very neatly shown. 


. L. Cattle.—A very good show of cattle. The travelling carts with pairs of 
bulls were a very good exhibit. The show of bulls was the principal part of the 
class. Cows were few and of no especial merit. No sheep, and only two goats 
were shown. 

M. Poultry.—The show of poultry was on the whole disappointing. They 
were small in size, and not cleanly shown. They should be washed before exhibiting, 

R. Horses.—Five ponies under 12 hands were shown. The first was a smart 
coan pony, and the second a nice bay 2-year old, which will develop into a good 
pony with care. 

In turnouts, only two single turnouts were shown, the first going to Mr. 
E. E. Gunawardena with a nice Australian horse and rubber-tyred victoria. The 
second was a nice moving grey cob, the property of Mudaliyar 8S, M. Fernando. 

An extra class for larger horses was provided, Mr. F. G. Tyrrell taking first 
place with a nice quality Australian mare, and Mr. W. C. Price second 
place with a strong bay cob, who would perhaps have fared better had he been 
ridden or driven and better shown. 


G. W,. STURGEHSS. 
August 28, 1906. 


fe SON a 7 ee ee RO Od ee Ee ee eee 
3 res Re : : = ‘ % 


The Kelani-Valley Agri-Horticultural Show, 1906, 


REPORT ON FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. 
" #ruits.—The show of plantains was very disappointing, the only noticeable 
7! exhibit being one of “ Ash” plantains from Salawa Estate (Mr. J. W. CG. de Soysa’s 
property). 
Oranges were much better, and there was very good competition here—the 
best sample coming from Paradise Estate. Limes were also good, the prize going to 
R. A. Dassanaika of Dehigahapitiya. 


= Soursops and rambutans were fair, and the awards for both went to 
Salawa Kstate. 


rs A very fine basket of lovi-lovi fruits gained the prize for Cader Tamby of 
if Dehiowita. 


The papaws shown were well grown, of good size and quality. The best 
were those shown by Agris Jayawardene of Padukka. 


Miscellaneous. 338 


Sapodillas were poor, the only tairly good specimens coming from Salawa 
Estate. 

The good basket of nelly fruits was sent in by M. D. Julis. 

Paradise Estate also gained the prize for breadfruits, the exhibits of which, 
however, were not particularly striking. Other fruits mentioned in the catalogue 
were either entirely absent or unworthy of notice. 

Vegetables.—Exotic vegetables were very poorly represented, and this fact 
goes to prove that few persons, if any, grewspecially for the show. Beans, lettuces, 
and beets were fair, but there is no reason why these and other exotics should not 
have made a striking class in themselves, if a proper attempt had been made to 
grow them. 


Of yams and sweet potatoes there were excellent specimens, the collection 
sent in by the Mudaliyar of Hewagam Korale being the best. 

Maniyagama school took the prize for snake gourds, and Salawa Estate was 
again to the front with a fine show of bandakais and bitter gourd. 

Chillies, cucumbers, ash pumpkins, brinjals, luffa (vetakolu), spinach and 
lasia (kohilla) were all good. 

The best general collection of vegetables was that sent in by Juanis Appu. 


C. DRIEBERG, 


Superintendent of Schoo Gardens, 
Colombo, 14th September, 1906. 


REPORT ON CLAss IJil., A. AND B. 
I have the honour to report as follows on sections A. & B. of Class III, (viz., 
Vegetables and Commercial Products and new Products respectively), at the Agri- 
Horticultural Show held at Talduwa, on the 7th and 8th instant. 


This being the first show held in this district, these sections were perhaps 
more creditable than the mere list of entries suggests. The keenest competition was 
in coconut oil and rubber, of which there were 40 and 12 entries respectively. None 
of these were really of mean merit, andthe work of the judges was to select the 
best of what was all good. The following is a detailed account :— 


VEGETABLE AND COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS. 
Exhibits. No. of Exhibits. Remarks. 


Coconut oil ... Ba a8 40 Ae All good 
Cinnamon oil a Pe . 


Medicinal oils 1 A large collection 
Tobacco 2 No prize awarded, both 
being disqualified 
Native fibres 1 Rather poor 
Gingelly oil.. 1 Fair 
Kekuna oil . 1 do 
Gums and resins 1 do 
Native dyes... -- _ 
Gamboge -- ~~ 
Coconuts GIVER Good specimens 
King coconuts 6 We All good 
Arecanuts 2m Good ! 
Gee Pep eee 
Groundnuts... on Ee Biss: Pretty fair samples 
Groundnut oil a ie — sn 
Groundnut poonac.... ra) 1 Veh dese Very IarOr disqualified 
Cleaned cotton its By 4 aii iy All good 
Rubber es ae We 12 She do 


(Sgd.) H. F. MACMILLAN, 


Curator, Peradeniya Gardens 
isth September, 1906. 


~~ 


Oct. 1906.] 5; 339 Miscellaneous. 


CATTLE AND POULTRY CLASSES. 

Cattle Section.—Very few cattle were shown. The coast bulls made the 
best class, The exhibits of native cattle were poor. Altogether a rather disappoint- 
ing section. 

_ Poultry Section..—Was a fairly good section. The birds were conveyed to 
the show in larger cases, and proper pens were provided at the show. 
(Sed.) G. W. STORGESS, 


Government Veterinary Surgeon, 
Colombo, 10th September, 1906, 


@ 


The Kegalle Agri-Horticultural Show. 


Sections JI, II, III, anp IV. 


Ihave the honour to report as follows on Sections I, I, III, and IV at the 
Agri-Horticultural Show held at Kegalle on the 21st and 22nd instant. 


Generally speaking the show, as regards purely native products seemed 
to bea very satisfactory one, and in my opinion approached what such village shows 
should be. Order and method pervaded the general arrangements to an extent 
not usually seen. 

Section I. (Plants in Pots).—-All classes under this head were competed for, 
except Roses and Geraniums. Ferns in pots and Chrysanthemums in flower were 
quite good. 

Section IT. (Cut Flowers).—There was a large display of these chiefly native 
flowers. A rather novel (but not quite clear in meaning) class termed ‘‘ Malwattiya ” 
drew a large number of competitors. 


Section III. (Vegetables).—There was a good general collection representing 
every class in this section. Yams of good quality (and others as monstrosities) were 
much in evidence, the prize going to an excellent collection of 29 edible kinds shown 
by Ratemahatmaya Boyagoda. A nice exhibit of vegetables was that shown by 
Hettimulla School Garden. 


Section IV. (Fruits).—There was strong competition in plantains, oranges, 
papaws, and limes, but pineapples were poor, these being now out of season. Had 
the prizes offered in this section been less limited, a greater variety of fruit would 
doubtless have been brought together. | 


H. F. MACMILLAN, 


Curator, Peradeniya Gardens. 
28th September, 1906. 


DAIRY PRODUCE AND CATTLE. 


Sir,—With reference to your letter No. 3974 of the 25-26 September, 1906, 
Ihave the honour toinform you that in the Dairy Produce Section the Exhibition 
of ghee and eggs was good, the remainder of the sub-classes very poor. What 
poultry were shown were very fair, but poor in numbers and not properly cleaned 
and prepared for exhibition. The Cattle Section was a good one, especially for 
native bulls. There might have been much more competition if owners would enter 
their cattle. Tam, etc., 


G. W. STURGESS, 


Government Veterinary Surgeon. 
Colombo, 28th Sept., 1906. 


Miscellaneous. al! [Ocr. 1906. 


Lessons in Elementary Botany. _V. 


By J. C. WILLIS. 


We must now pass on to consider the reproductive organs, remembering that 
the chief feature in the life history of a plantis its reproduction. It is customary to 


distinguish between vegetative and true methods of reproduction. The former is the : 


detachment of portions of the vegetative system—specialised for the purpose as in the 
ease of the tubers of a potato, or not, as in the case of rubber cuttings—which may 
grow into new plants without any further reproductive phenomena.’ True repro- 
duction, on the other hand, is propagation by special cells (the unit parts of plants) 
set apart for the purpose. These may be able to grow into new organisms without 
any sexual process, or they may require, as a preliminary to further growth, to fuse 
together in pairs, male and female. In the first case we speak of asexual reproduc- 
tive cells or spores ; in the second of sexual, or gametes, which by their union produce 
a new cell or zygote capable of further development into a new individual. 


The spores are contained in little capsules or sporangia seen in their typical 
form on the back of a ripe fern-leaf, where they are usually aggregated into groups 
called sori. Asarule in ferns the sori may occur on the backs of any or all of the 
leaves ; but in many cases they are on special, usually smaller, leaves—usually with 
narrow segments. In the clubmosses, near relatives of the ferns, the sporophylls, as 
the spore-bearing leaves are generally termed, are aggregated into cones at the end 
of the branches, and a somewhat similar phenomenon is seen in all the flowering 


plants, the flower corresponding (to a large extent) to a cone, the stamens and carpels 
being the sporophylls. 


In the ferns there is only one kind of spore, all being of the same size,, but in 
the selaginellas (common in upcountry jungles, creeping on the ground) there are 
large and small spores ; and the same is the case in other plants. 


: When the spores of ferns are sown upon damp soil (try this on wet sand) 
they germinate and give rise to delicate little green leaf-like plants, called prothalli, 
entirely different in structure from the ordinary fern plant. The prothallus is 
sexual and bears the male and female cells or gametes, which when united give a 
zygote capable of growing, not into a prothallus again but into a leafy fern plant 
like the one with which we started. The female cells remain in their receptacles on 
the prothallus, and the new plant is therefore attached to the prothallus for some 
time (allow the fern spores to grow for a considerable time and presently the young 
fern plants will appear on the prothalli.) We may therefore sum up the life history 
thus :— 
Fern plant——>sporophylls—-—> sporangia——> spores 
A 
| 
| 
| 


Vv 
<——male gamete<——male_ receptacles) 
Zygote<——female do. <——female do. yj Prothallus. 


In Selaginella, &c., the big spore gives a female, the small a male prothallus, 

In the flowering plants this same alternation goes on, but the prothallus stage 
is much reduced. The big spore germinates without falling off, and the small spore, 
or pollen grain, is carried to its neighbourhood by the wind or by insects, and 
germinates there. The growth of the zygote stops for a while, after a time, and we 
say that the seed is ripe. 


Before we consider the flower in detail, we must briefly describe the ways 
in which flowers are arranged upon the plant—the inflorescence, as it is termed. 
Very commonly a plant has only one inflorescence or tuft of flowers, but most often 
has several. 


—" 


See ee ae SS 


i ord al 
2's 


ae 
' 
5 


Oct. 1906. ] 341 Miscellaneous. 


The flowers may be sessile (stalkless) or on stalks. Hach flower usually 
arises in the axil of a leaf, termed its bract, and any leaves between the bract and 
the flower, on the same stalk as the flower, are termed bracteoles or bractlets. Most 
commonly there are either two or one, but they may be absent, or many. 
Sometimes the stalks of the flowers of the inflorescence all start at one point and 
then the bracts are generally condensed there into a whorl or involucre. the term 
is also given to a whorl of leaves on the same stalk as one flower. Sometimes the 
bract isa large leaf more or less enclosing the whole inflorescence, and is then 
termed a spathe. 

Flowers may be solitary, or two or three together in the axils of all or some 
of the leaves, but most commonly they are massed into inflorescences. The 
simplest type is the »aceme in which the main stalk grows steadily onwards, 
bearing lateral branches in regular succession, and each lateral branch ending in 
a flower (see plate). This is well seen in cress, mustard, etc. 


If, instead of each branch of a raceme being one-flowered, it forms a raceme 
itself, the resulting inflorescence is a panicle, But the definitions of inflorescences 
are loosely applied, and any inflorescence presenting this loosely branched appearance 
is usually called a panicle. If in the simple raceme we imagine all the flowers 
sessile, we get a spike, as in the agrimony, etc. If in a raceme the lateral stalks 
grow so rapidly as to keep all the flowers atone level, we get a corymb, as in 
eandytuft. If we imagine all the flowers of the corymb to spring at one point, 
we get an wmbel, and if the flowers of an umbel be imagined sessile, a head as in 
dandelion, goatweed, sunflower, etc., (see plate forall these). In all these inflor- 
escences the order of opening of the flowers is evidently towards the centre, 
where the youngest flowers will be, but in many inflorescences the oldest flower 
is in the middle and the younger ones outside. Such inflorescences are called cymes 


and may be of many forms, often more or less closely imitating the racemose inflor- 
scences (see plate). 


The great advantage of an inflorescence appears to be the massing of the 
flowers close together, so that insects are more attracted by the greater conspi- 
cuousness, and the chance of pollination is much greater. 


THE FLOWER. 


The flower consists essentially of a short shoot or stem, the receptacle, 
bearing sporophylls, the stamens and carpels. The former are usually short stalks, 
each ending in an anther or receptacle for the little pollen grains, the latter are 
generally united in various ways as we shall see. In addition to these, nearly 
all flowers have also a perianth or set of non-spore-bearing leaves, outside the 
stamens and carpels. As a general rule these are in two rows, an outer green 
or membranous, called the calyx, and composed of sepals, and an inner, brightly 
coloured, the corolla, composed of petals. In such a flower as the lily, where 
all the leaves are alike, we speak of the perianth, and perianth-leaves. 

When we examine a lot of different flowers, we find what at first sight 
appears to be almost infinite variety in them. Some have three, some four, 
some five leaves, or stamens, or carpels, ina whorl, some have no definite whorls at 
all; some have the petals free from one another, some united; some have no 


stamens or no carpels ; some have the stamens united to the petals, some not; some 
have convex, some concave receptacles, and so on. 


When we examine the flowers in detail, we find that all this immense 


variety can be brought under a few heads, with which we may now proceed 
to deal. 


Segregation of the Sporophyl/s (stamens and carpels), or grouping of each 
kind by itself, is characteristic of existing flowers. They may be all in the same 


Tee CP RFs age y toe ro re 


[Ocr. 1906. 


hermaphrodite or bisexual flower (these sex terms, as will be evident from what 
has been said above, ought not, strictly, to be applied here, but they are firmly 
established in botanical literature), or they may be in separate unisexual flowers, 
the stamens in male, the carpels in female, flowers. In bisexual flowers the carpels 
are in the centre, the stamens around them. — 


Miscellaneous. 342 


As the construction of the flower is the most important feature upon which 
the classification of plants rests, it will be necessary to give here afew at least of 
the most important technical terms in use, and we shall give them after each section. 

Flowers may be bisexual, or unisecual (male and female). Plants with male and female flowers 
on the same plant, monoecious, on different plants dioccious. 

Reduction in number of the Sporophylls, and thew arrangement in Whoris 
are two very widely spread features of existing flowers. Many of the lower types 
of flower, for instance the buttercup, have their leaves not in definite whorls, and 
have a large number of stamens and carpels, but in most flowers this is not 
the case, and as we go up in the series of plants, the number of stamens and 
carpels, more especially the latter, tends to decrease. 

Flowers with 2, 3, 4,5, members in each whorl, di- tri- tetra- penta- merous. It the number is 
over ten, and, variable, it is indefinite. Members of one whorl are usually alternate to those of the next, 
4.€ , occupying the gaps between them, but may be opposite to them. 

Cohesion, or union of similar organs, is very common. It is most usual in the 
carpels, very common in sepals, less so in petals, rare in the stamens. 

Perianth, calyx, corolla, stamens, carpels, of organs quite free from one another, polyphyllous, 
polysepalous, polypetalous, polyandrous, apocarpous; of coherent or united organs gamophyllous, 
gamosepalous, gamo- or sym- petalous, monadelphous (if all the stamens united; see below 
under stamens) syncarpous. The united portion is termed the tube, the free parts the limb, divided into 
lobes, teeth, or segments. 


Adhesion, or union of dissimilar organs, is also very common. The most 
usual case is for the stamens to be united to the petals. : 

Stamens united to the perianth, calyx, corolla, epiphyllous, episepalous epipetalous ; carpels and 
stamens united, gynandrous. 


(To be continued.) 


Literature of Economic Botany and Agriculture, IX. 


By J. C. anus: 


Cotton: General.—Cotton growing in the British Empire. Emmott in “ 7.A.,” June 

1904, p. 802. 

Cotton Improvement. Ind. Agr., June 1904, p. 180. 

The growing of long-staple Upland cottons. Webber in Yearbook U. S. 
Dpt. Agr., 1903. 

Consumption of Cotton in the United States. Do. p. 463. 

Review of the introduction of the Cotton industry into the Netherlands 
Indies. Van Tromp de Haas. Str. Bull., June 1904, p. 195. 

Caravonica Cotton. ‘‘ 7.A.,” 1904, pp. 151, 210. 

The structure and properties of mercerised Cotton. Imp. Inst, Bull., 1904, 
p. 195. 

Cotton growing in India. (B, C. G. A. Memorial), Ind. Pl. and Gard., Oct. 
1904, p. 751. 

The Cotton Plant and its products. Ind. Agr., Nov. 1904, p. 341. 

Deutsch-Koloniale Baumwollunternehmungen. Beih. z. Tropenpfi., IV. 
1908, Nos. 2, 4. 

Die wirthschaftliche Bedeutung des Baumwolls auf der Weltmarkte. Beih. 
z, Tropenpfi., V. 1904, Nos. 5, 6. 


CONAaFS CNS 


LESSONS IN 


Solitary in axils 
Bract 
Bracteoles 
Involucre 
Spathe 

Raceme 

Panicle 

Spike 

Corymb 

Umbel 

Head 

Cyme 
Imaginary flower in section 


ELEMENTARY BOTANY. 
Explanations of Plate ITI. 


Polypetalous corolla 

Sympetalous corolla 

Epipetalous stamen 

Hypogynous flower 

Perigynous flower 

Epigynous flower 

Apocarpous ovary in cross section 

Syncarpous multilocular axile pla- 
centas 

Syncarpous unilocular parietal pla- 
centas 

Synearpous unilocular free-central 
placenta 


al 22 23 


LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY BOTANY. PLATE III. 


ae — Oct. 1906-] 348 Miscellaneous, 


i; 


s 
Dn 
[ 


> bak ok ae hee 


eal 


a 


Cotton-growing in India. Ind. Pl. and Gard., 26 Nov. 1904, pp. 825, 842. 

Caravoniea Cottons and Indian famines. ‘ 7.A.,” Dec, 1904, p 374. 

Caravonica Cotton for Ceylon. Do. p, 420. 

Cotton cultivation in Egypt. Bull. Imp, Inst., Jan. 1905, p. 285. 

The progress of Cotton cultivation in the Sudan. Do. p. 244. 

Cotton growing in German Colonies. Do. p. 249. 

Profits of Cotton-growing in Barbados. Agr. News, 28 Jan. 1905, p, 21. 

Caravonica and other Cottonsin Madras. Ind. Pl. and Gard., 6 Jan. 1906, p. 7. 

Baumwollbau in Aegypten. Tropenpflanzer, 1905, p. 689. 

The Indian Cotton Industry. Ind. Pl. and Gard., 27 Jan. 1906, p. 60. 

Results of experiments in cultivation of Cotton in the West Indies. W. I, 
Bull., 6, p. 109. 

The Extension of Cotton cultivation. Ind. Agric., 1 May 1906, p. 148. 

Die Withschaftliche Bedeutung des Baumwolls auf der Weltmarkte Beih. 
Z. Tropenpfl. IV., 1908, No. 3, 4. 


Cotton Cultivation, &c.—Manuring. Queensl. Agr. J., Sept. 1899, p, 295. 


Cotton Cultivation. Jamaica Bull., Mar. 1904. 

Practical details of Cotton growing. Natal Agr. Journ., Aug. 1904, p. 780. 

Cultivation of Sea Island Cotton in the U.S. and the West Indies. “W. I. 
Bull., 1904, p. 287. 

The manuring of Cotton. ‘ 7.A.” Jan. 1905, p. 487. 

Behandlung der Baumwollboden. Der Pflanzer, 1, p. 1. 

Manurial experiments on Cotton in the Leward Islands. Watts. W. I. 
Bull., VI., 1905, p. 247. 


Cotton Harvesting, &c.—Cotton-seed oil industry. Jamaica Bull., V. 1898, p. 249. 


Cotton-seed industry in the United States. Year-book U.S. Dept. Agr. 
1901; W. 1. Bull., 1903, p. 32. 
By-products of Cotton seeds. Ind, Agric. Afric., 1 Aug. 1908, p. 244. 
Picking Cotton. Agr. News, 1904, p.1. 
Cotton ginneries in the West Indies. Agr. News, III. 
} Eigreneuses. Rev. d. Cult., Col., 1904. 
Cotton gins and ginneries. Queens]. Agr. Journ., Aug. 1904, p. 556. 
Utilisation of Indian Cotton-seed. Bull. Imp. Inst., Mar. 1904, p. 58. 
Ginning Sea Island Cotton. Agr. News, 17 Feb. 1904, p. 55. 
Cotton: Diseases, &c.—West Indian Anthracnose of Cotton. W. I. Bull., V., p. 178, 
The Cotton boll weevil. Agr. Gaz. N. S. W., Jan. 1905, p. 238. 
Fungoid diseases of Cotton. W. I. Bull., 6, p. 117. 
Insect Pests of Cotton. do. p. 123. 
Cow Pea.—Disease in Java. Exp. Sta. Rec,, X., 4., 1899 p. 362. 
Croton.—Kino from C. Tiglium. Hocper in Ind. Forester, 31 Dec., p. 717. 
Cryptostegia.—C. grandiflora. Ind, Pl. and Gard., 23 Apr. 1904. 
OCubebs.—Hartwich, Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Cubeben see Just’s Jahresb, 1898, II. 28. 
Sage, Note on Cubebs. Chem, and Drug., 18 Nov. 1905, p. 797, 
Cyanotis.—C, axillaris, a famine food. Agr. Ledger, V. P. Ser. 46. 
Cyperus.—Nut grass. Queensl. Agr. J., Nov. 1899, p. 460. 
Dammar.—Agathis loranthifolia (details and figs.) Ind. Mercuur, 18 Sept. 1900, p. 661. 
Date.—Tourney. The Date palm. cf. B. C. Bei., IX., p. 76. 
Foreign Office report on Bussorah Date season, 1897. 
The Date Palm for Queensland. ‘‘ 7.4.” July 1901, p. 4. 
The Date Palm and its culture. U. S. Dept. Agr, Yearbook, 1900, p, 453. 
Date Palm grafting ete. ‘7.A.” Aug. 1901, p. 88. 
Sur la culture du Palmier Dattier. Rev. Cult. Col., Feb. 1902, p. 88. 
Dattes (varietes). Journ. d Agr. trop., II., 1902, p. 110. 
Schweinfurth, Ueber dem Kultur des Dattels. B. C. 89, 556. 
Le Dattier Commun. Rev. Cult. Col., Oct. 1903, p, 197. 
The Date Palm. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. B. P. I., 58. 
The cultivation of the Date Palm. W. I. Bull., V. 159. 
45 


344 


SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE. 


THE CONSERVATION OF CATTLE MANURE. 


The attention given to the conservation of farmyard manure in France is 
one of the striking things noted in his travels by an agricultural correspondent. 
“In the yard near the stock buildings ou one of the farms visited” he writes, 
*‘is a brick enclosure in constructed cement on the inner side. Beneath this, and 
in the centre, is a large tank into which the urine from the different buildings 
is conveyed by drainage. The tank is covered by an iron grille, above which the 
manure is stacked, the heap having vertical sides, and being built from day to day 
with every care. Above is a roof to keep off the rain, while in the very centre 
of the heap, and rising from the tank, is a pump. In the natural order of things 
the manure is wheeled from stable, piggery and cattle shed on to the heap, and 
carefully spread, so that each form of manure is well mixed, and the quality of 
the heap equalised as far as possible. From time to time the urine within the 
tank is pumped over the heap, which is kept well soaked and cool, and in this way, 
although some loss may occur by volatilisation, the heap is kept from fermenting 
too rapidly, while the liquid is largely absorbed.” Commenting upon the almost 
universal attention given to the saving of farmyard manure in France, this corre- 
spondent thus refers to its exceptional value :— 

‘The value of this manure does not consist alone in the proportion of 
fertilising matter which it contains. Farmyard, unlike artificial manures, possesses 
two values, the one fertilising, the other mechanical. The mechanical condition 
of aloamy soilis known to be such that crops can be grown upon it with greater 
ease and success, while it absorbs less labour than a heavy soil. Many clays have 
great crop growing capacity, but only in proportion to the labour and the farmyard 
manure bestowed upon them. The fine mechanical condition of a loam is chiefly 
owing to the high percentage of organic matter which it contains. Add the same 
quantity of organic matter to a clay and its crop-growing value is at once improved, 
and improved to a considerable extent. It is for this reason that this manure, 
which is chiefly composed of organic matter, is of such great importance to heavy 
lands. Clay soils are almost useless until they have been pulverised, but even then 
their value is little until they have been well and repeatedly dressed with farmyard 

‘manure, which prevents excessive tenacity, permits the entrance of air and water, 

adds warmth, and generally conduces to the crop-bearing capacivy of the soil. 
As the straw and other organic matter in the manure slowly decomposes, the 
fertility it contains is liberated; while during the decomposition heat is evolved, 
and heat is of great importance to plant life. What has been said applies equally 
to the lighter soils, for just as farmyard manure reduces the tenacity and heavy 
condition of clays, so it conduces to the homogeneity of the lighter soils, which 
are too loose, too pervious to water, and too lightly furnished with decomposing 
material.’—I. P. Gazette. 


‘Oct. 1906. ] 345 


Correspondence. 


RUBBER TAPPING METHODS. 


DEAR SirR,—The Tropical Agriculturist for September has done me the 
honour of publishing my letter and diagram of 18th August on the above subject, 
and its learned Editor has condescended to ‘‘siton” me. He says in a footnote :— 
“The full spiral leaves L. F. C. untapped.” With all due respect to constituted 
authority, I say it does not, as he will see if he folds the diagram into a cylinder till 
A. C. and B. D. coincide, or if he will look at a tree that has been completely spirally 
tapped. But, ne sutor ultra crepidam, my apology is due for the unscientifle state- 
ment, which I must have cribbed out of our Rubber Handbook, that ‘‘ the latex cells 
have the power of sealing themselves up.” Like the genial Government Agent, C.P., 
I now know that “the latex accumulates in other cells near by”—so near, that it 
takes a high-power microscope to see it. And asa mere practical tapper, who does 
not go about his work armed with even a magnifier, perhaps I may be forgiven this 
slip. What my eye sees is the whole of the last tapping line sealed up and dry, as it 
were, and a thin paring cut starts the flow of latex again all along the line. 


Now, to continue the subject matter of my previous letter. During the 
whole time of the Rubber Exhibition I was present in a subordinate capacity and met 
a great many rubber planter friends, who nearly all told me ‘‘ the spiral is doomed ”; 
but not one of them could give me a valid reason for saying so. Some reasons given 
for holding these views were :—(1) The general opinion among rubber men, (2) It is 
too drastic, (8) The Controller’s figures prove itis more wasteful of bark than the 
herring bone system, and (4) The exploded one of ringing the tree. 


Well, (1) general opinion is sometimes proved to be wrong. In this case it 
seems to have been formed by a bell-wether of the rubber flock having plunged 
through the hedge and the young rams are following gaily through the hole, asking 
no questions! (2) Any system of tapping may be made too drastic; and that is 
precisely what has been done in the case of the spiral, The arbitrary rule of 1 foot- 
spacing has been followed to the letter, and spirals and herring-bones have been 
clapped on to the trees alike, forgetful of the fact that the former means double the 
length of tapping lines of the latter on the trees and therefore, presumably, double 
the strain on the latter. 


Look atthe medals commemorative of awards of the Rubber Exhibition. 
The obverse is a reproduction of a Hevea monarch. The unfortunate monarch is 


now carrying 8 lines of spiral tapping aggregating some 56 lineal feet,—not that he 


could not carry three times the amount if reasonably spread over his magnificent 
limbs, but this is all clapped on within six feet of the ground. Please note that if he 
had been ‘‘ herring-boned” he would have been carrying only half of this, viz., 28 feet. 
Ninety percent of his lesser brethren under tapping are similarly spirally over- 
tappet. And (8) it is from the yields of these trees that the Controller of the 
Experiment Gardens has drawn his data to compare with those of the herring-bone 


_system, manifestly an unfair comparison, apart from the question of the varying 


angles of cut which I discussed before, and nobody has, so far, controverted. To 


make a fair comparison, either the alternate lines of the spiral should not have been 


cut, or the herring-bone should have been cut on both sides of the tree. 


This, of course, is preposterous and mere heresy to the advocates of the 
herring-bone system; the other side of the tree is left intact so that there may be 
no question of the uninterrupted flow of sap. Exactly so: and when the first side 


has run out, what then? Proceed to cut the herring-bone on the second, while the 
first is resting. Justso; and make four (out of the five) complete ringings of the 
tree (4) which you were so keen to avoid; or leave aspace and waste it; or trust 
to the lacerated bark in 5 parallel sets of lines of the old cut to take up the flow of 
sap; or wait a bit till it can, and lose yield? What ho! Is there any thing 4 
connected with spirals so drastic or wasteful as this? I trow not—yetI make no | 
doubt that much swamp-gas will be belched forth to meet this new aspect of 
the case. Z 
A captious critic might say that I have ‘an axe to grind” in my 
advocacy of the spiral, in so far as I was a co-exhibitor at the Rubber Exhibition of 
several applications of the spiral system, which have been noticed in the press. 


Correspondence. 346 


While I have criticized the bases on which the Controller has drawn his 
deductions as to bark excision and yield, it would be unfair to pass lightly over the 
fact that he was the first to point out the loss of profit as well as the shock to the 
tree, in too rapid excision of the bark, and the first to advocate shallow channelling 
and deep pricking to release the latex; and by these methods to ensure the more 
rapid renewal of the bark. Itis a moot point, however, whether pricking is not a ' 
very dangerous operation unless carefully done—at least more dangerous than , 
paring deeply though thinly. The farrier’s knife and adaptations of it seem to be 
having a good look in again, chiefly, seemingly, because of the large task in trees a 
cooly can do withit. I imagine this will entail a future compuisory rest for the 
tree—and for tapping operations too! 

Apologising for the length of this letter, lam, Sir, yours faithfully, 

ALEX. CAMERON 
September 29th. 

[Portions of the letter which do not bear upon the subject have been 

omitted.—ED. | 


‘““SPENCE COTTON” IN INDIA. ; 


Sir,—Since the publication in the press of my letter on the subject of 
** Spence Cotton,” [ have received innumerable congratulations from all parts of India 
for having been fortunate enough to discover a cotton indigenous to the country and 
infinitely superior both in staple and appearance to that grown in the United States 
of America. The immense importance of this and the wide field it opens in the 
future for the extension of India’s manufactures, I am glad to find, is recognised on 
all sides. I therefore feel confident it will interest your readers to learn the 
results of a trial of “Spence Cotton” inthe mills of Bombay. This Messrs. C. N, 
Wadia & Co., of the Centuary Mills Co., Ld., have been good enough to carry out for 
me, and the following is their report :— 
BomBAY, 11th September, 1906. 
J, R. Spence, Esq. 


“ DEAR SIR,—We have passed the four bags of ‘Spence Cotton’ through the 
processes of spinning and weaving, and have now the pleasure to forward you here- 
with sample of cloth made therefrom, which we believe is the finest that has ever 
been made in the power looms from Indian-grown cotton. The cloth is made from 
408 warp and 50s weft, and from this trial we are satisfied that the cotton will spin a 
good 508 warp and 70% weft, from this cloth can be made in fine dhoties for which a 
great demand exists in India, particularly on the Bengal side, thanks to the Swadeshi 
movement. To be able to grow such cotton is one of the best things that the Indian 


eel ge Te a a as ae ie Siar ipa oaiih aen 


+ fou Cea) bia 


- Ocr. 1906.] 347 Correspondence. 


mills could wish for, and will open up quite anew and very profitable {trade, if 
they will get machinery suitable for the longer staple. If we had had a larger 
quantity of cotton with which we could have continued the trial, making necessary 
changes, we are sure a still finer cloth could be made from it. The total loss of 
weight in blow room is only 8% and we would gladly give 7 annas per lb. for this 
eotton.” 


The excellence of ‘the cloth proves the correctness of the opinion I held 
eighteen months ago that this undoubtedly is the raw material from which the 
“ Dacca Muslin” was made many years ago, which acquired a world-wide reputation 
for the excellence of its quality. Experts in Bombay and Mysore were of the same 
opinion at the time. Messrs. Forbes, Forbes, Campbell & Co. have kindly consented 
to show samples of it at their offices in Hornby Road, to those desirous of inspecting 
it. Inspite of the abnormally bad season on this plantation,—for last July we had 
26 inches of rain in two days and not a drop afterwards for seven months, when on 
the 16th February, the heavy unseasonable rain did incalculable harm,—I am glad to 
be able to state that my first estimate of the yield per tree has been found to be 
correct. Average trees a year old were marked and all the cotton carefully put into 
separate bags, the result being an average of 23 oz. per tree. But Iam most anxious 
to be absolutely on the safe side, and have therefore reduced my present minimum 
estimate to 1} oz. per tree, and as 5,000 are now planted to the acre, this gives a result 
of 400 lbs. of clean cotton or one bale per acre, The second year this is doubled, and 
increases enormously afterwards during the tree’s known life of twenty years. Iam 
exceedingly glad to read the favourable reports of the extensive trial of Egyptian 
seed in Sind. I have had five years’ experience of Egypt, and four years ago strongly 
recommended it to the commercial community of Bombay, selecting the South of 
Hyderabad as the most desirable spot to cultivate it. Iam naturally much gratified 
to find that my anticipations of its success have been amply verified. The chief 
difficulty, of course, is to induce cultivators to adopt the Egyptian methods in place 
of their present crude ones, and this must be done every season ; whereas in the case 
of ‘‘Spence Cotton” the difficulty has to be overcome but once in twenty years, and 
it will grow and flourish in any soil instead of being confined to Sind only. The 
immense advantage of this tree over the annual shrubis evident to the meanest 
eapicity. Take the yield first: the late Mr.J.N. Tata estimates the average all 
over India at 30 1b. of clean cotton per acre. I have visited every cotton-growing 
district of any importance in the country, and consider this is much too low, I 
am of opinion the average on non-irrigated land is from 45 to 50 1b. per acre—a 
deplorably poor outturn, in Egypt the average is 400 to 5001b., and in the United 
States 200 to 250 lb. Ihave a method which would more than double the present 
yield and at very little extra outlay or necessity for intelligence ; but why cultivate 
such rubbish at all ? 


Iam, Sir, 
Yours, faithfully, 
J. R, SPENCE. 


ANT HILL EARTH. 


DEAR SiR,—-I shall be obliged if you or any of your readers can enlighten 
me on the advantages derived by the use of earth from ant-hills in refilling 
holes dug in indifferent soils, wherea good surface soil is not obtainable, for the 
purpose of planting different products, such as, tea, rubber, cocoa &c. 


_ Kandy. Ks By Bi 


[The earth is very finely divided, but we do not know of any other advan- 
tages it may possess.—HD. | 


t 


348 (Oct. 1906. 


Current Literature. 


Year-Book of the United States Department of Agriculture, 1905.—Pub- 
lished at the Government Printing Office, Washington; 815 pages, with 31 
articles and an appendix of 44 articles, 73 coloured and photographic plates and 
130 text figures; Hdited by Geo. W. Hill. This is one of the best annual agricultural 
publications we know of, and deals with every phase of agriculture practised in the 
United States, with details of the year’s progress and work in each department or 
branch of the many agricultural industries. The report of the Secretary to the 
Department, Mr. James Wilson, occupying 122 pages, reviews the year’s work and 
states that 1905 was another year of unsurpassed prosperity to the farmers of the 
country. After supplying the wants of the people there was an enormous surplus 
of agricultural produce for export; and to mention only two articles, the increase 
in the exports of cotton was valued at £1,870,000, and that of rice at £400,000. The 
increased prosperity of the farmers has led to a large multiplication of small farmers’ 
banks throughout the agricultural regions, banks for which the farmer has supplied 
the capital as a sound investment. ‘‘The man with the hoe has become the man 
with the harvester and the depositor and shareholder of the bank.” The Weather 
Bureau has proved a useful department to the agriculturist; and the extension of 
its work in the arid and sub-arid regions has been of great value in the extensive 
rrigation works in these parts. The Bureau of Plant Industry reports much 
useful work accomplished in plant sanitation and the treating of plant diseases, in 
achievements in cotton breeding, in work on nitrogen fixation, investigations into 
drugs and poisonous plants, etc. The Forest Service, the Bureau of Chemistry, the 
Bureau of Soils, the Office of Experiment Stations, all show continued active progress, 
The Bureau of Entomology shows important results gained by the introduction of 
beneficial insects. The introduction in California of the fig-fertilising insect of South 
Europe has enabled a new industry in fig-growing to be started on promising lines in 
that State. Other parasitic insects of various scale pests and of the Gypsy and Brown 
tail moths, imported pests which have proved most harmful, have been introduced 
into the States with beneficial results. A systematic effort is also being made to 
introduce silk culture in the United States, Italian worms being imported. 


The Year-book contains a large number of instructive, illustrated articles; 
photography is largely used to illustrate these, and in ‘‘ New Fruit Productions of 
the Department of Agriculture,” and ‘‘ Promising New Fruits,” coloured plates are 
a feature. Wemay note the following articles as of special interest—Diversified 
Farming in the Cotton Belt; Dark Fire-cured Tobacco of Virginia; The Business of 
Seed and Plant Introduction and Distribution; The Handling of Fruit for Trans- 
port; Effect of Inbreeding in Plants; Influence of Experiment Station Work on 
Culture of Field Crops; Relation of Irrigation to Dry Farming; and Opportunities 
in Sub-tropical Fruit-growing. The appendix of 200 pages has also numerous good 
articles. The whole Year-book is a splendid compilatiop, an example of the great 
progress in agriculture made in the past few years, and evidence of the work being 
done to encourage and assist the agriculturist in the United States; but, as the 
Secretary remarks in his report, ‘‘ great as the work undertaken and accomplished 
has been, and gratifying as are the results, weare still at the threshold of agri- 
cultural development, and the educational work which has led to such grand 
results has only been extended as yet to a portion of our agricultural popu- 
lation.”—I. E. 


a 


‘ 
f 
) 
3 


Oct, 1906.] 349 Current Literature. 


The Economic Resources of Uganda.—This is a report by M. T. Dawe, officer 
in charge, Forest and Scientific Department, Uganda, of a botanical mission through 
the forest districts of Buddu and the Western and Nile Provinces of the Uganda 
Protectorate. An interesting description is given of the country, the vegetation, 
the animals and the inhabitants of this hitherto little known region. The report 
pays particular attention to the general distribution of plants, and especially notes 
the distribution of Funtumia elastica and other important rubber plants, and of 
trees affording useful timber. An important result of the mission was the discovery 
of Funtumia elastica (or Kickxia elastica, as it used to be ealled), the Lagos silk 
rubber tree, which was not hitherto known to exist in Uganda, andits rubber had 
never been exploited by the natives. ‘Its discovery came, therefore, as a great 
boon to Uganda, seeing that at the present time rubber is of such great commercial 
importance, and the tree being indigenous no further proof was necessary to assure 
us of its suitability to our climate and soil.” Three new species of Landolphias or 
rubber-yielding lianas were found—Landolphia Dawei, L. subturbinata, and L. 
ugandensis—and also one of the Clitandras (C. orientalis). These rubber plants are 
illustrated by plates of botanical drawings made at Kew by Miss M. Smith. Numbers 
of fine timber trees were also found, and a large collection of valuable timbers made. 
The greater part of the districts traversed was covered with dense forests and 
much swamp was found in parts, while the civilization of the natives is very limited 
and their agriculture of the most primitive description except in a few districts. As 
regards land suited to planting and agriculture froma Kuropean standpoint, the 


‘best is said to be in the Mboga and Bwamba countries along the Ruweunzori and 


Mboga ranges, up to 8,100 feet. ‘*The lower slopes of this mountain range seem to 
be admirably adapted to the cultivation of tea; the soil is very rich, and I should 
imagine the rainfall to be here quite 100 inches per year. The whole of this country 
constitutes one of the finest and richest districts for the purposes of cultivation that 
I have seen within this Protectorate.” 


An interesting remark is made concerning the Acholi people, who domesti- 
cate the wild forest bee; making ‘“‘ long cylindrical hives about 4 to 5 feet in length 
and 12 to18 inches in diameter, of bamboos, wattles, or bark, usually placed in low 
Ficus trees.” <A full list of plants collected during the mission is added.—I. E. 


Memoirs of the Department of Agriculture in India.—Botanical Series. 
(Vol. I., Nos. 1, 2, 3,) issued from the Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa. No. 1, 
Studies in Root Parasitism, by C. A. Barber, Government Botanist, Madras, deals 
with the Haustorium of the Sandal Tree (Santalum Albwm), in its early stages, up to 
penetration ; and other plants whose roots it attacks, illustrated by 7 plates. No. 2, 


Indian Wheat Rusts, by E. J. Butler, Imperial Mycologist, and J. M. Hayman, 


Deputy Director of Agriculture, U. P., with a note onthe Relation of Weather to 
Rust on Cereals by W. H. Moreland, Director. Department of Lands and Agricul- 
ture, U. P., illustrated by coloured plates and diagrams. No.3, Fungus Diseases of 
Sugar Cane in Bengal, by E. J. Butler, illustrated by coloured plates and diagrams, 


Inft Irrigation.—Published by Messrs. Natesan & Co., Madras.—A useful 
little treatise on the subject of lift irrigation by Alfred Chatterton, with special 
reference to Southern India. The author advocates the use of oil engines and centri 
fugal pumps and the use of windmills. The supplies of water ata depth in part of 
South India have been found to be very satisfactory, and some fifty oil engines are 
already at work and have resulted in profitable agriculture. Oil engines, even ona 
small scale it is stated, are much less costly than bullock power. The following are 
some of the subjects treated—Development of lift irrigation; value of windmills 
for irrigation in India and America; well irrigation; and irrigation by pumping in 
the United States.—I. E. 


350 [Ocr. 1906. 


The Ceylon Board of Agriculture. 


The Twenty-second Meeting of the Board of Agriculture was held at Queen’s 
House on Monday, August 6th, 1906, at 2-80 p.m. 


His Excellency the Governor presided. 


There were present the Hon. Mr. H. L. Crawford, c.M.c., Sir William 
Twynam, K.c.M.G., the Hon. Mr. C. T. D. Vigors, the Hon. Mr. 8S, C. Obeyesekere, 
the Hon. Mr. Francis Beven, Messrs. LL. W. Booth, J. P Lewis, E. F. Hopkins, R. W. 
Smith, R. B. Strickland, Dr. J. C. Willis, Messrs. E. HK. Green, M. Kelway Bamber, 
C. Drieberg, G. W. Sturgess, the Maha Mudaliyar, Dr. H. M. Fernando, Messrs. 
K. B. Denham, W. Dunuwille, W. D. Gibbon, R. Morison, A. T. Rettie, G. A. Joseph, 
and the Secretary. : fi 

Visitors:—Messrs, J. H. W. Park, M. Suppramaniam, J. Whitehead, and S. 
Weerackkody Mudaliyar. 


BUSINESS DONE. 


1. Minutes of last meeting were read and confirmed. 
2. List of new members was read, and they were declared duly elected. 
3. Progress Report No. 21 was tabled. ; 


4. A paper was read by Mr. J. H. W. Park, Assistant Director of Irrigation, 
on the subject of “Irrigation in Arizona.” A discussion followed, in which H. EH, 
the Governor, Dr. Willis, Messrs. Hopkins, Smith and others took part. 


5. The report of the Special Committee appointed at the last meeting of the 
Board, suggesting certain amendments in the draft of the proposed Ordinance 
dealing with the destruction of Agricultural Pests and the Sanitation of Plants, 
was submitted. After a brief discussion the report was adopted. 


6. Copy of a resolution conveying the thanks of the North Arcot District 
Agricultural Association to the Ceylon Agricultural Society for the assistance and 
information given to their Asst. Secretary, Mr. Sreenivasa Raghava Aiyar, on the 
occasion of his visit to Ceylonin May last, was laid before the meeting. 


7. A leaflet was read by Mr. HK. E. Green, Government Entomologist, 
containing suggestions put forward by himself and the Government Chemist, Mr. 
M. K. Bamber, as to the possibility of preventing the spread of malaria through 
the agency of the “‘anopheles” mosquito by the use of an application composed of 
citronella, kerosine and coconut oils with a certain proportion of carbolic acid. 
Mr. Bamber submitted a sample of the preparation. A discussion followed, in 
which H. E. the Governor, Dr. Willis, Dr. H. M. Fernando and others took part. 


8. An application from Mr. Drieberg, Superintendent of School Gardens, 


for a vote of Rs. 100 to meet the cost of a stocked hive of imported bees and to 
continue the experiment in apiculture was considered. Resolved that the sum 
asked for be voted. 


9. On the suggestion of H. EH. the Governor it was resolved that an exhibit’ 


representative of native arts and crafts should be shown under the auspices of 
the Ceylon Agricultural Society at the forthcoming Rubber Exhibition at 
Peradeniya. 


His Excellency desired the Secretary to communicate with the Government — 


Agents and local agricultural societies with a view to securing as representative a 
collection as possible. 

10. Samples of Sea Island and Caravonica cotton grown in the Matale 
district by Mr. A. H. Don Bastian de Silva, and sent in by the Hon. Secretary of 
the Matale Agricultural Society, were laid on the table. 


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Ocr. 1906.) 351 
Agricultural Society Progress Report. XXII. 


The membership of the Ceylon Agricultural Society is now 1,120. 


1. Agri-Horticultural Shows.—-l was present, by invitation of the Govern- 
ment Agent, North-Western Province, at the Kurunegala Agri-Horticultural Show 
held on the 23rd to 25th August. The show, which was the first of the kind ever 
held in the North-Western Province, was on all sides considered to be an unquali- 
fied success. It had twice been postponed owing to the unusual drought, but 
in spite of the continuance of the drought up to ashort time before the show the 
exhibition of fruits and vegetables, &c., was remarkably good, while the classes 
for live stock were exceptionally well filled. His Kxcellency the Governor visited 
the show on the opening day. The reports of the scientific officers of the Society 
on the sections judged by them are tabled. 


On the 7th and 8th ‘August I was present at the Kelani Valley Agri- 
Horticultural Show. The show was held on the grounds of the Kelani Valley 
Club at Talduwa, and was opened by the Hon. Mr. H. L. Crawford, Government 
Agent, Western Province. Like that at Kurunegala, the Kelani Valley Show 
was the first of its kind ever held in the district, and, although it fell short of the 
former as regards the number and variety of exhibits of village produce, the 
classes for estate products, such as tea and rubber, were very well filled, as was 
also the poultry section. 


The success of both tkese shows was most encouraging, and much credit 
is due to the Honorary Secretaries, Mr. A. W. Seymour, C.C.S., at Kurunegala, 
and Messrs. J. W. Bamforth and C. J. A. Marshall at Talduwa, for the trouble 
taken by them to ensure a successful exhibition. It is to be hoped that both 
shows will become annual fixtures. 


The Kegalla Agri-Horticultural Show will be held on the 2ist and 22nd 
September. 


It is proposed to hold a show of fruits and vegetables towards the end of 
September at Telijjawila. 


At a meeting of the Telijjawila Local Society held on the 6th July it was 
decided to hold a show of agricultural and industrial products of Weligam Korale 
on the 15th March, 1907, at Weligama. It was further agreed to give a prize of 
Rs. 50 for the best vegetable garden in crop in the next planting season, which 
will be at the end of the year, and three prizes of Rs. 50, as at the previous show, 
for the best results shown by transplanting of paddy in the ensuing yala harvest. 


It was also agreed to include a class for cattle (milch cows or best-fed bulls) at 
this show. 


Further shows will be held at the following centres as under :—- 
Three Korales and Lower Bulatgama (Market Show) ... October 21. 


Wellaboda Pattu (Galle)... ee the ... November 16 and 17. 
Batticaloa bh es a bbe .. Karly in 1907. 


At a meeting of the Three Korales and Lower Bulatgama Branch held on 


‘the 21st July it was agreed to increase the number of prizes offered from 12 to 26. 


Nine of the prizes are of Rs. 10 each, the rest being Rs.5 each. Among the donors 


are Messrs. W. Forsythe, W. J. Smith, R. I. Mackenize, several headmen, and 
local merchants. 


2. Experimental Garden, Ratnapura.—The Committee appointed at the 
last meeting of the Ratnapura Branch have suggested two or three sites for opening 


-the proposed experimental garden in the town of Ratnapura, but no definite 


selection has yet been made. It is expected that the matter will be definitely 
settled be the next meeting. 


352 [Oct. 1906. — 


3. Yams.—Mr. A. E. Rajapakse, Chairman of the Katunayaka Branch, 
reports as follows :—‘“‘ Besides cassava, there is another kind of yam which would 
be very useful to poor people if introduced to places where itis not found. This is 
a kind of sweet potato largely grown in the Southern Province. 'Chere are varieties 
of it—yams that could be lifted in two months, three months, and six months, &e, 
The early varieties are very successfully grown in paddy fields, after the paddy 
has been harvested.” Mr. Rajapakse will be glad to supply these yams to any one 
willing to experiment with them free of cost. 


4. Manure for Lxperiment.—Messrs. Freudenberg & Co. have supplied to 
the Local Branch at Gampola 22 ewt. of manure for purposes of experiment 
with paddy. 

5. Date Palm Suckers.—Mr. V. Casipillai of Jaffna reports under date the 
15th August that all but two of the date palm suckers supplied to him have died, 
and that the two suckers that have so far survived have not yet begun to grow, 


though they are well looked after. Mr. Casipillai has promised to report further 
on the growth of the two remaining suckers. 


6. Lemon Grass Rootlets.—Mr. B. Samaraweera of Weligama reports that 


he has a quantity of these for sale. Rootlets can be obtained on application direct 
to Mr. Samaraweera. 


~ 


i. Prickly Pear, Eetermination of.—The Government Agent, Northern 
Province, Jaffoa, has sent the following report from the President, Delft Gan- 
sabhawa, on the result of the experiment in exterminating this pest:—“I have 
the honour to report that I tried the solution of sodium arsenic ona bush of prickly 
pear in front of my bungalow on the 28th ultimo, and the effects have been simply 


surprising. Within twenty-four hours the leaves turned brown, and the second 


day the whole bush looked burnt and dry. The experiment has proved a success, 
and the villagers are very anxious to have this plant fully removed from the 
Island, and I shall get the Village Committee to vote the necessary funds for 
obtaining the solution in large quantities and the necessary implements required 
for the purpose as directed.” 


8. Seed Paddy from India.—The Thasildar of Tanjore, who was asked to 
obtain for the Society asupply of Muttusamba paddy, states that he was able to 
procure only a small quantity, and that even the amount collected is now reported 
to be unfit for seed. He regrets that under the circumstances Muttusamba paddy 
cannot be despatched this year. 


9. Sia-Months and Five-Months Seed Paddy from India—Samba Varieties.— 
Two consignments of six-months and five-months seed paddy from India, consisting 
of nearly 700 bushels, were received early in August. This paddy consists of three 
varieties :— 
(a) Small grains containing round and white rice (five months). 
(b) Long white grains containing white rice (five months). 
(c) Long red grains containing white rice (six months). 


Some of this paddy has been supplied to Vavuniya, Gampola, . Badulla, 
Puttalam, Kegalla, Kurunegala, Kandy, Nawalapitiya, Nuwara Hliya, Balangoda, 
Matale, Angammana, Katunayake, and Katana. 


Supplies of these paddies are still available, and application for them should 
be made direct to the Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya. The cost of the 
seed paddy is Rs. 2°75 per pushel. 


10. Banku Paddy from India.—The supply of Banku Paddy received from 
India (a four-and-a-half months variety) has been fully booked among the following 
districts :—Kurunegala, Jaffna, Kandy, Balangoda, Gampola, Mullaittivu, Colombo, 
Welimada, and Badulla. 


Oc. 1906.} 353 


ll. Three-Months Paddy (Local).—Ten bushels of three-months seed paddy 
were supplied by the Matale Local Branch to the Anuradhapura Local Society on the 
application of Nikawewa Dissawa, who sowed eight bushels himself and gave two 
bushels to Mr. Sampander (Proctor, Anuradhapura). Nikawewa Disawa reports 
that he realized a crop of 78 bushels. He writes that he could have obtained a better 
crop but for the harm done by flies, owing to the paddy being sown out of the 
proper season. “The paddy does not appear todo well in very muddy lands, but 
thrives exceedingly well in moderately muddy places.” 


12. Kiushw Paddy.—The Mudaliyar, Wellaboda Pattu (Galle), Hikkaduwa, 
reports :—‘‘The paddy was sown on different sorts of lands and at different dates, 
~ with all possible care as to preparation of ground, but the result in every case was 
unsatisfactory.” 


‘Mr. C. A. Valoopillay of Anuradhapura reports :—‘‘I bought from the Chvir- 
man of the Anuradhapura Branch one bushel of Kiushu paddy and sowed the same 
on the 8lst March last on a well-prepared clayey soil by the side of a waste water 
channel, from which I was able to turn water in and out so as to suit the require- 
ments of plants. It germinated at the same time as other varieties under the wet 
method, and the plants appeared healthy but shorter in height, Weeding and 
transplanting were started after the thirty-fifth day as usual; but I had to suspend 
weeding as the plants had begun blossoming. The plants did not grow more than 
two feet in height, but the yield was 35 bushels, and it may be fifty-fold and even 
more if properly weeded. Iam now making asecond trial in the same fields and 

will submit a report in course of time. I have about 30 bushels of seed paddy of this 

variety, and have given away about five bushels in this Province and in Jaffna to be 
sown and tried. I can state with confidence that this paddy isa success in my fields. 
Further experiments in rich soil or under good manure and careful cultivation may 
reveal better results. Iamatlso of opinion that this paddy serves better to com- 
pensate in times of scarcity of water, as it could be reaped in seventy-five days. In 
this trial the sowing was done on 8lst March, 1906, and reaped on 28rd June, thus 
taking eighty-five days inall. Iam of opinion that this paddy is suitable to this 
country.” 


In continuation of the previous report published in Progress Report No. 

XXI., the Honorary Secretary of the Badulla Branch writes :—‘‘The owner of the 

field in question sowed one bushel of Kiushu paddy; when harvested this seed 

- brought in half a bushel of produce. In the same field he sowed native paddy, and 
this brought in on an average 6$ bushels of paddy.” 


. The Secretary, Wellaboda Pattu (Galle) Local Society, reports under date the 
17th August that, though tried in different ways and in different soils, the Kiushu 
paddy did not thrive. The opinion of the members of his Society is that it is 
unsuited to that part of the Island. 


The Secretary of the Local Branch at Hambantota reports that the paddy 
was sown on land irrigated by Tissa tank, hut the cultivation failed for want of 
sufficient water. ; 


13. Cotton Seed.—It is proposed to introduce a series of experiments with 
cotton asachenacrop. Special chena permits are being issued in the Mullaittivu 
District and in the Wanni Hatpattu of the Kurunegala District, one condition of 
which is that each permit holder shall sow a certain extent of land with cotton. I 
had the advantage during my recent visit to Kurunegala of discussing the subject 
with Hulugalle Disawa, under whose personal supervision I am confident that the 


ipa 


354 1906, 
: 


experiment will oe given every chance of success. Iam now making arrangements 
’ . . . e,6e ‘ 
for a supply of seed for experimental purposes in the following localities :— 


North-Western Province for ... 250 acres (for chena cultivation) 
Mullaittivu ak .. 120 ,, (for chena cultivation) 
Jaffna rst as Heel 20 
Delft ae 1a 5 
Batticaloa As ABS i she220) 


14. Rotation of Chena Crops.—Other experiments are proposed as regards 
chena cultivation in the Mullaittivu and Kurunegala Districts. 

The following rotation of chena crops has been suggested by the Director, 
Royal Botanic Gardens, for experiment in Kurunegala:—Cotton, Tapioca (i.e., 
Cassava), Dry Grains, and Ground Nuts. ; 

These experiments should prove of interest to chena cultivators in all parts 
of the Island, their object being to prove whether it is not possible by the adoption 


of a scientific rotation of crops to overcome the necessity for allowing chena lands to ~ 


lie fallow for ten or twenty years ata time, as is at present done in most parts of 
the country. 


15. Vegetable Seeds.—A further supply of vegetable seeds is to be imported 
by the Society shortly. 


16. Castration of Cattle.—Since the last report three demonstrations have 
been given in the Southern Province, namely, at Ganegama, Wanduramba, and 
Nagoda, Hight demonstrations have been held in the North-Western Province, 
at Nawagategama, Ihalapitiya, Kulama, Mampuri, Nachehikalli, Kalpitiya, 
Moheriya, Kattakadu, and Pallaure. Twelve in the North-Central Province: 
at Toruwewe, Karawilagala, Gantiriyagama, Halambawe, Galkiriyagama, Balalu- 
wewa, Unduruwe, Kadawatgama, Etakade, Kallanchiya, Tambalagollewa, and 
Rambewa. Twelve demonstrations are in the course of arrangement in the 
North-Western Province. 


To date the figures are 2,293 cattle castrated, belonging to 1,872 owners, 
at 113 demonstrations 122 men have been taught the operation. 


17. Castration Work by locally trained Men.—The following are details 
of work done by the men trained at local centres :— 


Hambantota 10 animals castrated, Lower Dumbara 13, Matara 99 (in 1905), 
Panadura 40, Delft 24. Kandy District (Harispattu 6, Pata Dumbara 18) 19; in 
Wellaboda pattu (Galle) the locally trained men are reported to be carrying on 
work. Owing to want of instruments and medicines no operations have been 
carried out by the trained men in Mullaittivu, Three Korales and Lower Bulatgama, 
Chilaw, Talangama, Mannar, and Anuradhapura. Arrangements are being made 
to supply the necessary instruments and drugs. The Jaffna Branch, Delft Gan- 
sabhawa, and the Village Committees of the Central Province have supplied 
instruments and medicines to the men in those districts, Two men trained in 
the new method on Horrekelly estate are doing work there. 


18. In accordance with the resolution passed at the last meeting of the 
Board, arrangements were made to hold an Exhibition of Native Arts and Crafts in 
connection with the Ceylon Rubber Exhibition at Peradeniya. Dr. A. K. Coomara- 
swamy very kindly undertook to arrange for a representative exhibition of the 
manufactures of the different parts of the Island. A special pavilion has been 
erected for the Society on the Exhibition Grounds, while in addition four small tents 
have been set apart for its use. Some seventeen parties of workmen have been 


engaged, who are now giving daily demonstrations of their art. These include 
weavers aid brassfounders from Batticaloa, a painter from Jaffna, a cloth dyer from ~ 


Mannar, lace makers from near Colombo, workers in silver, brass, ivory, lacquer- 


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PSA Ae ee Se 


et ta 


SS EE Coe Ie Oe 


Oct. 1906.] 355 


é .| 4 " : 
work, and iron damascening, potters, ironfounders, and weavers from the Central 
Province. A large number of exhibits of weaving, basket making, brass work 
ivory work, &c., &c., are on view. 


Copies of a Handbook dealing with the Arts and Crafts of Ceylon, by Dr, 
Coomaraswamy, are available at the Exhibition. 


19. In addition to the above, special exhibits of various products have been 
got together. Mr. M. K. Bamber has kindly arranged a representative exhibit of 
coconut products and tobacco; Mr. C. Drieberg of oils, fibres and tanning, and 
dyeing stuffs; Mr. HK. E. Green of silk and silkworms from the Government Silk 
Farm. Mr. A. E. Rajapakse, Muhandiram, has sent in samples of cinnamon from 
Negombo District, and Mr. J. W.C. de Soysa and Dr. H. M. Fernando samples of 
cotton from Kurunegala. Mr. J. Whitehead is giving an exhibition of cotton 
ginning and dyeing, while Mr. M. K. Bamber is giving a demonstration in the 
distillation of camphor. 

The Dumbara, Telijjawila, Kandaboda pattu, Wellabopa pattu (Galle.) 
Vavuniya, and Jaffna Agricultural Societies have sent in representative collections 
of native products and manufactures, 

The exhibition made on behalf of the Society is in every way a valuable and 
interesting one, and the thanks of the Society are due to the gentlemen who have 
been good enough to lend their assistance in arranging for the different exhibits. 


A. N. GALBRAITH, 


Secretary, Ceylon Agricultural Society. 
September 17, 1906. 


ee Ee Oe 


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es 7 


‘ 
“- 
i 


HM ce ale 


TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST 


AND 


MAGAZINE OF THE 


CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 


Von. XXVIUI. COLOMBO, NOVEMBER 15rx, 1906. No. 5. 


The Price of Rubber. 


The general impression held in Ceylon, in spite of all efforts to remove it, 
has been that Ceylon rubber has been getting the highest price on the market, 
because, forsooth, a pound sells (at present) for 5s. 7d. against 5s.1d. for a pound 
of fine Para. 


Those who make this statement forget the amount of water present in the 
Amazon rubber and not present in the Ceylon. The former contains about 18 per 
cent, the latter less than one. If now we do avery simple sum in proportion, the 
value of the rubber in the samples fror Ceylon and from Para is as $2 to £2, or as 
5494 to 6639. In other words, the value of Ceylon rubber is roughly only five-sixths 
of that of the Amazon rubber, or 16 per cent less, 


No one who examined the samples of Amazon rubber at the Ceylon Rubber 
Exhibition could fail to note two points: (1) that it was far ‘springier’ than the 
plantation rubber (whether from Ceylon, the Straits, or Mexico), and (2) that it was 
so wet as to be white and opaque or very little translucent, and smelt of creosote. 


As has already been said, now is the time to try experiments on curing of 
rubber, and two directions are at once suggested by a consideration of the above. 
If we make biscuits with creosote, and press them while still wet into a block, we 
shall save vastly in expense of preparation, and if while dry rubber is selling at 
5s. 6d., we can get even 4s, 10d. for this, we shall really be getting a better price. 
Smoking is also suggested, for it is possible that the quality of the Amazon rubber 
is in some way dependent on the fact that it has been treated with smoke. 


The Peradeniya department has already arranged to make wet biscuit block 
and have it sold in London for comparison, but as it is quite probable that buyers 


will look askance at the first consignment of this novel form of rubber, it is desirable 
that others should follow it. 


358 [Nov. 1906. 


GUMS, RESINS, SAPS AND EXUDATIONS. 


Rubber Shipment to London. 


By C. DEvITT. 


A Lecture delivered at the Ceylon Rubber Exhibition, Royal Botanic 
Gardens, Peradeniya, on September 22nd, 


One of the most important points in the packing of plantation rubber is, as 
you all know, to get it absolutely dry and quite free from surface moisture before 
shipping, as any dampness, even if it is only on a few biscuits or sheets, is likely to 
ruin thewhole case-full, We very often find where moisture has been left, the rubber 
has turned white and decomposition has started, making it unsightly, weak and 
evil-smelling, Another point of importance is not to put biscuits showing the slightest 
trace of tackiness into the same case with fine; it is better to throw them away. 
We also very often find good scrap spoilt by tacky pieces, and rejected from the fine 
being putin withit. Buyers do not like qualities mixed at all, and frequently 
parcels are spoilt by the presence of a few pieces of inferior quality. Even if there 
is only one piece, it has to be shown in the sample. Crépe is the worst offender, 
Samples of ashipment come up from the wharf, fine pale stuff with one or two 
inferior dark pieces. When the buyers see these they mark it down in their cata- 
logues as fine pale crépe mixed with inferior dark and value accordingly, not know- 


ing what proportion it is in, and to obtain which involves great expense and trouble. 


Some planters grade their rubber and mark it accordingly, such as No. 1, 2, and 3. 
There may be the slightest difference in the quality and appearance of say No.1 
and No. 2 crépe, but a buyer having an order for No. 1 at 5/7 would perhaps be willing 
to pay just a shade under for No. 2; but seeing it marked at No. 2 he would be 
afraid to buy it as No. 1. 


THE SIZE OF THE CASE 


is quite unimportant now that the draft is uniform. 14 ewt. seems to be a popular 
weight, but it really does not matter solong as you do not make them too heavy, 
as it eauses extra labour in handling them. To have good strong cases is essential, 
the rubber is liable to contract in transit between the estate and London and 
becomes a loose mass, bumping badly about inside, and an extra rough piece of 
handling will knock the sides out. 

Paper must on no account be used in between the pieces. It does not matter 
whether it is biscuits, sheet or crépe; in nine cases out of ten it will stick and cause 
great expense to have it removed. 


THE FORM OF RUBBER PREFERRED. 


It is impossible to say in what form the rubber is to be sent in the future, 
but at present the block seems to be most popular among everybody, 2d. per lb. is a 
big premium, We very seldom see a difference of more than $d. per lb. between fine 
and extra fine. Asa rule when the price is made, the rest goat the same, unless 
there is anything wrong with a lot, and then a $d. or 1d. is knocked off ; or there may 
be a small order for very fine, and then you may get a $d. more. 

There is no objection to biscuits or sheet in London; but itis for planters to 
decide whether they can make them and dry them in their thousands. There still 
seems to be a slight prejudice against crépe, as itis $d. per lb. below other forms; 


but if it is the most convenient form for planters, manufacturers will have to get 


4 


“Nov. 1906.] 359 Saps and Exudations. 


iM overitheir objection if they want the rubber. The same with scrap. The old hand- 
; made form is still the most popular, for the reason that buyers can see exactly what 
is in it, while the majority of crépe scrap is dark and appears to have foreign matter 
init. But I understand that the former is far more trouble and takes a great deal 
longer to prepare than the latter. Therefore it will have to come as crépe, and 
buyers will get to know certain marks and will be sure of what they are getting and 
always stick to them. 


At present crépe is valued almost entirely on colour, and I heard of a case 
from a planter where he sent home sume scrap crépe of very good colour, and realised 
within a shade of fine; but he thought he would improve onit by making it thicker 
which, of course, made it appear darker ; for this he only got the price of scrap. 


NEW FORMS OF RUBBER. 


It is very hard to find out ifa new form is liked on the market. A planter 
-may invent some new method and ship a parcel over. Buyers eye it suspiciously 
and will not give its real value, the planter hears the result of the sale and stops 
making any more and goes back tothe old. Things must find their level soon, and 
we hope before long to get manufacturers to say definitely what they like best. All 
they say at present is that they want evenness in every way; that is to say, good, 
strong, pure rubber of good appearance and colour. It doesn’t matter whether pale 
oramber so long as it is bright looking and transparent. This is of course rather 
difficult to get owing to the strength varying so, probably due to difference in the 
age of the trees ; when the quantity of Plantation Rubber has increased considerably, 
buyers will be able to pick and choose the stronger and better Jots, and I have no 
doubt that there will be a considerable difference in price between the two qualities. 
The reason why all the fine fetch within a fraction of each other is because the 
buyers have to take good and indifferent alike—-the quantity offered at one time not 
giving them the chance to pick out the stronger and better lots. 


SEPARATING RUBBER FROM OLD AND YOUNG TREES. 


Planters ask if it would pay them to keep the rubber from old trees separate 
from the young ; for undoubtedly the strength of the rubber isina great measure 
due to the age of the trees from which itis obtained; and I think most of us are 
agreed that this is so, after seeing the samples from old trees at the Exhibition. I 
do not think it would pay to keep the two separate at present; but I have no doubt 
that in the near future, when quantities increase, it will. 


With regard to the tapping of young trees, it may not do the trees them- 
selves any harm, butitis likely to lower the high standard at which you are all 
aiming. I have every hope and have no doubt that plantation rubber will be the 
standard of the world, not only in purity but in strength, and all the properties for 
which the Amazon rubber is noted. But I should not decide for certain that when 
your trees are old all their rubber will be stronger, for I have seen some biscuits from 
21-year old trees as weak as anything. (Applause.) 


THE DISCUSSION. 


Dr. WILLIS said he thought that they had just listened to a most inter- 
esting lecture from Mr, Devitt. He was sure the subject of packing rubber for 
London was of very great importance to all planters. He would like to call special 
attention to what the lecturer had said about the mixing of rubber. He said that at 
present the amount of rubber that went to London was so small, that it did not very 
much matter. He had occasionally seen people mixing biscuits from very young 
trees with biscuits from very old trees. He had found two biscuits in the same lot, 
one of which was good and strong, and the other which was much weaker and could 
be pulled in half with some effort. As soonas the market got large quantities of 


NAS 


Gums, Resins, 360 [Nov. 1906 


their rubber, it would be sold not on the fact thatit was Ceylon rubber, as aa ” 


present when people wanted to buy it chiefly for experiments, but on the strength 
and physical qualities of the rubber; and the sooner they learned to keep their 
rubber of a fine grade separate and not mix it, the better. As regards that, he said 
a good many people graded their rubber at present, but he thought the most of that 
grading at present was done according to colour and other fairly obvious properties, 
because the few analyses which had yet been made to test the strength &c. had 
shown a most extraordinary difference in the various kinds of Ceylon rubber, 
There were some published in the Tropical Agriculturist the other day, giving 
the tests made in America, and it was shown that they came out in a tensile strength 
from 85 to 145, That was a considerable difference, but they did not know what 
it was due to. Rubber from older trees, it is obvious, is the stronger rubber, and 
he gathered from all the remarks made by these gentlemen from London that it 
was strength that was the main quality; and he therefore personally thought 
they would have to come to some machine like that exhibited by Mr. Carruthers 
for the purpose of testing the quality of the rubber for strength. The London 
people at present went a good deal by colour, because they were a little afraid that 
the rubber, some of it being very dark, might not be pure, but he thought that 
after some time, as in the case of tea and cocoa, they would get to know that the 
Ceylon planter does not adulterate his products, and that it is unnecessary to look 
for impurities in his rubber. As he had said the other day, now was the time to 
experiment with the making up of rubber for shipment and the shipping of it in 
different ways before the market had got wedded to one particular way. He hoped 
there were many proprietary planters, who were comparatively independent, who 
would take the opportunity of experimenting in shipment. They might lose a 


penny or two at first, but important knowledge would be gained. He had seen 


people mixing tacky rubber, too, along with good rubber. A planter had said the 
other day that if they put a piece of tacky rubber in, the middle of a block and 
squeezed it, nobody would recognise it. But Mr. Bamber had told them a certain 
type of tackiness was infectious and it might spoil the whole block. It was 
important not to mix tacky rubber with gocd rubber. It should be kept separate. 
It might be possible to pass it off at first, but before long the buyers would be sure 
to find out, and the price of the whole lot would godown. With regard to ship- 
ment, Mr. Devitt inclined in favour of block, and most of them who had seen the 
Lanadron blocks in the Show were inclined to agree with him. These blocks con- 
tained 25 lb. of rubber, and it was obvious they occupied a much less space, and, 
consequently, cost much less in shipment, and they exposed less surface to the air 
than did a similar weight of biscuits, and therefore less oxidation went on. They 
were beginning to know that oxidation of the surface had a considerably deterior- 
ating effect. 
HOW RUBBER ARRIVES IN LONDON. 


Mr. JAMES Ryan:—I should like to ask Mr, Devit how rubber arrives in 


London at the present moment—the form of package which he recommends most, — 


and the condition of scrap, biscuits and crépe on arrival. I want to know, for 
example, whether these biscuits on the voyage by contraction or agglutination 
_ stick together, and what process is used for removing them when they do arrive; 


and what package does he consider sufficiently strong for a cwt. or a half cwt.? 


He warned us against using weak packing. I wish to know what package he 
recommends, 
Mr. Devitt :—These biscuits arrive in an agglutinised mass. I do not think 


you will find any way in which the biscuits will not be stuck to a certain extent, 
but they can always be pulled apart unless there is some tackiness. As regards the — 


case, I think most planters agree with Mr. Campbell, who said the other day that 


Pa aio a . 
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: 
4 
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~~ 


“4 


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¥ 


Nov. 1906.] 361 Saps and Bxudations. 


rubber was worth a good coffin, and that was why he did not like packing it with 
a piece of sacking round it, I should like to see some shipped in the way suggested 
by Mr. Ryan. It would, however, have to be opened and repacked in London, 

Mr. Ryan:—That does not answer my question. The question I asked 
is, how does rubber now get to London? 


Mr. Devitt :—We get it in cases of from 20 to 400 lb. weight. Most of it 
comes over in ordinary tea chests. 


THE QUESTION OF SAMPLING. 

Mr. T VituieRs :—Might I ask, having all these different-sized packages, 

on what principle you draw your samples ? 
‘ Mr, Devitt :—They open them at the wharf and take outa fair average 
sample, 
: Mr, ViuurERSs:—If there is a 20 lb. case and a 4 cwt. case, what sample 
would they take from each? 

Mr. Devitt :—Generally about the same. We generally get up 2 or3 lb. 
of each, but where it is a large lot of say 20 large cases we get 5 or 6 lb. 

Mr, Vi~uieRs :—Then there is no fixed principle, as inthe case of tea ? 

Mr. Devirr:—No: itis a fair average sample that is taken. If the rubber 
is not manifested in different grades, they are assorted according to quality. 

Mr, ViILuiEeRS :—On the wharf ? 

Mr. Devirr:—Yes ; we get up samples of good biscuits and of inferior. They 
are put in ten cases, say, five cases fine, three cases indifferent, and two of scrap. 
This is the average sample of the five cases and the other sample is of the three cases 
indifferent and two of scrap. There is no fixed weight they use. They take a fair 
average sample at the wharf. 

Mr. VILLIERS :—Who is in charge of deciding the amount of the sample ? 

Mr. Devitt :—The old experienced men. 

Mr. Vivviers :—From the brokers or from the merchants ? 

Mr. Devitt:—They are not brokers. It has nothing to do with us. The 
people at the wharf are responsible. 

Mr. JAMES RYAN :—Well, are you satisfied with the general condition of 
the packing of rubber in Ceylon, and the way it arrives in London now? Do 
Cey lon packages arrive in good condition ? 

Mr. Devitt :—Yes, as a whole, but we have known cases where a thin veneer 
wa; used and they have come ina broken condition. We have even heard of them 
being manifested as broken. 

Mr. RyAN :—Then we have a disease—what is your remedy ?. 

Mr. Devit :—Not to use these thin cases. (Laughter.) 

Mr. RYAN:—Oh! That is all very well, but that is like telling a person 
whio is sick not to be sick any more. What kind of medicine would you prescribe? 
Do you think the ordinary half-inch tea package sufficient, and what form of 
clamping and nails do you recommend ? 

Mr. DEVITT recommended the ordinary tea chest with aniron rim round it 
and one inch to one-and-a-half-inch nails. 

Mr. RyAn:—I take it if you used the ordinary tea chests the weight of 
rubber would be three times that of the tea chest, especially if it was concentrated 
in the block form. It contracts on the voyage and is constantly edging in and 


out, and in spite of that you are wholly satisfied with the condition of the arrival 
of rubber in London. 


Gums, Resins, 362  ENov. 1906. 


Mr. Devitr:—It is not in many cases it is packed in these thin* wood boxes, 
but we have kiaowa cases and we do not want planters to go on using them. 


Mr. RYAN :—Can you suggest any improvements ? ; 


Mr. DeEvitr: —I think yours is a very good idea for binding them round with 
canvas, but I think they would have to be repacked in London at the planters’ 
expense. 


Mr. RyAN:—Quite so. I can easily improve on that; but the point is 
whether your difficulty was that it was difficult to re-open and difficult to repack 
these packages because that can be got over by a different method of tying and 
pleating. Do you recommend the addition of some disinfectant to the outer surface, 
such as formalin? Would that be an objeccion to the trade? % 

Mr. Devitt :—I think it would. 

Mr. RyAn:— Would they be able to detect formalin, if applied externally 
to the package ? 

Mr. Devitt :—I think so. 

Mr. Ryan :—Then you have spoken of paper and warned us against its use. 
You spoke of plain paper? Have you had any experience of waxed paper ? 

Mr. Devitt :—-I only saw it in the Exhibition, and it seemed very satisfactory. 

Mr. RyAN:—How about the ventilation of the case ? 


i 


Mr. Devitr:—It will get quite enough, I think. There is no need to make 

special ventilation. 
PACKING IN SACKING. 

Mr. Ryan:—Mr. Brett complained that any form of pressure applied to the 
rubber in the form of sacking seemed to have a deteriorating effect on the rubber. 

Mr. DevirtT:—We get rubber from other parts of the world in bales, and 
when it is being cut it has to be cut right through the sacking, which has become 
attached to it; and the sample is sent up in that way. 


ins 


Mr. Ryan :—It seems to me it is perfectly evident you must have some 
simple substance to putin between the packing and the rubber. How would thin 
strips of veneer do ? 

Mr. Devitt :—I think that would get over the difficulty. : 

Mr. RyAN:—My object is to try and elicit from you some idea as to what you 
would suggest would be the very best method of packing. Weare not going to ; 
spoil the ship for a ha’penny worth of tar, but at the same time we have a natural 
desire to economise. Proceeding he said, they would like to get.information on 
this point by experiments. He would like Mr. Devitt to take homesome rubber 
packed in various ways and report to him, and those individuals that would be 
associated with him, on the way itarrived in London, He would like tosend it 
home by a way thatit would reach home after Mr. Devitt had arrived himself, 
if necessary sending it round Cape Horn. He would like to have it knocked about 
a good deal, so that when they got Mr. Devitt’s report they might know whether 
they were not groping in darkness or walking in the light. (Laughter, and 
Hear, hear.) 

Mr. Devitt :—I cannot tell you how your packing will answer until I see 
it arrive in London, The blocks we received so far were in beautiful condition. 
These were packed in a strong case. They were stuck together, but there was no 
actual tackiness. We took them from each other with a crowbar; they were quite 
satisfactory. The case was of half-inch wood. 

Dr. WILLIS said that with regard to the packing of block rubber with 
sacking round it, he saw some planters on the previous day examining the package 
Mr Ryan had prepared in the show. One planter held it up and let it drop, and 


Nov. 1906. | 363 Saps and Hxudations. 


it immediately bounced right out of the window. If they were going to have 
their packages leaping and bounding all over the docks, there might be some 
disadvantage. (Laughter.) He did not know in what way it was handled at the 
docks or anywhere else, but it struck him with this kind of package there might 
be disadvantages. 

THE DOCK LABOURER AND RUBBER. 

Mr. SmitHETr:—What Dr. Willis has just said about rubber bumping is 
frequently true, and I think planters have to remember that the average dock 
labourer in London does not care a brass rap what happens to the package he is 
dealing with. What he chiefly thinks about is of being able to get off to his dinner 
as soon as possible, or something of that kind. I think that considering the great 
amount which we hope in the near future you will be able to send to the market, 
/ it will not be worth while, as Mr. Ryan has said, spoiling the ship for the sake 
of a ha’p’ worth of tar. I do not know the actual cost of the half-inch tea chest, 
but considering that you can get half a ewt. of rubber into one, [ don’t think it will 
be so great as to detract much from+the cost of the rubber, In regard to packing 
in bales, as Mr. Devitt has said, the fibre inside the packing is very liable to attach 
itself to the rubber. I have seen several consignments of crépe sent home in 
sacks of that, and it was very noticeable that the whole of the outside of the crépe 
was covered with small fibre from the inside of the sack. Regarding the Venesta 
tea chests, I saw some rubber sent home the other day in an ordinary Venesta. 
I think they are now building a Venesta chest especially for rubber—and they 
succeeded in getting in a 100 lb. tea chest 248 lb. of sheet rubber. This had ccn- 
tracted and was in a large lump, so that you can imagine how with every movement 
this 248 lb. of rubber bumped against the sides with the result that we had a 
large proportion manifested as broken before shipment. I think that the ordinary 
tea chest is the best Ceylon can do at present. 


a Mr. Devitr:—It is very desirable that you should get uniformity as to 
i the size and weight as faras possible. From the Amazon they have the standard 

size of 82 cases to the five tons. As the quantity exported gets larger it would be 
3 advisable to fix upon standards of weight. 


THE SEPARATING OF STRONG AND WEAK RUBBER. 

Mr. BAMBER :—I should like to call attention to one point. Mr. Devitt 
referred to keeping the stronger from the weaker rubber when packing, but 
personally Ido not think that is the time when you want to keep them separate. 

a I think myself the latex from young trees, as they come into bearing, ought to 

a be kept separate and coagulated separately and the biscuits made from the different 

‘ latices kept separate. I have seen cases where afew young trees have been tapped 
and rendered a considerable amount of rubber from older trees weaker, and it 
seems a pity to spoil a good thing in that way when you can keep the latices 
separate. 

Mr. RyAn:—I entirely differ from Mr. Bamber. If you have enough to 
separate, by all means separate; but if you have small supplies, it would pay much 
better to bulk the latex, and I think you will find that the little good rubber will 
leaven the lump. I am not talking from the point of theory, but from practice. 
It is better to have uniform samples from estates than to have little driblets coming 
in that will vary a few pence per lb. in price. You will find you get more for 
your rubber, and you will keep your superintendeut from the verge of deliriwm 
tremens. (Laughter.) You must have uniformity, and bulking the latex is the 
way to secureit. Itis interesting for Mr. Bamber to separate latices and measure 
them by cubic centimetres and find out the specific gravities. but the average 
superintendent has to take the stuff the coolies bring him, and if he starts sampling 
and separating and fiddling about, that way madness lies. 


Gums, Resins, 364 ' [Nov. 1906 


Mr. Devitt :—In regard to the question of sampling, planters rather seem 
to have an idea that we make something out of the samples, but I may say that 
every pound of rubber that is taken is accounted for. If the buyer wants the 
sample he pays for it. If not, it is returned to the bulk before being weighed over. 


Mr. ZACHARIAS :—Having brought over some cases from Singapore, we have 
got some good examples of what rubber looks like when it arrives in London. 
If you look at our rubber, you will find that the sheets are all glued together ; 
but there is no tackiness whatever. In fact, the judges were so well pleased with 
some of them that they awarded them Honourable Mention. They were very thin 
sheets, and by the time they arrived, although they had filled the packing cases, 
they had contracted into a small block. There is one point I should like to have 
an answer to, and that is relating to block rubber. All cultivated rubber in any 
other form when pulled will never go back to the same place where you started. 
It always becomes longer by being stretched, whereas I understand fine Para 
never does that but it comes back almost entirely. I noticed that block rubber 
stretched in the same way will go back to the same size. I have noticed that in 
the Lanadron blocks which won the gold medal and also in rambong blocks, I 
should like to know if my impression is correct, if that would show that the pressing 
of the crepe adds strength ? 


Mr. Devitt :—!I noticed that this morning. I tried some of the strips cut 
from the blocks and I was impressed at their resiliency. On the other hand, Mr. 
Wright showed me biscuits from 29} years-old trees, and they went back to the ® 
same size as before after being pulled. 


ae ee eee ea ee +8 bre nee & 


Mr. HERBERT WRIGHT :—They were } of-an-inch in thickness. 
Mr. Devitt :—Yes, that is so. 


RELATIONS BETWEEN THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION 
OF RUBBER. 7 


Mr. HERBERT WRIGHT :—I should like to bring forward one matter to which 
Mr. Devitt has referred. That is the relationship between the physical properties 
and chemical composition of the different kinds of rubber. In his recent speech 
at the British Association Prof. Dunstan said that the physical properties of raw 
rubber are to be correlated with the chemical composition of the substance itself. To 
some extent we can say that that logically applies to the different rubbers, it we 
regard the rubber from different species such as Para, castilloa, landolphia, ceara, &c., 
and again wecan say it holds good if we compare rubbers from castilloa trees 
of different ages. As has been pointed out, three-year-old castilloa trees possessed 
55 percent. of resin and 8 year-old trees possessed only 7 per cent. That statement 
of Professor Dunstan is, therefore, apparently applicable to the rubber obtained 
from castilloa trees of different agesand in a compartive sense to rubber obtained 
from different species; but when we come to consider our own rubber, Para, it 
is rather different to see a common agreement. I took the judges over some 
samples of rubber in the laboratory at the Experiment Station. Some‘of it was 
from trees two years old and others from 3, 5, 7, 10, 11 and 293 years old, and the 
difference in the physical property was manifest. The ease with which some of 
the young rubber was torn up was remarkable; whereas, as has been pointed out, 
the rubber from the 29} year-old trees, even our youthful judges were not strong 
enough to break. We were lucky enough to get a snapshot of them with the 
ordinary-sized biscuit stretched out to 2ft. 9in. between them. The judges have . 
divided the biscuits between them, and are taking them back to England. (Hear, 4 
hear.) Therefore we have in Para rubber a definite and conclusive difference in _ 


Re: tA ote 


Nov. 1906.] 365 Saps and xudations. 


physical properties, and yet, as we know, the duplicates of the rubbers to which 
I refer have been shown by Mr. Bamber to have approximately the same chemical 
composition. The results of Para practically contradict the statements of Professor 
Dunstan, and I should very much like to know whether it is intended to apply 
only to rubber of different species, or rubbers from trees of different ages with 
which we have no acquaintance. It certainly does not apply to ourown Para 
rubber. There was one point I omitted to mention, and that is with reference to 
the mixing of the latex. Personally, I think it might be as well if we turned 
out, as Mr. Ryan says, a uniform sample year by year from different estates, 
because we are now simply starting from the very bottom. The trees can never 
be younger. The age will increase year by year, and with it the quality of the 
uniform sample, and this will be appreciated in London. 


Mr. BAMBER—replying to Mr. Wright—said: With regard to the comparison 
of Para rubber from the analysis of strength, the reason they had not been able to 
do that at present was that they could not have a correct solvent that would extract 
the solvent matter from the true caoutchoue. They used acids which after some 
hours would remove the whole of what they called resin, but in the residue that was 
left there was, no doubt, some other compound which was not true caoutchouc; at 
least, it had not the elastic properties of caoutchoue. They would imagine that if 
they took good rubber and bad rubber and extracted the weaker matter, they should 
find that both samples were the same strength; but he found the residue of strong 
rubber is much stronger than that of the weaker rubber. In regard to the mixing of 
latices he could not quite agree with Mr. Ryan. He knew that avery small amount 
of weak latex would injure or was very liable to injure a large amount of older latex. 
They had several estates with trees of several years old. As they went on in some 
years they got in alot of younger rubber. If that latex was mixed with that of the 
younger rubber, they spoiled a good sample they had turned out, and, perhaps, that 
might injure their name. He was only referring to later on when they had their 
rubber in bearing. He did not think it would be necessary to separate the latices, as 
he thought after eight years there would be a fair uniformity and strength, although 
that ought to be a gradual matter as the trees grew older; but he did not think it 
was worth while taking the precaution while the rubber was in the form of latex to 
keep the latices separate. It might mean a little trouble to the planters, but it was 
only afew tappings from the trees asthey comein year by year. That would be 
new rubber, and it would be necessary to keep it separate for, perhaps, two or three 
months until the trees have got thoroughly into the tapping. 


A PHYSICAL TEST. 


Mr. Wricut:—Following up this point, I should rather like to ask Mr, 
Bamber whether he thinks that in the case of other rubbers any physical test is 
likely to be devised which will indicate the chemical composition of the raw material. 
If Professor Dunstan’s statement is correct—that the physical properties can be 
correlated with the chemical composition, there is some ground for anticipating that 
it may be possible by a physical test to get some indication as to the quantity of 
resin or other ingredient in rubber, I should like to ask Mr. Bamber whether it is 
practicable. Is it scientific ? 


Mr. BAMBER :—I do not think any physical test would give you the amount 
of resin. We must find something that will remove the weaker compounds of the 
rubber, There are other physical tests now employed to determine the resiliency, 
but it absolutely cannot give you any idea of the chemical properties. For instance, 
castilloa rubber has a very large percentage of resin. I[ do not think from 
the results of the needle test that is usually employed you can draw any deduc- 
tion as to the amount of resin. It is possible some test may be devised that will give 

48 


Gums! Resins, 366 [Nov. 1906. 


you the best quality of the rubber, but at the same time I do not thinkit will ever 
point out what the chemical properties will be. As far as I can see, Para rubber will 
never contain more than 3, 5 or 6 per cent of resin at the very most, and [am surea 
physical test would show the difference between one and two or even five per cent. 


THE IDENTIFICATION OF RUBBER, 


Mr. RYAN asked how they were to identify their rubber in Ceylon or when 
it arrived in London as being the original samples shipped, inasmuch as there was 
a method which was in daily use in some districts for removing estate marks from 
biscuits, and which for obvious reasons he would not describe ; but it was avery simple 
and effective one. If they were to go on producing biscuits, it was evident that they 
would have to devise a more permanent method of stamping rubber than the present 
one—impressing a dieonit. Hethought possibly it might be effected by using a sink- 
ing die to raise the rubber, because he thought it would be more difficult to reduce.this 
without leaving an impression than to raise the sunken part to the level of the surface, 
as was done at present. They might have a press with prickers on it, very much like 
the method used in Army and Navy Stores and by many firms in London for marking 
Bank notes passing through their hands. Possibly it might be used in conjunction 
with some chemical, which by analysis would enable them to immediately detect 
whether the sample in question had come from the estate. He gave that as a special 
warning to the Kandy district where the wily Moorman had already devised a 
method of taking their biscuits and selling them in the open market. 

Dr. WILLIS said it might be interesting to several people to know that he 
had had it illustrated in that Exhibition that the estate marks could be completely 
removed from biscuits with the greatest ease. 


Mr. Devitt’ said he had seen several biscuits with the name cut out and one 
piece cut into square bits to be put in the scrap. In regard to sending large blocks 
of rubber, he knew acase of one importer of Para from the Amazon who shipped 
down 100 tons with his mark stamped on the rubber, and when it got to one port it 
was found that it only weighed 50 tons, although the number of packages was 
exactly the came, At some place of stopping they must have taken them out and 
replaced them with others with the same mark on. 

Mr. SmItTHETT :—Do I understand Mr. Ryan to mean that the brokers are to 
test every estate mark ? 

Mr. Ryan :—Oh, no; this is directed against thieves in the island. We have 
people who have a few trees that give a remarkably high yield, and, of course, we 
know perfectly well where the rubber comes from. The idea is to put a stop tothe 
thieving of rubber, and that again touches another point which will appeal to 
planters. We have a Praedial Products Act. Ican remember that the tea industry 
was getting pretty old before we could get that Act improved, so as to make it 
workable in the case of thieving of green tea leaves, or, very often, of made tea. 
Our friends the cocoa planters have had even more trouble; and I think itis just 
as well to start early in rubber, so that we may be ready and protect ourselves in 
time. We should approach Government and have legislation and protect ourselves 
in every possible way before our contracts are ofa sufficient size to make the losses 
material ones. I remember in the case of coffee a few estates showed extraordinary 
prosperity and plumpness in the neighbourhood, and when the coffee crash came, it 
gave the quietus to the natives on the neighbouring coffee estates; they could not 
steal the European coffee. They were reduced to a state of penury by not being 
able to steal our coffee which was pitiable to witness. (Laughter.) 

A vote of thanks having been passed to Mr. Devitt for his paper, the meeting 


ended. 


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pT AAI oo ih osc tie wa a A ts iat Ts lt ol aaa 


Nov. 1906.] ) 367 Saps ond Hxudations. 
Rubber in London. 


Two Lectures delivered at the Ceylon Rubber Exhibition, Royal Botanic Gardens, 
Peradeniya, on September 20th. 


RELATIVE QUALITIES OF DIFFERENT GRADES. I. 
By SPENCER BRETT. 


London has for many years been a very important centre of distribution for 
rubber. Its position has lately been improved in this respect, and the headquarters 
of most of the important buyers and firms handling the product are now centred 
there. In greater or less volume, it may be said that all grades of wild and 
cultivated rubber are to be seen on our market, and as the number of the different 
kinds runs into hundreds, it will be seen that London offers an excellent opportunity 
for comparing the various grades. The actual commercial value of crude ruber 
varies from a tew pence per pound to nearly 6 shillings, according to the amount 
of caoutchoue contained in the grade, the nature of the foreign substances, and 
for other reasons. The exports of Para grades have in the past amounted roughly 
to one-half of the world’s total production, and until the Hastern plantation 
product came into the field the finer qualities of Para always realised higher prices 
than anything else. It may be said that Para, i.e., South American rubber, was 
the foundation on which the industry was built, and the standard methods of 
compounding and manufacture that have been carried out were based on the 
character of these grades. The different processes in use have largely been arrived 
at after many years of experiment, 


THE BEHAVIOUR OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF RUBBER 


in manufacture being so varied and complicated, that, as new grades have from 
time to time come on the market, a considerable period has elapsed before manu- 
facturers have worked out the best treatment for them and thus been able to 
decide their standard value. Under these circumstances it is only natural that, 
until your Eastern cultivated product has been freely experimented with by the 
bulk of manufacturers, its intrinsic value is unlikely to be fully understood. In 
face of this we have the astonishing fact that even from the days when only one 
or two consignments of a few pounds each in weight came on the market per month, 
say five years ago, a premium was paid over the prices of the then fine standard 
American Para grade. Supplies have been short and prices have appreciated very 
considerably, roughly 50 per cent. in this period, and we still find that the premium 
for Eastern plantation grades is readily obtained. 


The obvious explanation is that the buyer of fine plantation rubber receives 
from, say, 10 to 40 per cent. more caoutchouc for his money than the buyer of other 
grades ; but unless your cultivated product were well suited to the manufacture of 
expensive goods, it stands to reason that its use in the factory would not be 
profitable, and not only is it found worth while to handle the new gradeat a 
much higher initial cost—at a time when prices are cut to the last degree—but 
actually you have a number of manufacturers who consider it advisable to spend 
large sums of money experimenting with it, when they can procure at a less cost a 
rubber for the preparation of which all their mills and machinery have been 
designed, and furthermore a substance which has from the beginning of the 
industry supplied all the finest grades of goods for which rubber has been ased. 
Under these circumstances is it to be wondered at, that the manufacturer should 
hesitate before deciding that he is justified in expending large sums of money in 


Gums, Resins, 368 [Nov. 1906. _ 


experimenting with an article, the nature of which is as yet imperfectly understood 
at a time when, owing to market conditions, he is only just able to get a margin 
of profit when using a lower priced rubber which he has proved by experience to 
give very satisfactory results. 


I myself know many instances when manufacturers have taken the other 
course and decided that the present is not the time to start experimenting with 
the new grade owing to its high cost; but they have quite made up their mind 
to give it a thorough test when the market favours it. In the meantime those 
more progressive people who have tried it with good results and are now regular 
consumers, have all the time been improving their treatment of it, and there are 
already people who say that not only can Eastern plantation rubber take the 
place of South American Para, but they themselves are using it in their own 
factories, for the severest tests to which rubber is subjected. 


Itisa difficult matter to obtain an inside knowledge of the nature of the 
rubber manufacturers’ business. A great number of them, whose successful career 
has in some measure been due to the efficiency of their private processes and 
methods of preparation, are naturally somewhat jealous of these and disinclined to 
expose them to the critical eye of anyone engaged in the same industry. I very 
soon realised, however, that much useful information was to be found by getting an 
insight into this part of the industry; and after some difficulty I succeeded in 
getting taken over some of the largest mills and factories in England. One of the 
first things that struck me after this inspection was the very large amount of 
capital and labour that might be saved in the first stages of manufacture by the 
use of the fine pure grades of cultivated rubber, but the full benefit of this could 
not, of course, be felt until large supplies were always available. One of the most 
important changes that have recently been taking place in the industry is the 
increase in 


THE USE OF SCIENTIFIC METHODS IN THE FACTORY. 


From one cause and another it is now generally accepted by manufacturers 
that a laboratory in their factory with a well-qualified chemist is quite essential. 
Only a few years ago very few of even the large makers had these; but now you 
will find that in many eases the laboratory forms a very important part of the factory, 
and there are many who think that before long analysis may play an important 
part in the buying and selling of crude rubber. To get an idea of the effect of the 
rapid rise in prices on the manufacturers of rubber, it is interesting to find that on 
account of the excessive adulteration that had sometimes to be resorted to, in order 
to complete contracts extending over long periods without heavy luss, departments 
which send out tenders for large orders have, on account of the unsatisfactory 
nature of goods supplied, been compelled to make their conditions far more 
stringent; and just before leaving London I heard of an important tender having 
been put out, in the conditions of which the resin contents were not to exceed four 
per cent, the idea being to necessitate the use of a large proportion of fine Para. 
In this connection it is interesting to note that the finest Eastern plantation Para 
would roughly be on about the same footing as fine South American Para on account 
of its small resin contents. In conclusion, gentlemen, I can only say that we in 
London mean to continue to do allin our power to promote and extend the uses of 
your product, and I think Iam quoting the general opinion when Isay that you 
are to be most heartily congratulated on the splendid progress that has always been 
made in the growth, preparation and quality of cultivated rubber in the Hast, and 
Tam sure that with all the extremely capable and energetic people you have out 
here, devoting their time and experience to the welfare of the industry, there 
should be very little doubt that the future is assured for you.. (Applause.) 


} 
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. 
‘ 


Nov.. 1906. ] 369 Saps and Exudations. 


THE PREFERRBD FORMS OF PLANTATION RUBBER. II. 
By C, K. SMITHETT. 


The relative qualities of the different grades of rubber put on the London 
market has been dealt with by Mr. Brett very ably; sol should like to say justa 
few words as to the form of rubber we should like you to send us. So far you have 
consigned to the home market an article which has gained a reputation for its 
purity ; and the present premium above Para, although it is not now at the very 
high point obtained early in 1905, is due to the purity of Eastern plantation rubber. 
So the first point I wish to impress on you is to maintain the reputation you have 
gained for yourself. In one feature, at any rate, fine hard-cure Para is superior to, 
in most cases, plantation rubber from Ceylon and the Federated Malay States, and 
that isin strength. The question [ put before you is this. How can you obtain that 
strength without reducing the present very high standard of purity? It is essenti- 
ally-a question for planters to answer, and the solution can only be obtained by 
experimenting. The able scientists you have here will, I am sure, do their utmost to 
help you. 


TAPPING IMMATURE TREES. 


Do you tap your trees too early ? Remember, in the forests of rubber in the 
Amazona districts trees are very often not tapped until they are over 30 years old, 
to take a very moderate figure. I believe that some of the rubber in this Exhibition 
which received the highest awards was from trees 10 to 15 years old; and the 
other day we were shown rubber from trees from Henaratgoda about 30 years old 
which showed a very good tensile strength as far as can be ascertained without proper 
appliances. Plantation rubber is as yet in its infancy, but itis never too early to 
begin trying to improve. Bad reputations are difficult to be got rid of; so do not 
let your rubber acquire a reputation of being weaker than fine hard-cure Para. 


We in London look forward to the day in the near future, when plantation 
rubber will be one of the predominant features in the market, but strength is a 
necessity. I mention this question, as we all in London want Kastern plantation to 
supplement wild rubbers, at any rate, to a very substantial degree. 


I suppose the question which we have been asked most frequently, since we 
have been in this island, is what form do we want rubber sent to London in. I think 
we are all agreed on this point. 


BLOCK RUBBER. 


Let us see some more block rubber. Buta word of warning; block rubber is 
stilla new idea, and while the shipments from Lanadron estate have realised 2d. to 
251. per lb. above fine plantation, it is not an established fact that if all plantation 
rubber came in block form, that you will all obtain a higher range of prices. 


SMOKED PLANTATION RUBBER. 


The samples of smoked rubber which we have seen have interested us 
greatly. We look forward to further experiments in this direction, an essential 
part in the preparation of fine hard-cure Para, so samples of the rubber cured ina 
very similar manner would be of great interest. 


Buyers are now getting used to fine crépe, but still some leave it alone ; but I 
think fine crépe will sell well when all the trade will buy it. Ido not think that 
manufacturers are prepared to accept estate washing as sufficient for manufacturing ; 
so perhaps some planter will answer this question. Does the time saved by making 
crépe justify the loss in weight in the washing process? Inferior grades of crépe 
were, when we left London, under a cloud and difficult of sale, buyers not being able 
to estimate the amount of the impurity init; but from recent reports I gather 
that the demand is improving somewhat. 


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Gums, Resins, 370 [Nov, 1906. 
BISCUITS AND SHEET. > 


The former of these I am convinced, will, when the industry developes, have of 
necessity to be abandoned in consequence of the length of time and amount of labour 
in preparation, but while you can still send biscuits and sheet you will, I think, find 
buyers. 5 

In conclusion, the industry regarding actual plantation rubber is young; so 
until shipments come in more important lines, it would be unwise to definitely decide 
on any one system of preparation for the London market. We at home in London 
watch with keen interest the development of this industry, and I can only say we 
like Eastern plantation rubber and want more, and hope that nothing will happen 
to make the prospects of good supplies less hopeful than they are now. (Applause.) 


THE DISCUSION. 


Dr. WIL.is :—Ladies and gentlemen, we have listened to two very interest- 
ing papers on rubber, and I feel sure they will provoke a most interesting 
discussion. I would call on anyonein the room to offer any remarks they may 
have to offer. ; 


Mr. JAMES RyYAN:—I should like to ask Mr. Brett and Mr. Smithett a 
question «propos of the price of rubber in London. I take it that the Ceylon biscuit, 
which is now getting a price of very close on 6s., is, from information just given me, 
getting about 6d. a lb. better than fine Para, which Mr. Brett has just told us shows 
about 20 per cent in the matter of impurities, in some cases 40. 20 per cent of 5s. is Is., 
and we are exporting pure rubber and getting a 6d. for our shilling. That appears to 
be the differential value, and I take it that the rubber imported into London from 
Para is subjected to the expense of washing which will give the manufacturer a 
great deal more, and yet he is able to give us 6d. instead of a shilling ; so that we may 
bear in mind that whether it be due to superstition or not, the London manufacturer 
is not prepared to give us the full benefit of our manufacture in the form of hard 
cash, and that is the way we wantit. (Laughter.) 


sche 


a 


Mr. SPENCER BRETT :—I assure you the reasons for the difference in price 
Mr. Ryan has just referred to, are far more tangible than supersition. In the first 
place it must be borne in mind that I gave the figures of the actual rubber contents— 
that is, not the actua: figures showing loss in washing from the manufacturers’ point 
of view. The manufacturer does not look entirely on pure rubber contents. What 
he has to do with is loss in washing; because Para, fine hard-cured South American, 
may only possess 77 per cent of pure rubber, it does not follow that it is going to 
lose this 23 per cent in manufacture. In fact the rough average of the loss of 
washing in finehard Para, I think, is 15 to 18 per cent. That is one point of 
importance. The next is rather more complicated. In the first place, as I have been 
trying hard toimpre:s upon you, your industry is very young, and I have made 
particular note that with other grades of rubber it has taken some time—a consider- 
able number of years in some instances—before the methods of preparing these — 
grades have been perfected; and until that has been done, you cannot arrive ata ‘ 
proper standard of the value. In the third place, as you all know, the importations 
of plantation rubber have been extremely small in comparison with the world’s — 
consumption, and to give you anidea I may say that the amount of plantation 
rubber from Ceylon and Malaya exported into London last year was 171 tons as 
compared with the total production of 60,000 tons, and that is spread all over the 
world. I think you will all agree that it gives very small scope for experiment and 
commercial using; so I think it is only reasonable to expect that some time must 
elapse and large quantities must be handled by the manufacturers before youcan 
have all the qualities of your produce fully recognised and appreciated. (Applause.) — 


ORS a, 


a We * 1 


eka. Bi a 


EA, 


ae foyer 


fen Me 


Nov. 1906.] 371 Saps and Exudations. 


Mr. JAMES Ryan:—That does not alter the fact. Mr. Brett tells me that 
20 per cent is lost in Para rubber by impurities. If I buy one thousand |b. of Para 
rubder, taking 20 per cent as the net impurities—he says 15 to 20 per cent—he gets 
800 1b. of pure rubber and pays 66,000 pence for it; but if he buys 1,000 lb. of Ceylon 
plantation rubber, 960 lb. is pure rabber; the deduction is under 4 per cent, but he only 
pays 69,000 pence or an increase of 3,120 for another 160 lb. of ruabber—(Laughter).— 
Which means that he gets 160 lb. of Ceylon rubber at the rate of 2d, a lb. (Laughter.) 
’ Mr. Spencer Brett :—I would add to my previous remarks by saying there 
are many other considerations. I pointed out the ones I thought the most 
important but, of course, one consideration is the point that has been very widely 
questioned indeed, and upon that no one yet can definitely give a verdict, namely, 
whether by the nature of the plantation rubber it will be able at any time to 
supplant and actually take the place of fine hard South American Para rubber. 
I myself am very hopeful indeed about this, and this Exhibition has greatly 
increased my hopefulness; but at the same time it is quite impossible at this 
stage of the industry to get the manufacturers to adopt all those views, and as I 
have already tried to explain the manufacturers go by results, and until they 
definitely get these results they will not be prepared to pay a high premium fora 
grade that they do not fully understand. On the other hand, it is being experi- 
mented with all this time, and I think there is not the slightest doubt that once it 
comes into consumption on a large scale, and is found after severe tests extending 
over a length of time, Iam sure that many manufacturers will handle it instead of 
fine hard Para. At that time, Iam equally convinced, you people will get the full 
advantage of the superiority of your product. (Applause.) | 


EXPERIMENTS IN PREPARATION METHODS. 

Dr. WILLIS :—Now is the time when we ought to make our experiments in 
the preparation of rubber for the market. As Messrs. Smithett and Brett have told 
us, the market is ina fluid condition and we can now try experiments with more 
chance of success. Supposing we go on making: biscuits for another couple of years 
without trying any other method, biscuits will be on the market in very large 
quantities, and the market will be so wedded to the biscuit that the manufacturers 
would begin to look very much askance at any other form of rubber. Now we only 
make small quantities, but itis time to try experiments of making up rubber ina 
different kind of way, and we ought to do that. I say this because there are a num- 
ber of people who say that the time for experimenting is too soon. We know 
biscuit will work; let us stick to biscuit and let other things be tried later on. 
The present is the time to try them before the market gets thoroughly wedded to 
biscuit, sheet or block, whatever it may be. There are so many other forms in 
which rubber can be placed upon the market, that now is the time to try those forms 
before the market gets fixed. (Applause.) It seems to me that the subject is of very 
great importance ; and as we have heard a good deal about it from the brokers’ point 
of view, we should like to hear the planting side of it put forward by some gentle- 
man present, who will have a perfect right to do so. 


CREPE RUBBER. 

Mr. HERBERT WRiGHT:—Mr. Smithett brought forward the question of 
sending crépe rubber to the London manufacturers, and he pointed out the disadvan- 
tage that a certain amount of material was necessarily lost, but he apparently 
forgot to remind us that crépe rubber, as Mr. Smithett convinced me yesterday, is 
the only form in which rubber can be guaranteed to arrive free from mould or from 
tackiness. I understood, from conversation with the Judges yesterday, that during 
the last few months there has been a large increase in the quantity of biscuit, and 


‘even sheet rubber, which has arrived in a mouldy or tacky condition, and the 


appearance of the crépe during the same period was free from such defects. 


Gums, Resins, 372 [Nov. 1906. 


Mr. SmitHEeTT :—Mr. Wright is quite correct in his statement. I think we 
may say we have never noticed mould appearing upon fine crépe; and I think that 
when the trade becomes used to it, it will sell. But the question I wish to see solved 
is whether the loss in weight is justified by the time saved. 


Mr. WRiGHT :—It is much easier to manufacture rubber in that form, and the 
treatment that rubber has to pass through is comparable with cocoa in Ceylon. I 
know in other countries—South and Central America and the West Indies—they do 
not regularly wash their cocoa before sending it to the market, but they send itina 
sun-dried state. Cocoa is sent home from Ceylon asa washed material, because we 
want to keep up its high standard of purity. If we can associate the higher 
standard of purity gained by washing with freedom from the defects of mouldiness 
and tackiness, I think crépe will ultimately appeal to the Ceylon planters. 


Mr. JAMES RYAN :—It takes a very much longer time to make a given finite 
biscuit than given finite crA4pe. The saving in time is practically one of days. 
This morning a specimen of wet crépe was made in twenty minutes. I timed the 
machine very carefully, and from the time the latex was poured into the separator, 
then into the Michie-Golledge machine to be coagulated under difficulties, and it 
was passed through the Federated Malay States Engineering Co.’s machine, the 
time from start to finish was twenty minutes. With a vacuum drying machine 
the further operation would have taken an hour and ahalf. The result of the 
experiments in brick rubber that we have made to-day is equal, if not superior, 
to that of any rubber in the Show. We took some vacuum-dried ecrépe and 
subjected it to a pressure of 482 tons—three tons to the square inch of 184 square 
inches—-and the result was a block of rubber which, I was informed by Mr. Campbell 
of Lanadron, he considered superior to that which had taken the gold medal for 
the best rubber in the Show. The question of time and the question of packing 
answer themselves, because the question of ocean freight would certainly not 


exceed half or two-thirds at the outside of the ocean freight of a given sample of : 


biscuit in box, or crépe in box, or lightly blocked rubber in a box. The question 
resolves itself into whether the screw pressure which secured block rubber is a 
method which improved the quality of rubber, which some seem to think it does; 
or whether it deteriorates quality. Personally I have come to the conclusion 
that the stored-up energy in blocking rubber promises to improve the individual 
elasticity and resiliency of rubber—two points I am perfectly certain manufacturers 
look greatly to. Transparency of appearance is secured by purity. Resilience 
isa matter whichis inherent in the rubber itself. The other point that we have 
now got to look to is one which can only be determined by a very big series of 
experiments which have not yet been undertaken. I am sorry that Mr. Carruthers 
is not here this evening—(A voice: He is here.)—to show us the working of that 
very ingenious and excellent machine which he has devised, and which unfortunately 
was damaged in transit, but if he would show us the broad principles we would 
be glad to wait ten or fifteen minutes longer to listen toit. Rubber is very largely 
used in electricity. There is the point of electric resistance in rubber, and if we 
can secure those points of commercial purity and toughness of resilience and the 
rapid resistance to the strain of buffers, and for springs and coils; and if we can 
also get electrical resistance—and we are going to get it—if we could only get it 
very soon by experiments long before trees are bearing, we shall jhave solved 
all these problems, and you will have Ceylon at the top of the tree and Para nay, 
whistle down the wind. (Laughter and Applause.) 


Mr. CARRUTHERS :—Mr. Ryan in his winning way has forced me to get on 


my feet, but I do not think I have very much to say, except that I wish very much 
on behalf of the Farther East to thank these two gentlemen, Mr. Brett and Mr, 


Smithett, for the frank way in which they have told us their requirements and. 


oe 


te cad ee pee ee ee 


<4 tos 


ee 


Chale bs pital jada OA IE ON eo) as 


' 


Nov. 1906.] 373 Saps and Hxudations. 


given us sound advice as to how we ean please our masters, the London manu- 
facturers. As faras I can gather, the matter, put into a nutshell, is that we must 
go for purity, and that we may expect not only to keep up the present high 
standard of our rubber and in time to improve upon it after manufacturers have 
had more experience with our rubber and be able to rival Para. As to the machine 
Mr. Ryan has kindly referred to, some two years ago I was interested in trying 
to devise some simple machine which would test the resiliency and elasticity of 
rubber, and I brought it here because I thought it would interest visitors to the 
Exhibition. Unfortunately, ever since I have arrived, 1 have been practically 
judging from eight o’clock in the morning until dark, and with this were inter- 
spersed various hospitable functions and other things which left me no time to 
put it together. I promise to do so to-morrow, so that any one may see it and judge 
it for himself. 


A hearty vote of thanks to the lecturers was proposed by Dr. J. C. Willis 
and was heartily accorded. 


THE INDUSTRY IN THE MALAY PENINSULA. 


Toe LaABouR PROBLEM: LAcK oF NERVE IN RUBBER. 


An interesting interview with Mr. EK. Val Carey, a well-known planter of the 
Federated Malay States, is published in the Ceylon Observer (Oct 8th). In reference 
to the future labour supply Mr, Carey said :— 


“The future seems to be perfectly bright. With regard to Indian labour 
I can see no reason why we should not be able to get all the coolies we want, mainly 
because the fixity of exchange at 2s. 4d. has sent up the remitting value of the dollar 
by 20 per cent; and while the dollar wages remain stationary from the point of view 
of the local currency equivalent, the actual result of the fixture of exchange is that 
we get an enormous pull in remitting value. There is no doubt, if there is, as 
suggested, competition over at the coast between Ceylon and the Straits for labour, 
the higher rates which—from a remitting point of view—weare paying over in the 
Straits must attract labour to us rather than Ceylon, especially in the case of new 
districts in either country which have not previously been established or known to 
coolies. Apart from Indian labour, anybody who is interested in labour over in 
the Straits must always remember there is the absolute assurance against a labour 


famine in the proximity of Java. The Javanese cooly, whois imported direct, 


enters into indentures to work for three years, and his cost at the end of that period, 
approximates, and in fact is rather less, than the wages paid to the Tamil.” 


** Are Javanese plentiful and easily obtainable ?” 


“The last census of the island of Java was taken in 1902, I think. Java was 
then shown to possess 82 million inhabitants who are increasing at the rate of 
600,000 per annum. The Dutch Government are face to face with this enormous 
population, and the need for finding supplies for them, which means increasing 
importation obligations every year—because they are growing so tremendously, 
and the country is practically cultivated up to the hill-tops—are only too anxious to 
place these people in localities where they feel they are being well looked after. So 
that to sum up, the situation, it seems to meas regards Tamil labour, is bright in 
the extreme. We inthe F.M.S., most of us old Ceylon men, have naturally been 
anxious to employ Tamils rather than Javanese; but supposing for the sake of 
argument we cannot atany time get sufficient labour from India, we are in the 


impregnable position of being able to get as many Javanese as we can possibly 
want.” 


49 


Gums, Resins, B74. 


“It is often said,” Mr, Carey added, “China is a further source of supply, 
but in actual practice the experience is that men have not much use for Chinese 
coolies in agricultural work, mainly for the reason that they are not able to speak 
their language, and to successfully work orientals one must be able to get into that 
intimate voc with them which can only be done by becoming familiar mae their 


language.” 


Proceeding Mr. Carey then made the following interesting statement :— 
“One thing which I do think is a very important question,” he said, ‘is this 
suggested. and I believe real, lack of nerve in our rubber in the Straits Settlements 
and F.M.S. Undoubtedly, without any question, rubber which is extracted from 
young trees is not so full of tensile strength as that from older trees. The older 
the tree that supplies the latex, the tougher the rubber; but that does not in my 
opinion amount to a sufficient reason for the absence of nerve which our rubber 
undoubtedly shows. I believe myself that the days of sheet and biscuit and crépe 
are reaching their end. The reason for that is that we know, in spite of what 
certain people have said to the contrary, that almost any rubber prepared in a 
thin form responds to the corrupting influence of the atmosphere and gradually 
perishes. It is not necessary to expose it to the direct rays of the sun, butif you 
leave it on your office table you will find as day succeeds day, your rubber becomes 
less and less resilient; and I put that down to the fact thatin our eagerness to 
secure the most rapid drying, we are placing our goods on the market in the 
thinnest possible forms, and therefore exposing the maximum surface to what I 
have called the corrupting influence of the air. At the present moment, I may 
say, I am having sent home a considerable sample, amounting—I hope—to 2 or 8 
ewts. of rubber which has been kindly placed at my disposal by Mr. J. A. Mac- 
Gregor, the Manager of the Anglo-Malay Rubber Company. This rubber was 
some years or so ago, when in a freshly coagulated form, made up into rough balls 
of various sizes—owing, as I understand, to a temporary breakdown in the 
machinery. A certain amount of moisture was expressed by hand pressure, and 
the balls of freshly coagulated latex were laid down on the cement floor of the store 
where they were left until recently, when I saw them there. I had one of these 
big balls cut open, and I found it honeycombed in the centre with cells containing 
evidently putrid moisture, and the rubber itself had got on the outside a thin 
coating, black and shiny, of obviously cured rubber. The inside was perfectly white 
in colour—as white as the day it was taken out of the coagulating pans—and it had 
all the appearance of a perfectly immature product in the centre, as indeed did 
all on the inside of this slight black rim which was just onthe surface; but on 
attempting to break even the smallest portion away from this white mass, I found 
that the tensile strength was so tremendous, it was impossible to pick outa piece 
even as big asa pin’s head, I was very much impressed with this because, though 
Ihave not the exact facts and details as regards the age of the trees from which 
this rubber was obtained, I gathered from conversation with Mr. MacGregor it 
was just the average intake of latex from average trees ranging from 5 to 7 or 


8 years of age. 


“Though, of course, in the absence of scientific examination by means of 
mechanical apparatus it was not possible to say what the tensile strength of this 
rubber was, still to the ordinary observer like myself it was perfectly clear it 
was very much greater than I had ever seen it in any other form. And the con 
clusion I came to was that the hardened surface had hermetically sealed the 
contents of the block within to such an extent that even the evaporation of the 
moisture had not been possible. _Nothing could escape and—as nothing could 
escape—no perishing influence could get in. I believe we shall find very shortly 


[Nov. 1906. 


wae 


“ie FP’ Teo sire Mk Riliieiel 


Nov. 1906.) 375 Saps and Hxudations. 


that if we send home our stuff in blocks which are obtained by hydraulic or any 
other pressures from a mass of ‘latex, this ery of tackiness and lack of nerve in our 
rubber will immediately cease. 

“JT may say that the examination of this piece of rubber took place some 
weeks before anyboly knew Mr. Pears was preparing rabber in block form; and, 
of course, the rubber I am speaking of has a perfectly different appearance from 
block rubber prepared by Mr. Pears which, [ understand, is quite clear. But it 
is analogous in every way except for its excessive freedom from impurities, such 
as pieces of bark, with the Para which the Amazon sends to the market, and which 
I have seen in large quantities in the rubber factories in America. I propose, 
directly I get home, to submit this lot to every conceivable test through Messrs. 
Gow, Wilson and Stanton, who have gota laboratory specially put up to deal with 
questions of this nature, and as soonas I have completed the report on it I shall 
communicate it probably to Ceylon as well as to the Straits with Mr. MacGregor’s 
permission.” 


Mr. Carey’s idea is that the latex should be strained and coagulated, smoke 
perhaps being used as an antiseptic and as much moisture as possible expressed, 
and then pressed into blocks. He points out that when the demand for plantation 
rubber for solution is supplied, the market for the Hastern product will depend 
upon its strength and resiliency ; and even although they may have to pay a little 
extra freight for sending some more moisture home, it is better to do this if extra 
qualities that will commend it to the buyers, such as strength and resiliency, can 
be obtained. 


RUBBER CULTIVATION IN SAMOA, 


The Consular Report on Samoa for 1905 contains the following account of 
the rubber industry there :— 


The Samoa Caoutchoue Company, Berlin, capital £75,000 and upwards, has 
commenced operations on a large tract of ground at Saluafata, 12 miles from Ania, 
and has planted out many thousand seeds of Hevea. Rubber cultivation being 
an entirely new thing in Samoa, it is impossible to makea positive and certain 
forecast regarding it, butin the opinion of some it offers greater advantages than 
eacao or coco-nut planting. That Castilloa will grow hereis quite certain; but 
until tapping has begun and the yield can be approximately ascertained, it is 
impossible to say whether this or any other rubber tree will yield sap to the same 
extent as is the case in their natural habitat ; but, as conjectured above, this culture 
appears to be likely to yield, in any case, a profitable return on the capital invested. 

Mr. T. Andrew furnishes the following report :— 


‘In 1904 I supplied your yearly report with a few remarks on the cultivation 
of Hevea brasiliensis in Samoa. Since then the trees have grown rapidly; not so 
much in height asin girth—they are just six years old from the seed. Measuring 
twenty-five consecutive trees at 3 feet from the ground, the largest tree measured 
244 inches in circumference ; the average of the whole was 174} inches. Considering 
the fact that these trees have been entirely under native supervision, with the 
exception of occasional visits of the owners, it may reasonably be expected that, 
on plantations laid out by companies and under proper supervision, the trees will 
present a more promising appearance than do the above under the conditions stated. 


‘The measurements are by no means insignificant when compared with 
those made at the experimental gardens of the different districts of the zone of 
rubber culture. The trees in question are planted 15 by 15 feet among cacao trees, 
at an altitude of 1,100 feet above the sea. The aspect is favourable, and the distri 
bution of rain is more even than on the low-lying lands which have the same aspect. 


Pie Mier id) il 


Gums, Resins | 376 [Nov, 1906. 


Some of the trees are being tapped, and the result of yield and quality of the rubber 
will be looked forward to with interest by those engaged in the culture, and by 
others who are waiting for proofs of the results of the experiments. The high 
prices prevailing for first-class articles, and the apparently permanent demand for 
rubber, have given a considerable impetus to rubber cultivation in Samoa. 


Other companies under able management have commenced operations here. 
Notably the Berlin Caoutchouc Company at Saluafata, near Falefa, with an area of 
6,000 to 7,000 acres. Their first clearing of 500 acres is now ready for planting out 
and they have about 1,000,000 young Hevea plants growing in the nurseries. The 
situation of this estate is ideal: a gradual] ascent from the sea, with a maximum 
height of, say, 600 feet above it; the rainfall is evenly distributed throughout the 
year. The soil is splendid, containing sufficient clayey mixture to retain moisture 
in the event of prolonged dry weather. The whole is almost encircled by a high 
range of mountains 1,500 to 2,500 feet in height. Next comes Mr. Harman’s 
(Birmingham) Upola rubber plantation. As yet there are no details respecting 
the operations of this company; but, judging from the rapid progress made by 
the Upola Cacao Company, which is under the same mavagement, a promising 
prospect may safely be predicted.’ 


THE LONDON RUBBER MARKET. 


LoNnpDON, September 28th.—At to-day’s auction, 334 packages of Ceylon and 
Straits Settlements plantation grown rubber were under offer, of which about 259 
were sold. The total weight amounted to over 20 tons, Ceylon contributing about 2} 
and Straits Settlements nearly 18. The market was fairly steady for all descriptions 
and good general competition characterised the auction, though in many cases the 
prices offered for the finest grades (principally'crépe) did not come up to sellers’ 
ideas. A parcel consisting of 20 cases of very fine pressed blocks from the Lanadron 
Estate (Johore) realised the top price in the auction, viz., 5s. 10d, perlb. The best 
sheet and biscuits sold at from 5s. 6d. to 5s. 77d., and crépe can also be quoted at the 
same figure. There was a strong demand for the darkish erépe running up to about 
4s, 10d. to 4s. 1ld. In Ceylons, one or two cases of fine biscuits realised 5s. 7d. per lb. 
Plantation fine to-day.—5s. 6d. to 53. 7+d., same period last year, 6s. 2d. to 6s. 
3d. Plantation scrap.—3s. to 4s. 6d., same period last year, 3s. 10d. to 5s. 4d. Fine hard 
Para (South American).—5s. 1$d., same period last year, 5s. 6d. Average price of 
Ceylon and Straits Settlements plantation rubber.—259 packages at 5s. 57d. per Ib., 
against 163 packages at 4s. 9d. per lb. at last auction. Particulars and prices as 
follows :— 


CEYLON. 
MARK. QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. 
F. B. 1 case aerar ane rejections, 4s.; 1 case dark scrap 4s.; 2 cases ditto, 
Ss. 13 ° 
Warriagalla 1 do good pale amber to darkish biscuits, 5s. 6d.; 1 bag ditto 
dark, 5s. 4d. 
Ballacadua 3 do fine pale and palish biscuits, 5s. 7d. 
Waharaka 1 do good darkish biscuits, 5s. 7d.; 2 cases darkish scrap, 3s. 9d. 
Palli 1 do pale and palish cut biscuits, 5s. 5$d.; 1 case heated scrap 
and lump rejections, 4s. 
Ingoya 5 do fine pale to darkish biscuits, 5s, 7d.; 2 cases good palish to 
darkish pressed scrap, 4s. 6d. 
Langsland 5 do fine palish to darkish biscuits, 5s. 7d.; 4 cases good darkish — 
to dark biscuits, ds. 63d. _ 
Culloden 6 do fine pale to darkish biscuits, 5s. 7d.; Se eases good palish mt). 


pressed crépe, 5s. 1jd.; 2 cases ditto, very dark, 4s. 9id. 


Ellakande 2 do good palish to darkish biscuits, ds. 7d. 
Nikakotua 3 do good palish to darkish sheet, 5s. 7ds 


Mo) a 
wd 4 


ee Stee ae ese 


Nov. 1906.] . 377 Saps and Exudutions. 
STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. 


MARK. QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. 


B.R.R. Co., Ltd. 9 cases eeb erépe, 4s. 97d.; 3 cases ditto, darker and inferior, 
4s. 8d. 

Sungei Krudda 8 do good palish to darkish scrap, 4s. 45d. 

S.K.S. 1 do good palish scrap, 4s. 4d. 

Highland Est. 11 do good darkish scored sheet, 5s. 7d.; 8 cases palish to darkish 
crépe, 5s. 4d.; 3 cases darkish crépe, 4s. 10$d.; 5 cases 
darkish to black crépe, 4s. 10d. 

RM.P. Ltd. (in 


HKstate mark) 5 do good palish to darkish ecrépe, 5s. 5d.; 19 cases darkish to 
dark crépe, 4s. 103d. 
B.M.&C. D. 3 do good palish to darkish sheet, 5s. 6d.; 1 case scrap and 
heated biscuits, 2s. 94d. 
B.M.&C. C, 1 do rejections, 3s. 6d.; 1 bag ditto, 3s. 6d.; 1 case darkish 


pressed scrap, 3s. 3d. 
L.E. (Muar in trian- 


gle) Straits 20 do very fine strong pressed blocks, 5s. 10d.; 1 case good 
darkish créve, 5s.; 1 case ditto darker, 4s. 10d. 
S.P. Gin circle) 5 do good palish to darkish scored sheet, 5s. 7d.;1 case ditto 


paler, 5s. 7d.; 1 case ditto palish to darkish, 5s. 6d.; 1 case 
ditto darker, 5s. 6d.; 1 case darkish crépe, 4s. 11$d.; 1 case 
ditto darker, 4s. 10d. 


Do. 1 bag palish to darkish pressed scrap, 4s. 0$d. 
B.C. (A. in trian- , 
gie) 2 do palish to dark biscuits, 5s. 6d. 
S.R. Co. 18 do good darkish scored sheet, 5s. 6d. to 5s. 7d.; 2 cases good 


palish pressed crépe. 5s. 7d.; 4 cases darker, 5s. 44d.; 1 case 

thick darkish pressed crépe, 4s. 83d. 

V.R.C.O. Klang 
F.M.S. (in Estate 
mark) 24 do fine palish to darkish small scored sheet, 5s. 6?d.: 17 

cases little darker, 5s. 6d.; 3 cases thick palish pressed crépe, 
5s. 43d.: 12 cases darker, 4s. 10d.; 1 case black, 4s. 44d. 

K (in triangle) 1 do inferior pressed scrap, 3s. 53d. 

P.S.E. 5 fine palish sheet, 5s. 7d. 

S. (in triangle) 10 do good small palish to darkish sheet, 5s. 63d. 


[oF 
° 


R.R. Jebong 16 do fine large palish to darkish sheet, 5s. 7d. 
S.B.R.C. Ltd. (in 
cliamond) 7 do fine large palish to darkish sheet, 5s. 74d. 


Camphor. 


THE CHINESE INDUSTRY, 1905. 


The business done in camphor in China, according to a Consular Report, 
though large compared with previous years, fell short of general expectations. The 
year 1905 opened under most favourable conditions; there was a strong demand for 
camphor on the European markets and prices ruled high, while locally it was possible 
to procure the article at very profitable rates, which foreshadowed a large and 
lucrative business. The monovoly, too, that had existed a couple of years previously 
had been quashed, and the upcountry native dealers, relieved of this restriction, 
threw themselves energetically into the manufacture and freely contracted to supply 
foreign merchants at reasonable prices. A considerable number of contracts were 
entered into in this manner. Unfortunately, however, this state of things was not 
permitted to last. The officials soon interfered; proclamations were put out closing 
certain districts and forbidding the manufacture and sale of camphor by private 
persons. This rendered the carrying out of the contracts entered into by native 


Gums, Resins, 378 : [Nov. 1906. 


manufacturers impossible. Representations to the authorities were without effect, 
and even claims made on them for losses which were proved to have been sustained 
through their direct obstruction of the trade, in violation of our treaty rights, failed 
to have effect, and it was with the utmost difficulty that business was carried on. 


The price of camphor on the local market—from being $70 or $80 in 1904—rose 
to $118 per picul in January, 1905, and to $130 towards the close of the year, while 
during the succeeding three months it was as high as $190. During this time the 
contract price in the interior ruled from $60 to $100 per picul; so that had no official 
interference in the free manufacture of the article intervened, a very large business 
would have resulted. Notwithstanding all this, however, the returns show a 
wonderful development in the trade since the year 1902 when camphor first made its 
appearance in the lists of local exports. 


CAMPHOR CULTIVATION IN SOUTH INDIA. 


RECOGNISED AS A SPECIAL PRODUCT. 


Mr. J. McKenzie, of Prospect estate, Nedivattam, having applied for remis- 
sion of assessment on 60 acres of land which he proposed to plant with camphor in 
Prospect estate, the CoJlector of the Nilgiris called for remarks from the Curator, 
Government Gardens, Ootacamund, as to the prospect of its successful cultivation 
in that district and the length of time for which the product would yield no return. 
The latter having replied that the cultivation was worth encouraging, and that 
it will not yield any return till the trees were five years old, the Collector recom- 
mended that camphor be recognised asa special product, and that the cultivation 
be exempted from assessment for five years, 


The Board having supported the Collector’s recommendation, the Govern- 
ment have directed that the camphor tree (Cinnamomum camphora, F. Nees) may 
be recognised as a special product, and that the assessment on lands newly planted 
with that product in the Nilgiri plateau may be remitted for five complete years. 


Nov. 1906.] 379 
FIBRES. 


THE BAMBOO FOR PAPER MAKING. 


Mr. R. W. Sindall, who has been investigating on behalf of the India Office, 
the suitability of Indian fibre for paper-making purposes, expressed himself as 
follows in an interview with a representative of ‘‘The Paper Mill” of New York :— 
In my opinion, the bamboo of India may some day supplant the spruce wood now 
being used in the manufacture of pulp for paper-making. I have made a lengthy 
experiment, and have found that the bamboo is practical in the manufacture of 
pulp. I believe that capital can be secured. I would not be surprised if a company 
were soon to be formed for the purpose of establishing a pulp and paper mill in 
Burma. While my investigation was conducted for the Government, the Govern- 


ment itself has no intention of building mills, but is simply desirous of ascertaining 


whether or not the raw product available in that country is good and can be 
used in the manufacture of paper. The pulp I now have in my possession as a 
result of my experiments, is an excellent white piece of fibre, and compares very 
favourably with the spruce pulp manufactured in the United States. The rice and 
straw found there can also be utilised in making pulp, but the native wood, cotton- 
wood, is not good. 

Water power in India is very scarce, and in the event that a pape 
mill is established in Burma steam power would have to be resorted to. 
Petroleum would beused as fuel, as it is obtainable there in large quantities and is 
reasonably heap. The greatest item of consideration in competition with 
American paper manufacturers would be labour. People of India, for the most 
part, are infernally lazy ; in fact, it is the women who do most of the work. The 
native of India can be employed for eight cents per day. I also investigated the 
matter of freight rates and found that the pulp can be shipped from Rangoon 
the principal sea port in the vicinity, to an English port for 1°35 dollar per ton 
At the present time there are three paper mills in India, all located near Calcutta. 
One has a capacity of 200 tons per week and another 150 tons, The third I did not 
visit. On my way home I[ stopped at Shanghai, where I found the native Chinese 
manufacturing paper by hand. A unique process is employed in making this paper 
and from the time they start on a batch to the time it is ready for market one 
whole year has elapsed. The wood is beaten by hand and piled along the sides of 


mountains to bleach in the sun.—Indian Planting and Gardening. 


380 


EDIBLE PRODUCTS. 


Cacao Cultivation in Ceylon, IV. 
By HERBERT WRIGHT. 


FERMENTATION OF CACAO. 
(Lllustrated.) 


OBJECT OF THE PROCESS. i 

Briefly stated, the object of fermenting cacao seeds is to remove the 
sugary pulp surrounding them, to promote chemical changes within the kernels, ° 
to convert the bitter astringent taste into a sweet one, and to improve their colour, 
fracture, and flavour. Such changes are brought about when large numbers’ 
of seeds, fresh from the fruit, are heaped together and allowed to remain in contact 
with one another. Though the process involves a relative high temperature’ 
it is very rare that the latter destroys the embryo of the seed; to.a certain extent 
fermentation is a continuation of the processes commenced in the seeds after maturity. 
Ordinary fermented seeds, if dried under unfavourable conditions will germinate, 
the prevention of such developments being one of the main objects of curing; this 
proves that the fermenting of cacao does not involve chemical changes harmful to 
the vitality of the seeds. 

The necessity of, and improvement in quality effected by, the ordinary 
fermentation of cacao are generally acknowledged ; nevertheless, some countries do 
as little fermenting as possible, and in some places this operation is entirely neglected. 
According to some authorities the purple colour and bitter taste of the unfermented 
dried seeds are wanted by some markets. 


In 1902, several experiments were made at the Experiment Station, Pera- 
deniya, with the object of effecting a good curing of seeds which had been fermented 
inside the fruit. In the first experiment the fruits were exposed to the sun for 
seven days until the wall was brown and brittle; the seeds were then cured in the 
sun, some after washing, others without washing. The cured seed prepared in this 
manner was dark in colour externally ; internally it was very uneven in colour and 
not at all brittle. In asecond experiment the fresh unbroken fruits were placed in 
a curing house, and kept ata temperature of about 100° F. for three days. The 
beans, fermented under such conditions, were subsequently cured in the sun as in the 
first experiment, and with very nearly the same results. In a third experiment 
fresh seeds were exposed to the sun without any fermenting, but with poor results. 
In none of these experiments did the results obtained justify the change in our 
method of fermenting. All the seeds which were fermented inside the fruit, or 
cured without being fermented, had to be placed along with the “black” cacao, 
owing to the pliable nature and uneven colour of the substance of the seed. 


METHODS OF FERMENTING. 


It is now necessary to describe the various methods of fermenting 
adopted in different cacao-growing countries. In Ceylon most cacao planters adopt 


what may be termed the natural method of fermenting, which consists of heaping _ 


the fresh seeds on the floor or in receptacles and covering them with leaves of the 
banana, ordinary cloth, or layers of these alternating with layers of earth. The 
fermenting floor is usually built with a slope, so that the watery products may escape 


during fermentation. Each heap may consist of four or more bushels of fresh seeds, _ 4 
which are turned over every day to prevent the temperature rising too high and to :” 


— 


ee oe ae 


‘NOS S3HL NI OVOVO ONIYNSD 


“uDMID YY “ft “EH <Q 004d 


‘SLINUA OVOVO ONITISHS 
UDIPIMIDI “a ET AQ joy 


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: Weeds. 


BS RE 


Nov. 1906. ] 381 Edible Products, 


ensure an uniform product ; a period of thirty-six hours to five days or even longer 
is allowed for fermentation according to the variety dealt with and the circulation 
of air maintained through the heated mass, after which the seeds are washed and 
then cured, either in the sun or in rooms supplied with hot air. The cacao planters 
in Ceylon do not usually separate the different varieties from one another, but more 
often than not ferment the seeds from fruits of the Caracas, Forastero, and Amelo- 
nadc varieties in the same heap. The only selection usually made isin fermenting 
seeds from unripe or diseased fruits in special heaps; these are never fermented in 
the same heaps as the seeds from healthy mature pods. When the fruits are divided 
into classes comprising (1) mature healthy fruits, (2) immature healthy fruits, 
and (3) diseased fruits, and each fermente 1 in separate heaps there is a slight 
advantage, but it is much more important to separate the first group into its 
component varieties. Tf all the varieties are fermented in one heap, the fermentation 
is very uneven, and the final product cannot be uniform in quality. 

On some estates the coolies are trained to detect, in the freshly termented 
and washed material, the purple seeds from the Forastero and Amelonado fruits 
from the white seeds of the Caracas variety, the former having much thicker 
integuments than the latter and being much darker in colour; the colour of the 
kernel can to some extent be distinguished through the integumentin the freshly- 
washed seeds. This allows one to obtain uniform samples of cured cacao, but it does 
not obviate the uneven fermentation. The rapidity of fermentation depends to 
scme extent on the thickness of the seed integuments; the Nicaraguan and Caracas 
seeds have very thininteguments, and fermentation is consequently effected much 
more rapidly than in the thicker-skinned seeds of the Amelonado, Calabacillo or 
Forastero varieties. The thick-skinned, flat, bitter, and purple seeds of Amelonado 
fruits cequire a longer period for fermentation than any other kind cultivated in 
Ceylon, and it appears to be erroneous to ferment all varieties in the same heap. 

{n addition to the ordinary or natural fermentation of cacao other methods 
have been brought forward, which are dependent upon maintaining the fermenting 
heap of seeds at a constant temperature. At the Experiment Station, Peradeniya, 
a series of tanks, lined with cement, have been made; on two sides of each tank are 
a large number of holes with an average diameter of 7°5 cm. (three inches); through 
each hole a perforated bamboo is pushed, the latter being of such a length as to 
stretch from one side of the tank to the other. By this means air can be let into 
or drawn through the fermenting heap according to requirements; the floor is 
made with a slope to one point, where a perforated sieve is placed, to allow the 
watery products of fermentation to escape. 

M. Schulte* has devised a fermenter which allows the operator to maintain 
the fresh cacao seeds at a constant temperature of 60°C.; in this method the cacao 
is placed in specially made wood receptacles, positioned one above the other, and 
each made to carry six or more frames between which air spaces exist. The fresh 
seeds are arranged toa depth of 10cm. on the frames, and these are then put into 
the fermenter. The fermenter consists of two chambers fitting tightly toge- 
ther, and is maintained at a temperature of 60° C. by conducting channels 
which allow the hot air t2 circulate from grates disposed at one end of the 
apparatus. Thermometers indicate when it is necessary to increase or decrease 
the temperature. It is asserted that by such an apparatus the cacao is 
fermented in such a manner as to produce a homogenous product, and one 
which is freer from acidity than most of the cacao placed on the market. M. Maurice 
Montet + in his eriticism on the apparatus and method designed by M. Schulte 

* Le pra’4d4 
No, 52, Oct. 31, 1995. 

+ Montet, 1. c. 


50 


fermentation du cacao de M. Schulte im Hofe, Journal D’Agriculture Trop.cale, 


Edible Producls. 882 | (Nov. 1906. 


states, that though the results ascribed to this process are possible, the expense 
and the skilled assistance necessary to supervise the work, are such as to 
make the process of little value to cacao planters in most parts of the tropics. 


Furthermore, it has been pointed out that the cacao on the public market is often ‘ 


classed and valued more according to the countries from which it has been 

obtained than the method of fermentation adopted; this, though correct to a 

certain degree, should not discourage the introduction of new and better methods 

of fermenting, as it is obvious from the present range in value of cacao from any 

one country that the better qualities will ultimately receive recognition. 
FERMENTING IN TROPICAL AMERICA. 


The time taken to effect a good fermentation in parts of Central America 
varies according to the variety dealt with and the methods adopted. In Nicaragua 
the seeds from Criollo and Lagarto fruits are fermented for two days and the 
Trinitario seeds about four to five days; in Salvador the seeds are usually 
fermented for one or two days, and the same length of time appears to be allowed 
for the varieties in Guatemala. 


FERMENTING IN SURINAM, VENEZUELA, ETC. 


Preuss* is of the opinion that the cacao varieties grown in Cameroon are 
not inferior to those cultivated in Surinam, though the cacao exported from the 
latter place is the better one. He attributes the bitter taste and sour smell of 
much of the Cameroon cacao to the want of efficient fermenting, and ascribes the good 
qualities of the cacao from Surinam to the systematic fermenting which is adopted. 
The fermenting chambers in Surinam consist of series of compartments, often 
eight in a series, and some measuring 1.5 metres in breadth, 2.25 m. in depth and 
1.7 m. in height; these chambers are made of wood, provided with an inter- 
vening air space between one another, and constructed with sloping floors. In 
fermenting, one box or chamber is left empty; the others are filled with wet 
cacao, often toa depth of one metre, and the cacao is covered with banana leaves, 
and the box is then closed. The cacao is allowed to ferment in this condition for 
one day, when that from the chamber next to the empty one is transferred to the 
latter ; the contents of each box, after each empty one has been well washed, are 
transferred to the next empty one, and by this means the cacao is well mixed 


and superfluous sweatings removed. Each box is again allowed to retain the 


fermenting cacao for one day, when the same process is again gone through; at the 
end of five to eight days fermentation is usually considered complete, though only 


long experience can teach those respons ible when the desired changes have been 
induced. 


In Surinam a temperature above 45° C. is considered to be detrimental, and 
all fermenting chambers are situated in places protected from the wind. The 
sweatings are, by means of the sloping floor, conducted to an open channel con- 
structed of glazed earthenware, and are thus allowed to escape from the termenting 
heaps of cacao. The best results are believed to be obtained by fermenting large 
instead of small quantities of cacao ; the Surinam planters believe that the changes 
are more complete and better when fermenting is done in moist than in wet weather. 

According to Chittenden, in Venezuelat :—‘*‘ The conuquero puts his beans 
to drain, and forthwith exposes them to the sun for say five or six hours, then 
heaps and packs them up to sweat afresh until the following day, when they get 
five or six hours more sun and so on. Auother contrivance of the small grower 


is that of bagging the cacao at the end of the day whilst still hot from exposure i, 


the sun and sweating it during the night.” 


‘i * Expedition nach Central—und Siidamerika, by Dr. Paul Preuss, 1901. ; 
+ Cacao, by J. Hinchley Hart, Trinidad, 1900. ( 


a tind 


Sere, 


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Nov. 1906. ] | 383 Edible Products, 


In Mexico, aceording to one authority. holes are made in the earth and 
covered with sacks or leaves of bananas;in these the seeds are placed and then 
covered by means of sacks or leaves; the material is then left till the cacao is 
sufficiently fermented. In Surinam, according to the same authority, the cacao 
is thrown into heaps in wooden sheds and then covered with banana leaves. In 
certain countries of South America the seeds are put into leather bags to ferment, 
and left suspended till the changes are complete; large casks are often used in 
which the fermented cacao is placed, and the casks rolled to aid in the mixing 
of the fermented mass. In Grenada and Trinidad, according to Van der Held, 
the Strickland method is employed; this requires a transference to three separate 
receptacles for different fermentations, the fermentation often requiring a 
dozen days. 

FERMENTATION IN JAVA, 

In the opinion of Van der Held, after his experience in Java, the cacao 
ferments best in receptacles of wood with the minimum quantity of air. It is not 
absolutely necessary that these should be constructed of closed walls, but they 
should be capable of being covered, and situated in places sheltered from the 
wind. In Java the termentation is sometimes made in movable receptacles, the 
wooden walls of which are perforated in order to allow the by-products of 
fermentation to flow away. In the same island sometimes fixed receptacles of 
large dimensions are used. If the production of cacao is not very considerable, Van 
der Held recommends the use of small movable receptacles, which can be easily 
cleaned. Fora large estate he recommends the following :— 


Place the fermenting tubs or troughs in an amphitheatre, and have the 
walls made of movable planks capable of being slided into the grooves of supports. 
Each receptacle is two metres long, one broad and one deep, and is capable of holding 
ten piculs of fresh seeds. They should be arranged in such a manner as to be 
on the same level, in a row, and their number increased according to requirements. 
When the seeds have been ten to twelve hours in the upper trough they are 
transferred to the trough beneath, this being easily done on account of the 
movable planks forming the walls. When the cacao in the upper chamber is to be 
put below it is only necessary to raise the partition. Van der Held obtained the 
best results by changing the receptacles twice a day in order to avoid heating ; this 
was done between sevenand eight in the morning and four and fivein the afternoon. 
The bottom of the chambers is perforated, the openings being about half-a-centimetre 
in diameter ; these allow the liquids to flow away. A gutter is fixed to the floor to 
conduct the liquid to a central] point should it be required for vinegar production. 

FERMENTATION IN THE WEST INDIES. 

In the Jamaica Bulletin for August, 1900, the following process is des- 
eribed :—‘‘ Accumulate at least 500 pods before breaking ; you will get better results 
by having larger quantities. A simple box is made one foot deep and varying in 
length and width according to the quantity of cacao; the contents of 1,000 pods 
require a box 2 ft. 6inches long, 2ft. wide and 1ft. deep (inside measurements) 
and will fill such a box to a depth of 9 inches. It must be constructed so that no iron 
nails come in contact with the cacao, for iron is attacked by the ‘“‘sweatings” form- 
ing a black liquor which discolours the cacao. The bottom of the box is bored with 
many holes, and is raised from the ground on two blocks of wood. It should be under 


_ coverand ina clean place free from dust. No lid is required., After filling with 


cacao, cover with a piece of clean sacking. Each morning turnup the whole 
mass with the hands; the cacao which was at the side and bottom being now 
towards the centre. [fthe quantity is small, turn out todry on the fifth day, if 
larger (say over 2,000 pods) on the sixth day, t.c., after five full days’ ‘‘ sweating.” 
Scrub out the box thoroughly, and wash and dry the sacking before beginning a fresh 


_ batch. Thus by a short fermentation of a shallow mass, with plentiful access of air, 


Edible Products. 384 [Nov. 1906. 


you will get better results than by keeping the mass closely packed together in a 
deeper vessel. The close packing of the mass does not make it hotter ;on the con- 
trary the more air reaches the mass, up toa certain limit, the hotter the cacao will 
become. As prices stand at present you will not find it advisable to ferment for a 
longer time, but on the other handI cannot recommend you to shorten the time by 
a single day as your cacao would then retain too much of its original bitter flavour.” 
This method is interesting, but whether it is largely adopted in Jamaica or else- 
where is not quite clear. 


FERMENTING CACAO IN TRINIDAD. 


The fermenting of the cacao in Trinidad is, according to Preuss, carried out 
on very much thesame principle asin Surinam, though fermenting houses in the 
former place are frequently only protected by a roof tokeep the rain off the boxes. 
Many methods are adopted in the island of Trinidad. One fermenting house 
on La Réunion Plantation, Trinidad, consists of sixteen compartments each 
1.5 metres high and about as broad, and 2 metres long. The walls are made 
of wood, and between each two boxes and along the sides is a layer of clay 
and dried grass, sometimes about 20 cm. thick, to act asa non-conductor of heat; 
each compartment is supplied with a lid, The boxes are filled to a depth of about 
one metre with fresh wet cacao, covered with a layer of banana leaves and then 
closed. One box is kept empty so that the seeds can be transferred at any time, and 
the used boxes washed out every one or two days. The seeds are first fer- 
mented for one or two days, after which they are transferred to an empty box and 
fermented again for a similar period. The transference from box to box is made 
every one or two days until fermentation is complete, eight days being generally 
required for ordinary Forastero seeds and fourteen days for Calabacillo. 


In some districts the cacao is fermented in bags suspended in holes in the 
earth, the contents being repeatedly kneaded without the sack being opened; by 
this means fermentation is said to be affected in about five days. 

Another method is that associated with Cradwick, which consists of using a 
cask, perforated at the bottom to allow the liquid to escape; the floor is covered 
with athick layer of dried banana leaves (25 cm. in thickness), and the walls are 
covered with a layer of the same material. The wet seeds are placed in the cask and 
then covered with banana leaves and allowed to ferment ; after they have fermented 
for about two days, those in the upper part are taken out separately and subse- 
quently returned first to the empty cask soas to be at the bottom during the 
following days, and those which were previously at the bottom now occupy the 
upper part. This operation is again repeated after two days’ fermenting. This 
method is said to be suitable for fermenting cacao from about one thousand fruits. 
but if more are used an undesirable temperature may occur; if the quantity is less, 
more banana leaves are used and the cacao often weighted during fermentation. 


FERMENTATION IN AFRICA. 


The report® of one company operating in Africa states that in the preparation | 


of cacao very good results have been obtained by fermenting the cacao for six days, 
the cured product having lost much of its bitter taste and secured a higher valuation. 
The same persons also report that the washing of cacao, though it always gave them 
aclear bright colour, has now been dispensed with, as by omitting this operation 
they increase their weight of cacao by 8 to 10 per cent, 

In West Africa, according to Johnson, the old plan of preparing the beans 
for market by simply drying them in the sun has been abandoned everywhere in 


* Kamerun Land-und Plantagen -Gesellschafé, Hamburg, D. 581, Der Tropenflanzer, Noy. 1902» it 


Nov. 1906. ] 585 Edible Products, 


favour of the fermenting method introduced by the Government Botanic Depart- 
ment. ‘‘The beans are now placed in heaps upon mats and then covered up with 
mats weighed down with stones, and left for four days if this takes place upon the 
same day the pods are plucked, but for three days if upon the following day ; after 
which they are washed in baskets.” 


Various fermentation experiments have been made with the purple and 
bitter seeds of varieties cultivated in Cameroon, and reports have been issued which 
are, to a certain extent, somewhat contradictory. One authority,* however, asserts 
that by fermenting the seeds in a particular manner it is possible to almost entirely 
remove the bitter unpleasant taste so frequent in purple seeds fermented in the 
ordinary manner. 


LENGTH OF FERMENTATION, 


Though this process is considered to be of vital importance in the production 
of good kinds of cacao, there is a very conspicuous variation in the time allowed for 
fermentation, and most people calculate when fermentation is complete by the appear- 
ance of the material to the naked eye and the odour of the mass of seeds. Cacao 
is sometimes only fermented for two days, at other times the changes are allowed 
to continue for twelve or even more days, and in all cases cacao of good quality is 
apparently produced. It may, however, be considered safe to state that those varie- 
ties having thin integuments and white cotyledons require the minimum time, and 
those with thicker integuments and purple cotyledons the maximum ; to the former 
class belong the Caracas, Nicaragua, and some forms of Forastero, and to the latter 
the Calabacillo, Amelonado, and inferior kinds of Forastero. 


The length of time required can cnly be determined by practice, as the 
cheinical and physical characters of the seeds of the same variety vary according to 
the plant, its diseases, and tosome extent climatic conditions. It is asserted by 
some that the pulp which surrounds the seeds contains, in Java, more water during 
the west monsoon than in the east monsoon, and that in wet weather the fermenta- 
tion takes place more rapidly. The time required for fermentation will also vary 
according to the method employed, the market for which the cacao is prepared, and 
the quantity being fermented. Large quantities of cacao ferment quicker than 
small quantities, and due allowance must be made for this, 


In parts of Java the cacao is allowed to ferment two nights and sometimes 
evcno only one night on account of the condition of the seeds from diseased specimens. 
After a night of fermentation the seeds from diseased specimens may germinate and 
produce cacao which is for the most part broken, very light, and of bad quality. 
Usually healthy cacao is allowed to ferment three days. 


In Java the Criollo does not usually require to be fermented more than four 
days. The Criollo or Caracas type in Ceylon and Trinidad does not usually require 
more than two days, though it is oftenfermented for five ; the Forastero a day longer, 
andthe Amelonado four or fivedays. Preuss states that the finest and sweetest cacao 
requires twenty-four hours aud the bitter kinds six to eight days. Fermentation is 
considered complete when on cutting a seed transversely one notices that the cotyl- 
edons have separated and the sugary liquid occupies the spaces within the seed. On 
drying, the beans may be brown in colour and sweet to the taste or purple and bitter 
to the taste, the former being the desired characteristics on most European 
markets. 


(Tv be continued. ) 


* Zur Kakas—Fermentation, by Dr. A. Schulte in Hofe, Der Tropenflanzer, May, 1901. 


Edible Products. 386 
TEA INDUSTRY IN FOOCHOW IN 1905. ‘ 
REPORT BY MR. CONSUL HERBERT F,. BRADY. 


In spite of its continuous decline tea still forms by far the largest article of 
export of Foochow. The decline in the present year appears more marked tkan ever, 
the total export being valued at £386,076, as compared with £622,744 in the preceding 
year; this may be accounted for in some measure by the fact that at the opening 
of the market the price demanded for Oolongs by the native dealers was more 
than the foreign buyers were prepared to give, which resulted in both parties 
holding aloof, and little or no business in this variety of tea being done until the 
beginning of the present year (1906), whereas, as a rule, the bulk of shipments 
go forward during November and December ; the whole of the last year’s crop is 
therefore practically excluded from the present returns. In the prosperous days 
of the tea trade of some 30 years ago the value of the tea exported from Hankow 
and Foochow (China’s two great tea centres) was estimated to be worth £7,000,000 
or £8,000,000 more or less equally divided between the two ports. In 1876 the total 
export from Foochow amounted to 561,168 piculs (74,822,400 1b.), of the value of 
£3,004,720 (Tis. 10,099,900), while that from Hankow amounted to 648,007 piculs 
(86,400,933 lb.), of the value of £4,182,903 (Tls. 13,892,112), at 5s. 112d. the tael. 
The returns for Foochow for 1905 afford a striking illustration: of the remarkable 
change that has taken place :—126,880 piculs (16,910,667 Ib.), of the value of £286,076 
at 3s. 1-10d. the tael; and the Hankow returns show a like decrease. The Consul 
quotes the following remarks of a local expert :— 


“Prices paid by foreign buyers were lower than in the previous season, 
and might fairly be described as ‘reasonable,’ but, even at such prices, shipments 
did not give very satisfactory results. In fact it seems hopeless ever to expect 
satisfactory results again. Total shipments to London only amounted to 3,827,728 | 
lb. as against 6,985,610 lb. for the previous season; yet even this small amount 
proved to be more than was wanted, anda great portion could only be got rid 
of at prices considerably below cost. The demand on the Continent of Europe 
showed a decided falling off, while America did not seem to want our teas at all. 
In 1886-87 the output of Congou was 1,451,000 half-chests ; in 1905-06 it was 173,500 
half-chests! What remains of the trade, except in the case of some fancy kinds, 
exists only on sufferance. Our teas are not wanted for themselves, but for blending 
with Indians and Ceylons, and are only taken when teas from those countries are 
not to be had at reasonable prices.” 


CITRATE OF LIME. 
REPORT BY THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE ON SAMPLES FROM THE SEYCHELLES. 
Imperial Institute, 
London S. W., 26th May, 1906. 


Sir,—I have the honour to forward a report on the citrate of a lime, prepared 
in the Island of Silhouette, which was sent for examination to the Imperial Institute 
with letter No. 29/1906 of the 6th January last. 


The investigation has given very promising results, in view of which the 
question of the production of citrate of lime upon a commercial scale in the islands is 
worth consideration. 

I have, &c., 
WYNDHAM R. DUNSTAN. 
H, E. the Governor, Seychelles. 


Nov. 1906.] 387 Edible Products. 


REPORT ON CITRATE OF LIME FROM SEYCHELLES. 


BY PROFESSOR WYNDHAM R. DUNSTAN. 

A sample of citrate of lime manufactured in the. Island of . Silhouette 
was forwarded to the Imperial Institute by the Curator of the Botanic Station, 
Seychelles, and is referred to ina letter from the Governor, No. 29/1906, dated the 
6th January, 1906, in which a report on the value of the product was requested. 


Description of Sample.—The sample consisted of one pound of a pale grey 
powder which hada slight pleasant odour. When moistened, the citrate of lime 
showed a faint greyish orange-brown colour, and it gave a yellow solution when 
dissolved in water. 


Examination of Sample.—The substance was examined in the Scientific and 
Technical Department of the Imperial Institute and was found to contain 84°56 per 
cent of citrate of lime (calcium citrate) and 0°42 per cent of free acid calculated as 
citrie acid, these constituents being together equivalent to 66°89 per cent of crystal- 
ised citric acid. It contained a small quantity of iron salt, equivalent to 0°7 per cent 
of ferric oxide, and also a little nitrogenous and mucilaginous organic matter. ‘I'he 
proportion of moisture, including water of crystallisation, was 12°57 per cent. 


The analytical results show that this sample of citrate of limeis of good 
quality, and that it contains very little organic impurity in the form of mucilaginous 
or colouring matter. No excess of calcium carbonate is present, but the amount of 
ferric oxide is rather high, owing probably to the use of impure chalk in the 
preparation of the product. Care should be taken to use a white chalk free from 
rusty patches for the neutralisation of juice. 


The amount of moisture is also rather high, viz.,12°57 percent. Air driedcitrate 
of lime ought to contain only about 7 to8 per cent of moisture, and it is desirable that 
this percentage should not be greatly exceeded in commercial consignments. 


Commercial Valuation.—A portion of the saraple was submitted to a large firm 
of manufacturing chemists in London who use considerable quantities of citrate of 
lime. This firm reported that the quality of the product is extremely good, especially 
as regards colour, percentage of citric acid, and freedom from lime and mucilage. In 
these respects it is superior to many commercial samples. The chief defect is that, 
more iron is present than usual, but, as already pointed out, this can be easily 
remedied in future by carefully selecting the chalkused for neutralising the juice. 


The present value of citrate of lime is £70 per ton. Thisis a higher figure 
than has prevailed for a long time, and the normal value is £45 per ton delivered in 
London. 


Conclusions and Recommendations.—It is-clear from these results that 
this sample of citrate of lime from Seychelles is of good quality and compares very 
favourably with the material at present on the market. It would be desirable to 


_ prepare a commercial consignment of the product, taking precautions to avoid the 


presence of iron, and to forward this for sale in London so that it could be brought . 
to the notice of manufacturers and its value definitely determined. It is of the 
highest importance that the citrate should be thoroughly dry before being shipped 
in bulk, as the effect of any dampness is to permit fermentation, which in some cases 
will go on to such an extent that a substance shipped as citrate of lime arrives at its 
destination in the form of impure carbonate. Want of care in connection with this 
point acted as a serious check to the Sicilian industry for many years. 


WYNDHAM R. DUNSTAN. 
26th May, 1906. 


[A fair amount of trade is springing up in citrate of lime, prepared by 
adding lime juice to chalk, and Ceylon should take a share in i, the lime being 
abundant here.—ED.] 


Edible Products. 388 


COTTONSEED OIL AND MEAL AS A HUMAN FOOD. 


In June, 1905, it was my pleasure to bring to the attention of the Texas 
cottonseed crushers at their annual convention a few self-evident truths concerning 
the value of cottonseed meal asa breadstuff. Since that time my interest in the 
subject has steadily increased, and some very practical facts have been developed. 
In my experience with cottonseed meal asa breadstuff no disappointment has been 
encountered. [invite your critical judgment on the samples of cottonseed meal 
bread and cake distributed for your information and possible approval. I trust that 
you will find these specithens pleasant to the palate and entirely free from any 
objectionable taste or odour. But at the outset it should be clearly understood that 
cottonseed meal should never be used alone in bread making. In fact, pure cotton- 
seed meal bread is a scientific absurdity, however practicable it may be from 
a culinary standpoint. Its composition would closely resemble cheese, being over 
rich in protein, and having no parallel in the world’s food supplies. A combination of 
cottonseed meal with other recognized bread stuffs will greatly enrich the flours and 
meals now in use, while at the same time decreasing their cost to the consuming 
public. Within a short time I trust that the cottonseed crushers of the South may 
be able to announce the actual discovery of 4,500,000 tons of anew breadstuff fit for 
human consumption. If so, this material will approximate in quantity and far 
exceed in value the wheat crop of the largest wheat growing State in this country. 


VALUE OF COTTONSEED. 


Let us consider for a moment cottonseed meal, its origin, its composition, its 
value. This golden product is safely wrapped by ‘‘ Dame Nature” in a wooden 
eradle that we call the hull, and herein the womb of the plant, hermetically sealed 
with five waterproof coverings, there is elaborated the richest of all feed stuffs and 
bread stuffs. This insures cleanliness and freedom from disease, but to make assur- 
ance doubly sure, we find that during the process of manufacturing the meats, the 
whole mass of meal is sterilized by thorough cooking in order to more perfectly 
express the oil. We will next compare its nutritive value with corn flour and corn 
meal. These are chiefly valuable for their protein, but we find that cottonseed meal 
contains three times as much digestible protein as the highest grade of wheat flour 
or the best breakfast food now upon the market. Stated percentagely we find that 
the nutrients run as follows :— 


NUTRITIVE COMPOSITION OF STANDARD BREADSTUFFS. 
(Pounds per hundredweight.) 


ee 


Carbohy- 
Water. Protein. Fat. drates. Ash. 
First patent flour... oo LOTR ee Oe nasa ea e 
First clear grade ae .. 10.3 Appin kaye?) $a) Bid sf Ve ceclede Le eae as) 1 
Corn meal .. , 12,1036 ee O83 coe! DO vee ZORA EO 
Cottonseed mealiyaies Ae ateh A283 10 DBD BOO aie 


The yellow colour of cottonseed meal is due to a substance known to chemists 
as gossypin. It affordsa golden yellow dye for both silk and wool. The protein 
n our cottonseed meal, according to the Connecticut Station, consists largely of 
globulin, ‘“‘ agreeing in composition and general properties with the vitellin obtained 
from the seeds of wheat, maize, etc.” Sugar is found in cottonseed meal as deter- 
mined by German investigators which can be extracted with warm alcohol, obtaining 
about 8 per cent. of crystallizable material. To this sugar Bahm gave the name 
gossy pose. 

The above facts should encourage the scientists as wi as the oil mill 
interests to press the introduction of cottonseed meal as a bread stuff upon the 
attention of our people. Will the government help? There is literally nothing 
in print from our English-speaking scientists to show that any investigations have 


Nov. 1906. ] 389 Hdible Products. 


been undertaken with cottonseed meal as a human food. The introduction of 
macaroni wheat, its milling qualities, its value asa bread wheat has received the 
most careful consideration of the National Department of Agriculture, and this 
has resuited in the introduction and growth of durum, or hard wheats, in the 
great wheat growing regions of the Northwest by millions of bushels ; but when 
we scan government literature for information concerning cottonseed meal as a 


‘human food, we seek bread only to find astone. In the report of the Bureau of 


Animal Industry for 1904 there is but one line of a table devoted to cottonseed meal. 
This merely shows in the middle of a 8-page table its digestible nutrients and 
relative value. But even the figures there presented seem to be counted of no 
value by the authors, although out of the total list of feed stuffs given in three 
pages of tabulated matter to show their relative money values, Southern cotton- 
seed meal heads the list in value per hundred pounds with the exception of a single 
other Southern product, peanut meal, Reckoning all of the feed stuffs of this 
country on their digestible features and counting the protein at 3°37 ¢. per pound, 
carbohydrates at 0.32c. per pound, and fats at 0.56¢, per pound, it is there 
shown that corn is worth 50c. per hundred pounds, wheat 57 ec. oats 48 ce. 
rice 39 c. linseed meal $1°09, and cottonseed meal $1°37. Nowhere else in this 
report of 632 pages is cottonseed meal given mention. But it cannot be argued 
that it is an insignificant product, for in 1905, according to census reports just 
published, there were 3,345,370 tons cottonseed meal. This should contribute 
somewhat to the gaiety of the nations and would minister to the welfare of the 
human race could this supply be commanded for the hungry peoples of the world, 
jn condition to use itas we are now so freely doing for hogs, horses, cows, sheep 
and all the poultry thriving in the barnyard. 


But referring again to the position of the Bureau of Animal Industry for 
the National Department of Agriculture which has engaged in experiments with 
food stuffs and digestion with livestock and with the human family in all parts 
of this country, it has just recently organized systematic experiments in co-oper- 
ation with the Alabama Experiment Station for a careful investigation of the 
feeding value of cassava roots with livestock, and other experiments with the 
Texas Station for the investigation of rice mill products. But there exists in the 
minds of many scientists and officials of this country a harsh prejudice against 
cottonseed meal. Northern writers in the agricultural press have for years hurled 
their shafts of criticism against cottonseed meal, declaring it to be an active poison 
and dangerous at all times and in all quantities. At the recent Louisiana Exposition 
dairy test held in St. Louis, Southern owners of Jersey cattle were unable to induce 
committees having the rations in charge to use more than 14 pounds of cottonseed 
meal for a cow, affirming that it would be dangerous. And yet this was the first 
feeding trial under government supervision in which cottonseed meal had ever 
been recognized as a practicable dairy feed. Some people areso slow to learn, 
Antagonism to the products of cottonseed may be readin nearly every annual 
report of the United States Dapartment of Agriculture, and yet there is no question 
of quality, yes, even the superiority of cottonseed products as compared wit! ot ier 
industrial competitors. As proof positive of this assertion, read with me the 
following admission appearing in the Year Book of the Department of \orieuiture 
for 1904, by L. M. Tolman, of the Division of Feeds, with reference to cotton ail. 
I commend this to your attention as a case of misdirected energy. He writes:— 
“The determination of the presence of small quantities of foreign fat in lavd is 
exceedingly (-.fficult and taxes the skill of the chemist to the utmost.” Then in 
discussing the failure of ordinary tests for cottonseed oil (page 395) he confesses 
as follows :—“In this country cottonseed oil is the cheapest fat available, and is 
used to a great extent. *~ * * The chemist must be able to say that the lard 


Edible Products. 390 (Nov. 1906. 


submitted to his inspection certainly has been adulterated—usually with cottonseed 
oil—or his testimony leaves a doubt. A great number of tests for cottonseed oil 
mixed with lard have been submitted, but practically without exception they have 
proven valueless.” If the learned chemists cannot recognize any difference between 
cottonseed oil and hog lard, why, then, should the government treat cottonseed 
oil as an outlaw? 


All persons eating cottonseed meal in combination with other bread stuffs 
have expressed great surprise at its rich flavour and its entire wholesomeness. On 
the 10th of May I had the pleasure of entertaining at my table the Executive 
Committee of the Texas Farmers’ Congress by invitation, and these guests ate 
freely of cottonseed meal and wheat flour muffins, and expressed their delight, 
satisfaction and surprise. It is worthy of note that cottonseed meal carrying 
about 12 per cent. of vegetable oil requires no addition of shortening material. 
Furthermore, it is surprisingly amenable to all of the laws of cooking, and 
according to the investigations of Dr, Kilgore, it renders all other foods eaten 
more easily digested. 


We are sometimes inclined to over-estimate the prejudice existing in the 
minds of our people (the laymen) against the use of cottonseed meal and cotton oil. 


As an indication of the truth of this assertion, permit me to call attention to the — 


fact that about two years ago the pages of “Farm and Ranch” were open for the 
discussion of these topics, and facts bearing, particularly upon the feeding of 
cottonseed meal to hogs according to the Allison method briefly stated. Since that 
time every issue of ‘‘ Farm and Ranch” is flooded with cottonseed meal and cotton 
oil articles in the nature of ‘‘come-backs,” and nearly all approving the more 
liberal use of these Southern products. As another evidence of the ease with which 
local prejudice may be broken down, I wish to personally testify that I have 
quite recently become a practical convert to the use of refined cottou oil for cooking 
and similar uses. I have used it tor weeks and months consecutively in my home 
to the exclusion of hog lard. My own prejudice against cotton oil for biscuit 
making was deep seated, because based on unfavourable experience of some fifteen 
years ago. Its sickening odour, when heated was familiar and still unforgotten, so 
that I was convinced that cotton oil could be prepared in no way that would fit 
it for the best table use, even when diluted with hog lard or beef suet—a ‘‘ compound 

lard.” That early experience was reliable as far as the product on which it was 
based was concerned. But invention has developed a new cotton oil—an oil freed 
from those old impurities which gave out the rank odour. 


Having used nothing but pure cotton oil as a ‘‘ cooking fat” in the home for 
some six months, I would be untrue to my convictions and to the valuable home 
product derived from Southern farms, did I not confess that cotton oil is equal in 
all respects for cooking purposes to the best lard. Smaller amounts of the oil are 
needed in cooking to secure just the correct ‘‘ shortening,” but this advantage is 
appreciated and understood by the dullest cook within a two week’s experience. 
Conviction as to its value as a cooking oil led to further experiments. If good for 
folks it must be good for brutes. So, when the dog was poisoned, we drenched it 
with cotton oil. In case of stress we ran to the can for a supply of mowing machine 
oil, as a matter of encouragemet to the squeaking lawn mower. It gave satisfactory 
results in both cases and we felt encouraged. 


The best improved olive oil which reaches America from Italy is said to 
arry a large percentage of ‘‘ American olive oil” —manufactured from the cotton. 
seed. I like olive oil on certain vegetables, and recklessly tried to substitute the 
vulgar cotton oil of American origin for the finest imported olive oil in preparing 
a dish of lettuce. I was even better pleased with the results. To the eye and to 


ity fh 


ON ee ee ee 


MY, Nie 


at alias 


Nov. 1906,] 391 Edible Products. 


the nerves of taste there was no difference between this plebeian of the cotton 
fields and the aristocrat of the Italian lazzaronis’ olive groves. I next tried it on 
an intelligent visitor, who unsuspiciously ate thereof. He complimented its quality, 
“liked the fine flavour, and was very fond of good olive oil, ete.” You may imagine 
his cheapened expression when told that it was ‘‘ pure imported olive oil, direct— 
all the way from the Dallas oil mill.” 


Having used cottonseed meal freely in making both corn and flour muffins, 
biscuit, pancakes, ginger bread, dark Graham bread, together with dark cakes of 
all sorts, there is no reason to doubt the entire fittedness of cottonseed meal for com- 
bination with other breadstuffs, If called to reduce the foregoing scattering facts 
to acommercial proposition at this time—preparing cottonseed meal and placing 
it upon the market for consumption as a bread stuff—I would advise the organiza- 
tion of a special company for the specific purpose of marketing cottonseed meal 
in an acceptable form to the consuming public. It can be done. Were I permitted 
to occupy the role of prophet, I would thrust back the curtain of years and see 
the cottonseed meal resulting from a twenty million bale crush of cottonseed, 
prepared as a white wholesome flour, robbed of its yellow dye, and sold in cartons 
upon the markets of the world as the most valuable, the most concentrated and 
the highest priced flour known to commerce. When at the end of ten years the 
South grows twenty million bales of cotton with its twenty billion pounds of seed, 
then the bread value of the meal in these seeds will equal in nutritive value the 
present crop of thirty-three billion pounds of American wheat, for such will be 
the result, I am satisfied, of the continued efforts of this association of Interstate 
Cottonseed Crushers as it meets from year to year to consider the great economic 


_ problem that rests upon your shoulders._(from a Paper read before the Interslate 


Cottonseed Crushers’ Association, Atlanta, U.S. A., by J. H. Connell.) 


Notes on Some of the Dry Grains Cultivated in Ceylon. 


/ 


By J. F. Jowitt. 


In November, 1905, I received through the courtesy of Mr. C. Drieberg, Super- 
intendent, Government Stock Gardens, chiefly under their native names, a fine 
collection of seeds of cereals grown in Jaffna and the North of the Island, and from 
time to time he has kindly added to this collection. Iam also indebted to him for 
literature and letters on the subject ; amongst the letters, two particularly interesting 
ones from the Maniakar of Delft, the information contained in which I have availed 
myself of. 

A portion of the seeds were at once sowed in well-trenched patana soil at an 
elevation of 4,500 feet, and subsequently artificially manured, but owing to the 
poorness of the soil and the partial failure of the monsoon did not thrive. 


Other seed Isowed later in my kitchen garden at an elevation of 5,200 feet. 

At such an elevation the growth has not, naturally, been luxuriant, but it 
has been sufficient to enable me to identify the species and varieties. 

The following is alist of the Tamil names of the grains cultivated in the 
North, taken chiefly from a list forwarded to Mr. Drieberg by the Maniakar of 


Delft, to these namesI have added the Sinhalese synonyms as far as I have been 
able to learn them and the Botanical names. 


Tamil, Sinhalese. Varieties. Botanical. 
Mondy aid — ue — 7 
Chamai i — ae — | Panicum Crus-galli 
— Gojara-wala ae — i var. frumen- 
Kuthrai-val | taceum., 
chamai Py — ed _ J 


Edible Products. 392 [Nov. 1906. 
Tamil. Sinhalese. Varieties, - Botanical. 
Ellu or Chiru ... — == 
Chamai Wen Heen Meneri — Panicum miliare 
Pani Chamai ... Meneri Panicum  milia- 
ceum. 

-- re Powe Ne “ah .. Setaria glauca 
Tinai or an. Tana-Thani AS e ey ae 
Tinai Chamai or Tanakal ety Black, not seen \ Setaria italica 
Waraku soe Amu 08 Karal amu Paspalum serobi- 

culatum. 
-— ha ; — Abs Badu amu not seen 
— so a Math amu not seen 
Kani-pun-pillu 
(Pull Paddy or : 
Pull Rice) ... Polu omy — .. Pennisetum ty- 
phoideum. 
Muttu Cholam ... Bada Irungu ae — ... Zea Mays. 
Arise Cholum ... Karal Irungu Alas — .. Andropogon Sor- 
ghum. 
Kaka or Karum... _— tee — Me d 
Cholum ie — Ba — ies Oo 
Trungu ue Kalu Irungu — ... Andropogon Sor- 
ghum. 
Shada in — Asc — at do 
Nacheri A Kurakkan ae — ...Hleusine coracana 
Codai or Karutha = a — ap — 
Cappe mee Kalu Kurakkan ... not seen des do 
Marior Vellai — we — seh = 
Cappe ae Ella Kurakkan ... snot seen hue do 


I have also received notice of the following but have not seen them :— 
Kansa Meneri S. 
Val Meneri S. 


Mut-tan-ga pillu T. found growing with other grains in Uvaand on Kandy 
side, not cultivated. 


Koli-chudampillu T. not cultivated, grows in paddy fields and is weeded out. 
Never used as a grain. 


T shall be very grateful to any one who will kindly send me fresh specimens 
of those grasses marked ‘‘ not seen,” with their Tamil and Sinhalese names and the 
locality where collected, written on a slip of paper attached to the specimen. 


Panicum Crus-galli, var. frumentaceum. appears to be cultivated by Tamils 
under three distinct forms, viz., Mondy, Chamai and Kuthrai-val-Chamai, and by the 
Sinhalese under the name of Gojara-wala. 


Mondy, T.—This variety much resembles the wild species, Panicum Crus-galli, 
Marakku, S., but differs from it in its thickened crowded spikes and awnless 


glumes. The habit is erect, the stems are stout, leafy and much branched, leaves 
18’ long by 2?’ wide in the middle, 


All the varieties are characterised by a peculiar horse-shoe marking at the 
juncture of the blade of the leaf and its sheath. The panicle in plants grown by me 
is 4 inches long, composed of spikes, alternate below, on all sides of the stalk above, 
with tufts of bristles at their bases. The spikelets are crowded on the spikes in 
groups of 2—3. This is Panicum frumentaceum, Roxburgh, who says: ‘There are 
several varieties of it known to the Hindvoo farmers. The seed is wholesome and 
nourishing, itis an article of diet, particularly amongst thelower classes of the 
natives, It yields about fifty-fold in a good soil. Cattle are fond of it,” In the 
Queensland Agricultural Journal tor April, 1906, Mr, F, Manson Bailey, F.L.S. 


Nov. 1906. ] 393 Edible Products. 


gives a drawing of it, and states that in that country it has made “a most luxuriant 
growth, stems 6 ft. in height, tender to the base, and should prove a valuable addi- 
tion to our fodder”; he also says that it produces a useful grain. 

Chamai T. (Anglice, grain).—This differs from ‘‘ Mondy” in being smaller, the 
stems slenderer and decumbent at their bases. Leaves smaller 5—6 inches ovate- 
lanceolate. The panicle is somewhat similar, but the upper spikes are all set altern- 
ately on one side of the stalk and do not surround it asin ‘‘Mondy”; the tufts of 
bristles at the base of the spikes are often wanting. 


The spikelets are crowded in groups of 2—3, but are smaller, being about 
3mm. long as against about 5mm.in ‘‘Mondy,” Thesmall glumel often remains 
attached to the stalk, the spikelets falling away above it. 

Gojara-wala, S. (gojara, edible?—wala, grass.)—-This variety so closely 
resembles Chamai that I believe it to be the same grass slightly altered by climatic 
conditions. I grew it from seed kindly obtained for me from Uda Nuwara by 
my teamaker, Mr. J. A. Wijesingha. I also received a well-grown specimen from 
near Kurunegala, 4 feet in height, with the lower spikes over 2 inches long, alto- 
gether a robuster specimen than ‘anything I have been able to grow. 


The thicker stems, more flattened lower sheaths, stronger growth, somewhat 
longer, lighter coloured leaf, more elongate spikes, and these not so closely set with 
spikelets, and the more acute spikelets may constitute this a different variety. 


In Four Korales and Uda Nuwara Iam informed that ‘‘Gojara-wala” does 
not exceed 13—2 feet in height. Iam indebted to Mr. Wijesinghe who is acquainted 
with Tamil and Sanskrit as well as his mother tongue, for the English meanings 
of the names of the cereals and also for the uses made of the grains. 


“Gojara-wala” is used for conjee for the morning meal; when boiled with 
coconut-milk, it is considered a luxury, allowed to get hard and cut into diamond 
shaped pieces, itis known as “ Kiribath,” that is milk rice. 

Kuthrai-val-Chamai, T. (Horse-tail grass.)—This is a prostrate variety, the 
stems, 2 feet or more, stretching along the ground from a branched leafy base. 
Leaves 6—-7 inches by 2 of an inch, ovate lanceolate. The panicle exserted from 
the upper leaf is as long asit, and hasa triangular flattened appearance. Spikes 
alternate, decreasing from below upwards, the lowest léinches or more, upper 
about $ inch, the upper 14} inches of the rhachis unbranched but thickly studded 
with spikelets, bristles at base of spikelets very few. Spike-lets as in Chamai. 


The seeds of this variety, and those of “Chamai” and ‘ Gojara-wala” are 
practically indistinguishable, those of ‘‘ Mondy ” are considerably larger, rhombvidal 
ovoid, beaked, polished and striolate. 


(To be continued.) 


304 [Nov. 1906. 


: 


PLANT SANITATION. 


Entomological Notes. 


By EH. ERNEST GREEN, Government Entomologist. 


‘“Shot-hole-borer’ (Xyleborus fornicatus) remains a serious matter of con- 
sideration with tea planters,—more particularly within a radius of ten miles around 
Kandy. The question is being complicated by the occurrence of wound-fungi 
invading the galleries of the borer, and the attacks of white ants (termites) upon 
the fungus-infested tissues. I have reports from certain estates that, owing to 
the combination of these three evils the bushes are steadily deteriorating, and there 
is a general cry fora radical cure. I may say, at once, that I can offer little hope 
of such acure. Though nothing must be left untried, (and I have a further series 
of experiments in hand), I am not sanguine of finding any external application 
that will exterminate the borer and be at the same time practicable (from the point 
of cost) and harmless to the tree. It would be possible to coat the stems and 
branches with some viscid material that would prevent both the egress of the 
beetles then inside and the ingress of fresh insects from outside. I have already 
tried two such materials,—coal-tar and ‘smearoleum.’ The former completely 
killed the parts to which it was applied, while the latter effectually checked the 
development of any new shoots upon the treated surface. Such treatment fails 
also on the point of cost. Viscid mixtures cannot be applied by spray but must 
be painted on with a brush, and to answer the purpose every inch of the surface 
of the bark must be treated—a process occupying so much time that the cost of 
the work has been found to be prohibitive, even if otherwise satisfactory—which 
it is not. Any application that is of the nature of an air-tight coating must be 
injurious to such a plantas tea, in which the living tissues of the bark are un- 
protected by any corky superficial layer. If the stem of a healthy tea bush is 
even lightly scraped with the finger-nail, the green. living tissues are at once 
revealed. This bark contains lenticels which are functional in the respiratory 
processes, and any interference with their functions must injuriously effect the 
health of the plant. It may be said that there are possibly other mixtures that 
could be applied without interrupting the passage of the necessary gases. I have 
as yet, failed to find any such mixture that will at the same time either act as 
a deterrent or form a barrier against invasion by the borer. If an active poison’ 
such as arsenic, is employed, it would be necessary that an appreciable quantity 
should be ingested by the insect. But the actual superficies of the exposed surface 
that is operated upon by the beetle is very minute, and the perforation is very 
generally made in the hollow of an old leaf-scar—just the very place which would be 
most liable to escape the action of the poison. It is, moreover, extremely doubtful 
if the material excavated by the beetle is taken into its alimentary system. It is 
more probably merely pulverized and rejected. 


But though a direct cure has thus been. shown to be improbable, I am fully 
convinced that the pest may be not only kept in check but rendered negligible 
by indirect cultural methods. Indeed, I have been assured that upon one estate 
where such methods have been systematically employed, a field of tea that has 
been continuously infested by the borer since the year 1892, is now giving larger 


yields than it ever did before. This system is simply high cultivation, resulting © 


in a continuous healthy flow of sap throughout the plant—a condition most un- 
favourable to the increase of the borer. In my circular on the ‘Shot-hole-borer,’ 


wal 


Nov. 1906.} 395 Plant Sanitation, 


issued in 1903, I wrote as follows :—‘‘I have repeatedly observed that a vigorous 
condition of the plant: results in an obliteration of the earlier perforations and a 
tendency to choke out the insects that have more recently gained an entrance into 
the branches. The mouth of the tunnel is invaded by an ingrowth from the 
vigorous cambial tissues. New wood is then formed, covering up the old wound, 
and the plant is able to carry on all its functions without interruption.” I am still 


‘prepared to fully endorse this statement. The accompanying figure represents an 


actual section through a piece of a tea branch where such an ingrowth has occurred. 
(a) shows the cortex or bark; (6) the cambium; (c) the woody tissue ; (d) section 


of Xyleborus tunnel ; (e) an j meal i 
ingrowth from the cambial e : 
tissue, blocking the en- LE a Oh ag 


trance to the _ gallery. 
Though burning the prun- 
ings is undoubtedly the 
most efficient method of 
destroying the insects con- 
tained therein, it has been 
found in practice to have 
the serious drawback of 
depriving the soil of a vast 


Section of tea stem (x10), showing entrance to gallery 


_ amount of nitrogenous of Yyleborus by ingrowth of cambial tissue. 


material that could be (a) bark. (6) cambium. (c) woody tissue. (d) section 
returned to it in the form of gallery. (e) ingrowth of cambial tissue blocking entrance 


of green manure. I con- ° S#lery. 

sider that the benefit derived by the plant from a proper burial of the green 
prunings will far outweigh any injury that may arise from the escape of afew of 
the insects. If there is much heavy wood with the prunings, this may be first 
separated and burnt. Where the complete destruction of prunings by fire is 


insisted upon, it will be found necessary to replace the material by its equivalent 


in either green or artificial manures, at considerably enhanced cost. Failing this 
the tea will undoubtedly go back,—losing stamina from its inability to withstand 
the repeated attacks of the pest. This question of the problematical escape of 
some of the insects from buried prunings is rendered negligible by the fact that 
it is generally impossible to ensure the complete eradication of every insect from 
the tea bush by anything short of collar pruning. I am strongly opposed to the 
excessive punishment of the bushes that is sometimes inflicted in the endeavour 
to cut out every borer. Such an attempt is quite futile. The points of attack 
being quite distinct and separate from one another, it is impossible to be sure that 
the pest has been eradicated without cutting up every branch; and even then there 
may be (and frequently are) tunnels in the main stem itself, Again,—without close 
examination by means of a lens—it is difficult to determine whether any particular 
tunnel is tenanted by the insects or has been deserted by them. I would prune 
an infested tea bush—equally with an unaffected one—according to its growth of 
wood. The object in view is the production of strong sappy shoots, and if any 
branch gives promise of producing such, 1 would spare it even if it bore visible 
signs of infestation. If the cut actually exposed the galleries of the insect, I would 
trim it down to a clean surface—to prevent the lodgement of water, Old hide- 
bound branches bearing only weak shoots should be ruthlessly excised. 


I must own that I was, at first, insistent upon the burning of prunings and 
opposed to their burial. But a careful study of the results has convinced me that 
the latter is the sounder principle. 


0, 


/ 


Plant Sanitation. 396 [Nov. 1906. . 


There is another possible cultural method that is now being made the 


subject of experiment. It has been suggested that dense shade, by inducing a more 
sappy growth, may render the plant unsuited for the propagation of the insect. 
The partial, checkered shade offered by Grevillea and Albizzia, as usually cultivated, 
is evidently non-deterrent. I propose to try the effect of adense shade of some 
fast growing tree which can be readily removed or thinned out when it has served 
its purpose. The common ‘dadap’ (Hrythrina lithosperma) commends itself as 
particularly suitable for this experiment. If this treatment proves successful it 
may be possible to exterminate the borer, in any particular field, by leaving it 
under shade fora year, then thinning out the shadeand pruning the tea. Such 
treatment will necessarily result in some dimunition of the crop for the period 
during which the tea is under treatment, but if the desired end is attained, the 
temporary sacrifice will be warranted. 


A correspondent has sent me detailed accounts of a treatment by which 
he reports that the beetles can be killed in the living stem. His method, as given 
in his own words, is as follows:—‘‘ For the destruction of the pest, scorch the 
bushes behind the pruners with torches made of coconut leaves. A few grevillea 
leaves or other rubbish lying about may be placed in the centre of the bush to 
help the flame. The torch is applied below to the centre and moved round the 
bush towards all the side branches—the insect will be found dead on its back in the 
cell. The white grubs (young beetles) are also killed. The cost of firing, with 
women and boys, is not more than Rs. 18 per acre, including torches. A cooly does 
260 bushes in damp weather and 250 in fine weather,” 


I know, from experience, that a comparatively short exposure to heat is 
sufficient to kill the insects. Also that a tea bush rapidly recovers from the effects 
of fire. But there is one point that must be carefully determined before this 
treatment can be recommended. Will, as is very possible, the semi-scorched 
branches be rendered specially attractive to the beetles and so result in rapid 
reinfection ? 

In the above details of the experiment the cost may be considered very 
hich, if not prohibitive. But Iam informed that Rs.8 of the quoted figure is 
expended in the torches alone. It is probable that some more economic form of 
torch may be devised. An absorbent material soaked in kerosene could be employed. 


THE EGYPTIAN COTTON WORM. 
A NATURAL AND ECONOMIC METHOD FOR PREVENTION. 
By WALTER DRAPER, F.L.S. 


The serious loss to the Egyptian cotton crop, caused by the attack of insect 
pests, and the enormous area under this valuable summer product, render the 
subject of pest extermination sufficiently important to claim the attention of all 
cotton growers. Information of the metamorphosis of the cotton worm has been 
given from time to time by the Ministry of the Inferior through the Press, so that 
its various stages of egg, worm, chrysalis, and moth should be familiar to all. 

It is well known to botanical authorities responsible for the healthy 
maintenance of a large collection of plants that the checking of insect pests forms 
an important item in their successful management. In Egypt, where huge areas 
of a few kinds of plants—not indigenous to the country—are annually grown agri- 
culturally, natural enemies are at times bound to occur. 

The success of hand picking eggs and worms from infected areas has been 
fully demonstrated and proved, and, in a European country, this work could be 
carried out with comparatively little assistance; but in Egypt, the tardiness of 
the native cultivator to clean and keep clean his crops is a great obstacle to the 


‘tal 
* ary 


« 
bd 
N 


Nov. 1906.] 397 Plant Sanitation, 


successful carrying out of this important work. The application of the simple 
instructions drawn up recently by the author on Nedwet el Assal is a proof of this. 
Unfortunately, in so suitable aclimate for the propagation of insect pests, the 
absence of a complete resting stage, and an almost continuous succession of broods, 
the working of insect life is such that it isnot untila pest has obtained a firm 
hold on cultivation that the evil is brought to light. 

From practical observation in the field. there is considerably more cotton 
worm in the country than is generally supposed, and the pest having once reached 
a certain stage, human agency can do little more than act as acheck, it being 
almost impossible to entirely exterminate it. A natural method, acting in co- 
operation with the system at present employed, is therefore required to further the 
success of this important work, The occurrence of insect pests on cotton can invari- 
ably be traced to unnatural methods of cultivation, such as late and heavy sowing, 
which produces weak plants and small crops; overcrowding and overwatering, 
which provide abundance of food and conditions favourable to pests, by producing 
rank, succulent, shady growth, fatal to the lower bolls and the early first picking 
of cotton. Vhe deteriorating effect of fertilization by inferior varieties has also 
to be considered. The practical agriculturist has only to look at the strong 
useless wood and rank foliage produced by the average crop, and to consider the 
strain on theland and the valuable time wasted in its production, to understand that 
the application of quick acting manures under the present cultural conditions would 
in many cases only hasten disaster by over-stimulating the plants. Moreover the folly 
of utilizing the unique cotton-producing characteristics of this climate and soil for 
producing useless wood and foliage, is apparent from the yield of last year crop. 


Cotton cultivated under a suitable method, by the writer, and proved by 
a series of practical experiments, presented the following appearance :— 


Healthy, bushy plants covered with flowers. Red-ripe wood. Foliage slightly 
yellow in colour. One and two bolls atthe base of each leaf. Flowers well above 
the terminal shoot. The lower branches on the ground with bolls. 


Sun and air to reach all parts of the plants. Instead of which, one finds 
large areas of over-watered cotton with soft green and unripe wood, dark rank 
foliage, few flowers, and the early bolls at the base of the plant shaded, of an 
unhealthy yellow colour, and falling from the absence of light and air. Still larger 
is the area of small, weak plants, caused by late planting, from which it is hopeless 
to expect a full crop. 


Should further proof be required for the necessity of reform in the cotton 
cultivation of Egypt, it can be found in the very large number of unripe bolls to 
be seen on the stacks of dry cotton stalks everywhere. 

The natural methods of agricultural reform in cotton cultivation, strong 
in their simplicity, may probably be entered into in time for next season’s crop: 
The object of the writer is merely to endeavour to show how the work of checking 
Prodenia littoralis can be assisted by nature, rather than by reform in cultivation, 
although they both work hand in hand. 


A NATURAL METHOD OF PREVENTION. 

Dryness prevents the deposit of the egg-nidus by the female moth. Heat and 
dryness combined are fatal to the young cotton worms. The production of rank, 
succulent foliage and shade by overwatering has been mentioned; because it is not 
only detrimental to the yield of a full crop, but also to show that it produces 
abundance of food for cotton pest in the form of chlorophyll or sap in the cells 
between the upper and lower epidermis or skin of the leaf. This green-coloured fluid 
is essential to the Jife of the cotton worm, especially in the early stage of|the hatching 
moreover, on such cotton foliage only are eggs deposited by the female moth 

52 


Plant Sanitation. 398 


The polyphagous habit of the moth is such that in August eggs are deposited 
on the leaves of lebbek pear, plum, aristolochia fici, etc. Much remains to be learnt 
of the natural habits of cotton pests, which in the field differ considerably from 
those in captivity. 

EGG-DEPOSITS. 


One important point has been proved, viz., that the first great deposits of 
eggs on the cotton plants occur between the 15th of June and the 15th of July, 
the 20th of June to the 10th of July being the most critical period. Although the 
pest is somewhat gregarious, the female moth prefers to deposit her eggs on cotton 
a day or two after the irrigation of an‘area. The eggs hatch in about three days, 
They are not all deposited at one time; thus the age and size of the worms of this 
brood are very irregular. The writer has proved by experiments that early sown, 
naturally grown cotton on average land will stand from 30 to 40 days without 
water, and with excellent results in ripening the wood and producing an 
unusually heavy crop, but on light sandy soils this period would probably 
require some slight moditication. 


From the foregoing remarks it will be seen that cotton which can be kept 
dry during the egg-laying period is free from egg-deposits. Although it would 
scarcely be possible to apply this method at one time throughout the whole area of 
infected country, the irrigation of certain districts, by the present system of rota- 
tions, creates suitable places or traps for the moth to deposit her eggs. By carefully 
following up these rotations, the cost of labour would be considerably minimised, 
and the valuable time now spent in searching unlikely places might be devoted to 
the more thorough cleaning of egg deposits on traps formed by newly-irrigated 
cotton-areas. 


EXTERMINATING YOUNG WORMS BY HEAT AND DRYNESS. 


The worms, after hatching on the leaf, lower themselves to the ground by 
means of a web-like thread, and remain for a time under the soil of the ridges, feed 
ing (during the first stake of their existence) chiefly at night on the lower leaves. 
It is obvious from their various ages that several pickings of worms are thus 
necessary to clear an infected area. In this it is impossible to prevent escapes, how- 
ever carefully the work isdone. Propagation from this source alone is capable of 
much damage, and the complete extermination of this brood by a natural method is 
therefore extremely important. 


The crux of the question of the extermination of cotton pests by the assist- 
ance of nature, or at least the first stepping-stone to this object, is to counteract. 
unnatural conditions of shade and dampness, by dryness and heat. The successful 
application of this method can only be learnt by continuous observation in the field. 
It has been proved by experiment, that the heat of the mid-day sun on the surface 
soil of unshaded ridges is often 120° to 180° F. Cotton, if allowed to flag from dryness, 
contains no food in its foliage for the young larvee. It enables the sun to reach the 
ridges, which is fatal to the existence of the worms and fungi disease. The produc- 
tion of rank foliage is checked by the stoppage in the flow of sap. The green, 
succulent wood ripens, and produces abundance of flowers and lint, and the quality 
and quantity of the crop yield are considerably augmented. 


When once this natural method (which applies only to cotton controlled 


by irrigation) has become known, and success more universally established, native 
growers will see the advantage of taking the matter up. Reform will naturally be 
slow, but the gain tothe country would be enormous. The following are some of 
the chief pests known to attack cotton cultivated in Egypt :— 

(1) Prodenia Littoralis—(The Egyptian Cotton vo Feeds on rank 
foliage caused by overwatering, etc. 


4 


Nov. 1906. ] 399 Plant Sanitation. 


. (2) Hariasinsulana. (The Egyptian Boll-Worm). Feeds on unripe bolls of a 
late feeble crop, caused by unnatural conditions of cultivation. 
(8) Aphis sp._(The Cotton Blight) produces on succulent foliage a black 
fungus known as ‘“‘ Nedwet-el Assal.” 
of (4) Opogona grosstpella.—(The Small Boll-Worm) lately discovered by the 
writer. 
(5) Agrotis Ypsilon.—(The Cotton Cut Worm). 
(6) Laphygma exigua.—(The Green Cotton-Worm). 


(7) Oxycarenus halinpennis.—(The Cotton Stainer.) A plant-bug which 
sucks the sap of the cotton and lives in the unripe bolls during winter. 


(8) A Root Fungus ?—At present under observation. Appears only in July, 
caused by overwatering. 


(9) A Species of Red Spider.—Migrates from berseem to cotton in May. 
Sucks the chlorophyll from the leaves of the cotton plant. The late sowing of cotton 
in the Northern portion of the Delta could be obviated and the young plants pro- 
tected from the early cold and hot winds by the planting of suitable clumps of trees 
to act as wind screens. This would also prove of great assistance to the bean crop 
when in flower and prevent considerable crop loss.—The Egyptian Gazette. 


ee 
alfa 


400 [Nov. 1906. 


HORTICULTURE. | . 


HOW TO KEEP CUT FLOWERS. 


{t is often hard to get cut flowers, but when obtained it is still more difficult 
to keep them in a satisfactory condition. To arrange them tastefully and effectively 
requires time and thought. The immediate removal of one fading flower will 
often preserve the others. 


Every morning flowers are taken from the vases, and beginning with the 
stems, refreshed by a bath of pure water—two or three minutes being long enough 
for the immersion—then taken out and sprinkled lightly with the hand. The water 
should be changed every day, and the water used for sprinkling must be fresh 
and pure. 

Sunshine resting on cut flowers is very injurious, and the room in which 
they are kept should be cold rather than warm. Gas saps the very life of delicate 
blossoms, and a bell glass placed over them at night will be found an excellent 
protector. 


But measures for the preservation of flowers should be taken before they 
reach the house. There is a great difference in their lasting powers, but the most 
fragile ones may be kept in excellent condition for forty-eight hours if gathered 
before the sun can stare them out of countenance and placed at once in tepid water. 
Those which show any signs of drooping should be dipped head foremost in cold 
water and gently shaken. Flowers that have travelled a long distance are speedily 
revived by this treatmeat. 


Nasturtiums, heliotrore, and, above all roses, should be gathered at night, 
if possible. Their stems, and those of all flowers kept in water, should be cut daily. 


The wistaria is a beautiful but perishable blossom that seems to pine away 
in disgust when transferred to the house; but the Japanese have conquered this 
propensity by the most heroic treatment. They burn the stems of the graceful 
creeper and then immerse it in spirits. Other woody plants like the hydrangea, 
branches of fruit blossoms, etc., can be treated in the same way. 


In sending flowers away, long, narrow boxes are more desirable than round 
ones, and square ones are between the two in keeping powers. Tin is the best 
material and wood the next best; yet stout paste board often delivers its perishable 
contents in good condition. Especially in the case of pasteboard is a stout, rough 
brown paper lining, over top and all, a desirable addition after wetting it thoroughly 
in cold water. 

The flowers must then be carefully arranged in layers, each layer reposing 
on its own bed of fresh green ferns made very moist. Slender sticks should be ; 
worked in under the fern beds to keep their place, and when ferns are not available . 
cotton wool arranged in much the same way will make a good substitute. Strong- 
scented ones shut upin close quarters with those of more delicate perfume will 
almost invariably destroy the dainty charm of the latter.—Garden and Field. 


Nev. 1906.] 401 
EDUCATION. 


POPULAR AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN JAMAICA. 


The efforts made to improve agricultural education in Jamaica during the 
last few years cover a good deal of ground. The first obvious requirement was a 
suitable text-book, and in 1891 we succeeded in getting ‘‘ Tropical Agriculture” 
from Dr, Nicholls. After a while, also at the instance of our educational authorities, 
the two ‘Tropical Readers” were compiled for use in the schools. In 1897 the 
Principal of Jamaica College made a tour of the Agricultural Colleges in the United 
States and Canada, and reported to us what other people were doing. Side by side 
with this we made some attempt in the Codes of 1895 to secure practical agricultural 
work in the schools by offering a special grant for properly cultivated school plots. 
During the last few years there has been steadily increasing effort to promote 
agricultural education both in the schools and outside of them, and the Imperial 
Department of Agriculture has done much to assist us both by means of its officers 
and by means of its publications, amongst which I am bound to mention with 
special gratitude Dr. Watts’ ‘‘ Nature Teaching.” 


Now, conspicuous amongst the lessons which lie on the surface of these our 
efforts in Jamaica are two points :—(1) the importance of preparing the ground by 
creating interest and sympathy in the work amongst the adult population, and 
(2) the importance of doing all that can be done to equip the teachers for the new 
requirements imposed upon them, before we expect practical results. Agricultural 
teaching, like other teaching, must be judged by its fruits. Although improvement 
in practical agriculture is only one of the fruits which we properly demand from 
the schools, it is a very important result. 


Our attempt in 1895 to secure practical work in elementary schools was, to 
all intents and purposes, a failure. The results, agriculturally, tended to bring 
school agriculture into contempt; educationally there was little to commend. 
We had made the mistake of expecting seed time and harvest to proceed with 
equal step. At the best it would have been a plan very slowin result to work 
principally through the schools, for unless we induce improved cultivation among'st 
the population immediately productive, we postpone to far into the future that 
improvement, need for which in Jamaica was imperative and urgent, and constantly 
becoming more urgent, as the old wasteful cultivation made suitable land scarcer, 
an:l| as the pressure of outside competition tightened its grasp. Nor did our plan 
promise sure, if slow, success, for in the absence of outside co-operation the school- 
master’s efforts evoked very little response. 


Further, the outside population was at first exceedingly apathetic and 
indifferent, if not actively hostile. Parents odjected to the soiling of the children’s 
clothes in practical work; objected to the teachers making money out of their 
children’s labour; contended that book learning and nothing else was what they 
had sent the children to school for, and that as a matter of fact they were in a 
better position themselves to give the practical teaching which the teachers 
professed. In the last contention there was often sober truth. The consequence 
was that the schools attempted seriously to earn the special grant, and it was 
often an amusing as well asa saddening spectacle to view the cultivation ‘‘ where 
but a few torn shrubs the place disclosed” which were the subject of claim for 
special grants. 

It would have been strange if the attitude of the peasantry had been 
different in this matter, and it was we who miscalculated. Emancipation was only 
two generations behind. With us, as in the Southern States of America, it was 


Education. 402 Nov. 1906. 


followed by silent but stolid revolt against manual and industrial work, and very 
insufficient measures had been taken by those who were responsible to break the 
violence of the transition from forced labour to free citizenship. Tropical climate 
did not stimulate physical exertion ; tropical luxuriance made continuous effort to 
secure bare subsistence almost superfluous. The discipline of the years of slavery 
had not tended to organise home life or to implant ambition towards the attainment 
of personal comfort. Whatever the changes and chances of life had been, food had 
been secure, and the emancipated peasant could not foresee the day when food might 
fail. As remuneration diminished, his service became more intermittent; he 
acquiesced in the oppression of outside circumstances or blamed the governing 
classes. When the neighbouring planter endeavoured to improve his living by 
improved machinery or more economical production, it was only the economy effected 
by reducing the price of labour that caught his observation; he saw noneed himself 
to make two blades of grass grow where one had grown before. 


Besides, while the great majority of the peasantry were outside of the range 
of educational influences, the few who had come under them thought that education 
meant nothing but book work of a conventional literary type; the schools were 
the children of the Churches, and one of their main objects was to teach people to 
read the Bible. With the best intentions they foredoomed themselves to failure by 
dissociating themselves from the home life and home interests of their scholars. 
The ministers themselves, full of zeal for the bettering of the conditions of life among 
the people, were mostly men in whom the educational traditions of the Reformation 
lingered on, or were drawn from the class of social reformers, at one time a large 
class in England, who firmly believed that increased knowledge was the only leverage 
needed to elevate the masses. The ministers were the men of superior education 
with whom the labouring classes had most intimate contact ; they were able to live 
by their education. Small wonder then has it been that we found the general 
population and teachers alike needing a change of ideal as complete as those classes 
in America whom General Amstrong at Hampton and Booker Washington at 
Tuskegee have been trying to convert. 


It is not surprising that in the face of this situation there is not as much in 
the way of practical agriculture in the schools in Jamaica to report as one might 
wish; perhaps there are hardly 100 schools now with school gardens and very many 
of those have been Iately started. But I believe (and I have excellent opportunity 
for judging sanely) that there has been very considerable change in the attitude of 
the general population on the subject. We need perhaps to alter somewhat the 
conditions under which we offer the special grant for practical work, and a Com- 
mittee is now considering this particular point. Wehave done what I think is the 
more difficult work of preparing the ground. 


IMPROVING THE TEACHER. 


The means by which we have succeeded in getting this encouraging change 
seem to have been in the main these :— 


First, we have gone some way in making school agriculture attractive by 
improving the teacher’s power to teach. No one can teach with enthusiasm what he 
does not know, and we had learnt that industrial and agricultural teaching power 
cannot be improvised. In our Training College course Latin and the higher mathe- 
matical work have been struck out; additional importance has been given to the 
science subjects, and particularly elementary agricultural science; more importance 
also to the professional subject of school management and the practice of teaching 
in the practising schools. At the Female Training College at Shortwood an interest- 
ing departure has been made in admitting a certain number of the girls, who fail 
in the competitive entrance examination, to a year’s probation for domestic service 


Nov. 1906.] 403 ‘Education. 


in the Institution (with opportunities for instruction at the same time) until they 
prove themselves fit for admission as regular students, It is easy to see what 
excellent results in semi-industrial training in home work are thus afforded to these 
future female teachers. 


Besides, opportunity has been given the last few years to the teachers actu- 
ally employed in the schools, who had no such opportunities during their training— 
sixty to eighty of them at a time—to get afew weeks’ special] agricultural instruction 
at the Mico Training College in vacation time, when the educational plant is lying idle. 
Part of this instruction is also practical, and in the evenings they get help in learning 
drawing and such other manual work as is required of them in the schools. While 
this does not aim at being exhaustive, it is of great assistance in starting the work 
on right educational lines—a point of the greatest importance. 


In these ways we may reckon that nearly one-half of the principal teachers 
now at work in our elementary schools have received some special training in the 
teaching and work ofagriculture. The number of schools applying for permission 
to undertake practical work is rapidly increasing. The number of teachers who 
apply for places in the special agricultural course is always much larger than can be 
accommodated; the difficulty is to find instructors for them while the ordinary 
college staff should have its holiday. I need not say that the help afforded us by the 
Imperial Department in supplying the services of an agricultural lecturer, Mr. 
Teversham, has been invaluable in this work. 


THE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 


In the second place, the operations of our Agricultural Society must be very 
largely credited with the improvement in popular agricultural education. Much of 
its effort inevitably takes the form of preaching, and the preaching of agriculture is 
~ subject to the same disappointments as that of higher subjects; the proportion of 
result to effort is mostly small. Wehave to be comforted with the reflection that 
even the small result is needed, and no other way appears of obtaining it. Last year 
there were forty-one local branches of the Society scattered all over the Island with 
a total membership of 2,563. It has retained the sympathy and co-operation of the 
employer classes who make up its Board of Management, and many of them actively 
assist and guide the local Societies in their neighbourhood. The hearty co-operation 
of the ministers of religion has also been of great help in enlisting the confidence of 
the people. A nominal subscription of ls. per annum secures membership in a local 
branch, and although these branches are as independent as they like, they get 
advice and help of all kinds from the Secretary and the Committee of the Central 
Board, which also circulates information amongst them by means of leaflets on 
matters which need to be brought before them from time to time. They pay only 
an annual 5s. affiliation fee to the Central Society, and as their small funds 
accumulate they buy tools for common use, or seeds or plants for distribution among 
members, or buy well-bred animals to improve the local small stock—pigs and 
poultry. One Society has provided itself with a stud ass, and several of them have 
been enterprising and capable enough to carry through successful Agricultural 
. Shows. It may be that the establishment of the Agricultural Society will prove to 
be one of the biggest events in Sir Henry Blake’s administration. It shows the 
beginnings of co-operation amongst people whose inability to co-operate and 
lack of public spirit have been amongst their most discouraging characteristics. The 
service, social and political, which they render in affording opportunity to repre- 
sentatives of, every class ina District, to meet and talk over matters of common 
interest, and to get to know each other, is exceedingly valuable. Nota little of the 
improved popular attitude to agriculture is due to these Societies. 


Education. 404 


Besides the establishment of the local branches, several of the other enter- 
prises of the Agricultural Society have been particularly useful. The 1s. annual 
subseription to the local branch secures to each member a monthly copy of the 
Society’s ‘“ Journal,” and 3,250 copies per month was its last reported circulation. 
It contains enough of useful matter to make it interesting to all classes, and 
amongst the lower class it is playing an important part in education in introducing 
the use of printed matter as a source of practical interest and information. The 
Agricultural Shows have been similarly serviceable. Hight shows were held last 
year; four others were arranged for, but were postponed in consequence of the 
hurricane in August, 1903. These are managed economically, for only three Shows 
gota grant of over £20 from the Society, and none of over £50, the rest of the 
money being raised locally and there are mixed Shows with prize lists varying 
from £50 to £200, and include exhibits of stock of all sorts and riding and driving 
exhibitions. Their usefulness will be increased when the instructors can devote 
their time at the Shows to explaining in the sheds to people interested the merits 
and defects of exhibits, and when we can afford to exhibit at work the appliances 
we encourage people to buy and use. The utmost advantage should be taken of the 
opportunities Shows afford as object lessons, and object lessons need explanation. 
The Agricultural Instructors whom [have mentioned are partly evidence of the 
improvement of agricultural education as well as the very useful promoters of it. 
A few years ago they would have been regarded as the subtle agents of the tax- 
collectors. We have six of these gentlemen at work, each in an appointed district 
for several months, and besides practical instruction and visitation they lecture 
to meetings under the auspices of the Jocal branches, or, where they are none of 
these, under the auspices of the Minister in Church or Chapel. We often now have 
the encouraging symptom of impatience when they are transferred out of one 
dis trict to another, and applications for their services long before they are available. 
Two years ago a small experiment was tried by this Society which has been very 
useful for the purposes that are the subject of my paper—the prize-holding scheme, 
Three parishes at a time, parishes in which agricultural instructors were working 
at the time, were taken as the area of operation. In each of these prizes of from 
£4 to £2 were offered for the best kept holdings which were entered in separate 
classes, under 20 acres, under 10 acres and under 5 acres, respectively. The judging, 
carried out by the instructor, with any help he might secure, was according to 
marks in which permanent crops, catch crops, buildings and fences and general 
arrangements were the chief sub-divisions. Sometimes nearly as many as 100 
entries have been made in a single parish. As each competitor becomes a centre of 
subsequent ambition in his neighbourhood. people will, we hope, pay increased 
attention to the holdings on which they live, and aim by better and more permanent 
cultivation to keep their crops at home under supervision instead of offering 
facilities to the preedial thief by working in remote and isolated spots. As they 
appreciate the meaning of home comfort they may be expected to labour more 
sedulously to obtain it. 


In conclusion, Mr. Williams mentions two points which he considers of the 
first importance with regard to future work: One is the need for a local institution 
of a collegiate character where scientific agriculture in all its branches can be 
practised and taught for the benefit of those who in the future are to be the 
employers of labour, and the owners or managers of estates. Education does not 
usually rise up, it filters down, and the most successful means of improving popular 
agricultural education is undoubtedly the object lesson of properly organised work 
under efficient management. The other point is this: to develop agriculture as part 
of our work in Elementary schools we need to keep it educational, as a part of the 
instruction that will react upon and vitalise the whole, not asa separate subject 


(Nov. 1906. 


Nov. 1906.] 405 | Rducation. 


to be specialised. To secure this it is needful that the practical agriculture 
be always under the control of, and be tested by, those who control, guide, and 
value the other educational work of the school. Isee the chance of much confusion, 
of practical agricultural teaching being perverted to improper ends, if, as has 
been sometimes proposed, the practical work be delegated to purely agricultural 
officers. It is indeed desirable that these should teach and advise and inspire, 
but it is the educational value of agriculture, moral, manual, and intellectual, that | 
is to measure out judgment as to its success in school work. 


In Jamaica the difficulty is to make active and efficient and available the 
labour of a population of nearly 800,000 of mostly very poor people, which for 
various reasons is not available in the way that it is wanted, nor efficient, nor as 
profitable as it should be either to the labourer or the community. In improved 
popular education we may hope to find one of the avenues leading to the solution 
of our problem. There is so much thatis ethical and economic to make it a very 
complex problem that we must be thankful if, with the help that the Imperial 
Department of Agriculture has given us, we may venture to hope that we have gone 
a little way along the right road.—Report of J. R. Williams, Inspector of Schools, 
Jamaica. 


58 


Nov. 1906. 406 < 
LIVE STOCK. 


Poultry Notes, 


By G. W. STURGESS, M.R.C.V.S. 


DISEASES OF POULTRY.—(Continued.) 
DIPHTHERIA.—(Continued.) 


Treatment is frequently useless and is only of benefit when commenced 
in the very earliest stage of the disease. The ulcers and swellings may be cleaned 
with a weak solution of either Cyllin, Carbolic Acid, Permanganate of Potash, 
Hydrogen Peroxide, Lysol, Tincture of Iodine, or Corrosive Sublimate. Any loose 
growths should be removed. A strong mixture of Alum, Boracic Acid and Glycerine 
may then be painted over the partly raw surface. Tumours over the face should 
be lanced and their contents squeezed out. Perchloride of Ivon Solution may be 
used to check bleeding and a Solution of Lysol or Cyllin or Corrosive Sublimate to 
wash out the cavities and Idoform dusted over. The eyes may be cleaned with 
Boracic Acid lotion or solution of Corrosive Sublimate 1 in 4000 of water. Internally 
a mixture of Chlorate of Potash, Salicylic Acid and Perchloride of Iron may be 
given, Soft food must be given, and stimulants if necessary. For valuable birds 
injections of diphtheria antitoxic serum may be tried. 


The second form of diphtheritic inflammation mentioned is due to small 
parasites, gregarines or psorospermia. Thesymptoms are much the same as in the 
first form. The skin is more often affected—the base of the beak, nostrils, wattles 
earlobes, angles of the beak being commonly attacked. 


The disease is easily distinguished from Chicken pox. The first signs are 
small seed-like nodules, soon increasing in size and becoming covered by a yellowish 
red scab. If the eyes are affected they become swollen and closed and may be 
destroyed. Death may take place in four or five weeks. The treatment is much 
the same as for the first form—the diseased parts may be painted with Cyllin, Lysol 
or Boracic Acid, Alum and Glycerine mixture. Glycerine may also be given 
internally with such medicines as Chlorate of Potash and Salicylic Acid. 


Suppression.—All sick birds must be isolated, dead fowls burned or buried 
deeply with plenty of disinfectants. The runs should be thoroughly cleaned and 
disinfected. When new birds are purchased they should be carefully examined 
and suspicion aroused if there is any discharge from the nose or flow of tears. 


There is another disease produced by parasites which commonly attacks 
poultry and resembles diphtheria. It is due to a mould fungus (thought by some to 
be Monilia Candida). It grows on the mucous membrane of the mouth in small 


patches of a greyish or yellowish colour resembling paste. If a patch is scraped off 
the skin is seen to be reddened. 


The symptoms are dullness, emaciation, sour smell from the mouth, and 
there may be convulsions and death. Examination of the mouth at once shows the 
fungus growing in patches. It may be mistaken for diphtheria, however micros-. 
copical examination will reveal the parasitic filaments. 


Treatment.—Remove the deposits in the mouth gently and paint the diseased 
patches with Alum, Boracic Acid and Glycerine mixture or turpentine and sweet oil 


and keep clean and dress daily for some days. The food must be soft and nutritious, 
and iron tonics may be given. 


Live Stock. 407 [Nov, 1906. 
The Crushing of Cattle by the Kandyans. 


By T. B. PoHATH-KEHELPANALA. 


The art of crushing or “mulling” cattle as practised by the Kandyans dates 
from very ancient times. The operation is performed when the animal has reached 
its prime. This period of its life is known as “ Karanegima,” literally the age at 
which the neck gets fat and fleshy; itis at this stage that the animal becomes 
inflamed with passion. 

The action of crushing called ‘“ Karabima” or “ Vedakan Kerima” is per- 
formed by a skilled operator with the help of a trained assistant. It is never 
performed on a buffalo bull before it reaches its fifth or sixth year, nor is it under- 
taken before the animal has been used for ploughing. Unless the animal is 
subjected to this ordeal during the fattening period, it invariably becomes weak and 
emaciated, and utterly unfit for work ; while in some cases, the effects are fatal. The 
act of wasting flesh and reducing the animal to leanness, is described by the 
Kandyans as “ Telendirima.” 


A lucky day is chosen for the operation. The month of Jl (November) is 
considered a favourable period. This is the holiday season for the Kandyan agri- 
culturist : there is abundance of fodder to be had everywhere, and the animals have 
no work before them until the harvesting season in March and April. 


Punctual to the appointed hour, a pair of well-seasoned rounded bars of the 
Kitul (Caryota urens) or Kohomba,* like rulers, about 13 cubits long, are laid ona 
‘“* Malbulat-Tattuwa”—an ornamental betel tray—and are fumigated with resin. 
The wooden bars are tightly bound together at one end with kitul fibre. <A vessel 
filled with saffron-water is placed close by. The animal has to have its legs bound, is 
thrown over on its side, and held securely to prevent its struggling. 


After making a supplication to the presiding deities, the wooden barst are 
placed on each side of the testicles and are firmly pressed together until the glands 
get entirely crushed. Asa general rule, a very small portion is left unsqueezed, with 
the object of maintaining the health and vigour of the animal, but in the case of a 
buffalo that is exceptionally savage, the glands are completely crushed. The 
operator is known to possess a secret method of applying pressure, by which he is 
able to reduce the glands to varying degrees of pulpiness or consistency, so as to 
leave the animal after the operation, thoroughly docile, a strong worker, or witha 
certain amount of temper. The crushing is always attended with successful results. 
It restores healthful functions to the body and animals improve in strength and 
endurance. 

When the operation is finished, saffron-water is sprinkled over the animal, 
and with a red-hot iron some parallel or ornamental lines are branded on the loins, 
flanks or tail. This is supposed to invigorate the animal and to counteract disease 


Asaresult of the operation, severe inflamation, of course, sets in, and the 
animal suffers trom pain, fever and exhaustion. For about a fortnight, it must be 
kept in a shed protected from cold, and very carefully looked after, lest, follewed 
by the smell, crows, flies, and Kabaragvyas{—especially the latter, who, attracted by 
the scent, travel from distances—should attack and prey upon the inflamed parts. 
Burnt domba (Calophyllum Inophyllum) ground with Kekuna (Canarium 
Zeylanicum) oil into a paste are generally rubbed over the swollen glands to allay 
the pain and reduce the inflammation. Sometimes, previous to the operation, the 
leaves of the Pennela (Sapuidus emarginatus) turmeric, and the tubers of the 
Haran-kaha|| ave pounded to a pulp and smeared over the parts. 


* Azadirachta indica. +Called Polwaussa by the Kandyans. +(Varanus Salvator.) || Curcuma longa, 


ive Stock. "408 (Nov. 1906, 


At the end of a fortnight, the animal is removed to a spot where there is mud 
and water, and food is given at regular intervals, until theanimal completely reno- 
vates his lost strength, and gets energy and tone to his body. In about two months it 
should be perfectly well again, and fit to begin the long spell of work before it, and 
to continue working. till incapacitated by old age, accident or disease.. 

The same process is adopted in the case of black cattle also. 

The operator is sometimes remunerated by one or two rupees in cash, in 
addititon to being handsomely entertained to Kiribat and Keun, and a meal with 
five curries. 


VALUE OF LIVE STOCK SHOWS TO STUDENTS. 


An interesting feature of the Chicago Live Stock Exhibition was the competi- 
tive judging of live stock by students of the agricultural colleges. The prizes were 
given by the exhibition authorities, and batches of five students each from seven 
colleges took part in the competition. After arranging the animals in order of 
merit, the boys were required to appear singly before the judges, and give their 
reasons for the order in which they had placed the animals. The trophy for horse- 
judging, previously held by the students of lowa College, was won on this occasion by 
Ohio; and the one for cattle, sheep, and swine, held by Ohio, went to the Ontario 
College. The Ohio students led in cattle and horse-judging, Texas in swine and 
Ontario insheep. The latter, however, scored the largest combined number of points 
in judging cattle, sheep, and swine, with Iowa second. In a maize-judging competi- 
tion lowa won a bronze trophy previously held by the Kansas Agricultural College. 

The Experiment Station Record observes that the spirit of good-natured 
rivalry, which this competition engenders, isa healthy one, and serves as astimulus 
both to students and instructors. The opportunity to measure swords with another 
institution is helpful to the boys and to those responsible for their instruction. The 
experience of taking part in such a contest is valuable, helping to develop confidence, 
self-reliance, and decision. Properly managed, the students’ judging contest 
becomes an attractive and valuable feature of the show, and, incidentally, it 
attracts attention to the colleges and to the practical nature of their work. 
This annual Exhibition, which is the largest Live Stock Show in the United States, 
is visited by numbers of students from agricultural colleges. Seventeen States 
and the Province of Ontario were represented in 1905. There were about a 
hundred each from Illinois, lowa, and Nebraska, large numbers from the colleges 
nearer by, like Wisconsin, Michigan, Indiana, and Ohio, thirty from Colorado, ten 
from Texas, several from Kansas, Missouri, and Louisiana, and eighteen from 
Ontario. Great advantage is taken of the educational facilities afforded by the 
collection of choice specimens of the different breeds of live stock, and the students 
not only watch the judging in the \ring, but go round the show under the guidance 
of an instructor and have the points of the animals explained to them. 


The agricultural colleges and experimeut stations also send stock for 
exhibition, there being no less than 275 entries by them in ninety-five different 
classes, largely in the fat stock, sheep and swine classes, although there were 
several in the breeding classes and among the horses. Six colleges also showed in 
the dressed carcase classes. The grand championship of the fat stock show was 
won by the Iowa State College with an Angus steer, selected by Professor C. F, 
Curtiss about a year previously from a truck load at the stockyards, and fed at the 
College. The reserve champion was also won from this College. This is the fourth 
year that the grand championship has fallen to a college or station animal. The 
champion steer among the Shorthorns was from Purdue University, and Ohio State 
University took a large number of prizes for swine, including the championship in 
several classes: , 


Nov. 1906.] 409 Tive Stock. 


The success which has attended the exhibition of stock by these Institutions 
has given rise to some complaint as to the competition of bodies supported or 
assisted by public funds with private exhibitors. This objection, however, does not 
seem to have met with much support, and in discussing the question the Experi- 
ment Station Record points out that, as a matter of fact, the champions for the past 
four years have been purchased in the open market at market prices, or by auction, 
and any advantage which the colleges may have had has been in the direction of 
ability and not of funds. In feeding the animals no secrecy is observed, The 
conditions are a matter of careful record, and the results are, therefore, a contribu- 
tion to the practice of feeding. 


Their success in open competition with the best breeders has had a great 
influence in popularizing agricultural education, and has produced a striking change 
in the attitude of the American farmer towards these institutions. Of the list of 
judges at the show, nine were men connected with the colleges, and they judged 
in nearly 150 classes. Their work was repeatedly commended for the soundness of 
of judgment displayed, and it was evident that they and the college instructors and 
authorities generally had secured the farmers’ respect and confidence.—The Journal 
of the Board of Agriculture, May, 1906. 


Sericulture in Ceylon, 1905-6. 
By KE. ERNEST GREEN. 


The silk experiment—as far as the Agricultural Society is concerned—has now 
been in operation fora year. A short account of its inception and progress may 
be useful to the Society. 


Ata meeting of the Agricultural Board, held on the 6th February, 1905, the 
Government Entomologist moved ‘‘ That an experiment in Silk Cultivation be made 
in Ceylon by the creation of a silk-worm rearing establishment.” The motion was 
carried and a small Committee consisting of Mr. Nicolle, Mr. Ward, and Mr. Green 
was appointed to consider the details. An estimate of the cost of the experiment 
was submitted to and approved by the Board, and asum of Rs. 5,000 was voted for 
the purpose. 

It was, at the same time, decided to encourage the cultivation of silk- 
worms amongst the natives, by the distribution of ‘seed’ (eggs) and by an offer 
to buy in the resulting crop. 


Some difficulty was at first experienced in the selection of a suitable piece 
of land for the experiment, But, through the generosity of the Railway Department, 
a small block of about six acres, situated at the Peradeniya Junction, was placed 
at our disposal. This land was handed over in July of last year. 

The services of Mr. P.N. Braine, who had privately been experimenting in 
sericulture for many years, and who had recently publisked a useful handbook on 


the subject, were secured for the superintendence of the experiment, under the 
supervision of the Government Entomologist. 


The first work of the Superintendent was to re-clear the land which had been 


“partly opened in tea and coconuts. The few tea plants were removed, but the 


coconut plants have been left in situ. Contracts were issued for the erection of a 
silkworm-rearing house, a bungalow for the Superintendent, and a small set of cooly 
lines. These buildings were completed by the end of November. 


The silkworm-rearing house is capable of accommodating about 100,000 


worms at one time. The Superintendent’s bungalow consists of two rooms, with 
kitchen and servants’ quarters. 


Live Stock. 410 ps [Nov. 1906. 


The land was immediately planted throughout with mulberry plants, 20 feet 
by 10 feet, and castor seed was sown between the rows., The mulberry plants are 
growing well and have withstood the long drought most satisfactorily. The 
failure of the usual rains has, however, acted very adversely upon the growth of the 
castor, upon which we relied for the early raising of large stocks of Eri-worms. The 
greater part of the land consists of a knoll upon which the soil is very dry and 
contains little humus. The castor plants did not flourish under these conditions, 
The seeds germinated freely, but showed a weak growth. Some of them sickened 
and died, apparently attacked by a root-fungus; the remainder ran to seed ata 
very early age. There is a small strip of alluvial soil (a drained swamp) at the base 
of the knoll, where the plants made more satisfactory growth. But the amount of 
leaf obtainable from this plot has been sufficient only to maintain very limited 
stocks of the worms, for the provision of silkworm ‘seed.’ No serious attempt to 
raise mulberry-feeding worms will be made for some two or three years, by which 
time the mulberry plants should be well grown and may be heavily plucked with 
safety. 

The higher land.has been repeatedly replanted with castor, but, so far, 
without success. It is probable that some inexpensive form of manuring will be 
necessary before a proper growth of castor can be maintained. There is a natural 
growth of crotalaria on some parts of the land. This will be encouraged and 
extended for manurial purposes. Small pits are now being dug throughout the 
land into which the foliage of crotalaria and other waste plants is being thrown. 
These will eventually form pockets of good soil in which castor plants should flourish. 


Whether from the poverty of the food available, or from some other 
obscure cause, the succeeding broods of Eri-worms have steadily deteriorated in 
stamina, a constantly increasing number having failed to complete their trans- 
formations Unhealthy worms have been systematically weeded out and destroyed, 
but, at the present moment, our stock of Hri-worms has dwindled to the vanishing 
point. the last batch of selected cocoons having failed to produce moths. Arrange- 
ments are now being made for the importation of fresh healthy stock from India. 
It has occurred to me that our system of breeding only from the white cocoons 
(the more valuable variety) may have had something to do with the debilitating of 
the stock. It may be advisable to occasionally recross with the hardier red 
variety. This point will require further study. 


The mulberry silkworms, so far cultivated, have been of the Bengal multi- 
voltine (many brooded) variety. This isa very hardy race and gives little trouble. 
The resulting cocoons are, however, interior to those of the single brooded forms 
which are cultivated in Europe. 

Through the good offices of Mr. Nicolle, a batch of eggs of the fine Cyprus 
race of mulberry worms was received in December last. These eggs commenced to 
hatch out almost immediately ; but ina very irregular manner, one or two worms 
appearing at intervals extending over more than four months. In spite of every 
attention. nearly all the worms died off before the final moult and Jess than a dozen 
of them formed cocoons. The moths emerged one by one, when no mates of their 
owa kind were available. They consequently had to be crossed with the ordinary 
Indian race, and have produced a few hybrid eggs, the results of which will be 
carefully watched and kept separate. It will probably be necessary, in future, to 
submit imported European ‘seed’ to cold storage for afew weeks before allowing 
them to hatch out. 

Attempts have been made to cross the Eri silk moth (A tiacus ricuni) with its 
nearly ally, the large Atlas moth (Attacus atlas), but, so far, without success, 


We have had to contend with several enemies in the silk-worm rearing house, 
principally ants, vats and lizards. The racks for the rearing trays have been 


Nov. 1906. ] 411 Live Stock. 


isolated from the ground by standing them in shallow bowls filled with kerosene 
and water. But when, by mischance, one of these bowls has leaked or run dry, 
the ants have immediately discovered the opportunity and invaded the trays with 
disastrous results. Rats have, on several occasions, carried off both cocoons and 
caterpillars. The small geckos are ever on the watch for an opportunity to raid 
the trays. 


With regard to the encouragement of the industry amongst the natives 
of Ceylon, small parcels of ‘seed’ have been widely distributed, with the result 
that over 400 lb. of cocoons have been boughtin by the Society. Mr. Alexander 
Perera was deputed to make a tour through the villages for the purpose of collecting 
cocoons raised by the natives, it being thought that the collection and payment at 
their very doors would demonstrate to the villagers that the cultivation was worth 
the undertaking. This tour was satisfactory and produced nearly 100 lb. of cocoons. 
This means of encouragement might be extended with advantage. 


One or two enterprising natives have taken up the business of collection on 
their own account, for resale to the Society. Other cocoons have been sent or 
brought in direct by the growers, who have sometimes travelled considerable 
distances with small parcels of cocoons worth only two or three Rupees. 


The village-grown cocoons have been of somewhat poor quality, averaging 
probably about 1,500 to the pound. They have come in in small lots of three or four 
pounds ata time. This indicates that cultivators have not yet realized the fact 
that, to be profitable, the worms must be raised on a much more extensive scale, 
There is also unmistakable evidence, from the poverty of the cocoons, that the 
worms have been overcrowded and underfed. As a rule, the villager seems to have 
made no provision for the feeding of his worms. No systematic planting of castor 
has been undertaken ; but reliance has been placed solely upon the natural growth 
of plants on waste land. This supply has soon been exhausted, and, at the most 
critical period of their growth, the worms have had to be sustained upon various 
substitutes which, under the press of hunger, they have been compelled to eat, 
the resulting cocoons being inferior in size and quality. No attempt has been made 
to provide sufficient accommodation for the rapidly growing worms. The con- 
sequent overcrowding induces disease resulting in the death of many worms 
inside the cocoons (which greatly detracts from their value); the cocoons, for want 
of space, are matted together and soiled by the excretions of the surrounding 
caterpillars. 


In spite of all mistakes the industry shows promising signs of obtaining a 
foothold, and every means should be employed to foster it. Our endeavours should 
now be directed towards inducing influential natives to take up the cultivation on 
a more extensive scale and so form centres of influence. If necessary, they might 
be encouraged by personal and pecuniary assistance in the erection of suitable 
buildings. Such centres might also be utilized for the collection of smaller parcels 
of cocoons raised by the poorer natives in the neighborhood. The free distribution 
of castor seed (which could be imported in quantity from India) might further 
encourage the industry, though a large amount of seed could be collected from the 
plants that spring up in the neighbourhood of every village. 


Until the cocoons are raised in much greater quantity than at present, no 
subsidiary industries—such as silk spinning and weaving (which are dependent 
upon large and constant supplies of the raw material) —can be expected to spring up. 
And it is to such industries that we must look for a steady local market for our 
produce. ¢ 


The actual purchase and resale of cocoons has resulted in no loss to the 
Society, but has produced a small profit. This form of assistance should there- 


a Balt UE Mea Da aw ie AL ky ,/ 
ee ae HANG Stn Ne Ae WR on oe a 


Lave Stock. 412 


fore be continued, and Isee no reason why its extent should? be limited in a 
way. The provision of an immediate market is absolutely essential. Any cessatior 
or reduction of our efforts in this direction would inevitably result in the collapse 
of all interest in the matter. In time, when a constant supply of cocoons can be : 
relied upon, private enterprise will supply a natural market. Until then, it will — 
be necessary for the Society or the Government to provide the market. The 
Society has, so far, been able to dispose of their purchases locally. But should 
this local market fail. it will still be possible to send the material to Europe. 
Even should this result iu aloss, such loss would be well repaid by the establishment 

of animportant industry of direct benefit to the poorer population of the Island. 


7 


Nov. 1906.] 413 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


Lessons in Elementary Botany and Agriculture. 


By J. C. WILLiIs. 


Multiplication of organs, or the presence of more than one ina place where 
we should expect only one, is not uncommon, especially among stamens, as e.g. in 
the Malvaceze, Hypericum, &c. 


Abortion, or absence of one or more members from places in which we should 
expect to find them, isnot uncommon. Inthe Labiatze and allied orders, for instance, 
there are only four stamens to five petals, and the missing stamenis often present 
as a staminode or rudiment. 


Change of Form of the Receptacle is a frequent case. In the most primi- 
tive flowers andina very large number now existing, the stalk or axis is more or 
less elongated, the carpels are at the top or superior, and the other organs—stamens, 
petals, sepals—are below them, in order, or hypogynous. In wild Strawberry, 
Potentilla, &c., the receptacle is more or less flattened on the top, so as to have a 


kind of V shape in section. 


In a good many plants the flattening is above the calyx and a disc is 
formed in the flower, but as a more general rule the calyx springs from the 
margin; and as a rule also the sides grow so rapidly as to form a_ hollow 
cup in which the calyx springs from the edge, the corolla and stamens from 
the inner slopes, and the carpels from the centre and bottom. As no other organs 
spring from the top of the carpels, the latter are still termed superior but 
the other organs are perigynous. (Pl. Iil. fig. 17 &e. K=calyx; C-=corolla; 
A=stamens; G=carpels.) In yet other cases again the receptacle is so hollowed out 
as to contain the carpels, and sepals, petals, and stamens spring from it actually 
above the carpels. In this case they are inferior and the other organs are epigynous. 

These are on the whole the most important pointsin the structure of a 
flower, and it is desirable early to become familiar with them. 


Flower, or perianth, calyx, corolla, stamens may be hypo- peri- or epi-gynous (above) the carpels 
superior or inferior. Perigynous flowers may be shallowly or deeply perigynous. There may be a 
disc above the calyx ina flower. Sometimes the receptacle elongates between petals and stamens 
or between stamens and carpels. 

Floral Symmetry is another feature that shows much variety. In many 
flowers the numbers of members in each whorl are the same, and each is like all the 
others in the whorl. Such a flower is quite symmetrical or regular. It more fre- 
quently happens that the symmetry is disturbed by the presence of fewer carpels 
than other organs, but such a flower is also called regular. If, however, some of the 
organs ina whorl are missing, or if they are not all exactly alike, the flower is 
irregular. Irregularity is most common in the perianth, and the terms used are 
given below. 

The flower usually stands in the axil ofa bract, and the side facing the 
bract is anterior, the other posterior. 


We must now pass on to deal with the structure of the flower in detail. 


The Bud.—An important point in classification is often the arrangement of 
the leaves in the bud. If they donot even meet by their edges their aestivation, as it 
s called, is open, if they meet by the edges, valvate, if they overlap, imbricate. A 
special case of the last is twisted when each leaf overlaps with one side and underlaps 
with the other, so that the bud looks twisted, 

54: 


| 


Miscellaneous 414 (Nov. 1906. 


The Perianth protects the stamens and carpels from exposure before they 
are ripe, and aids in the attractiveness of the flower to insects. Asa rule itis in 
two whorls, sepals and petals, which are often coherent. 


It may be hypo- peri- or epi-gynous, of {free and distinct organs (poly-p'iyllous, -sepalous, - petalous) 
or of coherent organs (gamo-phyllous -sepalous, gamo or sym-petalous). In the latter case the coherent 
part or tube bears the free lobes together forming the limb. The perianth may be regular or irregular, 
sepaloid (looking like a calyx) or petaloid (like a corolla). The sepals are commonly leafy and green, 
but may be woody as in the blue gum, or brightly coloured as in some Ranunculacee. In many 
epigynous flowers theyare much reduced, In Composite, e.g., dandelion or goatweed, they are often 
represented by a pappus of hairs or bristles. In Malvacez, some Rosacex, &c., there is an epicalyx 
of leaves outside the sepals and just like them. The petals are usually of some other colour than 
green, and of delicate texture. They may be narrowed at the base into a claw, may be bifid 
(notched into two), &c., spurred (with long hollow projection as in Viola, &c.). 


The general form of a sympetalous corolla may be tubular, funnel-shaped, belt-shaped, urn- 
shaped, wheel-shaped. &c. 


The stamens of a flower, taken together are termed its androeceum. A 
typical stamen consists of a stalk or filament bearing an_anther, consisting of two 
chief lobes united by a prolongation of the stalk (connective). Each lobe usually 
contains two pollen sacs. 


The stamens may be hypo- peri- or epi-gynous ; epiphyllous, episepalous, epipetalous (adherent to 
perianth, sepals, petals); few, or indefinite (many and variable in number) : monadelphous, diadelphous, 
polyadelphous (united in 1, 2, many bundles with free anthers) or synandrous (united, including anthers, 
into one mass). There may be two stamens longer than the rest (didynamous). 

The anther may be sessile or on a filament; it may be versatile (balanced transversely on the 
end of the stalk); it may dehisce or open by slits, by pores, or otherwise. 

The pollen may be smooth or not, powdery or coherent, &c. ; the grains as in Orchids and 
Asclepiadaceae may be united into masses or pollinia. 


The carpels of a flower, taken together, form its gynoeceum. The simple leaf- 
like sporophyll occurs only in ferns, Selaginellas, &c., and in all the higher flowering 
plants we find the sporophyll folded inward to forma carpel, bearing the ovules 
(which will later form the seeds) inside. The hollow chamber (or often chambers if 
the carpels are united) is called the ovary, and the ovules are borne on placentae or 
cushions. The tip of the carpel is usually prolonged into a more or less thread- 
like style ending ina (frequently sticky) stigma or receptive organ for the pollen 
grains. Only a few plants have apocarpous ovaries, (i.e., of free carpels); most are 
syncarpous, (of united carpels), and the arrangement of the placentas becomes of 
great importance. They may be awile (Plate II[, 21) and the ovary be multilocular 
or many-chambered, the number of chambers corresponding to the number of 
carpels; they may be parietal or on the walls, the ovary unilocular; or they may 
be free-central with unilocular ovary. In the case of parietal placentae, they often 
project so far into the ovary as at first sight to chamber it. 


The concrescence of the carpels may also include the styles or the styles and 
stigmas. 


The internal structure of the ovule need not be considered here, but a few 
external points are important. Itis borne upon the placenta by a stalk or funicle. 
When fertilised by the entrance of the tube that grows out from a pollen grain 
resting on the stigma, it grows into a seed, covered by a seed-coat or testa. 


The ripe seed contains an embryo which under proper conditions may grow 
into a new plant, and there may be, between the embryo and the sced-coat, some 
endosperm or albumen, a whitish oily or starchy tissue, being the food upon which 
the young plant has to live till it has come above ground and got green leaves of its 


oe 


oie 


Nov. 1906.] 415 Miscellaneous. 


own. When there is no endosperm, as in peas, the food is stored in the embryo. 
The gourds and squashes are good examples of albuminous, the peas and beans of 
exalbuminous, seeds. 

The gynoeceum or ovary may be superior or inferior (above); apocarpous (if free) or syncarpous 
(if united) carpels; may have avile, free central, parietal, basal, or apical placentation; may be 
uni- tri- multi-locular, &c. (with 1, 2, 3, many chambers). The style is usually terminal, but may be 
lateral; it may be long, short, or absent (stigma sessile) ; cylindrical, thread-like, &c. ; single, or as 
many styles as carpels. The stigma or stigmas may be sessile or on a style or styles; simple, and 
then often capitate or head-like, lobed (branched into large branches with but small bays between 
them), bi- tri- multi-fid (with larger branches), &c. The ovule may be erect, ascending (sloping upwards), 
horizontal, or pendulous (hanging). It may be orthotropous (in line with the stalk) anatropous (bent 
back on the stalk, see plate) or campylotropous (doubled on itself). All these characters are important 


in classification. 
(Lo be continued.) 


CO-OPERATIVE CREDIT IN THE UNITED PROVINCHS, INDIA. II. 


The raising of capital to finance co-operative societies has presented no 
difficulties since the passing of Act X of 1904. The Cawnpore Woollen Mills Company 
placed a sum of Rs. 10,000 at the disposal of the Registrar, for the purposes of 
advances to such societies. The rate of interest charged is 5 per cent, and according 
to the terms for repayment of principal, the amount shall be paid in ten equal 
annual instalments, beginning with the sixth year after the money has been drawn. 
Besides this, Rs. 5,000 of the advance given by Mr. D. M. Hamilton, of Calcutta, has 
fallen to the share of these Provinces. Apart from these two loans, local capital is 
rapidly becoming available. In the Bulandshahr District, the Organization Society 
has raised a sum of Rs. 7,000 from the local market at 6 per cent. In the Banda dis- 
trict, the local mahajans are anxious to invest in the district societies at the same 
rate. It seems very probable that all the permanent capital that may prove neces- 
sary for co-operative societies in the near future will be locally obtainable without 
resort to loans from Government except in special cases. The system of depositing 
money is also showing signs of growth, and in some districts a fair proportion of the 
working capital is provided in this forin by the members themselves. So common is 
this habit of deposit becoming, that ina number of the societies recently started, 
the members have agreed to a compulsory half-yearly deposit, asa condition of 
membership of the society. These compulsory deposits, which are in the first 
instance of the nature of fixed deposits for five years, take on or two forms. Either 
they are calculated on the rent paid by the member, the rate varying in different 
societies from two pice to one anna per rupee, or they are madein grain at the rate 
of one or two pansiris for every plough in the member’s use. In the latter case, 
the grain is sold by the punchayat in the open market and the proceeds credited 
to the account of the members who have made the deposit. 


In both cases, the deposits bear interest at the rate of one anna in the rupee 
perannum. The advantages of such asystem of deposit are obvious. In the first 
place, they are a means of increasing the working capital of the society, and allow 
of gradual expansion of its operations. They are also valuable as an effective means 
of increasing the interest taken by the members in the success of the institution, 
and of causing them to teel that the society is their own, nota venture started and 
financed by the Government and dependent on the exertions of-officials for existence 
and success. Probably the most important of all the results which may be antici- 
pated from the system lies in the cultivation of habits of thrift. It may reasonably 
be hoped that in the conclusion of the initial quinquennial period, the habit of 
deposit will have grown so strong, and its advantages become so apparent, that the 
members will volunteer to continue the custom, 


0 Ung eb 
Miscellaneous. 416 |Nov. 1906. 


r 
4a 


Provision has been made in the model by-laws that in the years ot scarcity or 
crop failure, or in any individual case in which the compulsory deposit would mean 
hardship to the depositor, the punchayat shall have the power to remit or postpone 
the deposit. Where general remission is sanctioned by the punchayat the fact must 
be reported to the Registrar for his information. It is permissible to hope that this 
provision, while preventing hardship in years of scarcity, will at the same time 
counteract the temptation to remit in years when general remission is not called for. 

The two great problems which at present confront the movement are the 
illiteracy of the lower castes, for whom co-operation is specially fitted and specially 
necessary, and the absence, under existing conditions, of any connection between 
the co-operative credit societies and the joint stock banks. LEfforts have been 
directed towards the solution of these problems and 1 method evolved, which seems 
to overcome the difficulty in each case. The outlines of these methods were origi- 
nally sketched by Mr. Winter (at present Chief Secretary to the Local Government) 
in a note dated the 21st June, 1902. 

The illiteracy of the lower castes is such, that it prevents any possibilities of 
independent societies, owing to the inability of members of such societies to keep 
their accounts. At the same time itis obvious that the lower castes are not ina 
position to command sufficient assistance from literate members of castes above them 
in the social scale. Any scheme by which the lower castes can be admitted to the 
benefits of co-operative credit must then have as an essential feature the removal of 
account-keeping from the sphere of the village society. The existing difficulty in 
bringing village societies into touch with the joint stock banks chiefly lies not in the 
want of tangible security, butin the smallness of the amounts with which such 
societies deal. Hven with the most reliable security, it would not be paying business 
for a joint stock bank to advance a couple of hundred rupees, repayable in 
instalments spread over aconsiderable number of years. If, however, the village 
societies could be induced to combine for the purpose of taking loans of a con- 
siderable amount, there is every reason to believe that it would be possible for them ‘ 
to obtain such loans from the joint stock banks at a reasonable rate of interest. : 

The realization of the above two facts led in the first instance to the experi- 
ment of Central Banks to which village societies were affiliated as branches, There 
are now five or six such institutions and their branches number some 55 or 60, The 
process of formation was by fission of certain existing village banks, whose members 
had been recruited from many castes resident in several villages. The new societies 
were confined to members of the same or allied castes, and to residents of one 
village. In this reconstruction, it was inevitable that certain of the members of the 
original society could not, owing to their caste or residence, be included in any of 
the newly-formed small societies. To such members their initial entrance fee was 
returned, and their connection with the society was severed. The small societies 
having been formed, the members of their punchayats, or in cases where the number 
of the societies was considerable, their sarpanches became ex-officio members of a 
Central Society. The sole duties of this Central Society are to raise money on behalf 
of, and keep the accounts of, all the affiliated societies. The method of working is 
simple. When the Central Society is instituted and afterwards once a year, at its 
annual general meeting, the maximum credit to be allowed to each one of the con- 
stituent societies is fixed. This amountis recorded. Thereafter the sole duty and 
responsibility, that rests with the punchayat of the Central Society with refer- 
ence toloans, are to see that the amount so fixedis at no time exceeded by any 
society. With the internal arrangements of the affiliated societies the punchayat 
of the Central Society has nothing to do. All applications for loans and all amounts 
in repayment, come up to the Central Society through the punchayats of the 
affiliated societies, and from the lists of payments, or lists of applications for loans, 


a 


» ines 


Wwe aes? 


CP ye FS oh Bec 


oe f- 


Nov. 1906. ] 417 Miscellaneous. 


as the case may be, the accountant at the office of the Central Society writes up 
his cash-book, and the ledger-accounts of the affiliated societies and of the 
individual members of those societies. No accounts ave kept at the offices of the 
village societies, All that is required there is a list of the members and a list of 
outstanding loans, The members of the affiliated societies have little difficulty in 
getting these written up by some friendly literate resident of the village in those 
cases where there is no literate member of the Society. There seems also to be no 
difficulty in obtaining the necessary ‘help in the preparation of lists of loans 
required and of payments for submission to tle Central Society. In that Society, 
however, it has been found necessary to employ paid labour for account-keeping. 
The payment in the case of small societies takes the form of an annual gratuity, 
but when the capital of any Central Society becomes large and the number of 
affiliated societies numerous, a whole time accountant will of necessity be employed 


-upon a regular salary. 


The joint and several responsibility of the members of affiliated societies 
in such a scheme is two-fold. Primarily it extends to the loans due by members 
of their own affiliated Society. Secondly, it extends to the whole of the obligations 
of the Central Society. This is, of course, a necessity, as the members of the 
Central Society would naturally refuse to undertake the responsibility of the whole 
of the liabilities of that society as a personal responsibility. They are empowered 
by the by-laws to pledge the credit of the societies which they ex-officio represent. 
As a matter of fact the secondary {responsibility of the members of affiliated 
societies would only become a reality in the case of failure of any society to carry 
out its primary responsibility. This is a very remote contingency, and should it 
arise, the reserve fund would, in any well-managed institution, suffice to meet the 
loss incurred through the failure of an affiliated society to perform its obligations. 

The above system has been working in the case of one of the districts for 
the past seven months, and seems to be proving a success. Its advantages are 
many. In the first place, the difficulty of account-keeping in the villages is 
successfully overcome by the simple method of removing accounts altogether from 
the duties of the village punchayat. In the place of ten or fifteen small and 
struggling societies, in each of which account-keeping has proved or would prove 
uw difficulty, there is one strong society, which isin a position to offer remuneration 
to » competent accountant. This again results in the possibility of recruiting 
cas‘e societies from the lower castes, among whom literate men are extremely 
rar. Again, it results in a number of petty reserve funds, no one of which is of 
any real value as an asset of security, being replaced by one large reserve, against 
which it will in a short time be possible to contract temporary loans where such 
arc necessary. Further, owing to the increase in the amounts required, it is 
po sible for such Central Societies to go to the joint stock banks with some 
probability that loans will be granted. 


The central system isin fact only an attempt to induce among societies 
co-operation of exactly the same nature as at present, in existing societies, obtains 
aniong individuals. All the advantages which are so marked in the case of 


inclividual combination for eredit are still more marked in the case of a combination 
of societies for the same purpose. 


This system is being adopted in the case of town banks which are being 
started in Allahabad and in Gorakphur. Instead of dealing with individual 
members, these banks are about to deal with groups of members, each of which 
is a separate society, and inside which each of the members is jointly and severally 
responsible with each of his fellow members for the loans granted by the town 
bank. In this case, however, there is no secondary responsibility. The banks are 
being started on share capital with limited liability. 


Miscellaneous. 418 Nov. 1906. 


One of the most valuable advantages which the system of central and 
affiliated societies offers is the ease with which the work is extended. As funds 
become available, the number of members of affiliated societies can be increased 
by recruitment, or new societies can be affiliated. The increase in the volume of 
account-keeping in such cases is by no means commensurate with the increase in 
the number of individuals to whom the benefits of co-operative credit extend. All 
that is requisite is afew more pages in the ledger of the Central Society. In the 
case of a town bank, when the available funds are more than necessary for the 
requirements of the town in which it works, it is possible for it to extend its 
operations by affiliation of small rural societies in the vicinity, or by loan to central 
or rural societies in the neighbourhood. In course of time it seems probable that 
the normal district organization will be a co-operative town bank at headquarters 
with branches in the tahsil headquarters and larger towns of the district, and 
affiliated village societies in a very large number, if not all, of the villages of 
the district. 


Co-operative effort in the United Provinces is not confined to co-operative 
banking, though in the nature of things this special form is at present the most 
important. At the present moment there is a most interesting effort, on the part 
of the silk weavers of Benares, to escape from the clutches of the capitalist 
merchants who control the trade, and to obtain for themselves the profits which 
go to the middleman. A society has been formed, of which the membership roll 
runs into thousands, which has for its object the provision of raw material at 
wholesale prices to the weavers, and which will also give advances on loan to 
respectable men to enable them to hold the finished product until satisfactory 
sales can be effected. Details are being worked out. The Society will have share 
capital, and already some Rs. 50,000 have been promised by the weavers. The 
danger which has to be avoided is premature struggle with the body which at 
present controls the market. If the Society at first confines its efforts to the 
provision of material at the cheapest rates possible, and to provision of cheap credit 
to deserving workmen, much will have been done. Later as it gains strength and 
accumulates funds, it will be in a position to take over the distribution of the 
finished product. Its initial financial position will not justify any such attempt 
at the present time. é 


Preliminary steps are being taken for the formation of a co-operative seed 
depot in the Sultanpur district. Such a society would be highly popular, and 
could be run with success. Its initiation has been retarded by the abnormal rise 
in the price of grain owing to the frost in January and February last and the 
unpropitious character of the monsoon. 


There are other forms of co-operative effort which will doubtless be 
attempted in the near future. The form that co-operation may take is, however, 
of secondary moment. Once co-operation in any form is a success, the people may 
be trusted to work out other forms for themselves. The agriculturist of these 
Provinces has never shown himself slow to adopt any improvement which is 
workable and valuable, and it is not to be expected that he will be slow to adopt 
the principles of co-operation, once they are proved by experiment to be successful 
in any one direction. That these principles are sound is undoubted, and their 
ultimate general adoption is simply a matter of time and of careful and systematic 
education. The methods best suited to the conditions of the country will be 
ascertained by the people for whose benefit the present attempt is being made. 
And once the principles are known and the method of their application ascertained, 
a new era will dawn for the agriculturist, and for the lower classes generally.— 


J. H. Simpson, I.C.S,, Registrar of Co-operative Credit Societies, U. P. in Indian 
Agriculturist. 


Nov. 1906. | 419 Miscellaneous. 
CO-OPERATIVE CREDIT IN BENGAL. 


While the problem of the improvement of Indian Agriculture is being 
attacked from the experimental and the research side by the Imperial and Provincial 
Departments of Agriculture, the important question of financing the agriculturist 
has not been forgotten. It is remarkable that the industry by which over eighty 
per cent. of the population live is supplied with most of its capital ata rate of 
interest varying from 25 to 50 percent. per annum. Any other industry would 
die under such conditions, but the agricultural industry cannot die; it is the ryot 
who dies. He cannot turn to amore lucrative occupation when agriculture does 
not pay; he either starves or becomes hopelessly indebted and the slave of the 
money-lender. Ifthe problem of financing agriculture can be solved, the benefit 
to the ryot will be greater and more direct than the saving occasioned by new 
methods of agriculture or the profit to be gained from a greater outturn. Without 
the use of capital ata reasonable rate, the agriculturist will be unable to take 
advantage of new ways and means. The success of the results of research and 
experiment depend directly on the success of the effort to supply the ryot with 
capital at a reasonable rate. 


Cheap capital or facile credit is not necessarily a boon in itself. Switzerland 
has organised a system of cheap credit with the result that 60 per cent. of the land 
is now mortgaged. The present and past generation have merely discovered a 
system of robbing future generations of a portion of their means of livelihood. 
Any increase in comfort has been obtained at the expense of their children’s children, 
If credit of this kind were supplied in India, the ryot, who formerly was in a 
position to borrow Rs, 100 from his mahajan for his daughter’s marriage and pay 
50 per cent. per annum for the accommodation, would simply spend more on the 
marriage, and so land himself deeper in debt. With credit cheap he would purchase 
more. 


The question has thus two sides, commercial and economic. A system of 
finance which might prove a commercial success would not necessarily prove an 
economic success, but the system which promises to be an economic success must be 
based on commercial principles. The commercial side may be shortly stated thus :— 
The ryot is ready to borrow asum of money for which he is at present paying 
interest from 25 to 50 per cent, or more; the majority of ryots have good security 
to offer for the sum which they require, while the capitalist has money to lend on 
good security at 6 per cent. These two have to be brought together for their 
mutual benefit. It would be easy and commercially profitable for the State to set 
up an agricultural bank provided with special summary powers for collecting its 
dues, but such a system would not benefit the agriculturist in the long run, 


It is impossible for the large capitalist to come into direct contact with the 
small cultivator. The capitalist has no local knowledge of the individual, he has 
no agency for collecting small loans, and he cculd not keep millions of small accounts, 
There must be some intermediate organisations. In Germany this has been found 
in Co-operative Credit Societies, and in India an attempt is being made to create a 
similar organisation, This system aims at capitalizing the honesty of the villages. 
Where anything in the shape of a village community exists the majority of the 
cultivators have a character for honesty, often not extending beyond the narrow 
limits of the village, but within these limits most transactions take place without 
any written bond, the man’s word being sufficient. On this honesty a certain 
amount of credit is based ; it may be a credit of only a few rupees, but the measure 
is known to the villagers. They know exactly how much aman ought to spend 
and how much he can earn. We want, therefore, to teach the poopie to amalgamate 
this village credit and jointly borrow asum sufficient to meet the whole village. 


Miscellaneous. 420 


By ih 
— [Nov. 1906. 
The capitalist does not know which cultivator is good for Rs. 5 and which for Rs. 100 : 
he does not know who requires Rs. 20 to finance him and who requires three 
times that sum; he does not know who is already hopelesly involved and who 
can repay. Itis the villagers alone who have all the information. On the other 
hand, the capitalist can see that the whole village is good for the total sum required. 
The ryots take the responsibility for dividing the money, of collecting principal 
and interest, and of keeping the separate accounts. This organisation of credit 
must be the bed rock on which any system of agricultural finance is based, and 
wherever a village exists, it will be found that the ryot’s‘credit in his own village is 
better than his credit anywhere else. The individual may have a character for 
honesty in his caste, but his credit in his village will be greater than his credit 
with his caste. 


There is no doubt that in this we have the germ ofa solution of this great 
financial problem, but the question remains how to provide against the evils of 
facile credit. By organising the village and making the members jointly and 
severally responsible, we create a check on excessive expenditure and prevent 
the individual from robbing his children. The village will not lend to the individual 
unless they see a prospect of the money being repaid within a reasonable time, and, 
moreover, they will not lend unless they consider the expenditure necessary. A 
man is not tempted to spend on display more than he can afford when he has to 
run the gauntlet of public. opinion, and the village will not lend him more than 
he can repay when they realise their joint responsibility. Further, there are so 
miny necessary uses to which the members can put the money that they will not 
give out the money for unnecessary expenditure, and if the member turns to. 
the money-lender again, his name is removed and the privilege of borrowing at 
a low rate ceases. 


There are at present in Bengal eighty-six experimental village societies, and 
the majority of these show every sign of ultimate success. These pioneer societies 
are distributed over twenty-two of the thirty-two districts in Bengal. The capital 
has been raised partly from Government and Wards’ Estates and partly from private 
sources. The societies pay from6 to 125 per cent. for the money borrowed, which 
they lendagain at from 123 to18} percent. The whole of the profits go to a village 
fund from which the original capital borrowed will be repaid, and the village will 
then be in a position to carry on their society with a capital of their own sufficient 
for all ordinary seasons. Working on these lines, steady progress has been made 
during the last eighteen months. Wherever a village community can be found, the 
scheme will succeed, but in parts of Hastern Bengal where the cultivators do not 
live in villages, some modification will probably be necessary. The societies have 
been found in villages which are not heavily indebted, because they offer the best 
field for initial effort, but as soon as the neighbouring villages see the benefit, they 
also demand similar societies in order to pay off their debts and start afresh. At 
present the societies are small, witha capital of Rs. 200 to Rs. 300, which is often 
sufficient to finance a small village, and such little societies are the best ground for 
observation and experience. 


Three grain banks, run on co-operative lines by a zemmindar of Dacca, have 
attracted much public interest, and it has been recommended that such golas 
should be opened all over the province. The question of establishing grain golas is 
one of some difficulty, and so far only two have been registered in this Province. | 
The price of grain ruled high this year, so that those with surplus stocks were eager 
to sell, while those with short crops had nothing to deposit. A grain bank requires 
much supervision, and it seems impossible to runit in Bengal as anything buta 
store of food grain. The different varieties of paddy sown by the cultivators of a 
single village are so numerous that the individual cannot rely for his seed upon the ~ 


= é 


Nov. 1906.] 421 Miscellaneous. 


general stock in a grain bank, Under such conditions the only method of running a 
seed association is to purchase the variety of seed indented for by each member, and 
to use the collection in the golaas food grain. The ryots readily use mixed grain 
for food, but seed grain must be specially selected and true to variety. For the 
following year a sufficient quantity of the stock must be sold and the next year’s 
seed grain purchased. The surplus stock must be soldas soonas the new year’s 
grain is harvested, for paddy deteriorates after one year. All these little transac- 
tions mean a large amount of labour, and it is difficult to get rid of the custom 
whereby every one who touches the grain gets a certain percentage. For these 
reasons I have come to the conclusion that on the whole it is easier to found 
successful money societies than seed banks; the temptations are fewer and the 
trouble of management is not so great. 


At present, however, one experiment on a large scale is being made. In the 
Southal Parganas the Deputy Commissioner has carried on a grain-lending business 
for some years for the benefit of the ryots of the Government Estate and the Wards 
Estates under hischarge. There are golas at four centres with a total capital of nearly 
25,000 maunds of paddy. Loans were made to individual cultivators, but the business 
soon assumed such proportions that it got beyond the management of the Deputy Com- 
missioner without the assistance of a special staff. The defects of the system were the 
difficulties of checking the accounts and the stock, the high cost of the management 
owing to the payments made to headmen and others for collecting the debts; and 
lastly, the exactions at all times of weighment and check. In consequence the rate 
charged was not smaller than the rate at which the ryot could borrow from the 
village grain dealer. Under the new rules recently drawn up, loans will in future 
not be made to individuals, but only to batches of tenon the joint and several 
bond of the whole number. If any batch chooses, it may be registered as a co- 
operative society. In such cases the loan will be treated as the capital 
of the village bank and half the interest will be credited to the village;in other 
cases the full interest and capital must be paid annually direct into the central gola 
Loans to societies are repayable in four equal annual instalments commencing 
from the end of the third year, 


Success in all these experiments will not come atonce. It is necessary to 
be patient. Raiffesen started his first bank in 1849, a second in 1854, and it was 
not till nearly forty years later that the movement made rapid strides. In Bengal 
there are already over three score societies working on sound principles, and this 
tends to show that we are on the road to asuccessful solution of the problem of 
financing agriculture.—By W. R. Gourlay, I.C.S., Registrar of Co-operative Credit 
Societies, Bengal, in the Agr. Journal of India, July. 


Edible Products. 422 [Nov. 1906. 
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Adulterated EK. oil. Ch. & Drug. 7/1/05, 38. 
K. oil. Schimmel’s Report, Oct. 1904, p, 31 & other reports, 


biths weer pate 


ane 


Nov. 1906.] 423 Miscellaneous. 


Eucommia.—See “ T.A.” Dec. 1899, p. 371. 


Mae ee J. Les latiferes de ?Kucommia ulmoides. Journ. de Bot. XIV., 
’ Pp: a 
Guttapercha froma Chinese tree. Kew Bull, 1901, 89. 


Euphorbia.—Almeidina (juice of E. Tirucalli). Angola Trade Report 1898. 
Sudu Sudu (EH. neriifolia for sweetmeats). Str. Bull. 1, 1902, p. 389. 


Excoecaria.—E. Agallocha. Ind. Merc. 24/7/00, 511. 


HINDOO COOLIE LABOUR IN BRITISH GUIANA. 


The sugar industry of British Guiana, on the mainland of South America, 
and of the British Island of Trinidad, are dependent, to a very great extent, upon 
the supply of coolie labour brought to them from the British Hast Indies. These 
labourers have been brought in under ten-year contracts, one clause of which is 
that they shall be returned to their own country at the expiration of their 
indenture. This has led many of these immigrants to return to their old homes, 
although they would know that life would be much harder with them in the Hast 
Indies than in the West. A free passage home, however, has always had its 
attractions, and it is only now, after fifty years of experience, that in British 
Guiana they are about to tax the immigrant for a part of his transportation money 
if he desires to return home. The present provision is that the men shall pay 
one-half and the women one-third of the cost. 


The return charge is said to be already having a good effect and a material 
diminution in the application for return passage is announced. The Demerara 
Argosy is urging that the coolies should pay their entire passage money if they 
wish to return, and that in this way the labour supply of the colony could be better 
maintained than now. 


Incidental to this, we might say that the British colony of Mauritius, in the 
Indian Ocean, that produces about 200,000 tons of sugar, thus making it the largest 
sugar-producing British colony, is also dependent very largely upon this same 
coolie labour. The distance from Hindostan, however, is so much less to Mauritius 
that there is no serious difficulty there in getting an adequate supply of labour.— 
Louisiana Planter. 


INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN AMERICA. 


An important report upon the need of elementary training for the great 
productive industries has been presented to the Massachusetts legislature by a 
special commission, headed by President Carroll D. Wright as chairman. Agri- 
culture is included among these industries, and definite provision is made for it 
in the general scheme by which the public school system is to be enriched and 
expanded along industrial and vocational lines. 


The commission has been engaged for some time in an investigation of the 
relation of the public schools to the various industries of the State, the preparation 
which the schools afford for the life work of the pupils, and the economic aspects 
of the question. It finds that the productive industries, including agriculture, 
manufactures, and building depend mainiy upon chance for reeruiting their 
service. These industries are only toucbed educationally in their most advanced 
and scientific forms. No instruc.ion whatever is furnished at public expense in 
the theory and practice of these cecupations, and while agriculture is recognised 
by the State in its aid to the agricuitural college, there is no preparatery work 
leading up to it in the same way that the high schools lead up to the other 
colleges. The same is true to a large extent of the schools of technology. The 


Miscellaneous. 424 (Nov. 1906. 


children who leave school to enter employments at the age of 14 or 15 have had 
no training to develop their actual productive value or efficiency, and this is largely 
true of those who remain in school until 16 or 18. The added years, it is pointed 
out, are to a considerable extent lost time, so far as developing efficiency in 
productive employments is concerned. In the case of both classes of children the 
employment upon which they enter after leaving school is determined by chance. 


These conditions, the commission holds, have an important economic bearin g. 
for they tend to increase the costof production, to limit the output in quantity, 
and to lower the grade in quality. Industries so recruited cannot long compete 
with similar industries recruited from the ranks of technically trained persons. 


The commission concludes that the elements of industrial training, agri- 
culture, domestic and mechanical sciences should be taught in the public schools, 
and it presents a strong argument in support of this conclusion. “The State needs 
a wider diffusion of industrial intelligence as a foundation for the highest technical 
success, and this can only be acquired in connection with the general system of 
education into which it should enter as an integral part from the beginning. The 
latest philosophy of education reinforces the demands of productive industry by 
showing that that which fitsa child best for his place in the world asa producer 
tends to his own highest development physically, intellectually, and morally.” 


Two lines are suggested in which industrial education may be developed— 
through theexisting public-school system and through independent industrial schools. 
It is recommended that cities and towns so modify the work in the elementary 
schools as to include instruction and practice in the elements of productive industry, 
as applied to agriculture and the mechanic and domestic arts, and “that this 
instruction be of such a character as to secure from it the highest cultural as well 
as the highest industrial value.” It is also urged that the work in the high schools 
be modified ‘“‘ that the instructions in mathematics, the sciences, and drawing shall 
show the application and use of these subjects in industrial life, with special 
reference to local industries: ...... that is, Algebra and Geometry should be so 
taught in the public schools as to show their relations to construction, botany to 
horticulture, chemistry to agriculture, manufactures, and domestic science, and 
drawing to every form of industry.” 


In addition to these modifications the commission recommends that towns 
and cities provide new elective industrial courses in high schools for instruction in 
the principles of agriculture and the domestic and mechanic arts, with both 
day and evening courses, so as to accommodate persons already employed in trades. 
and furthermore, that part-time day courses be provided for children between the 
ages of 14 and 18 years who are employed during the remainder of the day, so 
that instruction in the principles and the practice of the arts may go on together. 


The above relates entirely to the existing public school system, whose 
integrity the scheme proposes to preserve. For the more technical and advanced 
work the commission believes that distinctive industrial schools, separated entirely 
from the public school system, should be maintained. This departure is held to be 
entirely in accord with the policy to which the State is already fully committed, 
through its support of normal schools, art schools, institutes of technology, and 
the agricultural college. In order to secure proper instruction for teachers in the 
elements of agriculture, it is suggested that a normal department be established 
in the State agricultural college, instead of attempting to introduce the subject 
into normal schools or establish a separate school for that purpose. 

The recommendations of the commission are embodied in a bill submitted 
to the legislature, which provides for the appointment of a commission on industrial 
education to promote this work, and proposes State aid to towns and cities for 
maintenance of distinctive schools for industrial training, or of industrial courses 


Wir as oa ye. eas Os 


4 


= tear 


MABEL 


4 


Nov. 1906.] 425 Miscellaneous, 


in high or manual training schools. The hearings on this bill before the legislative 


committees have attracted much attention, and develoved widespread interest in 


favour of the measure.—U. 8S. Department of Agriculture, Experiment Station 
Record, May, 1906. 


CHEAP ALCOHOL FOR RUNNING ESTATE ENGINES. 


It has been rumoured for some time that it would be only a matter of time 
when every farmer, or nearly every one, will be able to manufacture his own light, 
heat and motive power from the things which are now largely wasted. Prof. 
Thompson a well-known scientist, writes :— 

“There are some facts which are not generally known which ought to be, 
namely: That alcohol is produced and sold in Cuba for from 12 to 15 cents per 
gallon, and that it is an excellent fuel, as I have found by tests, for the running of 
gas engines—taking the place of gasoline. At 15 or 20 cents a gallon, I think, it would 
eventually displace gasoline. Burned in similar engines it produces no smoke, soot 


‘nor disagreeable odour. Since alcohol mixes with water freely, a fire started with it 


is one of the easiest to extinguish. This is not the case with gasoline or even 
kerosene, both of which float on water and continue burning. Tomy mind, the 
farmer should be the most deeply interested in the production and use of alcohol 
for industrial purposes, especially in its use for farm power. 

A crop that is not marketable, or partly spoiled, be it a fruit, grain or other 
product, could be made the source of cheap alcohol for industrial purposes. Alcohol 
ean be stored in tanks for an indefinite period without deterioration. Whether 
denaturized or not, asI have stated above, ata reasonable price it is the natural 
fuel for all gas engines, as the amount which can be produced is practically unlimited, 
whereas with the increasing use of gasoline the price is sure to rise.”—Jnland 
Farmer. 


COTTON MEAL AND COTTON SEED AS FERTILIZERS. 


The following notes on the uses of cotton meal and cotton seed and the 
comparisons between the two, are from a paper read before the Cotton Seed 
Crushers’ Association in America by Dr. G. J. Redding, Director of the Georgia 
(U.S,A.) Experimental Association :— 


It is well known to you all by history and tradition, and by personal experi- 
ence and participation to many much younger than myself, that for ‘“ generations 
before the war” and for some years thereafter cotton seed was the main reliance 
of the farmers of the South asa manure. Just at this point it may be well to correct 
some erroneous statements that gain currency in the public press ever and anon in 
regard to the uses and abuses of cotton seed—-statements that reflect on the common 
intelligence of the farmers of forty years ago and more. We have often heard it 
said that cotton seed was considered a nuisance by our fathers and forefathers; 
thatit was a burning and unsolved problem how to dispose of this two-thirds of the 
output of our crops; that theseed were permitted to rot in masses around the 
gin houses, or were hauled off to the swamps, or thrown into the streams in order to 
get rid of their objectionable affluvium. In a word, it was claimed that the farmers 
of the old school did not know the value of cotton seed asa feed and as a fertilizer, 
All of which statements are without foundation in fact, or with but little better 
foundation than the charge that used to be made by our friends in the North, that 
we cotton growers were accustomed to feed our slaves on cotton seed, 


The simple truth is that on a few farms on the alluvial lands along our 
water courses, on which the soil was very rich—especially in nitrogenous matters— 
cotton seed was not found to be effectiveas a fertilizer, particularly on cotton, The 


Miscellaneous. 426 (Nov. 1906. 


owners of those farms thought that their soils were so rich that cotton seed would 
not make them richer. We now know that the reason why cotton seed is not 
effective on rich virgin and alluvial soils is because the chief plant food constituent 
of seed is nitrogen, and that these soils are already abundantly supplied with that 
element. 


But the farmers of the “‘old red hills” of Georgia and of the adjoining States 
were accustomed to use cotton seed as a manure for wheat, oats, corn, sugar eane, 
garden vegetables, etc. My personal recollections and experience of farm practices 
extend back to 1849, when I first guided the plow. But at corn planting time I 
dropped the plow-lines and was put to ‘‘ dropping corn,” or ‘* dropping cotton seed.” 
The seed was well rotted and applied at the rate of one ‘‘ handful to two hills” (about 
ten bushels per acre). 


{f pass over the fact that cotton seed was also appreciated by the old-time 
farmer as food for the cow and death to the hog. I will only add that as late as 
1870 I witnessed cotton seed selling at an executor’s sale (for manurial purposes) at 
27 cents per bushel of 80 pounds—a price that you seed crushers are rarely willing 
to give. But itis true that the farmers of that day knew nothing about cottonseed 
meal and cottonseed oil, for they had never seen the seed separated into its 
constituents. That was the dark age of cottonseed knowledge. 


Cottonseed has undoubted merit as a manure, or rather as an ingredient of 
a fertilizer. Its conspicuous defect is the fact that its content of nitrogen is out of 
all just proportion to its content of phosphoric acid and potash. It is ‘“‘complete” 
in that it contains all three of the so-called elements, but is almost as badly balanced 
as isstable manure. As wecan now readily understand, it was most effective when 
applied to a crop—such as wheat, oats, corn, garden vegetables—that requires a large 
percentage of nitrogen. This unbalanced natural composition, while a serious 
defect, may be readily remedied by compositing the seed—in the soil or other- 
wise—with the proper quantities of acid phosphate and some form of potash. 

Another defect is the necessity for partially rotting the seed in order to 
prevent germination. It isa fact, however, that well-rotted cottonseed is really 
more effective than the unrotted, crushed seed, because in that form itis much 
more quickly available. 

Let us now examine into the merits of cottonseed meal asa fertilizer, or 
fertilizer ingredient. 

1. Its mechanical condition is practically perfect, permitting it to be dis- 
tributed with ease or readily mixed with other ingredients. 


2. It is quicker in action than the raw or unrotted seed. 
3. Itis less bulky and less offensive to handle. 


Its defects are, asin the case of the seed, that it is badly balanced, being 
even worse in this respect than cottonseed, containing as it does nearly three times 
as much nitrogen as of phosphoric acid, and nearly five times as much potash. It is 
too rich in nitrogen, when used alone, for any crop that is planted. But cotton 
meal is aremarkably convenient nitrogenous ingredient in preparing a complete 
and well-balanced fertilizer for any crop that requires such a fertilizer. 

Up to this point it perhaps has not been manifest what direction this dis- 
cussion will take and what proposition may be affirmed. I will now affirm, and hope 
to be able to maintain, the foilowing propositions :— 

1. That cotton meal is a cheaper and more effective fertilizer than cotton- 
seed. 
2. That a farmer should never use cottonseed directly asa fertilizer when 
he may exchange it for a fair equivalent of meal. 


Nov. 1906. } 427 Miscellancous. 
3. That, all things considered, 800 pounds of cotton meal are equivalent, as 
a fertilizer, to 2,000 pounds of cottonseed. 
I will first give the actual analysis of cottonseed and of cotton meal and hulls: — 
TABLE NO. 1, 
ANALYSES OF COTTONSEED AND PRODUCTS. 


Av. phospho- ‘ Relative 

ric acid. Nitrogen. Potash. com’). 
Substance. Per cent. Per cent, Per cent. Value. 
Cottonseed ... “is 1°27 gt 3:13 std 117 Ps $11°83 
Cotton meal ... sis 2°50 As 7:00 ahs 1°50 aus 25°00 
Cotton hulls ... oF 0°25 ft 0°69 ie 1:02 ae 1°02 


The oil and linters are not included in the above table, for the reason that 
neither is considered of any appreciable value for fertilizing purposes. The ‘ Reli- 
able Commercial Values” in the last column are based on the following valuations 
of the three ‘‘ valuable elements”: Av. phosporic acid, 5 cents per pound; nitrogen, 
15 cents per pound; potash, 5 cents per pound. These will be admitted as 
approximately correct valuations and fair for all the purposes of this paper. Let 
us now present the content of each of the three ‘‘ valuable elements” present 
in each of the three ingredients into which the whole seed is divided. Author- 
ities differ somewhat, and the oil mills also vary in their results; but it may 
be accepted as afair average that the output of one ton of cotton seed is about 
740 pounds of meal and 900 pounds of hulls. 


TABLE NO. 2. 
TOTAL AMOUNT AND VALUES IN ONE TON OF SEED. 


Phosphoric Relati 

acid. Nitrogen. Potash. peter f 

Lbs. Lbs. Value. 

740 lbs. cotton meal xe 18°50 oi 51:30 zt 11°10 W3 $9-24 
900 ,, hulls es eh 2:25 be 6°21 ads 9°18 a 150 
1,640lbs. mealand hulls ... 2075 .. 65801 .. 22 |... 19-77 
The one ton of seed oh 25-40 Ves 62°60 ee 23°40 us 11'83 
Loss... a OTR Mee aC gs liner A ce Me 


The ‘‘loss” stated in the foregoing table must be charged to the linters, oil 
and waste not included, amounting to $1'06. With the facts of the analytical 
recults just before us we are prepared to make a comparison of the relative content 
and value of the fertilizing ingredients. The last table shows that of the $11°83 
worth of plant food contained in one ton of seed we find $9°24 worth in the meal 
produced from the ton of seed. In other words, the 740 pounds of meal yieldea by 
the ton of seed lack only $2°59 of representing the total plant food content of the 
ton of seed. But amore direct and practical comparison is that which may be 
diawn between a ton of seed anda ton of meal. The farmer as well as the crusher 
wants to know how much cotton meal will bea fair exchange for one ton of seed, 
not taking account of the commercial value of the oil and of the hulls which the 
crusher is assumed to return. 


Table No. 1 shows that one ton of cotton seed contains a relative value of 
phosphoric acid, nitrogen and potash of $11'°88. On the other hand, one ton of 
cotton meal contains the same plant food elements to the amount of $2500. By an 
easy calculation we find that one ton of cotton meal contains as much plant food, or 
fertilizing values, as are contained in 4,230 pounds of the seed. Or, to state it differ- 
ently, 943 pounds of meal contain as much plant food as are found in 2,000 pounds of 
seed. In other words, 943 pounds of cotton meal are the fertilizing equivalent of 
one ton of seed. This comparison, however, does not take account of the fact that the 


oe VV 
Ly 


Miscellaneous. , 428 [Nov. 1906. nat 


amounts of phosphoric acid and potash, although small, are practically unavailable — 
to the current crop to which the seed may be applied as a fertilizer. Add to 
this the further facts that the cotton meal is much more promptly available to 
plants; its bulk and weight are much less; its mechanical condition is perfect, 
ete., and it may not be thought unreasonable to say that 800 pounds of meal are an 
equivalent to one ton of seed. For years past I have so estimated and have advised 
farmers accordingly, and have been sustained in a general way by the results of 
field experiments. As just intimated, the relative or comparative values of cotton- 
seed and cotton meal do not rest alone on calculations based on the analyses of 
each, Field experiments are the true and final test of value, and these experiments 
are not wanting, both in fullness and significance. These experiments were 
conducted under my direction for the express purpose of determining the relative 
effectiveness of cottonseed and cotton meal, and I vouch for the correctness of the 
results. The first experiment was made on corn in 1891, and was reported in Bulletin 
No. 15 of the Georgia Experiment Station, issued in December, 1891. I quote, in 
part, from the bulletin, but omit the table showing the results in detail :— 


It is manifestly the duty of Experiment Station workers to disabuse the 
minds of farmers of error, as well as to discover new truths—to disprove as well as 
to prove. In the effort to correct error it may sometimes result in convincing the 
experimenter that there is more or less truthin the supposed error. The experi- 
ment was undertaken with the sole purpose to find the truth, A piece of second 
year’s new ground was selected, Nine plots, of three rows each, four feet wide and 
209 feet long, were fertilized and planted as indicated in Table VII. Plots 0 and 9 
were unfertilized. Plots 1, 3,5 and 7 were fertilized at the rate, per acre, of— 


Superphosphate oo is Hpi ie 286 pounds, 
Muriate of potash A at pe Hs 37 45 
Crushed cottonseed re an ous Ao asi Be 

704 pounds. 

Plots 2, 4, 6 and 8 were fertilized at the rate, per acre, of— 

Superphosphate ae ss Jee .. 286 pounds. 
Muriate of potash ve sw, Pe a 37 55 
Cottonseed meal nee ee bre ws 148 Bs 
Cottonseed hulls we sey mY bed 180 a 

646 pounds. 


The amounts of the different ingredients applied in the two series of plots 
were substantially the same, except that the 60 pounds of oil that are found in 
381 pounds of crushed seed are left out in the second series, using the corresponding 
amounts of meal and hulls instead. The experiment then amounts practically to 
a direct test of the value of cotton oil as a fertilizer. If the oil has any fertilizing 
value, the first series of plots should show a larger yield of corn than the second 
series. It should be noted that in this experiment the hulls properly appertaining 
to the quantity of cotton meal used was also applied with the m eal. 


Now examine the table, plot by plot, and then compare the average yield 
per acre of the plots on which the crushed seed were used, with the average yield 
of those on which the meal and hulls—the oil left out—were used. It will be seen — 
that the plots manured with crushed seed yielded an average of 29°2 bushels of 
corn per acre; while the plots without the oil yielded an average of 28°9 bushels 
per acre—a difference in favor of the crushed seed (containing all the oil) of three- 
tenths of a bushel. Of course, this difference is insignificant—no more than might 
have been reasonably expected had the plots been manured exactly alike. Even 
if admitted that the increase of three-tenths of a bushel of corn, equal to 20 cents ‘ 


Nov. 1906. | 429 Miscellaneous. 


in value, is to be credited to the manurial effect of the oil, the gain of 20 cents’ 
worth of corn is made at the cost of 60 pounds of oil, worth $1°75! The unfertilized 
check plots yielded an average of 15°8 bushels per acre. 

The second experiment was also made on corn, in 1894, and was published 
in Bulletin No. 27 of the Georgia Experiment Station. It was planned and executed 
in the same manner and detail as the first described experiment, and I will give 
only the net results :—The fourteen alternating plots of three rows each, fertilized 
with crushed cottonseed, gave an average yield of 29°86 bushels per acre. The 
average yield of the fourteen plots fertilized with cotton meal and hulls was 30°72 
bushels per acre. 

The third experiment, also on corn, was made so recently as 1905 and is 
reported from Bulletin No. 69, published in November last. Omitting the tables 
the essential results are as follows :—The results are striking and should be con- 
sidered as fairly conclusive, so far as the experiment can prove anything; but in 
connection with the previously made tests, already referred to, should be accepted 
as final and conclusive. By reference to Table No. 7 it will be seen that the cotton- 
seed meal plots yielded an average of 36°39 bushels of corn per acre; while the 
crushed cottonseed plots gave an average of 34:07 bushels per acre, a difference 
in favor of the cotton meal of 2°32 bushels per acre. At $22 per ton for cotton meal 
and $19 a ton for cottonseed—the market prices for these products quoted in 
Griffin at date of this writing, the cost of the 164 pounds of cotton meal would be 
$1°'80, and the cost of the 370 pounds of cottonseed meal would be $3°51. To state 


it differently and yet practically, the farmer using the cottonseed instead of the 
cottonseed meal would lose as follows :— 


232 bushels of corn at 70 cents per bushel .. $1°62 
Difference between make value of the meal and seed, in 
favor of the meal.. Bee nhs Ae ae 171 


Loss per acre ai $3'33 
Less cost of 4 pounds of acid Deca ane 3°70 pounds 


of nitrate of potash es 0°12 
Net loss per acre ane 33-21 
P Of course, it will be observed that the price of cottonseed used in the 


calculation is abnormally high, while the meal is about the usual price; but the 
result would only be proportionately less striking if the seed be priced lower. The 
prices above are actually those quoted at the date of this writing. It is also true 
that the prices of the meal and seed are /. o. b. at the oil mill, involving the hauling 
or freighting (or both) of the szed from farm to the mill, and the meal from the 
mill to the farm. It is not difficult to make the proper allowance for this and 
bring the calculation to the basis of both seed and meal delivered on the farm. The 
differe:ce between the yields of the two series of plots, one series fertilized with 
cotton meal and the other with cottonseed, amounting to 2°32 bushels per acre, 
is certainly not due to any difference between the amounts of plant food in th® 
two formulas, for these are substantially the same. But the greater yield of the 
cotton meal plots was doubtless due to the very much better mechanical condition 
of the meal, and therefore its availability, as compared with the cottonseed. The 
plant food contained in the hulls of the seed, although not Jarge in amount, was 
probably totally unavailable to the corn plants. 


CONCLUSIONS. 
- The results of the experiment abundantly confirmed the conclusion reached 
in previous experiments ; that it is not expedient to apply cottonseed as a fertilizer 
directly to corn; but rather that the seed should be exchanged for meal and the 


meal used instead as a fertilizer, whenever a fair and equitable basis of exchange 
can be secured. 


56 


Miscellaneous. 430 


Nore 1.—According to chemical analysis of each, 886 pounds of cotton meal 
are about the equivalent, in content of plant food, to 2,000 pounds of cottonseed. 
But owing to the superior mechanical condition of the meal and its consequently 
greater, or more prompt, availability, it is safe to assume that 800 pounds of meal 
are the full equivalent to one ton of seed. Therefore, whatever excess above 
800 pounds of meal the farmer can get in exchange for a ton of seed, or by selling 
the seed and buying meal. 


The fourth experiment, also performed in 1906, was made on cotton, and 
the results were considerably less unfavorable to the use of cottonseed directly 
as afertilizer. I omit the tabies as before and give only the essential points and 
results. I quote from Bulletin No. 70, issued in December, 1905 :— 


In this experiment the cotton seed and meal and all other ingredients were 
carefully analyzed. The normal formula—355 pounds of acid phosphate (17 per 
cent.); 177 pounds of cottonseed meal; and 25 pounds of muriate of potash, per 
acre, was applied to the odd-numbered plots of five rows each on a one-acre section 
of land. On the even numbered plots were applied enough crushed cottonseed to 
supply exactly the same amount of nitrogen per acre as was contained in the 177 
pounds of cotton meal. Allowance was made for the small quantities of phosphoric 
acid and potash contained in the seed and in the meal, and a suffizient quantity 
of acid phosphate and muriate of potash was added to the 409 pounds of seed to 
make the two formulas—one containing cottonseed meal and the other crushed 
cottonseed—as nearly as practicable equal to each other in content of the three 
valuable elements. 


The cost of each formula, based on $28 per ton for meal and $16 per ton 
of seed, is shown in column 8 of Table No. XI., netting an excess of $1:14 per acre 
in the cost of the cottonseed formula. 


The average yield per acre of the crushed cottonseed plats was 1,155 and 


of the cotton meal plots 1,157 pounds of seed cotton—a difference of only two pounds. ' 


The excess cost of the cottonseed formula per acre being 1°14, to which 
add the value of the two pounds of seed cotton, or say 8 cents equals $1°22 
represents the actual loss incurréd in using 409 pounds of cottonseed—say one-fiftl 
of a ton—crushed and balanced by appropriate amounts of muriate and acid 
phosphate, and applied as a fertilizer to one acre of cotton. Of course $1:22 
multiplied by 5 equals $6:10, would correctly express the loss on each ton of cotton- 
seed so used. 


The more favorable, or rather the less unfavorable, results from the use 
of the cottonseed in this case, compared with those in the corn experiment of the 
same year, were doubtless due to two facts: (1) The year 1905 was exceptionally 
favorable for corn and unfavorable for cotton; and (2) cotton, requiring a much 
longer time to mature, the crushed cottonseed yielded up a larger proportion of 
its plant food to the cotton crop than to the corn crop. 


It may be urged, however, that the cottonseed will add a considerable 
amount of humus to the soil and will gradually build up and improve its productive- 


ness. To this it may be replied that the amount of vegetable matter supplied to ~ 


the soil by an ordinary application of cottonseed would be insignificant and not 
enough to produce any material effect. Moreover, the value of the cotton hulls, 
which would contain all the humus-producing ingredients of the seed not contained 
in the meal, are far too valuable as animal food to be used as an amendment to 
the soil. The farmer could not afford to apply tothe soil as an amendment or 
humus producer a material selling at from $6 to $8a ton for feeding cattle, and 
probably worth more. 


Ges ose ax wee ee - ~ 


> oe 


* 


< 


Nov. 1906.] 431 Miscellaneous. 


Tn conclusion, on the particular propositions that [ have been discussing, it 
seems clear, both from consideration of the chemical analysis of cottonseed and 
cotton meal, that it is a wasteful and unwise practice to use cottonseed 
directly asa fertilizer, when it can be exchanged for cotton meal on a fair and 
equitable basis. 


This brings up the question, which is the real crux of the problem, how 
much meal should the oil-mill man give in exchange for aton of seed? With the 
given facts of analyses and the results of actual experiments in the field, together 
with the market price of oil and meal, there should be no real difficulty in reaching 
a mutually satisfactory basis of exchange between the producer and the oil-mill, 
The former should in no conceivable case receive less than 800 or 900 pounds of meal 
in exchange for one ton of seed, after allowing for the expense and labor of hauling 
to and from the point of delivery. The oil-mill man must get his expenses and 
profits for operating the mill out of the oil. It is quite evident that the value of the 
oil should be divided between the producing farmer and the oil-mill on a fair basis, 
and this basis must be determined mainly by the current market price for the oil. 
In my own experience I have found it much better to hold on to the seed until the 
approaching close of the crushing season, when the mill owner is hard up for seed 
to keep his machinery going. I have usually had no difficulty in exchanging on a 
basis varying from 1,400 to 1,800 pounds of meal in exchange for a ton of seed 
delivered at the mill. 


I will close this paper by saying that afarmer should not use cottonseed 
meal as a fertilizer solong as he has cows and beef cattle to consume it. I have 
been insisting that he should exchange his seed for meal and use the latter asa 
fertilizer rather than the former. But the true policy is to use neither seed nor 
meal as a fertilizer if practicable to avoid such use. 


Correspondence. 


IMPROVED CEYLON NATIVE PEAS. 


DEAR SirR,—I should be glad to know how I may procure a sample supply 
of the ‘‘native” peas spoken of by Dr. Willis in the first article of the current 
number of the Tropical Agriculturist. If you can assist me in this matter I shall be 
greatly obliged. 

lam, yours faithfully, 


HK. MACFADYEN. 
Jebong Estate, Perak, 4th October, 1906. 


[The peas can, asa rule, be bought in the bazaar. The Director, Royal 
Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya, would be glad to buy them if requested.—ED. ] 


GINSENG SEED. 

DEAR Sik,—Will you forgive me if I ask you to kindly inform me where I 
can get ginseng seed (Panax ginseng). [have just read an article re this product 
in your issue of November, 1905, and would very much like to experiment. I shall be 
very much obliged indeed for the information. 

Yours truly, 


I. G F. MARSHALL. 


Burmah Forests. } 
Thanawady, 18th September, 1906. 


[Ginseng seed can at present only be easily procured, so far as I know, in the 
United States. The demand for ginseng is small, and Iam told by one who knows 
China well that the Chinaman would probably not buy stuff grown abroad.— Ep, | 


432 
Current Literature. 


Vegetable Growing in Porto Rico.—By H.C. Henricksen of the Porto Rico 
Agricultural Experiment Station, issued by the Government Printing Office, 
Washington, U.S.A:—This is a useful little treatise on the growing of good 
vegetables in the tropics; and as the conditions of Porto Rico are not very unlike 
those of Ceylon, the information contained in the pamphlet and the methods 
adopted to produce a good class of vegetable may be of use to Ceylon growers. The 
first chapters deal with the general cultivation of soils, manures and fertilizers, and 
the sowing of seeds. Diseases of plants aud insect enemies, and how to combat 
them with fungicides and arsenical insecticides, with illustrations of bucket and 
knapsack sprayers, are given. The rest of the work is taken up with detailed 
cultural directions for no less than thirty-nine different vegetables, and is illustrated 
with a number of well-produced photographic plates.—I. E. 

The Varieties of Cultivated Pepper.—By C. A. Barber, M.A., Government 
Botanist, Madras ; bulletin No, 56 of the Department of Agriculture, Madras. The 
pepper industry is of considerable importance in certain districts of Southern India, 
and this isan attempt to classify the different varieties of peppers cultivated. A 
number are described, and as arule the names seem to be quite local. The infer- 
tility of certain cultivated pepper vines is remarked upon, and this has been looked 
into as it was thought there might be some purely botanical explanation. It is 
well known that pepper blossoms may be hermaphrodite or unisexual, and in this 
connection it is interesting to note that ‘One of the main results of the recent 
visit has been to shew that, even in the cultivated vines, while the ovaries are nearly 
universally present, stamens are by no means always to be found. Further, the 
fertility of a vine depends directly on the constancy with which the stamens are 
present. Any large absence of stamens will show itself in spikes with berries few 
and far between, fertilisation depending, as in the wild forms, on the chance 
presence of a neighbouring staminate vine flushing at the same time. 


** Observations as to the means by which the pollen of the stamens is trans- 
ferred from the pollen sacs of one spike to the stigmas of another are at present 
wanting. Butfrom a general consideration of the fact that flushing takes place 
during the heavy driving rains of the monsoon, it is suggested that wind and 
rain are necessary, and that the splashing and falling of the drops dash the 
pollen over the whole plant. A moderate computation would put the number 
of flowers in aspike at between 75 and 109. This is the number of stigmas then 
In a fully hermaphrodite spike the number of pollen grains would be anything up 
to 30,000 or 40,900, and as one pollen grain is sufficient to fertilise one ovary, it 
would seem that an ample reserve is available for accidental dispersal. 

“If this suggestion is correct, the effect of rain would be, first of all, to 
wet the dried up ground, and thus provide the material for the flushing of young 
leaves. Each new leaf is followed by aspike in the pepper at flowering time, the 
spike arising at the same joint as the leaf but on the opposite side. In the course 
of afew weeks the spike is seen to have elongated and to be covered with the 
little white star-like stigmas. These are very delicate and in the continued 
showers become covered with the wandering pollen from more advanced spikes. 
A further lengthening will then show the stigmas faded and the small pollen 
sacs peeping out on each side of the ovaries, ready to burst and scatter their 
pollen to other, later flowers. It would be interesting to observe if the spikes ia 
the upper part of the vine mature first, for that would certainly aid in the 


fertilising of the flowers. It must be remembered however that, in the driving — 


rain, pollen can be carried from one plant to another, this being regularly done 
1n the wild vines of the forest, sometimes for considerable distances. 


SS 


Nov. 1906.] 438 


* According to this view of the fertilisation of the pepper flowers along 
hot spell after the monsoon’s commencement would cause stigmas to dry up before 
fertilisation could be effected and many spikes would drop, for any unfertilised 
flower is quickly thrown off by plants. The life of the male elements is short. 
On the other hand, a succession of short spells of rain and sunshine would be 
beneficial, since sunshine is necessary for the growth of the leaves and especially 
for the maturing of the fruits. Plants with too heavy topshade are poor bearers; 
and this is probably due to this absence of sunshine. Observations on all these 
points are much needed and can only be made by those living on the pepper 
plantations. The causes of the falling of the spikes especially should be studied. 
Both in coffee and cacao this undesirable feature is carefully watched for and its 
causes noted.” 


The pamphlet is illustrated with photos of the Balamcotta and Kallivall 
peppers of Wynaad, and a magnified drawing of a pepper flower showing the 
various parts and the difference between the hermaphrodite and staminate 
flowers.—I. E. 


The Ceylon Board of Agriculture. 


The Twenty-third Meeting of the Board of Agriculture was held in His 
Excellency the Governor’s Pavilion on the grounds of the Ceylon Rubber Exhibition 
at Peradeniya, on Monday, 17th September, 1906, at 3 p.m. 

His Excellency the Governor presided. 

There were also present :—Hon. Mr, G. M. Fowler, Hon. Mr. J. P. Lewis, 
Dr. J. C. Willis, Messrs. W. D, Gibbon, Giles F. Walker, C. P. Hayley, R. Morison, 
A. T. Rettie, E. B. Denham, M. Kelway Bamber, T. Petch, T. J. Campbell, W. 
Dunuwille, G. W. Sturgess, Dr. H. M. Fernando, Messrs. E. EK. Green, Daniel Joseph, 
Gerard Joseph, Charles Taldena, r.M., J. H. Meedeniya, R.M., and the Secretary. 


The following were present as visitors:—Messrs. J. B. Carruthers, James 
Ryan, Hon. T. L. McClintock Bunbury, P.s., Col. H. Byrde, Messrs. Walter C. 
Price, H. Keyt, Tambopillai Mudaliyar (Maniagar of Jaffna), and C. Rasanayagam 
Mudaliyar. 
Business Donk. 
1. The Minutes of the last meeting were read and confirmed. 


_ 2. On the motion of the Hon. Mr. J. P. Lewis, seconded by Mr. W. D, 
Gibbon, it was resolved :—That the Board desires to record its regret at the death of 
the late Mr. T. B. Rambukwelle Ratemahatmeya, who was a member of the Board, 
and to express its sympathy with the members of his family. 

3. List of new members was read. 
4. Progress Report No. XXII was tabled. 


5. Reports of the Director and the Acting Curator, Royal Botanic Gardens, 
the Superintendent of School Gardens, and the Government Veterinary Surgeon 
on the sections judged by them at the Kurunegala Agri-Horticultural Show 
were tabled. 


6. Statement of Revenue and Expenditure for the first half-year of 1906 
was tabled. 


7. A paper was read by Mr. E. B. Denham, c.c.s., late Secretary to the 
Board on ‘‘ The Use and Objects of Agricultural Societies.” On the suggestion of 
Mr. W. Dunuwille, His Excellency the Governor directed that the paper be 
translated into Sinhalese and Tamil for circulation. 


434 


8. Reports from the Curator, Royal Botanic Gardens, the Superintendent of 
School Gardens, and the Government Veterinary Surgeon on the sections judged 
by them at the Kelani Valley Agri-Horticultural Show were tabled. 


9. In connection with the report on the proposed Ordinance dealing with 
Agricultural Pests, which was adopted at the last meeting of the Board, the 
Secretary submitted a further memorandum on the subject of the proposed Ordi- 
nance received from Sir William Twynam. 


At the desire of His Excellency the Governor it was resolved that Sir William 
Twynam’s remarks be referred to the Sub-Committee by whom the previous report 
was drafted, namely:—The Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, the Government 
Chemist, Hon. Mr. S. C. Obeyesekere, and the Hon. Mr. F. Beven—the names of the 
following gentlemen being added to the Sub-Committee :—Sir William Twynam, 
Mr. W. D. Gibbon, Mr. Giles F. Walker and Dr. H. M. Fernando. 


The meeting terminated at 4-15 p.m. 


Agricultural Society Progress Report. XXIII. 


_—_——— 


1. Agricultural Shows.—The Kegalla Agri-Horticultural Show was held on 
the 2ist and 22nd September, I was present on the first day, when the Show was opened 
by the Government Agent, Sabaragamuwa, Mr. R. B. Hellings. Though it was not 
the first time that a Show of the kind had been held at Kegalla, none had been held 
for several years. But, through the untiring efforts of Mr. M. Stevenson, Assistant 
Government Agent and Chairman of the Local Agricultural Society, a widespread 
interest in the Show had been aroused throughout the District ; and not only were 
the exhibits excellent and varied, but the number of villagers attending the Show 
far exceeded anything that I have seen at any previous Show. The charge for 
entrance on each day was only ten cents. Books of entrance tickets had been dis- 
tributed to every village headman throughout the district—tickets to be issued to 
all persons subscribing ten cents or over. In spite of the fact that a very large 
number of people had obtained tickets in this way, the stock of tickets for sale at 
the gate of the Show grounds was exhausted within an hour and a half of the open- 
ing of the Show. Mr. Stevenson and the members of the Kegalla Society are to be 
congratulated on having overcome a difficulty that almost invariably presents itself 
in connection with these Shows: that is, their liability to become rather a source of 
entertainment to the local residents of the towns in which they are held thana 
means of instruction to the villagers of outlying districts, whom it is more especially 
the object of this Society to reach. 


Another feature of this Show was that, while the sheds containing exhibits 
of produce were surrounded by an enclosure, to which admission could be obtained 
only by ticket, the livestock sections were shown on an open space near the roadside, 
no entrance fee being charged tosee them. There was also an extremely interesting 
collection of art work and curios in the Town Hall, while inside the main enclosure 
accommodation was provided for laceworkers, cloth weavers, &c. Hach class of 
exhibits in the enclosure was shown in a separate shed—an arrangement which added 
greatly to the convenience of spectators, and one which might with advantage be 
adopted at other shows. 

A point to which I should like to call the attention of all Agricultural Show 
Committees is the advisibility of making the passage-ways between the show 
counters considerably wider than is usually done. At all the Shows I have hitherto 
visited I have noticed that the narrowness of the passages has proved a source of 
inconvenience when the sheds are at all crowded, 


Nov. 1906. ] 435 


The reports of the Government Veterinary Surgeon and the Curator, Royal 
Botanic Gardens, on the classes judged by them at the Kegalla Show are laid on the 
table. 

2. A meeting of the Local Agricultural Society, Nuwara Eliya, has been 
fixed for Thursday, the 4th October, at 2 p.m., at the Nuwara Mliya Kachcheri, to 
discuss matters regarding the Agri-Horticultural Show to be held during Easter 
Week, 1907. 

3. A show of fruits and vegetables grown in Weligam Korale will be held 
some time in October at Telijjawila. 


4. The Market Show, under the auspices of the Three Korales and Lower 
Bulatgama Society, will be held at Yatiyantota on the 21st instant. 


5. The Agri-Horticultural Show, under the auspices of the Wellaboda Pattu 
(Galle) Agricultural Society, will be held on the 16th and 17th November. 


6. Lemon Grass.—The Model Farm, Colombo, has a supply of Lemon Grass 
rootlets for sale. Application for these should be made to the Government Vete- 
rinary Surgeon. 


7. Cotton,—Eight bags of cotton seed have been supplied free of cost by Dr, 
H. M. Fernando for experimental cultivation on chenas in the Mullaittivu District. 


8. Foreign Vegetable Seeds.—A supply of vegetable seeds will be imported 
shortly, and intending cultivators are requested to communicate with me as early as 
possible, stating their requirements. Orders will be attended to in the order in which 
they are received. The varieties available are as follows :— 


French Dwarf Beans Cucumber | Potseed 

Beet Keg plant Pumpkin 

Cabbage Gourd Radish 

Capsicum Knol-Khol Spinach 

Carrot Lettuce Tomato 
Cauliflower Melon Turnip 

Celery Onion Vegetable Marrow 
Chilli Parsnip 

Chinese Cabbage Pea 


9. Potatoes.—The Welimada Branch Society proposed to experiment with 
Naples potatoes. This Branch is also experimenting with various kinds of native 
low-country vegetables. 

10. Vegetable Gardens.—The Tangalla Local Branch, at its meeting held on 
the 8th September, adopted a resolution: ‘‘ That a prize be offered for competition 
among the members of the Society for the best vegetable garden in West Giruwa 
Pattu, to be competed for in or about February, 1907—the prize to take the form of 
silver medal, price not to exceed Rs. 12°50.” 


11. Seeds.—The Branch agreed at the meeting held on the 8th to apply 
for different varieties of seeds from the Parent Society for distribution amongst 
the members on payment, the competition for the medal being confined to the 
produce of the seeds obtained from the Ceylon Agricultural Society only. 


12. Haperimental Gardens.—The Secretary of the Telijjawila Branch 
reports that the Village Committee have, with the approval of the Assistant 
Government Agent, voted Rs. 55 for making a Fruit Garden on the girls’ school 


_ premises at Paraduwa, Dampella. 'The money voted will be spent in procuring 


a wire fence and the necessary labour. Fruit trees of different varieties will be 
supplied free of cost from the Royal Botanic Gardens for planting in November next. 


13. Publications.—-The Editors of the “ Sihala Samaya” and the ‘ Dinakara- 
prakasa” have kindly sent 50 copies of editions of each of their publications contain- 
ing translations of the minutes of the last meeting of the Buard. These copies, 
as usual, were distributed among the Local Branch Societies. 


~_ Na oe eee 


436 -  YNov. 1906. - 


14. Paddy: Kiushu.—Mvr. J. P. William, of Henaratgoda, writes that the 
Kiushu paddy sown by him did not germinate. ; 


Mr. V. H. Vanderstraaten reports from Kurunegala :—‘‘ I sowed 26 measures 
of Kiushu paddy at the end of May last; although it germinated well, the growth 
was very stunted, and the outturn last week was only ¢ measure of paddy.” 


15. Castration of Cattle-—The Government Veterinary Surgeon reports 
as follows :— 
To date the figures are 2,621 cattle castrated belonging to 2,122 owners at 
124 demonstrations. 129 men have been taught the operation. 
A. N. GALBRAITH, 
1st October, 1906. Secretary, Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


The Ceylon Board of Agriculture. 


The Twenty-fourth Meeting of the Board of Agriculture was held in the 
Council Chamber on Monday, October Ist, 1906, at 12 noon. 
His Excellency the Governor presided. 


Others present were:—The Hon’ble Mr. G. M. Fowler, the Hon’ble Mr. 
Francis Beven, Messrs. E. EK. Green, R. B. Strickland, Don Solomon Dias Bandara- 
nayake (Maha Mudaliyar), Dr. H. M,. Fernando, Messrs. E. B. Denham, G. A. Joseph, 
and the Secretary. 

Mr. R. P. Jayawardene was present as a visitor. 

BusINESS DONE. 
The Minutes of the last meeting were read and confirmed. 
List of new members was read. 
Progress Report No. XXIII was circulated. 


4. Report of the Government Veterinary Surgeon on the Kegalle Agri- 
Horticultural Show was read. 


5. A Paper was read by Mr. E, E. Green, Government Entomologist, on 
the work done at the Silk Experiment Farm at Peradeniya. A brief discussion 
followed, in which His Excellency the Governor, the Hon’ble Mr, Fowler and Mr. 
Strickland took part. 


6. The Secretary announced that His Excellency the Governor had been 
pleased to nominate Mr. R. E. Paranagama, Ratemahatmeya of Pata Dumbara, 
as a member of the Board for the Central Province, in succession to the late Mr. 
T. B. Rambukwelle Ratemahatmeya. 


pt 


7. On the motion of the Hon’ble Mr. F. Beven, seconded by Don Solomon 
Dias Bandaranayake, Maha Mudaliyar, it was resolved that the thanks of the 
Board be conveyed to the following gentlemen for the trouble taken by them in 
arranging for the various exhibits shown on behalf of the Agricultural Society 
at the Ceylon Rubber Exhibition :— 


Dr. A. K. Coomaraswamy, for arranging the Arts and Crafts section. 


Mr. M. Kelway Bamber, for exhibits of coconut products, camphor, and 
tobacco. 


Mr. E. E.. Green, for exhibit of sericulture. 

Mr. C. Drieberg, for exhibit of oils, fibres, and tanning and dyeing stuffs. 
Mr. A. E. Rajapakse, Muhandiram, for samples of cinnamon. 

Mr. C. E. Barber, for exhibit of cocoa and chocolate. 

Dr. H. M. Fernando and Mr. J. W. C. de Soysa for samples of cotton. 


, 
; 
4 


i 
¢ 


Nov, 1906] 437 


Mr. J. Whitehead for demonstration in cotton ginning and dyeing. Also 
the Government Agents, Jaffna and Batticaloa, and the following Local Agri- 
cultural Societies for a variety of interesting exhibits :— 

Local Agricultural Societies of Telijjawila, Dumbara, Chilaw, Wellaboda 
Pattu (Galle), Kandaboda Pattu (Matatra), Mannar, Vavuniya, Trincomalee, and 
Matara. 

8. The Secretary submitted a fly-whisk made of reed-bamboo sent in by the 
Acting Director, Colombo Museum. His Excellency the Governor desired the 
Secretary to make enquiries with a view to ascertaining whether any market could 
be found for such an article. 


The meeting terminated at 1-30 p.m. 


Agricultural Society Progress Report. XXIV. 


1. Local Branches:—Dumbara Branch. Co-operative Credit Society.—At a 
meeting of the Committee of the Co-operative Credit Society, Dumbara, held on 
30th August, at Teldeniya, the Honorary Treasurer reported that Rs. 420 had been 
received from twenty-two subscribers. It was agreed to purchase only 50 bushels 
of paddy for the Madugoda store, and that the rest of the money in hand be 
deposited in the Ceylon Savings Bank. 


Harispattu Branch.—At the Second General Meeting of this Branch held on 
the 28th October, it was decided that experimental gardens be opened in each 
Korale, situated either adjoining or near the chief school of the respective Korales 
It was further decided to open a seed store at Katugastota. 


The judging of school vegetable gardens competing for the President’s prize 
of Rs. 10 has been fixed for the 18th November. 


The following gentlemen among others have consented to become honorary 
members of the local society :—Messrs. Henry A, Barton, Gilbert James, W. H. 
Biddulph, and J. A. McAllister. 


Wanni Hatpattu Branch.—At ameeting of this Branch held on the 17th 
September it was decided to encourage cultivation of cotton on Crown chena given 
on liberal terms by Government. It was resolved that all headmen open vegetable 
gardens so as to encourage villagers to do the same, who can obtain seed on 
application to the Chairman ; also to take active steps to enforce penning cattle— 
the first step towards introducing tobacco cultivation in the hatpattu—and that 
members of the Society and headmen open tobacco gardens in 1907. 


Matale Branch.—On the 18th October I presided at a general meeting of the 
Matale Agricultural Society. The Honorary Secretary gave a short statement of 
work done since the last meeting, and mentioned that this Branch gained a gold 
medal offered by the Parent Society for exhibits sent in for the Imperial Institute. 
Reports were read from Chief Headmen reviewing their experience in experiments 
in vegetables, cotton, groundnuts, chilli, and six-months paddy growing. It was 
decided that steps should be taken for the establishment of an Hxperimental Garden 
in Matale town, and the Honorary Secretary was asked to try and make arrange- 
ments for a suitable site. It was agreed that the Agri-Horticultural Show, which 
was originally fixed for August last, but which had to be postponed on account of 
the drought, should be held next year, preferably in the early part of June. A 
paper was read by Mr. Tamby Rajah on “‘ Pineapple cultivation.” 


57 


438 [Nov. 1906. 


2. Agricultural Shows: Yatiyantota Market Show.—I was present on the 
21st October at the Yatiyantota Market Show, held under the auspices of the Three 
Korales and Lower Bulatgama Agricultural Society. The Show was opened by 
Mr. M. Stevenson, Assistant Government Agent, Kegalla. Mr. E. B. Denham, with 
whom the idea of holding a market show had originated, was also present. The 
date fixed for the Show was the ordinary market day, and the exhibits consisted 
of the fruits and vegetables ordinarily sold in the market. Money prizes, varying 
in value from Re.1 to Rs.10 had been subscribed by a number of planters and 
other gentlemen resident in the neighbourhood, as well as by headmen and 
members of the Local Society. All arrangements in connection with the Show were 


in the hands of Mr. J. H. Meedeniya, Ratemahatmeya; Mr. H. W. Boyagoda, Acting 


Ratemahatmeya; and Mr. J. A. Ratnayake, Honorary Secretary of the Local Society. 
This Show was the second of its kind, the first purely market show having been held 
at Minuwangoda on 7th April last. Its success proved that the presence of a band 
and the presentation of medals are not essential to the realization of the practical 
object of all such shows, namely, the encouragement of the spirit of competition 
and co-operation amongst the village cultivators. The display of vegetables in all 
classes was good, yams and chillies being especially well represented. The total 
cost of the Show was Rs. 462°37, Rs. 249 of which was distributed to the prize- 
winners. 


Agricultural Fair, Telijjawila.—The Agricultural Show, which was to have 
been held at Teljjawila in the Weligam Korale of the Matara District on the 31st 
October, has been postponed owing to the inclemency of the weather. The Show, 
which will take the form of a Market Fair, will be held on the afternoon of the 15th 
November, commencing at 2 p.m., at the Telijjawila Experimental Garden. 


The Wellaboda Pattu (Galle) Agri-Horticultural Show, under the auspices 
of the Local Branch Society, is fixed for the 16th and 17thinstant. Paddy fields 
competing for the prize offered for the best field of transplanted paddy have been 
judged by the second Assistant Superintendent of School Gardens; and the 
Gardens will be judged probably this week by a member of the staff of the Superin- 
tendent of School Gardens. 


3. Citronella and Lemon Grass.—The Controller, Experiment Station, 
Peradeniya, reports as follows:—‘‘ The plots at Sita Eliya and Hakgala have been 
inspected and the grass distilled. In the Hakgala plots the lemon grass and 
citronella shoots were planted on the 4th September, 1905, on very poor soil, under 
the shade of large trees. The yield of fresh grass and oil was very poor. In the 
Sita Eliya plots the grasses were planted in nursery beds, which had been previously 
manured, The citronella grass was planted in October, 1905, and cut on the 20th 
July, 1906. <A yield of 155 lb. of fresh grass was obtained trom the original twenty 
slips, and on distillation this yielded 8 ounces of pure oil of good quality. The 
lemon grass grew fairly satisfactorily, but, owing to the cut grass being forwarded 
to Colombo instead of being delivered to me, no distillation was carried out. I 
have recommended that a further trial of citronella and lemon grass be made on 


the patana near Sita Eliya, using the large stools now on the spot for planting 
purposes.” 


Lemon Grass.—Rootlets of this grass may be purchased from the Govern- 
ment Veterinary Surgeon, Colombo ; Mr. B. Samaraweera of Weligama; and Mr. 
H, Napier Dias of Galle. These gentlemen report that they have respectively about 
50,000, 500,000, and 800,000 rootlets available for sale. 


4. Foreign Vegetable Seeds.—Applications are now being booked for supplies 
of vegetable seeds shortly expected from England. Intending cultivators are 


~ 


bie 


‘~. 
— 


Nov. 1906.] 439 


requested to communicate with me as early as possible, stating their requirements 
The names of varieties available are as follows :— 


French Dwarf Beans Cucumber Potseed 

Beet Egg plant Pumpkin 

Cabbage Gourd Radish 

Capsicum Knol-Khol Spinach 

Carrot Lettuce Tomato 
Cauliflower Melon Turnip 

Celery Onion Vegetable Marrow 
Chilli Parsnip 

Chinese Cabbage Pea 


d. A Simple Preventive against Malaria.—I have received several requests 
for information as to the method of preparation of this preventive against malaria 
(given in leaflet No. XXVIII). The proportion of the various ingredients used in 
the preparation are quoted below for general information :— 

13 parts citronella oil. 

1 part kerosine oil. 

2 parts coconut oil. 

1 to2 per cent carbolic acid—that is, 1 to 2 per cent of the citronella, 
kerosine, and coconut oils. 

6. Cotton Cultivation.—Twelve bushels of cotton seed have been supplied 
by Messrs. J. Whitehead & Co., Maradana, to Hulugalla Disawa for distribution 
among chena cultivators. Six bushels of Sea Island cotton seed were sent to Anurad 
hapura for similar cultivation. 

7. Tobacco Cultivation.—The Badulla Branch intends experimenting with 
tobacco in the drier parts of Uva, and has applied for a supply of seed. The Wanni 
Hatpattu Branch have decided to cultivate tobacco during the yala harvest of 1907— 
in April and May next. 

8. Varieties of Indian Arecanuts.—The Deputy Commissioner of Kadur 
District, in reply to inquiries made, reports that the following varieties of arecanuts 
are available in January next :— 

White arecanuts : Mangalore, Cananore, Shrivardhan. 
Red arecanuts: Naroikadi, Goa, Wesai (from Bassein), and Sewali. 

Applications may be addressed to me to be included in the order to be 
forwarded in December. The price of 500 seed nuts of each variety is Rs. 2-8-0 in 
India. 
9. Paddy for the Imperial Institute.—Mr. T. B, Pohath-Kehelpannala of 
Gampola has offered to send in a supply of ‘‘yava wi” to be forwarded to the 
Imperiai Institute as an addition to the collection already sent there by the Society. 
This paddy is described as being efficacious in cases of consumption. It differs from 
other kinds of paddy in point of flavour and appearance, 

10. Seed Paddy frum India.—Supplies of six-and five-months seed paddy 
imported from India by the Society in August last are still available. The paddy 
consists of three varieties of samba, all white grain. Cost of the paddy is Rs. 2°75 per 
bushel. 

11. School Gardens.—Rewards to school boys for good work in gardens on 
the same lines as last year will be given this year. 

12. Hxperimental Garden at Horetuduwa.—On the land whichSimon Fernando 
Sri Chandrasekere, Mudaliyar, proposes to hand over to Government—will be taken 
in hand shortly. The donor has already paid in the sumof Rs. 2,500 towards the 
maintenance fund of this institution, and the only delay is the completion of the 
necessary deeds, &c. 


SR a [act MR STA tO 
14 Te 7 
440 [Nov. 1906. 

13. Fodder for Cattle.—The Secretary of the Mannar Agricultural Society 
has sent a supply of seed of the ** umbrella” tree (Accacia planifrons) Tamil “ udai,” 
the leaves and fruit of which are recommended as an excellent fodder for cattle, 
This fodder is extensively used in the Mannar island. Seeds can be supplied to 
applicants, free of charge, on application to the Secretary, Ceylon Agricultural 
Society. 

14. Castration of Gattle.— Demonstrations in castration of cattle were held 
in the Udukinda division of Uva in the following centres: Mahawala, Dehiwinne, 
Atampitiya, Welimada, Kitawera, and Kurakandura; 158 cattle belonging to 55 
owners Were operated on, and four men trained to do the operation. 


The progress of work done by the Government Veterinary Surgeon’s Depart- 
ment since the last report is as follows :— 


North-Western Province ... «. 6 demonstrations 
North-Central Province ... .«. 2 demonstrations 
Province of Uva .. «. 6 demonstrations (as above detailed) 


The figures to date are : 2,868 cattle castrated, brought by 2,289 owners; 186 
men have been trained at 188 demonstrations. 

15. Publications.—Fifty copies of the ‘ Sihala Samaya” have been kindly 
sent by the Editor, containing translations of the Minutes of the last Meeting of the 
Board, These copies, as usual, were distributed among the Local Branch Societies. 

16. Serrwculture.—The Superintendent, School Gardens, reports that between 
May, 1905, and September, 1906, eggs of eri silk worms have been supplied to 83 
Government and Grant-in-aid schools in the Western, Central, Southern, North- 
Western, North-Central, Sabaragamuwa, and Uva Provinces, as wellas to 150 
individual school boys and 50 other private persons. The Government schools have in 
their turn supplied a large number of schools and villages in their neighbourhood. 


AGA SW oh 


TROPICAL AGRICULTURDST 


AND 


MAGAZINE OF THE 


CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 


————— 


Von. XXVII. COLOMBO, DECEMBER 15ru, 1906. No. 6. 


= 


Overproduction in Rubber. 


Some months ago, in this journal, we gave a warning note that the time of 
overproduction in rubber was not so far off as some people seem to think, 
and this was followed up by the lecture on the subject given by Mr. Wright at the 
Rubber Exhibition. Many people seem to think that we were prophesying the 
almost immediate fall of rubber prices below a remunerative level, and it may be 
well to discuss the question so far asis necessary to make the position a little 
more clear. 


In January 1903, the price of fine hard Para (South American) was 3s, 8d., 
and it rose fairly steadily until May 1905, when it touched the extraordinary figure 
of 5s. 9d., and since that time it has fallen, till it has reached 5s. ld. Now, in 
previous years the price was rarely above 3s. 6d., which in a way we may therefore 
regard as the normal (higher) price of Para rubber. The rise of late is due to 
temporary scarcity, which will probably be done away with by the increase to be 
expected before very long in the output of plantation rubber. 


Many people think that so many new uses for rubber will be discovered 
that the price will remain at the present high level for a long time. On the other 
hand, we are of opinion that the present price is too high for the economical use 
of rubber in many uses that are known of already. Take for instance the one 
great use of pavement; rubber is known to suit admirably for this, and to last 
almost indefinitely, yet it is not used for it, though even at the present 
prices, its durability is so great that it would probably be about as cheap 
as wood. 


The real stimulus to the use of rubber for new purposes, will, it seems to 
us, hardly come before its price goes back to what we have looked upon above as 
normal, viz., 3s. to 38s,6d, a pound, When, by the increase in production of planta- 
tion rubber, that figure is once again reached. we may look to see rubber taken 
up for pavement, and for many other uses, which will keep the price from falling 
much below that figure for a long while to come; and we should regard any 
venture in which the price of rubber was put down above 38s. as a very 
speculative one. 


oy SEM 


* 
a 
t .] 


GUMS, RESINS, SAPS AND EXUDATIONS. 


Rubber Cultivation and the Future Production, 


By HERBERT WRIGHT, 
A Lecture delivered at the Ceylon Rubber Exhibition, Peradeniya, September 17th, 1906. 


DISCUSSION ON THE NECESSITY OF MANURING: BRAZILIAN versus EASTERN 
METHODS OF PREPARATION. 


This lecture was largely attended and produced an animated discussion on a 
variety of important topics. H. K. the Governor presided, and among those present 
were:—Mr. and Mrs. R. Morison, Mr. and Mrs. Jas. Ryan, Colonel Byrde, 
Messrs. Alex. Rettie,G. P. Gaddum, C. O. Macadam, A J. Dawson, E. Hamilton, 
C. A. Somerville. C. W. H. Duckworth, M. L, Davidson, J. B, Carruthers, E. G. 
Windle, C. K. Smithett, C. Devitt, Dr. A. Lehmann, Messrs. W. H. Biddulph, Kelway 
Bamber, R. Anderson, Ivor Etherington, D. S. Cameron, J. Cameron, R. I. Mackenzie 
Seymour S. Jeffery, R.S. Beling, H. F. Macmillan, G. A. Krumbiegel, R. T. Tipping, 
C, J. Bayley, Lieut.-Colonel. J. A. Willie, Messrs. KE. Blyth, James Morris, Geo. H. 
Hughes, A. M. Carmichael, C. W. de Hoedt, F. W. de Hoedt, R. H. Perera, G.S. 
Brown, A. H. Lueas, E. S. Campbell and many others. 


THE LECTURE. 


The almost impossible task of giving a comprehensive lecture under a time- 
limit of twenty minutes, on the subject of the cultivation of rubber trees, has fallen 
to my lot, and we cannot do better than briefly survey, ina very general manner, 
the chief features of the rubber industry as presented to us to-day. It isa wide 
subject, and consideration of the hundreds of samples of rubber prepared on 
these and adjacent shores, or of the implements and machinery used in collecting 
and coagulating latex, and curing rubber, and many other matters must be held 
over for other occasions. 


SELECTION OF RUBBER TREES FOR CULTIVATION. | 


The first point we have to consider is that of the selection of rubber trees 
for cultivation. We are often told that the present boom in rubber in Ceylon, 
Federated Malay States, the Straits. Java, Borneo and India, &c., is only a forecast 
of disaster, and that we are engaging ourselves in a cultivation which, though 
lucrative enough while maximum market values obtain, will prove unremunerative 
when large acreages come into bearing, when substitutes and synthetic rubber 
gain a better footing, and when diseases begin to spread. We are reminded, often 
by very earnest men, that our cultivated rubber trees are not indigenous in the 
East, and we have been assured that sooner or later the histories of coffee and 
cinchona will therefore be repeated ; these assertions, if correct, should be received 
with more serious consideration than at present. In the first case, however, I desire 
to point out that we are preparing to combat diseases when they arise, and after 
thirty years’ experience, on somewhat small plantations in Ceylon and the F.M.S., 
no difficulties have been observed except those which can be overcome. The plea 
that we cannot succeed with our rubber trees because they are not indigenous is 
not well-founded. We cultivate cacao as successfully in Ceylon as others do in 
Central and South America or the West Indies, where it is said to be indigenous, 
our tea compares favourably with that in Indian and other districts where it 
occurs wild, and our oil cultivations will stand a comparative investigation. The 
greater number of the past and present planting industries of Ceylon are the 
outcome of the cultivation of species which do not occur here in the wild state; the 


=f : 
4 BS ag 
el et ai 


442 [Drc. 1906, 
06, 


| 
’ 
3 


Dc. 1906.] 443 Saps and Hxudations. 


indigenous plants capable of being regularly and largely cultivated in Ceylon are 
very few and are typified in our cinnamon. With reasonable confidence do we 
therefore look forward to the cultivation of species introduced from other countries, 
and among them must now rank those from which rubber is obtainable, 

HEVEA BRASILIENSIS : FIRST RANK. 

The question as to which is the best species to adopt in cultivation is one 
which is frequently raised, and with this we can now deal. The species which has 
been vigorously planted in the Hast is Hevea brasiliensis, and in view of the present 
importance of this species in the plantation rubber industry we might well ask, 
have we, or have we not, selected an inferior type? Are we, after all, on the wrong 
track? Are we extending this particular cultivation too much and neglecting 
others? Thanks to the energy vf all concerned, and especially to competitors in 
this exhibition, these questions can be answered fairly satisfactorily. The 
extension in the cultivation of Para or Hevea rubber has been steady, 
and except for the last few years slow, and has been _ influenced by 
the results obtained during twenty years of patient waiting and working; 
we have not based our anticipations simply on a single experiment with a 
single species, but rather on a wide knowledge of the real value of many rubber 
producing plants. We have our Ceara rubber trees (Manihot Glaziovir) scattered 
throughout Ceylon, from the dry hot districts of the North, East and West, to 
the damp and cooler areas in the South; we have had: them for over twenty year 
at altitudes varying from sea-level to over 4,000 feet, and visitors from other 
climes assure us that the growth obtained in Ceylon is as good as that in tropical 
America. Similarly Castilloa (Castilloa elastica) has been cultivated in districts 
with different climates, Gutta Rambong (Ficus elastica) Landolphia, and Funtumia 
elastica are also known in Ceylon, and plants of the Sapium, Palaquium (Gutta percha 
and Balata (Mimusops Balata) have also been tried. The literature of the tropica 
world has enabled us to learn something about the value of Root rubbers, the 
Guayule (Parthenium argentatum), Urceola and several climbing and herbaceous 
plants; our judgment is therefore not based on fanciful or passing rumours. The 
opinion of most persons vitally concerned in the rubber industry in Ceylon is that 
where Para rubber will grow, it can be cultivated as the mainstay of the 
estate. (Hear, Hear.) We even hear of planters removing Gutta Rambong trees and 
coconut palms to make room for their Hevea trees. 

CHARACTERS OF HEVEA. 

Para rubber trees grow rapidly ; they yield rubber of high quality, they have 
proved to be very hardy, and we are convinced that they will stand ordinary 
tapping operations toaremarkableextent. The rate of growth and present immunity 
from pests of Hevea brasiliensis put it, in Ceylon, above Funtumia; its yield places 
it on an equal or even higher plane than the best Castilloas from Panama or Mexico, 
and its hardy characteristics and response to the extensive use of the ordinary tapping 
knife render it superior to Ceara and other rubbers, Each species of rubber tree 
may thrive in particular districts, and when we can give more time to them, better 


- results may be obtained in Ceylon with other kinds, but the verdict to-day is that 


Para rubber, as far as we can judge, holds its own in every way—in growth, hardi- 
ness, and yielding capacity. The confidence in this species is not confined to the 
Indo-Malayan region, but has spread to many islands and territories throughout the 
tropical zone; Africa, orat least the West Coast of that vast continent—with its 
numerous rubber-yielding indigenous plants will take as many seeds of Hevea 
brasiliensis as We can give, because it has been found to be superior to others native 
in that area, and even this year thousands of seeds, for planving purposes. have been 
sent to Brazil, the country whence all our rubber seeds were. obtained in 1876 
(Applause). We have the assurance of a visitor with African experience, that Hevea 
brasiliensis beats most of the rubbers with which he is acquainted, and many persons 


[DEc. 1906. 
must feel compeiled to agree with that conclusion. Knowing how the plants have 
flourished in the East, itis our next duty to enquire into the available details 


regarding the commercial value of the produce, the methods of extraction, and the 
yields obtainable. 


COMPARATIVE VALUE OF DIFFERENT RUBBERS. 


diums, Resins, ) 444 


What do we know regarding the comparative commercial values of the 
various kinks of rubber? It is true that most of the plantation rubber is valued at 
the present time according to appearance or physical properties; though most of 
the wild rubber is appraised by people who, from experience in the manufacture of 
rubber goods in the factories, know the proportion of essential ingredients in the 
raw rubber they handle. The home manufacturers aie undoubtedly becoming aware 
of the possibilities in plantation rubber, and though--often for very good reasons— 
they have looked askance at several consignments, theday must come when from 
constancy in chemical composition and physical properties, and from the constancy in 
purity and output, the rubber from cultivated areas will receive their very serious 
attention. During the last few years the output of wild rubber from several coun- 
tries has been difficult to accurately forecast, and speculation has naturally followed 
such a condition of affairs; the sources of plantation rubber on the other hand will 
ultimately be well-known, and safer calculations of the probable output will be 
possible. This constancy in output, and a guarantee of quality, grade, etc., possible 
when dealing with well-managed plantations, will arrest attention in the near future. 


VALUE OF PLANTATION RUBBER. 

Though our plantation rubber, as at present prepared, may or may not have 
the best physical properties, we are certain of one thing, and that is that we have 
selected forms which in contradistinction to others may be described as pure types. 
The three forms—Para, Castilloa and Ceara—yield rubber possessing a high percent- 
age of caoutchouc, the component on which the real value largely depends, and on 
account of which the synthetic chemists are working so perseveringly with hope of 
success. Our Para rubber prepared even in the ordinary way possesses from 90 to 95 
per cent of caoutchouc, and some samples of Ceara and Castiiloa rubber have from 
76 to $0 per cent. Though mary of the other rubbers may, when prepared by proper 
methods, show a higher percentage of caoutchouc than they do at the present time, 
it is doubtful whether they will ever exceed, by any appreciable amount, the 95 per 
cent of caoutchouc which has been proved to occur in some samples from Hevea 
brasiliensis and other species. Of course, there are other useful ingredients in rubber 
and many believe that the proportion of caoutchouc can be reduced with advantage. 
Undoubtedly the physical properties and the appearance of the plantation rubber 
can and will be changed in course of time; we know the nature of the processes by 
which wild rubber is said to acquire some of the physical properties which manufac- 
turers consider desirable, The production of rubber on the same principles as obtain 
in the Brazilian forests is capable of being carried out in Ceylon, F.M.S., the Straits 
and India not only as effectively, but at less expense, and the producer in the 
tropics is only waiting for the unanimous order from the manufacturers to begin 
work on those lines. 

We have been assured by Professor Dunstan, at the meeting of the British 
Association just concluded at York, that the physical properties of raw rubber, on 
which its technical value depends, aze to be correlated with the chemical composition 
of the material itself, and we are told that the clastic caoutchouc substance in each 
of the finest rubbers is ot a similar nature. We already know that there are high 
percentages of caoutchouc and favourable proportions of other ingredients in our 
plantation rubber, satisfactory yields are obtainable, and most of the trees, 
especially of Hevea brasiliensis, appear to stand tapping operations even when of a 
very drastic nature. 


CP Vy 
Ay 


a 


f 


Dac. 1906.) | 445 Saps and Exudations. 
METHODS OF EXTRACTING RUBBER. 


We have, curiously enough, mainly confined ourselves to extracting latex by 
methods of tapping which obviate the destruction of the tree. But it is well-known 
that there are plants such as the Mexican shrub (Guayule) which can be grown 
quickly, uprooted, and the coagulated latex from the whole of the tissues extrac- 
ted by a process of maceration and washing; the Landolphias, Root rubbers, and 
other plants might be similarly dealt with, and good yields of rubber obtained 
therefrom—sometimes without the use of such machinery. It would indeed be a 
fortunate discovery if some herbaceous plant capable of being cultivated in the Hast 
as a subsidiary rubber crop in a clearing of Para, Castilloa or Ceara rubber could be 
found. We have now secured the machinery to extract rubber from dead bark 
tissues, and it has been questioned in connection with some of our arborescent plants, 
whether the rubber obtainable at the end of the fourth or fifth year by felling or 
lopping the tree and macerating the bark is not worthy of consideration. The idea 
may appear fanciful and even absurd for trees of Para rubber, but it is of consider- 
able interest in connection with the prunings and bark, ete., of Ceara rubber, or of 
plants which cannot stand tapping. We may subsequently find that we are in the 
beginning of a new era in the extraction of rubber from some tree forms, by methods 
other than tapping. 


COMPARISON OF PLANTATION YIELDS IN 1905, 


Be the growth or methods of cultivation and extraction what they may, the 
features on which the prosperity of our new cultivation largely rests are the yields 
obtainable and the period over which such can be guaranteed, 


It is certainly too early to make a definite statement on this sudject, but it is 
fairly safe to say that good and most promising yields have been obtained from trees 
of Para rubber, An annual yield of one pound of dry rubber per tree is perhaps above 
the average for mature Ceara rubber trees, and many have even questioned whether 
such an amount can be obtained from Castilloa trees of a fair size and age, whether 
in the East or West. Para, Ceara and Castilloa can be planted at approximately the 
same distance apart; so that the yield per tree affords a fairly reliable basis for a 
comparison of their relative values. The whole of the results which have been 
obtained up-to-date in Ceylon, Malaya., the Straits and India are not available, but 
it is interesting to find that in 1905—our first genuine year of working with Para 
or Hevea rubber trees—we obtained according to the only figures in my possession— 
in Ceylon from 188,655 trees, 189,743 lb. of rubber; the Straits obtained from a 
ce:tain 58,860 trees approximately 57,000 lb. of rubber, (these figures do not, of 
course, give any idea of the total quantities of rubber exported from these countries) 
ab | specimens in Africa and India show a promised yield of form 4 to over 1 lb. of 
rubber per tree. To put it briefly, an average yield of about 1 tol} lb. per tree 
has been obtained from nearly 198,000 trees, at a time when the methods of extrac- 
tion were novelties, and our knowledge of a scanty range. 


YIELDS AT HENARATGODA. 


Results for several years in succession are available from the Henaratgoda 
Girdens, where it is hoped to take you before the Exhibition is over. In the old 
days, when the trees were lightly tapped only every second year on an antiquated 
system, a yield of 14 lb. per tree was obtained, per year, for a period of nine years. 


That was from a tree whivh when first tapped was about fifty inches in cireum- 
ference and approximately twelve years old. Since then various experiments have 
been made on the closely-planted Henaratgoda trees, and a yield of from ten ounces to 
15 lb. dry rubber per tree has been obtained in less than twelve months, by methods 
which will certainly not kill the trees underfour years. Some old and apparently 


/ 


Gums, Resins, 446 - [DEc. 1906. 


dead tree stumps of Para rubber appear to be still keen on yielding latex, though 
they have not produced a single leaf during the last three years. Estates in Ceylon 
are known where average annual yields of ? to 31b. of rubber per tree, for a 
few years in succession, have been obtained. 


PRESENT AND FUTURE METHODS, 


As has been previously explained, the bark is the ‘‘mother of rubber,” and 
by the adoption of better systems of tapping, which obviate the necessity of 
paring away the tissues wherein the milk accumulates, and drawing supplies of 
latex by merely cutting and not excising the !aticiferous tissues, is bound to result 
inan increased yield since the life of the tapping area is somuch prolonged. The 
fact that a few well-developed trees have been made to give as such as 12 to 25 lb, 
of rubber per year, and promise abundant yields in the very near future, shows 
what a tremendous amount of material there is to draw upon, providing the 
environs of the plant and tapping operations are fully understood. 


Ten years hence we shall probably smile, or appropriately express our 
feelings in other ways, when we look back upon the methods we employed in the 
collecting of latex and preparation of rubber therefrom, in the year 1906, or when 
we reflect on the satisfacticn with which we viewed our crude ideas and forecasts 
jo the memorable year of the first Ceylon Rubber Exhibition. However, we are 
not only willing but anxious to forget what little we know at the present time 
for anything which will improve our future prospects. 


EFFECT OF CONTINUOUS RUBBER CULTIVATION. 


While rubber cultivation is in its infancy it will be as well to consider the 
probable effect, in a comparative way, of its prolonged cultivation. The effect of 
growing rubber trees is, especially with plants which, like Hevea, Castilloa and 
Ceara, annually shed all their leaves, to be compared with that of a deciduous 
forest vegetation; the chemical investigations made at Henaratgoda show that 
the soil may be improved in certain directions by growing Hevea trees for a period 
of 29 years. If the rubber trees are grown in association with a permanent intercrop 
of cacao, or a more or less transient crop of coffee, tea, cotton, camphor, etc., the 
conditions are quite changed and many results are obviously possible. But when 
the extraction of the product from rubber trees is considered, one can see that the 
removal of the latex, and nothing more, necessitates very little exhaustion to the 
soil. Compared with tea and even with coconuts or cacao, the soil exhaustion 


following the removal of two pounds of latex per tree, per year, appears remark- 
ably small. 


Unfortunately, however, we have not arrived at that stage of perfection 
when the latex can be extracted by the simple incision of the laticiferous tubes, 


and it is only possible to compare present methods of bark excision with those 
meted out to cinchona in the past. 


RUBBER LAND AVAILABLE IN THE TROPICS. 


Comparing the past with the present, the planters in the tropics can already 
profit considerably. In the old days Para rubber was planted mainly along streams 
or the banks of rivers, near sea-level; but to-day we know that, though in the 
Straits the cultivation appears to limit itself to places at alow altitude, in Ceylon 
it can be grown successfully, and rubber of good value be obtained from trees at 
an elevation of 2,000 feet and even at nearly 3,C00 feet about sea-level in districts 
with a high temperature and poor rainfall. In Southern India even 3,000 feet is 


not accepted as the maximum elevation at which Hevea brasiliensis can be slowly 
but successfully grown. 


Duc. 1906. ] 447 Saps and Fxeudations, 


Furthermore, our experience of the growth of rubber plants in soils of 
different kinds has taught us that in addition to alluvial banks there are soils, 
which, though they are perhaps of a poorer type, give satisfactory results, and 
to-day even swampy patches which have never been known to be capable of yielding 
paying crops before, are now growing excellent rubber trees ; swamps should, of 
course, be well drained and otherwise properly treated. 

The climatic or soil conditions under which it has been proved that rubber 
plants can be successfully cultivated in Ceylon, the Straits and India, have aroused 
the interest of almost’ every institution in the tropical world, and it would be 
idle to even wildly guess at the thousands of acres which could now be made to 
grow rubber in the Malay Archipelago, Ceylon, the West Indies, Africa, and parts 
of South and Central America, Rubber cultivation is now rapidly developing 
into a science, better work is being done in planting operations, more care is being 
exercised in eradicating pests as soon as they appear, and admirably skill is being 
displayed by the producers in their efforts to place on the world’s market the best 


quality of rubber they can. 
THE OTHER SIDE. 


My remarks to you to-day may be regarded as very optimistic ; but it would 
be difficult to be otherwise in the face of the work accomplished and the immediate 
prospects before us. There are gloomy aspects to every industry, but those associat 
ed with rubber cultivation are no more serious than those which face the tea, cacao, 
coconut and other industries on which this and other countries have largely develop- 
ed. Weare told that our black pages are full of unpleasant possibilities ; we have 
to face the contention that though the consumption of rubber will probably increase 
at amore rapid rate when prices are easier, yet at the same time the plantation 
supply promises to increase at a rate which is sometimes alarming, and which 
together with the impetus given to the collection of wildrubbers in African and 
tropical American territories, may have an effect not in accordance with our desires. 
The planting of quarter-million acres of rubber plants in a small fraction of the 
Indo-Malayan region alone, within a few years, will show what can}be done, and our 
activity is not likely to be ignored in other parts of the world where rubber plants 


can be grown, 
THE PLANTATION SUPPLY, 


When one reflects on the land already yielding or alienated for rubber in the 
East, and considers its potentialities in relation to last year’s consumption of, let us 
say, in round numbers, about 60,000 tons of rubber anda future yearly increase of 
about 5,000 tons per year, it is with surprise that one realises that there is a limit to 
the extension in this particular cultivation. Consider for a moment what 60,000 tons 
of wild :ubber (equal to 48,000 tons of pure rubber) represent; assuming that, on 
an estate, each tree yields only } lb. of rubber per year, and that there are 150 trees 
to an acre, you have a means of providing one ton of pure rubber from every twenty 
acres of land, Yet, about 60,000 or perhaps 68,000 tons of wild rubber were gathered 
last year, a yield which will probably not diminish for many years, and one which 
is the equivalent of 48,000 tons of pure plantation rubber or about nine hundred and 
sixty thousand (960,000) acres of cultivated land. 

Our quarter-million acres of cultivated rubber land, on this modest basis of 
150 trees per acre, and each tree yielding only ? lb. of rubber, will give us 12,500 tons 
of rubber, per year, in say five, six or seven years from now; itis therefore only 
necessary to quadruple the present plantation rubber area in the Indo-Malayan region 
alone, to subsequently supply the equivalent of the whole of last year’s consumed 
rubber. If you allow, as you may reasonably do, that the yield from cultivated 
rubber trees will be 14 lb. per tree, or 2 cwt. per acre, your future extension is further 
reduced. Dr. Willis has already given you a warning based on au estimate of about 
200 lb. of rubber per acre, per year, 


Gums, Resins, 448 AS [Dxc, 1906. ; 


LOOKING AHEAD, | 

Take up another position and imagine that in a few-years from now the 
annual consumption of wild rubber will be about 100,000 tons (say equal to 80,000 
tons of pure rubber). What acreage of rubber plants would be required to secure 
such an amount? How much of the required acreage have you already got? A 
demand of 100,000 tons of wild rubber per year can be met by the produce from 
1,600,000 cultivated acres ; already wild sources, calculated on the above basis, supply 
the equivalent of 960,000 cultivated acres. The Indo-Malayan region alone has 
alienated 250,000 acres, thus leaving much less than another half million acres to be 
opened by ourselves and by others—there are others, please remember—in Africa, 
South America, Central America, West Indies, etc., asa reference to recent con- 
cessions, each of a thousand of square miles, indicates. 

One may reasonably imagine that others, outside our little eastern circle, 
have possibly already secured the balance of land to satisfy this demand. I have 
taken the opportunity to discuss these figures with judges and others at this 
Exhibition, and now give them perchance they may be of interest. [am by no means 
wedded to these figures if anyone else can produce a better or m»re reliable series. 

INTERESTING AND UP-TO-DATE FIGURES. 

Let the consumption for 1905 be 60,000 tons of wild rubber equivalent to 960,000 

cultivated acres. (60,000 tons wild equaling approximately 48,000 tons plantation). 


Let the rubber acreage in the Indo-Malayan region for 1906 be 250,000 acres, 
Yield of pure 


Hh Yieid of rubber Approximate yield 
Rissance of oie Tospa ere partes, uot ania (0 eg 
= per annum. per acre, 2 kia 
4 (approximate) 
20 by 15 Ft. 150 # Ib. 1 cwt. 12,500 tons 
” 150 i. 255 25,000 ,, 
oe 150 Bees 4° 4, 50,000 ,, 
15 by 15 ft. 200 Be won 513. 5, 66,200 ,, 


198,000 young and old trees in Ceylon and the Straits gave in 1905 about 
240,000 lb. of rubber. 

10,000 trees in Ceylon, average age about 10 years, gave 30,0001b. of rubber in 1905. 
FURTHER INTERESTING AND ORIGINAL FIGURES. 

Let the demand be 65,000 tons of wild rubber in 1906. 

For argument’s sake let the demand increase at the rate of 5,000 tons of wild 
rubber per year ; 5,000 tons of wild rubber equal 4,000 tons of plantation rubber, 
allowing the difference in impurities to be approximately 20 per cent. 

Let the supply from will sources remain constant at 60,000 tons per year. 

Then what cultivated acreage will be required, assuming that each tree gives 
only ? Ib. of rubber, and each acre has only 150 trees ? 


Year PERE Wild Sources Wild Rubber scroage required 

(Approximate, ) 
Tons! Tons. Tons Acres. 
1906 65,000 60,000 5,000 80,000 
1907 70,000 60,000 10,000 160,000 
e 1908 75,000 60,000 15, 240,000 
1909 80,000 60,000 20,000 320,000 
1910 85,000 60,000 25,000 400,000 
1911 90,000 60,000 30,000 480,000 
1912 95,000 60,000 35,000 560,000 
1913 100,000 60,000 40,000 640,000 
1914 105,000 60,000 45,000 720,000 
1915 110,000 60,000 50,000 800,000 
1916 115,000 60,000 55,000 880,000 
1917 120,000 60,000 ; 960,000 


These calculations are based on the minimum yield per acre; a higher yield 
from our trees means a reductionin the cultivated acreage required. 


. 


Dec. 1906.) 449 Saps and Exudations. 


It should be remembered that the 250,000 acres planted or alienated in the East 
in 1906 will not really be giving any rubber much before 1912, and thatin that 
interval prices may vary considerably, more systematic methods will probably be 
adopted in the collection of wild rubber, new areas exploited, and many extensions 
and improvements made in all parts of the tropics. 


If the increase in consumption is much more rapid, and substitutes are 
used in proportions similar to those of to-day, then the prospect for the cultivation 
in the tropics is probably considerably brighter. 

The whole subject is very complicated, and I would earnestly ask this 
audience, in view of the rapid extension of rubber cultivation in many parts of 
the world, to seriously consider a few of the figures presented to-day. 


These figures are given only to attract attention to this part of the subject, 
and I hope others will compile their own series and see what conclusion can be 
arrived at. 

CAST AWAY GLOOM. 


But this is neither the day nor the place for considering the gloomy side, 
and I gladly leave it to you to reflect on the operations necessary to keep diseases 
in check, to supply the labour of the future for tapping your recently planted trees, 
and to consider how high prices, substitutes and artificial rubber are going to 
affect your otherwise pleasant prospects. The rubber trees, which have been 
selected for cultivation, easily yield a satisfactory quantity of latex, and I 
imagine—though I may be quite wrong—that your earliest difficulty will probably 
be that of procuring the labour necessary to take full advantage of even the quarter 
million acres, already alienated for, or in, rubber. If it be necessary in order to 
fully utilise the Para trees, to tap each tree every alternate day, you can imagine 
the labour force required to work each 500 acre block, possessing, say, 100,000 
trees. Even allow that a cooly may properly tap 50 trees per day, and dispose of 
his produce at the store, you can easily see the demand which will be made on our 
labour. It may, inthe near future, be only possible to tap sections of large estates 
during alternate years: this would be a great pity and mean so much waste 
of money. 


THE DISCUSSION. 
THE NECESSITY FOR MANURING. 


Mr. BAMBER :—Your Excellency and gentlemen, Mr. Wright has referred to 
the exhaustion of the soils by the growth of Para rubber, and I should like to 
point out that the actual rubber takes practically nothing out of the soil; but 
at the same time the growth of so many trees largely planted among tea is rapidly 
exhausting the surface soil of available matter. Weare able to replace it very 
largely by ordinary manurial methods, but at the same time we have not been 
able to replace that organic matter which is essential for preserving the necessary 
moisture for an easy flow of latex. I noticed at the Government Plantations at 
Yatipauwa, where the soil is very poor and of a cabook character, that the trees 
in order to obtain the organic matter, sent their roots along the surface and up 
into the dead stump of a tree actually replacing the wood of the same by the roots 
of the tree growing up in the air. I think we ought todo more to try and increase 
the humus matter in the soil if we are going to continue atree flow of latex in the 
future. Mr. Wright referred to the fall of the leaf which certainly replaces to 
a large extent the manurial and organic matter, but one must remember that there 
is a very large amount stored up; the Hevea being a surface feeder more or less, 
the exhaustion is rapid. Mr. Wright in his calculation was referring to trees 
planted 15 by 20. I myself think that ought to be the minimum distance at which 
rubber should be planted. The actual growth of the roots far exceeds the calculated 

59 


Gums, Resins, 450 [Drc. 1906. 


foot per year. And in three or fours years roots may extend 15 or 20 feet, and 
the roots of many trees planted 15 by 20 have already crossed and passed each other 
forming a lace work. It remains to be seen how far you can cut these roots in 
order to apply the necessary manure without interfering with the flow of latex 


in the trees. I think that for that reason alone the greatest care should be taken 
not to go infor too close planting. Coming herein the train yesterday I noticed 


rubber planted 8 feet by 8 feet. Itseems to me that this is absolutely throwing 
money away. The soil in Ceylon, although we have some good soil, is not 
particularly rich—especially in the low-country, and we have to remember that 
large areas have been more or less exhausted by the growing of tea; but as regards 
the actual loss from the manufacture and sale of rubber it is practically nil. It 
is a question whether something can be done with the waste waters, butas far 
as I can see there is very little loss even if this were thrown away and not replaced 
in the soil. But I certainly think every care should be taken to prevent trees 
getting set as it were from exhaustion of the soil. 


MANURING. 


And especially the application of organic matter ought to be taken in hand 
early if the flow of latex is to be continued. I noticed in working at rubber lately 
that in the first latex—you have gotit in the old figures—the latex contained 32 
per cent. of rubber, that is to say that for3 lb. of latex there was1 lb. of rubber, 
but in all the latex sent to me recently, and from what I hear from planters the 
latex does not now equal that proportion, and the caoutchouc has in some instances 
gone down to 15 per cent. or less. It seems to me the laticiferous tubes are refilled 
very rapidly, and the actual flow of water into the tubes also is fairly rapid, but 
there is apparently a slight want of power of formation of actual rubber in the 
latex, and this, I think, must be carefully watched in the future. The yield of the 
trees certainly has not fallen off, but it must mean that there is a much larger 
proportion of soft laticiferous tissues and larger secretion of moisture which may 
possibly render the trees more liable to attacks from insects. There is no knowing 
how this power of the actual formation of the caoutchouc in‘the latex may fall off. 
It has already fallen off, and for that reason I think myself manuring should be 
taken in hand at an early date. Several people have already applied manure to 
young trees without thinking of the proper method which resulted in their putting 
in a forcing manure producing an excessive head of leafy growth and which 
renders them very liable to be blown over by the wind or having their heads 
broken off, and I think the greatest care must be taken in the manuring of trees— 
especially if they are planted in tea and if the flow of latex is to be successfully 
continued. (Applause.) 


Mr, Wricut:—Might I just mention that Mr. Bamber only refers to 
exhaustion following the extraction of latex, but L think it is quite probable that 
there willbe far more exhaustion following the excision and renewal of the bark, 
rather than in the extraction of the latex. As you know unfortunately we cut off 
large area of bark to get a few vounds of rubber. 


Mr. BAMBER :—Of course, that exhaustion can be replaced in the estate. 
It is not actually lost to the estate. It is not removed out of the Island. 

Mr. WRIGHT :—With regard to the composition of the latex it is interesting 
to find that though some of the trees at Henaratgoda when first tapped gave latex 
with only 30 to 50 per cent. of water, the tapping of the renewed bark has often 
given us latex with as much as 90 per cent, of water. 

Mr. BaAMBER—That is what I say. I say the proportion of caoutchouc is 
greatly reduced. 


: n 


/ 


ane Dec, 1906.) 451 Saps and Exudations. 


Hl. EK. the Governor :—Is there anybody present who can give us information 
as tothe difference in the proportion of caoutchouc in the extraction from wild 
rubber trees, which has been going on for a good many years, certainly in the 
Amazon Valley, Ido not think quite so long in Africa? ButI think rubber extrac 
tion from wild trees—the very old trees—has been going on year after year for a good 
number of years. Idonot know whether any gentleman here is able to to tell us 
whether the proportion of caoutchouc in the latex extracted from those old trees it 
becoming less. r 


Mr. Bamper :—I do not know whether they renew the bark like we have to 
do here, or whether they tap the same trees year after year; but I doubt whether 
they measure the latex or weigh the rubber. Apparently they simply dip their 
paddles and smoke it. 


METHODS OF PLANTING. 


Mr. WriGcHt:—Mr. Bamber mentioned the distance of 15 x 20 feet which I 
have adopted in my caleulations. I should like to take this opportunity of impress- 
ing upon planters that I (personally) am not in favour of close-planting, neither am I 

in favour of simple wide-planting, the former I consider wrong in principle and the 
latter wasteful. Elsewhere I discussed one system—close planting and thinning—out, 
and gave the reasons for and against such a system ; though this system 1s one which 
must be adopted on most of the estates already planted in Ceylon, there are other 
systems such as wide planting and interplanting with cacao, tea, coffee, camphor, 
ete.; wide planting and interplanting with arborescent and herbaceous green 
manures, etc. Jam not infavour of originally planting Para rubber plants at a 
distance which is required when the trees are thirty years old, but am morein favour 
of interplanting with rubber trees or other products, and subsequently thinning- 
out, in order to gradually give the remaining rubber trees the increased area 
which their age and development demand. Para rubber trees are unique 
in that they give a marketable product in their fourth or fifth years, and 
yet go on increasing in size until they are over 30 years old. We have no 
product like it in Ceylon and so far satisfactory results have been obtained 
by thinning-ont of cacao, tea, or rubber trees on well-known and _highly- 
valued rubber estates in Ceylon and elsewhere. The rate of root growth of 
Para rubber trees, at Peradeniya, was estimated to be approximately one foot 
radially per year by me; it wasalso pointed out that this referred to the com- 
pact root areas and not to individual roots which often run out for over four or 
five feet in acouple of years. In some districts the roots have not even grown at 
that rate, and in others I believe they have grown more rapidly. My remarks were 
based on the apparent freedom of the soil from roots, observed when carrying out 
trench-manuring work; the roots were never very abundant one foot from one- 
year-old and two feet from two-year-old Para rubber trees at Peradeniya. I shall be 
glad to be corrected, especially by the assurance of a more rapid rate of growth for 
our rubber trees; I trust that my statement here will remove any doubt as to my 
‘opinion being fixed on the question of distance or method of planting Para rubber 
trees. 


BRAZILIAN METHODS OF PREPARATION. 


} Dr. CHRISTY said there was one pointin regard to that subject which was 
rather interesting, and he noticed Mr. Wright gave a warning on the subject. That 
was the difference between the two methods of Brazilian preparation and that used 
here. The Brazilian method is purely one of evaporation. It seemed to him to bea 
point which was of great interest, and that it was possible it might be found that the 
success of the rubber industry might depend upon the method of coagulation. No 
method at present invented turned out the rubber in the same way as Brazil, and it 


Gums, Resins, 452 [DEc. 1906. 


was important that they should go into the matter more deeply than they had done 
up to date. What he went upon in one respect was the Funtumia rubber in Africa: 
He had coagulated this rubber by evaporation and sent it home, and that rubber is 
as good to-day as ever it was—as good as fine hard Para. It seemed to him that one 
point inthe Brazilian method of evaporation was that antiseptic was used in the 
smoke, and here no antiseptic whatever was used, and the consequence was that we 
got tacky rubber, &c. It was possible that if an antiseptic were used, we could go on 
with tne present method instead of the evapdration method. It wasa difficult and 
intricate subject and one of great interest, and he was sure it was a very important 
one. There was a good deal of rubber turned out in Africa, but he did not 
think it would make any difference in the market for some years to come. He would 
like to mention in regard to Funtunia rubber that it was peculiar in this way, that 
it did not grow here and there as rubber in Brazil, but it grew in patches, and it was 
quite possible, as he knew himself, to find it growing in certain parts 200 or 300 trees 
in the acre; where trees grew in aggregations and batches, and in very large 
quantities, it ismerely a matter of opening these patches containing grown gos 
and there having ready-made plantations. 


Mr. Wricut:—Regarding the point of the difference between rubber pre. 
paration in the Amazon and our district; in the wild districts the water, proteid and 
resinous matter is included and antiseptic added. Inthe plantation we try to remove 
part of the water, the’proteid matter and the resinous and do not even add antiseptic. 


Mr. BAMBER :—Perhaps we remove a little too much from the rubber. If 
other rubbers contain all this proteid and resinous matter and give better results, I 
do not see what we gain by removing two or three per cent. of resin and proteid 
matter, and at the same time lose in weight. We certainly want absolute purity in 
the factory. I think a rubber factory ought to be kept as sterile as the best dairy, 
because I have seen how tackiness can start from inoculation. I have been abie to 
inoculate a good biscuit from a tacky biscuit after sterilisation, and there is no doubt 
that bad and weak rubber is often due to inoculation. This can be prevented by 
having everything ina sterilised condition. Often one sees a layer of proteid and 
sugar matter left around the buckets, and there is nothing that will encourage the 
growth of bacteria like this. I think that every precaution ought to be taken to see 
that the implements or utensils used for collection or manufacture should be practi- 
cally sterile. 

CAOUTCHOUC IN PURE LATEX, 

H. E. tHe GoveRNoR (to Mr Wright ):—Your assumption of the amount of 
land that will produce a given number of tons of rubber was based, I presume, upon 
the amount of caoutchoue that has been extracted in the latex up to the present 
Assuming as a fact what we have heard—that apparently with an increased flow of 
latex you may have a decreased amount of caoutchouc,—of course, it would affect 
your estimate as faras the amount of land necessary to produce a certain amount 
of caoutchouc is concerned. 


Mr. WRIGHT :—My estimate was 1b. plantation rubber per tree per year, not 
so much latex. The rubber itselfis the dried product. We may collect varying 
quantities of latex according to the climate and other conditions, but this does not 
affect the yield of dry rubber to which I refer. 

H. E, tHe Governor :—Am I to understand from Mr. Bamber that in certain 
trees you have tapped, we will say last year or the year before, a certain amount 
of caoutcbouc has been found in the latex ? This year, in extracting from that tree, 
a smaller proportion is found in the latex. Are we toassume that the quantity of 
latex is increased. but the amount of caoutchouc is constant ?—or are we to assume 
that the amount of caoutchouc from the tree is less in the later tapping than it was 
in the original tapping ? 


a 


Dec. 1996.) 453 Saps and Reudations. 


Mr. BAMBER :—I think the amount of caoutchouc at present is practically 
permanent, but the amount of water in the latex has largely increased as you see 
in the wound response. 


H. HK. THE GOVERNOR :—That leaves the amount of caoutchouc constant, 


Mr. BAMBER :—If we started some year's ago with 32 per cent. of caoutchouc, 
and we now have 10, 15 or 20 per cent., what isit going to be ina few years? Are 
the trees going to keep on increasing the amount of latex so as to keep a constant 
quantity of caoutchouc ? 


H. E. THE GOVERNOR :—Yes, that is the question. 
THE ACREAGE UNDER RUBBER. 


Mr. JAMES RyAan:—I wish to say a few words on this question of acreage. 
There are two difficulties with which we have to contend. One is the possibility of 
overproduction, but the greatest danger in front of us is that all this rubber will not 
come in gradually. The planting has been done so rapidly that we will hurl on to 
the world very possibly in the space of three years—which three years, I take it, will 
be from 1910 to 1918—we shall hurl on the market this enormous quantity of culti- 
vated rubber, which I estimate will be quite double the present production in threel 
years. The world cannot instantly absorb such a quantity without a severe disloca- 
tion of price. We have seen it in the case of our tea and in the over production of 
cinchona. I remember in one year alone Ceylon exported, without any warning— 
or with only such warning as we are giving here to-day—four times the world’s con- 
sumption. What wasthe result ? Quinine received such a blow as it has never 
practically recovered from. We knocked the retail price of quinine down from a 
guinea or 24s. to a shilling, The wholesale price touched as low as 8d. Bark 
became practically valueless. In tea the moment we exceeded the world’s demand 
by 10 per cent. we knocked down the world’s price by 25 per cent. I have talked 
with political economists on the matter, and they tell us the ratio is incremental, and 
we must bear this in mind and take time by the forelock and introduce our rubber 
into fresh markets before the crash comes. I have gone very carefully into these 
figures with Mr. Herbert Wright, and I think his figures are rather an understate- 
ment than an overstatement of the dangers we have to face. I may say that the in- 
formation he has given to meis that for the 1,2000,000 acres at the rate of a ton to 20 
acres, which is necessary to produce 60,000 tons of rubber, the land is already planted 
and within five or six years from this date it will produce rather more than less the 
amount of rubber Mr, Wright gave us to-day. It, therefore, behoves us all to use our 
commercial prescience and without being optimistic or pessimistic approach it with 
the eye of ameliorists and face our enemies and be ready to meet them well prepared 
(Applause. ) 


DR, WILLIS ON BLOCK RUBBER, 


Dr. WILLIS, illustrating his remarks witha large block of fine hand cured 
Para exhibited in the show, said he would like to call attention to the block of Para 
rubber in the show, asit came from the Amazon. When it was cut, it was quite 
white through the centre. It was rapidly blackening now. It would be seen that 
the rubber was quite damp. That, as it stood, was exactly like a Ceylon biscuit 
freshly taken out of the roller, There was no dry rubber in that block like the 
biscuits they sent home. If they rubbed their finger on this rubber and smelled it, 
they would readily recognise the smell of creosote, and it seemed to him a question 
worthy of consideration whether they ouglit not to try the effect of blocking their 
rubber. If he might hark back, they made biscuits first in their department in 1899, 
The methods used then were those used now. They prepared the rubber with acid 
which nearly everyone used now, and they also put in a small proportion of creosote, 
The creosote did not mix with the latex, but it was quite possible to do it. If they 


po ay aad ol 4 
MPR ri 
[Due. 1906. 
mixed creosote with alcohol, ten of the former to one of the latter, and then added 
a few drops of latex the creosote mixed completely, and the result was the 
complete antiseptism of the rubber. There were biscuits lying in the museum at. 
the gardens eight years old as good as ever. There was hardly any mould on them 
except a little that could be rubbed off with the hand. That rubber from the 
Amazon was quite damp. He thoughtit contained 15 per cent. of moisture, whereas 
in Ceylon rubber there was only about one per cent, and here was rubber in perfectly 
good and sound condition taking 15 per cent. of moisture and creosote. The Amazon 
rubber seemed to him much more springy than the Ceylon rubber. If they took a 
Ceylon biscuit and pulled it out, it would spring back a certain distance and then 
creep back slowly into the original shape. If they took a piece of South American 
rubber, it sprang back at once. That was one of the, . 


Gums, Resins, 454 


COMPLAINTS AGAINST CEYLON RUBBER IN THE LONDON MARKET. 


that its quality was not quite good enough for the finest kind of work, and they 
should try to improve it in that respect. He suggested that some of the proprietary 
planters might try as an experiment preparing rubber with creosote and preparing 
it in blocks before it was quite dry. It was quite possible they might get better 
results, and he thought it would be well woi'th the while of some proprietary planter 
to try that. With regard to the wild rubber His Excellency asked if there had been 
any figures recently from South America, but he was afraid tapping was not done 
there with sufficient care for that. In South America they simply made a big gash 
on the tree with an axe and stuck on acup with mud. In South America, however, 
the latex ran for a longer time than in Ceylon in a fluid condition, and Mr. Parkins, 
who worked in Ceylon in 1898, was of opinion that the latex was of a poorer quality 
than the latex of the West. He founda large percentage of latex in the old trees 
at Henaratgoda, and he was of opinion from the figures that probably on the whole 
the latex in South America was rather weaker than that in Ceylon. 


RUBBER PREPARATION ON THE AMAZON, 


H. HE. THE GOVERNOR ;—Is this sample of rubber prepared wlth creosote, or 
with the smoke of a particular nut ? 


Dr. WILLIS explained that the preparation of this rubber was done in the fol- 
lowing manner :—The man had alarge bucket of latex in a liquid condition. He had 
a paddle in hishand. He dipped the paddle in the bucket and held it over a flower- 
pot in which he had nuts of a certain palm burning. He revolves the paddle until 
the latex stiffens and then dipsit inthe latex again, &c. Mr. Parkins analysed the 
smoke of that nut and found it was a fairly clear smoke, and he found the smoke on 
burning the nuts contained a large quantity of acetic acid and creosote, and it was 
on that result that Mr. Parkins based his method for the preparation of Ceylon latex. 
He based his method on a long series of experiments. He did not know if there was 
anything elsein the smoke. Its marked feature was that it contained a quantity of 
acetic acid and a fair amount of creosote. 

Mr. RYAN :—In continuation of Dr. Willis’s remarks, the acid to which the 
character of this smoke is due is a crude form of acetic acid. Just as fusel oil is the 
foreshot of whisky, so this acid is really the cheaper form of pure acid we are now 
using, and it might be a moot point whether it were not better to use this pyro- 
ligneous acid instead of acetic acid. Perhaps before the end of the Exhibition we shall 
have some data to lay before youupon that point. 


THE MARKET VALUE OF CHEMICALLY PURE RUBBER. 


Mr. CARRUTHERS said in connection with that matter it might be interest- 
ing if he mentioned that some nine months ago a prize was offered in the Federated 
Malay States for the most chemically pure rubber of any kind that could be prepared 


— 


Dec. 1906. | - | 455 Saps and Hxvudations, 


At the time a great many planters were of opinion that what they wanted to make 
for was chemical purity. It was possible—and he thought, indeed, probable—that 
they ran that hare rather too fast. Hesent sixteen samples submitted to Prof. 
Dunstan and Mr. Gray, who was a partner in Silvertown Rubber Works, and who 
had a good knowledge of the chemistry of rubber, The samples were in varied 
forms—many in ecrépe form, some sheet and some biscuits. The advocates of crépe at 
that time claimed that by the continuous passing of the rubber through the 
rollers they got a greater chemical purity than was to be found in sheet or biscuits, 
and they hoped that their rubber could get the prize, and so crépe would be 
acknowledged the best. However, when the samples came back, it was found that 
in regard to chemical purity crépe came sixth, so that passing through the rollers 
did not give rubber chemical purity. But what was chiefly interesting about the 
matter was that these samples were also submitted to Mr. Gray for his opinion as 
to their value for the market, and those which were most chemically pure would 
not, in his opinion, fetch the highest price in the market; so that it was more than 
possible that as Dr. Christy and other speakers had said, they were taking 
something out which it would be of advantage to leave in. However, if that con- 
ference began to make men think of a method whereby simply by using creosote, 
which was the simplest way of imitating the smoking of Brazil, they could cure in 
such a way as to make fibre or nerve or whatever they might call it, so that they 
might get the highest price for theiv rubber, it was a step in the right direction. In 
regard to the figures Mr. Wright and Mr. Ryan gave, the word “alienated” was 
used for land planted. As far as the F.M.S. were concerned, if they had taken 
the figures of alienated land, that meant 20,000, 30,000 or 40,000 which was merely 
taken up, and which it would be impossible to plant for many years. If they had 
10,000 acres, it would be absolutely impossible to plant it all within ten years, so that 
if the figures referred to alienation they must be discounted very largely if they 


wanted to use them for the purpose of considering the amount of rubber produced. 


Mr. WriGuHT:—In calculating the figures representing the districts to which 
Mr. Carruthers referred, I may say that in working out these figures, we accepted 
those Mr. Carruthers gave in his last annual report (laughter) which is 30,000 
merely—which is very little for your place, and may be exceeded before the end 
of 1906. 

Mr. CARRUTHERS :—Oh ! (laughter) I stand corrected. I may say I did not 
follow them very carefully, but I must say a quarter-of-a-million acres rather 
staggered me. I did not think my figures assumed such large numbers as that. 

Mr. WriGut :—The 250,000 acres cover the whole Indo-Malayan region. Asa 
matter of fact the figures gave us nearly half-a-million alienated, but we only want 
to take into consideration the minimum, 250,000, planted in 1906, to come into 
bearing in 1918. It is the minimum you can possibly allow for. 


Mr. CARRUTHERS :—The question is whether these figures are correct. 


THE SALE OF UNSUITABLE LAND BY GOVERNMENT. 
Col. ByRDE said he had been asked to read a paper by Mr. F.C. Roles who 
had seen a copy of Mr. Wright’s lecture, and based his remarks on them. 
Mr. RoLES wrote:—While realising that it is easy to prove anything by 
suppositional figures, I agree with the lecturer that it is wise not to anticipate a 
reduction in the world’s output of wild rubber. Threatened industries die hard; 


- and the output of plantations cut out of rubber forests and worked under European 


supervision (as for example Dr. Cuthbert Christy’s Uganda Concession) has to be 
reckoned with, though it will presumably be classed by the trade as plantation and 
not as wild rubber. It will be free from impurities, and will help the Congo stulf 
with percentages of impurities very much higher than the Brazilian standard 


Gums, Resins, 456 


which the lecturer has naturally taken. As to the demand for rubber, I would give ‘ 
my imagination greater rein. With the inevitable annual, but gradual, reduction 
in price, whole branches of industry, the ground plans of which are in existence, 
will start into being. But whether the demand will, in 1917, be 120,000 tons or 
180,000 tons, no one can dogmatically say that no more land than is at present 
alienated should be disposed of for rubber in either Ceylon or the Malay Peninsula, 
and least of allin South India. The Ceylon Government will continue to put to 
auction, as quickly as it can, land that has been applied for; andthe Federated 
Malay States authorities seem to have no fear that too many of their agricultural 
eggs are going into one basket, though they are dependent for much future revenue 
on the permanency of the industry. I wish, however, to record one suggestion 
applicable to the State policy in Ceylon, when large blocks of land, selected by 
Government itself are offered at auction. In the famous sale of October last, fern 
land went up with the rest. In the notice of sale had appeared the words ‘‘ Said to 
be suitable for rubber.” This statement reflected the speculative spirit of the 
period, but in future the State might protect its own, the planter’s and general 
investor’s interests much better. It is an economic blunder to sell land that is 
unsuitable ; and I urge that when it has blocked out acres it is prepared to dispose 
of, the Government should engage recognised planting authorities to inspect the 
land, and, accepting their: dicta, sell for rubber only the acreages they have passed 
suitable for rubber. The fees paid to these experts would be more than recovered 
by the better prices the land would secure; and the ultimate advantages would be 

far-reaching. The Government would not be even remotely a party to land being 
planted that would be incapable of yielding, say, 4$1b. of dry rubber per tree per 
annum. Here is tangible opportunity to protect Ceylon’s good name. In the 
booms of coming years it will be impossible to always prevent unduly heavy 
profits by middlemen in floating produce companies on the London market; but 
we can do something now to prevent that greater disaster which can overtake the 
Colony’s reputation if properties which can never properly yield are foisted on to ¥ 
the investing public. 

Mr. WRiGHT subsequently stated he was glad that Mr. Roles agreed with 
some of his suggestions, and that he realised that scientific people and methods 
are being employed in the extraction of rubber from the wild forests of Africa. Mr. 
Wright believed that the same applied to exploitation in other countries, and q 
will continue as long as the present high prices are paid for the raw material. 
The suggestion regarding land selection for future extensions is, Mr. Wright 
believes, a very sound one. Persons who have already planted or obtained land 
for rubber planting, have very bright prospects before them ; but those who secure 
and plant their land during the next few years, must conduct their operations on 
scientific lines if success has to be guaranteed. Those estates which have been best 
planted, and those soils which have the best physical and chemical properties 
will naturally do better than the rest when the struggle setsin. Itis, Mr. Wright 
believes, conceivable that selected land not yet planted may give better results 
than some patches of poor soil already in rubber. With regard to the figures 
Mr. Wright gave, he wished it to be clearly understood that he was by no means 
wedded to theiv, and that he was fully conscious of the many developments 
possible in the rubber industry of the future. 

Dr. CHRISstTy remarked, in regard to the lump of rubber shown by Dv. Willis, 
that an interesting point in connection with it was that one thin film was placed 
on top of the other, and eventually by the time that it was ready to go to the 
washing, it was not only a lump of rubber but an automatic rubber press as well. 
He meant that each film pressed on the next film, so in producing this hard block ~ 
of rubber you would get—not only a great amount of power, but equally pressing — 
power which exercised a continual pressure. 


Dec. 1906.] 457 Saps and Rxudations. 


Mr. BAMBER said there was one other point. With regard to the question 
of blocking rubber in a wet condition, he did not think it would be quite a wise 
thing. The amount of moisture left would be a very variable quantity, and he 
thought the manufacturers at home would bea little doubtful about the rubber. 
They would find there was a bigger loss in some cases than in others, and at present 
Ceylon had a name for losing very little in the washing and curing process, 
and anything which made the quantity of water uncertain, might interfere with 
the demand. 

Mr. R. Morison :—After the application of creosote, will Dr. Willis admit 
that drying would do no harm ? 

Dr. WILLIS explained that he suggested that merely as an experiment for 
proprietary planters to try in order to see what result they would get. Probably 
the damp would make the quantity of rubber uncertain, but it was not difficult to 
devise machinery to get over that difficulty. It should be quite easy to devise 
machinery which would make the amount of water in a particular block of rubber 
fairly uniform. 

Mr. C. Devitt :—That block of rubber is dried in layers, but it has water 
in between each, and it would never do to mix creosote with the Ceylon rubber in 
making one block. It would be wet and also not properly cured. In this block 
eack layer is dried, but it has got the water in between. Itis not one mass. It 
is in hundreds of different layers, but in a plantation like Lanadron the block 
produced is all one piece. If you mixed creosote with the latex, you could never 
dry it inone mass. You would have to smoke each layer just the same as in the 
Amazon block. 

H.E. THE GOVERNOR :—Mr. Wright has given us a very interesting lecture, 
and I think the discussion has been of very great value, I think we have to thank 
Mr. Wright for the great care with which he has prepared his lecture, and also 
the gentlemen who have spoken on the subject for the information they have 
given you, gentlemen and planters, and to the work in the future. (Applause.) 


THE USE OF GUAYULE RUBBER. 


Particularly at the present time any material which can satisfactorily 
replace rubber in a mixing is a substance which every manufacturer would welcome. 
If this substance is a genuine rubber, and which can be had at low price, it is quite 
natural that the interest and curiosity of most manufacturers should be aroused. 
So far as Guayule rubber is concerned, its friends put it forward as a rubber which 
can satisfactorily take the place of many medium grade rubbers, and also replace 
to some extent in many mixings the use of higher priced materials. To get good 
results, however, the Guayule rubber must. be very closely studied as it differs in 
its conduct from most rubbers which manufacturers are in the habit of using. 


There are, on the other hand, many firms who have tried Guayule rubber 
experimentally when it was first introduced, and who are of opinion that its use is 
detrimental. So far as we are concerned personally, we have known of manu- 
facturers who have madea success of Guayule, and of others who have failed to 
use it with any degree of satisfaction. We are bound to confess, however, that 
the latter used Guayule, not as a rubber which required special handling, but 
very much as though it was asubstitute fora low grade rubber, while the former 
had spent a considerable time in making lengthy experiments in cleaning the 


_rubber, and as regards its vuleanizing qualities. 


The present article is not so much our own opinion of Guayule as the record 
of an interview with Dr. Werner Esch, who has done a very considerable amount 
of work on Guayule, and who was selected by Messrs. Riensch and Held of Hamburg 


Gums, Resins, 458 [Nov. 1906. ue 


(the European Agents of one of the largest Guayule rubber producing firms in 
Mexico, the Companhia Explotadora Coahuilense, Parras) to come over to 
England and demonstrate to the manufacturers here that Guayule rubber possesses 
qualities which fit it for the manufacture of many grades of rubber goods, and these 
not at all inferior ones. While the opinions of Dr. Esch in this connection might 
not be taken as unprejudiced, since his mission was to prove the case for Guayule, 
yet it is only fair to state that fora long time back, without any material consi- 
deration which would affect his judgment one way or another, Dr. Esch has been 
active in his advocacy of Guayule, as his articles in the technical press can 
demonstrate. 


In our interview with Dr. Ksch, he pointed out that it was a 
cuvious fact that Guayule, the cheapest of all genuine raw rubbers, was 
until recently unknown to many English rubber manufacturers. Some had been 
reading about this rubber; some had seen samples of it, but altogether there 
were only two manufacturers who knew howto make profitable use of this cheap 
raw material. 


The reason why Guayule rubber was first of all introduced to Germany had 
its origin in the fact that the Germans first discovered it, and even yet mainly 
German-Mexican firms dothe business in this rubber. From the beginning Dr. 
Esch has been interested in Guayule, as he had the conviction that useful rubber 
goods could be manufactured of this rubber, and he used all his influence to extend 
a knowledge of this rubber. 


In spite of unfavourable criticism, Dr. Esch states that he stood 
his ground, and now no expert doubts any longer that Guayule belongs to the 
class of genuine rubbers, and hundreds of tons of it are now used in large 
rubber works. : 


Although the period of its introduction has not been very long, Dr. Esch 
stated that there are now used hundreds of tons of Guayule rubber in the United 
States, and that the Companhia Explotadora Coahuilense, ,in Parras, Mexico, alone 
has, to his knowledge, sold in the last few months, say 600 tons. 


At the beginning the attempts of several manufacturers to use Guayule 
resulted in failure, but these failures, according to Dr. Esch, are not difficult to 
explain, and the mistakes they made can be easily avoided. Guayule isa very 
peculiar product. It cannot be treated in the same way as Para or other kinds. 
The small Guayule bush does not contain latex, as do other rubber trees, but 
rubber already of a rather consistent kind; and that is the reason why the 
collection of this rubber is a very peculiar one. The Guayule rubber imported 
from Mexico still contains wood fibre. If one tries to remove this fibre, as 
in the usual way by washing machines, one never will get at the end a pure 
rubber. Through the pressing and squashing of the washing mill this wood 
fibre is forced into the rubber, which, by this time, is getting softer and 
softer, anda real removal of the fibre seems impossible. If the rubber is hung up in 
thin sheets, as the other kinds, to dry, it will become apparent that air does not dry 
it. If one makes thicker sheets in order to avoid the tearing from the sticks, it will 
not dry completely at all. 


Very often Dr. Esch has found in Guayule rubber washed and dried in this 
way alkali residues, which still remained in the rubber, and from the alkali which is 
used in the usual Mexican treatment of the Guayule shrubs. In all such cases the 


use of Guayule rubber which has |gone through these operations has the disadvant- 
age of making the goods porous, 


We 


Dec. 1906.} 459 Saps and? HLaudations. 


It has been Dr. Esch’s endeavour to show the manufacturer who! did not 
know how to use this rubber how to treat the raw material in order to remove all 
impurities, and, on the other hand, how to use it in the manufacture of useful rubber 
goods. In this method the old wash-hollanders can be used, as they cut the Guayule 
in sufficiently small pieces without the rubber undergoing such a deterioration as in 
the washing mills. By heating the water in the wash-hollanders the Guayule 
expands, the particles lose their adherence, and in this way the wood fibres are freed 
and drop to the bottom. In just the same way all other impurities are removed by the 
hot water, which cold water would not do so easily. Those who do not possess a 
washing hollander will require to cut the rubber into small pieces in another way, 
It can be done, for instance, by cutting the wet Guayule with a machine the same as 
is used in mincing meat, and then throwing it into hot water. 


After this treatment the Guayule, now in small pieces, requires to be washed 
in cold water and then spread out on a wire netting and dried in dark rooms ata 
temperature of 30 to 40 degrees. 


Dr. Esch is confident of the fact that the product so obtained is good 
enough even for making ebonite combs. He went on to say that there had been some 
mixtures put at his disposal which showed (according to the opinion of experienced 
working managers) that a vuleanite comb mixture, consisting of 2-3 Guayule and 
1-3 Para, was apparently, at least, just as good as an analogous mixture of 2—8 Para 
and 1—3 Guayule. When he showed these samples in England to some experts, the 
first-mentioned mixture was always recognised as the best one, especially on account 
of the beautiful dark gloss. It is obvious that the Guayule, by virtue of its physical 
qualities, is exceedingly fit for use in the manufacture of many classes of rubber 
goods. 


Dr. Esch stated that he knew of three rnbber shoe works which use plenty 
of Guayule rubber, with very satisfactory results. Combined with mixtures, which 
are dry through containing plenty of rubber waste, etc., Guayule makes a good com- 
pound, One thing, however, has to be carefully considered in connection with com- 
pounds containing Guayule rubber, namely, the slow vulcanising and the resin 
contents of the Guayule. These two facts cause the inertia of the Guayule in the 
vulcanisation. Guayule belongs to the class of very slowly vulcanising rubbers, and 
these classes of rubber (as well as the ones vulcanised by steam) require an addition 
of heavy calcined magnesia. 


Regarding the extended use of the ingredient, Europe is away ahead of 
Britain in this matter. 


Although the magnesia added to these mixtures seldom surpasses 5 per cent., 
the leading Continental rubber and cable works use tons ot the heavy magnesia. In 
order to avoid misunderstandings, Dr. Esch states that the mentioned limit of 5 per 
cent. heavy magnesia is available only for the soft rubber goods, and as to certain 


ebonite goods, for instance, packing sheets, etc., higher additions of magnesia are 
required. 


Dr. Esch explained that as regards any further information that might be 
desired with regard to Guayule, he would be happy to furnish it to any reader of the 
Journal. He also stated that samples of Guayule, of any size, could be had from the 
firm already named in this article. In these days of fluctuating prices it is not 
always advisable to give price, but in order that comparisons may be made by any 
readers unacquainted with the price of Guayule, it might be stated that in small 
quantities it cost about ls. 93d. per lb. f.o-b. Hamburg, and in large quantities 
1s. 6d. per lb. f.0.b, United Kingdom. The losses in washing can generally be 
taken in at about 25 per cent.—- The India-Rubber Journal. 


5 Ae Rete a's, 
Dee 


{ 


Gums, Resins, 460 [Duc. 1906, 
A Rubber Tapping Demonstration at Henaratgoda. 


® 


By HERBERT WRIGHT, 
Held at Henaratgoda Botanic Gardens, September 25th, 1906. 


AN INTERESTING DAY AMONG OLD RUBBER TREES. 

Mr. Herbert Wright, Controller of the Government Experiment Station at 
Peradeniya, delivered a lecture and gave practical demonstrations of tapping in the 
Henaratgoda Botanic Gardens before a large gathering of Ceylon planters, Delegates 
to the Rubber Exhibition, and visitors from the Federated Malay States, Straits and 
South India. Onarrivalat the Gardens, Mr. Herbert Wright delivered a brief lecture, 
giving the resuits of his experiments during the past year, He then conducted the 
party round the gardens, and showed them the various trees from which these results 
had been obtained, making explanatory statements, answering questions, and giving 
practical demonstrations throughout. Itis safe to say that never before in Ceylon 
has a year’s scientific work been put to so closea test and scrutiny as on this occasion ; 
and it must be gratifying to those concerned to know that the comments of critical 
practical planters from the Malay Peninsula and South India were highly flattering 
—one prominent Indian visitor enthusiastically describing the day’s proceedings 
as the most interesting and pregnant with information, of a series of phenomenally 
interesting and informing lectures and demonstrations. The visitors were much 
impressed with the elaborate character of the experiments in progress and the 
general excellence of the work shown on the trees. 


Among those present were :—Mrs. Ryan, Messrs. P. M, Parkinson, Reinhart 
Freudenberg, C. K. Smithett, Hon. E. Fielding, Messrs. C, G. Devitt, James Ryan, Jas. 
P. Dove, P. W. E. Watts, Alex. L. Baines, R. J. Booth, J. B. Tennant, D.S. Ferguson, 
T. Jones, C. Leslie Devitt, G. A. Greig, F. G. Ballard, C. M. B. Wilkins, F. W. Byrde, 
C. W. H. Duckworth, W. L. Hutchinson, J. Cameron, R. L. Proudlock, T. P. 
Simpson, T. B. Campbell, R. Huyshe Eliot, H. Zacharias, J. C. Forbes, A, Lehmann, 
H. M. Devitt, EK. M. Coventry, S. Brett, J. S. Patterson, Alex. Fairlie and Col. 
Ingouville- Williams. 

THE LECTURE, 

Mr. HERBERT WriGcHtT—after the party had taken their places on seats 
arranged near the Laboratory—said :— 

GENTLEMEN,—You have been invited to Henaratgoda in order to see the 
parent Para rubber trees in Ceylon, and to observe the general characteristics of a 
small but somewhat typical Para rubber forest. As you are aware, the plants were 
sent from Kew in August, 1876, and since that time seeds and plants have been sent 
in thousands to almost every part of the tropics where rubber plants are likely to 
grow. I know there exists a friendly controversial spirit between officials in the 
Straits.—and perhaps now in the Federated Malay States,—and Ceylon, as to the 
origin of the Para rubber plants in the Malay Archipelago; but we are certain of one 
thing, and that is, that plants were sent to the Straits from Ceylon in 1877, though 
their ultimate fate is somewhat obscure. The climate at Heneratgoda isa little 
warmer and more moist than that at Peradeniya, and the results ohtained up-to-date 


lead one to suggest that the Heneratgoda climate is perhaps more suitable for the 
growth of Hevea brasiliensis. 


RANGE OF VARIABILITY. 

Before going through our series of experiments, I may perhaps be permitted 
to tiake a statement which is warranted from our past experiences. Visitors to 
Henaratgoda and the Experiment Station must clearly understand that up-to-date 
results are given only to add to the sum total of our knowledge on the various points 
jnvestigated, and not as results to be expected in the future or on the average estate, 


| 
i 


Dec. 1906.} } 461 Saps and Fxudations. 


The results obtained and published in Ceylon should be compared carefully with those 
obtained elsewhere, and if other countries will only respond as freely as Ceylon, the 
Malay Peninsula and India, in giving records of work done, knowledge of the highest 
importance to the rubber industry will soon be in our possession. The results 
tabulated for your information to-day are of interest since they show what has been 
obtained by experiments on every section of the tree, from the base toa height of 
nearly fifty feet. They are at the best only fragmentary and must not be accepted 
as the standard by means of which probable future yields can be calculated and 
checked. People are only too apt to regard a single year’s results as something which 
will serve as a guide for, and stand the test of, the future; but Lam sure that if 
the friends who visit these places were only in charge of scientific experiments for a 
few years, they would realise that the main point of interest in all such work is the 
variability of the results obtained. In all such experiments it is first necessary to 
determine the range of variability, and from that to calculate the error to be 
allowed in all experiments, 
HIGH TAPPING RESULTS, 

It will not surprise many of you to learn that the highest yield of rubber has 
been obtained trom trees tapped from the base to fifty feet; these high tapping 
experiments were modified and worked on such a plan that the yield has now totalled 
to about 15 1b. of dry rubber per tree in eleven months; there can be but little doubt 
that if necessary, at the sacrifice of the tree, three times that amount could be 
obtained within one year. The corticalstripping necessary to give sucha high yield, 
within one year, would in all probability kill the tree. You will notice that high 


tapping necessitates two or three coolies per tree per day, a fact which is of some 


interest to those planters who speculate on their future yields from parts of the 
stem above 6 or 10 feet. 
LATEX WITHOUT RUBBER. 

There is a yery curious phenomenon to be recorded in connection with the 
tapping of the higher parts of old trees. We all know that when a Para rubber tree 
stem has a basal circumference of 20 inches or over, it yields normal latex—or at least 
a milky liquid which can be converted into rubber, The average circumference 
of the stems at the highest points, tapped at Henaratgoda, is not less than 80 inches, 
and the stems have usually yielded good latex. But on certain occasions the latex 
has been of sucha nature that it could not be coagulated by any means whatever; 
and though this feature has been very erratic, it has been of much more frequent 
occurrence where high tapping has been carried on. 

The following table shows the results for the last eleven months and the 


botanical significance of this curious phenomenon will form the subject of future 
remarks :— 


ae Number of 
eight of times when Number of 4 , 
Marks. tapping area, latex not times tapped, Frequency of tapping. 
coagulatable, 
A 5'-6' 0 91 Twice per week. 
B 56 0 93 do 
C ” 1 92 do 
D 5 2 270 Every day. 
E oF 0 136 Every alternate day. 
EF 4p 0 4f Once per week. 
G os 0 l1 Once per month. 
H Mi 1 171 Every day from February Ist, 
I . 5 257 Every day from October lst. 
L 30’ 8 93 } 
M oy 1 95 | 
x See 5 aa Tapped at irregular intervals, 
P 30 16 78 | 
Q 50’ 5 St J 


gO Ea 
on ~'? 
«4. 


Gamal eae 462 | (Duc. 1906, 


SINHALESE FOR TAPPING. 
There is another interesting feature in connection with our Henaratgoda 
tapping, and that is, that the whole of the work has been done by untrained 
Sinhalese coolies with the minimum European supervision. My visits to Henarat- 
goda have by no means been frequent, and beyond spending a couple of hours 
a month here, the work has been done entirely by Sinhalese villagers. I mention 
this in order to ward off the attacks of any critical visitor from other climes, who 
will naturally discover where the cambium has been cut only too frequently, and 
who must therefore feel inclined to suggest my decapitation as a fit punishment 
for the bad work done. However, you will see what can be accomplished by 
ordinary villagers, and how willingly the cambium of the Para rubber tree has 
tried to cover up the errors of the past. 


YIELDS OBTAINED AT HENARATGODA. 

Now I have pleasure in handing you the results obtained during our first 
year of experiment on a moderately large scale, and it is hoped that visitors from 
the Federated Malay States, the Straits and India will subsequently supply us with 
their records for comparison. Consider these results as tentative only, and be 
prepared to forget them if future work proves them to be misleading. 


No. of No. of System Yield of 
Groups. Marks, trepe times of dry rubber 
a tapped. tapping. per tree. 
Ib. OZ. 
(A 25 91 LS 3 3D 
1 ~B 743) 93 HS 2 8 
LC 25 92 rH 3 ) 
(D 5 270 LS rst 0 
}H 5 186 LS 12 8 
2 \# 5 44 LS 8 498 
LG 5 11 LS 0 10 
\H 5 171 LS 7 7 
3 iI 5 Q57 LS 10 eo 
al 1 93 FH Idle 
| M 2 95 KH 8 11 
JN 2 94 FH I2 3 
4 10 2 Of FH Ree eal 
|P 1 78 LS 10 14 
LW 2 84 FH 15 0 
Weise Wes Long Spiral Group 1 = A, B, C 
ES te hoeee Half Spiral gin |) tips ADs dd, eG 
a9 3 39 H, I 
FH ep Full Herring-bone 5) 4 55 La, My .N; 0} BOW. 


THE SCOPE OF THE EXPERIMENTS. 

In group number one (A. B, and C) the object has been to determine the 
relative value of different methods of tapping, the criterion being the yield of 
rubber per tree and per unit of excised bark. In group number two (D, to G) the 
object was to determine the yields obtainable when trees were tapped at certain 
intervals, varying from once per day to once per month. Group number three 
comprises trees tapped at the beginning of October and February respectively, 
in order to obtain some information on the relationship between the yield of rubber 
and climatic conditions. In group number four (L, M, N, O, P, W) we have been ~ 
making experiments with a view to determining the yield of rubber obtainable 
from different parts of the stem. 


At the close of the lecture Mr, James Ryan proposed a hearty vote of 
thanks to Mr. Herbert Wright for his lecture, remarking that no one had laboured 
more arduously in the field of rubber than Mr, Wright. 

The vote was cordially carried, 


Dac. 1906. ] 463 Saps and Exudations. 


THE DEMONSTRATION, 


The party then left the ‘‘lecture room” and proceeded to the oldest trees 
in the gardens. The largest tree was measured by our enthusiastic visitors from 
India and the Federated Malay States, and showed a girth at 4 feet from the 
ground of 1075 inches. 

Mr. PARKINSON remarked that the largest tree he had seen in the Federated 
Malay States was 103 inches. 

Mr. Wricut:—What age? 

Mr. PARKINSON :—22 years. 

Mr. Waricut then pointed out a tree which had been tapped ten or twelve 
years ago. It was one of those, he said, which had given an average yield of 14 Ib. 
per year for a period of nine years. The bark of the tree had expanded and become 
very gnarled. 

Mr. PARKINSON :—What system was it tapped on ? 


Mr. Wricut :—It was tapped on the V system. Of course, it could be done 
much better now than then. 


Mr. Devitt (Mysore) :—Could you tap it now ? 
Mr, WRricut :—Yes, but it would be difficult to get an even line on the bark. 
Dr. LEHMANN —How long is it since it has been tapped ? 


_ Mr. Wricut—Not since Dr. Trimen’s time, [ think. [The trees that were 
then tapped, it was pointed out, were tapped rather high.] He said the trees in this 
group were allof the same age, but had not been equally treated. He did not think 
they would be able to tap higher than 6ft., once they got their 250,000 acres in 
bearing. 

Mr. PARKINSON pointed out that trees with thick stems such as these trees, 
branching off in forks at the top, were very liable to be split in two by the wind. 


AN INTERESTING EXPERIMENT. 


Proceeding round the garden the party came to a Para rubber tree with the 
top cut off. *‘‘ You see here,” said Mr. Wright, “‘ rather a curious specimen of a Para 
rubber tree. We deliberately cut off the top of that tree to see whether it would 
throw out suckers and survive. The top was cut off in January this year, and you 
see the growth that has taken place since then. It was simply done as an interesting 
experiment. Tam sorry to say it was misconstrued, and some people, who saw it 
here, went home and cut off the heads of their four-year-old trees—for which I got 
all the blessing.” 


Mr. Dove :—I thought, perhaps, it was done on account of canker ? 
Mr. WRIGHT—NOo: just as an interesting experiment. We have not tried 
experiments yet to see what amount of latex it contains. 


EXPERIMENTS IN TAPPING METHODS. 


Mr, WRIGHT then proceeded to the trees, the results from which he had 
alluded to at his lecture. The trees marked C were those done by the full herring- 
bone. Then they had the half spiral in the trees marked Band the long spiral in 
A. The idea of these experiments had been to get some information regarding the 
value of each system of tapping, and as he had mentioned in his lecture the criterion 
in these experiments was the yield of rubber per tree and per unit of excised bark. 
These trees marked C had been tapped on 92 occasions, and the measurements taken 
on the spot showed that in 92 tappings they had worked through only 8 to 4 inches 
of bark approximately in the eleven months, The trees had been pared and pricked. 


Gums, Resins, 464 (Dec. 1906, rh 


Tapping on that principle they had gone approximately round one-half of the tree, 
and a mean average yield of 3 1b. of dry rubber per tree. The long Spiral gave 3 lb. 
5 oz. and the half spiral 2 lb. 8 oz. That only showed the yield per tree, but Tea 
were trying to work out the yield per unit of bark excised. 

Mr. GREIG :—Whatangle is this tapping done at ? 

Mr. WRIGHT :—The tapping was supposed to be done at an angle of 30 to 45. 
This system of tapping gives us three lb. of dry rubber in a year, and can be 
continued for 4 to 6 years. 

Mr. CAMERON :—Does that afford ample time for the bark to become renewed ? 
Mr. WricuHT :;- I think six years would be ample time to allow for bark 
renewal. 
Mr. PARKINSON :—Starting on asmaller tree, however, your surface would 
not last so long ? 

Mr. WRIGHT mentioned that the rate would be the same; and pointed out 
that the whole of the work had been done by Sinhalese coolies. 

Mr. PARKINSON :—And jolly well done, too! 

THE HALF SPIRAL. 

The party then proceeded to the trees marked B. They would notice, Mr. 
Wright remarked, that of the three systems they got the least rubber per tree in a 
given time by the half spiral system, and they had approximately gone round half 
to one-third of the tree. They could see on the tree where the Northway pricker 
had been used. 

Mr. PARKINSON :—Might I ask what tapping knives were used ? 

Mr. Wriacut :—-The Bowman-Northway and Miller knives were used on the 
trees A, B, and C. 


THE FULL SPIRAL, 

Passing on to the trees marked A, Mr. Wright remarked that this was the 
full spiral tapping which, worked at the same rate, would go completely round the 
tree in three years. In some parts of the island they had adopted the spiral system 
and had completely stripped the cortex ina year. He thought it wasa dangerous 
system to work. They could hardly expect the tree to stand being stripped of its 
entire bark so rapidly as once per annum. 

THA EFFECT OF THE PRICKER, 


Mr. Griec :—When the pricker goes into the cambium, it raises a lump. 

Mr. Wricut :—The pricker does touch the cambium ; but I have peeled away 
a large piece of bark, and have been rather surprised to find there was practically 
no bad effect, although I expected there would be. Very often, however, with the 
rotating pricker the coolies work up and down the cut macerating the whole of the 
tissues. I have not seen any very bad effects from the pricker when properly used. 

Mr. Greic :—But does it notraise lumps? I have seen lumps raised by the 
pricker touching the cambium. 

Mr. WriGcHt :—You will see the effect of the pricker here. We find it an 
advantage to leave as much bark as possible on the tree, and reach the latex tubes 
by means of the pricker. I have seen a case where the paring was done very 
deeply, and where the cooly had gone very near, but not quite to the cambium; 
when the dry weather came, the bark peeled away, and the borers got in. You get 
it worse in Ceara than in Para, for—as you know—the bark of Ceara peels away 


much more easily. 
A REMARKABLE STUMP. 


Mr. WriauHrT then led the party to aremarkable Para stump cut 3 feet or 
4 feet from the ground and cemented over the top. “This,” said Mr. Wright, “is 
rather an interesting old stump. It is another of the trees which were tapped lightly 


/ 


Dac. 1906. ] 465 Saps and Exudations. 


on the V sytem many years ago. The principal part of the tree died down, and 
for the last three years the stump has been in this condition ; so [thought we would 
cover it up and see how many biscuits we could make from it. I may say this stump 
has never thrown out a leaf for over three years. This (pointing to the tapping 
mark) shows the difficulty of tapping over such an irregular surface. There is latex 
in it yet, and I think it is a remarkable fact that a tree stump, which has never 
thrown out a leaf for three years, should still give latex. Biscuits made from the 
latex of this stump are of good quality. 


Mr. Brett :—Have you got any biscuits you have made out of this stump ? 

Mr. WriGcut :—Yes, they are here. 

Mr. PARKINSON here tapped the tree and latex immediately began to come. 
An exposed root was tapped by Mr. Proudlock and the latex flowed freely, while the 
wood looked quite fresh. ; 

Mr. J. SHERIDAN PATTERSON asked Mr, Wright if the biscuits from this 
stump were as good as the rubber from other trees. 


Mr. WriGHT :—In physical properties they seem to be the same. 


HIGH TAPPING. 


Mr. WriGHtT then led the party to the trees where high tapping kad been 
carried on. At the first tree, he said, tapping was going on from the base to thirty 
feet. There were only two coolies working on ladders. The tree, Mr. Wright said, 
was marked L in the calculations he had given, and had been tapped ninety-three 
times, and on eight occasions the latex could not be coagulated, which, of course, was 
rather interesting. In the ninety-three tappings it had given 14 1b. 8 oz. of rubber. 


Mr. CAMERON :—Over what period of time? 
Mr. WRIGHT :—From 26th September last year to the 30th August this year. 


Mr. WRIGHT :—In this series, L, to W, the idea has been to determine the 
weight of rubber obtainable from various sections from the base. 


At the next tree three coolies were working on ladders, and Mr. Wright 
pointed out that they had not yet got half-way down the tree. In about eleven 
months eighty-four tappings have given 151b. of dry rubber. That was the maximum 
yield. 

Mr, CAMERON :—What is the height of the tapped area ? 


Mr. WriGcut :—About fifty feet. You will see that we have only gone round 
one-half or one-third of the tree, and I suppose it is no exaggeration to say that we 
could get 45 lb. if we were to peel the tree and we had the coolies to tap it. Wehave 
been tapping sometimes on alternate days and sometimes only once a week. 


In reply to Mr. Parkinson Mr. Wright said the tapping had been carried on at 
irregular intervals on all trees marked W. All these trees were supposed to be twenty 
to twenty-nine years old. The rubber-yielding capacity of the bark, of course, varied 
as they went upwards. He had not yet had time to work out the yields according to 
the excisionof the bark inthe different sections of the tree. That treeon iive 
occasions gave latex that refused to coagulate. 


The party next examined the tree marked M which was being 
TAPPED FROM 6 TO 16 FEET 


approximately. The next trees were tapped ten to twenty, and the next twenty t 
thirty. The M trees had been tapped on ninety-five occasions and had given an 
average yield of 8lb. 11 oz, from 6 feet to16 feet, They wanted to find the yielding 
capacity of each action. 

| 61 


fa 
Gums, Resins, 466 


The N, O, and P. trees were then reached. 


Mr. WRIGHT remarked that there they had the full spiral tapping from the 
base up to 30 feet in the trees marked P which had been tapped on seventy-eight 
occasions and given an average yield of 101b. 14 oz. per tree, and the number of times 
when the Jatex could not be coagulated was sixteen. That was the maximum number 
of times when the latex could not be coagulated. 


Mr. PARKINSON :—Have you any reason to account for that ? 

Mr. WRIGHT :—It is very peculiar. The material seems to have the caout- 
choue, but it does not appear to have the material for collecting it into one mass. 
Mr. PARKINSON :—Has the latex been chemically analysed ? 

Mr. WRIGHT :—Yes, it has been sent to Mr. Bamber. 

Mr. Ry An :—Have you tried evaporating it ? 

Mr. WriGuHtT :—No, that would char it, would it not ? 

Mr. RyAN :—I do not think so. 


Mr. WriGHT :—It is very interesting. If you take a young stem you know 

you get a viscous substance that will not coagulate; but then that is only when the 

stem isa few inches in diameter; the part of this tree from which we got the 

uncoagulable latex must be 35 inches in circumference. The circumference of the 

narrowest part is much greater than that of six, eight or even some ten year old trees, 
Mr. PARKINSON :—In Ceylon ? (Laughter.) 


Mr. Wricut :—I beg pardon, Federated Malay States. (Laughter.) Ido not 
know how you can explain it, You would expect the bark to be normal when the 
circumference is so large, 


Mr. WRIGHT next pointed out another tapping above 20 feet which had 
given 8 lb. 11 oz. with uncoagulatable latex on two occasions. 


FREQUENCY OF TAPPING. 


The visitors were then taken to the division of trees where experiments had 
been carried out to determine the frequency with which trees might be tapped with 
the best results. 


Mr. WRIGHT explained that the trees marked D which were first viewed 
had been tapped up to 6 feet only, every day from September 25th of last year. They 
had been tapped on 270 occasions. The lines were originally 12 inches apart, and 
only on two occasions had they got latex which had refused to be coagulated. This 
had proved far too rapid a process of excision altogether. He would next take them 
to the other tree marked E with which he was making a comparison. The latter 
had been tapped on alternate days and had given 12 lb. 8 oz. in 186 tappings, whereas 
those tapped daily on 270 occasions had only given 11 lb, That wasa curious result. 
In the daily tapping they had cut through the whole of the bark. If they studied 
the nature and origin of the latex tubes of Para rubber, they would find that the © 
whole thing was a question of the time required for decomposition. They might cut 
the bark one day and find no latex. If it were allowed to remain a sufficiently 
long time for decomposition to take place, you finally obtained latex. Evidently by 
tapping daily you cut through the bark at too rapid a rate for the developing capa- 
city of the laticiferous system. 


In reply to a question, Mr, WriGut said they used the paring knife and the 
pricker alternately in each case. They saw there what they must expect if they 
tapped 270 times in eleven months. He would certainly not propose to tap the 
renewed bark under three or four years. One cortical stripping every four or five 
years was quite enough. They saw the effect on the bark. 1t was drying and was 
quite sound underneath. 


(Dec, 1906 in 


Dac. 1906.) 467 Saps and Hxudations. 


RENEWAL OF BARK, 

Mr. Ryan :—Are you in favour of dressing the bark of the trees with any 
preservatives? 

Mr, Wricut:—I do not see why you should do so. In special cases it might 
be useful, 


Remarking upon the state of the bark, Mr, WRIGHT said they saw there a 
sample of the work done by the Sinhalese cooly. They would probably see one or 
two cases where he had cut into the cambium, but he did not think there were many. 
He would like to know how it compared with work in the Federated Malay States. 

Mr. Dove :—It is very good work. 

Mr. PARKINSON :—Very good, indeed. 


Mr. Devirr cut into the bark of a tree which had been tapped daily and 
found that the renewed bark measured j of-an-inch. 


Mr. WRIGHT :—That is very interesting. That has taken 12 months to this 
date to develop. 

The party then examined trees which had been tapped on alternate days, 
and Mr. WRIGHT said they would see that they still had approximately one-third 
of the original bark, which was the mother of all rubber, left after obtaining 12 lb. 
8 oz. of rubber, against 11 1b. in 270 tappings in the other trees. Further, here they 
only tapped 136 times against 270 in the other case, so tbat the cost of labour was 
one-half. He thought personally that was the most interesting result they had 
obtained up to the present. He did not know whether the labour difficulty would 
permit them to tap on alternate days. Would it be possible ? 

Mr. PARKINSON :—Yes. 


Mr. Wricut added that they had made experiments in tapping once a week 
and once a month. Coming to the trees which had been tapped once a week, he said 
from 44 tappings they had obtained an average of 3 lbs. 13 oz. per tree. Not ona 
single occasion did they obtain latex they could not coagulate. 


On arriving at the trees that had been tapped once a month, Mr. WRIGHT 
said they had tapped on eleven occasions and got 10 ounces of rubber, or ? 1b. of 
rubber per tree approximately. They had now seen the trees tapped from oncea day 
to once a month. If Mr. Parkinson’s assertion was applicable to Ceylon, that they 
could tap on alternate days, the prospects were very favourable. These trees showed 


what they might expect, tapping at the rate of once per month. They might go on 
for ten or twelve years. 


LANDOLPHIA RUBBER VINES. \ 


Mr. WricuHt then took the visitors to see the Landolphia rubber creepers 
growing in considera dle abundance in a part of the ground and spreading their vines 
all over the neighbourhood. Ona thick part of one of the vines being cut, latex 
flowed more freely even than in Para rubber and coagulated rapidly. 


Mr. WRIGHT remarked that Landolphias grew only among jungle trees. 
They must have some tree upon which it could climb. The best method of extract- 
ing the latex was probably maceration. Those specimens were probably fifteen 
years old. The bark was fairly thick, and the rubber was very good in quality. 
Mr. PROUDLOCK said he got excellent rubber from it at Nellamore in 1903. 
Mr. WRIGHT.:;—Have you any idea of the rubber contained, say, ina cwt. of 
bark? 


Mr. PRouDLOCK .—I have the results tabulated. The percentage is very high—I 
believe from seven to eight per cent, 


Gums, Resins, 468 [Dec. 1906. 
DEMONSTRATION IN THE TREATMENT OF LATEX. 


After going through the plantation the party returned to the Laboratory 
where Mr. WRIGHT gave a brief demonstration in the treatment of latex. Mr, 
Wright said :—We had all heard lately about the difference in the physical pro- 
perties between rubber obtained from five, six and thirty year-old trees. I have 
here samples from trees 295 years. [The biscuits were handed round and tested and 
proved to be of excellent strength and resiliency.] These have all been treated with 
a little formalin. They are not smoked. We have now gone through practically 
every process at Peradeniya and Henaratgoda. You have seen the trees that have 
been tapped and got information regarding the yields obtained, &c., and you have 
seen every development at Peradeniya in the manufacture from the latex. There is 
very little of interest left to go over except to describe a few of the characteristics 
of fresh latex. 


Mr, WRIGHT then experimented with a quantity of latex to ascertain the 
amount of acid required to coagulate, He remarked that the latex, as it came from 
the field, or as itis issued from the tree, was either neutral ora little alkaline, Mr 
Wright dipped some red and blue litmus paper in the latex and asked them to notice 
that the blue remained blue and the red remained nearly the same. It wasalmosta 
neutral solution. So long as it remained in that condition coagulation would not 
take place, If they wanted to effect coagulation they must either let the latex stand 
to allow the acids to develop or use some acid. Washing eliminated a certain 
portion of the acid added, but if they determined the quantity by means of litmus 
paper, he thought it would do away with a good many cf the objections that were 
put forward by people at home to the use of these reagents. The point was to 
add just sufficient acetic acid to neutralise the latex, until it was just on the 
turning point and then allow it to settle. 


Mr. RYAN :—What proportion of acid? 


Mr. Wricut:—You never know the proportion beforehand, because the 
composition of the latex varies very much. 


Mr. WriGcut then demonstrated with blue papers adding acid until they 
began to get red. 


Mr. CAMERON :—May I ask what proportion of water is in the latex ? 


Mr. WricHt:—A very large proportion. Pure water makes no difference 
to the rubber. Many people have used impure water which has pre-disposed the 
rubber to tackiness. 


Continuing, Mr. Wright said that in future their programme would be 
considerably changed, They had now arrived at the stage when they could 
despatch their latex to Peradeniya, Formerly the Foreman prepared the biscuits 
at Henaratgoda. Now their latex could be sent to Peradeniya and manufactured 
there so that they hoped to make good samples of rubber. 


The Hon. E,. FIELDING :—How do you preserve it on the way ? 

Mr, WriGHT :—By the addition of ammonia or formalin. 

The Hon, EB. FIetDING :—Does it matter how much ? 

Mr. WRIGHT :—You soon get to know how much you want. It depends a 
great deal on the amount of water you add and acidity present. 


Mr. PaARKINSON!—Do you ever find that for a natural cone Waiian it takes 
longer when you have a large quantity of water ? 

Mr. WricHt :—I cannot say I have had that experience. Have you? 

Mr. PARKINSON :—I have found it go, and I think you will find it so, 

Mr. Ry An :—My experience is the same as Mr. Parkinson's, 


Dec. 1906.] 469 Saps and Exudations. 


" Mr. WricuT :—In some latices you coagulate by adding water—Funtumia, 
for instance, 


The party then adjourned to the Resthouse where the Resthouse-heeper 
had prepared lunch. At the close, Mr. Herbert Wright, in a brief speech, pros- 
pected the health of the departing Delegates and visitors who were on the point 
of leaving by the down train. He was sorry they had to go at so early a date 
when they were just beginning to be interested in the subject of rubber cultivation 
and the problems involved. They in Ceylon hoped it would not be long before 
they came back to Ceylon again, and then they hoped to be able to give them a 
good show, perhaps, better than the one to which they had so successfully and 
effectively contributed. (Applause.) 


The toast was cordially drunk with musical honours. 


Dr. LEHMANN in reply, said he was sure they all appreciated very much the 
kindness they had received while in Ceylon, They had seen a great deal and heard 
agreat dealand learned a great deal. He hoped that some time or other they 
might have a Rubber Exhibition in South India, at which they would welcome 
the Ceylon men as heartily as they. had welcomed them. (Applause.) 


The departing visitors were then escorted to the station and seen off by the 
Ceylon men, cordial cheers being raised as the train steamed out of the station. 


Block Rubber, 


METHODS OF MANUFACTURE AND PREPARATION. 
By Francis PEARS, Lanadron Estate, Johore. 


Seeing the attention this has attracted both at the Singapore Agri-Horticul- 
tural Show and at the Ceylon Rubber Exhibition, it would not seem out of place to 
fully explain the points in its favour and the details of its inception, as claimed by 
the makers. The prize ‘“‘ block” was manufactured on the Lanadron Estate of 
Muar, and the awards made by the Judges of both Exhibitions are fully confirmed 
by the buyers at home who value this method of preparation at 3d. per Ib. higher 
than the best sheet or crépe. 


This will, of course, have the effect of inducing many planters to take up 
this method of preparation, and it is to be hoped that in doing so they will recognise 
that it requires good machinery, and that good “block” is not to be manufactured 
Ly immersing sheet or biscuits in hot water and hydraulic pressing, This would 
only imitate it in appearance and not in quality. 


THE MANUFACTURE OF ‘‘ BLOCK” BY THE LANADRON ESTATE 


was conceived, in the first instance, as a means of turning out arubber of standard 
uniformity in a practical manner, and one which would commend itself to those 
manufacturing rubber on a large scale; also to be ahandy form for shipping and 
for storage at home. That this has been accomplished must be apparent to every- 
body. Added to this the improvement in the quality undoubtedly establishes this 
as the best means of manufacturing raw rubber hitherto employed. In considering 
any new methods referring to the treatment of raw rubber, there are certain axioms 
to be considered, the most important of which are the following :— 


= 


i Pi wae 
Gums, Resins, 470 {Drc. 1 


ba 
a K a 


his 
906. 


1. Uniformity. 

2. The eradication, as far as possible, of organic, and the complete removal 
of inorganic, impurities in the latex. 

3. Acceleration during manufacture to reduce to a minimum exposure 
to the air. 


4. Small surface exposed after manufacture. : 


Rubber manufactured with a view to these principles, besides having the 
characteristics of a good commercial rubber, will give a system which would appeal 
to any one who takes an intelligent interest in this industry, and is desirous of 
establishing a factory organisation on up-to-date principles, and where manual 
labour will be reduced to a minimum. 
COAGULATING LATEX IN BULK. | 


1, Respecting uniformity, the only way to accomplish this is to mix the latex 4 
and coagulate in bulk. It has been suggested that the latex from trees of different 
ages should be kept separate, but this proposition is not one that could easily be 
cacried out in practice. It would be much better to start with the uniform standard ; 
and if old trees really do give a superior latex, the product of the estate must 
gradually improve with age. It has not yet been proved conclusively that the older 
the tree the better the rubber, although there are many indications pointing to this 
conclusion. 

WASHING THE FRESHLY-COAGULATED LATEX. 

2. The eradication, as far as possible, of organic and the complete removal 
of inorganic impurities in the latex. The only way to effect this, as everybody who 
is interested knows, is to wash the freshly-coagulated latex on an ordinary washing 
machine, such as manufacturers use at home. In fact it is the only practicable 
method of reducing coagulated latex in bulk to uniformity of size, at the same time 
thoroughly washing every particle of rubber and removing all mechanical, besides a 
good deal of the organic, impurities. Tackiness, of which we have heard a good 
deal lately, and also mildew are a species of micro-organisms, and, although of 
frequent occurrence in biscuits, seldom if ever oczur in properly washed crépe. This 
is strong testimony to the fact that washing freshly-coagulated latex removes some 
of the organic impurities which are detrimental to the keeping properties of raw 
rubber. Whether in addition to this it may be advisable to impregnate the latex 
with some antiseptic, such as smoke (creosote), formaldehyde, etc., is a matter for 
further experiment. 

VACUUM DRYING. 

3, Acceleration during manufacture to reduce to a minimum exposure to the 
air. Despatch during manufacture can only be accomplished by accelerating the 
drying process, as hitherto this has occupied periods varying from afew days to as 
many weeks, with exposure all the time to the action of the air. Vacuum drying is 
the only practicable solution to this, as it combines two very essential points, viz :— 
rapidity, without any exposure to the air. By this means it is possible to dry the 
rubber in two or three hours. Exception has been taken to the use of vacuum 
dryers, as making rubber sticky, but this is only a matter of temperature which 
can be regulated mechanically. It is certainly rather a delicate operation and 
requires a man in charge who thoroughly understands the principles of the machine. 


4. Smal] surface exposure after manufacture. After removal of the crépe 
from the vacuum drier it is in a pliable condition in consequence of not being 
subjected to the hardening influence of air drying (oxidation), In this state itis 
easily pressed into any conveniently shaped ‘ block,” and the whole forms a per- 
fectly homogeneous mass, hermetically sealed, with a minimum surface exposed 
to the air and light. 


— 


Dac. 1906.) 471 Saps and Exudations. 
RUBBER CULTIVATION IN COLOMBIA. 


The following letter is inserted as being of present interest, showing how 
widely this cultivation is being taken up :— 
Bogota, August 3lst, 1906, 
To Sir EDWARD GREY, Bart., M.P. 


Str.—Since writing my despatch No, 41 of this series of June 28th last on the 
subject of the Rubber industry in this country, I have ascertained that some 80,000 
plants of the Manihot Glaziowii (Ceara) species have been planted on an estate some 
three days’ journey from this capital, and are now from six months to four years 
old. The owner informs me that lhe hopes to tap from ten to fifteen thousand 
trees this year, and that a sample which was recently sent to England was classed 
as high as the best Para. He further informed me that in various parts of Colombia 
the climate and soil appeared to be very suitable for rubber cultivation, but 
he was the only person who had yet tried it. The prospects of the industry were, 
he said, mainly dependent on the London prices, which, however, seemed likely to 
be remunerative for some time to come. This remark was no doubt induced by the 
wide-spread ruin caused in this country by the fall in the coffee market some few 
years ago. 


I have since found that my informant was mistaken in believing that he is 
the only grower of rubber in Colombia, for the manager of another estate informs 
me that he is making experiments with Ceylon seed and has obtained promising 
results. I have heard, too, that there are planted rubber trees of six years’ growth 
on an estate owned by a Frenchman near the Venezuelan frontier, a fortnight or 
three weeks’ journey from here. 


I should add that rumours have reached me of attempts to float companies 
for the cultivation of rubber somewhere in the vast department of the Cauca 
hordering the Pacific. It is possible that some particulars might be obtainable in 
London respecting these schemes if they really exist. 


I have, ete., 
(Signed) FRANCIS STRONGE. 


LONDON RUBBER MARKET. 


Lonpon, October 12th.—At to-day’s auction, 407 packages of Ceylon and 
Straits Settlements plantation-grown rubber were under offer, of which about 232 
were sold. The total weight amounted to about 23 tons, Ceylon contributing about 
52 and Straits Settlements nearly 17}. There was a good market for all descriptions 
and competition was fairly general, though ina few cases sellers’ ideas were not 
quite realised. Fine plantation showed little change in price, although bidding was 
hardly as brisk. A fine parcel of crépe from the Bukit Rajah Estate realised up to 


“Bs. 8d. per lb. Best sheet and biscuits sold at from 5s. 6d. to 5s. 7id., whilst good 


scrap generally made very firm prices. Plantation fine to-day.—5s. 6d, to 5s, 74d. 
same period last year, 6s,2d.; plantation scrap.—ss. to 4s. 63d., same period last 
year, 3s, 10d. to 5s. ljd. Fine hard Para (South American).—5s. 1$d., same period last 
year, 5s.5d,. Average price of Ceylon and Straits Settlements plantation rubber,— 
232 packages at 5s, lid. per lb,, against 259 packages at 5s, 54d. per lb, at last 
auction, Particulars and prices as follows :— 


CEYLON. 
MARK QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. 
Doranakande 5 cases good darkish biscuits, 5s. 7d.; 7 cases good palish to 


darkish scrap, 4s. 54d.; 3 cases black scrap, 4s. 2d, 


fee 


Gums, Resins, 472 Dec. 1906. 
Tallagalla 2 cases fine large palish to darkish biscuits, 5s. 7id.; 1 case good 

palish pressed scrap, 4s. 63d. ; 
Taldua 2 do good darkish biscuits, 5s. 7d. | 
Sirigalla 1 do good palish serap, 4s. 5d. 
C.L. (indiamond) 2 do darkish crépe, 4s. 10zd.; 4 cases little darker, 4s. 10d.; 2 


eases thick darkish crépe, 4s. 10d.; 2 cases palish and 
darkish to black crépe, 4s. 5id., 2 cases pressed scrap, 
4s. 5d. lease palish serap, 4s. 5d.; 2 cases darker, 4s. 5d.; 
1 case similar, 4s. 5d.; 1 case pressed scrap and rejec- 
tions, 4s. 34d.; 2cases inferior scrap, 2s.10}d.; 4 cases 
darkish crépe, 4s. 10+d.; 2 cases pressed scrap 38s. 114d. 
1 bag rejections, 4s. 23d. 
do good palish pressed crépe in rolls, 5s, 5d. 
do fine pale amber biscuits. 5s. 7d,; 1 case similar, 5s. 7d.; 
1 case fine pale pressed crépe, 5s. 7d.; 2 cases good 
darkish ditto, 5s. 2+d.; 1 case black pressed crepe, 8s. 10d. 
Ellakande 1 do_ palish to darkish biscuits, 5s. 6jd.; 1 case darkish pressed 
erépe, 5s. ld.; 1 case black ditto, 4s. 24d,; 1 case 
similar, 4s. 23d. 
Arapolakande 8 do good darkish biscuits, 5s. 7d. 1 case dark serap, 4s. 4d. 
Kumbukkan 4 do fine pale and palish biscuits, 5s. 7jd.; 8 cases good 
darkish biscuits, 5s. 7d.; 1 case good palish to darkish 
pressed serap, 4s. 5d,;_ 1 case good darkish biscuits, 5s. 7d. 
lcase dark lump scrap and rejections, 4s. 44d.; 1 bag 
good pressed block scrap, 4s. 43d. 
Udapolla 1 bag good palish scrap, 4s. 4d.; 1 bag lump scrap and rejec- 
tions, 4s. O3d. 


Gikiyanakande 
Heatherley 


eb 


STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. 


MARK. QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. 
.P.S. (in circle) , 1 bag lump serap, 4s. 5d. 
an Gena) 1 case darkish sheet, and rejected biscuits, 5s. 6d. 
f < Batu 14 do good palish to darkish sheet, 5s. 6d. to 5s. 6jd.; 4 cases 
Sens palish pressed scrap, 4s. 5$d.;_ 1 case black pressed crépe, 
3s. 74d,; 1 bag rejected biscuits, 4s. 2d. ; 
Beverlac 4 do palish todarkish scrap, 4s. 5¢d.; 3 cases inferior dark 
scrap, ls. 10¢d.; 1 case dark lump scrap, 3s. 7d. 
B.C. 4 do fair pressed scrap, 4s. 5d. 
B.C. A. 4 do pressed rejections, 3s. 11d. 
B.C. B. 1 do darkish erépe, 4s. 93d. 
Brink 2 bags darkish to black crépe, 4s. 63d. 
C. 1 case rejections, 4s. 4d. 
B. & C. 1 do rejections, 4s. 4d. 
P.R. 7 do good palish pressed crépe, 5s. 5d, 
C. 1 bag rejections, 4s. 4d.; 1 bag rejections from biscuits 4s. 4d. 
S.R. Co 10 cases dark pressed scrap, 4s. 10jd.; 2 cases darker, 4s. 47d. 
V.R.C.O. Klang 
F.M.S. (in estate : : : 
mark) 15 do fine palish to darkish scored sheet, 5s. 6$d.; 1 case ditto 


darker, 5s. 6¢d.; 4 cases good palish pressed crépe, 5s. 5d.; 
13 cases darker, 4s. 10?d.; 8 cases very dark, 4s. 44d.; 2 
cases palish pressed crépe, 5s. 5d. 4 cases darker, 5s. 14d. 

G.U.L.A. (in dia- ; , 

mond) 6 do fine large palish to darkish sheet, 5s. 63d. 

RR. (S. indiamond) 4 do good palish sheet, 5s. 63d. 

S.R.(S. in diamond) 2 do good pressed scrap, 4s. 53d.; 2 cases pressed rejections, 
4s. 1d.;_ 1 bag rejections from biscuits, 4s, 7d. 

B.R.R. Co, Ltd. 18 do fine palish crépe, 5s. 74d. to5s. 8d.; 5 cases darker, 5s. 2d.; 
1 case darkish crépe, 4s. 10d, 2 cases darker, 5s. 43d. 


S.S.B.R. Co, . ‘ , j 
Ltd. (in triangle) 1 do good palish to darkish scrap, 4s. 53d. 
B.U.E. 1 do good palish to darkish thick crépe, 5s, 3}d.; 1 case 
daricer, 4s. 113d. 


Dec. 1906.] 473 Saps and Rxudations, 


Lonpon, October 26th.—At to-day’s auction, 256 packages of Ceylon and 
Straits Settlements plantation-grown rubber were under offer, of which about 131 
were sold. The total weight amounted to about 153 tons, Ceylon contributing about 
5and Straits Settlements over 10}. The quantity of plantation rubber brought 
forward was considerably less than during the last few auctions. Bidding generally 
was strong and prices showed a slight improvement. The highest figure was 5s. 93d. 
for an exceptionally fine parcel of crépe from the Jebong Estate. Among the 
Ceylons some particularly good biscuits trom Heatherly Hstate realised 5s. 73d. 
Scrap also was well competed for and brought full prices. Plantation fine to-day 
ds. 6d. to 5s. 7?d., same period last year, 6s. 0{d. Plantation scrap 3s. to 4s. 103d., 
same period last year, 3s. to 5s. Od. Fine hard Para (South American) 5s. 3d., same 
period last year, 5s.4d. Average price of Ceylon and Straits Settlements plantation 
rubber.—131 packages at 5s. 2td. per lb., against 232 packages at 5s. lid, per lb. at 
last auction. Particulars and prices as follows :— 


CHYLON, 
MARK, QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. 
Tallagalla lease fine darkish biscuits, 5s. 7d.; 1 case good palish block 
scrap, 48. 9d.; 1 case inferior mixed scrap, 3s. 10d 
Ambatenne 1 do good palish to darkish biseuits, 5s. 7d.; 1 case darker, 


5s. 7d.; lease good palish scrap, 4s. 104d.; 1 case darker 
and inferior, 4s. 

Warriapolla 1 do goed pale biscuits, 5s. 7d.; 1 case fine palish biscuits, 
5s. 6¢d.; 1 case somewhat darker, 5s. 6id.; 1 case darkish 
biscuits, ds. 5d.; 1 case good palish pr essed -scrap, 4s. 10d. 

Heatherley 1 do very fine pale and palish amber biscuits, 5s. 7id.; 1 case 
darkish pressed erépe, 5s. 2d.; 1 case black, 4s. 5d.; 3 cases 
very fine pale and palish amber bise uits, 5s. Tid. 

Culloden 4 do fine palish to darkish pressed crépe, 5s. 7}d.; 8 cases 
darker, 5s. 8d.; 1 case dark, 4s. 10$d.; 1 case black, 4s. 8d. 

M.A.K.(in diamond) 1 do palish to darkish biscuits and rejections, 5s. 4d. 

C, R.(R. W. & Co. in 

triangle) EK. 9 do fine large darkish sheet, 5s. 6$d.; 2 cases palish pressed 
scrap, 4s. 63d.; 2 cases dark scrap and rejections, 4s, 2d. 
1 bag darkish pressed scrap, 4s. 33d. 
O.B.E.C.(in diamond) 


Kondesalle 5 do fine darkish sheet, 5s. 6$d.; 1 case pressed rejections, 4s. 5d. 

Clontarf 2 do good darkish biscuits, 5s. 6d.; 1 case darkish and dark 
crépe, 4s. 11d. 

Aberdeen 2 do fine palish to darkish biscuits, 5s. 67d.; 2 cases darker, 


5s. 6d.; 1 case fine pressed scrap, 4s. 7id.; 1 case thick 
rejections, 4s. 4d. 


E.B. 2 do pale to dark biscuits, 5s. 23d.; 1 case rejections from sheet, 
ete., 3s. 11d. 
Wevekellie 1 do palish biscuits, 5s. 7d. 
STRAITS SHTTLEMENTS. 
MARK. QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. 
B.R.R. Co., Ltd. 9 do darkish crépe, 5s. 1d.; 2 cases darkish mixed crépe, 4s. 93d, 
R.M. P. Ltd. (incross)7 do good darkish to dark crépe, 5s. 
A. (M.C.I. in diamione) 
oul Di edhe Ha be do good palish sheet, 5s. ded. 
Be sdo) eS. 1 do darkish cut scrap, 4s. 5id. 
C. do P.S.T. 1 do fine pale sheet, 5s. 7d. 
Dido) RS. P: 1 do oe rejected sheet, 8s. 9d.; 1 case darkish cut scrap, 
Bea doy Sie: 1 do palish to darkish sheet, 5s. 63d. 
C.D. (M.C.I. 2 in dia- 
mond) P.B. 1 do good darkish biscuits, 5s. 6d. 
C.D. do P.S.P. 1 do palish scrap, 4s. 43d.; 1 bag rejections from biscuits, 4s. 4d. 
G.K.IC.B. (in dia- 
mond) 1 do fine pale sheet, 5s. 7id.; 1 case similar, 5s. 7jd.; 1 case cut 
ball scrap, 4s. 2d.; 1 case rejections from biscuits and 
scrap, 4s, 4d. 
62 


Gums, Resins, 474 [DEc. — 


Paks 9.43: 2 
scrap and rejections, 4s. 7d. 

EK. B. & Co. 1 do anes essed sheet, rejections and palish to darkish serap, 

Sungei Krudda 5 do good palish to darkish serap, 4s. 5d. 

Jebong 5 do fine pale crépe, 5s, 93d. 2cases darkish crépe darker and 
heated, 4s. 9d. 

S.S.B.R. Co. Ltd. oo 

diamond) do pressed scrap, 4s. 2d. 4 cases large palish to darkish 


sheet, 5s. 7d. 


Lonpon, November 9.—At to-day’s auction, 736 packages of Ceylon and 
Straits Settlements plantation-grown rubber were under offer, of which about 
‘ 802 were sold. The total weight amounted to about 25} tons, Ceylon contributing 
about 44 and Straits Settlements over 203. To-day’s rubber sale was unusually 
heavy, the quantity of plantation offered being amongst the largest yet brought to 
auction in one day. Prices did not show any material change, crépe and fine biscuits 
selling about up tolate rates. There was a slight weakness in the bidding for 
some of the sheet; no block was represented in the aucvion. Good scrap again 
realised fair prices, as also some of the darker parcels of crepe. A parcel of fine 
pale crepe from Jebong brought 5s. 85d., and amongst the Ceylon, two lots from 
Culloden and Heatherley each realised 5s. 7d. per lb. Plantation fine to-day.—5s. 
6d. to 5s. 83d., same period last year, 6s 0}d. to 6s. 1id. Plantation scrap.—és. to 4s. 
7d., same period last year, 2s. 63d. to 5s 0}d. Fine hard Para (South American).—5s. 


2d., same period last year, 5s. 2d. Average price of Ceylon and Straits Settlements | 


plantation rubber 302 packages at 5s. 33d. per lb., against 131 packages at 5s. 2d. per 
lb. at last auction. Particulars and prices as follows :— 


CEYLON. 
MARK. QUANTITY. DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. 
Kumaradola 6 cases good palish biscuits, 5s. 63d. 
Taldua 2 do good palish to darkish biscuits 5s. 5id.; 1 case good 


darkish serap, 4s. 6d.; 2 cases dark scrap and rejected 
biscuits, 4s. 23d. 

Culloden 6 do fine pale and palish amber biscuits, 5s. 7jd.; 2 cases very 
fine pale and palish wit crepe, ds. Sid.; 8 cases darkis 
5s. 8d.; 38 cases dark, 4s. 1 


Nikakotua 8 do darkish pressed crepe, Ee ; 2 cases good palish to darkish 
cloudy sheet, 5s. 53d. 

Ellakande 2 do palish to darkish biscuits, 5s. 53d. 

Heatherley 2 do very fine pale and palish prior biscuits, 5s. Tid. 

Ellakande 3 do darkish to darkish biscuits, 5s. 6}d. 

M (in diamond) 1 do ane 1 bag mixed biscuits, sheet, crepe and scrap, 5s 3#d.; 
and 4s. 

Hattangala 2 do good pale and palish amber biscuits, 5s. 7?d.; 1 case oon 
darkish pressed crepe, ds. 23d. 

O.E.C. (in ona 

Mahabeira 2 do good small pale biscuits, 5s. 54d.; 1 bag pullings, 3s. 11d, 

M.A.K.(in diamond do palish scrap and rejections, slightly heated, 3s. 4d, 

Kahagalla do darkish scrap and rejections 38s. 8id, 

Halgolle i do good pressed block scrap and rejections, 4s. 43d. 

Maddegedera 1 do good palish scrap and Papetione from biscuits, 4s. 2d. 

STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. 

Jebong 8 cases fine pale crepe, 5s. 83d.; 1 case darkish to dark crepe, 4. 

9id-; 6 cases good palish to darkish crepe, 5s. 2d¥. 


L. E. (Muar in tri- 

angle) Straits 2 do good palish crepe, 5s. 83.; 10 cases good darkish to dark 
crepe, 4s. 103d. 

Teluk Batu 4 do good palish to darkish sheet, 5s. 53d.;5 cases ‘good ee 

to darkish scrap, 4s. 6d.; 1 case black pheeeed crepe, 4. 8d, 

1 bag rejections, 3s, 2d. 


do fine palish to darkish sheet, 4s. 7}d.; 14 cases good darkish _ 


Dec. 1906.} 475 Saps, and Exudations. 


S.R, Co., Ltd, 28 do good darkish scored sheet, 5s. 53d.; 1 case good palish 
pressed crepe, 5s. 8d.; 2 cases good palish to darkish 
pressed crepe, 5s. 75d,; 1 case darker, 5s. 2d.; 1 case similar, 
5s; 2 cases thick dark pressed crepe, 5s. 0id.; 4 cases 


darker 4s 9id.; 8 cases darker, 4s. 92d.; 1 case black, 
4s. 63d.;3 cases thick dark pressed crepe, 4s. 54d. 
K.P Co., Ltd. 1 do good palish to darvkish sheet, 5s,53d.; 1 case good large 


palish to darkish biscuits, 5s. 4fd.; lease serappy rejected 
sheet, 4s. 8id.; 5 cases palish to darkish scrap, 4s. 14d.; 
cases good large palish to darkish biscuits, 5s. 5d.; 1 case 
serappy rejected sheet, 4s. 8d.; 1 case good palish pressed 
oe ds, 6d.; 1 case good palish to darkish pressed scrap, 
s, 7d, 
PS.E. (in diamond) 11 do fine small palish sheet, 5s, 3d. 
G.U.L.A. (in dia- 
mond) 5 do finesmall palish sheet, 5s. 53d.; 1 case rejected biscuits, 

4s, 5d.; 1 case scrappy rejections, 4s, 6d. 

R.R. (S. in dia- 


(mond 9 do fine small palish sheet, 5s 3id. 
S.R. (S. in dia- nyt 
mond) 8 do thick dark rejections, 4s. 3d. 
Highlands (+ 27 do good palish to darkish scored sheet, 5s. 53d.; 7 cases good 


thick palish to darkish crepe, 5s. 8d.; 5 cases good darkish 
to dark crepe 4s. I1{d.; 5 cases darkish crepe, 5s. 03d. 


Batu Unfor Estate 9 do good palish -to darkish scored sheet, 5s. 6d,; 8 cases darker 
5s. 5fd.; 1 case good palish to darkish thick crepe, 5s. 44d.; 
1 case darker, 5s. 0}d.; 3 cases darkish crepe, 5s. 04d. 


C.M.R.H .Ltd. 11 do fine pale and palish crepe, 5s, 8d.;and 5s. 7#d.; 13 cases 
fine palish to darkish crepe, 5s. 6d.; 10 cases good darkish 
and dark crepe, 5s. 


B.B.R. Co. Ltd. 5 do good palish to darkish thick crepe, 5s. 3d.; 11 cases good 
darkish, crepe, 4s. 103d.; 3 cases darkish, 4s. 10id.; 11 cases 
good palish to darkish scored sheet, 5s. 6d. 


a 


The Ceyion Camphor Industry, 
By E. J. Youna. 


(A Paper dated June 30th, 1906, read before the Rangala Planters 
Association, Ceylon). 


I gathered the following information on camphor cultivation from several 
sources i— 

The present price for crude camphor in the London market is 860s. per ewt., 
and this high price is entirely owing to the late war, and the consequent disturbed 
state of Formosa. The price of refined camphor tablets to-day is 4s. per lb. Many 
think the present price cannot be relied on for any length of time, and it will even- 
tually return to the normal state of 180s. per cwt. (It has now fallento 320s. for 
crude—1/7/06.) Camphor has been sold as low as 60s. per ewt. (in 1895), In Ceylon, 
camphor grows best at 3,000 feet and upwards, and takes 4 to5 years to get into 
clipping stage. Including all expenses, it costsin Formosa 80s. f.o.b,; there is no 
reliable data on this point from Ceylon, however. 


As far as lam aware, Mr. Royden Hughes is the only planter who has grown 
this produce to a merchantable state in Ceylon; he informed me that he had last 
year 10 acres under camphor ata yielding stage, and thatthe produce from this area 
for 1905, when shipped, amounted to 1 cwt, and sold privately in Mincing Lane for 
275s. Mr. Hughes could not say what the probable yield would eventually come to— 
or the cost f.o.b.—but he was of opinion that 275s. per ewt. would leave a handsome 
profit, Whilst again, there are others who think this produce is likely to decrease 


Gums, Resins, 476 [Dec. 1906. 


in. value—provided it can be had from other sources than Formosa and Japan, and 
the monopoly broken—these authorities say Japan cannot, evenif she were inclined 
to, flood the market without seriously damaging her sources of supply, as each tree 
is cut down and destroyed. 


But the camphor resources of Formosa are not “ boundless and inexhaustible. 
They have diminished at least 15 per cent in thelast twenty-five years. In the settled 
districts the tree is practically extinct, and every year the area of settlement in- 
creases. At present, camphor making and settlement go hand in hand; the stills are 
never far from a village, even when in the “ Savages’ country.” Another authority 
says that, ‘‘ Considering all the available data it will be safe to estimate that, allow- 
ing for a considerable increase in the output, there is enough camphor in Formosa to 
supply the world for fifty years to come.” Iam very doubtful if the establishment 
of the Formosa Monopoly will have a beneficial effect on the future of camphor. 
One good feature, however, is that it gives the Japanese Government a direct in- 
terest in seeing that the world’s chief store of camphor is properly husbanded. 

It is true that camphor laurels are found growing wild in other countries 
besides Japan and Formosa—for instance, in Indo-China, as also in Sumatra—but 
they do net seem to be available for camphor-making to any extent ; at the present 
time, therefore, we find the world’s supply of camphor more than ever under Jap- 
anese control. Let us hope this control will be honestly exercised ! 


Iam informed in regard to camphor in Formosa that :—‘t Under favourable 
conditions an average of thirty feet in height, with trunks six to eight inches at the 
base may be expected in trees ten years from the seed. But trees under thirty years 
growth are reckoned as of no use for camphor making, When a camphor tree is cut 
down, thestumps if allowed to stand, will grow fresh shoots.” 


The Formosa system of working camphor is quite contrary to that of Ceylon 
where only the tips and younger branches are clipped periodically, and the stuff 
distilled. To have a paying camphor concern in Ceylon, I “onsider it would be 
necessary to plant at least 50 acres; and 100 acres under this cultivation would be 
still better. I have just seen and carefully examined a very interesting specimen of 
the Cinnamomum camphor tree, at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh. It isin 
the ‘‘ Temperate House,” where in winter the temperature often falls to 34°. This 
tree at present stands about 40 feet in height, and the stem at 4 feet above the 
ground is 11j inches in girth. The age of this specimen is very doubtful ; butit is 
said to be from 15 to 20 years old. The head gardener informed me that to his 
knowledge this tree had made 20 feet growth within the last 7 years when he planted 
it out. This tree was never known to flower or seed, and strange to say, Mr. Sinclair 
reports the same singularity with regard to his camphor on Rangala and in Ceylon 
geverally. Undoubtedly, the camphor tree will yield and fiourish in most tropical, 
and especially sub-tropical, countries. It grows freely in Ceylon at sea Jevel, and I 
have seen itin great luxuriance at Hakgala, 4,500 feet above sea level; and at the 
same time it was flourishing in Nuwara Eliya at 6,600 feet elevation. Only very 

ecently a friend told me he knew of a grove of camphor of Geode MS growth in 
Southern Italy. 


To my mind the danger ahead for this cultivation is that it will soon be 
over-produced, and consequently the price will fall to a non-paying level. I had 
a talk with Mr. R. S. Corbett onthe subject, and he pointed out that camphor 
was an article of commerce that could easily be over-supplied. He remembered 
when it was selling in London at 60s. per ewts, and would again revert to this 
figure were the article laid down in profusion. On the other hand, Mr. F. B, 
Kastwood is an enthusiast in favour of camphor, and when I told him of Mr 
Corbett’s views, he said ‘‘ Quite true, but that is all altered now, for you cannot 
make celluloids without camphor, and the manufacturers must have it at any 


—— 


Duc. 1906.] 47 Saps and Exudations. 
price, so it cannot be over-produced.” After my own experience in over-production 
of cardamoms and cinchona, I am inclined to agree with Mr. Corbett, that great 
eare should be exercised not to overdo camphor. 

(Copy of Letter from Mr. F. B. fastwood, dated London, 11th July, 1906, in 
connection with Mr. LH. J. Young’s paper on Cainvphor.) 


Dear Mr. Bartlett,—I am sorry to have been unable to write to you before 
in reply to yours of the 2nd instant, enclosing me Mr. Young’s interesting paper 
on camphor. 

With regard to Mr. Young’s wish to find out more about celluloid and the 
quantity of camphor used annually by manufacturers; this, we fear, is almost 
impossible. Up to about ten years ago regular statistics of shipments of crude 
camphor from Japan and formosa could be ascertained without much difficulty ; 
but the manufacture of refined camphor in Japan was at that date of little 
importance, so that the quantity of crude camphor used in manufacture in Europe 
and America could be arrived at with a certain amount of accuracy. The Japanese 
monopoly and the Government encouragement of the manufacture of camphor 
refining has made it quite impossible to obtain any statistics that can be depended 
upon; this much we know, that the quantity of camphor used by refiners for 
disinfecting purposes is very greatly reduced on account of the increased prices 
ruling since the establishment of the monopoly, and the consequent introduction 
of cheap substitutes; but, on the other hand, the manufacture of celluloid has 
largely increased in both Europe and the United States. 


What quantity of crude camphor is necessary for the manufacture of 
celluloid has never been divulged outside that trade, and it is a secret which 
appears to be jealously guarded by the manutacturers of that article. We have 
always been given to understand, however, that the percentage of camphor in 
celluloid is small, but there are some peculiar properties about the camphor 
crystals which are absolutely essential to its manufacture, and these crystals have 
hitherto defeated the great scientists in the many experiments which they have 
made to produce them artificially. 


Turning to Mr. Young’s article, I would remark that the present price 
mentioned in the third line is rather lower than when I spoke to him, to-day’s 
quotations being 320s, to 330s. per cwt. Further on Mr. Young mentions that 
camphor has been sold at as low as 60s. per cwt., but I would point out that the 
lowest price during the last fifteen years was 70s., which so far as I recollect was 
in 1895, and it must be added that the manufacture of celluloid was at that time 
in its infancy, which manufacture has altered the whole position and consumption 
of camphor. For that reason I think that Mr. Corbett’s view need not be taken 
seriously—i.e., that camphor would again revert to 60s. ‘‘ were the articles laid 
down in profusion.” This profusion is not possible so long as the only sources 
of supply are under the control of the Japanese Government, and it will take 
many years to produce in Ceylon or other countries a sufficient quantity to disturb 
the position held by the monopoly. 


Re the Japanese cutting down of trees, they have for some years been very 
strict about replacing wherever they cut down; whether they carry out the same 
practice in Formosa, I am unable to say, but with such prudent people I should 
think it very probable that such is the rule there also. 


Count Butler, who at one time was the principal shipper from Formosa, 
once told me that he could not produce camphor and place it on the market to 
show him a fair profit with the conditions then existing (about 1894), under about 
80s. per cewt. ; and he also told me, what I have had confirmed by others acquainted 


Gums, Resins, 478 ‘ Dec, rt 4 


with those parts, that the camphor tree takes from 380 a) 50 years to grow to: Mes titi. q 
commercial value. 


I have seen what is called leaf camphor occasionally come here from the 
mainland of China, where in the provinces of Kwang So and Fokien there are a 
certain number of camphor trees scattered about in the forests. 


Whether this leaf camphor has been coming over recently in the small 
shipments which have been made during the last twelve months, owing to the 
extreme prices that have been paid for crude camphor, I cannot say; but this we 
do know, that the camphor from the mainland of China is not usually so well 
distilled and contains much more oil, and is sometimes of a dark colony whether 
those defects are caused by the leaves, I am unable to say. 


The original price fixed by the Japanese Monopoly was 178s. per cwt., so 
that even under favourable conditions, so long as the monopoly remains in 
existence, I do not think there is any probability at all of the price dropping below 
that figure, at the same time the present inflated price cannot be expected to be 
maintained, as I told Mr. Young, when once supplies come to hand from Formosa 
and Japan either in crude or the manufactured state.—Believe me, yours very truly, 


(Signed) FRANK B, EASTWOOD. 


Dec, 1906.) 479 


FIBRES. 


COTTON SEED SELECTION. 
Station No. 1 in the highway of farm progress is good seed. 


Planting selected seed of the best variety and of the highest vitality is 
absolutely essential to the production of the best crops. 

Buying the best seed, if the farmer does not have it, is commendable ; but this 
must be followed by the best cultivation and the most careful selection to eliminate 
minor defects and improve the excellencies of the type, or the seed will deteriorate. 

Cotton SEED.— That like produces like, is a law of plant life to be observed 
in all details. 


Ist. From your best field of cotton select the best portion, and in this choice 
division mark the most vigorous and productive plants, showing short joints and 
fruit limbs near the bottom, The entire plant should be an exceptional fruit 
producer, Seed should be selected from these marked cotton stalks, but the top 
bolls and the bolls on the ends of the limbs should not go into the lot for seed; they 
tend to make the cotton later. The bolls selected for seed should be picked by 
special field hands, sent in advance of the regular pickers. This seed cotton must be 
stored ina dry place and watched to avoid mixing. 

Special care must be taken at the gin, that the gin and floor are free from all 
other cotton seed before ginning. Store this seed in a dry place. 

Where greater length ot staple is desired, select for seed such bolls only as 
show the longest staple. By careful selection most any desired qualities, or charac- 
teristics, can ultimately be secured.—Louisiana Planter, 


480 
EDIBLE PRODUCTS. 


Cacao Cultivation in Ceylon. Y. 
By HERBERT WRIGHT. 
Illustrated.) 


PERIODICITY OF THE CACAO TREE. 


It is necessary to consider the periodicity of the vegetative and reproductive 
systems of the cacao tree before dealing with the subject of its cultivation 
and the harvesting of the crop. There are reasons for believing that the most 
successful results in cultivation will probably be obtained by taking advantage of 
- the normal periods of varying activity which characterise the different stages 
in the life of the tree rather than by the application of methods or substances to 
stimulate parts of the tree during their periods of minimum activity. 

The cacao trees on a large area produce leaves, roots, flowers, and fruits 
throughout every month of the year, and many cultivators have adopted methods 
with the idea of making the trees more productive at periods of the year which do 
not agree with those of the natural periodicities. It is possible, by affecting the 
water supply to the roots and by the pruning of branches and roots, to considerably 
change the periodicity of vegetative and sexual tissues, but it is a course which, if 
not carried out very carefully, may be accompanied bya serious reduction in the 
cacao crop. . 


FOLIAR AND ROOT PERIODICITY. 


In all tropical areas heat and light are intense, and these, together with the 
heavy rainfall of many places, result in a conspicuous growth of vegetation at most 
times of the year. Though the climatic changes are not analagous to the seasons of 
a temperate zone, the plants in the tropics are just as subject to periodical changes 
of rest and activity as those of cooler zones. The periodicities of the climates in 
cacao-growing countries differ considerably, and the remarks here given have 
reference mainly to the cacao trees in the Peradeniya district of Ceyion ; a change in 
climatic periodicity is usually followed by one of plant periodicity. 

The leaves of the cacao tree show an increase in number year by year until 
by about the eighth or tenth year a standard size appears to be attained. Through- 
out these first years the foliar production is irregular, but as time goes on there ig 
a tendency to produce a large number of new leaves during two or three periods 
each year. On acacao estate with all the trees in bearing it is impossible to find 
a healthy specimen absolutely leafless even during the hottest and driest part of 
the year; most of the trees produce a few leaves every month in the year, 
but reserve their periods of maxima foliar production for the months of February, 
March, and September, considerations to be kept in mind when dealing with the 
periodicity of the flowers and manurial operation, The periodicity in the root 
growth of cacao trees in Ceylon is but little understood; the rootlets are formed 
during every month in the year, but during AprilJune and again in October- 
November there appears to be increased activity in this part of the plant. The 
general observations made on this part of the subject point to a periodicity of 
root activity in association with that of the foliage. 


FLOWER PERIODICITY IN 1903. 


An investigation has been made on the periodicity of flower production 
with a view of determining its relationship to that of the fruits and rainfall. Forty- 
two trees were under observation each day in the years 1903, 1904 and 1905. The 
flowers were plucked after they had opened, so that the physiology of the plant 


me 
* 


PB? 


Photo by H. F. Macmillan. 
DEVELOPMENT AND STRUCTURE OF CACAO FRUITS. 


1-5 Cacao fruits of different ages; 1 (one week); 2 (two weeks) ; 
3 (six weeks) ; 4 (ten weeks) ; 5 (17 weeks) : 


Longitudinal (6 and 7) and transverse sections (8) through ripe fruits, 
showing white and coloured seeds in situ. 


Photo by H. Ff. Macmillan. 


FORMS OF CACAO FRUITS. 


Theobroma pentagona (4); Amelonado (5); 


3 )5 


Forastero (7, 8 and 9), 


Nicaraguan Criollo (1, 2 and 


, 


Criollo or Caracas (6) 


1 " $ Sees eee 
s tie. r 
7 Die ae Pe OA cee ee H , 
= i . a. oy, & - 
" 4 : ; 4 9 ij villa 3 ae | F v = 
Pi S 4 ce ees ees - 
7 } ; ai a Aes ie i 
2 nt “ yee aed = ; ee 
ia ae a ae : * 
: iy B ar - an y 
Z : ae ae rn) eee 
: ‘ 
; Tee Drei 
ete ef sth 
' 
' 
7 
_ 
Bc: i 
aac 
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fae 


A ine 


Dec. 1906.] . 481 Edible Products. 


would be disturbed as little as possible. It may be asserted that the removal 
of these newly-opened flowers would probably lead toa more prolific appearance 
of flowers at a subsequent date, but when one considers that an average 


tree produces only about sixty to eighty mature fruits in the whole year, the 


procedure adopted cannot be expected to greatly alter the flower periodicity in 
question. Not more than 0'2 to 04 per cent of the flowers produced on a cacao 
estate planted 12x12 feet and yielding 3 cwt. of cured cacao per acre, per year, 
develop into mature fruits; they are easily detached when in full bloom or 
after withering. The number of flowers produced in the year 1903 varied from 178 
on tree number 5,725, to 33,534 on tree number 5,782. The average number of flowers 
produced, per tree, for 1903 was 5,666, equal to 1? million per acre, In order to show 
the variability, the following figures are quoted for six selected trees :— 


TABLE SHOWING THE FLOWER PERIODICITY OF SIX SELECTED CACAO TREES 
DURING 1903. 


Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree 
No. 71. No. 5,786. No. 5,782. No. 5,768. No. 5,798. No. 5484, 
January Me 67 65 165 113 ez 43 
February ... 388 245 353 34 17 Ui 
March se 1,992 372 4,269 479 704. QL 
April oh 1,292 438 4,578 3384 1,428 33 
May ps 2,978 2,489 7,050 1,507 7,605 641 
June ra 1,576 756 1,531 150 495 144 
July ad 1,950 1,829 3,009 272 476 123 
August we 1,391 442 2,148 214 193 97 
September ... 1,285 423 3,778 595 308 60 
October ee T2460. 7155 3,376 445 89 36 
November ... 1,192 496 1,639 232 63 15 
December ... 998 944 1,188. 276 52 26 
Total Aig LGKeHaI5) 9,204. 338,504 4,651 11,457 1,316 


‘The following table gives (1) the total number of flowers produced on 
the forty-two trees under observation; (2) the monthly average of flowers per 


tree for the year 1908 :— 


Total Flowers Average No. of 
for forty-two flowers per 
trees. tree. 

January ae ih 4,281 ats Ae 102 
February se si 4,616 ee F 109 
March ee nes 25,562 oe ae 608 
Spril ese ce ue 18,616 nis ee 443 
May ne Hee a 71,839 te 1,710 
June... see See 14,982 Fists ea 356 
aula aes ee at 21,811 Sod as 519 
August... nee ade 15,347 388 ts 365 
September te dee 21,124 SR es aa 503 
October... a me 17,191 1, Be 409 
November . ae me 11,080 BSc Sed ne 264 
December re Hay 11,556 oH ab 275 


Total ee 238,005 


4 


FLOWER PERIODICITY FOR 1904. 

The observations were continued on the same trees as in 1903, and the 
following are the records showing (1) the total number of flowers produced on the 
forty-two trees under observation; (2) the monthly average of flowers per tree 
during 1904 :— 

63 


Rdible Products. 482 [Dmc. 1906 


Total flowers Average No. of Average No. of 
for 42 trees. flowers per tree. flowers per tree. 
1904. 1904. 1903. 

January We 11,799 ah fe 280 ae oe 102 
February _... 12,953 See ry 308 KF ne 109 
March Ass 293250 aha yee ueatl OO ORE ee bs 608 
April iS 57,287 as ae 112863 ae eciy mpAAs 
May e. = 84,011 so ... 2,000 es Pete 7K 0) 
June Aa 84,388 -.. 2,008 Bas wien 4850 
July wee 32,845 ee Saye and Osrn ieee as 519 
August a 11,326 a hee PAO Te rss oe (B05 
September ... 15,567 aia af 370 re a8 503 
October tise! 24,852 aa aed 591 Aas Nas 409 
November ... 19,971 Bue 5 475 ae ee 264 
December ... 17,791 ate: mas 423 anes Bee aD 
Total... 401,490 Ast ... 9,558 ah roe 5,668 


The average number of flowers produced, per tree, for 1903, was 5,663, equal 
to 1 million per acre at 300 trees to the acre. The average number of flowers, 
per tree for 1904, was 9,553, equal to 2¢ million per acre, per year. In 1904 the trees 
were much freer from disease. An interesting case was observed on tree numbered 
4,031 on plot 8. This tree produced flowers every month in the year, but on the 
20th June, 1904, it possessed no less than 27,632 flowers, the counting of which 
occupied the attention of two men 13 days, On the 20th July there were only 
fifteen young fruits on the same tree, and throughout the year the tree did not 
produce one hundred fruits. 

In order to show the variability, during 1904, the following figures are 
quoted for six selected trees :—- 


TABLE SHOWING THE FLOWER PERIODICITY OF SIX SELECTED 
CACAO TREES FoR 1904, 
NUMBER OF FLOWERS PRODUCED EACH MONTH. 


Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree 
No, 71. No. 5,786. No. 5,782. No. 5,768. No. 5,798. No. 5,484, 

January Ho 1,086 674 1,429 296 110 34 
February ... 1,074 929 1,505 257 1,191 46 
March ihe 2,764 1,547 8,191 820 284 160 
April ae 5,082 3,048 5,076 1,944 600 879 
May ai 9,079 3,200 9,875 2,744 1,529 509 
June as 9,508 5,499 7,793 2,127 1,241 756 
July Ane 2,898 1,748 1,537 963 525 522 
August Rae 1,376 391 1,189 201 1380 57 
September ... 1,519 666 1,836 187 1538 149 
October 1S 2,282 1,017 2,953 444 234 203 
November ... 1,973 674 2,051 376 213 54 
December ... 1,885 572 13380 411 204 62 

Totaliweccn woosoco 20,016 39,768 10,770 6,414 2,981 
Total for the ) 
same trees 16,355 9,204 38,504 4,651 11,457 1,316 
during 1903... 


The data for the flower production during 1905, on the same trees is now 
given for comparison with previous years, 


Dec. 1906.] 483 Edible Products. 


MONTHLY FLOWER PERIODICITY, 1905. 
Average number 


Total flowers sa Average number of flowers 
for 42 trees. Poni per tree. 

1905, 1905. 1904, 19038. 

January ise 13,524 322 280 102 
February ea 15,893 378 308 109 
March ae 19,773 470 696 608 
April aig 19,999 476 1,363 443 
May ... a 55,752 1,327 2,000 1,710 
June ... ee lomOls 8,759 2,008 356 
July ... ue. 50,780 1,207 770 519 
August ve 25,804 603 269 865 
September ite 10,697 254 370 503 
October a 5,650 134 591 409 
November iD 40,946 974 475 264. 
December ... 88,879 2,116 423 975 
Total Fe OUo LTO 12,020 9,553 5,663 


NUMBER OF CACAO FLOWERS ON ESTATES. 


These observations prove that there is not a month in the year when flowers 
are not produced if a minimum of say ten trees is chosen. On six outof the 
forty-two trees selected no flowers were produced during certain months of 1903, 
these months including only February, March, and April. 


The total number of flowers produced on a cacao estate may be from 
1,700,000 to 3,606,000 per acre, per year (800 trees to the acre), A yield of 3 cwt. of 
cured cacao per acre means that at the most only about 8,000 flowers develop into 
mature fruits on each acre per year, or, in other words, a balance of 1,692,000 to 
nearly 8,600,000 flowers, per acre, per year, are at present of no value to the average 
cacao planter. A large number of flowers appear to have been fertilised, but the 
expanding fruits soon turn yellow and shrivel; for the year 1903 out of a total of 
569,738 promising fruits, no less than 288,205 were of this class. 


These facts show that there is ample opportunity for research in connection 
with flower pollination and fertilisation. The cacao trees on which these observ- 
ations were carried out were normal; it would have been possible to select much 
more vigorous plants, and to show that the average number of flowers produced 
was in excess of those under observation for that year. 


For the present it is important to note that the period for maximum flower 
production was in the months of April, May and June, and that this was preceded 
or followed by minor periods of floral activity in the years 1903, 1904 and 1905. 


THE LEADING TEAS OF THE WORLD,.—INDIA. 
By HERBERT COMPTON. 


In dealing with the varieties and characters of the teas grown in the different 
districts of India, it is difficult to generalize. In the first place, in the same district 
there may be a vast deviation in quality owing to individual causes—such as soil, 
the management and the system of manufacture followed. Then, again, some plant- 
’ ations go in for quantity, which means low-grade teas ; while their neighbours con- 
fine their efforts to turning out a small crop of the very highest liquoring character. 
Lastly, there are the differences in the crop itself, which is acted on by the changing 
conditions of the climate. Itis not too much to say that the average plantation 
makes four distinct qualities of tea in the year, each with its distinctive character- 
istics. There is the “spring crop,” which used to be considered the choicest in 
China, but is a poor liquoring one in India, where its quality is sacrificed to ‘‘ making 


, ; AC One 
Edible Products 484 -» [Dec. 1006507 
the bushes,” by letting the shoots grow, and so forming a “new head” of young Teel 
wood. You cannot make good tea from old leaf—and“ spring crop” leaf is always 
old. Then comes the summer crop, generally the best of the year, forced out as it is 
by a powerful sun acting after refreshing showers, and plucked early. The rainy- 
season crop is poor, washed-out, thin stuff, as arule, owing to excess of moisture 
and want of ripening sun influence. The autumnor fall crop has its own peculiar 
flavour, often very fine, and although the leaf is red to look at, the liquor is highly 
valued. These conditions will explain the variations and fluctuation in quality that 
cannot be avoided, and make “ generalizing” a task in which it is easy for the critic 
to pick holes, With these preliminary remarks I will turn to the districts 
in detail. 


The 1904 returns show that British India contains in the aggregate 524,527 
acres, producing 222,203,661 pounds of tea, and they may be classified as follows :— 


Assam, or the Bramaputra Valley, contains 205,990 acres, yielding 83,860,173 
pounds of tea. Besides being by far the largest district, it is the one which produces 
the best quality teas all round. Assam teas are noted for their strength chiefly, and 
their violet-like fragrance. They are the back-bone of a blend, and will “‘ pick- 
up” and give a character toa larger percentage of inferior tea than can be accom- 
plished by the produce of any other district. When this strength is combined with 
the strikingly fine flavour obtainable, there is nothing that can touch the produce 
of this leading tea district in India. 


KACHAR AND SYLHET.—These two districts are always bracketed together, 
and lie to the south-west of Assam. in what is known as the Surma Valley—a name 
often applied to them in combination. Sylhet is slightly the larger (72,497 acres), and 
the outturn of the two districts amounts to 70,000,000 pounds. In quality, their teas 
lack the strength of Assam, and do not realize nearly as good prices, the average 
value being about two-thirds that obtained for those of the leading district. 


The three above districts form one group, and may he described as the head- 
quarters of tea-growing India. The second group of districts lies almost due west of 
Assam and due north of Calcutta, and consists of Darjeeling, the Dooars and 
the Terai, but the latter has been practically abandoned owing to its bad ~ 
climate. 


Darjeeling (acres, 50,623 ; crop, 13,626,490 pounds) is situated on the slopes of 
the Himalaya Mountains, the elevations of the gardens’ ranging from 3,000 to 6,000 
feet above sea-level. The climate is cool, and in consequence the season a restricted 
one, and the crop short. But the teas are noted for their exquisite flavour (which 
it has been found impossible to obtain from any other part of the world), and when 
well pronounced they fetch fancy prices. There is not much strength in Darjeeling 
teas, and when they lack the true flavour they command only moderate 
rates. 


The Dooars lie below Darjeeling, at the foot of the Himalayas, on the flat 
ground. The acreage is 77,279, and the outturn 82,452,478 pounds. Although not so 
strong as those of Assam, Dooars teas generally yield a good colouring liquor, and 
have been likened to a blend of the produce of the Bramaputra and Surma Valleys. 
They are very useful for blending, 


Next inorder of importance come the tea districts in the Madras Presie 
dency, in Southern India. These are Travancore, the Nilgiris and the Wynaad., 


Travancore (acres, 24,712; crop, 9,073,880 pounds) lies at the very end of the 
Indian peninsula, and just opposite Ceylon, and enjoys a very similar climate. It is 
b young district, but remarkably go-ahead, having manifold advantages of labour _ 


| yvonne ATs ais 


C 


Dac. 1906. 485 Edible Products. 


and abundant rainfall. The teas are of a light quality, but without much strength, 
although when grown at high elevations they possess a rather fine flavour. 


The Nilgiris and the Wynaad lie to the north of Travancore and contain, toge- 
ther, 8,620 acres, producing 1,639,060 pounds of tea. The former teas occasionally 
possess some fine flavour, but are generally plain-liquoring. The same may be said 
for the teas of the Wynaad, which do not commend themselves to buyers. But the 
district isa very young one, and with more experience of the art of manufacture its 
produce will doubtless improve. 


Our next step carries us two thousand miles to the northwest, to the very 
confines of Northern India. Here are situated the districts of Kangra, Kumaon and 
Dehra-Doon, which once drove avery thriving trade in green tea for the Central 
Asian market, until the influence of Russia destroyed it by high tariffs. There these 
districts are planted solely with the China variety of the bush. 


Kangra (acres 9,347; crop, 1,916,739 pounds).—The black teas from this 
district are thin in cup, but have a distinctive flavour of their own, being grown 
high upon the slopes of the Himalayas. Occasionally the district sends to market 
the produce ofa fine flavoured ‘flush,’ but asa rule they are much lacking in 
quality. Kangrateas ar2 largely drunk by the European community in India. 


Kumaon and Dehra-Doon (acres, 7,953; crop, 2,573,000 pounds).—These teas 
are similar to Kangra, but, if anything, inferior in cup. Although some of them are 
grown at high elevation, they do not possess the ‘‘hill flavour” which gives teas 
even without strength a value of their own. 


There remains the districts of Chittagong and {Chota-Nagpur, which are the 
smallest of all. The former contains 4,369 acres, and yields 1,480,659 pounds of plan- 
liquoring tea. In Chota-Nagpur, which suffers from want of rainfall, the crop only 
amounts to 326,202 pounds, and is of very poor quality. Indeed, were it not for the 
cheap labour in this district—the ordinary wages are only three pice (cents) a day-- 
tea could not be grown profitably. 


In Burma there are at present 1,406 acres of tea, producing 266,066 pounds, 
but the crop is of the coarsest and commonest quality, and only intended for native 
consumption. ; 


The year 1904 showed, for the first time on record, a reduced area under tea 
in British India. This was due to the abandonment of old and worn-out gardens (in 
some of which the China variety of plant still survived) owing to the depression in the 
British tea market caused by the increased taxation of the article. In that year the 
duty on tea was raised to 16 cents (U.S.A.) a pound, which decreased consumption, and 
led to prices falling to the lowest level on record. Since then, however, a remssion 
of four cents in the duty has begun to bring back prosperity, and _ the planters 
prospects are decidedly good.—Tea and Coffee Trade Journal. 


— 


THE CHINA THA INDUSTRY. 


it has been stated so often that a movement for actively pushing Chinese tea 
is on foot that the rumoured formation of an association for that purpose is not 
surprising. The ‘‘ Grocer,” commenting on this rumour, says :—* The slump in China 
tea of recent years, and the evident dislike of the public for it—probably because of 
that ‘scenty flavour’ which most people find highly objectionable—have put the 
trade in such general disfavour that a clear road is left for those who saw that China 
tea may still have its dietetic reeommendations and its votaries. Without going so 
far as to echo the words of interested optimists that there is a ‘boom’ in China tea, 


i es 


Edible Products. 426 [De 1006. wie 


we have some evidences of a revival in the trade. Obviously if it is to be revived there 
should be conscious effort to that end, and one of the means of exerting such effort is, 
in these days of combination, a Union, or League, or Association of some kind. 


We were informed this week that a ‘China Tea Association’ is actually in 
existence; but that apparently thereis nothing more than an adumberation of such 
a body. Itis nevertheless quite possible that some leading people in the trade may 
think that the psychological moment has arrived for convening a meeting in order 
to form suchan association. It must be admitted that those interested in the China 
tea trade have not hitherto made the most of their opportunities. The efforts made 
to restore the popularity of the Chinese leaf have received support and free adver- 
tisement from various quarters, but the ‘‘ psychological moment” has been allowed 
to pass again and again. The cult of Chinese tea is not neglected in the training of 
the young grocer who is frequently reminded by those who lecture to him that tea 
from China is the thing from the medical point of view, and that the delicate palate 
will always give the preference to it. 


Notwithstanding all this, the majority of tea drinkers here find Indian and 
Ceylon teas good enough for them, and they do not seem deeply affected by the 
information that real lovers of tea drink the Chinese leaf only, and that in exclusive 
circles it is consumed as a matter of course. We doubtif it be possible to engineer a 
boom in China tea, although so long as medical men continue to sing its praise and 
professing ‘‘ experts” give themselves airs about it, importers of Chinese tea can 
always claim that the time has arrived for making an effort to increase its con- 
umption.—H. and C. Mail. 


Dry Grains of Ceylon, H, 


By J. EF. Jowirt. 


Pani-Chamai, T.—Pani signify ing ‘‘ Dew,” so called because itis said to require 
very little water, dew alone sufficing for its growth. Meneri, S. 

Panicum Miliaceum.—An annual; stems, leaves, and sheaths clothed with 
long soft hairs. Habit erect at first, as the seeds ripen the panicle droops and be- 
comes purplish in colour, Stems stout, tufted, leafy upto the panicle, joints 
bearded ; leaves linear, acuminate, base rounded, ligule of long hairs ; panicle large, 
decompound, branches fascicled ; spikelets solitary, pedicelled, ovate, acute. 


Ellu Chamai or Chiru Chamai, T.—Ellu is the name for gingelly, and is used 
to denote anything small in size. Chiru, Tamil for small, little. 


Heen Meneri, S.—Heen, small. I find that this grass is often called Meneri, 
without the prefix. 


Panicum Miliare.—This differs from P. Miliacewm, in its smaller size, in the 
joints of the stem, stems, sheaths and leaves being hairless or practically so. The 
panicle is sub-erect and more contracted thanin P. Miliacewm, and the spikelets much 
smaller. The seeds of these two cereals though resembling one another in some 
respects are easily distinguished. 

P. Miliaceum. | P. Miluare. 
Shining, broadly ovate, 3 mm., Shining, oblong ovate, 2 mm., 
apex obtuse, yellow, more often | apex acute, generally blackish, 
olive coloured, yellow, or olive coloured. 
Veins in both light coloured, 5-7 on convex side, converging from base to apex, on the 
flattened side, 2. 


These species are fully described in Trimen’s Flora, Vol. V. p. 150. 


There seems some confusion in Trimen’s Flora regarding the vernacular 
names of these grasses, vide note under P. trypheron, Vol. V. p. 152. 


Dec. 1906.] 487 Edible Products. 


I have given above the Tamil and Sinhalese names for P. Miliaceum and 
P. Miliare. 

Wal-Meneri, wal=wild, is P. trypheron a closely allied grass. 

P. Miliacewn is the most nutritious of cereals grown in Ceylon, and 
P. Miliare only a little inferior toit. They and ‘ Amu” (Paspalum scrobiculatum) are 
used in the Four and Seven Korales and in some parts of Uda-Nuwara by labourers 
working away from home, as their mid-day meal, being boiled with coconut milk 
if procurable, if not, with water, salt and chillies being added as a relish. 

Hackel in ‘True Grasses,” p. 76, says: ‘Cultivated from prehistoric times. 
Native country unknown, but probably the East Indies, where, and in China and 
Japan as well, it is yet much cultivated. It is raised to a considerable extent in 
South Russia and Roumania, but only here and there in other parts of Hurope. 
Several varieties are distinguished by the colour of the fruit and the habit of the 
panicles.” 

The following, showing the alimentary value of cereals I have culled from 
‘Rood Grains of India” by A, H. Church, M.A,, Oxon., F.C.S., F.LC., to whose in- 
structive publication those interested in the subject are referred. 

An adult man weighing 140 to 150 lbs. requires per diem about 


Albuminoids ee a 4°16 OZS. 
Oil or Fat ae he 312 mS 
Starch ee 14°29 


Albuminoids are the nitrogen compound such as albumen, fibrin and legu- 
min, the chief formative and reparative compounds of food; they may also yield fat, 
and by their oxidation set free heat andactualenergy. The carbou compounds such 
as starch, sugar and oil serve to keep up the heat and do the work of the body by 
the discharge of potential energy during oxidation in the organism. The fat of the 
body is formed in part from the fat or oil in the food; in part from the starch and 
sugar. 


In the following table ‘‘ Nutrient-Ratio” is a term used to denote the pro- 
portion of albuminoids to starch, including with the starch the starch equivalent 
of any oil or fat present in the food, recent experiments having shown that one part 
of vegetable oil or fat is practically equivalent to 2°3 parts of starch, 2°3 is accordingly 
used in this table as the ‘‘ Starch equivalent” of one part of oil. 


“ Nutrient Value” refers to the sum total of the albuminoids, the starch and 
the starch equivalent of oil. 


Name of Cereal. “Nutrient Ratio” or  Albuminoids, Nutrient 
Albuminoids to Starch. percentage of. Value. 
Hleusine coracana 1 13 bh 59 oe 84 
Paspalum Scrobiculatum 1 11:7 Ass iB a 89 
Oryza Sativa 1 10°8 oF 73 ae 863 
- Panicum Crus-galli var. fru- 
mentaceum 1 9°5 84 88 
Panicum Miliare . 1 8-4 91 85 
Zea Mays 1 83 9°5 5 
Andropogon Sorghum var. 
vulgare 1 8:2 93 86 
Pennisetum typhoideum 1 76 10°4 893 
Setaria italica ; 1 74 10°8 a 91 
Panicum Miliaceum 1 6 126 89 


The standard “N ent: ratio” is set down as1:5; from the Above table it 
will be seen that very few of the cereals approach sufficiently near to the standard 
to form satisfactory aliments when used alone for any length of time. 

Panicum Miliaceumis the nearest and Hleusine coracana the furthest 
removed from the standard nutrient ratio, and in the latter case those that live 
entirely on kurakkan consume daily about 28, 2 ozs. too much of starch, 


Edible Products. 488 ‘aul 1906. ‘ fl 


Mr. Church shows that by the judicious combination of some of the pulses 
with the cereals and with the addition of a small quantity of oil, the necessary pro- 
portions of albuminoids and starch can be supplied. 


Karal—Amu, S., Paspalum Scrobiculatum.—As far as I ean ascertain there 
are three varieties of Amu recognised by the Sinhalese, namely Karal, Badu, and 
Math Amu. Karal, Iam told is the equivalent of “Spike”; Amu=inebriating 
Badu and Math Amu I have not succeeded in growing. Badu=belly, alluding to the 
spikes ripening their grain within the leaf and sheaths. This grain is boiled with 
coconut milk and is considered a luxury by the Sinhalese. Math=giddiness; the 
grain is boiled with double the ordinary amount of water, which is thrown. away as 
being poisonous; eaten by servants in Sinhalese households. 


Karal Amu, S., Paspalum Scrobiculatum,—Stems 2 feet with me, probably 
more in good soil, tufted, erect, leafy from the base ; leaf long, narrow, flat, acuminate, 
margins scaberulous; sheath compressed, loose, mouth hairy, ligule short, membra- 
nous; peduncles of inflorescence long, slender, slightly channelled ; spikes 2—3, 
probably more, 1;—3 inches long or more; spikelets biseriate, 2mm. or a fraction 
more, nearly obicular, shortly pedicelled, rhachis narrow, herbaceous; Glumes I and 
If 3—5 veined var. b? Kunth, l.c. vide note Trimen’s Flora, Vol. V. p. 122. 


In plants grown from seeds sent to me from Hettimulla, Kegalle, labelled 
* Badu Amu,” but which do not differ from plants raised from seed from Uda-Nuwara 
and Hatella, said to be ‘‘ Karal Amu,” Glume II is wrinkled or pitted towards the 
margins. Used for making coconut milk rice, considered a luxury and generally eaten 
after a meal of rice. 

Waraku, T. Paspalum Scrobiculatum, var a?—This variety, though it differ- 
materially from the preceding one, is known as ‘‘ Karal Amu” by the Sinhalese, both 
varieties being grown together. Stem 12 inches, tufted, erect, rather stout, leafy 
from the base up, leaves 9—11 inches x inch or more, bifarious, erect, flat, acute, 
margins scaberulous; sheaths compressed, loose, mouth hairy, ligule short, membra- 
nous, both leaves and sheath tinged with purple. Spikes 2—3, Distinct, spreading, 
2—23 inches long, exserted from the sheath on a stout channelled peduncle, pedunela 
herbaceous, broad, ventrally concave, winged, narrowed towards the ciliated tip ; 
rhachis of spikelets broad, dorsally crinkled, spikelets 2 seriate, on short, stout, 
curved, puberulous pedicels, 3 mm. broad—Glumes 3, I and II equal, orbicular, 
membranous; Gl. I, 8—9 veined, II 5—8 veined, III coriacious, striolate, margins 

neurved, thickened at the edges that overlap the striolate palea. 


(0 be continued.) 


ive as) 
mys 


Dac. 1906.] 480 


PLANT SANITATION. 


Diseases of the Coconut Palm. 


Bw LORETOH? 


It is more or less axiomatic that the number of diseases to which a given 
plant is subject, and the virulence of such diseases if no special precautionary 
measures are taken, increase with the spread of its cultivation. It is rather 
surprising therefore to find from manuals and essays on coconut planting that 
there is apparently no disease of the coconut palm worthy of mention. This 
relative immunity is not confined to Ceylon, but, to judge from their publications, 
is shared by all other coconut growing countries. Insect pests are well known, 
and their treatment occupies a large part of the literature of the subject. Can it 
be that every disease has been attributed to “beetle,” or isit that the climate 
of the coconut districts and the methods of planting really discourage the attacks 
of fungi? I think it may be assumed that the latter to a great extent are inimical 
to fungi in general. There have been alarming reports of coconut diseases in the 
past, e.g., of leaf disease in Ceylon in 1889; but no very serious damage has been 
done, and the disease—or the fear of it—has passed away, and left no trace, not 
even a scientific record, nor a specimen by which it could be identified if it 
occurred again ! 

During the visitation referred to, it was generally stated that the particular 
disease was one which had been prevalent, but not serious, for along time. With- 
out a knowledge of fungiand a microscope sucha statement in the case of a leaf 
disease could be only a mere guess. But I have now to record a disease, apparently 
of fungus origin, which really has existed for a long time, but which has only 
recently caused any serious injury or loss of trees. 

This was first brought to the notice of the Department in 1903, but no 
information was left on record. Last year, a correspondent of the Ceylon 
Observer called attention to the condition of some of the palms near the Negombo 
Canal, and stated that ‘‘dead and dying palms were seen from the boat, between 
the second and fourth milestone on the canal. Sap was exuding from what 
appeared to be punctures on the stem made by an insect,” In the early part of 
this year information to the same effect reached Peradeniya from several sources, 
and this particular locality was visited. 

The affected trees are on a small island bounded by the canal and ditches, about 
a foot above the water level in the dry weather. The surrounding marsh is planted 
up in coconuts; these are remarkably stunted, so much so, that they resemble 
eyeads. The diseased trees were covered to a height of seven or eight feet with 
black patches, caused by the exudation of sap from minute cracks in the outer 
tissue. The upper portion of the stem was usually unaffected. The tissue imme- 
diately beneath the crack becomes discoloured, generally brown at first and finally 
black, and this condition spreads internally until the patches from adjacent cracks 
coalesce. The whole of the interior of the trunk is ultimately reduced to a mass 
of humus mixed with fragments of the harder fibres. In advanced stages the tree 
bears only a few small fronds, bnt the “cabbage” is not diseased, The bud remains 
sound so long as a section of the stem shows a region of undecayed tissue. Severa 
trees were dug up, and it was found that in general the roots were dead on the 
side affected; and as the material, both root and stem, brought away for micros- 
copic examination did not show any fungus hyphe, it was thought possible that 
the death of the trees was primarily due to the decay of the roots owing to the 

64 


nak” 
{ M _ 
2 DY ie 


Plant Sanitation. 490 Dec. 1906. Ls Pad 


> 


unsuitable situation. It was quite certain that the beetle observed only bored 
into the stem after it was dead. In order to test this conclusion, the treatment 
which is detailed below was advised, but as far as 1 could judge when I passed the 
place some months afterwards nothing has been done. 


Quite recently one of our leading coconut planters (who had raised the 
question of this disease in 1903) kindly offered to show me other localities in which 
the disease existed, and under his guidance more valuable information was obtained. 
In a plantation at NaJjla, which was visited, two thousand trees are said to be 
affected, and though none have yet died, the number of diseased trees is increasing. 
It was seen that the ideas founded on the observations made previously on the 
palms near the canal would not hold good there, but fortunately a clue to the 
origin of the disease has been found in the specimens there collected. The longi- 
tudinal cracks in the outer tissue are a more or less normal feature of the coconut 
stem, They are not necessarily connected with disease, though it is probable that 
fungus enters through them. in the earliest stages of the disease, the sap oozes 
out from the trunk and causes a brown or black stain on the exterior. If the 
diseased region is cut into during wet weather a quantity of sap runs out. The 
tissue beneath the black patch decays, finally becoming dark brown or black. 
Instances of this appear to be fairly common. There ave numbers of old trees 
on which the disease has been at work for years, doing no more harm than Iccally 
destroying the outer tissues, the hard wood below being apparently too dense for 
it to operate upon. A hole, filled at first with dry fibres, is left in the stem. 


But in the cases which have attracted attention recently, the first black 
or rusty patch is followed by others, usually on the same side of the tree, and the 
diseased regions extend internally until the whole trunk is merely a shell 
enclosing a brown or black soil-like mass. 

There is no doubt that the progress depends on the character of the tree, 
and older trees appear to be less affected. But tiees of all ages are attacked, and 
the difference appears to depend on age only inso faras the older tree possesses a 
well-developed region of dense ‘‘ wood.” The trees which are killed succumb in 
trom four to six years. 

The fungus which is supposed to be the cause of the disease is wholly 
internal. Its spores are tormed in the decaying tissue, and are brought to the 
exterior by the exuding sap. In order to have the disease under observation, 
inoculations were made at Peradeniya with diseased tissue, and with the sap 
containing the spores and some bacteria. But the only trees available at Peradeniya 
are extremely old, and it is as yet doubtful whether the infection has been suc- 


cessful. It is only by making pure cultivations of the fungus and inoculating the _ 


trees from them that certainty can be arrived at. 


In addition to the Hendalla and Nalle districts, Ihave seen odd trees 
affected in the neighbourhood of Kandy. ‘‘The disease is fairly prevalent every- 
where, but so far has not done any serious mischief, It seems to have increased of 
late in certain localities.” ‘‘The progress of the disease is slow, taking possibly 
four to five years to kill the trees, but we think it is sufficiently serious to warrant 
attention.” These are the opinions of our leading coconut planters. 


The following measures were tried several years ago and have proved suc- 
cessful. All the diseased tissues were cut out and burnt, the wounds were then 
burned with a torch of rags dipped-in oil, and then covered with hot coal 
tar. All dead coconut. trees should be burned. With respect to the last point, 
the advice recently issued by the American Department of Agriculture in the 


Philippines may be quoted. ‘The first thing to do in coming into possession of a 


coconut grove, or in planting a new one, isto thoroughly clean the ground, All 


Duc. 1906.] 491 Plant Sanitation, 


manure heaps, rubbish, rotting or fallen trees should be removed and destroyed 
at once. Rubbish heaps and decayed trunks if fallen should be burned.” Now 
that America has taken a hand in tropical agriculture, we may confidently 
expect that coconut diseases will receive full attention; they have been the 
first to recognise that such work in the Tropics requires an equipment, if 
possible, better than they have in America. 

In the article on Coconuts in Watt’s Dictionary of the Economie Products 
of India there is a reference to a stem disease which may be the same as the 
one we are at present concerned with; the information, however, is not 
very definite, and the suggested remedy does not invite recommendation, 
“Palms suffer from the attacks of an insect named bhonga, which gnaws the roots 
of the tree. When a palm is suffering from the attacks of bhonga, a dark red juice 
oozes from the trank. When this is noticed, a hole three inches square is cut in 
the trunk from four to six feet above where the juice is coming out, and is 
filled with salt, which kills or drives away the insect,” The recorder does not 
suggest how the salt reaches the supposed insect! The Sinhalese say that the 
disease is the work of ‘‘Taldiya,” but what ‘‘ Taldiya” is they cannot tell. 

The other diseases of the coconut palm, in Ceylon do not eall for much 
attention. The ‘‘Bud Rot” described in Circular 15 has not been recorded from 
any other locality. A leat fungus, Pestalozzia palmarum, is extremely common 
in the low country, but as it never kills a tree itis disregarded. Up country it 
seems to be much less common. As its name indicates, it is a relation of the “Gray 
Blight” of tea; indeed, if the labels were removed from mounted spores of 
the two species (and there is practically nothing but spores tolay hold of in a 
Pestalozzia), no one will be able to relabel them with any degree of certainty. Most 
coconut diseases have been attributed to the effect of Pestalozzia palmarun, 
probably because all palm fronds bear that fungus, and it therefore occurred 
on the supposed specimens of any disease which have been sent to Europe. 
In Ceylon, it is confined to small spots on the leaves, and though it must to 
some extent retard the growth of the tree, it does not cause diseases of the bud 
or stem. The West Indian Bud Rot is still stated by some to be caused by it. 

A recent report from Java by Dr. Charles Bernard states that serious 
damage has been wrought by Pestalozzia in the case of young trees. Ina plantation 
containing 5,000 plants, a year old, every tree was affected. more than half were so 
badly affected that there was no hope of saving them, and about 1,000 had died, 
Spraying with Bordeaux mixture is recommended, and is practicable in the 
case of young palms. Assuming that the cause of the disease is correctly deter- 
mined, this offers a striking illustration of the possible differences in the effects of 
the same fungus on the same host in different countries. 


Uprooting Jungle Stumps. 
By T. PETCH. 

A correspondent writes from South India :— 

““May I bring to your notice a plan carried out by a neighbour of mine, 
which is most successful. He first cuts down all the small trees; the large ones 
are then tackled. The roots round the tree are cut through, and the weight 
of the top boughs brings the tree down with a crash completely uprooting the 
stump, In thecase of large round-topped trees, the branches on one side can be 
lopped, and the tree thus made to fall in any direction, This is in my opinion a 
much cheaper and more satisfactory method than first felling the tree and then 
digging up the stump, On the Nilgiris most of the forest trees are surface rooters, 
and J expect it is the same with you; this makes the plan I mention most efficient.’ 


The method is, of course, not. put forward as a new one, bat itis one which 
might be adopted with advantage in future clearings, 


Plant Sanitation. 492 [DEc. 1906, ; 


Entomological N otes. 


By EH. Eanest GREEN, Government Entomologist. 


In a valuable paper on ‘The Principal Insects Attacking the Coconut Palm,’ 
by C.S. Banks, published in the Philippine Journal of Science, Vol. 1, Nos. 2 and 3, 
mention is made of a native treatment employed against the attacks of the Rhino- 
ceros beetle. This consists in placing sand and coarse salt in the crown of the tree. . 
‘The Filipinos state that the sand gets between the articulations of the head and 
thorax of the beetle where the constaat friction sets up an irritation which even- 
tually punctures the soft tissues, after which the insect dies.’ During a recent 
visit to Trincomalie, I was interested to find that a similar theory is maintained by 
the local coconut growers. The practice seems to be a sound one, and it might be 
employed with particular advantage on all young coconut estates. Besides the 
placing of sea sand in the crown of the tree, no better material could be employed 
for filling up the holes after the extraction of the beetles. The loose gritty sand 
prevents the reoccupation of the holes by other beetles—either Rhinoceros or Red 
Weevil, 


A new species of Shot-hole-borer has been noted. It has, at present, been 
observed only in a single tea nursery, and immediate steps for its eradication were 
taken, by the cremation of allthe plants. The insect is a Scolytid beetle, very 
similar in appearance to Xyleborus fornicatus, but considerably smaller in size, 
The following measurements will give an idea of the comparative sizes of the two 
species : — 

Xyleborus fornicatus, length of female 2°25 millimeters ; 
male 1°50 do. 
X ylebor us (new species), do. of female 1°75 do. 
do. male 1 do. 


There are other minute distinctions which can be detected only by the aid of 
a microscope. The point of attack is near the ground, just above the collar of the 
plant. The galleries run longitudinally up and down the pith of the plant, with a 
single transverse circular gallery at the point of entry. They appear to be more 
densely crowded with insects in all stages than are those of X. fornicatus, In every 
case the plant had been killed at the point of attack, the root remaining healthy 
and the upper part of the stem often still green (in cases of recent attack). 


If unchecked, this insect might possibly become a serious pest. Owners of 
tea nurseries should be on the watch for its appearance. In the event of its 
occurrence, no half measures should be permitted ; but the whole nursery should 


be sacrificed. 


We have always been led to suppose that camphor wood was immune to 
insect attack. But our confidence is apparently misfounded. I have recently 
received specimens of camphor branches attacked by a Scolytid beetle, distinct from 
but apparently allied to the ‘Shot-hole-borer’ of the tea plant. The insect perforates 
branches of over one inch, down to twigs of less thana quarter inchin diameter, 
The bark, for some distance above and below each point of attack, is discoloured 
(deep brown). The discolouration penetrates into the wood. In deserted galleries— 
in the larger branches—the central woody area is dead and decayed, but the bark 
appears to have recovered and to be carrying on its normal functions. Smaller 
branches are often killed outright. The galleries of the insect are transversely 
circular and restricted to that one point. They donotrun up or down in the branch, 
The beetle has a bright reddish head and thorax, with the hinder parts (abdomen. 


fate? 


werd 
ivr 


Dec. 1906.] 493 Plant Sanitation. 


and wing cases) blackish. Each gallery was found to contain a single female and 
many larvae in different stages of development. No males were observed. The 
infected tissues still smelt strongly of camphor, showing that this substance causes 
no inconvenience to the insects. It is fortunate that our system of cultivation 
provides an efficient check to the increase of the pest. Our camphor is distilled 
from the leaves and young branches of the plant. <All affected branches (the marked 
discolouration of the bark makes their recognition easy) should be cut out and 
passed through the still as soon as possible. Itis probable that the beetle is breeding 
in some allied jungle tree. The‘ Kudu-dawulu’ (Litsea zeylanica) and the various 
wild cinnamons may prove to be the natural host plants. 


The caterpillars of a common moth (Prodenia littoralis) have been sent in 
by a tobacco grower. They are said to eat large holes in some of the best leaves. 
Hand picking is the only practical remedy in such cases. At the first appearance 
of a hole in the leaf, the plant should be thoroughly searched and the depredator 
will usually be discovered sheltering beneath one of the leaves, During the heat 
of the day they retire to shadier parts of the plant. 


Gourds, cucumbers and vegetable marrows are often spoiled by the presence 
of maggots in the fruits. These are the larvae of the ‘Cucumber Fly’ (Dacus sp. 
which lays its eggs in the young fruits. The only satisfactory method of dealing 
with the pest is to cover the fruit—immediately after it has set—with muslin bags 
large enough to contain the mature fruit. This would be difficult with some of the 
larger gourds; but in such cases the bag might be removed when the fruit is only 
partly grown, as by that time the rind has become fairly thick and will be able 
torepel the attacks of the fly. All infested gourds and cucumbers (recognizable 
by the exudation of a gummy matter) should be at once collected and 
destroyed. If allowed to rot on the ground, the flies will mature and give 
further trouble. 


Small grasshoppers are reported to have given trouble in some nurseriesof Para 
rubber, by nipping off the young seedlings. Injury of this kind could be prevented 
by dusting the young plants with a mixture of one part Paris Green to six 
parts lime. 


An up-country correspondent has written complaining of annoyance from 
mosquitoes in the bungalow, and asking for advice in their eradication. The only 
way tobefree of mosquitoes is to get rid of their breeding places. This should 
not be difficult in the hill districts, where there is little or no stagnant water. 


Probable breeding places are :— 


1. Tubs and tanks for catchment of rainwater. 

2. Discarded chatties, pails and tin cans. 

3. The hollow stumps of bamboos, in bamboo clumps. 

4. The flowers of the ‘Lobster-claw’ plant (Heliconia.) 


Tubs and tanks should either be made mosquito-proof by means of close-fitting 
covers, or treated periodically (once a week) with kerosene. A brush of ragson a 
stick, dipped into the oil and stirred into the tank, will produce an effective surface 
film and kill any mosquito larvae that may happen to be inthe water. If the water is 


drawn off by means of a tap below the surface, no taint of kerosene will be 
observed. ; 


Old chatties can be broken. Discarded pails and empty tins should 
be buried, The bamboo stumps should be plugged with clay or lumps of turf. 
‘Lobster-claw (Heliconia brasiliensis) is a favourite shrubbery plant and produces 
its blossoms in handsome scarlet concave bracts which retain considerable quantities 


Plant Sanitation. 494 [Dsc. 1906. 


of water in rainy weather. They are a frequent but usually unsuspected source 
of mosquito infection, especially of the small, striped day-flying species (Stegomyia 
scutellaris). If the foliage of the plant is required for a screen, the flowers should 
be cut off as fast as they appear, 


During the months of October and November enormous numbers of a 
common brown moth (Oxyodes scrobiculata) were on the wing, They occur, about 
this time, every year, and appear simultaneously all over the Island. The jungles 
are alive with them, and they seem to be equally plentiful in grass land and scrub. 
The large electric arc lights in Kandy were bombarded by them each night during 
the flight. I have received specimens from numerous correspondents who reported 
that they were swarming among the tea, giving rise to the fear that they might 
be anew tea pest. It is remarkable that, in spite of the abundance of the moths 
year by year at this season, the caterpillar is undescribed and unknown. It prob- 
ably feeds upon some common weed. If it had a taste for tea, its depredations 
would be so apparent that the caterpillars must have been discovered before now. 


An outbreak of the ‘ Arrakkodyan worm’ (Spodoptera mauritia) occurred 
in the Mullaittivu district early in November. 


+ ne 3 . 


ae pee 


Dac. 1906. ] 495 


LIVE STOCK. 
Poultry Notes, 
By G. W. STURGESS, M.R.C.V.S. 


DISEASES OF POULTRY. 


Dropsy.—-Occasionally cases of abdominal dropsy are seen, especially in hens— 
probably the result of unsuitable feeding and liver derangement. The hinder part 
of the abdomen will be noticed to be very much swollen and the presence of fluid 
contents can be easily detected. 


— Treatment.—The diet should be completely changed, <A little Fowler’s 
solution of arsenic and Iodide of Potassium may be given daily in the food. The 
swelling may be tapped by a trocar and canula and the fluid drawn off. 


Egg Bound.—This term is applied when the hen from some cause is unable to 
pass theegg. It may occur in the case of a pullet laying the first egg, or if hens are 
over fat, or if the egg is a large double yoked one, or abnormal in any way. 


The symptoms are uneasiness, frequent visits to the nest, straining, drooping 
of the wings. On examination the vent is seen to be swollen and inflamed, and the 
egg is easily felt with the fingers. 


Treatment.—All that may be necessary is the passing of the finger or a 
feather dipped in salad oil or melted Benzoated lard, and the hen put on the nest and 
left a short time. If not successful, the vent may be held over steam from hot water 
or fomented by a sponge and warm water, and a dessert or table spoonful of salad 
oil or melted lard mixed with a very little extract of Belladonna gently injected into 
the vent by asyringe. Great care must be taken not to break the egg inside, as such 
an accident would cause death from inflammation. 


If all these simple measures fail theegg may be gently forced towards the 
vent until it can be seen and punctured, the contents removed and the shell gently 
squeezed and collapsed or taken out piece by piece, and care being taken to see all 
particles of shell are removed. If there is eversion at the vent the parts should be 
gently washed with warm water in which a little Boric acid is dissolved, and dressed 
with sweet oil or lard in which is mixed a little laudanum and replaced, 


A dose of physic should be given—Epsom salts, Calomel, or J alap, and the diet 
be low for a few days after a bad case, 


Soft Shelled Eggs.—Hens may lay soft shelled eggs from fright, or 


° . e . a de- 
ficieny of lime salts in the food, or over feeding and stimulation, 


Treatinent.—The feeding should be changed and a few doses of Epsom salts 


given tocool thesystem., Powdered oyster shells should be given to provide material 
for the shells. 


Blood or Dark Spots in Eggs.—Sometimes in the yolk or white blood spots 
may be noticed due to small haemorrhages in the ovary or oviduct indicating, that a 
course of cooling medicines and diet is necessary. If the spots are pronounced and 
dark there is some disease of the ovary or oviduct, and such birds should be kept in 
isolation and observed. Any eggs showing such dark spots should be sent (the hen 
also if possible) to a bacteriologist for examination. 


Lave Stock. 496 [Dec. 1906. Pr 


Phe 


Crushing Versus Castration in Ceylon. 


By T. B. POHATH-KEHELPANALA. 


Ibeg to supplement my paper re ‘Crushing of Cattle by the Kandyans,’ 
by the following note :— 


Protests are made by some Kandyans against buffalo-castration, alleging 
that the new practise resultsin the premature death of the animal, and tends to 
degenerate their condition and endanger the agricultural industry of the country. 
The old form of “crushing,” they urge, which they have practised from ages past, is 
the best and safest method. I believe that castration is preferable to crushing, in that 
it gives less pain to the animal and is followed by a considerably speedier cure than 
in the case of the ‘‘ crushed” animal. I disagree that castration causes early deaths, 
or that it undermines the strength of the animal. 


In 1905, 1,518 head of cattle were operated upon by 65 trained men of the | 


Veterinary Department. With the exception of a few fatalities, allthe cases proved 
successful. The Society voted a sum of Rs. 1,500 for the surgical operations. But I 
confine my remarks to buffaloes; and among the number that underwent the 
operation, perhaps a large number of black cattle has been included. 


Tshould think, however, that buffalo-castration is detrimental to the Kandyan 
agriculturist in certain respects. Castration puts a dead stop to breeding, while the 
crushed animal is capable of generating, and thus the country will not run short of 
good stock. lam speaking of those buffaloes whose glands are not entirely crushed, 
but a small portion of whose glands is left unsqueezed. Buffaloes, whose organs are 
entirely crushed, are few and far between. 

Again, the castrated animal greatly slackens his progress during levelling 
and ploughing the fields. The reason is not far toseek. Inthe working of paddy 
fields, it is the general custom to urge the animal to move faster and to take the proper 
turns, by the application of the goad, more to the organs, than to the back, The 
testicles are very ticklish, naturally, and are sensible to the slightest touch, and 
buffaloes are never stirred to quicker work than by this process. What is left in 
the glands of the castrated-animal is merely the bare skin. It is devoid of any sensi- 
tiveness. Apart from this, the continuous goading might injure the healed wound 
or even the abdomen of the castrated animal. The crushed animal has partially- 
fleshy glands. Castration is decidedly effective for cart-bulls. 


Dec, 1906] 497 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


Suggestions for the Encouragement of Indigenous 
Arts and Crafts in Ceylon. 


By ANANDA K, CooMARASWAMyY, D. Sc. 


One of the chief results of the exhibition of Ceylonese Arts and Crafts, 
organized by the Ceylon Agricultural Society, and under the present writer’s imme- 
diate charge, was to show that these arts and crafts, though decayed and in danger 
of still greater degeneration, do survive, and that there are still men who have 
learnt the old methods and are capable of doing work as good, or almost as good, as the 
best medizeval work ; but they are not sufficiently encouraged, and there is a lack of 
sympathy and understanding for their work amongst those who should be its first 
and principal patrons. Under the old regime there was an elaborate system of royal 
patronage, practically a public department of arts and crafts, whereby a considerable 
portion of the public revenue was expended on the erection of buildings and the 
encouragement of craftsmen. The superior craftsmen were men of position and 
importance, having lands and slaves of their own, and treated witha good deal of 
consideration and respect. 

More important still, the conditions of their work were different, especially 
in the respect that they were allowed to take their full time over any important 
work; the chief expressed regret of good workmen now is, that they are only able 
to undertake comparatively petty work, and are asked todoit quickly, and are 
often inadequately paid, especially if the work has been given on contract, in which 
case the middlemen usually get most of the profit. In old days a man might devote 
a very long time to his work, and, if it were excellent, would be rewarded, not with 
a daily wage, but with gifts of clothes, oxen, money or lands; and alsu with intelli- 
gent and not uncritical appreciation. The indigenous arts have been more seriously 
affected by the decay of national architecture than by any other single cause. 


I have above referred to the expenditure of money on public buildings, whizh 
went on under the old regime and of which we see the result in such remaining 
architecture as that of the Dalada Maligawa, the Old Palace, and viharas such as 
Lankatilaka and Gadaladeniya. But all modern Government buildings are in a style 
foreign to the country, a style so foreign that the local style has no possible part or 
lotin them. They are, moreover, for the most part distinctly ugly. The people of 
the country have not been slow to imitate the European style thus placed before 
their eyes, with the result that most modern native houses are badly built and ugly 
to behold, besides being rather less comfortable than the old. Thus, not only is 
native capacity neglected by Government but also by the people themselves. But, 
all arts are the handmaids of architecture ; and when architecture is degraded, so 
are the minor arts. “It is particularly,” says Sir George Birdwood, “ through the 
neglect of native architecture and the propagation of a bastard English style, 
blindly followed by the people themselves, that the Government threatens the slow 
destruction of the historical handicrafts of India.” The same is the case in Ceylon 
where also “‘it is not yet too late for Government, by the encouragement of native 
hereditary architects, not only to arrest the decadence of the arts—but to promote 
their revival.” Itis true that some indirect efforts have been made in this direction 
in the case of certain ambalams and of the Kandy bandstand. I have, however, 
elsewhere shown that the architecture of the said ambalams is no more than a 
caricature of real Kandyan architecture, standing toit inthe same relation that a 


modern tadvernacle does to a mediaeval church; and the influence of this degraded 
65 


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Dane. fi 
aaites 40 wd 
" f oeM 
‘ 
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Miscellaneous. 498 |  [Dae. 1906, Ma 


-_ 


architecture is positively harmful. Itis futile to suppose that satisfactory archi- 
tecture of the old kind can be had by putting out the work on contract; the chief. 

part of the profits then go to the middleman, and the workmen are so hurried and 
stinted as to make it impossible for the best work to be done. Very oftenit happens — 
that low-country workmen, out of touch with tradition, are thus employed by the 
contractor, who is subject to no real check, and there remains nothing of the spirit 

of national architecture in the work, but only the outward semblance. 


Taking the Ruanwella Ambalam as an example, and beginning with the 
roof :—pains have been taken to use flat tiles (not however made locally, but brought 
from the low-country, in fact from All Saints’, Colombo ; ) but the eaves-tiles are not 
the real thing at all, but simply the ordinary roofing tiles nailed round the eaves! 
Seeing that special and very beautiful eaves-tiles were made (and were obtained for 
the Kandy band-stand even) it should have been possible to get them here too. Take 
next the moulding round the wall, a few feet from the floor; instead of forming an 
actual part of the wallitself, covered with plaster afterwards, this moulding consists 
entirely of plaster, applied to the wall surface. This is ashameful piece of jerry- 
building, and asanatural result the moulding is already breaking away. Fine large 
pieces of jak have been got for the pillars, but the carving is wonderfully thin and 
poor, and all the pillars are the same; in good old work it rarely happens that even 
two sides of one pillar are alike in every detail. The bars, bolts, and handles of the 
doors are of poor design and contrast unfavourably with older work. 


But perhaps the worst feature is a part of the doorsthemselves. The contrac- 
tor has observed the massive arched lintels of Kandyan doors, and by way of imitation 
has fastened on to each half of the door itself thick pieces of wood so cut as to 
represent an arched lintel when the doors are closed. This is a miserable bit of 
imitative deception, and not even that when the doors are open. The only satisfac- 
tory method would be the old one of making certain chiefs responsible for the 
execution of certain work; or, perhaps better, the direct employment of the best 
workmen by Government, supervised by an official really familiar with the national 
style and sensitive to any degradation of it. One other simple step, and an 
inexpensive one, would be of value; that is the granting of certificates to competent 
men, and their registration as such. These certificates could be granted by the 
Government Agent, and would check the employment of ignorant and unskilled 
men; for the Chairman of the Buddhist Temporalities Committees would be ina 
position to insist on the employment of these men only, and the same would be the 
case when work was done directly for Government, whether through a contractor 
or otherwise; 7.e., a contractor, ifemployed at all, should be compelled to himself 
employ only certified workmen. Itis quite certain that, unless the national archi- 
tecture can be at least partially revived—by which I do not mean a slavish 
antiquarian copying of old forms, but rather a preservation of the old feeling, and 
the employment of men who have been through the traditional course of instruction 
—the minor arts will continue to degenerate and to satisfy only the trivial needs of 
the casual visitor. 


It remains to consider the possibility of directly affecting the prosperity of 
the minorarts. The prime necessity is to once more awaken the interest of the people 
of the country in these things; but in the meanwhile they must be kept going 
somehow or other. I am inclined to think that what is immediately required 
is some direct assistance from Government with a view to increasing the 
production of the work of the best quality and making it accessible to pur- 
chasers. The former state of society in which the arts and crafts prospered 
so much, cannot be restored; but the expenditure of public money on national : : 
architecture, crafts and craftsmen may be regarded as a precedent which should he 


ee 


Dec, 1906.] | 499 Miscellaneous. 


more closely followed than has been the case hitherto, It is, in fact, desirable that 
Government should take immediate steps, either directly or through the Agricul- 
tural Society, to support the indigenous arts and crafts and to save them from 
extinction or degeneration. 


And now let us speak shortly of the decorative arts. The capacity for good 
decorative work which still survives in Ceylon is very remarkable; there are minor 
arts which the Colony can ill afford to lose, and which will stand its people in good 
stead if ever industries such as silk-weaving are introduced. Itis in fact the case that 
a determined man with sufficient capital at his disposal could, with the aid of such 
workmen as are available, and of others trained in the same way, establish or 
re-establish the sumptuary industries of India here and secure a world-wide market 
for the work. If there existed amongst the ordinary workmen in England men with 
the capacity for designing which is found in ‘the Ceylon craftsmen, the value of 
those men to English manufactures would be incalculable. It therefore appears 
that the Government would be fully justified in spending a moderate sum of money 
annually in support of the indigenous arts and crafts. Whatis wanted is a certain 
amount of capital which can be expended, without a necessity for an immediate 
return, in securing the execution of more elaborate and more expensive work than a 
small association such as the Kandy Art Association can afford to keep on sale. The 
things so made must be accessible to the buying public; Iam thinking of elaborate 
painted boxes with metal fittings, requiring the co-operation of carpenters, painters 
and founders; illuminated manuscripts; carved ivory and woodwork of a more 
substantial and useful character than any now made; but not somuch of ordinary 
hammered silver and brass work, The buying public ought of course to consist of 
the people of the country ; but, failing thal, it would be necessary to rely upon the 
European residents and the passenger trade to a considerable extent. It is true that 


_the passenger is rarely a judge of good or bad work ; but it would be the concern of 


those connected with the undertaking to see that none but good work was to be hada 
and that it was sold at reasonable fixed prices. The work of the Kandy Art Asso 
ciation in this direction is of course excellent, but itis insufficient. The tact that 
passenger shops in Colombo keep on sale goods valued at as much as £100 shows that 
buyers of really expensive and good work are not altogether wanting. 


Perhaps the most important (and also most expensive) part of any compre 
hensive scheme would be the selection of a more or less permanent officer, of 
necessity a cultured and sympathetic man, to organize the production of work for 
the depot. The whole success of the scheme would hang upon the selection of the 
right man. 

Another important thing’ in connection with any such efforts as that 
proposed is the selection only of the best workmen. There are many moderately 
good and some very good, and itis the latter who should be specially supported. 
One good man is worth a dozen moderate ones. 


It would be necessary to have the work on sale ina convenient part of 
Colombo; either a special shop could be arranged for, or an already existing firm 
might at first be allowed to sell the work on commission at fixed prices. Something 
like the ‘ Peasant Art Society’s’ shop in London is suggested. A good many rich and 


appreciative passengers do pass through Colombo every year, but are often deterred 


from spending money there on account of the impossibility of obtaining any really 
listincti ve Ceylon work except of a trivial character, and by fear of being imposed 
upon. I have no doubt that, as soon as their confidence was secured, and it became 
known that good work, guaranteed as such, and not too cheap, was available, suffi- 
cient purchases would be made to support the undertaking. Another point is that 
there are many useful articles made or capable of being made in Ceylon outside the 
Kandy district, and these the public have at present no opportunity of obtaining, . 


Who, oan 
1 ee 

‘ feo 

wh 


Miscellaneous. 500 (Dac. 1906. mantis 


I do not, however, think that the undertaking should stand or fall according 
to the possibility of commercial success, but rather thatthe Government would be 
fully justified in expending money without immediate return. The amount of 
money spent on the Technical College for instance is large, but the amount of indus- 
trial instruction in the arts and crafts given is after all small, whereas a tithe of the 
same expenditure devoted to the support of the already existing crafts would have 
detinite and real results and preserve for the Colony what is in reality a very valu- 
able asset, and one daily growing rarer and rarer throughout the world, viz., the 
capacity amongst workmen for sound decorative design. 

“It is the case without doubt that the influence of European domination and 
civilization is being felt in every direction and operating often very injuriously 
on the arts and crafts of the country.” (Sir George Watt). While'this is so, and 
while it is still not too late to do something to preserve what still survives, it seems 
to me to be the clear duty of Government, acting in the best interests of the Colony, 
to have greater recourse to native architects, working under fair connditions, when 
the smaller public buildings are required. and to set on foot some organization for the 
more convenient ordering of the production and sale of well-made, substantial work 
by the best surviving workmen. I do not think these views are at all Utopian. 
Kuropeanised Ceylon is of course a long way behind England in'some respects ; in 
matters of taste, lingers stillin the early Victorian period; but this cannot last for 
ever, and it will be asad thing if when public taste improves, the workmen who 
have been hitherto faithful to a former style are gone for ever. 


The Use and Objects of Agricultural Societies. 
By E. B. DENHAM. 


The Ceylon Agricultural Society was founded by His Excellency the Governor 
“in November, 1904. It has to-day 1,120 members and 45 branches with a membership 
of approximately 38,500. The progress report tabled to-day shows the number of in- 
terests and industries the Society deals with ; while, if further proof of its activity is 
yequiret, members can see for themselves the different exhibits sent in by local 
branches and members of the Society to this exhibition. The usefulness of the 
Society has been, I venture to think, abundantly demonstrated by the success of the 
many agricultural shows held this year and last and by the keen interest displayed 
in all agricultural subjects. His Excellency’s well-known desire to encourage and 
promote all branches of agriculture has been the principal cause of the increased in- 
terest in the subject which has now shown itself in the formation of branches, in the 
holding of shows, in agricultural discussions and debates. Agriculture has been in 
the air, and agriculture has been well advertised. It has been advertised in the 
vernacular as wellasin English. The native press have played a very considerable 
parts in assisting the Society to explain its object to the “‘goiya” in his own langu- 
age. The“ Dinakaraprakasa’ and the ‘‘Sihala Samaya,” two of the leading Sinhalese 
newspapers. record fully in Sinhalese the proceedings of the Board and the papers 
read beforeit. The editors of these papers send 100 or 200 free copies of the issues 
ontaining these proceedings to the Secretary of the Ceylon Agricultural Society 
for distribution, and these are sent to the local branches. All the leaflets of the 
Society appear in Sinhalese and Tamil as well as in English ; the *‘ Tropical Agri- 
culturist and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society has a Sinhalese edition, 
“The Govikam Sangarawa,” edited by Mr. C, Drieberg, an officer of much experience 
in all agricultural matters; anda Tamil edition, ‘The Kamal Thoti Velakkum,” 
published by the Jaffna “ Hindu Organ.” The proceedings of many of the branches 
are conducted in the vernaculars. It is important to emphasise this point, for the 
Society's utility depends on its being able to reach those who, from their ignorance 
of the English language, are unable to drink of the fountain of Peradeniya. To 


Dec. 1906.] 501 Miscellaneous. 


Peradeniya all agriculturists must look for improved knowledge, for the results of 
the careful study of science, for the data for all experiments, and on no one more 


than the Director of the Botanical Gardens and his staff must the Society depend 


for success. The Society is intended to be the interpreter of the Botanical Supreme 
Court. The Chief Justice, the Director, has arraigned before him a hapless goiya 
accused by science—represented by Mr. Kelway Bamber with a tobacco plant, or Mr. 
Petch with a bud-rotted coconut palm—he is charged with gross neglect of all 
scientific methods of cultivation and with pursuing the methods of theironage. His 
excuse, murmured in Sinhalese, is ignorance. The Judge orders a Peradeniya Cireular 
to be administered. Excellent as is the remedy, the case of the villager reminds 
one of the English labourer, who according to ‘‘ Punch,” begged of the physician 
that the pills might not be packed in such solid boxes as he found them difficult 
to swallow. Withall the wealth of knowledge that this island is so fortunate as 
to possess at Peradeniya, any agency for disseminating the knowledge must be 
useful, and such an agency the Agricultural Society endeavours to supply with the 
help of its local branches. The Society has now as its magazine the ‘ Tropical 
Agriculturist and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society,” edited by Dr. Willis; 
with a reputation second to none among the agricultural journals of the East. 
Every member of the Society gets the magazine. 


I have touched at present only on the literary side of the Society’s efforts, 
not because I consider them the most important, but because they are the only side 
which presents itself to the large majority of the general public. The work done by 
the local societies can only be realised at first hand, it can only be accurately gauged 
by personal inspection. By the work done by its members the Society must stand or 
fall. Many ofits branches are, I fear, little more than debating societies, where 
‘village Catos give their littleSenates laws and sit attentive to their own applause.” 
But even these, if they allow of the exchange of ideas and the records of experiment 
may be of some use—that they are deserving of more praise I am not prepared to 
say. Butother and practical work has been done—vegetables have been planted 
out, experimental gardens opened, and demonstrations in castration held. In several 
places working members’ branches have been started—the first of these was in the 
Kuruwiti Korale, where 32 villagers joined, 22 of whom gave a donation to the 
branch in addition to undertaking an experiment. R11'25 was paid in subscriptions 
by villagers. These branches have as their rule of membership that a subscription 
is voluntary, but that every member must, as a condition of membership, undertake 
to carry out some piece of agricultural work—e.g., either open a plot of ground with 
vegetables, plant chillies in his garden, transplant the paddy in his field, or try seed 
paddy from another district. Another useful means of improving agriculture has 
been the distribution of manures, supplied free by Messrs. Freudenberg & Co., to 
members whose names are sent in by the local branches. By this means a series of 
useful experiments are being made all over the island, which will afford most 
valuable data, and at the same time introduce the principles of manuring in places 
where manures have hitherto not been used. Village shows have been inaugurated 
by the Society ; a most successful one was held at Minuwangoda, a report on which 
by Mr. C. Drieberg, has appeared in the Society’s magazine. These shows are held 
on market days at important village centres, and the prizes are subscribed for by 
members of the local society. Judges are appointed who go round the different 
booths and stalls and make their awards. In to-day’s report mention is made of one 


‘of these shows which was arranged for ata meeting held at Ruanwella. The show 


will be held at the Yatiyantota market and, as will be seen from the progress report, 
26 prizes (nine of ten rupees, and seventeen of five rupees) have been subscribed for 
by members of the branch. All the prizes are to be given for well-known native 
vegetables and cultivations—the object being to improve and increase the varieties. 
Ina paper like this it is only possible to touch on avery few of the subjects with 


* aon 
: , j , y 
Misceilancous. 502 (Dec. 1906. 


which the Society is endeavouring to deal, Members who have perused the Progress 
Reports published monthly will have noted the efforts of the Society to establish 
new varieties of paddy from India and Japan—the introduction of new products, 
such as date palm suckers, new varieties of yams from the West Indies, the encour- 
agement of cotton cultivation in chenas, and distribution of vegetable seeds ; the 
efforts to establish a sericulture industry, and the work done in castration of cattle 
by the Government Veterinary Surgeon and his staff—particulars of which can be 
obtained from paras. 16 and 17 of to-day’s Progress Report. All these subjects have 
had the attention and encouragement of Your Excellency and the members of the 
Board. The use of the branch societies as co-operative centres for experiments and 
for the adoption of the co-operative credit system is another side of the Society’s 
work. 


The usefulness of the Society justifies its existence, the success of its objects 
would alone justify its extinction. The objects of no society can be achieved until 
that society is rendered unnecessary. The usefulness of the Society, the worthiness 
of its objects none may dispute, but, however useful the machine may be, however 
sound the objects for which it is intended, it can never proveits use and succeed in 
its objects until itis worked under the best conditions and proved to be generally 
and practically useful. As is asked of every invention, how long will this principle 
be admitted—will it not be pronounced obsolete or even absurd in a few years’ time ? 
So it is with this Society; we must ask ourselves how far its elements are transitory, 
what are its sources of strength and of weakness; is its permanence assured? The 
Society is a voluntary one; many of its members are no doubt attracted by the 
knowledge that its President, His Excellency the Governor, takes the greatest 
interest in its working and encourages its efforts; others by the fact that they 
receive an excellent magazine at a low cost. But it is not on any individual 
member or any class of member that the Society depends for a continued course of 
usefulness. This must depend on the local societies and the work done by them. 
No amount of Board meetings, of discussions, of leaflets or magazines can save the 
Society, if itis notin touch with thelocal cultivator. The question is: How can 
it keep in touch with the great mass of the population of Ceylon? Only by making 
itself heard in a language that they can understand. The Society, as I have said 
before, is intended to be the great Agricultural Interpreter—it must have many 
interpreters working under it. These interpreters must go out into the highways - 
and byways and preach improved systems of agriculture. Just as the school | 
gardens are intended to be centres of agricultural demonstrations, to teach villagers 
how to lay outa garden and what to plant init, soshould the agricultural instruce- 
tors be men who are able to explain the systems of cultivation the gardens are 
intended to demonstrate. It is on its agricultural instructors that the success 
of the Society as a popular exponent of agricultural truths must depend. No 
information can be more usefully imparted than by practical demonstration. The 
agricultural instructors must, then, be men who will take their coats off and show the 
villager how to carry out experiments. It is not so necessary that they- should be 
disciples of any particular school of foreign thought on the subject of tuberculosis in 
plants, as that they should have learnt to use their eyes and their hands. 
They should be at first rather agricultural inspectors than instructors, reporters 
of facts rather than repeaters of platitudes. If these men would only collect or 
report on any spécimens of disease caused by insect, or fungus Iam sure that they 
would prove most useful assistants to Mr. Green and Mr. Petch, as well as render great 
benefit to the country. It is most important that the right stamp of man should 
be obtained for these posts; they must be capable both of working themselves and 
making others work, possessed of influence as well as taking an interest in their 
work. I need not say more as to their requirements, for it is on their instructors that 
we must depend for securing and training the right stamp of men. It will not be — 


a BiA8 SAR Seem, 41 
Rie ce 


‘ DEC. 1906. 503 Miscellaneous, 


~ one of the least benefits that Peradeniya has bestowed on Ceylon, if the Director 


of the Royal Botanic Gardens and his staff can train young men, who will be imbued 
with a sprit of enthusiasm for their work and who will be anxious to do their 
utmost in the interests of the different cultivations of the Island. The Agricultural 
Society and its branches should further offer a wide field for the collection of 
agricultural information; all experiments and their results should be carefully 
collected, reports of unusual yields, of diseases, of unexpected failures should all be 
recorded. Analyses should be made of soils which call for special report on 
account of the results obtained from them. Detailed information should be pro. 
curable by every European and native planter of the crop grown, the ressult, 
seasons, average rainfall, &c., of every district in which there is an agricultural 
society. The excellent work now being done by the Land Settlement Department 
could be most usefully supplemented by the work of the Agricultural Society. 
Selection of land of crops would be greatly assisted by the department with full and 
carefully prepared records. When we have seen what can be done in the collection 
of beautiful articles to illustrate the arts and crafts of different districts, we can 
see no reason why equally successful attempts should not be made to procure 
detailed and useful statistics of the different cultivations. To site only one instance 
where there is a great need for such detailed information—the Noith Centra] 


- Province. The experiments now being made at Maha Iluppalama in rubber 


cultivation under irrigation, in cotton, Indian grains, and vegetables can all be most 
usefully supplemented by the work of local societies in the North Central Province. 
A guide to the crown land in the North Central Povince, North Western Province 


and Northern Province, giving details of crop grown, analyses of soil &c., might 


prove of great assistance in solving the problem of the development of the route 
through which the Northern Railway runs. Again, a staff of agricultural inspectors 
or instructors working through the villages should obtain most useful information 
for those thinking of purchasing land in the vicinity. The importance of obtaining 
information relative to the different soils, situation, &c., of land is, of course, well 
recognised in India, as on its careful compilation depends the successful collection 
of the land tax. 


The lines of work I have endeavoured to sketch out are, it may 
be said, rather those of a Department than ofa voluntary society. Can the 
Agricultural Society as at present constituted, undertake this work or is it first 
necessary that it should be made into a Department? In its begining the Soviety 
was necessarily a voluntary one, an experiment which has, I venture to think, been 
fully justified. Ifit is toexpand on the lines which such a Society should naturally 
take and, which I have ventured to sketch very roughly, it must, I think be worked 
by a Department. What form that Department should take it is outside the 
subject of this paper to attempt tosketch. In some parts of India we find Depart- 
ments of Agriculture and Land Records, in other Deparments of Agriculture 
and Commerce, in others Departments of Arts and Crafts, But it may be 
asked whether after all Agricultural Societies are necessary if there is a 
Department of Agriculture. My answer to this question would be, certainly 
yes. Agricultural societies are local councils which should enable the people to 
meet together under their recognised leaders for discussion and exchange of 
ideas. The principles of societies are thoroughly well understood in the country 
They are natural agencies for the exchange of ideas and they allow the natural 
leaders of the people to take their proper place in directing them by their energies. 
The Agricultural Society can be productive of nothing but gvod, whatever its 
final stage may be. Under the direction of His Excellency the Governor, with whose 
name it will always be associated, we can have no doubt of its stability and the 
value of its objects, or that those objects will not be the most practical ones. 


+ eg 


Miscellaneous. 504 th [Dkc. 1906. 


Literature of Economic Botany and Agriculture. XI. 


Fibres: general—Vegetable fibres: Kew Bull. Addit. Series, If, 1896. 

The Silburn decorticating machine, Ind. Gard. & Pl. 11. 1, 1900, p. 31, 

The Dear decorticating machine. do. 8. 2. 1900, p. 97 

Faure’s ramie fibre decorticator. do. 25. 1. 1900, p. 65. 

See Just’s Jahresbericht, 1898. I1, 129 and later. 

Die Faserpflanzen in China. Tropenpfl. 5. 1901, 126. 

Identification of textile fibres. T. A. Dec. 1900. 

Vezelcultuur en Bereiding. Ind. Mere. Aug. 1901, p. 617. 

Le defibreuse universelle de Boeken. Journ. d’ Agr. trop. 1902, 1. 

German machines at Paris. Tropenfl. Feb. 1902, p. 53. 

Some Australian vegetable fibres. Maiden, Agr. Journ. N. S. W. 1902, p. 167. 

Trois fibres textiledu Soudan francais. Rev. des. Cult Col. 1902, p. 225 

Studien iiber der Réstprozess des Jute, sowie iiber der Separierun; von 
Pflanzenfasern durch Kermentation. Tropenpfl. 1902, 295. ‘ 

Kapok in Java. Beih. z. Tropenfl. [V. 1, 87. 

Kapok. Agr. Mag. 1908, p. 58. 

Fibre decorticating machines. Ind. Pl. & Gard. 14. 5. 1904. 

Les plantes a papier du Japon. Rev. des Cult. Col. June 1904, p. 325. 

Le Kapok. do July 1904, p. 14. 

The paper tree of Tonkin. Imp. Inst. Bull. Sept. 1904. p. 199. 

Aramina fibre (Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq.) Ind. Pl. & Gard. 8. 12, 1904, ~ 
p. 844. Imp. Inst. Bull. I. 1. 24. 

Fibre plants of the Malay Peninsula. Str. Bull. 1904, p. 302. 

Fibre of Marsdenia tenacissima from Bengal, Imp. Inst. Bull. 1. 1903, 


p, 121. 
aoe and Makimbeira fibres (Bromeliaceae) from Brazil. Imp. Inst, Bull, 
. 170. 


Notes sur quelques plantes & papier et textiles du Nord-Annam. Bull. Ke. 
de l’Indo-chine, Oct. 1904, p, 1049. 
Musa elugurensis &c. Tropenpfi. 1904, p. 109. 


Burn & Co’s fibre decorticating machine. Ind. Gard. & Pl. 10. 2. 1906, p, 97. 
Richmond, Philippine Fibres. ... Phil. J. of Sci. I. 483. 
La Monode fibreuse Fasio. Journ. d’Agr. trop. 30. 6. 1906, p. 168. 


Ficus (with rubber).—See Rubber. 


Ficus spp.—Over Gondang-was (F. ceriflua, wax) Ind. Mere. 30. 12. 99, p. 901. 
F. reclinata Desf. Rev. Cult. Col. Cet. 1903, p. 198. 
Notes on the chemical examination of the fruits. Agr. Ledg. V. P. Series. 
(), . 


Fig.—Le figuier en Algerie Rev. Cult. Col, 1901, 353. 
Séchage des figuiers. do. July 1901, p. 44. f 
Smyrna fig cultivation in the U.S. Year Book, U. S. Department Agr 
1900. 


Fodder Plants.—Job’s Tears. Queens]. Agr. J. Mar. 1899, p. 196. 
Guinea grass. Trin. Bull. ITI. 1899, p. 159. 
Sugar cane leaves. Rev. Cult. Col. 20. 11. 99, 307. 
Guinea grass, Queens]. Agr. J. Dec. 1899, p. 588. 
Australian Saltbushes. Shinn and Jaffa. Bull. Calif. Univ. Exp, Sta. 1900. 
Paspalum dilatatum. Ind. Agrie. 1. 3. 00. p. 89. 


Do. do. Queensl. Agr. J. 1. 4. 98, p. 260. 

Do do Agr. Ledg. Agr. Series 33. 

Do do Ind. Gard. & Planting, 5. 9. 1901, p. 182. 
Do do in S. India do. June 1908, 545. 


Lucerne or Alfalfa; its composition and digestibility. Bull. III. Agr. Coll, 
Ontario, 1900. 


Deux bons Legumineuses fourragéres tropicales (Cowpea, Velvet bean). 
Journ. d’Agr. trop. I. 146. 1901. 


Panicum monostachyum als Futterpflanze. Tropenfl. 1901, 537. 


He Te tet 
i 


PNA NTS) cage 0 


Dac. 1906.) 505 Miscetlaneous. 


The care of pastures. Trin. Bull. 1902, p. 525. 

Turt and Fodder grasses. Str. Bull. 1903, p. 273. 

Die Viehmast in Costarica. Tropenpfl. 7. 1903, 471. 

Indian food grains and fodders, their chemical composition. Agr. Ledg. 

M. & C. Series, 16, 1903. 

Jamaican fodders. Jam. Bull. I. 1908, p. 241, III. 209. 
’Saltbushes. Agr. Gaz. N.S. W. Mar, 1904, p. 211. 

Fodder grasses for the tropics. “T. A.” July 1904, p. 6. 

Prickly Pear and Aloe as fudder for cattle. Ind. Agr. July 1904, 220. 

Fodder and Lawn grasses suitable for cultivation in West Africa. Imp. 

) Inst, Bull Mar, 1904, p. 39, 

Paspalum dilatatum. Agr. Gaz, N.S. W. Oct. 1904, 938. 

Further notes on West Indian fodder plants. W. I, Bull. V. 103. 

The Conservation of fodder. Transvaal Agr. Journ. III. Oct. 1904, p. 32. 
Poisonous fodder plants, Imp. Inst. Bull. I. 1908, 12, 112. 


Lessons in Elementary Botany. VII. 


By J. C. WILLIS. 
(Illustrated.) 


A very useful method of expressing many of the important features in the 
structure of a flower is a Floral Diagram. It represents an imaginary section 
through the bud, taken (if such were possible) so as to pass through the ovary and 
anthers and through the parts of the perianth where the estivation is most clearly 
shown. With the exception of the hypogyny or epigyny, the diagram shows most 
‘of the characters that are usually necessary for the identification of the natural 
order to which the plant belongs, and is hence of much use in classification. A 
number of diagrams are given on plate IV. and should be carefully compared with 
actual flowers belonging to those orders. 


In drawing adiagram we put inat the topthe original stem on which the 
flower is a branch, and at the bottom the bract, to give the exact orientation of the 
flower. Bracteoles if present are also put in. Then follow sepals, petals, stamens, 
and carpels in their exact relationship, as to position, overlapping (if any), cohesion 
(if any, marked by loops joining the lines representing individual sepals &c,) adhesion 
(if any), placentation, &c. 


Floral Formulae afford another convenient way of expressing many features 

in flower construction. The calyx, corolla, andrceceum and gynceceum are repre- 
-. sented by K., C., A., G., respectively. After the letter follows the number of parts, 

andif they be coherentit isenclosed ina bracket. Thus K. (5) means ‘‘ Calyx of 5 sepals, 
gamosepalous,” A 3 means “‘androeceum of 3 stamens, polyandrous.” If thereare two 
numbers with a + sign between them, it means two alternating whorls. e.g., A3+3 
means that the andrceceum is of 2 whorls of 3 stamens each. The ovary if superior 
is represented by the symbol G, if inferior G 

12 floral diagrams of the commonest families of Ceylon upcountry plants are 
given on plate IV., and should be carefully compared with actual flowers. 

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE FLOWER. 

Darwin showed that the offspring of cross-fertilisation, i.e. Ax B (where A, B 
are different plants) was in general superior to that of self-fertilisation (Ax A) 
and most plants make effort to get their flowers fertilised from another plant of the 
same kind, 

66 


Miscellaneous. 506 


Wind-pollination occurs in the grasses, sedges, and other plants. The 
flowers are usually inconspicuous, not needing to attract insects, and produce large 
quantities of powdery pollen which easily blows away and may be carried to a 
stigma. The anthers of such flowers are usually large, and often project beyond the 
flower on thin, easily shaken stalks, soas to give the wind a better chance. The 


stigmas are very commonly large and brush-like, to have a better chance of catching 
the floating pollen. 


(Lo be continued.) 


Sanitation on Estates and the Health of Coolies, 


THE DISEASE ANCHYLOSTOMIASIS OR DOCHMIUS DUODENALIS. 


The cause of this disease, which is very prevalent in the planting districts, 
is a small intestinal worm ; its spread is due to want of proper sanitation. 


The eggs of the worm, or the recently hatched worms themselves, gain an 
entrance to the human subject either by the skin, or are swallowed. 


The disease is spread by soil or water contaminated by the excreta of 
persons suffering from the disease. 


The measures to be enforced to check the spread of this disease fall under 
four heads :— 


(1) The proper disposal of night soil (excreta). 

(2) Protection of the legs and feet. 

(3) Pure water for drinking and washing purposes. 

(4) The segregation of all cases in hospital until cured. 


UNDER THE First HEAD: it is necessary for Superintendents to prohibit 
coolies from fouling the soil indiscriminately, and tocarry out this prohibition 
latrines should be built on every estate, and coolies who do not make use of them 
should be punished. The night soil should be collected in buckets and buried daily 
ina part of the estate away from dwellings and water-courses. : 


UNDER THE SECOND HEAD: means should be employed to protect the legs 
and feet of coolies, for the worms which are in the polluted soil find their way 
into the system through the skin, and are often the cause of ulcers so commonly 
seen on coolies legs. A cheap form of boot worn outside putties would afford 
_ protection ; in some countries tar covered with sand is applied to the feet and legs" 


UNDER THE THIRD HHAD: at present water-courses and bathing-places are 
contaminated by the surface drainage of the soil being washed into the water 
after rain: means should be taken to see that this cannot happen. The water used by 
coolies for cleaning themselves after a call of nature should not be allowed to run 
into the drinking or bathing supply. 


UNDER THE FourTH HeaAD: it is quite impossible to admit every cooly with 
anchylostomiasis into hospital and to keep him there until cured, because the disease 
exists in nearly every cooly on every estate, and the hospital accommodation is in- 
sufficient for them; but as faras possible coolies will be admitted and retained in 
hospital until they are cured, and will be put under a new treatment that has 
recently been introduced into the Island. (Medical Officers will refer Circular Letter 
to Provincial Surgeons of the 27th June, 1906.) 


Dac. 1606.) 507 Correspondence. 


As long as the present insanitary condition as regards disposal of sewage 
etc., on estates continues, there is little encouragement for Medical Officers to cope 
with this disease, because, when cured, patients get re-infected on the estates soon 
after their discharge from hospital, and the whole business has to be gone through 
again ad infintwm. 

The above remarks will be met by the statement that the suggestions are 
totally impracticable of being carried out: the answer to which is that they are not 
impracticable provided those in charge of estates will spend a little money to improve 
the condition of their coolies, The return for the expenditure will be a more efficient 
labour force. 

ALLAN PERRY, 
Principat Civil Medical Officer and 


Colombo, September 29, 1906. Inspector-General of Hospitals. 


Correspondence, 


THE NORIA PUMP. 


Sir,—f do not think that Mr. Saravanamuttu is correct in stating (“ 7.A.”, 
Vol. XXVII., p. 317) that the “ Noria” pump tried last year at Vasavilum was 
found to lift too great a quantity of water at one time, so as to make it useless to the 
cultivator, and the well run short of its supply ina short time. Before the pump 
could be given a fair trial, the enterprising importer became involved in litigation 
with some of the more conservative shareholders who objected to the innovations, 
and he retired to Negombo, after successfully defending the case, and no further 
experiments have been made. Apparently the fact that he had to pay his own costs 
combined with the prospect of further opposition disheartened him. 


My recollection is that he informed me that it was necessary after using the 
pump for some time (I forget how long) to wait for 20 minutes for the well to Gll 
again, but an interval of 20 minutes occasionally in irrigating would not be sufficient 
to make the use of the pump an impossibility. Further, all wells may not be the 
same as this well—one at Tirunelveli, a few miles distant, opened by Mr. N. W. Smith 
in connection with the Jaffna Waterworks scheme, seemed to have an inexhaustible 
water supply. It cannot be said that this well either was exhausted. 

What is wanted is further tests, systematically conducted, with the results 
earefully noted. There has been no report of the kind with regard to this experi- 
ment, and without it, itis premature to condemn it as “useless to the cultivator.” 
Mr. Thomas in his paper on the ‘“ Noria” pumpin ‘“ 7.A.”, Vol. XXV., p. 606, does 
not give the practical results of the experiment, 

J. P. LEWIS. 


Kandy, 12th November, 1906. 


PRUNING HEVEA AND CACAO TREES. 

Dear Sir,—As(I think) the oldest pioneer in Para Indian Rubber cultivation, 
I should like you to allow me to corroborate Mr. Herbert Wright’s views as to 
advantages arising by obtaining a standard form for the Hevea, i.e., by the budding 
back of the terminal shoots of the young trees. 

It was the method which I found best adopted to my Cacao, &e., &e., and, find- 
ing itso much toadvantage, I carried it on to the young Rubber under my hand on the 
Rio Tapajos. At that period, however, one was as one crying in the wilderness: 
Indian Rubber cultivation was then looked upon as the most visionary of ideas, and 


Correspondence. 508 [DEc, 1906 


the Government of India had not as yet been prevailed upon by Sir Joseph Hooker 
to give me a free hand in the high forests of Alto-Amazonas, to enable introduction 
of the original stock from which the present generation of planters may work from: 


I found the best method for Cacao, and also for Rubber, was 
to bud back the terminal shoots. That is to say: 


3 primary and 
9 secondary branches. 


Thus to form a well-grown base for the tree to come, in 
the case of Cacao at 5 feet, in Rubber at 10 feet. 
: Very faithfully yours, 
———————— H. A. WICKHAM. 
London, W.C., October 9. 


TWO INTERESTING TREES OF THE NORTH. 


DEAR S1rR,—Among the most useful trees of the North are the two species 

of Balsamodendron (Commiphora) used for live fences, viz. :— 
a. Canudatum (Kivilai) which is thornless. 
b. Berryi (Mul-kilivai) which is thorny, 

The chief recommendation of the plant is the ease with which the cuttings 
strike in an arid climate like the North, even in dry weather. The spined species 
is, of course, the more useful plant, offering as it does effectual resistance to stray 
cattle and goats. The latter, however, find the leaves of both varieties a suitable 
food especially when fodder is scarce. For this reason or from its habit of growth 
the trees appeared to me to be very scanty of foliage when I saw them in August. 


The plants justify their inclusion in this balsam-yielding genus in as much 
as they possess the balsamic odour. Their most notable congeners are the well- 
known plants which yield myrrh (B. myrrha) and Balm of Gilead (Af. opobalsamum). 

If, as Trimen says, B. Berryi grows in Colombo, it is strange that it is not 
more used for fences, in spite of the alleged tendency of the plant to lose its spinous 
character in the low wet country. 


There is apparently no definite Sinhalese name for either of these species 
though ‘‘Siviya,” ‘ Ensalu,” ‘‘ Masbedde” are given in Trimen’s Flora as possible 
names of the thornless form. Why isit that Trimen spells the last syllable of the 
generic name “drum,” while other authors give it as ‘‘dron” ? 


Guettarda speciosa (Tamil, Panir) is an ornamental tree, bearing sweet- 
smelling flowers, that grows well in close proximity to the sea. Like the ‘‘ sorrowfu, 
tree” (Nyctanthes acbro-histis) so dear to Buddhists, it sheds its corollas which are 
used for distilling a kind of rose-water. Watt refers to the crude way in which 
the scent is got in India. In the evening a thin muslin cloth is spread over the tree 
so that it comes in contact with the flower. The cloth, wet with dew, takes in 
their fragrance, and the “extract” which is wrung out in the morning is sold 


in the bazaars. 
Yours truly, 


C. DRIEBERG. 


MOSQUITOES AND ANTI-MALARIA CAMPAIGNS. 


DEAR Sre,—In the September number of the ‘‘ Tropical Agriculturist,” Mr. 
Green has drawn attention to the great success of anti-malaria campaigns in other 
countries and in our own colonies, and to the need for a similar campaign in Ceylon. 
No apology need be given for introducing this subject in an agricultural journal, 
health affects labour supply, and the question of labour supply is a vital one in all 
agricultural enterprises. : 


Dec, 1906. | 509 Correspondence. 


Ceylon prides itself in being an up-to-date colony, and certainly it is in some 
respects, in agricultural science for instance; but few will deny that it is sadly 
behind the age in sanitation and preventive measures generally. Lakhs of rupees 
are spent on the cure of disease, but how much on prevention ? Would the sanitary 
state of the small towns and villages stand the test of a close inspection? An 
attempt is made by the Medical Department to deal with sanitation and prevention of 
disease, but the efforts are quite inadequate, nor can we expect anything else. 


The staff of the Medical Department are not trained in the ‘‘ prevention” of 
disease, ‘“‘cure” is their province. What is wanted is aseparate staff, properly 
trained, to see to the sanitation of all towns and villages, including estates, in 
Ceylon. Employers of labour, especially in the low-country, would surely welcome 
any measures obviously so much in their own interests, The only opposition would 
be from the ignorant and stupid. I believe in the case of the work done at Klang 
and Port Swettenham, in Selangor, Federated Malay States, also Ismailia, referred 
to in the letter given by Mr. Green, some of the staff of the Liverpool School of 
Tropical Medicine, were sent out to advise as to the best means of carrying on the 
campaign against malaria and other diseases of a preventable nature. Let the 
Ceylon Government take the same steps. The members of the staff would find 
a good field in Ceylon for their labours, and if any of them were of an investigating 
turn of mind, like Dr. Ronald Ross, of their school, whose researches have been of 
such incalculable benefit to mankind, they would find an interesting field for their 
investigations in the evident connection between the prevalence of malaria and the 
opening of clearings. That the Anopheles mosquitoes are a medium for the spread 
of malaria is an established fact, that they are the only medium is an open question. 


One of the suggestions of the Commission might well be that more promi- 
nence should be given in schools to the teaching of the laws of cleanliness and 
sanitation. The sickness and death in low-country districts have this year been terri- 
ble. I have been told by a friend who has spent most of his life amongst low-coun- 
try Sinhalese, and whose experience is not to be questioned, that a large majority of 
the deaths are preventable, they are due to the ignorance aud apathy of the people. 


The chief obstacle to the development of the country along the Northern 
Railway is its unhealthiness, Can nothing be done to mitigate this state of matters ? 
Experience gained in other colonies goes to show that something can be done. 


Yours faithfully, 


PLANTER. 


[We referred this letter to the Principal Civil Medical Officer, who remarks 
as follows.—Eb. ‘‘T,A.”] :— 


“The question of improved sanitation is purely one of money—the small 
towns which have Local Boards of Health do as much as their funds will allow to 
improve sanitation, and the tendency is to advance on those lines. The officers of 
the local Medical Department are specially instructed in sanitation and in the 
prevention of disease, ard they have to pass an examination in these subjects, 
Estate Superintendents can do a great deal by insisting on the prevention of 
fouling the soil, improving the water supply and the drainage of swamps. The 
suggestion of a special sanitary staff is good but hardly necessary—if money could 
be got for combating malaria, the present medical staff is competent to advise 
where the money should be spent. 

It is futile to compare individual places like Port Swettenham, Ismailia, etc, 
with Ceylon as an island. Such places should be compared with Negombo or 
Kalutara, To tackle Ceylon as a whole is well nigh impossible, with its paddy fields, 
floods, lagoons, and swamps, and its borrow pits along every line of railway. 
The Government sent a special officer to report on the drainage of the Jaffna 


Correspondence. 510 [DEc, 1906 ty 


Peninsula with the object of reducing malaria, the estimate was prohibitive. The 
Government distributes quinine to all school children and malarious villagers 
as a prophylactic which hassome measure of success; directions how. to combat 
malaria have been widely distributed in the vernacular, The only thing is 
for the general public to be educated in the ways of battling that disease as much 
can be done by individuals, but the large question of drainage is one for the 
Government, and in my opinion it is too vast to cope with.” 


November 21st. 


Capillary Tubes, 


Syston, Ukuwella, 24th N ovember, 1906. 


DEAR SiR,—In reference to the extract from the London “Times” which I 
enclose, I should be glad to know if the “ capillary tubes” mentioned in it are (as one 
would imagine) merely air spaces, or whether I am mistaken. 


I am, dear Sir, yours faithfully, 
W. H. BIDDULPH, 


Extract referred to from a recent number of “The Times.” 


In quoting from a technical writer last week we gave a passage in which the 
word “ mulch” occurred. and we have been asked what is the exact meaning of this old 
English term. It is curiously ignored by the dictionaries, though every peasant uses it, 
and probably most farmers. Very roughly speaking, it is that light caking of surface 
soil which protects the moisture beneath, and to mulch is to beat stuff together into a 
compost without binding it too tightly. The whole matter, however, is of such 
practical importance at a period following a long spell of dry weather that the 
history of the whole matter, as officially set forth by the text-book of the Royal 
Agricultural Society, is well worthy of being given here. It must be premised, that 
if surface soil is frequently stirred, kept loose in fact, moisture in the subsoil natur- 
ally travels up towards it. 

‘When rain falls upon the soil, some of it sinks down to replenish the stores 
below ; but during the period of active growth, and particularly in a droughty season 
there is a movement of moisture from below upwards. The moisture replaces that 
lost at the surface by evaporation ; and its direction is such that it tends to keep the 
soluble plant food where itis wanted, that is, about the roots of the plants. If 
enough water be poured into a saucer in which stands a flowerpot full of earth the 
surface of this mould will at length become moist, the water having travelled 
upwards by capillarity. Buthere another point has to be considered. If all the 
capillary tubes are open to the surface evaporation can proceed from them so freely 
that the underground store of moisture may be insufficient to supply the continuous 
demand. Hence again itis desirable to keep the surface soil, by frequently stirring, 
in such a state that the capillary tubes are broken, or interrupted alittle below the 
surface. In this case the mere superficial covering of mould acts as a soil mulch, and 
like a layer of leaves of grass or farmyard manure, it protects the moisture beneath.” 


[The “‘ tubes” are evidently the air spaces between the particles of soil.—Ep.] 
ANT-HILL EARTH. 

Sir,—In the October issue of the Tropical Agriculturist*, a correspon- 
dent inquires to what uses the earth of white-ants is put, apart from its general 
use, mixed with cowdung for the floors of Sinhalese villagers’ houses, for plugging 
up rat-holes in walls and floors, and for plastering mud walls, to which it gives 


~~ Page 347, Vol. XXVII, October, 1906, 


Dec. 1906.] ’ 1 ee a Correspondence. 


an even surface to clay. On account of its finely-comminuted nature and 
its excellent plasticity, it is superior to any ordinary clay. It is largely used 
in the manufacture of images, representing various planets, which are used 
in Bali* ceremonies. For this purpose, the officiating devil-priest proceeds to an 
ant-hill in the evening, and with solemn invocation of the gods pronounces a 
benediction. The following day the required quantity of the consecrated earth ° 
is cut and removed. The clay is frequently made use of by sorcerers to prevent 
poisonous snakes from entering a house, the finely-pulverised earth is ‘‘ charmed ” 
and sprinkled round the outside of the building. It is also used in land disputes 
in the following manner :—There is an ancient Kandyan custom Bélahadanaiwé, 
of placing a bundle of twigs somewhere on the land in dispute, to indicate that 
neither of the claimants should step into the land pending a legal decision of 
their rights. On these occasions charmed ant-hill earth is also placed in a corner 
of the land, in the belief that the wrath of the presiding deities will fall upon the 
false litigant. 


In Sinhalese medicine the clay is largely used for the treatment of bruises, 
boils, sprains and fractures. For bruises, for instance, the bark of the Bomi tree 
is pounded and heated over a fire and mixed intoa paste with ant-hill earth and 
salt water. For boils, the same mixture, with the addition of turmeric, makes 
a very efficacious ointment. 


The destructive habits of the white ants are well-known. They will attack 
the most durable-looking timber and reduce it in a short time to mere husk, 
and the losses caused by their ravages to newly-planted plants, especially young 
coconuts, are enormous. To protect the latter, some planters have of late years 
adopted a plan of smearing the nuts and reots before planting, with a paste made 
of white ants’ clay. This is done with the idea, that as the white-ants have finished 
with the clay, they will not penetrate again to attack the plants, and the results 
have been reported as very successful, An analysis of the clay, to determine its 
chemical constituents, might possibly show that its use in this direction may 
advantageously be extended to the planting of all products, liable to the attacks 
of white-ants, while its use in building operations for the preservation of wall-posts 
might be found possible. To prevent the attacks of white-ants the Kandyans 
apply a layer of sand and salt to the coconut-hole, and also plant side by side, 
with the young coconut-plant, a Sevendara (Andropogon muricatus) or a Habarala 
(Alocasia macrorhiza) plant. A Sinhalese proverb goes that ‘‘a dwarf ant-hill 
and a short man cannot be depended upon,” from the circumstance that cobras 
often seek refuge in these cavities. 


T. B. POHATH-KEHELPANALA. 
Gampola, 25th November, 1906. 


PLANTAIN GROWING IN SOUTH INDIA. 


DEAR SirR,—The cultivation of plantains in South India presents some 
striking differences to the methods adopted locally, and the following summary of 
an account of banana growing in Malabar givenin the Indian Agriculturist for 
October should prove interesting to local growers of the fruit :— 


Planting is done in September and January. Young shoots from the mother 
plant are taken out, and after they are smeared with cow-dung and wood-ashes and 
well dried inthe sunare stored up for planting at the proper time. Unless the 
shoots arethus dried and stored the cropis poor. The dried shoots are buried 
wholly in a slanting position about 6 feet apart in pits 3 feet square by 2 teet deep: 
The pits are not wholly covered up after planting, for it is said that manure while 


; * Images made cf clay representing planets—a ceremony characterised by the recital of religious 
poems and stanzas for exorcising devils, curing diseases and dispelling evil-cffects, 


Dec. 1906.} . 512 ‘i Correspondence. a 


decomposing injures the shoot. From the third day after planting, watering by 
irrigation or otherwise is carriedon. The plants generally sprout after ten days, after 
which they may be watered at intervals of four or five days. Manuring is done after 
the plants are 5 or 6 feet above the pits, when ashes and manure are put in and covered 
over three-fourths with loose earth. After this it is only necessary to keep down 
weeds. The plants bear in the ninth month, and after three months the fruits are 
fit for picking. A bunch weighs on an average from 20 to 25 lbs., but they go up to 
30 and 40 lbs. The fruits are not allowed to ripen on the trees, but are placed in an 
air-tight chamber which, after being filled with smoke through a hole, is closed. 
This smoking is done twice daily for three or four days when the fruits become fit for 
eating. After removal from the hot chamber the bunches are immersed in water. 


In Malabar there are two varieties of the fruit, called Attunendra and 
Nendra, The latter is the best, as it matures and fruits very much sooner than the 
former, and is altogether much to be prefered. 


The following statement represents the expenditure in cultivating an acre 
of plantains :— 


2,000 shoots @ 6 pies each Ne 45 wa Rs. 62 8 
do pits GN) N33) 43 Ary on a » ol 4 
Manuring @W 6) eh lapit > 62 8 
100 ccolies @ 4 annas for weeding Pay) 
Bamboo props for plants @ 6 pies each a9) LO2N IS 
4 coolies for 5 months @ Rs. 5 per head oa ,, 100 0 
2 Watchmen for 3 months to propedt: fruit at Rs.b 5 he , 30 0 
Sundry expenses pet hs Bae sy 1(0) 
Government tax ope ips me PP vatican) 
Rent for ground... Boe Me ibs psgvnaconse 
Pay of Agent @ Rs. 10 per mensem ... Hes ae », 120 O 
Total ... - Rs. 513 12 


The income from the above may be estimated as follows :— 


100,000 fruits (taking 50 fruits to the bunch) at Rs. 8 per 

1,000 (rough, this price goes up at times to Rs, 15 

per 1 000) Hi Rs. 800 0 
(Assuming on an average ‘ater each plete gives ro shoots 

for sale after the planter takes what he requires 


4,000 shoots at 6 pies each ia be ie », 125 0 
Leaves... Ae OC ous a ee ao ONeO) 
Total ... Rs. 950 0 

Expenditure a ie nas ane aM » dl3 0 
Net profit per acre ... Rs. 4837 0 


This is considered a fair statement, the expenditure being estimated on a 
liberal scale. 


If anything could be done with the fibre of the stems, the profits Be of 
course, be considerably enhanced. 


It would be most interesting to get comparative figures from Ceylon, and a 
criticism of the above statement from such well-known fruit growers as Mr, Francis” 


Dabiel of Colombo, and Mr. George Amarasekera of Hanwella. 


Yours truly, 
C. D, 


> eee a 
(a hats : 


Dec. 1906. | 518 Correspondence. 
PADDY REAPING MACHINE. 


DEAR Sir,—Can you inform me with what machine they reap the paddy 
fields in America, where they grow rice on a large scale ? 

Tam thinking of planting 700 or 800 acres with Huropean machinery, and I 
would like your advice. 

Tintend to plough with 3 furrow ploughs, and drill in the seed with drills, 
and then try the reaper and binder for reaping it. 

Do you think this mode of cultivation will work? The rice, I forgot to 
mention, is dry rice, or as you call it Hill-paddy, and the land is fairly level. By the 
present mode of cultivation it costs the Javanese twice as much to produce an acre 
of paddy as it costs an Australian to produce an acre of wheat. If you will kindly 


‘help me with a little information on this subject, I will be very thankful, 


Yours sincerely. 
A. ALLEN. 
Kesamben, Java, 14th Nov., 1906. 


[The machines in use in America are, I believe, large combined reapers and 
threshers. Paddy is grown there at rates below even those of Bengal, the cheapest 
eastern country. Some attempts of Europeans to grow rice in Ceylon failed, but 
that is no proof that on flat land it might not be made profitable.—Ep. | 


The Ceylon Board of Agriculture. 


The Twenty-fifth meeting of the Board of Agriculture was held in the 
Council Chamber at 12 noon on Monday, November 5th, 1906. 

His Excellency the Governor presided, 

Others present were:—The Hon’ble Messrs. G. M. Fowler, J. Ferguson, F 
Beven, S. C. Obeyesekere, Mr. H. T.S, Ward, Drs, J. C. Willis, H. M. Fernando, 
G. W. Sturgess, Sir William Twynam, Mr. C. Drieberg, Mr. D. S. Dias Bandara- 
nayake (Maha Mudaliyar) and the Secretary. 

Mr. L. W. A. de Soysa was present as a Visitor. 


BusINESs DONE, 


1. The Minutes of the last Meeting were read and confirmed. 

2. The Secretary read a telegram received from Mr. J. H. Meedeniya 
Ratemahatmeya, regretting his inability to attend the meeting. 

8, List of new members was read. 

4. The report of the Curator, Royal Botanic Gardens, on the sections judged 
by him at the Kegalle Agri-Horticultural Show in September last was read. 

5. Progress Report No. XXIV was circulated. The Hon’ble Mr, Ferguson 
asked for a list of Agri-Horticultural Shows held under the auspices of the Society. 

6. After dealing with some points mentioned in the Progress Report, His 
Excellency the Governor informed the Board that it was no longer possible to 
spare the services of a member of the Civil Service as Secretary to the Society. His 
Excellency therefore proposed to appoint Mr. M. Kelway Bamber as Secretary 
to the Society, and trusted that the proposal would meet with the approval of 
the Board. The Hon’ble Mr. Ferguson was of opinion that the appointment of Mr. 


-Bamber would afford universal satisfaction, provided Mr. Bamber’s private work 


for the planters throughout the Island did not interfere with the performance of 
his duties as Secretary. The Hon’ble Mr, Obeyesekere raised the question of the cost 


67 


ies. 
514 [DEc. 1906. 


of the new arrangement In reply to Mr. Ferguson, His Excellency stated that he 
could assure the Board that they would have the full value of Mr. Bamber’s services. 
Financially the new arrangement would probably cost the Island less than the 
present arrangement did all round. , 

7. The Secretary read a letter from Mr. H. B. Rambukwelle expressing his 
thanks to the Board for the vote of condolence passed at its meeting on the 17th 
September. 

8. Dr. Willis read a paper on ‘Some Possibilities in Fruit Culture in Ceylon.’ 
A discussion followed, in which His Excellency the Governor, Mr, Ferguson, 
Mr. Obeyesekere, Mr. Ward and others took part. - 


9. Mr. C. Drieberg showed some samples of banana flour, ete., manufactured 
by an English firm. 


The meeting terminated at 1-15 p.m. 


The Twenty-sixth Meeting of the Board of Agriculture was held in the 
Council Chamber at 12 noon on Monday, 3rd December, 1906. 


His Excellency the Governor presided. 


Others present were :—The Hon’ble Messrs. J. P, Lewis, E. Rosling, S. C. 
Obeyesekere, P. Arunachalam, J. Ferguson, Sir William Twynam, Drs: J. C. Willis, 
H. M. Fernando, the Maha Mudaliyar, Messrs. C. M. Lushington, L, W. Booth, 
J. Harward, EK. E. Green, M. Kelway Bamber, H. Wright, C. Drieberg, G. A. Joseph, 
G. W. Sturgess, and the Secretary. 


Mr. M. Subramaniam was present as a visitor. 
BUSINESS DONE. 


1. The Minutes of the last meeting were read and confirmed. 
2, Progress Report No. XXV was circulated. 


3. The Secretary announced that His Excellency had been pleased to nomi- 
nate Mr. C. Valoopillai of Anuradhapura asa member of the Board for the North- 
Central Province in succession to the late Mr. L. B. Nikawewa Disava. 


4. Dr. Willis proposed that the recommendation of the Finance Committee 
be approved, to the effect that asum not exceeding Rs. 500 be allowed to enable 
Mr. C. Drieberg, Superintendent, School Gardens, to visit the Agricultural and 
Industrial Exhibition to be held at Calcutta in December, and to travel through 
the Bangalore and other districts with a view to gathering information on the 
subject of sericulture. Mr. E. EK. Green, Government Entomologist, seconded. 
The Hon’ble Mr. J. Ferguson also spoke in support of the motion, which was 
carried unanimously. 

5. The Secretary read a letter from Mr. W. D. Gibbon and a telegram 
from Mr. J. H. Meedeniya Ratemahatmeya, regretting their inability to attend 
the meeting. 

6. Dr. A. K. Coomaraswamy not having arrived, the reading of his paper 
on Native Arts and Crafts was postponed till later inthe meeting. Having made 
a few remarks on the subject, His Excellency the Governor, who was obliged to leave 
early, vacated the chair. At His Excellency’s desire the chair was taken by Mr. 
C. M. Lushington. 

7. The Secretary read the report of the sub-Committee appointed at the 
meeting of September 17th to reconsider the provisions of the proposed Pests 
Ordinance with reference to a memorandum on the subject submitted by Sir 


¢ 


Dec. 1906.] 515 


William Twynam. A lengthy discussion followed, in which Messrs. Lushington, 
Arunachalam, Ferguson, Rosling and Booth and Dr. Willis took part. It was 
finally resolved on the motion of the Hon’ble Mr. P. Arunachalam, seconded hy 
the Hon’ble Mr. J. Ferguson, that in view of the fact that the report of the 
sub-Committee had not been long enough in the hands of members of the Board to ™ 
permit of its careful consideration, the discussion of the matter be deferred till 
the next meeting of the Board. 

8 Dr. A. K. Coomaraswamy read a paper on ‘‘Suggestions for the 
Encouragement of Indigenous Arts and Crafts in Ceylon.” A discussion followed 
in which Mr. Harward, Director of Public Instruction, Dr. Willis and Mr, Ferguson 
took part. 

The meeting JIA a 1-45 a m. 


A Special Meeting of ae Beard of Meet hieane was held in the Council 
Chamber at 12 noon on Monday, the 17th December, 1906, to consider the report of the 
sub-Committee on the proposed Pests Ordinance, 

In the absence of His Excellency the Governor, the chair was taken by Sir 
William Twynam, K.C.M.G. 

Others present were the Hon’ble Messrs. J. P. Lewis, S. C. Obeyesekere, 
J. Ferguson, c.M.G., and Francis Beven, Dr. J. C. Willis, Messrs. H. T. S. Ward, E. B. 
Denham, W. ianuwille Disava, Herbert Wright, M. Kelway Bamber, R. Morison, 
W. D. Gibbon, Daniel Joseph, R. E. Paranagama Ratemahatmeya, and the Secretary. 

Messrs. T. A. Carey and M. Subramaniam were present as visitors. 

: BUSINESS DONE. 

1. Before proceeding to the business of the day the Chairman, Sir William 
Twynam proposed: ‘That the members of this Board desire to place on record 
their deep sense of the loss they have sustained in the sudden removal from their 


-midst of the late Hon’ble Sir Alexander Ashmore, K.C.M.G., who was a prominent 


member of the Board, and always a zealous worker in the promotion of its interests ; 
and they desire to convey to Lady Ashmore their deep and heartfelt sympathy in 
the sad and sudden bereavement that has befallen her.” 


The motion was seconded by the Hon. Mr. S.C. Obeyesekere and carried 


- unanimously, all standing. 


2. The Secretary read a telegram from the Maha Mudaliyar and a letter from 
Mr. C. P. Hayley regretting their inability to be present at the meeting. 

8. Dr. J. C. Willis moved the adoption of the report of the sub-Committee 
on the proposed Pests Ordinance, which was submitted at the meeting of the Board 
on the 8rd December. 

The Hon’ble Mr. Obeyesekere seconded. 

With the permission of the Chairman the Secretary, Mr. A. N. Galbraith. 
spoke to the motion, and suggested a slight alteration in the amended draft 
Ordinance put forward by the sub-Committee. 

The Hon’ble Mr. Obeyesekere seconded and the amendment was carried. 

Considerable discussion followed, in which almost all the members present; 
took part. Further amendments were proposed by the Secretary, seconded by Mr. 
Denham, and by Mr. Denham, seconded by, the Hon’ble Mr. Lewis, and passed. 

It was finally unanimously resolved that the report of the sub-Committee be 
adopted, together with the amended draft Ordinance, framed by the sub-Committee 
with the three further amendments referred to. 

The meeting terminated at 1-15. p.m, 


516 Duc, 1908, 
Agricultural Society Progress Report, XXV. 


1. Local Branches.- Two new branch societies have been formed—one for 
Gangaboda Pattu (Galle) and one for Hinidum Pattu, The total number of branch 
societies is 48, while the total membership of the Society is 1,127. It has been decided 
to amalgamate the Gangaboda Pattu (Matara) branch with the local branch at 
Matara from 1907, 


Gangaboda Pattwu Branch (Galle).—An inaugural meeting was held at the 
Baddegama Gansabhawa on the 16th October. One of the Society’s Agricultural 
Instructors, Mr. N. Wickramaratne, was present and assisted in the pioceedings. 
At a subsequent meeting on the 8rd November Mr. H. D. Perera, Mudaliyar of the 
Pattu, was elected President of the Society, and Mr. C. E. Gunatileka, President of 
the Village Tribunals, Vice-President. The new society proposes to undertake the 
establishment of a seed bank, the opening of an experimental garden, and an experi- 
ment in growing castor oil plants with a view to starting silk cultivation. Mr, M. A. 
Jayasinhe, Deputy Coroner, has presented the society with a piece of land at Nagoda 
for the experimental garden, In connection with the seed bank, it was agreed 
that as a beginning the members should contribute two or more bushels of paddy 
apiece ; that 25 per cent. interest be charged on paddy lent from the bank ; and that 
the contributors be at liberty to take back their paddy after five years. Seventy 
bushels were promised by thirty-eight members. 


Hinidum Pattu Branch.—The local branch at Hiniduma was formed follow- 
ing an inaugural meeting held at the Nagoda resthouse under the presidency of 
Mr. A. L. Amarasekare, Mudaliyar. The Agricultural Instructor was again present. 
The programme of work adopted at this meeting includes the opening of an experi- 
mental garden ; sericulture; popularising of school gardens, &c, 


Mr. Wickramaratne took with him on his tour two trays, specially made at 
the Peradeniya Silk Farm, containing silk worms, eggs, and cocoons, and gave ocular 
demonstration of the method of handling the worms. Amongst those who express- 
ed their interest in the subject of sericulture was the Rev. Father Schaefer of 
Hiniduma, who contemplates its introduction amongst the boys of his school and 
orphanage. 


This is the first occasion on which one of the Society’s Agricultural Instruc- 
tors has been on tour. Itis hoped that by February next, the course of training 
which they are at present undergoing will be sufficiently complete to justify their 
being regularly sent on tour in different districts. Any local societies desiring their 
services should apply for them in the course of the next two months. It is intended 
that the Instructors should visit the various local branches, attend their meetings, 
® ive lectures and instruction, and ascertain in what directions the local societie 
require the assistance of the parent society, or the expert advice of the scientific 
staff at Peradeniya. 


Dumbara Branch.—I was present with Mr. M. Kelway Bamber, Government 
Chemist, at a general meeting of the Dumbara Agricultural Society, held on the 8rd 
November at Teldeniya. The main object of our visit was to ascertain how far 
Teldeniya would he a suitable centre for the experiment the Sqciety proposes to 
make in the improvement of native tobacco by a more scientific method of curing, 
A number of tobacco growers were present at the meeting and availed themselves of 
the opportunity to consult Mr. Bamber on the question of manuring, plucking, 
curing, &c. The Secretary read an interesting report of the progress of the Society 
since its formation in April last. 3 i 


Dec. 1906.} 517 


A meeting of the Co-operative Credit Society followed, at which it was 
decided to lend money to tobacco cultivators, not exceeding Rs. 50 to each applicant. 

Harispattu Branch.—A meeting of the committee of this society was held on 
the 18th November, when rules for the management of the proposed seed paddy 
store were passed. The chairman, Mr. P. B Nugawela, Ratemahatmaya, and eight 
other members undertook to contribute between theim 85 bushels of paddy. 


The committee decided to allow a grant of Rs. 25 towards the opening of each 
of the five experimental gardens proposed. 


Vavuniya Branch.—At the meeting of the Vavuniya Branch held on 27th 
November several members undertook to experiment with rotations of crops on 
chenas, as follows :—Kurakkan in September, gingelly in April, manioca in July, 
1907, kollu in February, manioca in July, 1908, and kurakkan in September, 1909, 


Forwarding Agency.—Rules were adopted for the formation of a forwarding 
agency, the object of which is to enable the people of the district to dispose of their 
produce in Colombo, Jaffna, or other suitable markets. Some cf the products with 
which it is proposed to deal are: ghee, honey, tamarind, limes, eggs, fowls, paddy, 
and cattle. Under the auspices of the agency ten black cattle locally reared were 
sent in October to the Colombo market, with the object of seeing how the price 

obtainable in Colombo compares with that paid by the itinerating Moorman who 
- barters for the animals on the spot in exchange for clothing, apparel, &c. | have not 
yet received the report of the local branch Society as to the financial result of the 
venture. 


2. Agricultural Shows,—I was present at the Agricultural Fair held at 
Telijjawila on the 15th November. The fair was originally fixed for the 31st 
October, but had to be postponed owing to the heavy rains. It was held in the 
grounds of Mudaliyar J. A. Wickremeratne’s own house, the exhibition of fruit and 
vegetables being accommodated ina large cross-shaped building specially erected 
for the purpose at the Mudaliyar’s own expense. 


The fair was opened in the afternoon by Mr. G. M. Cookson, Assistant 
Government Agent, Matara. There was avery large attendance of villagers and 
headmen. The display of vegetables and fruit wasa creditable one, despite the 
bad weather of the previous month. The show building, which is intended to be 
a permanent one, proved itself admirably suited tothe purpose. he absence of 
show counters running down the centres of the wings of the building allowed a 
roomy passage way, a feature not usually found in such buildings, asI have had 
occasion to remark in a previous report. 

The fair was intended as a preliminary to the larger agricultural show 
to be held next year. Its character as a fair was emphasised by the presence 
of various parties of dancers, jesters, and acrobats, while the obvious prototype 
of the ‘‘ great wheel” at Earl’s Court was much patronised by the children. In this 
respect the Telijjawila show differed entirely from the market shows held at 
Minuwangoda and Yatiyantota. 


Wellaboda Pattu (Valle) Agri-Horticultural Show.—Owing to the heavy rains 
the local committee have been obliged to postpone this show, which was to have 
been held on the 16th and 17th November, at Ambalangoda. It is now fixed for the 
20th and 21st December. 


Trincomalee Market Show.—At a committee meeting held on the 16th 
November, it was decided to hold a market show at the Trincomalee Town Hall on 
the 2nd April, 1907, commencing at 9 a.m, 


Batticaloa Agri-Horticultural Show.—An Agri-Horticultural Show under 
the auspices of the Batticaloa Agricultural Society, will be held early in 1907. 


bis (Dec. 1908, 


The Nuwara Eliya Agri-Horticuttural Show will be held on the 2nd and 3rd 
April next. 

The Telijjawila Agri-Horticultural Show will be held at Telijjawila on 
the 15th March, 1907. 

Uva Agri-Horlicultural Show will be held at Badulla early in May, 1907. 

Matale Agri-Horlicultural Show will be held probably eariy in June. 

Kandy Agri-Horiticultural Show.—The Kandy Branch has decided to hold an 
Agri-Horticultural Show in August, at the end of the ‘“‘ perahera” season. 

3. Foreign Vegetable Seeds.—From the list of seeds quoted in the last 
Progress Report, No. XXIV., as having been ordered for the Society, the following 
varieties must be omitted, namely, French dwarf beans, capsicum, chilli, Chinese 


cabbage, gourd, melon, onion, parsnip, potseed, pumpkin, and spinach. Amended 
list is as follows :— 


Beans Cauliflower Lettuce Turnip 

Beet ‘Celery Okra Tomato 

Cabbage Cucumber Peas Vegetable Marrow 
Carrot Egg-plant Radish Kohlrabi 


The seeds will be distributed to applicants by the Superintendent of School 
Gardens, Colombo, in packets, price not exceeding 20 cents each. 


4. Cotton.—56 lb. of selected Sea Island cotton seed from the West Indies 
has been supplied to the Dumbara Branch for experimental cultivation. Mr. T, B. 
Pohath-Kehelpanala of Gampola has applied for a quantity sufficient to plant 
half an acre. 


At the request of a member of the Board of Agriculture samples of locally 
grown Caravonica cotton—of both the “wool” and the “silk” varieties—have 
been sent to a gentleman of his acquaintance who is connected with the cotton 
trade in Liverpool. The samples were kindly supplied by Mr, J. W. C. de Soysa. 


d. Varieties of Indian Arecanuts.—Orders for seed nuts are now being 
booked and will be forwarded to India early this month. 


6. Umbrella Tree.—Seeds of the ‘‘ Udai” (umbrella) tree (Accacia planifrons) 
have been distributed to the following districts for experimental cultivation :— 
Peradeniya, Henaratgoda, Galle, Chilaw, Colombo, Matugama, and Batticaloa, 
A few more seeds are still available. 


7. Saltbush seed has been sent to applicants in the following districts :— 
Batticaloa, Puttalam, Balangoda, Mannar, Peradeniya, Henaratgoda, Delft, 
The whole supply is exhausted. 


8. Jamaica Seedling Yams.—Through the courtesy of the Secretary of the 
Jamaica Agricultural Society tubers of yams of the following varieties have been 
received :—/ioscorea alata, D. sativa D. aculenta, D. triphylla. These have been 
distributed among the following :—Curator, Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya ; 
Superintendent, Silk Farm, Peradeniya; Secretaries of the Kurunegala, Nuwara 
Eliya, Matale, Harispattu, Badulla, Dumbara, Gangaboda Pattu (Galle), Trinco- 
malee, Katunayake, Three Korales and Lower Bulatgama Agricultural Societies ; 
Government Stock Garden; and, to individual members in Veyangoda, Colombo, 
Ratnapura, Badulla, Henaratgoda, Kelaniya, Mutwal, and Wanni Hatpattu. 


9. Tobacco.—Two samples of tobacco grown in the Eastern Province 
(Tamankaduwa and Batticaloa) were received from the Secretary of the Batticaloa 
Agricultural Society for valuation in Colombo with an inquiry whether this tobacco 
would suit the purposes of curing for the foreign market. The samples have been 
sent to two firms in Colombo for their report. 


DEc. 1906. } 519 


10. Improved Avocado Pears.—Three parcels containing seeds of improved 
varieties of avocado pears were received from the United States Department of. 
Agriculture. As the seeds were long on the journey and some appeared to have 
suffered by the voyage, the consignment was sent to the Director, Royal Botanic 
Gardens, Peradeniya, where the seeds will be tried and supplies will be sent to 
applicants by the Director according to the number of plants successfully 
propagated. 

11. Insect Pests: (1) Mealy Bug on Cotton.—Specimens of some insects 
found by me on the bolls of a few plants of cotton growing in the Weligama Stock 
Garden, when recently on a visit there in connection with the Fruit and Vegetable 
Show at Telijjawila, were forwarded to the Government Entomologist, who 
reported as follows :— 

“The white insect is the common ‘mealy bug’ (Dactylopius citri), I do not 
anticipate that this will prove a serious pest of cotton in Ceylon ; but should it show 
signs of increasing to a dangerous extent, it may be kept in check by spraying with 
kerosine emulsion. [ was unable to find the small black fly, which had probably 
escaped in transit. There is a small black-winged bug that frequents cotton bolls, 
especially after they have burst—and often swarms in the lint. It can be readily 
driven off by exposing the lint to the hot sun fora few hours. The name of this 
insect is Ovycarenus laetus,” 

(2) Cucumber Fly.—Specimens of a yellow fly which attacks gourds, &c., 
have been sent by the Trincomalee Agricultural Society to the Government Entomo- 
logist, who identifies them as Dacus sp., the well-known cucumber fly, and states 
that :— 


“They will attack gourds, melons, cucumbers, vegetable marrows, and all 
allied fruits. The only satisfactory method of circumventing this pest is to enclose 
the young fruits (immediately the flower has set) in muslin bags large enough to 
contain the mature fruit. Any diseased fruits of this kind should be systematically 
collected and destroyed. If allowed to rot upon the ground, the flies will mature 
and infest other fruits.” 


12. Fruit Trees for School Gardens.—Mr. M. D. 8S. A. Wijenayake, Stock Inspector 
at Kurunegala, has offered to make a present of mangosteen, nutmeg, clove, and 
num-num plants to all school gardens in the North-Western Province. These will 
be sent to 26 school gardens by the Superintendent of School Gardens, who has 
accepted the offer. Cost of transport will be met by the Society. 


13. Examination of Agricultural Instructors,—Under the scheme recently adopted 
of training Stock Inspectors in agricultural work, an examination in Botany, &c., 
was held on the Ist instant at the office of the Government Veterinary Surgeon. 
The papers were prepared by the Dierector, Royal Botanic Gardens, and the 
Controller, Experiment Station Peradeniya. The following candidates were ex 
amined: P. C. J. Ferando, A. M, Fernando, M. D.S. A. Wijenayake, B. D. Stephen, 
and D. L. Dias, and the two Agricultural Instructors of the Society—N. Wickra- 
_ maratne and L. A. D. Silva. 


14. Castration of Cattle—The progress made with regard to castration of 
cattle is as follows :— 


Number of demonstrations held during 1906 ee aK 138 
Number of cattle operated upon during 1906 ys vee 2,868 
Number of owners who brought cattle during 1906 ... Seay raya) 
Number of men trained in the operation during 1906 bys 136 


at an average cost, including all expenses, of about Rs. 1°06 per head of cattle 
operated upon—training of men free, 


520 [DEc. 1908 


15. The Society regrets the death of L. B. Nicavowe Dissawe, who was 
a member of the Board of Agriculture for the North-Central Province. 


16. Honour to an Agriculturist.—At the Investiture of Native Ranks held on 
the occasion of His Majesty the King’s Birthday, 9th November, Mr. A. E. Raja- 
pakse, Muhandiram, Chairman of the Katunayake Branch of the Society, and a 
prominent agriculturist in the district, was created a Mudaliyar. “ for the excellent 


work done by him in the district by giving time and money in the encouragement: 


of the improvement of agriculture amongst the people of the country.” 


17. Publications.—The paper read by Mr. EK. B. Denham, C.c.s., at the Septem- 
ber meeting of the Board of Agriculture, on the subject of ‘‘Uses and Objects of 
Agricultural Societies” is now ready in pamphlet form, and will be distributed 
among members. 


The Editor of the Sihala Samaya having forwarded 50 copies of the edition 
of that paper containing a translation of the proceedings of the last meeting 
of the Board, these were distributed among the Local Branches of the Society, 
as usual, 

A. N. GALBRAITH, 


Colombo, December 38, 1906. Secretary, Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


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